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# New properties of scalar field dynamics in brane isotropic cosmological models

## 1 Introduction

The idea that we live on a three-dimensional brane embedded in a higher-dimensional space-time have attracted a lot of interests for the past few years. This idea has a long history (for references see ) but its recent renewal caused primarily by the the works of L. Randal and R. Sundrum .

In such brane-world scenarios the ordinary matter is confined to the brane while the graviton can propagate in a whole spacetime. The effective four-dimensional gravity on the brane is thus modified by extra terms , which may play an important role in cosmology. One of the predictions of brane-world models is that the contribution from the energy-momentum tensor components in the equation of motion contains both linear and second order terms while in conventional cosmology they contribute only linearly. The other prediction is the presence of non-local terms that are the projection of a Weyl tensor in the bulk onto the brane. In the case of FRW metrics on a brane the bulk contributes the same way as a radiation. That is why this term is called “dark radiation”, despite its pure geometrical nature.

Dynamics of a brane Universe filled with a perfect fluid have been intensively investigated during last three years (see, for example, ) and some new regimes that are not inherent to the standard cosmology, such as stable oscillation , collaps of a flat Universe , stage of growing anisotropy in Bianchi I Universe , unusual analog of an Einstein static Universe  were found.

A scalar field dynamics is complicated even in the standard cosmology , so, it is not surprizing that the case of scalar field on a brane gives us a variety of very interesting dynamical regimes. Some features of a brane inflation have been studied in , the cosmological dynamics for exponential scalar field potentials have been described in . Currently the problem of a scalar field dynamics on a brane continues to attract a great attention.

In the present paper we describe how several known regimes of the standard scalar field cosmology are modified in the brane scenario. We consider the effective four-dimensional FRW cosmology on the brane with a scalar field $`\phi `$ with potential $`V(\phi )`$. In Sec.2 modifications mostly arising from the square energy-momentum corrections to the Einstein equations on a brane are described. In Sec.3 we describe some dynamical features arising from the presence of a negative “dark radiation” term.

## 2 High-energy brane dynamics

The effective four-dimensional equations of motion (this form of equations can be easily derived from those in ) are

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}^2}{a^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{k}{a^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^2}{3}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\dot{\phi }^2+V\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa ^4}{36}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\dot{\phi }^2+V\right)^2+{\displaystyle \frac{C}{a^4}}`$ (1)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\ddot{a}}{a}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2\dot{a}^2}{a^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2k}{a^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^2V+{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa ^4}{48}}(4V^2\dot{\phi }^4)+{\displaystyle \frac{C}{a^4}}`$ (2)
$`\ddot{\phi }`$ $`=`$ $`3{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}}{a}}\dot{\phi }V^{},`$ (3)
where dot (prime) denotes differentiation with respect to time ($`\phi `$), $`\stackrel{~}{\kappa }^2=8\pi /M_{(4)}^2`$, $`\kappa ^2=8\pi /M_{(5)}^3`$. Here $`M_{(5)}`$ is the fundamental 5-dimensional Planck mass, $`M_{(4)}`$ is an effective 4-dimensional Planck mass on a brane which depends on a brane tension $`\lambda `$ as

$$M_{(4)}=\sqrt{\frac{3}{4\pi }}\left(\frac{M_{(5)}^2}{\sqrt{\lambda }}\right)M_{(5)}.$$
(4)
The brane tension $`\lambda `$ is restricted to be positive in order to have a correct sign of gravitational force. The “dark radiation” constant $`C`$ has no restrictions on its sign.

One of the distinctive features of equation (1) is the presence of term quadratic in the field energy density. The contribution of this term should be negligible at low energies in order to reveal standard cosmology , but at high energies this term becomes dominative. So let us investigate the set of equations (1)–(3) in the high-energy limit. We remind a reader that a scalar field dynamics is quite different in the stage of contracting and expanding of the Universe. In the standard cosmology (we use the common units $`M_{(4)}/\sqrt{8\pi }=1`$ in the standard case and keep all dimension parameters explicitly written in the nonstandard one) for the contraction stage if the potential $`V(\phi )`$ is less steeper than $`V(\phi )\mathrm{exp}\sqrt{6}\phi `$ then we typically have the same regime as for $`V(\phi )=0`$ with $`a(t)t^{1/3},`$ and a scalar field diverging as $`\phi (t)t^1`$ . For steeper potential it becomes dynamically important and the scalar field diverges in an oscillatory regime .

The picture changes dramatically in the brane scenario. Indeed, for $`V(\phi )=0`$ substituting the ansatz

$$a=At^\alpha ,\phi =Bt^\beta +\phi _0$$

into the equations of motion one may obtain the following solution:

$$a(t)=At^{1/6},\phi (t)=\pm \frac{M_{(5)}^{3/2}}{\sqrt{2\pi }}t^{1/2}+\phi _0,t0,$$
(5)
where $`A>0`$ and $`\phi _0`$ are the constants of integration. One can see that the principal feature of the model under consideration is that the scalar field tends to a constant value while in conventional cosmology it tends to infinity. Although $`\phi `$ is finite, its time derivative tends to infinity providing “stiff fluid” equation of state $`p=\epsilon `$ as for a massless scalar field. From the other side, as $`\phi `$ remians finite while $`\dot{\phi }`$ diverges, then the kinetic energy of the scalar field always dominates the potential energy near a singularity at the contraction stage and the asymptotic (5) is valid for an arbitrary $`V(\phi )`$.

At the expansion stage a typical regime for a scalar field is inflation. Let us now consider the problem of the steepness of the scalar field potential $`V(\phi )`$ allowing the existence of inflationary stage in the evolution of a brane world. On an inflationary stage we can neglect contributions from the spatial curvature and the dark radiation terms in the equations of motion.

The equations for two slow-roll parameters can be written in the following form (see the high-energy limit of equations in )

$$ϵ\frac{3M_{(5)}^6}{16V\pi ^2}\left(\frac{V^{}}{V}\right)^2$$
(6)
and

$$\eta \frac{3M_{(5)}^6}{16V\pi ^2}\left(\frac{V^{\prime \prime }}{V}\right)$$
(7)
where $``$ denotes equality within the slow-roll approximation. The condition for inflation is $`|max(ϵ,\eta )|<1`$. In the standard cosmology this condition is violated for potentials steeper than $`V(\phi )e^{\sqrt{2}\phi }`$. In our case this condition can be violated only for potentials steeper than $`V(\phi )(\phi \phi _0)^2`$ and for the critical case of $`V(\phi )=A/(\phi \phi _0)^2`$ the condition $`|max(ϵ,\eta )|<1`$ is violated for $`A<9M_{(5)}^6/(8\pi ^2)`$.

So in the brane cosmology inflation requires less restrictions on the shapes of potential than in the conventional case, admitting potentials in the form of a “potential wall”.

The nonstandard dependence on the components of the energy-momentum tensor of the matter alters also the conditions for a chaotic regime in this model. In conventional cosmology it has been shown that for a wide class of potentials $`V(\phi )`$ the dynamics of a closed model ($`k=+1`$) is chaotic . Without loss of generality we can fix the initial value of $`\dot{a}`$ to be zero. The initial value of $`\dot{\phi }`$ can be determined from the equation (1) and thus we have two-dimensional initial condition space. The numerical calculations show that starting from some initial conditions the phase trajectory can either fall into singularity or can pass through a local minimum of the scale factor, which is often referenced to as a “bounce”. In the latter case the scale factor will inevitably have a local maximum and thus we returns to the picture similar to the initial one with two possible outcomes. It has been shown that there is a set of infinitely bouncing solutions those initial condition measure is equal to zero.

On a $`(a,\phi )`$ plane the region where the scale factor can have extremum is determined from the constraint (1) by the inequality

$$V(\phi )\frac{3M_{(5)}^3}{4\pi a^2}\left(1\frac{C}{a^2}\right).$$
(8)
We remined a reader that in standard cosmology chaos may disappear for exponential and steeper than exponential potential of a scalar field. In Ref.  an analytical approach to this problem has been developped. It has been shown that using two facts established in numerical experiments, namely

all simple periodical trajectories have a point with $`\dot{\phi }=0,\dot{a}=0`$ at the boundary, corresponding to equality sign in (8),

all trajectories which have in this reversal point a velocity vector directing into the region (8) fall into a singularity and, then, can not be periodical trajectories,

it is possible to write a rather simple necessary condition for existence of chaos.

These two facts may be violated in so called strong chaotic regime, however, this regime exists only for potential at least less steep than a quadratic one . So, we can use them for steep potentials when the chaotic regime begin to disappear.

Now we apply the technique of Ref.  to a brane case. First we assume that $`C=0`$. A trajectory with $`\dot{\phi }=0`$ and $`\dot{a}=0`$ is directed outside of region (8) if

$$|\frac{\ddot{a}}{\ddot{\phi }}|>|\frac{da(\phi )}{d\phi }|$$
(9)
where $`a(\phi )`$ is the equation of the boundary. Substituting $`\ddot{a}`$ and $`\ddot{\phi }`$ from Eqs.(2)-(3) and using Eq. (1) we get this condition in the form

$$\frac{\kappa ^4}{36}V(\phi )^3>\left(\frac{dV(\phi )}{d\phi }\right)^2.$$
(10)
If this condition is violated for all $`\phi `$, chaos definitely disappears. As the power index of potential $`V(\phi )`$ in (10) is bigger than the power index of the derivative $`V^{}(\phi )`$, the inequality (10) is satisfied for exponential potentials if we take a suffitiently large $`\phi `$. Moreover, it remaines true for potentials like $`V\mathrm{exp}(\phi ^2)`$. As a result, we can see that a chaotic dynamics on a brane can take place for steeper potential than in standard cosmology.

