text:
# Analytic Approaches to Understanding the Distribution and Evolution of Intracluster Gas

## 1. Introduction

Groups and clusters serve as a reservoir of baryons in the present-day universe. They exist in the form of hot plasma with temperature close to the virial temperature ($`10^6`$-$`10^8`$ K) of the underlying gravitational potential wells as a result of gravitationally-driven shocks and adiabatic compression. Since the discovery of diffuse X-ray emission associated with clusters of galaxies, many efforts have been made towards exploring the distribution and evolution of the hot gas in clusters. This is significant not only for our understanding of the matter composition and dynamical properties of clusters but also for test of various theories of structure formation. In recent years, a combination of multi-wavelength observations (e.g. optical, X-ray, radio, gravitational lensing, etc.), theoretical analysis and hydrodynamical simulations has greatly improved our knowledge of the intragroup/intracluster gas. In this review I will concentrate on the analytic approaches to determining and modeling the distribution and evolution of the diffuse X-ray emitting gas in groups and clusters.

## 2. Observational approaches

### 2.1. X-ray observations

In principle one is able to analytically derive the gas distribution of clusters by direct inversion of the X-ray surface brightness profile $`S_x`$. Under the assumptions of spherical symmetry and thermal Bremsstrahlung, we have (e.g. Cowie, Henriksen & Mushotzky 1987)

$$n_e^2(r)\mathrm{\Lambda }(T)=\frac{4(1+z)^4}{r}\frac{d}{dr}_r^{\mathrm{}}S_x(R)\frac{RdR}{\sqrt{R^2r^2}},$$
(1)
where the emissivity $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is roughly proportional to $`T^{1/2}`$ for clusters. The electron density profile $`n_e(r)`$ can thus be obtained in combination with high resolution spectral observation. In the case of isothermality and for conventional $`\beta `$ model $`S_x(1+r^2/r_c^2)^{3\beta +1/2}`$, The above equation reduces to the well-known functional form of

$$n_e(r)=n_0\left(1+\frac{r^2}{r_c^2}\right)^{3\beta /2}.$$
(2)
Even for the double $`\beta `$ model suggested by some authors (e.g. Ikebe et al. 1996; 1999; Xu et al. 1998; Mohr, Mathiesen & Evrard 1999; Xue & Wu 2000c; Ettori 2000) aiming at a better description of the central excess emission associated with cooling flows, an analytical form of gas density can also be achieved. Yet, the accuracy of the derived gas density profile may suffer from uncertainties not only in the determination of temperature profile but also in the extrapolation of the available X-ray data to the outer-skirts of clusters. Moreover, the inversion of the X-ray surface brightness profiles becomes complicated if the hot gas in clusters actually has an asymmetrical distribution. Another technique, which has been widely used in the analysis of X-ray clusters, is to deproject the X-ray surface brightness by specifying a priori the gravitational potential of a cluster and demanding additionally hydrostatic equilibrium (Fabian et al. 1980, 1981; White, Jone & Forman 1997). Strictly speaking, such a method is not a purely observational approach to the reconstruction of the distribution of intracluster gas.

### 2.2. Combination of X-ray and optical observations

The pioneering effort to derive the empirical $`\beta `$ model of gas density in clusters can be traced back to 1976 when Cavaliere & Fusco-Femiano (1976, 1978) combined the Jeans equation for galaxies

$$\frac{1}{n_{\mathrm{gal}}(r)}\frac{d[n_{\mathrm{gal}}(r)\sigma _r^2(r)]}{dr}=\frac{d\mathrm{\Phi }(r)}{dr}$$
(3)
with the hydrostatic equation for gas

$$\frac{1}{\rho _{\mathrm{gas}}}\frac{d[n_{\mathrm{gas}}(r)kT(r)]}{dr}=\frac{d\mathrm{\Phi }(r)}{dr},$$
(4)
and reached

$$n_{\mathrm{gas}}(r)n_{\mathrm{gal}}^{\beta _{\mathrm{spec}}}(r)\left(1+\frac{r^2}{r_c^2}\right)^{3\beta _{\mathrm{spec}}/2},$$
(5)
in which an isotropic, constant velocity dispersion of galaxies and a constant gas temperature have been adopted, and the last equality in the above equation assumed a simplified King model for the radial variation of galaxy number density, $`n_{\mathrm{gal}}(1+r^2/r_c^2)^{3/2}`$. This does reproduce the functional form of the empirical $`\beta `$ model except the power index: Direct fitting of the X-ray surface brightness of clusters gives a mean value of $`\beta 0.60.7`$, while the average spectral parameter \[$`\beta =\sigma ^2/(kT/\mu m_p)`$\] seems to be slightly larger, $`\beta _{\mathrm{spec}}1`$. This so-called $`\beta `$ discrepancy has attracted the attention of many investigators (e.g. Bahcall & Lubin 1994; Gerbal, Durret & Lachièze-Rey 1994; Bird, Mushotzky & Metzler 1995; Wu, Fang & Xu 1998; Xue & Wu 2000c; etc.), and several possible reasons including observational selection effect have been extensively discussed in the literature.

### 2.3. Combination of X-ray and S-Z measurements

Silk & White (1978) were the first to suggest the utilization of the nonparametric reconstruction of the radial profiles of density \[$`n_e(r)`$\] and temperature \[$`T(r)`$\] of intracluster gas by combining the X-ray and SZ measurements. The basic idea is to inverse the observed X-ray and SZ temperature surface brightness profiles of clusters:

$`n_e^2(r)T^{1/2}(r)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dr}}{\displaystyle _r^{\mathrm{}}}S_\mathrm{X}(R){\displaystyle \frac{RdR}{\sqrt{R^2r^2}}};`$ (6)
$`n_e(r)T(r)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dr}}{\displaystyle _r^{\mathrm{}}}S_{\mathrm{SZ}}(R){\displaystyle \frac{RdR}{\sqrt{R^2r^2}}},`$ (7)
where $`S_{\mathrm{SZ}}(R)`$ is the SZ surface brightness across clusters. And a simple combination of the two functions gives straightforwardly the gas density $`n_e(r)`$ and temperature $`T(r)`$. This method requires no assumptions about the dynamical properties of clusters and the equation of state for intracluster gas, and can therefore be regarded as an ideal and ultimate tool to probe the gas distribution in clusters under spherical approximation.

Despite its elegant mathematical treatment further developed by Yoshikawa & Suto (1999) based on some theoretical models, the pioneering suggestion of Silk & White (1978) has not yet been put into practice. This has been primarily limited by the instrumental sensitivity and resolution of detecting the temperature variations of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) behind clusters. So far, marginal detections of the radial SZ temperature distributions have been reported only for a few clusters (see Birkinshaw 1999), which can hardly be used for the purpose of reconstructing the gas temperature profiles because of the sparse data points and the large associated uncertainties. A preliminary analysis of the central gas temperatures of 31 clusters provided by the two methods has been made, based on the $`\beta `$ model for the gas density profiles (Zhang & Wu 2000). It turns out that there is a good agreement between these two independent temperature estimates.

### 2.4. Combination of X-ray, SZ and weak lensing measurements

Weak gravitational lensing technique provides a robust constraint on the shape of the gravitational potential of clusters. With this additional observation, one will be able to reconstruct the intracluster gas distribution even if it is not spherical (e.g. Cooray 1998; Zaroubi et al. 2001; Fox & Pen 2002).

The X-ray surface brightness in a given energy band is simply

$$S_\mathrm{x}(r)=\frac{1}{2\pi (1+z)^3}_r^{\mathrm{}}n_e^2\mathrm{\Lambda }(T,n_e)𝑑\mathrm{}.$$
(8)
The SZ temperature variation caused by a cluster is

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mathrm{SZ}}}{T_{\mathrm{CMB}}}=g(x)\frac{\sigma _T}{m_ec^2}n_ekT_e𝑑\mathrm{},$$
(9)
where $`g(x)`$ denotes the spectral dependence and is approximately equal to $`2`$ in the Rayleigh-Jeans regime, $`x=h_\mathrm{p}\nu /kT_{\mathrm{CMB}}`$, and $`T_{\mathrm{CMB}}=2.728`$ K is the temperature of CMB. Under the assumption of spherical symmetry, the inversion of these two equations yields the radial profiles of gas density $`n_e`$ and temperature $`T(r)`$, as has been discussed above. However, if the gas distribution deviates from spherical symmetry, additional constraints must be postulated. The equation of hydrostatic equilibrium is certainly the first choice:

$$p=\rho _{\mathrm{gas}}\varphi .$$
(10)
Here $`\varphi `$ represents the gravitational potential of the cluster, which should be either determined by other independent observations or specified by numerical simulations or theoretical models. Weak gravitational lensing permits a direct reconstruction of the projected cluster mass $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(𝜽)`$, which is related to the two-dimensional potential $`\psi `$ through

$$^2\psi =\frac{2\mathrm{\Sigma }(𝜽)}{\mathrm{\Sigma }_c}=2\kappa ,$$
(11)
where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\mathrm{crit}}=(c^2/4\pi G)(D_s/D_dD_{ds})`$ is the critical surface density, and $`\kappa `$ is called convergence. Finally,

$$\psi (𝜽)=\frac{1}{2\pi G\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\mathrm{crit}}}\varphi 𝑑\mathrm{}.$$
(12)
With this additional constraint from gravitational lensing, one can now reconstruct the gas distribution if the cluster possesses an axial symmetry. Strictly speaking, such a combined analysis is not a purely observational method because it demands the condition of hydrostatic equilibrium for the intracluster gas.

## 3. Tests of analytic density profiles for dark halos

High-resolution cosmological simulations suggest that the dark matter density profile is well described by a self-similar, two-parameter functional form (e.g. Navarro, Frenk & White 1997):

$$\rho _{\mathrm{DM}}(r)=\frac{\rho _{\mathrm{crit}}\delta _c}{(r/r_s)^\alpha (1+r/r_s)^{3\alpha }}.$$
(13)
The parameters $`\delta _c`$ and $`r_s`$ set the scale of the mass distribution in density and length, and $`\alpha `$ is the logarithmic power-law slope near the center, with $`\alpha =11.5`$ (Navarro et al. 1997; Moore et al. 1998). Other empirical density profiles advocated in the literature include Hernquist profile $`\rho _{\mathrm{DM}}(r)=(M/2\pi a)/[(r/a)(1+r/a)^3]`$ and Burkert profile $`\rho _{\mathrm{DM}}(r)=\rho _0/[(1+r/r_0)(1+r^2/r_0^2)]`$. Now our strategy is to find the distribution of the intracluster gas if it is in hydrostatic equilibrium with the underlying gravitational potential of dark matter defined by one of the above analytical forms:

$$\frac{1}{\mu m_pn_{\mathrm{gas}}(r)}\frac{d[n_{\mathrm{gas}}(r)kT(r)]}{dr}=\frac{GM_{\mathrm{tot}}(r)}{r^2}.$$
(14)
This enables one to work out the gas distribution once the equation of state is specified. Eventually, an examination of the predicted and observed X-ray surface brightness distributions of clusters will provide a critical test for the proposed dark matter profiles. In the case of isothermality for the gas and an NFW profile for the dark matter distribution, one has $`n_{\mathrm{gas}}(r)(1+r/r_s)^{b/(r/r_s)}`$ where $`b=4\pi G\mu m_p\rho _sr_s^2/kT`$ (Makino, Sasaki & Suto 1998). This functional form can be approximately fitted by the $`\beta `$ model except the small core sizes as compared with X-ray observations of clusters. Inclusion of the temperature gradient parameterized by the polytropic form seems to provide a more plausible prediction (Suto, Sasaki & Makino 1998) but a direct comparison with observations is hampered by the poorly constrained temperature profiles at present. Alternatively, one can also assume that the gas distribution is self-similar, i.e., $`n_{\mathrm{gas}}=(f_b/\mu m_p)\rho _{\mathrm{DM}}(r)`$ where $`f_b`$ is the universal baryon fraction. This is justified by a number of hydrostatic simulations at least outside the central cores of clusters (e.g. Bryan & Norman 1998; Eke, Navarro & Frenk 1998; Pearce et al. 2000; etc.). As a result, we can predict the radial profile of gas temperature

$$kT(r)=\left(\frac{\mu m_pG}{\rho _{\mathrm{DM}}(r)}\right)_r^{\mathrm{}}\rho _{\mathrm{DM}}(r)\frac{M(r)}{r^2}𝑑r,$$
(15)
in which we have neglected the self-gravity of the intracluster gas and set $`n_{\mathrm{gas}}(r)kT(r)`$ to approach $`0`$ when $`r\mathrm{}`$. One can equally use the central temperature $`T(0)`$ as the boundary condition and/or the polytropic state of equation to get more general form of the temperature profile (e.g. Komatsu & Seljak 2001). Another possible way to derive the temperature profile is to combine the high-resolution surface brightness measurement $`S_x`$ with the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium for a given dark matter distribution such as the NFW profile (Wu & Chiueh 2000; Xue & Wu 2000a). Yet, high quality, spatially-resolved spectral measurements will be needed to test these predictions.

