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# Dark Radiation Dynamics on the Brane

## 1 Introduction

It is possible to localize matter fields in a 3-brane world embedded in a higher dimensional space if gravity is allowed to propagate away from the brane in the extra dimensions (see for example  and the early related work in ). The extra dimensions were usually compactified to a finite volume but it was realized that they could also be infinite and non-compact as in the model of Randall and Sundrum (RS) who proposed gravity to be confined to the vicinity of the brane by the warp of a single extra dimension .

In the RS brane world scenario the observable universe is a 3-brane boundary of a non-compact $`Z_2`$ symmetric 5-dimensional Anti-de Sitter (AdS) space. The matter fields are restricted to the brane but gravity exists in the whole AdS bulk. The classical dynamics is defined by the 5-dimensional Einstein field equations with a negative bulk cosmological constant and a Dirac delta source representing the brane. The original RS solution involves a non-factorizable bulk metric for which the light-cone into the fifth dimension is closed by an exponential warp factor

$$d\stackrel{~}{s}^2=e^{2\gamma |y|}\eta _{\mu \nu }dx^\mu dx^\nu +dy^2,$$
(1)
where $`\eta _{\mu \nu }`$ is the Minkowski metric in 4 dimensions, $`\gamma =\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^2/6}`$ with $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ the negative bulk cosmological constant and $`\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^2=8\pi /\stackrel{~}{M}_\text{p}^3`$ with $`\stackrel{~}{M}_\text{p}`$ denoting the fundamental 5-dimensional Planck mass. The brane cosmological constant was assumed to be fine-tuned to zero and so $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}=\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^2\lambda ^2/6`$ or $`\gamma =\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^2\lambda /6`$ where $`\lambda `$ is the brane tension. Weak field perturbations around this static vaccum solution - were also analysed to reveal a new way to solve the hierarchy problem and show that 4-dimensional Einstein gravity is effectively recovered on the brane at low energy scales if the AdS radius $`1/2\gamma `$ is small enough. In particular Newton’s potential $`V_N`$ generated by a mass $`M`$ receives warp corrections which to leading order give

$$V_N=\frac{G_NM}{r}\left(1+\frac{1}{\gamma ^2r^2}\right),$$
(2)
where $`G_N`$ is Newton’s gravitational constant. Extensions of this scenario were rapidly developed to allow for example non-fine-tuned branes  and thick branes . The Gauss-Codazzi formulation used in  was discussed earlier in .

Friedmann-Robertson-Walker cosmologies -, static black holes - and stars , the Vaidya solution  as well as Oppenheimer-Snyder gravitational collapse solutions  were also discovered within the RS brane world scenario. However, it should be noted that the static black hole solutions discussed in  are for a 4-dimensional bulk and the existence of black hole solutions in the bulk that reduce to the a static black hole localized on the brane remain unknown. Moreover, cosmological perturbations have started to be implemented -. So far a consistent adjustment to the available data coming out of astrophysics, cosmology and also high energy particle colision experiments has been shown to hold . In addition, it has been shown that the AdS/CFT duality  is compatible with the RS scenario .

Studies of the gravitational collapse of matter have been limited to static or homogeneous dynamical models. Notable examples are the 5-dimensional black string solution , the tidal Reissner-Nordström black hole , the Vaidya solution on the brane  and the Oppenheimer-Snyder model . As a result it has become clear that the exterior vaccum of a collapsing distribution of matter on the brane cannot be static . This was shown to be a consequence of the presence of gravitational modes in the bulk, which act as a kind of intrinsically dynamical dark matter in the whole brane world. These gravitational degrees of freedom are generated by the existence of Weyl curvature in the bulk and are a source of inhomogeneities in matter clouds located on the brane.

The purpose of this paper is to analyse the spherically symmetric, inhomogeneous vacuum on the brane. This is a necessary step towards the understanding of a realistic collapse problem in the RS scenario. We take an effective 4-dimensional point of view following the Gauss-Codazzi covariant geometric approach  (see also Ref.  for a review and notation). In section 2 we introduce the Einstein vaccum field equations on the brane. Although these equations do not, in general, form a closed system, additional conditions may be imposed to form a closed system described by two free parameters, viz., the brane cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and the dark radiation tidal charge $`Q`$. In this section we also present a discussion on the localization of gravity near the brane. For small but positive $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ we show that while for $`Q<0`$ the tidal acceleration in the off-brane direction is always negative, implying acceleration towards the brane, for $`Q>0`$ the acceleration changes sign at a critical short distance. In section 3 we present $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`Q`$ dependent inhomogeneous dynamical solutions. We show that they take the LeMaître-Tolman-Bondi form and depend on the initial configuration of the dark radiation, which is parametrized by a single function, $`f=f(r)>1`$. This is interpreted as the energy function. The marginally bound solution ($`f(r)=0`$) is the static, zero mass tidal Reissner-Nordström black hole solution of . In section 4 we analyse the dynamics of the non-marginally bound, inhomogeneous solutions and characterize precisely how they depend on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`Q`$ and $`f(r)`$. We also identify the conditions under which the dark radiation dynamics leads to the formation of a singularity as the final outcome of collapse or to a globally regular evolution with a bounce developing inside the vaccum. We conclude in section 5.

## 2 Vaccum Field Equations on the Brane

In the RS brane world scenario the Einstein field equations in the bulk are

$$\stackrel{~}{G}_{AB}=\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^2\left[\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\stackrel{~}{g}_{AB}+\delta (y)\left(\lambda g_{AB}+T_{AB}\right)\right],$$
(3)
The 4-dimensional 3-brane is located at $`y=0`$ and is a fixed point of the $`Z_2`$ symmetry. Its induced metric is $`g_{AB}=\stackrel{~}{g}_{AB}n_An_B`$ where $`n_A`$ is the spacelike unit normal to the brane. Matter confined to the brane is characterized by the energy-momentum tensor $`T_{AB}`$ and satisfies $`T_{AB}n^B=0`$. The 5-dimensional metric is of the RS form

$$d\stackrel{~}{s}^2=\stackrel{~}{g}_{AB}dx^Adx^B=dy^2+g_{\mu \nu }dx^\mu dx^\nu ,$$
(4)
where $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ should display a dependence on the fifth dimension which localizes gravity near the brane and closes the light-cone.

According to the effective geometric approach  the induced Einstein field equations on the brane are obtained from Eq. (3), the Gauss-Codazzi equations and the Israel conditions with $`Z_2`$ symmetry. In the vaccum $`T_{AB}`$ is set to zero, as a consequence of which the induced equations take the form

$$G_{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{\Lambda }g_{\mu \nu }_{\mu \nu },$$
(5)
where

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }=\frac{\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^2}{2}\left(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}+\frac{\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^2\lambda ^2}{6}\right)$$
(6)
is the brane cosmological constant and $`_{\mu \nu }`$ is the limit on the brane of the projected 5-dimensional Weyl tensor,

$$_{\mu \nu }=\underset{y0\pm }{lim}\delta _\mu ^A\delta _\nu ^B_{AB}=\underset{y0\pm }{lim}\delta _\mu ^A\delta _\nu ^B\stackrel{~}{C}_{ACBD}n^Cn^D.$$
(7)
It is a symmetric and traceless tensor due to the Weyl symmetries and is constrained by the conservation equations

$$_\mu _\nu ^\mu =0,$$
(8)
obtained from Eq. (5) as a result of the Bianchi identities.

The system of vaccum field equations on the brane defined by Eqs. (5) and (8) may naturally be interpreted as defining the interaction of 4-dimensional Einstein gravity with matter represented by the traceless energy-momentum tensor

$$\kappa ^2T_{\mu \nu }=_{\mu \nu },$$
(9)
where $`\kappa ^2=8\pi /M_\text{p}^2`$ with $`M_\text{p}=1/\sqrt{G_N}`$ the effective Planck mass on the brane and

$$\kappa ^2=\frac{\lambda \stackrel{~}{\kappa }^4}{6}.$$
(10)
Using general algebraic symmetry properties it is possible to write $`_{\mu \nu }`$ as

$$_{\mu \nu }=\left(\frac{\stackrel{~}{\kappa }}{\kappa }\right)^4\left[𝒰\left(u_\mu u_\nu +\frac{1}{3}h_{\mu \nu }\right)+𝒫_{\mu \nu }+𝒬_\mu u_\nu +𝒬_\nu u_\mu \right],$$
(11)
where $`u_\mu `$ such that $`u^\mu u_\mu =1`$ is the 4-velocity field and $`h_{\mu \nu }=g_{\mu \nu }+u_\mu u_\nu `$ is the tensor which projects orthogonaly to $`u_\mu `$. The forms $`𝒰`$, $`𝒫_{\mu \nu }`$ and $`𝒬_\mu `$ represent the effects on the brane of the free gravitational field in the bulk. Thus, $`𝒰`$ is the effective energy density,

$$𝒰=\left(\frac{\kappa }{\stackrel{~}{\kappa }}\right)^4_{\mu \nu }u^\mu u^\nu ,$$
(12)
$`𝒫_{\mu \nu }`$ is the anisotropic stress,

$$𝒫_{\mu \nu }=\left(\frac{\kappa }{\stackrel{~}{\kappa }}\right)^4\left[\frac{1}{2}\left(h_\mu ^\alpha h_\nu ^\beta +h_\nu ^\alpha h_\mu ^\beta \right)\frac{1}{3}h_{\mu \nu }h^{\alpha \beta }\right]_{\alpha \beta },$$
(13)
and $`𝒬_\mu `$ is the effective energy flux

$$𝒬_\mu =\left(\frac{\kappa }{\stackrel{~}{\kappa }}\right)^4h_\mu ^\alpha _{\alpha \beta }u^\beta .$$
(14)
Even though $`_{\mu \nu }`$ is trace free and has to satisfy the conservation equations, in general it cannot be fully determined on the brane. This is to be expected because observers confined to the brane cannot predict all bulk effects without a knowledge of the solution of the full 5-dimensional Einstein equations. As a consequence, the effective 4-dimensional geometric theory is not closed. However, under additional simplifying assumptions about the bulk degrees of freedom it is possible to close the system if $`_{\mu \nu }`$ is constrained in such a way that it may be completely determined by its symmetries and by the conservation equations. This is what happens when $`𝒫_{\mu \nu }=0`$  or if $`𝒫_{\mu \nu }0`$ when a spherically symmetric brane is static .

