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# Comment on “Does the rapid appearance of life on Earth suggest that life is common in the Universe”

## I Discrete evolution model

Let us consider a model of “discrete evolution”. It is known that the evolution from the simplest life form to humans may be expressed in terms of qualitative steps, for example, first live cell,…, cell with a nucleus,…, multicell organism, … , mollusk, fish, amphibian, reptile, mammal, human. Let us denote the total number of “crucial steps”, or “classes” by $`N`$, and probability of a new class $`(n)`$ to appear from a previous class $`(n1)`$ per unit time as $`\lambda _n`$. The corresponding probability for a class $`n`$ to appear during a small time $`t_n`$ is $`P_n=\lambda _nt_n`$. The total probability for a human to appear during time

$$t=\underset{n}{}t_n$$
(1)
can be presented as the product of the probabilities

$$P(t)=\mathrm{\Pi }_n\lambda _nt_n=\mathrm{\Pi }_n\lambda _n\mathrm{\Pi }_nt_n.$$
(2)
The maximum of this expression is achieved for all $`t_n=t/N`$.

$$P_{max}(t)=(\frac{t}{N})^N\mathrm{\Pi }_n\lambda _n.$$
(3)
Note that the probability $`P_1=\lambda _1t_1`$ for the simplest life form to appear can be arbitrary small. However, the first live organism should appear during a short time $`t_1=t/N`$ if the number of crucial steps to produce humans $`N`$ is large.

Lineweaver and Davis  estimate the biogenesis time as

$$t_1=0.1_{0.1}^{+0.5}\mathrm{Gyr}.$$
(4)
By comparing this with the time life has existed on Earth

$$t4\mathrm{G}\mathrm{y}\mathrm{r}.$$
(5)
we conclude that the number of crucial steps in evolution from the simplest life form to humans is $`N10`$.

## II The cascade model

To make this conclusion more reliable we present another toy-model that somehow takes into account a continuous character of the evolution. Let us consider a direct chain of classes (steps) which leads from the first life to humans.

The time dependence of the populations $`W_k(t)`$ in these classes can be determined from the following equations:

$$\frac{dW_1}{dt}=\mathrm{\Gamma }_1W_0$$

$$...........$$

$$\frac{dW_k}{dt}=\mathrm{\Gamma }_kW_{k1}$$
(6)
$$...........$$

The term $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_kW_{k1}`$ in the right-hand-side of (6) is responsible for the flux from the previous class. In what follows we assume that the initial conditions are $`W_0(0)=1`$ (no life) and $`W_k(0)=0`$ for $`k>0`$.

Equations (6) have the simple solution,

$$W_n=\frac{(\mathrm{\Pi }_n\mathrm{\Gamma }_n)t^n}{n!}.$$
(7)
The probability for life to appear and the probability of humans to appear (class $`N>>1`$) in this model is determined by arbitrary parameters $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_n`$. However, for any $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_n`$ class $`N`$ is populated long after class 1. Indeed, to reach the same probability $`W_N(t_N)=W_1(t_1)`$ the time should be

$$t_N\frac{N(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1t_1)^{1/N}}{e\mathrm{\Gamma }}$$
(8)
Here $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=(\mathrm{\Pi }_n\mathrm{\Gamma }_n)^{1/N}`$ is the geometrical average value.

We can slightly modify this model by writing an equation describing the probabilty of the system to reach a certain class during its evolution. For simplicity we assume that all $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_n=\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. For this case the probabilities for different classes can be determined by the “probability conservation equations”,

$$\frac{dW_0}{dt}=\mathrm{\Gamma }W_0$$

$$\frac{dW_1}{dt}=\mathrm{\Gamma }W_0\mathrm{\Gamma }W_1$$

$$...........$$

$$\frac{dW_k}{dt}=\mathrm{\Gamma }W_{k1}\mathrm{\Gamma }W_k$$
(9)
$$...........$$

The first term $`\mathrm{\Gamma }W_{k1}`$ in the right-hand-side of (9) is responsible for the flux from the previous class, and the second term $`\mathrm{\Gamma }W_k`$ describes the transition from the class $`k`$, into the next class $`k+1`$.

Equations (9) have the simple solution,

$$W_0=\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{\Gamma }t)$$

$$W_n=\frac{(\mathrm{\Gamma }t)^n}{n!}\mathrm{exp}\left(\mathrm{\Gamma }t\right)=\frac{(\mathrm{\Gamma }t)^n}{n!}W_0.$$
(10)
For an infinite chain one can easily check the normalization condition for the probabilities,

$$\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}W_n=\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{\Gamma }t)\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{(\mathrm{\Gamma }t)^n}{n!}=1.$$
(11)
The maximal probability $`W_n=\frac{n^n}{n!}\mathrm{exp}(n)1/\sqrt{2\pi n}`$ to be in the class $`n`$ determined by the condition $`\frac{dW_n}{dt}=0`$ , occurs for $`t=n/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ , therefore, this solution (7) can be considered as a cascade in the population of different classes . Indeed, at small times $`t\tau 1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ the system is practically in the initial state (no life), at times $`t\tau `$ the flow spreads into the first class, for $`t=n\tau `$ it spreads into the $`n`$th class, etc.

The probability for life to appear and the probability of humans to appear (class $`N>>1`$) in this model is determined by a single parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. However, again class $`N`$ is populated long after class 1. For $`t<<1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ this model gives the same result as a model considered above.

## III Conclusions

The probabilities of the first life to appear are determined by the arbitrary parameters $`\lambda _1`$ in the first model and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in the second model. For any values of these paramers the first life should appear on a much shorter time scale than “humans” (if the number of steps $`N>>1`$).

Thus, the rapid appearance of life on Earth hardly tells us anything about the probability of life to appear on another planet. It only tells us that there was a large number of crucial intermediate steps between the first live organisms and humans.

## IV Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Australian Research Council. I am grateful to Paul Curmi and Michael Kuchiev for valuable comments.


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# Untitled Document

Bell’s theorem in the presence of

classical communication

N. David Mermin

Laboratory of Atomic and Solid State Physics

Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-2501

I explain what kinds of correlation or even direct classical communication between detectors invalidate Bell’s theorem, and what kinds do not.

The immediate occasion for this note is the rejection by Karl Hess and Walter Philipp  of my simple demonstration  that their refutation  of an elementary version of Bell’s theorem  cannot be correct. Rather than belabor misconceptions1 Among other problems, their rejection of  relies on a misunderstanding of what I mean by “extended instruction sets”.  in , I prefer to examine a question of more general interest. Let us turn Hess and Philipp upside down and explore the extent to which Bell’s theorem survives, not only if, following Hess and Philipp, we take advantage of properties of the detectors correlated by the time on local synchronized clocks, but even if we allow further correlation of the detectors through direct straightforward ongoing classical communication between them. How much censorship must be imposed on the content of that communication for Bell’s theorem to remain valid?

The answer, which will surprise few who have thought much about Bell’s theorem, is that the theorem remains valid even if the detectors are allowed to communicate with each other continuously throughout a long series of runs, provided only that each detector is forbidden during the course of each run from giving the other any information whatever about the setting it has randomly been given in that run. Aside from that single necessary2 If information on the settings of the detectors can be communicated before the detectors signal a result then the quantum mechanical data (or any other data) can be trivially simulated classically.  constraint the detectors can conspire in each run in any way they like.3 Clearly detector responses that are driven by non-communicating but internal computer programs, correlated only by synchronized clocks, satisfy this constraint, so the proof below that Bell’s theorem survives such coordination of the detectors provides an alternative demonstration to that in  that Hess and Philipp are mistaken.

To make things clear and simple I examine the question for the particular geometry used in  and , but the argument can easily be generalized. In each of a long series of runs one of three settings — labeled 1, 2, or 3 — is randomly and independently assigned to each of the two detectors. It is useful to introduce the term “wing” to refer jointly to a particle and the detector that it eventually arrives at.4 “Wings” in the sense of wings of a mansion: east wing, west wing, etc. I borrow the term from philosophers, who like to talk about the “wings of the experiment”.  The choice of setting for each wing is unknown to the other wing, and the only constraint on the communication between wings is that each is forbidden to reveal the value of its setting to the other.5 We can also allow the particles to communicate with each other (or with either detector) even after they have left the source, provided, as with the detectors, we forbid each particle from revealing to the other wing any information it has discovered about the setting of its own detector.  Once the settings have been randomly, independently, and secretly established for both wings and the wings have had any further communications they wish — always under the prohibition against revealing their settings — a light flashes red (R) or green (G) in each wing and the run ends. The accumulated data in many runs have two important features: (i) the lights flash the same colors whenever the settings are the same; (ii) when the data are examined without regard to the settings they are found to be quite random — in particular the same colors flash as often as different colors.6 Such data are produced by two spin-$`\frac{1}{2}`$ particles in the singlet state, when the detectors are Stern-Gerlach magnets, the three settings are associated with measuring the spin along a particular set of three coplanar directions 120 apart, and R and G signal spin-up and spin-down at one detector, while signalling spin-down and spin-up at the other.

Can we construct a classical explanation for this data that respects the fact that neither wing has any information about the setting in the other wing when the lights flash? The first feature of the data to account for is (i), that the lights invariably flash the same colors when the settings are the same. With classical communication there is no problem arranging for this without violating the prohibition on revealing the settings. In every run, after each wing has taken into account whatever conditions it might deem relevant, the two wings agree on what color they will both flash for each of the three possible settings. The communication leading to such agreement passes the censor because it reveals no information whatever about the actual setting in each wing. The wings must negotiate such an agreement in every run, whether or not the actual settings are the same, because they do not know whether or not the settings are are the same but do know that there is a $`33\frac{1}{3}`$% chance that they are.

But this essentially unique classical explanation of feature (i) of the data cannot accomodate feature (ii), because it requires each run of the experiment to be one of eight types:7 In earlier forms of Bell’s theorem the possibilities for coordinating behavior between the two wings are much more constrained than they are here. But even when the two wings cannot directly talk to each other, they can still characterize each run as one of these eight types and act accordingly, which is essential for any classical explanation of feature (i), by exploiting common information acquired by the particles before they leave their common source. Hess and Philipp additionally emphasize the possibility of using information available only at the detectors.  those in which the agreed-upon colors to be flashed in either wing for settings 1, 2, or 3 are RRG, RGR, GRR, GGR, GRG, RGG, RRR, or GGG. The first six of these types each result in the same colors flashing 5/9 of the time.8 An RRG run, for example produces the same colors for settings 11, 22, 33, 12, and 21, while it produces different colors for settings 13, 23, 31, and 32; and the nine possibilities are equally likely.  The last two types result in the same colors always flashing. Therefore, no matter what colors are agreed upon in each run, when all the data from all the runs are examined without regard to what the actual settings were, the same colors will be found to flash at least 5/9 of the time (Bell’s inequality). This contradicts feature (ii) of the data, that the same colors flash only half the time. So no such classical explanation is possible (Bell’s theorem).

This proof of Bell’s theorem allows arbitrary communication between the two wings, provided no information is revealed about the settings. The proof clearly allows variations in time of the conditions of the detectors or the particles or both (independently), which can be correlated either by synchronized clocks (as in the model of Hess and Philipp) or (in the more general case considered here) by direct classical communication between the wings. The proof allows complex information to be available in either wing, carried by either the particles or the detectors or both. The correlations allowed between the wings clearly include and go well beyond the correlations envisaged by Hess and Philipp. But Bell’s theorem continues to hold.

Acknowledgment. Supported by the National Science Foundation, Grant No. PHY0098429.

References

 Karl Hess and Walter Philipp, quant-ph/0207110.

 N. David Mermin, quant-ph/0206118.

 Karl Hess and Walter Philipp, quant-ph/0103028, Section 3.2.