The striking similarity between the predicted X-ray surface brightness of clusters by NFW profile in the case of isothermality and the conventional $`\beta `$ model has stimulated several authors to determine the two free parameters in the NFW profile through a direct fitting of the observed data of clusters to theoretical prediction (e.g. Makino & Asano 1999; Ettori & Fabian 1999; Wu & Xue 2000a,b; Xu, Jin & Wu 2001; etc.). Although the best fit values of $`r_s`$ and $`\delta _c`$ have been given for a few tens of X-ray clusters, great caution must be exercised if these data are used for cosmological purposes (Wu & Xue 2000a; Sato et al. 2000; Cheng & Wu 2001). Note that the fitting process is sensitive to the data points at the central regions of clusters, in which the presence of central cooling flows in most of clusters may lead to large uncertainties in the determination of $`r_s`$ ($`r_sr_c/3`$).

In a word, current measurements of the X-ray surface brightness of clusters are still insufficient to distinguish various proposed analytic models for dark matter distribution in clusters except the Burkert profile. This last empirical profile is based on the fitting of the rotation curves of the dark matter dominated dwarf galaxies (Burkert 1995). Such a model resembles an isothermal profile in the inner region with a constant core $`r_0`$, while in the outer region the mass profile diverges logarithmically with $`r`$, in agreement with the generalized NFW profile. The model has recently received considerable attention because of the existence of the soft inner matter distributions of the dark halos claimed by some observations (e.g. Flores & Primack 1994; de Blok & McGaugh 1997; Tyson & Kochanski & dell’Antonio 1998; etc.). In despite of its success on galactic scales, the Burkert profile predicts too large core radii of dark matter profiles for clusters to be reconciled with the measurements of strong gravitational lensing (Wu & Xue 2000b; Xue & Wu 2001). Meanwhile, its predicted X-ray surface brightness of clusters fails in the fitting of the observed data (Xu et al. 2001).

## 4. Physical motivations

While gravity plays a dominant role in the overall distribution and evolution of the hot gas in groups and clusters, the gas also suffers from the influence of nongravitational effects such as radiative cooling, nongravitational heating, nonthermal pressure, etc. In low mass groups and the central regions of clusters the nongravitational effects could even govern the behavior of the gas. Indeed, it has been realized that some peculiar X-ray features of groups and clusters are associated with nongravitational processes, although the essential physics still remains a subject of intense debate. In the following discussion, we will focus on the impacts of preheating and radiation cooling on the X-ray properties of groups and clusters.

### 4.1. Observational evidence

There is growing observational evidence for the presence of nongravitational heating and/or radiative cooling in groups and clusters which suppresses the X-ray emission of the gas heated by purely gravitational shocks and adiabatic compression. A summary of the observational facts is given below:

$``$ The steepening of the X-ray luminosity - temperature relation of groups and clusters (David et al. 1993; Wu, Xue & Fang 1999; Xue & Wu 2000b and references therein);

$``$ The existence of the entropy floor in the central cores of groups and clusters (Ponman, Cannon & Navarro 1999);

$``$ The flattening of the X-ray surface brightness profiles of poor clusters and groups (Ponman et al. 1999);

$``$ The upper limit on the X-ray background from the diffuse gas bound in groups and clusters (Pen 1999; Phillips, Ostriker & Cen 2001; Wu & Xue 2001 and references therein);

$``$ The scale-dependence of the gas and stellar mass fractions and the mass-to-light ratios of groups and clusters (Mohr et al. 1999; Bryan 2000; Bahcall & Comerford, 2002; Wu & Xue 2002b; Girardi et al. 2002; etc.);

$``$ A monotonic increase in the gas mass fraction of clusters with cluster radii (White & Fabian 1995; Ettori & Fabian 1999; Markevitch et al. 1999; Wu & Xue 2000c; etc.);

$``$ The failure of detection of X-ray halos surrounding spiral galaxies (Benson et al. 2000).

These independent observations as a whole suggest that there exists some nongravitational mechanism which removes the content of hot gas from groups and clusters, and the effect is more significant in the central regions and low-mass systems. As a consequence, late-type galaxies contains almost no hot gas at present. The prevailing physical scenarios proposed thus far are preheating and radiative cooling. The former invokes an extra energy source to preheat the gas to a certain entropy floor so that the heated gas cannot be compressed by the shallower gravitational potential wells of low-mass systems like poor clusters and groups, while the latter requires a considerably high efficiency of cooling to convert hot gas into cooled material (i.e. stars) inside the systems. Both processes result in a decrement of the hot gas in groups and clusters, and have been shown to explain equally well the observed X-ray properties of groups and clusters (e.g. Voit et al. 2002; Muanwong et al. 2002; Borgani et al. 2002).

### 4.2. Preheating

The preheating scenario was proposed a decade ago by several authors (David, Forman & Jones 1991; Evrard & Henry 1991; Kaiser 1991; White 1991): If the gas was preheated before falling into the gravitational potentials of groups and clusters dominated by dark matter, the entropy of the gas would be raised up to a certain level so that the gas became harder to compress. The resulting entropy floor breaks the self-similarity between dark matter and gas, and the flattened radial distribution of the hot gas developed. For low-mass systems like groups, the gas may even extend well beyond the viral radii. This leads to a significant decrease of the gas density and therefore, the X-ray emission. An energy budget of 0.4 - 3 keV per gas particle, depending on the epoch and environment of preheating, is required to reproduce the observed entropy floor and $`L_x`$-$`T`$ relation. There are two potential energy sources of heating which have been explored extensively in the literature: SN explosions and AGN activity. However, a number of recent studies have found that an unreasonably high efficiency of energy injection into the intragroup/intracluster medium from supernovae should be required in order to bring the gas to the energy level seen in the X-ray luminosity and entropy distributions of groups and clusters (Wu, Fabian & Nulsen 1998, 2000; Valageas & Silk 1999; Tozzi 2001; etc.). Although the energy supply by AGN activity is sufficiently large (Valageas & Silk 1999; Nath & Roychowdhury 2002), it still remains unclear how the kinetic energy of the AGN activity is deposited onto the baryons.

A phenomenological treatment of the problem is to simply put the energy budget problem aside, and work directly with the observed entropy distribution of intragroup/intracluster gas. Together with some physically motivated, analytic models and empirical relations revealed by hydrodynamical simulations, one may be able to explain/reproduce the gross observational properties of the intragroup/intracluster gas. Many investigations of these issues have been made over past years. The shock model suggested by Cavaliere, Menci & Tozzi (1997; 1998) has successfully reproduced the steepening of the $`L_x`$-$`T`$ relation and the flat cores of gas distribution in the central regions of groups and clusters. The model attempts to link the preheated infalling gas with the virialized gas of a dark halo at the boundary through the Rankine-Hugoniot equation. The new distribution of the gas can be obtained by numerically solving the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium under the boundary condition. However, one must reply on Monte Carlo techniques in order trace the hierarchical merging history of dark halos.

Balogh, Babul & Patton (1999) and Babul et al. (2002) developed a purely analytic model which may help to highlight the essential physics behind the preheating process. First of all, the distribution and evolution of the dark matter component is assumed to be unaffected by preheating and described by the analytic profile suggested by numerical simulations (e.g. NFW profile). Moreover, preheating adds an initial, universal excess entropy $`S_0`$ to the gas. For low-mass halos, the maximum velocity of the infalling flow of the preheated gas induced by gravity is only subsonic, and the accretion shocks by gravitational collapse thus become less important. In this case, the isentropically accreted gas with the state of equation $`P=K_0\rho _{\mathrm{gas}}^{5/3}`$ is completely determined by the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium:

$$\rho _{\mathrm{gas}}(r)=\rho _{\mathrm{gas}}(r_h)\left[1+\frac{2}{5}\frac{G}{K_0\rho _{\mathrm{gas}}^{2/3}(r_h)}_r^{r_h}\frac{M(r^{})}{r_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}𝑑r^{}\right]^{3/2},$$
(16)
and the temperature is $`kT(r)=\mu m_pK_0\rho _{\mathrm{gas}}(r)`$, where $`r_h`$ is the size of the halo at the epoch of observation. For massive halos, it assumes that an isentropic core of mass $`M_{\mathrm{gas}}(r_c)=(\mathrm{\Omega }_b/\mathrm{\Omega }_M)M_{\mathrm{isen}}`$ within radius $`r_c`$ would form first. The rest gas will be heated by shocks as the halo grows more massive. One can use a generalized equation of state to describe the gas inside and outside the core: $`P=K\rho _{\mathrm{gas}}^{5/3}`$, where $`K=K_0`$ for $`rr_c`$, and $`K=K_0(r/r_c)^\alpha `$ for $`r>r_c`$. This last expression is taken from an empirical formula found by numerical simulations (Lewis et al. 2000). Again, solving the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium yields

$$\rho _{\mathrm{gas}}(r)=\rho _{\mathrm{gas}}(r_c)\left[1\frac{2}{5}\frac{G}{K_0\rho _{\mathrm{gas}}^{2/3}(r_c)}_{r_c}^r\frac{M(r^{})}{r_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2+3\alpha /5}}𝑑r^{}\right]^{3/2}.$$
(17)
Finally, the key point is to specify the turnover mass ($`M_{\mathrm{isen}}`$) which separates the isentropic accretion from the accretion shock. This can be achieved by setting the total gas mass fraction evaluated by the adiabatic Bondi accretion rate $`\dot{M}_{\mathrm{Bondi}}`$ to equal the universal value: $`M_{\mathrm{gas}}/M_h=\dot{M}_{\mathrm{Bondi}}t_H(z)/M_h=\mathrm{\Omega }_b/\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$, in which $`t_H`$ is the Hubble time. Of course, in order to properly normalize the gas density $`\rho _{\mathrm{gas}}(r_h)`$ or $`\rho _{\mathrm{gas}}(r_c)`$, the universal baryon fraction within $`r_h`$ or $`r_c`$ should be assumed. This may be a major shortcoming for the model since the observed gas mass fractions $`M_{\mathrm{gas}}/M_h`$ of clusters seem to increase with temperature (e.g. Mohr et al. 1999).

