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# Statistical properties of the energy release in emerging and evolving active regions

## 1 Introduction

Many solar phenomena, such as coronal heating and solar flares, are closely related to the evolution of active regions. Active regions are interpreted in this article as domains of strong magnetic field on the solar surface. The appearance of active regions on the solar surface is the result of the complex interplay between the buoyant forces and the turbulent convection zone working in the solar interior (Parker, 1979). Convection zone dynamics have been studied numerically (Nordlund et al., 1996), but the magneto-convection still remains in its infancy and many questions remain unanswered (see review by Weiss (1997)).

Many models have been suggested for the formation and evolution of active regions, such as the rise of a kink-unstable magnetic flux tube (Moreno-Insertis, 1992), or the statistical description of the dynamical evolution of large scale, two dimensional, fibril magnetic fields (Bogdan & Lerche, 1985). Schrijver et al. (1997) assumed that the thin flux tubes that constitute the active region move and interact only in the intergranular lanes, and form in this way a fractal pattern. Several models have been developed using the anomalous diffusion of magnetic flux in the solar photosphere in order to explain the fractal geometry of the active regions (Lawrence, 1991; Schrijver et al., 1992; Lawrence & Schrijver, 1993; Milovanov & Zeleny, 1993). Last, a percolation model was used to simulate the formation and evolution of active regions (Wentzel & Seiden, 1992; Seiden & Wentzel, 1996), which models the evolution of active regions by reducing all the complicated solar MHD and turbulence to three dimensionless parameters. This percolation model explains the observed size distribution of active regions and their fractal characteristics (Meunier, 1999).

Numerous observational studies have investigated the statistical properties of active regions, using full-disc magnetograms and Ca II plage regions observations from the Mount Wilson Observatory and from the National Solar Observatory (see review by Howard (1996)). These studies have examined among other parameters the size distribution of active regions, and their fractal dimension: The size distribution function of the newly formed active regions exhibits a well defined power law with index $`1.94`$, and active regions cover only a small fraction of the solar surface (around $`8\%`$) (Harvey and Zwaan, 1993). The fractal dimension of the active regions has been studied using high-resolution magnetograms by Balke, et al. (1993), and more recently by Meunier (1999). These authors found, using not always the same method, a fractal dimension $`D_F`$ in the range $`1.3<D_F<1.8`$.

In this article, we model the emergence and evolution of magnetic flux on the solar surface using a 2-D cellular automaton (CA), following techniques developed initially by Seiden & Wentzel (1996). The dynamics of this automaton is probabilistic and is based on the competition between two “fighting” tendencies: stimulated or spontaneous emergence of new magnetic flux, and the disappearance of flux due to diffusion (i.e. dilution below observable limits), together with random motion of the flux tubes on the solar surface. The basic new element we add to the Seiden & Wentzel (1996) model is that we keep track of the energy release through flux cancellation (reconnection) if flux tubes of opposite polarities collide. We concentrate our analysis only on the newly formed active regions, since the old active regions undergo more complicated behavior, the dipoles are participating in large scale flows associated with differential rotation and meridional flow (Leighton, 1964; Wang & Sheeley, 1994).

## 2 The model

We propose in this article that the main physical properties, as derived from the observations of the evolving active regions, can be summarized in simple CA rules.

A 2-D quadratic grid with $`200\times 1000`$ cells (grid sites) is constructed, in which each cell has four nearest neighbors. The grid is assumed to represent a large fraction of the solar surface. Initially, a small, randomly chosen percentage ($`1\%`$) of the cells is magnetized (loaded with flux) in the form of positively (+1) and negatively (-1) magnetized pairs (dipoles), the rest of the grid points are set to zero. Positive and negative cells evolve independently after their formation, but their percentage remains statistically equal.

The dynamical evolution of the model is controlled by the following probabilities:

P: The probability that a magnetized cell is stimulating the appearance of new flux at one of its nearest neighbors. Each magnetized cell can stimulate its neighbors only the first time step of its life. This procedure simulates the stimulated emergence of flux which occurs due to the observed tendency of magnetic flux to emerge in regions of the solar surface in which magnetic flux had previously emerged.

$`𝐃_𝐦`$: The flux of each magnetized cell has a probability $`D_m`$ to move to a random neighboring cell, simulating motions forced by the turbulent dynamics of the underlying convection zone. If the moving flux meets oppositely polarized flux in a neighboring cell, the fluxes cancel (through reconnection), giving rise to a “flare”. If equal polarities meet in a motion event, the fluxes simply add up.

D: The probability that a magnetized cell is turned into non-magnetized in one time-step if it is next to a non-magnetized cells. This rule simulates the disappearing of flux below observational limits due to dilution caused by diffusion into the empty neighborhood.

$``$: The probability that a non-magnetized cell is turned into magnetized spontaneously, independently of its neighbors, simulating the observed spontaneous emergence of new flux.

Every newly appearing flux tube is accompanied by an oppositely polarized mate, taking into account the fact that flux appears always in the form of dipoles.

A detailed discussion of the connection between the parameters $`P,D_m,E`$ and the physical mechanisms acting in the evolution of active regions was established in the articles of Wentzel & Seiden (1992) and Seiden & Wentzel (1996).

## 3 Results

The parameters used for the results reported here are $`P=0.185,D=0.005,`$ $`D_m=0.05`$ and $`=10^6`$. They are chosen such that, when following the evolution of our model and recording the percentage of magnetized cells, we find that it takes around 1000 time steps before the percentage of active cells is stabilized to a value which is close to the observed one (around $`8\%`$). The size distribution of the simulated active regions can be approximated by a power law fit of the form $`N(s)s^k`$, with $`k=1.93\pm 0.08`$. Finally, we estimate the fractal dimension $`D_F`$ of the set of magnetized cells with the box counting algorithm (e.g. Falconer (1990)), finding $`D_F=1.42\pm 0.12`$.

The cancellation of magnetic flux due to collisions of oppositely polarized magnetic flux tubes in motion events leads to the release of energy, whose amount we assume to be proportional to the difference in the square of the magnetic flux before and after the event. In Fig. 1a, we plot the released energy $`E(t)`$ as a function of time. Fig. 1b shows the energy distribution of the recorded “flares”: It follows a power law, $`f(E)E^a`$, with $`a=2.2\pm 0.1,`$ for energies $`E>20`$. For energies $`E<20`$ finite size effects must be expected to bias the distribution, so we do not draw conclusions for the small energies. It is important to note also that the power law in the distribution of energy extends over three decades. In Fig. 2a, we present a small portion of the grid. Dark areas correspond to negative and bright ones to positive polarity. The spatial locations of the “flares” are marked with circles, with the size of the circles proportional to the logarithm of the locally released energy.

A variation of the parameters $`P,D,D_m`$ does not alter the power law behaviours and the fractality, they seem to be generic properties of the model. The exact values of the power law indeces, $`k,a,D_F`$ depend though on the free parameters, but remain inside the observed limits even for a large variation of $`P,D,D_m`$. The results are also independent of $``$ as long as it remains small enough. In several independent simulations, we used different values for the stimulation probability $`P,`$ keeping $`D`$ and $`D_m`$ constant, and found that $`k`$ and $`a`$ are closely correlated (see Fig. 2b).

## 4 Summary and Discussion

We have introduced a probabilistic cellular automaton to explain the formation and evolution of active regions and the associated energy release. The rules used implement the competition between the stimulated emergence of new magnetic flux and the gradual diffusion, as well as the motion of flux across the photosphere. We have compressed all the complicated physics involved in the formation of active regions into three dimensionless parameters, the probabilities $`P`$, $`D`$, and $`D_m`$ of which actually only $`P`$ and $`D_m`$ play a decisive, major role on the results. The fourth parameter $``$ plays no significant role in the evolution of the model (see Sec. 2).

Our main results are: (i) The model yields a power-law distribution of the active region sizes, and the active regions form a fractal set. (ii) The collision and cancellation of oppositely polarized magnetic flux causes “flares”. The energy distribution of the “flares” follows a power-law distribution with exponent $`a=2.2\pm 0.1`$. Varying the parameters, the power-law is conserved, just the power-law index change. (iii) The “flares” are distributed along the lines where regions of opposite flux meet (see Fig. 2a). (iv) Using different values for the stimulation probability $`P`$, we find a close correlation between the size distribution exponent $`k`$ and the energy release index $`a`$ (see Fig. 2b).

The results derived from our model concerning size-distribution and fractal dimension are in quantitative and qualitative agreement with the existing observations and with the results of the percolation models proposed previously (Seiden & Wentzel, 1996; Meunier, 1999). The basically new result of our model is the connection of photospheric dynamics to energy release. This primary energy release through magnetic reconnection may well be the basic physical cause for the various types of observed low atmosphere emission events, such as coronal bright points (Parnell & Jupp, 2000; Krucker & Benz, 1998), X-ray networks flares (Krucker et al., 1997), transition region impulsive EUV emission (Benz & Krucker, 2002), and H$`\alpha `$ flares (Ellerman bombs (Georgoulis et al., 2002)). All these emissions may play a role in coronal heating (this point is still under strong debate), and in particular it was recently claimed that impulsive, chromospheric EUV emissions are important signatures of not just the coronal heating process but also of mass supply to the corona (Brown et al., 2000). Interesting to note is that all the mentioned observed explosive phenomena exhibit power-law distributions in energy, with slopes roughly in the range between $`1.5`$ and $`2.5`$, coinciding with what we find here for the primary photospheric energy release. We believe that the observed discrepancies in the indices (especially on $`a`$) are directly related to the dynamical evolution of the active regions. The predicted correlation between the power-law indices of the distributions of the released energy and of the sizes of active regions can be checked on existing observations. These results may stimulate a new explanation for the statistical properties of impulsive solar energy release events in the low atmosphere.

We believe that CA models, when used in conjunction with MHD numerical codes, can become a valuable tool for the study of the statistical properties of active regions.

We thank our colleague Dr. A. Anastasiadis for making several suggestions and comments on the manuscript.


