text:
# Left-Handed Surface Waves in a Photonic Structure

## 1 Introduction

Left-handed materials (LHMs)  with negative magnetic permeability $`\mu `$ and dielectric permittivity $`ϵ`$ have recently attracted a great deal of attention because of their promise for developing novel lenses and low reflectance surfaces . LHMs have a negative refractive index, which implies that the phase and group velocities of the propagating electromagnetic wave oppose each other. This property of LHMs is responsible for their anomalous physical behavior: reversed sign of the Doppler effect and counter-intuitive refraction at the interface with the ”normal” (right-handed) media .

Since materials with negative refraction index do not naturally occur, they have to be artificially constructed. An LHM in the microwave frequency band was recently constructed as an array consisting of metal rods and split-ring resonators . Using the same strategy for designing LHMs at much shorter wavelengths (e. g., in the infrared part of the spectrum) may prove challenging. Here I describe a new idea of making a LHM photonic structure by utilizing surface waves at the interfaces of dielectrics with opposing signs of $`ϵ`$. Left-handedness of such structures is due to the existence of the surface waves at the vacuum/dielectric interfaces. Practical implementation of such photonic structures at a micron scale is encouraged by the availability of low-loss dielectrics and semiconductors with negative $`ϵ`$, including many polar crystals such as SiC, LiTaO3, LiF, and ZnSe. The frequency-dependent dielectric permittivity of these crystals, given by the approximate formula  $`ϵ(\omega )=ϵ_{\mathrm{}}(\omega ^2\omega _L^2)/(\omega ^2\omega _T^2),`$ is negative for $`\omega _T<\omega <\omega _L`$. Note that $`ϵ(\omega )`$ reduces to that of the free electron gas for $`ϵ_{\mathrm{}}=1`$ and $`\omega _T=0`$.

In Section 2 I review the properties of surface waves in a single waveguide (SW) with $`ϵ_c<0`$ cladding shown in Fig. 1(a), derive the effective dielectric permittivity $`ϵ_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and magnetic permeability $`\mu _{\mathrm{eff}}`$, and demonstrate that the phase and group velocities of the surface waves can oppose each other. Waveguide with silicon carbide (SiC) cladding is used as an example of a medium which supports left-handed surface phonons.

In Section 3 the triangular lattice photonic waveguide (TLPW) shown in Fig. 1(b) is found to be a perfectly isotropic LHM for small wavenumbers $`k_{x,y}\pi /d`$, where $`d`$ is the lattice periodicity. The triangular cladding regions shown in Fig. 1(b) are assumed to have $`ϵ=1\omega _p^2/\omega ^2`$ with the frequency dependence of a free electron gas. In this example, vacuum/cladding interfaces support left-handed surface plasmons. Recently , it has been suggested that the group velocity in LHMs is not aligned with the phase velocity, making the perfect lens  impossible. I demonstrate that this is not the case even for an artificially constructed LHM such as the TLPW.

## 2 Single waveguide with negative $`ϵ`$ cladding

To illustrate how a negative $`\mu `$ can be mimicked in a single waveguide, consider electromagnetic wave propagation in the horizontal ($`x`$) direction assuming a piecewise constant dielectric constant: $`ϵ=1`$ in the vacuum channel (for $`b<y<b`$) and $`ϵ=ϵ_c<0`$ inside the cladding (for $`|y|>b`$). The goal is to explain how the energy can flow in the negative $`x`$direction (and so $`\omega /k_x<0`$) whereas the phase velocity $`\omega /k_x>0`$. Consider a confined transverse magnetic (TM) wave with non-vanishing components $`(E_x,E_y,H_z)\mathrm{exp}i(k_xx\omega t)`$ such that $`E_y=H_z=_yH_z=0`$ at midplane $`y=0`$. Since we are interested in the wave propagation along $`x`$, introduce integrated over the transverse direction $`y`$ quantities

$$\stackrel{~}{E}_{x,y}=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑yE_{x,y},\stackrel{~}{H}_z=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑yH_z.$$

From Faraday’s and Ampere’s laws, assuming that $`E_x(x\mathrm{})=0`$ and integrating by parts, obtain, correspondingly, $`_x\stackrel{~}{E}_y=i\omega \mu _{\mathrm{eff}}\stackrel{~}{H}_z/c`$ and $`_x\stackrel{~}{H}_z=i\omega ϵ_{\mathrm{eff}}\stackrel{~}{E}_y/c`$, where the effective dielectric permittivity and magnetic permeability of the waveguide are defined as follows:

$$ϵ_{\mathrm{eff}}=\frac{1}{\stackrel{~}{E}_y}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑yϵE_y,\mu _{\mathrm{eff}}=1+\frac{ic}{\omega }\frac{E_x(y=0)}{\stackrel{~}{H}_z}.$$
(1)
The definition of the weight-averaged $`ϵ`$ is intuitive, and $`\mu _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ is defined so as to eliminate the longitudinal component of the electric field $`E_x`$ which does not contribute to the power flow along the waveguide. For $`k_x>0`$ note that $`E_y`$ and $`B_z`$ are, on average, out of phase if $`\mu _{\mathrm{eff}}<0`$, making the wave left-handed. The resulting dispersion relation is $`k_x^2c^2/\omega ^2=\mu _{\mathrm{eff}}ϵ_{\mathrm{eff}}`$. Therefore, $`ϵ_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and $`\mu _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ must be of the same sign for a propagating wave. The propagating mode is left-handed if $`\mu _{\mathrm{eff}}<0,ϵ_{\mathrm{eff}}<0`$, necessitating that the dielectric constant of the cladding be negative.

$`ϵ_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and $`\mu _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ are calculated by solving the eigenvalue equation for $`H_z`$:

$$\frac{}{x}\left(\frac{1}{ϵ}\frac{H_z}{x}\right)+\frac{}{y}\left(\frac{1}{ϵ}\frac{H_z}{y}\right)=\frac{\omega ^2}{c^2}H_z,$$
(2)
where $`_x=ik_x`$. As an example, consider silicon carbide (SiC) cladding with $`ϵ_{\mathrm{}}=6.7`$, $`\omega _L=182.7\times 10^{12}\mathrm{s}^1`$, and $`\omega _T=149.5\times 10^{12}\mathrm{s}^1`$ . SiC has a stopband (region of negative $`ϵ`$) in the far infrared, $`10.3<\lambda <12.6\mu `$m. The dispersion relation and the corresponding $`ϵ_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and $`\mu _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ are plotted in Fig. 2(a,b) for a SW with the vacuum gap width $`2b=c/\omega _p`$. The propagating surface mode in a SW exhibits left-handedness: it’s group velocity $`v_g=\omega /k<0`$ is negative, and so are $`\mu _{\mathrm{eff}}<0`$ and $`ϵ_{\mathrm{eff}}<0`$. The cutoff at $`\omega =0.993\omega _L`$ is caused by the vanishing of the $`\mu _{\mathrm{eff}}`$.

Why is $`v_g<0`$ despite $`v_{\mathrm{ph}}=\omega /k>0`$? The total Poynting flux $`P_x=cE_yH_z/4\pi `$ along the dielectric waveguide is the sum of the fluxes inside the cladding and in the vacuum gap. In the gap, $`E_y`$ and $`H_z`$ are in phase, so $`P_x>0`$. Inside the cladding $`E_y`$ reverses its sign across the vacuum/cladding interface because $`ϵ_c<0`$ (continuity of $`D_y=ϵE_y`$). Because $`H_z`$ is continuous across the interface, $`P_x<0`$ in the cladding. For a narrow gap, the integrated Poynting flux is negative. Note that not any surface wave is left-handed. Achieving left-handedness requires that (a) the frequency of the mode lie within the stopband of the cladding, (b) there are two interfaces, and (c) the vacuum gap between the interfaces is small. In the case of SiC cladding, the left-handed waves are surface phonons.

## 3 Triangular Lattice Photonic Waveguide

The single waveguide example was used to explain the emergence of left-handedness of the surface waves, and to derive the necessary conditions (a-c) for their existence. The objective of this paper is to construct an isotropic photonic medium capable of transmitting left-handed waves in all directions. This is accomplished by constructing a Triangular Lattice Photonic Waveguide (TLPW) which consists of the triangular pieces of dielectric cladding arranged in a triangular lattice, as shown in Fig. 1(b). We assume that the dielectric permittivity of the cladding is the same as that of a free electron gas: $`ϵ_c=1\omega _p^2/\omega ^2`$.

Every propagating wave in the TLPW is characterized by its wavenumber $`\stackrel{}{k}_{}=k_x\stackrel{}{e}_x+k_y\stackrel{}{e}_y`$, and can be represented as $`H_z=\stackrel{~}{H}\mathrm{exp}i\stackrel{}{k}_{}\stackrel{}{x}`$. Here $`\stackrel{~}{H}`$ is periodic on the boundaries of the elementary cell of the triangular lattice shown as an equilateral parallelogram in Fig. 3. For each value of $`\stackrel{}{k}_{}`$ Eq. (2) is solved for its eigenvalues using a commercial finite elements code FEMLAB , yielding the dispersion relation $`\omega `$ v. s. $`\stackrel{}{k}_{}`$. The local $`\stackrel{}{P}(x,y)=c\stackrel{}{E}\times \stackrel{}{H}/4\pi `$ and cell-averaged $`\stackrel{}{P}_{\mathrm{av}}=\stackrel{}{P}(x,y)`$ Poynting fluxes are computed for each solution.

Simulations results indicate that TLPW is perfectly isotropic for small $`\stackrel{}{k}`$ well inside the Brillouin zone. The elementary cell of the TLPW and the dispersion relation $`\omega `$ v. s. $`\stackrel{}{k}`$ for two orthogonal directions of $`\stackrel{}{k}=\stackrel{}{e}_{x,y}k`$ are shown in Fig. 3. The two dispersion curves, which are identical for $`|\stackrel{}{k}|\pi /d`$ (establishing the isotropy), are drawn to the respective edges of the Brillouin zone: $`0<k_xd<2\pi /3`$ and $`0<k_yd<2\pi /\sqrt{3}`$ .

These two directions are chosen because they exhibit the maximum possible anisotropy. Indeed, for $`\stackrel{}{k}=k\stackrel{}{e}_x`$ there exists a vacuum/cladding interface along which the electromagnetic energy can flow in $`x`$direction, Fig. 4(b). No such interface exists for $`\stackrel{}{k}=k\stackrel{}{e}_y`$, Fig. 4(a). Thus, the local Poynting flux patterns are very different for these two directions, as can be seen by comparing Figs. 4(a,b). For the parameters of Fig. (4), $`k=d^1\pi /6`$, the index of refraction is $`n=ck/\omega =0.2`$. Index of refraction can be readily tuned in both directions by adjusting the parameters of the TLPW: periodicity $`d`$ and channel width $`2b`$.

Despite the differences in the flow patterns, the cell-integrated fluxes $`\stackrel{}{P}_{\mathrm{av}}`$ are identical for all directions of $`\stackrel{}{k}`$, and so are the frequencies: $`\omega =0.86\omega _p`$. Numerical results unambiguously confirm that, for small $`|\stackrel{}{k}|`$, phase and group velocities exactly oppose each other. At least for this particular LHM, the claim of Valanju et. al.   that $`\alpha =\mathrm{}(\stackrel{}{v}_{\mathrm{ph}},\stackrel{}{v}_\mathrm{g})\pi `$ is not confirmed. Anisotropy for large $`|\stackrel{}{k}|`$ is merely the consequence of the periodicity of the photonic structure.

In conclusion, it was demonstrated that surface waves (phonons or plasmons) at the interface of dielectrics with opposing signs of the dielectric permittivity $`ϵ`$ can be left-handed. An isotropic composite medium which has a negative refraction index with respect to such waves can be constructed as a photonic structure.


format: text

text:
# Heavy quasiparticles in the ferromagnetic superconductor ZrZn2

## Abstract

We report a study of the de Haas-van Alphen effect in the normal state of the ferromagnetic superconductor ZrZn2. Our results are generally consistent with an LMTO band structure calculation which predicts four exchange-split Fermi surface sheets. Quasiparticle effective masses are enhanced by a factor of about 4.9 implying a strong coupling to magnetic excitations or phonons. Our measurements provide insight in to the mechanism for superconductivity and unusual thermodynamic properties of ZrZn2.