### 4.3. Radiative cooling

Radiative cooling as a natural process was first considered in the formation of galaxies by White & Frenk (1991). The major concern has been whether radiative cooling of the hot gas is sufficient to account for the X-ray observed properties of groups and clusters (Bower et al. 2001; Balogh et al. 2001). Recent hydrodynamical simulations and semianalytic models have, nevertheless, shown that radiative cooling alone turns to be successful in the recovery of the entropy excess and the steepening of the X-ray luminosity-temperature relations detected in groups and clusters (Bryan 2000; Pearce et al. 2000; Muanwong et al. 2001, 2002; Voit & Bryan 2001; Wu & Xue 2002a,b; Borgani et al. 2002; Voit et al. 2002), which may suggest a simple, unified scheme for the evolution of hot gas and the formation of stars in the largest virialized systems in the universe.

A simple yet plausible approach to evaluating the effect of radiative cooling is as follows: We assume that in the absence of cooling the gas has the same distribution as the dark matter in groups and clusters which is described, for example, by the universal density profile. The electron number density of the hot gas thus follows $`n_\mathrm{e}(r)f_\mathrm{b}\rho _{\mathrm{NFW}}(r)`$. We assign an X-ray temperature to each halo in terms of cosmic virial theorem $`MT^{3/2}`$. The hot intragroup/intracluster gas would continuously lose energy due to bremsstrahlung emission. The decrease in X-ray temperature $`T`$ is completely governed by the conservation of energy,

$$\frac{3}{2}n_{\mathrm{gas}}kT=ϵ(n_{\mathrm{gas}},T,Z)t_{\mathrm{cool}}$$
(18)
where $`ϵ`$ is the emissivity. This defines the so-called cooling time $`t_{\mathrm{cool}}`$ and radius $`r_{\mathrm{cool}}`$ within which gas can cool out of the hot phase. If the cooling time is set to equal the age of groups/clusters, or approximately the age of the universe, $`t_0`$, we will be able to estimate the maximum cooling radii of the systems by the present time, $`r_{\mathrm{cool}}^\mathrm{m}`$, and the corresponding critical gas density, $`n(r_{\mathrm{cool}}^\mathrm{m})`$.

The gas within the maximum cooling radius $`r_{\mathrm{cool}}^\mathrm{m}`$ is assumed to convert into stellar objects. This latter component should also include the contribution of other possible cooled materials (e.g. neutral and molecular gas) which may form out of cooling process. The cooled gas mass within $`r_{\mathrm{cool}}^\mathrm{m}`$ can be obtained by integrating the gas profile $`n_{\mathrm{gas}}(r)`$ over volume out to $`r_{\mathrm{cool}}^\mathrm{m}`$. Such a simple exercise gives rather a robust estimate of the total stellar mass of a system, $`M_{\mathrm{star}}`$, as has been shown recently by Yoshida et al. (2002). As a result, one can obtain the stellar and gas mass fractions from $`f_{\mathrm{star}}=M_{\mathrm{star}}/M`$ and $`f_{\mathrm{gas}}=f_\mathrm{b}f_{\mathrm{star}}`$, respectively. Because the hot gas cools relatively faster in groups than in clusters due to the difference in their density contrast, temperature or metallicity, poor groups experienced higher efficiency of star formation than rich clusters did. Therefore, a(n) decrease (increase) of stellar (gas) mass fraction from groups to clusters is expected to occur naturally. The predicted scale-dependence of $`f_{\mathrm{gas}}`$ shows a good agreement with observations (Wu & Xue 2002b). However, the cool gas mass fraction slightly exceeds the observed stellar mass fractions estimated within virial radii by Roussel, Sadat & Blanchard (2000), implying that some of the cooling gas may exit in other forms such as cold clouds. The failure of detecting the cool gas in clusters might construct a challenge to the cooling model (e.g. Miller, Bregman & Knezek 2002). Nevertheless, within the framework of radiative cooling, the mass-to-light should increase from groups to clusters because $`M/L=(M/M_{\mathrm{star}})(M_{\mathrm{star}}/L)=\mathrm{{\rm Y}}/f_{\mathrm{star}}`$, where $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}M_{\mathrm{star}}/L`$ measures the efficiency with which groups and clusters transform cooled material into light. Indeed, by properly choosing this parameter, one may be able to quantitatively account for the mildly increasing trend of $`M/L`$ with scale claimed recently by Bahcall & Comerford (2002) and Girardi et al. (2002).

The newly established gas distribution as a result of radiative cooling can be obtained by combining the conservation of entropy and the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium (Bryan 2000; Voit & Bryan 2001; Wu & Xue 2002a; Voit et al. 2002 ). It appears that both the cores of the gas density profiles and the entropy floors are created in the centers as a result of galaxy formation which has consumed the central hot gas by converting it into stars or other forms of cold materials. Meanwhile, a monotonically increasing gas fraction with radius is expected to occur. Apparently, the effect is more significant in lower temperature systems than in higher ones. It has been shown that the regulated gas distribution in groups and clusters produced by cooling or star formation resembles the conventional $`\beta `$ model in shape, and the increase of global $`f_{\mathrm{gas}}`$ with mass provides a natural explanation of the observed radial variation of $`f_{\mathrm{gas}}`$ (Wu & Xue 2002a; Voit et al. 2002), Finally, a straightforward computation of the X-ray emission of the gas inside groups and clusters permits a recovery of the observed $`L_x`$-$`T`$ relation (Bryan 2000; Muanwong et al. 2001, 2002; Voit & Bryan 2001; Wu & Xue 2002a; Voit et al. 2002; Borgani et al. 2002).

In a word, radiative cooling of the hot intragroup/intracluster gas, which is based on the well-motivated physical process, may allow us to resolve some of the puzzles seen in current X-ray observations of groups and clusters, and it seems that energy feedback from star formation comes into effect only in the less massive systems of $`M<10^{13}`$ $`M_{}`$. Yet, current analytic and numerical models of radiative cooling still have some defects including an overcooling crisis (Balogh et al. 2001). A critical test of the cooling scenario, in addition to the conventional test using X-ray properties of groups and clusters, is the upper limit of the unresolved soft X-ray background. It is unlikely that current cooling model can account for the upper limit of the unresolved soft X-ray background from the diffuse gas of groups and clusters without excess energy from preheating (Wu, Fabian & Nulsen 2001). Indeed, recent hydrodynamic simulations have suggested that neither preheating nor radiative cooling alone is able to reproduce all the X-ray observations. A combination of both may be the right way to resolve the problem (Borgani et al. 2002).

### 4.4. A physically unmotivated model

If we are interested in the cosmological applications rather than the internal dynamics and structures of groups and clusters, we may make a crude estimate of the influence of nongravitational heating or radiative cooling using a simple but physically unmotivated approach (e.g. Holder & Carlstrom 2001; Voit & Bryan 2001): We first evaluate the entropy distribution of the gas $`S^0=kT^0/(n_\mathrm{e}^0)^{2/3}`$ by assuming that the gas is dissipationless and satisfies the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium. Taking the prevailing NFW profile as an approximation of the underlying dark matter component, i.e. $`n_\mathrm{e}^0(r)=(f_b/\mu _em_p)\rho _{\mathrm{NFW}}(r)`$ where $`\mu _e=1.131`$, we can get the radial profile of the X-ray temperature $`T^0(r)`$. Now, regardless of the physical mechanism behind the steepening of the $`L_x`$-$`T`$ relation, the consequence of the effect must result in an entropy floor in the central regions of groups and clusters with a value of $`S_{\mathrm{floor}}100400`$ keV cm<sup>2</sup> at the present epoch. A simple approach is to define the new entropy distribution as the entropy $`S^0`$ expected from self-similar evolution plus a constant entropy floor $`S_{\mathrm{floor}}`$:

$$S(r)=\frac{kT(r)}{n_e^{2/3}(r)}=S_{\mathrm{floor}}+S^0(r)$$
(19)
This is equivalent to specifying the equation of state for the gas. Now, the new gas distribution is obtained by requiring that the gas is in pressure-supported hydrostatic equilibrium with the underlying gravitational potential dominated by dark matter:

$$\frac{n_e(r)}{n_e(r_{\mathrm{vir}})}=\left[\frac{S(r_{\mathrm{vir}})}{S(r)}\right]^{3/5}\left[1+\frac{2}{5}\frac{G\mu _em_p}{n_e^{2/3}(r_{\mathrm{vir}})S(r_{\mathrm{vir}})^{2/3}}_r^{r_{\mathrm{vir}}}\frac{M(r^{})}{S(r^{})^{3/5}r_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}𝑑r^{}\right]^{3/2}.$$
(20)
One needs to normalize the above expression by properly choosing the gas density at the virial radius $`r_{\mathrm{vir}}`$. To a first approximation, the total gas density at $`r_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ or the total gas mass within $`r_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ can be set to equal the universal baryon fraction $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b/\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$. A more plausible approach is to employ the observationally determined $`f_{\mathrm{gas}}`$-$`T`$ relation (e.g. Mohr et al. 1999) or scale-dependence of stellar mass fraction combined with the universal baryon fraction. Although quantitatively crude, this simple analytic model based on the entropy floor detected in groups and clusters enables us to effectively demonstrate the more realistic distribution of the hot gas in today’s groups and clusters. Yet, the model contains no information about evolutionary effect unless the variation of the entropy floor $`S_{\mathrm{floor}}`$ with cosmic epoch can also be given.

## 5. Summary

We have entered a new era of exploration of matter and energy in groups and clusters, thanks to the high-sensitivity, high-resolution X-ray observations incorporated with optical, radio, SZ and gravitational lensing measurements. A joint analysis of these independent measurements within next decade will undoubtedly allow us to reconstruct more precisely the distributions of both baryons and dark matter in groups and clusters, which is especially important with respect to the impact on the current debate on the density profiles of dark halos suggested by numerical simulations and empirical models. The physical process of the gas in the formation and evolution of groups and clusters has been another subject of a longstanding debate. The prevailing preheating and radiative cooling scenarios become indistinguishable in the context of current observations, numerical simulations or analytic models. This may indicate that our understanding of physical processes for gas is still incomplete. Clearly caution thus needs to be applied in using groups and clusters for cosmological purpose.

#### Acknowledgments.

I wish to thank S. Bowyer for inviting me to this well-organized meeting and careful reading of this review. I would also like to thank L. Y. Lo and T. Chiueh for hospitality and useful discussion during my visit at the Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica, where this review was prepared. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation of China, the Ministry of Science and Technology of China, under Grant No. NKBRSF G19990754, and the National Science Council of Taiwan, under Grant NSC91-2816-M001-0003-6.

