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# The polymer phase of the TDAE-C60 organic ferromagnet

## I Introduction

The organic charge-transfer compound TDAE-C60 (where TDAE is tetrakis-dimethylamino-ethylene) is a ferromagnet with the Curie transition temperature of $`T_C=`$ 16 K (Ref. 1 ). This is the highest temperature onset of ferromagnetic behavior for a purely organic material. It is customarily accepted that the system is an isotropic Heisenberg ferromagnet with an extremely small anisotropy field2 3 .

The TDAE molecule, a strong electron donor, transfers one electron to the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) of C60 in a similar way to that found in alkali metal C60 compounds. It has been established that the single-charged C60 alkali salts, A1C60 (A= K, Rb, Cs), reveal metallic properties in a wide temperature range4 . Although, analogously to the alkali metal C60 compounds, the valence band in TDEA-C60 originates from the triply degenerated $`t_{1g}`$ orbital of the C60 molecule, the TDAE-C60 system was found to be non-metallic5 6 . The non-metallic behavior of TDAE-C60 was explained assuming the Jahn-Teller effect and Mott-Hubbard localization7 8 .

Magnetic susceptibility measurements9 10 11  as well as Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) results11 12  showed that the TDAE-C60 system has only one $`S=1/2`$ magnetic moment per chemical formula unit. From the $`g`$-factor analysis it was concluded that the spins are mainly localized on C$`{}_{}{}^{}{}_{60}{}^{}`$ (Ref. 11 ). The TDAE+ donors should also carry non-paired electrons. However, these centers remain ESR silent, which is probably due to the mechanism of the spin-singlet pairing resulting from the dimerization shift of the neighboring TDAE+ molecules13 .

Two magnetic variants of TDAE-C60 were discovered. As grown crystals ($`\alpha ^{}`$-phase) reveal the antiferromagnetic (AFM) behavior, whereas annealed crystals ($`\alpha `$-phase) show the transition to the ferromagnetic (FM) state14 . Surprisingly, in X-ray diffraction (XRD), these two structures look almost indistinguishable around the room temperature when the C60 balls rotate freely. However, the difference is observed when freezing of the rotation of the C60 balls occurs at low temperatures12 15 . In the FM phase, a new Bragg reflection develops, suggesting lowering of symmetry and ordering of the C60 balls12 . This reflection is not observed in the AFM phase, which suggests the existence of a disordered (glassy) state of the C60 orientations.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) data imply that in the FM phase the electron spin of C$`{}_{}{}^{}{}_{60}{}^{}`$ are partially delocalized on the TDAE molecule, thus raising a possibility for the super-exchange interaction16 . In a simple model, one would expect that the super-exchange mechanism would promote the AFM behavior. Nevertheless, the observed ferromagnetic properties are explained in terms of the Hubbard model with the antiferro-orbital order of the Jahn-Teller distorted (JTD) C60 balls8 . Indeed, NMR observations of the JT distortion and the asymmetric charge distribution on the C60 balls have recently been reported16a . However, the NMR results of Arcon et al.16  suggest that the $`\alpha `$-phase contains the C$`{}_{}{}^{}{}_{60}{}^{}`$ molecules with both ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic configurations. In that case, the spontaneous magnetization should appear when the concentration of the FM configuration is high enough for the appearance of an infinite ferromagnetic cluster through percolation mechanism15 16b .

Recently, Mizoguchi and co-workers17  reported polymerization of TDAE-C60 under pressure of $`10`$ kbar. The polymerized phase ($`\beta `$-phase) remains stable even after releasing the pressure. The polymerization process occurs along the c-axis and it has been suggested that the linear polymers can be formed due to a \[2+2\] cycloaddition process.

In this article, we report the $`PT`$ diagram of the stability of the polymeric TDAE-C60 structure. The effects of the high-hydrostatic pressure on the physical properties of both monomeric and polymeric phases were investigated. We studied the physical properties of the $`\beta `$-phase at low and high temperatures and the effect of the temperature-induced depolymerization. The properties of the TDAE-C60 polymer are compared with those of other bonded fullerene structures.

## II Experiment

Single crystals of the TDAE-C60 were prepared by the diffusion method as reported in Ref. 12 . The single crystals dimensions were, typically, of $`0.3\times 0.3\times 0.3`$ mm3. The presence of the FM phase was checked by the magnetization measurements.

Ambient pressure Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) measurements were performed in the temperature range of $`5600`$ K using a Bruker ESP300E X-band spectrometer. In the temperature range of $`5300`$ K the ESR spectra were acquired using a standard Bruker TE102 cavity that was equipped with an Oxford Instrument, Model ESR900, gas-flow cooling system. In the upper temperature range ($`300600`$ K) we used a Bruker ER4114HT high-temperature cavity system. The magnetic field and the microwave frequency were calibrated using a commercially available NMR gauss-meter and a frequency counter, respectively. The ESR line intensities were calibrated using a secondary standard sample, a small speck of DPPH (2,2-dipenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl from Sigma).

The high-pressure ESR measurements were performed using a high-pressure system that was recently developed at the EPFL. The high-pressure ESR probe was designed as an interface to our Bruker ESP300E X-band spectrometer. The probe consists of two sub-assemblies: 1) the microwave resonant structure containing the double-stacked Dielectric Resonator (DR) and 2) the miniature sapphire-anvil pressure cell (SAC). The SAC is ruby-calibrated; thus the hydrostatic pressure can be monitored in situ by detecting the pressure-induced shift of the red fluorescence of Cr3+ ions in a small crystal of ruby. The commercially available ”Daphne” oil was used as a pressure-transmitting medium. In this work, the maximum applied pressure was of 9 kbar. For performing low temperature measurements, the high-pressure probe was inserted into the CF-1200 Oxford Instrument gas-flow cryostat operating in the $`5290`$ K temperature range. The details of the DR-based high-pressure ESR probe will be published shortly elsewhere 18 . The ESR line intensities and the $`g`$-factor were calibrated using an additional reference sample, a polycrystalline MnO/MgO, which was positioned in the active zone of the microwave resonant structure (close to the gasket of the SAC).

## III Results

### III.1 Pressure-induced polymerization

Figure 1 shows the temperature evolution of the ESR-probed spin susceptibility and the ESR linewidth of the ferromagnetic phase of TDAE-C60 measured at ambient pressure. In the ferromagnetic region, below $`T_C=16`$ K, the linewidth cannot be determined precisely due to the strong distortion of the ESR line shape. The line shape distortion is probably due to the non-homogeneity of the local internal fields in different ferromagnetic domains of the crystal.

The pressure dependence of the ESR linewidth (peak-to-peak, $`\mathrm{\Delta }H_{pp}`$) of TDAE-C60 at ambient temperature is shown in Fig. 2a, whereas Fig. 2b shows the pressure dependence of the $`g`$-factor. The initial (ambient pressure) linewidth of $`\mathrm{\Delta }H_{pp}20`$ G slowly decreases with increasing pressure to 15 G at $`P=6`$ kbar. Then, at $`P_C=7`$ kbar, a transition to the polymeric phase is clearly seen as a sudden drop in the ESR linewidth (Fig. 2a). This is also accompanied by an abrupt change (increase) in the $`g`$-factor (Fig. 2b). The phase transition is irreversible and the polymeric phase remains stable after releasing the pressure. These results are in a partial agreement with the ESR measurements performed at lower microwave frequencies by Mizoguchi et al.17 . The major difference is, however, that the critical pressure of suppression of the ferromagnetic transition in our measurements is rather lower and coincides with the pressure of the complete polymerization.

In the monomeric TDAE-C60 the ESR linewidth is defined by dipolar interaction with additional narrowing introduced by the exchange interaction. Accordingly, as can be seen in Fig. 2a, the monomer’s linewidth slowly narrows with pressure approaching 7 kbar. This is due to the larger overlap of the electronic wave functions, which leads to an enhanced exchange interaction. At ambient pressure, the $`g`$-factor value for the monomeric phase of TDAE-C60 is 2.0006 and is distinctively closer to the $`g`$-factor of the fullerene anion C$`{}_{}{}^{}{}_{60}{}^{}`$ ($`g_{C_{60}^{}}=1.9998`$) than to the $`g`$-factor value that is characteristic for the TDAE+ cation ($`g_{TDAE^+}=2.0036`$). This is due to the fact that the ESR signal originates from the electrons that are mainly localized on the C60 balls. The spins on the TDAE+ radicals are ESR-silent, which is probably due to a slight dimerization of TDAE molecules, thus yielding a spin-singlet configuration. With increasing pressure, the $`g`$-factor linearly increases towards the value of the TDAE+ cation. This implies that the unpaired spin density is spreading towards the TDAE molecule with increasing pressure.

At $`P_C=`$ 7 kbar, a sudden narrowing of the ESR line is visible due to polymerization. The linewidth drops by two orders of magnitude, reaching $`\mathrm{\Delta }H_{pp}`$(polymer)= 0.5 G. The narrow linewidth and the Currie type temperature dependence of the spin susceptibility at this pressure suggest that the polymeric phase is non-metallic. Upon polymerization the $`g`$-factor value rises reaching 2.0024 and becomes almost pressure independent.

Mizoguchi et al.17  suggested that the polymerization process decouples the previously ESR-silent spins related to the TDAE+, which should lead to an effective doubling of the total number of spins. The observed pressure dependence of ESR susceptibility at room temperature (Fig. 2c) does not support this suggestion. At this stage, a small increase (of $`20\%`$) of the ESR susceptibility upon polymerization can be explained by the differences in the Weiss temperatures between the two phases.