 N. David Mermin, Physics Today 38, April 1985, p. 38.


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# 1 Values of 𝜎_Nabs, 𝑉_limit-fromex⊥, 𝜏ₜₕₑᵣₘ, 𝑛ₜₕₑᵣₘ, 𝜏_fz, and 𝑇_fz.

Anomalous $`J/\psi `$ suppression and charmonium dissociation cross sections

Xiao-Ming Xu1, Cheuk-Yin Wong1, and T. Barnes1,2

1Physics Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831

and

2Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996

## Abstract

We study $`J/\psi `$ suppression in Pb+Pb collisions at CERN-SPS energies in hadronic matter with energy- and temperature-dependent charmonium dissociation cross sections calculated in the quark-interchange model of Barnes and Swanson. We find that the variation of J/$`\psi `$ survival probability from peripheral to central collisions can be explained as induced by hadronic matter absorption in central collisions.

PACS codes: 25.75.-q, 13.75.Gx, 12.39.-x, 25.80.Ls

Keywords: $`J/\psi `$ suppression, hadronic matter, charmonium dissociation cross sections

I. INTRODUCTION

Following the suggestion of Matsui and Satz  to probe quark-gluon plasma (QGP) with heavy quarkonium, the NA50 Collaboration investigated $`J/\psi `$ suppression in high-energy heavy-ion collisions. Anomalous $`J/\psi `$ suppression has been observed in Pb+Pb collisions at $`158A`$ GeV \[2-3\]. It is of interest to investigate whether deconfined matter is created in these collisions. Many different mechanisms have been proposed to explain the phenomenon. It has been suggested that the suppression was due to a new phase, the QGP , a change of the equation of state due to the QCD phase transition , the melting of charmonia in QGP , or a percolation deconfinement . It has also been suggested that the anomalous suppression comes from the absorption by various comovers produced in the Pb+Pb collisions \[8-14\].

In addition to the general suppression over a large region of transverse energy $`E_T`$, which is related to the impact parameter $`b`$, the data for $`J/\psi `$ suppression in the large transverse energy region with $`E_T>100`$ GeV are also of special interest. This region corresponds to the most central Pb+Pb collisions. The possible presence of a rapid drop of the ratio of $`J/\psi `$ to Drell-Yan production cross sections, $`B(J/\psi )\sigma (J/\psi )/\sigma (DY)`$, has been interpreted in a comover model as a result of multiplicity fluctuation, subject to a large uncertainty of the measured data . It has also been suggested that large $`E_T`$ fluctuations lead to increasing probability for deconfinement and therefore possible complete suppresssion of $`J/\psi `$ . A definitive understanding on the nature of $`J/\psi `$ suppression in Pb+Pb collisions is still lacking.

The absorption of $`J/\psi `$ by comovers depends on the $`J/\psi `$ dissociation cross sections in collision with hadrons. The $`J/\psi `$ dissociation cross sections in collision with hadrons have been considered previously in several theoretical studies, but the predicted cross sections show great variation at low energies, largely due to different assumptions regarding the dominant scattering mechanism. Kharzeev and Satz and collaborators  employed the parton model and perturbative QCD “short-distance” approach of Bhanot and Peskin  and found remarkably small low-energy cross sections for collisions of $`J/\psi `$ with light hadrons. Matinyan and M$`\ddot{\mathrm{u}}`$ller , Haglin , Lin and Ko , Song and Lee , and Navarra and collaborators  recently reported results for these dissociation cross sections in meson exchange models. These references all use effective meson Lagrangians, but differ in the interaction terms included in the Lagrangian. Results depend on a choice of meson coupling schemes and assumed form factors. Charmonium dissociation by nucleons has also been considered recently using similar effective Lagrangian formulations .

We favor the use of the known quark forces to obtain the underlying scattering amplitudes from explicit nonrelativistic quark model wavefunctions of the initial and final mesons . In this approach we first look for the inter-quark interaction by using the meson spectrum. The wave function and the interaction are then used to evaluate the cross section for the quark-interchange process . The calculated cross sections are first compared with experimental data of $`I=2`$ $`\pi \pi `$ phase shifts, and excellent agreement between theory and experimental data was obtained . Such an approach allows us to calculate all charmonium dissociation cross sections by collisions with hadrons. Martins, Blaschke, and Quack previously reported dissociation cross section calculations using essentially the same approach . Two general characteristics of the cross sections obtained in this approach are: (1) for endothermic reaction, the cross section rises after the hadron energy exceeds some threshold energies and the maximum magnitude of the cross section is in the mb range, (2) for exothermic reaction, the cross section is infinite at zero kinetic energy and decreases as the energy increases.

The $`J/\psi `$ dissociation cross section depends on the meson wave functions and the inter-quark interaction. The latter quantities depend on temperature. By using such a temperature-dependent inter-quark potential inferred from lattice gauge calculations , the temperature dependence of $`J/\psi `$ dissociation cross sections can be obtained. The new cross sections are now applied to study $`B(J/\psi )\sigma (J/\psi )/\sigma (DY)`$ versus $`E_T`$, to be compared with the CERN-SPS Pb+Pb data of the NA50 Collaboration.

The concept of the temperature dependence of the dissociation process should be clarified as many different processes are involved. There are two types of thermalization . First, there is the thermalization of the hadronic matter, in which the $`J/\psi `$ (or its precursor) resides. It occurs rapidly as it depends on the cross section for the scattering of light hadrons with light hadrons, which is of the order of tens of mb. We expect that the dense hadronic matter is thermalized within a time of the order of 1 fm/c after light hadrons are produced. (In our numerical results below, the thermalization time for the hadronic matter is 1.9 fm/c after the light hadrons are produced.)

The second type of thermalization is the thermalization of the “charmonium system” with its surrounding medium. If a quarkonium is placed in a thermalized hadronic medium, there will be non-dissociative inelastic reactions between the quarkonium and medium particles which change a charmonium state into another charmonium state: $`h+(Q\overline{Q})_{JLS}h^{}+(Q\overline{Q})_{J^{}L^{}S^{}}`$. These reactions lead to the thermalization of the charmonium system . When the heavy quarkonium system is in thermal equilibrium with the medium, the probabilities for the occurrence of heavy quarkonium states will be distributed according to the Bose-Einstein distribution. The time for the thermalization of such a system depends on the non-dissociative inelastic cross sections. As these cross sections are different from the pion-pion scattering cross section, the “charmonium system” thermalization time is different from the light-hadron matter thermalization time.

The cross sections for non-dissociative inelastic reactions between a charmonium and a light hadron and their temperature dependences remain a subject of current research. Previous estimates of $`\pi +J/\psi \pi +\psi ^{}`$ by Fujii and Kharzeev  gave a cross section of the order of 0.01 mb. In the quark-interchange model of Barnes and Swanson , such a process is forbidden in the first order and takes place only in the second order. The higher order process presumably will lead to a smaller cross section. The non-dissociative inelastic cross sections need to be evaluated for the interaction of pions with different charmonia using different models, to provide an estimate of the time for the thermalization of the charmonium system with the hadronic medium. If the non-dissociative inelastic charmonium cross sections are of the same order as in $`\pi \pi `$ collision, then the charmonium system will be also thermalized and the dissociation of $`J/\psi `$ should be treated by the method of statistical mechanics. On the other hand, if the non-dissociative inelastic cross sections are all of the order of 0.01 mb, as estimated by Fujii and Kharzeev for $`\pi +J/\psi \pi +\psi ^{}`$, the thermalization time for the charmonium system will be quite long and we will not need to consider a thermalized charmonium system. In the present work, we have not taken the process of dissociation by thermalization into account.

For a charmonium placed in a thermal medium, the thermalized hadronic matter alters the interaction between the charm quark and charm antiquark and changes the QCD vacuum surrounding the charmonium. The threshold energy for $`J/\psi `$ dissociation is shifted and consequently the dissociation cross section changes as a function of the hadronic matter temperature. The dissociation cross section is however of the order of a few mb . Thus, in the treatment of the collision of $`J/\psi `$ with the dense hadronic matter, the cross section is still small enough so that we can treat the $`\pi J/\psi `$ dissociative collision as a two-body process.

In Sec. II we describe the inter-quark potential used to obtain meson wave functions. In Sec. III we present the $`\pi J/\psi `$ and $`\pi \chi _{cJ}`$ dissociation cross sections and show their dependences on temperature. In Sec. IV charmonium suppression in Pb+Pb collisions is examined. Numerical calculations and results are shown and discussed in Sec. V. Conclusions are given in Sec. VI.

II. TEMPERATURE-DEPENDENT POTENTIAL AND WAVE FUNCTIONS

In a medium at high temperatures, the gluon and light quark fields fluctuate and the alignment of the color electric fields due to the QCD interaction is reduced by the thermal motion for a random orientation of the color electric fields. The “pressure” from the QCD vacuum to confine the quark and antiquark pair also diminishes with increasing temperature. The inter-quark potential is thus a sensitive function of temperature, resulting in the vanishing of the string tension at the critical temperature of deconfinement phase transition.

Even at $`T=0`$, a proper description of the heavy quarkonium state should be based on a screening potential, as the heavy quarkonium becomes a pair of open charm or open bottom mesons when $`r`$ becomes very large, due to the action of dynamical quark pairs . Recently, the central inter-quark potential has been obtained from the lattice gauge results of Karsch $`etal`$.  and analyzed by Digal $`etal`$.  and by Wong . The temperature-dependent potential for $`T<T_c`$ can be represented by

$$V_{12}(r,T)=\frac{4}{3}\frac{\alpha _se^{\mu (T)r}}{r}\frac{b(T)}{\mu (T)}e^{\mu (T)r},$$
(1)
where $`\alpha _s`$ is a running coupling constant . The effective string-tension coefficient is

$$b(T)=b_0[1(T/T_c)^2]\theta (T_cT),$$
(2)
with $`b_0=0.35`$ $`\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ and the effective screening parameter

$$\mu (T)=\mu _0\theta (T_cT),$$
(3)
where $`\mu _0=0.28`$ GeV and the step function $`\theta `$ signifies the vanishing of the string tension at the phase transition temperature $`T_c=0.175`$ GeV.

The charmonium wave functions can be obtained by solving the Schr$`\ddot{\mathrm{o}}`$dinger equation

$$[\frac{1}{2\mu _{12}}+V_{12}(r,T)+\mathrm{\Delta }(r,T)]\psi _{JLS}(\stackrel{}{r},T)=ϵ(T)\psi _{JLS}(\stackrel{}{r},T),$$
(4)
where $`\mu _{12}`$ is the reduced mass and the mass difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }(r,T)`$ is

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(r,T)=m_1(r,T)+m_2(r,T)m_1(\mathrm{},T)m_2(\mathrm{},T).$$
(5)
The energy $`ϵ(T)`$ is measured relative to two separated mesons $`c\overline{q}`$ and $`q\overline{c}`$ at $`r\mathrm{}`$ where $`c`$ and $`\overline{c}`$ become open charm mesons and $`\{m_1(r,T),m_2(r,T)\}=\{M_{c\overline{q}}(T),M_{q\overline{c}}(T)\}`$.

The bound-state wave function and energy $`ϵ`$ have been obtained by diagonalizing the Hamiltonian using a nonorthogonal Gaussian basis with different widths . When the energy $`ϵ`$ becomes positive, spontaneous dissociation occurs, subject to the selection rules based on the conservation of total angular momentum and parity .