## References

Babul, A., Balogh, M. L., Lewis, G. F., & Poole, G. B. 2002, MNRAS, 330, 329

Bahcall, N. A., & Comerford, J. M. 2002, ApJ, 565, L5

Bahcall, N. A., & Lubin L. M. 1994, ApJ, 426, 513

Balogh, M. L., Babul, A., & Patton, D. R. 1999, MNRAS, 307, 463

Balogh, M. L., Pearce, F. R., Bower, R. G., & Kay, S. T. 2001, MNRAS, 326, 1228

Benson, A. J., Bower, R. G., Frenk, C. G., & White, S. D. M. 2000, MNRAS, 314, 557

Bird, C. M., Mushotzky, R. F., & Metzler, C. A. 1995, ApJ, 453, 40

Birkinshaw, M. 1999, Phys. Rep., 310, 97

Borgani, S., et al. 2002, MNRAS, in press (astro-ph/0205471)

Bower, R. G., Benson, A. J., Lacey, C. G., Baugh, C. M., Cole, S., & Frenk, C. S. 2001, MNRAS, 325, 497

Bryan, G. L. 2000, ApJ, 544, L1

Bryan, G. L., & Norman, M. L. 1998, ApJ, 495, 80

Burkert, A. 1995, ApJ, 447, L25

Cavaliere, A., & Fusco-Femiano, R. 1976, A&A, 49, 137

Cavaliere, A., & Fusco-Femiano, R. 1978, A&A, 70, 677

Cavaliere, A., Menci, N., & Tozzi, P. 1997, ApJ, 484, L21

Cavaliere, A., Menci, N., & Tozzi, P. 1998, ApJ, 501, 493

Cheng, L.-M., & Wu, X.-P. 2001, A&A, 372, 381

Cooray, A. R. 1998, A&A, 339, 623

Cowie, L. L., Henriksen, M., & Mushotzky, R. 1987, ApJ, 317, 593

David, L. P., Forman, W., & Jones, C. 1991, ApJ, 380, 39

David, L. P., Slyz, A., Jones, C., Forman, W., & Vrtilek, S. D. 1993, ApJ, 412, 479

de Blok, W. J. G., & McGaugh, S. S. 1997, MNRAS, 290, 533

Eke, V. R., Navarro, J. F., & Steinmetz, M. 2001, ApJ, 554, 114

Ettori, S. 2000, MNRAS, 318, 1041

Ettori, S., & Fabian, A. C. 1999, MNRAS, 305, 834

Evrard, A. E., & Henry, J. P. 1991, ApJ, 383, 95

Fabian, A. C., Willingale, R., Pye, J. P., Murray, S. S., & Fabbiano, G. 1980, MNRAS, 193, 175

Fabian, A. C., Hu, E. M., Cowie, L. L., & Grindlay, J., 1981, ApJ, 248, 47

Flores, R. A., & Primack, J. R. 1994, ApJ, 427, L1

Fox, D. C., & Pen, U.-L. 2002, ApJ, in press

Gerbal, D., Durret, F., & Lachièze-Rey, M. 1994, A&A, 288, 746

Girardi, M., et al. 2002, ApJ, 569, 720

Holder, G. P., & Carlstrom, J. E. 2001, ApJ, 558, 515

Ikebe, Y., et al. 1996, Nature, 379, 427

Kaiser, N. 1991, ApJ, 383, 104

Komatsu, E., & Seljak, U. 2001, MNRAS, 327, 1353

Lewis, G. F., et al. 2000, ApJ, 536, 623

Makino, N., & Asano, K. 1999, ApJ, 512, 9

Makino, N., Sasaki, S., & Suto, Y. 1998, ApJ, 497, 55

Markevitch, M., Vikhlinin, A., Forman, W. R., & Sarazin, C. L. 1999, ApJ, 527, 545

Miller, E. D., Bregman, J. N., & Knezek, P. M. 2002, ApJ, 569, 134

Mohr, J. J., Mathiesen, B., & Evrard, A. E. 1999, ApJ, 517, 627

Moore, B., Governato, F., Quinn, T., Stadel, J., & Lake, G. 1998, ApJ, 499, L5

Muanwong, O., Thomas, P. A., Kay, S. T., & Pearce, F. R. 2002, MNRAS, in press (astro-ph/0205137)

Muanwong, O., Thomas, P. A., Kay, S. T., Pearce, F. R., & Couchman, H. M. P. 2001, MNRAS, 552, L27

Navarro, J. F., Frenk, C. S., & White, S. D. M. 1997, MNRAS, 490, 493

Nath, B. B., & Roychowdhury, S. 2002, MNRAS, submitted (astro-ph/0202201)

Pen, U.-L. 1999, ApJ, 510, L1

Pearce, F. R., Thomas, P. A., Couchman, H. M. P., & Edge, A. C. 2000, MNRAS, 317, 1029

Phillips, L. A., Ostriker, J., P., & Cen, R. 2001, ApJ,

Ponman, T. J., Cannon, D. B., & Navarro, J. F. 1999, Nature, 397, 135

Roussel, H., Sadat, R., & Blanchard, A. 2000, A&A, 361, 429

Sato, S., Akimoto, F., Furuzawa, A., Tawara, Y., Watanabe, M., & Kumai, Y. 2000, ApJ, 537, L73

Silk, J., & White, S. D. M. 1978, ApJ, 226, L103

Suto, Y., Sasaki, S., & Makino, N. 1998, ApJ, 509, 544

Tozzi, P. 2001, in Tracing Cosmic Evolution with Galaxy Clusters, APS Conf. Ser., in press (astro-ph/0109072)

Tyson, J. A., Kochanski, G. P., & dell’Antonio, I. P. 1998, ApJ, 498, L107

Valageas, P., & Silk, J. 2000, A&A, 350, 725

Voit, G. M., & Bryan, G. L. 2001, Nature, 414, 425

Voit, G. M., Bryan, G. L., Balogh, M. L., & Bower, R. G. 2002, ApJ, in press (astro-ph/0205240)

White, D. A., & Fabian A. C. 1995, MNRAS, 273, 72

White, D. A., Jones, C., & Forman, W. 1997, MNRAS, 292, 419

White, R. E. 1991, ApJ, 367, 69

White, S. M., & Frenk, C. S. 1991, ApJ, 379, 52

Wu, K. K. S., Fabian, A. C., & Nulsen, P. E. J. 1998, MNRAS, 301, L20

Wu, K. K. S., Fabian, A. C., & Nulsen, P. E. J. 2000, MNRAS, 318, 889

Wu, K. K. S., Fabian, A. C., & Nulsen, P. E. J. 2001, MNRAS, 324, 95

Wu, X.-P., & Chiueh, T. 2001, ApJ, 547, 82

Wu, X.-P., Fang, L.-Z., & Xu, W. 1998, A&A, 338, 813

Wu, X.-P., Xue, Y.-J., & Fang, L.-Z. 1999, ApJ, 524, 22

Wu, X.-P., & Xue, Y.-J. 2000a, ApJ, 529, L5

Wu, X.-P., & Xue, Y.-J. 2000b, ApJ, 542, 578

Wu, X.-P., & Xue, Y.-J. 2000c, MNRAS, 311, 825

Wu, X.-P., & Xue, Y.-J. 2001, ApJ, 560, 544

Wu, X.-P., & Xue, Y.-J. 2002a, ApJ, 569, 112

Wu, X.-P., & Xue, Y.-J. 2002b, ApJ, 572, L19

Xu, H., et al. 1998, ApJ, 500, 738

Xu, H., Jin, G., & Wu, X.-P. 2001, ApJ, 553, 78

Xue, Y.-J., & Wu, X.-P. 2000a, A&A, 360, L43

Xue, Y.-J., & Wu, X.-P. 2000b, ApJ, 538, 65

Xue, Y.-J., & Wu, X.-P. 2000c, MNRAS, 318, 715

Xue, Y.-J., & Wu, X.-P. 2001, IJMP(D), 10, 239

Yoshikawa, K., & Suto, Y. 1999, ApJ, 513, 549

Yoshida, N., Stoehr, F., Springel, V., & White, S. D. M. 2002, MNRAS, in press (astro-ph/0202341)

Zaroubi, S., Squires, G., de Gasperis, G., Evrard, A. E., Hoffman, Y., & Silk, J. 2001, ApJ, 561, 600

Zhang, T.-J., & Wu, X.-P. 2000, ApJ, 545, 141


format: text

text:
# Spin dynamics in a structurally ordered non-Fermi liquid compound: YbRh2Si2

## Abstract

Muon spin relaxation ($`\mu `$SR) experiments have been carried out at low temperatures in the non-Fermi-liquid heavy-fermion compound YbRh2Si2. The longitudinal-field $`\mu `$SR relaxation function is exponential, indicative that the dynamic spin fluctuations are homogeneous. The relaxation rate $`1/T_1`$ varies with applied field as $`H^y`$, $`y=1.0\pm 0.1`$, which implies a scaling law of the form $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega )\omega ^yf(\omega /T)`$, $`lim_{x0}f(x)=x`$ for the dynamic spin susceptibility.

and thanks: Present address: Department of Physics, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan.

Non-Fermi liquid (NFL) behavior and quantum critical (QC) phenomena in strongly correlated electron systems are among the most intensively studied subjects in condensed matter physics . NFL behavior is observed in a number of f-electron systems as pronounced deviations from conventional Landau Fermi-liquid properties. These include anomalous temperature dependences of the electrical resistivity \[$`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho =\rho (T)\rho (T=0)T^\alpha `$, $`1\alpha <2`$\] and the f-electron specific heat coefficient ($`C_{\mathrm{el}}/T\mathrm{ln}T`$. This contrasts with the Fermi-liquid behavior seen in ordinary metals ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho T^2`$, $`C_{\mathrm{el}}/T=\mathrm{const}.`$). One mechanism for NFL behavior invokes a quantum critical point (QCP), which is attained by varying a control parameter such as doping, pressure, or magnetic field .

Microscopic techniques such as $`\mu `$SR are powerful tools with which to investigate QC magnetic fluctuations. NMR and $`\mu `$SR experiments on the NFL alloys UCu5-xPdx, $`x=1.0`$ and 1.5, have revealed strongly inhomogeneous spin fluctuations and glassy dynamics; the $`\mu `$SR results suggest a quantum spin-glass state near the QCP  with extremely slow fluctuations, i.e., thermally-excited fluctuations with strong spectral weight at very low frequencies. Thus disorder may strongly influence the spin fluctuation behavior, so that it is important to determine whether or not low-frequency fluctuations associated with a QCP are present in ordered stoichiometric compounds.

The NFL compound YbRh2Si2 appears to be a suitable system for the study of such “clean” NFL physics. YbRh2Si2 appears to be located in the vicinity of a QCP from a number of bulk measurements ; resistivity and specific heat measurements at low temperatures show $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho T`$ and $`C_{\mathrm{el}}/T\mathrm{ln}T`$ over a temperature range of more than a decade. The NFL behavior is suppressed by the application of an external magnetic field, and Fermi-liquid behavior is recovered. Low-field ac susceptibility measurements show an anomaly suggestive of a magnetic phase transition around 70 mK that is suppressed by small magnetic field of $``$500 Oe. These results suggest that YbRh2Si2 is quite close to a QCP, but undergoes a phase transition at very low temperatures and magnetic fields.

In order to investigate the 70-mK anomaly and the character of spin fluctuations at zero and weak magnetic fields, we have carried out muon spin relaxation experiments on YbRh2Si2 at the LTF facility of the Paul Scherrer Institute, Switzerland. A full report of this work, which will be published elsewhere , discusses in more detail questions of static magnetism in the low-temperature state in YbRh2Si2, the muon stopping site, and static susceptibility inhomogeneity.

Figure 1 shows the relaxation function $`G(t)`$ for the muon decay asymmetry in YbRh2Si2 at $`T=20`$ mK for longitudinal fields $`H=0`$, 11, 28, and 100 Oe.

