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# The use of luminosity effects to calculate scaling regimes in the galaxy distribution

## 1 Introduction

Standard cosmology is based on the assumption that the universe is spatially homogeneous, at least on scales sufficiently large to justify its approximation by a Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) model. The high isotropy measured in the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) is usually taken as strong evidence in support of this hypothesis.

The structures seen in galaxy catalogues - groups, clusters and superclusters, distributed along voids, filaments and walls - are not viewed as contradicting this Principle, as the common opinion is that the scales on which the universe is assumed to be homogeneous are much larger than those subtended by these structures. However, the consensus on a homogeneous feature of structures, even on very large scales, has never been complete (see e.g. Pietronero ,1987).

In more recent times, three-dimensional galaxy catalogues have been made available, they support the findings of approximate self-similarity in the large-scale distribution of galaxies within prescribed scale intervals (Provenzale, 1991). Since the data in two-dimensional catalogues are more plentiful than those in three dimensions and are likely to remain so for some time (Cress, et al., 1996), it seems worthwhile to discuss further the ways in which the two-dimensional data may be used to unravel the nature of the three-dimensional distribution. The basic issue in analyzing a two-dimensional catalogue goes back to work on stellar statistics (Trumpler and Weaver, 1953).The significant point in the stellar studies was the effect of the luminosity distribution of the observed objects on the projected distributions.

The general outline of this issue, which is the main concern of our present attempt has been given previously (Thieberger and Spiegel). Just as in the abovementioned publication, we shall leave out of the account some other features of the galaxy case that remain to be considered in detail, namely source evolution and cosmological effects (Spedalere and Schucking, 1980; Ribeiro, 1995 and Celerier and Thieberger, 2000).

In this study we limit ourselves to a three dimensional catalogue so as to be able to evaluate the results. Therefore we chose the cfa catalogue, which has been widely studied, and therefore where we can perform all necessary comparisons so as to understand more precisely our approach.

One of our motivations for the present study comes from our interest in trying to distinguish the different scaling regimes that may exist in the galaxy distribution, though on different length scales. It has been suggested (Murante et al., 1998) that three scaling regimes may be discerned in the distribution of galaxies: on the smallest scales the results are consistent with a distribution of density singularities; in the intermediate range, there is scaling behaviour suggestive of flat structures such as Zeldovitch (1970) favored; on the largest scales, the data indicate a homogeneous distribution of galaxies with nonfractal behavior. This categorization is based on the results of an analysis of three-dimensional catalogues. However, it has to be admitted that those data may as yet not be adequate to clearly decide such issues and that is why we wish to consider whether we may reliably use two-dimensional catalogues for immediate needs. Because of statistical problems, we find it at the moment difficult to study the close region behaviour, therefore we will limit ourselves in this study to the two other regions namely, the two dimensional region and the three dimensional one.

Before describing our calculations, we devote the two next sections to a short description of the correlation integral method and to a brief outline of the influence of luminosity effects by imposing a Schechter luminosity function on the objects of study and attempt to see how this influences the distribution of the projected objects, or rather of their apparent magnitudes. Then we devote a section to a model catalogue so as to help us understand the results of the observational data.

## 2 The correlation Integral method.

Calculating dimensions for galaxies enters into difficulty for the cases when the distribution is fractal (Coleman and Pietronero 1992). A robust characterization of the structures of point sets is given by the correlation integral (Grassberger and Procaccia, 1983), defined as:

$$C_2(r)=\frac{1}{N^{}(N1)}\underset{i}{}\underset{ji}{}\mathrm{\Theta }(r|𝐗_i𝐗_j|)$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ is the Heaviside function.The inner summation is over the whole set of $`N1`$ galaxies with coordinates $`𝐗_j`$, $`ji`$, and the outer summation is over a subset of $`N^{}`$ galaxies, taken as centers, with coordinates $`𝐗_i`$. By taking only the inner $`N^{}`$ galaxies as centers we allow for the effect of the finiteness of the sample (see e.g. Sylos Labini et al., 1998).

We may interpret $`C_2(r)`$ as $`𝒩(r)/N`$ where $`𝒩(r)`$ is the average number of galaxies within a distance $`r`$ of a typical galaxy in the set. As $`r`$ goes to zero, $`C_2`$ should go to zero and, for general distributions, we express this conclusion as $`C_2r^{D_2}`$. The exponent $`D_2`$ is called the correlation dimension and it is necessarily $`3`$ for an embedding space of dimension three. When $`D_2`$ is not an integer, the distribution is called fractal (Mandelbrot, 1982).

In Eq.(1) we have a double summation. In certain cases, for example when we have a pencil beam, this inner region has to be very small and so sometimes one has to use just the distances from a single point. This of course results in a strong deterioration of the statistics. For comparison, we will perform such calculations and we will call it the ”pencil beam method” (the dimension obtained will be denoted by $`D_{PB}`$,comparing it to the usual ”Grassberger Procaccia method” (with dimension $`D_{GP}`$).

## 3 Luminosity effects.

In considering the distribution on the celestial sphere of galaxies or of radio sources the role of the intrinsic luminosities of the observed objects must be allowed for. Such effects appear in $`N(>f)`$, the number of galaxies detected whose flux density exceeds a given value, $`f`$ (Peebles, 1993). As is done in Thieberger and Spiegel, we assume that the luminosity function of the objects in our study is independent of position and of time.

A galaxy at distance $`r`$ is bright enough to be seen at flux density,$`f`$, if its luminosity exceeds $`L`$. Using a characteristic luminosity $`L_{}`$, for normalization one can express the mean number of galaxies per steradian brighter than $`f`$ by (Peebles, 1993):

$$N(>f)=const._0^{\mathrm{}}r^{D1}𝑑r\psi (4\pi r^2f/L_{})$$
(2)
$`D`$ being the dimension of the galaxy distribution, whether fractal or regular. $`\psi (x)`$, is proportional to the probability that a galaxy at distance $`r`$ is included in the catalogue. For a Schechter model (Schechter, 1976),

$$\psi (x)=_x^{\mathrm{}}w^\alpha \mathrm{exp}^wdw$$
(3)
Here $`\alpha =1.07`$ and $`x=L/L_{}`$.

Lets consider our specific problem. We assume that (see Murante et al., 1998) at short distances we have a dimension D=2 (”Zeldovitch panckakes”) and at large distances we have homogenous distribution (i.e. D=3). In this picture we have ignored the very close region where we probably have D=1 (the singularity picture). Then we can modify Eq.(2), and write:

$$N(>f)f^1_0^{r_0^{}}y𝑑y\psi (y^2)+f^{1.5}_{r_0^{}}^{\mathrm{}}y^2𝑑y\psi (y^2)$$
(4)
Here $`y=4\pi r^2f/L_{}`$, and $`r_0^{}=r_0\sqrt{4\pi f/L_{}}`$. $`r_0`$ is the value at which we change the dimension from two to three. It is easy to see that for the limit of small f the value of the slope $`\mathrm{log}N(>f)`$ vs. $`\mathrm{log}f`$ tends to $`D=3`$, and for large $`f`$ it tends to $`D=2`$. We used this equation to evaluate numerically the dimension, for the whole range of $`f`$, by calculating an array of values of $`f`$ vs. $`N(>f)`$, making a numerical integration of Eq.(4). We obtained then the dimension by a least squares fit. This analysis resulted in $`D=2.9`$ for very small $`f`$, and going fast towards the value of $`D=2.`$ , for large $`f`$. These results are of course quite obvious,the only point we wanted to clarify is the extension of the transition zone between 2. and 3. dimensions. We found that this transition zone is larger than the zone where f tends to zero and that quite small values of $`f`$ already give a dimension $`D=3.`$, i.e. are already behaving as very large $`f`$. In the next section we will perform a number of model catalogue calculations in order to study the relations between the results obtained by the luminosity method versus the integral correlation method. We will also compare that to the ’beam pencil method’ as was explained in the previous section. The reason is that we wish to stress that in the ”luminosity method” we are forced to consider only the luminosities relative to the observer, i.e. just for one galaxy.

## 4 The model catalogues

In order to understand the results which we obtain from an observational catalogue, we constructed a number of representative model catalogues. We took $`N_1`$ points in a box 0 to 500 (arbitrary units), and around each point on a plane we put $`N_2`$ points at distances up to $`PL`$ units, in each direction on the plane. To each point we attributed a ’luminosity’ obtained according to the Schechter function distribution (Eq. (2)). In most of the catalogues we considered the cases were we had in our box around 20000 points ($`N_1\times N_2`$ minus the points which fall outside the box limits). This value was chosen so as to be of the same order of magnitude as the Cfa catalogue. In this way we can examine the reliability of the results for the real catalogue. Just for the sake of learning about the improvement obtained for larger catalogues, we checked also a few cases of a larger amount of points. In the following table we compare the results to the ones obtained by the use of correlation integrals (Grassberger and Procaccia, 1983). In the table we compare our results also to the pencil beam method. The dimensions are denoted by $`D_{GP}`$ and $`D_{PB}`$ appropriately. In this table we give also the results obtained by performing the dimension analysis via the luminosity effect. Using the $`log(f)`$ versus $`log(N(>f))`$ results, we calculate the appropriate dimensions. The result is denoted by $`D_L`$ in the table.

In addition to the main purpose of the table, which is the comparison beween the different methods, for a variaty of cases, we also obtain an indication of the errors for the different models. The cases of pure two or three dimensional models (the last four lines in the table) give good agreement and when the number of points is increased (see last line) the errors even for the luminosity case start to decrease considerably. The main reason for the larger overall errors in the top five lines is the consequence of our model where some points ’see’ more three dimensional points then others depending on their location on the planes. This problem, being an artifact, should be less pronounced in the true catalogues.

We wish to remark here that there are problems concerning the validity of the results both for very small $`f`$ and for large $`f`$. For small $`f`$ the finite size of our box results in the limit being $`f`$ dependent, which is an artifact. For large $`f`$ only a smaller and smaller fraction of the points reach the ”observer”, resulting in bad statistics. So we check the average dimension over the range of $`f`$ where we thought the results were reliable.