The recent reports of the coexistence of ferromagnetism and superconductivity in UGe2 Saxena00 , ZrZn2 Pfleiderer01a , URhGe aoki01  as well as the discovery of superconductivity in the non-magnetic hcp phase of Fe under pressure shimizu01  have reopened the debate regarding the relationship of magnetism and superconductivity. Motivated by the case of liquid 3He, the search for superconductivity mediated by spin fluctuations in nearly magnetic materials has a long history berk66\_fay80 . The observation of superconductivity in the ferromagnetic phase of ZrZn2 Pfleiderer01a  (as well as UGe2 and URhGe) together with the extreme sensitivity of its occurrence to sample purity Pfleiderer01a ; Mackenzie98 , make it a strong candidate for magnetically mediated and spin-triplet superconductivity, as is believed to exist in Sr2RuO4 ishida98 ; Mackenzie98 , although other scenarios are not excluded Singh02 .

A detailed knowledge of the electronic structure of ZrZn2 is crucial to the understanding of both its normal and superconducting properties. Thus we report here a detailed study of the Fermi surface (FS) made using angle-resolved measurements of the de Haas-van Alphen effect (dHvA). Our results are compared with an *ab-initio* electronic structure calculation. We observe much of calculated Fermi surface which consists of four exchange-split sheets. Our study shows that ZrZn2 is characterized by a large quasiparticle density-of-states (DOS) at the Fermi energy in the ferromagnetic state, which arises partly from the band structure and partly from a large mass enhancement.

ZrZn2 has many unusual properties. Below $`T_{\mathrm{FM}}=28.5`$ K it becomes ferromagnetic with an ordered moment of $`0.17\mu _B`$ per formula unit at low temperatures ($`T=2`$ K). The intrinsic moment is unsaturated, with an applied magnetic field of 6 Tesla causing a 50% increase. Compared with other $`d`$-band metals, it has an extremely large electronic heat capacity at low temperatures $`C/T`$ = 47 mJK-2 mol-1. ZrZn2 crystallizes in the C15 cubic Laves structure, with lattice constant $`a=7.393`$ Å, the Zr atoms forming a tetrahedrally co-ordinated diamond structure. Its magnetic properties derive from the Zr 4$`d`$ orbitals, which have a significant direct overlap.

Interest in ZrZn2 has been rekindled by the discovery that it is superconducting at ambient pressure and that both the superconductivity and ferromagnetism are simultaneously destroyed by the application of hydrostatic pressure. For the samples considered here, the onset temperature for the superconductivity is $`T_{\mathrm{SC}}0.6`$ K with $`B_{\mathrm{c2}}0.9`$ T. The most striking feature of ZrZn2, UGe2 and URhGe is perhaps that the *same* electrons are thought to participate both to superconductivity and ferromagnetism, in contrast with the situation in other “magnetic” superconductors e.g. borocarbides, RuSr2GdCu2O8 Canfield98\_Felner97 , where the magnetism and superconductivity occur in different parts of the unit cell. Furthermore, ZrZn2 is a three-dimensional intermetallic compound in which the itineracy of the $`d`$-electrons is almost unquestionable, whereas some doubts remain about that of the 5$`f`$ electrons and roles of the strong magnetocrystalline anisotropy and quasi-two-dimensional electronic structure in UGe2 and URhGe.

The dHvA effect is due to the quantization of the cyclotron motion of charge carriers and results in a magnetization, $`M_{\mathrm{osc}}`$, which oscillates with magnetic field, $`𝐁`$. We interpret our results using the Lifshitz-Kosevich expression Shoenberg84  in which each extremal area $`A`$ of a FS sheet perpendicular to $`\widehat{𝐁}`$ gives a contribution to the oscillatory magnetization,

$$M_{\mathrm{osc}}B^{\frac{1}{2}}R_DR_T\mathrm{sin}\left(\frac{2\pi F}{B}+\gamma \right),$$
(1)
where $`F(\widehat{𝐁})=(\mathrm{}/2\pi e)A(\widehat{𝐁})`$. $`R_D`$ and $`R_T`$ are the Dingle and temperature damping factors, respectively. The temperature dependence of $`M_{\mathrm{osc}}`$ yields the cyclotron mass, $`m^{}`$, through $`R_T=X/\mathrm{sinh}X`$ where $`X=2\pi ^2k_BT/\mathrm{}\omega _c`$ and $`\omega _c=eB/m^{}`$. This mass includes all many-body renormalizations and is related to the corresponding orbit through,

$$m^{}=\frac{\mathrm{}}{2\pi }_{\mathrm{FS}\mathrm{orbit}}\frac{dk}{v_F}.$$
(2)
The quasiparticle lifetime, $`\tau `$, and the mean-free-path, $`l`$, can be determined on each orbit via the field-dependent factor $`R_D=\mathrm{exp}(\pi m_b/eB\tau )`$. Eq. (1) shows no “spin-splitting factor” Shoenberg84  since in a ferromagnet, spin-split sheets of the FS are resolved separately.

The dHvA magnetization was measured using a standard low-frequency field-modulation technique. Data were collected using a top-loading dilution refrigerator equipped with a 13.5 T magnet reaching temperatures as low as 30 mK and with a 3He system equipped with an 18 T magnet. High-quality samples ($`\rho _0`$=0.6 $`\mu \mathrm{\Omega }`$cm) were prepared by directional cooling of a ZrZn2 melt contained in an Y2O3 crucible inside a tantalum bomb growth\_zrzn2 .

We performed angle-resolved dHvA measurements for fields applied perpendicular to the $`[001]`$ and $`[1\overline{1}0]`$ directions. Fig. 1(a) shows a typical Fourier transform of our dHvA data collected for $`\widehat{𝐁}`$ close to . The spectrum is dominated by the low frequencies $`F_\alpha =1.42`$ kT and $`F_\beta =1.60`$ kT and their harmonics. These frequencies have been previously assigned to an exchange-split pocket of the Fermi surface centered on the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ point of the Brillouin zone \[see Fig. 2(a)\]. The frequency difference $`F_\alpha F_\beta `$ is a measure of the ferromagnetic exchange splitting in ZrZn2. In addition to $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$, we also observe a number of closely spaced frequencies in the range 1.6 – 2.5 kT ($`\eta `$, $`\kappa `$, $`\theta `$, $`\lambda `$, $`\mu `$, and $`\gamma `$) and a strong component ($`F_\nu `$) near near 3.2 kT. Some frequency branches ($`\mu `$ and $`\gamma `$) appear as multiplets. In all, our study revealed 17 frequency branches, whose angular dependence is shown in Fig. 1(b). Our results are in good agreement with previous dHvA studies of ZrZn2 in which the $`\alpha `$, $`\beta `$ and $`\nu `$ branches were observed dHva\_zrzn2 . In addition to extremal FS areas, the temperature dependence of the dHvA amplitude enables the determination of the cyclotron effective mass corresponding to each orbit (see Table 1) from the factor $`R_T`$ in Eq. (1).

In order to understand our results we performed self-consistent spin-polarized band structure calculations using the LMTO method within the local-spin-density approximation (LSDA) Santi01 . We obtained a relaxed lattice constant, $`a=7.223`$ Å and a magnetic moment, $`\mu =0.18`$ $`\mu _B`$/Zr in excellent agreement with the measured one (of 0.17 $`\mu _B`$/Zr Pfleiderer01a ). Our calculation agrees well with others in the literature bands\_zrzn2 ; Singh02 . The resulting FS and DOS are shown in Fig. 2. The angular dependence of the dHvA frequencies \[see Fig. 1(c)\] imposes strong constraints on the possible topologies of the FS and is therefore an important tool in verifying the validity of the calculated FS. The cyclotron band mass for each extremal orbit (see Table 1) is obtained from the relation $`m_b=(\mathrm{}^2/2\pi )\left(A/E\right)_{E_F}`$ by numerical differentiation with a $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ of 0.5 mRy.

The *ab-initio* calculated FS appears to reproduce the essential topology of the observed one. We assign $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ to the spin-split spherical FS sheet $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{30}`$ as in previous studies dHva\_zrzn2 . The complex of branches observed near  including $`\gamma `$, $`\eta `$, $`\theta `$, $`\kappa `$, $`\lambda `$ and $`\mu `$ appears to be due to orbits associated with the X-centered “pillow” features of band 27. Both spin $``$ and $``$ FS sheets show this feature, thus there are pairs of exchange-split branches such as $`\theta `$ and $`\gamma `$ and $`(\eta ,\kappa )`$ and $`(\lambda ,\mu )`$. The $`\theta `$-branch is probably obscured by the strong $`\alpha `$ branch near the  direction, only allowing detection near . Another prominent feature of the rotation plot is the $`\nu `$ branch which has a minimum frequency for $`𝐁`$ $``$ . Some branches, e.g. $`\mu `$ and $`\gamma `$ \[Fig. 1(a)\], show small splittings which could arise from extremely small corrugations in the FS or a small misalignment of the sample. The $`\nu `$ branch is a signature of the neck around the L point in the  direction and is in excellent quantitative agreement with the neck for the minority spin ($``$) of band 28. Although three sheets of the FS are predicted to have necks along the  directions (orbits L28,↓, L28,↑, L29,↓) only one neck-like branch is observed experimentally. The most likely reason is that the higher masses of the L28,↑ and L29,↓ orbits (see Table 1) make the signals too weak to be resolved.

The topology of sheet 28 ($``$ and $``$ spin) is reminiscent of the FS of Cu copper\_FS . Thus, we expect to see the other orbits seen in Cu. The $`\delta `$ and $`ϵ`$ orbits near $`𝐁[110]`$ (X28,↑ and X28,↓) correspond to the “dog bone” in Cu. We identify the $`\pi `$ and $`\rho `$ branches as the $`W_{28,}`$ and $`W_{28,}`$ calculated orbits and as the “four-cornered rosette” orbits in Cu for fields $`𝐁[001]`$copper\_FS . These orbits connect the  necks in neighboring Brillouin zones and are shown in Fig. 2(a). The low-frequency $`\xi `$ branch appears to be due to the $`W_{27,}`$. Finally, the $`\sigma `$ branch appears to be due to either the rosette-type orbit $`W_{29,}`$ of sheet 29 or an extension of the X27,↑ branch to  which may occur with a small energy shift of band 27. Our calculation overestimates the size of the “dog bone” and “rosette” orbits on sheets 28 and 29. We note that because all these orbits are related to the necks, both frequencies would be decreased if these bands were lowered relative to $`E_F`$ or if the necks opened out more rapidly along  than the calculation predicts.

We now consider the mass enhancement of the quasiparticles in ZrZn2. Comparison of the measured and calculated cyclotron masses shows that the mass enhancements $`m^{}/m_b=1+\lambda `$ are in the range of about 2–5 for $`B=9.2`$ T. The linear term of the specific heat $`\gamma `$ shows a strong field dependence, $`\gamma =35`$ mJ mol-1K-2 for $`B=9.2`$ T and 47 mJ mol-1K-2 for $`B=0`$ Pfleiderer01b , thus we expect $`m^{}`$ to be field dependent. Comparing the measured $`\gamma `$ for $`B`$=9.2 T with $`\gamma _{\mathrm{calc}}=(\pi ^2/3)k_B^2N_{\mathrm{tot}}(E_F)=9.6`$ mJ mol-1K-2 NF\_tot  we find an average mass enhancement $`m^{}/m_b=3.7`$ which is in the center of the range observed by dHvA. If we make the same calculation for $`B=0`$, we find $`m^{}/m_b=4.9`$. To our knowledge, no other alloy of 3$`d`$-band metals shows a mass enhancements close to these. Palladium which is is often taken as an example of a system with strong spin fluctuations has an enhancement of about two.

Table 2 summarizes the important parameters for some FS orbits in ZrZn2. The measured Fermi velocity and cyclotron mass include the effects of electron correlations. The quasiparticle lifetime and mean-free-path,$`l`$, are determined from the Dingle factor $`R_D`$. It is interesting to note that $`l`$ 1500–2800 Å is considerably larger that the superconducting coherence length $`\xi 270`$ Å in this superconducting sample allowing the possibility of unconventional superconductive pairing Mackenzie98 .

It is interesting to compare the properties of ZrZn2 with other $`d`$-band ferromagnets. Fig. 2(b) shows the paramagnetic DOS for ZrZn2. The Fermi level, $`E_F`$, lies in a region where the DOS is large due to the $`4d`$ Zr band. Also shown on Fig. 2(b) are the relative shifts of $`E_F`$ for both spins in the ferromagnetic state. The small exchange splitting ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ 70 meV) of ZrZn2 means that the Fermi levels for both spins remain in the high DOS region giving ZrZn2 its unusually large DOS in the ferromagnetic state in contrast with Fe and Ni (Table 3). In the “stronger” ferromagnets, $`N_{\mathrm{tot}}(ϵ_F)`$ is considerably less in part due to the larger exchange splitting moving $`E_F`$ for one of the spin out of the $`d`$-band. A high density DOS at the Fermi energy generally favors superconductivity so this may be a key factor in understanding the superconductivity in this material.

