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# A Far-Ultraviolet Survey of 47 Tucanae. I. Imaging 1footnote 11footnote 1Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. These observations are associated with proposal #8219.

## 1 Introduction

Globular clusters (GCs) are fantastic stellar crash test laboratories. Violent encounters between binaries and single stars in dense cluster cores give rise to exotic stellar populations, such as blue stragglers (BSs), cataclysmic variables (CVs), low-mass x-ray binaries and milli-second pulsars. All of these objects have considerably bluer spectral energy distributions than the non-degenerate stars that make up the bulk of the GC mass. Observations at short wavelengths are thus ideally suited to the detection and characterisation of these relatively rare stellar species. This is nicely illustrated by the recent Chandra survey of 47 Tuc (Grindlay et al. 2001a), which finally showed that the theoretically predicted, extensive population of interacting close binaries really does exist there. Nevertheless, important puzzles still remain. For example, even though Grindlay et al. (2001a) estimated that there are 30 CVs with $`L_x\stackrel{>}{}10^{30}`$ ergs s-1 in 47 Tuc – far more than found in any previous study – this is at best 1/3 of the number predicted by tidal capture theory (Di Stefano & Rappaport 1994).

Given the striking differences between optical and Chandra x-ray images of 47 Tuc, it seems clear that observations at intermediate wavelengths – i.e. the far-ultraviolet (FUV) – would be invaluable in identifying and characterising both the Chandra sources and other exotic objects in the cluster. For example, it is well known that CVs and young white dwarfs (WDs) radiate much of their luminosity in the FUV waveband. We have therefore embarked on a program to study the cores of nearby GCs at FUV wavelengths, using both imaging and slitless spectroscopy. The extraordinary spatial resolution and FUV sensitivity of the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) aboard the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) make this the instrument of choice for our study. Here, we present first results from a campaign on 47 Tuc, which clearly demonstrate the value of FUV observations to the study of GCs.

## 2 Observations and Data Reduction

### 2.1 FUV Photometry

Thirty orbits of STIS/HST observations of 47 Tuc have been obtained, comprised of six epochs of five orbits each (HST program GO-8219). In each epoch, we carried out FUV imaging and slitless spectroscopy. Consecutive observing epochs were as closely spaced as a few days and as widely separated as a year. Typical exposure times in the FUV were 600 s. Our program is therefore sensitive to variability on time-scales ranging from minutes to months. In this first paper arising from our survey, we will focus on the results obtained from the FUV imaging aspect of the program; the analysis of the slitless spectroscopy is in progress and will be presented elsewhere.

All of our FUV observations (both imaging and spectroscopic) used the FUV-MAMA detectors and were taken through the F25QTZ filter. The purpose of this filter is to block geocoronal Ly$`\alpha `$, OI 1304 Å and OI\] 1356 Å emission which would otherwise produce a high background across the detector in our slitless spectroscopy. The effective bandpass with this instrumental set-up is 1450 Å – 1800 Å. The 1024$`\times `$1024 pixel FUV-MAMA detector covers approximately 25″$`\times `$25″, at a spatial resolution of about 0.043″ (FWHM). Our field of view (FoV) was chosen to overlap with archival HST observations of 47 Tuc and included the cluster center.

Source detection and photometry was carried out on a deep FUV image that was constructed by registering and co-adding all of the individual FUV imaging exposures. We note that – like x-ray detectors, but unlike optical CCDs – the FUV/MAMAs are photon counting devices with no read noise and very little dark current (approximately $`7\times 10^6`$ c s-1 pix-1). As a result, sky and faint source pixels tend to show either exactly zero or one count in a typical FUV exposure. This implies that median filtering is a sub-optimal way of combining multiple FUV exposures. Instead, FUV images should be combined by direct summing or averaging.

We obtained two FUV imaging exposures at the beginning and end of each observing epoch, for a total of 24 FUV images. The registration and co-addition of these images was performed with routines available in the iraf/images 222IRAF (Image Reduction and Analysis Facility) is distributed by the National Astronomy Optical Observatories, which are operated by AURA, Inc, under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. package. In doing so, we took care to mask known image defects (e.g. hot pixels) by inspecting the data-quality file associated with each individual exposure. The final, deep FUV image corresponds to a total exposure time of approximately 14,600 s.

Source detection and photometry on the co-added FUV image was carried out with the SExtractor software (Bertin & Arnout 1996). This was preferred to other packages because our FUV images share characteristics with both standard CCD images (e.g. compact PSF) and x-ray images (e.g. low background, complex PSF shape). The software of choice has to work well with both types of characteristics, and the SExtractor fits this bill: it was designed primarily for use with CCD images, but is also known to work well on x-ray images (Valtchanov, Pierre & Gastaud 2001).

The SExtractor uses a matched filtering method for source detection. When dealing with CCD images, it is usually sufficient to use a simple analytic filter (e.g. a Gaussian) whose width is chosen to match that of the detector point spread function (PSF). However, the FUV/MAMA PSF is quite complex and asymmetric. We therefore designed our own matched filter from an empirical PSF that was constructed using the daophot package within iraf.

The detection threshold within SExtractor was set to 5$`\sigma `$ above the local background, with the minimum source area set to 5 pixels. However, it is important to note that these numbers refer to the filtered image. A more transparent way to characterise our detection threshold is to consider the completeness of our source detection procedure as a function of magnitude. As described in Section 2, artificial star tests suggest that our FUV survey is almost complete to $`m_{FUV}24`$. Here, $`m_{FUV}`$ is the FUV magnitude of a source in the STMAG system, defined by

$$m_{FUV}=2.5\mathrm{log}F_\lambda 21.1,$$
(1)
where $`F_\lambda `$ is the flux of a hypothetical flat-spectrum source. Thus $`m_{FUV}24`$ corresponds to $`F_\lambda 9\times 10^{19}`$ ergs cm-2 s1 Å-1. In terms of recorded counts, we have

$$F_\lambda =\frac{\mathrm{Counts}\times \mathrm{PHOTFLAM}}{\mathrm{Exposure}\mathrm{Time}},$$
(2)
where PHOTFLAM ($`=1.04\times 10^{16}`$ ergs cm-2 Å-1 counts-1 for our set-up) is the inverse sensitivity of the detector/filter combination. Given the effective exposure time of the co-added FUV frame, our $`m_{FUV}24`$ completeness threshold corresponds to approximately 125 source counts; about 80 of these fall within our photometric aperture (see below). Thus our detection threshold corresponds to $`S/N9`$ at the completeness limit. As a last step, we rejected sources that were too close to the image edges, resulting in a final catalog of 767 FUV sources.

Since the FUV image is not particularly crowded, we were able to use simple aperture photometry to measure the magnitudes of the detected FUV sources. All FUV magnitudes quoted below are on the STMAG system and were calculated using an aperture with a radius of 5 pixels. The aperture correction to infinite radius was estimated using both empirical and theoretical PSFs. The theoretical PSF was calculated with the TinyTim software333TinyTim is available at http://www.stsci.edu/software/tinytim..

We also carried out a search for variability among our FUV sources. This was done by registering individual FUV frames to the co-added frame and performing aperture photometry at the positions of the previously detected FUV sources on these frames. Likely variables were identified by calculating the standard deviation, $`\sigma `$, of each light curve and searching for outliers in a plot of $`\sigma `$ vs $`m_{FUV}`$. Candidate variables were then inspected by eye on the images and removed from the list if their variability appeared to be spurious (e.g. due to image defects or a location near the image edges). This procedure finally allowed us to identify 8 FUV sources that appear to be genuinely variable. These will be discussed in more detail in Section 3.

### 2.2 Optical Photometry

In order to find optical counterparts for our FUV sources, we used the HST archive to construct a deep U-band image of the STIS FoV. More specifically, we extracted from the HST archive all WFPC2/PC/F336W ($``$ U) exposures that contained at least part of our FoV. We registered and combined these images, and carried out source detection and PSF-fitting photometry on the co-added frame using daophot (Stetson 1987). Magnitudes were again placed on the STMAG system, but it is important to note that stars brighter than $`m_{336}16`$ were generally saturated in the co-added frame. At the other extreme, the optical photometry is not sensitive to objects fainter than $`m_{336}2223`$.

### 2.3 Matching FUV and Optical Catalogs

We also extracted and combined all WFPC2/PC/F218W images covering our FoV from the HST archive. Even for the bluest objects (hot WDs), the co-added F218W image does not go as deep as the co-added F336W image. However, the F218W bandpass lies between the STIS/FUV/F25QTZ and WFPC2/F336W bandpasses, making the F218W frame a useful intermediary in the process of matching up FUV and F336W sources. Ferraro et al.’s (2001) list of BSs, hot WDs and UV-excess stars in the core of 47 Tuc provided a particularly convenient starting point in this context. These authors provide F218W positions for all objects on their list, many of which turn out to be detectable in both FUV and F336W. Starting with this initial list of matches, we iteratively improved the transformation between F336W and FUV positions by finding additional matches and rederiving transformation coefficients. With our final transformation, there are 4894 U-band sources within our effective FUV FoV.

In our search for optical counterparts, we adopted a maximum difference of 1.5 STIS/FUV-MAMA pixels ($`0.038\mathrm{}0.8`$ WFPC2/PC pixels) between the centers of FUV sources and their F336W counterparts. Even with this conservative criterion, we managed to find counterparts to 527 FUV sources. We chose such a restrictive matching radius in order to keep the likely number of false matches at an acceptable level. This is an important consideration, since with 767 FUV and 4894 optical sources sharing approximately 1 million pixels, we certainly expect some false matches to occur. The expected number of false matches depends on the numbers of objects in the two source lists, the matching tolerance and the actual number of objects matched. Based on these parameters, we estimate that our list of optical counterparts contains approximately 8 false matches overall, but only 3 among FUV sources brighter than $`m_{FUV}=22`$. This distinction is important because most of the interesting objects in our CMD are brighter than this limit.

## 3 Results and Discussion

### 3.1 Comparison of FUV, Optical and X-ray Imaging

In Figure 1, we show a comparison of the F336W and FUV images of the same 25″$`\times `$25″ field near the core of 47 Tuc. The optical image is vastly more crowded, because the majority of main-sequence stars, red giants and horizontal branch stars are too cool to show up in the FUV exposure. We have overlayed onto the FUV image the predicted positions of known, blue sources from Geffert, Auriére & Koch-Miramond (1997) and also the predicted positions of the Chandra x-ray sources from Grindlay et al. (2001a). In both cases, the positions were determined by first placing the sources on the F336W frame, using the invmetric task within iraf/stsdas, then improving these positions by using three sources that are common to both lists and are also detected in both our F336W and FUV frames. These three sources are AKO9 \[W36\], V1 \[W42, X9\] and V2 \[W30, X19\] (the identifications in square brackets refer to alternative designations in the literature; ’W’ numbers, in particular, refer to Table 1 of Grindlay et al. 2001a; ‘X’ numbers refer to Table 2 of Verbunt & Hasinger 1998). We finally transformed the positions to the STIS/FUV frame, using our previously derived transformation.

Figure 1 shows that almost all of the blue sources listed by Geffert et al. (1997) have certain or likely FUV counterparts. This was to be expected, but is nevertheless important: it provides an external check on our astrometry and supports our contention that FUV imaging is an excellent way of finding interesting GC sources. We find fewer obvious FUV counterparts to the Grindlay et al. (2001a) x-ray sources within our FoV. This is not so surprising, given that approximately 70% of their sources are expected to be very faint FUV sources (millisecond pulsars and x-ray active main sequence binaries). A more interesting question is whether we detect those Chandra sources that are definitely expected to be FUV bright. There are only four such sources in our FoV, all of which were classified by Grindlay et al. as CVs. Three of these are thought to be associated with previously known or suspected CVs, namely our reference stars AKO 9, V1 and V2; all three are also clearly detected in our FUV images. The fourth source – denoted W15 by Grindlay et al. (2001a) – is a CV candidate that was not known prior to the Chandra survey of 47 Tuc. It, too, has a likely counterpart in our FUV images (see Figure 1 and Section 3.3.5).