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# Effects of superconducting gap anisotropy on the flux flow resistivity in 𝐘(𝐍𝐢_{𝟏-𝐱}𝐏𝐭_𝐱)_𝟐𝐁_𝟐𝐂

thanks: Present address : Yokohama R&D Laboratories, The Furukawa Electric Co., LTD., 2-4-3, Okano, Nishi-ku, Yokohama 220-0073, Japanthanks: Corresponding authorthanks: Present address : Research Center for Quantum Effect Electronics, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1, O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan

## Abstract

The microwave complex surface impedance $`Z_s`$ of $`\mathrm{Y}(\mathrm{Ni}_{1\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{Pt}_\mathrm{x})_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$ was measured at 0.5 K under magnetic fields $`H`$ up to 7 T. In nominally pure $`\mathrm{YNi}_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$, which is a strongly anisotropic $`s`$-wave superconductor, the flux flow resistivity $`\rho _f`$ calculated from $`Z_s`$ was twice as large as that expected from the conventional normal-state vortex core model. In Pt-doped samples where the gap anisotropy is smeared out, the enhancement of $`\rho _f`$ is reduced and $`\rho _f`$ approaches to the conventional behavior. These results indicate that energy dissipation in the vortex core is strongly affected by the anisotropy of the superconducting gap.

In superconductors with anisotropic superconducting gap (SG), low-energy quasi-particle (QP) excitations near the gap nodes play an important role. Volovik examined the effects of gap nodes on the QP density of states (DOS) in the mixed state Volovik . He pointed out that the QP DOS at the Fermi energy $`ϵ_F`$ in superconductors with line nodes varies proportionally to $`\sqrt{H}`$, in contrast to the case of conventional superconductors with an isotropic SG where the QP DOS at $`ϵ_F`$ is linear in $`H`$, that is, proportional to the number of vortices. Such an enhancement of the QP DOS in anisotropic superconductors has been observed experimentally in $`d`$-wave high-$`T_c`$ cuprates Moler ; Nohara  and the heavy fermion superconductor $`\mathrm{UPt}_3`$ Ramirez  by electronic specific heat measurements.

Besides the QP DOS, gap nodes are expected to affect the flux flow resistivity $`\rho _f`$. Basically, $`\rho _f`$ is a measure of the QP relaxation in and around the vortex core and can provide different information from the QP DOS. In dirty superconductors where the QP mean free path $`l`$ is shorter than the coherence length $`\xi `$, the vortex core can be treated as a bulk normal metal with a radius of the order of $`\xi `$ Bardeen . As a result, $`\rho _f`$ is simply given by $`\rho _f\rho _nH/H_{c2}`$ regardless of the anisotropy of the SG. In moderately clean superconductors where $`\xi <l<\xi ϵ_F/\mathrm{\Delta }`$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$; gap amplitude), however, the vortex core cannot be regarded as a simple normal metal at all, since the QPs are reflected at the edge of the vortex core before they experience impurity scattering. In this regime, $`\rho _f`$ is given by $`\rho _f=H/(ne<\omega _0\tau _c>_F)`$ Kopnin . Here $`n`$ is a carrier density, $`e`$ is a unit charge, $`\omega _0\mathrm{\Delta }^2/ϵ_F`$ is the precession frequency of the lowest Andreev bound state Caroli , $`\tau _c`$ is the relaxation time in the vortex core and $`<\mathrm{}>_F`$ denotes the average over the Fermi surface. In such a case, nodes in the SG should affect both of $`\omega _0`$ and $`\tau _c`$. First, $`\omega _0`$ in anisotropic superconductors depends on the QP momentum and should be very small near the gap nodes. Second, $`\tau _c`$ can be short because the QP DOS which contributes to the impurity scattering is enhanced in anisotropic superconductors. Both of these factors are expected to enhance $`\rho _f`$ from that of clean isotropic superconductors.

To date, $`\mathrm{UPt}_3`$ is the only clean anisotropic superconductor in which $`\rho _f`$ has been measured. The enhancement of $`\rho _f`$ has actually been observed Kambe ; Luetke . However, since $`\mathrm{UPt}_3`$ is a complicated odd-parity superconductor Tou , it should be noted that many factors other than gap anisotropy can contribute to $`\rho _f`$. In fact, Lütke-Entrup et al. attributed the origin of the $`\rho _f`$ enhancement to the unconventional vortex core structure which is brought by the two-component order parameter Luetke . In addition, Kato showed that the parity and chirality of the pair wave function affect $`\tau _c`$ in the moderately clean regime Kato . Therefore, it is still unclear whether $`\rho _f`$ enhancement in $`\mathrm{UPt}_3`$ is brought by the gap anisotropy or by the other unconventional nature of superconductivity.

To make clear the effects of gap anisotropy on $`\rho _f`$, measurement on a clean, anisotropic and $`s`$-wave superconductor is indispensable. From this point of view, we measured the $`\rho _f`$ of $`\mathrm{Y}(\mathrm{Ni}_{1\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{Pt}_\mathrm{x})_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$. The temperature and magnetic-field dependence of the electronic specific heat Nohara2 ; Izawa , thermal conductivity Boaknin ; Izawa2 , and NMR relaxation rate Zheng  indicate that there are low-lying QP states near $`ϵ_F`$ even in the superconducting state. This is strong evidence for the huge anisotropy of the SG in $`\mathrm{YNi}_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$. Recently, Izawa et al. suggest from thermal conductivity measurements under various magnetic field directions that there are point-like gap nodes along the  and -directions Izawa2 . In addition, it is reported that the introduction of impurities reduces the low-lying QP states and opens the gap all over the Fermi surface with little effect on $`T_c`$ Nohara2 ; Yokoya . Such behavior is totally different from that expected in $`d`$\- or $`p`$-wave superconductors Borkowski\_Fehrenbacher  and provides a strong evidence of anisotropic $`s`$-wave superconductivity in $`\mathrm{YNi}_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$. Therefore, by comparing the results in pure (anisotropic) and impurity-doped (isotropic) $`\mathrm{YNi}_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$, the effects of SG anisotropy on $`\rho _f`$ can be examined without the complication of other effects.

Samples were cut from the same single crystal boules used in previous studies Nohara2 ; Yokoya . As an impurity, Pt was used instead of Ni. The relevant material parameters are listed in table I. The sample with x=0 is in the moderately clean regime and the impurity-doped samples are in the dirty regime. In order to avoid pinning-related effects, $`\rho _f`$ should be measured at high enough currents or at frequencies higher than the pinning frequency $`f_p`$ Gittleman . We adopted the latter method to avoid the self-heating of the sample. In nominally pure $`\mathrm{YNi}_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$, $`f_p`$ is estimated to be below 3 MHz Oxx . In other conventional superconductors, $`f_p`$ is at most of the order of 102 MHz Gittleman . Consequently, pinning-related effects can be avoided completely at microwave frequencies. However, direct resistivity measurement is difficult at microwave frequencies because of the skin effect. Therefore, we measured the surface impedance $`Z_s=R_s+iX_s`$ using a cavity perturbation method and calculated the real part of the resistivity $`\rho _1`$ using the relation $`\rho _1=2R_sX_s/\mu \omega `$, where $`\mu `$ is the permeability and $`\omega `$ is the angular frequency. Samples were located at the center of a cylindrical Cu cavity which resonate at 44 GHz in the TE011 mode. Microwave magnetic fields were applied along the $`c`$-axis of the crystal to measure the in-plane response. The surface resistance $`R_s`$ and the surface reactance $`X_s`$ were obtained from the changes in the quality factor and the resonance frequency of the cavity, respectively Klein . The absolute value of $`Z_s`$ was determined by comparison with the dc resistivity $`\rho `$ above $`T_c`$ assuming the Hagen-Rubens relation $`R_s=X_s=\sqrt{\mu \omega \rho /2}`$. This relation can be applied in the local regime where $`l`$ is much shorter than the skin depth $`\delta =\sqrt{2\rho /\mu \omega }`$. Strictly speaking, the sample with x=0 is not deep in the local regime since $`l`$ and $`\delta `$ were estimated to be of the same order of magnitude. In the non-local regime, $`X_s`$ becomes larger than $`R_s`$ and both $`R_s`$ and $`X_s`$ are larger than the local value Abrikosov . Therefore, the absolute value of $`Z_s`$ for the sample with x=0 could be somewhat underestimated. In the present study, the absolute value is not crucial to the final conclusion. Samples were cooled down to 0.5 K by a laboratory-made 3He refrigerator. In all the measurements, static magnetic fields were applied along the $`c`$-axis of the crystals.

The magnetic field dependence of the surface impedance at 0.5 K for each sample is plotted as a function of $`\sqrt{H/H_{c2}}`$ in Fig. 1. In the absence of magnetic fields, the response is purely reactive with $`R_s0`$ and $`X_s=\mu \omega \lambda _0`$, where $`\lambda _0`$ is the penetration depth in the Meissner state. We estimate $`\lambda _0`$ to be 500 $`\mathrm{\AA }`$ for the sample with x=0. This value is similar to $`\lambda _0`$ obtained by the previous microwave measurement Izawa , but is rather short compared to the other estimates Rathnayaka\_Cywinski . Part of this difference may come from the non-locality of the response.

In the mixed state, $`R_s`$ and $`X_s`$ increase with increasing $`H`$. At high fields, both $`R_s`$ and $`X_s`$ saturate to the value just above $`T_c`$, which is given by $`\sqrt{\mu \omega \rho _{res}/2}`$, where $`\rho _{res}`$ is the resistivity just above $`T_c`$. In the sample with x=0.2, this saturation occurs just at $`H_{c2}`$ with a clear kink, as expected. However, with decreasing impurity content or increasing SG anisotropy, both $`R_s`$ and $`X_s`$ become to saturate even below $`H_{c2}`$ and the kink structure is broadened. This behavior is not caused by the inhomogeneity of the sample, since the broadening is most apparent in the cleanest sample. Therefore, we can conclude that, in clean $`\mathrm{YNi}_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$, there is a distinct field region below $`H_{c2}`$ where the QP response is almost as same as that in the normal state. In the sample with x=0, this region extends to about half of $`H_{c2}`$. This behavior may be related to the de Haas-van Alphen effect in the mixed state Terashima  and the large DOS at $`ϵ_F`$ in the mixed state observed by scanning tunneling spectroscopy Sakata .