III. CHARMONIUM DISSOCIATION CROSS SECTIONS

For meson-meson scatterings $`A+BC+D`$, the differential cross section is given by

$$\frac{d\sigma _{fi}}{dt}=\frac{1}{64\pi s\stackrel{}{p}_A^2}_{fi}^2,$$
(6)
where $`t`$ is the momentum transfer squared, $`s`$ is the center-of-mass (C.M.) energy squared, and $`\stackrel{}{p}_A`$ is the momentum of meson $`A`$ in the C.M. system. The matrix element $`_{fi}`$ is calculated with the four meson wave functions of $`A`$, $`B`$, $`C`$, and $`D`$ and the inter-quark interaction. The latter is the potential in Eq. (1) plus a spin-spin term for quark-quark interaction,

$$V_{\mathrm{spin}\mathrm{spin}}(r)=\frac{\stackrel{}{\lambda }_1}{2}\frac{\stackrel{}{\lambda }_2}{2}\times \frac{8\pi \alpha _s}{3m_1m_2}\stackrel{}{s}_1\stackrel{}{s}_2(\frac{d^3}{\pi ^{3/2}})e^{d^2r^2},$$
(7)
where $`m_1(m_2)`$ and $`\stackrel{}{s}_1(\stackrel{}{s}_2)`$ are individually the mass and spin of quark 1(2), and $`d`$ is a spin-spin interaction width including relativistic corrections . For quark-antiquark potential, $`\frac{\stackrel{}{\lambda }_1}{2}\frac{\stackrel{}{\lambda }_2}{2}`$ is replaced by $`\frac{\stackrel{}{\lambda }_1}{2}\frac{\stackrel{}{\lambda }_2^T}{2}`$. This potential generates wave functions which are then used to calculate the dissociation cross sections, as discussed in Ref. . The dissociation cross section of $`J/\psi `$ in collision with $`\pi `$ varies as a function of $`T/T_c`$ and the C.M. kinetic energy $`E_{KE}=\sqrt{s}m_Am_B`$ where $`m_A`$ and $`m_B`$ are the masses of the incident mesons. We plot in Fig. 1 the $`\pi +J/\psi `$ dissociation cross sections. Since about 35% of $`J/\psi `$ comes from the radiative decay of $`\chi _{cJ}`$, the dissociation cross sections of $`\chi _{c1}`$ and $`\chi _{c2}`$ in collisions with $`\pi `$ are also important. We evaluate these cross sections which are plotted in Fig. 2.

As the temperature increases, the temperature-dependent inter-quark potential becomes weaker. Then the energy for separating $`c`$ and $`\overline{c}`$ in the charmonium decreases and the root-mean-square radius of the meson increases. As a consequence, the dissociation cross section for a charmonium in collision with a pion rises with increasing temperatures. For various charmonia, different sizes also lead to different dissociation cross sections. At $`T/T_c0.7`$, the peak cross section of $`\pi `$ \+ $`\chi _{c1}`$ or $`\pi `$ \+ $`\chi _{c2}`$ is about 2.1 times that at $`T=0`$. Since the $`\chi _{c2}`$ is less bound compared to $`\chi _{c1}`$, the dissociation cross section for $`\chi _{c2}`$ is slightly larger. The $`\pi +\chi _{c2}`$ reaction becomes exothermic at a lower temperature than $`\pi +\chi _{c1}`$. Comparing Figs. 1 and 2, we find that the peak value of $`\pi J/\psi `$ dissociation cross section is larger than the peak values of $`\pi \chi _{c2}`$ and $`\pi \chi _{c1}`$ dissociation cross sections when $`T/T_c`$ are larger than 0.65 and 0.55, respectively.

IV. CHARMONIUM SUPPRESSION IN Pb+Pb COLLISIONS

Working in the nucleon-nucleon C.M. frame, we assume the following scenarios to investigate $`J/\psi `$ suppression. In a nucleus-nucleus collision, hadronic matter consisting mainly of pions is produced at $`\tau _{\mathrm{form}}`$ after the collision. The hadronic matter is initially not in thermal equilibrium. It becomes thermalized by elastic scatterings of pions at time $`\tau _{\mathrm{therm}}`$, and the expansion of hadronic matter lowers the temperature and the density until freeze-out at $`\tau _{\mathrm{fz}}`$. On the other hand, $`c\overline{c}`$ pairs are created by the hard scattering processes between a projectile nucleon and a target nucleon in a very short time. The $`c\overline{c}`$ pair evolves into a charmonium or its precursor which interacts and becomes dissociated by colliding first with nucleons in the two colliding nuclei and subsequently with the produced hadronic matter. $`J/\psi `$ will be dissociated by collision with pions during the time from $`\tau _{\mathrm{form}}`$ to $`\tau _{\mathrm{fz}}`$. The differential cross section for $`J/\psi `$ production with respect to the impact parameter $`\stackrel{}{b}`$ is

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma _{J/\psi }^{AB}(\stackrel{}{b})}{d\stackrel{}{b}}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{d^3p}{E}(E\frac{d^3\sigma _{J/\psi }^{NN}}{d^3p})\frac{d\stackrel{}{b}_A}{\sigma _{NJ/\psi }^2}\{1[1T_A(\stackrel{}{b}_A)\sigma _{NJ/\psi }]^A\}\{1[1T_B(\stackrel{}{b}\stackrel{}{b}_A)\sigma _{NJ/\psi }]^B\}}`$ (8)
$`\times \mathrm{exp}[{\displaystyle _{\tau _{\mathrm{form}}}^{\tau _{\mathrm{therm}}}}𝑑\tau v_{\mathrm{rel}}\sigma _{\pi J/\psi }n_\pi (b,\tau )]`$
$`\times \mathrm{exp}[{\displaystyle _{\tau _{\mathrm{therm}}}^{\tau _{\mathrm{fz}}}}𝑑\tau v_{\mathrm{rel}}\sigma _{\pi J/\psi }n_\pi (b,\tau )].`$
For the production of Drell-Yan dilepton pairs, the cross section scales with the number of nucleon-nucleon collisions, and we have

$$\frac{d\sigma _{DY}^{AB}(\stackrel{}{b})}{d\stackrel{}{b}}=\sigma _{DY}^{NN}ABT_{AB}(\stackrel{}{b}).$$
(9)
The quantities $`E`$ and $`\stackrel{}{p}`$ are the energy and momentum of $`J/\psi `$; $`\sigma _{J/\psi }^{NN}`$ and $`\sigma _{DY}^{NN}`$ are cross sections for $`J/\psi `$ and Drell-Yan productions in a nucleon-nucleon collision, respectively; $`\sigma _{\pi J/\psi }`$ is the $`J/\psi `$ dissociation cross section in collision with $`\pi `$; $`\sigma _{NJ/\psi }`$ is the $`J/\psi `$ absorption cross section in collision with nucleons; $`\stackrel{}{b}_A`$ is the nucleon coordinate in the target nucleus $`A`$; $`T_A`$ and $`T_B`$ are nuclear thickness functions ; and $`v_{\mathrm{rel}}`$ is the relative velocity of charmonium and $`\pi `$. The thickness function for the colliding nuclei is

$$T_{AB}(\stackrel{}{b})=𝑑\stackrel{}{b}_AT_A(\stackrel{}{b}_A)T_B(\stackrel{}{b}\stackrel{}{b}_A).$$
(10)
The expression for the differential cross section for $`\chi _{cJ}`$ and $`\psi ^{}`$ production can be obtained by replacing $`J/\psi `$ with $`\chi _{cJ}`$ or $`\psi ^{}`$.

If the hadronic matter is in thermal equilibrium, the pion number multiplicities are obtained from the familiar momentum distribution. Before thermalization, the pion number density has to be estimated from experimentally measured multiplicities of charged pions. The total pion number $`N_\pi `$ as a function of the impact parameter $`\stackrel{}{b}`$ for Pb+Pb collisions at 158$`A`$ GeV was measured by the NA49 collaboration . We assume that the total pion number is conserved in the evolution of hadronic matter. The volume of hadronic matter depends on the impact parameter $`\stackrel{}{b}`$ as well as the proper time $`\tau `$, which is measured relative to the initial collision,

$`V(b,\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`\left(2\tau +{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{4R_A^2b^2}}{\gamma }}\right)`$ (11)
$`\times \left\{2(R_A+\tau V_{\mathrm{ex}})^2\mathrm{cos}^1({\displaystyle \frac{b}{2(R_A+\tau V_{\mathrm{ex}})}})b\sqrt{(R_A+\tau V_{\mathrm{ex}})^2{\displaystyle \frac{b^2}{4}}}\right\}.`$
Here $`R_A`$ is the lead-nucleus radius, $`V_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ is the transverse velocity for radial flow, and $`\gamma `$ is the Lorentz contraction factor, $`\gamma =\sqrt{s}/2m_N`$, with nucleon mass $`m_N`$, and $`\sqrt{s}`$ is the C.M. energy of a nucleon-nucleon collision. As a result of the above consideration, the pion number density depends on the impact parameter and proper time as

$$n_\pi (b,\tau )=\frac{N_\pi (b)}{V(b,\tau )}.$$
(12)
The $`\pi `$-charmonium dissociation cross sections depend on the temperature $`T`$ and the collision energy. Pions in thermal equilibrium have the momentum distribution $`f_\pi (k)3e^{E_\pi /T}`$ with the pion energy $`E_\pi `$. Integrating the whole pion momentum contribution to $`v_{\mathrm{rel}}\sigma `$ and dividing by the pion number density, we obtain

$$v_{\mathrm{rel}}\sigma =\frac{\frac{d^3k}{(2\pi )^3}f_\pi (k)v_{\mathrm{rel}}\sigma }{\frac{d^3k}{(2\pi )^3}f_\pi (k)},$$
(13)
which depends on $`p_T`$ and $`x_F`$ of charmonium and $`\tau `$.

The differential cross sections with respect to $`E_T`$ for $`J/\psi `$ production is given by

$$\frac{d\sigma _{J/\psi }^{AB}}{dE_T}=d^2b\frac{d\sigma _{J/\psi }^{AB}}{d\stackrel{}{b}}D(b,E_T),$$
(14)
and the differential cross section for the Drell-Yan process is

$$\frac{d\sigma _{DY}^{AB}}{dE_T}=d^2b\frac{d\sigma _{DY}^{AB}}{d\stackrel{}{b}}D(b,E_T),$$
(15)
where $`D(b,E_T)`$ relates $`b`$ to $`E_T`$

$$D(b,E_T)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi }\sigma (b)}e^{[E_T\overline{E}_T(b)]^2/2\sigma ^2(b)},$$
(16)
with the average transverse energy

$$\overline{E}_T(b)=\frac{135\mathrm{G}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}{1+\mathrm{exp}[(b6.7)/3]},$$
(17)
and the variance

$$\sigma (b)=\frac{11\mathrm{G}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}{1+\mathrm{exp}[(b10)/2]}.$$
(18)
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

A. Differential Cross Sections for $`J/\psi `$ Yield in Nucleon-Nucleon Collisions

To generate momentum distribution of $`J/\psi `$, we need to parametrize the initially produced $`J/\psi `$ distributions. The invariant differential cross section for $`J/\psi `$ production in a nucleon-nucleon collision, $`Ed^3\sigma _{J/\psi }^{NN}/d^3p`$, is factorized as

$$E\frac{d^3\sigma _{J/\psi }^{NN}}{d^3p}=f(x_F)g(p_T).$$
(19)
The parameters of $`f(x_F)`$ and $`g(p_T)`$ obtained by fitting experimental data in $`pp`$ and $`pA`$ collisions have been summarized in Refs. . We take the parametrizations

$$g(p_T)(1+\frac{p_T^2}{\beta ^2})^6,$$
(20)
$$f(x_F)\frac{(1x_1)^a(1x_2)^a}{x_1+x_2},$$
(21)
where $`x_{1,2}=0.5(\sqrt{x_F^2+4M_{J/\psi }^2/s}\pm x_F)`$ with the $`J/\psi `$ mass $`M_{J/\psi }`$. The quantity $`\beta `$ is related to the average transverse momentum $`p_T`$ by $`\beta =\frac{256}{35\pi }p_T`$. The quantity $`\beta =2.24\pm 0.28`$ GeV/$`c`$ is inferred from $`p_T=0.96\pm 0.12`$ GeV/$`c`$ for the $`J/\psi `$ production in $`p`$-Be collisions at $`\sqrt{s}=16.8`$ GeV . The parameter $`a=4.95`$ fits the $`x_F`$ spectra of $`J/\psi `$ in $`p`$-Be collisions at $`\sqrt{s}=`$ 38.8, 31.6, and 16.8 GeV  and $`p`$-Li collisions at $`\sqrt{s}=23.8`$ GeV . The $`x_F`$ spectrum provides the average value $`x_F=_0^{1\delta }𝑑x_Fx_Ff(x_F)/_0^{1\delta }𝑑x_Ff(x_F)0.16`$ with $`\delta =M_{J/\psi }^2/s`$. The condition $`x_{1,2}`$ 1 requires $`x_F`$ 1-$`\delta `$. We use the parametrizations of $`f(x_F)`$ and $`g(p_T)`$ to generate the $`x_F`$ and $`p_T`$ spectra of a charmonium produced in nucleon-nucleon collisions in Pb+Pb collisions at 158 GeV/$`c`$ per nucleon.