## 5 Observational Catalogue

In this section we describe the dimensions that we obtain based on the three dimensional data of the Cfa Catalogue of redshifts (Huchra et al. ,1995), which is a compilation from several sources. A previous analysis using the standard method, described in section 2, was performed, for an older catalogue, by Provenzale et al.,(1997).

We wish to compare the results of the correletion integral method and the luminosity method. The correlation integral method gives for the near galaxies $`D=1.9`$ and for the far galaxies $`D=2.6`$. The luminosity method gives for the mostly near (as explained in the previous section) $`D=2.1`$, and for the mostly far ones: $`D=2.8`$.

In these cases we do not have a way to put error bars on the values. So to get a feel for the possible error, we attribute to each galaxy a luminosity obtained in the same manner as in the model catalogue, instead of using the values of the luminosities in the real Cfa catalogue. We chose nine different sets of random numbers. In this way we could obtain the error on the average and obtained an error of about $`\pm 0.2`$. These are encouraging results demonstrating that although the errors for the luminosity method are somewhat larger than the ones for the correlation integral method, they are in a reasonable range . Of course if one has a large two dimensional catalogue and a relatively much smaller three dimensional catalogue (as is at the moment the case) then the larger number of galaxies in the two dimensional catalogue will make the errors smaller then the one obtained from analysing a red shift catalogue.

## 6 Discussion and conclusion

Our calculations show that we obtain the same kind of results both for the correlation integral method and the luminosity method. We tried to estimate the possible errors on the results and it seems to us that they are somewhat larger for the luminosity method. So if we have a three dimensional catalogue most probably the correlation integral give a more reliable result, but as the two dimensional catalogues are much larger, most probably the luminosity method is more reliable.

Aknowledgements. The author wants to thank Professor EA Spiegel for many valuable discussions concerning this work.


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# Scaling in the one-dimensional Anderson localization problem in the region of fluctuation states.

## Introduction.

A coherent transport in mesoscopic disordered systems is characterized by strong fluctuations and non-self-averaging nature of the transport coefficients such as conductance, $`g`$, or transmittance, $`T`$, UCFreview ; LGP . Therefore, a description of the transport in such systems requires dealing with entire distribution functions of the respective quantities. The scaling approach to the transport allows one to introduce a reduced “macroscopic” description of such distributions independent of microscopic details of the underlying Hamiltonians gang ; Anderson  with parameters of the distributions playing the role of the scaling variables Anderson . If the entire distribution can be parameterized by a single parameter, the respective system is said to obey single parameter scaling (SPS). A quantity, which is most convenient to work with when describing the statistics of transport is the Lyapunov exponent (LE), $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }(L)=(1/2L)\mathrm{ln}\left(1+1/g\right)`$, where $`L`$ is the length of the system Anderson ; Lifshitz . Finite size LE, $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }(L)`$, is self-averaging (approaches a non-random limit $`\gamma `$, when $`L\mathrm{}`$ LGP ), and its distribution approaches a Gaussian form for asymptotically long systems. The Gaussian distributions are characterized by two parameters: the mean value, $`\gamma `$, and the variance, $`\sigma ^2`$, and the SPS hypothesis suggests that they are related to each other in a universal way. Such a relation, which can be expressed in the form

$$\tau =\sigma ^2Ll_{loc}=1,$$
(1)
where $`l_{loc}=1/\gamma `$ is identified with the localization length, was first conjectured by Anderson et al. Anderson  and reproduced later by many authors within the framework of the phase randomization hypothesis LGP . The phase randomization was proven rigorously for in-band states (those belonging to the spectrum of underlying ordered systems) for some one-dimensional models (Anderson model Goldhirsch1994  and a continuous model with a white-noise random potential Titov ) as well as for some quasi-one-dimensional models Mirlin1 . For the Lloyd model, the authors of Ref. DeychPRL,  showed that Eq. (1) (corrected by the factor of two) holds for in-band states even though the distribution of phases is not uniform.

At the same time, numerical results presented in Ref. DimaPRL,  showed that Eq. (1) is not valid for fluctuation states arising due to disorder outside of the original spectrum. A boundary between SPS and non-SPS spectral regions in the exactly solvable Lloyd model was shown to be determined by a relation $`l_{loc}(E)l_s(E)`$ DeychPRL , where $`l_s`$ is a new length, defined through the number of states, $`N(E)`$, per unit length, between $`E`$ and the closest genuine spectral boundary:

$$l_s^1=\mathrm{sin}\left[\pi N(E)\right].$$
(2)
In the region of fluctuation states, when $`N(E)1`$ or $`1N(E)1`$, and $`l_sl_{loc}`$, SPS is not valid. Complimenting analytical calculations by numerical simulations, the authors of Ref. DeychPRL,  showed that the criterion for SPS found for the Lloyd model is valid for other models as well.

Thus, it is clear that the problem of the statistics of transport in the region of fluctuation states requires a separate consideration. The distinction between this situation and the case of in-band states can be qualified as a difference between under barrier tunnelling and over barrier scattering. In 3D this difference is clear: the latter case corresponds to the spectral region of extended states with the diffusive transport, while the former takes place in the region of localized states. The problem of the under barrier tunnelling in disordered systems was first considered in Lifshitz  (for reviews of subsequent papers see Refs. Pollak ; Raikh ). In 1D situation all states are localized, and the transmission for all energies can be described as a resonant tunnelling via rare transparent configurations Azbel . Therefore, the difference between the two transport regimes is more subtle and was noticed only recently DimaPRL ; DeychPRL . Correspondingly, while the case of the in-band states can be considered settled by the SPS theory, the properties of the distribution function of conductance/transmittance for pure one-dimensional case of under barrier tunnelling are studied very little. Besides obvious fundamental importance, an additional motivation to deal with this problem comes from the development of photonic band gap materials, in which new type of fluctuation photonic states is possible photonic crystals . These states form “Lifshits tails” in the band-gaps of disordered photonic structures, and provide a unique opportunity to study resonant under barrier tunnelling with scattering of light.

The main objective of the present paper is to study numerically the distribution function of LE in the region of fluctuation states using ideas of the scaling approach. The main question, which we seek to answer is the following: “Is the distribution function of the LE in the non-SPS region determined completely by microscopic details of the respective Hamiltonian, or can it still be described macroscopically in an universal manner?” We show that the distribution of conductance in this region, while not completely universal, still demonstrates surprising scaling properties. In particular, using Monte Carlo simulations for the one-dimensional tight-binding Anderson model with diagonal disorder, we find that for sufficiently long systems the function $`\tau `$, introduced in Eq. (1), depends upon a single parameter, $`\kappa =l_{loc}/l_s`$. We also find strong deviations of the distribution function from the Gaussian form. However, the third moment, turns out to have the same scaling behavior as the variance, indicating that despite the deviation of the distribution function from the Gaussian, it still can be parameterized by only two parameters, $`l_{loc}`$, and $`l_s`$.

## Model and technical details.

We consider the tight-binding model with a diagonal disorder, which is described by the following equations of motion

$$\psi _{n+1}+\psi _{n1}+(U_nE)\psi _n=0,$$
(3)
where random on-site energies $`U_n`$ are described by a uniform probability distribution: $`P(U_n)=1/(2U)`$ if $`|U_n|<U`$, and $`P(U_n)=0`$ otherwise. LE is defined as

$$\gamma (E)=\underset{N\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{1}{N}\mathrm{log}T_N\mathrm{}T_1=\underset{L\mathrm{}}{lim}\stackrel{~}{\gamma }(L),$$
(4)
where $`T_k`$ are transfer matrices

$$T_k=\left(\begin{array}{cc}EU_k& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right).$$
(5)
LE is calculated iteratively using Eq. (4) in a standard way Kramer . To investigate the statistics of $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }(L)`$ in systems with the finite length $`L`$, we keep the length finite and fixed while collecting statistics from about 120,000 realizations. The integral density of states for each realization was calculated using the phase formalism LGP  and was averaged over all realizations. The resulting value was used to calculate the length $`l_s`$ according to Eq. (2). Studying the dependence of the distribution of $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }`$ on $`L`$ we take care to have $`Ll_{loc}`$ for all strengths of the disordered potential, $`U`$, and values of energy, $`E`$. However, in the region of fluctuation states, where $`l_{loc}<l_s`$, it is possible to have $`l_s>Ll_{loc}`$. In this regime, which does not exist in the SPS region, the $`L`$-dependence of the variance may be different from standard behavior given by the central limit theorem. In order to verify this assumption, we considered systems with lengths satisfying both $`L<l_s`$, and $`L>l_s`$. When collecting statistics, we discarded all data corresponding to $`l_{loc}<5`$, and $`l_s>1000L`$. This way we ensured that our results are not influenced by non-representative fluctuations, and states localized over microscopical regions of the sample.

## Results.

Fig. 1 shows the dependence of the scaling function $`\tau `$ defined in Eq. (1) on $`\kappa `$ in the asymptotic limit of very long systems, $`Ll_s,l_{loc}`$. Data used to generate this figure were obtained for different values of $`E`$ and $`U`$, and one can see that they all fall nicely on the scaling curve $`\tau (\kappa )`$. For $`\kappa >1`$, $`\tau `$ approaches its universal SPS value of unity while for smaller $`\kappa `$ it steeply decreases. A similar result was obtained for a periodic-on-average model in Ref. DeychPRL , where the scaling function $`\tau (\kappa )`$ was originally proposed. Our results convincingly show that $`\sigma ^2`$ can indeed be expressed in terms of the scaling function $`\tau (\kappa )`$ regardless of the microscopic nature of the model under consideration.

While the exact shape of the function $`\tau (\kappa )`$ varies slightly from model to model (compare to results of Ref. DeychPRL ), the essential qualitative properties of $`\tau `$ seem to be quite universal. We are most interested in the region $`\kappa <1`$, where $`\tau `$ demonstrates a sharp decrease. Analytical calculations carried out in Ref. DeychPRL  for the Lloyd model produced $`\tau (\kappa )\kappa `$. Our results show, however, a much steeper decrease of $`\tau `$. Also, in the model considered here, $`\tau (\kappa )`$ must remain non-zero for $`\kappa =0`$. Indeed, $`\kappa =0`$ corresponds to the exact genuine boundary of the spectrum of our system. Unlike the Lloyd model, where the spectrum boundary is at infinity, in our model the boundaries of the spectrum are at $`E_b=\pm (2+U)`$. The variance of LE does not vanish at finite energies, and therefore $`\tau _{lim}\tau (0)`$ is not equal to zero.