### 3.2 The FUV luminosity function

In Figure 2, we show the FUV luminosity function (LF) for the 767 stars we detected in our FUV image. The main feature of the LF is the sharp rise towards $`m_{FUV}24`$. As we will show below, this feature is due to main-sequence turn-off (MSTO) stars which become detectable near this magnitude. A second interesting aspect of the LF is that the brightest source in the sample earns that distinction by a considerable margin (approximately 1.75 mags). This source is AKO 9, which we will return to in Section 3.3.5 below.

In order to assess the completeness of our sample, we used the addstar routine within daophot to carry out artificial star tests. The results are shown in the top panel of Figure 2 and suggest that our survey is close to complete to roughly $`m_{FUV}24`$. However, it is worth noting that (i) both addstar and SExtractor used the same PSF, and (ii) the addstar routine does not account for the quantization of counts at low count levels. As a result, our completeness estimates could be slightly optimistic.

### 3.3 The FUV/Optical Color-Magnitude Diagram

In Figure 3, we present the FUV-optical color-magnitude diagram (CMD) of 47 Tuc. Several distinct stellar populations are present in CMD, among them WDs, BSs, MSTO stars and, last but not least, CVs. We have also calculated and plotted a set of theoretical tracks whose purpose is to aid in the interpretation of the CMD. We will first describe the calculation of these tracks and then discuss the implications of our CMD for our understanding of the stellar populations within it.

#### 3.3.1 Synthetic Photometry

The starting point for our synthetic photometry was the recent work by VandenBerg (2000), who modelled the optical CMD of 47 Tuc. Don VandenBerg kindly provided us with the corresponding set of isochrones and zero-age horizontal branch (ZAHB) models, from which we extracted the stellar parameters of main sequence stars, sub-giants, red giants and horizontal branch stars in 47 Tuc. We then used synphot within iraf/stsdas to calculate the FUV and optical magnitudes of stars on these sequences. This was achieved by interpolating on the Kurucz grid of model stellar atmospheres and folding the resulting synthetic spectra through the response of the appropriate filter+detector combinations. The cluster parameters we adopted in our calculations are those of VandenBerg (2000), i.e. $`E(BV)=0.032`$, $`d=4510`$ pc, $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]=0.83`$ and $`[\alpha /\mathrm{Fe}]=0.3`$. VandenBerg’s study puts 47 Tuc’s age at approximately 11.5 Gyr, so we calculated isochrones for 10, 12 and 14 Gyr.

We also calculated an approximate BS sequence for our CMD. For this, we assumed BSs to lie near the zero-age main sequence (ZAMS) of the cluster, and used the fitting formulae of Tout et al. (1996) to estimate the appropriate stellar parameters. The corresponding FUV and optical colors were again estimated from the Kurucz model grid within synphot. The same technique was used to estimate the location of the ZAMS of the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC), which is relevant because 47 Tuc is located in front of the SMC. For the SMC, we adopted a metallicity of $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]=0.68`$, a distance of 58.6 kpc and the same reddening as for 47 Tuc (Böhm-Vitense 1997). We also calculated a theoretical WD cooling sequence for our CMD. In doing so, we adopted a mean cluster WD mass of 0.53 M (Renzini & Fusi-Pecci 1988) and used DA WD model atmospheres to calculate the predicted colors. For models with $`T_{eff}15,000`$ K, we used a small grid of model atmospheres calculated with tlusty/synspec (Hubeny, Lanz & Jeffery 1994) and kindly provided to us by Ivan Hubeny. For models with higher $`T_{eff}`$, we used the Vennes et al. (1993) grid of DA WD models, which was kindly provided to us by Stephane Vennes.

#### 3.3.2 Main-sequence stars, sub-giants, red-giants and horizontal branch stars

Returning to Figure 3, we first note the prominent clump of stars in the upper right quadrant. This clump contains most of the stars in the CMD and happily coincides almost exactly with the expected location of the MSTO.

We next focus on the smaller clump of stars near the predicted location of the ZAHB (i.e. above and to the blue of the MSTO). This second clump (at $`m_{F336W}\stackrel{<}{}16`$) contains mostly saturated horizontal branch stars (c.f. Section 2.2); i.e. its apparent location below the ZAHB track is an artifact of saturation.

Finally, there is also a trail of stars between these two clumps, which cannot be explained as an artifact due to saturation. We have therefore used additional archival data to investigate the nature of the sources on this trail and find that they are red giants. For comparison, the synthetic red giant branch is approximately 4-5 magnitudes redward of this trail.

In order to understand this apparent discrepancy, it is important to realize that our CMD does not imply that these stars are FUV bright, only that they are not as FUV faint as stellar atmosphere models predict. This is not particularly surprising. After all, the Kurucz model atmospheres include only the photospheric stellar flux. However, the FUV waveband is well down the Wien tail of a red giant’s photospheric spectrum, so that chromospheric emission can totally dominate the FUV output of these systems. Figure 1 of Robinson, Carpenter & Brown (1998) nicely illustrates this effect for two isolated K Giants. We finally note that the chromospherically-dominated FUV spectra of red giants are rich in emission lines; these might be detectable in our slitless spectroscopy.

#### 3.3.3 Blue Stragglers

The BS sequence can be seen as a trail of stars starting at the MSTO and going upwards and to the left. The slight discrepancy between the observed BS sequence and the synthetic one is not surprising, since the latter assumes that the BSs lie on the ZAMS. In reality, BSs may be expected to be somewhat evolved, explaining their location above and to the red of the ZAMS. In total, there are 19 BSs in our CMD, extending all the way from the MSTO (at approximately 0.9 M) to perhaps 1.5 M (judging from the ZAMS models). Four of these (circled in Figure 3) appear to be variable in our FUV photometry. This is plausible, given that variability is a known phenomenon among BSs (e.g. Gilliland et al. 1995).

#### 3.3.4 White Dwarfs

The WD cooling sequence is clearly visible in the bottom left quadrant of the CMD. The faintest WDs on this sequence have $`T_{eff}20,000`$ K, but it is worth noting that this detection limit is imposed by the depth of the optical data. Indeed, our FUV detection limit of $`m_{FUV}24`$ corresponds to a WD with $`T_{eff}11,500`$ K.

It is interesting to ask whether the numbers of WDs we detect are in line with expectations. A simple estimate of the expected number can be made following Richer et al. (1997). The number of stars in two post-main-sequence phases is, in general, proportional to the duration of these phases. We will use horizontal branch (HB) stars as a reference point, and take $`N_{HB}`$ as the number of HB stars in our FoV and $`\tau _{HB}10^8`$ yrs as their lifetime (e.g. Dorman 1992). We then expect to find approximately

$$N_{WD}(T_{eff}>T_{lim})N_{HB}\times \left[\frac{\tau _{WD}(T_{lim})}{\tau _{HB}}\right],$$
(3)
WDs hotter than $`T_{lim}`$ in the FoV, where $`\tau _{WD}(T_{lim})`$ is the time it takes a WD to cool to $`T_{lim}`$. Inspection of published optical observations shows that $`N_{HB}50`$ (Guhathakurta et al. 1992). We note that the estimate in Equation 3 ignores the effect of mass segregation. This is a reasonable first approximation in our case, since the cooling time-scales among our WD population are short and comparable to the core relaxation time of $`10^8`$ yrs \[Harris 1996\]).

For a first check, we will assume that the 17 WDs in our CMD represent the complete WD population in our FoV down to $`T_{eff}20,000`$ K. The true number is likely to be higher, since our optical data is likely to be seriously incomplete at the faint end of the WD sequence. If we nevertheless adopt this assumption and use the models of Althaus & Benvenuto (1998) to estimate the corresponding cooling time, we find $`\tau _{WD}5\times 10^7`$ yrs and hence $`N_{WD}(T_{eff}>20,000\mathrm{K})25`$. As expected, this is slightly larger than the observed number, but in the right ballpark. A second estimate can be made by assuming that all FUV sources with $`m_{FUV}<22`$ (corresponding to $`T_{eff}14,500`$ K) are WDs, unless their location in the CMD contradicts this. This allows us to include sources without optical counterparts, on the assumption that all such sources are optically faint WDs. There are a total of 121 FUV sources satisfying $`m_{FUV}<22`$ in our catalog, 34 of which are clearly not single WDs (based on their location in the CMD). We therefore estimate that the number of WDs with $`T_{eff}>14,500\mathrm{K}`$ is 87. The true number is probably somewhat lower, since some of the FUV sources without optical counterparts may, for example, be faint CVs (see below). The cooling time for this temperature is roughly $`1.8\times 10^8`$ yrs and hence the predicted number of WDs is $`N_{WD}(T_{eff}>14,500\mathrm{K})90`$. Observed and predicted numbers appear to be in reasonable agreement.

#### 3.3.5 Cataclysmic Variables

We finally turn to the CV candidates that are revealed by our CMD. Given that CVs are binary systems containing an accreting WD and (usually) a MS star, we expect them to be located between the WD cooling sequence on one side and the MS (and its BS extension) on the other. We will refer to this area of the CMD as the “CV zone”. There are 16 objects in the CV zone, not including the star just off the lower left of the MSTO. How many of these sources are likely to be real CVs?

We first note that four objects in the CV zone – AKO 9, V1, V2 and W15 – are already confirmed CVs. All four of these sources are FUV bright and variable, and all four are Chandra x-ray sources that were also classified as CVs by Grindlay et al. (2001a). In the case of AKO 9 and V2, our slitless spectroscopy has already provided spectroscopic confirmation as well, via the detection of FUV emission lines (Knigge et al., in preparation; see Knigge et al. 2002 for a preliminary report). The identification of AKO 9 as a CV is especially important, since the nature of this 1.1-day binary had been unclear since its discovery by Auriére, Koch-Miramond & Ortolani (1989). A more detailed description of our FUV data on this source is in preparation.

Another one of our CV candidates also deserves special mention. This is the source labelled as V36 in both Figures 1 and 3. This identification follows the notation of Albrow et al. (2001), who show that V36 is likely to be a semi-detached binary system with an orbital period of 0.4 or 0.8 days. V36 was previously classified as a BS by Paresce et al. (1991) and has also been noted as an unusually blue source by De Marchi, Paresce & Ferraro (1993), Geffert et al. (1997) and Ferraro et al. (2001).444See the discussion in Ferraro et al. (2001) for the names assigned to V36 in the various catalogs. Based on the FUV imaging and astrometry shown in Figure 1, we now find that V36 is also a strong FUV emitter and located within 1 arcsec of a Chandra x-ray source. We therefore suggest that V36 is a strong CV candidate (see, however, the note added at the end of this paper).

Turning to the remaining 11 sources in the CV zone, we first consider the possibility that some of them are due to chance superpositions of physically unrelated WDs and MS stars. All of the sources are relatively FUV bright ($`m_{FUV}\stackrel{<}{}22`$) and therefore located in a region of the CMD where we should expect only about 3 false matches (c.f. Section 2.3). The resulting spurious sources would most likely be located near the peak of the optical luminosity function, i.e. around $`m_{336}18`$ (e.g. Howell et al. 2001). Thus any false matches amongst the objects in the CV zone are most likely to come from the 7 sources with $`m_{336}<20`$ and $`m_{FUV}m_{336}>0`$. However, only three of these – the three CV candidates closest to V36 in the CMD – show an offset in excess of 1 pixel between FUV and optical positions.

