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# Simple proofs of classical explicit reciprocity laws on curves using determinant groupoids over an artinian local ring

## 1. Introduction

In 1968 J. Tate  gave a definition of the residues of differentials on a curve in terms of traces of certain linear operators on infinite-dimensional vector spaces. Further, Tate deduced the residue theorem (“sum-of-residues-equals-zero”) on a nonsingular complete curve $`X`$ from the finite-dimensionality of the cohomology groups $`H^0(X,𝒪_X)`$ and $`H^1(X,𝒪_X)`$. This work of Tate has been enormously influential.

In 1989 E. Arbarello, C. De Concini and V. G. Kac  interpreted the tame symbol at a point of a complete nonsingular algebraic curve $`X`$ over an algebraically closed field as a commutator in a certain central extension of groups and then, in the style of Tate, deduced a reciprocity law on $`X`$ for the tame symbol (“Weil reciprocity”) from the finite-dimensionality of $`H^0(X,𝒪_X)`$ and $`H^1(X,𝒪_X)`$. Recently the second-named author of this paper has provided an interpretation  of the central extension of  in terms of determinants associated to infinite-dimensional vector subspaces valid for curves over a perfect field. The logical organization of this paper to a significant extent parallels that of .

In 1994 C. Contou-Carrère  defined a natural transformation greatly generalizing the tame symbol. In the case of an artinian local base ring $`k`$ with maximal ideal $`m`$, the natural transformation takes the following form. Let $`f,gk((t))^\times `$ be given, where $`t`$ is a variable. (Here and below $`A^\times `$ denotes the multiplicative group of a ring $`A`$ with unit.) It is possible in exactly one way to write

$`f`$ $`=a_0t^{w(f)}{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}(1a_it^i){\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}(1a_it^i)`$
$`g`$ $`=b_0t^{w(g)}{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}(1b_it^i){\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}(1b_it^i)`$
with $`w(f),w(g)`$, $`a_i,b_ik`$ for $`i>0`$, $`a_0,b_0k^\times `$, $`a_i,b_im`$ for $`i>0`$, and $`a_i=b_i=0`$ for $`i0`$. By definition the value of the Contou-Carrère symbol is

$$f,g:=(1)^{w(f)w(g)}\frac{a_0^{w(g)}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}\left(1a_i^{j/(i,j)}b_j^{i/(i,j)}\right)^{(i,j)}}{b_0^{w(f)}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}\left(1a_i^{j/(i,j)}b_j^{i/(i,j)}\right)^{(i,j)}}k^\times .$$

The definition makes sense because only finitely many of the terms appearing in the infinite products differ from 1. The symbol $`,`$ is clearly antisymmetric and, although it is not immediately obvious from the definition, also bimultiplicative.

If $`k`$ is a field, and hence $`m=0`$, then the infinite products go away and the Contou-Carrère symbol reduces to the tame symbol. If $`k=k_0[ϵ]/(ϵ^3)`$, where $`k_0`$ is a field, then

$$1ϵf,1ϵg1ϵ^2\mathrm{Res}_{t=0}(gdf)modϵ^3$$

for all $`f,gk_0((t))`$, and so the Contou-Carrère symbol also contains the residue as a special case. If $`k`$ is a $``$-algebra and $`f1+m((t))`$, then

$$f,g=\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{Res}_{t=0}\mathrm{log}fd\mathrm{log}g).$$

This last formula renders the bimultiplicativity of the Contou-Carrère symbol at least plausible and motivates the definition.

The main aims of this paper are (i) to interpret the Contou-Carrère symbol $`f,g`$—up to signs—as a commutator of liftings of $`f`$ and $`g`$ to a certain central extension of a group containing $`k((t))^\times `$ (see Thm. 3.4.3) and then (ii) to exploit the commutator interpretation to prove in the style of Tate a reciprocity law for the Contou-Carrère symbol on a nonsingular complete curve defined over an algebraically closed field (see Thm. 4.2.1). The commutator interpretation of the Contou-Carrère symbol provided here formally resembles the commutator formula \[7, Prop. 3.6\] stated in Segal-Wilson.

In more detail, the general reciprocity law proved here takes the following form. Let $`F`$ be an algebraically closed field. Let $`X/F`$ be a complete nonsingular curve. Let $`S`$ be a finite nonempty set of (closed) points of $`X`$. For any ring or group $`A`$, put $`A^S:=\{(a_s)_{sS}|a_sA\}`$. By choosing uniformizers at each point belonging to $`S`$, identify $`R_0:=H^0(XS,𝒪_X)`$ with an $`F`$-subalgebra of $`F((t))^S`$. Further, suppose now that the artinian local ring $`k`$ considered above is a finite $`F`$-algebra. Put $`R:=R_0_Fk`$ and make the evident identification of $`R^\times `$ with a subgroup of $`k((t))^{\times S}`$. We prove that

$$\underset{sS}{}f_s,g_s=1$$

for all $`f,gR^\times `$. With $`k=F`$ we get back Weil reciprocity. With $`k=F[ϵ]/(ϵ^3)`$ we get back sum-of-residues-equals-zero. With $`F`$ of characteristic $`p>0`$ and $`k=F[ϵ]/(ϵ^{p^{n1}+1})`$, we get back an explicit reciprocity law due to Witt .

The general reciprocity law proved here seems in principle to be known in the mathematical physics world, albeit no reference convenient for a number theorist can be cited. We claim novelty only for the simplicity and directness of our approach to the reciprocity law. We hope to popularize the reciprocity law among number theorists, and expect it to have many applications.

The backdrop for our constructions is provided by the theory of determinant groupoids over $`k`$. The notion of determinant groupoid is a natural outgrowth of the theory of the Sato Grassmannian and hence is quite familiar in mathematical physics. But inconveniently, in its native habitat, this notion is packaged with a lot of extra structure unneeded for studying reciprocity laws. We sketch here a “minimalist” version of the theory just adequate for the purposes we have in mind. We have taken pains to make the theory concrete and easy to apply, and also suitable for study by beginning graduate students in number theory and algebraic geometry. The theory very likely has applications beyond those discussed in this paper. We hope that our approach can be generalized to yield an “integrated version” of Beilinson’s multi-dimensional generalization  of Tate’s theory.

## 2. Determinant groupoids over an artinian local ring

We fix an artinian local ring $`k`$ throughout the paper. We denote the maximal ideal of $`k`$ by $`m`$ and the multiplicative group of $`k`$ by $`k^\times `$. Given a free $`k`$-module $`V`$ of finite rank, we denote the rank of $`V`$ over $`k`$ by $`\mathrm{rk}V`$ and the maximal exterior power of $`V`$ over $`k`$ by $`detV`$.

### 2.1. Background on $`k`$-modules

###### Lemma 2.1.1.

A $`k`$-module $`V`$ is flat if and only if for all integers $`r>0`$, row vectors $`x\mathrm{Mat}_{1\times r}(k)`$ and column vectors $`v\mathrm{Mat}_{r\times 1}(V)`$ such that $`xv=0`$, there exists an integer $`s>0`$, a matrix $`y\mathrm{Mat}_{r\times s}(k)`$, and a column vector $`w\mathrm{Mat}_{s\times 1}(V)`$ such that $`v=yw`$ and $`xy=0`$.

###### Proof.

This is a standard flatness criterion holding over any commutative ring with unit. See \[5, (3.A), Thm. 1, part 6, pp. 17-18\]. ∎

###### Lemma 2.1.2.

A family $`\{v_i\}_{iI}`$ of elements of a $`k`$-module $`V`$ generates $`V`$ over $`k`$ if and only if the family $`\{v_imodmV\}_{iI}`$ generates $`V/mV`$ over $`k/m`$. (This is a version of Nakayama’s Lemma. Note that $`V`$ need not be finitely generated over $`k`$.)

###### Proof.

($``$) Trivial. ($``$) Let $`V^{}`$ be the $`k`$-span of $`\{v_i\}_{iI}`$. We have

$$V=V^{}+mV=V^{}+m^2V=\mathrm{}=V^{}$$

because the ideal $`m`$ is nilpotent. ∎

###### Lemma 2.1.3.

A family $`\{v_i\}_{iI}`$ of elements of a flat $`k`$-module $`V`$ is $`k`$-linearly independent if and only if the family $`\{v_imodmV\}_{iI}`$ of elements of $`V/mV`$ is $`(k/m)`$-linearly independent.

###### Proof.

We may assume that $`I=\{1,\mathrm{},r\}`$. For convenience assemble the vectors $`v_i`$ into a column vector $`v\mathrm{Mat}_{r\times 1}(k)`$. ($``$) Suppose that there exists $`x\mathrm{Mat}_{1\times r}(k)`$ such that $`x0modm`$ but $`xv0modmV`$. Let $`T`$ be a minimal ideal of $`k`$ and select $`0tT`$. Then $`tm=0`$, hence $`txv=0`$ but $`tx0`$, a contradiction. (Flatness of $`V`$ was not needed to prove this implication.) ($``$) Suppose there exists $`x\mathrm{Mat}_{1\times r}(k)`$ such that $`xv=0`$. By Lemma 2.1.1 there exists an integer $`s>0`$, a matrix $`y\mathrm{Mat}_{r\times s}(k)`$ and a column vector $`w\mathrm{Mat}_{s\times 1}(k)`$ such that $`v=yw`$ and $`xy=0`$. By hypothesis the matrix $`ymodm\mathrm{Mat}_{r\times s}(k/m)`$ must be of maximal rank. Therefore some maximal square submatrix of $`y`$ is invertible and hence $`x=0`$. (This argument comes from the proof of \[5, (3.G), Proposition, p. 21\].) ∎

###### Proposition 2.1.4.

(i) A $`k`$-module is free if and only if projective if and only if flat. (ii) If two of the $`k`$-modules in a short exact sequence of such are free, then so is the third. (iii) The $`k`$-linear dual of a free $`k`$-module is again free. (We frequently apply this proposition below but rarely cite it explicitly.)

###### Proof.

(i) It is necessary only to prove that flatness implies freeness, and for this purpose Lemmas 2.1.2 and 2.1.3 clearly suffice. (ii) Let

$$0UVW0$$

be a short exact sequence of $`k`$-modules. If $`U`$ and $`W`$ are free, then $`V`$ is clearly free. If $`V`$ and $`W`$ are free then $`U`$ is a direct summand of $`V`$, hence $`U`$ is projective and hence $`U`$ is free. If $`U`$ and $`V`$ are free, then any $`k`$-basis $`\{u_i\}`$ of $`U`$ remains $`(k/m)`$-linearly independent in $`V/mV`$ by Lemma 2.1.3, hence there exists a family of elements $`\{v_j\}`$ of $`V`$ such that $`\{u_imodmV\}\{v_jmodmV\}`$ is a $`(k/m)`$-basis of $`V/mV`$, hence $`\{u_i\}\{v_j\}`$ is a $`k`$-basis of $`V`$ by Lemmas 2.1.2 and 2.1.3, and hence $`\{v_j\}`$ projects to a $`k`$-basis for $`W`$. (iii) This can be proved by straightforwardly applying Lemma 2.1.1 to verify flatness. We omit the details. ∎

###### Lemma 2.1.5.

Let $`V`$ be a free $`k`$-module and let $`M`$ be a finitely generated $`k`$-module. For every $`k`$-linear map $`f:VM`$ there exists a $`k`$-submodule $`V^{}V`$ such that the quotient $`k`$-module $`V/V^{}`$ is free of finite rank and $`V^{}\mathrm{ker}f`$.

###### Proof.

By induction on the length of $`M`$ as a $`k`$-module, we may assume that $`M=k/m`$ and $`f0`$. Since $`V`$ is free, $`f`$ is the reduction modulo $`m`$ of a surjective $`k`$-linear functional $`\stackrel{~}{f}:Vk`$. Put $`V^{}:=\mathrm{ker}\stackrel{~}{f}`$. Then $`V^{}`$ has the desired properties. ∎

###### Proposition 2.1.6.

Let $`V`$ be a free $`k`$-module. Let $`A,BV`$ be free $`k`$-submodules. The quotient $`(A+B)/(AB)`$ is finitely generated if and only if there exists a free $`k`$-submodule $`PAB`$ such that the quotient $`k`$-modules $`A/P`$ and $`B/P`$ are free of finite rank. (We frequently apply this proposition below but rarely cite it explicitly.)

###### Proof.

($``$) By Lemma 2.1.5 applied to the natural map $`BB/(AB)`$ there exists a $`k`$-submodule $`PAB`$ such that the quotient $`k`$-module $`B/P`$ is free of finite rank. It is then easily verified that $`P`$ has all the desired properties. ($``$) Trivial. ∎

### 2.2. Commensurability and related notions

#### 2.2.1. Commensurability

Let $`V`$ be a free $`k`$-module. Given free $`k`$-submodules $`A,BV`$ we write $`AB`$ and say that $`A`$ and $`B`$ are commensurable if the quotient $`\frac{A+B}{AB}`$ is finitely generated over $`k`$. It is easily verified that commensurability is an equivalence relation.