### III.2 Coexistence of phases

Figure 3 shows the temperature dependence of the ESR linewidth and the $`g`$-factor for three different pressures. The temperature dependence of the linewidth and the $`g`$-factor at applied pressure of $`P=`$ 2.6 kbar is shown in Fig. 3a and Fig. 3b, respectively. As can be seen in Fig. 3a, below the characteristic temperature, $`T_P=100`$ K, in addition to the ESR line of TDAE-C60 monomer (full circles), a new line appears (open circles). This new ESR line can be assigned to the polymeric phase while taking into account the $`g`$-factor and ESR linewidth evolution with pressure. The intensity of the polymeric line does not exceed 15% of the intensity of the monomeric line. The temperature dependence of the $`g`$-factor and ESR linewidth at $`P=`$ 4.7 kbar is shown in Fig. 3c and Fig. 3d, respectively. At this pressure, a partial polymerization starts at higher temperatures, around $`T_P180`$ K. The intensity of the polymeric line is now much more pronounced. For both applied pressures, the monomeric phase undergoes the ferromagnetic phase transition, whereas the polymeric phase does not. At pressure of $`P=`$ 7.0 kbar, the sample is fully polymerized already at room temperature (Fig. 3e and Fig.3f). No ferromagnetic phase transition is visible down to 5 K. At this applied pressure, the ESR susceptibility follows a simple Curie law, without a detectable Weiss constant. The ESR linewidth is very narrow ($`0.5`$ G) and is almost independent of temperature, whereas the $`g`$-factor slightly changes with temperature.

The stability of the polymer phase in the $`PT`$ parameter space is depicted in Fig. 4. The polymerization temperature ($`T_P`$) has a linear dependence with applied pressure, where the proportionality constant. The ratio of the polymeric and monomeric ESR line intensities depends not only on pressure, but also on temperature. To deduce the exact structural dynamics of the polymer formation an additional structural study is needed.

The pressure dependence of the ferromagnetic transition temperature ($`T_C`$) of the monomeric phase is depicted in Fig. 5. To determine $`T_C`$, we cannot compare the resonance field shift with the conventional Bloch’s law, because the resonance field has pronounced temperature dependence even above $`T_C`$ (see Fig. 3). This shift is due to the demagnetization effects, which depend on the sample shape19 . Concomitantly, we define $`T_C`$ as the onset temperature of the broadening of a linewidth distribution of the monomer-related ESR features (see: inset to Fig. 5). This linewidth distribution broadening is due to the growth of an internal field below $`T_C`$ and the mosaicity of the crystal. The observed pressure dependence of $`T_C`$ is similar to the parabolic dependence reported in Ref. 17 . However, in contrast to their ESR data acquired at low microwave frequencies and fields, the ferromagnetic transition observed in this work vanishes simultaneously with polymerization. This result can be expected and explained in the framework of the theory by Kawamoto and coworkers8 , because the onset of polymerization prevents the antiferro ordering of the orbital of the JTD fullerene molecules.

### III.3 Polymer phase at ambient pressure

The polymeric phase remains stable even after the pressure is released. For the polymeric phase, the temperature dependences of the ESR parameters are shown in Fig. 6. As can be seen from comparison of the results presented in Fig.6 and in Fig. 3a and Fig. 3b, the low-temperature properties of the polymeric phase at ambient pressure are very similar to those observed at $`P=`$ 7 kbar. The temperature dependence of the inverse ESR susceptibility, $`\chi ^1`$, of the polymeric phase is shown in Fig. 6a. Since we are dealing with localized spins, this type of plot ($`\chi ^1`$ vs. T) is the most informative, directly yielding information on the Curie constant and the Weiss temperature of the system. The spin susceptibility below the room temperature reveals one spin $`S=`$ 1/2 per chemical formula unit ($`N=`$ 1) and a simple Curie behavior.

As seen in Fig. 6a, the inverse susceptibility departs from the simple Curie behavior at 260 K. This transition region is relatively broad and extends up to ca. 320 K. Above 320 K, the ESR susceptibility reveals the doubling of the number of spins per chemical formula. This phenomenon can be understood in terms of re-appearance of the previously hidden spins of the TDAE+ radicals. The Weiss temperature does not vanish anymore, having the value of $`\mathrm{\Theta }=230\pm 20`$ K. This change of behavior at high temperatures is also seen in the temperature dependence of the linewidth (Fig. 6b). At lower temperatures the $`\mathrm{\Delta }H_{pp}`$ is almost constant, with a slight tendency to decrease with increasing temperature, whereas above the room temperature it changes its slope and starts to increase more rapidly. The temperature dependence of the $`g`$-factor (Fig. 6c) reveals a similar, distinctive change of behavior above the room temperature.

The polymeric phase remains stable up to the depolymerization temperature, $`T_{DP}=520`$ K. Above this temperature, both the $`\mathrm{\Delta }H_{pp}`$ and the $`g`$-factor recover their characteristic values for the ferromagnetic phase (Fig. 7). The depolymerization process is an irreversible transition. At the depolymerization temperature, both polymeric and ferromagnetic ESR features are present, thus pointing to the coexistence of the two phases. It also suggests that this phase transition does not seem to be an abrupt one. As in the case of ferromagnetism, the polymerization process might be influenced by percolation mechanism, as the samples of apparently lesser quality exhibit a bit lower depolymerization temperature.

At low temperatures, the depolymerized crystals reveal the same temperature dependences of the ESR parameters as those observed for the ferromagnetic crystals. The $`g`$-factor shifts remarkably below 15 K, which indicates that the depolymerized crystal undergoes the ferromagnetic phase transition.

## IV Discussion

In the intermediate pressure range, below $`P_C=7`$ kbar, the TDAE-C60 monomer partially polymerizes on cooling. Both the polymerization temperature ($`T_P`$) and the relative ratio of the polymeric to the monomeric fractions depend on pressure (Fig. 4). Preliminary analysis17  has suggested that the polymer would have a linear \[2+2\] cycloadduct bonding structure with a similar intra-chain ball distance as in the case of Rb1C60 (Ref. 20 ). The most prominent difference between the systems is a much larger inter-chain distance in the case of TDAE-C60, which is due to the large size and anisotropic (steric) properties of the TDAE interstitials.

Rich phase diagrams have already been reported for several C60-related compounds. In particular, interesting phase transitions were found for Rb1C60. Depending on cooling rate and quenching, it can form either monomeric, dimeric21  or polymeric phases20 22 . Nevertheless, the coexistence of the two phases has never been observed for Rb1C60. In contrast, the coexistence of two phases at low temperatures was observed in the case of single-bonded linear polymers of Na2RbC60 system23 . In that case, the partial polymerization can be explained by steric effects and by disorder resulting from different possible directions of the bond formation. In contrast, TDAE-C60 is a strongly anisotropic structure with the only one possible direction of the bond formation (c-axis). Hence, the partial polymerization is probably governed by the orientation disorder of JTD-C60 molecules. The polymerization temperature, $`T_P`$, is much lower than the freezing temperature of the C60 molecule rotation for a given pressure. This suggests that the freezing of molecular orientations is not sufficient for initiating the polymerization process and there exists a kinetic barrier for this phase transition. It seems to be natural that different kinetic barriers can characterize various relative orientations of the JTD-C60 molecules. As the remaining monomeric phase still shows a pronounced ferromagnetic order, most probably, the FM molecular configuration has the highest energetic barrier.

It follows from our measurements that the depolymerization of TDAE-C60 occurs at the higher temperature than in the case of one-dimensional A1C60 polymers (A= K, Rb, Cs), where, depending on the compound, $`T_{DP}`$ varies in the range of $`300400`$ K (Ref. 4 ). It seems that $`T_{DP}`$ of TDAE-C60 is rather comparable to that found for the two-dimensional polymer Na4C60 ($`T_{DP}500`$ K)24 . Therefore, the polymeric chains of TDAE-C60 seem to form much more stable structures than the double-bonded polymeric chains of the Rb1C60 system. If the intra-chain bounds of both TDAE-C60 and Rb1C60 were of the same nature (isostructural), one would expect for them similar temperature stability. The observed discrepancy in the temperature stability can be ascribed to a potential structural difference in the two polymeric structures. Alternatively, the previously not investigated effects of dopant molecule and the inter-chain coupling can be important for the polymeric chain stability. A precise structural analysis is needed to answer these questions.

Below room temperature ($`T<260`$ K), the ESR spin susceptibility of the polymerized $`\beta `$phase follows a simple Curie law with one spin $`S=1/2`$ per chemical formula. This indicates that spins probed by the ESR experiment are localized. Moreover, in this temperature range, the ESR linewidth for the polymerized $`\beta `$phase is very narrow ($`0.5`$ G) and almost temperature independent, which suggests strong exchange interactions between the spins. The theoretical band calculations, however, predict that in the absence of electron correlations, the isolated single-charged, double-bonded linear polymer should be metallic with a half-filled band25 . Also, the same property holds well for single-bonded linear polymers encountered in Na2AC60 systems26 . Indeed, all the other charged linear polymers of the C60 compounds, discovered to date, are metallic in a wide temperature range, with possible ground-state instabilities, such as spin-density wave27 . Therefore, the TDAE-C60 polymeric phase seems to be unique.

The inter-chain coupling is very important in alkali fullerides A1C60, influencing their dimensionality. However, according to Erwin et al. 25 , a direct inter-chain coupling interaction can be neglected in TDAE-C60 based on the large inter-chain separation found in these systems.

Assuming a simple model, one would expect the TDAE-C60 polymer should be a strongly anisotropic metal. The effective strong localization observed in the $`\beta `$phase of TDAE-C60 might suggest that its actual polymer topology essentially differs from that of Rb1C60. Alternatively, the localization effect might originate from the possible enhancement of the effective Coulomb repulsion at C60 sites, due to the influence of the TDEA+ radicals. In such a Mott-Hubbard localization scheme, one would expect a non-vanishing Weiss constant. In contrast, the presence of the Weiss constant has not been detected in the low-temperature $`\beta `$phase. Mizoguchi et al.17  suggested that the absence of the Weiss parameter could be explained by re-activation of the positive exchange coupling with the spins of TDAE+ radicals. This, in turn, would fortuitously cancel the negative inter-C60 spin coupling leading to a diminishing Weiss constant. Nevertheless, in this work, we did not observe the complete recovery of the TDAE+ spins in the polymeric phase at the room temperature, as claimed by Mizoguchi et al. Indeed, the appearance of TDAE-spins at elevated temperatures is accompanied with development of the antiferromagnetic Weiss constant.