Let us now show that it is possible to take a non-static spherically symmetric brane with $`𝒫_{\mu \nu }0`$ and still close the system of dynamical equations. Consider the general, spherically symmetric metric in comoving coordinates $`(t,r,\theta ,\varphi )`$,

$$ds^2=g_{\mu \nu }dx^\mu dx^\nu =e^\sigma dt^2+A^2dr^2+R^2d\mathrm{\Omega }^2,$$
(15)
where $`d\mathrm{\Omega }^2=d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\varphi ^2`$, $`\sigma =\sigma (t,r)`$, $`A=A(t,r)`$, $`R=R(t,r)`$ and $`R`$ is interpreted as the physical spacetime radius. If there is no net energy flux, then $`𝒬_\mu =0`$. Again, if the stress is isotropic, $`𝒫_{\mu \nu }`$ will have the general form

$$𝒫_{\mu \nu }=𝒫\left(r_\mu r_\nu \frac{1}{3}h_{\mu \nu }\right),$$
(16)
where $`𝒫=𝒫(t,r)`$ and $`r_\mu `$ is the unit radial vector, given in the above metric by $`r_\mu =(0,A,0,0)`$. The projected Weyl tensor then takes the diagonal form

$$_\mu ^\nu =\left(\frac{\stackrel{~}{\kappa }}{\kappa }\right)^4\text{diag}(\rho ,p_r,p_T,p_T),$$
(17)
where the energy density and pressures are respectively $`\rho =𝒰`$, $`p_r=(1/3)\left(𝒰+2𝒫\right)`$ and $`p_T=(1/3)\left(𝒰𝒫\right)`$. Substituting in the conservation Eq. (8) we obtain the following expanded system

$$2\frac{\dot{A}}{A}\left(\rho +p_r\right)=2\dot{\rho }4\frac{\dot{R}}{R}\left(\rho +p_T\right),$$

$$\sigma ^{}\left(\rho +p_r\right)=p_{r}^{}{}_{}{}^{}+4\frac{R^{}}{R}(p_Tp_r),$$
(18)
where the dot and the prime denote, respectively, derivatives with respect to $`t`$ and $`r`$. A synchronous solution is obtained by taking the equation of state $`\rho +p_r=0`$, giving $`𝒫=2𝒰`$. Then the conservation Eqs. (18) separate and we obtain

$$\dot{𝒰}+4\frac{\dot{R}}{R}𝒰=0=𝒰^{}+4\frac{R^{}}{R}𝒰.$$
(19)
Consequently the effective energy density has the dark radiation form

$$𝒰=\left(\frac{\kappa }{\stackrel{~}{\kappa }}\right)^4\frac{Q}{R^4},$$
(20)
where the dark radiation tidal charge $`Q`$ is constant. Thus for the gravitational dynamics of spherically symmetric but still inhomogeneous dark radiation $`_{\mu \nu }`$ is fully determined to be

$$_{\mu \nu }=\frac{Q}{R^4}\left(u_\mu u_\nu 2r_\mu r_\nu +h_{\mu \nu }\right).$$
(21)
Note that this projected Weyl tensor $`_{\mu \nu }`$ is a simple dynamical extension of the corresponding form associated with the static tidal Reissner-Nordström solution on the brane . In spite of the existing pressures in the dark radiation setting we may safely take the synchronous comoving frame, for which $`\sigma =0`$. Then the intricate general field equations  simplify and substituting Eq. (21) in Eq. (5) we obtain

$$G_{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{\Lambda }g_{\mu \nu }+\frac{Q}{R^4}\left(u_\mu u_\nu 2r_\mu r_\nu +h_{\mu \nu }\right),$$
(22)
a consistent and exactly solvable closed system for the two unknown functions, $`A(t,r)`$ and $`R(t,r)`$.

Clearly, the dark radiation dynamics depends on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`Q`$ . An important point to note is that these parameters have a direct influence on the localization of gravity in the vicinity of the brane (see also Ref. ). To understand how consider the tidal acceleration away from the brane as measured by brane observers . For the dark radiation vaccum we are considering such acceleration is

$$\underset{y0\pm }{lim}\stackrel{~}{R}_{ABCD}n^A\stackrel{~}{u}^Bn^C\stackrel{~}{u}^D=\frac{\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^2}{6}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}+\frac{Q}{R^4},$$
(23)
where $`\stackrel{~}{u}_A`$ is the extension off the brane of the 4-velocity field which satisfies $`\stackrel{~}{u}^An_A=0`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{u}^A\stackrel{~}{u}_A=1`$. For the gravitational field to be localized near the brane the tidal acceleration must be negative. The condition for this to happen is

$$\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}R^4<\frac{6Q}{\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^2}.$$
(24)
Consequently, the localization of gravity for all $`R`$ is only possible if $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}<0`$ and $`Q0`$ or $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}=0`$ and $`Q<0`$. In terms of brane parameters this implies that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_c=\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^4\lambda ^2/12`$ and $`Q0`$ or $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ and $`Q<0`$. For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ and $`Q>0`$ the gravitational field will only remain localized near the brane if $`R>R_c`$ where $`R_c^4=3Q/(\mathrm{\Lambda }_c\mathrm{\Lambda })`$. On the other hand for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ and $`Q<0`$ confinement is restricted to the epochs $`R<R_c`$. If $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ and $`Q0`$ then gravity is always free to propagate far away from the brane.

Since the dark radiation term comes from the electric or Coulomb part of the 5-dimensional Weyl tensor  the geometry of the bulk may assign to $`Q`$ any real value. Note however that in our settings the weak, strong and dominant energy conditions  all independently imply $`Q0`$ because $`\rho =𝒰`$, $`p_r=𝒰`$ and $`p_T=𝒰`$. This is consistent with other studies of dark radiation effects  but not with perturbation theory and the negative induced energy condition  which need $`Q<0`$ . Current observations do not yet constrain the sign of $`Q`$ . So in what follows we will keep $`Q`$ as real parameter. The same does not hold for the cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. Indeed, according to the present data $`\mathrm{\Lambda }10^{84}\text{GeV}^2`$ . On the other hand $`\stackrel{~}{M}_\text{p}>10^8\text{GeV}`$ and $`M_\text{p}10^{19}\text{GeV}`$ imply by Eq. (10) $`\lambda >10^8\text{GeV}^4`$ . Since using once again Eq. (10) we may write $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_c=\kappa ^2\lambda /2`$ then $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ has a lower limit, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_c>10^{29}\text{GeV}^2`$. Hence according to observations $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ must be positive and below the critical value $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$, $`0<\mathrm{\Lambda }<\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$. This implies a bulk with negative cosmological constant, $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}<0`$. Note as well that the same conclusion holds if $`M_\text{p}`$ is in the TeV range as $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ increases when $`M_\text{p}`$ decreases. Finally note that when $`0<\mathrm{\Lambda }<\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ and $`Q>0`$ then gravity is not confined near the brane for $`RR_c`$. This is a non-perturbative result which is consistent with the energy conditions  for dark radiation on the brane. So far experiments have not been able to detect any confinement phase transition to a high energy regime where gravity is not bound to the brane. If such a transition does occur at $`1/R_c1\text{TeV}`$ then for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_c10^{29}\text{GeV}^2`$ we get $`Q10^{42}\text{GeV}^2`$, a value well below current astrophysical or weak gravity experimental constraints on $`Q`$ .

For completeness in what follows we will also discuss the de Sitter (dS) models with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ which correspond to a dS bulk, the brane AdS setting where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$ and the brane with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$.

## 3 Dynamical Inhomogeneous Solutions

To completly define the brane world dark radiation vaccum dynamics we need to solve Eq. (22). The solutions determine the evolution of the brane world as a whole and so are cosmological in nature. In the proper frame $`\sigma =0`$ and so the remaining components of the spherically symmetric metric given in Eq. (15) must satisfy the off-diagonal equation

$$G_{tr}=\frac{2}{AR}\left(\dot{A}R^{}\dot{R}^{}A\right)=0,$$
(25)
which implies

$$A=\frac{R^{}}{H},$$
(26)
where $`H=H(r)`$ is an arbitrary positive function of $`r`$. Then introducing Eq. (26) in the trace equation

$$G_t^t+G_r^r+2G_\theta ^\theta =\frac{2}{AR}\left(\ddot{A}R+2\ddot{R}A\right)=2\mathrm{\Lambda }+\frac{2Q}{R^4}$$
(27)
and integrating in $`r`$ leads to

$$\ddot{R}=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R+\frac{Q}{R^3}.$$
(28)
Note that at this point we have chosen to set the arbitrary integration function (of time) to zero. We make this choice here because such a function would correspond to an initial dust mass. A further integration gives

$$\dot{R}^2=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^2\frac{Q}{R^2}+f,$$
(29)
where $`f=f(r)`$ is an arbitrary function of $`r`$. This function is naturally interpreted as the energy inside a shell labelled by $`r`$ in the dark radiation vaccum. Integrating Eq. (29) we obtain

$$\pm t+\psi =\frac{RdR}{\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^4+fR^2Q}},$$
(30)
where $`\psi =\psi (r)`$ is another arbitrary function of $`r`$ and the signs $`+`$ or $``$ refer respectively to expansion or collapse.

As it stands the dark radiation is characterized by three arbitrary functions of $`r`$, namely, $`H`$, $`f`$ and $`\psi `$. However, we have the freedom to rescale the radial coordinate $`r`$. Then we may impose on the initial hypersurface $`t=0`$ the condition

$$R(0,r)=r$$
(31)
and so prescribe $`\psi `$ to be given by

$$\psi =\frac{RdR}{\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^4+fR^2Q}},$$
(32)
where the r.h.s is evaluated at $`t=0`$. Note that condition (31) also defines the initial dark radiation effective density profile. Using the initial distribution of velocities we can also determine the energy function $`f`$. $`H`$ is then determined by the remaining Einstein equation,

$$G_r^r=\mathrm{\Lambda }\frac{Q}{R^4},$$
(33)
as $`H=\sqrt{1+f}`$ and consequently the metric takes the LeMaître-Tolman-Bondi form

$$ds^2=dt^2+\frac{R_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{1+f}dr^2+R^2d\mathrm{\Omega }^2,$$
(34)
where $`f>1`$.

Note that for the marginally bound models corresponding to $`f=0`$ this metric describes a static solution. Indeed performing a transformation from the Tolman-Bondi coordinates $`(t,r)`$ to the curvature coordinates $`(T,R)`$ such that

$$T=t+𝑑R\frac{R\sqrt{Q+\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^4}}{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^4R^2Q},$$
(35)
we find

$$ds^2=\left(1+\frac{Q}{R^2}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^2\right)dT^2+\left(1+\frac{Q}{R^2}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^2\right)^1dR^2+R^2d\mathrm{\Omega }^2,$$
(36)
which is the inhomogeneous static exterior of a collapsing sphere of homogeneous dark radiation  (see also Ref. ). When $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ this corresponds to the zero mass limit of the tidal Reissner-Nordström black hole solution on the brane . The single black hole horizon only exists for $`Q<0`$ and is located at $`R_h=\sqrt{Q}`$. Consequently for $`Q>0`$ the singularity at $`R_s=0`$ is naked. For non-zero $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ the solution has horizons at

$$R_h^\pm =\sqrt{\frac{3}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}\left(1\pm \sqrt{1+\frac{4Q\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}}\right)}.$$
(37)
If $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ and $`Q<0`$ then we have an inner horizon $`R_h^{}`$ and an outer horizon $`R_h^+`$. The two horizons merge for $`Q=3/(4\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ and for $`Q<3/(4\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ the singularity at $`R_s=0`$ becomes naked. For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ and $`Q>0`$ there is a single horizon at $`R_h^+`$. If $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$ and $`Q>0`$ the singularity at $`R_s=0`$ is again naked. For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$ and $`Q<0`$ this no longer happens as a single horizon forms at $`R_h^{}`$.

In the absence of dark radiation we simply find the homogeneous dS or AdS spaces . In particular for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ the solution takes the Friedmann-Robertson-Walker steady state form where the spatial curvature $`k`$ is zero,

$$R=r\mathrm{exp}\left(\pm \sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}}t\right).$$
(38)
Then it represents (half) homogeneous dS space . The epoch $`R=0`$ is regular but fixed as it is impossible to leave it classically.