Potentials, violating (10) must have the form of potential wall. A critical case has the form

$$V(\phi )=\frac{A}{(\phi \phi _0)^2}.$$
(11)
It can be easily seen by integrating of (10) that for $`A<9M_{(5)}^6/(4\pi ^2)`$ this condition is not satisfied for all $`\phi `$. Our numerical investigations indicates that chaos is absent in this case.

The same analysis can be carried out for a nonzero $`C`$ though the corresponding equations become less simple in this case. A general property is that positive $`C`$ restricts condition for the chaotic behavior and negative $`C`$ makes it weaker. In the limit $`C\mathrm{}`$ we can wright the simple analog of (10)

$$\frac{\kappa ^4}{9}V(\phi )^3>\left(\frac{dV(\phi )}{d\phi }\right)^2$$
(12)
which lead to a critical potential of the form (11) with $`A=9M_{(5)}^6/(16\pi ^2)`$.

We can summarise these results in the following picture. It is known that in the standard scalar field cosmology there is a substantial differense between potentials less steep and steeper than the exponential one. For steep enough potentials the inflation become impossible, the chaotic regime for positive spatial curvature disappears and the behavior of a scalar field during a contraction of the Universe becomes infinitely oscillating. For the latter modification we have no analog in the brane case - a scalar field do not diverges at the contraction stage independently on the potential. The first two modifications of the scalar field dynamics for steep potentials, however, have their analogs in the brane scenario. The boundary case which separates two different cases of the dynamics (analogous to exponential potentials in the standard cosmology) is a “potential wall” of the form $`V(\phi )1/(\phi \phi _0)^2`$.

## 3 Effects of a negative “dark radiation”

Now let us consider the effects originated from the presence of a “dark radiation” term. The important feature of the “dark radiation” term is that the the constant $`C`$ can be either positive or negative. Due to the negative $`C`$ the evolution of the scale factor can be non-monotonic not only in the positive curvature case but also in flat and negative curvature case. Indeed, as we can see from the system (1)–(3) the $`C`$-contaning terms can mimic curvature terms. This leads, in particular, to existence of bounces in flat Universe. Moreover, probability of a bounce increases with increasing of $`|C|`$ and can reach considerable values.

To illustrate this point we have performed numerical integration of system (1)–(3) in a pure nonstandard regime ($`\rho \lambda `$) starting from some initial scale factor at the stage of contracting. In our numerical calculations we put $`\kappa =1`$. A particular trajectory is determined by two values - initial scalar field and its derivative. After fixing initial $`\phi `$ and $`\dot{\phi }`$ the initial $`\dot{a}`$ can be found from the constraint equation (1). We have studied a compact area in the initial condition plane $`(\phi ,\dot{\phi })`$ which is allowed by the constraint (1) and satisfying the inequality

$$\frac{m^2\phi ^2}{2}+\frac{\dot{\phi }^2}{2}<1.$$

Introducing the homogenious measure on this compact set of initial condition, we have the following results. For the first set of the bounce probabilities $`P`$ the mass of the scalar field is chosen to be $`0.1`$. As for the flat Universe $`C`$ and $`a`$ enter in the equation of motion only in the combination $`C/a^4`$, our results are independent on a particular initial scale factor.

| $`C/a^4`$ | $`10^5`$ | $`10^{4.5}`$ | $`10^4`$ | $`10^3`$ | $`10^2`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| P | $`7.410^4`$ | $`2.010^3`$ | $`5.610^3`$ | $`9.210^2`$ | $`3.410^1`$ |

The dependence of the bounce probability on the scalar field mass $`m`$ is rather complicated, though for small enough $`m`$ this dependence disappears. Some values of $`P`$ for different $`C`$ and small $`m`$ ($`m`$ is less than $`10^3`$) in this situation are presented below.

| $`C/a^4`$ | $`10^4`$ | $`10^3`$ | $`10^2`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| P | 0.029 | 0.072 | 0.195 |

This regime of transition from contraction to expansion of the flat Universe can exist only with some kind of negative energy terms in (1). Brane cosmology gives us a simple example of such kind of energy sourses. Our numerical studies show that the measure of initial condition leading to a bounce can be significant for large negative $`C`$.

The dynamics of a brane universe in positive curvature case is more complicated. A positive $`C`$ leads to shrinking the regions of possible extrema of the scale factor and for large enough $`C`$ the chaos disappears completely. The dynamical picture is the same as in the standard case of a scalar field dynamics in the presence of a hydrodynamical matter with the equation of state $`p=ϵ/3`$ . A negative $`C`$ (in this case we have no direct analogy with a convensional cosmology) acts in opposite direction: the region of possible extremum of the scale factor grows with the growth of the absolute value of $`C`$ and (as we will see later) the chaotic properties of the universe increase. In Fig. 1 the region where the scale factor can have extremum is bounded by two solid lines and the region where the scale factor can have minimum is bounded by dashed and solid lines. For this figure the scalar field potential is chosen to be $`V(\phi )=\frac{m^2\phi ^2}{2}`$ where $`m=0.5`$ and the value of brane tension $`\lambda =1`$ (we return to the units $`M_{(4)}/\sqrt{8\pi }=1`$). The black color corresponds to $`C=0`$ while the gray color corresponds to $`C=30`$.

We describe below an interesting transformation of the chaotic dynamics that takes place in the standard regime ($`\rho \lambda `$). From now on let us assume the scalar field potential to be in a form $`V(\phi )=\frac{m^2\phi ^2}{2}`$. In the case $`C=0`$ the initial conditions that lead to bounce forms a set of a narrow regions separated by a wide regions where solution is singular. This picture undergoes substantial transformations with growing $`|C|`$. In Fig.2 we fixed the initial value of $`\phi `$ to be zero and we choose $`m=0.5`$, while allowing $`C`$ and $`a`$ to change in the interval from $`100`$ to $`0`$ and from $`1`$ to $`30`$ respectively. The initial conditions that leads to bounce after start from $`\dot{a}=0`$ are colored in black while the white color corresponds to singular solutions. One can see that with the growth of the absolute value of $`C`$ the intervals of the initial scale factor that lead to bounce become wider, and for $`C15`$ the first two intervals merge. Solutions that start in the region of merging become extreemly chaotic. Such solutions can oscillate for a long period without leaving a high-curvature region. With further decreasing of $`C`$ one can see successive interval merging and monotonic growth of the measure of initial conditions that lead to bounce.

This picture is similar to one previously found in standard cosmological models with gently sloping potential  and in models that include second order curvature corrections . In brane scenario this effect exists for a simple $`m^2\phi ^2/2`$ potential. It is interesting that for a pure nonstandard regime $`(\rho \lambda )`$ this strong chaos regime exists only for potentials significantly less steep than a quadratic one.

## Acknowledgments

The work was partially supported by RFBR grants Ns. 00-15-96699 and 02-02-16817.


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# The CDF MiniPlug Calorimeters 1footnote 11footnote 1Contributed paper to “DPF 2002, Section: New Detector Technologies”, Williamsburg, VA, May 24-28 2002

## I Introduction

A program of hard diffraction and very forward physics proposed for CDF in Run II PAC-proposal  requires the employment of two forward ‘MiniPlug’ calorimeters in the pseudorapidity region $`3.6<|\eta |<5.2`$ designed to measure the energy and lateral position of both electromagnetic and hadronic showers. The MiniPlugs extend the pseudorapidity region covered by the Plug Upgrade calorimeters ($`1.1<|\eta |<3.5`$) to the beam pipe. Using the MiniPlug and the Plug Upgrade calorimeters to actually measure the width of the rapidity gap(s) produced in diffractive processes will allow extending the Run I studies of the diffractive structure function to much lower values of the fraction $`\xi `$ of the momentum of the proton carried by the Pomeron.

The MiniPlugs are based on lead/liquid-scintillator layers read out by wavelength shifting (WLS) fibers perpendicular to the lead plates and parallel to the proton/antiproton beams, arranged in a novel ‘towerless’ geometry (no boundaries between the fibers). The centroid of the fiber pulse height provides the position of the shower initiating particle. The desired number of fibers is then grouped and viewed by a single pixel of a multi-anode photomultiplier tube (MAPMT), providing what in the following we will call for simplicity a ‘tower’.

As interacting hadrons release on average one third of their energy in the form of $`\pi ^0`$$`\mathrm{s}`$, a short (few interaction lengths, $`\lambda `$) calorimeter can be used to measure the energy and position of both electrons/photons and hadrons. A set of fibers which do not sample the first 24 radiation lengths ($`X_0`$) of the detector can be used to tag hadrons.