At zero field the data can be fit to a static Kubo-Toyabe (K-T) relaxation function  corresponding to a random distribution of static $`\mu ^+`$ local fields with rms $`\mathrm{width}2`$ Oe. As discussed elsewhere , we attribute these static fields to weak ordered Yb moments ($`10^3`$$`10^2\mu _B`$) in the antiferromagnetic state (Néel temperature $`T_N=70`$ mK), since the K-T rate is much larger than expected from nuclear dipolar fields and sets in only below $`T_N`$. The relaxation data for nonzero applied field can be fit to an exponential relaxation function $`G(t)=A\mathrm{exp}(t/T_1)`$. An applied field of 11 Oe is more than five times larger than the estimated field at the muon site due to static Yb-moment magnetism , and therefore is large enough to decouple this static field. Thus the relaxation observed for $`H10`$ Oe is dynamic. Therefore the field dependence of $`1/T_1`$ is not due to decoupling, but instead suggests a significant frequency dependence to the local-field fluctuation spectrum at the low muon frequencies.

It is important to note that the observed exponential form is evidence that the relaxation rate $`1/T_1`$ is substantially uniform throughout the sample, since the signature of inhomogeneity in $`1/T_1`$ is a sub-exponential or “stretched” exponential relaxation function . The muon relaxation is therefore probing spin fluctuations in a structurally ordered non-Fermi liquid.

Figure 2 shows the dependence of $`1/T_1`$ on longitudinal field at $`T=20`$ mK.

The zero-field rate given by the arrow is the static K-T value obtained from the fit shown in Fig. 1. The relaxation rate shows a weak field dependence for magnetic fields less than 10 Oe but varies more strongly, as $`H^y`$, $`y=1.0\pm 0.1`$, for higher fields.

In the motional narrowing limit $`1/T_1`$ is related to the spin autocorrelation function $`q(t)=S_i(t)S_i(0)`$ by

$$1/T_1(\omega ,T)=\gamma _\mu ^2\overline{\delta B^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑tq(t)\mathrm{cos}\omega t\gamma _\mu ^2\overline{\delta B^2}\tau _c(\omega ,T),$$
(1)
where $`\gamma _\mu `$ is the muon gyromagnetic ratio, $`\overline{\delta B^2}`$ is the mean-square fluctuating field at the muon site, and $`\tau _c(\omega ,T)`$ is the effective correlation time measured at the Zeeman frequency $`\omega =\gamma _\mu H`$. Furthermore $`\tau _c`$ is related to the imaginary part of the complex susceptibility $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega ,T)`$ by the fluctuation-dissipation theorem, which for $`\mathrm{}\omega k_BT`$ becomes

$$\tau _c(\omega ,T)(T/\omega )\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega ,T).$$
(2)
The observed frequency dependence of $`1/T_1`$ is therefore consistent with a scaling law of the form

$$\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega ,T)\omega ^yf(\omega /T),$$
(3)
provided that $`f(x)x`$ as $`x0`$. This scaling would then leave $`1/T_1(\omega ,T)`$ independent of temperature, in rough agreement with the observed weak ($`\mathrm{ln}T`$) dependence at $`H=19`$ Oe (not shown) . For $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega )`$ of the form of Eq. (3) this gives $`q(t)t^{1+y}`$ at long times . Thus $`q(t)`$ varies slowly with $`t`$, i.e., the low-temperature spin fluctuations are very long lived.

The exponential behavior of the relaxation function in the present $`\mu `$SR experiments indicates that YbRh2Si2 is an ordered stoichiometric compound. Thus disorder-driven theories  seem to be ruled out, although these have been considered as promising scenarios for NFL behavior in disordered heavy-fermion materials. Our results strongly suggest that YbRh2Si2 is a compound in which NFL behavior is induced by homogeneous critical spin fluctuations.

We are grateful to A. Amato, C. Baines, and D. Herlach for help with the experiments, and to Q. Si for useful discussions. This work was supported in part by the U.S. NSF, Grant nos. DMR-0102293 (UC Riverside) and DMR-9820631 (CSU Los Angeles), by the COE Research Grant-in-Aid (10CE2004) for Scientific Research from the Ministry of Education, Sport, Science, and Technology of Japan, and by the Netherlands NWO and FOM, and was performed in part under the auspices of the U.S. DOE.


text:
# Deciphering The Last Major Invasion of the Milky Way Galaxy

## 1 Introduction

Mergers and strong interactions between galaxies happen, and may well be the dominant process in the determination of a galaxy’s current Hubble type, particularly in the context of modern hierarchical-clustering theories of structure formation (e.g. Silk & Wyse 1993). The recently discovered (Ibata, Gilmore & Irwin 1994) Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal galaxy is inside the Milky Way Galaxy, is losing a significant stellar mass through tidal effects (Ibata et al. 1997), forming star streams in the halo (Mateo, Morrison & Olszewski 1998; Ibata et al. 2001; Yanny et al. 2000), but having little effect on the present structure of the bulk of the Galactic disk.

The outcome of a merger of two stellar systems depends on several factors, most importantly the mass ratio and density contrast. During a merger, energy, momentum and angular momentum are re-distributed so that the common aftermath of a merger between a large disk galaxy and a smaller, but still significant, satellite galaxy (more massive than the Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal galaxy) is a heated disk and a disrupted satellite (Quinn & Goodman 1986; Velaquez & White 1999). This is currently the most plausible model for the origin of the thick disk in our Galaxy (see reviews in Gilmore, Wyse & Kuijken 1989; Majewski 1993) and those of other galaxies; the stochastic nature of the merger process allows for a wide variety of, and indeed non-existence of, thick disks in external galaxies, as observed, provided only a small number of merger events are involved. Determination of the stellar populations in the Galactic thick disk tests this model, and so constrains the merger history of the Milky Way (Gilmore & Wyse 1985; Wyse 2001).

All indications are that the Galactic thick disk is composed of only very old stars, ages $`10`$ Gyr, equivalent to forming at a redshift of $`1`$ (Wyse 2000). This implies that the event that formed it from the thin disk, which now contains stars of all ages, occurred a long time ago, with little subsequent extraordinary heating of the thin disk. If this model is valid, it may be possible to identify stars captured from the accreted galaxy, and to distinguish them from those formed in the early thin disk of the Milky Way. This would allow tight constraints on what merged, and when it merged, and on the early star formation in an extended disk. These are important tests of hierarchical clustering theories of structure formation.

## 2 The Survey

We are investigating the stellar populations of the Galactic thick disk and halo through a statistical study of the kinematics (radial velocities) and metallicity distributions of stars a few kiloparsecs from the mid-Plane of the Galactic disk, down several lines-of-sight. Our survey uses the two-degree-field multi-object spectrograph (2dF; Lewis et al. 2002) on the Anglo-Australian Telescope, which provides 400 spectra simultaneously; we obtained data with spectral resolution of 2.5Å, in the wavelength range of 3700-4700Å. The velocity accuracy per star is $``$15 km/s, determined from repeat observations and from a globular cluster standard. Chemical abundance determinations are in progress. We here present our first kinematic results, for around 2,000 stars.

Our survey is of F/G stars ($`\mathrm{B}\mathrm{V}0.7`$) with V-band apparent magnitudes in the range 17.0–19.5. This preferentially selects main sequence stars close to the turn-offs of the thick disk and halo populations, at distances of several kiloparsecs. Our primary fields are at ($`\mathrm{},b`$)= (270,–45) and (270,+33), against Galactic rotation; thus radial velocities, in combination with a distance, approximate Galactocentric orbital angular momentum, without the need for transverse velocities. Bulge stars do not contribute at this distance from the Galactic Center, while the apparent magnitude/distance selection provides a strong bias against the thin disk.

Star-count model predictions in one of our ‘rotation’ fields for the relative contributions of F/G stars belonging to each of the three dominant populations of the Milky Way which contribute at the solar neighborhood, as a function of apparent magnitude, are shown in Figure 1, derived from a derivative of the star count model described by Gilmore (1984).

## 3 Results

We detect a substantial population of stars on orbits that are intermediate between those of the canonical thick disk and the canonical stellar halo. As metallicities are not yet available, we sort on distance statistically, using apparent magnitude, since all stars observed have similar colours. Figure 2 shows the line-of-sight (radial) velocity histograms for stars which have spectra with signal-to-noise greater than 20, in the lines-of-sight that probe orbital angular momentum. The upper panel shows the distributions for the statistically nearer sub-sample, stars with $`V<18`$, while the lower panel shows more distant stars, $`18V<19.5`$ (we have observed twice as many 2dF pointings of faint stars in the line-of-sight at $`b=+30`$, resulting in approximately twice as many radial velocities in this field, compared to the $`b=45`$ field). These data are compared with the predictions of a model with thin disk, thick disk and halo with standard stellar kinematics, resulting from the median of 11 random samplings of three Gaussians with means and dispersions given in Table 1 (based on Dehnen & Binney 1998 and Chiba & Beers 2000). The model kinematics were fixed, independent of magnitude range, and the relative proportions of each component are chosen within the ranges in Figure 1, for the characteristic magnitude of each sample, namely $`V=17.5`$ for the upper panel with thin:thick:halo of 5:69:26, and $`V=18.5`$ for the lower panel with thin:thick:halo of 0.5:54.5:45. Using the Bergbusch & vandenBerg (2001) isochrones, at these magnitudes typical thick disk stars with \[Fe/H\] $`0.5`$ dex and $`\mathrm{B}\mathrm{V}=0.6,\mathrm{M}_\mathrm{V}+4.9`$ would be at distances from the Sun of $`3.3`$ kpc and $`5.3`$ kpc, while typical halo stars with metallicity of $`1.5`$ dex and $`\mathrm{B}\mathrm{V}=0.5,\mathrm{M}_\mathrm{V}+5.4`$ would be at distances of $`2.6`$ kpc and $`4.2`$ kpc respectively.

The data for the brighter stars and the model are in tolerable agreement showing the well-established canonical thick disk lag of less than 50km/s, albeit that there is a noticeable difference between the radial velocity distributions in the two fields. However, there is an obvious disagreement in the lower panel, for the fainter stars, in that the typical star shows a mean lag behind the Sun of $`100`$km/s. The peak of the observed distribution is significantly displaced from the model predictions. This disagreement is not sensitive to the adopted normalisations or scale heights for the thick disk and halo, but indicates the need for a substantial revision in the standard kinematical model of the Milky Way.

We emphasise that the number-magnitude-colour distribution of stars seen in our fields is similar in both fields (many kiloparsecs apart at these apparent magnitudes) and is consistent with the predictions of standard star count models. We have detected not a small perturbation superimposed on a smooth well-understood background, but rather intrinsic complexity in the kinematic distribution function of stars ascribed in standard models to the thick disk. We also note that the predictions of the Gaussian halo fail to reproduce the local peak in the data at around 300 km/s, which is suggestive of a retrograde halo stream (velocities above $`180`$ km/s in these lines-of-sight are retrograde), as may be produced by accretion of a small satellite (e.g. Helmi et al. 1999). This feature will be discussed elsewhere.

Figure 3 compares our results for the more distant stars with the predictions of a revised model, where the adopted kinematics of the ‘thick disk’ stars are instead those of the ‘satellite debris’ as given in Table 1, all other quantities being held fixed. The agreement with the velocity distribution is much improved, except (as expected) for the local maximum at V$``$300 km/s.

