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# 1 *

CPT-2002/P.4352

July 2002

Bjorken Sum Rule at low $`Q^2`$
Jacques Soffer

Centre de Physique Théorique - CNRS - Luminy,
Case 907 F-13288 Marseille Cedex 9 - France 111E-mail: soffer@cpt.univ-mrs.fr

and

Oleg V. Teryaev

Bogoliubov Laboratory of Theoretical Physics
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna
Head Post Office, P.O. Box 79, 101000 Moscow, Russia 222E–mail: teryaev@thsun1.jinr.dubna.su

## Abstract

A description of the generalized Gerasimov-Drell-Hearn sum rules for proton and neutron is suggested, using their relation to the Bjorken sum rule. The results support an earlier conjecture, that the structure function $`g_T`$ features a smooth $`Q^2`$dependence, while the structure function $`g_2`$ is changing rapidly, due to the elastic contribution to the Burkhardt-Cottingham sum rule. A possible violation of this later sum rule is briefly discussed.

The Bjorken sum rule  is known to be one of the most fundamental constraints for our understanding of the nucleon spin structure. Its appearance in QCD relies on the Operator Product Expansion, describing the large $`Q^2`$ region, while at moderate $`Q^2`$ the perturbative  and power  corrections are of major importance. Moreover, the transition to the entirely non-perturbative $`Q^2`$ region is rather cumbersome.

Nevertheless, the limit for $`Q^2=0`$ is provided by taking the difference for proton and neutron of the Gerasimov-Drell-Hearn (GDH) sum rules . Contrary to the proton case, for this difference $`pn`$, the asymptotic and real photon values are of the same sign which provides the opportunity for checking a possible smooth approximation . In this paper we study this extrapolation in some detail.

The generalized ($`Q^2`$-dependent) GDH sum rules are just being tested experimentally with a high accuracy for both proton and neutron. The striking feature of the proton data is the low ($`200250MeV^2`$) “crossover” point, which is in complete agreement with our prediction , published almost 10 years ago. Our approach is making use of the relation to the Burkhardt-Cottingham sum rule for structure function $`g_2`$, whose elastic contribution is the main source of a strong $`Q^2`$dependence, while the contribution of the other structure function, $`g_T=g_1+g_2`$ is smooth.

However, the preliminary neutron data  are going well above the prediction, made in the similar manner . We address this problem and show, that the reason for the discrepancy is the model for the neutron structure function $`g_T^n`$. In fact, the general arguments of  are not applicable for the neutron, and the model used in Ref. appears to be more or less ad hoc.

To avoid this problem, we consider here the $`Q^2`$-dependence of the non-singlet combination $`g_1^pg_1^n`$, whose asymptotic behaviour is described by the Bjorken sum rule. We apply the same method and describe its behaviour in the low $`Q^2`$ region, together with its proton and neutron components, being in a reasonable agreement with recent experimental data.

To recall our approach let us first note, that the presence of $`g_2`$ in the description of the longitudinal polarization is by no means surprising, as soon as one uses the language of invariant, rather than helicity amplitudes .

To define the spin-dependent structure functions one should express the antisymmetric part of the hadronic tensor $`W^{\mu \nu }`$ as a linear combination of all possible Lorentz-covariant tensors. These tensors should be orthogonal to the virtual photon momentum $`q`$, as required by gauge invariance, and they are linear in the nucleon covariant polarization $`s`$, from a general property of the density matrix. If the nucleon has momentum $`p`$, we have as usual, $`sp=0`$ and $`s^2=1`$. There are only two such tensors: the first one arises already in the Born diagram

$$T_1^{\mu \nu }=ϵ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }s_\alpha q_\beta $$
(1)
and the second tensor is just

$$T_2^{\mu \nu }=(sq)ϵ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }p_\alpha q_\beta .$$
(2)
The scalar coefficients of these tensors are specified in a well-known way, since we have

$`W_A^{\mu \nu }={\displaystyle \frac{iϵ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }}{pq}}q_\beta (g_1(x,Q^2)s_\alpha +g_2(x,Q^2)(s_\alpha p_\alpha {\displaystyle \frac{sq}{pq}}))=`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{iϵ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }}{pq}}q_\beta ((g_1(x,Q^2)+g_2(x,Q^2))s_\alpha g_2(x,Q^2)p_\alpha {\displaystyle \frac{sq}{pq}}).`$ (3)
This tells us that $`g_2`$, due to the factor $`(sq)`$, is making the difference between longitudinal and transverse polarizations, while $`g_T=g_1+g_2`$ contributes equally in both cases. More exactly, $`g_2`$ provides this difference because its contribution is non-zero in the case of longitudinal polarization and is zero in the case of transverse polarization. It is just in this sense that we are speaking about the $`g_2`$ contribution to longitudinal polarization.

Let us consider the $`Q^2`$-dependent integral

$$I_1(Q^2)=\frac{2M^2}{Q^2}_0^1g_1(x,Q^2)𝑑x.$$
(4)
It is defined for all $`Q^2`$, and $`g_1(x,Q^2)`$ is the obvious generalization for all $`Q^2`$ of the standard scale-invariant $`g_1(x)`$. Note that the elastic contribution at $`x=1`$ is not included in the above sum rule. Then one recovers at $`Q^2=0`$ the GDH sum rule

$$I_1(0)=\frac{\mu _A^2}{4}$$
(5)
where $`\mu _A`$ is the nucleon anomalous magnetic moment in nuclear magnetons. While $`I_1(0)`$ is always negative, its value at large $`Q^2`$ is determined by the $`Q^2`$ independent integral $`_0^1g_1(x)𝑑x`$, which is positive for the proton and negative for the neutron.

The separation of the contributions of $`g_T`$ and $`g_2`$ leads to the decomposition of $`I_1(Q^2)`$ as the difference between $`I_T(Q^2)`$ and $`I_2(Q^2)`$

$$I_1(Q^2)=I_T(Q^2)I_2(Q^2),$$
(6)
where

$$I_T(Q^2)=\frac{2M^2}{Q^2}_0^1g_T(x,Q^2)𝑑x,I_2(Q^2)=\frac{2M^2}{Q^2}_0^1g_2(x,Q^2)𝑑x.$$
(7)
There are solid theoretical arguments to expect a strong $`Q^2`$-dependence of $`I_2(Q^2)`$. It is the well-known Burkhardt-Cottingham sum rule , derived independently by Schwinger , using a rather different method. It states that

$$I_2(Q^2)=\frac{1}{4}\mu G_M(Q^2)\frac{\mu G_M(Q^2)G_E(Q^2)}{1+\frac{Q^2}{4M^2}},$$
(8)
where $`\mu `$ is the nucleon magnetic moment, $`G`$’s denoting the familiar Sachs form factors which are dimensionless and normalized to unity at $`Q^2=0`$. For large $`Q^2`$, as a consequence of the $`Q^2`$ behavior of the r.h.s. of (8), we get

$$_0^1g_2(x,Q^2)𝑑x=0.$$
(9)
In particular, from Eq.(9) it follows that

$$I_2(0)=\frac{\mu _A^2+\mu _Ae}{4},$$
(10)
$`e`$ being the nucleon charge in elementary units. To reproduce the GDH value (see Eq.(5)) one should have

$$I_T(0)=\frac{\mu _Ae}{4},$$
(11)
which was indeed proved by Schwinger . The importance of the $`g_2`$ contribution can be seen already, since the entire $`\mu _A`$-term for the GDH sum rule is provided by $`I_2`$.

Note that $`I_T`$ does not differ from $`I_1`$ for large $`Q^2`$ due to the BC sum rule, but it is positive in the proton case. It is possible to obtain a smooth interpolation for $`I_T^p(Q^2)`$ between large $`Q^2`$ and $`Q^2=0`$ .

$$I_T^p(Q^2)=\theta (Q_0^2Q^2)(\frac{\mu _{A,p}}{4}\frac{2M^2Q^2}{(Q_0^2)^2}\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^p)+\theta (Q^2Q_0^2)\frac{2M^2}{Q^2}\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^p,$$
(12)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^p=_0^1g_1^p(x)𝑑x`$. The continuity of the function and of its derivative is guaranteed with the choice $`Q_0^2=(16M^2/\mu _{A,p})\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^p1GeV^2`$, where the integral is given by the world average proton data. It is quite reasonable to distinguish the perturbative and the non-perturbative regions. As a result one obtains a crossing point at $`Q^20.2GeV^2`$, below the resonance region , while the positive value at $`Q^2=0.5GeV^2`$ is in a good agreement with the E143  data. A fair agreement with HERMES data has been also observed for larger $`Q^2`$ values .

This smooth interpolation seems to be very reasonable in the framework of the QCD sum rules method as well. Then one should choose some ”dominant” tensor structure to study the $`Q^2`$-dependence of its scalar coefficient and $`T_1`$ appears to be a good candidate. This seems also promising from another point of view. It is not trivial to obtain, within the QCD sum rules approach, the GDH value at $`Q^2=0`$. Since the r.h.s. of Eq.(12) is linear in $`\mu _A`$, it may be possible to obtain it using the Ward identities, just like the normalization condition for the pion form factor . This, in turn opens the possibility to apply the powerful tool of quark-hadron duality. The latter relies on the perturbative theory, and it is quite clear that it is much more plausible to describe linear (one-loop), than quadratic terms. One should recall here that while the sum rule for $`I_T`$ was checked in QED long ago , the GDH sum rule required much more work , since it gets non-trivial contributions only at two loops order, although the vanishing value at one loop level is also non-trivial .

Note also that the large contribution of $`g_2`$ by no means contradicts the resonance approaches  and may be considered complimentary to them. In these cases, $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$ plays a central role: it provides a significant amount of the GDH integral at $`Q^2=0`$ and gives a clear qualitative explanation of rapid $`Q^2`$-dependence . The $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ photoproduction is dominated by the magnetic dipole form factor, leading to a positive $`I_2`$ and a vanishing $`I_T`$, so implying a negative $`I_1`$. The sign change is just related to the fast decrease of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ contribution 333 For a more detailed discussion of this important point see Ref...

To generalize our approach to the neutron case, one needs a similar smooth parametrization of $`g_T`$ for the neutron. Since the value at $`Q^2=0`$ is equal to zero, it is not sufficient to limit oneself to the simplest linear parameterization. One needs to add a term, quadratic in $`Q^2`$. A simple parametrization providing the continuity of the function and its derivative was suggested in , which however, leads to a result in contradiction with the data . This does not seem to be fortuitous, bearing in mind the argument presented above. Indeed, the general reason supporting the smoothness of interpolation for $`g_T`$ is its linearity in $`\mu _A`$. As soon as this term appears to be equal to zero for some special reason (which, in our case, is nothing but than the neutron neutrality!), there is also no more reason to expect such a smoothness.

To bypass this difficulty, we use the difference between proton and neutron instead of the neutron itself. Although it is possible, in principle, to construct a smooth interpolation for the functions $`g_1`$ themselves , it does not fit the suggested general argument, since $`I_1^{pn}(0)`$ is proportional to $`\mu _{A,n}^2\mu _{A,p}^2`$, which is quadratic and, moreover, has an additional suppression due to the smallness of isoscalar anomalous magnetic moment.

So we suggest the following parametrization for the isovector contribution of $`I_T(Q^2)`$, namely $`I_T^{pn}(Q^2)`$

$$I_T^{pn}(Q^2)=\theta (Q_1^2Q^2)(\frac{\mu _{A,p}}{4}\frac{2M^2Q^2}{(Q_1^2)^2}\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^{pn})+\theta (Q^2Q_1^2)\frac{2M^2}{Q^2}\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^{pn},$$
(13)
where the transition value $`Q_1^2`$ may be determined by the continuity conditions in a similar way. We get the value $`Q_1^21.3GeV^2`$, which is of the same order as for the proton case.

