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# Can the Mechanism for 𝜋₁→{𝜂𝜋,𝜂'𝜋} Hybrid Decays be Detected?

## I Gluonic couplings of $`\eta `$, $`\eta ^{}`$ through $`J/\psi \eta \gamma ,\eta ^{}\gamma `$ decays

To extract the $`\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ couplings to gluonic currents, consider the processes $`J/\psi \eta \gamma ,\eta ^{}\gamma `$. In these processes the photon is emitted by one of the $`c`$ quarks before their annihilation into lighter quark pairs ball ; shifman . The resulting ratio of decay rates occurring if the $`J/\psi \eta \gamma ,\eta ^{}\gamma `$ decay processes occur through $`\overline{c}cgg\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ is

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(J/\psi \eta \gamma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(J/\psi \eta ^{}\gamma )}\left|\frac{0|G\stackrel{~}{G}|\eta }{0|G\stackrel{~}{G}|\eta ^{}}\right|^2\left(\frac{1m_\eta ^2/m_{J/\psi }^2}{1m_\eta ^{}^2/m_{J/\psi }^2}\right)^3,$$
(1)
where it has been assumed that the $`gg`$ pair is sufficiently hard so that the use of the local operator $`G\stackrel{~}{G}=1/2ϵ^{\mu \nu \lambda \rho }G_{\lambda \rho }^aG_{\mu \nu }^a`$ extracted from the $`gg`$ pair is a good approximation. The experimental value of this decay-width ratio is bes

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(J/\psi \eta \gamma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(J/\psi \eta ^{}\gamma )}=0.200\pm 0.023.$$
(2)
Using the known masses $`m_{J/\psi }=3.1`$ GeV, $`m_\eta =0.548`$ GeV, and $`m_\eta ^{}=0.958`$ GeV, the following relation

$`{\displaystyle \frac{0|G\stackrel{~}{G}|\eta }{0|G\stackrel{~}{G}|\eta ^{}}}0.404\pm 0.023`$ (3)
is obtained. The uncertainty given in (3) is only associated with the experimental value (2).

The agreement between the value (3) and the corresponding sum-rule estimates pennington ; shifman  provides support for the assumed $`\overline{c}cgg\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ mechanism and associated approximations used for these decays. However, the sum-rule analyses are based on specific models of the $`\eta `$-$`\eta ^{}`$ system, while the extraction (3) is independent of such considerations and would remain valid with the addition of a gluonic component mixing with $`\eta `$-$`\eta ^{}`$. For this reason we will use (3) in our subsequent analyses.

## II Quark couplings of $`\eta `$, $`\eta ^{}`$ through $`\varphi \eta \gamma ,\eta ^{}\gamma `$ decays

The $`\varphi \eta \gamma ,\eta ^{}\gamma `$ decays must occur through a different mechanism than the $`J/\psi `$ decays, since a $`\overline{s}sgg\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ process similar to the $`J/\psi `$ decays considered earlier would lead to

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\varphi \eta ^{}\gamma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\varphi \eta \gamma )}\left|\frac{0|G\stackrel{~}{G}|\eta ^{}}{0|G\stackrel{~}{G}|\eta }\right|^2\left(\frac{1m_\eta ^{}^2/m_\varphi ^2}{1m_\eta ^2/m_\varphi ^2}\right)^32.8\times 10^2,$$
(4)
where the mass $`m_\varphi =1.02`$ GeV and (3) has been used. This value is an order of magnitude larger than the known experimental value kloe

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\varphi \eta ^{}\gamma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\varphi \eta \gamma )}=4.7\pm 0.47\pm 0.31\times 10^3,$$
(5)
indicating that the $`\overline{s}sgg\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ process does not properly describe the $`\varphi \eta \gamma ,\eta ^{}\gamma `$ processes. Since a high energy scale is needed to approximate the $`gg`$ mechanism as the coupling of a gluonic operator to mesons, it is not surprising that the $`gg`$ mechanism cannot be applied to $`\varphi `$ radiative decays to $`\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ rad .

Alternatively, consider the $`\overline{s}s\overline{q}q\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ mechanism, which could include the direct process $`\overline{s}s\eta ,\eta ^{}`$. Although the detailed decay mechanism is unknown, this process can be modeled through $`\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ couplings to quark currents. Considering the nature of the the initial $`\varphi `$ state and final $`\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ states, the appropriate quark current is of the form $`\overline{q}i\gamma _5q`$ indicating a general flavour structure. Note that a coupling to an axial vector current would contain a (dominant) anomaly term which would then lead to the gluonic current couplings as ruled out in the above analysis. The resulting ratio of decay rates in this general $`\overline{s}s\overline{q}q\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ mechanism is

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\varphi \eta ^{}\gamma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\varphi \eta \gamma )}\left|\frac{0|\overline{q}i\gamma _5q|\eta ^{}}{0|\overline{q}i\gamma _5q|\eta }\right|^2\left(\frac{1m_\eta ^{}^2/m_\varphi ^2}{1m_\eta ^2/m_\varphi ^2}\right)^3.$$
(6)
Using (5), we obtain

$$\left|\frac{0|\overline{q}i\gamma _5q|\eta }{0|\overline{q}i\gamma _5q|\eta ^{}}\right|0.984\pm 0.082,$$
(7)
where the uncertainty only reflects the experimental value (5).

To disentangle the actual flavour structure occurring in the estimate (7), we turn to the theoretical estimates

$$\left|\frac{0|\overline{s}i\gamma _5s|\eta }{0|\overline{s}i\gamma _5s|\eta ^{}}\right|0.76\pm 0.10$$
(8)
$$\left|\frac{0|\overline{n}i\gamma _5n|\eta }{0|\overline{n}i\gamma _5n|\eta ^{}}\right|2.5$$
(9)
as obtained in a recent QCD sum-rule analysis pennington  (see also mixing  for other estimates of this quantity), where $`n`$ denotes the non-strange $`u,d`$ quarks in the $`SU(2)`$ limit. Comparison of (7), (8) and (9) indicates that the direct $`\overline{s}s\eta \eta ^{}`$ process is predominant in $`\varphi \eta \gamma ,\eta ^{}\gamma `$, and the agreement between (7) and (8) validates the approximations used to obtain (6). In particular, this agreement indicates that the coupling of the final states to operators ignored in obtaining (6) must be small enough such that the pseudoscalar current dominates the process.

It is important to note that the numerical value (9) is almost unchanged between $`\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ mixing schemes, while (8) shows some scheme dependence. Thus we can consider our result (7) as a mixing-scheme independent extraction of the ratio of the couplings to strange pseudoscalar currents, and can safely use the theoretical value for non-strange currents, obviating the absence of experimental data that could be used to extract the non-strange ratio.

As a final demonstration of the consistency of our analysis, we return to the $`J/\psi `$ decays under the assumption of a $`\overline{c}c\overline{q}q\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ mechanism, resulting in

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(J/\psi \eta \gamma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(J/\psi \eta ^{}\gamma )}\left|\frac{0|\overline{q}i\gamma _5q|\eta ^{}}{0|\overline{q}i\gamma _5q|\eta }\right|^2\left(\frac{1m_\eta ^2/m_{J/\psi }^2}{1m_\eta ^{}^2/m_{J/\psi }^2}\right)^31.19,$$
(10)
where (7) has been used to obtain a lower bound. This is clearly an inadequate description of the decay process because of its disagreement with the experimental value (2), illustrating that different mechanisms and the resulting coupling of $`\eta `$, $`\eta ^{}`$ to different operators are occurring in each case. Indeed, if a common decay mechanism existed in the cases considered so far, then the matrix elements of the relevant operator would cancel in the following double ratio resulting in

$$\frac{\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(J/\psi \eta \gamma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(J/\psi \eta ^{}\gamma )}}{\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\varphi \eta \gamma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\varphi \eta ^{}\gamma )}}\frac{\left(1m_\eta ^2/m_{J/\psi }^2\right)^3}{\left(1m_\eta ^{}^2/m_{J/\psi }^2\right)^3}\frac{\left(1m_\eta ^{}^2/m_\varphi ^2\right)^3}{\left(1m_\eta ^2/m_\varphi ^2\right)^3}=5.59\times 10^3$$
(11)
where masses have been inserted to obtain the numerical value. By comparison, the experimental value of the double ratio ratio obtained from (2) and (5) is

$$\frac{\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(J/\psi \eta \gamma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(J/\psi \eta ^{}\gamma )}}{\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\varphi \eta \gamma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\varphi \eta ^{}\gamma )}}=0.24.7\times 10^3=9.4\times 10^4,$$
(12)
demonstrating that the scales associated with the $`\varphi `$ and $`J/\psi `$ decays must be described by couplings to different operators, with the $`J/\psi `$ decays best described by coupling to gluonic operators through the $`\overline{c}c\overline{g}g\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ mechanism, while the $`\varphi `$ decays are best described by a coupling to quark operators through the $`\overline{s}s\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ mechanism.

## III Hybrid $`\pi _1\eta \pi ,\eta ^{}\pi `$ decay mechanisms

The details of the $`q\overline{q}g`$ hybrid decay mechanisms represented in Figure 1 are unknown. However, the quark pair (one created from the initial constituent gluon in the hybrid) can be modeled through a quark current, and the gluon pair (one emitted from an initial constituent quark) through a gluonic current. Thus, for $`\pi _1\eta \pi ,\eta ^{}\pi `$ decays, the $`gg`$ mechanism can be analyzed through the $`\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ couplings to the pseudoscalar gluonic current, and the $`\overline{q}q`$ mechanism through a pseudoscalar quark current. Although it is possible to anticipate the dominance of the $`gg`$ mechanism in the $`J/\psi `$ decays and the $`\overline{q}q`$ mechanism in the $`\varphi `$ decays because of the energy scales associated with the decay processes, the special role of the constituent gluon in the hybrid makes it difficult to make a theoretical prediction of which mechanism is dominant in hybrid decays. However, experimental data combined with the phenomenological analysis given below provides a means for distinguishing between these mechanisms.

If $`\pi _1\eta \pi ,\eta ^{}\pi `$ decays are dominated by the $`gg\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ mechanism illustrated in diagram (b) of Fig. 1, then we would find

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta \pi )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta ^{}\pi )}\left|\frac{0|G\stackrel{~}{G}|\eta }{0|G\stackrel{~}{G}|\eta ^{}}\right|^2\left(\frac{1m_\eta ^2/m_{\pi _1}^2}{1m_\eta ^{}^2/m_{\pi _1}^2}\right)^3=0.425\pm 0.048,$$
(13)
where $`m_{\pi _1}=1.6\mathrm{GeV}`$ has been used along with (3) for the $`\eta `$, $`\eta ^{}`$ gluonic couplings. If the hybrid mass is reduced to $`m_{\pi _1}=1.4`$ GeV, the central value of this ratio increases to $`0.659`$.