The MiniPlugs have been installed downstream of the CDF Plug Upgrade calorimeters within the central hole of the muon toroids at a distance of 5.8 meters from the center of the detector (see fig. 1). Each MiniPlug is housed in a cylindrical steel vessel 26′′ (66 cm) in diameter and has a 5′′ (12.7 cm) hole concentric with the cylinder axis to accommodate the beam pipe. Due to the space constraints in the $`z`$-direction when the Plug is withdrawn to the “open” position to service the central detectors, the MiniPlug length is confined to 24′′ (61 cm). Within this length the actual calorimeters are 32 $`X_0`$ and 1.3 $`\lambda `$ deep, and have no hadron tagging fibers.

The MiniPlug design combines a low cost construction with an efficient and high-resolution position determination. The design concept and MonteCarlo expectations are described in section II.

FIGURE 1. Schematic drawing of 1/4 view of the CDF detector showing a MiniPlug hanging from two unistrut beams supported on one end by the Plug and on the other by the toroid (not to scale). This scheme allows for moving the toroids and/or the Plug to access the central detector while the MiniPlug remains stationary.

A 28 $`X_0`$ prototype of cross section $`15\times 15\mathrm{cm}^2`$ was constructed in 1994 and tested first with 2, 3 and 5 GeV electron beams and an 8 GeV $`\pi ^{}`$ beam at the Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) BNL ; NIM  and then with high energy positrons, muons and pions in the 1997 Fermilab test beam. The test results TUCSON ; BRAZIL ; nimlast , summarized in section III, were found to be in good agreement with simulation predictions Elba .

The final design of the MiniPlugs is described in section IV. Approximately, the design characteristics of passive and active materials were transferred from the prototype to the final design. In order to reduce the cost of the readout electronics, a coarser granularity was used, with a hexagonal cell structure about two times larger than the 4 cm2 of the prototype. However, this was balanced by a higher number of fibers/cell (6 instead of 4) and a larger fiber diameter (1 mm instead of 0.83 mm). A cosmic ray test was performed, and its results are presented in section V, while first collider data are described in section VI.

## II Design Concept and GEANT Simulation

FIGURE 2. Conceptual design of the MiniPlug calorimeter: the fibers are arranged in a ‘towerless’ geometry, i.e. with no discrete tower boundaries.

The MiniPlugs consist of alternating layers of lead plates and liquid scintillator read out by WLS fibers. The fibers are inserted into an array of aligned holes drilled in the lead plates as shown in fig. 2 and are read out by MAPMTs. Effective ‘towers’ are formed by combining together the desired number of fibers to be viewed by a single pixel of a MAPMT.

For particles incident at small angles relative to the fiber direction, the fiber pulse height centroid provides the position of the shower initiating particle. Position determination is obtained not only for electrons and photons

but also for hadrons, which upon interaction release on average 1/3 of their energy in the form of $`\gamma ^{}\mathrm{s}`$, mainly from $`\pi ^02\gamma `$ decays, which will interact again after 1 $`X_0`$. So a several $`X_0`$ deep tracking calorimeter can be used, without a shower maximum detector, to measure the position and energy of both neutral and charged hadrons. For the MiniPlugs it is not convenient to be several $`\lambda `$ long, to avoid the broadening of the hadron shower if a measurement of the particle position at the level of few millimeters is required.

We have studied the response of the MiniPlug calorimeters to single particles and jets in the CDF–II configuration by using a simulation based on the GEANT MonteCarlo program brun . Each MiniPlug module comprised about 56 $`X_0`$ and 2 $`\lambda `$.

The energy resolution for single particles was analyzed using beams of electrons and pions at incident particle energies between 10 and 100 GeV. The MiniPlug energy resolution for electrons is well described by the formula $`\sigma /E=18\%/\sqrt{E}`$, where $`E`$ is the incident particle energy in GeV. About $`15\%`$ of the pions traversed the calorimeter module without interacting. For charged pions interacting in the Miniplug the energy resolution was found to be about $`30\%`$, independent of the pion energy; this is dominated by the fluctuation in the ratio $`\pi ^0/\pi ^\pm `$ in the first interaction, independent of energy if the hadron shower is not contained.

FIGURE 3. MiniPlug response to Monte Carlo generated jets. For each event an isometric lego plot (left) and color-coded front view (right) are shown.

Jets were generated using the HERWIG herwig  MonteCarlo program. The jet energy resolution was studied by passing individual particles of a jet through the MiniPlug module and summing the response to each particle of the jet. Fig. 3 shows the

MiniPlug response to typical jets. For each event an isometric lego plot (left) and color-coded front view (right) are shown. For convenience in representation, the impact point of a particle was expressed in polar coordinates $`r`$ and $`\varphi `$ relative to the center of the MiniPlug front surface.

Figure 4 a) shows the distribution of the incident jet energy of the generated events. The distribution of the number of particles in a jet is presented in fig. 4 b). Figure 4 c) shows the percent fraction of the initial jet energy registered in the scintillator; from this distribution we evaluated the jet energy resolution to be $`\sigma /E=`$ 29.2$`\%`$. The $`z`$-position of

FIGURE 4. Distributions for jets incident on a 2$`\lambda `$ MiniPlug obtained with a GEANT simulation.

FIGURE 5. Jet $`E_T`$ resolution in a 2 $`\lambda `$ MiniPlug obtained with a GEANT simulation: (a) Initial jet ET distribution, (b) reconstructed jet ET, (c) fraction of the initial jet ET reconstructed in the MiniPlug.

the first shower vertex, the average longitudinal and transverse shower profile are shown in figures 4 d), 4 e), and 4 f), respectively.

Results for the jet ET resolution in the MiniPlug are presented in fig. 5. The initial jet ET distribution is shown in fig. 5 a), while the reconstructed jet ET is plotted in fig. 5 b). Figure 5 c) shows the percent fraction of the initial jet ET reconstructed in the MiniPlug, which yields a jet transverse energy resolution of 30.6$`\%`$ for the average $`E_T^{jet}`$ of 4.9 GeV.

## III The Prototype Performance

A schematic side view of the MiniPlug prototype is shown in fig. 6(left). The prototype consisted of 30 parallel lead plates, with dimensions $`15\mathrm{cm}\times 15\mathrm{cm}`$ and 4.8 mm thick, spaced 6.4 mm apart. The plates were laminated with 0.5 mm thick aluminum sheets of 86$`\%`$ reflectivity glued on the lead with epoxy. The same lead plate thickness and scintillator gap are used in the full scale Miniplugs. Multiclad WLS Kuraray Y–11(350)M fibers of 0.83 mm diameter were inserted into an array of aligned holes in the plates through the entire depth of the detector. The holes have 1 mm diameter and were drilled with a CNC machine. The whole plate/fiber assembly was immersed in mineral oil based Bicron 517L liquid scintillator. The MiniPlug prototype comprised about 28 $`X_0`$ or about 1 $`\lambda `$.     FIGURE 6. Schematic side view (left) and front view (right) of the MiniPlug prototype. Each group of four fibers in a square is read out by a single MAPMT channel. All the squares were instrumented at the 1997 test beam, as well as the single fibers at the center of the squares, as indicated (the shaded squares are those instrumented at the BNL test ).

In the prototype, the fibers were grouped as shown in fig. 6(right), with four fibers at the corners of a square read out by one MAPMT pixel, forming towers of effective size $`2\times 2`$ cm2. A reflective aluminum sheet was pressed against the far-ends of the fibers to reflect the light back into the fibers. The fibers in the centers of the squares were read individually. In an optimal design of a calorimeter of $``$2$`\lambda `$ or $``$56$`X_0`$, these single fibers would penetrate the calorimeter only through a certain distance from the back, stopping short of reaching the first 24 $`X_0`$. In this way they would not be sensitive to electron/photon showers and therefore would provide a “hadron tag”. In the prototype these fibers were brought all the way to the front of the calorimeter to measure the expected light yield when tagging hadrons with one fiber per “tower”.

The MiniPlug operates by integrating the signal over several fibers within a distance determined by the effective attenuation length of the liquid scintillator, which depends on the number of reflections. Bench measurements yielded an effective attenuation length of 20 mm for a scintillator thickness of 6 mm NIM , which drove the choice of the tower size.

The MiniPlug prototype was exposed to high energy positron, pion and muon beams at Fermilab in 1997. Sets of data were taken at angles of 0, 3 and 10 degrees between the beam and the calorimeter axis. The response of the prototype to positrons in the range 5–120 GeV and to charged pions in the range 10–230 GeV showed very good linearity. For positrons, the deviations from a linear fit were smaller than 1.5% (fig. 7, left) and the average energy resolution $`\sigma `$/E = 18.1$`\%`$ / $`\sqrt{E}`$ \+ 0.6$`\%`$ (fig. 7, right). For interacting charged pions the energy resolution was about $`40\%`$, independent of the pion energy. The lateral position resolution was measured to be $`9.2\mathrm{mm}/\sqrt{E}`$ for positrons and $`23.8\mathrm{mm}/\sqrt{E}`$ for pions (fig. 8).

## IV MiniPlug Final Design

A schematic drawing of a side view of a MiniPlug is presented in fig. 9. The active calorimeter consists of 36 lead-based plates separated by 1/4′′ spacers and immersed in liquid scintillator. Table 1 summarizes various parameters of the MiniPlug calorimeters.

