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# Convergent resummed linear 𝛿 expansion in the critical 𝑂(𝑁) (ϕ_𝑖²)²_{3𝑑} model

## Abstract

The nonperturbative linear $`\delta `$ expansion (LDE) method is applied to the critical $`O(N)`$ $`\varphi ^4`$ three-dimensional field theory which has been widely used to study the critical temperature of condensation of dilute weakly interacting homogeneous Bose gases. We study the higher order convergence of the LDE as it is usually applied to this problem. We show how to improve both, the large-$`N`$ and finite $`N=2`$, LDE results with an efficient resummation technique which accelerates convergence. In the large $`N`$ limit, it reproduces the known exact result within numerical integration accuracy. In the finite $`N=2`$ case, our improved results support the recent numerical Monte Carlo estimates for the critical transition temperature of Bose-Einstein condensation.

Perturbative methods are well established tools to study diverse aspects of physical systems. However, in many important problems one is not allowed to use perturbation theory, or it just breaks down. In field theory, a well known example concerns the description of physical phenomena close to critical points of continuous or second order phase transitions. In this situation the divergence of length and time scales of the fluctuations, associated to infrared (IR) divergences and critical slow-down, respectively, result in the singular behavior of many physical quantities, like correlation lengths, susceptibilities and many other parameters. In these cases one must recur to nonperturbative methods, such as the renormalization group methods, the $`ϵ`$-expansion, the $`1/N`$ approximation and other techniques (for a review, see Ref. zustin ).

A timely important problem associated to the breakdown of perturbation theory near a critical point is the evaluation of the critical transition temperature for a weakly interacting homogeneous Bose gas. This apparently simple, but highly nontrivial task has been the source of controversy for many years. Recently, its functional form was found to be $`T_c=T_0\{1+c_1an^{1/3}+[c_2^{}\mathrm{ln}(an^{1/3})+c_2^{\prime \prime }]a^2n^{2/3}+𝒪(a^3n)\}`$, where $`T_0`$ is the ideal gas condensation temperature, $`a`$ is the $`s`$-wave scattering length, $`n`$ is the density and $`c_1,c_2^{},c_2^{\prime \prime }`$ are numerical coefficients second . However, a strong debate concerns the values of the numerical coefficients, especially $`c_1`$, which has been computed by different authors, using different methods. Some analytical predictions included the self-consistent resummation schemes ($`c_12.90`$) baymprl , the $`1/N`$ expansion at leading order ($`c_12.33`$) baymN  and at next to leading order ($`c_11.71`$) arnold1  and also the linear $`\delta `$-expansion (LDE) linear ; odm  at second order ($`c_13.06`$) prb . The numerical methods include essentially Monte Carlo lattice simulations (MC). The most recent MC results are reported by the authors of Ref. russos  ($`c_1=1.29\pm 0.05`$) and of Ref. arnold2  ($`c_1=1.32\pm 0.02`$). The problem is that these coefficients (except $`c_2^{}`$) are sensitive to the IR physics at the critical point and so, no perturbative approach can be used to predict them.

At first, one may believe that, due to the complex nature of the problem, it is unlikely that a definitive analytical prediction of the IR coefficients could be made. In general, higher order computations quickly become prohibitively difficult with the traditional nonperturbative analytical methods which, like the $`1/N`$ expansion, rely on the resummation of an infinite number of particular contributions. At the same time, the LDE great advantage is the fact that all calculations, including renormalization, are performed in a perturbative way. This means that one always deals with a finite set of contributions at each order. This advantage is well illustrated in a recent work by some of the present authors pra , where the LDE was extended to order-$`\delta ^4`$. The results give strong indications that, when properly applied, the LDE leads to very precise analytical predictions for the nonperturbative coefficients $`c_1`$ and $`c_2^{\prime \prime }`$. In fact, the results of Ref. pra  for these coefficients, at second ($`c_13.06,c_2^{\prime \prime }101.4`$), third ($`c_12.45,c_2^{\prime \prime }98.2`$) and fourth orders ($`c_11.48,c_2^{\prime \prime }82.9`$) seem to, roughly, converge to the precise MC results of Ref. arnold2 , where $`c_2^{\prime \prime }=75.7\pm 0.4`$ was also predicted.

The important question regarding the LDE convergence properties has been addressed in the context of the anharmonic oscillator (AO) at zero temperature where rigorous proofs have been produced ian . Those proofs have been extended to the finite temperature domain by Duncan and Jones dujo  who considered the AO partition function. Very recently, the convergence proof has been extended to renormalizable quantum field theories at zero temperature jldamien . However, it would be interesting to probe convergence in the vicinity of a phase transition such as for the Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC) model considered here. In most applications one can establish simple relations in between the LDE and other nonperturbative methods already at order-$`\delta `$ where one-loop diagrams are present. In fact, one can show that in those cases the LDE either exactly reproduces $`1/N`$ results or produce very close numerical estimates ian ; sunil . Here, the BEC problem poses an additional difficulty since the first non-trivial contributions start at the two-loop level in the self-energies. This is a consequence of the Hugenholtz-Pines theorem which eliminates the one-loop momentum independent contributions. In this case, it is not easy to establish simple analytical relations like those given in Refs. ian ; sunil  and the problem must be treated differently.

Braaten and Radescu in Ref. braaten  have recently re-visited the LDE application to the BEC problem also considering the convergence problem. One of the differences between our present work and also Refs. prb ; pra  from their approach regards the choice of physical quantity to be extremized. Moreover, the coefficient $`c_2^{\prime \prime }`$ and convergence acceleration, considered by us, were not investigated in Ref. braaten . We discuss both approaches, in more details, in a longer companion paper new .

In this Letter, our aim is to mainly investigate the convergence of the LDE, in the critical $`O(N)`$ $`(\varphi _i^2)_{3d}^2`$ model, by considering its behavior at the large-$`N`$ as well as at the finite $`N=2`$ limits. This study will be combined with a simple, but powerful, all order LDE resummation technique gn2  so that we can explicitly show convergence.

At the critical point, one can describe a weakly interacting dilute homogeneous Bose gas by an effective action analogous to a $`O(2)`$ scalar field model in three-dimensions given by

$$S_\varphi =d^3x\left(\frac{1}{2}(\varphi )^2+\frac{1}{2}r\varphi ^2+\frac{u}{4!}\varphi ^4\right),$$
(1)
where $`\varphi `$ is a two-component real scalar field. The parameters $`r`$ and $`u`$ are related to the original parameters of the nonrelativistic action, the chemical potential $`\mu `$, $`a`$, atomic mass $`m`$ and temperature $`T`$ by $`r=2m\mu `$ and $`u=48\pi amT`$ baymN ; arnold1 . The leading order coefficient of the critical temperature shift can be expressed as baymprl  $`c_1=128\pi ^3[\zeta (3/2)]^{4/3}\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi ^2/u`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi ^2=\varphi ^2_u\varphi ^2_0`$. The subscripts $`u`$ and $`0`$ mean that the field fluctuations are to be evaluated in the presence and in the absence of interactions respectively.

The implementation of LDE within this model is reviewed in previous applications prb ; pra  (see also Ref. prd ). In practice, one considers the original theory Eq. (1) adding a quadratic (in the fields) term $`1/2(1\delta )\eta ^2\varphi ^2`$ where $`\eta `$ is an arbitrary mass parameter. At the same time $`u\delta u`$ and $`r\delta r`$. One ends up with an interpolated theory described by the propagator $`(q^2+\eta ^2)^1`$ and vertices $`\delta u`$ , $`\delta \eta ^2`$ and $`\delta r`$. A physical quantity $`\mathrm{\Phi }^{(k)}`$ is then evaluated to an order-$`\delta ^k`$ using these new Feynman rules and following the program, including renormalization, of ordinary perturbation theory. This method operates for any $`N`$ and is free from IR divergences. Nonperturbative results for the original ($`\eta `$-independent) theory are obtained by optimizing $`\mathrm{\Phi }^{(k)}`$ with respect to $`\eta `$ at $`\delta =1`$. One possible optimization procedure, adopted in a part of this work, is the Principle of Minimal Sensitivity (PMS) which requires $`d\mathrm{\Phi }^{(k)}/d\eta =0`$ pms . For comparison and to check the consistency of the optimization procedure for reproducing physically sensible results, we also consider the alternative optimization scheme known as the Fastest Apparent Convergence criterion (FAC) where one requires that, at a given order $`k`$, the $`k`$-th coefficient of the perturbative expansion be zero. As we will see, both methods lead to equivalent results.