For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ the marginally bound models allow us to calculate the leading order contribution to Newton’s potential. Following Ref.  and keeping the coordinates $`T`$ and $`R`$ we may introduce a mass $`M`$ for the gravitational source to find the tidal Reissner-Nordström metric

$$ds^2=\left(1\frac{2G_NM}{R}+\frac{Q}{R^2}\right)dT^2+\left(1\frac{2G_NM}{R}+\frac{Q}{R^2}\right)^1dR^2+R^2d\mathrm{\Omega }^2.$$
(39)
Then Newton’s potential is given by

$$V_N=\frac{G_NM}{R}\frac{Q}{2R^2}+𝒪\left(\frac{1}{R^3}\right).$$
(40)
Contrary to Eq. (2) this is a short distance perturbative expansion . So just as in the static limit our dynamical solutions with non-zero $`f`$ should be more adequate to the high energy regime as long as quantum gravity effects can be neglected. The potential shows that perturbatively it should be $`Q0`$ if anti-gravity effects are to be avoided at short distances (see also Ref. ). Consequently if a positive $`Q`$ is to be allowed as is by the standard energy conditions  than it must be seen as an intrinsically non-perturbative effect.

Let us now consider $`f0`$. Depending on $`f`$ and on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`Q`$ we distinguish several possible dynamical inhomogeneous solutions.

### 3.1 dS dynamics: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$

In this setting Eq. (30) can be cast in the form

$$\pm t+\psi =\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\frac{dY}{\sqrt{Y^2\beta }},$$
(41)
where $`Y=R^2+3f/(2\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ and $`\beta =\beta (r)`$ is given by

$$\beta =\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\left[\frac{3f^2}{4\mathrm{\Lambda }}+Q\right].$$
(42)
Direct evaluation of this integral determines $`R`$ and shows that the solutions are organized by $`\beta `$. For $`\beta >0`$ we find

$$\left|R^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}\right|=\sqrt{\beta }\mathrm{cosh}\left[\pm 2\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}}t+\mathrm{cosh}^1\left(\frac{\left|r^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}\right|}{\sqrt{\beta }}\right)\right],$$
(43)
where for $`Q>0`$ the energy function may span all its range, $`f>1`$, but for $`Q<0`$ it must further satisfy $`|f|>2\sqrt{Q\mathrm{\Lambda }/3}`$. If $`\beta <0`$ we obtain

$$R^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}=\sqrt{\beta }\mathrm{sinh}\left[\pm 2\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}}t+\mathrm{sinh}^1\left(\frac{r^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}}{\sqrt{\beta }}\right)\right],$$
(44)
where $`Q<0`$ and $`|f|<2\sqrt{Q\mathrm{\Lambda }/3}`$. For $`\beta =0`$ we get

$$\left|R^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}\right|=\left|r^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}\right|\mathrm{exp}\left(\pm 2\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}}t\right),$$
(45)
where $`Q<0`$ and $`f=\pm 2\sqrt{Q\mathrm{\Lambda }/3}`$.

Clearly, these cosmological solutions are explicitly dependent on $`r`$ in a way which cannot be evaded by any coordinate transformation. As such they imply an intrinsically inhomogeneous dark radiation efective energy density. Indeed, $`R`$ is not a factorizable function, a fact preventing a reduction to the standard homogeneous dS or Robertson-Walker spaces .

### 3.2 AdS dynamics: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$

In this scenario Eq. (30) can be written as

$$\pm t+\psi =\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\frac{dY}{\sqrt{\beta Y^2}}.$$
(46)
Now the only possibility is $`\beta >0`$. Integrating we obtain the solutions

$$R^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}=\sqrt{\beta }\mathrm{sin}\left[\pm 2\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}}t+\mathrm{sin}^1\left(\frac{r^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}}{\sqrt{\beta }}\right)\right],$$
(47)
where for $`Q<0`$ the energy function can take any value in the range $`f>1`$ but for $`Q>0`$ it must also be in the interval $`|f|>2\sqrt{Q\mathrm{\Lambda }/3}`$.

### 3.3 Absence of cosmological constant: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$

In the limit $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ Eq. (30) is written as

$$\pm t+\psi =\frac{RdR}{\sqrt{fR^2Q}}.$$
(48)
Then the solutions for $`f0`$ are given by

$$R^2=\frac{1}{f}\left[Q+\left(\pm ft+\sqrt{fr^2Q}\right)^2\right],$$
(49)
where $`fR^2Q>0`$. Note that if $`Q>0`$ then $`f>0`$.

### 3.4 Absence of dark radiation: $`Q=0`$

When dark radiation is not present in the vaccum we have $`Q=0`$ and then the brane world dynamics depends on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`f`$ as can be seen by going back to Eq. (29). Integrating it we obtain

$$\pm t+\psi (r)=\frac{dR}{\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^2+f}}.$$
(50)
Let us first consider $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$. The solutions are now organized by $`f`$. For $`f>0`$ we find

$$R=\sqrt{\frac{3f}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\mathrm{sinh}\left[\pm \sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}}t+\mathrm{sinh}^1\left(\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3f}}r\right)\right].$$
(51)
If $`1<f<0`$ we have

$$R=\sqrt{\frac{3f}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\mathrm{cosh}\left[\pm \sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}}t+\mathrm{cosh}^1\left(\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3f}}r\right)\right].$$
(52)
Note that it is only for $`f=\mathrm{\Lambda }r^2/3`$ that solution (52) takes the homogeneous dS form .

When $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$ the relevant integral is only defined for $`f>0`$ and the corresponding solution is

$$R=\sqrt{\frac{3f}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\mathrm{sin}\left[\pm \sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}}t+\mathrm{sin}^1\left(\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3f}}r\right)\right].$$
(53)
In this case the homogeneous AdS space solution  is again obtained with the choice $`f=\mathrm{\Lambda }r^2/3`$.

## 4 Physical Singularities and Regular Rebounces

Both shell focusing singularities ($`R=0`$) and shell crossing singularities ($`R^{}=0`$) are found depending on the dynamics prescribed by Eq. (29). Shell crossing singularities are generally not considered to be “real” singularities, so we will concentrate always on shell focusing singularities in the following.

To determine the inhomogeneous dynamical solutions corresponding to dark radiation gravitation on the brane we have implicitly assumed the validity of the following regularity condition

$$V=V(R,r)=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^4+fR^2Q>0.$$
(54)
If Eq. (54) is verified for all $`R0`$ then collapsing dark radiation shells will meet at the physical shell focusing singularity $`R=R_s=0`$. This is what happens in the gravitational collapse of ordinary dust matter when $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is set to zero . However, if $`\mathrm{\Lambda }0`$ the evolution curve of a collapsing dust cloud has special rebouncing points at $`R>0`$ for which the dust potential is zero . These points may exist both when a singularity forms at $`R_s=0`$ and when it does not. In the latter case the solution is globally regular and the gravitational evolution of the dust cloud involves a collapsing phase followed by continuous expansion after velocity reversal at the rebounce point.

Not surprisingly, an analogously rich structure of solutions can also be uncovered in the gravitational dynamics of vaccum dark radiation on the brane (see also the discussion in Ref. ). We start by writing Eq. (29) in the following way

$$R^2\dot{R}^2=V.$$
(55)
Starting from an initial (collapsing) state, a rebounce will occur for a given shell whenever $`\dot{R}=0`$ before that shell becomes singular. This happens when $`V(R,r)=0`$. Introducing $`Y`$ and $`\beta `$ we write the potential $`V`$ as the following simple quadratic polynomial

$$V=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}\left(Y^2\beta \right)$$
(56)
and it becomes clear that no more than two regular rebounce epochs can be found. Depending on $`f`$ and on the values of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`Q`$ none, one or two such epochs may be associated with globally regular solutions.

### 4.1 dS dynamics: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$

The dS dynamics corresponding to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ is characterized by a concave phase space curve because

$$\frac{d^2V}{dY^2}=\frac{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}>0.$$
(57)
This implies the existence of a phase of continuous expansion towards infinity with ever increasing speed. Other phases are possible depending on the parameters.

For $`\beta <0`$ we have $`Q<0`$ and $`|f|<2\sqrt{Q\mathrm{\Lambda }/3}`$. Clearly, $`V`$ is positive for all $`R0`$. It satisfies $`V(0,r)=Q`$ and grows to infinity with $`R`$ as $`\mathrm{\Lambda }R^4`$ (see Fig. 1). The dark radiation shells may either expand continuously with ever increasing kinetic energy or collapse to a shell focusing singularity at $`R_s=0`$ after a proper time $`t=t_s(r)`$ given by

$$t_s(r)=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\left[\mathrm{sinh}^1\left(\frac{r^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}}{\sqrt{\beta }}\right)\mathrm{sinh}^1\left(\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }\sqrt{\beta }}\right)\right].$$
(58)
For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ gravity is always confined near the brane during the cycle of evolution. However, if $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ then the gravitational field only stays confined for $`R<R_c`$. As a consequence an expanding dark radiation vaccum goes through a phase transition at $`R=R_c`$ where the gravitational field ceases to be confined to the brane. As we have seen this case and the large value $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ are currently ruled out by observations.

For $`\beta >0`$, $`Q>0`$ and $`f>1`$ (see Fig. 2) we find globally regular solutions with a single rebounce epoch at $`R=R_{}`$ where

$$R_{}^2=\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}+\sqrt{\beta }.$$
(59)
This is the minimum possible radius a collapsing dark radiation shell can have. The collapsing shells reach this epoch at the proper time $`t=t_{}(r)`$ where

$$t_{}(r)=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\mathrm{cosh}^1\left(\frac{r^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}}{\sqrt{\beta }}\right).$$
(60)
At this point they reverse their motion and expand forever with ever increasing rate. The phase space of allowed dynamics defined by $`V`$ and $`R`$ is thus restricted to the region $`RR_{}`$. Below $`R_{}`$ there is a forbidden region where the potential $`V`$ is negative. In particular $`V(0,r)=Q<0`$ which means that the singularity at $`R_s=0`$ does not form and so the solutions are globally regular. Note that if gravity is to stay confined to the vicinity of the brane for $`R>R_{}`$ then $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ and $`R_{}>R_c`$. If not then there is a phase transition epoch $`R=R_c`$ such that for $`RR_c`$ the gravitational field is no longer confined to the brane. For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ gravity will always be free to propagate far away from the brane a situation that as we have seen is not allowed by current observations.

If $`\beta >0`$ and $`Q<0`$ we have seen that $`f>1`$ has to further satisfy $`|f|>2\sqrt{Q\mathrm{\Lambda }/3}`$. If $`f>2\sqrt{Q\mathrm{\Lambda }/3}`$ there no rebounce points in the allowed dynamical region $`R0`$ and the evolution follows the case $`\beta <0`$ ilustrated in Fig. 1. The time to reach the singularity at $`R_s=0`$ is now given by

$$t_s(r)=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\left[\mathrm{cosh}^1\left(\frac{r^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}}{\sqrt{\beta }}\right)\mathrm{cosh}^1\left(\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }\sqrt{\beta }}\right)\right].$$
(61)
On the other hand for $`1<f<2\sqrt{Q\mathrm{\Lambda }/3}`$ (see Fig. 3) there are two rebounce epochs at $`R=R_\pm `$ with

$$R_\pm ^2=\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}\pm \sqrt{\beta }.$$
(62)
Since $`V(0,r)=Q>0`$ a singularity also forms at $`R_s=0`$. The region between the two rebounce points is forbidden because there $`V`$ is negative. The phase space of allowed dynamics is thus divided in two disconnected regions separated by the forbidden interval $`R_{}<R<R_+`$. For $`0RR_{}`$ the dark radiation shells may expand to a maximum radius $`R=R_{}`$ in the time $`t_{}=t_{}`$ where

$$t_{}(r)=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\mathrm{cosh}^1\left(\frac{\left|r^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}\right|}{\sqrt{\beta }}\right).$$
(63)
At this rebounce epoch the shells start to fall to the singularity which is met after the proper time

$$t_s(r)=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\mathrm{cosh}^1\left(\frac{3|f|}{\mathrm{\Lambda }\sqrt{\beta }}\right).$$
(64)
If $`RR_+`$ then there is a collapsing phase to the minimum radius $`R=R_+`$ taking the time $`t_+=t_{}`$ followed by reversal and subsequent accelerated continuous expansion. The singularity at $`R_s=0`$ does not form and so the solutions are globally regular. Once more note that for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ gravity is always confined near the brane but for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ there is a phase transition epoch at $`R=R_c`$ such that for $`R>R_c`$ gravity is free to propagate out of the brane. Only if $`R_{}<R_c<R_+`$ this phase transition will not occur. For $`R<R_{}`$ gravity is confined near the brane and for $`R>R_+`$ it will not.