In Eq. (8) we assume $`J/\psi `$ mesons are produced uniformly in the collision region. The successive collisions of a projectile nucleon in the target nucleus cause the nucleon to lose energy gradually so that $`J/\psi `$ mesons are not evenly produced in space. Such an effect was discussed in Ref. .

B. $`J/\psi `$ Suppression in Hadronic Matter

As seen in Eq. (8), the differential cross section explicitly depends on the pion formation time $`\tau _{\mathrm{form}}`$, the pion thermalization time $`\tau _{\mathrm{therm}}`$, and the hadron freeze-out time $`\tau _{\mathrm{fz}}`$. We estimate the formation time $`\tau _{\mathrm{form}}`$ to be 1 fm/$`c`$ from nucleon-nucleon collision data . Then in the most central Pb+Pb collision, $`n_\pi (b=0,\tau _{\mathrm{form}})=2.38`$ $`\mathrm{fm}^3`$. We use a freeze-out number density of $`n_{\mathrm{fz}}=0.5`$ $`\mathrm{fm}^3`$. The initial temperature of pion matter is close to the QCD phase transition temperature $`T_c=0.175`$ GeV  and is taken as $`T_{\mathrm{therm}}=0.16`$ GeV.

In a thermal medium, the charmonium will spontaneously dissociate if the energy $`ϵ`$ obtained from the Schr$`\ddot{\mathrm{o}}`$dinger equation relative to the mass of two open charm mesons is positive. The energy $`ϵ`$ varies with temperature. The critical temperature $`T_d`$ for the spontaneous dissociation (at which $`ϵ`$ is zero) was determined by Wong  to be $`T_d/T_c=0.99`$, 0.90, and 0.91 for $`J/\psi `$, $`\chi _{c1}`$, and $`\chi _{c2}`$, respectively. Since $`T/T_cT_{\mathrm{therm}}/T_c=`$ 0.91 for any centrality, we can neglect the spontaneous dissociation of $`J/\psi `$, $`\chi _{c1}`$, and $`\chi _{c2}`$ in the pion matter.

We assume that all charmonia concerned have the same absorption cross section in collision with nucleons, $`\sigma _{NJ/\psi }=\sigma _{N\chi _{c1}}=\sigma _{N\chi _{c2}}=\sigma _{N\psi ^{}}=\sigma _{\mathrm{Nabs}}`$. Since these cross sections have not been fixed by $`pA`$ reactions, we take a value of 4.2 mb. The remaining adjustable parameter is $`\tau _{\mathrm{therm}}(b=0)`$ for the most central Pb+Pb collision. The thermalization time has a centrality dependence, $`\delta \tau _{\mathrm{therm}}1/(\sigma _{\pi \pi }n_\pi (b,\tau _{\mathrm{form}}))`$, where $`\sigma _{\pi \pi }`$ is the $`\pi \pi `$ elastic scattering cross section at zero temperature. Since the pion number density is given by Eq. (12), the thermalization time after the formation of hadronic matter can be obtained by

$$\delta \tau _{\mathrm{therm}}(b)=\delta \tau _{\mathrm{therm}}(b=0)\frac{n_\pi (b=0,\tau _{\mathrm{form}})}{n_\pi (b,\tau _{\mathrm{form}})}.$$
(22)
The thermalization time measured relative to the moment of initial collision is then $`\tau _{\mathrm{therm}}(b)=\tau _{\mathrm{form}}+\delta \tau _{\mathrm{therm}}(b)`$.

The value of the adjustable parameter $`\tau _{\mathrm{therm}}(b=0)`$ and the transverse velocity $`V_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ are obtained by fitting the latest data of $`B(J/\psi )\sigma (J/\psi )/\sigma (DY)`$ from the NA50 Collaboration . As shown in Fig. 3. the latest data in Ref.  are slightly different from the earlier data  in the peripheral and central collisions. Other quantities such as the pion number density at thermalization $`n_{\mathrm{therm}}`$, proper time $`\tau _{\mathrm{fz}}`$, and temperature $`T_{\mathrm{fz}}`$ at freeze-out are then calculated and also tabulated in Table I for the central collision at $`b=0`$ fm. The quantity $`n_{\mathrm{therm}}=n_\pi (b=0,\tau _{\mathrm{therm}})`$ is calculated with Eq. (12). The freeze-out time $`\tau _{\mathrm{fz}}`$ depends on the centrality. The freeze-out temperature $`T_{\mathrm{fz}}`$, determined in the most central collision, is the same for hadronic matter yielded at any centrality. The temperature between $`T_{\mathrm{therm}}`$ and $`T_{\mathrm{fz}}`$ approximately obey the relation given by Bjorken . In the survival probability of total $`J/\psi `$, we include contributions at the level of 58% for direct $`J/\psi `$, 20% for $`\chi _{c1}`$, 14.5% for $`\chi _{c2}`$, and 7.5% for $`\psi ^{}`$ .

From central to peripheral collisions, pion number density decreases and thermalization time increases according to Eq. (22). At $`b=8.9`$ fm the pion number density at $`\tau _{\mathrm{therm}}`$ is equal to the freeze-out number density and no thermalization is attained. For $`b>8.9`$ fm, the zero-temperature charmonium dissociation cross sections are relevant for $`J/\psi `$ suppression. Since the peak dissociation cross sections for $`J/\psi `$, $`\chi _{c1}`$, and $`\chi _{c2}`$ in collision with $`\pi `$ at $`T=0`$ are about 1.1 mb, 1.6 mb, and 1.9 mb, respectively, the suppression of $`J/\psi `$ due to the collision with $`\pi `$ is very small. Therefore, the absorption by $`NJ/\psi `$ collisions completely dominates $`J/\psi `$ suppression at $`b>8.9`$ fm. For $`b<8.9`$ fm, thermalized hadronic matter sets in with $`T_{\mathrm{therm}}=0.16\mathrm{GeV}`$ and freezes out at $`T_{\mathrm{fz}}=0.139`$ GeV. The dissociation cross section jumps from 1.1 mb (1.6 mb, 1.9 mb) at $`T=0`$ to 6.5 mb (4.1 mb, 4.8 mb) at $`T_{\mathrm{fz}}=0.139`$ GeV and even higher at $`T_{\mathrm{therm}}=0.16\mathrm{GeV}`$ for $`J/\psi `$ ($`\chi _{c1}`$, $`\chi _{c2}`$). But this sudden rise does not induce a sudden fall of $`B(J/\psi )\sigma (J/\psi )/\sigma (DY)`$ at $`E_T40`$ GeV since the time in which $`J/\psi `$ interacts with pion matter in thermal equilibrium increases gradually as the impact parameter decreases from $`b=8.9`$ fm to zero. In these calculations, the suppression of $`\psi ^{}`$ has been taken into account (see the following paragraph), as $`\psi ^{}`$ comprises about 7.5% of the unsuppressed $`J/\psi `$ yield.

To study $`\psi ^{}`$ suppression, we note from Ref.  that the spontaneous dissociation of $`\psi ^{}`$ begins with $`T_d/T_c=0.50`$. The pion matter freezes out at $`T_{\mathrm{fz}}/T_c0.79`$ for any centrality. Thus $`\psi ^{}`$ spontaneous dissociation takes place throughout the pion matter. For a full description of the $`\psi ^{}`$ spontaneous dissociation, a suitable treatment will be needed in future work. The effect of $`\psi ^{}`$ dissociation, alternatively, can be accounted for by an approximate effective treatment where we assume a constant $`\psi ^{}`$ dissociation cross section independent of energy, $`\sigma _{\pi \psi ^{}}=12`$ mb. As shown in Fig. 4, the experimental data for $`B(\psi ^{})\sigma (\psi ^{})/\sigma (DY)`$ reported in Ref.  and exhibited in Ref.  can be represented by such a $`\pi \psi ^{}`$ cross section of 12 mb. We shall include this constant $`\psi ^{}`$ dissociation cross section in our analysis of the $`\psi ^{}`$ absorption in our model. It can be considered as an effective representation of the experimental data to include the effect of $`\psi ^{}`$ suppression.

In addition to the spontaneous dissociation, $`J/\psi `$ suppression may receive contributions from the thermalization of charmonium in hadronic matter. The thermalization process leads to a thermal distribution of charmonium, and the states above the dissociate threshold can dissociate spontaneously . The thermalization of charmonia depends on the dynamic processes such as scatterings of lower charmonium states in collision with pions leading to higher charmonium states. The work of Fujii and Kharzeev  gave the cross sections for $`\pi +J/\psi \pi +\psi ^{}`$ less than 0.01 mb in the region of interest. We assume implicit generalization of this cross section to other pion-charmonium scatterings. Then the thermalization time of charmonia is very long and the charmonia cannot be in thermal equilibrium before pionic matter freezes out. Therefore the dissociation by thermalization for $`J/\psi `$, $`\chi _{c1}`$, and $`\chi _{c2}`$ have not been included. If we calculate cross sections for processes such as $`\pi +J/\psi \pi +\chi _{cJ}`$ in the quark-interchange mechanism, we need to interchange the quarks twice and the quark-interchange processes are of higher order. The calculations for these cross sections are complicated and are left for a future work.

To illustrate the role of charmonium dissociations in collisions with pions in hadronic matter, we set $`\sigma _{\mathrm{Nabs}}`$=0 and calculate $`B(J/\psi )\sigma (J/\psi )/\sigma (DY)`$ with different assumptions on the $`\pi (c\overline{c})_{JLS}`$ cross sections for the dissociation of the charmonium $`(c\overline{c})_{JLS}`$. In Fig. 5 we show the results with $`\pi (c\overline{c})_{JLS}`$ dissociation cross sections as given by: (1) $`\sigma (\pi (c\overline{c})_{JLS})`$ for $`T=0`$  (dashed curve); (2) $`\sigma (\pi (c\overline{c})_{JLS})`$=1 mb (dot-dashed curve); (3) $`\sigma (\pi (c\overline{c})_{JLS})`$=2 mb (dotted curve); (4) $`\sigma (\pi (c\overline{c})_{JLS})`$ of Figs. 1 and 2 for $`T>0`$ (solid curve). The flat curve below $`E_T=28`$ GeV comes mainly from the collisions at $`b>`$8.9 fm where no thermalization is attained. This flatness arises as the $`\pi `$-charmonium dissociation cross section is small and the pion number density is not high at $`b>`$ 8.9 fm. Indeed, the dashed curve gives a small $`J/\psi `$ suppression if only the $`\pi `$-charmonium dissociation cross sections at $`T=0`$ are used. Even the $`J/\psi `$ suppression obtained by using 1 mb cross section is larger than that for the cross sections at $`T=0`$. It is obvious that the suppression obtained from the cross sections at higher temperatures is greater than that from using a 2 mb cross section. This is related to the larger charmonium dissociation cross sections at higher temperatures as shown below.