Let us first consider, in the large-$`N`$ limit, the usual analytical way prb ; pra  to define a non-trivial LDE, by performing an order by order perturbative evaluation of $`\varphi ^2_u^{(k)}`$ which, moreover, has the advantage of being straightforwardly generalized for arbitrary $`N`$ values. The convergence property issues can be studied by comparing the results with the “exact” $`1/N`$ result baymN  $`c_1=2.328`$. The details of such a calculation follow from the methods used in Ref. pra  and are given in the accompanying paper new . One obtains

$$\varphi ^2_u^{(20)}=\frac{N\eta ^{}}{4\pi }+\delta \frac{Nu}{3}\underset{i=1}{\overset{19}{}}C_i\left(\frac{\delta uN}{6\eta ^{}}\right)^i+𝒪(\delta ^{21}),$$
(2)
where the coefficients are given by $`C_1=7.249\times 10^5`$, $`C_2=2.032\times 10^6`$, $`C_3=6.400\times 10^8`$, $`C_4=2.080\times 10^9`$, $`C_5=5.021\times 10^{11}`$, $`C_6=2.760\times 10^{12}`$, $`C_7=3.580\times 10^{14}`$, $`C_8=6.500\times 10^{16}`$, $`C_9=1.090\times 10^{17}`$, $`C_{10}=1.040\times 10^{19}`$, $`C_{11}=7.030\times 10^{22}`$, $`C_{12}=2.810\times 10^{24}`$, $`C_{13}=7.300\times 10^{26}`$, $`C_{14}=2.800\times 10^{28}`$, $`C_{15}=6.000\times 10^{31}`$, $`C_{16}=5.780\times 10^{33}`$, $`C_{17}=1.100\times 10^{35}`$, $`C_{18}=1.130\times 10^{37}`$ and $`C_{19}=1.390\times 10^{40}`$. All coefficients for $`i2`$ in Eq. (2) were obtained from $`i`$-dimensional integrals over Feynman parameters, that we have performed by using the well-known Monte Carlo multidimensional integration routine VEGAS vegas . We should note that for such high dimension and complicated integrals, the Monte-Carlo statistical integration error cannot be reduced well below the percent level and this will be reflected on our final results.

Here, as in the original LDE applications to the BEC problem prb ; pra , our strategy is to evaluate $`\varphi ^2_u^{(k)}`$ perturbatively to order-$`\delta ^k`$ and then to extremize this quantity following the PMS. By setting $`u=0`$ in the optimal $`\varphi ^2_u^{(k)}`$ one immediately obtains the optimal $`\varphi ^2_0^{(k)}`$ and, at the same time, the optimal $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi ^2^{(k)}`$. By applying the PMS to this quantity, at each order, one obtains solutions that can be grouped into complex families whose first member is real as discussed in the anharmonic oscillator analogous studies (see Bellet, Garcia and Neveu in Refs. ian ) and in Ref. pra . To order-$`\delta ^{20}`$, our results are shown in Table I, together with those obtained by the FAC optimization procedure, for the best converging family of solutions (see Ref. new  for details). In the very last line of Table I, we indicate the corresponding statistical integration accuracy as provided by VEGAS. Note that both, the PMS and FAC, results converge to similar values, attesting that our results are not merely an artifact of the optimization procedure.

As far as the predictions of Ref. braaten  are concerned we note that our results, optimized via PMS or FAC, are also very stable. Like those authors, at about $`18^{\mathrm{th}}`$ order we achieve $`7\%`$ accuracy. Let us now present a way of improving the above results with an efficient LDE resummation technique. Performing the usual LDE interpolation with $`\eta ^{}=\eta (1\delta )^{1/2}`$ and $`u\delta u`$, expanded to order $`p`$, defines a partial sum $`\mathrm{\Phi }^{(p)}(\eta ,u,\delta )_{n=0}^ps_n\delta ^n`$, which for $`\delta 1`$ is given formally, from the simple pole residues, as

$$\mathrm{\Phi }^{(p)}(\eta ,u,\delta 1)=\frac{1}{2\pi i}𝑑\delta \frac{\delta ^{p1}}{1\delta }\mathrm{\Phi }(\eta ,u,\delta ),$$
(3)
where the anticlockwise contour encircles the origin. Now, one performs a change of variables gn2  for the relevant $`\delta 1`$ limit: $`\delta 1v/p`$, together with a similarly order-dependent rescaling of the arbitrary mass parameter, $`\eta \eta p^{1/2}`$, where the power $`1/2`$ is dictated by the scalar mass interaction term. For $`p\mathrm{}`$ this resummation can be summarized as the replacement $`\eta ^{}\eta v^{1/2}`$, followed by the contour integration

$$\varphi ^2_{\stackrel{p\mathrm{}}{\delta 1}}=\frac{1}{2\pi i}\frac{dv}{v}\mathrm{exp}(v)\varphi ^2(\eta ^{}\eta v^{1/2}),$$
(4)
where the “weight” $`\mathrm{exp}(v)/v`$ originates from $`d\delta (1\delta )^1dv/v`$; $`lim_p\mathrm{}(1v/p)^{p1}=\mathrm{exp}(v)`$, and the original contour was deformed to encircle the branch cut $`Re[v]<0`$. Noting that the LDE produces a power series in $`u^{(k+1)}/\eta ^k`$ and by using

$$𝑑v\mathrm{exp}(v)v^a=2\pi i/\mathrm{\Gamma }(a),$$
(5)
one sees that the main effect of this resummation is to divide the original expansion coefficients at order $`k`$ by terms $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(1+k/2)(k/2)!`$ for large $`k`$. This damping of the perturbative coefficients at large order, as implied by this specific resummation, is rather generic and was exploited recently in the completely different context of asymptotically free models jldamien  where it was shown to accelerate convergence of the LDE. When applied to the anharmonic oscillator, it is in fact (asymptotically) equivalent to the more direct LDE resummation with an order-dependent rescaling of the arbitrary mass, as employed in some of the Refs. ian  to establish rigorous convergence of the LDE for the oscillator energy levels, which is itself an extension of the order-dependent mapping (ODM) resummation technique odm . The contour integral resummation is however very convenient since, algebraically, it is simpler than the direct LDE summation, in particular to recover the original theory for $`\eta ^{}0`$. The results obtained through this contour integral resummation technique (CIRT) applied to Eq. (2) are also shown in Table I. Fast convergence happens already at order-$`\delta ^{10}`$, within $`1\%`$ of the exact large-$`N`$ result for $`c_1`$. Note the complete stability of results from this order onwards. Within the intrinsic numerical integration error involved in the computation of the coefficients in Eq. (2) we can conclude on the actual convergence of the CIRT towards the exact $`1/N`$ result. Note how the CIRT-PMS predictions quickly become more accurate, than the ordinary PMS (FAC) results, when more approximants are considered.