A second point to consider is whether some of the objects in the CV zone may be background stars in the SMC halo behind 47 Tuc. The expected location of the SMC ZAMS is indicated on the CMD. However, it is important to note that the bulk of SMC stars in this region follows an isochrone whose MSTO lies at about $`m_{336}22.5`$ (c.f. Zoccali et al. 2001). The likely degree of SMC contamination in our data can be quantified by comparison with the HST/WFPC2 observations of Zoccali et al. (2001). Their FoV covers approximately 17,000 arcsec2 centered 6.5′ west of the cluster center. Within this field, there are perhaps 10 possible SMC interlopers brighter than $`m_{336}22.5`$ (see their Figure 1, but note that their quoted magnitudes are instrumental). Scaling this number to the area covered by our roughly 630 arcsec2 FoV, we may expect to find about 0.4 SMC interlopers in our CMD. Even allowing for small number statistics, it is unlikely that there are more than one or two SMC stars in the CV zone.

The third question we must ask is whether some of the objects in the CV zone are affected by blending, image defects, edge effects, etc in the FUV image. We have therefore inspected by eye the positions of all 16 objects in the co-added FUV image (c.f. Figure 1). Based on this, the two sources closest to the BS sequence within the CV zone deserve further comment. One of them lies quite close to an image edge, but our aperture photometry for it should not be compromised significantly. In any case, we would expect edge effects to reduce the apparent brightness of this source, i.e. any correction would probably make this object appear even bluer and thus move it further into the CV zone. The other object lies within a few pixels of a fainter FUV source. This may have led to a mild overestimate of its FUV brightness, but the shift required to bring it close to the MSTO (about 2 mags) appears to be much larger than any implied correction.

Fourth, we have to look more carefully at our definition of the “CV zone”. More specifically, we must ask if the colors of the objects in this zone are actually consistent with those of CVs. We have addressed this question by plotting the locations of several proto-typical field CVs in our CMD, after placing these systems at the distance and reddening of 47 Tuc. The FUV magnitudes of the field CVs were calculated by running their IUE spectra through synphot; their F336W colors were estimated from U-band magnitudes in the literature (primarily Bruch & Engel 1994). Some field CVs appear twice in Figure 3, representing the same object in different states (e.g. dwarf novae in quiescence and outburst). We stress that this comparison between cluster CV candidates and field CVs is fraught with uncertainties, since the stellar environments and parameters of the two types of CVs are quite different. Nevertheless, it is clear from Figure 3 that most of the cluster sources in the CV zone of the CMD lie reasonably close to the positions of field CVs. The comparison also shows that the spectrum of some field CVs, like AM Her, can at times be dominated by their WDs, in both FUV and U/F336W bandpasses. This means that a few of the FUV sources on the WD cooling track may yet turn out to be CVs.

Fifth and finally, we must look at other types of stars that may be found in the CV zone, such as non-interacting MS/WD binaries. Indeed, given that there may be $`90`$ young WDs down to $`m_{FUV}22`$ (Section 3.3.4) and that the binary frequency in the core of 47 Tuc is about 15% (Albrow et al. 2001), all of the unconfirmed CV candidates could be non-interacting MS/WD binaries. Another stellar type that may occupy the CV zone are Helium WDs, which have, for example, been found in NGC 6397 (Cool et al. 1998). Both MS/WD binaries and He WDs would be consistent with the apparent lack of FUV variability amongst our unconfirmed CV candidates.

Based on the discussion above, we conclude that (i) a conservative estimate for the number of “real” sources in the CV zone – as opposed to SMC interlopers, image defects and products of chance coincidences – is $`N_{real}10`$; (ii) that the “CV zone” is a reasonable way to identify CV candidates; and (iii) that additional information will be needed to distinguish CVs from non-interacting MS/WD binaries and He WDs in the CV zone. With these conclusions in mind, we will consider both a best-case and a worst-case scenario. In the best-case scenario, the number of CVs in our CMD is $`N_{CV}N_{real}10`$; in the worst-case scenario, none of the currently unconfirmed CVs will turn out to be real cataclysmics and $`N_{CV}5`$. How do these numbers compare with theoretical expectations?

The simulations of Di Stefano & Rappaport (1994) predict that 47 Tuc should contain approximately 190 CVs that were formed by two-body tidal capture events (Fabian, Pringle & Rees 1975). Approximately half of these are expected to be located within one core radius of the cluster. Other CV formation channels exist (Davies 1997), but are probably less important than tidal capture in the cluster core. Given that our effective FoV samples approximately 35% of the 47 Tuc’s core ($`r_{core}=23`$″; Howell et al. 2001), our STIS image should contain roughly 30 CVs. However, many of these are predicted to be extremely faint, post-minimum period systems (“period-bouncers”), which we cannot hope to detect in our F336W data. This is confirmed by Figure 3, which shows that our F336W detection limit would not allow us to detect the most likely “period-bouncer” among field CVs – WZ Sge – in its normal, quiescent state. If we only count those CVs with predicted x-ray luminosities $`L_x>10^{31}`$ erg s-1 in the model of Di Stefano & Rappaport (1994) – a rough dividing line between pre- and post-bounce CVs (c.f. their Figures 3 and 4) – the predicted number drops by roughly another factor of two. Thus the tidal capture models of Di Stefano & Rappaport (1994) predict that our CMD should contain approximately 15 CVs.

We conclude that if our optimistic estimate of $`N_{CV}10`$ is correct, the observed-to-predicted ratio is about 2/3. This is not significantly different from unity, given the small number statistics involved. Thus the observed number of cluster CVs may, for the first time, be consistent with predictions based on tidal capture theory. But even in our worst-case scenario of $`N_{CV}5`$, the observed-to-predicted ratio is still about 1/3. The same ratio was found by Grindlay et al. (2001a), based on their Chandra observations of the whole cluster.

We close this section by noting that only a few of our 11 unconfirmed CV candidates are located close to known x-ray sources (c.f. Figure 1). Assuming that this is not simply due to remaining uncertainties in the astrometry, there are two possible explanations for this. First, perhaps the worst-case scenario is close to the truth, and few or none of our new CV candidates are actually CVs. Second, our FUV survey is turning up new, x-ray faint CVs. Given the x-ray properties of field CVs (e.g. van Teeseling, Beuermann & Verbunt 1996) and the detection limit of the Chandra survey of 47 Tuc ($`L_x10^{30}`$ erg s-1), this would be somewhat surprising. We may soon be able to decide between these possibilities on the basis of our time-resolved, slitless FUV spectroscopy.

## 4 Conclusions

We have presented first results from the imaging part of a FUV survey of 47 Tuc. The great benefit of moving to the FUV is that most ordinary cluster members are too cool to show up in this bandpass. This dramatically reduces crowding and makes it easy to find hot and/or exotic objects such as CVs, BSs and young WDs. The same lack of crowding even allows us to carry out slitless, multi-object FUV spectroscopy of the dense cluster core.

In this first analysis of our FUV observations of 47 Tuc, we have focused on the imaging aspect of our survey. By matching our FUV source catalog to a list of sources in a deep WFPC2/F336W ($``$ U) image of the same field, we have been able to find 17 WDs, 19 BSs and 16 candidate CVs. All four previously known CVs in our FoV – including one which was only recently found on the basis of Chandra x-ray imaging (Grindlay et al. 2001a) – are among these 16 candidates. Another one of our CV candidates is associated with the semi-detached binary system V36, which was recently disovered by Albrow et al. (2001). V36 has an orbital period of 0.4 or 0.8 days, blue optical colors and is located within 1 arcsec of a Chandra x-ray source. A few of the 11 remaining CV candidates may represent chance superpositions or SMC interlopers, but at least half are expected to be real cluster members with peculiar colors. However, only a few of these are located close to known x-ray sources. Our existing FUV spectroscopy and/or additional HST/WFPC2 images in different bandpasses should soon allow us test which, if any, of them are true CVs.

In summary, this first, deep FUV survey of a GC core highlights the great benefits of FUV observations to the study of rare and exotic stellar populations, not just in GCs, but also in other environments.

Note added: The referee of this paper, Peter Edmonds, has informed us that unpublished astrometry carried out by himself and Ron Gilliland suggests a different identification for the Chandra source close to V36. We await to see details of this work in the literature.At the present time, we think even the remaining evidence – V36’s blue FUV/optical colors, its orbital period of 0.4 or 0.8 days and Albrow et al.’s suggested classification of V36 as a semi-detached system – is sufficient to support our classification of V36 as a strong CV candidate. We hope that our FUV spectroscopy will soon shed additional light on the nature of this intriguing system.

We are grateful to the referee, Peter Edmonds for a detailed report that helped us improve this paper. Support for proposal #8219 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555.


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# Comment to the paper : Collapse of the vortex-lattice inductance and shear modulus at the melting transition in untwinned YBa2Cu3O7, by Matl et al.

In a recent paper, Matl et al. (MOGT) present a high-frequency study of the complex resistivity of a pinned vortex lattice in YBaCuO Matl . They focus on the inductive-to-resistive transition which is investigated as a function of temperature at a constant field $`B_0=2`$ T, so that the transition is associated with the vanishing of vortex pinning strength. The case of high-temperature materials is of particular interest since the transition temperature $`T_m`$ is smaller by a few degrees than the diamagnetic transition $`T_c`$. The nature of the inductive transition is still debated, with however, strong indications from thermodynamics in favor of a first-order scenario. In this context, the linear response is a very rich and useful probe that allows to characterize both the resistive and inductive responses of the vortex state. As discussed in the literature nono , the high-frequency domain, including the pinning frequency $`\omega _p1`$MHz in the soft materials such as YBaCuO crystals, is especially relevant for elucidating the nature of the pinning mechanism. However, as drawback, it requires to handle (tackle) experimental complications due to skin-effects.

The most salient feature of the MOGT-data is a strong divergence, followed by a sharp discontinuity, of the low-frequency inductivity $`L_s(T)`$ at $`T_m`$ which is identified as the temperature of the first order transition. As it is clear from the title of their paper, Matl et al. attribute this discontinuity to the collapse of the vortex-lattice (VL) shear modulus $`C_{66}`$. We stress here that the observed, $`\lambda `$-shaped, temperature dependence $`L_s(T)`$ is quite standard for a superconducting transition, and rather indicative of a second-order transition; it can therefore not be regarded as a proof of a collapse of $`C_{66}`$, even though this collapse is very much reclaimed if the transition is a genuine melting.

As a main point, we recall that the relevant parameter for a superconducting transition is not $`L_s(T)`$ but the effective superconducting-electron density $`\stackrel{~}{n}_s(T)`$ which is inversely proportional to $`L_s`$. In the vortex state the apparent superconducting density $`\stackrel{~}{n}_s`$ is determined by the elastic pinning properties of the VL. Although $`\stackrel{~}{n}_s`$ can be in principle deduced from the critical-current density, but it is best and most directly related to the kinetic inductivity since in the expression $`L_s=m/(\stackrel{~}{n}_se^2)`$ intervene only the elementary mass $`m`$ and charge $`e`$. Now, according to the experimental low-frequency data by Matl et al. (see the 1 MHz data in Fig. 7 of Matl ), $`1/L_s(T)(T_mT)`$ is linearly vanishing at $`T_m`$ which is the prescription for a second-order transition. In order to understand to which part of the experimental data, the shear discontinuity reported in the fig. 7 of Ref.Matl  can be traced back, we need to look into the details of the MOGT data analysis.