#### 2.2.2. Relative rank

Let $`V`$ be a free $`k`$-module. Let $`A,BV`$ be free $`k`$-submodules such that $`AB`$. Put

$$\mathrm{Rk}^V(A,B):=\mathrm{rk}A/P\mathrm{rk}B/P$$

where $`PAB`$ is any free $`k`$-submodule such that $`A/P`$ and $`B/P`$ are free of finite rank, thereby defining the relative rank of $`A`$ and $`B`$. It is easily verified that $`\mathrm{Rk}^V(A,B)`$ is independent of the choice of $`P`$ and hence well-defined. It follows that

$$\mathrm{Rk}^V(A,C)=\mathrm{Rk}^V(A,B)+\mathrm{Rk}^V(B,C)$$

for all free $`k`$-submodules $`A,B,CV`$ such that $`ABC`$.

#### 2.2.3. The restricted general linear group

Given a free $`k`$-module $`V`$ and a free $`k`$-submodule $`V_+V`$, let $`G_{V_+}^V`$ denote the set of $`k`$-linear automorphisms $`\sigma `$ of $`V`$ such that $`V_+\sigma V_+`$. It is easily verified that $`G_{V_+}^V`$ is a subgroup of the group of $`k`$-linear automorphisms of $`V`$ depending only on the commensurability class of $`V_+`$. We call $`G_{V_+}^V`$ the restricted general linear group associated to $`V`$ and $`V_+`$.

#### 2.2.4. The index

Let $`V`$ be a free $`k`$-module and let $`V_+V`$ be a free $`k`$-submodule. Given $`\sigma G_{V_+}^V`$, put

$$\mathrm{ind}_{V_+}^V\sigma :=\mathrm{Rk}(V_+,\sigma V_+),$$

thereby defining the index of $`\sigma `$. It is easily verified that $`\mathrm{ind}_{V_+}^V\sigma `$ depends only on the commensurability class of $`V_+`$. It follows that the function

$$\mathrm{ind}_{V_+}^V:G_{V_+}^V$$

is a group homomorphism.

###### Lemma 2.2.5.

Let $`V`$ be a free $`k`$-module equipped with a direct sum decomposition $`V=V_+V_{}`$. For all $`\sigma G_V_{}^VG_{V_+}^V`$ we have $`\mathrm{ind}_{V_+}^V\sigma +\mathrm{ind}_V_{}^V\sigma =0`$.

###### Proof.

We have

$$\begin{array}{cc}& \mathrm{ind}_{V_+}^V\sigma +\mathrm{ind}_V_{}^V\sigma \hfill \\ =& \mathrm{rk}V_+/P_+\mathrm{rk}\sigma V_+/P_++\mathrm{rk}V_{}/P_{}\mathrm{rk}\sigma V_{}/P_{}\hfill \\ =& \mathrm{rk}(V_++V_{})/(P_++P_{})\mathrm{rk}(\sigma V_++\sigma V_{})/(P_++P_{})\hfill \\ =& \mathrm{rk}V/(P_++P_{})\mathrm{rk}V/(P_++P_{})=0\hfill \end{array}$$

for any free $`k`$-submodules $`P_\pm V_\pm \sigma V_\pm `$ such that $`V_\pm /P_\pm `$ and $`\sigma V_\pm /P_\pm `$ are free of finite rank. ∎

### 2.3. The construction $`\mathrm{Det}^V(A,B;P)`$.

Fix a free $`k`$-module $`V`$.

#### 2.3.1. Definition

Given commensurable free $`k`$-submodules $`A,BV`$ and a free $`k`$-submodule $`PAB`$ such that the quotient $`k`$-modules $`A/P`$ and $`B/P`$ are free of finite rank, put

$$\mathrm{Det}^V(A,B;P):=\left\{k\text{-linear isomorphisms }det(A/P)\stackrel{}{}det(B/P)\right\}.$$

Note that we have at our disposal an operation of scalar multiplication

$$((x,\alpha )x\alpha ):k^\times \times \mathrm{Det}^V(A,B;P)\mathrm{Det}^V(A,B;P)$$

with respect to which $`\mathrm{Det}^V(A,B;P)`$ becomes a $`k^\times `$-torsor.

#### 2.3.2. The composition law

Given free $`k`$-submodules $`A,B,CV`$ belonging to the same commensurability class and a free $`k`$-submodule $`PABC`$ such that the $`k`$-modules $`A/P`$, $`B/P`$ and $`C/P`$ are free of finite rank, we have a composition law

$$((\alpha ,\beta )\beta \alpha ):\mathrm{Det}^V(A,B;P)\times \mathrm{Det}^V(B,C;P)\mathrm{Det}^V(A,C;P)$$

at our disposal. The composition law is compatible with scalar multiplication in the sense that

$$x(\beta \alpha )=(x\beta )\alpha =\beta (x\alpha ).$$

Clearly the composition law is associative.

#### 2.3.3. The cancellation rule

Given commensurable free $`k`$-submodules $`A,BV`$ and free $`k`$-submodules $`QPAB`$ such that the quotient $`k`$-modules $`A/Q`$ and $`B/Q`$ are free of finite rank, we have at our disposal a canonical isomorphism

$$\left(\left(p_{\mathrm{}}\right)\left(\stackrel{~}{a}_i\right)\left(p_{\mathrm{}}\right)\left(\stackrel{~}{b}_j\right)\right)\left(\left(a_i\right)\left(b_j\right)\right):$$

$$\mathrm{Det}^V(A,B;Q)\stackrel{}{}\mathrm{Det}^V(A,B;P)$$

where $`\{a_i\}`$, $`\{b_j\}`$ and $`\{p_{\mathrm{}}\}`$ are any ordered $`k`$-bases for $`A/P`$, $`B/P`$ and $`P/Q`$, respectively, and $`\{\stackrel{~}{a}_i\}`$ and $`\{\stackrel{~}{b}_j\}`$ are liftings to $`A/Q`$ and $`B/Q`$, respectively, of $`\{a_i\}`$ and $`\{b_j\}`$, respectively. We refer to this isomorphism as the cancellation rule. It is easily verified that the cancellation rule commutes with the composition law and with scalar multiplication.

#### 2.3.4. Inverse system structure

Let $`V`$ be a free $`k`$-module and let $`A,BV`$ be commensurable free $`k`$-submodules. Consider the family $`𝒫`$ of free $`k`$-submodules $`PAB`$ such that $`A/P`$ and $`B/P`$ are free of finite rank. Partially order the family $`𝒫`$ by reverse inclusion. Then $`𝒫`$ is a directed set and it is easily verified that the cancellation rule gives the family of sets $`\mathrm{Det}^V(A,B;P)`$ indexed by $`P𝒫`$ the structure of inverse system.

### 2.4. The connected groupoid $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V`$

Fix a free $`k`$-module $`V`$ and a free $`k`$-submodule $`V_+V`$.

#### 2.4.1. Definition

For all free $`k`$-submodules $`A,BV`$ belonging to the commensurability class of $`V_+`$ put

$$\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(A,B):=\underset{}{lim}\mathrm{Det}^V(A,B;P),$$

the limit extended over the inverse system defined in §2.3.4. Since scalar multiplication commutes with the cancellation rule, we have at our disposal an operation of scalar multiplication

$$\left((x,\alpha )x\alpha \right):k^\times \times \mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(A,B)\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(A,B)$$

endowing the set $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(A,B)`$ with the structure of $`k^\times `$-torsor.

#### 2.4.2. The composition law

Since the cancellation rule and the composition law commute, we obtain in the limit a composition law

$$((\alpha ,\beta )\beta \alpha ):\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(A,B)\times \mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(B,C)\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(A,C)$$

for all free $`k`$-submodules $`A,B,CV`$ belonging to the same commensurability class. The composition law is associative and moreover is compatible with scalar multiplication in the evident sense.

#### 2.4.3. Definition of $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V`$

The rule sending each pair $`A,BV`$ of free $`k`$-submodules commensurable to $`V_+`$ to the set $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(A,B)`$ makes the commensurability class of $`V_+`$ into a category. We denote this category by $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V`$. It is easily verified that every morphism in $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V`$ is an isomorphism and that all the objects of $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V`$ are isomorphic. Thus $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V`$ is a connected groupoid. Note that $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V`$ depends only on the commensurability class of $`V_+`$.

#### 2.4.4. Abstract nonsense

Fix $`\sigma G_{V_+}^V`$ and let $`\sigma _{}`$ be the functor from $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V`$ to itself induced in evident fashion by $`\sigma `$. A natural transformation $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ from the identity functor of $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V`$ to $`\sigma _{}`$ is a rule associating to each object $`A`$ of $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V`$ a morphism $`\mathrm{\Phi }(A)\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(A,\gamma A)`$ such that for any two objects $`A`$ and $`B`$ of $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V`$ the diagram

$$\begin{array}{ccccc}& A& \stackrel{\mathrm{\Phi }(A)}{}& \gamma A& \\ \hfill \alpha & & & & \gamma _{}\alpha \hfill \\ & B& \stackrel{\mathrm{\Phi }(B)}{}& \gamma B& \end{array}$$

commutes for all $`\alpha \mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(A,B)`$. It is easily verified that the natural transformations from the identity functor of $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V`$ to $`\sigma _{}`$ are in bijective correspondence with $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(V_+,\gamma V_+)`$ via the map $`\mathrm{\Phi }\mathrm{\Phi }(V_+)`$.

#### 2.4.5. The central extension $`\stackrel{~}{G}_{V_+}^V`$

We define $`\stackrel{~}{G}_{V_+}^V`$ to be the set consisting of pairs $`(\sigma ,\mathrm{\Phi })`$ where $`\sigma G_{V_+}^V`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is a natural transformation from the identity functor of $`\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V`$ to $`\sigma _{}`$. We compose elements of $`\stackrel{~}{G}_{V_+}^V`$ by the rule

$$(\sigma _1,\mathrm{\Phi }_1)(\sigma _2,\mathrm{\Phi }_2):=(\sigma _1\sigma _2,A(\sigma _1(\mathrm{\Phi }_2(A)))\mathrm{\Phi }_1(A)).$$

It is easily verified that this composition law is a group law. The group $`\stackrel{~}{G}_{V_+}^V`$ thus defined depends only on the commensurability class of $`V_+`$. The group $`\stackrel{~}{G}_{V_+}^V`$ fits into a canonical exact sequence

$$1k^\times \stackrel{x(1,Ax1_A)}{}\stackrel{~}{G}_{V_+}^V\stackrel{(\sigma ,\mathrm{\Phi })\sigma }{}G_{V_+}^V1,$$

where $`1_A\mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(A,A)`$ denotes the identity map. The exact sequence identifies $`k^\times `$ with a subgroup of the center of $`\stackrel{~}{G}_{V_+}^V`$.

#### 2.4.6. Remark

When $`k`$ is a field, the central extension of the restricted general linear group $`G_{V_+}^V`$ constructed here has cohomology class in $`H^2(G_{V_+}^V,k^\times )`$ equal to the cohomology class associated to the central extension studied in the paper  and equal to the opposite of the cohomology class associated to the central extension studied in . So what we study here should be regarded as the deformation theory of the central extensions of  and .

## 3. Study of the symbol $`\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V`$

### 3.1. Definition and basic properties of the symbol

Fix a free $`k`$-module $`V`$ and free $`k`$-submodule $`V_+V`$.

#### 3.1.1. Definition

Given commuting elements $`\sigma ,\tau G_{V_+}^V`$, put

$$\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V:=\stackrel{~}{\sigma }\stackrel{~}{\tau }\stackrel{~}{\sigma }^1\stackrel{~}{\tau }^1\mathrm{ker}\left(\stackrel{~}{G}_{V_+}^VG_{V_+}^V\right)=k^\times $$

where $`\stackrel{~}{\sigma },\stackrel{~}{\tau }\stackrel{~}{G}_{V_+}^V`$ are any liftings of $`\sigma `$ and $`\tau `$, respectively. It is easily verified that $`\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V`$ is independent of the choice of liftings and hence well-defined. By the definitions we have

$$(\sigma _{}\beta )\alpha =\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V((\tau _{}\alpha )\beta )$$

for all $`\alpha \mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(V_+,\sigma V_+)`$ and $`\beta \mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(V_+,\tau V_+)`$. The latter formula is the one we rely upon in practice to calculate $`\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V`$.

###### Lemma 3.1.2.

Let $`G`$ be a group. Write $`[x,y]:=xyx^1y^1`$ for all $`x,yG`$. Now let $`\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma G`$ be given. Assume that $`[\beta ,\gamma ]`$ is central in $`G`$. Then we have $`[\alpha ,\gamma ][\beta ,\gamma ]=[\alpha \beta ,\gamma ]`$.