Next we try to extract $`\rho _f`$ from $`R_s`$ and $`X_s`$. In general, $`Z_s`$ in the mixed state consists of several contributions and $`\rho _1`$, which is directly calculated from $`Z_s`$, is different from $`\rho _f`$. Since our measurements were performed at low enough temperatures ($`T/T_c<0.04`$), and high enough frequencies ($`\omega >>\omega _p`$), contributions from thermally activated QPs and the effects of vortex pinning can be safely neglected. One of the remaining potential contributions is the effect of flux flow. Another important factor that we should consider is the contribution from delocalized QPs. In a superconductor with an isotropic SG, all the QPs in the mixed state are localized in the vortex core. On the other hand, in a strongly anisotropic superconductor, such as nominally pure $`\mathrm{YNi}_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$, QPs are generated not only in the vortex core, but also outside of the core by the Doppler energy shift from the supercurrent around the vortex Volovik . The existence of such delocalized QPs has been confirmed in $`\mathrm{YNi}_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$ by electronic specific heat measurements Nohara2 ; Izawa  and in $`\mathrm{LuNi}_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$ by thermal conductivity measurements Boaknin . To analyze $`Z_s`$ in the mixed state under the influence of the delocalized QPs, we use the formulation of $`Z_s`$ given by Coffey and Clem Coffey . If we neglect the effect of vortex pinning, $`Z_s`$ is given by,

$$Z_s=i\mu \omega \lambda _0\sqrt{\frac{(1bs)i(b+s)}{1+s^2}}$$
(1)
where $`b=\rho _f/\mu \omega \lambda _0^2`$, $`s=\mu \omega \lambda _0^2\sigma _{nf}`$ and $`\sigma _{nf}`$ is the conductivity of the delocalized QPs. Here, $`b`$ and $`s`$ are measures of the contributions from the flux flow and the delocalized QPs, respectively. If we set $`s=0`$, Eq. 1 is reduced to the pure flux flow state without delocalized QPs and $`b=0`$ denotes the usual two-fluid response without vortices. In the latter case, all the QPs are delocalized as in the case of thermally activated QPs and $`s=\omega \tau _{nf}f_{nf}/(1f_{nf})`$, where $`\tau _{nf}`$ is the relaxation time of the delocalized QPs and $`f_{nf}`$ is the normal fluid fraction.

To judge which contribution is dominant in $`\mathrm{Y}(\mathrm{Ni}_{1\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{Pt}_\mathrm{x})_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$, it is useful to introduce the “impedance plane plot”, where $`X_s/X_s(0)`$ is plotted against $`R_s/X_s(0)`$ Tsuchiya . Here $`X_s(0)=\mu \omega \lambda _0`$ is a surface reactance in the absence of magnetic field. This plot is sensitive to the underlying mechanism that dominates $`Z_s`$. Figure 2 shows the impedance plane plots for $`\mathrm{Y}(\mathrm{Ni}_{1\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{Pt}_\mathrm{x})_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$. The solid and dashed curves correspond to two limiting cases of Eq. 1, namely, a pure flux flow state ($`s=0`$) and two-fluid response ($`b=0`$), respectively. As is evident from Fig. 2, the behavior of $`Z_s`$ is reproduced quite well by the assumption of pure flux flow. Small deviation can be seen at high fields where $`R_s`$ and $`X_s`$ are saturated. Consequently, the contribution of delocalized QPs to $`Z_s`$ can be neglected in the field range where $`R_s`$ and $`X_s`$ is field dependent. In other words, in this field range, the real part of the resistivity $`\rho _1`$, calculated from $`Z_s`$, can be regarded as $`\rho _f`$ itself.

Figure. 3 plots $`\rho _1/\rho _{res}`$ as a function of $`H/H_{c2}`$. In the sample with x=0, in which the SG is strongly anisotropic, $`\rho _1`$, namely $`\rho _f`$, below about a half of $`H_{c2}`$ is almost proportional to $`H`$ as in the case of the usual flux flow. However, its slope is twice as large as that expected from the conventional normal core model Bardeen . We note here that this enhancement is not an artifact caused by the assumption of local electrodynamics. As described above, the absolute value of $`Z_s`$ may be somewhat underestimated. Therefore, correction for non-local behavior further enhances the anomaly. The enhancement of $`\rho _f`$ implies that the energy dissipation in the vortex core is strongly enhanced in $`\mathrm{YNi}_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$. In impurity-doped crystals where the anisotropy of the SG is smeared out, this enhancement is reduced except at very low fields and $`\rho _f`$ approaches to the behavior expected in the normal core model Bardeen . Although the origin of the residual enhancement of $`\rho _f`$ in impurity-doped crystals is unclear now, the effect of gap anisotropy on $`\rho _f`$ is evident.

The observed enhancement factor of 2 is similar to that of $`\mathrm{UPt}_3`$ (1.6 $``$ 4.7) Kambe ; Luetke . However, unlike in the case of $`\mathrm{UPt}_3`$, we can safely conclude that the enhancement of $`\rho _f`$ in $`\mathrm{YNi}_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$ is solely brought by the SG anisotropy, since $`\mathrm{YNi}_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$ is a “simple” superconductor except for the huge anisotropy of the SG. As mentioned before, $`\rho _f`$ is affected by the SG anisotropy through $`\omega _0`$ and/or $`\tau _c`$. Future work may examine which path is dominant. It should be noted that such an enhancement of $`\rho _f`$ can not be expected in a moderately clean isotropic superconductor, since $`\omega _0\tau _c`$ is always large over the Fermi surface in this case.

Finally, we briefly comment on the absence of the contribution from delocalized QPs to $`Z_s`$. If the parameter $`s`$ is small compared to unity, the effect of delocalized QPs on $`Z_s`$ is small. To evaluate $`s`$ in the present experiment, we assume that $`\tau _{nf}`$ in the mixed state is not so different from that in the normal state. If that is the case, $`\tau _{nf}`$ can be estimated from $`\rho _{res}`$. In the sample with x=0, $`\omega \tau _{nf}`$ is estimated to be of the order of 0.1 and is much smaller in the impurity-doped samples. This means that even if the normal fluid fraction $`f_{nf}`$ becomes 0.5, $`s=\omega \tau _{nf}f_{nf}/(1f_{nf})`$ is only 0.1 or less. In other words, even at microwave frequencies, one can selectively extract information on the flux flow or the dynamics of the QPs in the vortex core from $`Z_s`$ measurements. This feature is complementary to that of the thermal conductivity measurement which selectively senses the dynamics of delocalized QPs Boaknin . Considering that the electronic specific heat measures the total QP DOS, combination of these techniques should be important for investigations of the electronic states of the mixed state.

In summary, we measured $`Z_s`$ of the anisotropic $`s`$-wave superconductor $`\mathrm{YNi}_2\mathrm{B}_2\mathrm{C}`$ to study the effects of SG anisotropy on $`\rho _f`$. We found that $`\rho _f`$ in the nominally pure sample, in which the SG has a huge anisotropy, is greatly enhanced from that expected from the conventional normal-state vortex core. This enhancement was reduced in impurity-doped samples where the SG anisotropy is smeared out. Such behavior indicates that the quasi-particle relaxation in and around the vortex core is sensitive to the superconducting gap anisotropy. These results imply that $`\rho _f`$ measurement provides useful information for the microscopic understanding of the vortex state of anisotropic superconductors.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors thank to Y. Matsuda and K. Izawa for helpful discussions. They also thank D. G. Steel for a critical reading of the manuscript. This work was supported by SORST, Japan Science and Technology Corporation and the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture of Japan.


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# The Cyclic Universe: Some Historical Notes

## Introduction

With the renewed interest in the cyclic and the quasi-steady state cosmo- logical models, it seems appropriate to look at the early history of such ideas. In this paper, we look at the conception of cyclic universes in the Indic tradition. The development of this conception in India owes to three fundamental notions that are come across in the earliest texts: (i), time is endless and space has infinite extension; (ii), earth is not the center of the universe; and (iii), laws govern all development, including the creation and destruction of the universe.

Astronomy was a very highly valued science in India. It was believed that there were connections between the physical and the psychological worlds, and an equivalence between the outer cosmos and the inner cosmos of the individual. This is expressed in the famous sentence; yat pinḍe tad brahmāṇḍe, “as in the cell so in the universe”. This belief may have contributed to a generalization from the cyclic nature of human life into a corresponding theory about the cosmos.

Since thought and speculation have played a large role in the development of Indic ideas, the cyclic model may be taken to provide the philosopher’s conception of the universe, complementing the other ten conceptions that Fred Hoyle described in his popular book, Ten Faces of the Universe.

The Indian cyclic model assumes the existence of countless island universes, which go through their own periods of development and destruction. The conception of cyclicity is taken to be recursive.

For an early exposition of Indic astronomical and cosmological ideas, one may like to read al-Bīrūnī’s classic history of Indian science, composed in 1030 A.D., keeping in mind that al-Bīrūnī did not correctly understand all Indian material; for an even earlier, popular, view of Indian ideas, see the Yoga Vāsiṣṭha; for a review of the birth and development of early Indian astronomy, see; for a broad overview, see.

### 1

Cycle periods. The aspect of the Indian cyclic model that astrophysicists are most familiar with is a cycle called the kalpa, the “day” of Brahmā, which is 4.32 billion years long. There is an equally long “night”, and 360 such “days” and “nights” constitute a year of Brahmā. The life of Brahmā is 100 such years, which is thus 311,040 billion years long.

Then there exist longer periods in an endless process. Al-Biruni lists longer periods going to $`10,782,449,978,758,523,781,120\times 10^{27}`$ kalpas, which is called truṭi.

### 2

Sub-periods. Within the kalpa are fourteen cycles of local creation and destruction, called manvantaras, each lasting 306.720 million years. Each of these periods is to be taken to be a period of local destruction (extinction) and subsequent regeneration on the earth. Within each manvantara are 71 smaller cycles, called mahāyugas.