The cross sections in Figs. 1 and 2 depend on the temperature and $`\pi (c\overline{c})_{JLS}`$ relative momenta. What are the average cross sections? Fig. 6 exhibits cross sections averaged over the pion and $`(c\overline{c})_{JLS}`$ momenta in the collision at $`b=0`$ fm, which is defined as

$$\sigma =\frac{d^3p}{E}(E\frac{d^3\sigma _{J/\psi }^{NN}}{d^3p})\frac{d^3k}{(2\pi )^3}f_\pi (k)\sigma /[\frac{d^3p}{E}(E\frac{d^3\sigma _{J/\psi }^{NN}}{d^3p})\frac{d^3k}{(2\pi )^3}f_\pi (k)].$$
(23)
The average cross sections $`\sigma _{\pi J/\psi }`$, $`\sigma _{\pi \chi _{c1}}`$, and $`\sigma _{\pi \chi _{c2}}`$ decrease with time. At the thermalization time, they are 3.47 mb, 2.74 mb, and 2.95 mb, respectively. At 2.9 fm$`<\tau <`$4.25 fm, $`\sigma _{\pi J/\psi }`$ is larger than $`\sigma _{\pi \chi _{c1}}`$. At 2.9 fm $`<\tau <`$3.4 fm, $`\sigma _{\pi J/\psi }`$ even surpasses $`\sigma _{\pi \chi _{c2}}`$. These are not surprising since the peak value of $`J/\psi `$ dissociation cross section exceeds that of $`\chi _{c1}`$ ($`\chi _{c2}`$) for $`T/T_c>0.55(0.65)`$ and the temperature of hadronic matter before freeze-out is $`T/T_c0.79`$.

We further calculate the quantity

$$\overline{v_{\mathrm{rel}}\sigma }=_{\tau _{\mathrm{therm}}}^{\tau _{\mathrm{fz}}}𝑑\tau v_{\mathrm{rel}}\sigma /(\tau _{\mathrm{fz}}\tau _{\mathrm{therm}}).$$
(24)
The $`p_T`$ and $`x_F`$ dependences of $`\overline{v_{\mathrm{rel}}\sigma }`$ are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. These results indicate that the average absorption effects due to $`J/\psi `$, $`\chi _{c1}`$, and $`\chi _{c2}`$ are not significantly different. The above discussion will be useful to understand data from the NA60 Collaboration  where the $`\chi _{cJ}`$ suppressions will be measured.

C. $`J/\psi `$ Suppression at Large $`E_T`$

In addition to the general suppression over a broad region of transverse energy $`E_T`$, the data for $`J/\psi `$ suppression in the large transverse energy region with $`E_T>100`$ GeV are also of special interest. For $`E_T>100`$ GeV, we consider the effects arising from the large $`E_T`$ fluctuation. Since $`D(b,E_T)`$ has not been constrained to give $`E_T`$ by the average

$$\overline{E}_T=\frac{d^2b\overline{E}_T(b)D(b,E_T)}{d^2bD(b,E_T)},$$
(25)
the measured $`E_T`$ is larger than $`\overline{E}_T`$ for $`E_T>100`$ GeV, i.e. the so-called large-$`E_T`$ fluctuation happens . In our calculations, the fluctuation increases not only the pion number density by the replacement $`n_\pi (b,\tau )n_\pi (b,\tau )E_T/\overline{E}_T`$ but also the lifetime of pion matter by $`V(b,\tau _{\mathrm{fz}}(b))=V(b,\tau _{\mathrm{therm}}(b))n_\pi (b,\tau _{\mathrm{therm}}(b))/n_{\mathrm{fz}}`$. The two changes lead to the solid curve in Fig. 3 decreasing continually beyond $`E_T=100`$ GeV.

The large $`E_T`$ fluctuation does not increase the initial temperature since we do not consider here the QCD phase transition to a QGP. The spontaneous dissociations of $`J/\psi `$, $`\chi _{c1}`$, and $`\chi _{c2}`$ can still be neglected. The factor $`E_T/\overline{E}_T`$ shows the fluctuation increases smoothly from $`E_T=100`$ GeV. Therefore we see that the solid curve does not drop rapidly in the large-$`E_T`$ region and does not pass the rightest experimental point within the error bar. This behavior is similar to the theoretical $`J/\psi `$ suppression obtained by Capella $`etal`$. . If experimental data at $`E_T>120`$ GeV can be provided with good statistics by additional NA60 measurements , then we need compare our result to the experimental data in this region to see the possibility of additional suppression due to the QGP.

VI. CONCLUSIONS

We have studied $`\pi `$-charmonium dissociation cross sections and the $`J/\psi `$ suppression in Pb+Pb collisions at the CERN-SPS. We use dissociation cross sections calculated in the Barnes-Swanson quark-interchange model  with the potential obtained from the lattice gauge results. Making reasonable assumptions about the absorption scenario, we find that the $`J/\psi `$ production cross section calculated with these dissociation cross sections can describe the general features of the anomalous $`J/\psi `$ suppression data. An important element of the agreement arises from the increase of the dissociation cross sections as the temperature increases. For the large $`E_T`$ region at $`E_T>100`$ GeV, the anomalous additional suppression can be explained by the fluctuation of $`E_T`$ or multiplicity.

The $`\pi `$-charmonium dissociation cross sections depend on the temperature and the kinetic energy, but the averages $`\overline{v_{\mathrm{rel}}\sigma }`$ in hadronic matter for $`\pi +J/\psi `$, $`\pi +\chi _{c1}`$, and $`\pi +\chi _{c2}`$ dissociation cross sections are nearly the same. Thus, the dissociations of direct $`J/\psi `$, $`\chi _{c1}`$, and $`\chi _{c2}`$ give nearly the same contributions to the suppression of the measured $`J/\psi `$.

We have chosen the constant absorption cross sections of charmonia on nucleons. However, the absorption cross sections are expected to depend on the C.M. energy of charmonium and nucleon. Determining the nucleon absorption cross sections is an important task. It will be of interest to evaluate the $`NJ/\psi `$ dissociation cross sections in the Barnes-Swanson quark-interchange model .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

X.-M. Xu thanks the nuclear theory group and PHENIX group at ORNL for their kind hospitality. This work was supported in part by the Division of Nuclear Physics, U. S. Department of Energy, and by the Laboratory Directed Research and Development of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, under Contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 managed by UT-Battelle, LLC. X.-M. Xu acknowledges support from the CAS Knowledge Innovation Project No. KJCX2-SW-N02.

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text:
# Gravitational Waves from Spinning Compact Binaries

## Acknowledgements

NJC is supported in part by National Science Foundation Grant No. PHY-0099532. JL is supported by a PPARC Advanced Fellowship.


text:
# A microscopic description of the aging dynamics: fluctuation-dissipation relations, effective temperature and heterogeneities

## Abstract

We consider the dynamics of a diluted mean-field spin glass model in the aging regime. The model presents a particularly rich heterogeneous behavior. In order to catch this behavior, we perform a spin-by-spin analysis for a given disorder realization. The results compare well with the outcome of a static calculation which uses the “survey propagation” algorithm of Mézard, Parisi, and Zecchina \[Sciencexpress 10.1126/science.1073287 (2002)\]. We thus confirm the connection between statics and dynamics at the level of single degrees of freedom. Moreover, working with single-site quantities, we can introduce a new response-vs-correlation plot, which clearly shows how heterogeneous degrees of freedom undergo coherent structural rearrangements. Finally we discuss the general scenario which emerges from our work and (possibly) applies to more realistic glassy models. Interestingly enough, some features of this scenario can be understood recurring to thermometric considerations.

The description of the off-equilibrium dynamics in aging systems is one of the major challenges in contemporary statistical mechanics. Aging systems, like spin, structural and polymeric glasses SITGES\_ANGELL\_STRUICK  are slowly evolving, heterogeneous systems which do not reach thermal equilibrium, at low enough temperatures, on any experimental time-scale. In the last 20 years a great effort has been devoted to study the dynamics of some prototypical models, namely mean-field spin glasses DynamicsReview . These models exhibit an extremely rich behavior: slow relaxation, memory effects, aging. Important tools which have been introduced in this context are the off-equilibrium fluctuation-dissipation relation (OFDR) OFDR , and the effective temperature CUKUPE  one can derive from that relation. Such an effective temperature is, roughly speaking, what would be measured by a thermometer responding on the time scale on which the system ages.

One of the weak points of the results obtained so far is that they focus on global quantities, e.g. correlation and response functions averaged over the spins. On the other hand, we expect one of the peculiar features of glassy dynamics to be its heterogeneity HETERO\_EXP . For instance, correlation and response functions of a particular spin depend upon its local environment HETERO\_SG . Two simple remarks are in order here: $`(i)`$ These spin-to-spin fluctuations are non-zero even in the thermodynamic limit; $`(ii)`$ They disappear when the average over quenched disorder is taken.

Moreover the present definition CUKUPE  of effective temperature has some problems. Indeed it corresponds to what would be measured by a specific, properly tuned, slow thermometer, while generalizations to more generic thermometers give disagreeing results EXARTIER , still to be clarified.

In this Letter, inspired by the new approach of MEPAZE , we study the aging dynamics focusing on single-site correlation and response functions. In this way we are able to consider the heterogeneities in the system and to define a microscopic, but site-independent, effective temperature.

An interesting context for addressing these issues is provided by diluted mean-field models. In these models each spin interacts with a finite number of other spins, just as in finite-dimensional models. On the other hand, the absence of a finite-dimensional geometrical structure makes them tractable from an analytic point of view.

We consider a ferromagnetic Ising model with 3-spin interactions, defined by the Hamiltonian

$$=\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}\sigma _{i_m}\sigma _{j_m}\sigma _{k_m},$$
(1)
where the $`M`$ triples $`(i_m,j_m,k_m)`$ are chosen randomly among the $`\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{N}{3}\right)`$ possible ones. Although ferromagnetic, this model is thought to have a glassy behavior for $`M>0.818N`$, due to self-induced frustration RIWEZE .

We work on a single sample with $`M=N=100`$, whose largest connected component contains 96 sites. We limited ourselves to such a small sample because single-spin measures require huge statistics.

We use the “survey propagation” (SP) algorithm of Refs. MEPAZE , or better its generalization at finite temperatures FDTSS2 , to compute the free energy density $`F(m,\beta )`$ for our specific sample at one-step replica symmetry breaking (1RSB) level. In Fig. 1 we report the complexity $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(T)=\beta _mF(m,\beta )|_{m=1}`$. The dynamic and static temperatures are defined, respectively, as the points where a non-trivial (1RSB) solution to the cavity equations first appears, and where its complexity vanishes. From the results of Fig. 1 we get the estimates $`T_d=0.557(2)`$ and $`T_c=0.467(2)`$. In the standard picture, the aging dynamics for discontinuous spin glasses is dominated by “threshold” metastable states DynamicsReview . The corresponding 1RSB parameter $`m_{\mathrm{th}}(T)`$ can be computed by imposing the condition $`_m^2[mF(m,\beta )]=0`$. We computed $`m_{\mathrm{th}}(T)`$ on our sample for some temperatures below $`T_d`$, and in the zero temperature limit, $`m_{\mathrm{th}}(T)=\mu _{\mathrm{th}}T`$, with $`\mu _{\mathrm{th}}=1.08(1)`$. These results are summarized in the inset of Fig. 1.