In order to understand the behavior of $`\tau `$ at $`\kappa 1`$ we conduct a detailed study of this region for systems with different $`L`$. Our results can be summarized in the following form

$$\tau =C\kappa ^\alpha +\tau _{lim},$$
(6)
Replotting $`\tau (\kappa )`$ in the $`loglog`$ coordinates for $`\kappa <1`$ (see insert in Fig. 1) we see that while $`\kappa `$ changes by more than two orders of magnitude, the data form a good straight line with the exception of points corresponding to extremely small values of $`\kappa `$. This means that $`\tau _{lim}`$ can be neglected for the most of the non-SPS region, and becomes significant only in the immediate vicinity of $`E_b`$. Using linear regression we can estimate parameters $`C`$ and $`\alpha `$ for systems with different lengths. The results of the fit reveal that $`C`$ and $`\alpha `$ are constants independent of any parameters of the system under consideration for $`L>l_s`$. This result confirms the one-parameter form of $`\tau (\kappa )`$ given by the first term of Eq. (6) for sufficiently long systems. The degree of universality of these coefficients still remains an open question requiring similar studies of other models. We can speculate, however, that it is likely that systems can be divided into several universality classes on the basis of the values of $`C`$ and $`\alpha `$.

For shorter systems with $`L<l_s`$ both $`C`$ and $`\alpha `$ show additional dependence upon the length $`L`$, see Fig. 2 where $`\alpha `$ and $`C`$ are plotted versus $`L/l_s`$.

The results of this analysis lead to two important conclusions. First, the length $`l_s`$ not only establishes the boundary between SPS and non-SPS regions of the spectrum, but also determines a crossover system length marking the transition to systems with a universal single parameter form for $`\tau `$. Second, as it was anticipated, in the regime $`l_{loc}L<l_s`$ the scaling of the variance of LE changes from the simple $`1/L`$ dependence to more a complicated form due to the dependence of $`\alpha `$ on $`L/l_s`$. We attempted to fit this dependence in the region of small $`L/l_s`$ by several types of trial functions; the best fit was obtained with $`\alpha (L/l_s)\mathrm{ln}\left(l_s/L\right)`$. With this assumption a new scaling for the variance becomes

$$\sigma ^2\frac{1}{Ll_{loc}}\mathrm{exp}\left[\alpha (L/l_s)\mathrm{ln}\kappa \right]L^{(1+\mathrm{ln}\kappa )}.$$
(7)
It is interesting to note that when $`\kappa `$ decreases, $`1+\mathrm{ln}\kappa `$ becomes negative and $`\sigma ^2`$ starts growing with $`L`$ in this interval of lengths. This behavior can be qualitatively understood from the following arguments: The condition $`Ll_s`$ means that for the most of the realizations of the random potential no states exist in the energy interval under discussion. The transmission through such realizations fluctuates rather weakly. The greatest contribution to the transmission fluctuations give those few realizations that can support at least a single state. The probability for such realizations to arise, grows when the length of the system increases, resulting in the respective increase of $`\sigma ^2`$.

This behavior, of course, breaks down for very large values of $`l_s`$, which correspond to states close to the genuine spectral boundary, because for these states $`\sigma ^2`$ is determined by a non-universal correction to $`\tau `$ given by $`\tau _{lim}`$. This limiting value can be found using the weak disorder expansion of Derrida et al. Derrida , which gives

$$\tau _{lim}\frac{\sigma _U^2}{4\gamma _0\mathrm{sinh}^2\gamma _0}\sqrt{U},$$
(8)
where $`\sigma _U^2=U^2/3`$ is the variance of the potential, $`\gamma _0`$ is LE in the gap region of the original ordered system, and we use the fact that $`E_b=2+U`$ for the system under consideration. One can see from this expression that $`\tau _{lim}`$ depends on microscopic characteristics of the original Hamiltonian. However, for a model with the Gaussian distribution of site energies, the genuine spectral boundary lies at infinity, where $`\gamma _0\mathrm{}`$. The first of the equalities in Eq. (8), which can be applied to various distributions, in this case gives $`\tau _{lim}=0`$. We can expect this to be true for all models with spectral boundaries at infinity. For this class of models, $`\tau (\kappa )`$ gives a completely universal, at least within a given model, description of the variance of LE.

In order to characterize deviations of the distribution function of LE from the Gaussian form, we also studied scaling properties of the third cumulant $`\varrho =(\gamma \gamma )^3`$, which describes the skewness of the distribution function. To analyze scaling properties of $`\varrho `$ we introduced a function analogous to $`\tau `$

$$\tau _3=\varrho L^2l_{loc}.$$
(9)
One can see from Fig. 3 that while data for the parameter $`\tau _3`$ are rather noisy, it shows a relatively good scaling behavior as a function of the single parameter $`\kappa `$ in the non-SPS region. This fact itself is quite remarkable since it demonstrates that even deviations from the Gaussian in the region of fluctuation states can be described within the scaling procedure suggested here. It is interesting to note that the sign of the skewness changes not very far from the boundary between SPS and non-SPS regions of the spectrum. In the SPS region the absolute value of skewness decreases dramatically becoming essentially zero within the accuracy of our calculations. This is illustrated in the insert in Fig. 3, which represents the energy dependence of the third moment of the distribution. The skewness also decreases deeper in non-SPS regions where it becomes extremely small beyond the genuine spectral boundary. The quality of our raw data did not allow us to determine whether $`\tau _3`$ also depends on $`L/l_s`$ for shorter systems, but we expect that $`\tau _3`$ behaves similar to $`\tau `$ in this regard.

## Conclusion.

In this paper we carried out a detail study of the distribution function of conductance in the spectral region of fluctuation states. We showed that apart from a small non-universal contribution, which is only important in the immediate vicinity of the genuine spectral boundary, the conductance distribution in this region can be described using a simple scaling approach. Within this approach the variance is described by the scaling function $`\tau `$, Eq. (1), and the third moment of the distribution is characterized by the function $`\tau _3`$, Eq. (9). For long enough systems both scaling functions depend on the single variable $`\kappa =l_{loc}/l_s`$. The presence of such a scaling behavior would be natural for the model with the white noise potential, because such a model has a natural scaling variable $`E/\sigma _U^{3/2}`$ LGP , and our scaling parameter $`\kappa `$ depends upon this only variable DeychPRL . Our numerical results showed, however, that the parameter $`\kappa `$ provides a more universal description of the distribution function valid also outside of the white-noise model. While we only considered here the tight-binding model, we believe that our results qualitatively describe statistics of light transmission through band-gaps of disordered photonic crystals. Experimental measurements of the transmission distribution in such systems can be used for verification of our results and as a method of measuring parameters $`l_{loc}`$ and $`l_s`$.

The authors thank Steve Schwarz for reading and commenting on the manuscript. This work was supported by AFOSR under Contract No. F49620-02-1-0305, and partially by PSC-CUNY and CUNY collaborative grants.


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# Untitled Document

On the effects of the vanishing of the non-metricity to the effective string field equations

Abstract

Effective string field equations with zero-constrained torsion have been studied extensively in the literature. But, one may think that the effects of vanishing of the non-metricity have not been explained in detail and also in according to some recent literature ,, the action density in my previous paper  is not complete. For these reasons, in this erratum, in according to the effects of vanishing of the non-metricity to the field equations, the action density of my previous paper  will be completed in a variational setting. Furthermore, up to now, an unambiguous derivation of the dilaton potential has not been given. If one thinks that vanishing of the non-metricity gives a spontaneous breakdown of local Weyl invariance then a dilaton potential is obtained unambiguously in this framework.

1.Introduction and Motivation

Effective string field equations with zero-constrained torsion have been studied extensively in the literature. But, one may think that the effects of vanishing of the non-metricity have not been explained in detail and also in according to some recent literature ,, the action density in my previous paper  is not complete. For these reasons, in this erratum, in according to the effects of vanishing of the non-metricity to the field equations, the action density of my previous paper  will be completed in a variational setting. Furthermore, up to now, an unambiguous derivation of the dilaton potential has not been given. If one thinks that vanishing of the non-metricity gives a spontaneous breakdown of local Weyl invariance then a dilaton potential is obtained unambiguously in this framework.

2.Theory

In my previous paper , the first-order sector of the Lagrangian was

$`=e^\varphi (R_{ab}^{}e^{ab}+Tr(F^{}F)\alpha d\varphi ^{}d\varphi +\beta H^{}H)`$
$`+\gamma e^{\frac{N4}{N2}\varphi }R_{ab}R_{cd}^{}e^{abcd}`$
$`+(dHϵR_{ab}R^{ab}ϵ^{}Tr(FF))\mu +T^a\lambda _a.`$ (1)
To handle zero-constrained torsion effectively, some Lagrange multiplier $`(N2)`$ forms $`\lambda _a`$ are introduced. But, unfortunately the vanishing of the torsion does not necessarily give the vanishing of the non-metricity, namely, from Eq.(2.9) in

$`D^{}e^a=^{}(e^ae_b)T^b+4Q^{}e^a,`$ (2)
is satisfied, where $`Q`$ is a non-metricity object. For the vanishing of the non-metricity, $`f_aD^{}e^a`$ term will newly be added in the Eq.(1) action density, where $`f_a`$ is a zero-form. The variation with respect to $`f_a`$ gives $`D^{}e^a=0`$, so $`Q`$, namely, non-metricity equals to zero. The variation with respect to the $`\omega `$ has not been affected by this $`f_aD^{}e^a`$ term because the $`\omega `$ variation term, $`\omega ^{ab}f_a^{}e_b`$ equals identically to zero. So only the variation with respect to the $`e^a`$ term rests. This term is

$`\delta e^a^{}(e^ce_a)Df_c.`$ (3)
There is no any other restriction on $`f_c`$. So, as a simple solution, if one selects $`f_c=i_cdV(\varphi )`$ then the dilaton potential $`V(\varphi )`$ is obtained.