These periods are described by Āryabhaṭa, the great astronomer born in 476 A.D., in his Āryabhaṭīya. As is well known, Āryabhaṭa presented the rotation information of the outer planets with respect to the sun, meaning that his system was partially heliocentric; furthermore, he considered the earth to be rotating on its own axis.

In another version, described in the Sūryasiddhānta and the Purāṇas, each kalpa equals 1,000 yugas of 4.32 million years.

Yoga Vāsiṣṭha 6.1.22 says that directions depend on the position of the poles, the movements of the stars, the sun, and the moon, and that the directions change from one sub-period to another.

### 3

Ideas related to time. Al-Bīrūnī says this about India ideas on time:

> The Hindus have divided duration into two periods, a period of motion, which has been determined as time, and a period of rest, which can only be determined in an imaginary way according to the analogy of that which has first been determined, the period of motion. The Hindus hold the eternity of the Creator to be determinable, not measurable, since it is infinite.
>
> They do not, by the word creation, understand a formation of something out of nothing. They mean by creation only the working with a piece of clay, working out various combinations and figures in it, and making such arrangements with it as will lead to certain ends and aims which are potentially in it (page 321, vol. 1).

### 4

Island-universes. The universe is split up into many island-universes, as described in the Yoga Vasisththa 6.2.59:

> I saw countless creations though they did not know of one another’s existence. Some were coming into being, others were perishing, all of them had different shielding atmospheres (from five to thirty-six atmospheres). There were different elements in each, they were inhabited by different types of beings in different stages of evolution.. \[In\] some there was apparent natural order in others there was utter disorder, in some there was no light and hence no time-sense.

### 5

Evolution. The idea of evolution is basic to all Indian thought. The Indian theory of evolution, which is supposed to apply both to the individual and the cosmos, is called Sāṃkhya. In it, the basic entities are pure consciousness and materiality (nature). Nature has three constituent qualities (guṇas) called sattva, rajas, and tamas, and as the balance between these three changes the universe evolves.

Out of the interplay of the five basic elements arise other principles (tattva): five subtle elements, five action senses, five senses of perception, mind, egoity, and intellect. The evolutionary sequence goes through many levels. The tattvas help in the the emergence of life out of inert matter. The guṇas are not to be taken as abstract principles alone. Indian thought believes that structure in nature is recursive, and the guṇas show up in various forms at different levels of expression.

The texts imply that ingredients for the growth of life are available throughout the universe. Infinite number of universes are conceived, so each new one is created like a bubble in an ocean of bubbles. Indian evolution theory is like the neutral theory. If the gene function is seen through the agency of the three gunas, then evolution has a net genetic drift. The tattvas are not discrete and their varying expression creates the diversity of life in and across leading different species. Each sensory and motor tattva is mapped into a corresponding organ. Indian thought conceives of 8.4 million species, which number is impressive, considering that modern authorities (such as Graur and Li in their “Fundamentals of Molecular Evolution”, page 436) estimate the number of extant species to be 4.5 - 10 million.

Schrödinger thought that the Sāṃkhyan tattvas were the most plausible model for the evolution of the sensory organs.

A quote on evolution on earth from the Yoga Vasishtha (6.1.21):

> I remember that once upon a time there was nothing on this Earth, neither trees and plants, nor even mountains. For a period of eleven thousand years (4 million Earth years) the Earth was under lava… \[Later\] apart from the polar region, the rest of the Earth was covered by water. And then forests enveloped the Earth, and great asuras (demons) ruled.
>
> Then there arose great mountains, but without any human inhabitants. For a period of ten thousand years (almost 4 million Earth years) the Earth was covered with the corpses of the asuras (daityas).”

Indicating the presence of other animals while the giant asuras were on Earth, YV suggests that man arose later. YV also speaks of minor ages of destruction on Earth that correspond to the yugas.

### 6

Size of island-universe. It appears that the size of each island universe was taken to be equal to the distance that light would travel in twenty-four hours. The speed of light is taken in Indian texts is said to be 4,404 yojanas per nimeṣa, which is almost exactly 186,000 miles per second! The earliest mention of this is in texts that are more than six hundred years old.

To have chanced upon the correct number for speed of light, before it could have possibly been measured, is the most amazing coincidence in all of science. This coincidence is much more striking than the general correctness of the age of life on earth in the Indic view, and much more than the coincidences that are a part of the process of scientific discovery.

### 7

Evolution of life. The Indians believed that all life can be divided into three classes (Chāndogya Upaniṣad 6.3.1): “In truth, beings have here three kinds of seeds, born from the egg, born alive, and born from the germ.” Given that it is also affirmed that life on other planets exists and that there was a gradual rise of life on the earth, it would appear that this implied a belief in a panspermia theory.

### 8

Inner cosmos. In Indian mythology, the continents are in concentric circles. Wrongly applied to the outer cosmos, this Purāṇic cosmology represents the inner cosmos of the individual on a scale that equals the size of the universe. It, therefore, brings in outer astronomy only in an incidental fashion. The earth of the Purāṇas is the individual pictured as the plane that touches the navel. Below the navel are the underworlds; above the navel are the sun and the moon in the head, and beyond them the planets and the stars. The perceived dimensions of the sun and the moon in this conception relate to the inner cosmos.

### 9

Another cyclic model. I have developed a cosmological model inspired by Sāṃkhyan ideas. Here two phases collide, where one collapses the quantum state of the other.

## Conclusions

This brief note is an introduction to Indic cosmological ideas on a cyclic universe.


text:
# Simultaneous measurements of water optical properties by AC9 transmissometer and ASP-15 Inherent Optical Properties meter in Lake Baikal

## 1 Introduction

After a long period of experimental work, large Čerenkov detectors for high energy neutrinos are going to open a new observational window to the sky. Their main goal is to extend the volume of the explored Universe by neutrinos, to obtain a complementary view of astronomical objects and to learn about the origin of high energy cosmic rays. They are the successors of underground neutrino detectors which have turned out to be too small to detect the faint fluxes of neutrinos from cosmic accelerators.

The new detectors are large, expandable arrays of photomultipliers constructed in open water or ice. The photomultipliers span a three-dimensional coarse grid and map the Čerenkov light of secondary particles produced in neutrino interactions. Actually, the basic idea for this detection method goes back to the early 60’s Markov1961 . Pioneering attempts towards its realization have been made in the course of the DUMAND project dumand . In 1993, the Baikal Collaboration Astroparticle-97  succeeded to built the first deep underwater Čerenkov neutrino detector, which has been stepwise upgraded to its present stage, NT-200. The AMANDA Collaboration Andres2000  has built a Čerenkov detector in the South Pole ice. Other collaborations (ANTARES ANTARES , NESTOR Resvanis1993 ) are constructing underwater neutrino detectors of similar size. Since a few years, the NEMO Collaboration Capone1999  is performing an intensive R&D program aiming at the construction of a km3 Čerenkov neutrino telescope in the Mediterranean Sea. Another cubic kilometer detector, IceCube Spiering  is planned at the South Pole. The cubic kilometer scale is set by various predictions on the extremely low fluxes of high energy neutrinos expected from astrophysical sources.

In underwater Čerenkov neutrino telescopes, water acts not only as a target but also as radiator of Čerenkov photons produced by relativistic charged particles. The detection volume, as well as the angular and energy resolutions strongly depend on the water transparency.

The transparency of water as a function of photon wavelength $`\lambda `$, is described by the so called inherent optical properties, like the coefficients for absorption $`a(\lambda )`$, for scattering $`b(\lambda )`$, for attenuation $`c(\lambda )=a(\lambda )+b(\lambda )`$, and by the phase scattering function $`\beta (\lambda ,\vartheta )`$ (also referred to as volume scattering function) which represents, for a photon, the probability to be diffused at an angle $`\vartheta `$ Mobley1994 . Another parameter commonly used in literature is the effective scattering coefficient $`b^{eff}(\lambda )=b(\lambda )(1\overline{cos(\lambda ,\vartheta )})`$, where $`\overline{cos(\lambda ,\vartheta )}=_0^\pi cos(\vartheta )\beta (\lambda ,\vartheta )𝑑\vartheta /_0^\pi \beta (\lambda ,\vartheta )𝑑\vartheta `$ is the average cosine of the phase scattering function at a given $`\lambda `$. The optical properties of natural water have to be measured in-situ in order to allow an unbiased knowledge of light transmission properties in the medium.

The Baikal collaboration has been investigating the fresh water deep in Lake Baikal since 1980. The inherent optical properties have been measured with a series of specially designed devices. It was shown that the water transparency at depths between 900 m and 1200 m is adequate to operate a neutrino telescope. Put into operation at April 6th, 1998, the neutrino telescope NT-200 incorporates a long-term monitoring system which performs continuous measurements of the water parameters. This information serves as input for Monte-Carlo simulations of the detector response to atmospheric muons which represent a well-known calibration source for neutrino telescopes. The muon fluxes measured with NT-200 are in very good agreement with simulation results. This fact confirms that the custom-made devices and the methods to extract the relevant information on optical parameters yield reliable results.

The NEMO collaboration has been investigating oceanographic and optical properties of several deep sea marine sites close to the Italian coast, with the aim to select the optimal site for the construction of a km3 detector in the Mediterranean Sea. Absorption and attenuation coefficients for light in the wavelength region between 412$`÷`$715 nm Capone2001  have been measured with a set-up based on commercial devices.

Optical measurements in deep water are extremely difficult, and possible systematic errors related to these measurements suggest careful cross checks of results by complementary methods. For these reasons, during March - April 2001, the NEMO and Baikal Collaborations have started a joint campaign to measure the optical properties of deep water in Lake Baikal using two different devices. One set-up is based on the transmissometer AC9, operated by the NEMO group, the other device, ASP-15 (Absorption, Scattering and Phase function meter), was developed and operated by the Baikal Collaboration. The cross check of experimental results has been crucial for both devices, since both have an excellent sensitivity in measuring water optical properties, however, they can be affected by different sources of systematic errors which could deteriorate the absolute accuracy. The measurements reported in the following sections have been carried out during March - April 2001, from the ice camp above the neutrino telescope NT-200.