The elastic contribution to the BC sum rule should be included for the neutron separately, so we need the neutron elastic form factors. While the electric one, might be neglected, the magnetic form factor is well described by the dipole formula

$$G_M(Q^2)=\frac{1}{(1+Q^2/0.71)^2}.$$
(14)
The plot representing $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^n(Q^2)`$ is displayed on Fig.1.

One can see, that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^n(Q^2)`$ remains quite close to its asymptotic value down to $`Q^2`$ values, as low as $`3GeV^2`$. Moreover, the preliminary data  might bear some aspects of the structure generated in our approach, by the interplay of the transitions values $`Q_0^2`$ and $`Q_1^2`$.

Now we have all the ingredients to show the behavior of $`I_1^{pn}(Q^2)`$, a quantity directly related to the Bjorken sum rule $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^{pn}(Q^2)`$ (see Fig.2). It is clear that the smooth linear interpolation at low $`Q^2`$ to the value $`(\mu _{A,n}^2\mu _{A,p}^2)/4`$, would result in a much lower value for $`I_1^n(Q^2)`$, inconsistent with the experimental data on $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^n(Q^2)`$ .

Note that very accurate data from JLAB may require more elaborate models for $`g_T`$. In particular, it is possible to take into account the perturbative and power corrections to $`I_1`$, and also the contribution of $`I_2`$ at the matching point $`Q_0^2`$, since in fact we have assumed that at this point $`I_T(Q_0^2)=I_1^{asymptotic}(Q_0^2)`$. However, these effects are acting in opposite directions and should partially cancel each other. Indeed, in our model $`I_1(Q_0^2)=I_T(Q_0^2)I_2(Q_0^2)=I_1^{asymptotic}(Q_0^2)I_2(Q_0^2)`$, and $`I_2`$ produces a negative contribution, just like the corrections to $`I_1`$.

Another interesting problem is a possible violation of the BC sum rule reported recently . In this connection, note that from a theoretical point of view, the only reason for a violation is the divergence of the integral. So to put it in a dramatic manner, ”the BC integral is either zero or infinity”. In this sense, the reported finite value  requires an interpretation.

One reason for the BC sum rule violation is the contribution of Regge cuts , which are located at very low $`x`$ . Therefore, one may ask if it is possible to separate this contribution

$$g_2(x)=g_2^{BC}(x)+g_2^{cut}(x)$$
(15)
in such a way that

$$_0^1g_2^{BC}(x)𝑑x=0.$$
(16)
Then one could define the BC integral with a lower cutoff

$$I_\delta =_\delta ^1g_2(x)𝑑x,$$
(17)
such that $`I_\delta `$ may be sufficiently close to zero for small $`\delta `$, where $`g_2^{cut}`$ is still negligible. We have considered such a separation  and we have showed that the crossing point for proton is not sensitive to the cut contribution. Moreover, the details of $`I_1`$ may be sensitive to the cut contribution and provide an additional way of its investigation.

Acknowledgments

We are indebted to Claude Bourrely for some discussions. This research was partly supported by INTAS (International Association for the Promotion of Cooperation with Scientists from the Independent States of the Former Soviet Union) under Contrat No. 00-00587.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

X-ray digital radiography is a rapidly expanding and one of the most important methods of modern non-destructive testing . In this method, alongside with the use of luminescent screens with subsequent transformation of the image onto SCS-matrices (spatial charged systems), one of the main technical solutions is conversion of the penetrating X-ray radiation by the detector array of ”scintillator-photodiode” (S-PD) type with its subsequent amplification and digitalization of the signal.

Advantages of SCS-devices are instant imaging of all the object and high spatial resolution (3-5 line pairs per mm). Their disadvantage is a limited energy range, consequently, limited steel thickness of the inspected object, as well as higher costs, as compared with S-PD arrays.

In non-destructive testing systems using S-PD arrays it is possible to use scintillators of different atomic number, density and element length, which allows working in the energy range from 20 $`keV`$ to 16 $`MeV`$, i.e., steel equivalent thickness is from 100 $`\mu m`$ to 300 $`mm`$. The use of two-energy detection systems solves the problem of distinguishing between substances of similar density, but different effective atomic numbers. Both these qualities are not attainable for SCS-matrices.

Our task in developing this method consisted in the maximum use of its advantages. Specifically, we aimed at increased sensitivity and detecting ability due to optimization of parameters of the S-PD pair and an extensive use of the features of two-energy radiography. Transition to multi-energy radiography was envisaged for detection of substances with close values of the effective atomic number. The resolution was to be increased due to modernization of the design and making smaller the detector aperture. And, finally, passing from two- to three-dimensional imaging was also essential.

The above-listed directions in the system improvement were the aims of our studies in this work.

## 2 Experimental procedures

Measurements of the detector sensitivity and light output of the crystals were carried out on a testing board using X-ray sources IRI ($`U_a=40200kV`$, $`I_a=0.41.0mA`$, W-anode) and REIS ($`U_a=545kV`$, $`I_a=550\mu A`$, Ag-anode) and an optical power meter ”Kvarts-01”. Time characteristics were measured using a testing board designed for afterglow measurements .

To obtain shadow X-ray images, we used testing boards ”Poliscan” (a 128-channel array of photodiode-based detectors) and “Photocell” (for 32-, 64-, 128- and 1024-channel detectors based on PRD). Using the Photocell board, sixty 2D-images of a small object were obtained at different angles (with step 6), from which a 3D image was reconstructed.

For detection of X-ray radiation, we used detector arrays of types S-PD and PRD. Detectors of PRD type includes an array of photodiodes (32, 64, 128 and 1024 channels), amplifier and commutator mounted on one silicon crystal.

We used standard scintillation crystals CsI(Tl), CdWO4 and an original scintillator ZnSe(Te) developed by STC ”Institute for Single Crystals” . The photodiodes used were obtained from producers CCB Ritm, SPO Bit, Ukraine, and Hamamatsu, as well as PRD from SPO Bit.

Main parameters of scintillation materials for S-PD and S-PRD detectors are presented in Table 1.

## 3 Theoretic analyze of multi-energy radiography

In the recent years, an important role in the modern digital radiography has been taken by the so-called multi-energy method \[1-3\]. Its application in X-ray introscopy systems \[4-5\] is promoted by new inspection possibilities that are provided by this method as compared with conventional radiography means. Thus, two- and three-energy introscopy systems can not only distinguish between organics and inorganics, but also discern one organic compound from another.

A physical model of the multi-energy radiography is based on the property of exponential attenuation of hard ionizing radiation in the inspected object. An important element of multi-energy systems is digital processing of data arrays that are coming simultaneously from detectors of different types. The computer does also allow presentation of the output signal in the most convenient form (logarithmic and normalized). Theoretically, multi-energy radiography is described by a system of linear equations

$$R_\gamma =\underset{\delta =1}{\overset{M}{}}M_{\gamma \delta }X_\delta ;M_{\gamma \delta }=\widehat{M}(E_\gamma ;E_\delta )$$
(1)
where $`R_\gamma =R\left(E_\gamma \right)=\mathrm{ln}\left[F_0\left(E_\gamma \right)/F\left(E_\gamma \right)\right]`$ is the system reflex; $`F_0`$ and $`F`$ – output signals from the background (in the absence of an object) and from the object $`E_\gamma `$ one of the selected radiation energies; $`M`$ – the order of multi-energeticity. For two-energy radiography, $`\gamma =1,2`$; $`\delta =1,2`$ and $`E_\gamma =\{E_1;E_2\}`$. The unknown $`X`$ correspond to physical parameters under control. The monitoring matrix $`\widehat{M}`$ does not depend upon properties of the studied object. Its components are determined after calibration measurements on samples of the known composition (effective atomic number $`Z_\delta `$ and density $`\rho _\delta `$) and thickness $`L_\delta `$: $`C_{\gamma \delta }=R(E_\gamma ;Z_\delta ,\rho _\delta ,L_\delta )`$.

In the two-energy radiography, the effective atomic number of an unknown material can be reconstructed using the formula obtained from the general equations system (1)

$$Z_{eff}=Z\left(Y\right)=Z_1\left[\frac{Y\mathrm{\Delta }_1}{Y\mathrm{\Delta }_2}\right]^{1/3};Y=\frac{C_{12}R_2C_{22}R_1}{C_{11}R_2C_{21}R_1}$$
(2)
Here auxiliary values are introduced: $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1=\left(Z_2/Z_1\right)^3\left(\rho _2L_2/\rho _1L_1\right)`$; $`\mathrm{\Delta }_2=\mathrm{\Delta }_1\left(Z_1/Z_2\right)^2`$; $`Y`$ is the reduced (relative) output signal. The expressions obtained depend only on radiographic measurement data $`R_{1,2}=R\left(E_{1,2}\right)`$ from the detector pair and the calibration (reference) data $`C_{11},C_{12},C_{21},C_{22}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1,\mathrm{\Delta }_2`$. It should be stressed that this is a direct method for determination of the effective atomic number.

We have to note that all the existing developments in the field of two- and even three-energy radiography involve only qualitative methods of effective atomic number determination. Their accuracy does not exceed 50% for compounds with large $`Z_{eff}`$. Within these limits, it is possible only to distinguish between organics and inorganics, or heavy alloys (of iron, $`Z_{eff}26`$) from light alloys (of aluminum, $`Z_{eff}13`$). However, possibilities of the two-energy radiography have not yet been fully studied and used.

Our analysis have shown that the effective atomic number of the material can be reconstructed with the accuracy of 5-10% using the formula (3) (see Fig.1a). This is by an order of magnitude better than the highest level obtained by now. Obviously, such an improvement in diagnostics will allow one to identify inorganic and inorganic materials with much higher probability (up to 80-90% ). This increase in sensitivity of effective atomic number determination is sufficient to allow detection of, say, explosives on the background of organic substances (and not just inorganics). Among practical application of this method is detection of plastic explosives inside postal parcels and letters, transported goods and merchandise, etc.

Thus, remaining within the limits of two-energy radiography, one can carry out quantitative diagnostics of the effective atomic number and density of materials with accuracy of 5-10% . There will be two controlling parameters, not one, which also contributes to the inspection efficiency. Moreover, transition from two- to three-energy radiography ensures better control not only of the effective atomic number, but also of atomic (molar) concentrations of a complex chemical compound. The number of reconstructed parameters corresponds to the order of multi-energeticity. In the case of organic compounds, it is possible to determine the relative content of two or three “heaviest” simple elements – carbon ($`Z=6`$), nitrogen ($`Z=7`$) and oxygen ($`Z=8`$). As a result, there is a high probability to clearly distinguish between an explosive (with higher content of the latter two elements ) and other organic compounds. Combination of diagnostics involving atomic numbers and that involving concentrations of predominant atomic components seems to be a key factor in the solution of this important problem. It is essential that practical realization of the outlined approach is based upon the use of mobile multi-energy X-ray inspection systems for non-destructive testing, and not of large-sized and expensive installations of neutron technologies.