###### Proof.

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill [\alpha ,\gamma ][\beta ,\gamma ][\alpha \beta ,\gamma ]^1& =& \alpha \gamma \alpha ^1\gamma ^1[\beta ,\gamma ]\gamma \alpha \beta \gamma ^1\beta ^1\alpha ^1\hfill \\ & =& \alpha \gamma [\beta ,\gamma ]\beta \gamma ^1\beta ^1\alpha ^1\hfill \\ & =& \alpha [\beta ,\gamma ][\beta ,\gamma ]^1\alpha ^1=1.\hfill \end{array}$$

#### 3.1.3. Basic properties

Fix elements $`\sigma ,\sigma ^{},\tau ,\tau ^{}G_{V_+}^V`$ such that the $`\sigma `$’s commute with the $`\tau `$’s. (But we need assume neither that $`\sigma \sigma ^{}=\sigma ^{}\sigma `$ nor that $`\tau \tau ^{}=\tau ^{}\tau `$.) The following relations hold:

* $`\{\sigma ,\sigma \}_{V_+}^V=1`$.
* $`\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V=\left(\{\tau ,\sigma \}_{V_+}^V\right)^1`$.
* $`\{\sigma \sigma ^{},\tau \}_{V_+}^V=\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V\{\sigma ^{},\tau \}_{V_+}^V`$.
* $`\{\sigma ,\tau \tau ^{}\}_{V_+}^V=\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V\{\sigma ,\tau ^{}\}_{V_+}^V`$.
* $`\sigma V_+=V_+=\tau V_+\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V=1`$.
* If $`V_+=\{0\}`$ or $`V_+=V`$, then $`\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V=1`$.
* $`\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V`$ depends only on the commensurability class of $`V_+`$.

For the most part these facts are straightforwardly deduced from the definitions. Only the proof of bimultiplicativity offers any difficulty and the essential point of that proof is contained in the preceding lemma.

### 3.2. The four square identity

Fix a free $`k`$-module $`V`$, a free $`k`$-submodule $`V_+V`$ and commuting elements $`\sigma ,\tau G_{V_+}^V`$. We work out an explicit formula for the symbol $`\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V`$ in terms of determinants.

#### 3.2.1. Choices

Let

$$PV_+\sigma V_+,QV_+\tau V_+$$

be free $`k`$-submodules such that the quotient $`k`$-modules

$$V_+/P,\sigma V_+/P,V_+/Q,\tau V_+/Q$$

are free of finite rank. Let

$$RPQ\tau P\sigma Q$$

be a free $`k`$-submodule such that the quotient $`k`$-modules

$$P/R,Q/R,\tau P/R,\sigma Q/R$$

are free of finite rank. Fix finite sequences

$$\{a_i\},\mathrm{},\{h_i\}$$

in $`V`$ (not necessarily all of the same length) such that the corresponding finite sequences

$$\begin{array}{c}\{a_imodP\},\hfill \\ \{b_imodP\},\hfill \\ \{c_imodQ\},\hfill \\ \{d_imodQ\},\hfill \\ \{e_imodR\},\hfill \\ \{f_imodR\},\hfill \\ \{g_imodR\},\hfill \\ \{h_imodR\},\hfill \end{array}\}\text{are }k\text{-bases of}\{\begin{array}{c}V_+/P,\hfill \\ \sigma V_+/P,\hfill \\ V_+/Q,\hfill \\ \tau _+V/Q,\hfill \\ P/R,\hfill \\ Q/R,\hfill \\ \tau P/R,\hfill \\ \sigma Q/R,\hfill \end{array}$$

respectively. Fix morphisms

$$\alpha \mathrm{Det}_{V+}^V(V_+,\sigma V_+),\beta \mathrm{Det}_{V_+}^V(V_+,\tau V_+).$$

#### 3.2.2. Construction of representations of the morphisms $`\alpha `$, $`\beta `$

Since our purpose is to calculate $`\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V`$ by means of the last formula of §3.1.1, we may simply assume that $`\alpha `$ is represented by

$$\left((a_imodP)(b_imodP)\right)\mathrm{Hom}_k(det(V_+/P),det(\sigma V_+/P))$$

and that $`\beta `$ is represented by

$$\left((c_imodQ)(d_imodQ)\right)\mathrm{Hom}_k(det(V_+/Q),det(\tau V_+/Q)).$$

By the cancellation rule $`\alpha `$ is also represented by

$$\left(\left(\overline{e}_i\right)\left(\overline{a}_i\right)\left(\overline{e}_i\right)\left(\overline{b}_i\right)\right)\mathrm{Hom}_k(det(V_+/R),det(\sigma V_+/R))$$

and $`\beta `$ is also represented by

$$\left(\left(\overline{f}_i\right)\left(\overline{c}_i\right)\left(\overline{f}_i\right)\left(\overline{d}_i\right)\right)\mathrm{Hom}_k(det(V_+/R),det(\tau V_+/R)),$$

where here and below $`v\overline{v}`$ denotes reduction modulo $`R`$.

#### 3.2.3. Construction of representations of the morphisms $`\tau _{}\alpha `$ and $`\sigma _{}\beta `$

By definition $`\tau _{}\alpha `$ is represented by

$$\begin{array}{c}\left((\tau a_imod\tau P)(\tau b_imod\tau P)\right)\hfill \\ \\ \mathrm{Hom}_k(det(\tau V_+/\tau P),det(\tau \sigma V_+/\tau P))\hfill \end{array}$$

and $`\sigma _{}\beta `$ is represented by

$$\begin{array}{c}\left((\sigma c_imod\sigma Q)(\sigma d_imod\sigma Q)\right)\hfill \\ \\ \mathrm{Hom}_k(det(\sigma V_+/\sigma Q),det(\sigma \tau V_+/\sigma Q)).\hfill \end{array}$$

By the cancellation rule, $`\tau _{}\alpha `$ is also represented by

$$\begin{array}{c}\left(\left(\overline{g}_i\right)\left(\overline{\tau a}_i\right)\left(\overline{g}_i\right)\left(\overline{\tau b}_i\right)\right)\hfill \\ \\ \mathrm{Hom}_k(det(\tau V_+/R),det(\tau \sigma V_+/R))\hfill \end{array}$$

and $`\sigma _{}\beta `$ is also represented by

$$\begin{array}{c}\left(\left(\overline{h}_i\right)\left(\overline{\sigma c}_i\right)\left(\overline{h}_i\right)\left(\overline{\sigma d}_i\right)\right)\hfill \\ \\ \mathrm{Hom}_k(det(\sigma V_+/R),det(\sigma \tau V_+/R)).\hfill \end{array}$$

#### 3.2.4. Conclusion of the calculation

We have now represented all the morphisms $`\alpha `$, $`\beta `$, $`\tau _{}\alpha `$ and $`\sigma _{}\beta `$ in such a way that we can obtain representations for the compositions $`(\sigma _{}\beta )\alpha `$ and $`(\tau _{}\alpha )\beta `$ in the same rank one free $`k`$-module, namely

$$\mathrm{Hom}_k(det(V_+/R),det(\sigma \tau V_+/R))=\mathrm{Hom}_k(det(V_+/R),det(\tau \sigma V_+/R)).$$

It is a straightforward matter to calculate the ratio. We find that

$$\begin{array}{cc}& \{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V\hfill \\ & \\ =& \frac{(\overline{h}_i)(\overline{\sigma d}_i)}{(\overline{g}_i)(\overline{\tau b}_i)}\frac{(\overline{e}_i)(\overline{b}_i)}{(\overline{h}_i)(\overline{\sigma c}_i)}\frac{(\overline{f}_i)(\overline{c}_i)}{(\overline{e}_i)(\overline{a}_i)}\frac{(\overline{g}_i)(\overline{\tau a}_i)}{(\overline{f}_i)(\overline{d}_i)}.\hfill \end{array}$$

The right side of the formula makes sense because in each of the fractions, both numerator and denominator generate the same rank one $`k`$-submodule of the exterior algebra over $`k`$ of $`V/R`$. We call this result the four square identity because in an obvious way the diagram

$$\begin{array}{cccccc}V_+& \{a_i\}& P& \{b_i\}& \sigma V_+& \\ & & & & & \\ \{c_i\}& & \{e_i\}& & \{\sigma c_i\}& \\ & & & & & \\ Q& \{f_i\}& R& \{h_i\}& \sigma Q& \\ & & & & & \\ \{d_i\}& & \{g_i\}& & \{\sigma d_i\}& \\ & & & & & \\ \tau V_+& \{\tau a_i\}& \tau P& \{\tau b_i\}& \sigma \tau V_+& =\tau \sigma V_+\end{array}$$

serves as a mnemonic. We call the diagram above a template for the calculation of $`\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V`$ and we say that the right side of the four square identity is the value of the template.

### 3.3. General rules of calculation

Fix a free $`k`$-module $`V`$ and a free $`k`$-submodule $`V_+V`$.

###### Proposition 3.3.1.

Fix commuting elements $`\sigma ,\tau G_{V_+}^V`$. (i) Suppose there exists a free $`k`$-module $`W`$ containing $`V`$ as a $`k`$-submodule. Suppose further that $`\sigma ,\tau `$ admit commuting extensions $`\stackrel{~}{\sigma },\stackrel{~}{\tau }G_{V_+}^W`$, respectively. Then we have $`\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V=\{\stackrel{~}{\sigma },\stackrel{~}{\tau }\}_{V_+}^W`$. (ii) Suppose there exists a free $`k`$-submodule $`UV`$ such that $`\sigma U=U=\tau U`$ and $`UV_+=0`$. Put $`\overline{V}:=V/U`$ and $`\overline{V}_+:=(V_++U)/U`$. Let $`\overline{\sigma }`$ and $`\overline{\tau }`$ be the $`k`$-linear automorphisms of $`\overline{V}`$ induced by $`\sigma `$ and $`\tau `$, respectively, and assume that $`\overline{\sigma },\overline{\tau }G_{\overline{V}_+}^{\overline{V}}`$. Then we have $`\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V=\{\overline{\sigma },\overline{\tau }\}_{\overline{V}_+}^{\overline{V}}.`$

###### Proof.

We return to the setting of §3.2. Let $`T`$ be the template above for calculating $`\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V`$. The very same template $`T`$ serves also to calculate $`\{\stackrel{~}{\sigma },\stackrel{~}{\tau }\}_{V_+}^W`$. Therefore (i) holds. Let $`\overline{T}`$ be the projection of the template $`T`$ into $`\overline{V}`$. Then $`\overline{T}`$ is a template for the calculation of $`\{\overline{\sigma },\overline{\tau }\}_{\overline{V}_+}^{\overline{V}}`$ and moreover it is easily verified that the values of the templates $`T`$ and $`\overline{T}`$ are equal. Therefore (ii) holds. ∎

###### Proposition 3.3.2.

Suppose $`V`$ is equipped with a direct sum decomposition $`V=V_0V_1`$. Put $`V_{i+}:=V_iV_+`$ for $`i=0,1`$ and assume that $`V_+=V_{0+}V_{1+}`$. Let commuting elements $`\sigma _0,\sigma _1G_{V_+}^V`$ be given such that

$$\sigma _i|_{V_0}G_{V_{0+}}^{V_0},\sigma _i|_{V_1}=1$$

for $`i=0,1`$. Then we have

$$\{\sigma _0|_{V_0},\sigma _1|_{V_0}\}_{V_{0+}}^{V_0}=\{\sigma _0,\sigma _1\}_{V_+}^V.$$

###### Proof.

The proof is a straightforward application of the four square identity similar to that made in the proof of Proposition 3.3.1 and therefore omitted. ∎

###### Proposition 3.3.3.

Again suppose $`V`$ is equipped with a direct sum decomposition $`V=V_0V_1`$, put $`V_{i+}:=V_iV_+`$ for $`i=0,1`$ and assume that $`V_+=V_{0+}V_{1+}`$. Let $`\sigma _0,\sigma _1G_{V_+}^V`$ be given such that

$$\sigma _i|_{V_i}G_{V_{i+}}^{V_i},\sigma _i|_{V_{1i}}=1$$

for $`i=0,1`$. (Necessarily $`\sigma _0`$ and $`\sigma _1`$ commute.) Then we have

$$\{\sigma _0,\sigma _1\}_{V_+}^V=(1)^{\nu _0\nu _1}$$

where

$$\nu _i:=\mathrm{ind}_{V_{i+}}^{V_i}\sigma _i|_{V_i}=\mathrm{ind}_{V_+}^V\sigma _i$$

for $`i=0,1`$.