We finally turn to the finite $`N=2`$ case, for which the quantity $`\varphi ^2_u^{(k)}`$ has been evaluated, up to order-$`\delta ^4`$, in Ref. pra . Its perturbative expansion is

$$\varphi ^2_u^{(4)}=\frac{\eta ^{}}{2\pi }+\delta u\underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}K_i\left(\frac{\delta u}{\eta ^{}}\right)^i+𝒪(\delta ^5),$$
(6)
where the coefficients are given by $`K_1=3.222\times 10^5`$, $`K_2=1.524\times 10^6`$ and $`K_3=1.042\times 10^7`$. The contour integral technique applied at large-$`N`$ also improves the finite $`N=2`$ result of Ref. pra  showing that the complex family of solutions has real parts that converge to $`c_1=1.15\pm 0.01`$, whereas the most recent Monte Carlo predictions are russos  $`c_1=1.29\pm 0.05`$ and arnold2  $`c_1=1.32\pm 0.02`$. Apart from $`\varphi ^2^{(k)}`$, the quantity $`\delta r_c^{(k)}=\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\mathrm{ren}}^{(k)}(0)`$ also enters the evaluation of the order-$`a^2`$ coefficient $`c_2^{\prime \prime }`$ which appears in the $`T_c`$ expansion second . For $`N=2`$ its order-$`\delta ^4`$ perturbative evaluation is pra

$`\delta r_c^{(4)}`$ $`=`$ $`\delta {\displaystyle \frac{u\eta ^{}}{6\pi }}+\delta ^2u^2A_2\left[\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{M}{\eta ^{}}}\right)0.59775\right]`$ (7)
$``$ $`\delta ^3{\displaystyle \frac{u^3}{\eta ^{}}}A_3+\delta ^4{\displaystyle \frac{u^4}{(\eta ^{})^2}}A_4+𝒪(\delta ^5),`$
where the coefficients are $`A_2=1.407\times 10^3`$, $`A_3=8.509\times 10^5`$ and $`A_4=3.523\times 10^6`$. Treating Eq. (7) with the CIRT one obtains the result $`\mathrm{Re}[r_c^{(4)}(M=u/3)]=0.0010034u^2`$ which, together with the CIRT improved $`\varphi ^2_u^{(4)}`$ result, leads to $`c_2^{\prime \prime }=84.9\pm 0.8`$ new , while the Monte Carlo estimate is $`c_2^{\prime \prime }=75.7\pm 0.4`$ second  . Note that the scale $`M=u/3`$ was originally chosen in those Monte Carlo applications.

In conclusion, the LDE has been applied successfully to many different problems in field theory where standard perturbation theory does not apply. But despite of its successes, its applicability to higher orders and the study of its convergence properties in field theory, beyond the anharmonic oscillator problem ian , have proven to be a challenge. Here, we have studied the convergence of the LDE as applied to the critical point of Bose-Einstein condensation. We have shown that the perturbative LDE for the large-$`N`$ case converges towards the exact result, once resummed to all orders. We have also used the LDE to explicitly evaluate, in the large-$`N`$ limit, the coefficient $`c_1`$ to order-$`\delta ^{20}`$ using two different optimization procedures (PMS and FAC), leading to equivalent converging results, but in both cases $`7\%`$ accuracy is only achieved at about order-$`\delta ^{18}`$. Then, we have shown how the powerful contour integral resummation technique (CIRT) accelerates convergence already at order-$`\delta ^{10}`$ within $`1\%`$ accuracy or less, which appears in fact only limited by the intrinsic accuracy of the Monte-Carlo integration used to evaluate the coefficients of the relevant series. This same technique was extended to the relevant finite $`N=2`$ case where the recent order-$`\delta ^4`$ results for $`c_1`$ and $`c_2^{\prime \prime }`$ pra  were improved. It is worth remarking that, the $`c_1`$ values $`3.06`$, $`2.45`$ and $`1.48`$ obtained at orders-$`\delta ^2`$, $`\delta ^3`$ and $`\delta ^4`$ in Ref. pra  are close to $`2.90`$, $`2.33`$ and $`1.71`$ obtained by resumming “setting sun” contributions baymprl , leading order baymN  and next to leading order $`1/N`$ arnold1  contributions, respectively. The similarity between the LDE values at a given order and the values produced by each one of those analytical nonperturbative approximations should come as no surprise if one considers the type of graphs resummed by the LDE, at each order. At order-$`\delta ^2`$, only “setting sun” contributions are considered while more typical $`1/N`$ leading order contributions appear at order-$`\delta ^3`$. At order-$`\delta ^4`$, graphs which would belong to the $`1/N`$ at next to leading order also contribute. This simple consideration shows that the hierarchy of LDE numerical values is not a mere coincidence but a consequence of the type of graphs considered at each order. The numerical differences are due to the fact that the LDE actually mixes up those contributions, at each order in $`\delta `$, irrespective of their $`1/N`$ order. Here, apart from supporting the recent Monte Carlo predictions, our improved results reinforce the potential of the LDE as a powerful tool to treat nonperturbative problems in field theory.

M.B.P. and R.O.R. were partially supported by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq-Brazil).


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# Sco X-1 and Cyg X-1: Determination of Strength and Structure of Magnetic Field in the Nearest Environment of Accreting Compact Stars

## 1 Introduction

For X-ray sources of type Sco X-1 the Compton scattering by electrons is very important for generation of the radiation spectrum. The Compton scattering produces the linear polarization of radiation from such type objects. The polarization of X-ray sources have been first considered by Rees (1975) and independently by Lightman & Shapiro (1975). They calculated the spectrum of polarized radiation from an accretion disk.

But the spectrum of polarized radiation is drastically changed due to the Faraday rotation of the polarization plane in a magnetic field. Gnedin & Silant’ev (1980, 1997) (see also the book by Dolginov et al. 1995) have calculated the spectrum of polarized radiation for the various astrophysical objects with magnetic fields taking into account the Faraday rotation effect and suggested the new method of determination of stellar magnetic field with the spectrum of broad band linearly polarized radiation (see, for example, Gnedin & Silant’ev 1984; Gnedin et al. 1988). The application of their method to accretion disks around supermassive black holes (AGNs, QSOs) has been recently developed by Gnedin & Silant’ev (2002).

The first rough estimation of a magnetic field of Sco X-1, based on the first X-ray polarimetric observation made by Long et al. (1979), was done by Gnedin & Silant’ev (1980).

Recently Titarchuk et al. (2001) presented the detail model of quasi-periodic oscillations (QPO) of Sco X-1 using a large set of Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) data for this object. The QPOs have been observed not only into kHz range, but also at 6 Hz. There is an almost linear correlation between Sco X-1’s kHz and 6 Hz QPOs. They identify the 6 Hz frequencies as acoustic oscillations of a Keplerian disk around the neutron star (NS) that is formed after radiation pressure near the Eddington accretion rate destroys the disk. They showed that the disk is placed near one NS radius from the surface of NS. It is the remarkable fact that they could estimate the Sco X-1 magnetic field. It appears to be $`0.7\times 10^6G`$ at about one NS radius above the NS surface.

Let us remind also that still Gnedin & Shulov (1971) and Nikulin et al. (1971) claimed some evidence of circularly polarized light of Sco X-1 in optical spectral range. Though the followed measurement (see Illing & Martin 1972) did not confirm the existence of circular polarization for Sco X-1, Kemp et al. (1972) claimed the possible existence of the strong nonstationary circular polarization state. They called this state as a ”flaring polarization”. Nevertheless the situation with determination of magnetic field of Sco X-1 was unclear till now. The last results by Titarchuk et al. (2001), allow to reconsider this situation and to compare the results of various methods of magnetic field estimations. We start with the detail description of presented methods of magnetic field estimations of compact stars emitting X-rays.

## 2 Linear Polarization Spectrum of X-ray Radiation from Magnetized Disks and Envelopes Around a Compact Star

The X-ray radiation of a compact star (neutron star, black hole), scattered on electrons of the envelope of an accreting matter, acquires linear polarization. It is well known, however, that integral polarization from a spherical envelope is equal to zero due to total compensation of directions of electric vectors from various areas of this envelope. If magnetic field is absent, the nonzero net polarization requires nonspherical shape of the scattering electron envelope. If there is the presence of a magnetic field in the circumstellar electron envelope, the situation is radically changed. The scattered radiation undergoes the Faraday rotation of its polarization plane due to the propagation in a magnetized plasma.