In X-ray customs inspection systems, distinction between organic and inorganic substances is made by the two-energy method, which consists in the following. The X-ray tube has a continuous spectrum (Fig.1b). Passing through the inspected object, the initial flux of X-ray radiation is partially absorbed, and in the luminescence spectrum the ratio of low-energy and high-energy contributions is changed. The higher is the effective atomic number $`Z_{eff}`$ of a substance, the smaller is fraction of the low-energy radiation. To determine the ratio between high- and low-energy parts of the spectrum, a ”two-energy” detecting array is used, which consists of two detector arrays of S-PD type placed one after another. The array that is closer to the X-ray source is optimized for detection of low-energy (30-50 $`keV`$) radiation, and the second array, which is placed behind the first, is optimized for detection of high-energy (80-120 $`keV`$) radiation. The total signal from the low- and high-energy detectors is characterized by the product $`\rho l`$, where $`\rho `$ is density of the inspected object, $`l`$ is its radiation length. The ratio of these detector signals depends upon $`Z_{eff}`$.

We have carried out theoretical calculations for the following model of the two-energy system. As initial radiation spectrum, we took the spectrum of an X-ray tube at constant anode voltage (150 $`kV`$); the anode material is tungsten (Fig.1b). As inspected object, we selected sugar (C17H22O11 – organics) and iron (Fe – inorganics). Two-energy detector arrays include two types of scintillators: the first one (closer to the radiation source) – ZnSe(Te) of thickness 0.5 $`mm`$, and the second one (behind the first) – CsI(Tl) of thickness 4 $`mm`$. Fluxes of optical quanta emerging in the scintillators under X-ray irradiation are considered as output signals. The calculated signal was normalized and conditionally transformed by a 12-digit analog-to-digit converter. Confidence intervals related to the quantum noises were calculated. The results are presented in Fig.1c.

## 4 Spatial resolution and detector sensitivity

Transition from the film radiography to the digital radiography has already resulted in important improvements in many fields as for productivity and quality of X-ray non-destructive testing. However, medical and non-destructive testing applications requiring detection of non-homogeneities of less than 0.5 $`mm`$ size are related to the need to improve spatial resolution at least to 5-8 line pairs per $`mm`$ .

Among principal ways to solve this problem, one could note – 1) development of multi-channel detector arrays with small step and low aperture; 2) using principles of geometrical optics to obtain expanded shadow images of the inspected object; 3) the use of various methods of mathematical processing for image analysis.

The first method is the most preferable, as it allows one to obtain a shadow image of the object with the least possible geometrical distortions. However, this way to improve the resolution encounters significant technological and technical difficulties. Our experience in developing S-PD and S-PRD detectors, as well as detector arrays based thereon, have shown that development and production of multi-channel diode arrays with step $`25\mu `$ (up to one thousand channels on one silicon crystal) does not evoke major technological problems. However, compact placement of a large number of pre-amplifiers close to the diode array (a separate amplifier is required for each photodiode) becomes problematic already at the detector step of 0.8-0.4 $`mm`$ . A solution to this problem could be found by placing PD, pre-amplifiers and the commutator upon one silicon crystal. On the basis of such photoreceiving devices (PRD), we have developed multi-channel detecting modules. A multi-channel detection module is a multi-channel (16,32, 64, 1024 channels) photoreceiver (PD or PRD), upon the photosensitive area of which a scintillator plate is attached by means of an optical adhesive .

Scintillator plates of the following types were tested:

* Plates of discrete scintillation elements (DSE) – one element per channel.
* Continuous solid plates of a single crystal (SCP) – by the size of the photosensitive area of a multi-channel photoreceiver.
* Plates of dispersed scintillator (DSP) – made of tiny calibrated particles of ZnSe(Te) crystals arranged into a monolayer and optical epoxy adhesive UP4-20-3M .

Fabrication of plates composed of DSE at the step of photosensitive elements in the array less than 0.8-0.5 $`mm`$ is limited by technological difficulties. Therefore, with the aim of looking for alternative ways to improve the resolution, we studied properties of SCP and DSP. The plates were compared by two main parameters – light output and interference of the neighboring channels.

Comparative measurements have shown (Fig.2) that serious competition to DSE plates can come only from DSP. Interference of neighboring channels was studied for DSP prepared from ZnSe(Te) grains of different size (Fig.3). It is obvious that with smaller grain size the interference of neighboring channels is reduced. However, the DSP light output is also dependent upon grain size and has maximum at the grain size $`0.5mm`$ (Fig.4). Thus, using DSP, it is possible to make detector modules with step of the photosensitive elements $`0.20.5mm`$ for detection of X-ray radiation in the energy range $`2080keV`$. Resolution of 1-2 line pairs per $`mm`$ can be achieved.

The use of laws of geometrical optics, namely, placing the inspected object much closer to the source of sharp focus than to the detector array, allows one, using DSE with step 0.8 mm, to achieve detecting abilities of 10-15 $`\mu m`$ (Fig.5, microchip). Mathematical processing of the digitalized signal using a modern software can substantially increase the informativity of the image (Fig.6, the same chip).

The image quality is also determined by the choice of a scintillator. Accounting for much higher, as compared with CsI(Tl), quantum yield of ZnSe(Te) (by 20-30% ), it has clear advantages for low-energy detectors. With higher energies (Fig.7), CsI(Tl) becomes preferable because of its high transparence. However, if there are requirements for low afterglow level or high radiation stability, ZnSe(Te) can be used up to the energies of 150-200 $`keV`$. At energies above $`1MeV`$, superiority goes to CdWO4.

## 5 Discussion

Results of our studies have shown that in S-PD detectors for digital radiography the most preferable scintillators for the high energy region are CWO (0.5-1.0 $`MeV`$), CsI(Tl) (0.08-0.5 $`MeV`$), while in the low-energy region (20-60 $`keV`$) ZnSe(Te) is unchallenged.

Accounting for a trend in the modern digital radiography (both in the inspection and medical instruments) to use two-energy detector arrays, the combination of ZnSe(Te) and CsI(Tl)/CWO results in a new quality.

Effective atomic number $`Z`$ of ZnSe is the same as of copper, which is usually used as a filter of the high-energy array. Therefore, if a detector with ZnSe(Te) as filter is placed before the high-energy array, this simplifies the design and improves technical characteristics of the detecting circuit as a whole .

A unique combination of properties characterizing the original scintillator ZnSe(Te) – high light output, fast response, radiation stability, rather low effective atomic number together with sufficiently high density – makes this material the best among known scintillators for the low-energy detector. Combination of crystals ZnSe(Te)/CsI(Tl) in the two-energy detector array has substantially improved the sensitivity of equipment designed for detection of organic inclusions.

Theoretical estimates show that transition from the two-energy to multi-energy detection system will allow distinguishing between substances that differ in their effective atomic number insignificantly. In the applied aspect, this means a possibility to reliably (close to 100% ) identify dangerous substances (explosives, drugs) on the background of metal or organics.

A logical way to better resolution in digital radiography is decreasing the aperture of a unit detector. Experimental data obtained in this work show that with the existing standard production technology of the arrays and the S-PD detector as a whole it would be very difficult to make them with step less than 0.8-1 mm. At the same time, if there is a discrete amplifier for each channel, requirements to the photodiode-preamplifier system become more complex. In this relationship, for detector arrays of step 0.05-0.8 $`mm`$ that have been studied in the present work, it is desirable to pass over to a solid scintillation plate (single crystal or dispersed scintillator) and, in parallel, to replace the photodiode with a photoreceiving unit with an amplifier-commutator at the back side. This allows the use of just one amplifier channel after a photoline of 32-1024 channels of the photoreceiving device.

Limitations imposed upon detectors ”scintillator plate – photoreceiving device” are, from the one side, the requirement for the plate to be thin as to decrease interference of the neighboring channels, which limits the energy range of the detector. From the other side, low radiation stability of modern PRD requires their shielding from radiation, i.e., their use at low dose loads, which is just the conditions used in inspection equipment and medicine. For systems of technical digital radiography and tomography, the preferable solution is discrete arrays S-PD, with ZnSe(Te) and CWO crystals of high radiation stability being the recommended scintillators, and photodiodes as p-n structures, desirably in the photogalvanic mode. Using such structures, after amplification under the laws of geometrical optics, we have obtained, in the tomographic mode with transition to 3D image, sufficiently high spatial resolution (Fig.8).

## 6 Reference

 R.M. Harrison, ”Digital radiography – a review of detector design”, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A310, 24-34 (1991).

 V.D. Ryzhikov, N.G. Starzhinskiy, L.P. Gal’chinetskii, D.N. Kozin, V.P. Sokhin, A.D. Opolonin, V.M. Svishch, E.K. Lisetskaya, ”Scintillator-photodiode detecting systems for two-level X-ray inspection systems”, 15th World Conference on Non-Destructive Testing, Rome (Italy), 15-21 October, 2000, Abstracts Book, p. 466.

 S.V. Naydenov, V.D. Ryzhikov, ”Determining Chemical Compositions by Method of Multi-Energy Radiography”, Technical Physics Letters 28, # 5, 357-360 (2002).

 Heimann, Prospects, 2002, http://www.heimannsystems.com.

 The X-Ray Introscopy System ”Poliscan-4”, Prospects, stcri@isc.kharkov.com.

 L.V. Atroshchenko, B.V. Grinev, V.D. Ryzhikov et al. (ed. by V.D. Ryzhikov), Scintillator crystals and detectors of ionizing radiation on their base, Kiev, Naukova Dumka, 1988 (in Russian).

 V.G. Volkov, B.V. Grinev, V.D. Ryzhikov et. al., ”Small-crystalline detectors of ionizing radiation on the basis of ZnSe(Te)”, Pribory i Tekhnika Eksperimenta (Moscow), No. 6, p. 37-42 (1999).

 Detection system for X-ray introscopy, Patent of Ukraine, No. 2001053401 from 21.05.2001.


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# Origin of spin-glass behavior of Zn1-xMnxO

## Abstract

ac susceptibility has been studied for polycrystalline Zn1-xMnxO. Stoichiometric samples demonstrate Curie-Weiss behavior, which indicates mostly antiferromagnetic interactions. Magnetic susceptibility can be described by a diluted Heisenberg magnet model developed for semimagnetic semiconductors. High-pressure oxygen annealing induces spin-glass like behavior in Zn1-xMnxO by precipitation of ZnMnO3 in the paramagnetic matrix.

Keywords: Diluted magnetic semiconductor, Zn1-xMnxO, synthesis, spin-glass behavior

The incorporation of spin into semiconductor electronics requires fabrication of ferromagnetic semiconductors with the Curie temperature higher than room temperature. Theoretical predictions of room temperature ferromagnetism in diluted magnetic semiconductors Dietl00  recently brought wide attention to this class of materials. According to these calculations, $`p`$-type Zn1-xMnxO is a promising candidate for a room temperature ferromagnet. Ab initio band calculations Sato00a  predict ferromagnetism to be stable in $`p`$-type Zn1-xMnxO, and antiferromagnetism in $`n`$-type Zn1-xMnxO. On the other hand, a ferromagnetic phase has been predicted for $`n`$-type ZnO substituted with Fe, Co, or Ni. Sato00b  Various substitutions (B, Al, Ga, In, Si, and F) in the parent compound ZnO can increase its natural $`n`$-type conduction, caused by oxygen vacancies and Zn interstitials. Minegishi97  However, only a few attempts to introduce $`p`$-type conduction into ZnO have been so far successful. This includes nitrogen doping Minegishi97  and, the theoretically proposed Yamamoto99  Ga and N codoping. Joseph99  Preparation of $`p`$-type ZnO could find application in optoelectronic devices (e. g. solar cells, short-wavelength light emitting diodes) and also allow fabrication of transparent $`pn`$ junctions.