Assuming that polymeric chains in the $`\beta `$-TDAE-C60 have rather small sizes and are disordered, one can apply a model of the random-exchange AFM Heisenberg 1D chains. In this case, the Weiss temperature would be absent, whereas the ESR susceptibility should be proportional to $`T^a`$, where $`\alpha 0.70.8`$. Fitting this model to our data yields $`\alpha =0.96\pm 0.1`$. Clearly, this result does not support the above-mentioned model. For right now, a plausible reason for non-appearance of the Weiss temperature in the polymer phase remains unclear.

As can be seen in Fig. 6a, in the polymeric $`\beta `$phase, a complete recovery of the TDAE+-related spins is not observed at ambient temperature. The recovery of the spins occurs rather at higher temperatures, with full development at 320 K. The dynamics of the TDAE+-related spins is probably connected to small movements of the TDAE+ molecules leading to the dimerization shift13 .

## V Conclusion

In conclusion, we have investigated the polymerization mechanism in TDAE-C60 ferromagnetic system and the physical properties of the polymeric $`\beta `$-phase. The complete polymerization at room temperature is observed at the pressure of 7 kbar. At the same pressure, the ferromagnetic transition is suppressed. Partial polymerization is observed at lower pressures and temperatures, and the stability of the polymeric phase was established in the $`PT`$ parameter space. The high depolymerization temperature suggests that the polymeric chains are much more stable than in the case of double-bonded linear polymers of the Rb1C60 systems. To deduce the exact structural properties of the polymer, an additional high-resolution X-ray diffraction study is needed.

Moreover, the observed strong localization of spins in the polymeric TDAE-C60 is in contradiction with conclusions from a simple theoretical reasoning and it is not comparable to any other charged linear polymer of the C60. Above 320 K, the previously silent spins on the TDAE-C60 are revealed. The observed decoupling of the TDAE+ spins is accompanied by the appearance of the Weiss constant.

In summary, we conclude that the polymerization phenomenon in TDAE-C60 is very important to better understanding the ferromagnetic properties of the system. However, it can also shed new light towards our general understanding of the ground state electronic properties of the linear fullerides polymers.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work has been supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific research on the priority area “Fullerenes and Nanotubes”, from the Japanese Ministry of Education and Culture (T.K., M.F., and K.O.) and by the Polish KBN Grant #2-PO3B-090-19 (A. S.). The support of the Swiss National Scientific Foundation is also greatly acknowledged (S. G. and L. F.).


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# Flows, Fragmentation, and Star Formation. I. Low-mass Stars in Taurus

## 1 Introduction

The Taurus-Auriga molecular cloud long has been a touchstone for studies of star formation. Although Taurus is not typical of most (massive) star-forming regions, its proximity and low extinction mean that its stellar population is the best determined of any star-forming cloud. Perhaps more importantly, Taurus is relatively quiescent, with low turbulent velocities and a lack of massive stars to dissociate, ionize, and otherwise disrupt the cloud. If the simple, static models of the original paradigm of low-mass star formation (e.g., Shu, Adams, & Lizano 1987) can be applied anywhere, they should work in Taurus.

The spatial distributions with which stars are formed can provide important clues to the processes of star formation. Even though Taurus does not contain populous clusters, many of its stars fall into loose groups (Jones & Herbig 1979; Gomez et al. 1993). So far, the most detailed studies of the stellar spatial distribution in Taurus have considered the two-point correlation function (Gomez et al. 1993) and the related mean surface density of companions (MSDC; Larson 1995). Larson (1995) found that the MSDC exhibited roughly two distinct power-law distributions at small and large scales, the inner region corresponding to close binaries and multiple systems, and the outer region representing the clustering properties of the stars. A break between these two distributions was identified at about $`0.04`$ pc, which Larson suggested was the Jeans length in Taurus (see also Simon 1997 and Bate, Clarke, & McCaughrean 1998).

The molecular gas in Taurus has long been recognized to be filamentary in nature (e.g., Schneider & Elmegreen 1979; Scalo 1990; Mizuno et al. 1995). It is also well-recognized that the young stars are strongly correlated with gas and dust; i.e., that the stellar distribution must exhibit filamentary structure as well. However, the extent of the stellar filamentary distribution, and its physical significance, has not been given sufficient attention, nor has it been viewed in the context of recent numerical simulations of molecular clouds. The spatial distribution of young objects in Taurus is reexamined from this point of view, with emphasis on its relationship to our previous suggestion that the Taurus cloud (like other nearby molecular clouds) was formed by large-scale flows in the interstellar medium (Ballesteros-Paredes, Hartmann, & Vazquez-Semadeni 1999, BHV; Hartmann, Ballesteros-Paredes, & Bergin 2001, HBB).

## 2 Spatial distribution

### 2.1 Sample

The basic sample of young stars in Taurus used in this paper is taken from the tabulation of Kenyon & Hartmann (1995) with various additions. A few new low-mass stars were added from the studies of Briceño et al. (1998, 1999). I further added a few stars from the Rosat All-Sky Survey (RASS) studies of Wichmann et al. (1996, 2000).

Some investigators have argued that the RASS identified large numbers of previously unknown, much older Taurus members (e.g., Neuhäuser et al. 1995; Wichmann et al. 1996), a claim that does not hold up under detailed scrutiny (Briceño et al. 1997; Martin & Magazzu 1998; HBB). However, for present purposes any possible older population is unimportant, because these stars can and probably have dispersed significantly from their birthsites, and so their positions reveal little about star formation processes. For this reason neither the “post-T Tauri” stars identified on the basis of Li by Martin & Magazzu (1998) nor the “zero age main sequence” stars of Wichmann et al. (2000) have been included. I have also eliminated a number of stars originally in Kenyon & Hartmann (1995) which were taken from the study of Walter et al. (1988), based on low Li abundances and also positions in the HR diagram indicating ages greatly in excess of 10 Myr. Note that if all potential pre-main sequence X-ray members were added to the sample, there would be little effect on the subsequent conclusions, because these stars are widely dispersed spatially, and thus constitute a small fraction of the objects in the area under consideration.

### 2.2 Group structure

Figure 1 shows the spatial distribution of young stellar objects superimposed upon the 12CO map of Megeath, Dame, & Thaddeus (2002). Apart from a few small, localized, widely distributed groups (the largest of which is the L1551 group), most of the Taurus stars are found in three nearly parallel, elongated bands. Even the two groups or mini-clusters of L1495 lie at the western end of the main band. The stellar bands lie along parallel filaments in the molecular gas, recognized earlier from extinction studies (Schneider & Elmegreen 1979). (In the following I use the term “band” to refer to extended distributions of stars, and use “filament” to refer to the narrower dense gas structures and stars near these densest structures.)

Figure 2a shows the spatial distributions of the young stars in the central Taurus region, along with the positions of optically-determined cloud cores from the unbiased survey of Lee & Myers (1999). The overall regularity of the structure is perhaps clearer than in the 12CO gas. Three main bands of stars appear to be roughly parallel and approximately spaced apart by a projected distance of about 1.5 degrees, $`3.7`$ pc at the 140 pc distance of Taurus (Kenyon, Dobryzcka, & Hartmann 1994). The two groups of the L1495 region are separated from the main stellar band by a similar distance.

Figure 2b shows the distributions of objects sorted into groups somewhat arbitrarily for further analysis; for example, groups 1 and 2 might be merged into one group. Comparison with Figure 2a shows that only a few, widely-dispersed objects have been deleted from the sample. Stars near the two dense groupings in L1495 have also been marked. The members of the groups shown in Figure 2b are listed in Table 1.

Figure 3 shows schematically the approximate positions of the 13CO filaments identified by Mizuno et al. (1995) superimposed upon the stellar distribution. The positions of the main groups are correlated with the main clusters of gaseous filaments. There is clearly significant substructure within the main bands, especially in the regions of Group 1 and L1495, while Groups 3 and 4 show significantly simpler and much more linear filamentary structure, consistent with the spatial distribution of the stars, as discussed further in §2.3.

The 13CO data demonstrate a velocity difference between Groups 1 and 2 (connecting the clouds B213, L1521, and Heiles Cloud 2), but this difference may simply reflect the large-scale velocity gradient in Taurus. For the same reason the filament extending westward from the Group 3 may be part of the same structure. Several filaments connect the two concentrations of the L1495 cloud at the western end of the complex, suggesting that these concentrations should be considered together.

Figure 4 shows the distribution of Class I and optical cores. These objects are more closely correlated in space than the Class II and Class III sources. In particular, the Group 3 objects centered near (l,b = 174, -16) display a remarkably linear structure (associated with the B18 cloud). This structure is considered in more detail in the following section. A section of Group 1 near (l,b = 171, -16) is associated with the narrow B213 filament, and also displays a remarkably narrow structure.

### 2.3 Ages and spatial dispersion

It would not be surprising if the members of these spatially-concentrated groups are in general younger than the rest of the Taurus population. One simple, likely indicator of age is the spectral energy distribution class. One would expect that the Class 0 - I objects (protostars, with remnant infalling envelopes) are in general younger than the (mostly) optically-visible T Tauri stars. In turn, since accretion disks dissipate over time, one would expect the Class III objects (stars without accreting disks) to be older than the Class II objects (T Tauri stars with disk accretion onto the central star). However, there are many Class III objects in Taurus with ages similar to those of Class II stars (Kenyon & Hartmann 1995), showing that the Class II/Class III dichotomy is not merely a function of age. Here the classes listed in Kenyon & Hartmann (1995) have been used when available; otherwise, the 10 Å criterion for the H$`\alpha `$ equivalent width has been used to distinguish Classical T Tauri stars (II) from Weak T Tauri stars (III).