The angle of the Faraday rotation $`\chi `$ is determined by the expression (see Gnedin & Silant’ev 1980, 1997)

$$\chi =\frac{1}{2}\delta \tau _T\mathrm{cos}\theta ,$$

$$\delta =\frac{3\omega _Bc}{2r_e\omega ^2}1.2\left(\frac{B}{10^6G}\right)\left(\frac{1keV}{\mathrm{}\omega }\right)^2,$$
(1)
where $`\tau _T`$ is the Thomson optical thickness of the envelope, $`\theta `$ is the angle between the directions of a magnetic field $`𝐁`$ and radiation propagation $`𝐧`$, $`r_e=e^2/m_ec^2`$ is classic electron radius, $`\omega _B=eB/m_ec`$ is the cyclotron frequency.

If the magnetic field increases, the angle $`\chi `$ increases too and partly polarized scattered radiation begins to undergo the Faraday rotation. The rotation angles $`\chi `$ are different for waves scattered in different volumes along the line of sight $`𝐧`$, and, as a result, the total radiation from all volume elements will be depolarized (see Fig. 10 from the review by Gnedin & Silant’ev 1997).

The spectrum of polarized radiation from a spherically symmetric envelope has been calculated by Gnedin & Silant’ev (1980). For a spherical envelope with the dipole magnetic field only the magnetic equator volumes don’t produce the Faraday rotation of polarization plane because of for these volumes $`\mathrm{cos}\theta 0`$ and $`\chi 0`$. As a result, only the radiation scattered in equatorial volumes acquires net polarization in the plane ($`\mathrm{𝐧𝐌}`$), where $`𝐧`$ and $`𝐌`$ are the directions of line of sight and dipole magnetic field, correspondingly. Namely this radiation alone gives rise to non-zero integral polarization from the magnetized envelope. The shape of the spectrum of the integral linear polarization has a bell-shaped form. Indeed, for very short wavelengths the Faraday rotation angles tend to zero and the integral polarization disappears due to spherical symmetry of the envelope. For very long wavelengths the angles of Faraday’s rotation increase and the near equatorial region with $`\chi 0`$ decreases what diminishes the integral polarization. So, the maximum integral polarization corresponds to such magnetic field strengths and wavelengths when the mean rotation angle $`\chi 1`$. The process of strong depolarization begins with the the values of magnetic field and wavelengths when $`\delta \tau _T>1`$ (see Eq. (1)).

For disk-like electron envelope without the true absorption with $`\tau _T1`$ we have for outgoing radiation (see Silant’ev 2002):

$$P_l(𝐧,𝐁)0.914\frac{1\mu ^2}{1+2\mu }\frac{1}{\sqrt{1+\delta ^2\mathrm{cos}^2\theta }},$$
(2)
where $`\mu =\mathrm{cos}\vartheta `$, and $`\vartheta `$ is the angle between the line of sight $`𝐧`$ and the normal to the disk surface. The terms without the square root describe roughly the polarization degree $`P_l(𝐧)`$ of radiation in the absence a magnetic field. So, the formula can be written as

$$P_l(𝐧,𝐁)\frac{P_l(𝐧)}{\sqrt{1+\delta ^2\mathrm{cos}^2\theta }}.$$
(3)
Later we shall use this formula for the estimation of magnetic field in the environment of the source Sco X-1.

For the spherically symmetric optically thin envelope around the neutron star with the dipole magnetic field the degree of linear polarization of X-rays scattered into this envelope can be estimated by the expression

$$P_l(𝐧,𝐁)=\tau _Tf(R_0/R_s;\delta _s\tau _0;\theta )\mathrm{sin}^2\theta .$$
(4)
Here $`R_0/R_s`$ is the ratio of the envelope radius to the neutron star radius, $`\delta _s`$ is the depolarization parameter (1) that corresponds to the stellar equatorial magnetic field strength. The function $`f`$ is tabulated by Gnedin & Silant’ev (1980, 1984).

In the region of the depolarization when $`\delta _s\tau _T>1`$ the asymptotic expression of the function $`f`$ takes a place:

$$f(\delta _s\tau _T)^{\frac{n1}{n+2}}(\omega /\omega _0)^{\frac{2(n1)}{(n+2)}}.$$
(5)
Here $`n`$ is the exponent of radial dependence of the electron density in the envelope: $`N_er^n(n0)`$. The value $`\omega _0=(3\omega _Bc/2r_e)^{1/2}`$. If, for example, $`n=2`$, the function $`f`$ drops with frequency decrease as $`f\omega ^{1/2}`$. For $`\delta _s\tau _T1`$ (large frequencies) the spectrum of polarization degree has universal dependence: $`P_l\omega ^4`$.

## 3 Magnetic Field Estimation from Magnetoacoustic Oscillations in Neutron Star Binaries

The original method to determine the magnetic field around neutron stars based on observed kHz and viscous quasi-periodic oscillations (QPO) frequencies has recently been proposed by Titarchuk et al. (2001). They have analyzed magnetoacoustic wave formation on the layer between a neutron star surface and the inner edge of a Keplerian disk and derived formulas for the magnetoacoustic wave frequencies for different regimes of radial transition layer oscillations. As a result they demonstrated that one can use the QPO as a new kind of probe to determine the magnetic field strengths of neutron stars in the binaries.

For the two extreme (acoustic and magnetic) cases Titarchuk et al. (2001) have been obtained an approximate formula for the magnetoacoustic frequency $`\omega _{MA}`$:

$$\omega _{MA}\left\{\frac{\left(\frac{\beta _S}{\pi }\right)^2V_S^2}{4(r_{out}r_{in})^2}+\frac{\left(\frac{\beta _M}{\pi }\right)^2\left(\frac{\alpha +2}{4}\right)^2V_A^2(r_{out})}{\left[r_{out}r_{in}\left(\frac{r_{in}}{r_{out}}\right)^{\frac{\alpha }{2}}\right]^2}\right\}^{1/2}.$$
(6)
Here $`V_S`$ is the sound velocity, $`V_A`$ is the Alfven velocity, $`r_{out}`$ and $`r_{in}`$ are the outer and the inner radii of a transit layer. The index $`\alpha `$ is related to the multipole magnetic field through the expression of $`V_A^2r^\alpha `$, so that $`\alpha =6,8,10`$ are for the dipole, quadrupole, and octupole, respectively.

The parameters $`\beta _S`$ and $`\beta _M`$ are determined by the transcendental equation (see Titarchuk et al. 2001):

$$\mathrm{tan}\beta =\frac{2(\alpha 2)\beta }{(\alpha +2)\left\{\frac{\eta \beta ^2}{(\eta 1)^2}+\left[\frac{\alpha 2}{\alpha +2}\right]^2\right\}},$$
(7)
where $`\beta =z_{out}z_{in}`$ and $`\eta =z_{out}/z_{in}=(r_{out}/r_{in})^{(\alpha +2)/2}`$, $`z_{out}`$ and $`z_{in}`$ are z-axis for the transit layer.

Titarchuk et al. (2001) estimated approximately the values of $`\beta _S`$ and $`\beta _M`$:

$$\beta _M\frac{\pi }{2}+\frac{2}{\pi }\left[\frac{(\pi /2)^2\eta }{(\eta 1)^2}+\frac{1}{4}\right]$$
(8)
for $`\alpha =6`$ and

$$\beta _S\left\{1.5/[1+1.5\eta /(\eta 1)^2]\right\}^{1/2}$$
(9)
for $`\alpha =0`$ (the pure acoustic case).

Substituting the sound velocity $`V_S=(kT/m_p)^{1/2}`$ and the Alfven velocity $`V_M=B(r_{out})/(4\pi \rho )^{1/2}`$ one can estimate the magnetic field strength at the outer boundary of the transition layer. Then using the multipole law for the magnetic field one can also estimate the magnetic field strength at the neutron star surface.