Pulsed-laser deposited Zn1-xMnxO thin films without intentional carrier doping show spin-glass behavior. Fukumura01  According to this study, Mn can be dissolved in the ZnO matrix to over 35%. ZnO films doped with other transition metals (Co, Cr, Ni) have been reported to be ferromagnetic in case of Co doping. Ueda01  Ferromagnetism, however, was observed for only 10% of studied thin films. Magnetic properties of bulk Zn1-xMnxO have not yet been reported.

In this study we investigate polycrystalline Zn1-xMnxO $`(x=0.050.20)`$. The studied samples were prepared in air at $`T=1350^{}`$C using a standard solid-state reaction technique. The samples were then annealed in an atmosphere of different gases (Ar, H2, as well as O2 under high pressure of 600 bar). ac susceptibility and dc magnetization were measured using a Physical Property Measurement System (Quantum Design). X-ray diffraction spectra have been collected using a Rigaku X-ray diffractometer. The samples are mostly dark green. Annealing in a reducing H2 atmosphere changes their color to orange or brown, which points at the decrease of the energy gap below the value of 3.2 eV characteristic for ZnO. X-ray diffraction data show that the $`x0.1`$ samples annealed in air are single-phase with the wurtzite structure as of ZnO. Zn1-xMnxO with $`x=0.15`$ and 0.2 show small amount of spinel-like ZnMn2O4. This observation suggests that the solubility limit in air is reached near $`x=0.1`$, significantly lower than reported for Zn1-xMnxO thin films. Fukumura01  High-pressure oxygen annealing causes appearance of the ZnMnO3 second phase that can be removed by subsequent annealing in air. Fig. 1 shows X-ray diffraction patterns for the Zn0.9Mn0.1O sample for such a sequence of annealings. We observe the presence of impurity peaks for the high-pressure annealed sample.

Magnetic susceptibility for Zn1-xMnxO is presented in Fig. 2.

ac susceptibility of the Mn-doped ZnO at temperatures $`T=120350`$ K resembles Curie-Weiss behavior that is also characteristic for other Mn-containing semimagnetic semiconductors. Spalek86  In Fig. 2, we also present inverse ac susceptibility. In the temperature range 150 - 300 K, we have used a linear fit to our inverse susceptibility data. This linear fit, when extrapolated down to lower temperatures, intersects the $`\chi ^1=0`$ axis at a negative temperature. This result indicates the presence of antiferromagnetic interactions in the Zn1-xMnxO samples. At lower temperatures, inverse ac susceptibility curves toward a temperature close to zero. This points to development of additional antiferromagnetic interactions between next neighbor Mn ions, which may turn on at lower temperatures. Similar nonlinear behavior of inverse susceptibility at low temperatures was reported in other semimagnetic semiconductors containing Mn. Spalek86 . The annealing in Ar or Ar/H2 mixture under atmospheric pressure does not significantly change the value of ac susceptibility.

We have analyzed ac susceptibility results within the framework of the diluted Heisenberg antiferromagnet theory of Spałek et al. Spalek86  At higher temperatures, ac mass susceptibility can be described by the formula

$$\chi =\frac{C_0x}{T\mathrm{\Theta }(x)},$$
(1)
where $`C_0`$ is the Curie constant defined as

$$C_0=\frac{N(g\mu _B)^2S(S+1)}{3k_B\rho },$$
(2)
$`N`$ \- the number of cations per unit volume, $`S=5/2`$ \- effective spin of Mn2+ ion, $`\rho `$ \- mass density (although the lattice parameters change slightly with substitution of Mn, here we use the density $`\rho =5.55`$ g/cm3 of pure ZnO), $`\mathrm{\Theta }(x)=\mathrm{\Theta }_0x`$ \- Curie-Weiss temperature. The $`\mathrm{\Theta }_0`$ constant is related to the exchange integral between the nearest Mn neighbors $`J_1`$,

$$\frac{2J_1}{k_B}=\frac{3\mathrm{\Theta }_0}{zS(S+1)},$$
(3)
where $`z=12`$ is the number of nearest neighbors in the wurtzite structure of Zn1-xMnxO.

ac susceptibility at $`T=300`$ K for all studied samples is compiled in Fig. 3.

First, pure ZnO is diamagnetic. Our measurements give us a value of ac susceptibility, which is 15-20% greater than the handbook value of $`0.3310^6`$ emu/g. Handbook00  This value does not change after argon annealing. The Mn- doped ZnO is paramagnetic. ac susceptibility increases with increasing Mn content $`x`$. Again, there is no significant influence of argon annealing on the ac susceptibility. High-pressure oxygen annealed samples show a decrease of room temperature susceptibility, especially large for small $`x`$. Subsequent annealing in air increases ac susceptibility to the initial values. The measured ac susceptibility is significantly lower than the theoretical expectation \[Eqs. (1) and (2)\] for a given nominal Mn content $`x`$. We suggest that due to disorder in our polycrystalline samples, not all Mn ions participate in superexchange interactions. Therefore, by putting $`C_0`$ from Eq. (2) and the measured $`\chi `$ and $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ into Eq. (1) we calculated the effective Mn content $`x_{eff}`$ for each nominal Mn content $`x`$. In Fig. 3, we present the values of the Curie-Weiss temperatures, obtained from the linear fit to the inverse susceptibility data for the air-annealed samples. From the linear dependence of $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ vs. $`x_{eff}`$, and assuming that $`\mathrm{\Theta }(x_{eff}=0)=0`$, we derived the value of the exchange parameter $`\mathrm{\Theta }_0=961\pm 49`$ K. This value is close to previously reported values of $`\mathrm{\Theta }_0`$ for other semimagnetic semiconductors, but is much less than $`\mathrm{\Theta }_0=1900`$ K, determined by Fukumura et al. Fukumura01  The solid line in Fig. 3 represents the ac susceptibility dependence on $`x_{eff}`$, according to Eq. (1), using the our derived value of $`\mathrm{\Theta }_0`$. Better agreement between the values of nominal $`x`$ and effective $`x_{eff}`$ should be obtained for single crystals of these materials, but crystal growth of Zn1-xMnxO with $`x0.01`$ from flux is difficult.Ohashi99

In Table I we compare the results determined from ac susceptibility for our samples with those for several semimagnetic semiconductors. Taking Mn2+ spin $`S=5/2`$, our values of $`\mathrm{\Theta }_0`$ and $`2J_1/k_B`$ are similar to other Mn-containing semiconductors. This supports the observation of the dominating role of superexchange in our materials.

The influence of high-pressure oxygen annealing on ac susceptibility is presented in Fig. 4 for our Zn1-xMnxO samples.

Magnetic properties are dramatically changed after the annealing. For almost all Zn1-xMnxO samples, we observe a cusp in the temperature dependence of ac susceptibility \[Fig. 4(a)\], which indicates a transition to the spin-glass state. The freezing temperature of the spin-glass is equal to 11 - 16 K, depending on the manganese content. This value is consistent with $`T_f=13`$ K, noted by Fukumura et al. Fukumura01  for a Zn0.64Mn0.36O thin film. For high-pressure oxygen-annealed samples with $`x=0.10`$, inverse ac susceptibility is now linear down to $`T_f`$ \[Fig. 4(b)\]. The extrapolation of $`\chi ^1(T)`$ for this sample gives negative Curie-Weiss temperature $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$, which is close to $`T_f`$. Samples with $`x=0.15`$ and $`x=0.20`$ show unchanged values of $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$. $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ is radically changed for $`x=0.05`$, becoming positive, which indicates the presence of ferromagnetic interactions in this material.

We can correlate the observed spin-glass behavior with the presence of ZnMnO3 inclusions in our samples, detected by X-ray diffraction. The sample with $`x=0.15`$ has the least amount of ZnMnO3. At the same time, no clear cusp in ac susceptibility is observed for this sample; only a change of slope at $`T_f`$ can be seen. The presence of ZnMnO3 impurity can be suppressed by subsequent annealing in air. The paramagnetic character of Zn1-xMnxO samples is restored after this annealing in air.

In Fig. 5, we present ac susceptibility for a Zn0.9Mn0.1O sample measured at several frequencies in an ac magnetic field of constant amplitude $`H_{ac}=14`$ Oe.

One can observe a decrease of ac susceptibility below $`T_f`$ with increasing frequency, and a shift of $`T_f`$ towards higher temperatures. This observation confirms that the observed cusp in ac susceptibility is related to spin-glass behavior. Mydosh93  In dc magnetization, presented in Fig. 6, we can observe a difference between “Zero-field-cooled” (ZFC) and “field-cooled” (FC) magnetization, after cooling in a zero magnetic field measured on warming and on cooling in the magnetic field, respectively.

Thermoremanent magnetization can be observed after field cooling to a temperature below $`T_f`$ and switching off the magnetic field. Thermoremanent magnetization exhibits slow decay in time, which is presented in the inset to Fig. 6. All these phenomena are characteristic for spin-glass behavior.

One has to stress that the observed spin-glass behavior in our samples is different than in other diluted magnetic II - IV semiconductors. The main difference is that in other diluted magnetic semiconductors $`T_f`$ scales with the manganese content as $`\mathrm{ln}T_f\frac{n}{3}\mathrm{ln}x`$ or $`\mathrm{ln}T_f\alpha x^{1/3}`$. Twardowski87  For our high-pressure annealed samples, $`T_f`$ is relatively independent of $`x`$. For example, $`T_f`$ for other Mn-substituted semiconductors with $`x=0.2`$ is usually found in the range 4 to 10 K. Twardowski87  Our air-synthesized Zn0.8Mn0.2O does not show spin-glass behavior down to $`T=2.6`$ K. This observation again indicate the extrinsic nature of spin-glass behavior for high-pressure annealed samples.

In summary, we have studied magnetic properties of Mn- doped polycrystalline ZnO samples. Stoichiometric samples demonstrate Curie-Weiss behavior at higher temperatures, with mostly antiferromagnetic interactions. Material parameters, determined from the ac susceptibility data show similarities between Zn1-xMnxO and other semimagnetic semiconductors substituted with Mn. High-pressure oxygen annealing induces spin-glass like behavior in Zn1-xMnxO by precipitation of ZnMnO3 in the paramagnetic matrix.

This work was supported by the DARPA/ONR and the State of Illinois under HECA. The authors would like to thank Dr. Tomasz Dietl for valuable comments.


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# Time dependence of current-voltage measurements of c-axis quasiparticle conductivity in 2212–BSCCO mesa structures

\[

## Abstract

We report four-point IV measurements of the c-axis conductivity of mesa structures of 2212–BSCCO, using a system with sub-$`\mu `$s resolution along with multi-level pulses. These allow a test to be made for the presence of nonequilibrium effects. Our results suggest simple heating alone is important in measurements of this kind.

\]

In the highly anisotropic high-temperature superconductor Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ (2212–BSCCO), a linear array of intrinsic Josephson junctions is formed in the out-of-plane direction due to the almost-insulating layers separating the superconducting copper-oxide bilayers. To investigate conduction across such junctions, mesa structures can be fabricated by lithographic patterning on the surface of almost atomically flat cleaved surfaces of single crystals. Hysteretic multi-branched IV characteristics are observed; each branch corresponds to the expected irreversible characteristics of a junction in the measured array.

In principle, the shape of the characteristics can be used to determine the c-axis quasiparticle conductivity and the superconducting energy gap. However, in many circumstances one observes regions in the IV characteristics with negative slope—“backbending”—and even an S-shaped feature. These cannot be described by simple theory, but have been attributed by some authors to nonequilibrium effects and by others to simple heating. In the past, pulsed measurements on 200–500 ns time scales have been used with this geometry in an attempt to circumvent possible problems from sample heating. (See Ref.  for corresponding references.)