In summary, we have used angle-resolved dHvA measurements to characterize the Fermi surface of the ferromagnetic superconductor ZrZn2. Our observations are in good agreement with an ab-initio LSDA band structure calculation and shed light on some of the unique properties of ZrZn2. We find that ZrZn2 has a very large DOS at $`E_F`$ compared to other $`d`$-band ferromagnets both because of the presence of several large sheets of FS and because the Fermi levels for both majority and minority spins lie in the Zr $`d`$-band in the ferromagnetic state. Further, the fermion quasiparticles are strongly enhanced with an average mass enhancement of about 4.9. This value is large for materials containing only $`d`$-band metallic elements and comparable with that found in the oxide system Sr2RuO4 Mackenzie96 . The presence of the high density of quasiparticles naturally explain the very large electronic heat capacity observed in ZrZn2 and also explains the unsaturated magnetic moment (or large intrinsic magnetic susceptibility) in the ferromagnetic state. Finally, the high quasiparticle DOS will favor superconductivity.

We are grateful to N.R. Bernhoeft, B. L. Györffy, G.G. Lonzarich, Zs. Major, C. Pfleiderer and J. B. Staunton for their help with this work. Support from the EPSRC, the Swiss National Science Foundation (GS) and the Royal Society (PJM and SBD) is also acknowledged.


text:
# Scale-free Networks without Growth or Preferential Attachment: Good get Richer.

\[

## Abstract

A new mechanism leading to scale-free networks is proposed in this letter. It is shown that in many cases of interest, the connectivity power-law behavior is neither related to dynamical properties nor to preferential attachment. Instead, we show that without increasing the number of vertices in time and without applying the so called “rich-get-richer” condition we obtain networks whose statistical properties are scale-free. Assigning a quenched fitness value $`x_i`$ to every vertex, and drawing links among vertices with a probability depending on the fitnesses of the two involved sites, gives rise to what we call a “good-get-richer” mechanism, in which sites with larger fitness are more likely to become hubs (i.e., to be highly connected). This procedure generates power-law behaviors for various fitness distributions and attaching rules.

\]

Complex networks are attracting much interest as one of the most promising tools to describe a large variety of social , biological , and technological systems, as the Internet or the World Wide Web (WWW) . Networks are abstract mathematical objects composed by vertices (sites) connected by arcs (links). In the aforementioned examples, vertices can represent people, proteins, species, routers or html documents, while arcs correspond to acquaintances, physical interactions, predation relationships, cable connections or hyperlinks respectively. In recent developments, Scale Free (SF) networks, have emerged in many different contexts, as the WWW, the Internet, e-mail and scientific-citation networks, protein and gene interaction networks, etc, and have become paradigmatic . In all these examples, the degree $`k`$ of a vertex, i.e. the number of arcs linking it to other vertices, is power-law distributed, $`P(k)k^\gamma `$. SF networks also present the, so called, small-world phenomenon , that is, by few selected jumps (that can be either short- and long range) it is possible to reach very different regions of the system and apparently distant environments.

To understand how SF networks arise, the concepts of growing networks and of preferential attachment have been introduced . In particular, in the best known SF network model, i.e. the Barabási-Albert (BA) one, networks grow at a constant rate (modeling the fact that new Web pages are continuously created, new proteins emerge by mutation, and so forth), and new vertices are attached to older ones with a probability $`p(k)`$ which is a (linearly ) growing function of the number of preexisting links, $`k`$, at every site. In this way, a highly connected vertex is more likely to receive further links from newly arriving vertices: this is the so-called ”rich get richer” rule.

In some other, recently proposed, models of protein interaction networks  and of the WWW, new vertices (proteins and Web pages respectively) are added by copying (replicating) existing vertices, borrowing some of their links and adding some new others. It has been shown that this mechanism leads also to an effective preferential attachment mechanism.

Yet, although in some contexts preferential attachment can be a very reasonable assumption, in many others it is certainly not. In particular, in some situations, the information about the degree of each and every single vertex is not available to newly added sites, neither in a direct nor in an effective way. Instead, it is reasonable that two vertices are connected when the link creates a mutual benefit (here we restrict ourselves to bidirectional links) depending on some of their intrinsic properties (authoritativeness, friendship, social success, scientific relevance, interaction strength, etc). Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that for some of these systems the $`P(k)`$ scale free behavior (when existing) has an origin unrelated to preferential attachment.

In order to explore this simple idea, we propose the following network-building algorithm:

* Start by creating a total (large) number $`N`$ of vertices. At every vertex $`i`$ a fitness $`x_i`$, which is a real number measuring its importance or rank, is assigned. Fitnesses are random numbers taken from a given probability distribution $`\rho (x)`$.
* For every couple of vertices, $`i,j`$, a link is drawn with a probability $`f(x_i,x_j)`$ ($`f`$ a symmetric function of its arguments) depending on the “importance” of both vertices, i.e. on $`x_i,x_j`$.

Some remarks are in order before proceeding further:

i) The concept of “vertex-importance” or fitness has been already introduced successfully in the field of complex networks, but as an additional ingredient on top of the BA network . Contrarily, here we put the emphasis on fitness itself, by eliminating the preferential attachment rule. ii) A trivial realization of the above rules is the standard Erdős Rényi model , where $`f(x_i,x_j)`$ is constant and equal to $`p`$ for all vertex couples. This particular choice does not produce SF networks, but in what follows we will show that other realizations of the general rules do so. iii) The model, as defined, is static, but it can be straightforwardly be considered a dynamic one by adding new vertices at every time step and linking them to the existing ones according to the above attaching rule. iv) It is also easy to generalize the model to include asymmetric or directed links. v) A somehow similar static model was studied by Goh et. al. .

A general expression for $`P(k)`$ can be easily derived. Indeed, the mean degree of a vertex of fitness $`x`$ is simply

$$k(x)=N_0^{\mathrm{}}f(x,y)\rho (y)𝑑y=NF(x)$$
(1)
(with $`x_i(0,\mathrm{})`$). Assuming $`F(x)`$ to be a monotonous function of $`x`$, and for large enough N, we have the simple relation

$$P(k)=\rho \left[F^1\left(\frac{k}{N}\right)\right]\frac{d}{dk}F^1\left(\frac{k}{N}\right).$$
(2)
For finite values of $`N`$ corrections to this equation emerge . As a particular example, consider $`f(x_i,x_j)=(x_ix_j)/x_M^2`$ where $`x_M`$ is the largest value of $`x`$ in the network. Then

$$k(x)=\frac{Nx}{x_M^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}y\rho (y)𝑑y=N\frac{<x>x}{x_M^2}$$
(3)
and we have the simple relation

$$P(k)=\frac{x_M^2}{N<x>}\rho \left(\frac{x_M^2}{N<x>}k\right).$$
(4)
A particularly simple realization of the model emerges if we consider power-law distributed fitnesses. This choice can be naturally justified by arguing that power-laws appear rather generically in many contexts when one ranks, for example, people according to their incomes or cities according to their population, etc. This is the so-called Zipf law which establishes that the rank $`R(x)`$ behaves as $`R(x)x^\alpha `$ in a quite universal fashion . The reason for the ubiquitous presence of the Zipf law yields on the multiplicative nature of the intrinsic fluctuations which generically leads to flat distributions in logarithmic space and, consequently, to power-laws .

Clearly, if $`\rho (x)x^\beta `$ (Zipf’s behavior, with $`\beta =1+1/\alpha `$ ) then, using eq.(4), also the degree distribution $`P(k)`$ is a power-law and the network shows SF behavior. In Fig.1 we show the degree distributions from simulations with $`\beta =2.5,3,4`$ (corresponding to Zipf exponents $`\alpha =2/3,1/2,1/3`$); the asymptotic behavior is, in all cases, well described by eq.(4). This result is hardly surprising: from SF fitnesses we generate SF networks, but still it provides a new generic path to SF networks and takes into account the widespread occurrence of the Zipf’s behavior in nature. In order to extend this result and check whether SF networks can be generated even when $`\rho (x)`$ is not SF itself, we consider an exponential distribution of fitnesses, $`\rho (x)=e^x`$ (representing a random, Poisson distribution) and $`f(x_i,x_j)=\theta (x_i+x_jz)`$, where $`\theta (x)`$ is the usual Heaviside step function. This represents processes where two vertices are linked only if the sum of their fitnesses is larger than a given threshold $`z(N)`$. Using these rules we obtain analytically (and confirm in computer simulations) that $`P(k)k^2`$ . This leads to the non-trivial result that even non scale-free fitness distributions can generate scale-free networks (see Fig.2). Also different implementations of the threshold rule, such as $`f(x_i,x_j)=\theta (x_i^n+x_j^nz^n)`$ (where $`n`$ is an integer number) give rise to the same inverse square behavior (although, in some cases, with logarithmic corrections).

In a future publication we will explore, in a more systematic way, the necessary and sufficient conditions for the fitness distribution and attaching rule under which well-behaved SF networks are generated.

Let us stress that the model, as defined, has a diverging average connectivity in the large N limit, as can be easily inferred from Eq.(1); i.e. it is severely accelerated . Nevertheless we can introduce in a rather natural way an upper cut-off accounting for the fact that every site has a limited information on the rest of the world and, therefore, connection is attempted with a finite number, $`m`$, of different sites. Alternatively, vertices can be linked with the above rule and, after that, links are kept with probability $`p`$ (so that, for example, $`pN=m`$). By including this modification, the $`N`$ factor in Eq.(1), is substituted by $`m`$, and the connectivity is finite in the thermodynamic limit. In order to generate different accelerated networks (with the averaged connectivity not reaching a stationary value but growing with $`N`$ in different possible ways ) other selection rules can be easily implemented.

To have a more extensive picture of the nature of the networks under consideration, we have studied the following topological properties , interest in which has been triggered by recent studies on the Internet structure :

* The average distance $`<d>`$, measuring the average minimum number of arcs needed to connect two given sites.
* The average neighbor connectivity $`k_{nn}(k)`$, measuring the average degree of vertices neighbor of a k-degree vertex.
* The clustering coefficient $`c(k)`$ that measures the degree of interconnectivity of nearest neighbors of k-degree vertices. More specifically the clustering coefficient $`c_i`$ of a vertex $`i`$, whose degree is $`k_i`$, is the ratio between the number of edges $`e_i`$ in the subgraph identified by its neighbors and the maximum possible number of edges in the subgraph. That is $`c_i=2e_i/k_i(k_i1)`$ . $`c(k)`$ is obtained by averaging $`c_i`$ for all vertices with fixed degree $`k`$.
* The probability distribution of the betweenness, $`b_i`$, defined as the total number of minimum paths between any couple of vertices in the network passing through vertex $`i`$ . This quantity gives a measure of the amount of traffic passing through a vertex. We studied, as in the aforementioned papers, both the probability distribution $`P(b)`$ and its first moment $`<b>/N`$.

Computer simulations of our model show that networks with power-law distributed fitnesses, and different values of $`\beta `$, show nearly constant $`k_{nn}(k)`$’s and $`c(k)`$’s, just as occurs for the original BA model . The distribution of betweenness decays as a power law with an exponent $`\gamma _b2.2`$ for $`\gamma =2.5`$ and $`\gamma =3`$, and $`\gamma _b2.6`$ for $`\gamma =4`$. This is in good agreement with what conjectured in Ref. : all networks with $`3\gamma >2`$ can be classified in only two groups according to the value of $`\gamma _b`$ ( $`\gamma _b=2`$ and $`\gamma _b=2.2`$, respectively), while for larger values of $`\gamma `$, larger non-universal values of $`\gamma _b`$ are reported.

The exponential case behaves in a different way: for a network of size $`N=10^4`$, $`z=10`$, and $`m=N`$ we find $`<d>=2`$, $`<c>0.1`$ and $`<b>/N0.1`$, but a power-law behavior is found for the clustering magnitudes, i.e. $`<k_{nn}>k^{0.85}`$ and $`c(k)k^{1.6}`$. The betweenness distribution instead, shows an unexpected behavior, giving a power-law tail with an exponent $`\gamma _b1.45`$ (see Fig.4). It is worth remarking that our model having $`\gamma =2`$ is not included in the previously discussed classification of betweenness exponents .

Having explored the most basic properties of the model and some particular realizations, let us comment now on possible applications.

E-mail networks  are a good candidate to be represented by our model. In this case growth may occur, but agents (e-mail senders) do not have any access or knowledge of the degree of the receivers. Rather than preferential attachment there should be some intrinsic feature of the receiver playing a role in the phenomenon.