If $`\beta =0`$ then again $`Q<0`$. For $`f=2\sqrt{Q\mathrm{\Lambda }/3}`$ (see Fig. 4) the single candidate to be a rebounce point is $`R=R_{}`$ with

$$R_{}=\sqrt{\frac{3Q}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}.$$
(65)
In this case $`V(0,r)=Q>0`$ and then a singularity also forms at $`R_s=0`$. There is no forbidden region in phase space but the point at $`R_{}`$ turns out to be a regular fixed point which divides two distinct dynamical regions. Indeed if a shell starts at $`R=R_{}`$ then it will not move for all times. If initially $`R<R_{}`$ then either the shell expands towards $`R_{}`$ or it collapses to the singularity. The time to meet the singularity is finite,

$$t_s(r)=\frac{3}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}\mathrm{ln}\left(\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3Q}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}}{\left|r^2\sqrt{\frac{3Q}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\right|}\right),$$
(66)
but the time to expand to $`R_{}`$ is infinite. If initially $`R>R_{}`$ then the collapsing dark radiation shells also take an infinite time to reach $`R_{}`$. If $`f=2\sqrt{Q\mathrm{\Lambda }/3}`$ there are no real rebounce epochs and the collapsing dark radiation simply falls to the singularity at $`R_s=0`$. The colision proper time is

$$t_s(r)=\frac{3}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}\mathrm{ln}\left(\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3Q}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}}{r^2+\sqrt{\frac{3Q}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}}\right).$$
(67)
Of course for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ then the gravitational field is always confined to the brane but for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ there is a phase transition epoch $`R=R_c`$ in either of the two dynamical regions such that for $`R>R_c`$ gravity may freely move far into the bulk.

### 4.2 AdS dynamics: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$

The AdS dynamics corresponding to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$ is characterized by a convex phase space curve because

$$\frac{d^2V}{dY^2}=\frac{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}<0,$$
(68)
which does not allow a phase of continuous expansion to infinity. Also in this scenario the only possibility is $`\beta >0`$.

If $`Q<0`$ then we may consider $`f>1`$ (see Fig. 5). Just like the corresponding dS case there is a single rebounce point at $`R=R_{}`$ with

$$R_{}^2=\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}+\sqrt{\beta }.$$
(69)
Due to the convexity of the phase space evolution curve this is the maximum radius which an expanding dark radiation shell can reach. The time for this to happen is

$$t_{}(r)=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\left[\frac{\pi }{2}\mathrm{sin}^1\left(\frac{r^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}}{\sqrt{\beta }}\right)\right].$$
(70)
Because $`V(0,r)=Q>0`$ a singularity also forms at $`R_s=0`$. Consequently, the reversal at $`R=R_{}`$ will be followed by a collapsing phase to the singularity in the time

$$t_s(r)=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\left[\frac{\pi }{2}\mathrm{sin}^1\left(\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }\sqrt{\beta }}\right)\right].$$
(71)
This is in contrast with the dS scenario where there was no formation of a singularity at $`R_s=0`$ and after reversal at the rebounce epoch the dark radiation shells expand forever. Also, because $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ gravity remains confined near the brane for all times.

If $`Q>0`$ then $`f>2\sqrt{Q\mathrm{\Lambda }/3}`$ (see Fig. 6). We find two regular rebouncing epochs at $`R=R_\pm `$ where

$$R_\pm ^2=\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}\pm \sqrt{\beta }.$$
(72)
The allowed phase space region is precisely the interval between these two roots, $`R_{}RR_+`$. Since the singularity at $`R_s=0`$ is inside the forbidden region it does not form and so we are in the presence of globally regular solutions. In this case an initially expanding dark radiation shell will rebounce at $`R=R_+`$ after the time

$$t_+(r)=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\left[\frac{\pi }{2}\mathrm{sin}^1\left(\frac{r^2+\frac{3f}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}}{\sqrt{\beta }}\right)\right].$$
(73)
Then it reverses its motion to collapse until it reaches $`R=R_{}`$ in the time

$$t_{}(r)=\frac{\pi }{2}\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}.$$
(74)
It rebounces again to expand to $`R=R_+`$ in the same amount of time and subsequently repeats the cycle. Thus these are oscillating globally regular solutions. Again note the contrast with the dS scenario where no oscillating solutions were found. Since $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ there is only a gravity confinement phase transition epoch in the cycle if $`R_{}<R_c<R_+`$.

### 4.3 Absence of cosmological constant: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$

When $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ the potential is simply $`V=fR^2Q`$. If $`Q<0`$ and $`f>0`$ then there are no rebounce epochs in the allowed dynamical range $`R0`$ and the singularity is at $`R_s=0`$ where $`V(0,r)=Q>0`$. The collapsing dark radiation shells reach the singularity after the time

$$t_s(r)=\frac{1}{f}\left(\sqrt{fr^2Q}\sqrt{Q}\right).$$
(75)
In this case gravity never propagates out of the brane. If $`Q>0`$ and $`f>0`$ or $`Q<0`$ and $`1<f<0`$ there is a single rebounce root at $`R_{}=\sqrt{Q/f}`$. For $`Q>0`$ and $`f>0`$ the allowed dynamical region is $`RR_{}`$ and so the singularity does not form at $`R_s=0`$. A collapsing shell falls to a minimum radius in the time

$$t_{}(r)=\frac{\sqrt{fr^2Q}}{f}$$
(76)
and then expands continuously to infinity. If $`R_{}>R_c`$ gravity is confined for all $`R>R_{}`$. Otherwise the dark radiation goes through a confinement phase transition at $`R=R_c`$. For $`Q<0`$ and $`1<f<0`$ the dynamical range in phase space is $`0RR_{}`$. The shells may expand out to reach $`R_{}`$ at

$$t_{}(r)=\frac{\sqrt{fr^2Q}}{f}.$$
(77)
Then it reverses its motion to fall into the singular epoch $`R_s=0`$ in the proper time

$$t_s(r)=\frac{\sqrt{Q}}{f}.$$
(78)
In this setting gravity remains confined in the allowed dynamical range, $`0RR_{}`$.

### 4.4 Absence of dark radiation: $`Q=0`$

When the dark radiation degrees of freedom are not present $`Q=0`$ and the potential to be considered is

$$V=V(R,r)=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^2+f.$$
(79)
For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ we may distinguish three types of evolution. If $`1<f<0`$ there is a rebounce epoch towards infinite continuous expansion at $`R_{}=\sqrt{3f/\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ and the allowed dynamical region is $`RR_{}`$. The time to collapse to minimum radius is

$$t_{}(r)=\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\mathrm{cosh}^1\left(r\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3f}}\right).$$
(80)
If $`f>0`$ there are no rebounce epochs for $`R0`$ and a singularity forms at $`R_s=0`$ where the potential is $`V(0,r)=f`$. The time to meet the singularity is

$$t_s(r)=\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\mathrm{sinh}^1\left(r\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3f}}\right).$$
(81)
If $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$ the only possibility is to take $`f>0`$. Then we find a rebounce epoch at $`R_{}=\sqrt{3f/\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$. After expansion to a maximum radius $`R_{}`$ in the time

$$t_{}(r)=\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\left[\frac{\pi }{2}\mathrm{sin}^1\left(r\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3f}}\right)\right].$$
(82)
the brane collapses to the singularity at $`R_s=0`$ reaching it after the time

$$t_s(r)=\frac{\pi }{2}\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}.$$
(83)
For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ the gravitational field is always confined. Otherwise it never is.

## 5 Conclusions

We have analysed some aspects of the gravitational dynamics of inhomogeneous dark radiation on a RS brane. This is an important first step towards the understanding of a realistic collapse setting on a brane. Indeed, the behaviour of dark radiation is nothing else than the dynamics of the vaccum on the brane when the gravitational modes are excited only as energy density.

We have taken an effective 4-dimensional view point to show that with certain simplifying, but natural assumptions, the Einstein field equations form a solvable, closed system. The solutions obtained were shown to depend on the brane cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, the dark radiation tidal charge, $`Q`$, and on the energy function $`f(r)`$.

We have given a precise description of the dynamics of the solutions and characterized how this depends on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`Q`$ and $`f(r)`$. We have also presented the conditions defining the solutions as singular or as globally regular.

Finally we have discussed the confinement of gravity to the vicinity of the brane. We have seen that it depends on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`Q`$ and also on the brane tension $`\lambda `$. If $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_c=\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^4\lambda ^2/12`$ and $`Q<0`$ then the gravitational field is always confined to the vicinity of the brane during its evolution. Alternatively, if $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ and $`Q>0`$ gravity is only bound to the brane for $`R>R_c`$ where $`R_c^4=3Q/(\mathrm{\Lambda }_c\mathrm{\Lambda })`$. For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$ and $`Q<0`$ confinement is restricted to the epochs $`R<R_c`$. We have noted that current observations do not allow $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }_c`$. Consequently, the gravitational degrees of freedom may eventually propagate away from the brane at high energies. Such a phase transition would occur at the epoch $`R=R_c`$ and should be detected in a change in Newton’s gravitational constant.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) for financial support under the contracts SFRH/BPD/7182/2001 and POCTI/32694/FIS/2000. We also would like to thank Louis Witten and T.P. Singh for helpful comments on the manuscript.


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# Coherence Length of Excitons in a Semiconductor Quantum Well

## Abstract

We report on the first experimental determination of the coherence length of excitons in semiconductors using the combination of spatially resolved photoluminescence with phonon sideband spectroscopy. The coherence length of excitons in ZnSe quantum wells is determined to be $`300400`$ nm, about $`2530`$ times the exciton de Broglie wavelength. With increasing exciton kinetic energy, the coherence length decreases slowly. The discrepancy between the coherence lengths measured and calculated by only considering the acoustic–phonon scattering suggests an important influence of static disorder.

preprint: To be Published in PRL

Coherence is an essential intrinsic property of quantum–mechanical particles. A particle is called coherent if it propagates like a wave packet with well–defined phases for its spectral components. Such particles have properties quite different from classical particles like the ability to show interference. Constructive interference leads to a macroscopic coherence of an ensemble of particles. This has profound consequences as is illustrated by the properties of laser radiation (coherent ensemble of photons) or by the formation of a new state of matter in a Bose–Einstein condensate (coherent ensemble of atoms). The coherence of such an ensemble is destroyed by phase–relaxing processes of individual ensemble members. The temporal and spatial scales of phase–destroying processes are given by the particle coherence time and length, respectively.