Of the 204 objects in the total Taurus sample, the numbers of Class I/II/III objects are 24/108/72. The same numbers for groups 1-4 are 19/51/18.111 The assignment of Class I stars was taken from Kenyon & Hartmann (1995). The compilation of Chen et al. (1995) lists 26 total Class 0 and I Taurus stars, not counting the class 0 source IRAM 04191+1522 found by André, Motte, & Bacmann (1999). The assignment of Class I stars in the groups agrees with that of Chen et al. (1995) except for L1527 $`=`$ 04368+2557, which Chen et al. identify as a Class 0 source. These small discrepancies in classification are not important for the overall discussion. (Here the two class I/II objects in the samples, HK Tau and Haro 6-13, have been divided into one net Class I and one net Class II for counting purposes.) L1495 by itself has only one class I object; the ratios are 1/26/13. The total numbers divided by class for the four groups plus L1495 are 20/77/31; therefore, the numbers are 4/31/41 for the Taurus objects outside of the groups and L1495. There is an unsurprising excess of Class I objects in the groups, since the groups are strongly correlated with the dense gas where protostars form. The results also indicate a significant excess of Class III sources in the more distributed population, which would suggest a significant dispersal of accretion disks over a timescale comparable to the median age of Taurus, $`2`$ Myr (Palla & Stahler 2000).

A more direct test of age differences is to plot an HR diagram for the T Tauri stars. Figure 5 shows the results for objects for which spectral types and stellar luminosities are available from either Kenyon & Hartmann (1995) or Briceño et al. (1998). There is some suggestion that the non-grouped stars are older, although much of the effect may be due to inclusion of the L1551 group, which previously has been found to exhibit a wide age spread (Gomez et al. 1992). To examine the possible difference in ages in the least model-dependent way, I consider the luminosity distributions of group and non-group stars over a modest range of effective temperature; the luminosity distribution then corresponds to an age distribution (e.g., Hartmann 2001). A two-sided Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of the luminosity distributions of K7-M1 stars indicates no strongly significant difference between the group and non-grouped stars, and thus does not support a significant difference in age for this mass range. Any possible age difference between the group and non-group T Tauri stars needs to be investigated further, with more complete estimates of stellar luminosities and effective temperatures, along with additional examination of possible systematic errors (Hartmann 2001).

The presence of such well-defined bands and filaments in the stellar spatial distribution implies that the stars in the groups must be relatively young and that the internal velocity dispersions must not be very large. One can take advantage of the remarkably linear structure of Group 3 to investigate this in a simple way. A least-squares linear fit to the positions of the Class I objects and cores in galactic coordinates, first removing the one core that deviates strongly (B18-2; Lee & Myers 1999), yields the dotted line shown in Figure 4. The rms dispersion in distance of these 19 objects (13 cores and 6 Class I or I/II objects) from the line is 0.0667 degree, or $`0.16`$ pc. This is remarkably small considering the total length of the distribution is $`3.93`$ degree $`9.6`$ pc. The spatial dispersion of the 17 Class II and Class III objects from the same line is somewhat larger, $`0.148`$ degree $`0.37`$ pc; the dispersion of Class II objects alone is only marginally smaller, $`0.31`$ pc. It should be noted that this difference in spatial dispersion between the Class I/cores and the II/III objects is marginally significant, only about 2.3 standard deviations.

Assuming that the difference in spatial dispersion between the Class I objects and cores on the one hand, and the T Tauri stars on the other, is real and is due entirely to dispersal and not to a difference in birth sites, then an upper limit to the velocity dispersion can be estimated. Assuming the average age of the Taurus stars of $`2`$ Myr (Palla & Stahler 2000; see Hartmann 2001 for the difficulty in assigning individual ages to young stars), this would imply that the Class II/Class III objects of group 3 have a velocity dispersion perpendicular to the filament (in the plane of the sky) $`0.2\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, comparable to the sound speed at 10 K. If these stars are systematically younger than average (see above), the upper limit to the dispersion might be somewhat larger; on the other hand, the true birthsites of these objects could be more widely spread than the Class I/core objects. In any event, the implied small velocity dispersion emphasizes the quiescent nature of this filament.

### 2.4 Surface density analysis

As mentioned in the Introduction, the spatial structure of the Taurus YSOs has previously been discussed in terms of companions per unit area, either with the MSDC (Larson 1995; Simon 1997) or the two-point correlation function (Gomez et al. 1993). On large scales, Larson (1995) estimated that the MSDC was approximately a power-law, $`\theta ^{0.62}`$, and suggested that this indicated hierarchical clustering, perhaps of a fractal nature. The slope of the MSDC changed dramatically at small scales $`0.02`$ degree $`0.05`$ pc, at which point binary and multiple systems dominate the rapid rise in the MSDC. Larson interpreted this break as setting the Jeans length in Taurus.

Figure 6 shows an updated version of the MSDC, including additional members of Taurus not known earlier. As discussed in Simon (1997), it is difficult to estimate errors for the MSDC or correlation function because the data bins are not independent. The errors in Figure 6 have been crudely estimated by dividing the Taurus stars into four samples and calculating the resulting dispersion (averaged slightly among bins). Here I concentrate on the structure of the MSDC outside of the “binary” or companion star regime, $`\mathrm{log}\theta 2`$; the innermost region has been treated in detail by Simon (1997).

Using smaller spatial bins spanning a larger range of separations than considered by Larson (1995) or Simon (1997), the MSDC exhibits an apparently significant break near $`\mathrm{log}\theta =1`$, which is only hinted at in the results of Simon (1997) but appears more clearly in the results of Gomez et al. (1993) (see their Figure 2). The large-scale MSDC slope is steeper, $`0.98\pm 0.04`$, than found by Larson or Simon. The difference appears to be that the previous investigators binned over larger size scales, and limited the fit to smaller scales, so that their fits spanned the turnover at $`\mathrm{log}\theta =1`$.

The MSDC, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(\theta )\theta ^s`$, is the number of companions per unit area, which depends not only upon the tendency of stars to group together, but also the overall geometry of the star-forming region. Consider a simple model in which stars are distributed roughly uniformly along an (infinitely long) filament. On scales larger than the filament width, the number of companions to any given star will increase linearly with increasing distance, while the (two-dimensional) area increases as the square of the distance; thus, the slope of the MSDC should approach $`s1`$. On scales smaller than the filament width, if the stars are uniformly distributed in space, the MSDC will be flat, $`s0`$. If the stars within the filament tend to be more clustered, $`s`$ will be negative, while if there is a tendency for the stars to be no closer than a certain distance, $`s`$ can be positive.

I thus suggest that the filamentary structure in Taurus is mostly responsible for the slope $`s1`$ at large separations, and that the stellar distribution does not exhibit a fractal structure (see Blitz & Williams 1997 for a similar conclusion concerning fractal structure in the gas). There may be problems with this interpretation on the largest scales, because some of the filaments are only a few degrees long; on the other hand, eliminating all the bins with $`\theta >`$ 1 degree would still yield a similar slope at the largest scales considered. The break between the large-scale structure and the binary distribution at approximately 0.25 pc probably indicates the typical filament width, or some average spacing between stars, or both (§3.3).

## 3 Discussion

### 3.1 Filaments and turbulence

One of the major problems in molecular cloud formation and evolution is the nature and source(s) of turbulent motions in clouds. Turbulence clearly plays a role in the dynamics of molecular clouds (e.g., Larson 1981); however, recent numerical simulations show that MHD turbulent motions decay rapidly in molecular clouds, generally on a crossing time or free-fall time (Stone, Ostriker, & Gammie 1998; Mac Low et al. 1998; Padoan & Nordlund 1999; Mac Low 1999). If clouds last for a “long time”, this rapid damping of MHD turbulence requires the continual injection of turbulent energy to “support” the cloud against its self-gravity. On the other hand, if clouds do not have long lifetimes (BHV; HBB; Elmegreen 2000), then turbulence need not be regenerated (BHV; Elmegreen 2000; HBB; Pringle, Allen, & Lubow 2001). Locally-generated, stellar-driven turbulence must be important in many regions, especially those in which high-mass stars are formed. Taurus would seem to be a good candidate for minimal effects of local turbulence because it lacks high-mass stars, though low-mass stars may inject substantial amounts of energy through their bipolar outflows (Matzner & McKee 1999, 2000).

Although the general filamentary structure of gas and stars in Taurus has been recognized for some time, its extent is remarkable; the main band (groups 1 and 2) extends essentially from one end of the complex to the other. Furthermore, the other bands are roughly parallel to the main structure. This large-scale organization of the Taurus clouds strongly suggests that any turbulence present must be dominated by a large-scale component, or alternatively, not driven mostly on small scales, a conclusion reinforced by recent numerical simulations of molecular clouds. Many simulations often adopt an ad hoc driving force or velocity field, or an initial spectrum of density fluctuations, with a fixed distribution of amplitudes and spatial wavenumbers (e.g., Heitsch, MacLow, & Klessen 2001; Ostriker, Stone, & Gammie 2001; Klessen & Burkert 2000). Consider specifically the simulations of Klessen & Burkert (2000, 2001) and Klessen (2001), who studied the dynamical evolution of an isothermal molecular cloud in a cubical volume, with various assumptions about initial density fluctuations and driving of turbulence on a variety of scales. Unsurprisingly, in the Klessen & Burkert (2000, 2001) simulations with density fluctuations leading to velocity perturbations, or in the Klessen (2001) simulations with energy driving, calculations with significant power in small spatial wavenumbers (on small spatial scales) lead to small-scale structure, while simulations with driving at low wavenumbers (large spatial scales) lead to larger-scale structure, in particular the formation of filaments with large spatial extent relative to the size of the computational volume (for example, Figure 1 of Klessen 2001).