The calorimeter plates were manufactured by Alchemy Castings Inc. welco . They are 25′′ (63.5 cm) in diameter and are made of 3/16′′ thick (Pb$`+6\%`$ Sb) alloy laminated with 0.5 mm Al of 80% reflectivity. Each plate has 1512 holes for the fibers, drilled with a $`\mathrm{\#}`$54 (or 1.4 mm) drill and champhered. In addition, 12 holes of 1/4′′ and 6 holes of 1/2′′ nominal diameter are used for ‘hanging’ the plate in its final position in the calorimeter from stainless steel rods supported by the MiniPlug end plates, as seen in fig. 9. A MiniPlug plate is 0.86 $`X_0`$ and 0.03 $`\lambda `$ thick, and weighs 21 Kg. The active length of a MiniPlug, including the liquid scintillator, is 32 $`X_0`$ and 1.3 $`\lambda `$, and the total weight, including the liquid scintillator, is approximately 840 Kg (1850 lbs). Because of the mentioned space limitations, the final design has no hadron tagging fibers.

Figure 10 shows the layout of the fiber holes in a Miniplug plate. The design is based on a hexagon geometry. Each hexagon has six holes, as shown. A WLS fiber is inserted in each hole. The six fibers of a hexagon are grouped together and are viewed by one MAPMT channel. A seventh fiber, which is clear and carries the light from a calibration LED, is also read out by each MAPMT pixel. There are 252 hexagons in each MiniPlug viewed by 18 16-channel MAPMTs. The MAPMT outputs are added in groups of 3 to form 84 calorimeter ‘towers’. The single hexagonal cells could eventually be read out individually. Presently we read out 84 towers per MiniPlug and the summed MAPMT outputs (18 channels per MiniPlug), amounting to a total of 204 channels for the two MiniPlugs. The towers viewed by the three MAPMTs of a sextant are shown in fig. 10 with different shades.

We use Bicron 517L liquid scintillator BC517L  and Kuraray Y11 (350) multiclad 1.0 mm dia. WLS fibers read out by Hamamatsu R5900-M16 MAPMTs R5900-M16 .

The Bicron 517L liquid scintillator, also used in the prototype, is a mineral oil with Pseudocumene as the active ingredient. Because of its high chemical compatibility with polystyrene based fibers, low cost and radiation hardness, the BC-517L scintillator had been considered and studied extensively for applications at the Superconducting Super Collider (SSC).

In the MiniPlug prototype we used one 0.83 mm dia. fiber per cm2, and grouped four fibers together to form a ‘tower’ of effective area 4 cm2. In the final MiniPlug design, there is one fiber per 1.6 cm2, but the 1 mm dia. of the fibers compensates for the reduction in light expected due to the larger area covered by each fiber. Moreover, the fibers are now aluminized at the ‘far end’, while in the prototype they were pressed against a reflective plate.

FIGURE 11. A dry stack of the plates of a MiniPlug.

FIGURE 12. A view of the fiber routing.

The Hamamatsu R5900–M16, a 16 channel tube, was selected because of its relatively low cost per channel and acceptable channel to channel gain uniformity.

The expected radiation dose in the MiniPlugs in Run II has been estimated to be $``$ 30 KGy (3 Mrad) per year. Such a dose is not expected to affect the response of the liquid scintillator. SSC studies on WLS fibers showed that the permanent damage in light transmittance of 1.0 mm dia., 1 m long fibers is about 10$`\%`$ after an irradiation of 64 KGy SSC . Radiation hardness studies performed for the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) showed that Kuraray Y11 fibers were the least damaged when compared to other commercially available fibers LHC . The standard borosilicate glass of MAPMT windows is sensitive to radiation and, when tested in connection with SSC applications, showed a 60$`\%`$ relative transmittance at 500 nm for a 30 KGy dose. For this reason, the R5900 MAPMTs for the Miniplugs were ordered with a quartz window, which substantially improves the MAPMT radiation hardness.

The two MiniPlug calorimeters have been assembled at Rockefeller. Fig. 11 shows a dry stack of the plates of a MiniPlug, and a view of the fiber routing is shown in fig. 12. After the fibers have been sealed into the optical connectors on the back plate, they have been cut with a diamong string-saw, and the connector surface hand polished. Fig. 13 shows one MiniPlug at Fermilab before installation. On the back plate are mounted 18 MAPMTs, plus two LED assemblies for calibration.

FIGURE 13. A MiniPlug at Fermilab before installation.

## V Cosmic Ray Test

We tested a $`60^{}`$ section of one MiniPlug using cosmic ray muons. In the first step we determined the channel response uniformity (and the operating voltage) of the tubes to be used on the MiniPlugs. Then the single photoelectron response was measured using a 60Co gamma source. Finally, a cosmic ray trigger was made of a 2-fold coincidence of two scintillation counters mounted above and below the MiniPlug module. The front-end readout system employed for these tests was a CAMAC based LeCroy 2249W LC2249  11-bit 12-channel charge integrating ADC, with a sensitivity of 0.25 pC/count, controlled by a National Instrument ‘Labview’ Labview  data acquisition software.

### V.1 Photomultiplier Test

The light carried by the WLS fibers is read out by 16-channel Hamamatsu H6568-10/R5900 M16 tubes R5900-M16 , whose cross section has a size of about one square inch and whose specifications are listed in Table 2. In addition to the 16 anode channels, these MAPMTs have a channel which is the sum of the last dynodes of all 16 channels. The output of this channel will be referred to as the ‘sum-output’.

FIGURE 14. The setup of the MAPMT test system uses a green LED embedded in a light mixer to distribute the light uniformly into the 16 channels of the MAPMT.

The setup we used for measuring the relative response of the MAPMT channels is shown in fig. 14. A green LED is placed in a hole drilled at one end of a rectangular lucite bar, which acts as a ‘light mixer’ distributing the LED light uniformly among a set of clear fibers mounted in holes drilled in a delrin ‘cookie’ in a pattern matching that of the MAPMT photocathode pixels. There are 7 fibers in each cookie hole, just as in the final MiniPlug design. The uniformity of the LED light across the $`4\times 4`$ cookie channels has been measured with three MAPMTs, and the measurement has been repeated after rotating each tube by $`90^{}`$, $`180^{}`$ and $`270^{}`$. Since at each rotation a given MAPMT pixel is illuminated by a different cookie channel, the differences among ADC counts

obtained at the four settings reflect the differences in illumination of the corresponding cookie channels. These measurements show a standard deviation of $`\pm 3`$ %. Finally, the operating voltage of the tubes has been determined by equalizing the sum-outputs. The desired gain for the tubes operating in the MiniPlugs is $`10^5`$ which, according to the manufacture’s specifications, is achieved at a MAPMT voltage of approximately -700V. The LED light was adjusted to bring the sum-output of one PMT, whose voltage was set to yield a gain of $`10^5`$, to 450 ADC counts. Then, for each one of the other tubes, the high voltage was varied in steps of $`\pm 10`$ V in the range from -600 to -800V to find the value at which its sum-output was closest to 450 ADC counts. Variations around the average value -700V were about $`\pm 5`$ %.

The response of the 16 channels of each MAPMT to the illumination of the LED in the setup of fig. 14 was measured and compared with the specifications supplied by the manufacturer. In the MiniPlugs, the MAPMT channels has been hard-wired into groups of 3, forming 5 ‘grouped channel’ triplets and one singlet per MAPMT (the latter, channel $`\mathrm{\#}16`$, will not be read out in the MiniPlugs). Therefore, a special connector was made to group the MAPMT channels in the test setup, and the response of the 5 grouped channels was also measured.   The test results for one MAPMT are shown in fig. 15: (a) relative response of the 16 channels, defined as the ratio of the pulse height of a channel to the maximum pulse height of all 16 channels; (b) measured relative channel response compared to values obtained from the manufacturer; (c) relative response of grouped channels; and (d) the difference between the relative response of a grouped channel and the expectation from the measurement of the 16 individual channels.   The ‘uniformity’ index of the 45 tested MAPMTs, defined as the ratio of the lowest to the highest channel response, showed an average value of 2.1$`\pm 0.3`$.   Since the sum-output will be used as a trigger, it is also important to study the correlation between the  FIGURE 15. (a) Relative response of the 16 channels of one MAPMT; (b) difference between measured relative response and values provided by the manufacturer; (c) relative response of grouped channels; (d) difference between relative response of grouped channels and the expectation from the measured response of the individual channels.

sum of outputs from the 16 individual channels and the sum-output. We found that the ratio of the sum of outputs from the 16 individual channels to the sum-output is constant in the range of about $`101000`$ pC.

### V.2 Single Photoelectron Measurement

A measurement of the signal from single photoelectrons was carried out using a 60Co gamma source, which was placed just outside the MiniPlug vessel. The light emitted by the liquid scintillator when irradiated by the source is rather weak and usually results in single photoelectron emission by the MAPMT photocathode. We triggered events using a randomly-generated gate of width 1 $`\mu `$s. Most triggers do not contain any signal within the gate, but a small fraction of events have a single photoelectron signal.