In my previous paper , in the cosmological solutions, $`f_c`$ has been taken as zero.

. T.Dereli, R.W.Tucker,Class.Q.Grav.4 (1987) 791

. T.Dereli, Ş. Özkurt, Class.Q.Grav.8 (1991) 889

. Ş. Özkurt, Class.Q.Grav.13 (1996) 265

. T.Dereli, R.W.Tucker, JHEP 03 (2002) 041

. D.Grumiller, W.Kummer, D.V.Vassilevich, hep-th 04 (2002) 253


text:
# Analysis of Titles and Readers – For Title Generation Centered on the Readers

## 1 Introduction

The title is expected to play two roles. One is to give the reader a very compact summary of the document, and the other is to attract the target reader’s interest and lead the reader to read the document. It is preferable that a title plays both roles, because the reader may be disappointed with a gap between the title and the document if the title plays the former role poorly, and the reader may not read the document if the title plays the latter role poorly. Therefore, it is very important what title is attached to a document.

Several techniques have been reported on generating titles \[Jin and Hauptmann, 2000\]\[Berger and Mittal, 2000\], and they focus on the former role, that is, to give a compact summary. The main approach is to find a few keywords from the document by calculating the importance of each word in the document. This approach, incidentally, is similar to most text summarization techniques. The selected keywords or title strongly reflect the author’s wordings. In other words, this approach is an “author-centered approach”. In some cases, the title generated by this approach might play the latter role poorly and fail to get the reader’s interest.

To make generated titles play their latter role properly, it is not sufficient to look into only the author’s document. It is important to also pay more attention to the reader. It is necessary in the “reader-centered approach” to clarify the features of the reader’s attention, that is, the relationship between the reader’s attention and the content and wording of the title. Based on this knowledge, it will be possible to extract information from the document that is more attractive to the reader than the author’s key expressions and to include it in the generated title.

Our first goal is to clarify the kind of content and wording that are key to getting the reader’s comprehension, interest in, and positive feeling toward the document. For this purpose, we first conducted a comparative study on the titles of technical papers and headlines rewritten for newspapers to identify the typical content and wording of titles aimed at general readers. We then conducted a questionnaire survey on the effects of different content and wording of titles on different kinds of readers’ interest.

The following sections are as follows: section 2 describes the comparative study and its results, section 3 and 4 explain the details and the results of our questionnaire survey, and section 5 relates our conclusion and future work.

## 2 Comparison between Paper Titles and Newspaper Headlines

To identify the typical content and wording of titles aimed at general readers, we conducted a comparative study on the Japanese titles of research papers and the headlines of Japanese newspaper articles describing the corresponding technology.

We first divided the titles and headlines into several syntactic components (text segments) and assigned each component a syntactic function tag, such as “P(urpose of development)” and “M(ethod for realization)”, and then comparatively analyzed the expression of paper title and headlines on the basis of each component.

### 2.1 Overview of Collected Documents

Table 1 shows the outlines of collected documents, including research papers (articles and technical reports) and newspaper articles (from three trade newspapers and one general newspaper). The Japanese titles and headlines were retrieved from a document database at a research institute. They cover science and technology at large.

We identified one or a few technical papers closely related to about 90% of the headlines.

### 2.2 Syntactic Function Tags

We found that most text segments of the collected titles and headlines could be classified into the following syntactic function tags. Here, we define each syntactic function tag and describe the tagging process we used in the analysis.

* B(ehavior): Behavior is expressed by a verbal noun or verb. For example, in the title “Development of an Exploration System of Buried Cables”, the word “exploration” describes the main behavior or action of the developed technology and is assigned the tag “B”.
* O(bject): The object is a noun phrase in the objective case of the verbal noun of behavior “B”. In the above example, the compound noun “buried cables” is assigned the tag “O”.
* T(echnology type): The words assigned the tag “T”(echnology type) are very restricted and include such words as “system”, “model” and “method”. They express the form of the developed technology.
* P(urpose): The purpose of development is usually expressed by a noun phrase following a preposition, such as “for” (“no tame-ni/no” in Japanese). (e.g., “for power distribution cables under pavements”)
* M(ethod): The tag “M” stands for the method for realization and is expressed by a noun phrase following a preposition, such as “by” (“ni yori” in Japanese). (e.g., “by underground radar”)
* S(trong point): “S” stands for the advantage or merit of the developed technology. It is usually expressed by an adjective or adverb phrase. (e.g., “highly accurate”).
* D(evelopment): “D” stands for the expression that frequently appears in paper titles and headlines, such as “the development of”, “the evaluation of”, and “a study on”.
* E(t alia): There are several text segments that do not fall into the above seven categories. They appear mainly in newspaper headlines. Two examples are names of development organizations and descriptions of the issue for practical use of the technology.

We excluded the two tags “D” and “E” in a comparative analysis because they do not directly relate to the content of the developed technology.

### 2.3 Tagging Process

As for paper titles (in Japanese), we divided them semiautomatically according to the following pattern

P? M? S? O S? B S? T? D?

(Each alphabet means syntactic function tag.

“?” means “either zero times or one time”.)

using the “ChaSen” Japanese morphological analyzer \[Asahara and Matsumoto, 2000\] and syntactic clues (such as word order, syntactic category and specific prepositions). The results are reviewed and errors are manually corrected.

As for headlines, automatic tagging is difficult because of the frequent use of verbal omissions and inversion. Therefore, we manually divided the headlines. In order to improve the precision of human tagging as highly as possible, the human tagger divided them according to the following procedure.

1. Find the verbs (or verbal nouns).
2. Determine the verb (or verbal noun) which corresponds to “B” using syntactic and semantic clues (such as special prepositions and semantic modification relations).
3. Identify the other components which modify “B” using the clues used in the above step 2.

### 2.4 Comparative Analysis

We analyzed the results of the above tagging in the following two ways.

* The difference in the frequency of the six main components with tag B(ehavior), O(bject), M(ethod), S(trong point), P(urpose) and T(echnology type) in paper titles and headlines.
* The difference in the expression of the same syntactic components in paper titles and headlines.

### 2.5 Obligatory and Optional Components

The last column in Table 2 indicates the frequency of the occurrence of each tag in titles and headlines. The components (text segments) with tags “B” , “O”, and “T” appear more than 80%, 80%, and 58%, respectively, in titles and headlines 111“B” and “O” appear 100% in the paper titles and 80% in the headlines because verbal omissions sometimes occur in newspaper headlines. . We call these high-frequency components “obligatory component” and the other components with “P”, “M”, and “S”, “optional components” .

#### 2.5.1 Obligatory Components

Obligatory components are important because they are essential in reporting the substance of the technology to the reader.

By comparing the expression of the obligatory components (labeled “T”, “B”, and “O”), we categorized the difference of the expression into two points. One is that technical jargons are used in paper titles while plain terms are used in headlines to express the same thing. The other is that in the obligatory component the title explains the concrete content of the technology while the headline expresses the purpose of the technology, which general readers can understand.

In other words, we identified two expressing techniques of newspapermen.

* Instead of using technical jargons, the plain synonymous terms are used.
* Instead of expressing what the technology does, they express what the purpose of the technology is.

An example of the former in English is as follows:

Method to Shorten Radioactive Half-life

Method to Shorten the Duration of Radiation

An example of the latter is as follows:

Method to Shorten Radioactive Half-life

Method to Shorten Storage Period of Radioactive Waste

The expression patterns typical in obligatory components are summarized in Table 3. It is arranged from the two viewpoints of “what to say” and “how to say”.

#### 2.5.2 Optional Components

By comparing the expression of the optional components, in the “M” component we found that technical jargons are frequently used in paper titles while plain terms are used in headlines. Moreover, by analyzing the frequency of component combinations, we found that the combination of optional components with “M” and “S” is seldom used in any title or headline. We also found that the use of “M” in titles is more frequent than in headlines while the description of the advantages (“S”) in headlines is five times more frequent than in titles. The analysis suggests that the description of “M” found in paper titles are omitted in headlines and the description of advantages (“S”) are used in headlines.

The expressing techniques we identified are as follows:

* Instead of using technical jargons, the plain synonymous terms are used in the “M” component.
* Instead of expressing the method of realizing the technology, they express the advantage (“S”) of the technology.

An example of the former in English is as follows.

Method to Shorten Storage Period of Radioactive Waste by Metallic Fuel FBR

Method to Shorten Storage Period of Radioactive Waste by Burnout

An example of the latter is as follows:

Method to Shorten Storage Period of Radioactive Waste by Metallic Fuel FBR

Method to Shorten Storage Period of Radioactive Waste by 1/10000

The expression patterns typical in optional components are summarized in Table 4. The table is also arranged from the two viewpoints of “what to say” and “how to say”, as in Table 3.

## 3 Questionnaire Survey

In this section, we explain the details of our questionnaire survey.

### 3.1 Viewpoint of the Survey

We assume that the factors which affect the reader’s impression of a title which expresses newly developed technology are the following:

Mode of expression for titles (in other word, the expression patterns)

Whether or not the reader has an interest in the technical field

The reader’s level of expertise in the technical field

Therefore, in order to clarify what kind of impression the title based on each expression pattern (F1) gives the reader, we should investigate how the impressions that each reader who differs in F2 and F3 receives change with each expression pattern. We then prepared our questionnaire survey according to the following procedures.

1. Select the technical fields for the survey (we selected three fields: electric transmission, architectural engineering, and environmental science).
2. Categorize the respondents by their interest in each technical field and their expertise in that field.
3. Generate titles describing new technologies in the three technical fields by using expression patterns
4. Draw up a questionnaire which asks the respondents what kind of impression they had when they read each generated title.

In the following three subsections, we explain the details of the above procedures step 2, 3 and 4, in order.

### 3.2 Categorization of Respondents

In order to categorize the respondents by their interest in each technical field and their expertise of that field, we asked the respondents two questions in the preliminary questionnaire.

One asked them if they were concerned/unconcerned with one of the three technical fields, and the other asked them about their main source of information (three options: general newspaper, trade newspaper, and academic journal, were given, if they were concerned).