For the $`\overline{q}q\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ mechanism illustrated in diagram (a) of Fig. 1 we find

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta \pi )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta ^{}\pi )}\left|\frac{0|\overline{n}i\gamma _5n|\eta }{0|\overline{n}i\gamma _5n|\eta ^{}}\right|^2\left(\frac{1m_\eta ^2/m_{\pi _1}^2}{1m_\eta ^{}^2/m_{\pi _1}^2}\right)^3$$
(14)
where $`m_{\pi _1}=1.6\mathrm{GeV}`$ has been used, and the isovector nature of the $`\pi _1`$ and $`\pi `$ necessitates the non-strange quark operators in the $`SU(2)`$ limit. If the theoretical value (9) is used to obtain an approximate value of the non-strange quark operators we obtain

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta \pi )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta ^{}\pi )}16,$$
(15)
which is clearly distinct from the $`gg`$ value (13). Even the lower bound obtained from (7)

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta \pi )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta ^{}\pi )}>2.5,$$
(16)
is sufficient to distinguish between the $`gg`$ and $`\overline{q}q`$ processes. Reducing the hybrid mass to $`m_{\pi _1}=1.4`$ GeV increases the numerical values in (15) and (16) by approximately 55%.

In conclusion, experimental information for the decay processes $`J/\psi \eta \gamma ,\eta ^{}\gamma `$ and $`\varphi \eta \gamma ,\eta ^{}\gamma `$ has been used to demonstrate that these decays occur through different decay mechanisms, allowing the extraction of $`\eta `$, $`\eta ^{}`$ couplings to gluonic and quark operators. These extractions are consistent with those of QCD sum-rules, but have the advantage that they are independent of $`\eta `$-$`\eta ^{}`$ mixing details. The overall consistency of these couplings substantiates the models and approximations used to study these decays.

Under the assumption of a hybrid nature of the $`\pi _1`$ states, the extracted couplings of $`\eta `$, $`\eta ^{}`$ to the gluonic and quark operators are applied to estimating the decay-width ratio $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta \pi )/\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta ^{}\pi )`$ through the $`\overline{q}q`$ and $`gg`$ mechanisms illustrated in Figure 1. This ratio is substantially different in the two mechanisms, and hence future branching-ratio measurements should identify the dominant decay mechanism, facilitating more detailed theoretical work. However, we note that a sum-rule analysis in the quark scheme for $`\eta `$-$`\eta ^{}`$ mixing clearly predicts $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta \pi )/\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta ^{}\pi )>1`$ tom , suggesting dominance of the $`q\overline{q}`$ mechanism. Although effects of final-state interactions and of using a local operator for the $`\overline{q}q`$ and $`gg`$ pairs have been ignored in these processes, it seems unlikely that they will be large enough to alter the qualitative result $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta \pi )<\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta ^{}\pi )`$ in the $`gg`$ mechanism and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta \pi )>\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi _1\eta ^{}\pi )`$ in the $`\overline{q}q`$ mechanism. Conversely, $`\pi _1`$ branching ratios that lie outside the extremes associated with (13) and (15) may be difficult to accommodate from a theoretical perspective.

###### Acknowledgements.

Research funding from the Natural Science & Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) is gratefully acknowledged. Ailin Zhang is partly supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China and the BEPC National Lab Opening Project.


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# Radio Galaxy Redshift-Angular Size Data Constraints on Dark Energy

## 1 Introduction

The last half-a-dozen years have seen a remarkable increase in the quality of some cosmological data. No less remarkable, but perhaps less heralded, has been the continuing acquisition of new types of data. These have been very useful developments in the on-going process of determining, through the cosmological tests, how well current cosmological models approximate reality: many independent and tight constraints on cosmological-model parameters allow for consistency checks on the models (see, e.g., Maor et al. 2002; Wasserman 2002).

For example, there is now much more higher-quality Type Ia supernova redshift-magnitude data. Recent applications of the redshift-magnitude test based on this data (see, e.g., Riess et al. 1998; Perlmutter et al. 1999; Podariu & Ratra 2000; Waga & Frieman 2000; Leibundgut 2001) indicate that the energy density of the current universe is dominated by a cosmological constant, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, or by a term in the stress-energy tensor that only varies slowly with time and space and so behaves like $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$.111 See, e.g., Peebles (1984), Ratra & Peebles (1988), Efstathiou, Sutherland, & Maddox (1990), Ratra et al. (1997, 1999), Steinhardt (1999), Sahni & Starobinsky (2000), Brax, Martin, & Riazuelo (2000), and Carroll (2001) for discussions of such models. Supporting evidence for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ or a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-like term is provided by a combination of low dynamical estimates for the non-relativistic matter density parameter $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ (see, e.g., Peebles 1993) and evidence for a vanishing curvature of spatial hypersurfaces from cosmic microwave background anisotropy measurements (see, e.g., Podariu et al. 2001; Baccigalupi et al. 2002; Scott et al. 2002; Mason et al. 2002).

Evidence against the large value of the cosmological constant density parameter $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ favored by the above tests comes from estimates of the observed rate of multiple images of radio sources or quasars, produced by gravitational lensing by foreground galaxies (see, e.g., Ratra & Quillen 1992; Helbig et al. 1999; Waga & Frieman 2000; Ng & Wiltshire 2001).

An improvement in data quality, as well as data from other cosmological tests, will be needed to resolve this situation. In the near future the redshift-counts test appears to be promising (see, e.g., Newman & Davis 2000; Huterer & Turner 2001; Podariu & Ratra 2001; Levine, Schulz, & White 2002).

Present redshift-angular size data provide a useful consistency check. The redshift-angular size relation is measured by Buchalter et al. (1998) for quasars, by Gurvits, Kellermann, & Frey (1999) for compact radio sources, and by Daly & Guerra (2002) for FRIIb radio galaxies. Vishwakarma (2001), Lima & Alcaniz (2002), and Chen & Ratra (2003) use the Gurvits et al. (1999) data to set constraints on cosmological parameters. Guerra, Daly, & Wan (2000), Guerra & Daly (1998), Daly, Mory, & Guerra (2002), and Daly & Guerra (2002) examine FRIIb radio galaxy redshift-angular size cosmological constraints in various models using the modified standard yardstick method proposed by Daly (1994).

Here we use the FRIIb radio galaxy redshift-angular size data of Guerra et al. (2000) to derive constraints on the parameters of a spatially-flat model with a dark energy scalar field ($`\varphi `$) with scalar field potential energy density $`V(\varphi )`$ that at low redshift is $`\varphi ^\alpha `$, $`\alpha >0`$ (Peebles & Ratra 1988). The energy density of such a scalar field decreases with time, behaving like a time-variable $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$.

We adopt the analysis technique of Guerra et al. (2000), marginalizing over their parameter $`\beta `$ to account for the uncertainty in the linear size of the “standard rod” used in the redshift-angular size test, to derive the likelihood (probability distribution) of the scalar field model parameters, $`L(\mathrm{\Omega }_0,\alpha )`$. This likelihood function is used to determine confidence regions for the model parameters. We compute $`L(\mathrm{\Omega }_0,\alpha )`$ over the ranges $`0.05\mathrm{\Omega }_00.95`$ and $`0\alpha 8`$. The radio galaxy 3C 427.1 (of the twenty used in the analysis) is a disproportionate contributor to $`\chi ^2`$, so we present results both including and excluding this radio galaxy. When we exclude 3C 427.1 we renormalize the error bars to make the best-fit reduced $`\chi ^2`$ unity.

## 2 Results and Discussion

Figures 1 and 2 show the constraints on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ and $`\alpha `$ in the dark energy scalar field model with $`V(\varphi )\varphi ^\alpha `$, including and excluding 3C 427.1. In both cases the constraints shown here are consistent with, but tighter than, those derived using the Gurvits et al. (1999) compact radio source redshift-angular size data (Chen & Ratra 2003, Fig. 3). They are also consistent with, but not as constraining as, those derived from the Riess et al. (1998) and Perlmutter et al. (1999) Type Ia supernova redshift-magnitude data (Podariu & Ratra 2000; Waga & Frieman 2000). Consistent with these analyses, the analysis here also does not rule out large values of $`\alpha `$ when $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ is small.

The radio galaxy 3C 427.1 can easily be identified as an outlier. This can be seen in Table 2 and Figures 2b, 8b, and 8c of Guerra & Daly (1998), and the effective Hubble diagrams shown in Figure 7 of Guerra et al. (2000) and Figure 8 of Daly & Guerra (2001), for example. In the fits presented in each of these papers and those presented by Daly & Guerra (2002), as well as in the fits presented here, this one source contributes about one-half of the total $`\chi ^2`$, and the total $`\chi ^2`$ for the best fit parameters is always about 16 (see Figure 1 of Daly & Guerra 2002, for example). Each fit has 16 degrees of freedom since there are 20 radio galaxy points, the cosmological model has 2 free parameters, and the radio galaxy modified standard yardstick model has 2 free parameters.

To date, this point has been included in all of the fits. It is not clear whether it should be included in the fits, or whether it should be flagged as an outlier and removed from the data set, as was done for supernovae Type Ia by Perlmutter et al. (1999). If it is flagged as an outlier and removed from the data set, the low reduced $`\chi ^2`$ of about one-half that would result for the best fitting parameters in any of the cosmological models considered would indicate that the error bars on each radio galaxy data point have been over-estimated by a factor of about 1.4. It is certainly possible for these error bars to have been overestimated; the determination of the error bars is discussed in detail in the Appendix of Guerra et al. (2000). This decrease in the error bar per point tightens the constraints on all parameters, including cosmological parameters and radio galaxy model parameters, as can be seen by comparing Figures 1 and 2. However, the only empirical basis for removing 3C 427.1 from the data set is it’s position on the radio galaxy effective Hubble diagram. It’s radio structure is not unusual or remarkable (see Leahy, Muxlow, & Stephens 1989). The use of this radio source to determine the ambient gas density (Wellman et al. 1997a), the ambient gas temperature (Wellman et al. 1998b), and the synchrotron aging independent ambient gas pressure, the beam power, and the total AGN-jet lifetime of this source (Wan, Guerra, & Daly 2000) are all unremarkable and quite in line with sources with similar redshifts, sizes, and radio powers. The determination of the source redshift seems secure (Spinrad, Stauffer, & Butcher 1985). It does not appear to be an especially bright infrared source; upper bounds on its infrared luminosity are presented by Meisenheimer et al. (2001). Thus, it is unlikely to be an especially highly obscured quasar that should have been removed from this sample of radio galaxies. And, it’s radio morphology and environmental properties are not unusual (Harvanek & Stocke 2002). Thus, there does not seem to be any empirical basis to remove it from the radio galaxy sample other than the small value of its predicted average size $`D_{}`$ relative to the average size of the full population of FRIIb radio galaxies $`D`$ at similar redshifts.