If not related to the quasistatic response, the discontinuity must be due to the finite-frequency deviations in the complex resistivity (dispersion). We agree with the authors that the conventional Gittleman-Rosemblum model, based on a purely local force-balance model with a single a return spring constant $`\kappa `$ and a viscous drag coefficient $`\eta `$ nono ; GR , cannot explain the pinning frequency spectrum. In this respect, the proper account of non-local effects is certainly the key ingredient for tackling this long-standing disagreement. But this concern is very general and not specific to the MOGT-data. As a matter of fact, MOGT-data are quite representative of clean-YBaCuO spectra and very similar to what was previously published pautrat  using a slightly different technics;the YBaCuO-spectra themselves are not different from those of standard pinned vortex states in low Tc materials nono . In these materials, the question of the depinning spectrum has been successfully solved by relying on a simple model: the two-mode electrodynamics nono . This model is very well suited for pinning of vortices by surface irregularities, a mechanism which is always present and prevails in clean materials, like untwinned YBaCuO pautrat . In this model, the shear modulus is not relevant at all for dispersion but may intervene indirectly in the phenomelogical parameter for the quasistatic response.

The situation with the MOGT analysis is quite opposite. Matl et al. use a different model which relies on the existence of a dilute concentration of very strong pinning centers with a matching field $`B_\varphi `$ typically 100 times smaller than their working field $`B_0=2`$T. A further strong assumption is that VL dynamics is purely two-dimensional. This hypothesis would need to be controlled experimentally. This model is quite complicated; it contains, beside that the onset frequency for skin-effect, three characteristic frequencies: the pinning frequency $`\omega _p=\kappa /\eta `$ for the strongly pinned vortex fraction (in the GHz range), the effective pinning frequency $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }_p=\omega _pB_\varphi /B_0`$ (in the 10 MHz range) associated with the averaged pinning force $`\stackrel{~}{\kappa }=\kappa B_\varphi /B_0`$, and finally the shear frequency $`\omega _{66}=4\pi C_{66}/\eta `$ (in the sub MHz range). Importantly for the analysis is the hierarchy $`\omega _p\stackrel{~}{\omega }_p\omega _{66}`$, so that the low-frequency dispersion is dominated by shear interactions. Note also that the quasistatic inductance is given, up to a small logarithmic correction, by the classical GR formula taking $`\stackrel{~}{\kappa }`$ as an effective spring constant, and therefore from principle insensitive to $`C_{66}`$. Finally the reality of the three-decades jump in $`C_{66}`$ which in their analysis precedes the true depinning transition ($`\kappa =0`$) is very much dependent on the details of the fitting procedure for the few frequency spectra taken in a the tiny temperature range below $`T_m`$. To our view, the MOGT-conclusions rely on a rather brittle experimental body and the collapse of C66results from an involved analysis of the finite frequency corrections to $`\rho (\omega )`$. These corrections are not necessary since the complex frequency spectrum has been previously interpreted by the two modes model, first proposed for low Tc materialsnono . We think that it is more adequate to interpret the present data and should be at least considered.


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# Wireless communications with diffuse waves

## Abstract

Diffuse, multiple-scattered waves can be very efficient for information transfer through disordered media, provided that antenna arrays are used for both transmission and reception of signals. Information capacity $`C`$ of a communication channel between two identical linear arrays of $`n`$ equally-spaced antennas, placed in a disordered medium with diffuse scattering, grows linearly with $`n`$ and can attain considerable values, if antenna spacing $`a\lambda /2`$, where $`\lambda `$ is the wavelength. Decrease of $`a`$ below $`\lambda /2`$ makes the signals received by different antennas partially correlated, thus introducing redundancy and reducing capacity of the communication system. When the size of antenna arrays is well below $`\lambda /2`$, the scaling of $`C`$ with $`n`$ becomes logarithmic and capacity is low.

Wireless communications in a disordered environment have recently attracted considerable attention mous00 ; andrews01 ; simon01 . At first glance, scattering from randomly distributed heterogeneities disturbs the signal carried by the scattered wave (either acoustic or electromagnetic) and is expected to reduce the efficiency of communication. Indeed, the rate of error-free information transfer per Hertz of frequency bandwidth for a scalar, narrow-band communication channel between a transmitter and a receiver is bounded by the channel information capacity $`=\mathrm{log}_2[1+\left|G\right|^2/N]`$ measured in bits per second per Hertz (bps/Hz) shannon48 ; cover91 . Here $`G=G(\nu )`$ is the Fourier transform of the impulse response function $`G(t)`$, describing the signal at the receiver due to an infinitely short pulse emitted by the transmitter, and $`N`$ is the power of the Gaussian white noise at the receiver. Obviously, the decrease of the signal power $`\left|G\right|^2`$ due to scattering results in a reduction of the channel capacity. However, in addition to the overall decrease of $`\left|G\right|^2`$, scattering introduces random fluctuations of $`G`$ in space. It was recently realized foschini98  that one can make use of these fluctuations to overcome the reduction of $`C`$ due to the drop of the signal power, provided that the communication system contains a large number of antennas mous00 ; simon01 . This issue is very promising for applications in wireless communications (mobile telephony in cities, indoor wireless local-area networks in buildings with complex structure, underwater communications with acoustic waves, etc.).

Assuming that the information about the scattering environment is available at the receivers (but not at the transmitters) and that uncorrelated noises at different receiving antennas have the same power $`N`$, the average capacity of a communication channel between arrays of $`n`$ transmitting and $`n`$ receiving antennas 111For simplicity, we consider the transmitting and receiving arrays to consist of the same number $`n`$ of antennas. can be defined as mous00

$`C=\underset{𝐐}{\mathrm{max}}\mathrm{log}_2det\left[𝐈_n+𝐆𝐐𝐆^+/N\right],`$ (1)
where $`𝐈_n`$ is the $`n\times n`$ unit matrix, $`𝐆`$ is a Green matrix ($`G_{i\alpha }`$ gives the signal received by the receiver $`\alpha `$ due to the transmitter $`i`$), and $`𝐐`$ is a non-negative definite covariance matrix describing correlations between the transmitted signals (with the constraint on the maximum transmitted power $`\mathrm{Tr}𝐐n`$). Angular brackets in Eq. (1) denote averaging over realizations of disorder. A rigorous analysis of the information capacity $`C`$ in a disordered medium cannot be based uniquely on the arguments of the information theory shannon48 ; cover91  and requires the physical understanding of scattering undergone by the waves carrying the information from transmitters to receivers. In the present paper we analyze $`C`$ in the framework of the model of diffuse multiple scattering, resulting in a complicated, seemingly random spatial distribution of scattered wave fields (so-called “speckles”). For the extreme cases of (a) a single speckle spot covering the whole antenna array ($`𝐆`$ has perfectly correlated entries) and (b) different antennas situated inside different speckle spots (entries of $`𝐆`$ are uncorrelated), we derive complete analytical expressions for $`C`$. We show that $`C`$ increases during the continuous transition from the case (a) to the case (b) upon increasing antenna spacing (or, equivalently, upon decreasing correlations between the entries of $`𝐆`$) and changes its asymptotic scaling with $`n`$ from $`C\mathrm{ln}n`$ to $`Cn`$.

To be specific, we consider two identical linear arrays of equally-spaced transmitting/receiving antennas placed in a disordered medium. The distance $`L`$ between the arrays is assumed to be much greater than the mean free path $`\mathrm{}`$ for waves in the medium, while the array size $`d=(n1)a\mathrm{}`$ and $`d(\lambda L)^{1/2}`$ (Fresnel limit), where $`a`$ is the spacing between adjacent antennas and $`\lambda `$ is the wavelength. In the majority of practically important cases $`\lambda \mathrm{}`$, and hence the propagation of waves from transmitters to receivers is diffusive ishim78 . Entries $`G_{i\alpha }`$ of the matrix $`𝐆`$ can be then treated as complex Gaussian random variables with zero mean, equal variances, and possibly nontrivial correlations shapiro86

$`G_{i\alpha }G_{j\beta }=\sigma ^2{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(k\mathrm{\Delta }r_{ij})}{k\mathrm{\Delta }r_{ij}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(k\mathrm{\Delta }r_{\alpha \beta })}{k\mathrm{\Delta }r_{\alpha \beta }}},`$ (2)
where $`k=2\pi /\lambda `$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{ij}=\left|ij\right|a`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{\alpha \beta }=\left|\alpha \beta \right|a`$.

The simplest cases to consider are (a) $`kd0`$ and (b) $`ka=m\pi `$ ($`m=1,2,\mathrm{}`$). In the former case, all $`G_{i\alpha }`$ are perfectly correlated and one finds $`C=\mathrm{exp}[1/(n^2S/N)]E_1[1/(n^2S/N)]/\mathrm{ln}2`$, where $`E_1`$ is the exponential integral function, $`S=n\sigma ^2`$ is the average signal power received at each receiver assuming independent signals from transmitters, and $`C\mathrm{ln}n`$ for $`n^2S/N1`$. In the case (b), $`𝐐=𝐈_n`$ in Eq. (1) telatar99  and the machinery of the random matrix theory mehta91  can be employed for further analysis of the problem. In particular, it is useful to rewrite Eq. (1) as

$`C={\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}}\mathrm{log}_2\left[1+(S/N)\mu _i\right],`$ (3)
where $`\mu _i`$ are the squares of the singular values of the matrix $`𝐆^+/S^{1/2}`$ with the joint probability density function mehta91

$`p_n(\mu _1,\mathrm{},\mu _n)=A_n\mathrm{exp}\left(n{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}}\mu _i\right){\displaystyle \underset{i<j}{}}(\mu _i\mu _j)^2,`$ (4)
where $`A_n`$ is a normalization constant. The moment generating function $`F(x)`$ of a random variable $`c`$, defined by Eq. (3) without averaging, is obtained by averaging $`\mathrm{exp}(xc)`$ with help of Eq. (4) sengupta00 , and $`C=c`$ is then calculated as

$`C={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}}F(x)|_{x=0}=\mathrm{Tr}\left(𝐏^1𝐑\right),`$ (5)
where $`𝐏`$ and $`𝐑`$ are $`n\times n`$ matrices:

$`P_{ij}`$ $`=`$ $`(i+j2)!n^{1ij},`$ (6)
$`R_{ij}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}d\mu \mathrm{ln}\left[1+(S/N)\mu \right]\mu ^{i+j2}\mathrm{exp}(n\mu ).`$ (7)
Equations (5)–(7) provide an efficient way for capacity calculation at arbitrary $`n`$ and $`S/N`$ (see the solid line in Fig. 1) and agree perfectly with the direct Monte Carlo simulation of capacity using Eq. (1) (symbols in Fig. 1). Note that the growth of $`C`$ with $`n`$ is linear at large $`n`$ and hence is much faster than in the case (a).

An alternative way of calculating capacity consists in performing averaging directly in Eq. (3) using Eq. (4). This yields

$`C/n={\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}d\mu \mathrm{log}_2\left[1+(S/N)\mu \right]f_n(\mu ),`$ (8)
where $`f_n(\mu _1)=_0^{\mathrm{}}d\mu _2\mathrm{}d\mu _np_n(\mu _1,\mathrm{},\mu _n)`$ can be evaluated by a direct integration, at least at moderate $`n`$: $`f_1(\mu )=\mathrm{exp}(\mu )`$, $`f_2(\mu )=2\mathrm{exp}(2\mu )[12\mu +2\mu ^2]`$, $`f_3(\mu )=3\mathrm{exp}(3\mu )[16\mu +18\mu ^218\mu ^3+(27/4)\mu ^4]`$, etc. The values of capacity obtained then from Eq. (8) coincide exactly with that following from Eq. (5). An asymptotic expression for $`f_n(\mu )`$ at $`n1`$ can be found in the framework of the random matrix theory mehta91 ; sengupta99 : $`f_{\mathrm{}}(\mu )=(2\pi )^1(4/\mu 1)^{1/2}`$ for $`0<\mu <4`$ and $`f_{\mathrm{}}(\mu )=0`$ otherwise. Eq. (8) then yields

$`C/n`$ $`=`$ $`(S/N)_3F_2(1,1,3/2;\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2},3;4S/N)/\mathrm{ln}2,`$ (9)
where $`{}_{3}{}^{}F_{2}^{}`$ is the generalized hypergeometric function. This result is shown in the main plot of Fig. 1 by a dashed horizontal line. We find $`C/n\mathrm{log}_2(S/N)\mathrm{log}_2e`$ for $`S/N1`$ (see also the inset of Fig. 1). It is worthwhile to note that $`C/n`$ decreases monotonically with $`n`$, while the difference between the values of $`C/n`$ at $`n=1`$ and $`n>1`$ never exceeds 7%.