Another important outcome from the SP algorithm is the value of the local Edwards-Anderson order parameter $`q_{\mathrm{EA}}^{(i)}(m)`$, which depends on the 1RSB parameter $`m`$. On threshold states, the local order parameter is connected to the single-site correlation function (defined below):

$$q_{\mathrm{th}}^{(i)}q_{\text{EA}}^{(i)}(m_{\mathrm{th}})=\underset{t\mathrm{}}{lim}\underset{t_w\mathrm{}}{lim}C_i(t_w+t,t_w).$$
(2)
We consider Metropolis dynamics starting from random initial conditions, $`\sigma _i(t=0)=\pm 1`$. After a time $`t_w`$ we turn on a small random magnetic field, $`h_i=\pm h_0`$, and we measure single-spin correlation and integrated response functions

$`C_i(t_w+t,t_w)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{t}}{\displaystyle \underset{t^{}=t}{\overset{2t1}{}}}\sigma _i(t_w+t^{})\sigma _i(t_w),`$ (3)
$`\chi _i(t_w+t,t_w)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{th_0}}{\displaystyle \underset{t^{}=t}{\overset{2t1}{}}}\sigma _i(t_w+t^{})\text{sign}(h_i),`$ (4)
where $``$ denotes the average over the Metropolis trajectories and the random perturbing field. The sums over $`t^{}`$ are introduced in order to reduce the statistical error. This “experiment” is repeat $`N_{\text{runs}}`$ times, each time with a different thermal noise and perturbing field. Typical values for $`N_{\text{runs}}`$ range between $`10^6`$ and $`510^6`$.

The first remark on the numerical data, is that the spins can be clearly classified in two groups. Type-I spins behave as if the system were in equilibrium: the corresponding correlation and response functions satisfy time-translation invariance and the fluctuation dissipation theorem (FDT). Type-II spins are out of equilibrium spins: their correlation and response functions are non-homogeneous on long time scales and violate FDT.

Type-I includes isolated sites, but also 12 non-isolated sites. Remarkably these sites are the ones for which the SP algorithm returns $`q_{\mathrm{th}}^{(i)}=0`$, i.e. they are paramagnetic from the static point of view. These sites can also be identified via a simple algorithm LEAF\_REM .

Let us hereafter focus on type-II spins, that is on glassy degrees of freedom. In Fig. 2 we show the correlation function for a generic type-II spin ($`i=0`$ here) and the corresponding $`\chi `$-vs-$`C`$ plot. For this spin we have $`q_{\mathrm{th}}=0.716(7)`$, shown with a dashed line in Fig. 2 (top). In the limit of very large times we expect (in analogy with OFDR ) the OFDR $`\chi _i(t,t^{})=\chi _i[C(t,t^{})]`$ to hold. Moreover the function $`\chi _i[C]`$ should be related to static quantities FMPP . Numerical data, for this and for all the other spins, seem to converge to the static curve $`\chi _i[C]`$. This is an evidence for a strong link between static and dynamic observables even at the level of single degrees of freedom.

The 1RSB static calculation yields

$$\begin{array}{c}T\chi _i[C]=[1C]\theta \left(Cq_{\mathrm{th}}^{(i)}\right)+\hfill \\ \hfill +\left[1q_{\mathrm{th}}^{(i)}m_{\mathrm{th}}\left(Cq_{\mathrm{th}}^{(i)}\right)\right]\theta \left(q_{\mathrm{th}}^{(i)}C\right).\end{array}$$
(5)
The OFDR changes from site to site because the $`q_{\mathrm{th}}^{(i)}`$ changes. Note, however, that the $`\chi _i[C]`$ curves are parallel in the aging regime, since $`m_{\mathrm{th}}`$ only depends on the temperature (cf. Fig. 3).

System heterogeneities manifest themselves in the large variability of the $`q_{\mathrm{th}}^{(i)}`$ local order parameters. The $`\chi `$-vs-$`C`$ plot for seven generic sites, see Fig. 3 (top), clearly shows this variability. In order to check that single-site data can be well described by Eq. (5) we rescale data of Fig. 3 using the scaling variables $`C_i^{\mathrm{res}}=1A_i(1C_i)`$ and $`\chi _i^{\mathrm{res}}=A_i\chi _i`$, where $`A_i=(1\overline{q})/(1q_{\mathrm{th}}^{(i)})`$, $`\overline{q}`$ being a reference overlap which can be chosen freely. Rescaled data are shown in Fig. 3 (bottom).

A last important question, in order to complete the description of the time evolution of single-site quantities, regards the time law with which spin $`i`$ runs along the curve $`\chi _i[C]`$. The answer to this question is very surprising and it is shown in Fig. 4, where we plot the time evolution of all the 100 $`C_i`$’s and $`\chi _i`$’s.

Amazingly, sites-II data leave the FDT line coherently (when the system undergoes a global structural rearrangement) and they remain very well aligned for later times. Fits to a function

$$\chi _i(t_w+t,t_w)=\frac{1C_i(t_w+t,t_w)}{T_{\mathrm{fit}}(t_w,t)}$$
(6)
give very accurate results with $`T_{\mathrm{fit}}=0.459`$ (for $`t=2^{12}`$), $`0.536`$ ($`t=2^{15}`$), $`0.564`$ ($`t=2^{16}`$), $`0.590`$ ($`t=2^{17}`$).

In the following discussion we shall try to outline a few general properties which can be extrapolated from our numerical results, and, possibly, applied to a wider variety of systems. Our basic objects are the local correlation and response functions $`C_i(t,t^{})`$ and $`R_i(t,t^{})_t^{}\chi _i(t,t^{})`$. Following Refs. OFDR , we guess that $`_tC_i(t,t^{}),_tR_i(t,t^{})0`$, and $`_t^{}C_i(t,t^{}),_t^{}R_i(t,t^{})0`$. Moreover $`C_i(t,t^{}),R_i(t,t^{})0`$ as $`t\mathrm{}`$ for any fixed $`t^{}`$. All these properties are well realized within our model.

The first non-trivial property 111A somewhat similar statement appears in L.F. Cugliandolo, J. Kurchan, and P. Le Doussal, Phys. Rev. Lett. 76, 2390 (1996). is that, for any “non-exceptional” pair of spins $`i`$ and $`j`$ there exist two continuous functions $`f_{ij}`$ and $`f_{ji}`$ such that

$$C_i(t,t^{})=f_{ij}[C_j(t,t^{})],C_j(t,t^{})=f_{ji}[C_i(t,t^{})],$$
(7)
asymptotically for $`t,t^{}1`$. We shall not specify what does “non-exceptional” mean 222One possibility is to take Eqs. (7) as the definition of dynamically connected degrees of freedom. Our discussion is therefore valid within each dynamically connected component., but the reader is urged to bear in mind the example of type-I (paramagnetic) spins in our model: if $`i`$ is type-I, and $`j`$ is type-II, then relation (7) clearly does not hold.

It is easy to show that transition functions $`\{f_{ij}\}`$ can be written in the form $`f_{ij}=f_i^1f_j`$. Of course the functions $`f_i`$ are not unique: in particular they can be modified by a global reparametrization $`f_igf_i`$.

Moreover Eq. (7) implies a one-to-one correspondence between the correlation scales (in the sense of OFDR ) of sites $`i`$ and $`j`$. Notice that, for our model, this is unavoidable if we want the connection between statics and dynamics to be satisfied both at the level of global and local (single-spin) observables. Physically this first property means that structural rearrangements occurs coherently in the whole system. Notice that this is not unphysical, because far apart degrees of freedom are coherent only on a coarse time resolution (diverging with $`t_w`$).

The second property has been illustrated at length above: For large times $`t,t^{}`$, a local OFDR of the form $`\chi _i(t,t^{})=\chi _i[C_i(t,t^{})]`$ exists (the connection with the static result is not a crucial point here).

Our third property determines the form of the transition functions $`f_{ij}=f_i^1f_j`$ in the aging regime. In fact the results in Fig. 4 suggest that

$$\frac{\chi _i(t,t^{})}{1C_i(t,t^{})}=\frac{\chi _j(t,t^{})}{1C_j(t,t^{})}i,j.$$
(8)
Combined with the OFDR, this means that we can take $`f_i[C]=\chi _i[C]/(1C)`$ for $`C<q_{\mathrm{th}}^{(i)}`$. This relation cannot be extended to the quasi-equilibrium regime $`C_i>q_{\mathrm{th}}^{(i)}`$, because we would obtain $`f_i[C]=\beta `$ identically, which is not invertible.

Finally the fourth property is:

$$\chi _i^{}[C_i(t,t^{})]=\chi _j^{}[C_j(t,t^{})],$$
(9)
or, in other words $`\chi _i^{}[C_i]=\chi _j^{}[C_j]`$ when $`C_i=f_{ij}[C_j]`$. Notice that, for our model, this property is satisfied by the prediction we draw from the statics. However, a direct numerical verification is quite hard.

Suppose now to measure the temperature of the spin $`i`$, by weakly coupling it to a thermometer 333Here we consider a thermometer based on the zeroth law of thermodynamics CUKUPE .. If the thermometer respond quickly, it measures the bath temperature $`T`$ for any site $`i`$, independently of the details of the thermometer itself. However, if the thermometer is “slow”, it measures an effective temperature $`T_{\mathrm{meas}}>T`$, which depends upon the specific thermometer used EXARTIER . Nevertheless, the above scenario imply FDTSS2  that $`T_{\mathrm{meas}}`$ is site-independent. The converse is also true: if one of the above four properties ceases to hold, one can construct a thermometer which distinguishes colder sites from hotter ones, and use it to transfer heat.

Our conclusions are summarized in Fig. 5. Dynamical heterogeneities turn out to be strongly constrained in the aging regime. These constraints can be derived from the hypothesis of thermometric indistinguishability of different sites FDTSS2 .

We are deeply indebted with Riccardo Zecchina and Marc Mézard, who discussed with us their results MEPAZE  before publication. A. M. thanks Leticia Cugliandolo and Jorge Kurchan for their interest in this work, and the ESF for financial support.


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# The Spatially-Resolved Mass Function of the Globular Cluster M22Based on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope obtained at ST ScI, which is operated by AURA, Inc. under NASA contract NAS 5-26555.

## 1 Introduction

As in many areas of astronomy, the advent of the Hubble Space Telescope has revolutionised the study of globular clusters. Primarily because of crowding, ground-based observations of the central regions of globular clusters are limited to brighter stars, at or above the main sequence turnoff. HST allows access to the study of stellar populations below the turnoff including main sequence stars and white dwarfs.

Main-sequence stars below the turnoff in globular clusters (typically $`m<0.8M_{\mathrm{}}`$) have evolved little from their initial zero-age main-sequence (ZAMS) state. Thus, mass functions derived from globular cluster luminosity functions can be used as indicators of a stellar initial mass function (IMF). Most notably in recent years, several groups have used HST WFPC2 photometry to probe mass and luminosity functions for several globular clusters down to the hydrogen burning limit. For example, Paresce & De Marchi (2000) have documented the turnover in the luminosity function at $`0.3M_{\mathrm{}}`$ for a sample of twelve Galactic globular clusters. In NGC 6397 King et al. (1998) found that the mass function increases slowly for masses down to 0.1 $`M_{\mathrm{}}`$ and then drops rapidly.