We categorized them into two types (“Unconcerned” and “Concerned”) by the former question. We then categorized “Concerned” into three types (“Commoner”, “Engineer” and “Researcher”, whose main sources of information are general newspaper, trade newspaper and academic journal in turn.) by the latter question. We labeled “Unconcerned” and three types of “Concerned” (“Commoner”, “Engineer” and “Researcher”) as readership. Table 5 shows the number of respondents by readership.

### 3.3 Titles Prepared for Our Questionnaire

In this section, we explain the method for composing the titles used in the questionnaire. The procedure for composing the titles follows.

1. Select three new technologies in each of the three technical fields, which were developed in a research institute.
2. Retrieve the phrases of titles and headlines concerning each technology, from the document database of the institute, that correspond to each expression pattern.
3. Combine the phrases to compose twelve titles per each technology, using three types of obligatory component expression pattern of by four types of optional component expression pattern (including a pattern without optional components). The total number of the titles per one field is 36 (twelve titles by three fields).

We divided thirty six titles per each field into four groups (each group consists of nine titles). The breakdown of the nine titles is three types of obligatory component expression pattern by three types of optional component expression pattern. We randomly divided the respondents of each readership into four groups and then asked four groups of the respondents about the impression of four groups of the titles respectively.

### 3.4 Contents of Our Questionnaire

In order to investigate whether each prepared title is effective in getting each readership’s comprehension, positive feelings, and interest, we asked the respondents the following questions in turn.

* Do you think the title is comprehensible?
* Do you feel positive toward the technology after reading this?
* Do you want to know more about the technology?

### 3.5 Method

Respondents to the questionnaire were the staff of a research institute and monitors of a marketing research firm. We asked them to answer our questionnaire on a Web page which is prepared for this survey.

## 4 Difference in Impression According to Obligatory Component Expression Pattern

In this section, we report on the analysis of the correlation between the obligatory component expression pattern in titles and each readership’s impression of the titles.

Figure 1 shows the graph of the percentage of titles regarded as “comprehensible” by the respondents with each readership using each expression pattern. Figure 2 and 3 also show the ones regarded as “evoked positive feelings”, “interesting” respectively. We also made a 3x2 contingency table (expression patterns $`\times `$ yes/no answer on impressions) for each impression and each readership and calculated the significance level of the $`\chi ^2`$-test and the Cramer’s V 222$`V=\sqrt{X2/N(k1)}`$ where N $`=`$ total number of cases in the table; k $`=`$ number of rows or columns, whichever is smaller. Cramer’s V ranges 0 to 1 where 0 means that the two value variables are perfectly unrelated and 1 means that they are perfectly related..

Because all significance levels in Table 6 are under 5%, it is confirmed that there exists associations among expression patterns and impressions for each readership.

However, the strength of the associations is low as for the respondents with readership “engineer” or “researcher”, who have expertise, because of lower values of Cramer’s V, while the strength of the association is high as for those who has readership “unconcerned” or “commoner” because of higher values of V.

Because all graphs slope up from left to right in Figures 1, 2 and 3, the expression pattern 2.0 (expressing what the purpose of the technology is) is the most effective to make a title impressive (more precisely, regarded as “comprehensible”, “evoked positive feelings” and “interesting”) for readers with most of readership, especially the “unconcerned” readers or “commoner”. As for the readers with expertise, other types of expression patterns such as 1.1 or 1.2 should also be considered because of their flatter slopes.

## 5 Conclusion and Future Work

We emphasized the need for title generation centered on the reader and identified the typical content and wording of titles aimed at general readers by conducting a comparative study on paper titles and headlines. Moreover, we verified the effects of different content and wording of titles. As a result, titles using expression pattern 2.0 (expressing what the purpose of the technology is) in obligatory component is the most effective in getting the general reader’s comprehension, positive feelings, and interest. However, the more expertise in a technical field the reader has, the less the reader tends to be influenced.

In future work, we will verify the difference in impression according to optional component expression patterns by analyzing the results of our questionnaire survey. We plan to establish the method for generating a title by extracting phrases from the body text and combining them, which correspond to the expression pattern which is effective in getting target reader’s interest.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Manabu Okumura of Tokyo Institute of Technology for his valuable suggestions to improve our research and anonymous reviewers for their suggestions to improve our paper.


text:
# A XMM-Newton observation during the 2000 outburst of SAX J1808.4–3658

## 1 Introduction

The X-ray transient SAX J1808.4–3658 was discovered in September 1996 when it exhibited a weak outburst lasting only a few weeks (In ’t Zand et al., 1998, 2001). In April 1998 the source was found to be in outburst again (Marshall, 1998) and it was discovered that the source exhibits coherent millisecond X-ray oscillations with a frequency of approximately 401 Hz (Wijnands & van der Klis, 1998). In early 2000, the source exhibited a third outburst during which it showed erratic luminosity behavior with luminosity swings of three orders of magnitude within a few days (Wijnands et al., 2001, 2002). This erratic behavior lasted for several months before the source returned to quiescence. Very recently, in October 2002, a fourth outburst of the source was detected (Markwardt, Miller, Wijnands, 2002) during which its peak luminosity was very similar to that observed during the 1996 and 1998 outbursts.

In quiescence, SAX J1808.4–3658 has been observed on several occasions with the BeppoSAX and ASCA satellites (Stella et al., 2000; Dotani, Asai, & Wijnands, 2000; Wijnands et al., 2002). The source was very dim in quiescence, with a luminosity close to or lower than $`10^{32}`$ erg s-1. Due to the limited angular resolution of BeppoSAX, doubts were raised as to whether the source detected by this satellite was truly SAX J1808.4–3658 or an unrelated field source (Wijnands et al., 2002). Campana et al. (2002) reported on a quiescent observation of the source performed with XMM-Newton which resolved this issue. They detected the source at a luminosity of $`5\times 10^{31}`$ erg s-1 and found that the field around SAX J1808.4–3658 is rather crowded with weak sources. Two such sources are relatively close to SAX J1808.4–3658 and might have conceivably caused a systematic positional offset during the BeppoSAX observations of SAX J1808.4–3658.

After it was found that the source had become active again in January 2000 (Van der Klis et al., 2000), a Director’s Discretionary Time (DDT) observation request was submitted to the director of XMM-Newton to study the outburst X-ray spectrum of SAX J1808.4–3658. This request was granted and on March 6, 2000, XMM-Newton observed the source. Due to the extreme variability of the source during its 2000 outburst (Wijnands et al., 2001), the XMM-Newton observation was performed during times when the source had very low luminosities (see § 2). Because of this the DDT observation was considered to be in conflict with an approved Cycle 1 observation on this source with the purpose of studying the quiescent X-ray properties of SAX J1808.4–3658 (see Campana et al., 2002, for the results of that observation). Consequently, the DDT observation was not made public until recently. In this paper I discuss this DDT observation during which the source was conclusively detected at a luminosity of $`2\times 10^{32}`$ erg s-1.

## 2 Observation and analysis

Because a bright X-ray source was expected during the 2000 outburst, the XMM-Newton/EPIC-pn camera was used in the timing mode to eliminate pile-up problems and to study the pulsations. However, due to the faintness of the source and the high background when using this mode, the resulting data are not optimal for studying the source spectrum at the observed low luminosities. Therefore, only the data obtained with the two metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) cameras will be discussed. The MOS1 camera was used in the Full Frame mode, but the MOS2 was in the Small Window mode (again to limit the anticipated pile-up). For both cameras the medium filter was used. The source was not detected in the RGS instruments so that data will not be discussed further. The log of the observation and the data used in this paper are listed in Table 1.

The data were analysed using the Standard Analysis System (SAS), version 5.3. The observation was split into two observation identifiers (IDs; see Tab. 1) and it was found that the MOS1 science data were all present in the first ID (0119940201), but that the housekeeping data were split over the two IDs (the MOS2 science data and housekeeping data were both split, in a consistent manner, over the two IDs). This discrepancy caused the standard processing of the data to create only about half the available MOS1 science data. To obtain the full amount of MOS1 science data, the SAS task emchain was executed but after the housekeeping files for the MOS1 were merged333Using the threads listed at http://wave.xray.mpe.mpg.de/xmm/cookbook/EPIC\_PN/merge\_odf.html and using the latest calibration files. Those newly created event list files (also for the MOS2) were used in the subsequent analysis. At the end of the observation, a strong background flare occurred. The data in which the total count rate (all CCDs and no extra filtering) exceeded 5 and 4 counts per second (using 100 second bins) for the MOS1 and MOS2 data, respectively, were excluded from the analysis. The resulting total live time of the central CCD (the CCD on which SAX J1808.4–3658 is located) is listed in Table 1.

The MOS1 image444The use of the Small Window mode for the MOS2 camera limited the size of the image around SAX J1808.4–3658 and therefore this image is not displayed. in the 0.5–10 keV energy band is shown in Figure 2 (top) where we clearly see that SAX J1808.4–3658 was detected. This source is the brightest source on the central CCD, strongly indicating that during the BeppoSAX 2000 outburst observations most of the detected flux originated from SAX J1808.4–365 and not from an unrelated field source as was suggested by the BeppoSAX data (Wijnands et al., 2002). Campana et al. (2002) reached similar conclusions using a quiescent observation of the source and they suggested that the systematic offset of the BeppoSAX position with regards to that of SAX J1808.4–3658 might have been caused by the presence of two faint sources close to SAX J1808.4–3658 (Fig. 2, top panel; see also Fig. 1 in Campana et al., 2002). Moreover, due to the source faintness during the BeppoSAX observations, only the Medium Energy Concentrator Spectrometer produced useful data (Wijnands et al., 2002) and this instrument was only sensitive in the energy range 1.3–10 keV. Therefore, images of the data in the 0.5–1.3 keV and the 1.3–10 keV energy bands were made (Figs. 2, middle and bottom panel) and SAX J1808.4–3658 is detected in both energy ranges. In contrast, the two extra sources are only detected in the 1.3–10 keV band, demonstrating that the fractional flux contribution of the two other sources to the combined flux increases with photon energy. These differences in source spectra add further evidence to the suggestion that those two extra sources might have caused the systematic offset in the BeppoSAX observations. It should be noted that the BeppoSAX fluxes quoted by Wijnands et al. (2002) and Stella et al. (2000) for SAX J1808.4–3658 are likely close to its true flux. A small contamination of the fluxes by the two close-by sources is likely, but those sources are considerably less luminous than SAX J1808.4–3658 and therefore the contamination should be small.