## 2 Instrumentation and data acquisition

### 2.1 The AC9 transmissometer

The AC9, manufactured by WETLabs Wetlabsmanual , is a transmissometer capable to measure absorption and attenuation coefficients at nine different wavelengths in the range $`412÷715`$ nm. Using an accurate calibration procedure, the NEMO collaboration has achieved an accuracy of about $`1.510^3`$ m-1 in $`a`$ and $`c`$ measurements Capone2001 .

During the measurements in Lake Baikal, the AC9 device and a CTD (a probe that measures water conductivity, temperature and pressure) were operated through an electro-mechanical cable. With this set-up we have obtained two vertical profiles of the water column (50 m$`<`$ depth $`<`$1100 m), collecting about ten data-sets per meter of depth. Each data-set consists of a measurement of temperature and optical properties, $`a(\lambda )`$ and $`c(\lambda )`$, over the nine wavelengths.

In figure 1 we show, as a function of depth, the water temperature together with the values for absorption and attenuation coefficient at $`\lambda =488`$ nm measured during the first and the second deployment in Lake Baikal (for discussion see section 3).

### 2.2 ASP-15 \- an instrument for long-term monitoring of the inherent optical properties of deep water

The ASP-15 device (see figure 2) has two receiving channels: one with a wide aperture to measure $`a`$ and $`b`$ and another one with a rotating mirror and a narrow angle collimator to measure the phase scattering function.

Two photomultipliers (type FEU-130) and 15 interference light filters are assembled in a cylindrical container. The filters wavelengths are ranged from 369 nm to 691 nm. Both photomultipliers operate in photon counting mode. Two isotropic point-like light sources and two screens are assembled on a frame, which can be moved by a stepping motor over distances ranging from 0.4 to 15 meters with respect to the milk glass window. Measurements were carried out separately for each source and controlled via cable by a computer on shore or at the ice camp. The device is described in detail in Tarash-94 ; Tarash-95 ; Gapon-97 . The principle of the $`a`$ measurement with ASP-15 is described in Bezrukov-90 . We measure the dependence of the luminosity $`E`$ on the distance $`R`$ between source and receiver with each of the 15 light filters and approximate the absorption coefficient by

$$a=\frac{ln(E_1R_1^2/E_2R_2^2)}{R_1R_2},$$
(1)
where $`E_1`$ and $`E_2`$ are the luminosity at distances $`R_1`$ and $`R_2`$, respectively. Monte-Carlo simulations Bezrukov-90  have shown that for an isotropic or a Lambertian (cosine) light source in water, the difference between approximation (1) (which is an exact definition of $`a`$ in a case of a medium without scattering and isotropic point like source) and the exact value of $`a`$ is less than $`1\%`$, provided a strongly anisotropic phase scattering function, low scattering and $`Ra^1`$.

The scattering coefficient $`b`$ is approximated Zeuthen-98  by

$$b=ln(1E_s/E)/R,$$
(2)
where $`E_s`$ and $`E`$ are the luminosity at distance $`R`$ from the screened and unscreened source, respectively.

Our estimation of the total uncertainties due to approximations (1,2) and systematic errors is: $`\mathrm{\Delta }a(\lambda )`$ 5% for $`a0.02`$ m-1 and $`\mathrm{\Delta }b(\lambda )`$ 10 % for $`b0.02`$ m-1. In all figures below, only statistical errors are shown for the ASP-15 data.

## 3 Results

### 3.1 Light absorption in Lake Baikal

In this section we discuss the results of light absorption measurements performed with both devices AC9 and ASP-15. In table 1 and figure 3 we present respectively the absorption coefficients and absorption lengths ($`L_a(\lambda )=1/a(\lambda )`$) as a function of wavelength. ASP-15 data have been taken at a depth of 200 m, the AC9 values are the average of data collected at depths between 180 m and 220 m.

Table 2 and figure 4 show the results obtained for absorption coefficients and absorption lengths at a depth of 1000 m (ASP-15) and for depths between 980 m and 1020 m (AC9).

The two sets of AC9 data were collected with about ten hours time difference. Each measurement was preceded by an accurate cleaning of the instrument optics and by a calibration. The agreement between the results obtained from the two data sets confirms the reliability of the calibration procedure.

The agreement of the results obtained by means of AC9 and ASP-15 at 1000 m depth is rather good: in spite of the fact that the two instruments are based on different methodologies and have different sources of systematic errors, the central values are compatible. This result proves the validity of both measurement techniques.

The spread between data collected with AC9 and ASP-15 at 200 m depth can be attributed to local changes in optical and hydro-physical properties of the water column, extensively discussed by the Baikal Collaboration in Ocean Phys1 ; Ocean Phys2 . The two data samples have been collected at two sites with about 100 m distance.

At a depth of 200 m, the maximum value of the absorption length is located in the blue-green region, at $`\lambda 490`$ nm. The average of the measured values are $`L_a=24.1\pm 0.5`$ m for AC9 ($`\lambda =`$ 488 nm) and $`L_a=22.2\pm 1.0`$ m for ASP-15 ($`\lambda =`$ 494 nm).

For the data samples collected at 1000 m depth, the maximum values of the absorption lengths are also observed at $`\lambda 490`$ nm. Their mean values are: $`L_a=27.9\pm 0.7`$ m for AC9 ($`\lambda =`$ 488 nm) and $`L_a=28.3\pm 1.5`$ m for ASP-15 ($`\lambda =`$ 488 nm ). These values do not contradict previous measurements of the Baikal Collaboration Bezrukov-90 ; Zeuthen-98 ; Laser-99 .

The obvious differences between optical properties at 1000 m and 200 m are due to the different characteristics of Lake Baikal waters below and above the boundary depth of solar radiation penetration, which is located at a depth of about $``$ 400 m (see figure 1). Above the solar radiation boundary depth the water column shows a time dependent behavior, strongly influenced by biological activity. Below the solar radiation boundary depth, where the water column is more stable and the biological activity is reduced, the water transparency increases (about 25$`\%`$ increase of $`L_a`$ at blue wavelengths). The best water transparency is measured between 900 m and 1150 m, covering the vertical extension of the NT-200 telescope. Below the absorption length decreases, probably due to the water streamed along the very steep slope of the lake bed.

### 3.2 Light attenuation and scattering in Lake Baikal

While ASP-15 is designed to measure directly the absorption, $`a(\lambda )`$, and scattering, $`b(\lambda )`$, coefficients the AC9 measures the absorption, $`a(\lambda )`$, and attenuation, $`c(\lambda )`$ coefficients. In the latter case the scattering coefficient can be obtained as the difference between absorption and attenuation coefficients ($`b(\lambda )=c(\lambda )a(\lambda )`$) and compared to the results from the direct measurements with ASP-15.

In tables 3 and 4 we present the attenuation coefficients measured at depths of about 200 m and 1000 m with AC9.

Tables 5 and 6 show the values of the scattering coefficients measured with ASP-15 at depths of 200 m and 1000 m, respectively.

Figures 5 and 6 show the comparison between the scattering coefficients, $`b(\lambda )`$, measured directly by ASP-15 (tables 5 and 6)and evaluated from the absorption and attenuation coefficients measured by AC9 : ($`a(\lambda )`$ from tables 1,2 and $`c(\lambda )`$ from tables 3,4).

Figure 6 shows good agreement between results obtained with AC9 and ASP-15 at 1000 m depth. At 200 m depth (figure 5) there are discrepancies which confirm the different optical properties of the water layers measured by AC9 and ASP-15, already indicated by the results of the absorption measurements at the same depth (see section 3.1).

Given the strong water currents at shallow depth and inhomogeneous distribution of biologically active substances, a strong variation of optical parameters within one day appears to be realistic.

At last we show in figures 7 and 8 the values of the attenuation lengths ($`L_c(\lambda )=1/c(\lambda )`$) obtained at depths of 200 m and 1000 m. The values of $`c(\lambda )`$ for ASP-15 are obtained adding the absorption and scattering coefficients reported in tables 1,2,5,6, while for AC9 they are measured directly (see tables 3,4). To evaluate the ASP-15 results at 200 m depth we have used the absorption data measured in March 28th and the scattering data measured on March 27th. Figure 8 shows good agreement between results from AC9 and ASP-15. Similarly to the absorption coefficient, the attenuation coefficient has its smallest value in the region of $`\lambda `$ 490 nm for both depths.

## 4 Conclusion

Measurements of the optical water properties in Lake Baikal confirm that the NT-200 telescope is located at optimal depth, where light absorption and attenuation processes are the smallest. Data have been collected with two instruments, which use different measurement principles and have different sources of systematic errors. Data show that, at a depth of 1000 m, the highest transparency is observed for $`\lambda =`$ 488 nm. The measured values for absorption length $`L_a`$, scattering length $`L_b`$ and attenuation length $`L_c`$ at 1000 m depth are: $`L_a(488)=27.9\pm 0.7`$ m, $`L_c(488)=18.3\pm 0.3`$ m as measured with AC9 and $`L_a(488)=28.3\pm 1.0`$ m, $`L_b(488)=58.8\pm 3.5`$ m as measured with ASP-15. The depth profile of the absorption coefficient measured by AC9 (see figure 1) shows the effect of biologically active substances and mineral particulate suspended in water. This effect is very conspicuous in the depth range 0 $`÷`$ 400 m (above the boundary depth of penetration of solar radiation), and starts to be visible again for depth higher than 1150 m, near the lake bed.
The obtained results demonstrate that the systematic errors are rather small for both instruments and validate the use of both devices to characterize in situ the inherent optical properties of underwater sites.

## 5 Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Russian Ministry of Industry, Science and Technology (contract 102-11(00)-p), the Russian Ministry of Education, the German Ministry of Education and Research, Russian Fund of Basic Research (grants 99-02-1837a, 01-02-31013 and 00-15-96794), the Russian Federal Program Integration, the Program Universities of Russia and UNESCO Chair of Water Researches and the Italian Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN).


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The standard model of elementary particle physics has been highly successful in accounting for the structure and interactions of the currently known generations of fundamental quarks and leptons and associated charge carrying gauge bosons. However, there is continued interest in alternative formulations, in the hope of reducing the arbitrariness and hierarchical fixing of standard model parameters, seeking physics beyond the standard model, or perhaps in improving the singular mathematical structure of quantum field theory. Supersymmetric models, composite models and string-theory models have all been investigated under these umbrellas.