###### Proof.

For $`i=0,1`$, choose a free $`k`$-submodule $`P_iV_{i+}\sigma _iV_{i+}`$ such that the quotient $`k`$-modules $`V_{i+}/P`$ and $`\sigma _iV_{i+}/P_i`$ are free of finite rank and also choose finite sequences $`\{e_{ij}\}`$ and $`\{f_{ij}\}`$ in $`V_i`$ (not necessarily of the same length) reducing modulo $`P_i`$ to $`k`$-bases for $`V_{i+}/P_i`$ and $`\sigma _iV_{i+}/P_i`$, respectively. Then the diagram

$$\begin{array}{ccccc}V_{0+}V_{1+}& \{e_{0j}\}& P_0V_{1+}& \{f_{0j}\}& \sigma _0V_{0+}V_{1+}\\ & & & & \\ \{e_{1j}\}& & \{e_{1j}\}& & \{e_{1j}\}\\ & & & & \\ V_{0+}P_1& \{e_{0j}\}& P_0P_1& \{f_{0j}\}& \sigma _0V_{0+}P_1\\ & & & & \\ \{f_{1j}\}& & \{f_{1j}\}& & \{f_{1j}\}\\ & & & & \\ V_{0+}\sigma _1V_{1+}& \{e_{0j}\}& P_0\sigma _1V_{1+}& \{f_{0j}\}& \sigma _0V_{0+}\sigma _1V_{1+}\end{array}$$

is a template for the calculation of $`\{\sigma _0,\sigma _1\}_{V_+}^V`$. The desired result now follows by the four square identity and the definitions. ∎

###### Proposition 3.3.4.

Let $`V_{}V`$ be a free $`k`$-submodule such that $`V=V_+V_{}`$. Let commuting elements $`\sigma ,\tau G_{V_+}^VG_V_{}^V`$ be given. Then we have

$$\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V\{\sigma ,\tau \}_V_{}^V=1.$$

###### Proof.

We define

$$\sigma _0,\sigma _1,\tau _0,\tau _1G_{V_+V_{}}^{VV}$$

by the block decompositions

$$\sigma _0=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\sigma & 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right],\sigma _1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& \sigma \end{array}\right],\tau _0=\left[\begin{array}{cc}\tau & 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right],\tau _1=\left[\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& \tau \end{array}\right].$$

Then we have

$$\begin{array}{cc}& \{\sigma _0\sigma _1,\tau _0\tau _1\}_{V_+V_{}}^{VV}\hfill \\ & \\ =& \underset{i=0}{\overset{1}{}}\underset{j=0}{\overset{1}{}}\{\sigma _i,\tau _j\}_{V_+V_{}}^{VV}=\{\sigma ,\tau \}_{V_+}^V\{\sigma ,\tau \}_V_{}^V(1)^{\mu _{}\nu _++\mu _+\nu _{}}\hfill \end{array}$$

by Propositions 3.3.2 and 3.3.3, where

$$\mu _\pm =\mathrm{ind}_{V_\pm }^V\sigma ,\nu _\pm =\mathrm{ind}_{V_\pm }^V\tau .$$

Put

$$U:=\mathrm{ker}\left(\left(v_0v_1v_0+v_1\right):VVV\right).$$

Further, we have

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \{\sigma _0\sigma _1,\tau _0\tau _1\}_{V_+V_{}}^{VV}& =& \{\sigma _0\sigma _1modU,\tau _0\tau _1modU\}_{((V_+V_{})+U)/U}^{(VV)/U}\hfill \\ & & \\ & =& \{\sigma ,\tau \}_V^V=1\hfill \end{array}$$

by part (ii) of Proposition 3.3.1. Finally, we have

$$(1)^{\mu _{}\nu _++\mu _+\nu _{}}=(1)^{2\mu _{}\nu _+}=1$$

by Lemma 2.2.5. The result follows. ∎

### 3.4. The commutator interpretation of the Contou-Carrère symbol

#### 3.4.1. Preliminary discussion of the ring $`k((t))`$

Let $`t`$ be a variable. Let $`k((t))`$ be the ring obtained from the power series ring $`k[[t]]`$ by inverting $`t`$. It is easily verified that $`k((t))`$ is an artinian local ring with maximal ideal $`m((t))`$ and residue field $`(k/m)((t))`$. We have an additive direct sum decomposition

$$k((t))=t^1k[t^1]k[[t]]$$

and a multiplicative direct sum decomposition

$$k((t))^\times =t^{}(1+m[t^1])k^\times (1+tk[[t]])$$

at our disposal. The latter decomposition can be refined as follows. Each $`fk((t))^\times `$ has a unique presentation

$$f=t^{w(f)}a_0\underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(1a_it^i\right)\underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(1a_it^i\right)$$

where

$$w(f),a_0k^\times ,\{\begin{array}{cc}a_i=0\hfill & \text{if }i0\text{,}\hfill \\ a_im\hfill & \text{if }i<0\text{,}\hfill \\ a_ik^\times \hfill & \text{if }i=0\text{,}\hfill \\ a_ik\hfill & \text{if }i>0\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$

We call $`w(f)`$ the winding number of $`f`$ and we call $`\{a_i\}_{i=\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}`$ the family of Witt parameters of $`f`$. Now view $`f`$ as a $`k`$-linear automorphism of the free $`k`$-module $`k((t))`$. It is easily verified that $`fG_{k[[t]]}^{k((t))}`$ and that

$$\mathrm{ind}_{k[[t]]}^{k((t))}f=\mathrm{ind}_{(k/m)[[t]]}^{(k/m)((t))}f=w(fmodm)=w(f).$$

#### 3.4.2. Definition of the Contou-Carrère symbol

Let $`f,gk((t))^\times `$ be given. Let $`\{a_i\}`$ and $`\{b_j\}`$ be the systems of Witt parameters associated to $`f`$ and $`g`$, respectively. Put

$$f,g:=(1)^{w(f)w(g)}\frac{a_0^{w(g)}}{b_0^{w(f)}}\frac{_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}\left(1a_i^{j/(i,j)}b_j^{i/(i,j)}\right)^{(i,j)}}{_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}\left(1a_i^{j/(i,j)}b_j^{i/(i,j)}\right)^{(i,j)}}.$$

The right side of the definition makes sense because all but finitely many factors in the infinite products differ from $`1`$. This definition is due to Contou-Carrère . We call the map

$$,:k((t))^\times \times k((t))^\times k^\times $$

defined by the formula above the Contou-Carrère symbol. The symbol is clearly anti-symmetric:

$$f,g=g,f^1.$$

Although it is not immediately evident from the definition, the symbol is also bimultiplicative:

$$f^{},g=f,gf^{},g,f,gg^{}=f,gf,g^{}.$$

The following result establishes bimultiplicativity of the Contou-Carrère symbol as a byproduct.

###### Theorem 3.4.3.

For all $`f,gk((t))^\times `$ we have

$$f,g^1=(1)^{w(f)w(g)}\{f,g\}_{k[[t]]}^{k((t))}$$

where on the right side we view $`f`$ and $`g`$ as elements of the restricted general linear group $`G_{k[[t]]}^{k((t))}`$.

Before beginning the proof proper we prove a couple of lemmas. We say that a polynomial $`fk[t]`$ is distinguished if $`f`$ is monic in $`t`$ and $`ft^{\mathrm{deg}f}modm`$, in which case necessarily $`w(f)=\mathrm{deg}f`$.

###### Lemma 3.4.4.

Fix a distinguished polynomial $`fk[t]`$ of degree $`n`$ and $`gk[[t]]^\times `$. (i) The quotient of the power series ring $`k[[t]]`$ by its principal ideal $`(f)`$ is free over $`k`$ and the monomials $`1,t,\mathrm{},t^{n1}`$ form a $`k`$-basis. (ii) We have

$$\{f,g\}_{k[[t]]}^{k((t))}=det(g|k[[t]]/(f)).$$

###### Proof.

Statement (i) is a special case of the Weierstrass Division Theorem. From statement (i) it follows that the diagram

$$\begin{array}{ccccc}k[[t]]& \mathrm{}& k[[t]]& \mathrm{}& k[[t]]\\ & & & & \\ \mathrm{}& & \mathrm{}& & \mathrm{}\\ & & & & \\ k[[t]]& \mathrm{}& k[[t]]& \mathrm{}& k[[t]]\\ & & & & \\ \{f^1t^i\}_{i=0}^{n1}& & \{f^1t^i\}_{i=0}^{n1}& & \{gf^1t^i\}_{i=0}^{n1}\\ & & & & \\ f^1k[[t]]& \mathrm{}& f^1k[[t]]& \mathrm{}& f^1k[[t]]\end{array}$$

is a template for the calculation of $`\{g,f^1\}_{k[[t]]}^{k((t))}`$. Statement (ii) now follows from the four square identity. ∎

###### Lemma 3.4.5.

Let $`f,gk[t]`$ be distinguished polynomials. We have

$$\{f,g\}_{k[[t]]}^{k((t))}=1.$$

###### Proof.

Since

$$f,gG_{k[[t]]}^{k((t))}G_{t^1k[t^1]}^{k((t))},$$

we have

$$\{f,g\}_{k[[t]]}^{k((t))}\{f,g\}_{t^1k[t^1]}^{k((t))}=1$$

by Proposition 3.3.4. Let $`p`$ and $`q`$ be the degrees of $`f`$ and $`g`$, respectively. Now consider the template

$$\begin{array}{ccccc}t^1k[t^1]& \mathrm{}& t^1k[t^1]& \{t^i\}_{i=0}^{p1}& t^{p1}k[t^1]\\ & & & & \\ \mathrm{}& & \mathrm{}& & \mathrm{}\\ & & & & \\ t^1k[t^1]& \mathrm{}& t^1k[t^1]& \{t^i\}_{i=0}^{p1}& t^{p1}k[t^1]\\ & & & & \\ \{t^i\}_{i=0}^{q1}& & \{t^i\}_{i=0}^{q1}& & \{ft^i\}_{i=0}^{q1}\\ & & & & \\ t^{q1}k[t^1]& \mathrm{}& t^{q1}k[t^1]& \{gt^i\}_{i=0}^{p1}& t^{p+q1}k[t^1]\end{array}$$

for the calculation of $`\{f,g\}_{t^1k[t^1]}^{k((t))}`$. By the four square identity we conclude that the latter symbol equals unity, and we are done. ∎

###### Lemma 3.4.6.

For all $`f,gk[[t]]^\times `$ we have

$$\{f,g\}_{k[[t]]}^{k((t))}=1.$$

###### Proof.

In view of the formal properties noted in §3.1.3, this is clear. ∎

#### 3.4.7. Proof of Theorem 3.4.3

Every element of $`k((t))^\times `$ factors as a power of $`t`$ times a distinguished polynomial times a unit of $`k[[t]]`$. So after making the evident reductions based upon Lemmas 3.4.5 and 3.4.6, we may assume without loss of generality that $`f`$ is a distinguished polynomial and that $`gk[[t]]^\times `$. Moreover, we may assume without loss of generality that $`f`$ takes the special form $`t^pa`$ for some positive integer $`p`$ and $`am`$. By Lemma 3.4.4 we have

$$\{f,g\}_{k[[t]]}^{k((1/t))}=det(g|k[[t]]/(t^pa)).$$

This justifies the further assumption without loss of generality that $`g(0)=1`$. Now $`t`$ operates nilpotently on the quotient $`k[[t]]/(t^pa)`$, hence $`t^N0mod(t^pa)`$ for some positive integer $`N`$, and hence

$$det(1+t^Nh|k[[t]]/(t^pa))=1$$

for all $`hk[[t]]`$. This justifies the further assumption without loss of generality that $`g=1bt^q`$ for some positive integer $`q`$ and $`bk`$. Finally, we have

$$det\left(1bt^q|k[[t]]/(t^pa)\right)=\left(1a^{q/(p,q)}b^{p/(p,q)}\right)^{(p,q)},$$

as can be verified by a straightforward calculation that we omit, and we are done. ∎

#### 3.4.8. Reparameterization invariance

It is easily verified that for any $`\tau k((t))`$ of winding number $`1`$, the operation

$$(f(t)f(\tau )):k((t))k((t))(\text{“substitution of }\tau \text{ for }t\text{})$$

is a $`k`$-linear automorphism of $`k((t))`$ belonging to the restricted general linear group $`G_{k[[t]]}^{k((t))}`$. Via the commutator interpretation provided by Theorem 3.4.3, it follows that the Contou-Carrère symbol is invariant under reparameterization of $`k((t))`$.

#### 3.4.9. Recovery of the tame symbol and the residue

If $`k`$ is a field, the Contou-Carrère symbol obviously reduces to the tame symbol. It is possible also to recover the residue from the Contou-Carrère symbol, as follows. Take $`k=F[ϵ]/(ϵ^3)`$ where $`F`$ is any field. Then we have

$$1ϵf,1ϵg1ϵ^2\mathrm{Res}_{t=0}(gdf)modϵ^3$$

for all $`f,gF((t))`$ as can be verified by a straightforward calculation. This last observation suggests an interpretation of our work as the “integrated version” of Tate’s Lie-theoretic theory . We wonder how Beilinson’s multidimensional generalization  of Tate’s theory might analogously be integrated.

#### 3.4.10. The case in which $`k`$ is a $``$-algebra

Suppose $`k`$ is a $``$-algebra. Let $`f1+m((t))`$ and $`gk((t))^\times `$ be given. We have

$$f,g=\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{Res}_{t=0}\mathrm{log}fd\mathrm{log}g)$$

as can be verified by a straightforward calculation. This is quite similar in form to the commutator formula given by Segal-Wilson \[7, Prop. 3.6\].

## 4. Reciprocity laws on curves

### 4.1. The common setting for the reciprocity laws

#### 4.1.1. Basic data

Let $`F`$ be an algebraically closed field. Let $`X/F`$ be a nonsingular complete algebraic curve. Let $`S`$ be a finite nonempty set of closed points of $`X`$. For any ring or group $`A`$, put

$$A^S:=\{(a_s)_{sS}|a_sA\}=(\text{product of copies of }A\text{ indexed by }S).$$

For each $`sS`$ select a uniformizer $`\pi _s`$ at $`s`$.

#### 4.1.2. Construction of $`R_0`$

For each meromorphic function $`f`$ on $`X`$ put

$$f^{(s)}:=\underset{i}{}a_it^iF((t))$$

where

$$f=\underset{i}{}a_i\pi _s^i(a_iF)$$

is the Laurent expansion of $`f`$ in powers of $`\pi _s`$. Put

$$R_0:=\{(f^{(s)})_{sS}F((t))^SfH^0(XS,𝒪_X)\}.$$

The $`F`$-algebra $`R_0`$ is a copy of the affine coordinate ring of $`XS`$. We take for granted that

$$dim_FF[[t]]^SR_0=dim_FH^0(X,𝒪_X)=1<\mathrm{}$$

and

$$dim_F\frac{F((t))^S}{R_0F[[t]]^S}=dim_FH^1(X,𝒪_X)=\text{genus of }X<\mathrm{}.$$

As in the papers , , , it is these finiteness statements from algebraic geometry that lead ineluctably to reciprocity laws.