We have made pulsed four-point IV measurements on a stack of (30 $`\mu `$m)2 junctions with a system of cryogenically cooled buffer amplifiers with 50 ns time resolution. Square voltage pulses are applied to the sample via a series resistor. For more detail see Ref. . Here we present data for an oxygen-annealed sample (Figs. 1 and 2) and for an as-grown sample from a different batch (Figs. 3 and 4). Both samples have around 30 junctions in the main stack.

Typical IV measurements are shown in Fig. 1.  We identify the drop in voltage with heating—the sample conductivity increases with temperature. Nonequilibrium effects are expected to vary on much shorter timescales. Figure 2 shows a series of IV measurements at various times after the switching-on of different-sized square current pulses. We believe the 50 ns characteristics approximate the intrinsic sample properties up to currents in excess of 20 mA. The 0.3 s characteristics are indistinguishable from dc measurements. The strong time-dependence of the shape of the characteristics shows that the onset of the backbending feature is not associated with the gap voltage. We deduce the temperature on the heated curves by comparison with the 50 ns quasi-intrinsic characteristics at higher base temperatures, e.g., for a current of 15 mA, the sample temperature rises from 33 K to above Tc in $``$ 10 $`\mu `$s.

Figure 3 shows measurements using high-bias pulse sequences superimposed on a non-zero low-bias level. The increase in low-bias sample voltage following the high-bias pulse is consistent with the mesa cooling back down—the low-bias conductivity decreases steeply from low temperatures towards Tc and varies only slowly around and above Tc. Examining the IV data in Figs. 3a–d, respectively 50 $`\mu `$s and 0.4 ms after the start of the high-bias pulse, we find backbending and an S-shaped feature. In Figs. 3c and 3d, we note the transition from negative to positive slope, most likely associated with sample heating to well above Tc; this conclusion is supported by the initial regime of approximately constant voltage after the high-bias pulse, which corresponds to the mesa being heated above Tc.

The mesa temperature just after the end of the high-bias pulse can be deduced from the low-bias sample voltage: this is calibrated using measurements made at long times after the high-bias pulse over a range of base temperatures. In Fig. 4, the circle symbols show IV measurements at the end of a 5 $`\mu `$s high-bias pulse. We label these with the temperature inferred from the low-bias voltage shortly after the end of the high-bias pulse. The values are in good agreement with the temperature inferred from the position of the 5 $`\mu `$s IV characteristics with respect to the 50 ns characteristics.

These results underline the consistency of invoking a thermal origin for observed backbending and S-shaped features, without positing additional nonequilibrium effects. These measurements and their analysis in terms of thermal models give us confidence in interpreting the short-time IV characteristics, and will enable us to obtain more reliable information on the intrinsic interlayer tunnelling, free from the effects of heating.

This work was supported by the UK EPSRC.


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# SUSX-TH/02-016 OUTP-02-16P hep-th/0207281 Five-Dimensional Moving Brane Solutions with Four-Dimensional Limiting Behaviour

## I Introduction

Branes moving during the course of the evolution of the universe constitute an interesting and generic feature of brane-world models. In this paper, we will analyse this phenomenon in the context of five-dimensional heterotic brane-world models derived from heterotic M-theory in eleven dimensions . The five-dimensional effective action for these brane-world models has been derived recently  and the associated four-dimensional effective action and its relation to the five-dimensional theory has been presented in ref. . These results open up the possibility of explicitly studying moving-brane cosmologies in a well-defined M-theory setting.

In the context of the four-dimensional effective theory, these results have been applied to obtain the first heterotic moving-brane cosmological solutions . These solutions can be viewed as generalisations of the familiar string-theory rolling-radii solutions (see e.g. ). In addition to the dilaton and the universal $`T`$-modulus they involve the position modulus of the moving brane. In fact, from the structure of the four-dimensional effective action, the evolution of the dilaton and the $`T`$-modulus cannot be disentangled from the brane motion, or, more precisely, the dilaton and the $`T`$-modulus cannot be set to constants once the brane moves. This has important consequences for the properties of such moving-brane cosmologies. For example, it was found in ref.  that the effect of the brane is to interpolate between two rolling-radii solutions with static branes at early and late time, both in the positive and negative time branch. In addition, all such four-dimensional solutions become strongly coupled asymptotically; that is, at early and late time in both branches. From this result, proposals for an initial state of the universe based on weak coupling  appear to be problematic in the presence of a moving brane.

In this paper, we will be investigating moving brane cosmological solutions within the framework of five-dimensional heterotic M-theory  and the connection to their four-dimensional counterparts found in ref. . We begin by showing how to oxidise a moving brane solution of the four-dimensional theory to an approximate solution of the five-dimensional theory. Specifically we provide a template for a five-dimensional metric and dilaton. To obtain the approximate five-dimensional configuration one simply has to take certain quantities from the four-dimensional solution and substitute them into this expression. The resulting solution is accurate to first order in the slowly moving moduli and weak coupling expansions as will be described.

We then go on to look for five-dimensional moving brane solutions. The technical challenge here is to find suitable solutions to the five-dimensional bulk theory in which to embed the branes. For five-dimensional heterotic M-theory only a very limited number of such solutions are presently known. The most elementary one is the BPS domain-wall vacuum of ref. . However, as we have shown , this solution only allows the embedding of static branes, that is, branes which do not move in their transverse direction. The same is true for the simple separating cosmological solutions of ref. . We, therefore, use the only other known class of bulk solutions which were found in ref. . We show that, in addition to the boundaries, a moving brane can be embedded in these bulk solutions.

Finally we investigate the connection between four and five-dimensional moving brane solutions. We find that our five-dimensional solutions have a four-dimensional interpretation only in particular limits. Specifically they can be understood as being described by the effective four-dimensional theory only for certain periods of time. Remarkably, while the bulk 5-branes generically move across the orbifold, the four-dimensional limit requires that they be static. The 5-brane can remain static for an arbitrarily long period of time, however if it does start to move the four-dimensional description breaks down and a brane collision is inevitable. In this case, the breakdown of the effective description is not caused by moving to strong-coupling, but rather because the 5-brane moduli evolves more quickly than is allowed in the lowest-order four-dimensional action. In other words, studying the five-dimensional theory has revealed a new type of moving-brane solution which could not have been identified as such from a purely four-dimensional viewpoint. Moreover, in the four-dimensional limit the solutions become more weakly-coupled with time in the positive time branch. This is in contrast to the purely four dimensional moving-brane solutions found in ref.  which are always strongly-coupled asymptotically.

The plan of the paper is as follows. In the next Section, we set the scene by presenting the minimal version of the five-dimensional brane-world theory and its associated four-dimensional effective action. We also provide the template mentioned above for raising four-dimensional moving brane solutions to five-dimensions. The five-dimensional moving-brane solutions will be presented in Section III. In Section IV, we analyse their four-dimensional limits so providing explicit examples illustrating the transition between four and five dimensions, first without and then with a bulk 5-brane. We end with a discussion of our results and our conclusions. Appendix A contains numerical solutions for the motion of the five-branes and orbifold fixed-points and finally Appendix B discusses the causal structure of the five-dimensional solutions.

## II The Actions in Five and Four Dimensions

The five-dimensional theory which we will consider emerges as the low-energy limit of eleven-dimensional Hořava-Witten theory , that is eleven-dimensional supergravity on the orbifold $`S^1/Z_2\times _{10}`$ coupled to two ten-dimensional $`E_8`$ SYM theories each residing on one of the two orbifold fixed planes. Upon compactification of this theory on a Calabi-Yau three-fold to five-dimensions  one obtains a five-dimensional $`N=1`$ gauged supergravity theory on the orbifold $`S^1/Z_2\times _4`$. This bulk theory is coupled to two $`D=4`$, $`N=1`$ theories which originate from the ten-dimensional $`E_8`$ gauge theories and are localised on 3-branes which coincide with the now four-dimensional orbifold fixed planes.

In compactifying from eleven to five dimensions, it is possible to include additional 5-branes in the vacuum . These 5-branes are transverse to the orbifold and wrap (holomorphic) two-cycles within the Calabi-Yau three-fold. Hence, they also appear as 3-branes in the five-dimensional effective theory. However, unlike the “boundary” 3-branes which are stuck to the orbifold fixed-points, these 3-branes are free to move across the orbifold. Altogether, the five-dimensional theory is then still a gauged $`N=1`$ supergravity theory on the orbifold $`S^1/Z_2\times _4`$. It now couples to the two $`N=1`$ theories on the boundary 3-branes as well as to a series of $`N=1`$ theories residing on the additional 3-branes.

For the purposes of this paper, we will consider the inclusion of only one intermediate 3-brane. Further, we consistently truncate the action to the minimal possible set of fields. These are the metric $`g_{\alpha \beta }`$ and the dilaton $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ in the bulk, together with the embedding co-ordinates of the brane (which, after gauge-fixing, leads to one physical degree of freedom corresponding to transverse motion of the brane). We will use co-ordinates $`x^\alpha `$, where $`\alpha ,\beta ,\mathrm{}=0,\mathrm{},3,5`$ for the five-dimensional space, and allow general embeddings of the branes within this bulk space. Four-dimensional co-ordinates $`x^\mu `$ will be indexed by $`\mu ,\nu ,\mathrm{}=0,\mathrm{},3`$.

The five-dimensional action contains pieces from the bulk, the two orbifold fixed-planes (boundaries) and the 5-branes, that is,

$$S_5=S_{\mathrm{bulk}}+\underset{i=1,2,5}{}S^{(i)},$$
(1)
where $`i=1,2`$ refer to the two boundaries and $`i=5`$ refers to the 5-brane. Specifically, these pieces are given by

$`S_{\mathrm{bulk}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\kappa _5^2}}{\displaystyle __5}\sqrt{g}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}R+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}(\mathrm{\Phi })^2+V_{\mathrm{bulk}}(\mathrm{\Phi })\right]`$ (2)
$`S^{(i)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\kappa _5^2}}{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{\Sigma }_i}}\sqrt{h^{(i)}}V_i(\mathrm{\Phi }).`$ (3)
Here, $`\kappa _5`$ is the five-dimensional Newton constant and $`h^{(i)}`$ are the determinants of the four-dimensional induced metrics on the branes $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_i`$. The branes $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_2`$ coincide with the fixed-planes of the orbifold, whilst $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_5`$ is free to move between these two.

The bulk potential is given by

$$V_{\mathrm{bulk}}=\frac{\alpha ^2}{3}e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }}$$
(4)
where $`\alpha `$ is a sum of $`\theta `$ functions 555Ref.  uses the orbifold picture where the action (1) and the definition of $`\alpha `$, (5), contain an additional term related to the $`Z_2`$ mirror of the 5-brane. In this paper, we will be working in the boundary picture and have, hence, dropped these terms.

$$\alpha =\underset{i=1,2,5}{}\alpha _i\theta (\mathrm{\Sigma }_i).$$
(5)
The boundary potentials $`V_i`$, where $`i=1,2`$ take the form

$$V_i=2\alpha _ie^\mathrm{\Phi }$$
(6)
while the potential $`V_5`$ on the 5-brane reads

$$V_5=\alpha _5e^\mathrm{\Phi }.$$
(7)
The constants $`\alpha _i`$ can be interpreted as charges on the boundaries and the 5-brane and they satisfy the cohomology condition

$$\underset{i=1,2,5}{}\alpha _i=0.$$
(8)
Varying the above action gives the bulk Einstein equation and bulk scalar field equation in the usual way. The embeddings of the branes $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_i`$ within this bulk are described by the Israel conditions

$`\left[K_{\alpha \beta }^{(i)}\right]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}V_ih_{\alpha \beta }^{(i)}`$ (9)
$`\left[n_\alpha ^{(i)}^\alpha \mathrm{\Phi }\right]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{dV_i}{d\mathrm{\Phi }}}.`$ (10)
where $`K_{\alpha \beta }^{(i)}`$ is the extrinsic curvature and we have defined $`\left[X\right]X_+X_{}`$. The jump of any quantity across the $`Z_2`$ orbifold-fixed planes is, of course, simply twice the value next to the boundary, taken with a positive sign at the first boundary and a negative one at the second.