To further emphasize the utility of this new mechanism let us mention the following possibility: one can imagine situations where a Poisson network is seen as SF just because the exploration method implicitly implements a probabilistic rule depending on the fitnesses (this applies for example when links are detected by ”picking” them one by one, but not if the network is explored by crawling on it). Let us think, for example, of the case with threshold type of attaching rule. If only links with corresponding fitnesses over threshold are “seen” by the exploration method then, for example, an Erdős Rényi network with exponentially distributed fitnesses can be seen as SF (with, obviously, a connectivity upper cutt-off related to the maximum connectivity of the underlying network; in cases in which this connectivity is high, one can generate hubs in the “apparent” SF network). In particular this scenario could be of relevance to protein networks. Let us argue why.

The way comprehensive protein networks have been obtained to date is through a bait-prey method, named ”two-hybrid” method: two proteins are hybridized with two fragments of a transcription factor (a protein that binding to a gene promotes its transcription into the corresponding RNA). The spliced promoter does not bind to the gene, transcription is inhibited and the corresponding RNA is absent. Yet, if the two proteins interact they bring together the two promoter fragments allowing it to bind to the gene and transcription to start. The presence of the corresponding RNA signals the interaction between the two proteins. We can imagine that the interaction strength between the two proteins has to be above a given threshold, else the typical promoter binding time will be too short for the RNA polymerase to bind to the gene and initiate transcription. In turn it is reasonable to assume that the interaction strength is a function of some properties of the two proteins (such as, for example, their hydrophobicity, or their Accessible Surface Area). This possibility has still to be checked through an analysis of the detailed physics behind the two-hybrid method.

In summary, we have presented an alternative model to justify the ubiquity of SF networks in nature. It is a natural generalization of the standard Erdős-Rényi. The main result is that emergence of SF properties is not necessarily linked to the ingredients of growth and preferential attachment. Instead, static structures characterized by quenched disorder (for different disorder distributions) and threshold phenomena, may generate effects very similar to those measured in the real data. In particular we recover the power-law behavior of degree, betweenness, and clustering-coefficient distributions. We believe that this model is particularly suitable for situations where the degree value of nodes is not publicly available.

We thank R. Pastor-Satorras for very useful comments and suggestions, and P. Hurtado for a critical reading of the manuscript. The authors wish to thank FET Open Project IST-2001-33555 COSIN, P.D.L.R. thanks the OFES-Bern (grant No. 02.0234), and M.A.M. acknowledges financial support from the MCYT (grant No. BFM2001-2841).


text:
# Equilibrium and nonequilibrium solitons in a lossy split-step system with lumped amplification

## 1 Introduction

It is commonly known that the observation and use of solitons in various systems, such as fiber-optic telecommunication links , makes it necessary to periodically compensate losses. If the system is long, which is the case for telecommunication links, or if it has the shape of a closed loop which is composed of different elements (examples are fiber lasers generating the so-called stretched pulses , and a ferromagnetic film combined with an amplifier, which is able to support periodic trains of propagating magnetic solitons ), the loss-compensating gain is usually provided for by short (effectively, point-like) amplifying elements which are periodically placed (lumped) in the case of the long link.

If the system itself, except for the lumped amplifiers, is uniform, the discreteness of the gain is not an important factor: in that case, it is enough to demand that the gain averaged along the link is in balance with the uniformly distributed loss. In particular, if the undamped uniform nonlinear system supports solitons, it is easy to demonstrate that the balance condition provides for the stable existence of solitons in the presence of loss and amplification . On the other hand, a number of strongly heterogeneous systems, based on periodic alternation of very different elements, have been recently introduced, chiefly in the context of nonlinear optics. These include the well-known dispersion management (i.e., alternation of fiber segments with opposite signs of the group-velocity dispersion ), one- or multidimensional tandem systems concatenating linear and quadratically nonlinear waveguide sections , media composed of alternating layers with different values of the Kerr coefficient , alternate waveguides, in which waveguiding and anti-waveguiding nonlinear segments are juxtaposed , dynamical lattices subject to diffraction management , and some others.

A new system belonging to this class was recently proposed in the form of a split-step model (SSM) . In SSM, pieces of a dispersive optical fiber with negligible nonlinearity (in fact, these are not necessarily fibers; they may instead be short elements with a very strong group-velocity dispersion, such as a fiber Bragg grating  or a photonic crystal ) periodically alternate with nonlinear fiber segments operating close to the zero-dispersion point, in which the dispersion is negligible (these may be replaced by short elements in which strong effective Kerr nonlinearity is created by means of the cascading mechanism in quadratically nonlinear optical crystals ).

In the limit when lengths of both dispersive and nonlinear segments are much smaller than the soliton’s dispersion length, the SSM model is tantamount to the commonly known split-step algorithm simulating the nonlinear Schrödinger (NLS) equation . However, on the contrary to the split-step algorithm, in SSM the separation between dispersive and nonlinear segments is a physical feature, rather than a numerical trick, so that lengths of the segments are not small, being comparable to or larger than the dispersion length of a pulse (soliton) that may propagate in the system.

In the above-mentioned works, it has been demonstrated, by means of direct numerical simulations, that, in the absence of loss, all those strongly inhomogeneous periodic systems support very robust quasi-soliton pulses, although it may be quite difficult to prove their existence and stability in a rigorous form. The introduction of losses and compensating gain poses a new problem for solitons in these systems, the most fundamental issue being whether the straightforward lumped amplification, with the average gain compensating the loss, may support stable soliton-like pulses.

The objective of the present work is to look for stable solitons in what seems to be the simplest and, possibly, most fundamental model of the type described above: SSM with uniform losses and periodically placed point-like amplifiers. Very recently, it has been demonstrated that, in a more general case, when the average gain considerably exceeds the loss rate (by several per cent), SSM solitons cannot be stable . It was found that, nevertheless, efficient stabilization of solitons can be achieved by means of synchronous intensity modulators (these time-domain control elements are used in fiber-optic systems ).

In the present work, we focus on a more special case, that, by itself, may be less relevant to direct applications to telecommunications, but appears to have a fundamental interest for the understanding of pulse dynamics. It is a case when the gain exactly compensates the loss in SSM, or the relative excess gain $`\mathrm{\Delta }G/G`$ is small enough (in fact, it must be $`\mathrm{\Delta }G/G_{}^<\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.03}`$), and no control elements (intensity modulators or frequency-domain filters) are added. We find stable solitons of two different types. First, in the case when the average gain exactly compensates the loss ($`\mathrm{\Delta }G=0`$), we find stable equilibrium solitons (ESs). Usually, stationary solitary pulses in dissipative systems, supported by the balance between loss and gain, are isolated solutions, typical examples being an exact unstable solitary-pulse solution to the cubic complex Ginzburg-Landau (GL) equation  and its stable counterpart (also an exact solution) in a system of linearly coupled cubic and linear GL equations . A difference of ESs found in the present model is that they form a continuous family, which may be parameterized by their amplitude. More accurately, the amplitude $`\eta _{\mathrm{f}in}`$ of the soliton in the established state is nearly equal to the initial amplitude $`\eta _{\mathrm{i}n}`$, provided that $`\eta _{\mathrm{i}n}`$ is not too large. For larger values of $`\eta _{\mathrm{i}n}`$, saturation in the dependence $`\eta _{\mathrm{f}in}\left(\eta _{\mathrm{i}n}\right)`$ is observed.

If small excess gain is present, being limited to the above-mentioned interval $`\mathrm{\Delta }G/G_{}^<\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.03}`$, stable nonequilibrium solitons (NESs) are found. Unlike the equilibrium ones, they are indeed isolated solutions with a uniquely defined value of the amplitude. Their existence in the presence of the excess gain is explained by the fact that they permanently emit small-amplitude radiation waves. We check that the size of the corresponding Poynting vector (energy flux) exactly matches the rate of the energy pump into the soliton.

In this paper, we also demonstrate the existence of stable moving ESs and NESs in the same model, and consider collisions between them, which turn out to be inelastic in the latter case, although NESs survive collisions. Interactions between immobile solitons are also considered, with a conclusion that NESs strongly perturb each other, via the radiation jets that they continuously emit.

In fact, ESs are quite simple pulses, which smoothly go over into the usual nonlinear Schrödinger (NLS) solitons as the system’s period is vanishing. On the other hand, NESs appear to be novel solitary pulses which are supported by the stable balance between gain, dissipative loss, and the emission of radiation. NESs have no counterparts in the usual uniform NLS equation: we demonstrate that they disappear if the SSM period vanishes (they disappear too if the period becomes too large). They also disappear if the loss parameter is very large, and they only exist within the above-mentioned narrow margin of values of the excess gain.

## 2 The model

The linear lossy dispersive segment of the system is described by the damped linear Schrödinger equation,

$$iu_z+\frac{1}{2}u_{\tau \tau }=\alpha _Du.$$
(1)
In an optical fiber, $`u`$, $`z`$ and $`\tau `$ are, respectively, the local amplitude of the electromagnetic waves, propagation distance, and local time ($`\tau tz/V`$, where $`t`$ and $`V`$ are the time proper and mean group velocity of the wave packet), the dispersion coefficient is normalized to be $`1`$, and $`\alpha _D>0`$ is a loss constant. Obviously, Eq. (1) can be solved by means of the Fourier transform in $`\tau `$ (which is used as a part of the standard split-step numerical algorithm ).

The nonlinear segment of the system is governed by the dispersionless NLS equation,

$$iu_z+|u|^2u=i\alpha _Nu,$$
(2)
where the nonlinearity coefficient is normalized to be $`1`$, and $`\alpha _N>0`$ is the loss constant in the nonlinear segment (we assume that the third-order dispersion may be neglected). A solution to Eq. (2) is obvious,

$$u(z,\tau )=u(0,\tau )\mathrm{exp}\left(\alpha _Dz\right)\mathrm{exp}\left[i\frac{|u(0,\tau )|^2}{2\alpha _N}\left[1\mathrm{exp}\left(2\alpha _Nz\right)\right]\right].$$
(3)
We define the system’s elementary cell as an interval between midpoints of two neighboring nonlinear segments. Point-like amplifiers are set at junctions between cells. They acts on the wave field so that

$$u(\tau )u(\tau )e^G,$$
(4)
where $`G`$ is the gain (the gain defined in terms of the signal’s power and measured in dB is $`8.69G`$). Thus, the full transformation (map) for the pulse passing a cell can be represented as a superposition of two nonlinear phase transformations (3) corresponding to the nonlinear half-segments at the cell’s edges, and the Fourier transform corresponding to the dispersive segment in the middle of the cell, which are followed by the multiplication as per Eq. (4).

In order to prevent radiation from re-entering the integration domain, the linear equation (1) was solved directly by means of numerical methods in a broad integration interval $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$, placing absorbers at its edges. In fact, the absorbers emulate a real physical effect, namely, the fact that the energy emitted with radiation is lost.

If the lengths of the dispersive and nonlinear segments are $`L_D`$ and $`L_N`$, the cell size is $`L=L_D+L_N`$. Note that the left-hand sides of Eqs. (1) and (2) are separately invariant with respect to transformations

$$\tau \tau /\mathrm{\Lambda }_D,zz/\mathrm{\Lambda }_D^2,\mathrm{a}ndu\mathrm{\Lambda }_Nu,zz/\mathrm{\Lambda }_N^2,$$
(5)
The rescalings (5) may be used (with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_D^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_N^2=L_D/L_N`$) to make $`L_D=L_NL/2`$, which we assume below to hold.

With regard to the normalizations adopted, an average (distributed) version of the model amounts to a perturbed NLS equation,

$$iu_z+\frac{1}{4}u_{\tau \tau }+\frac{1}{2}|u|^2u=i\left[\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha _N+\alpha _D\right)\frac{G}{L}\right].$$
(6)
The balance between the loss and gain is expected in the case when the right-hand side of Eq. (6) vanishes, i.e., when the gain takes the equilibrium value

$$G_{\mathrm{e}q}=\frac{L}{2}\left(\alpha _N+\alpha _D\right).$$
(7)
## 3 Equilibrium solitons

As it was demonstrated in Ref. , SSM without loss and gain gives rise to a family of stable solitary pulses. The first objective of the present work is to generate similar pulses in the model introduced in the previous section, in the case when the loss and gain are balanced as per Eq. (7). To this end, we simulated the evolution of initial pulses that were taken as fundamental solitons of the unperturbed NLS equation (6),

$$u(z=0,\tau )=\eta \mathrm{s}ech\left(\eta \tau \right),$$
(8)
with an arbitrary amplitude $`\eta `$.