The X-ray source spectra were extracted using a circle with a radius of 20′′ on the position of SAX J1808.4–3658. For the MOS1 camera, the background spectrum was extracted using a circle with a radius of 200′′ on the same position, but excluding the detected point sources in this region. Because of the use of the Small Window mode, only a limited field could be use to extract the background spectrum for the MOS2 camera (i.e., an annulus was used on the source position with an inner radius of 30′′ and an outer radius of 50′′)555The accuracy of the background subtraction was checked by using background regions located on the other, fully read-out, CCDs. The fluxes were always within 6% of each other regardless of the background used, and the spectral parameters within 2%. To avoid systematic uncertainties due to the different responses and different offsets of the individual CCDs, the background obtained from the central CCD was preferred.. The RMF and ARF files were created with the SAS tools rmfgen and arfgen. The spectra obtained were then grouped using the FTOOL grppha into bins with a minimum of 20 counts per bin to validate the use of the $`\chi ^2`$ statistics. The MOS1 and MOS2 spectra are shown in Figure 2 and were fitted (using XSPEC version 11.1.0; Arnaud, 1996) simultaneously using the same model (see Tab. 2 for the fit parameters). The column density $`N_\mathrm{H}`$ was allowed to float and the value obtained was always consistent with the value ($`1.22\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2) inferred from the $`A_\mathrm{v}`$ measured by Wang et al. (2001) (and using the relation between $`N_\mathrm{H}`$ and $`A_\mathrm{v}`$ from Predehl & Schmitt, 1995). The spectrum could be fitted with a power-law model with index of 2.2$`\pm `$0.3 and a 0.5–10 keV luminosity of $`1.7\times 10^{32}`$ erg s-1 (assuming a distance of 2.5 kpc; In ’t Zand et al., 2001). A black body model could not fit the data accurately ($`\chi ^2`$/degrees of freedom = 88.7/25). A neutron star atmosphere model (that of Zavlin, Pavlov, & Shibanov, 1996) could fit the data but with a relatively high temperature $`kT`$ of $``$0.2 keV (for an observer at infinity) and a neutron star radius of 4.5$`\pm `$0.1 km (as measured on the surface and using a neutron star mass of 1.4 M).

The X-ray spectra of other quiescent neutron star transients can sometimes be described by a two component model (a soft thermal component below 1 keV and a power-law-like component above a few keV; e.g., Asai et al., 1996, 1998) but with the soft component dominating the spectrum (although the power-law component can occasionally contribute nearly half the 0.5–10 keV flux of the source). Although not required by the data, the spectra were also fitted using such a two component model, with either a black body or an atmosphere model for the soft component. With these models, the spectra could be accurately fitted (see Tab. 2), although the atmosphere plus power law combination was very unstable and the errors on the parameters are therefore relatively large. The temperatures obtained for the soft component were similar to those obtained for other quiescent neutron star transients. The flux contribution of the soft component to the 0.5–10 keV flux was only $``$25% of the total flux in contrast to the other systems in which the soft component dominates.

## 3 Discussion

This paper discusses the XMM-Newton observation of the accretion-driven millisecond X-ray pulsar SAX J1808.4–3658 performed during its 2000 outburst. Similar to the BeppoSAX observations performed around the same time (one of those observations was on the same day as the XMM-Newton one), the XMM-Newton observation revealed only a weak X-ray source with a 0.5–10 keV luminosity of $`2\times 10^{32}`$ erg s-1 at the position of SAX J1808.4–3658. Despite its weakness, the source was the brightest one on the central CCD proving that the BeppoSAX source detected by Stella et al. (2000) and Wijnands et al. (2002) is indeed SAX J1808.4–3658 and not an unrelated field source. The systematic off-set between the measured and the true position of SAX J1808.4–3658 in those BeppoSAX observations can likely be explained by two nearby field sources. These sources might have also contaminated the flux assigned to SAX J1808.4–3658 (see also Campana et al., 2002).

Campana et al. (2002) reported on a quiescent observation of SAX J1808.4–3658 performed with XMM-Newton about a year after the end of the 2000 outburst (the spectral fit parameters reported by Campana et al. (2002) are also listed in Tab. 2 for comparison). They found that the source had a luminosity of only $`5\times 10^{31}`$ erg s-1, about a factor of 4 lower than what was measured during the 2000 outburst observation. This demonstrates that at very low luminosities, SAX J1808.4–3658 can exhibit variability and indicates that the source probably displays variability in its quiescent state. However, caution is advised because the 2000 outburst observation was performed when the source exhibited violent behavior (Wijnands et al., 2001). Therefore, it is still possible that in “true” quiescence the source will be observed consistently at the low level reported by Campana et al. (2002). The spectrum of SAX J1808.4–3658 during the 2000 outburst appears softer than its quiescent spectrum: when the spectrum is fitted with a power-law model, the photon index is 2.2$`\pm `$0.3 during the 2000 outburst vs. 1.5$`{}_{0.3}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+0.2}`$ in quiescence. The fact that the 2000 outburst spectrum can be accurately fit with a neutron star atmosphere model or with a combination of a thermal plus power-law component (in contrast with the quiescent spectrum; Campana et al., 2002), also suggests a difference in the source spectra between the two epochs. It is interesting to note that in the two-component model, the photon index during the 2000 outburst observation is very similar to that measured during the quiescent observation, suggesting that the shape of the power-law component might not have changed considerably between the different epochs (although the flux of this component was still a factor of $``$3 higher during the 2000 outburst than in quiescence). Due to the limited statistics of the data, the exact degree of spectral variability cannot be determined nor can the exact cause of these possible variations be established.

During the 2000 outburst, the source fluctuated in luminosity by over 3 orders of magnitude on timescales of days (Wijnands et al., 2001). However, the BeppoSAX observations reported by Wijnands et al. (2002) provided only rough estimates of the flux of SAX J1808.4–3658 between 2000 March 5 and 8. With the XMM-Newton detection of the source on 2000 March 6, we now have a clearer picture of how dim the source could become during certain phases of its 2000 outburst. As stated by Wijnands et al. (2001), the large luminosity variations observed during the 2000 outburst are difficult to understand as due to similarly dramatic variations in the mass accretion rate. It is more likely that only modest variations in the accretion rate can trigger transitions between two significantly different luminosity states. For example, centrifugal inhibition of accretion by the neutron star’s magnetic field is expected below a certain critical accretion rate (the ’propeller regime’; Illarionov & Sunyaev, 1975) and small but erratic variations in the accretion rate around this critical rate could in principle give rise to the enormous luminosity swings observed during the 2000 outburst. When the source is in this propeller regime, accretion is inhibited, but it is evident from the large brightness fluctuations during the 2000 outburst, that a considerable amount of matter was still available in the accretion disk. According to Campana et al. (2002), a pure propeller contribution is ruled out in quiescence since this mechanism is expected to stop operating at luminosities below $`10^{33}`$ erg s-1 because the source should turn on then as a radio pulsar. Stella et al. (2000) and Campana et al. (2002) suggested that a possible explanation for the quiescent flux is the emission from the shock front between the relativistic wind of the radio pulsar and the matter out-flowing from the companion star. Therefore, the flux during the 2000 outburst observation could be higher than that observed in quiescence because of the large amount of matter still present close to the neutron star.

Di Salvo & Burderi (2003) suggested an alternative explanation for the quiescent emission of SAX J1808.4–3658 in which this emission is produced by direct dipole radiation from the radio pulsar. The quiescent X-ray luminosity and spectral shape of SAX J1808.4–3658 are indeed consistent with those observed from several field millisecond radio pulsars (see Becker & Pavlov, 2002, for a recent review), but Grindlay et al. (2002) found that the millisecond pulsars in the globular cluster 47 Tuc have a predominantly soft spectral shape suggestive of a thermal origin in contrast to what is observed for SAX J1808.4–3658. Conclusive proof for an active radio pulsar in SAX J1808.4–3658 would come from the detection of radio pulsations during quiescence, although such a detection might be inhibited by the ambient matter still present in the system (see also the discussion in Di Salvo & Burderi, 2003).

Campana et al. (2002) noted that the quiescent properties of SAX J1808.4–3658 are remarkably different from those observed for other quiescent neutron star systems: (a) its 0.5–10 keV luminosity is the lowest observed so far for any neutron star system, and (b) its spectrum is dominated by a power-law component instead of a thermal component. The quiescent emission of neutron star X-ray transients is most often explained by thermal emission from the neutron star surface releasing the heat deposited in the crust and core of the neutron star during outburst (see Brown, Bildsten, & Rutledge, 1998, and references therein). In this model, the exact luminosities of the systems should depend on their time-averaged accretion rates (Campana et al., 1998; Brown, Bildsten, & Rutledge, 1998). Due to the low peak luminosity of SAX J1808.4–3658, Brown, Bildsten, & Rutledge (1998) predicted that this source should be rather faint in quiescence. At first sight the low detected quiescent luminosity is consistent with this prediction, but no strong evidence could be found for a thermal component in the quiescent spectrum obtained. This indicates that the thermal luminosity of this source is very low, implying a rapidly cooling neutron star which would require enhanced core cooling processes to explain (Campana et al., 2002).

The combination of the low time-averaged accretion rate and the possibility of rapid core cooling might also be able to explain why the quiescent spectra of SAX J1808.4–3658 is dominated by the power-law component. If in the ’ordinary’ quiescent systems the thermal component were to drop to low luminosity levels similar to those of SAX J1808.4–3658, then their quiescent spectra would be dominated by the power-law component (assuming that this component remains unchanged), just like in SAX J1808.4–3658. However, it remains to be determined if the power-law components in the different types of systems are due to the same mechanism, or if the quiescent spectrum of SAX J1808.4–3658 is due to some other process, likely related to the different configuration and/or magnetic field strength of the neutron star in SAX J1808.4–3658. To get more insight into the nature of the unique quiescent properties of SAX J1808.4–3658, more neutron star transients must be detected in quiescence. Particularly interesting systems are the two other, very recently discovered, accretion driven millisecond X-ray pulsars XTE J1751–305 (Markwardt & Swank, 2002) and XTE J0929–314 (Remillard, Swank, & Strohmayer, 2002). It would be interesting to compare their quiescent properties with those of SAX J1808.4–3658 and correlate possible similarities and/or differences in quiescence with the outburst properties of those sources.