Additional radio data could substantially improve the constraints presented here on the dark energy scalar field model, and on other models. Of the 70 sources in the parent population, 20 have values of $`D_{}`$ determined. The radio data for these 20 radio sources were available in the published literature and in the VLA archive, and were originally obtained for studies other than those presented here. Ten additional sources will be observed at the VLA this year; these data are optimized to deterime cosmological parameters and to test and constrain the underlying radio galaxy model. The 40 remaining sources will then be observed, which will improve the radio galaxy constraints enormously. The improvement will come from the additional number of data points and, with the very high quality data expected, the error bar per point may be smaller than that obtained using published data.

It is encouraging that the FRIIb radio galaxy redshift-angular size data constraints are consistent with and not much weaker than those derived from Type Ia supernova redshift-magnitude data. Future higher-quality redshift-angular size data is eagerly anticipated.

We acknowledge helpful discussions with Joel Carvalho, Megan Donahue, Eddie Guerra, Philip Mannheim, Chris O’Dea, Adam Reiss, and the referee Dave Helfand. We acknowledge support from NSF CAREER grant AST-9875031, NSF NYI grant AST-0096077, NSF grant AST-0206002, and Penn State University.


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# Time-resolved ultraviolet spectroscopy of the compact interacting binary QU CarBased on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555

## 1 Introduction

Cataclysmic Variable (CV) stars are interacting binary systems in which a late-type secondary star overflows its Roche lobe and accretes matter onto a compact primary. Amongst these, the nova-like variables are defined as those that persist in a high mass-accretion rate. A result of such a heterogeneous label is that, amongst the nova-like variables, there are many objects that, displaying similarities to members of other CV classes, sit uneasily with their classification. In this paper we present high time-resolution UV spectroscopy of one such example – QU Car.

At $`m_\mathrm{v}=11.4`$, QU Car is one of the brightest known CV, so it is rather surprising that until now it has been mostly ignored in observational studies. From among the small number of hitherto published studies, Gilliland & Phillips  examined optical spectra (4300–4800 Å) at time-resolutions down to 3 minutes. They derived a long period (10$`\stackrel{h}{.}`$9) from radial velocity variations in the optical emission lines. They also made note of the relative weakness of the Balmer line emission, which they deemed due to a high temperature and high mass accretion rate in the disc and suggested a classification of old nova or nova-like variable – a view in keeping with Schild’s (1969) comment that the object displayed some characteristics indicative of an old nova. Since this time, QU Car has been classified in catalogues (Ritter & Kolb 1998, Downes et al. 2001) as a nova-like variable.

International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) low-dispersion spectra reveal broad blueshifted UV absorption lines in Nv and Civ, with an emission component in Civ and Heii (Knigge, Woods & Drew 1994), indicative of an optically thick disc accompanied by mass outflow. Knigge et al. (1994) noted variation in the Civ line caused by a periodic increase in the strength of the emission component, but were unable to decide whether this variablity was linked to the orbital phase. They also commented on the strength of the Ov$`\lambda `$1371 absorption line and the Heii$`\lambda `$1640 emission – both unusually strong for high-state non-magnetic CV (HnMCV).

The data that are analysed in this paper were obtained as part of an observing campaign to detect spectral signatures of disc-wind variability of short timescales. These signatures are predicted to show up as highly time-variable fine structure components in wind-formed UV lines (Proga, Stone & Drew 1998). To achieve the necessary time and wavelenght resolution, the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) was employed with an echelle grating in photon-counting (TIME-TAG) mode. This allows a time-resolution of down to $`10`$s and velocity resolution of down to $`10`$ km s$`^1`$, with the trade-off that higher time-resolution will result in a reduced useable spectral resolution and vice-versa.

On examining the results of the HST observations we were struck by the ways in which QU Car distinguished itself from the other targets in the programme (the nova-like variables IX Vel and V3885 Sgr, presented in Hartley et al. 2002). In this paper we seek to present the current HST observations and then re-examine archive data, with a view to establishing a physical origin for the unusual features noted. In section 2 we describe the observations and data extraction processes. The results are then presented in two ways: in section 3 we describe the time-averaged spectrum obtained at each epoch of observation, then in section 4 we re-present the data as spectral time-series at 30-sec time-resolution and as continuum light curves. Finally, in section 6 we complare QU Car with other non-magnetic HnMCV and consider the origin of QU Car’s UV line spectrum.

## 2 Observations and Data Extraction

Observations were performed by the STIS instrument on the HST with the far ultraviolet (FUV) MAMA detector (1140–1735 Å). The E140M echelle grating with a central wavelength of 1425 Å was used. This configuration provides a resolution of $`13\text{ km\hspace{0.17em}s}^1`$ (R $``$ 23000). Each observation was performed in a single telescope orbit for the maximum available time, with the detector set to time-tag mode and using the 0.2 ″$`\times 0.2`$″ aperture. The dates and exposure lengths of our observations are given in table 1.

All data calibration was performed with iraf software, using the stsdas package produced by the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). Time-tag is a photon counting mode, which provides an events stream with 125-$`\mu `$s time-resolution. This can be integrated over any selected time resolution (time bin) to produce a set of raw images of the echelle output, from which a 1-D spectrum is extracted and calibrated. The calibration, including doppler correction for the telescope’s motion, was performed with STScI’s calstis package, using the suggested best reference files.

## 3 The mean UV spectrum

figure 1 shows the summed spectrum for each observation (hereafter called datasets Q1, Q2 and Q3). QU Car’s UV lines appear to be characterised by strong absorption features in Nv$`\lambda `$1240 and Ov$`\lambda `$1371, less prominent Siiv$`\lambda `$1398 absorption, and emission in Ciii$`\lambda `$1176, Civ$`\lambda `$1549 and Heii$`\lambda `$1640. The narrowness of QU Car’s line features is striking. Typical terminal velocities of outflows in high-state CV that commonly determine UV line widths can be up to 5000 km s$`^1`$. Indeed it is usual to find broad blueshifted absorption in the stronger resonance line profiles in non-eclipsing systems. Here, however, the line profiles rarely extend to more than $`\pm 1000`$ km s$`^1`$, and show rather little P Cygni behaviour.

The STIS datasets offer an insight into the finer structure of lines that have previously only been identifiable in IUE low-resolution data. However, before describing the character of the observed profiles, we first consider whether it is possible to correct the spectra for line of sight (LOS) motion of the white dwarf (WD). Gilliland & Phillips  calculated a spectroscopic zero-phase ephemeris of $`T_0=2443960.683\pm 0.003`$JD and a period of $`10\stackrel{h}{.}896\pm 0.336`$ from velocity shifts in the Heii$`\lambda `$4686 emission line. However, the uncertainty in the phase measurement is such that we are unable to determine the orbital phase of the data presented here. So no radial velocity correction can yet be applied to the spectral lines. Nevertheless, the orbital $`K`$-velocity ($`K_{\mathrm{WD}}=115\pm 13`$ km s$`^1`$) and radial velocity ($`\gamma =84\pm 20`$ km s$`^1`$) derived by Gilliland & Phillips suggest the data are radial velocity shifted from the WD rest frame by no more than $`200`$ km s$`^1`$bluewards and $`30`$ km s$`^1`$redwards.

Figure 2 presents time-averaged close-ups of the strongest lines apparent in QU Car’s UV spectrum, at each epoch of observation, with the wavelength given in the heliocentric frame.

Nv$`\lambda \lambda `$1238.8, 1242.8 doublet is the transition that shows the most secular variation. In Q1 the gross structure of the Nv profile bears the mark of an outflow component with a broad asymmetric absoption trough that stretches from approximately $`2000`$ to $`+1500`$ km s$`^1`$, relative to the bluemost component of the doublet ($`+500`$ km s$`^1`$relative to the red component). Superposed on this broad structure are narrower absorption troughs, $`400`$ km s$`^1`$FWHM, centred on the doublet rest wavelengths. In Q2 the Nv$`\lambda `$1240 line is in absorption from $`600`$ to $`+1500`$ km s$`^1`$, with each component of the doublet clearly defined, but overlapping slightly and more rounded than in the other sets. In Q3 there is clearly blueshifted emission in Nv (to no more than $`1000`$ km s$`^1`$) and the absorption minumum is redward of heliocentric rest at about $`+100`$ km s$`^1`$. Without knowing the exact LOS velocity correction we cannot be certain that the absorption minimum is redshifted in the primary frame - such a conclusion rests heavily on the adopted $`gamma`$ velocity. If the maximum likely white-dwarf (primary) redshift really is no greater than $`30`$ km s$`^1`$ (see above), the absorption minimum remains at net redshift.

During the first epoch of observation, Q1, the Ov line is broad with absorption reaching to at least $`\pm 1500`$ km s$`^1`$. The profile shows a skew that suggests stronger absorption in the blue wing, indicating some contribution from an outflow. This transition is remarkably strong compared to other nova-like variables in which it is seen as a weak, rotationally-broadened, disc-formed line, if seen at all (c.f. the HST/STIS data on IX Vel and V3885 Sgr presented in Hartley et al 2002)). In all three datasets the Siiv$`\lambda `$1398 absorption profile, seen in both doublet components, is about $`250\text{ km\hspace{0.17em}s}^1`$ wide (FWHM). There is no blueshifted absorption at any time analogous to that seen in Nv and weakly in Ov.

The changes seen in Siiv$`\lambda `$1398 and Ov$`\lambda `$1371 are similar, but less marked than those seen in the Nv line – this lends a general pattern to QU Car’s core line absorption: In Q1 we see fairly symmetrical, almost triangular absorption; in Q2 the lines are somewhat more rounded; in Q3 there is a definite redwards skew to the absorption lines, with blueshifted emission components obvious in Nv and Siiv.

The Ciii$`\lambda `$1176, Civ$`\lambda `$1549 and Heii$`\lambda `$1640 lines are in emission to about $`\pm 1000`$ km s$`^1`$. The Civ and Heii emission lines are respectively triple- and double-peaked with peak separations of $`400`$ km s$`^1`$. Significantly, the absorption minima in Civ are separated by the intrinsic doublet splitting of 484 km s$`^1`$(to within measurement errors). In all observations the Ciii line’s emission peaks are split by 800 km s$`^1`$– the individual components of this six-component transition span 370 km s$`^1`$. The most plausible interpretation of the profile morphology is that, in each case, a broad (FWHM $`1000`$ km s$`^1`$) emission feature is cut into by narrower absorption, broadened kinematically to only FWHM $`400`$ km s$`^1`$. The shapes of the absorption components resemble the shapes of the absorption-dominated Nv , Ov and Siiv lines discussed above. The physical origin of the line spectrum will be considered later in section 6.

We note little secular variation in the emission lines, although, Q2 does set itself apart from the other two observations. Firstly, the emission lines are weaker than in the other datasets, whilst there is not much corresponding weakening of the superposed absorption components. Also, in Q2, the Civ line has lost its triple-peaked shape, becoming instead what appears as a weak P Cygni form with redshifted emission from $`200`$ to $`+1400`$ km s$`^1`$ and a hint of blueshifted absorption also.