The above arguments also hold for excitons, which are the fundamental quasi–particles of optical excitation in semiconductors. Recently, coherent control of both ensemble excitonsl752598  and individual excitonss2821473  has been demonstrated, making excitons possible candidates for quantum–information processing.s2891906  So it is important to study the coherence time and length of excitons, which define an upper temporal and spatial limit for coherent manipulations. Even for spin manipulations, the temporal or spatial decoherence can influence spin coherence whenever spin–orbit coupling is present.physicstoday5233  In this letter we present the first experimental determination of the coherence length of excitons in semiconductors.

Excitonic coherence is temporally and spatially limited due to interactions within the exciton ensemble and its coupling to its environment. We can divide these interactions into two classes: elastic and inelastic scattering. They have essentially different influences on the excitonic coherence.bookmitin  For elastic scattering, the direction of the wave vector changes, but the energy of the exciton keeps constant. Consequently, the elastic scattering does not destroy the phase of the exciton. The spatial distribution of the wavefunction remains independent of time even after several elastic–scattering events. Thus, the exciton wavefunction remains coherent.bookmitin  One can find an analogue of this coherent propagation in the presence of elastic scattering in Anderson localization of electrons in metals.rmp57287  On the contrary, an inelastic–scattering event changes the exciton energy and phase and thus destroys the coherence.

It is nowadays well established to measure the excitonic coherence time e.g. from the decay of the macroscopic optical polarization using ultrafast spectroscopybookshah  or from the homogeneous linewidth of exciton luminescences27387 . Methods to investigate spatially coherent phenomena are much less developed. They require not only a spatial resolution on the order of the light wavelengths2932224 ; s294837  but also a means to simultaneously test the coherence of the excitons. First attempts towards this goal were based on time– and space–resolved pump–probe experiments.apl741791 ; pssb221425  But since the nonlinear response of the semiconductor was tested, only high–density regimes beyond the excitonic phase were accessible. We will show in this letter, that we are able to investigate the spatial coherence and measure the coherence length of excitons using spatially resolved phonon sideband spectroscopy in quantum wells based on the polar semiconductor ZnSe.

The investigations require both specific material properties and a novel experimental design. The material of choice is a ZnSe/ZnSSe multiple quantum well for two reasons. Firstly, due to the strong Fröhlich coupling in polar II–VI quantum structures, one can optically generate well–defined hot excitons assisted by the emission of longitudinal optical (LO)–phonons within some 100 fs,b571390  as shown in Fig. 1. The initial kinetic

energy of the exciton can be well controlled over a range of 30 meV simply by choosing the laser excitation energy, $`E_{\mathrm{exc}}`$. This exciton formation mechanism is drastically different from that of III–V structuresb65035303 , in which most of the optically generated electrons and holes relax individually toward their respective band extrema, and bind to excitons on a time scale of 10 ps.l713878  Secondly, the strong Fröhlich coupling induces a pronounced LO–phonon sideband (PSB) beside the zero–phonon–line (ZPL) in the photoluminescence (PL) spectrum. After their formation, the hot excitons relax to the band minimum by phonon emission. The relaxed excitons with nearly zero kinetic energy can radiatively recombinate, resulting in the ZPL. Since the photon momentum is very small, this direct coupling to photons is forbidden for hot excitons due to momentum conservation. This is the main obstacle of hot–exciton studies in conventional PL spectroscopy, which exploits the ZPL. For the same reason, the hot excitons are not observable in pump–probe experiments. However, the LO–phonon can assist the hot exciton in coupling with a photon by taking away its momentum (see Fig. 1). The simultaneous well–defined energy loss to the LO–phonon leads to the appearance of the PSB. This process is an ideal tool for the direct investigation of hot excitons.bookexciton ; b571390

Figure 2 shows three spectra excited by a continuous–wave

laser at various photon energies. The PSB is found in the photon–energy range between one LO–phonon energy ($`E_{\mathrm{LO}}`$=31.8 meV) below the ZPL and $`2E_{\mathrm{LO}}`$ below the $`E_{\mathrm{exc}}`$ (see Fig. 2). The latter energy defines the upper limit of the PSB, which stays a strict limit when $`E_{\mathrm{exc}}`$ is varied. This fact confirms that the PSB really reflects the hot–exciton distribution and that no additional luminescence, e.g., related to defects, occurs in this spectral range. In Fig. 2, a sharp peak (HL) is observed at $`2E_{\mathrm{LO}}`$ below $`E_{\mathrm{exc}}`$. This peak is the main subject of the present investigation. In the following we will identify its origin and discuss what we can learn from this peak.

Generally, the peak observed at $`E_{\mathrm{exc}}nE_{\mathrm{LO}}`$ can be induced by hot–exciton luminescence (HL) and/or resonant Raman scattering (RRS).pssb689  There has been a debate in the 1970’s on how to distinguish these two processes.b9622 ; b12624  The actual difference between them is whether a real excitonic population is involved or not.b9622  HL is composed of two distinct one–photon processes, i.e., absorption followed by emission, while RRS is a single two–photon process.l67128  In the case of $`n=1`$, HL is not possible,pssb689  thus the peak can be easily identified as a first order RRS. Indeed, this peak is observed in Fig. 2 on the high–energy side of the ZPL. In the cases of $`n2`$, both HL and RRS are possible. In experiments, one can distinguish them according to their different features.pssb689 . Recently, it has been proven that HL can be the dominant process at low temperature in several systems, e.g., II–VIl67128 ; b439354 , III–Vapl601615  and IV–IVb64085203  semiconductors. In our experiments, we prove that the sharp peak observed at the upper limit of PSB is dominated by HL by the following experimental facts. At first, raising the temperature we observe a pronounced thermal quenching of this peak (from 800 counts at 10 K to less than 100 counts at 70 K), while the RRS peak keeps unchanged in this temperature range (about 160 counts). Such different temperature behaviors clearly distinguish HL and RRS. pssb689 ; b64085203  Secondly, increasing the photon energy of excitation by $`E_{\mathrm{LO}}`$, the spectral linewidth of the HL peak becomes 2 $``$ 3 times wider. This is also a signature of an HL process.b439354  Beside these facts, the different spatial profiles of the HL and RRS peaks (see below) also provides evidence of their origins.

Having excluded a significant Raman contribution to the HL peak, we will see that the peak can be exploited to study the individual coherence of excitons. The peak is spectrally located at $`2E_{\mathrm{LO}}`$ below $`E_{\mathrm{exc}}`$ thus $`1E_{\mathrm{LO}}`$ below the initial kinetic energy of the exciton. So it actually monitors the population of excitons right after their LO–phonon assisted formation and before their first inelastic–scattering event. An exciton that has undergone the first inelastic–scattering event, thus has a different energy, cannot contribute to the peak. Since an exciton remains coherent between two inelastic–scattering events, the HL peak at $`2E_{\mathrm{LO}}`$ below $`E_{\mathrm{exc}}`$ monitors the presence of individual coherent excitons with a well–defined kinetic energy $`E_{\mathrm{exc}}E_{\mathrm{LO}}`$.

Our experimental setup is a solid immersion lens (SIL)–enhanced confocal micro–photoluminescence system with a resolution of 450 nm (FWHM). The details of the system have been described previously.APL801391  By moving a pinhole in the image plane of the microscope, we can scan the detection spot with respect to the excitation spot, thus study the spatial coherence in a rather direct way. Also, the high collection efficiency of the setup enables us to access the low–density regime where exciton–exciton interactions are negligible.

By scanning the pinhole, we measure the spectra of the PSB at different detection positions with respect to the excitation spot, as shown in Fig. 3(a). We find the HL peak drops with increasing

the excitation–detection distance, but is still visible at a distance as large as 1380 nm. We also find a systematic change of the PSB spectral shape, which reflects the relaxation of the hot excitons during transport. These spectra allow us to obtain the spatial profile of the HL peak, as shown by the squares in Fig. 3(b). We also plot in the same figure the spatial profiles of the laser spot (circles), the RRS peak (stars) and the ZPL (down–triangles) measured in the same pinhole–scanning. The profile of RRS peak is similar to that of the laser spot, while the HL peak distribution is significantly wider. We note that the difference in spatial extension can also be used as a method to distinguish the HL and RRS processes. We also check the spatial profile of a spectral component in the middle part of the PSB, as indicated by the arrow in Fig. 3(a). The profile (up–triangles) locates between the HL and ZPL profiles, showing the undergoing relaxation. Such a feature is shown quantitatively in Fig. 3(c). Decreasing the detection energy from HL peak to $`E_{\mathrm{ZPL}}E_{\mathrm{LO}}`$, i.e., scanning the arrow in Fig. 3(a) from right to left within the PSB, we find an increase of the HWHM (half–width at half–maxima, obtained by Gaussian fits) approaching to that of ZPL. This confirms that the PSB really monitors the exciton population as well as its spatial extension.

As discussed before, the HL peak monitors the individual coherence of the excitons. Thus the spatial profile of HL peak reflects the coherent propagation of excitons in space. We note that HWHM of the HL peak is related, but not equal, to the coherence length of the excitons, since both the excitation spot and the detection spot in our measurement are not given by delta functions in space. Using Monte Carlo simulations for de–convolution, we deduce that in our experimental setup the measured HWHM of the HL peak profile is actually 1.35 times the coherence length.

Figure 4 shows the coherence lengths measured in this way for several exciton kinetic energies by tuning the photon energy of the excitation laser. Increasing the exciton kinetic energy we find a slow drop of the coherence length. The decrease is less than 20 % as the kinetic energy is increased from 1.6 to 20.7 meV. We also show in the same figure (dots) the coherence length calculated by only considering the acoustic phonon scattering. For this estimation, the influence of static disorder is not considered, thus the exciton is assumed to propagate

ballistically before the first acoustic–phonon scattering event. The coherence length is thus calculated by simply multiplying the group velocity obtained from a parabolic dispersion and the acoustic–phonon scattering timeb316552 . The discrepancy observed in Fig. 4 suggests that the excitonic propagation is limited by not only the acoustic–phonon scattering but also other mechanisms like static disorder. The importance of the disorder on excitonic properties of semiconductor quantum wells at low temperature has been proven (see, e.g., Ref. b4817149 ). Recently, theoretical investigationb608975  suggested a strong influence of disorder on the spatiotemporal dynamics of excitons in quantum wells under near–field pulsed excitation. Strong disorder can eventually results in exciton localization. Here, we are dealing with excitons with rather high kinetic energy above the effective mobility edge. A detailed theoretical study on the influence of static disorder on the coherence length of excitons is beyond the scope of the present investigation. However, Fig. 4 provides an important input for this kind of studies. We also note that the coherence length determined from the present investigation ($`300400`$ nm) is about $`2530`$ times the de Broglie wavelength of the exciton in ZnSe quantum wells.

In summary, we show that the combination of a highly efficient, sub–$`\mu `$m spatially resolved photoluminescence system with phonon sideband spectroscopy enables one to investigate coherence transport process in semiconductors. By monitoring the spatial evolution of the exciton coherence, we directly determine the exciton coherence length of $`300400`$ nm, which decreases slowly when increasing the exciton kinetic energy.

We gratefully acknowledge the growth of excellent samples by the group of M. Heuken (RWTH Aachen) and useful discussion with H. Giessen (Universität Bonn) and R. von Baltz (Universität Karlsruhe). This work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.