Based on these simulations, as well as simple considerations, it seems unlikely that local turbulent energy injection has produced the bands and filaments of Taurus. Rather, I conjecture that the Taurus cloud structure is consistent with large-scale driving of turbulence. If, as BHV and HBB suggested, large-scale flows are responsible for the formation of the Taurus molecular cloud, such large-scale driving could produce large-scale turbulence and complex-wide structure. These conclusions are in agreement with the suggestion of Burkert & Mac Low (2002) that such large-scale driving is dominant in many molecular clouds. This is also consistent with observations of low-density, non-self-gravitating molecular clouds, in which structure is observed (sometimes filamentary) that must be driven by external flows (Falgarone et al. 1998; LaRosa, Shore, & Magnani 1999; Sakamoto 2002).

The large-scale magnetic field in the Taurus region is well-ordered, and oriented roughly perpendicular (in projection) to the filaments (Moneti et al. 1984; Heyer et al. 1987). This is also consistent with large-scale, ordered turbulence, as simulations with comparable magnetic and flow energies show that the turbulent motions carry the field around as much as the field channels the flow (see discussion in HBB). In this way the magnetic field may provide a preferential direction for concentration.

In general, one might expect that colliding flows tend to produce more sheet-like distributions than filaments, although both are possible results of turbulence (e.g., Klein & Woods 1998). One way of producing filaments from sheets, suggested by Schneider & Elmegreen (1979), and pointed out to the author by P. Myers (personal communication), is by gravitational fragmentation (e.g., Miyama et al. 1987a,b; Nakajima & Hanawa 1996). Using the extreme limiting case of an isothermal, static, self-gravitating sheet, the critical wavelength is $`2\pi H`$, where $`H`$ is the scale height (Larson 1985). The $`3.7`$ pc separation of the filaments would then suggest a full thickness of the initial sheet of only $`1`$ pc. The sheet thickness could be even less if one assumes that the filaments are produced by the fastest growing modes, not the critical one (e.g., Miyama et al. 19897a,b; Nakajima & Hanawa 1996). As the Taurus molecular gas is not static but contains supersonic turbulence, and as it is highly unlikely to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, these estimates is highly uncertain. Nevertheless, if the thickness of the sheet or individual filaments were much greater than 1 pc, they would have to be oriented almost precisely along the line of sight. This seems unlikely, particularly for the Group 3 structure; an intrinsically filamentary structure seems more probable (e.g., Schneider & Elmegreen 1979).

In addition, if the clouds are produced by oblique flows, the resulting turbulent velocity dispersion in the post-shock flow might well be anisotropic, providing a preferential direction for gravitational contraction. Numerical simulations are needed to test this possibility for enhancing formation of filaments.

### 3.2 Filaments and fragmentation

Broadly speaking, there are two extreme views of how protostellar cores are fragmented from their surrounding molecular cloud. One posits gravitational fragmentation into Jeans-mass-sized objects (e.g., Larson 1985); the other supposes that turbulent flows concentrate mass into cores which then are gravitationally-bound (e.g., Padoan & Nordlund 1999), or that the cloud has a highly complex, hierarchical if not fractal structure (Elmegreen 1997) not primarily driven by gravity. The true situation must fall somewhere in between these extremes, as star-forming clouds exhibit supersonic turbulence which must be damped to some extent before gravitational collapse can proceed, and any concentrations of gas formed by turbulence will only form stars if they satisfy a Jeans criterion.

Larson (1985) emphasized that gravitational fragmentation generally requires the presence of substructure, such as sheets or filaments, to provide a smaller scale length than the entire cloud. The fragmentation length is generally a small multiple of a characteristic scale length in the gas (e.g., Oganesyan 1960a,b; Chandrasekhar & Fermi 1953). In an equilibrium self-gravitating sheet or filament, for example, the scale height is by definition the length scale over which pressure forces can resist gravity; the Jeans length along the sheet or filament then must be a few times larger than the scale height.

The filamentary structure of the stellar distribution in Taurus suggests that gravitational fragmentation in the filaments should be considered as a mechanism for forming cores. The extreme contrary view, in which flows create isolated cores, is difficult to fit in with the observed linear morphology of Taurus; one would expect much more distributed, “frothy” or bubble-shaped structures. It should be acknowledged that some of the stars in Taurus may result from such flows, particularly in the more distributed areas, and perhaps such flows are responsible for formation of tighter groups such as the L1551 region; however, even some of the distributed regions do appear to be elongated, and there is evidence in the 12CO map for an extended gaseous filament to the west of L1551 (see Figure 1).

Although the Taurus filaments exhibit supersonic motions, it is useful to begin by reviewing the properties of isothermal, infinite, self-gravitating cylinders as a starting point. Consider a cylinder infinitely extended in the $`z`$ direction, with $`R`$ the radial distance in cylindrical coordinates. The critical line density (mass per unit length in the z direction) is a function only of temperature (Ostriker 1964);

$$m=2c_s^2/G,$$
(1)
where $`c_s`$ is the isothermal sound speed. Assuming a mean molecular weight of $`2.36m_H`$, this line density corresponds to

$$m=16.3T_{10}\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{pc}^1,$$
(2)
where $`T_{10}`$ is the gas temperature in units of 10 K. Line densities above this critical value result in collapse in the $`R`$ direction. The Jeans length in the $`z`$ dimension for the cylinder of critical line density is (Larson 1985)

$$\lambda _c=3.94c_s^2/(G\mathrm{\Sigma }_0)$$
(3)
or

$$\lambda _c=1.5T_{10}A_V^1\mathrm{pc}.$$
(4)
Here $`A_V`$ is the visual extinction through the center of the filament, and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is the corresponding surface density, where I use the conversion $`A_V=\mathrm{\Sigma }/4.4\times 10^3\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. The corresponding critical mass for this fragment is (Larson 1985)

$$M_c=24T_{10}^2A_V^1\mathrm{M}_{}.$$
(5)
The filament has a density structure as a function of cylindrical radius R of

$$\rho =\rho _0(1+R^2/(4H^2))^2,$$
(6)
where the scale height $`H`$ is given by

$$H=c_s^2/(2G\mathrm{\Sigma }_0)=0.19T_{10}A_V^1\mathrm{pc}.$$
(7)
A fragmenting filament will clearly be elongated in the $`z`$ direction, at least initially (Oganesyan 1960b; Chandrasekhar & Fermi 1953; Larson 1985). In terms of the diameter of the filament at which the density falls to one-half its central value, $`d(\rho )=2.57H`$, the aspect ratio is $`\lambda _c/d(\rho )=3.09`$. In terms of the half-mass diameter $`d(m)=4H`$ (e.g., Ostriker 1964), the aspect ratio is $`\lambda _c/d(m)2`$. Note that the aspect ratio is independent of temperature and density.

It is also of interest to consider the linear growth time for gravitational instability. Larson (1985) extrapolated the results from the incompressible filament to estimate a rough linear growth rate for the isothermal cylinder. From Larson’s Figure 1 the growth timescale is estimated to be

$$\tau 3.7T_{10}^{1/2}A_V^1\mathrm{Myr}.$$
(8)
Now compare this limiting static model with the real Taurus filaments and bands. Table 2 lists lengths and number densities of stars in the several groups. For the purpose of determining line number densities for the main regions of the groups, the westernmost member of group 3 and the easternmost one and two members of groups 2 and 4, respectively, have been eliminated. The resulting line densities are remarkably similar, $`4`$ stars pc-1; only the L1495 group(s) exhibit much higher density. This line density implies an average distance to the nearest (stellar) neighbor of about 0.25 pc; this is similar to the estimated $`0.3`$ pc for the median nearest-neighbor distance for all of Taurus found by Gomez et al. (1993), and is consistent with the break seen in the MSDC in Figure 6.

Masses are not available for all of the individual objects (for example, the Class I sources), and in any event mass determinations are subject to uncertainties in evolutionary tracks and binary/multiple companion masses. For the purpose of a rough comparison, it suffices to estimate the average system mass as about $`1\mathrm{M}_{}`$, a number arrived at by adopting the typical Taurus stellar mass of $`0.7\mathrm{M}_{}`$ and recognizing that most objects in Taurus are members of multiple systems (Simon et al. 1995). The stellar bands in Taurus thus have a typical line density of roughly $`4\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{pc}^1`$, approximately 1/4 of the the critical line density of the equilibrium isothermal filament at 10 K.

The stars in the groups constitute less mass than the associated gas. To estimate this, I turn to the C18O survey of Taurus by Onishi et al. (1996, 1998). Adding up the masses of C18O cores identified in the B18 cloud (corresponding to the main region of Group 3) results in a total of $`126\mathrm{M}_{}`$ spanning about 3.6 pc, or about $`35\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{pc}^1`$. As a check, a similar density $`30\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{pc}^1`$ is found for the B213 filament (in Group 1). These values are approximately twice the critical density for the equilibrium isothermal filament at 10 K. (Note that Onishi et al.  estimate a possible uncertainty of a factor of two in conversion from the C18O measurements to total molecular hydrogen density.)

The difference between the average line densities of the stellar groups, which (outside of L1495) are about 1/4 of the critical value for a static isothermal cylinder, and that of the dense gas at about twice the critical value, indicates the limited efficiency of star formation at the present epoch. As star formation is clearly still continuing, given the large proportion of Class I sources in the groups, the stellar density may increase from the present value. If one adopts the estimate that the average age of the Taurus stars is $`2`$ Myr (Palla & Stahler 2000), and that molecular clouds in the solar neighborhood disperse after a timescale of order 4 Myr or less (HBB), it is possible that Taurus is only about halfway through forming stars; in this case the ultimate stellar density in the groups might approach half the critical value, an efficiency of conversion of 18CO dense filamentary gas to stars of order 25%.