In a vast parametric range, the initial pulse (8) readily generates a solitary wave, which remains stable as long as simulations could be run, see a typical example in Fig. 1. As is seen in the figure, the pulse changes its shape against the initial configuration (8). Detailed analysis shows that the established pulse very well fits to the expression (8), but with a different (smaller) value of the amplitude. As well as the fundamental NLS soliton, the established pulse has no chirp (i.e., no intrinsic phase structure ).

The family of equilibrium solitons, alias ESs \[the ones subject to the equilibrium condition 7)\] found this way is characterized by a dependence of the final (“output”) value $`\eta _{\mathrm{o}ut}`$ of the amplitude on the initial (“input”) amplitude $`\eta _{\mathrm{i}n}`$, which is presented, for different fixed values of the period $`L`$, and for different values of the loss constant, in Figs. 2(a) and 2(b). As is seen, for small values of $`\eta _{\mathrm{i}n}`$ the amplitude $`\eta _{\mathrm{o}ut}`$ is virtually identical to it. However, with the increase of $`\eta _{\mathrm{i}n}`$ the growth of $`\eta _{\mathrm{o}ut}`$ slows down, and, eventually, $`\eta _{\mathrm{o}ut}`$ saturates at a constant value $`\eta _{\mathrm{s}at}`$, that strongly depends on $`L`$, but very weakly on $`\alpha `$, see Fig. 2(b). An example of the formation of a stable ES with the amplitude $`\eta _{\mathrm{o}ut}`$ which is much smaller than $`\eta _{\mathrm{i}n}`$ (in the case of strong saturation) is displayed in Fig. 3.

Figure 2(a) shows that, in the limit of very small $`L`$, the saturation does not take place, and in this case we simply have $`\eta _{\mathrm{o}ut}=\eta _{\mathrm{i}n}`$ , which has a simple meaning: for small $`L`$, the averaging applies, transforming the SSM with the balanced loss and gain into the unperturbed NLS equation \[see Eq. (6)\]. In the latter equation, the initial pulse (8) generates a fundamental soliton with the amplitude $`\eta `$.

We stress that different branches of the dependence shown in Fig. 2(a) were not aborted arbitrarily: except for the one corresponding to $`L=0.1`$, they all terminate at points corresponding to a maximum value of $`\eta _{\mathrm{i}n}`$ for which the initial pulse (8) can generate a soliton. If $`\eta _{\mathrm{i}n}`$ exceeds this maximum value, the initial pulse blows up, generating spatio-temporal “turbulence”. We did not study the latter regime in detail, focusing on the regular behavior.

## 4 Nonequilibrium solitons

Numerical simulations of the model demonstrate that, if the gain slightly exceeds the equilibrium value (7), stable solitons are still generated in a narrow interval of values of the excess gain: $`\left(GG_{\mathrm{e}q}\right)/G_{\mathrm{e}q}0.03`$. A typical example of the formation of such a nonequilibrium soliton (NES) is shown in Fig. 4, which corresponds to $`\left(GG_{\mathrm{e}q}\right)/G_{\mathrm{e}q}=0.024`$. If the relative excess gain exceeds the maximum value $`0.03`$, the system blows up.

The apparent existence of the stable pulse shown in Fig. 4 suggests a natural question: how is the energy balance provided for in this case, if the gain exceeds the loss? An answer is that the energy pump into NES by the excess gain is compensated by extra loss in the form of small-amplitude radiation waves emitted by the pulse. Indeed, the background on top of which the NES showed in Fig. 4 is found is not just $`u0`$, but a small-amplitude wave field.

To analyze this issue, we define the norm of the solution (it is what is usually called energy in optics), $`E=_{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}\left|u(z,\tau )\right|^2𝑑\tau `$. The energy is an obvious dynamical invariant in the case of the unperturbed NLS equation, as well as in the SSM without loss and gain. In the present model, the evolution of the energy of a localized pulse is governed by a balance equation. After straightforward calculations which use integration by parts, the balance equation can be cast in the form

$$\frac{dE_{\mathrm{s}ol}}{dz}=2\left[G\underset{n}{}\delta (znL)\alpha (z)\right]E_{\mathrm{s}ol}D(z)\mathrm{I}m\left(u^{}u_\tau \right)|_{\tau =T}^{\tau =+T}.$$
(9)
Here, the soliton’s energy is defined as the integral over some finite interval, $`T<\tau <+T`$, which is essentially larger than a proper size of the soliton, but smaller than the total size of the domain between the above-mentioned edge absorbers, $`E_{\mathrm{s}ol}_T^{+T}\left|u(z,\tau )\right|^2𝑑\tau `$. The last term in Eq. (9), which is produced by the integration by parts, represents the Poynting vector (energy flux) of the field $`u`$ at the points $`\tau =\pm T`$. Lastly, Eq. (9) assumes that the amplifiers are placed at the points $`z=Ln`$, the coefficient $`\alpha (z)`$ takes values $`\alpha _N`$ and $`\alpha _D`$ in the nonlinear and dispersive segments, respectively, while $`D(z)1`$ inside the dispersive segments, and $`0`$ inside the nonlinear ones.

In the case when the coefficients $`\alpha `$ and $`G`$ are small, Eq. (9) can be averaged over a large number of cells, reducing to

$$\frac{dE_{\mathrm{s}ol}}{dz}=\left[2LG\left(\alpha _N+\alpha _D\right)\right]E_{\mathrm{s}ol}\frac{1}{2}\left(J_++J_{}\right),$$
(10)
where $`J_\pm `$ are $`z`$-averaged values of $`\mathrm{I}m\left(u^{}u_\tau \right)`$ at the points $`\tau =\pm T`$. Taking, for instance, the NES displayed in Fig. 4, and assuming that its shape is exactly described by Eq. (8), we find $`E_{\mathrm{s}ol}=3.844`$, hence the first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (10), i.e., the net rate of the energy pump into the NES, is $`0.0165`$. On the other hand, numerical data yield the value $`\left(J_++J_{}\right)/20.0155`$ of the second term (the net energy flux across the points $`\tau =\pm T`$). The comparison shows reasonable agreement between the energy pump and emission rates; the remaining difference may be explained by a deviation of the exact shape of the field from the expression (8).

A drastic difference of NES from ES is that NES is an isolated solution, which is found with a single value of its amplitude, while ESs form a continuous family. In other words, NES is a unique attractor in the system.

It is instructive to summarize data showing the NES amplitude as a function of the period $`L`$ and dissipative constant $`\alpha `$, see Fig. 5. An important inference, suggested by Fig. 5(a) and confirmed by many more simulations, is that the amplitude diverges (i.e., the NES blows up) as $`L0`$. This result means that NES cannot exist in the uniform NLS equation with unbalanced gain, which is quite obvious by itself. Thus, we conclude that the existence of NES is a distinctive feature of SSM. Note that NES does not exist (actually, it blows up) past the point where the curve terminates in Fig. 5(b).

## 5 Interactions and collisions between solitons

Interactions between solitons is the next natural issue to consider. To this end, we note that, although Eq. (2) and, hence, SSM as a whole, are not Galilean invariant, moving pulses can be readily generated from the zero-velocity ones considered above, “pushing” them by means of a multiplier $`\mathrm{exp}\left(i\chi \tau \right)`$ with an arbitrary real constant $`\chi `$, added at the point $`z=0`$, which gives rise a soliton’s velocity proportional to $`\chi `$ . The result is formation of stable moving solitons, both ESs and NESs, see an example of moving NESs below in Fig. 7. Apparently, the amplitude of a moving NES is somewhat smaller than that of its quiescent counterpart, but this issue was not studied in detail.

Simulations demonstrate that both the interaction between quiescent ESs, as well as collision between moving ones, are almost identical to those which were studied in detail in SSM without loss and gain in Ref. . Namely, collisions are quasi-elastic, and two zero-velocity ESs do not interact, provided that the separation between them exceeds a certain minimum value.

The situation is different in the case of NESs. First, even if the separation between two zero-velocity NESs is large, they strongly perturb each other – not via direct interaction, but rather by the radiation “jets” emitted by each soliton, see a typical example in Fig. 6. Note that each soliton has a smaller amplitude than in isolation. Second, moving NESs survive collisions, but, as it is seen in the example displayed in Fig. 7, the pulses reappear after the collision with different values of the velocity \[in fact, the slope of their trajectories in the $`(\tau ,z)`$ plane increases\], and with a smaller amplitude. However, the amplitude gradually relaxes to the unique value selected by NES moving at a given velocity.

## 6 Conclusion

We have added loss and gain to a model of a long periodic system consisting of separated dispersive and nonlinear segments. It was shown that, if the loss is exactly balanced by gain, a family of stable equilibrium solitons exists. Unless the system’s period is very small, saturation is observed in the dependence of the amplitude of the established soliton vs. that of the initial pulse. Stable nonequilibrium solitons were found in the case when the gain slightly exceeds (by up to $`3\%`$) the value necessary to balance the loss. The existence of NESs is possible as the excessive energy pump is offset by permanent radiation losses, which is confirmed by computation of the corresponding Poynting vector. Unlike ESs that exist as a continuous family of solutions, NES is an isolated one, and it disappears when the system’s period vanishes. Interactions between ESs were found to be essentially the same as in the model without loss and gain, while interactions between NESs are different: two NESs perturb each other by their radiation jets, even if they are separated by a large distance. Moving NESs survive collisions, with a change of the velocity.

## Acknowledgements

We appreciate useful discussions with M.J. Ablowitz and P.L. Chu.

## 7 Figure captions

Fig. 1. An example of the establishment of a stable pulse of the equilibrium type in SSM with the balanced loss and gain \[$`\alpha _N=\alpha _D=0.035`$, $`L=1`$, and, in accord with Eq. (7), $`G=0.035`$\]. The initial pulse is taken as the NLS soliton (8) with $`\eta =1`$. In this and subsequent figures, $`|u|^2`$ (“power”) is shown vs. $`\tau `$ at the end of each cell.

Fig. 2. The established (“output”) amplitude of the equilibrium soliton vs. the initial (“input”) amplitude. In (a), $`\alpha _N=\alpha _D`$ is fixed to be $`0.035`$; in (b), $`L`$ is fixed to be $`1`$, and $`\alpha _N=\alpha _D\alpha `$.

Fig. 3. Formation of a stable equilibrium soliton in the case when Fig. 2 shows strong saturation. The initial amplitude in Eq. (8) is $`\eta =4`$, $`L=1`$, $`\alpha _N=\alpha _D=0.035`$.

Fig. 4. An example of the formation of a nonequilibrium soliton. The amplitude of the input pulse and the SSM’s parameters are the same as in the case shown in Fig. 1, except for $`G=\mathrm{0.0\hspace{0.17em}358\hspace{0.17em}5}`$, which corresponds to the relative excess gain $`\left(GG_{\mathrm{e}q}\right)/G_{\mathrm{e}q}0.024`$.

Fig. 5. The amplitude of the stable nonequilibrium soliton vs. the system’s period (“stepsize”) $`L`$ (a) and the loss parameter $`\alpha _N=\alpha _D\alpha `$ (b). In both panels, the relative excess gain is fixed to be $`0.024`$; in (a), $`\alpha =0.035`$, and in (b), $`L=1`$.

Fig. 6. Interaction of two nonequilibrium solitons (the same ones as in Fig. 4). The initial separation between them is $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau =18`$, the full-width-at-half-maximum  of each one being initially $`T_{\mathrm{F}WHM}=2`$. (a) The distribution of $`\left|u(z,\tau )\right|^2`$; (b) the same shown by means of level contours.