Three MAPMTs to read out one $`60^{}`$ section of one MiniPlug were operated at -960V in this cosmic ray test, corresponding to a gain of $``$5.0$`\times 10^6`$ as specified by the manufacturer, At this gain, the expected single photoelectron response of the LeCroy 2249W ADC unit is approximately 3.2 counts. A LRS 234 linear amplifier LRS234  was used to amplify the signal by a factor of 10.

Figure 16(left) shows the 60Co source signal for one tower, with a clear single photoelectron peak. The distribution has been fitted with a Polya distribution, i.e.

$$P(m)=\frac{m(mG/G_0)^{m1}}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(m)}e^{mG/G_0}$$

which is the appropriate one for describing single photoelectron pulse height distributions. In the fit, $`p1`$ is the normalization constant, $`p2`$ the parameter $`m`$, $`p3`$ the parameter $`G_0`$, and $`p4`$ the pedestal mean value. We obtain 41.28/10=4.1 ADC counts for the single photoelectron response of this tower. Similar results were obtained from the other tested towers.

### V.3 Cosmic Ray Test Results

The cosmic ray trigger was made of a 2-fold coincidence of two scintillation counters mounted above and below the MiniPlug module. The scintillation counters were read out by RCA 8575 PMTs.

A better separation of the cosmic ray muon peak from the pedestal is obtained by plotting the tower response after imposing an isolation cut which requires that the adjacent towers have a signal smaller than their own cosmic ray muon signal. Figure 16(right) shows the signal distribution after the isolation cut. Even with the isolation cut, the cosmic ray muon path length differences within a given tower still contribute to the width of the muon peak. So, although a cosmic ray muon spectrum is expected to follow a Landau distribution, the measured distribution is a sum of several different Landau distributions and is better described by a Gaussian function to obtain the ADC counts for the cosmic ray muon peak, as shown in fig. 16(right). The mean value of the cosmic ray signal distribution for the tested towers has been measured to be about 400 photoelectrons. Dividing these values by the corresponding single photoelectron ADC counts we obtain on average more than 100 photoelectrons/MIP for a single tower.

## VI First Collider Data

The MiniPlugs were installed in the the CDF apparatus few months ago, and were operated stably and reliably since then. However, they are not fully instrumented yet. At the time of writing, only the sum-output (the 17th channel) of each tube is read out. This means a coarser granularity for the present, equivalent to 18 towers per MiniPlug. Figure 17(left) shows, as a $`\varphi \eta `$ lego-plot, the average ADC counts from a Collider run. The inner ring of towers, at higher pseudorapidity, has larger signals. That is in agreement with results obtained with the MBR Minimum-Bias event generator mbr , followed by a parameterization of the detector response, as shown in fig. 17(right).

FIGURE 17. Left: the average ADC counts from a Collider run, for the 18 towers of a MiniPlug currently read out. Right: Collider data are compared to an MBR simulation for the three different pseudorapidity rings.

## VII Conclusions

Two MiniPlug calorimeters, designed to measure the energy and lateral position of particles in the forward region ($`3.6<|\eta |<5.2`$) of the CDF detector, have been recently installed as part of the Run II CDF upgrade at the Tevatron $`\overline{p}p`$ collider. They consist of lead/liquid scintillator layers read out by WLS fibers arranged in a pixel-type towerless geometry. In this paper we described the final design of the MiniPlugs and presented results from a cosmic ray test, in which a light yield of approximately 100 pe/MIP was obtained, exceeding our design requirements. First Collider data show a detector response in agreement with expectations.


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# 1 Δ𝜎/𝜎_{𝑆𝑀} versus 𝑀_𝑊_{𝐾𝐾} the mass of the first KK excited 𝑊.

UdeM-GPP-TH-02-100

July 2002

Single Top Production
and Extra Dimensions

Alakabha Datta111email: datta@lps.umontreal.ca

Lab Rene. J. -A. Levesque, Universite de Montreal,
C.P 6128 succrsale centre-ville
QC, H3C 3J7, Canada

## Abstract

In extra dimension theories, where the gauge bosons of the standard model propagate in the bulk of the extra dimensions, there are Kaluza-Klein excitations of the standard model gauge bosons that can couple to the standard model fermions. In this paper we study the effects of the excited Kaluza-Klein modes of the $`W`$ on single top production at the Tevatron.

Single top production is a very useful probe of the electroweak properties of the top quark which is believed to be intimately connected to electroweak symmetry breaking. For instance single top production offers the possibility of measuring the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM) matrix element $`V_{tb}`$, which is constrained by the unitarity of the CKM matrix to be $`1`$, and the the polarization of the top quark can probe the $`VA`$ nature of the weak interaction . Single top production occurs within the SM in three different channels, the $`s`$-channel $`W^{}`$ production, $`q\overline{q}^{}W^{}t\overline{b}`$ the $`t`$-channel $`W`$-exchange mode, $`bqtq^{}`$ (sometimes referred to as $`W`$-gluon fusion), and through $`tW^{}`$ production. The theory of single top production in the Standard Model(SM) has been extensively studied in the literature  while on the experimental front the D0  and CDF  collaborations have already set limits on both the $`s`$-channel and $`t`$-channel cross sections using data collected during run I of the Fermilab Tevatron, and one expects discovery of these modes at the current run II. Measurement of the production cross section and of single top quarks is also planned at the CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC) .

The large mass of the top quark, comparable to the electroweak symmetry breaking scale, which makes the top quark sector very sensitive to new physic . effects of new physics in singletop production have been studied extensively. In this talk based on  we consider effects that extra dimension theories can produce in single top production at the Tevatron. If in such theories, the gauge fields of the Standard Model(SM) live in the bulk of the extra dimensions then they will have Kaluza-Klein(KK) excitations and the KK excited $`W`$ will contribute to single top production. To study the physics of the KK excited $`W`$ we use a model which is based on a simple extension of the SM to 5 dimensions (5D) . However, as discussed above, we do not assume that this model represents all the physics beyond the standard model. The 5D SM is probably a part of a more fundamental underlying theory. The details of this model can be found in Ref.

The piece of the effective Lagrangian, obtained after integrating over the fifth dimension, that is relevant to our calculation is given by

$$^{ch}=\underset{a=1}{\overset{2}{}}_a^{ch}+_{new}$$
(1)
with

$`_a^{ch}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}m_W^2W_aW_a+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}M_c^2{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}n^2W_a^{(n)}W_a^{(n)}`$ (2)
$``$ $`gW_aJ_ag\sqrt{2}J_a^{KK}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}W_a^{(n)},`$
where $`m_W^2=g^2v^2/2`$, the weak angle $`\theta `$ is defined by $`e=gs_\theta =g^{}c_\theta `$, while the currents are

$`J_{a\mu }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\psi }{}}\overline{\psi }_L\gamma _\mu {\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _a}{2}}\psi _L,`$
$`J_{a\mu }^{KK}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\psi }{}}\epsilon ^{\psi _L}\overline{\psi }_L\gamma _\mu {\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _a}{2}}\psi _L.`$ (3)
Here $`\epsilon ^{\psi _L}`$ takes the value 1(0) for the $`\psi _L`$ living in the boundary(bulk). The mass of the $`n^{th}`$ excited KK state of the $`W`$ is given by $`nM_c=n/R`$ where R is the compactification radius. In this work we consider only the $`n=1`$ state. The term $`_{new}`$ represents the additional new physics beyond the 5 dimensional standard model the structure of which remains unknown till the full underlying theory is understood. The coupling of KK excited $`W`$ to the standard model is determined in terms of the Fermi coupling, $`G_F`$, up to corrections of $`O(m_Z^2/M_c^2)`$  . For $`M_c`$ TeV the $`O(m_Z^2/M_c^2)`$ effects are small for single top production and therefore we do not include these effects in our calculations. We have ignored the mixing of the $`W`$ with $`W_{KK}`$ which is also an $`O(m_Z^2/M_c^2)`$ effect. Thus, assuming the $`W_{KK}`$ decays only to standard model particles, the predicted effect of $`W_{KK}`$ on single top production depends, in addition to the SM parameters, only on the unknown mass of the $`W_{KK}`$.