The average column density of the starless cores, as estimated by Onishi et al. (1998), is $`5\times 10^{21}\mathrm{cm}^2`$, or $`A_V5`$. Inserting this value into equations (4), (5), and (8) yields $`\lambda _c0.3\mathrm{pc}`$, $`M_c5\mathrm{M}_{}`$, and $`\tau 0.7`$ Myr, all assuming hydrostatic equilibrium at 10 K. These size scales, masses, and lifetimes are comparable to the average properties estimated for NH3 or optical cores in Taurus (Jijina, Myers, & Adams 1999; Lee & Myers 1999).

This picture is consistent with the structure of the MSDC. Although Larson (1995) interpreted the break at $`0.02`$ degree $`0.05`$ pc as the Jeans length in Taurus, it seems more reasonable to interpret the break in the MSDC at 0.25 pc scale as the true average Jeans length. This is roughly consistent with the results of Blitz & Williams (1997), who found a characteristic length scale in 13CO emission in Taurus of order 0.25-0.5 pc, and similarly identified this with the Jeans length. It is possible that this length corresponds to the width of a filament, but this is closely related to the Jeans length as discussed above, and it is not clear how to distinguish these possibilities from the MSDC. In any event, because the protostellar clouds are not generally rotationally supported, collapse to a smaller structure will likely result in fragmentation into binaries or multiple systems with separations smaller than the original cloud Jeans length. This provides an explanation of the two breaks in the MSDC, one at the scale $`\mathrm{log}\theta 1.7`$ or $`r`$ 0.05 pc marking the appearance of binary systems, and the other at 0.25 pc corresponding to the Jeans length.222 It is worth noting that Figure 1b of Simon (1997) suggests a similar break in the MSDC for Ophiuchus, but at a slightly smaller scale than in Taurus. This might indicate a smaller Jeans length in this higher-density region (but see Bate, Clarke, & McCaughrean 1998 for a discussion of some limitations of MSDC analyses). Implicit in this discussion is the idea that the stars have not dispersed far from their birthsites, as suggested by the narrow distribution of Group 3.

One problem in comparing the observations with a static model is that the average velocity dispersion seen in the C18O cores ($`0.4\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ for starless regions) is considerably larger than the sound speed at 10 K, $`0.19\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (although in the densest regions the velocity dispersion in the gas approaches the thermal value much more closely; Rydbeck et al. 1977; Myers, Linke, & Benson 1983; Barranco & Goodman 1999). Thus, the equilibrium cylinder may be used only as a guide to the true physical situation. However, the simulation of Nakajima & Hanawa (1996) of filament formation from a static sheet suggests that a relatively quiescent and static filament might be present for some reasonable period of time; in their model, supersonically-moving material which passes through a shock before accreting into the (relatively static) filament.

Onishi et al. (1998), who also proposed that gravitational fragmentation is operating in the C18O filaments, suggested that the line width should be interpreted in terms of an additional turbulent pressure support. If this were the case, changing the effective sound speed upward by a factor of two would increase the characteristic length scale to a value of order 1 pc, and the characteristic mass would be closer to $`30\mathrm{M}_{}`$. The situation might be even more complicated if a non-standard equation of state were used in which turbulent pressure increases with decreasing density (e.g., McLaughlin & Pudritz 1997). However, the observed velocity width may not represent simply pressure support but more complex motions (Ballesteros-Paredes, Vazquez-Semadeni, & Scalo 1999). If the average line density in the filaments really does exceed the critical value, the filaments could be collapsing radially, which might explain part of the observed velocity dispersion. Alternatively, one might be detecting the supersonic motions of material accreting onto (relatively static) filaments, as in the calculations of Nakajima & Hanawa (1996).

Another problem is the efficiency of star formation. It appears that only a fraction $``$ 25% of dense filament gas will become stars. Léorat, Passot, & Poquet (2000) and Klessen, Heitsch, & Mac Low (2000) showed that small scale driving is needed to prevent gravitational collapse. Outflows or other protostellar energy input on small scales from local sources, i.e. objects located within the filament, may be required to disperse filamentary gas and limit star formation (e.g., Adams & Fatuzzo 1996; Matzner & McKee 1999, 2000).

### 3.3 Protostellar core structure

This picture of gravitational fragmentation suggests that the fragmenting cores might be elongated (e.g., Schneider & Elmegreen 1979). The static model suggests aspect ratios of 2-3, as discussed above, comparable to the average aspect ratio for optical cores of 2.4 found by Lee & Myers (1999). Moreover, the cores show a tendency to be elongated along the filaments (e.g., Myers et al. 1991), as would be predicted by the static model. Figure 7 shows the spatial distribution and position angles of all elongated optical cores studied by Lee & Myers (1999). The cores tend to be elongated along the filamentary structure (Myers et al. 1991). The alignment is particularly strong in the group 3/B18/L1506 region; only 2 of the 13 cores have orientations deviating by more than about 30 degrees from the overall orientation of the filament. Note that Myers et al. (1991) showed that many tracers - NH3, extinction, etc. - show similar elongations on differing scales, and so the choice of optical core properties does not bias the results. It is also worth noting that Tachihara et al. (2000) found a similar trend for cores to be aligned with filaments in Ophiuchus.

Again, one must emphasize that static models are not necessarily applicable to the dynamic conditions in Taurus. However, the numerical simulations of Klessen & Burkert (2000) found that the gravitationally-unstable clumps were often elongated as part of a larger filamentary structure, suggesting that the qualitative results of the static stability analysis are relevant.

Some cores are aligned at large angles to the overall filamentary structure. However, in several cases these objects lie near more complex filamentary structure seen in 13CO (for example, the two cores near l=172, b=-15.5 are situated along a filamentary section which runs nearly perpendicular to the overall filamentary structure, as shown in Figure 3). The more complex structure seen in the 13CO map suggests that small-scale structure can play a non-negligible role in driving star formation. Along these lines, it is worth noting that the filamentary structure near the L1495 “double group” is quite complicated (cf. Figure 3), leading to the speculation that intersecting smaller-scale flows have led to building up a larger mass concentration which can then fragment into groups that are denser than the other filaments (cf. Table 2), a feature observed in the simulations of Klessen & Burkert (2000, 2001) and Klessen (2001).

Models of collapsing clouds indicate that close binary or multiple star formation is best achieved by clouds which are not highly centrally concentrated initially, and upon which some non-axisymmetric perturbation is imposed (Boss 1995, and references therein; Boss 1997; Bodenheimer et al. 2000). In this regard the collapse of an elongated cylinder might be nearly ideal for producing binaries (e.g., Boss 1993), which Taurus seems to do at a rate exceeding that of the field (Simon et al. 1995, and references therein).

In a recent paper Jones & Basu (2002; see also Jones, Basu, & Dubinski 2001) suggest that cores are in general triaxial, closer to prolate on large scales but more nearly oblate on small scales.333The opposite conclusion was erroneously reported in the discussion in HBB. It is difficult to reconcile the picture of oblate cores with the filamentary organization of Taurus cores and their clear systematic orientation along the filaments, especially in group 3. Fragmentation out of a filament could produce oblate objects if contraction occurs along the filament; but then the long axes of the cores would be aligned perpendicular to the filament, not parallel as observed. In this context, Curry (2002) has performed an additional analysis of cores shapes and concluded that most are quasi-prolate, assuming random orientation of inclinations, and has also pointed out the likelihood of fragmenting cores out of filaments.

Alternatively, one might suppose that the Taurus filaments are more elongated along the line of sight than their minor axes projected upon the sky would indicate; in this way fragmentation into long pieces along the filament could be consistent with quasi-oblate objects. However, this would require that the sheets be viewed nearly edge-on to appear filamentary. A test of this idea would be to study core orientations relative to the larger-scale filamentary structure in other regions. If cores are systematically oriented closely along their natal filaments in most or all regions, it is unlikely that this can be attributed to projection effects, and would favor the quasi-prolate configuration.

It is also important to consider the evolution of a collapsing flattened structure. Consider for example the calculations performed by Hartmann et al. (1994) for the isothermal self-gravitating sheet. In the early stages of gravitational collapse, a central condensation initially forms which is much rounder than the initial configuration - this is a natural product of gravity operating on a scale of order the sheet scale height or smaller. This structure persists until material in the shortest dimension has been able to fall in. In other words, the cloud structure is not that of a uniform (quasi-) ellipsoid on all scales. This may be consistent with the finding of Jones & Basu (2002), who suggest that protostellar clouds are more prolate on large scales even if more oblate on small scales. A strong central density concentration which is more nearly spherical does not mean that the parent core was not highly elongated, nor that subsequent infall will be spherical. Observations with higher spatial resolution, spanning a wider range of densities, would be helpful in sorting among these possibilities.

### 3.4 Dynamic star formation

If protostellar cloud cores are generally (roughly) prolate, at least on larger scales, this poses problems for hydrostatic equilibrium models of cores supported primarily by magnetic fields. Curry & Stahler (2001) have developed models of quasi-static cores which are prolate; however, in these models the magnetic field is oriented along the major axis of the cloud. As noted in the previous section, the large-scale magnetic field in Taurus is more nearly perpendicular to the filaments and thus to the core elongations. While there are no direct measurements of field directions in the filaments, it is more plausible to suppose that the field remains roughly perpendicular to the core major axes than otherwise. The model of Fiege & Pudritz (2000), in which the filaments are constrained by fields with a modest helical component, cannot be ruled out in the absence of more detailed magnetic field measurements, but the maintainence of such helical components seems to require special conditions, e.g., fixing the ends of the helical magnetic field lines to maintain the twist. Curry (2000) has identified prolate equilibria in cylindrical geometry without magnetic fields; however, it is not clear that such solutions are relevant, given the observed high line densities and supersonic turbulence observed in the Taurus filaments.