A recurring theme in investigations of alternative formulations has been the nature of spinorial quantities, given their double-valuedness and the fact that physical quantities are always even functions of them. Frameworks purporting to eliminate the ‘phase’ of the spinor wavefunction have included Kähler fermions , the Lounesto real Clifford algebra  and the Hestenes geometric algebra constructions , and various attempts to substitute the four complex components of a Dirac spinor in four dimensions (aside from the unobservable overall phase), with seven bosonic, gauge invariant quantities (usually defining a Lorentz frame, together with a scalar field) . In the present note we take these ideas in a related direction, in proposing a different rearrangement of the degrees of freedom of a Dirac spinor wavefunction, which may entail insights into new dynamical models of fermions. We study ‘polar’ decompositions of a Dirac spinor, into a ‘charged’ part and a ‘neutral’ part, in the form of a local product $`\psi (x)=M(x)\chi (x)`$. Taking into account charge conjugation properties, as well as Lorentz covariance, $`\psi ^{}(x)=M^{}(x)\chi ^{}(x)`$ $`=S(\mathrm{\Lambda })M(x)S(\mathrm{\Lambda })^1S(\mathrm{\Lambda })\chi (x)`$ leads to the Ansatz that $`\chi (x)`$ be a Majorana spinor (in space-time dimensions $`D`$ and spinor dimensions $`N`$ where this is defined), and that $`M(x)`$ be an appropriate Dirac-algebra valued quantity (within the space $`𝕄_N()`$ of $`N\times N`$ complex matrices) transforming in the adjoint representation.

In order to have a specific example to study we take the case of $`D=3`$ ($`2+1`$-dimensional Minkowski space), with spinor dimension $`N=2`$. In the next section (§2) we argue for a particular standard form of the parametrisation, and by studying aspects of this are able to demonstrate the decomposition, the number and nature of the parameters and electromagnetic interactions. Particular examples of the free particle solutions of the Dirac equation are given in the appendix, §A, for both plane and circular waves. In §3 below, we return to the general parametrisation from the point of view of local gauge symmetries and suggest a dynamical picture of the polar decomposition. In the concluding remarks (§4 below) the case of general space-time dimensions is discussed, together with implications of the polar decomposition in the setting of supersymmetric models, applications in condensed matter theory, as well as the context of nonabelian gauge theory.

## 2 Polar decomposition in $`2+1`$ dimensions

For completeness, a summary of notational conventions relating to the Dirac algebra in $`2+1`$ space-time dimensions is given in the appendix. The most important observation is that the set of $`2\times 2`$ complex matrices (to which the ‘charged’ part $`M(x)`$ of the Dirac wavefunction belongs) is spanned by the four matrices 1l, $`\gamma ^\mu `$, $`\mu =0,1,2`$. Thus we begin by assuming a decomposition of the form of a product of a bosonic field and a (Majorana) fermionic field,

$`\psi (x)=M(x)\chi (x)=\left[a(x)+b_\mu (x)\gamma ^\mu \right]\chi (x),`$ (1)
where $`a`$ and $`b_\mu `$ are real. For now, this can be interpreted as a general parametrisation, in that it is the sum of a Majorana spinor $`a\chi `$ and an anti-Majorana spinor $`b_\mu \gamma ^\mu \chi `$ (the general case is discussed in §4 below). Clearly the parts transform under the Lorentz group variously as a scalar, a vector and a spinor field. This decomposition has too many parameters if it is to represent the four real degrees of freedom of a Dirac spinor. The scalar $`a`$ can always be scaled out, but $`b_\mu `$ is a three vector, so there must be a condition which will reduce the number of free parameters to 2. Fortunately, requiring form invariance under local $`U(1)`$ gauge transformations leads to such a condition. These transformations are given in terms of $`\psi `$ and the electromagnetic vector potential by

$`A_\mu A_{\mu }^{}{}_{}{}^{}`$ $`=A_\mu _\mu \alpha (x),`$
$`\psi \psi ^{}`$ $`=e^{iq\alpha (x)}\psi .`$
The situation is complicated by the fact that the components of the polar decomposition get mixed up in order to absorb the phase. The appropriate procedure is to split the decomposition into Majorana and anti-Majorana parts, apply the gauge transformation and then collect respective Majorana and anti-Majorana parts back together. This leads to

$`\psi ^{}=e^{iq\alpha }\psi =(a\mathrm{cos}q\alpha +ib_\mu \gamma ^\mu \mathrm{sin}q\alpha )\chi +(b_\mu \gamma ^\mu \mathrm{cos}q\alpha +ia\mathrm{sin}q\alpha )\chi .`$
The above implies the transformations

$`a\chi (a\chi )^{}`$ $`=\left(a\mathrm{cos}q\alpha +ib_\mu \gamma ^\mu \mathrm{sin}q\alpha \right)\chi `$
$`b_\mu \gamma ^\mu \chi \left(b_\mu \gamma ^\mu \chi \right)^{}`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{b_\mu ^{}\gamma ^\mu }{a^{}}}\left(a\mathrm{cos}q\alpha +ib_\mu \gamma ^\mu \mathrm{sin}q\alpha \right)\chi `$
$`=(b_\mu \gamma ^\mu \mathrm{cos}q\alpha +ia\mathrm{sin}q\alpha )\chi .`$
A necessary condition for a solution is

$`{\displaystyle \frac{b_\mu ^{}\gamma ^\mu }{a^{}}}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{(b_\mu \gamma ^\mu \mathrm{cos}q\alpha +ia\mathrm{sin}q\alpha )(a\mathrm{cos}q\alpha ib_\mu \gamma ^\mu \mathrm{sin}q\alpha )}{a^2\mathrm{cos}^2q\alpha +b^2\mathrm{sin}^2q\alpha }}`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{ab_\mu \gamma ^\mu +i\mathrm{sin}q\alpha \mathrm{cos}q\alpha (a^2b^2)}{a^2\mathrm{cos}^2q\alpha +b^2\mathrm{sin}^2q\alpha }}.`$
Thus under gauge transformations, the vector part of the assumed decomposition has covariance problems, unless $`a^2=b_\mu b^\mu `$. Take this as a constraint, so that the polar decomposition can be written (after choosing without loss of generality $`a>0`$ for nonzero $`\psi (x)`$),

$`\psi (x)=M(x)\chi (x),M(x)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[1+n_\mu (x)\gamma ^\mu \right],n_\mu n^\mu =1`$ (2)
where $`a`$ has been scaled out. In this form the polar decomposition takes on the form of a true Dirac spinor, with both Majorana and anti-Majorana parts.

The decomposition now has a particularly elegant behaviour under gauge transformations:

$`\chi \chi ^{}`$ $`=\mathrm{exp}\left(iqn_\beta \gamma ^\beta \alpha \right)\chi ,`$
$`n_\mu n_\mu ^{}`$ $`=n_\mu .`$ (3)
So not only has form invariance under a gauge transformation been achieved, but a new restriction on the decomposition has been found so that the correct number of free parameters is present. Notice also that the gauge transformation is in fact a local Lorentz transformation on the Majorana spinor (see (A)).

Let us consider the implications of (2) for charge conjugation, $`\psi \psi _c`$. We have

$`\psi \psi _c=M_c\chi =\frac{1}{2}(1n_\mu \gamma ^\mu )\chi .`$ (4)
Thus, the bosonic part of the wavefunction $`n_\mu `$ goes to $`n_\mu `$ under charge conjugation111The apparent gauge invariance of $`n_\mu `$ in this parametrisation is the result of additional reparametrisation invariance (see below).. This is consistent with the observation that the bosonic part of the wavefunction carries the interaction with the electromagnetic field. The constraint $`n_\mu n^\mu =1`$ entails

$`(n_0)^2=1+𝐧.𝐧,`$
so that the parameter space of $`n_0`$ is the two disconnected regions $`n_0>1`$ and $`n_0<1`$, corresponding to a two-sheeted hyperboloid. Thus it is actually the sign of $`n_0`$ alone that characterises the charge conjugation symmetry of the wavefunction.

An expression for $`\chi `$ is calculated easily as

$`\chi =\frac{1}{2}(\psi +\psi _c);`$ (5)
the Majorana part of the wavefunction is simply the superposition of the original spinor with its charge conjugate. Consider the scalar and vector covariants

$`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ $`=\frac{1}{2}\overline{\chi }\chi ,\overline{\psi }\gamma ^\mu \psi =\frac{1}{2}n^\mu \overline{\chi }\chi .`$
Hence the scalar density of the Dirac field is carried exclusively by the Majorana-spinor component of the field, while the Noether current of the Dirac field is represented by $`n_\mu `$ scaled by the scalar density $`\overline{\chi }\chi `$. A remarkably simple form for $`n_\mu `$ follows as

$`n^\mu ={\displaystyle \frac{\overline{\psi }\gamma ^\mu \psi }{\overline{\psi }\psi }}={\displaystyle \frac{j^\mu }{\overline{\psi }\psi }},`$ (6)
so that $`n^\mu `$ can be interpreted as the 3-velocity of the Dirac field.

Finally, notice that both $`M`$ and its charge conjugate $`M_c=\frac{1}{2}(1n_\mu \gamma ^\mu )`$ are singular,

$`detM=detM_c={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}(1n_\mu n^\mu )=0.`$ (7)
This seems to imply that if we take $`\psi =M\chi `$ then $`\chi `$ is not unique. However, (7) is equivalent to

$`M^2=M,M_c^2=M_c,MM_c=0,`$
showing that $`M`$ and $`M_c`$ are orthogonal projectors. The null space of $`M`$ is then any spinor written in the form $`M_c\phi `$. For the decomposition this means that

$`\psi `$ $`=M\chi `$
$`=M(\chi +M_c\phi ).`$
However it is clear that $`M_c\phi `$ cannot be Majorana so that $`\chi `$ is in fact unique. Notice also that $`\psi `$ is orthogonal to its charge conjugate:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\psi _1^{}\psi _2^{}=\overline{\psi }\psi _c=\overline{\chi M}M_c\chi =\overline{\chi }MM_c\chi =\chi _2\chi _1detM=0,`$ (8)
due to the projective property of $`M`$; similarly the complex vector $`\overline{\psi }\gamma ^\mu \psi _c`$ vanishes, for real $`n^\mu `$.