This work was supported by NASA through Chandra Postdoctoral Fellowship grant number PF9-10010 awarded by CXC, which is operated by SAO for NASA under contract NAS8-39073.


text:
# A general statement of the functional equation for the Riemann zeta-function

## 1. Introduction

This is a completely formal exposition. All lemmas and theorems are valid for sufficiently large, dense subspaces of $`:=L_2((0,\mathrm{}),dx)`$. We borrow in toto the notations from my paper on invariant unitary operators . We denote the Mellin transform of $`f`$ by

$$f^{}(s):=_0^{\mathrm{}}x^{s1}f(x)𝑑x,$$

which is at least defined on the critical line as a Cauchy principal value in the $``$-sense.

Following Burnol  denote the Müntz-modified Poisson summation operator by $`P`$, which acts formally on the set of all complex functions $`f`$ on $`(0,\mathrm{})`$ according to

$$Pf(x):=\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f(nx)\frac{1}{x}_0^{\mathrm{}}f(t)𝑑t.$$

The following lemma is obvious:

###### Lemma 1.1.

For any invariant operator $`W`$ we have $`PW=WP`$.

We take for granted the following facts which apply symultaneously to any good function $`f`$.

###### Lemma 1.2 (Müntz’s formula).

$$(Pf)^{}(s)=\zeta (s)f^{}(s),$$

###### Lemma 1.3.

$$(Sf)^{}(s)=f^{}(1s).$$

###### Lemma 1.4.

$$(f)^{}(s)=\varphi (s)f^{}(1s),$$

where

$$\varphi (s):=2^{1s}\pi ^s\mathrm{cos}\frac{\pi s}{2}\mathrm{\Gamma }(s).$$

## 2. General statements of the functional equation

We recall Theorem 2.1 of :

###### Theorem 2.1.

For any skew root $`T`$, and any real-valued generator $`g`$ there is a unique, bounded, invariant operator $`W=𝔚(T,g)`$ with $`Wg=Tg`$. W is unitary and satisfies $`(TW)^2=(WT)^2=I`$, $`W^1=TWT`$.

Why call the following triviality a “theorem” is a question left to the reader. Do note that the operator $`W`$ depends explicitly on $`f`$.

###### Theorem 2.2 (Main identity).

Let $`f`$ be good and suppose that $`Pf`$ is a real valued generator. Let $`T`$ be a skew root and $`W=𝔚(T,Pf)`$. Then

$$TPf=PWf.$$

###### Proof.

Use Theorem 2.1 and the commutativity Lemma 1.1. ∎

We specialize the main identity to give two general statements of the functional equation of the Riemann zeta function.

###### Theorem 2.3 (Functional equation I).

Let $`f`$ be good and suppose that $`Pf`$ is a real valued generator. Let $`W=𝔚(S,Pf)`$ and $`h=Wf`$. Then

(2.1)
$$\zeta (1s)f^{}(1s)=\zeta (s)h^{}(s).$$

###### Proof.

The main identity is now $`SPf=Ph`$, where we apply the Mellin transform using Lemmas 1.2, 1.3. ∎

###### Theorem 2.4 (Functional equation II).

Let $`f`$ be good and suppose that $`Pf`$ is a real valued generator. Let $`W=𝔚(,Pf)`$ and $`h=Wf`$. Then

(2.2)
$$\zeta (1s)\varphi (s)f^{}(1s)=\zeta (s)h^{}(s).$$

###### Proof.

The main identity is now $`Pf=Ph`$, where we apply the Mellin transform using Lemmas 1.2, 1.4. ∎

For an application of Theorem 2.3 choose $`f=\chi `$, then $`Pf(x)=\rho (1/x)`$ and $`W=U`$, so that

$$h(x)=\frac{\mathrm{sin}(2\pi x)}{\pi x}.$$

Therefore

$$f^{}(s)=\frac{1}{s},h^{}(s)=2^{1s}\pi ^s\mathrm{cos}\frac{\pi s}{2}\mathrm{\Gamma }(s1),$$

so (2.1) expresses the functional equation as

$$\frac{\zeta (1s)}{1s}=2^{1s}\pi ^s\mathrm{cos}\frac{\pi s}{2}\mathrm{\Gamma }(s1)\zeta (s).$$

I don’t yet have a genuine application of Theorem 2.4. However let as usual $`M(x):=_{nx}\mu (n),`$ and choose

$$f(x):=M(1/x).$$

I have shown in  that this $`f`$; on the other hand note that $`Pf=\chi `$. So again $`W=𝔚(,Pf)=𝔚(,\chi )=U`$. If one blithely insists on applying the theorem one obtains an intriguing equation from (2.2).

###### Remark 2.1.

Quite frankly I am chagrined that I have not been included other genuine examples. More important perhaps is this question: how does this relate to Burnol’s view of the functional equation in ?

Luis Báez-Duarte
Departamento de Matemáticas
Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas
Apartado 21827, Caracas 1020-A
Venezuela


text:
# The Orbit and Position of the X-ray Pulsar XTE J1855-026 - an Eclipsing Supergiant System

## 1 Introduction

The X-ray source, XTE J1855-026, was discovered during Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) scans along the galactic plane (Corbet et al. 1999; hereafter Paper I) . The source showed pulsations at a period of 361 s and a light curve obtained with RXTE’s All Sky Monitor (ASM) showed modulation at a period of 6.067$`\pm `$ 0.004 days which was interpreted as the orbital period of the system. The X-ray spectrum above $``$3 keV could be fitted with an absorbed power law model with a high-energy cut-off, and an iron emission line at approximately 6.4 keV. These results, in particular the location of the source in the orbital period/spin period diagram (Corbet 1986), were interpreted as indicating that XTE J1855-026 is likely to consist of a neutron star accreting from the wind of an O or B supergiant primary. A less likely interpretation was that XTE J1855-026 is instead a Be/neutron star binary, in which case it would have an unusually short orbital period for such a system.

Here we present the results of observations made with the RXTE Proportional Counter Array (PCA) that were performed over the course of one complete orbital cycle. The observations were performed with the aims of (i) measuring the orbital parameters to determine the X-ray mass function and thus the nature of the primary star, and (ii) determining whether a eclipse is present in the light curve. A system containing a supergiant primary rather than a main-sequence Be star would be much more likely to exhibit an eclipse due to the much greater size of the primary star. We also report on observations made with the imaging detectors onboard the ASCA satellite which enable the source position to be refined. RXTE ASM observations utilizing this improved position and extending over six years allow further refinement of the orbital period. Spectroscopic results from both satellites are not discussed here and will be presented elsewhere.

## 2 Observations

### 2.1 RXTE Observations

In this paper we present the results of observations of XTE J1855-026 that have been made with two of the instruments on board RXTE (Bradt, Rothschild, & Swank 1983): the All Sky-Monitor (ASM) and the Proportional Counter Array (PCA).

The ASM (Levine et al. 1996) consists of three similar Scanning Shadow Cameras, sensitive to X-rays in an energy band of approximately 2-12 keV, which perform sets of 90 second pointed observations (“dwells”) so as to cover $``$80% of the sky every $``$90 minutes. The Crab produces approximately 75 counts/s in the ASM over the entire energy range. Observations of blank field regions away from the Galactic center suggest that background subtraction may produce a systematic uncertainty of about 0.1 counts/s (Remillard & Levine 1997). The ASM light curve of XTE J1855-026 considered here now covers approximately 6 years compared to the less than 3 years reported in Paper I. In addition, the light curve is improved because a new ASM light curve was generated using the improved source position that we determine with ASCA (Section 3.2). Because ASM fluxes are determined using a model fitting procedure which uses cataloged source locations, uncertainties in a source’s position can lead to larger uncertainties in the measured X-ray fluxes. The ASM data were further filtered by excluding all dwells where the modeled background in the lowest energy band was greater than 10 counts/s. This procedure helps to exclude points where the data are contaminated by solar X-rays.

The PCA is described in detail by Jahoda et al. (1996). This detector consists of five, nearly identical, Proportional Counter Units (PCUs) sensitive to X-rays with energies between 2 - 60 keV with a total effective area of $``$6500 cm2. The PCUs each have a multi-anode xenon-filled volume, with a front propane volume which is primarily used for background rejection. The Crab produces 13,000 counts/s for the entire PCA across the complete energy band. The PCA spectral resolution at 6 keV is approximately 18% and the field of view is 1 full width half maximum (FWHM). PCA observations of XTE J1855-026 were obtained over the course of one complete binary orbit in November 1999. Observations were not continuous due to both interruptions because of instrumental constraints such as Earth occultations of the source and passages through the South Atlantic Anomaly when the instruments are not operated, and because observations of other sources were also undertaken during this time. The resulting total exposure time was 150 ks. Due to instrumental problems not all of the PCUs are always operated during an observation and the typical number of PCUs turned on at any one time was three. To give consistency in the analysis presented here we make use of data collected by the two PCUs (numbers 0 and 2) which were always operated. Data extraction, including background subtraction, followed standard procedures. The light curve used in the analysis presented here includes photons in the energy range of approximately 2.5 to 24 keV.

In addition to the ASM and PCA, RXTE also carries the HEXTE experiment (Rothschild et al. 1998) which is sensitive to high energy X-rays in the range of 15 to 250 keV. However, results from this experiment are not presented here as its smaller collecting area, together with the lower source photon flux at higher energies, make HEXTE less useful for pulse timing. HEXTE data will instead be presented together the with PCA and ASCA spectral results.