## 4 Magnetic Field Estimation from Circular Polarization of Optical Light of a Binary System

The broad-band polarimetry of the optical continuum radiation is the effective direct method of the magnetic field estimation. The electromagnetic wave which is incident onto plasma with a magnetic field produces oscillations of electron velocity. As a result an additional Lorentz force appears:

$$𝐅=𝐅(\frac{\omega _B}{\omega },𝐄\times 𝐁),$$
(10)
which depends on the ratio of the cyclotron frequency to radiation one and on the angle between the directions of wave’s electric vector $`𝐄`$ and the magnetic field $`𝐁`$. As a result of the action of this Lorentz force magnetized plasma acquires dichroism and birefringence properties, becoming similar to any anisotropic medium. In a magnetized plasma two types of electromagnetic waves (normal modes or normal waves) with different types of elliptical polarization should be propagated. These normal waves are usually called ordinary (O.W.) and extraordinary (E.O.W.) with their intrinsic refraction indices, phase velocities and polarization. O.W. behaves as an usual electromagnetic wave in a plasma without a magnetic field. For E.O.W. transport coefficients for various emission (magnetobremsstrahlung) and scattering (electron scattering) processes have resonance at cyclotron frequency $`\omega _B`$ (in detail see Dolginov et al. 1995).

In the case when the radiation frequency $`\omega `$ is much larger than the cyclotron frequency $`\omega _B`$, the radiation is predominantly circularly polarized:

$$P_V=2(\omega _B/\omega )\mathrm{cos}\theta ;P_lP_v^2(\omega _B/\omega )^2.$$
(11)
One of the most important case is the cyclotron resonance: $`\omega \omega _B`$ (remember that $`\omega _B/\omega 0.9310^8\lambda (\mu m)B(G)`$ ). For the optical range this case corresponds to magnetic field strengths $`B10^7÷10^8G`$. At cyclotron resonance the plasma radiation is completely polarized:

$$P_l=\frac{\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }{1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta };P_V=\frac{2\mathrm{cos}\theta }{1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta };P_l^2+P_V^2=1.$$
(12)
In our case of the close binary system with a magnetized neutron star the optical radiation of the accreting disk or plasma envelope around a neutron star can be circularly polarized. As a result the estimation of the neutron star magnetic field strength can be obtained from the measured optical circular polarization.

## 5 Sco X-1: Estimation of Magnetic Field Strength

The X-ray polarization of Sco X-1 was searched by Long et al. (1979). Multiple observations of Sco X-1 were carried out with the Bragg crystal polarimeter aboard OSO8. An unambiguous detection of the time-averaged polarization was obtained for Sco X-1 which has a polarization $`P_l=(0.39\pm 0.20)\%`$ at 2.6 keV and $`P_l=(1.31\pm 0.40)\%`$ at 5.2 keV. These data give a signature of the polarization fall at energy values below 5.2 keV. If one suggests that this fall is due to the Faraday depolarization effect one can estimate the magnetic field strength at an environment of the neutron star in Sco X-1 binary system. The ratio $`P_l(2.6keV)/P_l(5.2keV)0.3`$.

Using Eq. (3), we obtain for the 5.2 keV case $`\delta \mathrm{cos}\theta \sqrt{(P_l(𝐧)/1.31)^21}`$. The choice of $`P_l`$ depends on of the angle of inclination of a disk. It is clear that we are to take $`P_l1.31\%`$. As a result we have the estimation:

$$B2.310^7\sqrt{(P_l/1.31)^21}G.$$
(13)
This estimation takes place for the model of optically thick inclined disk. If we choose $`P_l2`$, we obtain $`B2.610^7`$ G. Analogous estimation for the 2.6 keV case gives $`B2.810^7`$ G, i.e. in range of observational errors both estimations coincide one with another. It seems the polarized radiation forms at the inner part of accretion disk where the temperature is higher.

Another estimation follows from the model of spherical electron envelope in dipole magnetic field. Considering that the polarization 1.31% corresponds to the position at the polarization spectrum curve which is near maximum, i.e. $`\delta _s\tau /\eta ^31`$, we obtain

$$B_s2.310^7\frac{\eta ^3}{\tau }G.$$
(14)
Here, $`\eta =R_0/R_s`$ is the ratio of the envelope radius to the neutron star radius and $`\tau `$ is the Thomson thickness of the envelope. Taking $`\eta 2`$ and $`\tau 0.25`$, we obtain from (14) the estimatiom $`B_s710^8`$ G, or the value $`B10^8`$ G in the region of an envelope. The estimations (14) considerably greater than those from (13). In reality this difference is more considerable because the condition $`P_l(5.2keV)/P_l(2.6keV)3.3`$ can be carried out only if $`\delta _s>\eta ^3/\tau `$.

Another way of estimation of Sco X-1 magnetic field is to use observed kHz and viscous QPO frequencies. This method was developed by Titarchuk et al. (2001). They used the best-fit parameters of Sco X-1 transition layer and determined the magnetic field strength $`B_{TL}=(1.0\pm 0.05)10^6G`$ and $`R_{TL}=2.1210^6`$ cm in the transition layer. An extrapolation of the magnetic field from $`R_{TL}`$ towards the neutron star radius gives us $`B_s=810^6G`$ and $`B_s=3.3\times 10^7G`$ for the dipole and octupole fields, respectively. These values appear close to the X-ray polarimetric estimation of neutron star magnetic field given by (13).

Third way of estimation of Sco X-1 magnetic field is connected with observations of circular polarization of optical light in Sco X-1 binary system.

Gnedin and Shulov (1971) and Nikulin et al. (1971) claimed occasional appearance of appreciable and variable circular polarization of optical light of Sco X-1 (see, also, Severny & Kuvshinov, 1975). Though Illing & Martin (1972) didn’t confirm these results, Kemp et al. (1972) claimed also evidence of the occasional appearance of circular polarization of Sco X-1 that was named by them as ”flaring polarization”.

The net circular polarization of Sco X-1 was estimated with Eq. (11). Gnedin & Shulov (1971) made the observations of circular polarization in the yellow-red light that corresponds the effective wavelength $`\lambda _{eff}=0.64\mu m`$. For their case estimation (11) give the following value of the magnetic field strength:

$$B210^6\left(\frac{P_V}{0.01}\right)G.$$
(15)
This value corresponds quite well to the magnetic field magnitude derived by Titarchuk et al. (2001). However, the magnitude (11) should be considered only as the low limit for the real magnetic field of the neutron star because one need to take into account the contribution of the optical companion in the radiation of the accreting disk of Sco X-1 system. Therefore the real value of the neutron star magnetic field must be increased at least an order and reaches the value at the level $`10^7G`$.

This is the remarkable thing that three independent estimations give close values for the magnetic field strength in Sco X-1 system.

It should be noted that the case of accretion disk with the chaotic (turbulent) magnetic fields gives the same estimation (13) as for some regular magnetic field with appropriate choice of the angle $`\theta `$ (see formulas in Silant’ev, 2002). Besides, the model with chaotic magnetic fields explains naturally the ”flaring” character of circular polarization that is due to the fluctuations of a magnetic field.

## 6 Cyg X-1: Estimation of Magnetic Field Strength in a Plasma Near the Black Hole

How to extract energy from a rotating black hole is important issue in astrophysics. Many people have considered various alternative mechanisms for extracting energy from a rotating black hole. Among them the most promising one is the famous Blandford-Znajek mechanism (Blandford & Znajek 1977). In this mechanism a Kerr black hole is assumed to connect with surrounding matter with magnetic field lines. The magnetic field lines thread the black hole’s horizon and its rotation twists the magnetic field lines and transports energy and angular momentum from the black holes to the accretion disk (Blandford 2001; Li 2002; Li & Paczynski 2000, and references therein).

A magnetic field connecting a black hole to a disk has important effects on the balance and transfer of energy and angular momentum. The global structure of black hole magnetospheres involving axisymmetric magnetic field and plasma injected from an accretion disk has been extensively investigated for explaining various observational features of transient X-ray binaries and active galactic nuclei (see, e.g., for the review by Beskin 1997).

Recently Robertson & Leiter (2001) claimed an evidence for intrinsic magnetic moments in black hole candidates.

The Electro-Magnetic Black Hole theory has been recently developed by Ruffini (2002). He has applied this theory to the analysis of the GRB phenomenon. He showed the structure of burst and afterglow of GRB can be explained within the theory based on the vacuum polarization process occurring in an Electro-Magnetic Black Hole.