Fig. 7. An example of the collision between two nonequilibrium solitons. Each moving soliton is generated from the quiescent one shown in Fig. 4, multiplying it by $`\mathrm{exp}\left(\pm i\tau /2\right)`$. The side view of the distribution of $`\left|u(z,\tau )\right|^2`$ is displayed \[in this case, a full three-dimensional picture like those in Figs. 1, 3, 4, and 6(a) would seem messy\], the inset showing trajectories of centers of the two solitons on the plane $`(\tau ,z)`$.


text:
# 1 Root vectors and a Weyl domain in SO(5) (Sp(2)). Filled circles are central lattice points with SO(5) (Sp(2)) enhancement. Every unfilled circle has the centralizer SO(4) (SU(2)×SU(2)).

hep-th/0207077

Classification and Quantum Moduli Space of D-branes in Group Manifolds

Taichi Itoh and Sang-Jin Sin

Department of Physics, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, Korea

## Abstract

We study the classification of D-branes in all compact Lie groups including non-simply-laced ones. We also discuss the global structure of the quantum moduli space of the D-branes. D-branes are classified according to their positions in the maximal torus. We describe rank 2 cases, namely $`B_2`$, $`C_2`$, $`G_2`$, explicitly and construct all the D-branes in $`B_r`$, $`C_r`$, $`F_4`$ by the method of iterative deletion in the Dynkin diagram. The discussion of moduli space involves global issues that can be treated in terms of the exact homotopy sequence and various lattices. We also show that singular D-branes can exist at quantum mechanical level.

taichi@hepth.hanyang.ac.kr,
sjs@hepth.hanyang.ac.kr

1. Introduction

Group manifolds provide us solvable string theory backgrounds in terms of current algebra. Through gluing the left and right chiral currents up to automorphisms, the (twisted) conjugacy classes therein turn out to be D-branes .111 Not all the D-branes in group manifolds are given like this. For example, see section 4 in . Though there is an extensive literature on this subject, it is mostly on either the generic brane with the highest possible dimension or D0-brane with the lowest one. However, recognizing D-branes as the conjugacy classes, we notice that there is a variety of D-branes between these two extremes. In a recent paper, Stanciu  studied the singular D-branes in SU(3) case. We developed in  the classification and the systematic construction of all possible untwisted D-branes in Lie groups of A-D-E series. D-branes are classified according to their positions in a unit cell of the weight space which is exponentiated to be the maximal torus. However, for the D-brane classification, we only have to consider the fundamental Weyl domain that is surrounded by the hyperplanes defined by Weyl reflections. All the D-branes therein can be constructed by the method of iterative deletion in the Dynkin diagram. The dimension of a D-brane always becomes an even number and it reduces as we go from a generic point of the fundamental domain to its higher co-dimensional boundaries.

In this paper, we first generalize the classification of D-branes for non-simply-laced compact Lie groups and then discuss the global structure of the quantum moduli space of the D-branes. Rank 2 cases, namely $`B_2`$, $`C_2`$, $`G_2`$, are discussed explicitly and all the D-branes for $`B_r`$-, $`C_r`$-series and $`F_4`$ are constructed by the Dynkin diagram method. For non-simply-laced cases, the periods of central lattice are different for short and long roots so that not all the vertices of the fundamental domain correspond to the D0-branes, resulting in a richer variety of D-brane Zoo compared with simply-laced cases. For $`B_r`$-series, the discussion of D-brane moduli space involves the global structure of the groups that comes from the difference between the integral lattice and the co-root lattice. For example, SO(5) and Sp(2) share the same fundamental domain but they are different in the period of integral lattice, resulting in different topological structures.

2. Classifying the D-branes

The chiral $`G_L\times G_R`$ symmetry of WZW model is generated by the left and right chiral currents, $`J=_+gg^1`$, $`\overline{J}=g^1_{}g`$, which induce translations on the group manifold $`G`$ by the left-right action $`glgr^1`$ with $`(l,r)(G_L,G_R)`$. We are interested in the world sheet boundary conditions preserving half the chiral $`G_L\times G_R`$ symmetry . Such a boundary condition may be given by identifying $`J`$ with $`\overline{J}`$ up to automorphisms $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ of the Lie algebra $`𝔤`$ : $`J=\mathrm{\Omega }(\overline{J})`$ at $`\sigma =0`$. This gluing condition restricts the left-right action to a (twisted) conjugation: $`g\omega (r)gr^1`$ with $`rG_R`$, where $`\omega `$ is generated by $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. As $`r`$ runs over the entire group, the conjugation action translates open string end points to all over the conjugacy class. Therefore we may identify a D-brane or the set of open string end points as the conjugacy class .

Since any conjugacy class pass through a point in the maximal torus $`T`$, (or its invariant subgroup $`T^\omega =\{tT|\omega (t)=t\}`$ if $`\omega 1`$) we can parameterize the conjugacy classes by the elements $`h`$’s in the maximal torus:

$$𝒞_\omega (h)=\{\omega (g)hg^1\text{with}gG\}.$$
(1)
The dimension of a D-brane thus depends on the symmetry group of $`hT^\omega `$, namely the centralizer of $`h`$, $`𝒵(h)=\{zG|zhz^1=h\}`$. Then the D-brane $`𝒞_\omega (h)`$ is the homogeneous space $`G/𝒵(h)`$. For a generic point $`h`$ in $`T^\omega `$, its centralizer is $`T^\omega `$ itself to yield the D-brane of maximal dimension . If $`𝒵(h)`$ becomes larger than $`T^\omega `$, we call $`h`$ a singular point and the resulting D-brane has lower dimension. We will develop a general recipe of the centralizer enhancement for general compact Lie groups and corresponding D-branes as a consequence. For simplicity, we restrict ourselves to regular conjugacy classes without twist ($`\mathrm{\Omega }=1`$, $`\omega =1`$).

Let $`h`$ be a point in the maximal torus, which can be given by exponentiating an element $`X`$ in the Cartan subalgebra $`𝔥𝔤`$: $`he^{2\pi iX}`$. $`X`$ is parametrized by a weight vector $`\stackrel{}{\psi }`$ such that

$$X=\stackrel{}{\psi }\stackrel{}{H}\text{where}\stackrel{}{H}=(H_1,\mathrm{},H_r)\text{with}H_i𝔥,$$
(2)
where $`r\mathrm{rank}𝔤`$. A given Lie algebra $`𝔤`$ of dimension $`d`$ and rank $`r`$ has the Cartan decomposition $`𝔤=𝔥(_\alpha 𝔤_\alpha )`$:

$$[\stackrel{}{H},\stackrel{}{H}]=0,[\stackrel{}{H},E_{\pm \alpha _i}]=\pm \stackrel{}{\alpha }_iE_{\pm \alpha _i},[E_{\alpha _i},E_{\alpha _j}]=\delta _{ij}\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i\stackrel{}{H},$$
(3)
where $`\alpha _i`$’s ($`i=1,\mathrm{},\frac{1}{2}(dr)`$) denote positive roots and corresponding root vectors in weight space are given by $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i`$’s. The first $`r`$ roots $`\{\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _r\}`$ denote simple roots. In order to discuss both long and short roots on the same footing, we introduce the scale invariant generators of Lie algebra $`𝔰𝔲(2)_{\alpha _i}`$:

$$H_{\alpha _i}\frac{\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i\stackrel{}{H}}{|\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i|^2},e_{\pm \alpha _i}\frac{E_{\pm \alpha _i}}{|\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i|}.$$
(4)
These can be identified respectively with the $`\mathrm{SU}(2)`$ spin operators, $`J^3`$, $`J^\pm `$, regardless of whether the corresponding root $`\alpha _i`$ is long or short.

One first notice that $`\mathrm{exp}(2\pi inJ_3)`$ with arbitrary integers $`n`$ commute with all generators of the Lie algebra $`𝔰𝔲(2)`$ and so is $`\mathrm{exp}(2\pi inH_{\alpha _i})`$ in the subgroup $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_{\alpha _i}`$. We first decompose $`X=\stackrel{}{\psi }\stackrel{}{H}`$ into $`H_{\alpha _i}`$ direction and its orthogonal complement: $`X(\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i\stackrel{}{\psi })H_{\alpha _i}+X^{}`$. One can show that $`[X^{},E_{\pm \alpha _i}]=0`$ by using the Lie algebra in Eq. (3). Then $`he^{2\pi iX}`$ can be factorized:

$$h=e^{2\pi iX}=h^{}\mathrm{exp}\left[2\pi i(\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i\stackrel{}{\psi })H_{\alpha _i}\right],$$
(5)
where $`h^{}e^{2\pi iX^{}}`$ commutes with $`𝔰𝔲(2)_{\alpha _i}`$. Hence $`h`$ commutes with $`E_{\pm \alpha _i}`$ if $`\stackrel{}{\psi }`$ is located on any of the hyperplanes $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i\stackrel{}{\psi }𝐙`$ which are perpendicular to the root vector $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i`$. On those hyperplanes, $`\mathrm{U}(1)_{\alpha _i}`$ in the centralizer is enhanced to $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_{\alpha _i}`$ and $`𝒵(h)`$ becomes $`\mathrm{SU}(2)\mathrm{U}(1)^{r1}`$. Notice that the rank of the centralizer is preserved under these enhancements.

Now we introduce the fundamental weight vectors $`\{\stackrel{}{\mu }_1,\mathrm{},\stackrel{}{\mu }_r\}`$ as a basis of weight space. They are defined by

$$\frac{2\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i\stackrel{}{\mu }_j}{|\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i|^2}=\delta _{ij},$$
(6)
where $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i`$’s are restricted to simple roots only. Long root length is $`\sqrt{2}`$ as usual. Under the decomposition

$$\stackrel{}{\psi }=\underset{i=1}{\overset{r}{}}\psi _i\stackrel{}{\mu }_i,$$
(7)
the coordinates $`\psi _i`$’s can be calculated to be

$$\psi _i=l_i(\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i\stackrel{}{\psi })\text{with}l_i=\frac{2}{|\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i|^2}.$$
(8)
The last formula can be used not only for simple roots ($`ir`$) but also for all other positive roots ($`i>r`$). Note that $`l_i`$ is given by a positive integer: $`l_i=1`$ for long roots, whereas for short roots $`l_i=2`$ for $`G=B_r`$, $`C_r`$, $`F_4`$ and $`l_i=3`$ for $`G=G_2`$. The hyperplanes $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i\stackrel{}{\psi }𝐙`$ with the symmetry group $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_{\alpha _i}`$ are specified by $`\psi _il_i𝐙`$. For any non-simple root $`\alpha _m`$, $`\psi _m`$ is given by a certain linear combination of weight space coordinates $`\{\psi _1,\mathrm{},\psi _r\}`$ such that $`\psi _ml_m𝐙`$ describe hyperplanes orthogonal to the non-simple root vector $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_m`$.

In terms of the coordinates $`\psi _i`$’s, the hyperplane with $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_{\alpha _i}`$ symmetry is written as

$$P_{\alpha _i,n_i}\{\stackrel{}{\psi }|\psi _i=l_in_i,n_i𝐙\},$$
(9)
regardless of whether the root $`\alpha _i`$ is simple or non-simple. The central lattice is a lattice in the weight space generated by the $`r`$ vectors $`l_i\stackrel{}{\mu }_i`$ $`(i=1,\mathrm{},r)`$. It is then obvious that the intersection points of the hyperplanes for all the simple roots compose the central lattice. Since the simple root system generates the whole of the group $`G`$, all the points on the central lattice are mapped to the center of the group under exponentiation, justifying the name of the lattice. Consequently, the central lattice points correspond to D0-branes.

A mirror reflection on $`P_{\alpha _i,n_i}`$ is nothing but the action of the extended Weyl group, the semi-direct product of Weyl group and the translation on the co-root lattice. Meanwhile, the fundamental domain of the extended Weyl group (Weyl domain) is given by the minimal region surrounded by all possible hyperplanes $`P_{\alpha _i,n_i}`$’s ($`i=1,\mathrm{},\frac{1}{2}(dr)`$). Consequently, a unit cell of the central lattice, $`0\psi _il_i`$ $`(i=1,\mathrm{},r)`$, is further decomposed into Weyl domains. As we will see later, not all the vertices of a Weyl domain correspond to D0-branes.

The symmetry enhancement is therefore completely fixed by the position of the D-brane in the weight space ($`\stackrel{}{\psi }`$). For any simple Lie group $`G`$, the classification of the D-branes can be described in terms of the Dynkin diagram as follows . Suppose the D-brane location $`\stackrel{}{\psi }`$ is belonging to the intersection of $`k`$ hyperplanes. Out of a Dynkin diagram of $`G`$ of rank $`r`$, we take away $`rk`$ roots (circles) corresponding to U(1)’s which are not enhanced to SU(2)’s. Then the Dynkin diagram becomes the disjoint union of $`\kappa =rk+1`$ sub-diagrams, each of which corresponds to a subgroup $`G_{(i)}`$ of the original group $`G`$. Then the centralizer is given by $`_{i=1}^\kappa G_{(i)}\times \mathrm{U}(1)^{rk}`$. Finally the corresponding D-brane $`D(\stackrel{}{\psi })`$ is given by the coset

$$D(\stackrel{}{\psi })=G/\underset{i=1}{\overset{\kappa }{}}G_{(i)}\times \mathrm{U}(1)^{rk},\mathrm{if}\stackrel{}{\psi }\underset{i=1}{\overset{k}{}}P_{\alpha _i,n_i}.$$
(10)
Using this rule, one can write down the D-branes and their dimensions explicitly. For $`B_r`$-series, the centralizer is given by

$$𝒵(h)=\mathrm{U}(1)^{rk}\times B_{r_1}\times \underset{i=2}{\overset{rk+1}{}}A_{r_i},$$
(11)
allowing $`B_0=C_0=\{0\}`$, $`B_1=\mathrm{SO}(3)`$, $`C_1=\mathrm{SU}(2)`$. The same formula holds for $`C_r`$-series if we replace $`B_{r_1}`$ with $`C_{r_1}`$. The dimension of a D-brane in $`B_r`$-, $`C_r`$-series is given by

$$p=2(r^2r_1^2)\underset{i=2}{\overset{rk+1}{}}r_i(r_i+1),$$
(12)
where we have used $`k=_{i=1}^{rk+1}r_i`$. Notice that it is manifestly an even integer, a fact that can be related to the existence of the symplectic structure on the (co-)adjoint orbits. Similarly the possible patterns of the centralizer in $`F_4`$ are $`F_4`$, $`\mathrm{U}(1)\times C_3`$, $`\mathrm{U}(1)\times B_3`$, $`\mathrm{U}(1)\times A_1\times A_2`$, $`\mathrm{U}(1)^2\times C_2`$, $`\mathrm{U}(1)^2\times A_2`$, $`\mathrm{U}(1)^2\times A_1^2`$, $`\mathrm{U}(1)^3\times A_1`$, $`\mathrm{U}(1)^4`$ where $`B_3`$ must be identified as $`\mathrm{Spin}(7)`$ according to $`\pi _1(F_4)=\{0\}`$.