We now allow $`ka`$ to take arbitrary values, thus introducing correlations between the entries of the Green matrix $`𝐆`$. Eq. (1) can again be reduced to Eq. (3) with $`\mu _i`$ denoting the squares of the singular values of the matrix $`𝐐^{1/2}𝐆^+/S^{1/2}`$, where $`𝐐`$ is chosen to maximize the result. The joint probability density function of $`\mu _i`$, analogous to Eq. (4), is not known in this case, but one can still calculate $`C`$ in the large-$`n`$ limit mous00 ; sengupta00 . The idea is to represent the moment generating function $`F(x)`$ of a random variable $`c`$, defined by Eq. (3) without averaging, as a multiple Gaussian integral (the so-called “replica trick”) and then to perform the integrations using saddle point methods in the limit $`n1`$. The maximization of $`C=(\mathrm{d}/\mathrm{d}x)F(x)|_{x=0}`$ over $`𝐐`$ is then accomplished by requiring $`\delta C0`$ for all allowed small variations $`\delta 𝐐`$ of the optimal matrix $`𝐐`$. This yields a system of nonlinear equations for the eigenvalues of $`𝐐`$ and some auxiliary variables that can be solved numerically. We refer the reader to Refs. sengupta00,  and sengupta99,  for an exhaustive account of the theoretical approach and the algorithm of the numerical calculation. The results that we obtained for identical linear arrays of equally-spaced antennas are presented in Fig. 2. As follows from the figure, at $`ka>\pi `$ correlations between the entries of $`𝐆`$ are too weak to affect $`C`$ significantly and the latter remains very close to its maximum value, given by Eqs. (5) or (8). In contrast, correlations become important when $`ka`$ decreases below $`\pi `$, leading to a significant drop of $`C`$. The dashed line in Fig. 2 results from the asymptotic large-$`n`$ theory mous00 ; sengupta00 ; sengupta99  with $`n=2`$ and is shown for illustration purposes only. Its closeness to the Monte Carlo result (solid line for $`n=2`$) testifies a qualitative validity of the large-$`n`$ theory even at small $`n`$. As $`ka`$ increases, the scaling of $`C`$ with $`n`$ changes from $`C\mathrm{ln}n`$ at $`ka=0`$ to $`Cn`$ at $`ka\pi `$ (see the inset of Fig. 2). We note that even at $`0<ka<\pi `$, there is still a significant gain in capacity as compared to the case of $`ka=0`$: e.g., at $`n=100`$, $`C/n`$ for $`ka=\pi /2`$ ($`\pi /4`$) is almost 20 (13) times larger than for $`ka=0`$.

In conclusion, we have studied the information capacity $`C`$ of a wireless communication channel in a disordered medium, assuming multiple diffuse scattering of waves that carry information, and taking into account fluctuations of wave fields in space (speckles). Although multiple scattering reduces the received signal, it allows for a dramatic increase of capacity in the case of communication between two antenna arrays, provided that antenna spacing $`a\lambda /2`$, where $`\lambda `$ is the wavelength. Namely, for identical linear arrays of $`n`$ equally spaced receiving/transmitting antennas, scaling of $`C`$ with $`n`$ changes from $`C\mathrm{ln}n`$ for $`kd\pi `$ to $`Cn`$ for $`ka\pi `$, where $`d=a(n1)`$ is the array size and $`k=2\pi /\lambda `$. Even at $`0<ka<\pi `$ an important gain in capacity is possible as compared to $`ka=0`$.

The author is indebted to Prof. R. Maynard for helpful discussions and critical reading of the manuscript.


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# Dynamical limits on galactic winds, halo machos and intergalactic globular clusters

## 1 Introduction

How strong is the energetic feedback from star formation in galaxies? What are the effects of massloss from a galaxy? These are important questions in understanding galaxy formation. Baryonic gas cools and forms stars in potentials of the dark matter halos. Some massive stars explode as supernovae and the stellar envelope is ejected with high speed. This feedback not only injects and mixs metals in galaxies, but also drives galactic winds to pollute intergalactic medium. A sudden loss of baryonic gas by winds after an extremely powerful burst of star formation also means a sudden weakening of the gravitational potential of the galaxy.

The weakening of the potential has several interesting consequences. For example, the galaxy halo will relax to a looser distribution after a mild loss of its mass through winds. This reduction of halo density is interesting for overcoming the dense cusp in Cold Dark Matter halos (e.g. Gnedin & Zhao 2001). Stars could also escape a lowered potential well of a galaxy, and appear as intergalactic stars.

There are also limits on the amount of massloss. A galaxy becomes unbound if more than half of its mass is lost (Hills 1980). Real galaxies appear to be tightly bound. The boundness of present day galaxies should set some limits on the violentness of massloss and star formation in the past.

It is now well-established that galactic outflows are ubiquitous in actively star forming galaxies, both in the local universe and at high redshift (see a review by Heckman 2001). The amount of gas lost in the energetic outflow is largely comparable to the amount of stars formed. Such a wind can be efficient in polluting the hot gas in the intergalactic medium (IGM). Some amount of energetic wind or outflow seems mandatory to account for the presence of metals in the QSO absorption systems at high redshift, and metals in the hot gas in galaxy clusters (e.g., Bookbinder et al. 1980).

In the Milky Way there are very few metal-poor stars with $`[Fe/H]4`$ in the halo and $`[Fe/H]0.6`$ in the disk. There are also metals in some distant high-velocity clouds in the Local Group. These again suggest an early phase of metal production in a burst of mainly massive stars.

Several recent claims of detection of a substantial amount of white dwarfs (WDs) in the Galactic halo and distant galaxies by direct proper motion searches or indirect microlensing observations suggest a first burst of high-mass stars narrowly peaked around $`(23)\mathrm{M}_{}`$ in galaxy halos. To leave behind every half-solar-mass WD, a few times more of the remnant mass is returned to the interstellar medium via the planetary phase. Those in binaries die after $`1`$ Gyr via the highly energetic Type Ia SN, which can easily power a hot and fast wind and drive all stellar ejecta out of the potential well of a galaxy.

Motivated by these considerations, we model the dynamical effect of the post-star-formation galactic wind on the density distribution of the dark particle halo. We examine the effect of a fast wind at a redshift $`z1`$ when the Milky-Way-sized halos are already largely assembled, and energetic SN Ia are observed. In general, a galaxy will expand, stellar orbits become highly radial in response to a rapid weakening of the potential well due to the mass gone with the wind. In particular we set limits on the amount of high-mass star formation in galaxies in the past, and the amount of stellar remnents, e.g., white dwarfs, in present day galaxies.

Simple models for the wind and expansion are developed in §2 and the Appendix, including the effects on globular clusters. Applications to the halo white dwarf problem are made in §3. We discuss our results in §4, in particular, the strength and starting time of the wind, and conclude in §5.

## 2 Models

### 2.1 The post-wind halo expansion and escaping stars

Let us define $`ϵ`$ as the fraction of the initial galaxy total mass that is lost in the wind. It is then given by

$$ϵ\frac{M_w}{M_w+M_0},$$
(1)
where $`M_0`$ is the present day total mass bound to the galaxy, and $`M_w`$ is the amount of mass lost in the wind. Define the constant $`ϵ_{\mathrm{}}`$ to be the critical amount of massloss for the system to expands to infinity or unbound, then for a wind of a range of speed we have

$$[\mathrm{fast}\mathrm{wind}]0.5ϵ_{\mathrm{}}1[\mathrm{slow}\mathrm{wind}],$$
(2)
where the boundaries are specified such that a system unbounds if lossing 50% of its mass in a fast wind or 100% of its mass in a slow wind.

The loss of gas reduces the gravitational mass of the system, making the potential shallower. The system will relax to a new equilibrium by an overall expansion. The orbits of tracer particles in the galaxy potential will also expand. The expansion factors depend on the speed of the massloss, and are derived in Appendix A.1 and A.2. The weakening of the potential well also means some stellar particles could escape. The process is different from the massloss of the gas, which is pushed out by the pressure gradient. Here stars at the high energy tails could gain sufficient potential energy and exceed the bounding potential of the system. This fraction is estimated in Appendix A.3.

In general a system of initial characteristic size $`r_{i,e}`$ expands, after lossing $`ϵ`$ fraction of the total mass, to a size $`r_{f,e}`$ with

$$X\frac{r}{r_i}=1+\frac{ϵ_{\mathrm{}}ϵ}{ϵ_{\mathrm{}}ϵ}.$$
(3)
Note $`X\mathrm{}`$ when $`ϵϵ_{\mathrm{}}`$. For a slow wind defined by $`ϵ_{\mathrm{}}=1`$ we have $`X=(1ϵ)^1`$.

The weakening of the potential due to massloss and overall expansion has also the effect of increasing the apocenter of a tracer orbit. A tracer particle initially on circular orbit of size $`r_i=a_i`$ will expand to a generally eccentric orbit with an apocenter $`r=a`$, where the expansion factor

$$A\frac{a}{a_i}\frac{1}{1\frac{ϵ}{ϵ_{\mathrm{}}}},$$
(4)
so in a fast wind 222For a slow wind we have $`ϵ_{\mathrm{}}=1`$, hence $`A=X=1/(1ϵ)`$ (cf. eqns. 3 and 4), consistent with the expectation that the eccentricity of the orbit is constant for adiabatic changes of the galaxy potential (Lynden-Bell 1963) the expansion in apocenter is somewhat stronger than for the system as a whole, i.e., $`A=\frac{a}{a_i}\frac{r}{r_i}=X`$. This is because the pericenters are determined by the angular momentum barrier, which does not change very much, so the apocenter must increases faster than the semi-axis. As a result, orbits become preferentially radial. Note also the size of a tracer orbit doubles, i.e., $`A=2`$ for $`ϵ=ϵ_{\mathrm{dbl}}=0.5ϵ_{\mathrm{}}`$.

Another effect of weakening of the potential is that some stars or globular clusters can escape the potential. Let $`ϵ_{}`$ be the fraction of escaping stars among all stars produced in the galaxy, then (cf. Appendix A.3)

$$ϵ_{}\frac{M_{,\mathrm{esc}}}{M_{,\mathrm{esc}}+M_{}}\left[\frac{(1ϵ_{\mathrm{}})ϵ}{(1ϵ)ϵ_{\mathrm{}}}\right]^2.$$
(5)
Note that no stars escape in a slow wind with $`ϵ_{\mathrm{}}1`$, and all stars escape in a wind of maximum strength $`ϵϵ_{\mathrm{}}`$. If the massloss is small, then $`ϵ_{}ϵ^2`$ in a fast wind with $`ϵ_{\mathrm{}}=0.5`$.