Unfortunately there is no till now the direct evidence of the presence magnetic field in near environment around a black hole.

The marginal evidence of X-ray polarization of Cyg X-1 allows in the accretion disk around the compact X-ray object (black hole) (Weisskopf et al. 1977, Long et al. 1980). Multiple observations of Cyg X-1 were carried out by Long et al. (1980) with the Bragg crystal polarimeters aboard OSO8. The detection of the time-averaged polarization was obtained for Cyg X-1 at the level: $`P_l(2.6keV)=2.4\%\pm 1.1\%`$ and $`P_l(5.2keV)=5.3\%\pm 2.5\%`$. If the decrease of polarization at 2.6 keV one explains as a result of the Faraday depolarization, the estimation of a magnetic field strength via Eq. (2) gives $`B10^7G`$. It is curious that this magnetic field magnitude is quite sufficient to explain the famous result of measurement by Michalsky & Swedlund (1977) of variable optical circular polarization of Cyg X-1: $`P_V510^4`$.

## 7 Conclusion

We estimated the magnetic field magnitudes of two X-ray binaries: Sco X-1 and Cyg X-1. We used for estimation two different methods. One of them is connected with correct account of the Faraday rotation of polarization plane in the process of scattering of X-ray radiation (method developed by Gnedin and Silant’ev 1980, 1984, 1997). Another original method of determining the magnetic field of the objects like Sco X-1 is developed by Titarchuk et al. (2001). This method is based on observed quasi-periodic oscillations (QPO) frequencies in X-ray binaries and their interpretation as magnetoacoustic oscillations in neutron star binaries. It is remarkable that both methods give close results: magnetic field strength of neutron star in Sco X-1 appears at the level of $`B_S10^7G`$. It is wonderful that measurements of optical circular polarization of Sco X-1 give the same estimation of neutron star magnetic field in Sco X-1 (see Eq. (15) with taking into account the fact that optical radiation is generated in outer layers of the accretion disk comparatively far away from the neutron star itself).

###### Acknowledgements.

Gnedin is grateful for support from Russian Research Program: ”Nonstationary Phenomena in Astronomy” and program ”Astronomy” of Russian Department of Science and Technology.


text:
# Removal of Closed Timelike Curves in Kerr-Newman Spacetime

## Abstract

A simple yet systematic new algorithm to investigate the global structure of Kerr-Newman spacetime is suggested. Namely, the global structures of $`\theta =`$ const. timelike submanifolds of Kerr-Newman metric are studied by introducing a new time coordinate slightly different from the usual Boyer-Lindquist time coordinate. In addition, it is demonstrated that the possible causality violation thus far regarded to occur near the ring singularity via the development of closed timelike curves there is not really an unavoidable pathology which has plagued Kerr-Newman solution but simply a gauge (coordinate) artifact as it disappears upon transforming from Boyer-Lindquist to the new time coordinate. This last point appears to lend support to the fact that, indeed, the Kerr-Newman spacetime is a legitimate solution to represent the interior as well as the exterior regions of a rotating, charged black hole spacetime.

preprint: gr-qc/0207014

I. Introduction

In the present work, we would like to suggest a new algorithm to investigate the global structure and maximal analytic extension of the Kerr-Newman spacetime  which is simpler yet more systematic than the existing ones. To our knowledge, the first serious attempts to uncover them were made long ago by Carter  and by Boyer and Lindquist . Along the line of procedures suggested earlier by Finkelstein  and by Kruskal  and by Graves and Brill , Boyer and Lindquist  and independently Carter  were able to perform a detailed study of the global structure and the maximal analytic extension of the Kerr-Newman spacetime. Working in the Kerr coordinates , which can be thought of as the axisymmetric generalization of Eddington-Finkelstein null coordinates, Carter , however, had to confine himself to the study particularly on the symmetry axis $`\theta =0`$ (where $`\theta `$ denotes the polar angle) for technical limitations. And then from the conclusion derived from this study, he conjectured that the other $`\theta =`$const. hypersurfaces would presumably have the same global structures as that of the symmetry axis. The new algorithm we are about to present here allows us to “complete” the status of development in this direction. Namely, we shall be able to explore the global structures of the “$`\theta =`$ const.” timelike submanifolds of Kerr-Newman spacetime from the “symmetry axis” ($`\theta =0`$) all the way to the “equatorial plane” ($`\theta =\pi /2`$) one by one. Our strategy is first to scan the full, 4-dim. Kerr-Newman manifold by slicing it into pieces of $`\theta =`$const. 3-dim. timelike submanifolds and next to examine the global structure of each one of them. And to this end, we shall introduce a “new” time coordinate different from the usual Boyer-Lindquist time coordinate  which can be defined only on the $`\theta =`$const. timelike submanifolds. Now let us be more specific. Since the geometry of $`\theta =\theta _0`$ (with $`0<\theta _0\pi /2`$) submanifolds is essentially 3-dim. whereas that of the symmetry axis ($`\theta _0=0`$) is effectively 2-dim. (since it has a degeneracy along $`\varphi `$ direction), things get more involved compared to the case of the symmetry axis discussed by Carter . Therefore in order to make the analysis tractable, we shall introduce a “new” time coordinate $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$ slightly different from the usual Boyer-Lindquist time coordinate $`t`$  based on the philosophy that the global structure remains unaffected under coordinate changes. From there one can then apply the same methods of Finkelstein  and Kruskal  to obtain the maximal analytic extensions of the conformal diagrams of the $`\theta =\theta _0`$ submanifolds. Then it is straightforward to see that the maximally extended conformal diagram of the $`\theta =\theta _0`$ (with $`0<\theta _0<\pi /2`$) submanifolds of Kerr-Newman spacetime remain the same, i.e., still take the same structure as that of the symmetry axis . The extended conformal diagram of the equatorial plane, on the other hand, takes exactly the same structure as that of the Reissner-Nordstrom (RN) solution . As a result, it does have the ring singularity at $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=0`$ (or more precisely at $`r=0`$ since $`\theta _0=\pi /2`$) and one cannot, on the equatorial plane, extend to negative values of $`r`$ while one can do so on other $`\theta =\theta _0`$ submanifolds. As we shall discuss in detail in the text shortly, in addition to the clearer overview of the global structure of the full Kerr-Newman spacetime that our algorithm provides, there is another, even more crucial role played by the “new” time coordinate. Recall, as was first pointed out by Carter , that there is an issue of possible occurrence of closed timelike curves and hence the possibility of causality violation near the ring singularity if one analyzes the Kerr-Newman metric in Boyer-Lindquist coordinates. As we shall see in a moment, this occurrence of closed timelike curves disappears by transforming to the “new” time coordinate. This, of course, implies that the seemingly possible violation of causality near the ring singularity of Kerr-Newman spacetime is not an unavoidable pathology but simply a gauge (coordinate) artifact whose appearance can be attributed to the poor choice of (Boyer-Lindquist) coordinates. In short, this elimination of the possibility of causality violation near the ring singularity via a transformation to the new time coordinate appears to lead us to believe that the Kerr-Newman solution  might be really valid as the spacetime of a rotating charged black hole. And our study, particularly, of the global topology of the equatorial plane confirms the existence of the ring singularity in a more transparent manner and supports the general belief that the spacetime produced by physically realistic collapse of even nonspherical bodies would be qualitatively similar to the spherical case, i.e., the RN geometry .