It seems more likely that the cores are not in hydrostatic equilibrium (Fleck 1992), which would not require special conditions, though some regions may be relatively quiescent or quasi-static. Because the core lifetimes, of order a few $`\times 10^5`$ yr (Lee & Myers 1999), are consistent with the linear growth times for gravitational collapse (§3.2), there is no need for exact hydrostatic equilibrium. It should be emphasized that if cores are gravitationally fragmenting from (low velocity-dispersion) filaments, the very act of their formation implies contraction on their largest scales, with subsonic motions during the linear growth regime, consistent with the large-scale, slow infall inferred by Tafalla et al. (1998) and Lee, Myers, & Tafalla (2001).

In a dynamic picture, all that is required is that shock dissipation of turbulent motions produces subsonic flows, in which cores can gravitationally fragment (Padoan & Nordlund 1999; Klessen & Burkert 2000, 2001)). Although cores are unlikely to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, they may start their existence as subsonically-evolving objects in the post-shock gas; for this reason static models of cores still can be used a guide to the more complex physics of real cores.

These considerations suggest the following, highly schematic, picture of low-mass star formation in Taurus (Figure 8). Large-scale flows might form either filaments or more likely sheet-like structures (Figure 8a), which becomes molecular when the accumulated surface density is large enough that $`A_V1`$; at this point, self-gravity of the layer becomes important (HBB). An initially sheet-like configuration might collapse laterally to form filaments, either due to turbulent instabilities or gravitational contraction, (Figure 8b, middle figure, side view). The turbulence driven by the flows has a large-scale component, possibly associated with and/or channeled by the large-scale magnetic field; this results in contraction into extended bands or low density filaments. The densest regions of these contracting filaments, where secondary shocks have dissipated more of the turbulent motions, gravitationally fragment into elongated structures which correspond to protostellar cloud cores (Figure 8b, bottom figure, top view).

This model is clearly highly schematic; Figure 3 shows that individual dense filaments can be much more complex in structure than outlined here. Furthermore, even at a schematic level this might not necessarily apply to all star formation in Taurus; roughly 60% of the total population do not fall into groups 1-4, and the geometry of the more “clustered” groups (L1495, L1551) is different. On the other hand, it must be recognized that dispersal of gas and stars, which has clearly gone on in Taurus to some extent, will tend to erase any initial structure. Even if the gaseous structure is more complicated in general than long straight filaments (e.g., Figure 3), the qualitative aspects of sheet formation by flows, flow-driven or gravitational contraction into filaments due to anisotropic turbulent and magnetic pressures, followed by protostellar core fragmentation from filaments may still be applicable.

## 4 Conclusions

The spatial distribution of young stars in Taurus is remarkably filamentary and well-organized. The large-scale coherence of the spatial distribution suggests that small-scale turbulence is not dominating the cloud structure, consistent with driving by external flows which could have formed the cloud. The spatial distribution of young stars is consistent with a roughly uniform distribution along bands and filaments, with a spacing comparable to the local Jeans length. The efficiency of star formation in filaments is much higher than elsewhere; the higher frequency of protostars and accreting T Tauri stars indicates that the population in these filaments is relatively young. The protostellar cores from which the stars formed are often elongated along the filaments in which they reside, consistent with formation by gravitational fragmentation. Fragmentation of filaments naturally produces elongated, roughly prolate cloud cores whose structure is well-suited to producing binaries after collapse. Numerical simulations of turbulent clouds with higher spatial resolution, and turbulent driving on large scales, are urgently needed to compare with the observations of this nearby region which constitutes the main example of “quiescent” star formation.

The fragmentation of filaments into stars in Taurus has an echo on larger scales in regions of high mass and clustered star formation, a topic addressed in the second paper in this series.

The discussion of this paper was strongly influenced by my collaboration with Javier Ballesteros, especially the many discussions we have had concerning turbulent support. The paper also benefited greatly from the suggestions, comments, and encouragement of Phil Myers, who also suggested the importance of the roughly periodic banded/filamentary structure of Taurus, and its implications in terms of fragmentation from a sheet-like structure. This work was supported in part by NASA grant NAG5-9670.


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# Gap nodes in the superconducting phase of the itinerant ferromagnet 𝑈𝐺𝑒₂.

## 1 Introduction

The itinerant ferromagnet UGe2 becomes superconducting in a pressure interval $`11<P_c<16kbar`$ at a temperature below $`0.8K`$ . This temperature is much smaller then the Curie temperature $`T_c`$ for the same pressure. The estimated splitting of (quasi)spin-up and spin-down Fermi surfaces is 2 - 3 orders of magnitude greater then the superconducting gap. This condition rules out the possibility of the spin-singlet Cooper pairing. At a triplet pairing the order parameter is a complex vector function $`𝐝(𝐤)`$. As a consequence of time reversal symmetry breaking superconducting phases of a ferromagnet generally speaking are nonunitary, i.e. $`𝐝`$ and $`𝐝^{}`$ are not proportional to each other, or $`𝐝\times 𝐝^{}0`$. Possible forms of the order parameters for the superconducting phases emerging continuously from a given normal phase can be classified if the group of symmetry of the normal phase is known . An attempt of such classification for UGe2 has been made in a ref. . It has been observed that the magnetic group of an orthorombic ferromagnetic crystal $`D_2(C_2)`$ is isomorphic to $`D_2`$ and the basis functions of four different representations of the group $`D_2`$: , B1, B2, B3 were suggested as possible forms of the order parameter. It was shown later (ref. ) that not all of the suggested functions are independent. Because of the specific rules for the multiplication of antiunitary elements of magnetic groups the basis functions corresponding to the representations A and B1 are equivalent i.e. are transformed according to one corepresentation of the magnetic group. Two other functions are also mutually equivalent. As a result there are only two essentially different types of symmetry of the superconducting order parameter.

For an experimental identification of a type of the order parameter, which is realised in UGe2 the existence and of gap nodes and their character for each of the phases are of importance. The aim of the present paper is to find the nodes. The following arguments apply as well to another orthorombic itinerant superconducting ferromagnet – URhGe .

## 2 Basis functions

Let us find first a general form of the functions $`𝚿_A`$ and $`𝚿_B`$, which are transformed under two different corepresentations A and B of magnetic group $`D_2(C_2)`$. The group $`D_2(C_2)`$ contains four operators. Two of them – the unity operator $`E`$ and the rotation for an angle $`\pi `$ around z-direction $`C_2^z`$ are unitary. Two others – $`RC_2^x`$ and $`RC_2^y`$ contain time reversal $`R`$ and are nonunitary. Corepresentations are formed by matrices $`G_1`$ and $`G_z`$ corresponding to the unitary operators and $`F_x`$, $`F_y`$ – to the nonunitary. In the present case corepresentations are one-dimensional and the matrices $`G_1,G_z,F_x,F_y`$ are just complex numbers. According to the rules of multiplication of matrices forming corepresentations  they satisfy the following equations $`G_z^2=G_1,F_xF_x^{}=G_1,F_yF_y^{}=G_1,F_xF_y^{}=G_z`$. These equations have two solutions, giving rise to two corepresentations. One of them (referred as A) has a form:

$$G_1=1;G_z=1;F_x=e^{2i\varphi };F_y=e^{2i\varphi }.$$
$`(1)`$
The other – B a form:

$$G_1=1;G_z=1;F_x=e^{2i\varphi };F_y=e^{2i\varphi },$$
$`(2)`$
where $`\varphi `$ is a real scalar. Let us write down $`𝚿_A`$ in a form adopted for the strong spin-orbit coupling scheme :

$$𝚿_A=𝐱f_x(𝐤)+𝐲f_y(𝐤)+𝐳f_z(𝐤),$$
$`(3)`$
where x, y, z\- unit vectors directed along the symmetry axes b, c, a. In the ferromagnetic phase a is an easy magnetization axis. All functions $`f_{x,y,z}(𝐤)`$ are odd with respect to k, i.e. $`f_x(𝐤)=f_x(𝐤)`$ etc.. $`𝚿_A`$ under the action of operators $`E;C_2^z;RC_2^x;RC_2^y`$ is multiplied by the numbers specified by the eq. (1). That imposes constraints on the functions $`f_x(𝐤),f_y(𝐤),f_z(𝐤)`$. Since all operators in question are linear or antilinear the constraints are imposed separately on each function $`f_x,f_y,f_z`$. For $`f_x(𝐤)`$ it is

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill f_x(k_x,k_y,k_z)=f_x(k_x,k_y,k_z);& & \\ \hfill f_x^{}(k_x,k_y,k_z)=e^{2i\varphi }f_x(k_x,k_y,k_z);& & \\ \hfill f_x^{}(k_x,k_y,k_z)=e^{2i\varphi }f_x(k_x,k_y,k_z).& & \end{array}$$

The constraints for $`f_y(𝐤)`$ are obtained by interchange of indices $`x`$ and $`y`$. The constraints for $`f_z(𝐤)`$ are:

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill f_z(k_x,k_y,k_z)=f_z(k_x,k_y,k_z);& & \\ \hfill f_z^{}(k_x,k_y,k_z)=e^{2i\varphi }f_z(k_x,k_y,k_z);& & \\ \hfill f_z^{}(k_x,k_y,k_z)=e^{2i\varphi }f_z(k_x,k_y,k_z).& & \end{array}$$

The above conditions are satisfied by the following function

$$𝚿_A=e^{i\varphi _A}\{\widehat{𝐱}k_x(a_{11}+ik_xk_ya_{10})+\widehat{𝐲}k_y(a_{22}+ik_xk_ya_{20})+\widehat{𝐳}k_z(a_{33}+ik_xk_ya_{30})\},$$
$`(4)`$
where $`\varphi _A`$, $`a_{11}`$,… are real functions of $`k_x^2,k_y^2,k_z^2`$. $`𝚿_A`$ defined by eq. (4) differs from that given by eq.(2) of ref. by the phase factor $`e^{i\varphi _A}`$. When $`\varphi _A=\pi /2`$, $`𝚿_A`$ defined by eq. (4) can be cast in a form coinciding with $`𝚿_{B_1}`$ of ref..