However, the minimal non-trivial block $`B_2`$ (or $`C_2`$) arising in the above enhancement patterns can be further decomposed into its subgroups depending on the position $`\stackrel{}{\psi }`$ inside the $`B_2`$ (or $`C_2`$) subspace. Therefore we need to work out the Weyl domains in $`B_2`$ (or $`C_2`$) explicitly to complete the list of centralizer enhancement. In the next section, we study D-brane Zoo of all non-simply-laced rank 2 groups, namely $`B_2`$, $`C_2`$, $`G_2`$.

3. D-brane Zoo

$`B_2`$ and $`C_2`$: Since the root systems for $`B_2`$ and $`C_2`$ are the same, we only have to discuss $`B_2`$ as long as we classify the types of D-branes. We will work on the fundamental representation of $`B_2`$. Ten generators of $`B_2=\mathrm{SO}(5)`$ are given by 5$`\times `$5 angular momentum matrices: $`(M_{ab})_{cd}i(\delta _{ac}\delta _{bd}\delta _{ad}\delta _{bc})`$. One can choose Cartan generators as $`(H_1,H_2)=(M_{12},M_{34})`$. The simple roots and fundamental weights of $`𝔰𝔬(5)`$ are

$$\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{\alpha }_1=(1,1),\hfill & \stackrel{}{\alpha }_2=(0,1),\hfill \\ \stackrel{}{\mu }_1=(1,0),\hfill & \stackrel{}{\mu }_2=(\frac{1}{2},\frac{1}{2}).\hfill \end{array}$$
(13)
All other positive roots are $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_3=\stackrel{}{\alpha }_1+2\stackrel{}{\alpha }_2`$, $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_4=\stackrel{}{\alpha }_1+\stackrel{}{\alpha }_2`$. We notice that $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_1`$ and $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_3`$ are long roots with length $`\sqrt{2}`$, while $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_2`$ and $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_4`$ are short roots with length 1 (See figure 1). For convenience, we diagonalize the Cartan generators $`\stackrel{}{H}`$ to yield

$$H_1=\mathrm{diag}(0,1,0,1,0),H_2=\mathrm{diag}(1,0,0,0,1).$$
(14)
Recall that the weight vector $`\stackrel{}{\psi }`$ obeys the decomposition in Eq. (7). Any point $`X\stackrel{}{\psi }\stackrel{}{H}`$ on weight space is specified by the coordinates $`(\psi _1,\psi _2)`$ in Eq. (8):

$$X=\mathrm{diag}(\frac{\psi _2}{2},\psi _1+\frac{\psi _2}{2},0,(\psi _1+\frac{\psi _2}{2}),\frac{\psi _2}{2}),$$
(15)
from which one can see that if $`\psi _1`$ and $`\psi _2/2`$ are integers, $`he^{2\pi iX}`$ becomes the identity matrix to enhance the centralizer $`𝒵(h)`$ to SO(5). The points specified by both $`\psi _1𝐙`$ and $`\psi _22𝐙`$ are indeed the points on the central lattice of SO(5) as discussed before.222 In fact, the central lattice of SO(5) is also the integral lattice. Note also that $`l_1=1`$ and $`l_2=2`$ in SO(5).

In order to determine Weyl domains in weight space, one has to know all the possible enhancement lines given by the coordinates $`\psi _i`$’s. By definition in Eq. (8), $`\psi _3`$ and $`\psi _4`$ are obtained as

$$\psi _3=\psi _1+\psi _2,\psi _4=2\psi _1+\psi _2.$$
(16)
Since $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_3`$ is a long root and $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_4`$ is a short one, the enhancement lines of $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_{\alpha _3}`$ and $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_{\alpha _4}`$ are given by $`\psi _1+\psi _2𝐙`$ and $`2\psi _1+\psi _22𝐙`$ respectively. Consequently, every Weyl domain is given by a triangle bounded by one long edge of short root enhancement, either $`\psi _22𝐙`$ or $`\psi _42𝐙`$, and two short edges of long root enhancement $`\psi _1𝐙`$ and $`\psi _3𝐙`$. Each unit cell of the SO(5) central lattice is further decomposed into four Weyl domains as shown in figure 1. Three lines of $`\psi _1=0`$, $`\psi _2=0`$, $`\psi _3=1`$ cut out a Weyl domain of SO(5) weight space. An intersection point of two short edges $`\psi _1=0`$ and $`\psi _3=1`$ has SU(2)$`\times `$SU(2) symmetry corresponding to two orthogonal long roots $`\alpha _1`$ and $`\alpha _3`$. Two end points of long edge $`\psi _2=0`$ are located on the central lattice so that they have the full symmetry SO(5).

This can be directly checked by using the matrix $`X`$ in Eq. (15). Suppose $`\mathrm{SO}(5)`$ is acting on the space with coordinates $`(x_1,\mathrm{},x_5)`$. Denote an $`n\times n`$ submatrix of a parent $`5\times 5`$ matrix by $`(i_1,\mathrm{},i_n)`$ indicating the subspace $`(x_{i_1},\mathrm{},x_{i_n})`$ on which the submatrix is acting. As shown in appendix B.3 in , $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_{\alpha _1}`$ for a long root is generated by two $`\mathrm{𝟐}`$’s of SU(2) specified by $`(1,2)`$, $`(4,5)`$ blocks, whereas $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_{\alpha _2}`$ for a short root is generated by a $`\mathrm{𝟑}`$ of SU(2) given by $`(1,3,5)`$ block. Similarly, $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_{\alpha _3}`$ is generated by two $`\mathrm{𝟐}`$’s of $`(1,4)`$, $`(2,5)`$ blocks, while $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_{\alpha _4}`$ is generated by a $`\mathrm{𝟑}`$ of $`(2,3,4)`$ block. For the point $`(\psi _1,\psi _2)=(1,1)`$, $`he^{2\pi iX}`$ is now given by the diagonal matrix:

$$h=\mathrm{diag}(1,1,1,1,1)$$
(17)
which is proportional to the identity matrix both in $`(1,2)`$, $`(4,5)`$ blocks and in $`(1,4)`$, $`(2,5)`$ blocks, so that both $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_{\alpha _1}`$ and $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_{\alpha _3}`$ become symmetry of the $`h`$.

However, the same $`h`$ contains the identity matrix in $`(1,2,4,5)`$ block also. Thus the centralizer $`𝒵(h)`$ seems to be SO(4) acting on $`(1,2,4,5)`$ block, rather than $`\mathrm{SU}(2)\times \mathrm{SU}(2)`$. As we will see later, the centralizer generated by two long roots $`\alpha _1`$ and $`\alpha _3`$ depends on the global topology of the parent group $`G`$, namely $`\pi _1(G)=\{0\}`$ or $`𝐙_2`$. For $`G=\mathrm{Sp}(2)`$, $`\alpha _1`$ and $`\alpha _3`$ generate $`\mathrm{Spin}(4)\mathrm{SU}(2)\times \mathrm{SU}(2)`$, whereas for $`G=\mathrm{SO}(5)`$ they generate SO(4).

$`G_2`$: The fundamental representation of $`G_2`$ is 7-dimensional and $`\mathrm{𝟕}`$ of $`G_2`$ goes to $`\mathrm{𝟑}+\overline{\mathrm{𝟑}}+\mathrm{𝟏}`$ in an SU(3) subgroup. As shown in , the 14 generators of $`G_2`$ are given by certain linear combinations of the 21 generators of $`\mathrm{SO}(7)`$. After appropriate diagonalization, the first 8 generators are given by 7$`\times `$7 matrices which are direct sum of $`\lambda _a[\lambda _a]^T\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$ where $`\lambda _a`$’s are Gell-Mann matrices as expected from the branching rule $`\mathrm{𝟕}\mathrm{𝟑}+\overline{\mathrm{𝟑}}+\mathrm{𝟏}`$ (See appendix B.5 in  also). Recalling that SU(3) is the regular maximal subgroup of $`G_2`$, one can choose Cartan generators of $`G_2`$ as the same as those of SU(3), namely

$$H_1=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(\lambda _3[\lambda _3]^T0\right),H_2=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(\lambda _8[\lambda _8]^T0\right).$$
(18)
The simple roots and fundamental weights of $`𝔤_2`$ are

$`\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{\alpha }_1=({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}},\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}}),\hfill & \stackrel{}{\alpha }_2=(0,\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}}),\hfill \\ \stackrel{}{\mu }_1=(\sqrt{2},0),\hfill & \stackrel{}{\mu }_2=({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}},{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}}).\hfill \end{array}`$ (21)
All other positive roots are $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_3=2\stackrel{}{\alpha }_1+3\stackrel{}{\alpha }_2`$, $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_4=\stackrel{}{\alpha }_1+\stackrel{}{\alpha }_2`$, $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_5=\stackrel{}{\alpha }_1+3\stackrel{}{\alpha }_2`$, $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_6=\stackrel{}{\alpha }_1+2\stackrel{}{\alpha }_2`$. We notice that $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_1`$, $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_3`$, $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_5`$ are long roots with length $`\sqrt{2}`$, while $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_2`$, $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_4`$, $`\stackrel{}{\alpha }_6`$ are short roots with length $`\sqrt{2/3}`$ (See figure 2).

For non-simple roots $`\alpha _m`$’s ($`m=3,\mathrm{},6`$), $`\psi _m`$’s are given by

$$\psi _3=2\psi _1+\psi _2,\psi _5=\psi _1+\psi _2,\psi _4=3\psi _1+\psi _2,\psi _6=3\psi _1+2\psi _2.$$
(22)
Notice that the long to short root ratio is 3 so that $`l_1=1`$, $`l_2=3`$. The symmetry enhancement lines are given by $`\psi _l𝐙`$ for $`l=1`$, 3, 5 and $`\psi _s3𝐙`$ for $`s=2`$, 4, 6. A unit cell of central lattice is the parallelogram spanned by $`\stackrel{}{\mu }_1`$ and $`3\stackrel{}{\mu }_2`$ while the fundamental domain is surrounded by $`P_{\alpha _1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$, $`P_{\alpha _2,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$, $`P_{\alpha _3,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}}`$. The fundamental domain (or Weyl domain) is 1/12 of the unit cell as shown in figure 2.

All the long roots, $`\alpha _1`$, $`\alpha _3`$, $`\alpha _5`$, compose an SU(3) subgroup of $`G_2`$ as shown in figure 2. Hence every intersection point where only three lines of long root enhancement meet has a symmetry group SU(3) as depicted by circles in figure 2. The corresponding D-brane becomes 6-dimensional one given by $`G_2/\mathrm{SU}(3)`$. We also recognize that all the short roots $`\alpha _2`$, $`\alpha _4`$, $`\alpha _6`$ compose another SU(3) subgroup of $`G_2`$. However, every intersection point of short root enhancement lines is necessarily located on the central lattice of $`G_2`$ (filled circles in figure 2) and therefore has the symmetry group $`G_2`$, not SU(3). Finally, we can choose three pairs of long and short roots orthogonal to each other, namely $`(\alpha _1,\alpha _6)`$, $`(\alpha _3,\alpha _2)`$, $`(\alpha _5,\alpha _4)`$. These pairs correspond to the intersection points depicted by squares in figure 2 where the symmetry group is enhanced to $`\mathrm{SU}(2)\times \mathrm{SU}(2)`$.

4. Classical moduli space and global issues

We have seen that symmetry enhancement is related to the central lattice. Now we introduce two other lattices, namely the integral lattice and the co-root lattice, to define the moduli space of D-branes and discuss the global issues of it.