II. Introduction of a “New” time coordinate.

Now consider the stationary axisymmetric Kerr-Newman solution of the Einstein-Maxwell equations. The Kerr-Newman metric is given in Boyer-Lindquist coordinates as

$`ds^2=`$ $``$ $`[{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }a^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }{\mathrm{\Sigma }}}]dt^2{\displaystyle \frac{2a\mathrm{sin}^2\theta (r^2+a^2\mathrm{\Delta })}{\mathrm{\Sigma }}}dtd\varphi `$ (1)
$`+`$ $`[{\displaystyle \frac{(r^2+a^2)^2\mathrm{\Delta }a^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }{\mathrm{\Sigma }}}]\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\varphi ^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }}{\mathrm{\Delta }}}dr^2+\mathrm{\Sigma }d\theta ^2`$ (2)
where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }r^2+a^2\mathrm{cos}^2\theta `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }r^22Mr+a^2+e^2`$ with $`M`$ being the mass, $`a`$ being the angular momentum per unit mass and $`e`$ being the total $`U(1)`$ charge of the hole. We are now particularly interested in the $`\theta =`$const. timelike surfaces as submanifolds of this Kerr-Newman spacetime. Namely, consider the $`\theta =\theta _0`$ ($`0\theta _0\pi /2`$) timelike submanifolds of Kerr-Newman spacetime with the metric

$`ds^2=`$ $``$ $`[{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }a^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0}{\mathrm{\Sigma }}}]dt^2{\displaystyle \frac{2a\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0(r^2+a^2\mathrm{\Delta })}{\mathrm{\Sigma }}}dtd\varphi `$ (3)
$`+`$ $`[{\displaystyle \frac{(r^2+a^2)^2\mathrm{\Delta }a^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0}{\mathrm{\Sigma }}}]\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0d\varphi ^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }}{\mathrm{\Delta }}}dr^2`$ (4)
where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=r^2+a^2\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _0`$ now. These $`\theta =\theta _0`$ surfaces have metrics which are literally 3-dim. in structure and possess an off-diagonal component in an intricate way. Thus in order to make the study of global structure of $`\theta =\theta _0`$ submanifolds tractable, here we consider a coordinate transformation which is defined only on the $`\theta =`$const. timelike submanifolds. Namely consider a transformation from the Boyer-Lindquist time coordinate “$`t`$” to a new time coordinate “$`\stackrel{~}{t}`$” given by

$`\stackrel{~}{t}=t(a\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0)\varphi `$ (5)
with other spatial coordinates $`(r,\varphi )`$ remaining unchanged. Note that the new time coordinate $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$ is different from the old one $`t`$ only for “rotating” case ($`a0`$) and even then only for $`\theta _00`$. In terms of this “new” time coordinate $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$, the metric of $`\theta =\theta _0`$ submanifolds becomes

$`ds^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{\mathrm{\Sigma }}}d\stackrel{~}{t}^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }}{\mathrm{\Delta }}}dr^2+\mathrm{\Sigma }\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0(d\varphi {\displaystyle \frac{a}{\mathrm{\Sigma }}}d\stackrel{~}{t})^2`$ (6)
$`=`$ $`N^2(r)d\stackrel{~}{t}^2+h_{rr}(r)dr^2+h_{\varphi \varphi }(r)[d\varphi +N^\varphi (r)d\stackrel{~}{t}]^2.`$ (7)
Namely, the metric now takes on the structure of a remarkably simple ADM’s $`(2+1)`$ space-plus-time split form with the lapse, shift functions and the spatial metric components being given respectively by

$`N^2(r)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{\mathrm{\Sigma }}},N^\varphi (r)={\displaystyle \frac{a}{\mathrm{\Sigma }}},N^r(r)=0`$ (8)
$`h_{rr}(r)`$ $`=`$ $`N^2(r),h_{\varphi \varphi }(r)=\mathrm{\Sigma }\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0,h_{r\varphi }(r)=h_{\varphi r}(r)=0.`$ (9)
In terms of this new time coordinate $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$, therefore, it is now manifest that the $`\theta =\theta _0`$ submanifolds of Kerr-Newman spacetime have the topology of $`R^2\times S^1`$ (which was rather obscured in the metric form eq.(2) given in the original Boyer-Lindquist time coordinate $`t`$) and hence the new time coordinate is better-suited for the study of global structure. That is to say, the global structure of the timelike 2-dimensional submanifolds $`T=R^2`$ would mirror that of the full $`\theta =\theta _0`$ submanifolds since each point of $`T=R^2`$ can be thought of as representing $`S^1`$. We would like to add a comment here. Of course it is true that it is the manifold itself that has topology, not the metric. Therefore, regardless of the coordinates and hence the metrics one chooses, they all describe the same manifold with a single topology. However, the point we would like to make here is that the metric given in new time coordinate $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$ (eq.(4)) demonstrates more clearly that the $`\theta =\theta _0`$ submanifolds it describes has the topology of $`R^2\times S^1`$ than the metric in Boyer-Lindquist time coordinate $`t`$ (eq.(2)) does.
Thus we now turn to the analysis of the global structures of the $`\theta =\theta _0`$ timelike submanifolds. Firstly, consider the $`\theta _0=0`$ timelike submanifolds representing the “symmetry axis” of the Kerr-Newman spacetime with the metric being given by

$`ds^2=({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{r^2+a^2}})dt^2+({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{r^2+a^2}})^1dr^2.`$ (10)
Note that this metric of the symmetry axis is effectively 2-dim. since it is degenerate along the $`\varphi `$ direction. And this diagonal, 2-dim. structure of the metric of the symmetry axis allowed a complete analysis of its global structure as had been carried out by Carter .
Secondly, consider the $`\theta _0=\pi /2`$ surface which represents the “equatorial plane” of Kerr-Newman spacetime. The metric of this submanifold is obtained in the new time coordinate $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$ by setting $`\theta _0=\pi /2`$ in eq.(4)

$`ds^2=N^2(r)d\stackrel{~}{t}^2+N^2(r)dr^2+r^2[d\varphi +N^\varphi (r)d\stackrel{~}{t}]^2`$ (11)
with the lapse $`N(r)`$ and the shift $`N^\varphi (r)`$ in above $`(2+1)`$\- split form being given by

$`N^2(r)={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{r^2}}=[1{\displaystyle \frac{2M}{r}}+{\displaystyle \frac{(a^2+e^2)}{r^2}}],N^\varphi (r)={\displaystyle \frac{a}{r^2}}.`$ (12)
Finally, note that the metric of the $`\theta =\theta _0`$ ($`0<\theta _0<\pi /2`$) submanifolds given in eq.(4) are everywhere non-singular including $`r=0`$ and possess exactly the same causal structure (except for the appearance of ergoregion) as that of the symmetry axis $`(\theta =0)`$. Therefore, the maximal analytic extension of the $`\theta =\theta _0`$ ($`0<\theta _0<\pi /2`$) submanifolds representing their global structure is essentially the same as that of the symmetry axis first studied by Carter . The metric of the equatorial plane $`(\theta _0=\pi /2)`$ given in eqs.(7),(8), however, possesses a curvature singularity at $`r=0`$ as expected (since it is the “ring singularity”, $`r=0`$, $`\theta _0=\pi /2`$) whereas it exhibits almost the same causal structure (again except for the presence of the ergoregion) as that of the symmetry axis. As a result, the maximal analytic extension of the equatorial plane is identical to that of the RN spacetime . Detailed analysis of the global structure and the maximal analytic extension will be presented in a separate publication.