The vacuum of this five-dimensional theory is a BPS domain-wall solution first derived in ref. . We may compactify the five-dimensional theory on this vacuum, promoting certain constants to moduli, so as to obtain the four-dimensional action of heterotic M-theory. If one considers only those fields presented in the action (2)-(3) (a consistent truncation of the full five-dimensional theory) then one arrives at the four-dimensional action

$$S=\frac{1}{2\kappa _4^2}\sqrt{g}\left[\frac{1}{2}R+\frac{1}{4}_\mu \varphi ^\mu \varphi +\frac{3}{4}_\mu \beta ^\mu \beta +\frac{q_5}{2}e^{\beta \varphi }_\mu z^\mu z\right]$$
(11)
where the four-dimensional Newton constant $`\kappa _4`$ is related to its five-dimensional counterpart by

$$\kappa _4^2=\frac{\kappa _5^2}{2\pi \rho }$$
(12)
and the constant $`q_5=2\pi \rho \alpha _5`$ is proportional to the 5-brane charge.

All three four-dimensional scalar fields $`\beta ,\varphi `$ and $`z`$ have a geometrical interpretation in terms of the underlying five- or eleven-dimensional theory. Concretely, $`\pi \rho e^\beta `$ specifies the size of the orbifold, where $`\pi \rho `$ is a fixed reference length, while the volume of the internal Calabi-Yau space is given by $`ve^\varphi `$ with a fixed reference volume $`v`$. The field $`z`$ is normalised so it takes values in the interval $`z[0,1]`$ and, from a five-dimensional viewpoint, it specifies the position of the three-brane in the transverse space. Here $`z=0`$ ($`z=1`$) corresponds to the first (second) boundary. At the perturbative level, the fields $`\varphi `$, $`\beta `$ and $`z`$ correspond to flat directions which will typically be lifted by non-perturbative potentials from various sources . In this paper, for simplicity, we will not take such non-perturbative effects into consideration. Note, that the above action can be interpreted as the consistent truncation of an $`N=1`$ supergravity theory. The Kähler potential of this theory and its relation to the component fields has been given in ref. .

The four-dimensional action is correct to first-order in the strong-coupling expansion parameter, defined as

$$ϵ2\alpha \pi \rho e^{\beta \varphi }.$$
(13)
This parameter may be interpreted as measuring the strength of Kaluza-Klein excitations in the orbifold direction, or the strength of string-loop corrections to the four-dimensional effective action, or the relative size of the orbifold and the Calabi-Yau space. When $`ϵ1`$ the theory is in the weakly-coupled regime and the four-dimensional effective action can provide a good description of the system. However, if $`ϵ1`$ or greater, then the four-dimensional action (11) cannot be expected to provide a good description of the theory, as excitations of the five-dimensional Kaluza-Klein modes become important. The five-dimensional action (1)-(3) should also receive higher order corrections in $`ϵ`$ governed by the eleven-dimensional theory. However, it can be expected to provide a more accurate description of the system at $`ϵ>1`$ than the four-dimensional theory. In this sense, we will use the action (1) to obtain a qualitative picture for brane-evolution at $`ϵ>1`$.

Notice also that from a four-dimensional perspective, a moving 5-brane necessarily implies time-evolution of the fields $`\varphi `$ and $`\beta `$, as can be seen from the kinetic term of the $`z`$ field in (11). The complete set of cosmological solutions for the action (11) (assuming Ricci flat spatial sections) has been given in . It has been shown for those solutions, that a moving brane necessarily implies strong coupling, i.e. diverging $`ϵ`$, asymptotically at both early and late time. This property is a direct consequence of the coupling between $`z`$, $`\varphi `$ and $`\beta `$ in (11).

How does one raise a solution of this four-dimensional action to obtain an approximate solution to the five-dimensional one? As is well-known, the vacuum solution contains non-trivial dependence on the orbifold co-ordinate due to the presence of the branes. This dependence gets modified slightly in the presence of a moving 5-brane. To raise a four-dimensional moving brane solution to obtain a five-dimensional approximate solution, one must use the following template. Using co-ordinates in which the orbifold fixed-planes lie along lines of constant $`y`$ (at $`y=0`$ and $`y=\pi \rho `$), the template is

$`ds^2`$ $`=`$ $`e^\beta g_{\mu \nu }\left(1+ϵB(y)\right)dx^\mu dx^\nu +e^{2\beta }\left(1+ϵB(y)\right)^4dy^2`$ (14)
$`e^\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`e^\varphi \left(1+ϵB(y)\right)^3`$ (15)
where, for a 5-brane located at $`y=Y=z\pi \rho `$, the function $`B(y)`$ is given by

$$B(y)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{e^{3\beta }\alpha _5\dot{z}^2}{6\alpha _1}\frac{y^2}{2}\frac{1}{3\pi \rho }y+c_10yY\hfill & \\ \frac{e^{3\beta }\alpha _5\dot{z}^2}{6\alpha _2}\frac{y^2}{2}\left(\frac{1}{3\pi \rho }\frac{\pi \rho e^{3\beta }\alpha _5\dot{z}^2}{6\alpha _2}\right)y+c_2Yy\pi \rho \hfill & \end{array}$$
(16)
where

$`c_1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _5}{\alpha _1}}\left(1z\right)^2+{\displaystyle \frac{e^{3\beta }\alpha _5}{2\alpha _1}}(\pi \rho \dot{z})^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}+z^22z\right)\right)`$ (17)
$`c_2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _5}{\alpha _2}}z^2+{\displaystyle \frac{e^{3\beta }\alpha _5}{2\alpha _2}}(\pi \rho \dot{z})^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}+z^2\right)\right).`$ (18)
Notice that the five-brane may effectively be removed from this template by setting $`\alpha _5=0`$; for constant moduli we then recover the standard BPS vacuum solution of . A BPS configuration is also obtained if the five-brane is static, so $`\dot{z}=0`$.

To obtain five-dimensional solutions with dynamical five-branes one simply has to substitute the fields $`g_{\mu \nu }`$, $`\beta ,\varphi `$ and $`z`$ from the four-dimensional moving brane solutions of  into this template. The resulting configuration will be a solution to the five-dimensional theory to first order in the weak coupling and slowly moving moduli approximations.

## III A Five-Dimensional Solution with a Moving 5-brane

To date, it has proven elusive to show explicitly the connection between solutions of the theories (1)–(3) and (11) for anything other than the BPS vacuum state and the separating cosmological solutions of  (the four-dimensional solutions corresponding to which are marked in figure 1). Unsurprisingly, the main reason for this is that complete five-dimensional solutions are extremely difficult to find. One approach that has been followed by Chamblin & Reall in ref.  is to consider bulk spacetimes that only depend on a single co-ordinate. As noticed in ref , the constraint that the bulk fields only depend on one co-ordinate is equivalent to adoption of the ansatz

$$e^\mathrm{\Phi }R^6.$$
(19)
relating the dilaton $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ and brane scale-factor $`R`$, where the sixth power is governed by the particular form of the universal potentials in heterotic M-theory (4)-(7). The first steps towards more general solutions have been taken in ref . Although we will not attempt to use such more complicated solutions explicitly in this paper, in the final section we will point out how we anticipate they play a rôle.

Instead, here we wish to generalize the solution of ref. so as to describe the possibility of additional 5-branes which are free to move across the orbifold. For simplicity, we will consider the inclusion of only one bulk 5-brane, the generalization being straightforward. The metric that achieves this is given by

$$ds^2=\frac{1}{U_\pm (t_\pm )}dt_\pm ^2+U_\pm (t_\pm )dr_\pm ^2+R_\pm (t_\pm )^2d𝐱^2$$
(20)
where co-ordinates $`(t_{},r_{})`$ and $`(t_+,r_+)`$ are valid on the left and right of the 5-brane, respectively. The dilaton field has a corresponding solution

$$\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }_{0\pm }+\frac{6}{7}\mathrm{ln}(t_\pm )$$
(21)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{0\pm }`$ are arbitrary integration constants. The functions $`U_\pm `$ and $`R_\pm `$ that appear in the metric are given by

$`U_\pm (t_\pm )`$ $`=`$ $`49t_\pm ^{\frac{2}{7}}\left(2M_\pm t_\pm ^{\frac{2}{7}}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _\pm ^2e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }_{0\pm }}}{9}}\right)`$ (22)
$`R_\pm (t_\pm )`$ $`=`$ $`t_\pm ^{\frac{1}{7}}.`$ (23)
In this paper, we will mainly consider the region above the horizons where

$$t_\pm >t_\pm ^h\left(\frac{\alpha _\pm ^2e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }_{0\pm }}}{18M_\pm }\right)^{\frac{7}{2}}$$
(24)
in each portion of the bulk and hence the $`U(t)`$’s are positive, making $`t`$ and $`r`$ locally timelike and spacelike, respectively. The conventions in ref.  were the opposite. The parameters $`M_\pm `$ are positive, but otherwise arbitrary constants of integration which may be interpreted as the mass of the singularity at $`t=0`$ in the maximally extended spacetimes. They may be chosen independently on each side of a bulk 5-brane. The ‘charges’ felt in each region of the bulk are given by $`\alpha _{}=\alpha _1`$ and $`\alpha _+=\alpha _1+\alpha _5=\alpha _2`$ in terms of the charges on the branes. This solution is essentially two copies of the spacetime found in ref. , sewn together at the bulk brane $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_5`$. The sewing is continuous, but not necessarily smooth as the 5-brane supports energy-momentum through its potential. Continuity of the metric requires that $`t_{}(\mathrm{\Sigma }_5)=t_+(\mathrm{\Sigma }_5)`$ (we can make this choice of scaling of $`𝐱_\pm `$ without loss of generality). Continuity of the dilaton then forces us to choose $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0=\mathrm{\Phi }_{0+}`$. In the limit $`M_\pm 0`$ this solution becomes the BPS vacuum of ref. .

Since $`R_\pm `$ are monotonically increasing functions of $`t_\pm `$ alone, the branes may be taken to be located in the bulk such that their scale factors are $`R=R_1`$, $`R_5`$ and $`R_2`$ respectively, with $`R_1<R_5<R_2`$. The locations of the branes are governed by the Israel conditions (9). Using the co-ordinates of the metric (20) it is possible to write these in a convenient form. Following the procedure of ref.  where non-BPS brane configurations in type IIA massive supergravity were considered, we twice square the $`ij`$ components of eq. (9) to obtain the brane equations of motion as

$$\left(\frac{dR_i}{d\lambda }\right)^2=\frac{9e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }_0}[M]^2}{[\alpha ]^2}\frac{1}{R_i^6}+\left(\{M\}\frac{\{\alpha \}[M]}{[\alpha ]}\right)\frac{1}{R_i^8}$$
(25)
where $`\lambda `$ is proper time measured on the relevant brane. We have defined $`\left\{X\right\}X_++X_{}`$, and $`[\alpha ]=\alpha _i`$ is the (bulk 5-) brane’s charge.