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# Mrk 1014: An AGN Dominated Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxy

## 1 Introduction

Mrk 1014 ($`V=15.7`$; $`z=0.163`$), with a far-infrared (FIR) luminosity in excess of 1012L (Yun 2001), is one of the brightest members of the class of ‘warm’ ultraluminous infrared galaxies (Sanders et al. 1988a) which from their warm IRAS 25$`\mu `$m/60$`\mu `$m colors and optical spectra, are believed to host powerful AGN. Sanders et al. (1988b) report on the detection of CO(1–0) emission and suggest that Mrk 1014 may be an important link in the evolution of ultraluminous infrared galaxies into UV-excess quasars.

Spectroscopy using the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) adds quantitative information to this picture. The low resolution ISOPHOT-S spectrum presented by Rigopoulou et al. (1999) is dominated by AGN-like continuum emission, with no evidence for the aromatic ‘PAH’ emission typical for starbursts. The ratio of 7.7$`\mu `$m PAH feature and local continuum is $`<`$0.63, well below starburst values of $``$3. The diagnostics proposed by Genzel et al. (1998) and Tran et al. (2001) then suggest an upper limit of $``$25% for the starburst contribution to the infrared luminosity of Mrk 1014. Sturm et al. (2002) present ISO-SWS mid-IR fine structure line data for Mrk 1014. The source is at the limit of the the SWS sensitivity, and only tentative detections are obtained for the low excitation \[Ne II\]12.8$`\mu `$m line and the high excitation \[O IV\]25.9$`\mu `$m line, with a ratio consistent with AGN dominance.

Hubble Space Telescope (HST) NICMOS observations (Scoville et al. 2000) reveal twisting spiral isophotes beneath the dominant QSO nucleus, indicating either a starburst spiral disk or tidal debris. Optical observations of the host galaxy portray a prominent tidal arm with several knots (Surace & Sanders 2000; Surace et al. 1998). The tidal arm is composed primarily of intermediate age stars ($``$ 1 Gyr) with very little contribution from older stars (Canalizo & Stockton 2000). Nolan et al. (2001) determine that the majority of the flux is associated with an instantaneous burst of star formation at approximately 12 Gyr, however, Canalizo & Stockton (2000) find several regions of recent ($``$ 0.2 Gyr) star formation accounting for up to 30% of the total luminous mass along the line of sight. Both age estimations are too high to be associated with on-going starburst activity ($``$10 Myr), which produces X-ray emitting hot gas.

Mrk 1014 was observed with XMM–Newton (Jansen et al. 2001) as part of the guaranteed time programme. The objective of the study was to obtain a high quality X–ray spectrum of an AGN dominated ultraluminous infrared galaxy, and determine if starburst activity is a necessary component to explain the spectral energy distribution.

In the following section we will present the observations and discuss the data reduction. In section 3, we will describe the spectral models and discuss their significance. A description of the light curve will be presented in section 4. In section 5 we will summarize our findings. A value of the Hubble constant of $`H_0`$=$`70\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$ and a cosmological deceleration parameter of $`q_0=\frac{1}{2}`$ have been adopted throughout.

## 2 OBSERVATION AND DATA REDUCTION

Mrk 1014 was observed with XMM–Newton on 2000 July 29 during revolution 0117 for a duration of 15 ks. All instruments were functioning normally during this time. The European Photon Imaging Camera (EPIC) pn detector (Strüder et al. 2001) was operated in full–frame mode, and the two MOS cameras (Turner et al. 2001) were operated in large–window mode. All three EPIC CCD cameras used the medium filter.

The MOS and pn Observation Data Files (ODFs) were processed to produce calibrated event lists using the XMM-Newton Science Analysis System (SAS) v5.3. Unwanted hot, dead or flickering pixels were removed as were events due to electronic noise. Event energies were corrected for charge–transfer losses. The latest available calibration files111m1\_medv9q20t5r6\_all\_15.rsp and m2\_medv9q20t5r6\_all\_15.rsp for MOS1 and MOS2, respectively and epn\_ff20\_sdY9\_medium.rmf for the pn. were used in the processing. Single and double events were selected. Background light curves were extracted from these event lists to search for periods of flaring, but showed the background to be stable throughout the duration of the observations. The total amount of “good” exposure time was 10534 s with the MOS cameras and 11298 s with the pn camera.

The source plus background photons were extracted from a circular region of radius 40 arcsec for the pn and MOS data. The centroid position of Mrk 1014 in the EPIC images is $`\alpha `$=01h59m50s.2, $`\delta `$=+002341.2′′, which is in good agreement with the optical position given by Argyle & Eldridge (1990). Background events were extracted from an off–source circular region roughly 90 arcsec in radius.

The Galactic column density toward Mrk 1014 is (2.6 $`\pm `$ 0.2) $`\times `$ 1020 cm-2 (Dickey & Lockman 1990).

## 3 SPECTRAL ANALYSIS

The source spectra were grouped such that each spectral bin contains at least 60 counts for the pn data and 20 counts for the MOS. Spectral fitting was accomplished with the XSPEC v11.1 software package (Arnaud 1996). The quoted errors on the derived best–fitting model parameters correspond to a 90% confidence level unless stated otherwise. When we calculate luminosities, we shall assume isotropic emission unless stated otherwise.

Displayed in Figure 1 is the EPIC pn spectrum along with the background spectrum in the 0.3–10 keV energy range. The background is no longer negligible at energies higher than about 8 keV. The same is true for the MOS observations. We will only consider the 0.3–8.0 keV spectral range when generating models of Mrk 1014.

In the initial models the photoelectric absorption was treated as a free parameter. Absorption above the Galactic $`N_H`$ was not found in any spectral model indicating very little intrinsic absorption in Mrk 1014. In the remainder of the analysis we have fixed the absorption parameter to the Galactic value stated above.

A simple power–law modified by Galactic absorption was fitted separately to the pn and combined MOS 0.3–8 keV spectra with mediocre results ($`\chi ^2`$ = 160.4/159 $`dof`$ for the pn data, and $`\chi ^2`$ = 252.6/229 $`dof`$ for the combined MOS data). As we will demonstrate in section 3.1, the addition of a soft X-ray component significantly improves the fits. The photon indices were $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ = 2.46 $`\pm `$ 0.03 and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ = 2.42 $`\pm `$ 0.04 for the pn and MOS data, respectively. Despite the reasonable agreement between the pn and MOS data we do not combine the spectra in order that we may search for discrepancies in the more complicated models discussed below. We will alternate our discussion between the two spectra and will explicitly state any incongruity between models.

There is no convincing evidence of a narrow iron K$`\alpha `$ emission in either spectra nor is there evidence of spectral variability. A hardness ratio light curve was produced using the 0.3–2 keV and 2–8 keV energy bands to test for spectral variability, but the hardness ratio light curve is represented by a constant fit ($`\chi ^2`$ = 23.5/55 $`dof`$).

### 3.1 The Soft Energy Spectrum

The statistics indicate that the fits are significantly improved by the addition of a soft component to the spectral models. Given the nature of Mrk 1014, this soft component may be attributed either to AGN or possible starburst activity in the nucleus. We put forth a number of models to test both hypotheses. A simple blackbody, double blackbody and multiple blackbody disc models are used to search for an AGN contribution; thermal bremsstrahlung and a Raymond & Smith (1977) models are suggested to investigate the starburst nature. In the remainder of this section we will discuss these models. We have summarized the results in Table 1.

As can be seen in Figure 2, a blackbody plus power-law provides an acceptable fit to the data ($`\chi ^2`$ = 145.7/156 $`dof`$ for the pn data, and $`\chi ^2`$ = 210.7/212 $`dof`$ for the combined MOS data). The derived power-law indices are similar in the pn model ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ = 2.28 $`\pm `$ 0.06) and the MOS model ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ = 2.21 $`\pm `$ 0.08). The unabsorbed luminosities for the model components are also consistent: We measure a total 0.3–8 keV luminosity of 1.65 $`\times `$ 1044 erg s-1 with MOS, of which the blackbody component accounts for 16%. With the pn model we calculate a luminosity of 1.58 $`\times `$ 1044 erg s-1 , of which 13% is attributed to the blackbody component. A double blackbody plus power-law also provided a good fit for the pn ($`\chi ^2`$ = 139.5/154 $`dof`$) and MOS ($`\chi ^2`$ = 209.9/210 $`dof`$) data, however several parameters were unconstrained, such as the temperature of the second blackbody. This would indicate that the model is not an accurate representation of the data given the available photon statistics. A multiple blackbody disc in addition to the power-law was also a reasonable fit to the data ($`\chi ^2`$ = 142.2/156 $`dof`$ and 210.3/212 $`dof`$ for the pn and MOS, respectively).

In an attempt to model a possible starburst component we employed the Raymond-Smith model for an emission spectrum from a hot, diffuse gas. In combination with a simple power-law the models fit the data well ($`\chi ^2`$ = 152.2/156 $`dof`$ for the pn data and $`\chi ^2`$ = 215.8/212 $`dof`$ for the MOS data). We find $`kT`$ = 273$`{}_{50}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+100}`$ eV, which is lower than the temperature of $`>`$600 eV usually found in X-ray starbursts (Ptak et al. 1999). This claim is further supported by the recent XMM-Newton observations of the ULIRG NGC 6240. The starburst in NGC 6240 is adequately fitted by two Raymond-Smith components with temperatures $`kT`$ = (0.62 $`\pm `$ 0.20) keV and (1.11 $`\pm `$ 0.10) keV (Keil, Boller & Fujimoto, in preparation). We calculate an X-ray luminosity of $``$ 5 $`\times `$ 1042 erg s-1 for the Raymond-Smith component in Mrk 1014. This X-ray luminosity appears to be surprisingly large for a starburst, therefore, the detection of a starburst component above the luminous AGN power-law is very unlikely. A second respectable fit was obtained by adding a thermal bremsstrahlung component to the power-law ($`\chi ^2`$ = 139.1/156 $`dof`$, 210.1/212 $`dof`$ for the pn and MOS, respectively), however the resulting temperatures and luminosities are unphysically large.

On a statistical bases, none of the attempted fits appear superior over the others. However, from physical arguments the AGN dominated spectral model appear the most realistic explanation for the X-ray features of Mrk 1014. In Table 1 we present the parameters of the various models we attempted for the pn spectrum. Results are comparable for the MOS observations. In Table 2 we have calculated the unabsorbed luminosities measured for the soft and power-law component for each of the pn models used. Again, the results are comparable with the MOS observations.

The spectral analysis reveals that Mrk 1014 is AGN dominated. This is further supported by comparing the soft X-ray (0.1–2.4 keV) flux to the FIR (40–120 $`\mu `$m) flux. Boller & Bertoldi (1996) found that in equilibrium, the ratio of the X-ray to FIR flux is about 10-2.5. A flux ratio less than 10-2.5 indicates that starburst activity is dominant. The total FIR flux of Mrk 1014 is 9.93 $`\times `$ 10-11 erg s-1 cm-2, computed from the IRAS 60 and 100 $`\mu `$m fluxes following Helou et al. (1985). To compute the soft X-ray fluxes we used the models described in section 3. The extrapolated 0.1–2.4 keV XMM-Newton flux is 3.68 $`\times `$ 10-12 erg s-1 cm-2. We calculated a value of 10-1.4 for the flux ratio in Mrk 1014, an order of magnitude greater than what is expected from a starburst.