* Integral lattice (IL) : It is defined as the inverse image of the identity of $`G`$ under the exponentiation . The unit cell of the integral lattice can be identified with the moduli space, since it is in one to one correspondence with the maximal torus.
* Co-root lattice (CL) : a sublattice of central lattice that is generated by the co-roots. For a root $`\alpha `$, corresponding co-root $`\alpha ^{}`$ is defined as $`2\alpha /|\alpha |^2`$. This lattice can also be defined as the image of the origin under the reflections of the hyperplanes $`P_{\alpha _i,n}`$.

$`B_2`$ and $`C_2`$: The group space $`B_2=\mathrm{SO}(5)`$ is isomorphic to $`C_2=\mathrm{Sp}(2)`$ locally but not globally. In fact, $`\mathrm{SO}(5)\mathrm{Sp}(2)/𝐙_2`$. $`B_2`$ and $`C_2`$ share the same central and co-root lattices, while they have different integral lattices. It turns out that IL of $`B_2`$ is identical to the central lattice while that of $`A_2`$ or $`C_2`$ is equal to the co-root lattice. Now one can show that

$$\pi _1(G)=\mathrm{IL}/\mathrm{CL}.$$
(23)
Using Eq. (23), it is easy to show that $`\pi _1(\mathrm{SO}(5))=𝐙_2`$, while $`\pi _1(\mathrm{Sp}(2))=\{0\}`$. See figure 3. The two to one relation between the two groups can be understood from the fact that the inverse image of the maximal torus, or a unit cell of IL, of the Sp(2) is double size of the SO(5) when we draw them in the same plane with the same normalization where the long root length is $`\sqrt{2}`$.

In fact two points $`X`$ and $`X^{}`$ related by translation with any short root vector are mapped to the same point in SO(5) maximal torus but different points in Sp(2) maximal torus. The difference is by $`1`$ factor since $`\mathrm{exp}(2\pi i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_s\stackrel{}{H})=I`$ for any short root $`\alpha _s`$ ($`I`$ is the identity element in Sp(2)). This is because short root vectors are elements of the integral lattice in SO(5) but not in Sp(2). Note that the central lattice is decomposed into the co-root lattice (CL) and its complement lattice (CL). Both CL and CL compose IL in SO(5), whereas IL of Sp(2) is given by CL only. In Sp(2), CL and CL are exponentiated to be different centers $`I`$ and $`I`$, respectively. See figure 3. Thus, the $`𝐙_2`$ discussed so far can be identified with the center of Sp(2) to get the group space SO(5) as an orbifold $`\mathrm{Sp}(2)/𝐙_2`$. Things are the same for the subgroup generated by $`\alpha _1`$ and $`\alpha _3`$. They generate SO(4) if the parent group is SO(5), whereas they generate $`\mathrm{Spin}(4)`$ as a subgroup of Sp(2).

One can also see that the $`𝐙_2`$ symmetry acts on the weight space as the mirror reflections on the lines $`\psi _s=1`$ mod 2 ($`s=2,4`$), indicated by dashed lines in figure 1. All the CL points satisfy $`\psi _2\pm \psi _4=0`$ mod 4, while all the CL points satisfy $`\psi _2\pm \psi _4=2`$ mod 4. The mirror reflections on the lines $`\psi _s=1`$ mod 2 ($`s=2,4`$) are given by $`\psi _s2\psi _s`$ ($`s=2,4`$), respectively. Under the reflections CL is mapped to CL and vice versa. The SO(5) weight space is therefore invariant under the $`𝐙_2`$ reflections. Two D-branes related by the $`𝐙_2`$ reflection are different in Sp(2) but the same in SO(5). Thus we can expect that in SO(5) there exist $`𝐙_2`$ invariant D-branes located on the reflection lines and such a D-brane arises as an unoriented one $`\mathrm{SO}(5)/(\mathrm{SO}(2)\times \mathrm{O}(2))`$. This can be seen by looking at $`h=e^{2\pi iX}`$ with $`X`$ in Eq. (15), which gives $`h=\mathrm{diag}(z,1,+1,1,\overline{z})`$ for the lines $`\psi _4=1`$ mod 2. Each of them has an $`\mathrm{O}(2)`$ rather than $`\mathrm{SO}(2)`$ enhancement in (2,4) block. Similarly, any of the lines $`\psi _2=1`$ mod 2 has an extra $`𝐙_2`$ enhancement in $`(1,5)`$ block.

$`G_2`$: By looking at the explicit form of 7$`\times `$7 matrix $`X=(\psi _1\stackrel{}{\mu }_1+\psi _2\stackrel{}{\mu }_2)\stackrel{}{H}`$, we notice that the integral lattice of $`G_2`$ is at the same time the central lattice depicted by filled circles in figure 2 where heperplanes of all positive roots intersect. Note also that the central lattice coincides with the co-root lattice in $`G_2`$. Eq. (23) therefore concludes that $`\pi _1(G_2)=\{0\}`$ and the group manifold $`G_2`$ is simply-connected. If $`G_2`$ is restricted to its SU(3) subspace generated by long roots, one can think of both filled and unfilled circles in figure 2 as the central lattice points of SU(3). Then the integral lattice of $`G_2`$ is also that of the SU(3) and coincides with the SU(3) co-root lattice to conclude that $`\pi _1(\mathrm{SU}(3))=\{0\}`$.

5. Quantum moduli space and global group structures

Quantum mechanically, the single-valuedness of the path integral of the level $`k`$ boundary WZW model gives two quantization conditions: one from the presence of $`H`$-monopoles, the other from that of $`F`$-monopoles. The former condition gives the quantization of level $`k`$, while the latter gives the condition that $`k\stackrel{}{\psi }\stackrel{}{\alpha }_i^{}`$ should be an integer $`n_i`$ for all positive roots $`\alpha _i`$, or equivalently $`k\stackrel{}{\psi }`$ must be a highest weight . The presence of $`H`$-monopoles also gives the condition that $`k\stackrel{}{\psi }`$ should be defined only modulo $`k`$.

By using Eq. (6) saying that the co-roots are dual to the fundamental weights, the stable position of a D-brane is given by

$$k\stackrel{}{\psi }=\underset{i=1}{\overset{r}{}}n_i\stackrel{}{\mu }_i,$$
(24)
with the coefficients $`(n_1,\mathrm{},n_r)`$ for simple roots. We call the set of those points satisfying Eq. (24) the quantum moduli space. As we will show shortly, the co-roots generate the homology group $`H_2(G/T;𝐙)`$, namely

$$H_2(G/T;𝐙)\mathrm{CL},$$
(25)
where CL is the co-root lattice of $`G`$. Therefore Eq. (24) says that the highest weight $`k\stackrel{}{\psi }`$ must be an element of the cohomology group $`H^2(G/T;𝐙)`$ dual to $`H_2(G/T;𝐙)`$.

Now let us prove Eq. (25). We start from the exact homotopy sequence

$$\mathrm{}\pi _2(G)\pi _2(G/T)\pi _1(T)\pi _1(G)\pi _1(G/T)\pi _0(T)\mathrm{}.$$
(26)
From $`\pi _0(T)=\{0\}`$ and $`\pi _1(G)=\{0\}`$ or $`𝐙_2`$, the sequence implies that $`\pi _1(G/T)`$ is either $`\{0\}`$ or $`𝐙_2`$. It can not be $`𝐙_2`$, since it would mean that $`\pi _1(T)=\{0\}`$, which is not true. Therefore we must have $`\pi _1(G/T)=\{0\}`$. Then $`\pi _1(T)=𝐙^r`$ is classified by $`\pi _1(G)=𝐙_2`$ due to the surjectiveness of $`\mathrm{\Phi }:\pi _1(T)\pi _1(G)`$. From $`\pi _2(G)=\{0\}`$ for any compact connected Lie group $`G`$, $`\pi _2(G/T)`$ can be identified with its image in $`\pi _1(T)`$. Due to the exactness of the sequence, the image of $`\pi _2(G/T)`$ is equal to the kernel of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$. Thus we arrive at the non-trivial relation $`\pi _2(G/T)=\mathrm{Ker}\mathrm{\Phi }`$. Since the first non-trivial homology group and the first non-trivial homotopy group are isomorphic , we get $`H_2(G/T;𝐙)=\mathrm{Ker}\mathrm{\Phi }`$. Every unit cell of the integral lattice of $`G`$ is exponentiated to be the same maximal torus $`TG`$ and it is obvious $`\pi _1(T)\mathrm{IL}`$. Recall $`\pi _1(G)\mathrm{IL}/\mathrm{CL}`$ as shown in Eq. (23). Then the surjective mapping $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ can be rewritten as

$$\mathrm{\Phi }:\mathrm{IL}\mathrm{IL}/\mathrm{CL}$$
(27)
which immediately says $`\mathrm{Ker}\mathrm{\Phi }\mathrm{CL}`$ and we arrive at Eq. (25).

Although the condition (24) arises in the same way for SO(5) and Sp(2), its meaning is different between two cases. The condition says that half the Weyl domain enclosed by three lines $`\psi _1=0`$, $`\psi _2=0`$, $`\psi _4=1`$ is discretized into a set of stable points. This can be seen by setting $`n_4=k`$ in $`k\psi _4=n_4`$. Hence the D-branes located on the $`𝐙_2`$ reflection lines $`\psi _s=1`$ mod 2 ($`s=2,4`$) can be stable quantum mechanically. Such a D-brane arises as an unoriented one $`\mathrm{SO}(5)/(\mathrm{SO}(2)\times \mathrm{O}(2))`$ in SO(5), while as a generic one $`\mathrm{Sp}(2)/\mathrm{U}(1)^2`$ in Sp(2). Things are the same when we compare SO($`N`$)’s with their covering groups Spin($`N`$)’s ($`N3`$). For SO(3) as $`B_1`$ generated by a single short root, an unoriented D-brane $`\mathrm{SO}(3)/\mathrm{O}(2)`$ can be stable as shown in .

So far our discussion on quantum moduli space is just based on the (co)homological consideration. According to the CFT analysis, the condition (24) must be corrected in two ways . First, the level $`k`$ must be shifted to $`k+x`$, where $`x`$ is the dual Coxeter number of the group $`G`$ and is given by $`N2`$ for SO($`N`$), $`N+1`$ for Sp($`N`$), 9 for $`F_4`$, 4 for $`G_2`$. Second, the highest weight $`k\stackrel{}{\psi }`$ must be shifted by the Weyl vector $`\stackrel{}{\rho }`$, that is defined as half the sum of all positive roots. Thus the condition (24) is corrected to be

$$(k+x)\stackrel{}{\psi }=\underset{i=1}{\overset{r}{}}n_i\stackrel{}{\mu }_i+\stackrel{}{\rho }.$$
(28)
However, we should notice that the Weyl vector is always equal to the sum of all fundamental weights, that is $`\stackrel{}{\rho }=_{i=1}^r\stackrel{}{\mu }_i`$, for any compact Lie group. Therefore the exact condition (28) is not so different from the semi-classical one (24) except for shifting $`kk+x`$ and $`n_in_i+1`$. The singular D-branes are still allowed quantum mechanically.

6. Conclusions

In this paper, we gave a general prescription for the D-brane classification according to the D-brane position in the fundamental domain of the weight space. Utilizing the method of iterative deletion in Dynkin diagram, we constructed all the D-branes in compact non-simply-laced Lie groups. In $`G_2`$ case, we found the D6-brane $`G_2/\mathrm{SU}(3)`$, that is the 6-dimensional sphere embedded in $`𝐑^7`$ spanned by imaginary octonions . We also described the global issues involved in the SO groups using the integral and co-root lattices. The group space SO(5) can be understood as an orbifold $`\mathrm{Sp}(2)/𝐙_2`$ where $`𝐙_2`$ is the center of Sp(2). The $`𝐙_2`$ invariant D-brane in SO(5) arises as an unoriented D-brane $`\mathrm{SO}(5)/(\mathrm{SO}(2)\times \mathrm{O}(2))`$. The semi-classical condition (24) for the quantum moduli space is not affected so much by the CFT corrections and the singular D-branes can be stable even for the finite level $`k`$. However, there is also another effect working at finite level: the brane world volume is not sharply localized and becomes ‘fuzzy’ as shown in . It might be interesting to see how the methods of present paper can be used to discuss this effect or related quantum symmetries discussed in . For future work, we may extend our analysis in this paper to the classification of twisted D-branes  and also to D-branes in coset spaces.

Acknowledgements: This work is supported in part by KOSEF 1999-2-112-003-5. It is also supported in part by Hanyang University, Korea made in the program year of 2001. The authors are grateful to J. Fuchs for his comments on the earlier version of this paper.