For the corepresentation B the constraints for $`f_x(𝐤)`$ are:

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill f_x(k_x,k_y,k_z)=f_x(k_x,k_y,k_z),& & \\ \hfill f_x^{}(k_x,k_y,k_z)=e^{2i\varphi }f_x(k_x,k_y,k_z),& & \\ \hfill f_x^{}(k_x,k_y,k_z)=e^{2i\varphi }f_x(k_x,k_y,k_z),& & \end{array}$$

and for $`f_z(𝐤)`$:

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill f_z(k_x,k_y,k_z)=f_z(k_x,k_y,k_z);& & \\ \hfill f_z^{}(k_x,k_y,k_z)=e^{2i\varphi }f_z(k_x,k_y,k_z);& & \\ \hfill f_z^{}(k_x,k_y,k_z)=e^{2i\varphi }f_z(k_x,k_y,k_z).& & \end{array}$$

A general form of the basis function for the corepresentation B reads as:

$$𝚿_B=e^{i\varphi _B}\{\widehat{𝐱}k_z(b_{13}+ik_xk_yb_{10})+\widehat{𝐲}k_z(ib_{23}+k_xk_yb_{20})+\widehat{𝐳}k_x(b_{31}+ik_xk_yb_{30})\}.$$
$`(5)`$
With a suitable choice of the phase factor $`e^{i\varphi _B}`$ it can be transformed either in $`𝚿_{B_3}`$ or in $`𝚿_{B_4}`$ of ref. .

## 3 Nodes

At a triplet Cooper pairing gaps in the spectra of one-particle excitations are determined  by the eigenvalues of the matrix

$$(\mathrm{\Delta }_k\mathrm{\Delta }_k^{})_{\alpha \beta }=𝐝(𝐤)𝐝^{}(𝐤)\delta _{\alpha \beta }+i[𝐝(𝐤)\times 𝐝^{}(𝐤)]\sigma _{\alpha \beta }.$$
$`(6)`$
For nonunitary phases this matrix has two different eigenvalues. Each of them gives a square of a gap for one projection of spin. In terms of the real and imaginary parts of $`𝐝(𝐤)`$, i.e. $`𝐝(𝐤)=𝐝_\mathrm{𝟏}(𝐤)+i𝐝_\mathrm{𝟐}(𝐤)`$ the eigenvalues of $`(\mathrm{\Delta }_k\mathrm{\Delta }_k^{})_{\alpha \beta }`$ read as $`|\mathrm{\Delta }_{1,2}|^2=𝐝_\mathrm{𝟏}(𝐤)^2+𝐝_\mathrm{𝟐}(𝐤)^2\pm 2|𝐝(𝐤)\times 𝐝^{}(𝐤)|`$. The gap turns to zero for both projections of spin when $`𝐝_\mathrm{𝟏}(𝐤)=0`$ and $`𝐝_\mathrm{𝟐}(𝐤)=0`$; and only for one of the two projections when $`|𝐝_\mathrm{𝟏}(𝐤)|=|𝐝_\mathrm{𝟐}(𝐤)|`$ and $`|𝐝_\mathrm{𝟏}(𝐤)||𝐝_\mathrm{𝟐}(𝐤)|`$. Direct check shows that for a general form of unknown functions $`a_{11},a_{10}\mathrm{},b_{13},b_{10}\mathrm{}`$ in the expressions (4) and (5) for both types of the order parameter $`𝚿_A`$ and $`𝚿_B`$ there are no nodes in the gaps. It means that the nodes are not required by symmetry. We have not used yet the fact that the splitting of spin-up and spin-down Fermi surfaces in UGe2 and in URhGe is large.

The splitting of Fermi-surfaces suppresses the pairing amplitude for quasiparticles with different spin projections. For a singlet Cooper pairing superconductivity is completely destroyed at a splitting $`2I>\sqrt{2}\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ is a gap at zero temperature and zero splitting .

The formal reason for suppression of the pairing is the smearing of the singularity of the scattering amplitude of two quasiparticles with the opposite momenta and opposite spin projections at the polarization. When the polarization is absent the scattering amplitude in a second order on interaction has a singular contribution of a form: $`\mathrm{ln}(\omega _D/\mathrm{\Delta }_0)`$. At the polarization the splitting of two Fermi surfaces $`2I`$ occurs and the singular part turns into $`\mathrm{ln}(\omega _D/I)`$. When $`I\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ this contribution can be included in a regular part of the scattering amplitude. Transition from $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{}0`$ to $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{}=0`$ must take place at $`I\mathrm{\Delta }_0T_s`$. Both in UGe2 and in URhGe the condition $`IT_s`$ is well satisfied, so it is safe to assume that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{}=0`$ for these compounds. This is equivalent to the condition $`d_z(𝐤)=0`$. With that constraint two types of the order parameter acquire the form:

$$𝚿_A=e^{i\varphi _A}\{\widehat{𝐱}k_x(a_{11}+ik_xk_ya_{10})+\widehat{𝐲}k_y(a_{22}+ik_xk_ya_{20})\},$$
$`(7)`$
$$𝚿_B=e^{i\varphi _B}\{\widehat{𝐱}k_z(b_{13}+ik_xk_yb_{10})+\widehat{𝐲}k_z(ib_{23}+k_xk_yb_{20})\}.$$
$`(8)`$
$`𝚿_A`$ together with the gaps on both Fermi surfaces turns to zero at the points $`k_x=0,k_y=0`$. These are symmetry nodes. To see it consider $`𝚿_A(0,0,k_z)`$ and apply to this function operation $`{}_{}{}^{z}{}_{2}{}^{}`$. At the strength of eq. (1) $`{}_{2}{}^{z}𝚿_{A}^{}(0,0,k_z)=𝚿_A(0,0,k_z)`$. On the other hand from the definition of $`{}_{}{}^{z}{}_{2}{}^{}`$ :

$${}_{2}{}^{z}𝚿_{A}^{}(0,0,k_z)=𝐱f_x(0,0,k_z)𝐲f_y(0,0,k_z)=𝚿_A(0,0,k_z)$$
$`(9)`$
Comparing two results we arrive at $`𝚿_A(0,0,k_z)=0`$.

In a similar way eq. (8) indicates that $`𝚿_B`$ turns to zero on a line $`k_z=0`$. These nodes are also required by symmetry since

$${}_{2}{}^{z}𝚿_{B}^{}(k_x,k_y,0)=𝐱f_x(k_x,k_y,0)𝐲f_y(k_x,k_y,0)=𝚿_B(k_x,k_y,0)$$
$`(9)`$
On the other hand from eq. (2) $`{}_{2}{}^{z}𝚿_{B}^{}(k_x,k_y,0)=𝚿_B(k_x,k_y,0)`$, i.e. $`𝚿_B(k_x,k_y,0)=0`$.

## 4 Discussion

The above argument shows that two possible superconducting phases of UGe2 differ in a character and position of the gap nodes. For the A-type phase (eq.(7)) these are isolated nodes at points of intersection of the Fermi surfaces with the direction of easy magnetization axis. For the B-type phase (eq.(8)) these are lines of nodes on equators of the Fermi surfaces which are perpendicular to the above mentioned axis. The nodes are giving rise to power-law dependencies of thermodynamic quantities on temperature at $`TT_s`$. The exponents depend on a character of the nodes. Investigation of the power-law dependencies of thermodynamic quantities is a standard tool for identification of unconventional superconducting phases . Let us point out some specifics of the expected low temperature properties of UGe2, stemming from its magnetic polarization. 1)The values of gaps are generally speaking different for different spin projections. At a large splitting of two Fermi surfaces one can expect that this difference can be large as well, for example $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{}\mathrm{\Delta }_{}`$. Then in a temperature interval $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{}T<T_s`$ the smaller gap practically does not influence temperature dependencies of the thermodynamic quantities and the contribution of spin-down quasiparticles to thermodynamics will be practically that of the normal phase. 2)Magnetic field, induced by spontaneous magnetization $`𝐇_M=4\pi 𝐌`$ in UGe2 is $`H_M`$1 . This is much greater then estimated $`H_{C1}`$ for that compound. It means that UGe2 is in a mixed state (or in the spontaneous flux phase ). Combination of the vortices with the line of nodes oriented perpendicular to the axes of vortices according to ref.  gives rise to a finite density of states on a Fermi level, which in its turn renders a linear temperature dependence of specific heat at low temperatures with a coefficient proportional to a square root of the field: $`c_sc_n\sqrt{H_M/H_{c2}}`$. For fields much smaller then $`H_{c2}`$ this contribution to the specific heat is more important then the contribution of the bound electron states in the cores of the vortices. According to the present analysis a contribution of the discussed type is expected in the B-type phase, but not in the A-type. One can conclude that the expected difference in the low temperature properties of A and B-type phases can be used for identification of superconducting phases realized in UGe2 and in URhGe.

Part of this work was completed in CEA Grenoble. I am grateful to J.Flouquet for hospitality in this research center and for stimulating discussions, to Universite Joseph Fourier for the financial support of my stay in Grenoble, to V.P.Mineev and A.Huxley for valuable comments and discussions. This work was also supported by RFFS ander grant 010216714.