Before making a fit to the spectral energy distribution, the spectrum was dereddened using $`E(BV)=0.1`$ given in Verbunt (1987). A power law continuum fit was made to the mean spectrum, after masking out areas obviously contaminated by spectral lines. Table 2 lists the spectral index measured from each mean spectrum and the average flux level in the 1260–1270 Å range. We note very little variation in the continuum flux from observation to observation. QU Car’s spectral index over the $``$500 Å available to us is $`2.4`$ on average, fitting in well with other nova-like variables, for example IX Vel (-2.4) and V3885 Sgr (-2.3) (Hartley et al. 2002). Corrected for the same assumed reddening, merged short and long wavelength IUE spectra of QU Car spanning nearly 2000 Å fit to a power law index of -2.25 $`\pm `$ 0.1 (see Drew et al. 2002). This suggests the UV spectral energy distribution is reasonably stable over time.

## 4 Variation on timescales shorter than $`\mathbf{}\mathrm{𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎}`$sec

An analysis of time-variability of the strong lines during each observation is presented in this section. The Nv$`\lambda `$1240, Ov$`\lambda `$1371, Siiv$`\lambda `$1398 and Civ$`\lambda `$1549 lines are displayed as trailed mean-subtracted spectra, as trailed normalized spectra and as 1D averages of the first and the second half of the 2600-sec observation. In the trailed spectra we include only observations Q2 and Q3, as Q1 displays no sign of time variability during our observation (see below).

To reduce the prominence of noise in the trailed spectra, the 1D spectra were first smoothed by convolution with a gaussian function of sigma, $`\sigma =1.1`$Å (10 pixels). The spectra were then normalized by fitting a 4th order chebyshev function to the time-averaged data; the fit was checked to assure that it did not produce strong curvature in the vicinity of the spectral lines. All time-resolved spectra were divided by this continuum fit and then renormalized to ensure a continuum level of 1. The mean-subtracted spectra were prepared for plotting by subtracting the normalized time-averaged spectrum from each time-bin’s normalized spectrum.

The Q2 trailed spectra are presented in figure 3. In Nv a dark broad ($`500`$ km s$`^1`$across) feature shifts steadily to the red by about 500 km s$`^1`$. Examining the 1D spectra for the first and the second half of the observation separately, it becomes clear that this is due to a redwards shift in the entire absorption profile. This is too large to be accounted for by a radial velocity shift due to WD orbital motion, if the orbital parameters derived by Gilliland and Phillips (1982) are accepted.

A similarly broad dark feature is also seen in the Siiv and Ov trailed spectra. However, compared to Nv the shift is more abrupt at around the midpoint of the observation, fliping from blue to red in the space of less than 500 sec. Again, this feature represents a shift in the entire absorption profile from blue to red. Along with the redward shift there is also an alteration in the form of the Ov and Siiv profiles, with the bluemost absorption wing becoming weaker and possibly even slightly emissive in Siiv. If more subtly, the Civ line appears to shift redwards in the same way as the Nv line. Also, its broad redshifted emission component weakens slightly during the observation. No variation is detected in either the Ciii$`\lambda `$1176 or Heii$`\lambda `$1640 lines.

In the Q3 trailed spectra (figure 4) there appears to be a velocity-shifting component to the line profiles: in the Nv, Siiv and Civ lines a dark feature ($``$200 km s$`^1`$wide) shifts gradually redwards by $`200300`$ km s$`^1`$and then more sharply bluewards around the midpoint of the observation; this component then resumes its redwards shift, creating a ‘sawtooth’ pattern. As this variation occurs, the redward edge of these line profiles is very nearly stationary (see the lower panels in fig. 4). There is at most just a hint of the same behaviour in the Ov line profile – the most obvious change is a slight weakening and narrowing of the absorption as a whole for about 300 sec centred on 1000 sec after the start of the observation. Again, the Ciii and Heii lines do not vary noticeably.

Q3 does reward with some sporadic, shorter timescale variablity. In the Nv and Ov trailed spectra there is a broadening of the absorption, appearing first in the red wing at around 1150 sec and then switching into the blue wing, finishing at about 1600 sec. In the Civ trailed spectrum, just the beginning of this change affecting the red wing of the line is detectable. There may also be a weaker event of the same kind at about 600 sec after the start, that again shows in the Nv and Ov profiles.

The variability seen in Q2 and Q3 is quite different. In Q2, there appears to be a shift in the gross line profiles accompanied by a small change in the steepness of the blue absorption edge. In Q3 the blue absorption edge shifts further to the blue, yielding an increase in the width of the line profile and only in this dataset is there any apparent variation on the $`100`$ sec timescale. In Q3, where line emission is generally more prominent, the variability persists as an attribute of the absorption line spectrum.

The lack of variabilty in observation Q1 is interesting as in the mean spectrum it bears a stronger resemblance to Q3 than the more variable Q2. Figure 5 shows the Q1 trailed data for Siiv$`\lambda `$1398, the most variable of the transitions observed at this time. There is just a trace of the velocity-shifting component that is seen in the Q3 Siiv line. In the Q1 Nv line profile there is a weak component of broad blueshifted absorption, signalling the presence of an outflow (see section 3). At the time of the Q3 observation there was no such evidence of outflow. It remains to be seen whether this anticorrelation is a persistent and hence significant effect.

In order to examine the data for continuum variability we plotted light-curves (figure 6) of flux summed over the 1450–1500 Å wavelength range, with time-binning of 20 s for each dataset. There is a similar contrast in the degree of continuum variability as that seen in the line profiles: Q1 exhibits almost no variability; Q2 shows some brightness change, dimming slightly towards the middle of the observation, and then recovering; finally, the lightcurve for Q3 has the most chaotic appearance of the three. The power spectrum was calculated for each of the three time series – in none was there evidence of any preferred periods of variation.

The detected UV light variation has an amplitude of around 10 per cent. This is consistent with optical estimates of photometric variability. Schild  reported optical brightness fluctuations of up to 0.2 mag on a timescale of 90 sec. Similarly Gilliland and Phillips (1982) and Kern & Bookmyer (1986) presented photometric data showing variations of 0.1–0.2 mag on timescales of a few minutes.

## 5 Comparison with previous IUE observations

To set the characteristics of our high-quality HST UV spectra of QU Car in a broader context, we retrieved the 15 low-dispersion ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda =1.1`$Å) 1150–1975 Å spectra available from the IUE archive. These data are provided pre-calibrated in the NEWSIPS format and was extracted via the iuesips software run under iraf.

The continuum flux level of our HST data is consistent with, but at the high end of that recorded in previous IUE observations in which it varies from a minimum of $`1.38\pm 0.09\times 10^{12}`$ to maximum of $`1.61\pm 0.14\times 10^{12}`$ erg s$`^1`$cm$`^2`$Å$`^1`$(cf table 2). The IUE observations yield, on average, a slightly flatter dereddened continuum slope ($`2.24\pm 0.13`$) than do the HST data ($`2.34\pm 0.07`$).

As regards the spectral line behaviour, in contrast to the IUE data, the HST/STIS observations have caught QU Car at times when its Civ$`\lambda `$1549 line presents with almost no blueshifted absorption. In all but three of the IUE spectra there is a significant blueshifted absorption component to the Civ line, extending to between $`2000`$ and $`2500`$ km s$`^1`$of line centre. If this is taken to be the terminal velocity of an outflow, then this is relatively modest, compared to other CV, such as IX Vel and V3885 Sgr (Hartley et al. 2002) where the Civ line shows evidence of outflows up to at least 5000 km s$`^1`$. In Nv$`\lambda `$1240, there is always a blueshifted absorption component. The proximity of the damped Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption may render this line less suitable, at the low resolution of the IUE low dispersion mode for a determination of typical maximum outflow speed. Nevertheless, measurement of the collected IUE data and the Q1 HST observation (figure 2) indicate that the maximum blueshift in the Nv line generally matches that in Civ.

Figure 7 shows dataset Q1 downgraded to IUE resolution and overplotted on merged short-wavelength IUE data for 1981 December 7 (SWP15670, SWP15671), selected for being most similar to the HST sets, and merged data from 1991 June 26/27 (SWP51925-30), selected for showing much better developed wind signatures. We note that the Heii emission is somewhat stronger in the HST sets than in all IUE observations. The Ov$`\lambda `$1371 line is present as a clear absorption feature in all UV spectra obtained to date. Putting all the available UV data together, there is no evidence that the equivalent width of the blueshifted absorption in the Civ and Nv lines changes systematically with e.g. UV continuum brightness. Knigge et al. (1994) provide further discussion of variability in the IUE data.

Apart from the tendency for clearer wind signatures in the Nv and Civ line profiles to appear in the IUE data (particularly those from the epoch studied by Knigge et al. 1994), there is strong consistency between these older observations and the new HST data. Encouraged by this, we can now turn to a summary discussion of what the higher-quality HST observations of QU Car have revealed to us about this highly-ionised compact binary.

## 6 Discussion

In this paper we have presented high time- and high spectral-resolution UV spectra of QU Car obtained at three epochs. These data have pointed toward a higher than typical degree of ionization, and reveal a mix of fairly narrow, emission and absorption line features along with only modest evidence of mass loss.

Before considering the physical implications of the new spectroscopy, we review the constraints on the inclination of QU Car. Gilliland & Phillips proposed $`i60\mathrm{°}`$ from the lack of orbital modulation in the binary’s light curve and the relatively narrow optical emission features. The UV emission lines are not particularly broad either, generally fitting within approximately $`\pm 1000`$ km s$`^1`$. The simple fact that a number of UV spectral lines are firmly in absorption, and that broadened blueshifted absorption is detected from time to time, also reinforces the case for low inclination in that line emission is accepted as the general pattern for high-state high inclination systems. We can venture a little further than this and note that the observed mix of emission and absorption lines argues persuasively against re-classifying QU Car as a magnetic system (see Warner 1995) – a step that might otherwise be contemplated on the grounds of the strong Heii$`\lambda `$1640 emission typifying this object.

We now compare the 1150–1660 Å spectrum of QU Car with those of more typical high-state non-magnetic CV in order to make the case that QU Car is extreme in terms of the apparent degree of ionization. We choose as our comparison objects SS Cyg near peak of outburst and IX Vel, for the reason that similarly high quality HST UV spectra have been obtained for them. IX Vel and SS Cyg are also non-eclipsing systems, like QU Car. The SS Cyg observations used (Z3DV0104T and Z3DV0105T) were obtained by one of us (KSL) and, to ensure the most up-to-date calibration, were retrieved from the MAST facility at STScI. The IX Vel observations were presented in Hartley et al (2002). The spectra of these three sources are shown together in figure 8. The three objects are placed in a sequence of increasing degree of ionization, with IX Vel the least-ionized, QU Car the most ionized and SS Cyg somewhere in between. This assessment is based largely on how the Heii$`\lambda `$1640 and Ov$`\lambda `$1371 line profiles compare with Civ$`\lambda `$1549 – these signatures of high excitation are indeed relatively strongest in QU Car.