Our results demonstrate that far from the Galactic plane the ‘thick disk’ is a population which has significantly lower mean rotational velocity, and most probably higher values of velocity dispersion, than it has close to the midplane. Previous investigations have seen indications of this ‘vertical shear’ at lower Z-distances (Wyse & Gilmore 1986; Majewski 1993; Chiba & Beers 2000; and indeed one can see indications in the upper panel of Fig. 2, especially the field at $`b=45`$), but the observations had been interpreted in terms of a smooth gradient with Z-height within a population characterised by one vertical velocity dispersion. Thus to explain the large change in mean azimuthal streaming seen in the observations would require a disk distribution function such that the angular velocity of stars on the orbits sampled by observing 2-3 kpc vertically from the disk, at approximately fixed radial distance, differs by a factor of two from those samples at lower Z-heights. An effect of this large an amplitude is hard to envisage. A more straightforward interpretation is that the ‘thick disk’ has a distribution function which has a composite functional form; whether this is actually a continuum or superposition of discrete components remains to be seen.

## 4 Implications

This new appreciation that a significant fraction of ‘thick disk stars’ are on orbits with angular momentum around half that of the Sun’s orbital angular momentum resolves a recently discovered puzzle in the white dwarf population of the Galaxy. Two recent surveys (Oppenheimer et al. 2000; Nelson et al. 2002) have detected candidate white dwarfs, based on their high transverse motion across the sky, in numbers that are significantly higher than expected on the basis of normal thin- and thick-disk kinematics. This has led to speculations of a baryonic dark halo (Oppenheimer et al. 2000; Nelson et al. 2002), However, our result that typical stars on orbits that take them far from the Plane have higher than expected mean velocities increases the expected detections in any proper-motion-selected sample, and resolves the discrepancies (Gilmore et al., in prep). Indeed one expects ‘shredded satellite’ stars to be found in local, proper-motion-selected samples. Just such a population, with a mean azimuthal stream velocity of $`100`$ km/s, was identified by Fuchs, Jarheiss & Weilen (1999), based on the subset of the Carney et al. (1994) sample with Hipparcos distances and proper motions (resulting in only a handful of stars in the ‘excess’ population).

What do our results mean for the evolution of our Galaxy, presumably a typical disk galaxy? In the standard hierarchical clustering and merging picture of galaxy formation a thick disk is an expected outcome of a significant merger. Depending on the mass, density profile and orbit of the merging satellite, ‘shredded-satellite’ stars may retain a kinematic signature distinct from that part of the thick disk that results from the heated thin disk. Satellites on prograde (rather than retrograde) orbits couple to the rotating thin disk more efficiently, and thus a merger with such a system is favored as the mechanism to form the thick disk (Quinn & Goodman 1986; Velazquez & White 1999). If any kinematic trace of the now-destroyed satellite galaxy is visible, it will be seen in the mean orbital rotational velocity of stars. The actual lag expected from the shredded-satellite depends predominantly on the initial orbit and the amount of angular momentum transport in the merger process, and is not ab initio predictable in a specific case.

In general however, excluding special initial conditions, such as a circular orbit at large distance (see Walker, Mihos & Hernquist 1996), satellite debris stars will be on orbits characterised by lower net rotational streaming about the Galactic Center than that of the typical scattered former thin-disk star at a given distance from the Galactic center. In order to support themselves against the Galactic potential with less angular momentum support, the shredded-satellite debris must then have larger random motions (equivalent to pressure) than do the typical thick disk stars: this is seen in numerical simulations of this process (Walker et al. 1996). It is these kinematics which allow their detection: stars with the highest amplitude of vertical motions (the satellite debris?) will be preferentially found farther from the Plane than are most thick disk stars (the heated thin disk?). If a population of former satellite stars exists, and the satellite was on an initial non-circular orbit consistent with cosmological simulations (van den Bosch et al. 1998), the apparent mean rotational velocity of stars far from the Plane (the debris) will be less than it is for stars near the Sun, in the ‘classical’ thick disk. This situation is easily distinguished from the possibility that all stars form a single, coherent, thick disk, in which case the rotational velocities of the most distant thick disk stars, far from the Plane, will not differ significantly from those nearby. This second model is inconsistent with our observations.

Our observations favor the interpretation that we have detected the shredded satellite. This is then evidence for a significant past merger experienced by the Milky Way Galaxy, in the form of the direct detection of the intruder stars, stars that were formed in another galaxy, long ago. Decomposition of the star counts into ‘heated thin disk’ and ‘shredded satellite’, on the basis of the kinematics, suggests that a galaxy with perhaps one-quarter of the stellar mass of the early thin disk was the cause of the formation of the thick disk. The satellite debris may account for some of the distant structures seen by Newberg et al. (2002), but more data are needed to establish this. We do not see several distinct ‘extra’ peaks in the velocity histograms, implying, in this interpretation, only one major past merger.

Alternative explanations remain viable. We may have found the remnant of a early merger event which occurred prior to a later merger which formed the bulk of the present thick disk. Outside the standard hierarchical merger-based cosmology, models without mergers exist: a vertically extended disk could have formed during the initial cooling and contraction of proto-disk gas to reach equilibrium in a thin configuration (Norris & Ryan 1991; Burkert, Truran & Hensler 1992). In this case one then expects smooth vertical gradients in kinematics and metallicity within the continuous disk, now envisaged to encompass all of what we have identified as the thin disk, the thick disk, and the ‘shredded satellite’.

The bivariate distribution function of kinematics and chemical abundances provides more information than just kinematics: abundance determinations for our sample are underway. Smooth settling scenarios make specific predictions, but early merger models depend on the a priori unknown properties, at high redshift, of a now-destroyed galaxy. It is unlikely, however, that the chemical abundance distribution of the shredded satellite will be similar to that of the heated thin disk. Future chemical element ratio studies will be able to limit the star formation histories of thick disk stars as a function of vertical velocity dispersion, and quantify many of these general statements.

We thank Ken Freeman for his contributions to this project. RFGW acknowledges support in the UK from a PPARC Visitor Grant, and thanks all at Oxford and St Andrews for stimulating environments.


text:
# Thermodynamic properties of the exactly solvable transverse Ising model on decorated planar lattices

## 1 Introduction

For many years magnetic properties of decorated Ising spin systems consisting of spin-$`1/2`$ and spin-$`S`$ ($`S1/2`$) atoms, have been very intensively studied both theoretically and experimentally. In particular, the behaviour of various decorated models has been explored by variety of mathematical techniques, with some exact results , even in the presence of the single-ion anisotropy . The strong interest in these models arises partly on account of the rich critical phenomena they display and partly due to the fact that they represent more complicated but simultaneously exactly solvable systems than the simple, undecorated ones. Moreover, the decorated planar models belong to the simplest exactly solvable theoretical models of ferrimagnetism. In this respect, they may exhibit under certain conditions the compensation phenomenon, i. e. the compensation point at which the resultant magnetization vanishes bellow the critical temperature. All these properties of decorated systems make them very interesting also from the experimental point of view, first of all in connection with many possible technological application of ferrimagnets to practice. On the other hand, much work is currently being done in the area of molecular-based magnetic materials and so molecular magnetism has become an important topic of scientific interest. In fact, a rapid progress in molecular engineering brought the possibility to control and to design the magnetic structure and properties of molecular systems. Thus, a number of bimetallic network assemblies have been synthesized which perfectly fulfil the claim of sufficiently small interplane coupling. Nevertheless, the molecular magnets which would possess the decorated network structure have been prepared only a decade ago. From this family, the most frequently prepared compounds are the bimetallic assemblies having the decorated honeycomb sheet structure  or the decorated square sheet structure  (see Fig. 1). Obviously, the experimental discovery of this wide class of compounds has stimulated the renewed interest in studying the mixed spin-$`1/2`$ and spin-$`S`$ ($`S1/2`$) decorated planar models theoretically.

Owing to these facts, the present article will be devoted to the investigation one of the simplest mixed-spin quantum model. Namely, we will study the decorated model in the presence of a transverse field that can potentially be useful for understanding some of the above mentioned experimental systems. The transverse Ising model has been originally introduced by de Gennes as a pseudo-spin model of hydrogen bonded ferroelectrics , however, during the last decade it has found a wide application in the description of diverse physical systems, for instance, cooperative Jahn-Teller systems , strongly anisotropic magnetic materials in the transverse field , or many other systems . Although the transverse Ising model is one of the simplest quantum models, the complete exact solution has been obtained in the one-dimensional case only . For two-dimensional systems there are exactly known only the initial transverse susceptibilities on regular lattices . On the other hand, over the last few years a simple straightforward method has been developed for obtaining exact results to the transverse Ising model, by assuming that it is composed of quantal and ’classical’ (Ising-type) spins . The method is based on the generalized mapping transformation (the decoration-iteration or star-triangle one) introduced into the system with the transverse field affecting only one kind of spins (quantal).

The primary purpose of this work is to provide further extension of the exact solution from the reference , by the use of the same approach. Adopting the basic ideas of the transformation techniques, we examine the influence of applied transverse field on the thermodynamic properties of decorated lattices with different planar topology and arbitrary spin values of decorating atoms.

The outline of this paper is as follows. In Section 2, the fundamental framework of the transformation method as applied to the present model, are briefly reviewed. This is followed by a presentation of the numerical results for the spin-$`\mu `$ ($`\mu =1/2`$) and spin-$`S_B`$ ($`S_B1/2`$) decorated transverse Ising ferrimagnet on several planar lattices, in Section 3. Finally, some concluding remarks are given in Section 4.

## 2 Formulation

In this work we will study the transverse Ising model on decorated planar lattices. A typical example of the system under investigation is depicted for the case of the square lattice in Fig. 1. As one can see, the system consists of two interpenetrating sublattices and we will further assume that the sites of the original lattice that constitute the sublattice $`A`$ are occupied by atoms with the fixed spin $`\mu =1/2`$. The second sublattice $`B`$ is occupied by decorating atoms with an arbitrary spin value $`S_B`$. Then the system is described by the Hamiltonian

$$\widehat{}_d=\frac{1}{2}\underset{i,k}{}J\widehat{S}_i^z\widehat{\mu }_k^zH_A\underset{k=1}{\overset{N}{}}\widehat{\mu }_k^zH_B\underset{i=1}{\overset{Nq/2}{}}\widehat{S}_i^z\mathrm{\Omega }\underset{i=1}{\overset{Nq/2}{}}\widehat{S}_i^x,$$
(1)
where $`\widehat{\mu }_k^z,\widehat{S}_i^z`$ and $`\widehat{S}_i^x`$ represent the relevant components of standard spin operators and $`J`$ is the exchange integral that specifies the exchange interaction between nearest-neighboring atoms. The last three terms describe the interaction of $`A`$ atoms with an external longitudinal magnetic field $`H_A`$, as well as the interaction of $`B`$ atoms with an external longitudinal ($`H_B`$) and transverse ($`\mathrm{\Omega }`$) magnetic field, respectively. Furthermore, $`N`$ and $`q`$ denote the total number of atoms and the coordination number of the original lattice, respectively. As we have already mentioned, the transverse Ising model in which all the atoms interact with the transverse field is not exactly solvable for two- and three-dimensional lattices. This fact is closely related to the mathematical complexities appearing due to the noncomutability of the spin operators in the relevant Hamiltonian. However, in our recent work  we have succeeded to solve exactly the simplified version of this model (described by the Hamiltonian (1)) in which only the decorating ($`B`$) atoms interact with the transverse field. In this section, we at first briefly repeat the main formulae derived in the Ref.  and then we further extend the formalism for the calculation of several interesting thermodynamic quantities of this model.