### 2.2 Absence of intergalactic globulars and the maximum massloss

We are primarily interested in fast winds with $`ϵ_{\mathrm{}}=0.5`$. We shall also assume that the expansion factors $`X`$ and $`A`$ and the massloss fractions $`ϵ`$ and $`ϵ_{}`$ are all everywhere the same. These are illustrated in Fig.1 as functions of gas massloss fraction $`ϵ`$. Since galactic winds are generally expected to be fast, the above calculations motivate us to rate the degree of expansion caused by a fast wind into three categorical classes,

$`ϵ`$ $``$ $`0.04\mathrm{mild},`$ (6)
$``$ $`0.15\mathrm{severe},`$ (7)
$``$ $`0.5\mathrm{unbound}.`$ (8)
To justify these categories, note when a galaxy losses $`ϵ=15\%25\%`$ of its mass in a fast wind, the galaxy expands in volume by a factor $`X^3=1.83.4`$, and the apocenters of the globular cluster tracers could increase by a factor of $`A1.42`$, and a fraction $`ϵ_{}=3\%10\%`$ of the galactic stars or globular clusters should escape. For a bright galaxy like the Milky Way or the Andromeda with of order 150-450 globulars, this would predict of order 5-45 “intergalactic” globulars.

Fig.2 shows the most recent compilation of orbital parameters of the Milky Way globular clusters (Dinescu et al. 1999 and references therein). The distribution appears similar to that of an isotropic models, which predict a median apo-to-peri ratio about $`4`$ (van den Bosch et al. 1999). Globular clusters with apo-to-peri ratio $`>10`$ are rare, and these outliers appear as frequently for inner disk globulars as for outer halo globulars; the outer globulars should experience much less dynamical friction and tidal destruction than the inner globulars. There are very few Galactic globulars beyond 20 kpc of the Galactic center. The total number of globular clusters in the Local Group is estimated to be

$$N_{\mathrm{MW}}+N_{\mathrm{And}}150+450=600$$
(9)
(e.g., Barmby & Huchra 2002), and the numbers might have been much higher earlier on considering the destruction of inner globulars once the disk and bulge form. The fact that there are no direct evidence for free floating clusters in the Local Group suggests at face value

$$ϵ^2ϵ_{}\frac{1}{600},$$
(10)
And as far as we know there are no direct evidence for intergalactic globulars around other galaxies, implying perhaps that they are very few. Together these imply that the massloss in galaxies in the past is limited to a fraction

$$ϵ0.04.$$
(11)
We conclude the lack of escaping old halo globular clusters in galaxies does not support a rapid expansion of galaxy halos.

## 3 Application to the halo white dwarfs

### 3.1 The observational and theoretical case for halo white dwarfs

Recent searches for baryonic dark matter found between (2-5)% to (8-50)% of the dark halo density to be in the form of half-solar-mass WDs. The lower estimates come from direct detection of faint blue high proper motion objects in the solar neighbourhood (Oppenheimer et al. 2001, Ibata et al. 2000), and the upper estimates are indirectly inferred from observed microlenses towards the LMC (Alcock et al. 1997, 2000, Lasserre et al. 2000). While these observations confirms the notion that the bulk of the halo is still in the form of undetected non-baryonic weakly interacting particles (WIMPs), the existence of a significant halo WD population is still very contentious (see a recent review by Richer 2001). In fact the infered amount of WDs is surprisingly big, and is difficult to fit in current theories of star formation and galaxy evolution. For example, the mean baryons to WIMPs split in the universe is only around $`15:85`$ for current favored cosmological parameters. Nevertheless, theorists have long been prepared to include this odd piece in the cosmic puzzle (Carr 1994). The most natural way to account for these WDs and their extragalactic counterparts, albeit not without difficulties, is that they are the relics of the first burst of high-mass stars in all galaxies.

The detailed properties of the burst of WD progenitors must conform with a number of observational and theoretical constraints. The progenitors are likely formed about 10 Gyrs ago, earlier than the disk, so that the hydrogen-rich WDs have enough time to cool to a temperature of 3000-8000 K after their progenitors evolve off the main sequence in 1-2 Gyrs (Hansen 1999); the helium-rich WDs can cool faster, and are perhaps as numerous as the hydrogen-rich WDs. The progenitors must have a narrow top-heavy IMF within the range of $`18\mathrm{M}_{}`$, perhaps a log-normal distribution peaked around $`23\mathrm{M}_{}`$, so to avoid overpredicting the counts of faint main sequence stars in the halo (Chabrier, Segretain & Méra 1996 and references therein). This burst of WD progenitors must have a total mass at least comparable to the total mass of galactic stars in the disk today, even using the most conservative lower estimate of Oppenheimer et al. (2001). Note we treat the formation of WD progenitor as a single burst, although some claim a spread in ages among the sample of white dwarfs from Oppenheimer et al. (Hansen 2001).

The bulk of the mass of a WD progenitor is in the envelope, which is injected back into the interstellar medium at the end of main sequence lifetime through the planetary nebulae phase. The metals synthesized in these progenitors are also released, which could severely distort the abundance pattern of observed halo and disk stars, especially in deuterium, helium, carbon and nitrogen, if the metals were kept inside the galaxy. This is saved by a galactic wind about 1 Gyr later powered by Type Ia supernovae (SN Ia ) evolved from binary progenitors (Fields, Mathews, Schramm 1997, Fields, Freese, Graff 2000 and references therein).

### 3.2 A dynamical limit on white dwarfs

Let us estimate the effect of a wind driven by such a burst of WD progenitors. Let $`M_0`$ be the present day galaxy mass, $`f_{WD}M_0`$ be the mass locked in WD remnants. For a progenitor mass of $`m_{PG}`$ to evolve into a WD of mass $`m_{WD}`$, the amount of mass lost is $`m_{PG}m_{WD}`$, so the total number of WDs (as well as the WD progenitors) $`N_{WD}`$ and the mass lost in the wind is given by

$$M_wM_iM_0=\left(m_{PG}m_{WD}\right)N_{WD},$$
(12)
and

$$N_{WD}=\frac{f_{WD}M_0}{m_{WD}},$$
(13)
where $`M_iM_0+M_w`$ is the pre-wind original total mass of the galaxy. The fraction of the initial galaxy total mass that is lost in the wind, $`ϵ`$, is then given by

$$ϵ\frac{M_w}{M_w+M_0}=\frac{\left(\frac{m_{PG}m_{WD}}{m_{WD}}\right)f_{WD}}{1+\left(\frac{m_{PG}m_{WD}}{m_{WD}}\right)f_{WD}}.$$
(14)
Fig.3 shows the boundaries defined by eq. (14) and eqs. (6,7,8) in the parameter plane of $`m_{PG}/m_{WD}`$ vs. $`f_{WD}`$. For a log-normal distribution of $`m_{PG}`$ within $`1\mathrm{M}_{}8\mathrm{M}_{}`$, we expect

$$m_{PG}4m_{WD}(2.54.5)\mathrm{M}_{},$$
(15)
insensitive to the details of the IMF. So, allowing only a mild wind and expansion, Fig.3 predicts that the maximum mix of halo WDs with halo WIMPs is given by

$$\frac{f_{WD}}{1f_{WD}}\frac{2\%}{98\%}$$
(16)
in all tightly bound galaxies.

## 4 Discussions

### 4.1 Did the Galaxy experience a severe expansion?

Apart from the globulars, another constraint for the amount of evolution of the Galactic potential is that the present-day dynamical mass of the Milky Way out to a shell at 50 kpc (the distance of the LMC) is about $`0.5\times 10^{12}\mathrm{M}_{}`$ (Wilkinson & Evans 1999), implying an average density of $`10^3\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{pc}^3`$ inside this shell. One can also estimate the density of an initial dark halo of the Milky Way, averaged over the same radius. Assume the inner 50 kpc of the Galaxy is already virialized at $`z=2`$, then it should have an overdensity of at least some 200 times the mean density of the universe then, insensitive to cosmology. More precisely a collapsed halo has a mean density

$$\rho _{\mathrm{vir}}(z)\frac{180(2+\mathrm{\Omega }_z)H_0^2}{8\pi G}(1+z)^30.8\times 10^3\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{pc}^3,$$
(17)
where $`H_0=75`$km/s/Mpc, $`z=2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_z0.9`$ for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0.3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$ cosmology (e.g., Bullock et al. 2001). So the density of the dark halo at $`z=2`$ agrees with the present day halo within 50 kpc very well. Another way to estimate this is with the Navarro, Frenk & White (1996) or Moore et al. (1998) models, assuming a virial radius of the Milky Way halo (200 kpc-400 kpc), and the concentration parameter of 6-12. These models can predict the mean density within $`50`$ kpc, and this turns out to be $`(0.52)\times 10^3\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{pc}^3`$, i.e., within a factor of two of current density. In comparison if a wind doubles the size the galaxy, the mean density enclosed inside a shell drops by a factor of $`X^3=8`$. This implies that any dynamical evolution must have been very mild after the formation of the outer halo.

### 4.2 When did the galactic wind start?

The oldest halo globular clusters are as old as about 12 Gyrs (Salaris et al. 1997), and the coolest local disk WDs are $`912`$ Gyrs (Knox et al. 1999, Oswalt et al. 1996, Hernanz et al. 1994). It is plausible to assume that $`912`$ Gyrs ago is roughly the epoch when baryons collapse in the potential of the dark particle halo of the Milky Way, and start forming the first stars everywhere, in the local disk, in globular clusters and in the halo; the IMF is top-heavy in the outer halo and normal Salpeter elsewhere in the disk and in globular clusters. This epoch corresponds to a redshift of $`z13`$ in a 14-Gyr-old universe with $`1\mathrm{\Omega }_m=\mathrm{\Omega }_\lambda =0.66`$ and $`H_0=66`$km/s/Mpc. The Madau diagram, i.e., the extragalactic star formation rate in this high redshift window is still not yet well constrained. There is a delay between the onset of the halo star formation and explosion of SN Ia , which is the time for the secondary of a binary to evolve and overflow its Roche lobe, and bring the WD of the primary into a critical mass. Take a plausible mass of $`(48)\mathrm{M}_{}`$ for the primary, and $`(12)\mathrm{M}_{}`$ for the secondary, the delay is $`18`$ Gyr. This predicts the appearance of the first halo SN Ia $`811`$ Gyr ago, which seems to be consistent with current detection of some SN Ia at redshift $`z=12`$. In short, we estimate that the galactic wind powered by the first SN Ia in the halo starts at $`z1`$, or when the universe was about half its present age. Since major mergers are rare in Milky Way sized halos after $`z=2`$ in the fairly successful $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmology, it appears safe to assume that CDM halos as big as the Milky Way halo are well assembled through hierarchical merging and infall by the time of the wind.

### 4.3 Are the winds fast or slow?

A slow wind means nearly adiabatic expansion, which happens if the outflow velocity is much less than the circular velocity of the galaxy. Observationally prominent outflows are seen in active star burst galaxies such as M82 at low redshift. Generally speaking the outflow rates are comparable to the rates of star formation in terms of mass and energy output, and these superwinds driven by star bursts have velocities of $`1001000\text{ km\hspace{0.17em}s}^1`$ (Heckman 2001). A wind or jet must also carry sufficient momentum in order to deliver and mix the metals observed in the intergalactic medium. At high redshift winds with Doppler offset velocity of 200-1000$`\text{ km\hspace{0.17em}s}^1`$ have been seen in Lyman-break galaxies with active star formation (e.g., Pettini et al. 2002), suggesting for fast outflow driven perhaps by UV-photons and SNe from the star burst. It would be oversimplifying to associate these observed star bursts directly with the speculated halo WD progenitors, but it is perhaps safe to argue that a hypothetic burst with a top-heavy IMF should lead to outflows at least as violent as these observed ones.