### 2.2 ASCA Observations

Observations of XTE J1855-026 were made with the ASCA X-ray astronomy satellite (Tanaka, Inoue, & Holt 1994) on 1999 October 14 from 00:21:38 to 11:52:43 and from October 15 15:34:01 to October 15 03:42:01. These observations had durations of 40.3 and 41.5 ks respectively and were timed to coincide with the predicted times of orbital minimum and maximum X-ray flux. ASCA carried four sets of X-ray telescopes, two of which were equipped with solid-state SIS detectors (Burke et al. 1993) and two with Gas Imaging Spectrometer detectors (GIS, Makishima et al. 1996, Ohashi et al. 1996). The intrinsic point spread function of the ASCA mirrors themselves had a core of FWHM 50″ (Jalota, Gotthelf, & Zoonematkermani 1993). This was greatly oversampled by the SISs but the GISs’ own spatial resolution is comparable to the mirror point spread function. For bright sources, positions can be determined to an accuracy of 12″ radius when temperature dependent errors in the attitude solution are compensated for (Gotthelf et al. 2000).

## 3 Results

### 3.1 RXTE

The additional data obtained from the ASM over the more than three years period since the results presented in Corbet et al. (1999) and the improved flux measurement accuracies were used to determine a more precise value for the orbital period. From fitting a sine wave to the orbital modulation a period of 6.0724 $`\pm `$ 0.0009 days is obtained. While this 0.001 day error is the statistical 1$`\sigma `$ error from the $`\chi ^2`$ fitting, it is possible that systematic effects may make the measurement somewhat less accurate than this if, for example, there are systematic effects such as changes in the orbital modulation that are not independent from cycle to cycle. The ASM light curve folded on this period is shown in Figure 1.

The light curve obtained with the PCA is shown in Fig. 2. A clear feature of this light curve is a near total eclipse. During this period the X-ray flux is 1.03 $`\pm `$ 0.01 (statistical) counts/s/PCU. Although eclipse ingress and egress were not observed we can use our light curve to derive limits on the length of the eclipse of 1.63 $`>`$ T $`>`$ 0.42 days. Examination of shorter stretches of the data shows that pulsations are present at all times except during the eclipse. Bright flares can be seen at approximately 3.5$`\times `$105 s after the start of the observation. When these flares are examined in detail (Fig. 3) the flaring maxima appear to occur at the maximum of the pulse profile.

In order to determine the orbital parameters from the pulse arrival times a reiterative procedure was used. An initial pulse template was constructed by folding the PCA light curve on a value for the pulse period obtained from a power spectrum of the entire light curve. The profile was binned into 720 bins thus giving approximately 0.5s time resolution. The light curve was then divided into sections using individual “good time intervals” (i.e. continuous data stretches between Earth occultations, passages through the high particle background regions where the detectors were turned off, and observations of other sources). For each of these intervals a pulse profile was constructed by folding on the estimated period and the relative phase compared to the template was calculated by cross-correlation. An initial circular orbit was then calculated from the relative phase changes. The light curve was then corrected for this orbit and a new sharper pulse template derived. This procedure was performed several times until no significant change in orbital parameters occurred on the next iteration. The resulting mean pulse profile is shown in Fig. 4. This shows that, in addition to an overall quasi-sinusoidal modulation, there are also sharp features in the pulse profile. As long as they are always present, such features aid in obtaining greater precision in the pulse delay curve.

The pulse delay curve is shown in Fig. 5 together with a circular orbit fit. It can be seen that a small number of the pulse delay values (three) show much larger deviations from the orbital fit than do the other points. These points were investigated in more detail but do not show any large difference from the other data points. They have maximum values of the cross-correlation function that are not especially small, and the X-ray flux is not significantly lower or higher than for neighboring data stretches. It is possible that some type of small flare occurred that was not modulated with the usual pulse profile. However, the very large flares that can clearly be seen in the light curve were not accompanied by any anomalous pulse arrival time effects and, for those flares, the usual pulse modulation continued throughout the flares. In Fig. 6 we show all the individual profiles. While pulse profile changes can be seen, the discrepant points do not appear to show obvious peculiarities. Performing orbital fits both with and without these discrepant points does not greatly change the best fit values. However, it does result in much larger errors on the parameters if error bars on individual points are scaled so as to give a reduced $`\chi ^2`$ of 1. The results from fits using both edited and unedited data sets and employing both circular and eccentric orbit models are given in Table 1. As there is no significant detection of an orbital eccentricity (e = 0.04 $`\pm `$ 0.02 for the edited data set) in Figures 1, 2 and 5 where orbital phase is marked we use the circular orbit together with T0 defined as the predicted eclipse center. The resulting pulse period of 360.741 $`\pm `$ 0.002 s is consistent with the value of 361.1 $`\pm `$ 0.4 s found in Paper I. In order to determine the limits on pulse period changes a two step process was necessary because the data only span a single orbit. For all four cases the fits were initially done with $`\dot{P}`$ fixed at zero. Next, $`asini`$ was fixed at the value found from the first fit, and $`\dot{P}`$ was allowed to vary. This process is similar to that used by Clark (2000). Using the circular orbit ephemeris we find the PCA limits on the times of eclipse ingress and egress to be: $`0.138<\varphi _{ingress}<0.033`$, and $`0.036<\varphi _{egress}<0.131`$.

### 3.2 ASCA

From the ASCA observations at orbital maximum a position is found of R.A.= $`18^h55^m31.3^s`$, decl.= $`02`$ 36′ 24.0″ (2000) in SIS-0 and SIS-1, after correcting for the temperature-dependent attitude solution error (Gotthelf et al. 2000) present in the current (revision 2) processing. These coordinates are statistically accurate to about 2.5 SIS pixels (4″). The dominant error, however, is the residual systematic uncertainty in the attitude reconstruction, estimated to be 12” (90% confidence; Gotthelf et al. 2000). The source position as determined from the GIS-2 data, although subject to a larger uncertainty, is consistent with the SIS position. The GIS-3 data are unsuitable for this purpose, as the source was observed very near a window support mesh on this instrument. A finding chart based on this position is shown in Fig. 7 using a red Space Telescope Science Institute Digitized Sky Survey image. While there is no obvious bright candidate within the error circle we note the presence of an object at the NW of the region.

Our new orbital ephemeris shows that the two ASCA observations were obtained during orbital phase ranges of 0.020 - 0.099 (orbital minimum) and 0.288 - 0.372 (orbital maximum). There is no sign of an eclipse egress in the ASCA observations at orbital minimum thus extending the limit on eclipse egress beyond the PCA limit of $`\varphi _{egress}>`$ 0.036 to give combined limits of $`0.099<\varphi _{egress}<0.131`$. The combined PCA and ASCA limits on eclipse ingress and egress are marked on the folded ASM light curve in Figure 1.

In addition to XTE J1855-026, another faint source is detected in the ASCA observations and is most prominent in the observations obtained during the eclipse of XTE J1855-026. The coordinates of this new source are found to be R.A. = $`18^h55^m28.0^s`$, decl. = $`02`$ 32′ 33″ (2000) and the flux is 4 $`\pm `$ 1 $`\times `$ 10-13 ergs cm-2 s-1 (1 - 5 keV). Due to the faintness of this new source (AX J1855.4-0232) the position uncertainty is greater at approximately 1′.

## 4 Discussion

The small residual flux seen by the ASM during the eclipse of XTE J1855-026 (Figure 1) may be interpreted as a systematic measurement error. The residual PCA flux of approximately 1 count/s/PCU corresponds to only $``$0.03 ASM counts/s. This indicates that there is a systematic offset in the ASM fluxes for XTE J1855-026 of about 0.15 ASM counts/s which is consistent with the expected accuracy. A contribution to the PCA and ASM fluxes during eclipse will also occur from AX J1855.4-0232 which is only $``$4′ from XTE J1855-026 and thus not far from the peak of the 1 FWHM PCA collimator response. Evidence for the presence of the eclipse can also be seen in the folded ASM curve but it is difficult to extract eclipse constraints from this because of the low source count rate in the ASM.

The discrepant points in the pulse delay curve may perhaps be caused by brief changes in the pulse profile. However, if this occurred it might be expected to be related to overall flux which does not appear to be the case. We note the presence of a flare at an orbital phase of about 0.5. Although there appears to be no known reason to expect flares at this phase in particular we note that two other supergiant systems have light curves that have exhibited flaring near this orbital phase. These are 2S 0114+650 (Hall et al. 2000) and X 1538-522 (Corbet et al. 1993). However, this small number of examples does not yet give definite evidence that this is a real phase related effect.

If we assume that the eclipse is symmetric around phase 0 for the circular orbit fit then we can obtain somewhat stricter limits on the duration of the eclipse. With this assumption, and the combined ASCA and PCA results, we thus find that the total phase duration of the eclipse is in the range of 0.198 to 0.262, and the corresponding angular half width is 36$`<\theta _e<`$ 47. The lower limit on the eclipse duration implies a minimum radius of the mass donating star of approximately 50 lt-s or 20 R. This radius is consistent with that of a B0I star, comparable with the primaries in other wind-accretion driven high-mass X-ray binaries (Liu, van Paradijs & van den Heuvel 2000). While the orbital period and pulse period are also comparable with parameters measured for similar systems the low orbital eccentricity we find is apparently the lowest known for this class (Bildsten et al. 1997, Clark 2000).

## 5 Conclusion

The light curve and pulse timing orbit clearly show XTE J1855-026 to be a supergiant X-ray binary as predicted in Paper I. With the detection of the eclipse and timing measurements over an entire orbit the system parameters can now be determined. Future pulse timing observations would enable a search for orbital period changes as seen in some other high mass X-ray binaries (e.g. Clark 2000, Levine, Rappaport, & Zojcheski 2000, and references therein).

If an optical or IR counterpart could be found and its radial velocity orbit measured this would be valuable as the system would then be a “double-lined” eclipsing binary and the neutron star mass could be directly determined. While the optical reddening to this object implied by the measured X-ray absorption is high (NH = 15$`\times `$1022 cm-2 $``$ E(B-V) = 24, Paper I) at least some of this absorption may be local to the X-ray source rather than genuinely interstellar. Tighter constraints on the eclipse duration will also be valuable in obtaining precise measurements of the system parameters.

We thank R.A. Remillard for producing the revised ASM light curve. This paper made use of the Digitized Sky Survey produced at the Space Telescope Science Institute.

Figure Captions