### 3.2 The Hard Energy Excess

As can be seen in Figure 2, there appears to be a gentle uprising in the residuals at energies higher than 5 keV. This trend is apparent in all of the models presented. By adding a second power-law with a negative slope to the models we find an improvement in the fits. Using the $`F`$-test for the addition of one free parameter, we find that we have a significant improvement ($`>`$99.95 %) in the quality of the fits. The current observation does not allow us to constrain the nature of this excess high energy emission. It would be especially interesting to determine if this hard excess can be attributed to a broadened and redshifted iron complex. Longer observations are required to further investigate the characteristics of this hard energy excess.

## 4 TIMING ANALYSIS

In Figure 3 we present the 0.3–8 keV EPIC pn light curve in 400 s bins. The MOS light curves are similar to the pn light curve, but only the pn data will be presented here given the higher signal to noise.

The light curve of Mrk 1014 does not show much in the way of interesting features but there does appear to be some small scale variability during the short 11 ks observation. A constant model through the mean of the light curve is not an acceptable fit ($`\chi ^2`$ = 39.1/27 $`dof`$). The mean pn count rate during the observation is (1.18 $`\pm `$ 0.09) counts s-1. There is a difference of less than 0.3 counts s-1 between the strongest and weakest events in the pn light curve. The largest fluctuations in the light curve are observed at $``$1600 s and $``$8000 s, in which the count rate increases by 0.2 counts s-1 in 400 s. The limited statistics in these peaks do not allow us to ascertain more information. The mean count rate measured with the MOS data is 1.17 $`\pm `$ 0.07 counts s-1.

## 5 SUMMARY

The 0.3–8 keV spectrum of the Mrk 1014 was fitted with a number of models to determine if the soft energy emission above a predominant power-law is driven by an AGN central engine or starburst activity. The XMM-Newton observation reveals a power-law dominated spectrum which may be up to thirty times more luminous than the soft X-ray excess. The existence of an X-ray starburst is highly unlikely due to the low temperature and high luminosity found in the models. Other evidence, such as a variable light curve and the soft X-ray to FIR flux ratio suggest an AGN powered continuum in Mrk 1014. A longer observation with XMM-Newton would allow us to better constrain the nature of the soft energy component. In addition, a longer look will allow us to probe the interesting high energy excess above 5 keV and determine if it is connected to a broadened and redshifted iron complex. Clearly, more multi-frequency observations are required to disentangle and compare the starburst and AGN contributions in different energy bands.

## Acknowledgments

We thank the anonymous referee for constructive comments and suggestions for improvements. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration This paper is based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA member states and the USA (NASA).


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# Local information as a resource in distributed quantum systems

## Abstract

A new paradigm for distributed quantum systems where information is a valuable resource is developed. After finding a unique measure for information, we construct a scheme for it’s manipulation in analogy with entanglement theory. In this scheme instead of maximally entangled states, two parties distill local states. We show that, surprisingly, the main tools of entanglement theory are general enough to work in this opposite scheme. Up to plausible assumptions, we show that the amount of information that must be lost during the protocol of concentration of local information can be expressed as the relative entropy distance from some special set of states.

The notion of quantum correlations is a more general than entanglementBennett et al. (1999); dis . A formal measure of quantum correlations in measurements (quantum discord) dis  was found, based primarily on an entropy-like function. Recently, the first operational approach to quantify quantum correlations was introduced in Oppenheim et al. (2002). Subsequently, a similar approach was used to justify a physical interpretation of (the optimized) quantum discord Żurek . The results of Oppenheim et al. (2002) was based on the idea that using a system in a pure state one can draw work from a single heat bath. This scenario was used in the case of distributed quantum systems: Alice and Bob share a state, have local heat baths, and can use only local operations and classical communication (LOCC), to concentrate the information contained in the state, in order to draw work. The amount of work drawn by LOCC is usually smaller than the one extractable if Alice and Bob can use global operations. The resulting difference denoted by the deficit $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ accounts for the part of correlations that must be lost during classical communication, thus describing purely quantum correlations. In the case of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ for pure states, it was argued to be exactly equal to the entanglement while for mixed states it is supposed to be an independent quantity. In this context, it is clear that understanding the problem of concentration of information will provide valuable insight into the nature of quantum correlations. Yet the early development of these ideas Oppenheim et al. (2002, ) indicated that the proposed scenario is completely different that anything we had in quantum information theory so far. In particular the serious difficulty (which shall be removed in this paper) was that one is not even able to obtain (without additional assumptions) the value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ in the simplest case of a two-qubit Bell state.

In this context basic questions arise: (i) What is the connection between the above thermodynamical quantification of quantum correlations and the main concepts of quantum information theory? (ii) Can we formulate the concentration of information within a framework of manipulating resources like in entanglement theory? An even more basic question is: (iii) can we give up thermodynamics, and formulate the problem solely in terms of quantum information? To see the importance of the latter, let us note that the discovery of teleportation and Shor’s algorithm was possible by restricting to the naked quantum mechanical formalism.

A powerful domain of quantum information theory which is well formalized is entanglement theory where the primitive notions are only states of compound systems and a class of operations. One would like to formalize our scheme in a similar manner An important question is then: can we make our scheme similar to entanglement theory? Apart from conceptual benefits, one then hopes that the powerful tools of entanglement theory can be borrowed to tackle information manipulations.

These questions, answered in this work, are of fundamental importance for investigations of quantum correlations of composite states. First, we will not start from an a priori notion of information, and will not assume that we are interested in the usual function for information $`I=NS`$ ($`N`$ is the number of qubits associated with a given state N  and $`S`$ is its von Neumann entropy) which we used in Oppenheim et al. (2002) based on thermodynamical considerations. Instead we define a class of global operations over a quantum system called Noisy Operations (NO), and define information as whatever quantity does not increase under the class. We find that, under certain natural assumptions $`NS`$ is the unique measure of information.

Then we pass to distributed quantum systems. In this context, a natural class of operations is LOCCBennett et al. (1997). To tackle information, we restrict this class, obtaining N(oisy)LOCC. It differs from LOCC in that only maximally mixed local ancillas can be added for free. We show that the task of concentration of information is a dual scheme to the entanglement distillation scheme. Instead of maximally entangled states, Alice and Bob have to draw local states. In entanglement theory, pure local states were a free resource; in our scheme, they represent a useful resource: localized information. The schemes are then quite opposite. Surprisingly, however, we show that the main tools of entanglement theory can be applied to the problem of concentration of information. This is due to the fact that both paradigms are based on the general scheme of state transformations under a given class of operations. Using the technique of monotones Vidal (2000); Horodecki et al. (2000) and Rains semidefinite program Rai  we obtain rigorously that for pure states, the amount of localisable information $`I_l`$ is equal to $`NE`$, where $`E`$ is the entanglement. This means that the quantum correlations defined by the deficit $`\mathrm{\Delta }=(NS)I_l`$ for pure states are equal to its entanglement. Also up to plausible assumptions we obtain, that $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the relative entropy distance from some special set of states (smaller than the set of separable states; see Vedral  in this context).

Unique measure of information: Let us begin by looking at the class of allowable operations for a single system. We use noisy operations (NO)Kar . We imagine that the Universe is mostly filled with qubits in maximally mixed states. This is a reminiscent of the heat bath in thermodynamics. Then a qubit in a non-maximally mixed state is valuable. Such qubits cannot be brought in for free, but only manipulated. Accordingly we allow a) unitary operations, b) adding an ancilla in the maximally mixed state and b) rejecting (tracing out) part of the system. Operations a) and b) are reversible while c) is not. Note that we do not consider measurement as a separate operation, as the latter involves implicitly a device with memory initially in a pure state. Rather we will count the device qubits explicitly i.e. treat it as part of the system. The measurement is then a unitary transformation. We can now ask, under NO, what is the number of pure states which can be distilled from a state $`\varrho `$. It turns out that the number of pure states which can be distilled from a N-qubit state $`\varrho `$ under NO is the information $`I(\varrho )=NS(\varrho )`$ where $`S(\varrho )=\text{Tr}\varrho \mathrm{log}\varrho `$ is the von Neumann entropy and that this process is reversible. The details of the proof of this will be presented in Horodecki et al. , so here, we just sketch an outline. The method of distilling pure states is essentially Schumacher compression Schumacher (1995) (cf. Petz and Mosonyi  and references therein). In the original compression scheme, the pure qubits were rejected, while the qubits carrying the compressed state were kept, as the latter was the signal. Here, we do the converse: keep the pure part (the mixed state is not interpreted as signal, but as noise, as in Schulman and Vazirani ). Therefore it is cooling rather than compression Janzing et al. .

One can also show, that the converse protocol is possible: i.e. to create $`n`$ copies of state $`\varrho `$ one needs $`n(NS(\varrho ))`$ pure qubits and $`nS(\varrho )`$ qubits of noise. (This is somewhat similar to the much more advanced reverse second Shannon theorem problem Bennett et al. ).

It follows that in the asymptotic regime (many copies), apart from the maximally mixed state any state can be reversibly converted into any other, at a rate fixed by the entropy of the state. Then, as with the Carnot efficiency (c.f. Popescu and Rohrlich (1997)) there is a unique function that is monotonic under transitions possible by NO (up to a factor and an additive constant). The function we can call information, as everybody will agree that information, whatever it is, cannot increase under NO. We can fix the free parameters, by requiring that for pure N-qubit states $`I=N`$. We have thus obtained that I is the unique measure of information contained in quantum systems: Information cannot be created. It can only be manipulated or lost.

Concentration of information to a local form: Now we are in a position to pass to distributed systems shared between Alice and Bob (for simplicity we will deal with bipartite systems). We will now restrict the class of operations (called NLOCC) allowing (i) local noisy operations (ii) sending qubits down dephasing channel which is equivalent to classical communication. The only difference between LOCC and the present NLOCC class is that in the former, local ancillas are free while in the latter, only maximally mixed ancilla are free clo .

In entanglement theory the valuable resource was the maximally entangled state $`\psi _+^d=\frac{1}{\sqrt{d}}_{i=1}^d|i|i`$ and one asked: How many maximally entangled states can be distilled from $`\varrho `$ with help from LOCC operations? Instead, we propose to care about local information. Consider a bipartite system with information contents $`NS(\varrho )`$. The main question is Oppenheim et al. (2002): How much of the information can be concentrated to local form by NLOCC ?. Since we know that local information is equivalent to local pure states, the question can be converted into: How many pure product states can one distill from the state $`\varrho `$ under the NLOCC class? From the formal point of view this happens to be very similar to the problem of entanglement distillation. The key difference is that instead of maximally entangled state, we want to distill states that were regarded as useless so far! (The character of the distilled resource naturally imposes the use NLOCC instead of LOCC.) Surprisingly, this allows us to quantify quantum correlations: the amount of information that cannot be concentrated must be quantum, because it is destroyed by the dephasing channel. Thus we define the classical (i.e. local) information contents $`I_l`$ of the state $`\varrho `$, as the optimal rate $`2m/n`$, where $`n`$ is the number of copies in the state $`\varrho `$, $`m`$ is the number of two-qubit pairs output into pure product states (we put the factor 2 since we count local information in bits). The contents of quantum correlations $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is then defined as the difference: $`\mathrm{\Delta }=II_l`$. The task of evaluating $`I_l`$ (hence also $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$) turned out to be surprisingly hard. Even for the state $`\psi _+^d`$, we were not able to prove rigorously, that $`I_l=\mathrm{log}d`$ Oppenheim et al. (2002) which is intuitively obvious.