## 3 Local gauge symmetries

In the previous section the discussion focussed on choosing a minimally constrained set of parameters for the polar-type decomposition in the $`2+1`$-dimensional case. In this section we reconsider the general Ansatz $`\psi =M\chi `$ from the point of view of local gauge symmetries which carry redundant parameters, and which may also play a dynamical role. Namely, the product decomposition admits any local reparametrisations which respect the form of $`\chi `$ as a Majorana spinor. Given $`\chi `$ as in (A.34), the requirement that $`L(x)\chi `$ be of the same form necessitates

$$L(x)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}P& Q\\ Q^{}& P^{}\end{array}\right),PP^{}QQ^{}0,P,Qϵ𝒞.$$

– identical in this case to the pseudo-unitary transformations acting on bispinors $`\psi `$ as in (A), preserving the (Dirac) norm $`\overline{\psi }\psi =\psi ^{}\gamma ^0\psi =u^{}uv^{}v`$ up to proportionality. These are nothing but local Lorentz transformations, in fact, elements of the covering group $`SU(1,1)`$ composed with local field rescalings belonging to the multiplicative group of dilatations, $`\{0\}GL(1,)`$. Thus with our assumption that $`\chi `$ is a Majorana spinor, we have the following semidirect product of global Lorentz transformations $`\mathrm{\Lambda }SO(2,1)`$ (in the spinor representation $`S(\mathrm{\Lambda })`$), local Weyl group reparametrisations $`LSU(1,1)\times GL(1,)`$ and local electromagnetic phase transformations:

$`MS(\mathrm{\Lambda })MS(\mathrm{\Lambda })^1,`$ $`\chi S(\mathrm{\Lambda })\chi ,`$
$`MML(x)^1,`$ $`\chi L(x)\chi ,`$
$`Me^{i\theta }M,`$ $`\chi \chi .`$
From this point of view the minimal parameters for $`M`$ of the previous section can be seen as an appropriate gauge choice with respect to the local Weyl group. Generically, the independent degrees of freedom of $`M`$ are associated with the orbit structure of $`𝕄_2()`$ under the right action of $`L`$, and the minimal parameters for $`M`$ correspond to a choice of section of $`𝕄_2()`$ under the induced fibration. For example, the apparent non-invariance of $`\chi `$ under local phase transformations of $`\psi `$ – contradictory if $`\chi `$ is a neutral field – is the result of a combined local phase transformation and local Weyl (actually $`SU(1,1)`$) transformation in order to remain within the minimal gauge class:

$$e^{iq\theta }M\chi =Me^{iq\theta n^\mu \gamma _\mu }\chi =M(e^{iq\theta n^\mu \gamma _\mu }\chi )$$

where the projection property of $`M=\frac{1}{2}(1+n^\mu \gamma _\mu )`$ with $`nn=1`$ has been used, to compensate the local phase transformation with a local Lorentz transform with parameter $`q\theta (x)n^\mu `$, so that effectively $`M^{}=M`$ and $`\chi ^{}=e^{iq\theta n^\mu \gamma _\mu }\chi `$ as discussed above.

The orbits of $`M_2()`$ are most easily studied via the unitary change of basis

$`\chi \stackrel{~}{\chi }=\mathrm{\Theta }\chi ,`$ $`M\stackrel{~}{M}=\mathrm{\Theta }M\mathrm{\Theta }^1,`$
$`\text{where}\mathrm{\Theta }=\frac{1}{2}\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 1\\ i& i\end{array}\right),`$ $`\text{so}\stackrel{~}{\chi }=\left(\begin{array}{c}r\\ s\end{array}\right),`$ (13)
with $`u=r+is`$ in terms of the original components of $`\chi `$. In this real basis222The Dirac matrices are pure imaginary in this basis. the Lorentz group clearly acts as $`2\times 2`$ nonsingular real matrices (the group $`SL(2,)`$), with the local Weyl group being $`GL(2,)`$. Under $`MM^{}=ML(x)`$, $`\text{det}M^{}=\text{det}M\text{det}L`$, so that orbits can be classified333The determinants of the real and imaginary parts of $`M`$ also scale with $`\text{det}L(x)`$. according to whether $`\text{det}M=0`$ or $`\text{det}M0`$.

Generically let

$$\stackrel{~}{M}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}a+i\alpha & b+i\beta \\ c+i\gamma & d+i\delta \end{array}\right)$$

(corresponding to an expansion $`M=A+B^\mu \gamma _\mu `$ in the Dirac algebra, with complex coefficients). Then $`\text{det}M=\text{det}\stackrel{~}{M}=(\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Delta }^{})+i(\mathrm{\Gamma }+\mathrm{\Gamma }^{})`$ with $`\mathrm{\Delta }=adbc`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{}=\alpha \delta \beta \gamma `$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=a\delta b\gamma `$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}=\alpha d\beta c`$. Consider the case $`\mathrm{\Delta }0`$, $`\text{det}M0`$. Let $`\stackrel{~}{M}=e^{i\varphi }\stackrel{~}{N}`$ where $`\text{det}\stackrel{~}{N}`$ is real, and set

$$L(x)=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Delta }}\left(\begin{array}{cc}d& b\\ c& a\end{array}\right).$$

Transforming back to the standard basis, we find for some $`b^\mu `$

$`M^{}`$ $`=`$ $`e^{i\varphi }(1+b^\mu \gamma _\mu ),\text{det}M^{}=e^{2i\varphi }(1bb)0.`$ (14)
On the other hand in the case $`\mathrm{\Delta }0`$, $`\text{det}M=0`$ the same choice of $`L(x)`$ yields

$`M^{}`$ $`=`$ $`(1+n^\mu \gamma _\mu ),\text{det}M^{}=1nn=0.`$ (15)
Clearly the latter case (15) coincides with the minimal parametrisation of the previous section; the two real constraints $`\text{det}M=0`$ entail $`82=6`$ parameters, or effectively $`64=2`$ degrees of freedom resident in $`M`$, after allowing for the gauge transformations by elements of $`GL(2,)`$ to fix a further four real components. If $`\text{det}M`$ is real but nonzero, there are three field components corresponding to the parametrisation $`M=(a+b^\mu \gamma _\mu )`$ for real $`a`$, $`b^\mu `$ constrained to some hyperboloid, say $`a^2bb=1`$. Finally in case (14) above there are four fields $`\varphi `$, $`b^\mu `$.

The surfeit of allowed parameters of $`M`$ in the last two cases would be expected to be reconciled in a dynamical picture. For example, the role of the four-dimensional inner product $`a^2bb`$ in the above discussion perhaps points to a higher conformal symmetry formulation of these bosonic concomitants of the Dirac spinor field (a projective null cone has codimension two, effecting the desired reduction from four to two degrees of freedom). An obvious first step is to promote the Weyl reparametrisation freedom of the polar decomposition to a local gauge principle, by introducing gauge fields $`\omega _\mu ^{ab}`$ in the internal Lorentz algebra, together with scale gauge fields $`\phi _\mu `$, and covariant derivatives

$`_\mu \chi `$ $`=`$ $`_\mu \chi +\frac{1}{2}\omega _\mu ^{ab}\sigma _{ab}\chi +\phi _\mu \chi `$
$`_\mu M`$ $`=`$ $`_\mu M\frac{1}{2}\omega _\mu ^{ab}M\sigma _{ab}\phi _\mu M.`$
Furthermore, we anticipate a total covariant derivative including electromagnetic potential

$$𝒟_\mu =_\mu +iqA_\mu $$

so that the ordinary covariant derivative of the Dirac spinor $`\psi =M\chi `$ becomes

$$(i\gamma ^\mu D_\mu +m)M\chi =\left[(i\gamma ^\mu 𝒟_\mu +m)M\right]\chi +M(i\gamma ^\mu _\mu \chi )+[i\gamma ^\mu ,M]_\mu \chi .$$

Regarding $`M`$ and $`\chi `$ as the fundamental fields, it is natural to interpret the Dirac equation for $`\psi `$ as the result of separate ‘free’ equations

$$(i\gamma ^\mu 𝒟_\mu +m)M=0,i\gamma ^\mu _\mu \chi =0$$
(16)
plus coupling or ‘interaction’ terms, which taken together would re-constitute the third, commutator, piece of the above expansion (which is not locally Weyl covariant as it stands).

## 4 Conclusions

In this note we have followed through, for the particular case of 2+1 dimensions, a proposal to re-interpret the degrees of freedom of Dirac spinors in terms of ‘polar’ type decompositions, involving a neutral, Majorana part, and a charged companion. Here we have simply considered the kinematical implications of the decompositions. For the present case, the two degrees of freedom of the Majorana spinor are accompanied by a (possibly complex) scalar and vector field, which encapsulate the dynamics of a further two degrees of freedom. Under additional conditions, these fields may be constrained, for example to the surface of a hyperboloid or null cone in higher dimensions. As an aside notice that (2) implies that there is no sense, under this scheme, in which a generic Dirac spinor can be approximated as some kind ‘charge perturbation’ of a Majorana spinor. This is because the Majorana and anti-Majorana parts of the wavefunction are of the same order of magnitude under all circumstances. Therefore, from the point of view of classical equations of motion, solutions of the Dirac equation under minimal coupling with the electromagnetic field cannot be treated as perturbations to Majorana solutions of the free equation.

In $`3+1`$ spacetime dimensions the polar decomposition $`\psi =M\chi `$ of a Dirac spinor involves, apart from a Majorana spinor (4 real degrees of freedom), the orbit structure of $`M_4()`$ under the local Weyl group $`GL(4,)`$, which can be expected to fix at most $`3216=16`$ real parameters. The dynamics of the remaining component fields and local gauge fields must therefore reduce the additional number of degrees of freedom resident in $`M`$ from 16 to 4.