We could also estimate the energy budget of winds theoretically, as in Fields, Freese & Graff (2000). Ejecta from a SN Ia has a velocity $`v_{\mathrm{ej}}\sqrt{10^{51}\mathrm{ergs}/8\mathrm{M}_{}}2500\text{ km\hspace{0.17em}s}^1`$, where $`10^{51}`$ erg is the kinetic energy per SN Ia , and $`8\mathrm{M}_{}`$ is the upper limit for the mass of the exploded star. So the ejecta could escape any giant galaxy instantaneously by its own kinetic energy. It would require fine tuning of the star formation efficiency and/or the binary fraction to keep the outflow velocity low, at least for a top-heavy IMF.333Using a bottom-heavy IMF can suppress (binary) stars above $`1\mathrm{M}_{}`$ and the SN Ia , but it is not interesting for producing old halo WDs in the first place. The ejecta of low-mass stars drives a wind of velocity of $`30\text{ km\hspace{0.17em}s}^1`$, fast for dwarf galaxies. As an illustration, consider a very inefficient star burst early on with every $`1000\mathrm{M}_{}`$ of gas of a galaxy forming $`10`$ single stars of $`6\mathrm{M}_{}`$ plus one binary of masses $`4\mathrm{M}_{}:2\mathrm{M}_{}`$. Assume this top-heavy IMF leaves behind a remnent of a $`1\mathrm{M}_{}`$ WD with another $`5\mathrm{M}_{}`$ of stellar material ejected back to the interstellar medium with a velocity of $`30\text{ km\hspace{0.17em}s}^1`$ for a single progenitor, and $`3000\text{ km\hspace{0.17em}s}^1`$ for a binary progenitor. Most part of the ejecta might escape the galaxy with a high speed through “holes”, however, if only 25% of the ejecta could mix and thermalize with another $`934\mathrm{M}_{}`$ of unprocessed gas, then the mean outflow velocity is still above $`3000\text{ km\hspace{0.17em}s}^1\sqrt{25\%\times 5\mathrm{M}_{}/989\mathrm{M}_{}}100\text{ km\hspace{0.17em}s}^1`$, i.e., the outflow velocity is still far from adiabatic with a speed comparable to the velocity dispersion (sound speed) for the Milky Way-sized galaxy, and exceeding the escape velocity of dwarf galaxies. So an adiabatic expansion in the Milky Way would require “tuning” the binary formation efficiency $`10\%`$, the star formation efficiency $`6.6\%`$ and the energy deposit efficiency $`25\%`$. Without this fine-tuning, we expect theoretically that the energy from the SNe is too high for a slow galactic wind. 444 It is a common misconception that pressure-driven winds have necessarily a sound velocity very close to the typical velocity dispersion of the dynamical system. Calculations of winds in globular clusters show that the sound velocity can exceed the typical velocity dispersion and escape velocity of the dynamical system by a factor 1-10 if the energy injection rate is high (see, e.g., Fig. 2 and Fig. 3a of Faulkner & Freeman 1977). The gas flow velocity can also exceed the sound velocity in some regions.

In short, we conclude from theoretical and observational evidences that the galactic winds have speeds somewhere between our slow wind and our fast wind limits, with a tendency to be fast winds. For simplicity we shall adopt the fast wind limit in this paper, which could somewhat overestimate the effects of the wind.

### 4.4 Comparison with independent observations

The most direct estimates for the WD fraction $`f_{WD}`$ come from direct searches by Ibata et al. (2000), and by Oppenheimer et al. (2001); the latter claims a firm lower limit from their large sample of high proper motion halo WDs, about $`38`$ with spectroscopy confirmation and some show hydrogen lines, indicative of a mix of hot and cold WDs with temperature in the range $`30008000`$ K. Indirect measurements come from accounting for $`1020`$ microlensing events towards the LMC from the MACHO group (Alcock et al. 1997, 2000) and from the EROS group (Lasserre et al. 2000); the latter claims only an upper limit on the basis of a null detection of a conclusive halo microlens. Clearly our theoretical model is consistent with the EROS upper limit, but inconsistent with the best values from the MACHO group in 1997 and 2000. It is possible that most of the microlensing towards the LMC are dominated by stellar microlenses in the LMC (Sahu 1994, Zhao & Evans 2000) with only a minor contribution from the halo WDs. Our theoretical result, eq. (16), which is effectively an upper limit on any WDs in the halo, is consistent with the most recent lower limit by Oppenheimer et al. (2001).

Our dynamical constraint is the tightest for the high mass progenitors. One would hope that the progenitor mass could be constrained by the temperature of observed WDs together with a cooling model and an estimation of epoch of formation. For example, the cosmic clock in Fig.3 indicates a 10-Gyr-old burst. Their WD remnants are now hotter than $`4000`$ K if $`m_{PG}2.2\mathrm{M}_{}`$, and cooler if $`m_{PG}<2.2\mathrm{M}_{}`$. Unfortunately progenitors of $`2\mathrm{M}_{}`$ and $`4\mathrm{M}_{}`$ formed $`912`$ Gyrs ago both evolve to WDs in $`1`$ Gyr, which then cool to nearly the same temperatures after another $`10`$ Gyrs (cf. Fig.4), so we cannot differentiate them. We could, however, separate the WDs of $`1\mathrm{M}_{}`$ progenitors from WDs of $`48\mathrm{M}_{}`$ progenitors since the former will have a temperature (4000-10000 K) much higher than the latter ($`<4000`$ K). The temperatures of the observed halo blue WDs are spread out in the range 3000 - 8000 K (Oppenheimer et al. 2001). This means there must have been some $`1\mathrm{M}_{}`$ progenitors and some $`8\mathrm{M}_{}`$ progenitors, consistent with a log-normal IMF peaked around $`23\mathrm{M}_{}`$ (Chabrier et al. 1996).

Fig.5 shows the dynamical limits on cool and hot WDs from a 10-Gyr-old population. Note stronger limits on cooler WDs because these have more massive progenitors with higher $`m_{PG}/m_{WD}`$ ratio. For a typical temperature of 4000 K, we find $`f_{WD}2\%`$, consistent with our earlier dynamical limit (eq. 16).

### 4.5 The minimal dynamical feedback

The dynamical feedback is generally strong. One way to minimize it is to form the WD progenitors in a thick disk instead of in the halo. It has been argued that some of the high proper motion WDs in the Oppenheimer et al. (2001) sample have thick disk kinematics (Reid, Sahu & Hawley 2001, Koopmans & Blanford 2001). Assuming all WDs and their progenitors are in a thick disk of a scale height $`1`$ kpc, we can convert the WD number density of $`2\times 10^4\mathrm{pc}^3`$ of Oppenheimer et al. (2001) into a local column density of progenitors of $`0.4m_{PG}\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{pc}^2`$. In comparison, the local column density of the Galactic thin disk is $`(3040)\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{pc}^2`$ within $`|Z|<1`$ kpc, and the dark halo column density is $`(100200)\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{pc}^2`$ within a vertical column $`|Z|<\mathrm{}`$ depending on the density profile of the halo. We estimate $`(0.61.2)\%`$ of the dynamical mass in the local column is in WD progenitors if $`m_{PG}3\mathrm{M}_{}`$. Take $`ϵ=2\%`$ as the characteristic fraction of the dynamical mass for the inner halo lost in a wind, then the inner halo would expand by a factor $`X1.02`$ for an instantaneous wind. It is interesting to compare this with the dynamical effect of the formation of a galactic disk collapsing out of the spherical halo. The thin disk makes up $`15\%`$ of the dynamical mass in the local vertical column with $`|Z|<\mathrm{}`$. If a galactic thin disk with 15% of the mass of the halo form adiabaticly, the halo contracts by a factor about $`0.85`$. So the feedback from a thick disk WD population is dynamically unimportant compared to the formation of the galactic thin disk.

### 4.6 Formation of baryonic disks and mild wind

How does the amount of mass lost in a mild wind compare with the total amount of baryons in a galaxy? Take a mean density of baryons in the universe $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b=0.05(H_0/66)^2`$, and the fairly successful $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmological models with $`1\mathrm{\Omega }_m=\mathrm{\Omega }_\lambda =0.66`$ and $`H_0=66`$km/s/Mpc, we expect a typical baryonic fraction in galaxies

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_b}{\mathrm{\Omega }_m}15\%.$$
(18)
So we can express the wind massloss in terms of the total baryons in a galaxy. A mild wind (cf. eq. 6) looses 25% of the total baryons of a galaxy

$$M_w25\%M_b,M_b\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_bM_i}{\mathrm{\Omega }_m}.$$
(19)
A mild wind is also relevant for star formations in galaxy disks with a normal Salpeter type initial mass function with very few massive stars. Here the baryons of a galaxy cool and collapse adiabatically to a disk. When star formation ends, the envelope of evolved stars are ejected out with a mild galaxy wind; the amount of stellar ejecta $`25\%`$ of the initial stellar mass for a bottom-heavy IMF, so the wind is mild. We will not digress into this, except remarking two counter-acting effects of disk formation on the density profile of galaxy halo: the collapse of gas into disk stars leads to contraction of the halo, and the later massloss from winds leads to expansion of the halo.

### 4.7 Disintegration of galaxies by winds and intergalactic stars and globulars

What are the chances and consequences for a heavy wind to disintegrate some galaxies in the past? Systematic destruction of dwarf galaxies would be desirable because of the notorious overprediction of dense dwarf satellites in generic CDM models. Another consequence of disruptions is that the stars and their remnants, and perhaps globular clusters can disperse with the unbound dark halo into the intergalactic space and are later recycled to into the dark halo of the second generation massive galaxies, such as the Milky Way. Let $`f_b`$ be the baryonic fraction in a galaxy, we expect in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM models a typical baryonic fraction in galaxies $`f_b\mathrm{\Omega }_b/\mathrm{\Omega }_m=15\%`$. To disrupt a galaxy, we need to have about half or more of a galaxy to be in baryons, i.e., $`f_b>ϵ0.5`$, where $`ϵ`$ is the wind-lost baryons as a fraction of the mass of a galaxy. So a wind-disrupted galaxy needs to be very baryon-rich, three times that of the universal value $`f_b`$. So the chances for disruption are likely low, unless the universal baryonic fraction is much higher than $`15\%`$.

There are no strong evidences for intergalactic stars or globular clusters although some have been claimed in galaxy clusters. Both M87 and NGC1399 have excess star lights and numerous globulars around them, and the outer globulars have velocities which are more characteristic being bound by the galaxy cluster rather than the central galaxy (e.g., Kissler-Pratig et al. 1999). Theuns & Warren (1997) also discover 10 PNe in the Fornax cluster but unassociated with any bright galaxies. One complication of interpreting galaxy cluster data is the projection effect: the PNe or globulars might be “markers” of halos of low surface brightness galaxies in the galaxy cluster in the line of sight. Even the bona fide free-floaters are likely striped from spiral galaxies due to frequent merging in a galaxy cluster (Moore et al. 1999), which is very different mechanism from the wind in an isolated galaxy. In any case the cD galaxies are ambiguous systems for constraining galaxy winds compared to the Local Group galaxies.

In principle some amount of free-floating globulars cannot be ruled out in the Local Group. When placed at 1 Mpc, the edge of the Local Group, a $`10^5L_{}`$ globular would appear as bright as a K-dwarf star at 1 kpc in the halo, but has a half-light radius of about $`5\mathrm{pc}1\mathrm{}`$. Much of the sky has not yet been covered by detailed searches except for perhaps a few thousand square degrees: along the Magellanic Stream ($`10^o\times 100^o`$) and the Sagittarius Stream ($`10^o\times 360^o`$) and around Andromeda ($`10^o\times 10^o`$). High quality data over 1500 square degrees has been released by the on-going SLOAN survey. Assume 10% of the Local Group is well surveyed and no new globulars are found, then $`10`$ globulars could be by chance at the edge of the Local Group in unsurveyed area.