Although individual globular cluster main sequence stars are little evolved from the ZAMS, the main sequence itself has been subject to modification by cluster dynamical effects. These include not only intra-cluster effects such as relaxation due to two-body interactions but also tidal interactions between a globular cluster and its Galactic environment. Relaxation of globular clusters has been studied in detail through dynamical equilibrium models (King, 1966; Gunn & Griffen, 1979) and through direct numerical n-body simulations (Aarseth, 1999). A comprehensive review of globular cluster dynamics is given by Meylan & Heggie (1997). Briefly, two-body interactions tend to transfer kinetic energy outward from the core and produce mass segregation, a depletion of the relative fraction of low mass stars in the central regions relative to their proportions outside the core. Only since the mid-1990’s has this effect been reliably observed in globular cluster cores, for example in 47 Tuc (Paresce, De Marchi & Jedrzejewski, 1995), NGC 6752 (Shara et al., 1995) and NGC 6397 (King, Sosin & Cool, 1995). (Note that the core of a globular cluster is usually parameterised by the core radius, $`r_c`$, defined by King (1962) as the scale factor in his empirical formula for the surface density profile.) The most important external dynamic effect is disk shocking, which tends to strip the lightest stars out of a globular cluster during orbital crossings of the Galactic plane. To best avoid both internal and external dynamical modifications, the stellar luminosity functions in globular clusters should be obtained at radii close to the half-light radius of the cluster (Lee, Fahlman & Richer, 1991; Paresce & De Marchi, 2000).

A further complication in deriving a global IMF is the presence of binary main-sequence stars in a globular cluster. Near-equal-mass binary stars appear on a color-magnitude diagram in a main sequence displaced upwards by 0.75 mag (Elson et al., 1998). In only a few cases, for example NGC 6752 (Rubenstein & Bailyn, 1997), has the photometry been sufficiently precise to resolve this binary main sequence. Normally, the presence of binary stars will contaminate a main-sequence luminosity function, particularly in the core of a cluster where, due to mass segregation effects, the binary fraction is highest. In 47 Tuc, Albrow et al. (2001) found the fraction of binary stars to be around 13% in the innermost 4 $`r_c`$, with some evidence that this fraction was highest ($`20\%`$) within 1 $`r_c`$, dropping to $`8\%`$ at 2.5 $`r_c`$. Such a dropoff was also noted by Rubenstein & Bailyn (1997) in NGC 6752. For globular clusters showing at least a moderate degree of central concentration, $`log(r_{tidal}/r_c)1.5`$, the half-light radius is generally at least several times $`r_c`$ so luminosity functions derived at the half-light radius should be reasonably free from binary contamination.

In this paper we derive the luminosity and mass functions for M22 (NGC 6656), a globular cluster located about one third of the way between the Sun and the Galactic bulge. Our observations (taken as part of another program) are not particularly deep but cover a large spatial area from the center out to several $`r_c`$. Our focus is thus on determining the degree of mass segregation in the middle to upper main sequence rather than on probing the lowest mass stars. From four fields that we subdivide into concentric annular radial bins, we determine how the luminosity and mass functions change with radius in this cluster. Sections 2 and 3 discuss the data and their reduction. In section 4 and 5 we consider the derivation of the luminosity and mass functions. In section 6 we compare these results with a dynamical model for the cluster.

## 2 Observations

As part of a program to detect gravitational microlensing events by stars within M22 (Sahu et al., 2001), observations were taken during 22 February to 15 June, 1999, using the WFPC2 camera aboard HST. The images were taken at 43 epochs, with a typical separation of about 3 days. A subset of 9 images were taken with a separation of about 1 day, which were dithered at a sub-pixel level. One additional epoch of observations was taken a year later, on 18 February 2000. At each epoch, images were taken of three fields (hereafter referred to as pointings 1-3) in the central region of M22. Most of the observations were taken in the I (F814W) filter, with every fourth observation in the wide-V (F606W) filter. To optimize the overhead and exposure times during a single orbit, the 3 observed fields were so chosen that they used the same guide stars. This avoided the overheads involved in switching between guide stars during an orbit, but led to slight overlap between different fields. The orientation of the images was kept fixed in all the observations. To facilitate cosmic ray removal, the images were taken in pairs for each filter, each with an integration time of 260 sec. For each observed field, the total exposure time is 17160 sec in the F814W filter and 5200 sec in the F606W filter.

The above observations of the central regions of M22 were supplemented with exposures from the HST archive of a field (hereafter pointing 4) at the approximate half-light radius of the cluster, 3.5’ southeast of the cluster center. These consisted of 4$`\times `$1200 s exposures in F814W and 2$`\times `$1100 s + 2$`\times `$1200 s exposures in F606W. A luminosity function from these datasets was derived by De Marchi & Paresce (1997) and later confirmed by Piotto & Zoccali (1999). We thus have 16 different pointing/CCD combinations listed in Table 1. The four WFPC2 pointings used for this paper are shown in Fig. 1 relative to the cluster center which we take to be at J2000 coordinates (18h36m24.2s,-23$`\mathrm{°}`$54’12”) from Harris (1996).

Additionally, the HST archival dataset u27xjd01t was used to establish the luminosity function of the Galactic bulge local to M22. This archive consists of a single (non-CRSPLIT) 2400 s F814W exposure, offset from the center of M22 by approximately 9 arcmin to the southwest.

## 3 Data Reduction

The data frames were initially put through the standard HST on-the-fly calibration pipeline which involves bias and dark subtraction and flat-field correction. The remaining steps in the photometric reduction process were done using the HSTPHOT 1.0 package (Dolphin, 2000a). Data quality images were used to mask bad pixels and vignetted regions. Pairs of images (CR-SPLITs) taken during a single orbit and with the same dither offset and filter were combined for cosmic ray removal. Sky images were then calculated and hot pixels removed.

PSF-fitting photometry was done using the MULTIPHOT task in HSTPHOT 1.0. This program uses the combined signal from all the images at a given pointing for object detection. We used a detection threshold of 3.0 for the minimum signal-to-noise in the combined images. This threshold was deliberately set lower than what would eventually be used in the selection of stars for further analysis in order to prevent marginally-detected stars from contaminating the measurements of their neighbours.

The artificial star routine in MULTIPHOT generates stars randomly from a 2-dimensional color-magnitude grid specified by the user. We chose a grid such that $`17\mathrm{F606W}28`$, $`0\mathrm{F606W}\mathrm{F814W}3`$. These were placed and solved for one at a time on each set of images so that no additional crowding is introduced. The XY position of each artificial star is chosen randomly, but weighted towards regions with the highest stellar densities in order to best represent the real measurement conditions. A subset of these artificial stars from each frame (between 15,000 and 20,000 per frame) was chosen for comparison with the real stars based on the criterion that their input F606W-F814W color was within 0.1 mag of the main-sequence fiducial line (see section 4).

Charge transfer efficiency corrections were made as described in Dolphin (2000b). Aperture corrections to the PSF photometry were made using 150 - 200 bright and relatively isolated stars on each chip of each image. The aperture corrections were typically less than 0.01 mag but were as high as $``$ 0.05 mag for the chips sampling the core of the cluster.

The selection of the final star lists for further analysis was made by imposing a minimum signal-to-noise threshold of 10.0 and making further cuts using sharpness criteria on a chip-by-chip basis. The sharpness reported by HSTPHOT is defined in Dolphin (2000a). A perfectly-fit star has a sharpness of zero, with positive sharpness for stars with a sharper PSF than this, and negative for objects with a broader profile. A completely flat profile has a sharpness value of -1. A typical example of selection by object sharpness is shown in Fig. 2 for the WF3 chip of pointing 3. The sharpness of all the detected objects found between 60” and 120” from the cluster center with S/N $`>10`$ is plotted against F814W magnitude. (We will use this same sample field for illustrative purposes throughout the paper.) The left-hand panel shows the real data, the right-hand panel the artificial stars. Selection criteria are made with reference to the measured sharpness of the artificial stars. The horizontal cuts are made to reject those stars with poorly-fitting PSFs, the inclined cut is chosen to reject objects found with low sharpness at fainter magnitudes that do not appear in the artificial star set. Some of these faint detections excluded because of their high negative sharpness are image artifacts, mainly lying on diffraction spikes from saturated stars. Others are believed to be blends of faint stars. The adopted sharpness cuts for all field/CCD combinations are given in Table 1.

A further correction to the derived F814W and F606W WFPC2 flight system magnitudes was made to correct a trend with sharpness noticed in the artificial star data. Fig. 3 shows the difference between input and output magnitudes plotted against sharpness for the artificial stars from the same pointing-3 WF3 field as above. This effect is present (with the same slope) for all fields, but as we look farther away from the core the proportion of stars with non-zero sharpness decreases and thus it becomes much less significant. The proportion of stars with non-zero sharpness is also much greater for fainter stars. The origin of the effect can be understood as being due to extreme crowding in the central regions of the cluster. In effect, the background is not the true sky but rather a lumpy morass of undetected stars. The center of a faint, undetected star is more likely to lie in the wings of a brighter (detected) star then on its central pixel, leading it to be measured as being brighter and less sharp. Conversely, a local minimum in the background under a detected star will most likely result in it being measured as being sharper but with a smaller flux. To verify this, we have performed tests in which we have replaced all pixel values below a certain threshold with a constant background value, thus reducing the lumpiness of the background. Artificial stars were then added to the frame in the usual way. The proportion of the artificial stars subject to the effect was found to decrease markedly as this threshold was increased. Since the effect will have influenced all our measurements, the real-star magnitudes were corrected to zero sharpness based on the indicated linear fits to the artificial star data.

## 4 Luminosity Function

The combined color-magnitude diagram from the 4 PC chips (one from each pointing) is shown in Fig. 4. All stars with $`S/N>4`$ and $`|sharpness|<0.1`$ are included. The S/N threshold was deliberately set to be lower here than what would ultimately be used for our star counts because we wanted to ensure that our main sequence fiducial extended to a fainter limiting magnitude. The adopted main-sequence fiducial is a fifth-order polynomial fit to the median F606W-F814W color in each 0.5-mag F814W band in the range $`16.5<\mathrm{F814W}<24`$. A 2.5-$`\sigma `$ clipping routine was used to reject points with outlying colors in each F814W band before each median color was computed.

In order that our artificial star tests might best represent the actual colors and magnitudes of the measured stars, we selected only those artificial stars whose input magnitudes fell within 0.1 mag in color from the calculated main sequence fiducial. Sample input and output color-magnitude diagrams for the artificial stars in our sample field are shown in Fig. 5.

Since we are interested in determining how the luminosity function of M22 varies as a function of radius from the cluster center, the sets of real and artificial stars for each CCD were divided into concentric annular bins. These annuli were initially chosen at 60” radial intervals extending from the center of the cluster out to 300” as shown in Fig. 1. These 16 CCD fields and 5 radial bins thus give a grid of 80 possible luminosity functions to be calculated. In practice, at most two of these radial bins are well sampled by a given CCD. In order to better sample the core, we repeated our analysis using 20” annuli of which only the innermost five contained sufficient numbers of stars for luminosity functions to be computed with any degree of significance.

In Fig. 6 we show the color-magnitude diagram for the sample pointing-3, WF3, 60-120” bin. The left panel shows the real star photometry, the right panel is for the artificial stars. Indicated is the main-sequence fiducial (calculated as described above from the real-star data for all PC fields) and two 2.5-$`\sigma `$ curves used for statistically correcting the star counts for field-star contamination. Unfortunately the field-star densities of Ratnatunga & Bahcall (1985) do not extend to galactic latitudes as near to the Plane as M22 ($`b=7.55`$). The selection curves were calculated from the artificial stars as follows. First, the fiducial main sequence color was subtracted from each point. The resultant $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$(F814W-F606W) values were then subjected to an iterative 2.5-$`\sigma `$ clipping algorithm, for each 0.5-mag F814W bin and the fiducial main-sequence color added back to the two 2.5-$`\sigma `$ limits. Thus, in the absence of field-star contamination, 98.75% of main-sequence stars are found between the selection curves. Equivalently, the number of stars outside the selection lines should be 1.26% of the number inside. To estimate field star contamination, we count the number of stars inside and outside the selection lines in each 0.5-mag F814W bin within the color range $`1<\mathrm{F814W}\mathrm{F606W}<4`$. If the outside count is greater than 1.26% of the inner count then we adjust the inner count downwards by the excess, weighted for the differing color-ranges covered. Exactly the same algorithm is applied to the artificial-star data and to the real stars.