Anther point of contrast between QU Car and the other two systems concerns the broad absorption dips at $``$1300 Å and $``$1340 Å. These are presumably due to disc atmospheric blanketing. Wade & Hubeny (1998) show in their disc atmosphere models that these features would be expected to fade as the maximum disc temperature rises (see their figure 9). That this happens to at least the $``$1300 Å feature is consistent with the probable identification of much of the blend with modest-to-low ionization Si iii/O i transitions. The pattern in figure 8 is that IX Vel presents with the highest equivalent width in these dips, SS Cyg is intermediate, whilst they are completely absent from QU Car. This trend operates in the same sense as the rise in relative prominence of the Ov and Heii lines.

Two final points of interest with regard to figure 8 are the larger number of interstellar lines in the spectrum of QU Car compared to either IX Vel or SS Cyg, and the appearance of both the Ciii$`\lambda `$1176 and Cii$`\lambda `$1335 lines in emission in QU Car (albeit with a superposed absorption component in the former). The relatively rich interstellar line spectrum has to do with the greater distance to QU Car. This is estimated to be at least $`500`$pc (Gilliland & Phillips 1982), compared to $`96`$pc and $`166`$pc, from astrometric parallaxes, for IX Vel (HIPPARCOS) and SS Cyg (Harrison et al. 2001), respectively. The seeming predeliction for carbon line emission may be due to a carbon over-abundance in the emission line gas. Both the question of the distance to QU Car and the abundances issue are focused on in a separate study (Drew et al. 2002).

Although wind signatures are scarcely apparent in the QU Car spectrum shown in figure 8, the comparison with archive IUE data (section 5) showed that they have been more apparent at other epochs. However there is a clear point of contrast with objects like SS Cyg and IX Vel with regard to the maximum outflow velocities observed. In QU Car they are usually about 2000  km s$`^1`$, whilst in both SS Cyg and IX Vel this is in the region of 4000  km s$`^1`$. This higher figure is indeed typical of HnMCV (see e.g. Prinja & Rosen 1995). Very crudely, if it is assumed these speeds scale as the rotation speeds in the accretion disc where presumably the wind is launched, this factor of 2 difference may be viewed as implying a substantially larger launch radius in QU Car – perhaps up to a factor of 4 larger. Quantitatively this conclusion is somewhat dependent on both the binary inclination and accretor mass – qualitatively it will be hard to avoid. Its implication, like the impression of relatively high ionization, is a higher than typical mass accretion rate.

In the above we have assumed that the UV continuum emission in QU Car is dominated by disc accretion. This seems uncontroversial given the similarity between the slope of its dereddened energy distribution and that of indisputably accretion-dominated HnMCV (see section 3). It is likely that all absorption features, including those seen superposed on the Ciii, Civ and Heii emission profiles, form in the disc atmosphere. This view is supported by the way in which the pattern of variability seen in Nv and Siiv absorption during the Q3 observation is also apparent in the Civ absorption component. The less variable Heii absorption component can be viewed as mimicking the less variable Ov profile.

We now consider the likely origin of the line emission. Figure 9 shows the emission, from the three ionization stages of carbon present in the spectrum, plotted on a common velocity scale. The Cii line is clearly the narrowest with a HWZI of order 600 km s$`^1`$. The HWZIs in the Ciii and Civ lines are not so easy to tell apart. On fitting a single gaussian through the line wings we find that the FWHM, respectively for these two lines, is $``$950 km s$`^1`$and $``$1100 km s$`^1`$. These figures translate to HWZIs of $``$1200 and $``$1400 km s$`^1`$. We do not correct for intrinsic multiplet splitting because the magnitude of the correction depends on the unknown flux ratios among the multiplet components. Fortunately these splittings are not so large that correction for them would alter the basic finding – namely, that broader emission is associated with higher ionization. The near equality of the Ciii and Civ emission widths probably indicates that the excited Ciii line contains a substantial contribution from recombination.

To see all three carbon ion stages simultaneously, with this pattern of velocity widths probably points to an origin in a disc ‘chromosphere’. This might be created by irradiation from the EUV-bright inner disc and accreting object. Emission produced by an outflow from the accretor or the innermost disc is rendered less likely by the modest ionization of the Cii and Ciii lines (with the emissive flux in the Ciii line only a little less than that in Civ). Since the emission component in each of the Ciii, Civ and Heii lines is broader than the superposed absorption, we would have to refer to a specific kinematic model for the system to position the emission line region relative to the absorption line region. In the absence of this, we cannot distinguish whether the line emission is optically thin and overlies the source of line absorption, or whether it comes from a different part of the disc.

The emergent picture of QU Car is then that it is relatively highly-ionized compared to the more typical properties of HnMCV. The narrowness of the UV spectral lines observed may have to do with their production at larger disc radii than usual. Of course we cannot yet rule out the possibility that QU Car might be oriented nearly pole on.

We have to leave as an unsolved mystery the origin of the short-term variability within the spectral line profiles (section 4) that has been revealed thanks to the HST/STIS TIME-TAG mode of data-taking. Since this variability is not present at all epochs and indeed presents with different properties on the two occasions we have noticed it, it is unlikely to be connected to anything as fundamental as the binary orbit. Our third set of data hints at a repetition timescale of around an hour if, that is, the detected absorption profile disturbances do in fact repeat. To progress any further, another more intensive campaign of spectroscopic observation would be required.

Lastly, we have not yet been able to begin to find an explanation for the remarkable inverse P Cygni character of, most notably, the Nv$`\lambda `$1240 and Siiv$`\lambda `$1397 line profiles detected in our third dataset. It is already clear that QU Car is a remarkable binary that has been overlooked for too long. In a separate study focusing on exploitation of the UV interstellar line data and new optical spectroscopy (Drew et al. 2002), we show that this binary may in fact be closely related to the supersoft sources and then present evidence of carbon over-abundance. It is to be hoped that this re-evaluation of the status of QU Car and the presentation here, of its striking UV spectroscopic properties, will significantly broaden our perception of the ways the Universe finds to configure such high-state compact binaries.

## Acknowledgements

Support for Proposal number G0-8279 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555

LEH would like to acknowledge the award of tuition fees and maintenance grant provided by the Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council (PPARC)


text:
# Flavor ordering of elliptic flows at high transverse momentum

## Abstract

Based on the quark coalescence model for the parton-to-hadron phase transition in ultra-relativistic heavy ion collisions, we relate the elliptic flow ($`v_2`$) of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ hadrons to that of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ quarks. For high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ hadrons produced from an isospin symmetric and quark-antiquark symmetric partonic matter, magnitudes of their elliptic flows follow a flavor ordering as $`(v_{2,\pi }=v_{2,N})>(v_{2,\mathrm{\Lambda }}=v_{2,\mathrm{\Sigma }})>v_{2,K}>v_{2,\mathrm{\Xi }}>(v_{2,\varphi }=v_{2,\mathrm{\Omega }})`$ if strange quarks have a smaller elliptic flow than light quarks. The elliptic flows of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ hadrons further follow a simple quark counting rule if strange quarks and light quarks have same high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ spectrum and coalescence probability.

PACS numbers: 25.75.Ld, 25.75.-q, 24.10.Lx

Elliptic flow in heavy ion collisions is a measure of the azimuthal asymmetry of particle momentum distributions in the plane perpendicular to the beam direction. It results from the initial spatial asymmetry in the transverse plane in non-central collisions and is thus sensitive to the properties of the dense matter formed during the initial stage of heavy ion collisions . There have been extensive experimental  and theoretical  studies of elliptic flow in heavy ion collisions at various energies. For heavy ion collisions at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), the elliptic flow has been measured as functions of the centrality of collisions , as well as the particle transverse momentum  and pseudo-rapidity . Theoretical studies indicate that these experimental results provide not only information on the equation of state of nuclear matter at high density and temperature  but also on the scattering cross section of partons produced in the collisions .

The elliptic flow has also been measured at RHIC for different hadron species, such as pions, kaons, nucleons and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ . The experimental data show that at low $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ the elliptic flow of heavier particles is smaller than that of lighter particles. In the hydrodynamical model, this mass ordering of elliptic flow at low $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ is attributed to the mass dependence of radial flow . For high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ hadrons, we expect the flavor dependence to be different from that at low $`p_\mathrm{T}`$, since high transverse momentum hadrons originate from hard processes while low transverse momentum particles are mostly produced from soft non-perturbative processes and are much closer to thermal equilibrium. Indeed, the observed saturation of hadron elliptic flow at $`p_\mathrm{T}>2`$ GeV$`/c`$  contradicts the predictions from the hydrodynamical model , but is roughly consistent with the results expected from a large parton transport opacity  or energy loss  in the partonic matter.

In this Letter, we shall study the flavor dependence of the elliptic flow of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ hadrons in ultra-relativistic heavy ion collisions, using a quark coalescence model to describe the phase transition from the partonic matter to the hadronic matter. In this model, the elliptic flow of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ hadrons can be expressed in terms of the elliptic flow of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ quarks. As a result, several relations between the elliptic flow of hadrons of different flavors are obtained. We further discuss some special cases where these relations become more transparent. Throughout this study, we limit the discussions to hadrons made of $`u`$, $`d`$, $`s`$ quarks and antiquarks.

In the quark coalescence model, one assumes that quarks and antiquarks are the effective degrees of freedom in the parton phase near the phase transition, and they combine to form hadrons according to the valence quark structure of hadrons. A meson is thus formed from the coalescence of a quark and an antiquark, while a baryon is due to the coalescence of three quarks. The idea of quark coalescence has been used in models such as the ALCOR  or MICOR model  to describe hadron abundance and the AMPT model with string melting  to describe the elliptic flow at RHIC.

In ultra-relativistic heavy ion collisions, high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ partons are produced from initial hard scatterings between nucleons for which the perturbative QCD is applicable. From the leading-order calculation, the parton transverse momentum spectrum from the subprocess of a two-parton hard scattering is given by:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma }{d\widehat{t}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{p_\mathrm{T}^4}}.`$ (1)
The high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ parton spectrum thus follows an inverse power law modulo the corrections from the parton distribution function in the nucleus and higher-order effects. On the other hand, low $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ partons, that are produced from initial soft processes and dominate the dynamics of partonic evolution in heavy ion collisions at RHIC, typically have an exponential spectrum close to a thermal distribution. The parton $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ spectrum can thus be represented by an exponential function below a certain momentum scale $`p_0`$ and an inverse power law above $`p_0`$.