#### 4.1.3. Extension of scalars from $`F`$ to $`k`$

We assume now that the artinian local ring $`k`$ taken as base for the theory of determinant groupoids is a finite $`F`$-algebra. We put

$$R:=R_0_Fk=(k\text{-span of }R_0)k((t))^S,$$

and

$$V:=k((t))^S,V_+:=k[[t]]^S.$$

Note that the $`k`$-modules $`V_+R`$ and $`V/(R+V_+)`$ are free of finite rank. Note that $`R^\times `$ acting in natural $`k`$-linear fashion on $`V`$ is contained in the restricted general linear group $`G_{V_+}^V`$.

### 4.2. A reciprocity law for the Contou-Carrère symbol

###### Theorem 4.2.1.

In the setting above, for all $`f,gR^\times `$ we have

$$\underset{sS}{}f_s,g_s=1.$$

###### Proof.

Clearly there exists some $`F`$-subspace $`M_0F((t))^S`$ commensurable to $`F[[t]]^S`$ such that $`F((t))^S=M_0R_0`$. Put $`M:=M_0_Fk`$. Then we have

$$V=MR,MV_+$$

and hence we have

$$\{f,g\}_{V_+}^V=\{f,g\}_M^V=\{f,g\}_M^V\{f,g\}_R^V=1.$$

The first two equalities are justified by the basic properties enumerated in §3.1.3 and the last by Proposition 3.3.4. We also have

$$\{f,g\}_{V_+}^V=\underset{sS}{}\underset{s^{}S}{}\{f_s,g_s^{}\}_{k[[t]]}^{k((t))}=(1)^{(_sw(f_s))(_sw(g_s))}\underset{sS}{}f_s,g_s^1.$$

The first equality is justified the basic properties enumerated in §3.1.3 and Propositions 3.3.2. The second equality is justified by Proposition 3.3.3 and Theorem 3.4.3. Finally, we have

$$\underset{sS}{}w(f_s)=\underset{sS}{}w(f_smodm)=0$$

because the second sum is the degree of a principal divisor on $`X`$. The result follows. ∎

#### 4.2.2. Coordinate-independence of the local symbol $`f_s,g_s`$

In §3.4.8 we explained that the Contou-Carrère symbol is reparameterization invariant. In the present context, it follows that the value of the symbol $`f_s,g_s`$ is independent of the choice $`\pi _s`$ of uniformizer at $`s`$, and thus is coordinate-independent.

#### 4.2.3. Recovery of Weil reciprocity

Take $`k=F`$. In this case the Contou-Carrère symbol reduces to the tame symbol, and hence Theorem 4.2.1 reduces to Weil reciprocity.

#### 4.2.4. Recovery of sum-of-residues-equals-zero

Take $`k=F[ϵ]/(ϵ^3)`$. In this case, as explained in §3.4.9, the residue can be recovered from the Contou-Carrère symbol, and hence sum-of-residues-equals-zero can be recovered from Theorem 4.2.1.

### 4.3. Recovery of Witt’s explicit reciprocity law

#### 4.3.1. Quick review of Witt vectors

Witt vectors were introduced in Witt’s paper . The basic theory—proofs omitted—takes the following form. For proofs, we recommend to the reader the exercises on this topic in Lang’s algebra text . Let

$$\{ϵ\}\{𝐱_i,𝐲_i\}_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}$$

be a family of independent variables. Write

$$\underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}((1𝐱_iϵ^i)(1𝐲_iϵ^i))=\underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(1𝐀_iϵ^i),$$

$$\underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\underset{j=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(1𝐱_i^{j/(i,j)}𝐲_j^{i/(i,j)}ϵ^{ij/(i,j)}\right)^{(i,j)}=\underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(1𝐌_iϵ^i),$$

thereby defining families of polynomials

$$\left\{𝐀_n,𝐌_n\left[\{𝐱_i,𝐲_i\}_{in}\right]\right\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}.$$

For any commutative ring $`A`$ with unit and finite subset $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ of the set of positive integers closed under passage to divisors, let $`𝕎_\mathrm{\Delta }(A)`$ denote the set of vectors with entries in $`A`$ indexed by $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. It can be shown that the $`𝐀`$’s and $`𝐌`$’s define addition and multiplication laws with respect to which $`𝕎_\mathrm{\Delta }(A)`$ becomes a commutative ring with unit, functorially in commutative rings $`A`$ with unit. Below we do not actually need to use the multiplication law in $`𝕎_\mathrm{\Delta }(A)`$ but we mention its definition because of its close relationship to the definition of the Contou-Carrère symbol.

#### 4.3.2. Ghost coordinates

Consider the family of polynomials

$$\left\{\stackrel{~}{𝐱}_n:=\underset{dn}{}d𝐱_d^{n/d}\right\}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}.$$

These polynomials are characterized by the power series identity

$$\mathrm{log}\underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(1𝐱_iϵ^i)=\underset{\nu =1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{\stackrel{~}{𝐱}_\nu ϵ^\nu }{\nu }.$$

Given a ring $`A`$, a finite subset $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ of the set of positive integers closed under passage to divisors, $`x=(x_iA)_{i\mathrm{\Delta }}𝕎_\mathrm{\Delta }(A)`$ and an integer $`i\mathrm{\Delta }`$, we write $`\stackrel{~}{x}_i`$ for the result of substituting $`x_d`$ for $`𝐱_d`$ in $`\stackrel{~}{𝐱}_i`$ for all $`d\mathrm{\Delta }`$, and we call $`\stackrel{~}{x}_i`$ the ghost coordinate of $`x`$ indexed by $`i`$; in this context, for emphasis, we say that $`x_i`$ is the live coordinate of $`x`$ indexed by $`i`$. Addition and multiplication have a very simple expression in ghost coordinates:

$$\stackrel{~}{𝐀}_n=\stackrel{~}{𝐱}_n+\stackrel{~}{𝐲}_n,\stackrel{~}{𝐌}_n=\stackrel{~}{𝐱}_n\stackrel{~}{𝐲}_n.$$

Clearly each variable $`𝐱_n`$ has a unique expansion as a polynomial in the $`\stackrel{~}{𝐱}`$’s with coefficients in $``$. It follows that for any $``$-algebra $`A`$ the ring $`𝕎_\mathrm{\Delta }(A)`$ decomposes in ghost coordinates as a product of copies of $`A`$ indexed by $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. But in general it is not possible to write $`𝐱_n`$ as a polynomial in the $`\stackrel{~}{𝐱}`$’s with integral coefficients, and hence in general $`𝕎_\mathrm{\Delta }(A)`$ depends in a complicated way on $`A`$.

#### 4.3.3. Remark

The focus in arithmetical applications of Witt vectors is usually on the case $`\mathrm{\Delta }\{1,p,p^2,\mathrm{}\}`$ for some rational prime $`p`$. In this case, for example, we have the striking fact that

$$𝕎_{\{1,p,\mathrm{},p^{n1}\}}(/p)=/p^n.$$

But it is simpler to deal with the ring schemes of the form

$$𝕎_N:=𝕎_{\{1,\mathrm{},N\}}.$$

The additive group scheme underlying the ring scheme $`𝕎_N`$ is fairly easy to handle because the map

$$x=(x_i)_{i=1}^N\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}(1x_iϵ)modϵ^{N+1}$$

identifies the additive group underlying $`𝕎_N(A)`$ with the group of units in $`A[ϵ]/(ϵ^{N+1})`$ congruent to $`1`$ modulo $`(ϵ)`$ functorially in commutative rings $`A`$ with unit. Since the ring $`𝕎_{\{1,p,\mathrm{},p^{n1}\}}(A)`$ is a quotient of the ring $`𝕎_{p^{n1}}(A)`$ functorially in $`A`$, it turns out that we really lose no generality by thus restricting our focus.

#### 4.3.4. Definition of the symbol $`\mathrm{Res}_N^𝕎`$

Let us turn our attention back to the setting of Theorem 4.2.1. Fix a positive integer $`N`$. We now take

$$k:=F[ϵ]/(ϵ^{N+1}).$$

We define a pairing

$$\mathrm{Res}_N^𝕎(,):F((t))^\times \times 𝕎_N(F((t)))𝕎_N(F)$$

by the rule

$$f,\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\left(1x_iϵ^i\right)\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\left(1ϵ^i\left(\mathrm{Res}_N^𝕎(f,x)\right)_i\right)mod(ϵ^{N+1})$$

where $`,`$ is the Contou-Carrère symbol.

#### 4.3.5. Comparison with Witt’s original definition

The pairing $`\mathrm{Res}_N^𝕎`$ is essentially the pairing introduced in Witt’s paper . Without giving full details, we briefly explain this point as follows. Assume for the moment that $`F`$ is of characteristic zero so that we can talk about ghost coordinates, and recall the remark of §3.4.10. We have

$$\begin{array}{cc}& \mathrm{log}f,\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\left(1ϵ^ix_i\right)\hfill \\ & \\ & \mathrm{Res}_{t=0}\left(\mathrm{log}\left(\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}(1ϵ^ix_i)\right)\frac{d\mathrm{log}f}{f}\right)\hfill \\ & \\ & \mathrm{Res}_{t=0}\left(\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{\stackrel{~}{x}_iϵ^i}{i}\frac{d\mathrm{log}f}{f}\right)\hfill \\ & \\ & \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\left(\mathrm{Res}_{t=0}\left(\stackrel{~}{x}_i\frac{df}{f}\right)\right)\frac{ϵ^i}{i}.\hfill \end{array}mod(ϵ^{N+1}).$$

In other words, we have

$$\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{Res}_N^𝕎(f,x)}_i=\mathrm{Res}_{t=0}\left(\stackrel{~}{x}_i\frac{df}{f}\right)$$

for $`i=1,\mathrm{},N`$. This last formula for $`i=1,p,\mathrm{},p^{n1}`$ and $`F`$ of characteristic $`p>0`$ is exactly the expression in ghost coordinates of the rule used by Witt \[9, p. 130\] to define his pairing. But a priori Witt’s definition is no good in characteristic $`p`$ because live coordinates cannot in general be expressed as polynomials in the ghost coordinates with $`p`$-integral coefficients. Nevertheless, Witt succeeds in making the definition rigorous (see \[9, Satz 4, p. 130\]) by proving that the corresponding expression in live coordinates of his pairing is “denominator-free” and hence does make sense in arbitrary characteristic. Of course, with the hindsight afforded by Theorem 4.2.1, Witt’s Satz 4 is not very difficult to check.

#### 4.3.6. Reciprocity for the symbol $`\mathrm{Res}_N^𝕎`$

We return to the situation in which the algebraically closed field $`F`$ may be of any characteristic. As above, we fix a positive integer $`N`$. We then have

$$\underset{sS}{}\mathrm{Res}_N^𝕎(f_s,x_s)=0$$

for all

$$fR_0^\times F((t))^{\times S},x𝕎_N(R_0)𝕎_N(k((t))^S)=𝕎_N(k((t)))^S$$

by Theorem 4.2.1 and the definitions. We emphasize that the addition is to be performed in the group $`𝕎_N(F)`$. From this last formula in the case that $`F`$ is of characteristic $`p`$ and $`N=p^{n1}`$, it is not difficult to deduce the reciprocity law stated without proof on the last page of Witt’s paper  in the case of an algebraically closed ground field of characteristic $`p`$. We omit further details.

## 5. Acknowledgements

The first-named author wishes to thank the mathematics department at the University of Salamanca for its hospitality during a two week period in May 2002 when much of the work on this paper was done. The first-named author became acquainted with determinant groupoids from the perspective of mathematical physics through some lectures on algebraic models of loop spaces by M. Kapranov in Spring 2002 at the University of Minnesota, and gratefully acknowledges that influence. The first-named author also wishes to thank the mathematics department at the University of Arizona for the opportunity to lecture on preliminary versions of some of these ideas at the Winter School of March 2000.


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# Submitted Envelope solitons induced by high-order effects of light-plasma interaction

## I Introduction

Recently, the investigations concerning the nonlinear dynamics governed by a multidimensional cubic-quintic nonlinear Schrödinger equation (NLSE) received a great deal of attention. In this context, both localized vortex solitons and nonlocalized optical vortices were studied . Cubic-quintic ($`2+1`$)-dimensional NLSE were used to study the stability of spinning ring solitons  and theoretical investigations to find solitary solutions for the cubic-quintic ($`1+1`$)-dimensional NLSE have been carried out. Dark solitary waves in the limit of small amplitude have been found, where the NLSE was reduced to a Korteweg-de Vries equation (KdVE) . Moreover, both algebraic solitary wave solutions  and traveling-wave solutions  have been found and criteria for existence and stability of soliton solutions have been established . Additionally, a theory which connects envelope solitons of a wide class of generalized NLSEs with solitons of a wide class of generalized KdVE have been recently carried out for arbitrary amplitudes ; in particular, the theory was applied to find analytical bright, gray and dark envelope soliton solutions of the cubic-quintic NLSE and some other types of nonlinearities -.