Following the same steps as in Ref. , one obtains a simple relation between the partition function of the decorated transverse Ising model $`(𝒵_d)`$ and that of the spin-1/2 Ising model on the original lattice $`(𝒵_0)`$. Namely,

$$𝒵_d(\beta ,J,\mathrm{\Omega },H_A,H_B)=A(\beta ,J,\mathrm{\Omega },H_B)^{Nq/2}𝒵_0(\beta ,R,H),$$
(2)
where $`\beta =1/k_BT`$, $`k_B`$ is Boltzmann constant and $`T`$ is the absolute temperature. The parameters $`A,R`$ and $`H`$ represent so-called decoration-iteration parameters that specify the corresponding original (undecorated) system as well as decorating system. All these parameters can be obtained from the decoration-iteration transformation (see Ref. ) and they are, respectively, given by

$`A`$ $`=`$ $`(V_1V_2V_3^2)^{1/4},`$
$`\beta R`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{V_1V_2}{V_3^2}},`$
$`\beta H`$ $`=`$ $`\beta H_A+{\displaystyle \frac{q}{2}}\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{V_1}{V_2}},`$ (3)
where we have defined the functions $`V_1,V_2`$ and $`V_3`$ as follows:

$`V_1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n=S_B}{\overset{S_B}{}}}\mathrm{cosh}\left(\beta n\sqrt{(J+H_B)^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}\right),`$
$`V_2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n=S_B}{\overset{S_B}{}}}\mathrm{cosh}\left(\beta n\sqrt{(JH_B)^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}\right),`$
$`V_3`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n=S_B}{\overset{S_B}{}}}\mathrm{cosh}\left(\beta n\sqrt{H_B^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}\right).`$ (4)
It is worth noticing that the foregoing equations express the exact mapping relationship between the decorated model under investigation and the spin-$`1/2`$ model on the corresponding original lattice. One should also notice that this transformation is valid for arbitrary values of the decorating spin $`S_B`$ in the presence of the external longitudinal fields. Thus, the relevant thermodynamic quantities can be calculated even for the nonzero longitudinal fields. Unfortunately, after deriving the final equations, we have to set $`H_A=H_B=0`$ since the original planar Ising models are exactly solvable for $`H=0`$ only.

In order to investigate the magnetic properties of the system, we employ the well-known relations from the statistical mechanics and thermodynamics. Indeed, after a simple calculation one derives the following equations for the Gibbs free energy, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy and specific heat:

$$𝒢_d=𝒢_0\frac{Nqk_BT}{2}\mathrm{ln}A,$$
(5)
$$𝒰_d=\left(\frac{2𝒰_0}{R}\frac{Nq}{4}\right)\frac{J^2}{\sqrt{J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}}K_0,$$
(6)
$$H_d=\frac{2𝒰_0}{R}\left(\sqrt{J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}K_0\mathrm{\Omega }K_1\right)\frac{Nq}{4}\left(\sqrt{J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}K_0+\mathrm{\Omega }K_1\right),$$
(7)
$`𝒮_d=𝒮_0`$ $`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{Nqk_B}{2}}\mathrm{ln}A{\displaystyle \frac{Nq}{4T}}\left(\sqrt{J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}K_0+\mathrm{\Omega }K_1\right),`$
$`𝒮_0`$ $`=`$ $`k_B\mathrm{ln}𝒵_0+{\displaystyle \frac{2𝒰_0}{RT}}\left(\sqrt{J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}K_0\mathrm{\Omega }K_1\right),`$ (8)
and

$$𝒞_\mathrm{\Omega }=𝒞_0+\frac{Nq}{4k_BT^2}\left[(J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2)(K_2K_0^2)+\mathrm{\Omega }^2(K_3K_1^2)\right],$$
(9)
where $`𝒢_d`$, $`𝒰_d`$, $`H_d`$, $`𝒮_d`$ and $`𝒞_\mathrm{\Omega }`$ denote, respectively, the Gibbs free energy, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy and specific heat of the decorated lattice. Similarly, $`𝒢_0`$, $`𝒰_0`$, $`𝒮_0`$ and $`𝒞_0`$ ($`𝒞_0=T(𝒮_0/T)_\mathrm{\Omega }`$) represent the relevant quantities of the original lattice that are well-known for two-dimensional systems . Finally, the coefficients $`K_0K_3`$ depend on the temperature and transverse field and they are are given by

$$K_0=F_1(J,\mathrm{\Omega }),K_1=F_1(0,\mathrm{\Omega }),K_2=F_2(J,\mathrm{\Omega }),K_3=F_2(0,\mathrm{\Omega }),$$
(10)
where

$`F_1(x,y)={\displaystyle \frac{{\displaystyle \underset{n=S_B}{\overset{S_B}{}}}n\mathrm{sinh}(\beta n\sqrt{x^2+y^2})}{{\displaystyle \underset{n=S_B}{\overset{S_B}{}}}\mathrm{cosh}(\beta n\sqrt{x^2+y^2})}},`$ (11)
$`F_2(x,y)={\displaystyle \frac{{\displaystyle \underset{n=S_B}{\overset{S_B}{}}}n^2\mathrm{cosh}(\beta n\sqrt{x^2+y^2})}{{\displaystyle \underset{n=S_B}{\overset{S_B}{}}}\mathrm{cosh}(\beta n\sqrt{x^2+y^2})}}.`$ (12)
Next, we turn to the calculation of the magnetization. The spontaneous longitudinal magnetization, as well as transverse one can be directly obtained by the differentiation of the Gibbs free energy (5) with respect to the relevant longitudinal and transverse magnetic fields. Consequently, the spontaneous longitudinal magnetization per spin can be written for both sublattices in the following compact form:

$`m_A^z`$ $`=`$ $`m_0,`$
$`m_B^z`$ $`=`$ $`m_0{\displaystyle \frac{2J}{\sqrt{J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}}}K_0,`$ (13)
where $`m_A^z`$ $`(m_B^z)`$ means the spontaneous longitudinal magnetization of sublattice $`A`$ $`(B)`$ and $`m_0`$ stands for the spontaneous magnetization of the original lattice ($`m_0`$ depends only on the exchange interaction $`R`$ and temperature). Similarly, the same procedure leads to the simple relation for the reduced transverse magnetization of sublattice $`B`$. Namely,

$$m_B^x=\frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{\sqrt{J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}}K_0+K_1\right)+2\epsilon _0\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{\sqrt{J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}}K_0K_1\right).$$
(14)
Here, $`\epsilon _0`$ denotes the two-spin correlation function between nearest-neighboring spins of the original lattice (depending again only on the exchange parameter $`R`$ and temperature). To complete the analysis of the system under investigation, one has to investigate the phase boundaries, as well as a possibility of compensation phenomena in the case of the ferrimagnetic ordering ($`J<0`$). The structure of equations for the spontaneous sublattice magnetization implies that the phase transition temperature $`T_c`$ (or $`\beta _c=1/(k_BT_c)`$) can be directly found from the transformation formula after setting $`H_A=H_B=H=0`$ and substituting the inverse critical temperature $`\beta _cR`$ of the relevant original lattice into (3). In this way one obtains the relation

$$\beta _cR=2\mathrm{ln}\frac{{\displaystyle \underset{n=S_B}{\overset{S_B}{}}}\mathrm{cosh}\left(\beta _cn\sqrt{J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}\right)}{{\displaystyle \underset{n=S_B}{\overset{S_B}{}}}\mathrm{cosh}\left(\beta _cn\mathrm{\Omega }\right)},$$
(15)
which is valid for any planar lattice with the decorating spin $`S_B`$ and for the special case of $`S_B=1/2`$ naturally recovers Eq.(13) in the Ref. .

Moreover, in the case of ferrimagnetic system the compensation temperature $`T_k`$ (or $`\beta _k=1/(k_BT_k)`$) can be found from the condition that the total magnetization $`M`$ of the system vanishes bellow the critical temperature. Since in our case we have $`M=N(m_A+qm_B/2)`$, then from the condition $`M=0`$ one easily finds the following relation for the compensation temperature

$$\frac{q|J|}{\sqrt{J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}}K_0(\beta _k)=1,$$
(16)
where the inverse compensation temperature $`\beta _k`$ is also included in the coefficient $`K_0`$.

Finally, we determine the transverse susceptibility of the decorated transverse Ising system. For this aim, we differentiate the formula (14) for the transverse magnetization with respect to the transverse field and after a straightforward but a little bit tedious algebra, we can write the transverse susceptibility $`\chi _T`$ in the form

$`\chi _T`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{J^2}{(J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2)^{3/2}}}K_0+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta \mathrm{\Omega }^2}{J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}}(K_2K_0^2)+\beta (K_3K_1^2)\right\}`$ (17)
$`+`$ $`2\epsilon _0\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{J^2}{(J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2)^{3/2}}}K_0+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta \mathrm{\Omega }^2}{J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}}(K_2K_0^2)\beta (K_3K_1^2)\right\}`$
$`+`$ $`4{\displaystyle \frac{\epsilon _0}{R}}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{\sqrt{J^2+\mathrm{\Omega }^2}}}K_0K_1\right\}^2.`$
In above, $`\epsilon _0`$ means the two-spin correlation function between nearest-neighboring atoms of the original lattice

## 3 Numerical results

In this section we will illustrate the effect of the transverse field, as well as the influence of the decorating spin $`S_B`$ on magnetic properties of the system under investigation. Moreover, the role of the lattice topology will be also examined. Although we will restrict our numerical calculation to the ferimagnetic case ($`J<0`$) only, the detailed investigation reveals that all dependences (excepting those for the longitudinal magnetization) remain unchanged also for the ferromagnetic version of the model. This observation follows from the fact that the relevant equations are independent under transformation $`JJ`$.

We start our discussion with the analysis of the critical and compensation temperatures. At first, the variations of the critical (dashed lines) and compensation temperatures (solid lines) with the transverse field are shown in Fig. 2. Here, we have selected the system with $`q=4`$ (i.e. the decorated square lattice), taking different spin values of decorating atoms ($`S_B`$). On the other hand, in Fig. 3 we have illustrated the influence of the lattice topology (of different $`q`$) on the critical and compensation temperature for the system with the fixed decorating spin ($`S_B=1`$). In both figures, the ordered ferrimagnetic phase is stable bellow dashed lines, and the disordered paramagnetic one becomes stable above the relevant boundary. A closer mathematical analysis reveals that the phase transition between these two phases is of the second order and belongs to the same universality class as that of the usual spin-1/2 Ising model. As one can see, the qualitative features of the results do not significantly depend neither on the lattice topology nor the spin value of atoms of sublattice $`B`$. In fact, the critical temperature monotonically decreases with increasing in the transverse field, but only in the limit of the infinity strong transverse field tends to zero (due to the fact that the transverse field affects only one sublattice). One also observes here that the value of transition point increases with the coordination number of the original lattice, as well as with the spin value of decorating atoms. Contrary to this behavior, the compensation temperature seems to be independent of the transverse field strength (with the accuracy of twelve orders), although it changes both with the coordination number $`q`$ and the spin value $`S_B`$. In general, on basis of our numerical calculation one can state that for arbitrary but fixed $`q`$ and $`S_B`$ the compensation points appear only for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_k/|J|=\sqrt{q^2S_B^21}`$. It is easy to find that this characteristic value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ can be obtained from the Eq. (16) by taking the limit $`T_k0`$ (or $`\beta _k\mathrm{}`$). Physically, the independence of the compensation temperature on the transverse field comes from the fact that the compensation effects appear at relatively strong transverse fields where the relevant transition temperature is rather low and this fact significantly influences the behavior of sublattice magnetization.