Notice that for a brane at an orbifold fixed-plane, $`Z_2`$-symmetry requires that $`[M]=0`$ and $`\{M\}=2M`$, whereas for a bulk five-brane neither condition is necessarily true. This crucial difference between the embeddings of the orbifold fixed-planes and bulk 5-brane immediately leads to the conclusion that, if $`M_\pm `$ are chosen to be different in the two sections of the bulk, the 5-brane will always collide with a fixed plane in at least one asymptotic regime. This may be seen from the first term in eq. (25) which dominates as $`R_i\mathrm{}`$. Since this term can only exist for a bulk brane, the 5-brane will move across the orbifold and ultimately collide with one of the fixed planes. Conversely, the only possibility for obtaining a solution where the 5-brane is asymptotically static with respect to the orbifold is to choose $`M_{}=M_+`$. Then, as for the fixed planes, eq. (25) may be solved in compact form and it is clear that the brane separations approach constants as $`R\mathrm{}`$. In this case the branes’ trajectories in either $`(r,t)`$ plane are given by

$$r=r_0^{(i)}\pm \frac{(t^h)\frac{3}{7}}{28M}\left[\left(\frac{t}{t^h}\right)^{\frac{2}{7}}+\mathrm{ln}\left(\left(\frac{t}{t^h}\right)^{\frac{2}{7}}1\right)\right]$$
(26)
where $`r_0^{(i)}`$ is an arbitrary integration constant and $`t^h`$ was defined in eq. (24) using either the $`(r_{},t_{})`$ or $`(r_+,t_+)`$ co-ordinates.

We shall make use only of certain limits of the fixed plane and 5-brane motion in the next section, for which simple analytical forms can be found in both cases. Diagrams illustrating the orbifold fixed plane and 5-brane trajectories for more general choices of parameters may be found in Appendix A.

## IV The four-dimensional limit

In this Section we will show how the solution (20)-(21) is related to solutions of the four-dimensional action (11). First, we will consider the case without a bulk brane. This provides both the background in which we later wish to study the 5-brane motion, and also in itself demonstrates an example of a correspondence between a five- and four-dimensional solution in a concrete manner. We shall then proceed to include a five-brane in the bulk.

### A The case without bulk 5-branes

Homogeneous, isotropic solutions of the four-dimensional action (11) for $`z=`$ const have been extensively studied (see e.g. ). Here we will be interested in those which possess metrics with spatially flat sections, described by

$$ds^2=d\tau ^2+e^{2A}d𝐱^2$$
(27)
with the moduli fields

$`A(\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`A_0+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\mathrm{ln}\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}}\right|`$ (28)
$`\beta (\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`\beta _0+p_\beta \mathrm{ln}\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}}\right|`$ (29)
$`\varphi (\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`\varphi _0+p_\varphi \mathrm{ln}\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}}\right|`$ (30)
where $`A_0`$, $`\beta _0`$ $`\varphi _0`$, $`\tau _0`$ and $`T`$ are arbitrary constants (clearly they are not all physical, but we shall find it convenient to express the four-dimensional metric in this form). On the other hand, the constants $`p_\beta `$ and $`p_\varphi `$ satisfy the constraint $`3p_\beta ^2+p_\varphi ^2=4/3`$, so the space of possible four-dimensional rolling-radii solutions may be described by an ellipse as in figure 1. The solutions are classified by $`\delta p_\beta p_\varphi `$, with the $`\delta >0`$ solutions evolving towards strong coupling as $`|\tau \tau _0|\mathrm{}`$ and the $`\delta <0`$ solutions becoming strongly coupled as $`|\tau \tau _0|0`$. To first order in the strong-coupling parameter and the slowly evolving moduli expansions, these solutions may be oxidised to provide solutions to the full five-dimensional theory by considering them as fluctuations around the BPS vacuum. To do this one can use a simpler version of the template (14)-(15) where the bulk five-brane has been removed - by setting $`\alpha _5=0`$ for example. We now wish to demonstrate that, in a certain regime, the solution (20)-(21) (in the absence of a five-brane) is equivalent to an oxidised four-dimensional solution.

The question immediately arises as to which of the four-dimensional solutions we should oxidise. The relationship between $`R`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ given in (19) scales to become the constraint

$$p_\varphi =23p_\beta $$
(31)
in four dimensions. Therefore, if the five-dimensional fields of Section III are to evolve into any of the four-dimensional rolling radii solutions, then it must be one of the two intersection points in figure 1. Which of these two points is the relevant one can be determined by noticing that, as $`t\mathrm{}`$, the terms in the metric (20) that involve the brane charge $`\alpha `$ become negligible, so the solution must become weakly coupled at late time. This uniquely determines that the required four-dimensional moduli fields have expansion powers $`p_\varphi =1`$ and $`p_\beta =1/3`$.

Our procedure shall now be to insert eqs. (27)-(30) into eqs. (14)-(15), in the absence of a five-brane, to obtain the oxidised four-dimensional solution. This we will compare with the full solution of Section III (for the case where there is no bulk five-brane of course). We do not expect that the oxidised expressions will reproduce the entire five-dimensional solution, but only a certain region thereof. More specifically, since the oxidised solution is accurate to linear order in the strong-coupling expansion parameter $`ϵ`$, and we have seen that this limit of the bulk metric occurs at ‘late’ times, it is clear that the appropriate region of the metric (20) with which to compare the raised expressions is where $`tt_\pm ^h`$. Then each orbifold fixed-plane is far ‘above’ the horizon that would be present in the maximally extended bulk.

In the absence of a bulk brane, to first order in the strong coupling parameter $`ϵ`$, the oxidised dilaton has the form

$$e^\mathrm{\Phi }=e^\varphi \left(1+2he^{\beta \varphi }\right)$$
(32)
where $`h`$ has the simple form $`h(y)=\alpha _1(|y|\pi \rho /2)`$ as appropriate for the BPS vacuum without 5-branes. Inserting equations (29) and (30) into this and comparing with the five-dimensional expression eq. (21) shows that we must choose the $`t`$ co-ordinate of equation (20) to be given in terms of rolling radii co-ordinates employed in equations (14)-(15) by

$$t=\left|\frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}\right|^{\frac{7}{6}}\left(1+\frac{7}{3}he^{\beta _0\varphi _0}\left|\frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}\right|^{\frac{2}{3}}\right)$$
(33)
to first order in brane charges, and we have set $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0=\varphi _0`$.

We recall that the reduction of the five-dimensional action (2)-(3) to the four-dimensional effective action (11) was done using co-ordinates where the orbifold fixed-planes lay at constant $`y`$, whereas in Section III the fixed-planes followed the trajectories given in eq. (26). This determines the other change of variable required as as

$$dr=\gamma dy\pm \frac{2}{7}t^{\frac{5}{7}}\frac{t_h^{\frac{1}{7}}}{28M}dt$$
(34)
where $`\gamma `$ is a possible scaling of the $`y`$-axis to be determined later, and again we have only considered terms up to first order in the strong-coupling parameter.

We can now insert these co-ordinate transformations into the limit of the five-dimensional solution described above to obtain

$$\begin{array}{c}ds^2=e^{\beta _0}\left|\frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}\right|^{\frac{1}{3}}\left(1+\frac{2h}{3}e^{\beta _0\varphi _0}\left|\frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}\right|^{\frac{2}{3}}\right)\left[d\tau ^2+e^{2A_0}\left|\frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}\right|^{\frac{2}{3}}d𝐱^2\right]\hfill \\ \hfill +e^{2\beta _0}\left|\frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}\right|^{\frac{2}{3}}\left(1+\frac{4h}{3}e^{\beta _0\varphi _0}\left|\frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}\right|^{\frac{2}{3}}\right)dy^2\end{array}$$
(35)
for the metric and

$$e^\mathrm{\Phi }=e^{\varphi _0}\left|\frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}\right|\left(1+2he^{\beta _0\varphi _0}\left|\frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}\right|^{\frac{2}{3}}\right)$$
(36)
for the dilaton. In deriving these expressions, we have made the following identifications between five- and four-dimensional constants

$`2M`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e^{\beta _0}}{(6T)^2}}`$ (37)
$`\gamma `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\pm e^{\beta _0}}{7\sqrt{2M}}}`$ (38)
$`2A_0`$ $`=`$ $`\beta _0`$ (39)
The last of these conditions is simply a consequence of a choice of scaling we have made for the $`x_i`$ (this choice was mentioned briefly in the paragraph underneath (24)).

We now see that the late time limit of our five-dimensional solution (as given in eqs (35)-(36)) is, to first order in the strong-coupling parameter, exactly the same as the oxidised four-dimensional solution (obtained by inserting (27)-(30) into the template of eqs (14)-(15) with $`\alpha _5=0`$ as appropriate if no 5-brane is present) except for the co-efficient of $`dy^2`$. In eq. (35) this co-efficient contains a factor of $`\frac{4}{3}`$ whereas the template has $`\frac{8}{3}`$. This difference is to be expected in general when comparing such solutions for the following reason. If we insert the template structure into the five-dimensional Friedmann equation and expand to first order in strong-coupling we obtain,

$$\left(\dot{A}^2\frac{\dot{\beta }^2}{4}\frac{\dot{\varphi }^2}{12}\right)+\frac{1}{3}\left(6\dot{A}2\dot{\beta }\dot{\varphi }\right)\left(\dot{\beta }\dot{\varphi }\right)he^{\beta \varphi }=\frac{1}{3}e^{2\beta \varphi }h^{\prime \prime }\underset{i=1}{\overset{2}{}}\frac{\alpha _i}{3}e^{2\beta \varphi }\delta (yy_i).$$
(40)
The only terms in this equation which depend on the precise factor in the co-efficient of $`dy^2`$ in the metric are,

$$\frac{1}{3}\left(6\dot{A}2\dot{\beta }\dot{\varphi }\right)\left(\dot{\beta }\dot{\varphi }\right)he^{\beta \varphi }$$
(41)
Notice however that these terms are first order both in the strong-coupling parameter and in squared time derivatives of moduli. The four-dimensional action (11) is only accurate to first order in each of these expansions and so these terms are negligible when it is valid. Thus in connecting the two solutions the value of this factor in the metric is irrelevant.

Hence we have established the connection between the two solutions. The late time behaviour of the metric (20) and dilaton (21) is described by the four-dimensional rolling radius solution of eqs. (27)-(30) with $`p_\varphi =1`$ and $`p_\beta =1/3`$. Conversely, one full continuation of this particular weakly coupled solution into the strong-coupling regime is given by (20)-(22). To our knowledge, this is the first time such a non-trivial correspondence between dynamical solutions of five- and four-dimensional heterotic M-theory has been explicitly demonstrated.

### B Including a 5-brane

We may now proceed to include a bulk 5-brane in this process of identification. Four-dimensional solutions of the action (11) including the modulus $`z`$ describing the location of the 5-brane were studied in . There, it was shown that $`z`$ evolves according to

$$z(\tau )=z_0+d\left(1+\left|\frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}\right|^{p_\beta ^ip_\varphi ^i}\right)^1$$
(42)
with $`z_0`$ and $`d`$ arbitrary constants. $`p_\beta ^i`$ and $`p_\varphi ^i`$ are the expansion powers of the T modulus and the dilaton at infinity. In our case we know that as we let $`t\mathrm{}`$ we also have $`ϵ0`$. This is impossible for a four-dimensional solution which contains a moving brane and so we set $`d=0`$. Therefore we will see that, although the 5-brane moves in the full five-dimensional solution, it corresponds to a solution which has a stationary 5-brane in the four-dimensional limit. In this limit the expansion powers will be the same as for the case without a five brane, i.e. $`p_\varphi =1`$, $`p_\beta =\frac{1}{3}`$.