## 5 Conclusions

In short, the absence of obvious signs of severe expansion of the Milky Way and the absence of escaping globulars in galaxies in general suggest that star formation and feedback in galaxies are mild; galactic winds carry less than 4% of the total gravitational mass, or 25% of the baryonic mass in galaxies. This restricts the amount of remnents in galaxy halos from early star formation, and cool halo WDs can make up 2% of the total mass in present day galaxies. This is consistent with only the lower end of the halo WD fraction of $`2\%f_{WD}50\%`$ from direct and indirect detections of WDs; it is consistent with Oppenheimer et al. (2001) detection, but inconsistent with the higher values from Alcock et al. (1997, 2000) and Ibata et al. (2000). Our dynamical limit is also tighter for very cool WDs than for hot WDs. There is very limitted room to fit in a large extra population of very cool WD population $`4000`$ K, something that future deeper surveys should take into account.

Our model implies stringent limits on the amount of black hole (BH) or neutron star (NS) formation as well. Assuming these are remnents of massive stars formed in galaxy halos, then typically neutron stars or stellar black holes are formed from very massive ($`8\mathrm{M}_{}1000\mathrm{M}_{}`$) progenitors with $`m_{PG}/m_{BH}m_{PG}/m_{NS}630`$. So the massloss is even more severe than for forming WDs. The progenitors evolve very quickly off the main sequence, and some explode as Type II SN, which immediately power a very fast wind. To keep the wind from severly damage a galaxy (cf. eq. 14 and eq. 6) would imply that these remnents make up a fraction

$$f_{BH}f_{NS}(0.11)\%$$
(20)
of the total mass of a galaxy. In comparison, the upper limit on stellar BHs from microlensing is $`f_{BH}(30100)\%`$ (Lasserre et al. 2000, Alcock et al. 2001). So our dynamical limit is much tighter. Some models of galaxy formations suggest a significant amount of massive black holes in galaxy halos, with black hole mass $`m_{BH}10^210^6\mathrm{M}_{}`$ (Lacey & Ostriker 1985, Madau & Rees 2001). These black holes, however, must be pregalactic, in which case our dynamical limits do not apply.

In summary, we show that intergalactic stars and globular clusters and the present day density profiles of galaxies offer a new diagnosis of early star bursts of massive stars in halos of galaxies, and the amount of remnents, such as halo WDs and BHs. A mild wind-induced expansion of the dark halos might have played some role in lowering the dense cold dark matter central density in dwarf galaxies (Gnedin & Zhao 2001) and high surface brightness galaxies as well.

HSZ thanks Bernard Carr, Rodrigo Ibata, Mike Irwin, Gerry Gilmore, Donald Lynden-Bell, Jerry Ostriker, Tom Theuns and the anonymous referee for helpful comments.

## Appendix A Appendix

### A.1 Effects of massloss on the size of the galaxy

A rapid change of the potential of a galaxy after massloss can cause the galaxy to expand. The final size can be estimated with the virial theorem. Let $`M_i`$ be the initial total mass, $`M_f=(1ϵ)M_i`$ be the final mass of the galaxy, and $`r_{i,e}`$ and $`r_{f,e}`$ be the initial and final effective sizes of the galaxy such that

$$W_i\frac{GM_i^2}{2r_i^e},W_a\frac{GM_f^2}{2r_i^e},W_f\frac{GM_f^2}{2r_f^e},$$
(A1)
where $`W_i`$, $`W_a`$, and $`W_f`$ be the total potential energies of the galaxy before, right after, and long after the expansion. Then the total energies of the system before and after the expansion are given according to the virial theorem by

$$W_i+\frac{1}{2}M_iV_{\mathrm{rms}}^2=\frac{1}{2}W_i,W_a+\frac{1}{2}M_fV_{\mathrm{rms}}^2=\frac{1}{2}W_f,$$
(A2)
where $`V_{\mathrm{rms}}^2`$ is the root mean squared velocity of the system before or right after the instantaneous expansion. Combining the equations we find the overall expansion factor (cf. Hills 1980)

$$\frac{r_f^e}{r_i^e}|_{\mathrm{fast}}=\frac{1ϵ}{12ϵ}.$$
(A3)
In comparision, if the massloss is adiabatic, then a shell initially at radius $`r_i`$ maps to another shell at radius $`r`$ adiabaticly conserving the angular momentum $`\sqrt{G(M_0+M_w)r_i}=\sqrt{GM_0r}`$, so the expansion factor

$$\frac{r_f^e}{r_i^e}|_{\mathrm{slow}}=\frac{1}{1ϵ}.$$
(A4)
An interpolation of the equations for the fast and slow massloss can be made to model massloss of arbitrary speed. Generally the expansion factor $`X`$ can be modeled as a function of the massloss fraction $`ϵ`$ as following

$$X\frac{r_f^e}{r_i^e}=1+\frac{ϵϵ_{\mathrm{}}}{ϵ_{\mathrm{}}ϵ},$$
(A5)
where the constant $`ϵ_{\mathrm{}}`$ is the critical amount of massloss for the system to expands to infinity $`X\mathrm{}`$. For a wind of a range of speed we have

$$[\mathrm{fast}\mathrm{wind}]0.5ϵ_{\mathrm{}}1[\mathrm{slow}\mathrm{wind}].$$
(A6)
### A.2 Effects of massloss on the size of tracer orbits

A rapid change of the potential of a galaxy after massloss can also alter the orbital distributions of its tracers, e.g., the halo globular clusters. The effects on the apocenter are easiest to work out for the tracers on initially circular orbits. A circular orbit of initial radius $`a_i`$ can become radial because of the reduced restoring force after the massloss and reach a new apocenter $`r=a`$ while keeping the pericenter at $`r=a_i`$. The new apocenter is determined by the specific energy equation,

$`E`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{J_i^2}{2a_i^2}}{\displaystyle _0^{a_i}}{\displaystyle \frac{GM(r^{})}{r^2}}𝑑r`$ (A7)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{J_i^2}{2a^2}}{\displaystyle _0^a}{\displaystyle \frac{GM(r^{})}{r^2}}𝑑r^{},`$ (A8)
where the first terms are the azimuthal kinetic energy for an orbit with the initial specific angular momentum $`J_i=GM_i(a_i)a_i`$, the second terms on the r.h.s. of the equations are final potential of the galaxy, determined by the final distribution of the mass

$$M(r)(1ϵ)M_i(rX^1)$$
(A9)
in the galaxy, where $`M_i(r_i)`$ is the initial mass distribution inside a radius $`r_i`$, and $`X`$ is the overall expansion factor. Approximate the initial potential by a scale-free potential with the mass profile given by

$$M_i(r_i)=\delta _ir_i^\beta ,0\beta <3,$$
(A10)
where $`\beta `$ is the powerlaw slope, and $`\delta _i`$ is a normalisation constant. Combining the above equations, we have

$$(1ϵ)X^\beta =\frac{(1\beta )(1A^2)}{2(1A^{\beta 1})},A\frac{a}{a_i},$$
(A11)
which relates between the expansion factor of the apocenter $`A=a/a_i`$ and the massloss fraction $`ϵ`$ in a fast wind; the factors $`A`$, $`X`$ and $`ϵ`$ are the same everywhere for the assumed scale-free potential. For a Keplerian potential with $`\beta =0`$, the above equation has a solution

$$\frac{a}{a_i}|_{\mathrm{fast}}=\frac{1}{12ϵ}.$$
(A12)
It turns out the above solution is accurate for 10% for models with $`\beta 0`$, and $`0<ϵ<0.25`$. This applies to non-scale-free potentials such as the Navarro, Frenk & White (1996) models as well because the result is insensitive to the mass profile parameter $`\beta `$.

In comparison, if the wind is slow, then the orbit will remain circular and expand adiabaticly by the same factor $`X`$ as the galaxy, so

$$\frac{a}{a_i}|_{\mathrm{slow}}=X=\frac{1}{1ϵ}.$$
(A13)
For wind of any speed, we can write

$$A\frac{a}{a_i}\frac{1}{1\frac{ϵ}{ϵ_{\mathrm{}}}}.$$
(A14)
Note $`AX2`$ if lossing 50% of the orginal mass in a slow wind ($`ϵ_{\mathrm{}}=1`$), and $`AX\mathrm{}`$ if lossing the same amount of mass in a fast wind ($`ϵ_{\mathrm{}}=0.5`$).

### A.3 Effects of massloss on escaping stars

A sudden weakening of the potential will boost the energy of some particles above their binding energy, and escape. The average specific energy of the system before and long-after the massloss is related to the characteristic potential energy (cf. eq.A1) by the virial theorem, so

$$E_i=\frac{W_i}{2M_i}=\frac{GM_i}{4r_{i,e}},E_f=\frac{W_f}{2M_f}=\frac{GM_f}{4r_{f,e}}.$$
(A15)
Substitute in the expansion factor, we have

$$\frac{E_f}{E_i}=\frac{M_f}{M_i}\frac{1}{X}=12ϵ.$$
(A16)
Particles in a King model or any smoothly truncated model should be bound between two energies, $`\varphi _{\mathrm{min}}`$ at the bottom of the potential well, and $`\varphi _{\mathrm{max}}`$ at the outer truncation. Long after the expansion, the truncation energy $`\varphi _{\mathrm{max}}`$ is increased to

$$\varphi _{\mathrm{max}}^{}=(12ϵ)\varphi _{\mathrm{max}}.$$
(A17)
During the sudden expansion, a particle at the bottom of the potential well will gain a potential energy $`ϵ\varphi _{\mathrm{min}}`$ without changing kinetic energy, hence the particle’s energy $`E`$ is increased to

$$E^{}=Eϵ\varphi _{\mathrm{min}}.$$
(A18)
So this particle could escape the final potential well if

$$E^{}\varphi _{\mathrm{max}}^{}.$$
(A19)
This suggests that all particles with initial energy $`E`$ satisfying

$$E\varphi _{\mathrm{max}}ϵ(\varphi _{\mathrm{min}}2\varphi _{\mathrm{max}})$$
(A20)
could escape the final potential, i.e., the escaping particles occupy a narrow band at the upper end of the energy spectrum of the initial system, and the band width is $`ϵ`$. The high energy tail of initial particles should follow a distribution function $`f(E)`$ with

$$\frac{dM(>E)}{dE}f(E)(\varphi _{\mathrm{max}}E)$$
(A21)
to have a smooth truncation. So the amount of mass in the high energy tail $`M(>E)`$ is given approximately by

$$\frac{M(>E)}{M(>E_{\mathrm{min}})}\frac{(\varphi _{\mathrm{max}}E)^2}{(\varphi _{\mathrm{max}}\varphi _{\mathrm{min}})^2}.$$
(A22)
Hence the escape fraction is given by

$$ϵ_{}\frac{M_{,\mathrm{esc}}}{M_{,\mathrm{esc}}+M_{}}ϵ^2\frac{(\varphi _{\mathrm{min}}2\varphi _{\mathrm{max}})^2}{(\varphi _{\mathrm{max}}\varphi _{\mathrm{min}})^2}.$$
(A23)
For a highly concentrated system, e.g., a King model with a core radius 100 times smaller than the truncation radius, we have

$$|\varphi _{\mathrm{max}}||\varphi _{\mathrm{min}}|.$$
(A24)
So for highly concentrated systems we have

$$ϵ_{}ϵ^2.$$
(A25)
The above estimations can be generalized to winds of any speed with the following approximation

$$ϵ_{}\frac{M_{,\mathrm{esc}}}{M_{,\mathrm{esc}}+M_{}}\left[\frac{(1ϵ_{\mathrm{}})ϵ}{(1ϵ)ϵ_{\mathrm{}}}\right]^2.$$
(A26)
This parametrization is justified because it reproduces nicely two simple limiting cases: (i) no stars escape in a slow wind with $`ϵ_{\mathrm{}}1`$; (ii) all stars escape in a wind of maximum strength $`ϵϵ_{\mathrm{}}`$.