It is well known that nonlinear interactions between intense laser beams and a plasma are responsible for numerous nonlinear phenomena including parametric instabilities , density cavitation, self-focusing and filamentation of light , as well as the generation of wake fields . Intense laser beams can cause density modifications through the ponderomotive force, enhance the electron mass due to relativistic effects and produce electron Joule heating. The interplay between the ponderomotive, relativistic and Joule heating nonlinearitries has been examined  in the context of laser plasma experiments and also in ionospheric modifications of the Earth’s ionosphere by powerful radar beams.

In this Letter, we investigate nonlinear interactions between the light beams and the non-resonant density perturbations, taking into account the combined effects of the light pressure induced ion density fluctuations and increased electron mass. We show that, under suitable physical conditions for which our system can be described by a ($`1+1`$)-dimensional cubic-quintic NLSE for the complex electromagnetic field amplitude, bright, gray and dark envelope solitons are analytically found. Finally, a stability analysis is carried out, which shows that our bright soliton solutions are stable.

## II Basic equations

We consider the propagation of a large amplitude circularly polarized electromagnetic wave with an electric field $`𝐄=E(\widehat{𝐱}+i\widehat{𝐲})\mathrm{exp}(i\omega t+i\mathrm{𝐤𝐑})`$, where $`\omega `$ is the wave frequency and $`𝐤`$ is the wavevector. The light equation in the presence of electron density perturbations in a plasma is obtained from

$$𝐁=\frac{4\pi }{c}𝐉+\frac{1}{c}_t𝐄,$$
(1)
with

$$𝐉=e(n_0+n_1)𝐯_e,$$
(2)
$$𝐁=𝐀,$$
(3)
$$𝐄=\frac{1}{c}_t𝐀,$$
(4)
and

$$_t𝐩_e=e𝐄,$$
(5)
where $`𝐁`$ is the wave magnetic field, $`𝐀`$ is the vector potential, $`n_0`$ and $`n_1`$ are the unperturbed and perturbed electron number densities, $`𝐯_e`$ is the particle quiver velocity induced by the photons, $`𝐩_e=m_e𝐯_e`$ is the momentum, $`m_e=m_0/(1𝐯_e^2/c^2)^{1/2}`$ is the mass, $`m_0`$ is the rest electron mass, $`e`$ is the magnitude of the electron charge, and $`c`$ is the speed of light in vacuum. The perturbation of the number density $`n_1`$ is reinforced by the light ponderomotive force. For our purposes, we have

$$𝐯_e=\frac{e}{m_0c}\frac{𝐀}{\gamma _e}$$
(6)
in view of (4) and (5). Here we have denoted $`\gamma _e=\sqrt{1+e^2𝐀^2/m_0^2c^4}`$. Combining (1), (2), (3) and (6) we obtain

$$_t^2𝐀c^2^2𝐀+\omega _p^2\left(1+N\right)\frac{𝐀}{\gamma _e}=0,$$
(7)
where $`\omega _p=(4\pi n_0e^2/m_0)^{1/2}`$ is the plasma frequency, $`N=n_1/n_0`$, and where we have introduced the Coulomb gauge $`𝐀=0`$. We note that the term proportional to $`n_1`$ comes from the beating of the light quiver velocity with the electron density perturbations of the plasma slow motion, while the nonlinear term in $`\gamma _e`$ arises due to the electron mass increase in the light wave fields. Supposing that $`𝐀=𝐀_s(𝐫,\tau )\mathrm{exp}(i\mathrm{𝐤𝐑}i\omega t)`$ \+ complex conjugate, where $`𝐫`$ and $`\tau `$ represent slowly varying space and time coordinates, we obtain from (7)

$$2i\omega (_\tau +𝐯_g_𝐫)𝐀_s+c^2_𝐫^2𝐀_s+\mathrm{\Omega }^2𝐀_s\frac{\omega _p^2(1+N)𝐀_s}{\gamma _e}=0,$$
(8)
where $`𝐯_g=𝐤c^2/\omega `$ is the group velocity of the light wave, and $`|_\tau 𝐀|<<\omega 𝐀`$ has been invoked in view of the WKB approximation. We have denoted $`\mathrm{\Omega }^2=\omega ^2c^2k^2`$. We now derive the equation for low-phase velocity (in comparison with the electron thermal speed) density perturbations that are driven by the light wave ponderomotive force. The governing equations are the inertialess electron momentum equation

$$0=e_𝐫\varphi m_0c^2_𝐫\gamma _eT_e_𝐫ln(n_e/n_0),$$
(9)
the ion continuity equation

$$_\tau n_i+_𝐫(n_i𝐮_i)=0,$$
(10)
and

$$_\tau 𝐮_i+(𝐮_i_𝐫)𝐮_i=\frac{e}{m_i}_𝐫\varphi \frac{T_i}{m_i}_𝐫ln(n_i/n_0),$$
(11)
where $`\varphi `$ is the ambipolar potential, $`𝐮_i`$ is the fluid velocity associated with the plasma slow motion, and $`T_e(T_i)`$ is the electron (ion) temperature. The second term on the right-hand side of (9) represents the light pressure. Equations (9) to (11) form a closed system when the quasi-neutrality $`n_e=n_i`$ is invoked. The light ponderomotive force acting on the ion fluid is insignificant. Equation (9) shows that the electrons are pushed away from the region of maximum light intensity, and reinforce a space charge field ($`\varphi `$) and the associated density fluctuations. The light ponderomotive force is transmitted to ions through the space charge field/ambipolar potential. Adding (9) and (11) and letting $`n_{e,i}=n_0+n_1`$, $`𝐮_i=𝐮_{i0}+𝐮_{i1}=𝐮_{i1}`$, we obtain for $`n_1<<n_0`$ and $`|\left(𝐮_{i1}_𝐫\right)𝐮_{i1}|<<|_\tau 𝐮_{i1}|`$

$$_\tau 𝐮_{i1}=\frac{m_0}{m_i}c^2_𝐫\gamma _{e1}\frac{C_s^2}{n_0}_𝐫n_1,$$
(12)
where for consistency we have supposed $`e^2𝐀_s^2/m_0^2c^4<<1`$ and, consequently, introduced a small perturbation $`\gamma _{e1}`$ of the electron relativistic factor $`\gamma _e`$ ($`\gamma _e1+\gamma _{e1}`$, where $`\gamma _{e1}=e^2𝐀_s^2/2m_0^2c^4`$) and $`C_s=[(T_e+T_i)/m_i]^{1/2}`$ is the effective sound speed. According to the above approximations, Equation (8) becomes

$$2i\omega (_\tau +𝐯_g_𝐫)𝐀_s+c^2_𝐫^2𝐀_s+\left(\mathrm{\Omega }^2\omega _p^2\right)𝐀_s\omega _p^2\left[\left(N\gamma _{e1}\right)N\gamma _{e1}\right]𝐀_s=0,$$
(13)
and (12), combined with the linearized version of (10), yields

$$_\tau ^2NC_s^2_𝐫^2N=\frac{m_0}{m_i}c^2_𝐫^2\gamma _{e1}.$$
(14)
Equations (13) and (14) are the desired equations for coherent light beams that are coupled with non-resonant density perturbations in an electron-ion plasma. Note that, in principle, the quantities $`\left(N\gamma _{e1}\right)`$ and $`N\gamma _{e1}`$, involved in Eq. (13), could be of the same order. In the following, this physical circumstance will be considered and, to this end, we seek possible stationary nonlinear solutions of equations (13) and (14) . in the form of envelope solitons

## III Envelope solitons

We introduce $`\xi =𝐫𝐕\tau `$, where $`𝐕`$ is the velocity of the nonlinear waves, and assume $`𝐀_s=𝐚(\xi )\mathrm{exp}(i\mathrm{\Omega }_0\tau )`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ is a constant. Hence, we readily obtain from (13) and (14)

$$2i\omega \left[\left(𝐕+𝐯_g\right)_\xi \right]𝐚+c^2_𝐫^2𝐚+\left(\mathrm{\Omega }^2\omega _p^2+2\omega \mathrm{\Omega }_0\right)𝐚\omega _p^2\left[\left(N\gamma _{e1}\right)N\gamma _{e1}\right]𝐚=0,$$
(15)
and

$$\left(𝐕_\xi \right)^2NC_s^2_\xi ^2N=\frac{m_0}{m_i}c^2_\xi ^2\gamma _{e1}.$$
(16)
For the sake of simplicity, we consider here the one dimensional case for which can write $`\left(𝐕_\xi \right)^2N=V^2_\xi ^2N`$. Consequently, (16) can be immediately integrated, giving

$$N=\frac{m_0c^2}{m_i\left(V^2C_s^2\right)}\gamma _{e1}.$$
(17)
By taking into account the explicit expression of $`\gamma _{e1}`$, choosing $`|𝐕|=|𝐯_g|>>C_s`$, and combining (15) and (17), we easily get

$$\frac{1}{2}_\eta ^2𝚿+\lambda ^2𝚿\left[q_1|𝚿|^2+q_2|𝚿|^4\right]𝚿=0,$$
(18)
where we have introduced the following dimensionless quantities

$$\eta =c\xi /\omega _p,$$

$$𝚿=\frac{e𝐚}{\sqrt{2}m_0c^2},$$

$$\lambda ^2=\frac{\omega ^2c^2k^2\omega _p^2+2\omega \mathrm{\Omega }_0}{2\omega _p^2},$$

$$q_1=\frac{1}{2}\left(\mu 1\right)$$

and

$$q_2=\frac{1}{2}\mu ,$$

with $`\mu =m_0c^2/m_i(V^2C_s^2)m_0c^2/m_iV^2`$.
Note that, since $`\mu >0`$, $`q_2`$ is a negative quantity. Additionally, since $`N`$ and $`\gamma _{e1}`$ must be of the same order, from (17) is evident that $`\mu `$ is of the order of the unity ($`\mu 1`$), but slightly greater than $`1`$. This circumstance is satisfied when we choose, consistently, a group velocity $`v_g=V\left(m_0/m_i\right)^{1/2}c`$. This justifies why we have kept both the nonlinear terms in (18); accordingly, the terms $`q_1|𝚿|^2`$ and $`q_2|𝚿|^4`$ are of the same order. In particular, if $`\mu `$ is exactly equal to $`1`$ (i.e., we have exactly $`V=\left(m_0/m_i\right)^{1/2}c`$), the (18) becomes

$$\frac{1}{2}_\eta ^2𝚿+\lambda ^2𝚿q_2|𝚿|^4𝚿=0,$$
(19)
which shows that a part of the relativistic mass variation nonlinearity is exactly cancelled out by the light ponderomotive force driven supersonic electron density contribution.
If we put

$$𝚽(\eta ,s)=𝚿(\eta )\mathrm{exp}\left(i\lambda ^2s\right),$$
(20)
where $`s`$ is a new dimensionless timelike variable, the (18) can be cast as

$$i_s𝚽+\frac{1}{2}_\eta ^2𝚽\left[q_1|𝚽|^2+q_2|𝚽|^4\right]𝚽=0,$$
(21)
Let us suppose that $`\mu `$ is (slightly) larger than the unity. In this way $`q_1>0`$ , (21) admits bright, gray and dark envelope solitonlike solutions. In fact, from the results of recent investigations  that have found a wide class of envelope solitonlike solutions of (21), one can find, through (20), the following solitonlike solution for $`\mathrm{\Psi }(\eta )`$

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(\eta )=\sqrt{\overline{u}\left[1+ϵ\text{sech}\left(\eta /\mathrm{\Delta }\right)\right]}\mathrm{exp}\left\{iB\left[\frac{\eta }{\mathrm{\Delta }}+\frac{2ϵ}{\sqrt{1ϵ^2}}\text{arctan}\left(\frac{\left(ϵ1\right)\text{tanh}\left(\eta /2\mathrm{\Delta }\right)}{\sqrt{1ϵ^2}}\right)\right]+i\varphi _0\right\},$$
(22)
where $`\varphi _0`$ is an arbitrary real constant, $`\overline{u}=3q_1/(8q_2)=3(\mu 1)/(8\mu )`$, the constants $`ϵ`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and $`B`$ are given, respectively, by

$$ϵ=\pm \sqrt{1\frac{32|q_2|V_0^2}{3q_1^2}}=\pm \sqrt{1\frac{64|\mu |V_0^2}{3\left(\mu 1\right)^2}},$$

$$\mathrm{\Delta }=\left(2\sqrt{2\left|\frac{3q_1^2}{64|q_2|}+\frac{V_0^2}{2}\right|}\right)^1=\left(2\sqrt{2\left|\frac{3(\mu 1)^2}{128|\mu |}+\frac{V_0^2}{2}\right|}\right)^1,$$

$$B=V_0\mathrm{\Delta },$$

provided that

$$\lambda ^2=\frac{15(\mu 1)^2}{128|\mu |}+\frac{V_0^2}{2},$$

and the real constant $`V_0`$ satisfies the condition

$$\sqrt{\frac{3(\mu 1)^2}{64|\mu |}}<V_0<\sqrt{\frac{3(\mu 1)^2}{64|\mu |}}.$$

Accordingly the definition of $`\lambda ^2`$ implies that

$$\omega ^2c^2k^2+2\omega \mathrm{\Omega }_0=\omega _p^2\left(1+\frac{15(\mu 1)^2}{64\mu }+V_0^2\right),$$

which is a condition for the real constant $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$. According to terminology and the results of Ref.s , we can distinguish the following four cases.