The cross section for $`p\overline{p}t\overline{b}X`$ is given by

$`\sigma (p\overline{p}t\overline{b}X)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle 𝑑x_1𝑑x_2[u(x_1)\overline{d}(x_2)+u(x_2)\overline{d}(x_1)]\sigma (u\overline{d}t\overline{b})}.`$ (4)
Here $`u(x_i)`$, $`\overline{d}(x_i)`$ are the $`u`$ and the $`\overline{d}`$ structure functions, $`x_1`$ and $`x_2`$ are the parton momentum fractions and the indices $`i=1`$ and $`i=2`$ refer to the proton and the antiproton. The cross section for the process

$$u(p_1)+\overline{d}(p_2)W^{}\overline{b}(p_3)+t(p_4),$$

is given by

$`\sigma `$ $`=`$ $`\sigma _{SM}\left[1+4{\displaystyle \frac{A}{D}}+4{\displaystyle \frac{C}{D}}\right],`$
$`A`$ $`=`$ $`(sM_W^2)(sM_{W_{KK}}^2)+M_WM_{W_{KK}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_W\mathrm{\Gamma }_{W_{KK}},`$
$`C`$ $`=`$ $`(sM_W^2)^2+(M_W\mathrm{\Gamma }_W)^2,`$
$`D`$ $`=`$ $`(sM_{W_{KK}}^2)^2+(M_{W_{KK}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{W_{KK}})^2,`$ (5)
and

$`\sigma _{SM}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{g^4}{384\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{(2s+M_t^2)(sM_t^2)^2}{s^2[(sM_W^2)^2+(M_W\mathrm{\Gamma }_W)^2]}}.`$ (6)
Here $`s=x_1x_2S`$ is the parton center of mass energy while $`S`$ is the $`p\overline{p}`$ center of mass energy . To calculate the width of the $`W_{KK}`$ we will assume that it decays only to the standard model particles. The $`W_{KK}`$ will then have the same decays as the $`W`$ boson but in addition it can also decay to a top-bottom pair which is kinematically forbidden for the $`W`$ boson. The width of the $`W_{KK}`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{W_{KK}}`$, is then given by

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{W_{KK}}`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2M_{W_{KK}}}{M_W}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_W+{\displaystyle \frac{2M_{W_{KK}}}{3M_W}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_WX,`$
$`X`$ $`=`$ $`(1{\displaystyle \frac{M_t^2}{M_{W_{KK}}^2}})(1{\displaystyle \frac{M_t^2}{2M_{W_{KK}}^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{M_t^4}{M_{W_{KK}}^4}}).`$ (7)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_W`$ is the width of the $`W`$ boson and we have neglected the mass of the $`b`$ quark along with the masses of the lighter quarks and the leptons.

In Fig. 1, we plot $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma /\sigma `$ versus $`M_{W_{KK}}`$ , the mass of the first excited KK $`W`$ state, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma `$ is the change in the single top production cross section in the presence of $`W_{KK}`$ and $`\sigma `$ is the standard model cross section222 We have not included the QCD and Yukawa corrections to the single top quark production rate. They will enhance the total rate, but not change the percentage of the correction of new physics to the cross section. . We have used the CTEQ  structure functions for our calculations and obtain a standard model cross section of 0.30 pb for the process $`p\overline{p}t\overline{b}X`$ at $`\sqrt{S}=2`$TeV. We observe from Fig. 1 that the presence of $`W_{KK}`$ can lower the cross section by as much as 25 % for $`M_{W_{KK}}1`$TeV The inclusion of the higher KK resonance can than lower the cross section by more than 40%. This has an important implication for the measurement of $`V_{tb}`$ using the s-channel mode at the Tevatron. It was pointed out in Ref that there could be models where the presence of an additional $`W`$( denoted as $`W^{}`$) could lead to a measurement of the cross section for the s-channel $`p\overline{p}t\overline{b}X`$ smaller than the standard model prediction. This could, as pointed out in Ref , lead one to conclude that $`V_{tb}<1`$ which could then be wrongly interpreted as evidence for the existence of new generation(s) of fermions mixed with the third generation. This work provides a specific example of such a model but the key point is that if $`V_{tb}`$ were less than unity, one would see a decrease of both the s-channel and the t-channel cross section unlike the KK excited $`W`$ case whose effect would mainly be on the s-channel process and not so much on the the t-channel process. Furthermore, most realistic models with an extra $`W^{}`$ do not predict a large decrease in the s-channel cross section. Hence a large decrease of the s-channel cross section without a corresponding decrease in the t-channel cross section would indicate the presence of KK excited $`W`$ bosons.

Acknowledgment: This work was supported in part by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.


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# High Energy Results from BeppoSAX

## 1. Introduction

It is well known that X-ray measurements in the energy range 1-10 keV of thermal bremsstrahlung emission from the hot, relatively dense intracluster gas, have already contributed in an essential way to our understanding of the cluster environment. However, recent researches on clusters of galaxies have unveiled new spectral components in the intracluster medium (ICM) of some clusters, namely a cluster soft excess discovered by EUVE (Lieu et al. 1966) and a hard X-ray (HXR) excess detected by BeppoSAX (Fusco-Femiano et al. 1999) and RXTE (Rephaeli, Gruber, & Blanco 1999). Observations at low and high energies can give additional insights on the physical conditions of the ICM.

Nonthermal emission was predicted at the end of seventies in clusters of galaxies showing extended radio emission, radio halos or relics (see Rephaeli 1979). In particular, the same radio synchrotron electrons can interact with the CMB photons to give inverse Compton (IC) nonthermal X-ray radiation. Attempts to detect nonthermal emission from a few clusters of galaxies were performed with balloon experiments (Bazzano et al. 1984;90), with HEAO-1  (Rephaeli, Gruber & Rothschild 1987; Rephaeli & Gruber 1988), with the OSSE experiment onboard the Compton-GRO satellite (Rephaeli, Ulmer & Gruber 1994) and with RXTE & ASCA (Delzer & Henriksen 1998), but all these experiments reported essentially flux upper limits. However, we want to remind the conclusions of the paper regarding the OSSE observation of HXR radiation in the Coma cluster by Rephaeli, Ulmer & Gruber in 1994: ”..It can be definitely concluded that the detection of the IC HEX (high energy X-ray) emission necessitates an overall sensitivity a few times $`10^6\mathrm{ph}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{keV}^1`$ in the 40-80 keV band. ..To reduce source confusion, detectors optimized specifically for HEX measurements of clusters should have $`1^{}\times 1^{}`$ fields of view. A level of internal background more than a factor of 10 lower than that of OSSE is quite realistic. Obviously, another very desirable feature of any future experiment is wide energy coverage, starting near (or below) 15-20 keV, in order to independently measure the tail of the thermal emission”. In these conclusions it is possible to find the spectral characteristics of the Phoswich Detector System (PDS) onboard BeppoSAX which is able to detect hard X-ray emission in the 15-200 keV energy range. The PDS uses the rocking collimator technique for background subtraction with angle of 3.5. The strategy is to observe the X-ray source with one collimator and to monitor the background level on both sides of the source position with the other in order to have a continuous monitoring of the source and background. The dwell time is 96 sec. The background level of the PDS is the lowest obtained so far with high-energy instruments onboard satellities ($`2\times 10^4\mathrm{counts}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{keV}^1`$ in the 15-200 KeV energy band) thanks to the equatorial orbit of BeppoSAX . The background is very stable again thanks to the favorable orbit, and no modelling of the time variation of the background is required (Frontera et al. 1997).

## 2. Hard X-ray observations of clusters of galaxies by BeppoSAX

BeppoSAX observed seven clusters of galaxies with the main objective to detect additional nonthermal components in their spectra.

### 2.1. Coma

The first cluster was Coma observed in December 1997 for an exposure time of about 91 ksec. A nonthermal excess with respect to the thermal emission was observed (Fusco-Femiano et al. 1999) at a confidence level of about 4.5$`\sigma `$ (see Fig.1).

The thermal emission was measured with the HPGSPC always onboard BeppoSAX in the 4-20 keV energy range with a FWHM ($`1^{}\times 1^{}`$) comparable to that of the PDS ($`1.3^{}`$, hexagonal). The average gas temperature is $`8.5_{0.5}^{+0.6}`$ keV consistent with the temperature of Ginga of 8.2 keV (David et al. 1993). The $`\chi ^2`$ value has a significant decrement when a second component, a power law, is added. On the other hand, if we consider a second thermal component, instead of the nonthermal one, the fit requires a temperature greater than 40-50 keV. This unrealistic value may be interpreted as a strong indication that the detected hard excess is due to a nonthermal mechanism. The data are not able to give a good determination of the photon spectral index (0.7-2.5; 90%), but the nonthermal flux $`2.2\times 10^{11}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ in the 20-80 keV energy range is rather stable against variations of the power-law index. Binning the PDS data between 40-80 keV the nonthermal flux is lower by a factor about 2 with respect to the upper limit derived by the OSSE experiment (see Fig. 1 of Fusco-Femiano et al. 1999). In the same time a RXTE observation of the Coma cluster (Rephaeli, Gruber & Blanco 1999) showed evidence for the presence of a second component in the spectrum of this cluster, in particular the authors argued that this component is more likely to be nonthermal, rather than a second thermal component at lower temperature.

The first possible explanation for the detected excess is emission by a point source in the field of view of the PDS. The most qualified candidate is X Comae, a Seyfert 1 galaxy (z=0.092). ROSAT PSPC, EXOSAT and Einstein IPC observations report a flux at approximately the same flux level of $`1.6\times 10^{12}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ in the 2-10 keV energy band. With a typical photon index of 1.8 the variability factor of the source to account for the detected excess is of the order of 10 which could be still plausible. But luckily enough, X Comae is located just on the edge of the field of view of the MECS (see Fig. 3 of Fusco-Femiano 1999). Considering the location of X Comae and the lack of detection, it is possible to estimate an upper limit to the flux of the source of $`4\times 10^{12}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ (2-10 keV) when BeppoSAX observed Coma which is a factor $``$ 7 lower than the flux of $`2.9\times 10^{11}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ required to account for the nonthermal HXR emission in the PDS. A recent mosaic of the Coma cluster with XMM-Newton (Briel et al. 2000) reports a tentative identification of 3 quasars in the central region, but the estimated fluxes are insufficient to reproduce the excess detected by BeppoSAX . However, we cannot exclude that an obscured source, like Circinus (Matt et al. 1999) a Seyfert 2 galaxy very active at high X-ray energies, may be present in the field of view of the PDS. With the MECS image it is possible to exclude the presence of this kind of source only in the central region of about 30 in radius unless the obscured source is within 2 of the central bright core. We have estimated that the probability to find an obscured source in the field of view of the PDS is of the order of 10% and also Kaastra et al. (1999) independently arrived to the same estimate.