Let us consider via the quark coalescence model the formation of a high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ meson with transverse momentum $`\stackrel{}{p}_H`$ from one parton with $`\stackrel{}{p}_H`$ and one parton with zero $`p_\mathrm{T}`$, or from two partons with equal high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ of $`\stackrel{}{p}_H/2`$. The ratio of the probabilities for forming a high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ meson in these two cases is then proportional to $`\left(ep_\mathrm{T}/4p_0\right)^n`$, where $`n`$ represents the exponent of the inverse power law for final high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ partons. Since this ratio is much greater than one for $`p_\mathrm{T}p_0`$, a high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ meson is dominantly formed from the coalescence of one high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ parton and one soft parton. Similarly, a high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ baryon is mainly formed from the coalescence of one high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ parton and two soft partons.

The transverse momentum distribution $`F(\stackrel{}{p_\mathrm{T}})=dN/(dp_xdp_y)`$ of initial high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ mesons formed after the phase transition can thus be expressed in terms of that of final high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ partons as

$`F_H(\stackrel{}{p_\mathrm{T}})=F_i(\stackrel{}{p_\mathrm{T}})c_j+F_j(\stackrel{}{p_\mathrm{T}})c_i,`$ (2)
where $`i`$ and $`j`$ denote the flavor of the valence quark and antiquark of meson $`H`$. The coefficient $`c_i`$ represents the capture probability for a soft parton $`i`$ by a high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ parton to form a high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ meson; it is thus related to the density of soft quarks near the phase transition. For high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ baryons or antibaryons, one can write down a similar expression, involving the product of two $`c_i`$’s, for their transverse momentum distribution.

The elliptic flow is generated during the early stage of heavy ion collisions when the pressure gradient and the spatial azimuthal asymmetry are the largest . In transport model studies, it has been found that the elliptic flow in heavy ion collisions at RHIC develops mostly in the initial partonic phase, with later hadronic interactions having negligible effects on its final value . We expect that the elliptic flow of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ hadrons are even less affected by hadronic interactions, as the proper formation time from a high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ parton to a hadron is increased by a large Lorentz boost factor in the laboratory frame, leading to a much lower hadronic density when high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ hadrons are formed. We can thus use Eq. (2) to relate the final elliptic flow of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ hadrons to that of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ partons . For mesons, we have

$`v_{2,H}(p_\mathrm{T})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{cos}(2\varphi ^{})F_H(\stackrel{}{p_\mathrm{T}})𝑑\varphi ^{}}{F_H(\stackrel{}{p_\mathrm{T}})𝑑\varphi ^{}}}`$ (3)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,i}(p_\mathrm{T})f_i(p_\mathrm{T})c_j+v_{2,j}(p_\mathrm{T})f_j(p_\mathrm{T})c_i}{f_i(p_\mathrm{T})c_j+f_j(p_\mathrm{T})c_i}},`$ (4)
where $`\varphi ^{}`$ is the azimuthal angle with respect to the reaction plane, and $`f(p_\mathrm{T})=dN/(2\pi p_\mathrm{T}dp_\mathrm{T})`$ denotes the transverse momentum distribution after averaging over the azimuthal angle. In the following, we omit the label $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ in the variables $`v_2(p_\mathrm{T})`$ and $`f(p_\mathrm{T})`$ but keep in mind that they are evaluated at a given high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$.

For SU(3) hadrons consisting of $`u`$, $`d`$, $`s`$ quarks and antiquarks, their $`v_2`$ values at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ are then given by:

$`v_{2,\pi ^+}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,u}f_uc_{\overline{d}}+v_{2,\overline{d}}f_{\overline{d}}c_u}{f_uc_{\overline{d}}+f_{\overline{d}}c_u}},v_{2,K^+}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,u}f_uc_{\overline{s}}+v_{2,\overline{s}}f_{\overline{s}}c_u}{f_uc_{\overline{s}}+f_{\overline{s}}c_u}},`$ (5)
$`v_{2,\varphi }={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,s}f_sc_{\overline{s}}+v_{2,\overline{s}}f_{\overline{s}}c_s}{f_sc_{\overline{s}}+f_{\overline{s}}c_s}},`$ (6)
$`v_{2,p}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,u}f_uc_d+v_{2,d}f_dc_u/2}{f_uc_d+f_dc_u/2}},`$ (7)
$`v_{2,\mathrm{\Lambda }}=v_{2,\mathrm{\Sigma }^0}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,u}f_uc_dc_s+v_{2,d}f_dc_uc_s+v_{2,s}f_sc_uc_d}{f_uc_dc_s+f_dc_uc_s+f_sc_uc_d}},`$ (8)
$`v_{2,\mathrm{\Xi }^0}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,u}f_uc_s/2+v_{2,s}f_sc_u}{f_uc_s/2+f_sc_u}},v_{2,\mathrm{\Omega }}=v_{2,s},`$ (9)
with similar expressions for isospin partners and antiparticles.

The above relations become simpler if the quantities $`v_{2,i},f_i`$, and $`c_i`$ are independent of isospin and are also the same for strange and antistrange quarks, i.e., $`u=dq,\overline{u}=\overline{d}\overline{q}`$, and $`s=\overline{s}`$. These conditions are approximately satisfied in heavy ion collisions at RHIC as the $`\pi ^+/\pi ^{}`$ ratio is almost one around central rapidity . In this isospin symmetric and strange-antistrange symmetric limit, the $`v_2`$ values for hadrons at a given high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ are given by:

$`v_{2,N}=v_{2,q},v_{2,\overline{N}}=v_{2,\overline{q}},v_{2,\varphi }=v_{2,\mathrm{\Omega }}=v_{2,s},`$ (10)
$`v_{2,\pi ^+}=v_{2,\pi ^0}=v_{2,\pi ^{}}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,q}+r_{\overline{q}}v_{2,\overline{q}}}{1+r_{\overline{q}}}},`$ (11)
$`v_{2,K^+}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,q}+r_sv_{2,s}}{1+r_s}},v_{2,K^{}}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,\overline{q}}+r_sv_{2,s}/r_{\overline{q}}}{1+r_s/r_{\overline{q}}}},`$ (12)
$`v_{2,\mathrm{\Lambda }}=v_{2,\mathrm{\Sigma }}={\displaystyle \frac{2v_{2,q}+r_sv_{2,s}}{2+r_s}},`$ (13)
$`v_{2,\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}=v_{2,\overline{\mathrm{\Sigma }}}={\displaystyle \frac{2v_{2,\overline{q}}+r_sv_{2,s}/r_{\overline{q}}}{2+r_s/r_{\overline{q}}}},`$ (14)
$`v_{2,\mathrm{\Xi }}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,q}/2+v_{2,s}r_s}{1/2+r_s}},v_{2,\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,\overline{q}}/2+v_{2,s}r_s/r_{\overline{q}}}{1/2+r_s/r_{\overline{q}}}},`$ (15)
with $`N`$ denoting a nucleon. In the above, the $`p_\mathrm{T}`$-dependent variables $`r_{\overline{q}}`$ and $`r_s`$ are defined as

$`r_{\overline{q}}={\displaystyle \frac{f_{\overline{q}}c_q}{f_qc_{\overline{q}}}},r_s={\displaystyle \frac{f_sc_q}{f_qc_s}}.`$ (16)
From Eq.(15), we see that, e.g., $`r_{\overline{q}}`$ can be determined from the $`v_2`$ of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ pion, proton and antiproton, while $`r_s`$ can be determined from the $`v_2`$ of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ proton, kaon, and $`\varphi `$ meson.

Since the $`K^+/K^{}`$ ratio is close to one and $`\overline{p}/p`$ ratio is about 0.7 in heavy ion collisions at RHIC , and they should be closer to one in heavy ion collisions at LHC, we consider the case where the variables $`v_{2,i},f_i`$ and $`c_i`$ are the same for quarks and antiquarks, i.e., $`q=\overline{q}`$ and thus $`r_{\overline{q}}=1`$. For such a quark-antiquark symmetric partonic matter, Eq.(15) simplifies to:

$`v_{2,\pi }=v_{2,N}=v_{2,q},v_{2,\varphi }=v_{2,\mathrm{\Omega }}=v_{2,s},`$ (17)
$`v_{2,K}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,q}+r_sv_{2,s}}{1+r_s}},v_{2,\mathrm{\Lambda }}=v_{2,\mathrm{\Sigma }}={\displaystyle \frac{2v_{2,q}+r_sv_{2,s}}{2+r_s}},`$ (18)
$`v_{2,\mathrm{\Xi }}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,q}+2r_sv_{2,s}}{1+2r_s}}.`$ (19)
Eliminating the variable $`r_s`$ in Eq. (19), we obtain two relations involving the $`v_2`$ values of four different hadron species, and they can be any two of the following three relations:

$`\left(v_{2,\pi }v_{2,K}\right)\left(v_{2,\mathrm{\Lambda }}v_{2,\varphi }\right)=2\left(v_{2,\pi }v_{2,\mathrm{\Lambda }}\right)\left(v_{2,K}v_{2,\varphi }\right),`$ (20)
$`2\left(v_{2,\pi }v_{2,K}\right)\left(v_{2,\mathrm{\Xi }}v_{2,\varphi }\right)=\left(v_{2,\pi }v_{2,\mathrm{\Xi }}\right)\left(v_{2,K}v_{2,\varphi }\right),`$ (21)
$`\left(v_{2,\pi }v_{2,\mathrm{\Xi }}\right)\left(v_{2,\mathrm{\Lambda }}v_{2,\varphi }\right)=4\left(v_{2,\pi }v_{2,\mathrm{\Lambda }}\right)\left(v_{2,\mathrm{\Xi }}v_{2,\varphi }\right).`$ (22)
These relations on the elliptic flow of hadrons of different flavors become even simpler in several limits for the value of $`r_s`$. In the limit of $`r_s0`$ due to $`f_s/f_q0`$, i.e., if there are very few high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ strange quarks relative to light quarks, we have $`v_{2,\pi }=v_{2,K}=v_{2,N}=v_{2,\mathrm{\Lambda }}=v_{2,\mathrm{\Sigma }}=v_{2,\mathrm{\Xi }}=v_{2,q},v_{2,\varphi }=v_{2,\mathrm{\Omega }}=v_{2,s}`$. This is simply due to the fact that all strange hadrons with light valence quarks consist of leading light quarks. In the opposite limit of $`r_s\mathrm{}`$, i.e., if the number of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ strange quarks is much larger than that of light quarks or the capture probability of a soft strange quark is much smaller than that of a soft light quark, all strange hadrons with light valence quarks consist of leading strange quarks. In this case, we have $`v_{2,\pi }=v_{2,N}=v_{2,q},v_{2,K}=v_{2,\varphi }=v_{2,\mathrm{\Lambda }}=v_{2,\mathrm{\Sigma }}=v_{2,\mathrm{\Xi }}=v_{2,\mathrm{\Omega }}=v_{2,s}`$.