(a). $`0<ϵ<1`$ ($`V_00`$): up-shifted bright soliton.

$$u(\eta =0)=\overline{u}(1+ϵ),\text{and}\underset{\eta \pm \mathrm{}}{lim}u(\eta )=\overline{u}$$

which corresponds to a bright soliton of maximum amplitude $`(1+ϵ)\overline{u}`$ and up-shifted by the quantity $`\overline{u}`$.

(b). $`1<ϵ<0`$ ($`V_00`$): gray soliton.

$$u(\eta =0)=\overline{u}(1ϵ),\text{and}\underset{\eta \pm \mathrm{}}{lim}u(\eta )=\overline{u}$$

which is a dark soliton with minimum amplitude $`(1ϵ)\overline{u}`$ and reaching asimptotically the upper limit $`\overline{u}`$.

(c). $`ϵ=1`$ ($`V_0=0`$): upper-shifted bright soliton.

$$u(\eta =0)=2\overline{u},\text{and}\underset{\eta \pm \mathrm{}}{lim}u(\eta )=\overline{u}$$

which corresponds to a bright soliton of maximum amplitude $`2\overline{u}`$ and u p-shifted by the maximum quantity $`\overline{u}`$.

(d). $`ϵ=1`$ ($`V_0=0`$): standard dark soliton.

$$u(\eta =0)=0,\text{and}\underset{\eta \pm \mathrm{}}{lim}u(\eta )=\overline{u}$$

which is a dark soliton (zero minimum amplitude), reaching asimptotically the upper limit $`\overline{u}`$.
Correspondingly, the (17) gives the following solitonlike solution for the density fluctuation

$$N(\eta )=\mu |\mathrm{\Psi }(\eta )|^2=\frac{3}{8}\left(\mu 1\right)\left[1+ϵ\text{sech}\left(\eta /\mathrm{\Delta }\right)\right].$$
(23)
On the other hand, according to Ref.s , the (19) has the following bright envelope solitonlike solution:

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(\eta )=\left[\frac{6|E_0|}{\mu }\right]^{1/4}\text{sech}^{1/2}\left[\sqrt{2|E_0|}\eta \right]\mathrm{exp}\left(i\varphi _0\right),$$
(24)
where $`\varphi _0`$ is an arbitrary real constant and $`E_0`$ is a negative real constant satisfiying the condition $`\lambda ^2=E_0.`$ The latter implies the following condition for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ $`\omega ^2c^2k^2+2\omega \mathrm{\Omega }_0+\omega _p^2\left(2|E_0|1\right)=0.`$ Furthermore, the (17) implies that now the density fluctuation corresponds to the following solitonlike solution

$$N(\eta )=\mu |\mathrm{\Psi }(\eta )|^2=\left[\frac{6|E_0|}{\mu }\right]^{1/2}\text{sech}\left[\sqrt{2|E_0|}\eta \right].$$
(25)
We now investigate the stability of plane wave solutions of the one-dimensional equation (21). We first note that if we set $`q_2=0`$, the corresponding equation is the well known defocusing cubic Schroedinger equation which is known to be stable. It is therefore interesting to study if the $`q_2|\mathrm{\Phi }|^4`$ term can modify the instability. The analysis is performed by seeking a solution corresponding to a uniform wave train perturbed by small disturbances:

$$\mathrm{\Phi }=[\mathrm{\Phi }_0+\rho (s,\eta )]\mathrm{exp}i\{[q_1|\mathrm{\Phi }_0|^2q_2|\mathrm{\Phi }_0|^4]s+\theta (s,\eta )\},$$
(26)
where $`\rho `$ and $`\theta `$ are considered to be small amplitude and small phase perturbations. We then substitute the perturbed solution in (21) and retain only the linear terms in $`\rho `$ and $`\theta `$. Since the resulting equation is linear we can now assume a solution for the perturbation of the form $`\rho =\rho _0\mathrm{exp}i[K\eta \mathrm{\Omega }s]`$ and $`\theta =\theta _0\mathrm{exp}i[K\eta \mathrm{\Omega }s]`$. The resulting dispersion relation is the following:

$$\mathrm{\Omega }^2=\frac{K^2}{4}(K^2+4q_1|\mathrm{\Phi }_0|^2+8q_2|\mathrm{\Phi }_0|^4)$$
(27)
This shows that the wave train is unstable if the perturbation $`K`$ lies in the range of $`0<K<2|\mathrm{\Phi }_0|\sqrt{q_12q_2|\mathrm{\Phi }_0|^2}`$. According to the definition of $`q_1`$ and $`q_2`$, the instability will occur only if $`\mu >1/(12|\mathrm{\Phi }_0|^2)`$. The maximum instability occurs at $`K=|\mathrm{\Phi }_0|\sqrt{2q_14q_2|\mathrm{\Phi }_0|^2}`$.

## IV Numerical Simulations

In this section we analyse numerically both the influence of the quintic nonlinearity on the modulational instability and on the stability of a class of solitonlike solutions obtained in the previous sections. Equation (21) is solved numerically using a standard pseudo-spectral code with a second order Runge-Kutta method for advancing in time. We recall that the use of pseudo-spectral code implies the assumption of periodic boundary conditions.

### A Modulational instability

Accordingly to the linear stability analysis performed previously, initial conditions for our numerical simulations are given as follows:

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(x,0)=\mathrm{\Phi }_0[1+\epsilon Cos(Lx)],$$
(28)
where $`\epsilon `$ is the amplitude of the small perturbation and is taken as $`10^2`$ the amplitude of the umperturbed wave. Without loss of generality in our simulations we have choosen $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0=1`$ and $`L=1`$ and have considered only one period of the perturbation. We have performed several numerical simulations with different values of the parameter $`\mu `$. For $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0=1`$ the theory predicts stability for $`\mu <1`$. In Fig. 1 we show the evolution of a plane wave in the $`\eta s`$ plane for $`\mu =1.5`$. The initial wave field persists for all times. For $`\mu >1`$ modulational instability should occur. In Fig. 2 we show the case of $`\mu =0.2`$; analogously with the standard modulational instability we observe a Fermi-Pasta-Ulam recurrence: periodically the perturbation grows, the wave reaches a maximum amplitude and then goes back to the initial condition. For $`\mu >0`$ a completely different physics takes place: in Fig. 3, obatined for $`\mu =0.5`$, we do not observe anymore a recurrence and as time passes the wave amplitude increases while the its width decreses. This phenomenon corresponds to the initial stage of a wave collapse (see ).

### B Stability of solitonlike solutions

It is well know that the cubic NLS equations ($`q_2=0`$) posses solitons solutions if $`q_1`$ is greater than zero. We here investigate numerically if the solitonlike solutions described previously are stable or not. In order to to that we simply consider a solitonlike solution at time $`s=0`$ and we let evolve numerically the eq. (21). For semplicity we restrict our analysis to a sub class of solutions which corresponds to the case of bright solitons with $`V_0=0`$. We have performed many different numerical simulations with different values of the parameter $`\mu `$. The major result obtained is the following: if $`\mu >1`$ solutions are stable and for $`0<\mu <1`$ are unstable. This is due to the fact that for $`\mu >1`$ the coefficients in front of the cubic and quintic nonlinearities, respectivelly $`q_1`$ and $`q_2`$, have opposite sign and therefore there is a sort of balance between nonlinearities that stabilizes the solitonlike solution. This is not the case for $`0<\mu <1`$: both nonlinearities have the same sign and the dispersion is not strong enough to balance them. In Figs. 4 and 5 we give numerical evidence of the results presented for $`\mu =1.1`$ and for $`\mu =0.9`$ respectivelly. The first case, Fig. 4, corresponds to a stable solutions (the wave profile does not change as time $`s`$ passes). The second case, Fig. 5, is the unstable case: a clear increase in the wave amplitude is shown.

According to the above stability analysis we can conclude that our soliton solutions are stable in the range where $`\mu >1`$ only; this inequality, according to section III, is consistent with the conditions for their existence in our problem.

## V Conclusions

To summarize, we have considered the nonlinear interaction between intense light beams and the non-resonant density perturbations, taking into account the relativistic mass increase of the electrons as well as the light beam ponderomotive force that reinforces the density perturbations in an electron-ion plasma. The nonlinear coupling is governed by a pair of equations which, in one space dimension admit stationary solutions in the form of a planar bright and dark/gray envelope solitons. The condition of stability of the bright soliton-like solutions has been found numerically and it has shown that they are stable just for the range of parameters required in our problem.
Unfortunately, the numerical stability analysis for the family of dark and gray solitons, although revealed to be much more difficult, is on the way. Authors expect that the preliminary numerical analysis of the stability carried out in the present paper will be extended to the dark and gray solitons in a future work.

## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was partially supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and INFN Sezione di Napoli (Italy).


text:
# References

1. Introduction

Classical Game theory is a core subject in many social sciences oriented disciplines . Its origins were presented early on in the book of von Neumann and Morgenstern . A highly valuable step forward in the understanding of the dynamics of games was made by John Nash . He introduced well-defined equilibrium states, the so-called Nash equilibria, that play an essential role in defining the solution of any game. It is however known that not all games possess a unique Nash equilibrium rendering them essentially unsolvable.

In recent years, roughly since 1999 it has been attempted to quantize classical games . A classical game can be quantized by assuming that the possible strategies a player can choose are elements of a Hilbert space. In the traditional view, players apply unitary operations to their strategies, called ”tactics”, in order to come to a final state that is then measured by an arbiter for the determination of pay-off. The physical model that guides such considerations is that of ”classical” players communicating their strategies to the referee by means of ”quantum objects”. There are strong indications that entangled states play a significant role in finding solutions to quantum games .

In a recent paper  I have adopted the philosophy of  to percieve the programme of quantizing games in terms of quantizing players. There are indications  that suggest the human mind may be subject to quantum-like fluctuations that give rise to quantum-like behaviour. Generically quantum players playing a classical game will obtain the same results as classical players playing a quantum game. A possible exception could be cases in which the players are fermionic, i.e. games where a particular strategy can be played by atmost one player .

An important point of criticism raised recently  concerns two questions. First one should wonder whether the solutions to quantum games that arise through the quantization of classical games have anything to say about the actual game. Secondly, if entangled states are significant in obtaining new solutions one wonders how players that cannot communicate according to the rules of the game, still end up in an entangled state. In  the attempt is made to formalize the quantization procedures and to prove quantum versions of the minimax theorem and the existence of Nash equilibria for quantum games. This proposal is, as usual, based on the game proceeding through the exchange of quantum bits between players and the arbiter. Consequently gamespaces are automatically direct-product spaces of the strategic space of the individual players. Als argued in , this is restrictive and at the same time does not effectvely counter the more fundamental objections put forward in . For quantum players there is no obvious need for their pay-off operators to commute. With classical players there is, yielding diagonal pay-off operators and allowing one to retrieve the classical limit of quantum games in the sector of direct-product states . The quantumness of the game then shows through the efficiency of entangled strategies, or its influence on the formation of coalitions among players . The motivation for the introduction of non-commuting pay-off was discussed at length in  and will not be repeated here. But let me remark that non-commutative pay-off allows for a constructive approach toward quantum game theory, very much in spirit to the use of symmetry groups in particle physics phenomenology. The guiding principle used here is a quantum version of van Enk and Pike’s statement that games are defined by their rules. Quantum gamespaces should be constructed from the pay-off algebra. Can that be done?

This paper focusses on a particularly simple game that has been develloped as a toy-model for non-commuting games. The 2-player non-commutative game, in which the two pay-off operators are essentially canonically conjugate, is the game equivalent of the quantum harmonic oscillator. This was noted but not discussed at any length in . This paper will fill that ommision. In  a Chinos gambling game was analysed. After suitable quantization this game shows dynamically generated earnings for one of the two players. Here we will see that the non-cammutativity of pay-off also does this trick for a quantum-like Heads or Tails. In section 2 I analyze this 2-player non-commutative game. I will construct the game from the operators representing the pay-off for two players. Their algebra can be deduced from the requirement that any operator representing either the actions or measurements by the arbiter, or the dynamics of the game, can be constructed from them. The simplest possible choice generates quantum Heads or Tails. I will give a possible way to physically play such a game, and I will analyze the structure of the pay-off earned by both players in the process of playing the game.

2. 2-player Quantum Heads or Tails

Let me summarise the ingredients for the description of an N-player quantum game. I identify the following parts;

* N-Player Game space: The state of the N-player game can be represented by a vector in a suitable Hilbert space.
* Pay-off: There exists a set of N, linear, self-adjoint pay-off operators on the N-player Hilbert space, one for every player present.
* Arbiter: There exists an arbiter who determines when the moves should be played, and determines pay-off. The operators representing these tasks of the arbiter can be constructed from the pay-off operators only.

A consequence of this setting is that the arbiter, who determines the rules, indeed determines the game. As such this is in spirit with game theory.