Below, we find that since $`I_l`$ is some conversion rate under NLOCC, the following powerful tools of entanglement theory (with suitable modifications) can be applied: enlarging the class of operations, Rains approach Rai  and the concept of monotones Vidal (2000); Horodecki et al. (2000).

First of all, NLOCC operations (like LOCC ones) are hard to deal with from a mathematical point of view. In entanglement theory, one considers the greater classes of operationsRai ; Vedral and Plenio (1998): separable operations and so-called PPT operationsRai . To obtain analogous classes, we only need to add a condition of preserving maximally mixed state (PMM). Thus we can optimize the rate over PMM versions of the above classes, which will be a great simplification, and will lead to useful bounds for $`I_l`$.

In the Rains approach, one assumes a fixed rate of conversion from one state to another, and evaluates the fidelity of the conversion. The rate is attainable if the fidelity can approach $`1`$ in the limit of many input copies. For simplicity we will work with two-qubit states. We fix the rate $`r`$, which means that for $`n`$ input copies we will obtain $`m=nr/2`$ output pairs. The pairs are in a final joint state $`\varrho ^{}=\mathrm{\Lambda }(\varrho ^n)`$, where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the optimal NLOCC operation. We want to estimate the fidelity between $`\varrho ^{}`$ and the $`m`$ copies of the two-qubit state we would like to have (e.g. $`P_{00}=|0000|`$) for fixed $`n`$

$$F=\text{Tr}[P_{00}^m\mathrm{\Lambda }(\varrho ^n)].$$
(1)
To evaluate $`F`$ one can use techniques developed in Rai . One rewrites (1) in the form $`F=\text{Tr}[\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(P_{00}^m)\varrho ^n]\text{Tr}\mathrm{\Pi }\varrho ^n`$, where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}`$ is the dual map dua .

Let us find constraints for the operator $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$. One can check that since $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is trace preserving then $`0\mathrm{\Pi }I`$. Since $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ preserves maximally mixed state (ie. $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(I/d_{in})=I/d_{out}`$), one finds that $`\frac{d_{in}}{d_{out}}\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}`$ is trace preserving; in our case $`d_{in}=2^{2n},d_{out}=2^{2m}`$, hence $`\text{Tr}\mathrm{\Pi }=2^{n(2r)}K`$, so that $`\mathrm{\Pi }/K`$ is a state. Since $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is NLOCC, so is $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}`$. Then, since $`P_{00}^m`$ is separable, so is $`\mathrm{\Pi }/K`$. This constrained optimization problem can be treated using the duality concept in semidefinite programming as in Rai . We will do so elsewhere. Here we prove the following bound:

Proposition 1. - For any bipartite state $`\varrho _{AB}`$ of $`N=N_A+N_B`$ qubits, we have

$$I_lNS_{\mathrm{}}(\varrho _X),X=A,B$$
(2)
(or, equivalently, $`\mathrm{\Delta }S(\varrho )S_{\mathrm{}}(\varrho _X)`$) where $`S_{\mathrm{}}=\mathrm{log}\lambda _{\mathrm{max}}`$, with $`\lambda _{\mathrm{max}}`$ being the largest eigenvalue of $`\varrho _X`$.

Remark -  Since usually $`S_{\mathrm{}}<S`$, this bound is weaker than the one proven under an assumption in Oppenheim et al. (2002). However for the maximally entangled state it is tight.

Proof -  We prove for two-qubit states (generalization to higher dimensions is obvious). We note that $`\frac{1}{K}\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is a separable state. Then $`FKsup_\sigma \text{Tr}\sigma \varrho ^n`$ where sup is taken over separable $`\sigma `$, which can be taken pure. Consequently $`FKsup_{\psi \varphi }\psi \varphi |\varrho ^n|\psi \varphi Ksup_\psi \psi |\varrho _X^n|\psi =K\lambda _{\mathrm{max}}^n`$. Since we require $`F1`$ for large $`n`$, we must have $`r2+\mathrm{log}\lambda _{\mathrm{max}}`$ which gives the expected bound.

In Oppenheim et al. (2002) we argued that $`I_l(\psi )=NS_X(\psi )`$ which is equivalent to $`\mathrm{\Delta }(\psi )=S_X(\psi )`$ where $`S_X(\psi )`$ is either of the reductions of $`\psi `$ and is equal to its entanglement $`E(\psi )`$. Here we will prove it rigorously. Following Prop. 1 one has $`I_l(\psi _+^d)\mathrm{log}d`$. This bound is attainableOppenheim et al. (2002). Since $`N(\psi _+^d)=\mathrm{log}d^2`$ the rigorous proof for maximally entangled states is complete. To extend it to other pure states, we use a version of the entanglement dilution schemeBennett et al. (1996), in which out of $`nS_A(\psi )`$ shared pairs $`\psi _+^2`$ one gets $`n`$ pairs in state $`\psi `$ by use of $`O(\sqrt{n})`$ bits of communicationLo and Popescu (1999). It follows that due to asymptotically negligible communication cost, production of entropy is also negligible. Thus, to create $`\psi ^n`$ one needs $`m=nS_A`$ copies of $`\psi _+^2`$ (which occupy $`2m`$ qubits) plus $`Nn2m`$ pure local qubits. Now if from $`\psi `$ one could draw more than $`NS_A`$ per pair, then one could draw more local bits than $`m`$ from the maximally entangled state, converting them first to $`\psi `$ and then drawing local bits from $`\psi `$. On the other hand, there is an obvious protocol to get $`NS_A`$ local bits: Alice, sends her half to Bob, via the dephasing channel Oppenheim et al. (2002). Thus $`I_l(\psi )=NS_A(\psi )`$ or, equivalently, $`\mathrm{\Delta }(\psi )=S_A(\psi )`$ which concludes the proof, since $`S_A(\psi )=S_B(\psi )`$. For the tripartite GHZ state, one can likewise show that $`\mathrm{\Delta }=1`$.

We will now proceed to estimate $`I_l`$ from below. To this end we need the notion of Implementable Product Basis (IPB). It is a basis that can be achieved from the standard basis $`|i_A|j_B`$ by means of reversible NLOCC operations. (Of course, since we want to transfer pure states into pure ones, local noise is here not needed.) IPB is always distinguishable by LOCC. Hence the basis given in Bennett et al. (1999) is not IPB. Most likely the converse is also true. It is obvious that a state with an IPB eigenbasis (call it an IPB state) has $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$. There is also a natural scheme of information concentration for other states: one fixes some IPB (let it be $``$), and dephases a given state $`\varrho `$ in this basis which, by definition, is possible by NLOCC. The final state $`\varrho ^{}`$ has $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$, so one can draw $`I_l(\varrho ^{})=NS(\varrho ^{})`$ local pure qubits. However $`S(\varrho ^{})=H(\varrho ,)`$ (Shannon entropy of $`\varrho `$ in basis $``$). Thus we have the bound $`I_l(\varrho )Ninf_{IPB}H(\varrho ,)`$.

Since one has $`inf_{IPB}H(\varrho ,)=S(\varrho )+infS(\varrho |\sigma )`$ wyp , where infimum is taken over IPB states $`\sigma `$, and $`S(\varrho |\sigma )=\text{Tr}\varrho \mathrm{log}\varrho \text{Tr}\varrho \mathrm{log}\sigma `$, and since it may be better to operate collectively on $`\varrho ^n`$ one obtains

Proposition 2. - For $`N`$ qubit bipartite state $`\varrho `$ one has

$$I_lNS(\varrho )𝒟^{\mathrm{}}(\varrho )$$
(3)
(or, equivalently, $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝒟^{\mathrm{}}(\varrho )`$) where $`𝒟^{\mathrm{}}(\varrho )`$ is regularized relative entropy distance from the set of IPB states $`𝒟=inf_{\sigma IPB}S(\varrho |\sigma )`$ reg .

Now we make an attempt to show equality by using the method of monotones. As shown in Donald et al. (2002); Horodecki (2001) (see also Horodecki et al. (2000)) if a function $`M(\varrho )`$ is a) non-increasing under a class of operations b) asymptotically continuous, then its regularization satisfies

$$M^{\mathrm{}}(\sigma )R(\varrho \sigma )M^{\mathrm{}}(\varrho )$$
(4)
where $`R`$ is the optimal transition rate. As $`M`$ we will take $`NS(\varrho )𝒟(\varrho )`$. $`S(\varrho )`$ satisfies b) by Fannes inequality Fannes (1973), while by Donald and Horodecki (2001) also $`𝒟`$ satisfies b) con . In our case $`\sigma `$ is the two-qubit product state $`\sigma =P_{00}`$ so that $`M(\sigma )=M^{\mathrm{}}(\sigma )=2`$. Since we intend to count not product states, but bits, we have $`I_l=2R`$. The inequality then reads $`I_l(\varrho )M^{\mathrm{}}(\varrho )`$. Now if $`M`$ is monotonic (satisfies a)), then combining Prop. 2 with the inequality we would know $`I_l`$ exactly. Let us then check monotonicity. To this end we use the formula $`M(\varrho )=Ninf_{IPB}H(\varrho ,)`$ and consider sending down the dephasing channel in two stages: (i) local dephasing of part of the system (ii) sending dephased part via an ideal quantum channel. It is easy to see that operations (ii) as well as local unitary transformations do not change $`M`$ (they change one IPB into other one). From the fact that a product of an IPB with some local basis is again an IPB it follows that partial trace does not increase $`M`$. We are not able to prove monotonicity of $`M`$ under adding noise (ie. maximally mixed states) and local dephasing. Concerning noise, it is rather unlikely that it can increase $`M`$, and moreover, most likely it is not needed in concentration task at all (basically noise is needed when we want to create more mixed states out of less mixed ones). However the question of whether dephasing can increase $`M`$ remains elusive. This is very closely related to the assumption we made in Oppenheim et al. (2002) .There we would obtain some improvement of the bound of Prop. 1. Here if the assumption was true we would obtain the exact formula for $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. The problem can be formulated as follows: can Alice in the optimal information concentrating protocol, partially dephase her system, and at some later stage, dephase again, so that two dephasings do not commute? Since non-commuting measurements destroy information, we believe the answer is “no”. This justifies the following conjecture:

Conjecture .- For $`N`$ qubit bipartite state, the amount of concentratable information is

$$I_l=NS(\varrho )𝒟^{\mathrm{}}(\varrho ).$$
(5)
Thus we would have that $`\mathrm{\Delta }=𝒟^{\mathrm{}}(\varrho )`$ , i.e. $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the (regularized) relative entropy distance form IPB states. The information $`I_l`$ is then given in terms of a Shannon entropy, an idea which arose naturally in Oppenheim et al. .

In conclusion we have derived the notion of information form general principles. Then we have shown that local information $`I_l`$ can serve as a resource in distributed systems in an analogous way to entanglement theory. We were then able to use powerful tools developed in the latter, with suitable modifications. We obtained bounds for both the amount of information that can be concentrated to local form ($`I_l`$) and the corresponding deficit $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Under some assumption we argued that the deficit $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the relative entropy distance from the set of states having $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$. Since the deficit is a measure of quantum correlations based on thermodynamics, the present program can be viewed as a bridge that links quantum correlation theory and quantum thermodynamics in a systematic way. In particular there is a hope to explain nonlocality without entanglement in a thermodynamical manner, as nontrivial states diagonal in basis of Ref. Bennett et al. (1999) may have $`\mathrm{\Delta }>0`$.

Acknowledgments: This work is supported by EU grant EQUIP, No. IST-1999-11053. J.O. is supported by grant No. 129/00-1 of the Israel Science Foundation.