From the five-dimensional perspective, there is no $`Z_2`$ symmetry across the bulk brane and so a priori we should consider all the terms in the Israel conditions:

$$\left(\frac{dR_i}{d\lambda }\right)^2=\frac{9e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }_0}[M]^2}{[\alpha ]^2}\frac{1}{R_i^6}+\left(\{M\}\frac{\{\alpha \}[M]}{[\alpha ]}\right)\frac{1}{R_i^8}$$
(43)
where, again, $`\lambda `$ is proper time as measured on the relevant brane. If we make the choice $`\left[M\right]=0`$, as we are free to decide, then the 5-brane would move in the maximally extended bulk in precisely the same way as an orbifold fixed-plane. It is then clear that as $`t\mathrm{}`$ this solution has a four-dimensional limit exactly as before, except of course that the function $`h(y)`$ in eqs. (35)-(36) should now be replaced by the expression given in eq. (16) as appropriate for raising a four-dimensional solution on a background containing a 5-brane (with $`\dot{z}=0`$). In the four-dimensional regime, this corresponds to choosing $`\pi \rho z_0=Y`$ in eq (42).

On the other hand, for any $`\left[M\right]0`$, it is inevitable that the 5-brane starts to move with respect to the orbifold fixed-planes, ultimately colliding with one of them as discussed above. This effect becomes important after the time

$$t^{\frac{2}{7}}t_{\mathrm{move}}^{\frac{2}{7}}\frac{[\alpha ]}{9e^{2\mathrm{\Phi }_0}[M]^2}\left(\{M\}[\alpha ]\{a\}[M]\right)$$
(44)
for a 5-brane of charge $`\left[\alpha \right]=\alpha _5`$. This time may be delayed arbitrarily by taking $`\left[M\right]0`$. In particular, it is possible to choose $`\left[M\right]`$ such that $`t_{\mathrm{move}}t^h`$ so that the whole model can have evolved well into the weakly coupled regime long before the 5-brane motion becomes significant. Of course, for the case where $`\left[M\right]`$ is large enough that $`t^h>t_{\mathrm{move}}`$ the bulk brane will perform its motion within the five-dimensional regime to start off with, as even the bulk fields have not evolved sufficiently to allow a four-dimensional description.

Assuming that $`\left[M\right]`$ is sufficiently small, when the 5-brane does begin to move appreciably we may describe it in terms of the same four-dimensional co-ordinates as were introduced earlier in eqs. (33)-(34). Our above analysis tells us that this motion should not correspond to that of a four dimensional solution and we shall now see that this is indeed the case. Writing the five brane motion in these coordinates we obtain,

$$\frac{dz}{d\tau }=\pm \frac{e^{\frac{3\beta _0}{2}}}{\pi \rho }\left|\frac{\tau \tau _0}{T}\right|^{\frac{1}{2}}$$
(45)
where we have considered only the lowest-order terms in the strong-coupling parameter. Comparing this expression with eq (42) as found directly from solutions of the four-dimensional action shows that the 5-brane motion considered here is not a solution of the weakly-coupled action.

Thus the brane’s motion is a higher-order effect than is contained in the action (11) and so when such motion becomes significant our five-dimensional solution is no longer in a four-dimensional limit due to a break down of the slowly moving moduli approximation. To see this in more detail, let us again consider the five-dimensional Friedmann equation with the raising template metric, this time including an additional source for the 5-brane. We find

$$\begin{array}{c}3e^\beta \left(\dot{A}^2\frac{\dot{\beta ^2}}{4}\frac{\dot{\varphi }^2}{12}\right)\frac{3}{2}e^{2\beta }ϵB^{\prime \prime }=\underset{i=1}{\overset{2}{}}2\alpha _ie^{\beta \varphi }\delta \left(yy_i\right)+e^{\beta \varphi }\delta \left(y\pi \rho z\right)\alpha _5\left(1+e^{3\beta }\dot{z}^2(\pi \rho )^2\right)\hfill \end{array}$$
(46)
where we keep only terms up to first order in the strong-coupling expansion parameter and slowly moving moduli approximations.

The zeroth-order contributions survive to appear in the four-dimensional theory. The terms

$$\frac{3}{2}e^{2\beta }ϵB^{\prime \prime }+\underset{i=1}{\overset{2}{}}2\alpha _ie^{\beta \varphi }\delta \left(yy_i\right)+e^{\beta \varphi }\delta \left(y\pi \rho z\right)\alpha _5\left(1+e^{3\beta }\dot{z}^2(\pi \rho )^2\right)$$
(47)
cancel exactly because of the complicated structure of $`B(y)`$ in the metric template in the presence of a bulk 5-brane (see eqs. (16)-(18)). However, when the 5-brane starts to move, we see that there is no term which can match the contribution of its kinetic energy. Furthermore, since

$$e^{3\beta }\dot{z}^2=1$$
(48)
when $`t>t^h`$ and $`t>t_{\mathrm{move}}`$, the contribution of terms we have ignored in working to first order in the expansion in the time derivatives of the $`z`$ modulus become just as important as those which we have kept. Thus we see that higher-order corrections to the template structure would indeed be needed to describe the solution as soon as the brane motion is important. Hence, as $`\tau \mathrm{}`$, the motion of the bulk brane in this particular five-dimensional solution does not admit a description in terms of the lowest order four-dimensional theory. Notice incidentally that choosing the jump of $`M`$ to be small only delays the time when the bulk brane starts to move, and does not ‘slow it down’ at this level of approximation.

In conclusion, we have established that in a certain regime (namely when $`t^htt_{\mathrm{move}}`$) our five-dimensional moving brane solution corresponds to an oxidised four dimensional rolling radius solution with a static 5-brane. To our knowledge this is the first non-trivial example where such a correspondence has been established explicitly, with or without a bulk brane. If $`M_1=M_2`$, the bulk 5-brane remains static for all times, but any mismatch of these parameters will ultimately always cause the brane to move, forcing us to consider higher-order terms than are usually kept in the four-dimensional theory. The matching procedure presented in this section can be simply extended to a solution with any number of 5-branes present in the bulk.

## V Discussion & Conclusions

We have provided three main new pieces of information in this paper. Firstly, we have described how to raise four-dimensional moving brane solutions of heterotic M-theory to obtain five-dimensional solutions accurate to first order in the $`ϵ`$ and slowly moving moduli expansions. The procedure for raising such solutions is to take certain quantities such as the values of various fields in the four-dimensional description and substitute them into the template of a five-dimensional configuration which we have provided. Secondly, we have presented the first solutions to five-dimensional heterotic M-theory which containing moving five-branes. These are exact solutions to the full five-dimensional action of the theory. Finally, we have shown that at late times on the positive time branch, our solutions possesses a mild enough warping to admit a four-dimensional effective description. However, the presence of a 5-brane in the bulk can destroy this four-dimensional limit as its position modulus can vary rapidly in the full solution, breaking the slowly moving moduli approximation necessary for such a description to be valid. We end up with our five-dimensional solutions generically having a four-dimensional limit for some intermediate period of time - where $`ϵ`$ has become small enough to admit a weakly coupled description but the five-brane has yet to start moving significantly. The fact that a five-dimensional moving five-brane solution corresponds to a four-dimensional solution with a constant $`z`$ modulus is interesting. It means that we could not have identified our solutions as containing a moving five-brane from a four-dimensional perspective \- the full five-dimensional theory is required for that.

It is of interest to consider briefly how we might expect other five-dimensional solutions to behave. As pointed out by Chamblin & Reall in ref. , there is of course no reason to expect that a general solution to Einstein’s equations should only depend on one bulk co-ordinate, even if it is homogeneous and isotropic in directions parallel to the orbifold planes. More recently, in ref.  Charmousis has attempted to construct heterotic M-theory solutions where the bulk fields cannot, in any gauge, be written as functions of only one co-ordinate, even locally. Of course, not all of these solutions will necessarily possess four-dimensional descriptions in any regime, however from the perspective of this paper we expect that at least some should display similar behaviour to the $`e^\mathrm{\Phi }=R^6`$ solution considered here. Specifically, as either $`|t|\mathrm{}`$ or $`t0`$ they should evolve to become one of the other four-dimensional rolling radii solutions displayed in fig. 1. If these solutions were augmented to include 5-branes across the orbifold, then again we would expect there to be additional conditions on the validity of the four-dimensional description dependent upon the velocity of the 5-brane. In particular, it should in principle be possible to find the full, non-linear five-dimensional lift of the moving brane solutions in ref. . Unfortunately, owing to the difficulty of the five-dimensional field equations, at present we are unaware of any explicit examples of such solutions.

## VI ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

J.G. would like to thank Ian Moss for a useful conversation about the causal structure. D.S. is supported by a PPARC studentship, J.G. is supported by a Sir James Knott fellowship and A.L. is supported by a PPARC Advanced Fellowship. D.S. would like to thank E.J.C, A.L. and Jocelyn Retter for hospitality at Sussex while part of this work was being completed.

## A Numerical Solutions for brane motion

Presented in figures 2-4 are numerical solutions for the brane motion as determined by equation (25). The plots are given in terms of $`R`$ and $`\tau _b`$. These variables are the scale factor and comoving time of the induced metric on the brane in question and, it should be noted, are not the same as the four-dimensional comoving time and scale factor.

The plots are all for the same values of parameters and integration constants (as described in the caption of figure 2) but are plotted over different ranges. Figure 2 shows the overall shape of the solutions. Figure 3 shows that for very large changes in the time co-ordinates in the four-dimensional region the branes barely move with respect to one another at all. This directly leads us to the same conclusion in four-dimensional units. Figure 4 shows the five-brane finally starting to move appreciably relative to the orbifold fixed points. This results in the brane impacting upon the upper fixed point as we saw was inevitable in Section III. The four-dimensional description is valid when all the extended objects are far above the horizon and before the five-brane has begun to move appreciably relative to the orbifold fixed points. In other words the four dimensional regime is roughly the part of the motion shown in figure 3.

## B Causal Structure

The Penrose diagram detailing the causal structure of a maximally extended piece of the bulk spacetime we are employing is given in figure 5. The reader may be concerned that the horizon which is drawn with a double line is of the same form as the Reissner-Nordström Cauchy horizon and as such is unstable in the same sense. In fact we are not interested in a maximally extended piece of the bulk but in two segments of such solutions sandwiched between our various extended objects. This changes the causal structure in such a way as to remove the unstable horizon.

This point is best illustrated by looking at the case without a 5-brane which is illustrated in figure 6. Here the two new lines represent the world volumes of the orbifold fixed planes. In the solutions in this paper, the only physical space is that piece of the bulk which lies between these two curves - the rest is discarded. This of course has a profound effect on the causal structure of the spacetime. The horizon which passes through the two fixed points was only a horizon while we kept the whole spacetime. Specifically, when we orbifold the space between the two boundary branes, we discard portions of the singularities and hence the horizons cease to have physical meaning. In fact, from the point of view of the physical spacetime we are left with, the lines at $`45^0`$ on figure 6 are no longer really horizons at all and so our fixed points do not pass through a potentially singular unstable horizon.

Another way of seeing that the ‘horizon’ is no longer unstable is that the ‘paths of infinite blue shift’ which cause the instability in the Reissner-Nordström case have been removed from the space time by the cutting procedure. Similar comments of course apply to cases where 5-branes are present. The global structure of the bulk solutions without 5-branes was first discussed in .