Another interesting limit is $`r_s=1`$, which would be the case if the spectrum of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ strange quarks is the same as that of light quarks, and the capture probability of a soft strange quark is the same as that of a soft light quark, or even though the above two factors are different but they cancel each other. In this limit, Eq.(19) gives

$`v_{2,K}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,q}+v_{2,s}}{2}},v_{2,\mathrm{\Lambda }}={\displaystyle \frac{2v_{2,q}+v_{2,s}}{3}},v_{2,\mathrm{\Xi }}={\displaystyle \frac{v_{2,q}+2v_{2,s}}{3}}.`$ (23)
These relations, together with Eq.(17), show that the $`v_2`$ values of hadrons at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ follow a simple quark flavor counting rule when $`r_s=1`$.

Eqs. (17-19) show that the dependence of the elliptic flows of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ hadrons on their flavor composition is determined by the relative magnitude of the elliptic flow of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ strange quarks to that of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ light quarks. If strange quarks have the same elliptic flow as light quarks at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$, i.e., $`v_{2,s}=v_{2,q}`$, then $`v_{2,H}=v_{2,q}`$ for all SU(3) hadrons regardless of the value of $`r_s`$. This is true even if the $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ spectrum for strange quarks is different from that for light quarks. We note that in the present study we are only concerned with the relative magnitude of the elliptic flow of different hadrons at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$, not their absolute magnitudes or shape.

On the other hand, fast moving heavy quarks have been shown to suffer less energy loss in a thermalized parton plasma than fast moving light quarks . In the parton transport model, this would imply that high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ strange and heavier quarks may have smaller scattering cross sections than light quarks in a partonic matter. It is thus possible that the elliptic flow of strange quarks is smaller than that of light quarks, i.e., $`v_{2,s}<v_{2,q}`$. In this case, we obtain from Eqs. (17-19) the following flavor ordering of the $`v_2`$ values for hadrons at a given high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$:

$`(v_{2,\pi }=v_{2,N})>(v_{2,\mathrm{\Lambda }}=v_{2,\mathrm{\Sigma }})>v_{2,K}>v_{2,\mathrm{\Xi }}>(v_{2,\varphi }=v_{2,\mathrm{\Omega }}).`$ (24)
In Fig. 1, we illustrate the flavor ordering of hadron elliptic flows at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ for the case of $`v_{2,s}<v_{2,q}`$. The spacings between different curves correspond to the case of $`r_s=1`$ and thus follow the quark counting relations of Eqs.(17) and (23). We note that the vertical scale for $`v_2`$ is in arbitrary units, and the shape of $`v_2`$ as a function of $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ is also arbitrary. The scale $`p_0`$ denotes the typical transverse momentum above which the $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ spectra of final partons changes from soft to hard, and its value should probably be a few GeV$`/c`$. All curves are shown well above $`p_0`$, reflecting the fact that the relations derived in the present study only apply to hadron elliptic flows at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$. In general, $`r_s`$ can take any finite positive value, but the flavor ordering of hadron elliptic flows remains similar to that shown in Fig. 1 as long as $`v_{2,s}<v_{2,q}`$. However, the spacings between different curves can be different, while still being constraint by the two relations given in Eq.(22). Since the $`v_2`$ magnitudes of hadrons follow the mass ordering at low $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ and the flavor ordering at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$, the curve for kaon $`v_2(p_\mathrm{T})`$, which is above those for proton and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ at low $`p_\mathrm{T}`$, will cross and become lower than the latter two curves as $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ increases. A similar relation exists between the curve for $`\varphi `$ meson $`v_2(p_\mathrm{T})`$ and those for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$.

We have not included the effects of resonance decays in this study. The relations shown in Eq.(9) can be extended to resonances such as $`\eta `$, $`\rho `$, $`\omega `$, $`K^{}`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. These resonances at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ will decay to stable hadrons at different transverse momenta, thus complicating the relations we have thus derived for hadrons which are directly formed from the quark coalescence. Since the transverse momentum of a decay product is usually small compared to that of the parent hadron, and the inverse power law spectrum shows a rapid decrease with $`p_\mathrm{T}`$, we expect that the resonance contribution to hadron elliptic flow at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ is small compared to the contribution from directly formed hadrons.

In summary, using a parton coalescence model to describe the formation of hadrons from the initial partonic matter in ultra-relativistic heavy ion collisions, we have studied the dependence of the elliptic flows of hadrons at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ on their flavor composition. Since the elliptic flow is generated mostly in the early partonic phase, and high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ hadrons are mainly formed from the coalescence of a high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ quark or antiquark produced from the initial hard processes and low $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ quarks or antiquarks from the soft processes, the magnitudes of the hadron elliptic flows at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ are determined by that of high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ quarks. The relations between hadron and parton elliptic flows at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ also depend on the final quark spectrum at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ ($`f_i(p_\mathrm{T})`$) and the capture probability of a soft quark ($`c_i`$) by a high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ quark to form a high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ hadron. If strange quarks have a smaller elliptic flow than the light quarks, then the quark coalescence model leads to the flavor ordering in the elliptic flows of the hadrons formed from an isospin symmetric and quark-antiquark symmetric partonic matter, i.e., $`(v_{2,\pi }=v_{2,N})>(v_{2,\mathrm{\Lambda }}=v_{2,\mathrm{\Sigma }})>v_{2,K}>v_{2,\mathrm{\Xi }}>(v_{2,\varphi }=v_{2,\mathrm{\Omega }})`$. We have also obtained two relations which are independent of $`f_i(p_\mathrm{T})`$ and $`c_i`$ and involve the elliptic flows of four hadron species at high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$. In the special case that $`f_i(p_\mathrm{T})`$ and $`c_i`$ are the same for strange quarks and light quarks, values of the elliptic flows for high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ hadrons of different flavors are found to follow the quark counting rule. It will be very interesting to test these predictions in current and future heavy ion collisions. Such studies will provide valuable information on whether a partonic matter is formed in the collisions and the subsequent formation of hadrons can be described by the quark coalescence model.

We appreciate useful discussions with H. Huang, P. Sorensen, and A. Tai. This paper is based on work supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation under Grant Nos. PHY-9870038 and PHY-0098805, the Welch Foundation under Grant No. A-1358, and the Texas Advanced Research Program under Grant No. FY99-010366-0081.


text:
# XENON: a 1 tonne Liquid Xenon Experiment for a Sensitive Dark Matter Search

## 1 Introduction

Substantial astronomical evidence shows that at least 90% of the mass in the universe is dark, and that most of it is non-baryonic in nature (see e.g. reviews ). Dark matter plays a central role in current structure formation theories, and its microscopic properties have a significant impact on the spatial distribution of mass, galaxies and clusters. Unraveling the nature of dark matter is therefore of critical importance. Several lines of arguments indicate that the dark matter consists of Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs), a well-motivated example of which is the neutralino, the lightest supersymmetric particle. Direct detection, via elastic scattering of a WIMP on a suitable target, offers the hope of studying the dark matter properties in detail, and shedding light on particle physics beyond the Standard Model.

In spite of the experimental challenges, a number of efforts worldwide are actively pursuing to directly detect WIMPs with a variety of targets and approaches. One approach is to decrease the radioactive background to extreme low levels, using a high purity Germanium target and detector, with careful selection of surrounding materials . A second approach, followed by the DAMA  and the UKDM NAIAD  groups, has been to use large NaI scintillators with pulse shape background discrimination. The third experimental approach relies on more powerful discrimination methods, using various schemes to extract as much information as possible from the target-detector. To this class belong the cryogenic detectors based on the simultaneous measurement of ionization and phonons in crystals of Ge or Si, as used by the CDMS experiment  and the EDELWEISS experiment , or phonons and scintillation light in CaWO4 crystals as used by the CRESST experiment . Experiments based on the simultaneous detection of ionization and scintillation light in liquid xenon (LXe) belong to the same class and offer an equally promising approach to direct detection of WIMPS in large scale targets. Two experiments, ZEPLIN II and III, with 30 kg and 6 kg of Xe mass, respectively, are currently being developed as part of the UKDM LXe program. Scale-up to the 1-tonne level is in the planning or proposal stage .

The XENON project, recently proposed to NSF for an initial development phase, is an alternative concept for a 1-tonne LXe experiment, to be located in the National Underground Science Laboratory (NUSL), under discussion in the US. The goal of the XENON experiment is to achieve a factor of 30 higher sensitivity than that projected for CDMS II  in the US and other experiment in Europe (e.g. EDELWEISS). This sensitivity increase is needed to probe the lowest SUSY predictions for the neutralino. With 1-tonne target mass, a visible energy threshold of 4 keV and a background discrimination factor much better than 99.5%, XENON projected sensitivity is 0.0001 events/kg/day after 3 yr operation.

## 2 Liquid Xenon for Dark Matter

Liquid xenon is an attractive target for a sensitive WIMP search. Its high density ($``$ 3 g/cm3) and high atomic number (Z = 54, A = 131) allow for a compact detector geometry. The high mass of the Xe nucleus is favorable for WIMP scalar interactions, provided a low recoil energy threshold, as shown in Fig. 1. The expected event rate, integrated above the energy threshold, is calculated for Xe, Ge and S, assuming a 100 GeV WIMP with a cross-section $`\sigma `$ = 3.6 10-42 cm2 (see  as a standard reference). As detector material LXe has excellent ionization and scintillation properties. With the simultaneous measurement of charge and light and 3D position resolution, event information can be maximized to achieve effective and redundant background identification and discrimination power, while maintaining most of the target active. Xenon, which contains both odd and even isotopes for coherent and purely spin-dependent WIMP interactions, is available in large quantities at reasonable cost. Various techniques have demonstrated ultra pure LXe in which an electron lifetime in excess of 1 ms  allows the drift of free electrons over 30 cm and longer. The reduction of the krypton contamination in natural xenon to the required part per billion (ppb) level has also been verified with a distillation tower and cold traps.

## 3 The XENON Experiment: Design Overview

The XENON design is modular. An array of 10 independent 3D position sensitive liquid xenon time projection chambers (LXeTPC) makes the 1-tonne scale experiment. Each TPC contains 100 kg of active Xe mass and is self-shielded with additional LXe scintillator, as schematically shown in Fig. 2.

The modular approach is preferred over a single detector, for several reasons. The most important is a feasibility argument. We have already built a 30 kg LXeTPC and have used it for several balloon flights of the Liquid Xenon Gamma-Ray Imaging Telescope (LXeGRIT) . In this TPC, with a maximum drift gap of 10 cm, both charge and light signals are detected for imaging gamma-rays. The excellent background discrimination which directly stems from the 3D event localization in the homogeneous volume has been demonstrated. The experience gained though this development effort, and the prior years of R&D on noble liquid detectors (e.g.), give us the confidence that a 100 kg TPC optimized for dark matter detection can be built successfully. With an array, a failure of one module would not halt the entire experiment. Operational efficiency is clearly higher than with a monolithic detector of 1-tonne.

As shown in details in Fig. 3, the LXeTPC structure containing the active Xe target is formed by a sandwich of Teflon spacers as UV diffuse reflector and copper rings for electric field shaping. The structure is closed at the bottom by a copper plate. The inside of this plate is coated with CsI as photocathode to convert Xe scintillation photons into free electric charges. The structure forms a 30 cm high cylinder with 38 cm inner diameter, holding about 100 kg of ultra pure liquid xenon.