The application of the 2.5 $`\sigma `$ clipping criterion provides us with an upper limit to the luminosity function in that magnitude bins along the main sequence, although clipped to 5 $`\sigma `$ in color, will also contain background Galactic bulge stars. The bulge color-magnitude diagram (Holtzman et al., 1998) overlaps that of M22 and its luminosity function increases with magnitude.

The luminosity function of the cluster $`\varphi `$ is defined by

$$dN(M)=\varphi (M)dM,$$
(1)
where $`dN(M)`$ is the number of stars per unit area with magnitudes between $`M`$ and $`M+dM`$. In each 0.5-mag F814W bin, $`\varphi _i`$, is related to the measured star counts, $`n_i`$, by the equation

$$T.\underset{¯}{\varphi }=\underset{¯}{n}$$
(2)
(Drukier et al., 1988). The element $`T_{ij}`$ of the photometric completion matrix, $`T`$, represents the probability that a star from magnitude bin $`j`$ will be measured in magnitude bin $`i`$. This matrix is constructed from the artificial star counts by comparing each measured F814W magnitude with its input magnitude. For the case of perfect photometry with no “bin jumping”, the matrix is diagonal. In practice, there is a small probability, increasing towards fainter magnitudes, that a given star is scattered up or down in luminosity.

We decided to only measure luminosity functions where the diagonal matrix element was greater than 30%. Experiments showed that constructing the matrix with a limiting magnitude 2 bins below this level was sufficient to assess contamination from fainter stars that have scattered upwards, but not so faint as to cause the matrix to be ill conditioned. The mean photometric completeness in the lowest bin for all our field/annulus combinations was 0.45. One bin above the cutoff, the mean photometric completess was 0.56. In calculating the luminosity function we took into account Poisson errors in the star counts for $`n`$ and also for the artificial star data in the matrix $`T`$.

A final scale correction to the derived luminosity functions is made to allow for the spatial area sampled and the 0.5-mag F814W bin size. The individual luminosity functions for the different chip/radius combinations were statistically combined into luminosity functions for each radial bin and the combined luminosity functions from the various fields at different radii from the center of the cluster are given in Tables 2-3 and plotted in Fig. 7.

Also shown in Fig. 7 is a luminosity function we have derived for the Galactic bulge local to M22. For this calculation we used the WFPC2 archival dataset u27xjd01t. This is a single, non-CRSPLIT, 2400 s F814W exposure of a field offset from the center of M22 by approximately 9 arcmin. The four WFPC2 CCD frames from this exposure were processed in the same way as the M22 observations. Artificial star tests were again used to correct the derived luminosity functions for photometric completeness and the corrected luminosity functions for the four chips were statistically combined. The photometric completeness for all chips was around 75% at F814W = 22 and 50% at F814W = 24.

Since the derived bulge luminosity function is approximately linear over $`19<\mathrm{F814W}<23`$ we have made a weighted linear fit to the bulge luminosity function in this region, $`\mathrm{log}N=0.197\mathrm{F814W}1.72`$. Comparison with Fig. 5 of Holtzman et al. (1998) shows that the Baade’s window luminosity function is also linear in this region (assuming the same distance and extinction) and has a similar slope. We have corrected our M22 luminosity functions for background bulge contamination by subtracting the indicated linear fit extrapolated to brighter magnitudes. Again referring to Fig. 5 of Holtzman et al. (1998), the Baade’s window luminosity function drops more rapidly for magnitudes brighter than $`M_I=3.25`$ (F814W = 18.5) suggesting we may have over-corrected the brighter magnitudes. However, this over-correction is at most 0.05 in the log luminosity function. Our resulting corrected luminosity functions for M22 are given in Tables 4-5 and shown in Fig. 8.

## 5 Mass function

To transform the luminosity functions into mass functions we use the 10-Gyr evolutionary models of Baraffe et al. (1997) for metal-poor low-mass stars. These models have been shown to be a good fit to the lower main sequences of globular clusters observed by HST and the authors have made available tables of mass vs luminosity in the WFPC2 flight system filter set. We follow Baraffe et al. (1997) and calculate \[M/H\] following the prescription of Ryan & Norris (1991) for halo subdwarfs. For the metallicity range of interest, \[M/H\] $``$ \[Fe/H\] + 0.35. Harris (1996) lists \[Fe/H\] = $`1.64`$ for M22 while Caretta & Gratton (1997) found \[Fe/H\] = $`1.48`$ $`\pm `$ 0.03. In Fig. 9 we thus compare the main-sequence fiducial of M22 with that predicted by the models for \[M/H\] = $`1.3`$ and \[M/H\] = $`1.0`$. We have transformed the model points to the observational plane using $`(mM)_V=13.60`$ and $`E(BV)=0.34`$ (again from Harris (1996)) and taken the relative extinction coefficients for the WFPC2 filters from Schlegel et al. (1998). The colors and luminosities for both models provide a remarkable match to our photometric main sequence fiducial. We adopt the relation for \[M/H\] = $`1.0`$ as the match is slightly better to both the photometry and the (presumably more accurate) Caretta & Gratton metallicity.

The mass function $`\zeta (m)`$, defined by

$$dN(m)=\zeta (m)dm$$
(3)
where $`dN(m)`$ is the number of stars per unit area with masses between $`m`$ and $`m+dm`$, is related to the luminosity function $`\varphi (\mathrm{F814W})`$ by

$$\zeta (m)dm=\varphi (\mathrm{F814W})d\mathrm{F814W}.$$
(4)
The mass-luminosity relation from the theoretical \[M/H\] = -1.0 isochrone was thus used to assign a mass range to each F814W bin. The derivative of the relation at the center of each bin was used to translate the luminosity functions to the mass functions shown in Fig. 10 and listed in Tables 6-7.

The mass functions for the annular bins can be characterised by examining three regions, $`\mathrm{log}m0.6`$, $`0.6\mathrm{log}m0.3`$ and $`\mathrm{log}m0.3`$. For $`\mathrm{log}m0.6`$, the mass functions interior to a 180” radius rise towards lower masses with an approximately constant power law index $`\alpha 1.0`$ to 1.3, where $`\zeta (m)m^\alpha `$. Our data do not extend to faint enough magnitudes to see any turnover in these mass functions. Between $`\mathrm{log}m0.6`$ and $`\mathrm{log}m0.3`$ the mass functions are flat ($`\alpha 0`$). Clear evidence of mass segregation is seen for $`\mathrm{log}m0.3`$. Outside of approximately $`r_c`$ (60” - 85”), the mass function decreases with increasing mass ($`\alpha 1.2`$). Within the core and towards the center, there is an increasing tendancy for the mass function to flatten and then rise towards higher masses, as illustrated in the mass functions for 20” annular bins.

## 6 Simulation of Dynamical Structure

Having derived the spatially resolved mass function for NGC 6656, we next address the issue as to whether the degree of mass segregation can be accounted for by the theory of relaxation. To study the dynamical properties of the cluster, we have employed the multi-mass Michie–King models originally developed by Meylan (1987, 1988) and later suitably modified by Pulone, De Marchi & Paresce (1999) and De Marchi, Paresce & Pulone (2000) for the general case of clusters with a set of radially varying luminosity functions. Each model run is characterised by a mass function (MF) in the form of an exponential $`dN/d\mathrm{log}mm^x`$, with a variable exponent $`x`$ (note that $`\alpha =1+x`$), and by four structural parameters describing, respectively, the scale radius ($`r_\mathrm{c}`$), the scale velocity ($`v_\mathrm{s}`$), the central value of the dimensionless gravitational potential ($`W_\mathrm{o}`$) and the anisotropy radius ($`r_\mathrm{a}`$). From the parameter space defined in this way, we have selected those models that simultaneously fit both the observed surface brightness (SBP) and velocity dispersion (VDP) profiles of the cluster as measured, respectively, by Trager, King & Djorgovski (1995) and Peterson & Cudworth (1994). The fit to the SBP and VDP, however, can only constrain $`r_\mathrm{c}`$, $`v_\mathrm{s}`$, $`W_\mathrm{o}`$, and $`r_\mathrm{a}`$ while still allowing the MF to take on a variety of shapes. To break this degeneracy, we further impose the condition that the model MF agree with the observed LF.

Since Michie–King modeling only provides a “snapshot” of the current dynamical state of the cluster, one finds it useful to define the global mass function (GMF), the mass distribution of all cluster stars at present, as the MF that the cluster would have simply as a result of stellar evolution (that is, ignoring any local modifications induced by internal dynamics and/or the interaction with the Galactic tidal field). Clearly, in this case the IMF and GMF of main sequence (un-evolved) stars is the same. For practical purposes, the GMF has been divided into sixteen different mass classes, covering main sequence stars, white dwarfs, and heavy remnants, precisely as described in Pulone, De Marchi & Paresce (1999).

Our parametric modelling approach assumes energy equipartition amongst stars of different masses. Thus, we have run a large number of trials to see whether we could find a set of parameters for the GMF (i.e. a suitable GMF “shape”) such that the local MFs produced by mass segregation would locally fit the observations. Our exercise confirms what we had already implicitly shown in Fig. 10 and described above: as long as a single value of the exponent $`x`$ is used for the GMF over the mass range $`0.20.8`$ M, none of the predicted MF can be fitted to our data. In fact, a change of slope is needed at $`m0.4`$ M so that both the flat and rising portions of the local MF can be reproduced. If we then allow the MF to take on more than one slope, the GMF that best fits the observations is one with $`x=0.2`$ ($`\alpha =1.2`$) for stars in the range $`0.40.8`$ M and $`x=0.5`$ ($`\alpha =0.5`$) at smaller masses.

Although stars more massive than $`0.8`$ M have evolved and are no longer visible, the shape of the IMF in this mass range has strong implications as to the fraction of heavy remnants in the cluster and, as such, on the central velocity dispersion. We find that a value of $`x=0.9`$ ($`\alpha =1.9`$) for stars in the range $`1000.8`$ M gives the best fit to the data and to the cluster’s structural parameters as given in the literature. The latter, along with those of our best fitting model, are presented in Table 8. The agreement is excellent, apart from a small difference in the value of the core radius. We note here that global cluster MF is shallower than Salpeter’s IMF, which would have $`x=1.35`$. The total implied cluster mass is $`2.7\times 10^5`$ M and the mass-to-light ratio is on average $`m/L=1.6`$, with $`m/L2`$ in the core. These are all very typical values for a cluster of this type and confirm that the observed degree of mass segregation is indeed what would be expected from dynamical relaxation.

## 7 Summary

Extensive HST imaging of M22 has been used to determine the luminosity function for this globular cluster at a number of different radii from the cluster center. Using the Baraffe et al. (1997) stellar isochrones, we have transformed these luminosity functions into mass functions. The proportion of higher-mass stars was found to be significantly enhanced within one core radius of the center of the cluster compared to regions outside the core. This is the first time that such a detailed mapping of mass segregation from the mid main sequence to the turnoff has been performed for a globular cluster.

Numerical simulation of the radial mass spectrum of M22 using multi-mass King-Michie models has shown that the degree of mass segregation found is well predicted by the standard theory of cluster relaxation.