Now, we turn to the discussion of the internal energy and enthalpy. Owing to the fact, that all decorated lattices behave similarly, we will further present numerical results for one representative lattice, namely, the decorated square lattice. In Fig. 4 we have depicted the thermal variations of the internal energy and enthalpy for the spin case $`S_B=1/2`$ ($`N_t`$ denotes a total number of atoms). From these dependences one finds that both quantities tend monotonically to zero with increasing the temperature. Nevertheless, if we compare both dependences, we can conclude that the enthalpy is more sensitive (changes the shape of the curve more rapidly) to the transverse field than the internal energy. It is also clear that the thermal dependences of the internal energy (as well enthalpy) exhibit a typical weak energy-type singularity behaviour irrespective of the strength of transverse field.

Further, we have also examined the temperature and transverse field dependences of the spontaneous longitudinal magnetization. In Figs. 5 and 6 we report some typical results for the total spontaneous longitudinal magnetization, when the value of the transverse field is changed (we choose the magnetization curves at temperatures $`k_BT/J=0.1`$ and $`k_BT/J=0.2`$ and different spin values of decorating atoms from $`1/2`$ until $`2`$). It follows from these dependences that the total magnetization may exhibit two possible shapes of the magnetization curves. Namely, the magnetization curve with one compensation point (at lower temperatures) and the downward magnetization curvature without any compensation points (at higher temperatures). Both types of the magnetization curves are closely related to the fact that the transverse field does not directly act on the atoms of original lattice. Hence, the spontaneous magnetization of sublattice $`A`$ varies very smoothly with the transverse field, whereas the spontaneous magnetization of sublattice $`B`$ is rapidly destroyed with the transverse field increasing. On the other hand, the temperature dependences of the spontaneous magnetization of both sublattices are standard, regardless of the transverse field strength. The only exceptional case arises as the transverse field reaches the value $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ at which the considered system behaves similarly as an ordinary antiferromagnet.

In contrast to the standard temperature variations of the longitudinal magnetization, the transverse magnetization may display very interesting and unexpected thermal behaviour. To illustrate the case, we have depicted in Figs. 7 and 8 some typical temperature dependences of the transverse magnetization. As shown in Fig. 7 for the spin case $`S_B=2`$, the transverse magnetization at relatively small transverse field ($`\mathrm{\Omega }/J=1.5`$) firstly gradually decreases to its local minimum value and then nearby the transition point increases in the narrow temperature region. However, the transverse magnetization by the stronger transverse fields ($`\mathrm{\Omega }/J=2.0`$ and $`3.0`$) remains almost constant and again in the vicinity of the Curie point gradually increases, too. Far beyond the transition temperature, the transverse magnetization monotonically decreases with increasing in temperature, regardless of the transverse field strength. The possible explanation of the temperature-induced increase of the transverse magnetization can be related to the spin release from the spontaneous magnetization direction and spin-ordering towards the transverse field direction. In fact, the stronger the transverse field, the smaller the transition temperature and therefore, by sufficiently strong transverse field the transverse magnetization increases from its initial value, since the thermal reshuffling is relatively small in this temperature region. On the other hand, when the transverse field is smaller, the relevant spin reorientation takes place at higher temperatures, thus the transverse magnetization firstly decreases to its local minimum due to the strong thermal fluctuations in this temperature region. Apparently, also the increase in the transverse magnetization which is connected with the spin reorientation is then smaller, since it is overlapped with the stronger thermal fluctuation. Before proceeding further, we have depicted in Fig. 8 the transverse magnetization against the temperature that illustrate the influence of the different values of spin variable $`S_B`$.

Furthermore, let us now look more closely at the thermal variations of the specific heat For this purpose, we have studied the specific heat of the simplest spin case $`S_B=1/2`$. As one can see from Fig. 9, the logarithmical singularity in the specific heat dependence indicates the second order phase transition towards the paramagnetic state. Moreover, it can be also clearly seen that the broadening of the maximum in the paramagnetic region of the specific heat arises due to the transverse field effect. It turns out that the observed maximum may be thought as a Schottky-type maximum, which has its origin in the thermal excitation of the paramagnetic spins inserted into the transverse field. Next, in order to illustrate the effect of increasing spin $`S_B`$ we have shown in Fig. 10 the thermal dependences of specific heat for several values of the spin variable $`S_B`$. As one can ascertain, the lower the spin value $`S_B`$ of decorating atoms, the stronger the influence of the transverse field on the excitation of these spins in the paramagnetic region. To complete our analysis of the specific heat, we have plotted in Fig. 11 the transverse-field dependences of the specific-heat for $`S_B=1/2`$. As one can expect, the depicted behaviour strongly depends on the temperature and above the critical point, the dependence changes suddenly due to the paramagnetic character of the system.

Moreover, in Fig. 12 we display the transverse susceptibility against the transverse field for the same spin case as in Fig. 11. Here one observes, that for sufficiently high temperature (see the dashed line), the transverse susceptibility falls down monotonically with the increasing transverse field. Contrary to this behavior, for the lower temperature (see the solid line), the transverse susceptibility exhibits the standard singularity due to the second order phase transition from the ferrimagnetic state to the paramagnetic one. For completeness, in the insert of Fig. 12, we compare the variations of the transverse susceptibilities for different spin values of decorating atoms. Apparently, there is no essential difference in the behaviour of the transverse susceptibilities, although it is shifted to higher temperatures, as the spin value of the decorating atom is increased. Finally, in Fig. 13 we have depicted the temperature dependence of transverse susceptibility for some selected values of the transverse field. Here one can see, that for the smaller transverse fields, for instance ($`\mathrm{\Omega }/J=0.5`$), the transverse susceptibility decreases with increasing the temperature, then diverges at $`T_c`$ and repeatedly decreases. However, in the case of the stronger transverse fields ($`\mathrm{\Omega }/J=1.0`$ and $`1.5`$), the transverse susceptibility remains at its initial value, exhibits a divergence at phase transition and afterwards whether gradually decreases (the case $`\mathrm{\Omega }/J=1.0`$) or exhibits a broad maximum (the case $`\mathrm{\Omega }/J=1.5`$). The existence of this broad maximum in the paramagnetic region arises evidently on account of the thermal excitation of the paramagnetic spins inserted into the transverse field and therefore, can be observed for relatively strong transverse fields only.

## 4 Conclusion

In this work we have presented the exact results (the phase diagrams, compensation temperatures, spontaneous longitudinal magnetization, transverse magnetization, internal and free energy, enthalpy, entropy, specific heat and transverse susceptibility) for the ferrimagnetic transverse Ising model on decorated planar lattices. We have illustrated that the magnetic properties of the system under investigation exhibit the characteristic behaviour depending on the strength of the applied transverse field and the spin of the decorating atoms. In particular, we have found that the considered ferrimagnetic system does not exhibit more than one compensation temperature that is surprisingly completely independent of the transverse field, though it depends on the coordination number of the original lattice and also on the spin of the decorating atoms. As far as we know, such a finding has not been reported in the literature before. Perhaps, the most interesting result to emerge here is the temperature-induced increase of the transverse magnetization in the vicinity of the transition temperature. We have found a strong evidence that this increase arises due to the spin release from the spontaneous magnetization direction, since in the vicinity of the transition temperature spins tending to align into the transverse field direction.

Finally, we would like to emphasize that the presented method can by applied to more complex and realistic models, for example, the transverse Ising models with a crystal field anisotropy, or those with next-nearest-neighbor and multispin interactions. Further generalizations are possible by increasing the spin of atoms on the sublattice $`A`$ or introducing more realistic Heisenberg interactions. In addition to the above mentioned generalizations, one can also obtain very accurate results for this model on three-dimensional lattice. This can be done by combining the present method with other accurate methods, such as series expansion technique, Monte Carlo simulations or renormalization group methods.

Acknowledgement: This work has been supported by the Ministry of Education of Slovak Republic under VEGA grant No. 1/9034/02.

Figure captions

* Part of the decorated square lattice. The black circles denote the spin-1/2 atoms of sublattice $`A`$ (referred to as the atoms of original lattice) and gray circles represent the spin-$`S_B`$ atoms of sublattice $`B`$ (decorating atoms).
* Phase boundaries (dashed lines) and the compensation temperatures (solid lines) in the $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ \- $`T`$ plane for the decorated square lattice ($`q=4`$) and different spin values of the decorating atoms.
* Critical (dashed lines) and compensation (solid lines) temperatures as a function of the transverse field for various decorated planar lattices with the fixed decorating spin $`S_B=1`$.
* Thermal variations of the internal energy (dashed lines) and enthalpy (solid lines) when the transverse field is changed.
* Total longitudinal magnetization per one site versus transverse field for $`k_BT/|J|=0.1`$ and different spins of decorating atoms.
* Total longitudinal magnetization versus transverse field for $`k_BT/|J|=0.2`$ and different spins of decorating atoms.
* Transverse magnetization as a function of temperature for $`S_B=2`$ and different transverse fields.
* Thermal dependences of the transverse magnetization for several spin values of decorating atoms, when the transverse field is fixed ($`\mathrm{\Omega }/|J|=0.5`$).
* Specific-heat variations with the temperature for selected values of the transverse field.
* Thermal variations of the specific heat for different spin cases of decorating atoms and the fixed transverse field value ($`\mathrm{\Omega }/|J|=1.5`$).
* Specific heat dependence on the transverse field when the temperature is changed.
* Transverse susceptibility against the transverse field for selected temperatures. In the insert, the comparison between different spin cases is shown.
* Transverse susceptibility dependence on the temperature for the spin $`S_B=2`$, when the transverse field is changed.


text:
# The Massive Wolf-Rayet Binary HDE 318016 (=WR 98)

## 1. Introduction and Observations

HDE 318016 =WR 98 is one of the few stars with Wolf-Rayet spectrum showing both N and C emission lines. This star was found to be a single-lined binary with a period of 47.8 days with N and C emission lines moving in phase (Niemela 1991). Relevant parameters of WR 98 can be found in the recent VIIth Catalogue of galactic WR stars (van der Hucht 2001).

Here we present the results of a detailed radial velocity analysis of optical spectral lines of WR 98 showing it to be a double-lined binary.

We have obtained a total of 69 blue optical spectrograms of WR 98 at two different Observatories, namely CTIO in Chile (1980-84) and CASLEO (1997–2001) in Argentina. The observations at CTIO were performed with the Cassegrain IT spectrograph on the 1m Yale telescope, using photographic plates with fine grain emulsion as detector. The observations at CASLEO where obtained with the Cassegrain spectrographs with CCD detectors attached to the 2.15m telescope. (CASLEO is operated under agreement between CONICET, SeCyT, and the Universities of La Plata, Córdoba and San Juan, Argentina.)

The photographic observations were digitized with a Grant engine at La Plata. The digital data were processed and measured with IRAF routines.

## 2. Results

Our radial velocity analysis of the optical spectral lines of WR 98 using a long term database, confirms that this star is a binary system in a circular orbit with a period of 47.825 days. Figure 1 depicts the radial velocity variations of the spectral lines in this period. N and C emission lines in the spectrum move in phase, indicating that they are formed in the same stellar envelope (See Fig. 1).

We have also detected absorption lines upon the emissions. These absorptions correspond to a late O-type spectrum, and they move anti-phased with respect to the emission lines (see Fig. 1). Thus WR 98 is a double-lined spectroscopic binary. Orbital elements are listed in Table 1. Radial velocity variations of absorption and emission lines indicate that the mass of the WR component is similar or higher than that of the OB component (See Table 1).

## References

van der Hucht, K. A. 2001, New Astronomy Reviews, 45, 135

Niemela, V. S. 1991, in K. A. van der Hucht & B. Hidayat (eds.), Wolf-Rayet Stars and Interrelations with Other Massive Stars in Galaxies, Proc. IAU Symp. 143, 201