Another interpretation is that the nonthermal emission is due to relativistic electrons scattering the CMB photons and in particular the same electrons responsible for the radio halo emission present in the central region of the cluster, Coma C. In this case we can derive the volume-averaged intracluster magnetic field, $`B_X`$, using only observables, combining the X-ray and radio data (see Eq. 1 of Fusco-Femiano et al. 1999). The value of $`B_X`$ is of the order of 0.15 $`\mu `$G and assuming a radio halo size of R = 1 Mpc at the distance of Coma also the electron energy density ($`7\times 10^{14}`$ erg cm-3) can be derived. The value of the magnetic field derived by the BeppoSAX observation seems to be inconsistent with the measurements of Faraday rotation of polarized radiation of sources through the hot ICM that give a line-of-sight value of $`B_{FR}`$ of the order of 2-6 $`\mu `$G (Kim et al. 1990; Feretti et al. 1995). But Feretti and collaborators inferred also the existence of a weaker magnetic field component, ordered on a scale of about a cluster core radius, with a line-of-sight strength in the range 0.1-0.2 $`\mu `$G consistent with the value derived from BeppoSAX . So, we can argue that the component at 6 $`\mu `$G is likely present in local cluster regions, while the overall cluster magnetic field may be reasonably represented by the weaker and ordered component. However, there are still many and large uncertainties on the value of the magnetic field determined using the FR measurements (Newman, Newman, & Rephaeli 2002). Other determinations of B based on different methods are in the range 0.2-0.4 $`\mu `$G (Hwang 1997; Bowyer & Berghöfer 1998; Sreekumar et al. 1996; Henriksen 1998). The equipartition value is of the order of $`0.4\mu `$G (Giovannini et al. 1993).

However, alternative interpretations to the IC model have been proposed essentially motivated by the discrepancy between the values of $`B_X`$ and $`B_{FR}`$. Blasi & Colafrancesco (1999) have suggested a secondary electron production due to cosmic rays interactions in the ICM. However, this model implies a $`\gamma `$-ray flux larger than the EGRET upper limit, unless the hard excess and the radio halo emission are due to different populations of electrons. A different mechanism is given by nonthermal bremsstrahlung from suprathermal electrons formed through the current acceleration of the thermal gas (Ensslin, Lieu, & Biermann 1999; Dogiel 2000; Sarazin & Kempner 2000; Blasi 2000). At present, due to the low efficiency of the proposed acceleration processes and of the bremsstrahlung mechanism, these models would require an unrealistically high energy input, as pointed out by Petrosian (2001). Regarding the discrepancy between $`B_X`$ and $`B_{FR}`$, Goldshmidt & Rephaeli already in 1993 suggested that this discrepancy could be alleviated by taking into consideration the expected spatial profiles of the magnetic field and relativistic electrons. More recently, it has been shown that IC models that include the effects of more realistic electron spectra, combined with the expected spatial profiles of the magnetic fields, and anisotropies in the pitch angle distribution of the electrons allow higher values of the intracluster magnetic field , in better agreement with the FR measurements (Brunetti et al. 2001; Petrosian 2001).

### 2.2. A2199

The cluster has been observed in April 1997 for 100 ksec (Kaastra et al. 1999). The MECS data in the range 8-10 keV seem to show the presence of a hard excess with respect to the thermal emission. Between 9 and 24, the count rate is 5.4$`\pm `$0.6 counts ks-1, while the best fit thermal model predicts only 3.4 counts ks-1. So, the excess is at a confidence level of $`3.3\sigma `$. The PDS data are instead not sufficient to prove the existence of a hard tail. There are some difficulties to account for the presence of a nonthermal excess in this cluster because the electrons responsible for the hard emission would have an energy of $``$ 4 GeV and a resulting IC lifetime of only $`3\times 10^8`$ yr. So, these electrons have to be replenished by a continuous acceleration process and this is particularly difficult to explain in A2199 that is a bright cooling flow cluster, a regular cluster without merger events able to release a fraction of the input energy in particle acceleration. However, a source of relativistic electrons may be given via the decay of pions produced by proton-proton collisions between intracluster cosmic rays and gas, as suggested by Blasi & Colafrancesco (1999). We have re-analyzed the MECS data and Fig. 2 shows only a point above the thermal model at the level of $`2\sigma `$.

However, the cluster is planned to be observed by XMM-Newton that should be able to discriminate between these two different results of the MECS data analysis, considering the low average gas temperature of about 4.5 keV (David et al. 1993).

### 2.3. A2256

The cluster A2256 is the second cluster where BeppoSAX detected a clear excess (see Fig. 3) at about 4.6$`\sigma `$ above the thermal emission (Fusco-Femiano et al. 2000).

The temperature is about 7.4$`\pm `$0.23 keV consistent with the value determined by previous observations of ASCA , Einstein and Ginga . The thermal emission is measured by the MECS taking into account the difference between the two fields of view of the two instruments. Also in this case the $`\chi ^2`$ value has a significant decrement when a second component, a power law, is added and also in this case the fit with a second thermal component gives an unrealistic temperature which can be interpreted as evidence in favour of a nonthermal mechanism for the second component present in the X-ray spectrum of A2256. The range of the photon index at 90$`\%`$ confidence level is very large : 0.3-1.7. The flux of the nonthermal component is $`1.2\times 10^{11}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ in the 20-80 keV energy range, rather stable against variations of the photon index.

There is only a QSO in the field of view of the PDS, QSO 4C+79.16, observed by ROSAT with a count rate of $``$ 0.041 c/s and about 1.2 c/s are necessary to reproduce the observed nonthermal excess and considering that the QSO is $`52^{}`$ off-axis an unusual variability of about 2 orders of magnitude is required. The MECS image excludes the presence of an obscured source in the central region ($`30^{}`$ in radius) of the cluster. We want to stress that the analysis of A2256 regards two observations (46 & 96 ksec) with a time interval of $``$ 1 yr (Feb. 98 and Feb. 99) and this analysis does not show significant flux variations. In addition, we have re-observed the cluster after about two years from the previous one and the two spectra are consistent (see Fig. 4) and also in this case the observation is composed of two observations with a time interval of $``$ 1 month and the analysis does not show significant flux variations.

So, this results and the fact that the two clusters with a detected hard excess, Coma and A2256, both have extended radio emission, make less plausible the point source interpretation and strongly support the idea of a diffuse nonthermal mechanism involving the ICM.

The diffuse radio emission of A2256 is very complex. It is composed of a relic at a distance of about 8 from the center. A broad region (1$`\times `$0.3 Mpc) with a rather uniform and flat spectral index of 0.8$`\pm `$0.1 between 610 and 1415 MHz (Bridle et al. 1979). There is a second fainter extended component in the cluster center with a steeper radio spectral index of $``$ 1.8 (Bridle et al. 1979, Rengelink et al. 1997). Markevitch & Vikhlinin (1997) in their analysis of the ASCA data noted a second component in the spectrum of A2256 in the central spherical bin of radius 3. Their best fit is a power law with a photon index of 2.4$`\pm `$0.3 which therefore favors a nonthermal component. Considering that there are no bright point sources in the ROSAT HRI image they suggested the presence of an extended source. Also the joint analysis ASCA GIS & RXTE PCA (Henriksen 1999) is consistent with a detection of a nonthermal component in addition to a thermal component. The MECS data do not show this steep nonthermal component in the central bin because the energy range is truncated to a lower limit of 2 keV (Molendi, De Grandi & Fusco-Femiano 2000). So, in conclusion the power law with slope 2.4 found in the ASCA data and the upper limit 1.7 determined by BeppoSAX suggest that two tails could be present in the X-ray spectrum of A2256. The former might be due to the radio halo with the steep index of 1.8 that is not visible in the PDS (we estimate a flux of $`4\times 10^{13}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$), and the latter might be due to the relic with a flatter radio index of 0.8$`\pm `$0.1 that indicates a broad region of reaccelerated electrons, probably the result of the ongoing merger event shown by a Chandra observation (Sun et al. 2002).

### 2.4. A1367

A BeppoSAX observation of Abell 1367 has not detected hard X-ray emission in the PDS energy range above 15 keV (P.I.: Y.Rephaeli). A1367 is a near cluster (z=0.0215) that shows a relic at a distance of about 22 from the center and a low gas temperature of $``$ 3.7 keV (David et al. 1993) that might explain lack of thermal emission at energies above 15 keV. We do not expect presence of nonthermal radiation for two reasons : the radio spectral index $`\alpha _R`$ = 1.90$`\pm `$0.27 (Gavazzi & Trinchieri 1983) seems to indicate the absence of high energy reaccelerated electrons and in any case the steep spectrum gives a negligible flux in the PDS. Besides, the radio region has a limited extent of 8 corresponding to 300 kpc. The source has been observed also by XMM-Newton and the data analysis is still in progress.