2.1. A non-commutative 2-Player betting Game

A physical model for this game has been presented elsewhere and I will not repeat that discussion . Basically such a game could occur when the arbiter has posession of a collection of instable nuclei of species $`A`$ that can decay with equal probabillity into species $`B`$ {heads} and $`C`$ {tails}. Two players place a bet on the occurrence of either heads or tails, with a fixed amount of money for every occurence of a decay. The arbiter does not know the number of rounds played, i.e. the number of decays that have occured, untill the moment he measures it and counts the number of heads and tails and determines the pay-off for each player. In a Schrödinger Cat like case, superpositions of states representing a different number of played rounds can occur. They turn this game which classically is a probabillistic gambling game into a game where correlations between the two players pay-off may occur.

The arbiter is represented by two operators. The operator $`\widehat{N}`$ counts the sequential number of the moves played by the players. Obviously it must be a hermitian operator. Then there is a raising operator $`\widehat{\alpha }_+`$ that raises this sequential move-number by one unit. There is no need for it to be hermitian. In order for this to work, the two operators satisfy,

$$[\widehat{N},\widehat{\alpha }_+]=\widehat{\alpha }_+.$$
(2.1)
Now let,

$$\widehat{\alpha }_{}=\widehat{\alpha }_+^{}$$
(2.2)
so we can write $`\widehat{N}`$ as

$$\widehat{N}=\widehat{\alpha }_+\widehat{\alpha }_{}.$$
(2.3)
The operators $`\widehat{\alpha }_+`$ and $`\widehat{\alpha }_{}`$ satisfy

$$[\widehat{\alpha }_{},\widehat{\alpha }_+]=1.$$
(2.4)
From this last result it is obvious that these operators are the well known ladder-operators in the quantum mechanics of the harmonic oscillator.

The two ladder-operators are supposed to be related to the pay-off operators of the players. Assuming that they are linearly related, given the fact that the pay-off operators are hermitian, the two sole possible combinations are straightforward,

$$\widehat{\alpha }_\pm =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}[\frac{1}{\kappa _1}\widehat{\pi }_1\pm \frac{ı}{\kappa _2}\widehat{\pi }_2],$$
(2.5)
where $`\kappa _j`$ are suitable units of pay-off for the corresponding player. It is straightforward to show they satisfy

$$[\widehat{\pi }_1,\widehat{\pi }_2]=ı\kappa _1\kappa _2.$$
(2.6)
The operator $`\widehat{N}`$, by construction, has a discrete eigenvalue spectrum. When we start from a game state that satisfies

$$\widehat{\alpha }_{}|0=0.$$
(2.7)
The eigenvalues take positive integer values. Thus we create a tower of states that are labelled by a single integer

$$|n=\frac{1}{\sqrt{n!}}\widehat{\alpha }_+^n|0,$$
(2.8)
and this set of states is a complete orthonormal set. The corresponding eigenvalues are

$$\widehat{N}|n=n|n$$
(2.9)
It is straightforward and convenient to compute the matrix representations of these operators in the basis of eigenstates of $`\widehat{N}`$. In terms of these matrices the two pay-off operators become

$$[\widehat{\pi }_1]_{mn}=\kappa _1(\sqrt{\frac{n+1}{2}}\delta _{m(n+1)}+\sqrt{\frac{n}{2}}\delta _{m(n1)}),$$
(2.10)
and

$$[\widehat{\pi }_2]_{mn}=ı\kappa _2(\sqrt{\frac{n+1}{2}}\delta _{m(n+1)}\sqrt{\frac{n}{2}}\delta _{m(n1)}),$$
(2.11)
It is obvious now that the pay-off in any of the eigenstates of the number operator vanishes. How can we infer the existence of discernable strategies from such a game space? I will show next that the correlations give rise to a fuller understanding of the structure of this game.

2.2. Correlations in Pay Off

First of all we consider the mean-squared deviation for each of the two pay-offs. It shows the following behaviour,

$$n|\widehat{\pi }_j^2|n=(n+\frac{1}{2})\kappa _j^2$$
(2.12)
which is typical of succesive, but statistically independent, gambles only in the limit of large $`n`$. This suggests that for large numbers of rounds the game starts to approach a symmetric heads or tails game.

The correlations give a more interesting piece of information. In defining the correlation between the pay-off of the two players it is important to know that the product of the two is not hermitian. First we define a ”pre” correlation as

$$PC[\widehat{\pi }_1,\widehat{\pi }_2]_{mn}=\frac{1}{2}[\widehat{\pi }_1\widehat{\pi }_2+\widehat{\pi }_2\widehat{\pi }_1]_{mn},$$
(2.13)
in the basis constructed in the previous section. By the correlation we then mean

$$n|C[\widehat{\pi }_1,\widehat{\pi }_2]|n=n|PC[\widehat{\pi }_1,\widehat{\pi }_2]|nn|\widehat{\pi }_1|nn|\widehat{\pi }_2|n.$$
(2.14)
Diagonalizing the correlation would give us insight into the possible relationship between the pay-off of the two players. This would thus provide a proper clue on how to interpret this game. Note that the correlation is not the expectation value of a linear operator, due to the subtraction of the disconnected terms. Now, it is relatively straightforward to show that the eigenstates of the pre-correlation have vanishing expectation values for the pay-off. The correlation can be considered a linear operator when we intepret it as being defined in the much larger space spanned by the direct-product of $`|n`$ states. However, if we restrict to games that are played a finite number of times we can easilly determine the eigenstates of the pre-correlation operator. Note that such a truncation would not make sense in the usual harmonic oscillator context. This restriction can be implemented in two ways through a modification of the commutation relations between the step operators.

First of all, applying the step-up operator to the state $`|𝒩`$ could be made to yield the $`0`$ vector. This is not the same as the state $`|0`$! Instead of the commutation relations given above, we would now have,

$$[\widehat{\alpha }_{},\widehat{\alpha }_+]_{nm}=\delta _{nm}𝒩\delta _{𝒩n}\delta _{𝒩m},$$
(2.15)
where $`𝒩`$ is the maximum number of rounds to be played. All the pre-correlation eigenstates have vanishing pay-off expectation values. A computation of the eigenvalues of the correlation operator for different values of the maximum number of rounds is straightforward. The general result is that, upon normalization, correlations are either $`1`$, $`0`$ or $`1`$.

If the the state $`|𝒩`$ is mapped onto the state $`|0`$ the process of stepping through the rounds becomes periodic. This leads to another modification of the commutation rules,

$$[\widehat{\alpha }_{},\widehat{\alpha }_+]_{nm}=\delta _{nm}𝒩\delta _{𝒩n}\delta _{𝒩m}\delta _{0n}\delta _{0m},$$
(2.16)
It therefore generates a game where the move of the $`(𝒩+1)`$th round maps the $`𝒩`$th-round state back onto the initial state. Such a periodic game shows partially the same characteristics as the finite game. Again we find the same set of possible correlations between the values of the two pay-off operators. What is particularly interesting about this last modification of the commutation relations is that the periodicity after $`𝒩`$ turns yields pay off operators that commute in $`|0`$-sector, i.e. in the initial state.

As a last element of analysis I would like to introduce the equivalent of the time-independent Schrödinger equation. Using it we can write down the wave functions corresponding to seperate rounds and in that representation it becomes easier to study the correlation eigenstates in infinite games.

2.3. Schrödinger Equation for the Quantum Game

We use the following representation of the operators $`\pi _j`$

$$\widehat{\pi }_1=ı\kappa _1\kappa _2\frac{}{\pi },$$
(2.17)
and

$$\widehat{\pi }_1=\pi .$$
(2.18)
It is straightforward to verify that these satisfy the commutation relations given earlier. Using the step-operators expressed in terms of the pay off operators we can write the following equation for the number operator,

$$\kappa _1\kappa _2\frac{^2}{\pi ^2}\mathrm{\Psi }_n(\pi )+\frac{1}{\kappa _1\kappa _2}\pi ^2\mathrm{\Psi }_n(\pi )=(2n+1)\mathrm{\Psi }_n(\pi ).$$
(2.19)
Using the dimensionless variable $`\xi =\frac{\pi }{\sqrt{\kappa _1\kappa _2}}`$, we get

$$\frac{^2}{\xi ^2}\mathrm{\Psi }_n(\xi )+\xi ^2\mathrm{\Psi }_n(\xi )=(2n+1)\mathrm{\Psi }_n(\xi ).$$
(2.20)
The solutions are expressible in terms of the wellknown Hermite polynomials $`H_n(\xi )`$

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_n(\xi )=C_n\mathrm{exp}[\frac{\xi ^2}{2}]H_n(\xi ),$$
(2.21)
where $`C_n`$ is a normalization constant. The probabillity that a measurement of $`\xi `$, i.e. pay-off for player 2, yields a value in the range $`\xi `$ to $`\xi +d\xi `$ is given by

$$P_n(\xi )d\xi =\mathrm{\Psi }_n(\xi )(\mathrm{\Psi }_n(\xi ))d\xi =\mathrm{exp}[\xi ^2]H_n(\xi )^2d\xi .$$
(2.22)
It is now interesting to analyze the relationship with simple Head or Tails from this perspective.

As I pointed out earlier, the $`n`$ is intepreted as an integer counting the number of rounds that have been played. The classical game would start off with zero pay-off for both players. If we consider the wavefunction for the zeroth round state we see it is a pure Gaussian. It peaks at zero pay-off, yet it has a certain width. So if the arbiter would measure the initial pay-off, there is a calculable probabillity that the players receive pay-off. As the first round has been played the game is in the $`n=1`$ state. Classically this would mean, for Heads or Tails, that the players have a 50 percent chance of having won or lost a unit of pay off. So the classical players would find themselves in one of these two states, $`\xi =\pm 1`$. In the quantum game we could ask where the probabillity-density peaks. In some arbitrary excited state this happens at

$$\frac{}{\xi }P_n(\xi )=exp[\xi ^2]2H_n(\xi )[2nH_{n1}(\xi )\xi H_n(\xi )]=0,$$
(2.23)
where the properties of the Hermite polynomials have been used to convert a derivative of a polynomial into a lower-order one. The zeros of $`H_n(\xi )`$ generate the minima of $`P_n(\xi )`$, so it is when the second factor vanishes that we have a maximum value of the probabillity density. For the first excited state this leads to the simple equation

$$22\xi ^2=0,$$
(2.24)
which has the obvious solutions $`\xi =\pm 1`$. So the quantum game amplitude indeed peaks at the classical values! If we would have assumed that starting from a gaussian initial pay-off distribution there would have been a 50 percent probabillity to jump one unit of pay-off either forwards or backwards, the resulting probabillity density would have the sum of two gaussians, one centred around each of the values $`\xi =\pm 1`$. In that case we would have had a minimum at $`\xi =0`$, as the quantum game has, but not as deep as in the quantum case. We can conclude that the quantum game describes a game displaying more fluctuations than just an initial uncertainty in pay-off. Is this behaviour also present for the higher excited states, i.e. the higher number of rounds? The answer is ambiguous as the number of maxima satisfies our expectations, yet their location starts to deviate from the classical values. The microscopic structure of the game described here cannot be represented by a classical Heads or Tails game starting out from gaussian initial pay-off. If we would assume that pay-off is not generated in fixed and discrete units per round, but rather their size is a gaussian stochastic variable itself, we expect the probabillity densities to be convolutions of gaussians, and hence gaussians.

The correlation eigenstates now are wave functions satisfying the following first-order differential equation

$$ı\kappa _1\kappa _2[\xi \frac{}{\xi }+1]\mathrm{\Psi }_c(\xi )=\lambda _c\mathrm{\Psi }_c(\xi ).$$
(2.25)
The solutions to this equation are straightforward to write down, but not very convenient to interpret. The states are not normalisable, just as the ”free player states” that are the eigenstates of any of the two operators $`\widehat{\pi }_j`$, i.e. planewaves in pay-off space. The integrals involving the product of a free-player state and the conjugate of another are linearly divergent and give rise to a delta-function normalisation. The integrals involving the correlation eigenstates are logarithmically divergent. The unnormalized correlation eigenvalue spectrum is continuous and ranges from $`\mathrm{}`$ to $`+\mathrm{}`$. It is straightforward to show that this set of states is indeed complete.

3. Discussion and Conclusion

On the basis of the material presented above it seems to reasonable to draw the conclusion that the game space constructed on the basis of the player pay-off operators allows for neutral, as well as for winning/losing strategies. The neutral strategy essentially decouples the players into two games of Heads or Tails. The other strategies, while maintaining a stochastic character, correlate the random earnings of one player with the earnings of the other in either a win-win or a win-lose strategy. The key element of the construction of these strategies is allowing for superpositions of states representing different rounds of the game.

Now where do we take it from here? First of all, the argumentation presented is far from exhaustive. For example, the question of how a player can opt for a particular strategy has not been posed, nor answered. More importantly, the game analyzed in this paper represents the simplest, and possibly the most trivial non-commuting quantum game. Instead of going about identifying interesting non-commutative games through trial and error, one would prefer having theoretical tools that allow one to isolate non-trivial games before one has actually constructed and analysed the game space. This will require work that goes beyond the work presented here and that of . Last but not least, more knowledge has to be unearthed concerning the dynamics of games and it would be highly interesting to find out whether a path integral quantization of extensive classical games can lead to the gamespaces discussed in the current formulation of quantum game theory. Preparatory work on this subject is currently underway .