Further work to develop a concrete dynamical picture is required. The connection fields implementing local Weyl reparametrisation invariance parametrise a non-compact gauge algebra. Standard Yang-Mills actions are inconsistent (because the Killing form occurring for terms quadratic in the field strength in the action is non-positive definite for hermitean fields), and appeal must therefore be made to other formulations. Alternatively, the analogy between the connection forms $`\omega _{}^{ab}{}_{\mu }{}^{}`$ and $`\phi _\mu `$ and the vierbein formulation of relativity (where local Lorentz invariance occurs in the representation of the metric tensor) might be exploited, so that Einstein-type actions for these fields may be possible.

Composite models of quarks and leptons commonly involve either binding of multiparticle sub-quark or sub-lepton states by a hypercolour gauge confinement mechanismm , or two-body bound states of scalars and fundamental Ur-fermions. Our proposal is evidently consistent with the latter scenario, but motivated by a deconstruction of the existing degrees of freedom of Dirac fields, rather than invoking mere repetition of standard degrees of freedom at the preonic level. Thus the role of the Majorana particles is to carry spin degrees of freedom, while charge attributes are conferred by the quantum numbers of the bosonic binding partners. Whether ‘confinement’ exists for this type of model is unknown.

As noted above, our gauge bosons belong to a non-compact gauge symmetry, and standard Yang-Mills theory cannot directly be applied. What the degree of freedom count does guarantee is a balance between fermionic and bosonic parts for each Dirac field, the hallmark of possible supersymmetric formulations. In any case, the existence of fermion generations is attributed, in standard preon model terms, to the bound state spectrum. For example, if (16) are regarded as ‘free’ equations of motion, different fermion generations may be associated with zero modes of a covariant Dirac-type operator, which then bind with the charged scalar. In turn, the equation of motion of the latter acquires curvature terms (in the noncompact gauge symmetry) which affect its mass, and hence ultimately the mass of known quarks and leptons.

There is a striking analogy between the foregoing considerations (for relativistic theories) and the known situation in the condensed matter context, again in $`2+1`$ dimensions, in which spin-charge separation occurs into ‘spinon’ and ‘holon’ degrees of freedom. Relativistic formulations are appropriate at particular nodes of the Fermi surface, and indeed ‘supersymmetric composite models’ have been advocated to describe an effective infrared field theory of the phenomena of high-$`T_c`$ superconductivity, . Again, the implication for the relativistic context would be that there is indeed a phase of matter wherein fundamental fermions fractionate into their constituents, with the local gauge fields taking on the dynamical role played by the lattice. In 2+1 dimensions the ingredients identified in this work (Majorana spinor, and bosonic accompaniments accounting for 2 degrees of freedom) are necessarily the same as for matter superfields (for $`N=1`$ supersymmetry). The analogy with supersymmetry is even closer in terms of the specific fields $`a(x)`$, $`b_\mu (x)`$ parameterizing the matrix $`M(x)`$, if, as the result of algebraic equations of motion and for appropriate gauge fixing conditions, constraints such as $`b_\mu =_\mu a`$ (for complex $`a`$, $`b_\mu `$) arise. Further development of our model would involve consideration of possible supersymmetric formulations , and dynamical aspects.

In the case of the ‘polar’ decomposition $`\psi =M\chi `$ of Dirac spinors in a nonabelian gauge theory, it is natural to adopt a generalised Ansatz in which quantum numbers are shared between $`M`$ and $`\chi `$ (only internal symmetries possessing suitable real representations can be implemented on multiplets of Majorana spinors $`\chi `$). An experimental indication of the viability of such nonabelian polar decompositions might be the confirmation of Majorana mass terms in the lepton sector, suggesting the possibility of admixtures with the Ur-field $`\chi `$. Further consideration of such generalisations is deferred to future work.

### Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Robert Delbourgo and also Simon Wotherspoon for helpful comments.

## Appendix

## Appendix A The Dirac algebra in $`2+1`$ dimensions.

The fundamental relation defining the gamma matrices in 2+1 dimensions is

$`\{\gamma ^\mu ,\gamma ^\nu \}=2\eta ^{\mu \nu },`$ (A.17)
where the metric is

$`\eta =\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}1& 0& 0& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ 0& 1& 0& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ 0& 0& 1& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \end{array}\right).`$ (A.21)
The anti-commutation relation (A.17) can be satisfied by a set of $`2\times 2`$ matrices generated from the Pauli matrices

$`\sigma ^1`$ $`=\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}0& 1& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ 1& 0& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \end{array}\right),\sigma ^2`$ $`=\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}0& i& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ i& 0& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \end{array}\right),\sigma ^3`$ $`=\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}1& 0& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ 0& 1& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \end{array}\right).`$ (A.28)
Any generic spinor in 2+1 dimensions has two components

$`\psi =\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}u_1& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ u_2& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \end{array}\right).`$ (A.31)
These independent components can be used to construct independent positive and negative energy solutions. For the purposes of explicit calculation it is useful to take a particular representation of the gamma matrices. Using the Pauli matrices a standard representation can be chosen as

$`\gamma ^0`$ $`=\sigma ^3,\gamma ^1`$ $`=i\sigma ^1,\gamma ^2`$ $`=i\sigma ^2.`$
In odd dimensions there is no $`\gamma ^5`$ matrix. The charge conjugation matrix $`C`$ can be chosen to be,

$`C`$ $`=\gamma ^2=i\sigma ^2,`$
$`C^1`$ $`=C=C^{}=C^{}.`$
A Majorana spinor then takes the form

$`\chi =\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}v& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ v^{}& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \end{array}\right).`$ (A.34)
Taking solutions of the Dirac equation as anti-commuting field operators it follows that for Majorana fields

$`\overline{\chi }\gamma ^\mu \chi =\overline{\chi }\sigma ^{\mu \nu }\chi =0,`$
indicating that the Majorana field is truly non-interacting with respect to the usual couplings.

The algebra is completed by the relations

$`\gamma ^\mu \gamma ^\nu `$ $`=\eta ^{\mu \nu }iϵ^{\mu \nu \lambda }\gamma _\lambda ,ϵ^{012}=1,`$
$`\gamma ^\mu \gamma ^\alpha \gamma ^\nu `$ $`=\eta ^{\mu \alpha }\gamma ^\nu \eta ^{\mu \nu }\gamma ^\alpha +\eta ^{\alpha \nu }\gamma ^\mu iϵ^{\mu \alpha \nu }.`$
The generators of Lorentz transformations are then given by

$`\sigma ^{\mu \nu }={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}[\gamma ^\mu ,\gamma ^\nu ]=ϵ^{\mu \nu \lambda }\gamma _\lambda ,`$
and the spinor representation of the Lorentz group can be expressed as

$`S(\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ $`=e^{\frac{i}{4}\omega _{\mu \nu }\sigma ^{\mu \nu }}=e^{\frac{i}{4}\theta _\mu \gamma ^\mu }`$
$`\theta ^\lambda `$ $`=ϵ^{\mu \nu \lambda }\sigma _{\mu \nu }.`$ (A.35)
As an example of polar decompositions, consider the free particle solutions

$`\psi =N\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}1& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ \frac{ip_+}{E+m}& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \end{array}\right)e^{ip_\mu x^\mu },\psi _c=N\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}\frac{ip_{}}{E+m}& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ 1& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \end{array}\right)e^{ip_\mu x^\mu },`$ (A.40)
for $`E=+\sqrt{p^2+m^2}`$, $`N`$ is a normalization factor and $`p_+=p^1+ip^2=p_{}^{}`$. Analogously free solutions in polar coordinates, $`(x,y)(r,\theta )`$, can be defined in terms of Bessel functions as

$`\psi =N\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}J_\alpha (pr)& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ \frac{pe^{i\theta }}{E+m}J_{\alpha +1}(pr)& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \end{array}\right)e^{i(\alpha \theta Et)},\psi _c=N\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccccccc}\frac{pe^{i\theta }}{E+m}J_{\alpha +1}(pr)& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ J_\alpha (pr)& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & \end{array}\right)e^{i(\alpha \theta Et)},`$ (A.45)
where $`p=+\sqrt{E^2m^2}`$ and $`J_\alpha (pr)`$ are the Bessel functions of the first kind, . From the plane wave solutions (A.40) and using $`\chi `$ as in (A.34) the polar decomposition takes on the form

$`v=\frac{1}{2}N\left[(E+mip_{})\mathrm{cos}p_\mu x^\mu i(E+m+ip_{})\mathrm{sin}p_\mu x^\mu \right]`$ (A.46)
$`n^0`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{E}{m}},n^1`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{p^1}{m}},n^2`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{p^2}{m}}.`$ (A.47)
Whereas for the charge conjugate solution $`\psi _c`$

$`n_c^0`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{E}{m}},n_c^1`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{p^1}{m}},n_c^2`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{p^2}{m}}.`$ (A.48)
Thus the property $`n_\mu n_\mu `$ under charge conjugation is in keeping with what happens under charge conjugation to the plane wave solution $`\psi \psi _c`$.

For the solutions (A.45) we have

$`v=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}N\left[e^{i(\alpha \theta Et)}J_\alpha (pr)\frac{pe^{i\theta }}{E+m}J_{\alpha +1}(pr)e^{i(\alpha \theta Et)}\right],`$
$`j^0=`$ $`N^2[J_\alpha ^2(pr)+\frac{p^2}{(E+m)^2}J_{\alpha +1}^2(pr)]=j_c^0,`$
$`j^1=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2N^2p}{E+m}}J_\alpha J_{\alpha +1}\mathrm{sin}\theta =j_c^1,`$
$`j^2=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2N^2p}{E+m}}J_\alpha J_{\alpha +1}\mathrm{cos}\theta =j_c^2,`$
$`j^r=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2N^2p}{E+m}}J_\alpha J_{\alpha +1}=j_c^r,`$
$`j^\theta =`$ $`(\theta \frac{\pi }{2})=j_c^\theta ,`$
$`\overline{\psi }\psi =`$ $`N^2\left[J_\alpha ^2(pr)\frac{p^2}{(E+m)^2}J_{\alpha +1}^2(pr)\right]=\overline{\psi _c}\psi _c.`$ (A.49)
So again we have $`n^\mu n^\mu `$ under charge conjugation.