### 2.5. A3667

A3667 is one of the most spectacular clusters of galaxies . It contains one of the largest radio sources in the southern sky with a total extent of about 30 which corresponds to about 2.6$`h_{50}^1`$ Mpc. A similar but weaker region is present also to the south-west (Robertson 1991; Röttgering et al. 1997). The Mpc-scale radio relics may be originated by the ongoing merger visible in the optical region, in the X-ray, as shown by the elongated isophotes, and in the weak lensing map. The ASCA observation reports an average gas temperature of 7.0$`\pm `$0.6 (Markevitch, Sarazin, & Vikhlinin 1999). The temperature map shows that the hottest region is in between the two groups of galaxies confirming the merger scenario. The PDS field of view includes only the radio region in the north of the cluster. A long observation with the PDS (effective exposure time 44+69 ksec) reports a clear detection of hard X-ray emission up to about 35 keV at a confidence level of $`10\sigma `$. Instead, the fit with a thermal component at the average gas temperature indicates an upper limit for the nonthermal flux of $`6.4\times 10^{12}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ in the 20-80 keV energy range that is a factor $``$ 3.4 and $``$ 2 lower than the nonthermal fluxes detected in Coma and A2256, respectively (see Fig. 5). In the IC interpretation this flux upper limit combined with the radio synchrotron emission determines a lower limit to the volume-averaged intracluster magnetic field of 0.41$`\mu `$G.

Given the presence of such a large radio region in the NW of the cluster, a robust detection of a nonthermal component might be expected instead of the upper limit reported by BeppoSAX . One possible explanation may be related to the radio spectral structure of the NW relic. The sharp edge of the radio source ($`\alpha _R0.5`$) is the site of particle acceleration (Roettiger, Burns & Stone 1999) , while the progressive index steepening with the increase of the distance from the shock ($`\alpha _R1.5`$) would indicate particle ageing because of radiative losses. In the narrow shocked region, where particle reacceleration is at work, the magnetic field is expected to be amplified by adiabatic compression with the consequence that the synchrotron emission is enhanced thus giving a limited number of electrons able to produce IC X-rays. In the post-shock region of the relic the electrons suffer strong radiative losses with no reacceleration, considering also that the relic is well outside the cluster core. Therefore, the electron energy spectrum develops a high energy cutoff at $`\gamma <10^4`$ and the electron energy is not sufficiently high to emit IC radiation in the hard X-ray band. Synchrotron emission is detected from the post-shocked region, because the magnetic field is still strong enough due to the likely long time to relax.

### 2.6. A754 & A119

The last two clusters, A754 and A119, observed by BeppoSAX show an evident merger activity. It is plausible that a considerable fraction of the input energy during a merger process can be released in particle acceleration and remitted in various energy bands. The scope of these observations was to verify whether clusters showing merger events can produce nonthermal X-ray radiation also in the absence of a clear evidence of diffuse radio emission as it is for Coma and A2256.

The rich and hot cluster A754 is considered the prototype of a merging cluster. X-ray observations report a violent merger event in this cluster (Henry & Briel 1995; Henriksen & Markevitch 1996; De Grandi & Molendi 2001), probably a very recent merger as shown by a numerical hydro/N-body model (Roettiger, Stone, & Mushotzky 1998). Therefore, the intracluster medium of A754 appears to be a suitable place for the formation of radio halos or relics. As a consequence, radio and HXR observations of this cluster are relevant to verify the suggested link between the presence of nonthermal phenomena and merger activity in clusters of galaxies. The cluster has been recently observed with the NRAO VLA observatory (Kassim et al. 2001), after our BeppoSAX proposal, suggesting the existence of a radio halo and at least one radio relic. The presence of a radio halo is confirmed by a deeper observation at higher resolution (Fusco-Femiano et al. , in preparation). A754 was observed in hard X-rays with RXTE in order to search for a nonthermal component (Valinia et al. 1999) and the fit to the PCA and HEXTE data set an upper limit of $``$ 1.4$`\times `$ 10$`{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ in the 10-40 keV band to the nonthermal emission.

A long BeppoSAX observation of A754 shows an excess at energies above about 45 keV with respect to the thermal emission at the temperature of 9.4 keV (see Fig. 6).

The excess is at a level of confidence of 3$`\sigma `$. The nonthermal flux is $`1\times 10^{11}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ in the range 40-100 keV consistent with the flux upper limit determined by RXTE ($`1.6\times 10^{12}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ in the range 10-40 keV).

There are two possible origins for the detected excess. One is tied to the presence of the diffuse radio emission and the other explanation is due to the presence of the radio galaxy 26W20 in the field of view of the PDS discovered by Harris et al. (Westerbork radio survey, Harris et al. 1980). This source shows X-ray characteristics similar to those of a BL Lac object. The radio galaxy has had several X-ray observations, due to its close proximity to A754, and all these observations give a flux of $`2.3\times 10^{12}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ in the 0.5-3 keV energy range. The source shows variability (18% in 5 days in 1992).

The fit to the SED for 26W20 (see Fig. 7), where the highest energy points refer to the PDS observation assuming that this source is responsible for the detected excess, requires a flat index of about 0.3 to extrapolate the flux detected by ROSAT in the PDS energy range, taking into account the angular response of the detector. Unfortunately, the source is not in the field of view of the MECS because it is hidden by one of the calibration sources of the instrument. The conclusion is that a HXR observation with spatial resolution is necessary to discriminate between these two interpretations.

Finally, A119 was the last cluster observed by BeppoSAX to detect an additional nonthermal component in its X-ray spectrum. ROSAT PSPC, ASCA and BeppoSAX observations have shown a rather irregular and asymmetric X-ray brightness suggesting that the cluster is not completely relaxed and may have undergone a recent merger (Cirimele et al. 1997; Markevitch et al. 1998; Irwin, Bregman & Evrard 1999; De Grandi & Molendi 2001). The average cluster temperature measured by BeppoSAX is 5.66$`\pm `$0.16 keV within 20 and is consistent with previous measurements of Einstein and EXOSAT . The excess with respect to the thermal emission at the average gas temperature measured by the MECS is at confidence level of $`2.8\sigma `$ (see Fig. 8).

The nonthermal flux is in the range $`78\times 10^{12}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ in the 20-80 keV energy range and $`34\times 10^{12}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ in the 2-10 keV energy band for a photon spectral index in the range 1.5-1.8.

A119 does not show evidence of a radio halo or relic, but the presence of a recent merger event could accelerate particles able to emit nonthermal emission in the PDS energy range. However, the presence of 7 QSO with redshift in the range 0.14-0.58 makes very unlikely that this possible excess at a flux level of $`34\times 10^{12}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ in the 2-10 keV energy band may be due to a diffuse source. We can instead exclude that the observed excess is due to the radio source 3C29, a FR I source located in the field of view of the MECS at a distance of about 21 from the BeppoSAX pointing.

## 3. Conclusions

BeppoSAX observed a clear evidence of nonthermal emission in two clusters, Coma and A2256, both showing extended radio regions. In particular, the two observations of A2256 strongly support the presence of a diffuse non thermal mechanism involving the ICM. These detections and the lack of detection in other clusters seem to indicate that the essential requirement to observe additional nonthermal components at the level of the PDS sensitivity is the presence of large regions of reaccelerated electrons, with Lorenz factor $`10^4`$, due to the balance between radiative losses and reacceleration gains in turbulence generated by merger events that must be very recent considering the short lifetime of the electrons.

BeppoSAX , as it is well known, has ceased its activity at the end of April 2002. The next missions able to search for nonthermal components are :

$``$ INTEGRAL . In particular, with IBIS, that has a spatial resolution of 12, we have the opportunity a) to localize the source of the nonthermal X-ray emission. In the case of a point source it is possible to identify it, while in the case of a diffuse source it is possible to verify whether the nonthermal emission is mainly concentrated in the cluster central region or in the external region, as predicted by the model for the Coma cluster of Brunetti et al. (2001), or it is uniformly spread over the whole radio halo present in the cluster. b) to have a better determination of the photon spectral index.

$``$ ASTRO-E . The Hard X-ray Detector (HXD) has a field of view of $`34^{}\times 34^{}`$ similar to that of the MECS. A positive detection of the nonthermal emission already measured by BeppoSAX in Coma and A2256 would eliminate the ambiguity between a diffuse emission involving the intracluster gas and a point source, considering that the MECS images do not show evidence for point sources.

$``$ The future missions are represented by NEXT and CONSTELLATION .

These missions will be operative in the next years, but the energy range and the spectral capabilities of XMM-Newton /EPIC give the possibility to localize nonthermal components in regions of low gas temperature as shown by the simulation regarding the radio relic of A2256 performed using the nonthermal flux measured by BeppoSAX (see Fig. 9). This region has a gas temperature of 4 keV likely associated with the ongoing merger shown by a Chandra observation (Sun et al. 2001). So with XMM-Newton we should have the possibility, by comparing the X-ray and radio structures, to constrain the profiles of the magnetic field and of relativistic electrons.

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text:
# Physical Properties of Low-Luminosity Galaxies at 𝑧∼2

### Acknowledgments.

Part of this work was supported by a “Conseil Régional de la Martinique” grant and the french CNRS.

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