On the top, the structure is hermetically sealed to a cylindrical copper vessel of larger diameter, housing the PMTs and the wire structure for the proportional scintillation process in the gas phase.

The LXeTPC structure is enclosed in a copper vessel containing the liquid xenon for active shielding. With both detectors at the same temperature and similar pressure, the amount of material for the inner detector walls is minimized. The scintillation light from the shield section is viewed by two rings of 16 PMTs each.

### 3.1 The XENON LXeTPC: Principle of Operation

Referring to Fig. 3, which shows the TPC design in more details, we limit the discussion to the relevant processes in LXe which are used to detect and discriminate a WIMP from background.

The elastic scattering of a WIMP within the active target results in a low energy Xe recoil. The moving recoil produces both ionization electrons and fast UV scintillation photons at 178 nm, from the de-excitation to the ground state of excited diatomic Xe molecules (Xe$`{}_{2}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}`$).

The number of UV photons associated with direct Xe excitation by a nuclear recoil is only a fraction of that emitted by an electron or gamma-ray with the same kinetic energy. Recent measurements of this ‘quenching factor’ for Xe scintillation range from about 22%  to 45% . The number of free electrons liberated by a nuclear recoil is also very small, even if a strong electric field is applied across the liquid , because the bulk of the ionization electrons recombine within picoseconds.

Thus, under a high electric field, a nuclear recoil will yield a very small charge signal and a much larger light signal, compared to an electron recoil of the same energy. The distinct charge/light ratio is the basis for nuclear recoil discrimination in a LXe detector. To detect the small charge signals involved, the process of electroluminescence  is typically used. The free ionization electrons are extracted from the liquid to the gas phase where in the strong electric field around thin wires they induce proportional scintillation light. The number of photons generated by one drifting electron is sufficiently large to be detected by PMTs. Results obtained with small size dual phase LXe prototypes have demonstrated the power of the method  and motivate the ongoing efforts to use LXe for a direct WIMP search with high sensitivity. The challenge ahead lies in detecting both charge and light signals with high efficiency down to the lowest possible energy threshold. Furthermore, this has to be realized in a detector of sizeable scale and with the highest ratio of active/passive LXe.

These considerations have guided our design of the XENON TPC. In the baseline concept the primary UV photons are detected by an array of PMTs placed above the liquid-gas interface. To increase the solid angle and thus detection efficiency, a CsI photocathode deposited on the bottom plate is used to convert downwards heading photons into photoelectrons. The efficient extraction of photoelectrons from CsI in liquid rare gases was originally demonstrated by the Columbia group .

To further increase the primary light collection efficiency, which ultimately determines the detector energy threshold, the TPC walls are made of Teflon which has about 90% diffuse reflectivity at 178 nm . At the liquid-gas interface, the charges are extracted into the gas phase and are detected via the proportional scintillation signal induced around thin wires (Fig. 5 shows the expected number of photoelectrons for a 16 keV “true” nuclear recoil. The CsI readout contributes the largest fraction).

Most events will provide three signals, with a timing scheme shown schematically in Fig. 4. The first is the prompt scintillation signal detected directly by the PMTs. The last is the proportional scintillation signal from the CsI photoelectrons drifting the entire 30 cm liquid gap. These two signals are separated by exactly 150 $`\mu `$s, i.e. the maximum drift time. The proportional scintillation signal from the drift of ionization electrons can occur anywhere in between these two. The difference in arrival time between the primary scintillation pulse and the proportional pulse from the electron drift measures the interaction depth (Z-coordinate) of the event. Since electron diffusion in LXe is small, the proportional scintillation pulse is produced in a small spot with the same X-Y coordinates as the interaction site. The photons in the proportional scintillation will spread over several PMTs in the vicinity of this spot. By a center of gravity method, the X-Y position can be reconstructed to about 1 cm precision. The X-Y information, along with the absolute Z, gives a 3D localization which will permit further background discrimination via fiducial volume cuts. For events where the first pulse is below detection threshold, the third pulse will always be present since the CsI has high quantum efficiency and the signal is amplified by proportional scintillation. The Z-coordinate can still be inferred from the relative drift time difference, since the third pulse contains the same information as the first. In such events with incomplete signatures, the sum signal from the wire structure will be present only if a proportional scintillation pulse is detected. Based on the redundant information in our design and the 3D position sensitivity, we expect to achieve a background rejection efficiency better than 99.5% and energy threshold as low as few keV.

## 4 Background Considerations

To maximize the benefit of the various background rejection factors available for the XENON experiment, the absolute count rate itself must be minimized. This is a challenge for any WIMP experiment, as the possible sources of background are numerous and of different origin. Here, we limit the discussion to the dominant sources specific to a LXe experiment. Natural Xe has no long-lived isotopes. However, radioactive impurities in the gas, most notably 85Kr, must be reduced by a large amount.

### 4.1 Gamma and Beta Induced Background

85Kr and Radon – Commercially available, research grade xenon gas, typically has a Krypton fraction of 5-10 ppm. Kr has two long-lived radioisotopes, 81Kr and 85Kr. Due to its longer lifetime and smaller abundance, the background from 81Kr is weaker than that from 85Kr by a factor of several $`10^5`$. Most of the 85Kr found in the environment today was released by nuclear-fuel reprocessing plants, as a fission product of 235U and 239Pu. Its abundance is $`2\times 10^{11}`$ . The 85Kr $`\beta `$-decays with an endpoint energy of 678 keV. With a half-life of 10.8 yr, the residual signal in the XENON detector energy band is $``$ 20 cts/kg/d/keV. Reducing this to $`1\times 10^5`$ cts/kg/d/keV, with the assumed rejection power of the detector, requires a concentration of Kr in Xe of 1 ppb. This can be achieved by distillation and cold traps. The 85Kr level will be monitored in a similar way as in the BOREXINO experiment , namely through the delayed gamma-rays of a rare decay . Radon, continuously produced by the decay chain of uranium contained in detector materials, will also be effectively removed with gas re-circulation and cold traps.

136Xe double beta decay – Assuming a lifetime of $`8\times 10^{21}`$ years and Q=2.48 MeV we can use the double beta spectrum and directly calculate the fraction of events in our energy band of interest. The resulting count rate is $`1\times 10^6`$ cts/kg/d/keV, which is small compared to other sources of background. And this is the count rate before any rejection cuts are applied.

### 4.2 Neutron Induced Background

Neutrons are a major source of background because their nuclear recoils render them indistinguishable from WIMP events. Nuclear recoils in the 10 keV range arise from the elastic scattering of 0.1- 10 MeV neutrons on Xe. With an active anti-coincidence, neutrons recoiling both in the LXe shield and the TPC LXe target are effectively identified and rejected. Nevertheless, underground operation and a sufficient neutron shield to absorb or at least thermalize the environment neutrons are essential for a WIMP experiment. The main sources of neutrons are:

Muon Induced Neutrons – Cosmic ray muons produce neutrons in the Xe target and other materials by spallation. The primary concern is muon induced spallation of 136Xe and 134Xe, leading to 135Xe and 133Xe respectively. These spallations dominate because their abundances are about 10 times larger than for other Xe isotopes. Both $`\gamma `$-rays and $`\beta `$ particles are produced in these spallations. We assume that the spallation cross-section is $`10`$ mb. With the neutron production rate for Homestake’s depth (4.4 kmwe), and accounting for the geometry of the detector, we calculate a total neutron production rate of 0.01 cts/kg/d and a differential count rate of $`6\times 10^5`$ cts/kg/d, before background rejection. This source of background is therefore not a problem, and can be further reduced by a muon veto. With a modest 99% veto efficiency for muons, we expect to reduce the rate to $`<5\times 10^6`$ cts/kg/d/keV. One is left then with neutrons from very high energy muons, penetrating through the experiment.

$`(\alpha ,n)`$ neutrons from surrounding rock – The incoming neutron flux, due to $`(\alpha ,n)`$ reactions from U and Th decay in the surrounding rock, will be $`1000`$ n/m2/d. To suppress this source of background, a liquid scintillator shield is required. Typically, a 20 cm shield can suppress the background to a level of $`1\times 10^5`$. The overall background from this source is estimated at $`1\times 10^6`$ cts/kg/d/keV.

Neutrons from U/Th contamination in the detector and surrounding materials – Within the shielding, further neutrons arise from the U/Th in the materials of the TPC and of the shield and its vessel. A reasonable estimate based on current understanding of relevant materials is $`5\times 10^5`$ cts/kg/d/keV and an ultimate goal, with higher purity materials, would be $`5\times 10^6`$ cts/kg/d/keV. We choose the more aggressive number for inclusion in the background estimate.

### 4.3 Gamma–Rays from PMTs

Gamma-ray background from the same U/Th and K in most detector materials will dominate the overall count rate. PMTs, in particular, are typically a copious source of gamma-rays. The K/U/Th content is highest in the HV divider chain. The baseline XENON LXeTPC uses special PMTs, stripped of the standard divider chain and with selected compact metal envelopes and quartz windows. The radioactivity is estimated at $`100`$ cts/d.

## 5 Experimental Sensitivity

The predicted sensitivity of the XENON experiment is shown in Fig. 6 along with that of other experiments: DAMA , NAIAD , HDMS, CDMS I , EDELWEISS , CRESST II , CDMS II , GENIUS . The prediction of minimal SUSY is also plotted . The calculation has been done for a 1000 kg fiducial target and for 3 years of operation. We have assumed that the acceptance of the detector for real WIMPS is $`1`$. The assumed overall background rate, as discussed in Sec. 4 is $`3.9\times 10^5`$ cts/kg/d/keV. The fraction of misidentified candidate events was taken as $`\epsilon _g=0.5\%`$, based on 99.5% nuclear recoil discrimination in LXe. We have also assumed that the systematic uncertainty on $`\epsilon _g`$ is controlled at the 10% level, and the statistical limit therefore applies. The energy band was taken as 10 keV with a visible energy threshold of 4 keV. We converted the visible energy to recoil energy assuming that the quenching factor for xenon is 0.25. The optimal energy bandwidth depends on both the spectrum of the incident neutralinos as altered by the detector response matrix (including form factor effects) and the detected background spectrum, which was assumed flat.

The sensitivity estimate presented in Fig. 6 has large potential sources of uncertainty which can act to either increase or decrease it. The background estimates of Sec. 4 contain large uncertainties in each of the leading terms. Detailed calculations and simulations will be undertaken to refine these estimates. On the other hand, our sensitivity estimate did not take into account the additional background suppression expected from 3D event localization. In addition, alternative photodetectors (LAAPD) or charge readout based on GEMs, also part our our studies, would have the advantage of substantially lowering internal background or offsetting the sensitivity reducing terms described above. An improvement of about a factor of 4 or more depending on readout scheme and the efficiency of the self-shield of the XENON detectors is expected.