III. Physical meaning of the “New” time coordinate.

Note that both in the old Boyer-Lindquist coordinates and in the new coordinates, the $`\theta =\theta _0`$ submanifolds of Kerr-Newmann metric are stationary and axisymmetric and hence possess the associated time-translational and rotational Killing fields $`\{\xi ^\mu =(/t)^\mu ,\psi ^\mu =(/\varphi )^\mu \}`$ and $`\{\stackrel{~}{\xi }^\mu =(/\stackrel{~}{t})^\mu ,\stackrel{~}{\psi }^\mu =(/\stackrel{~}{\varphi })^\mu \}`$ respectively. Since the azimuthal angle coordinate $`\varphi `$ is not being transformed, we shall henceforth write $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }=\varphi `$ in all the expressions given in the new coordinates $`(\stackrel{~}{t},r,\stackrel{~}{\varphi })`$. Now, in order to have physical meaning of the new coordinate system $`(\stackrel{~}{t},r,\stackrel{~}{\varphi })`$ for each $`\theta =\theta _0`$ timelike submanifold given by eq.(3), we begin by considering how the associated time-translational and rotational Killing fields transform accordingly. Namely from :

$`g_{\stackrel{~}{t}\stackrel{~}{t}}`$ $`=`$ $`g_{tt},g_{\stackrel{~}{t}\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}=(a\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0)g_{tt}+g_{t\varphi },`$ (13)
$`g_{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}`$ $`=`$ $`(a^2\mathrm{sin}^4\theta _0)g_{tt}+2(a\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0)g_{t\varphi }+g_{\varphi \varphi }`$ (14)
and $`g_{tt}=\xi ^\mu \xi _\mu `$, $`g_{t\varphi }=\xi ^\mu \psi _\mu `$, $`g_{\varphi \varphi }=\psi ^\mu \psi _\mu `$ and $`g_{\stackrel{~}{t}\stackrel{~}{t}}=\stackrel{~}{\xi }^\mu \stackrel{~}{\xi }_\mu `$, $`g_{\stackrel{~}{t}\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}=\stackrel{~}{\xi }^\mu \stackrel{~}{\psi }_\mu `$, $`g_{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}=\stackrel{~}{\psi }^\mu \stackrel{~}{\psi }_\mu `$, we can conclude

$`\stackrel{~}{\xi }^\mu =\xi ^\mu ,\stackrel{~}{\psi }^\mu =\psi ^\mu +(a\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0)\xi ^\mu .`$ (15)
We are now ready to interpret the physical meaning of this coordinate transformation on each $`\theta =\theta _0`$ timelike submanifold in terms of this transformation law for the Killing fields. In the old Boyer-Lindquist coordinate $`(t,r,\varphi )`$, the coordinate “$`t`$” is a timelike coordinate outside the event horizon with unbounded range $`0t<\mathrm{}`$ and the coordinate “$`\varphi `$” is compactified with the period of $`2\pi `$, i.e., $`\varphi \varphi +2\pi n`$ $`(nZ)`$ in order for the Kerr-Newman metric to be asymptotically-flat. And this amounts to identifying points along the “straight” orbits of the rotational Killing field $`(/\varphi )^\mu `$. Now, notice that under the coordinate transformation given in eq.(3), the associated Killing fields transform as in eq.(10), namely

$`\left(/\stackrel{~}{\varphi }\right)^\mu =\left(/\varphi \right)^\mu +a\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0\left(/t\right)^\mu ,\left(/\stackrel{~}{t}\right)^\mu =\left(/t\right)^\mu .`$ (16)
Particularly, the transformation law for the rotational Killing field $`\psi ^\mu =(/\varphi )^\mu `$ indicates that now one should identify points along the “twisted” orbits of $`\psi ^\mu +(a\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0)\xi ^\mu `$. Namely, since the compactification direction now involves that of time coordinate, the corresponding identification of points should be

$`(t,r,\varphi )(t+2\pi n(a\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0),r,\varphi +2\pi n),nZ`$ (17)
which implies that, except along the poles, $`t`$ is periodic, namely, there are closed timelike curves. Then upon this change of coordinates, the metric of each $`\theta =\theta _0`$ timelike submanifold remarkably simplifies to the form given in eq.(4) or equivalently to

$`ds^2=\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }a^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0}{\mathrm{\Sigma }}}\right]d\stackrel{~}{t}^22a\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0d\stackrel{~}{t}d\stackrel{~}{\varphi }+\mathrm{\Sigma }\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0d\stackrel{~}{\varphi }^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }}{\mathrm{\Delta }}}dr^2,`$ (18)
now with the identification of points $`(\stackrel{~}{t},r,\stackrel{~}{\varphi })(\stackrel{~}{t},r,\stackrel{~}{\varphi }+2\pi n)`$ in a standard manner. The fact that one recovers standard way of point identification after the coordinate transformation given in eq.(3) can indeed be represented as follows : just as the old Boyer-Lindquist time coordinate “$`t`$” is constant along the orbits of $`\psi ^\mu `$, i.e., $`(/\varphi )t=0`$, the new coordinate “$`\stackrel{~}{t}`$” is the “adapted” time coordinate which is constant along the orbits of $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }^\mu =\psi ^\mu +(a\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0)\xi ^\mu `$, i.e.,

$`\left(/\stackrel{~}{\varphi }\right)\stackrel{~}{t}=\left[\left(/\varphi \right)+a\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0\left(/t\right)\right](ta\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0\varphi )=0.`$ (19)
As we stressed earlier, in terms of new coordinates, it becomes much more transparent that the topology of each $`\theta =\theta _0`$ submanifold is $`R^2\times S^1`$, which, although expected, was not so clear in the old Boyer-Lindquist coordinates. We now remark on some interesting features that emerge when we describe the $`\theta =\theta _0`$ submanifolds of the Kerr-Newman black hole spacetime in terms of this new coordinates aside from the advantage in studying their global structure.
(1) Gauge (Coordinate) dependence of the occurrence of closed timelike curves.
Indeed, this is the point of central importance we would like to make in the present work concerning the crucial role played by this new coordinate system. First, notice that the transformation from the Boyer-Lindquist time coordinate “$`t`$” to the new time coordinate “$`\stackrel{~}{t}`$” introduced in the present work involves the identification of points $`tt+2\pi n(a\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0)`$ in addition to the usual $`\varphi \varphi +2\pi n`$. As was pointed out, this implies that this particular transformation involves, along the way, the compactification of time coordinate or equivalently, the emergence of closed timelike curves away from the poles at $`\theta _0=0,\pi `$. Once the transformation to the new time coordinate is completed, however, the $`\theta =\theta _0`$ submanifolds of the Kerr-Newman spacetime admits metrics free of the closed timelike curves since now $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$ possesses usual, semi-infinite, unbounded range, $`0\stackrel{~}{t}<\mathrm{}`$. Namely, this coordinate transformation partly involves an implicit process in which the closed timelike curves are “gauged away”. One might suspect that the compactification of old time coordinate involved in this coordinate transformation is not relevant and hence physically unacceptable. It is, however, well-known that closed timelike curves indeed occur in the interior region of Kerr-Newman black hole spacetime represented in Boyer-Lindquist coordinates and hence the explicit emergence of the closed timelike curves during the course of this coordinate transformation process presumably could reflect this fact. Thus in the following, we shall demonstrate that this is indeed the case and hence in the new time coordinate $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$, the closed timelike curves are completely gauged away. To this end, we begin by recalling the argument first given by Carter  exhibiting the possible occurrence of causality violation in some interior region of Kerr-Newman spacetime.
Consider the norm of the Killing field $`\psi ^\mu =(/\varphi )^\mu `$ evaluated on a $`\theta =\theta _0`$ $`(0\theta _0\pi /2)`$ submanifold with metric given in Boyer-Lindquist coordinates ;

$`\psi ^\mu \psi _\mu =g_{\varphi \varphi }=\left[r^2+a^2+{\displaystyle \frac{(2Mre^2)a^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0}{\mathrm{\Sigma }}}\right]\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0.`$ (20)
For “negative” values of $`r`$ of sufficiently small magnitude and for $`\theta _0`$ sufficiently close to $`\pi /2`$, $`\psi ^\mu \psi _\mu <0`$, i.e., $`\psi ^\mu =(/\varphi )^\mu `$ can go “timelike” near the ring singularity at $`r=0`$, $`\theta _0=\pi /2`$. However, since the orbit of $`\psi ^\mu `$ must be, as stated, closed with period of $`2\pi `$ in order for the Kerr-Newman spacetime to be asymptotically-flat as $`r\mathrm{}`$, this timelike-going behavior of $`\psi ^\mu `$ near the ring singularity indicates the possible occurrence of closed timelike curves and hence the possible violation of causality there. On the other hand, consider this time the norm of $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }^\mu =(/\stackrel{~}{\varphi })^\mu `$ evaluated again on the same $`\theta =\theta _0`$ hypersurface with the metric given in new coordinates ;

$`\stackrel{~}{\psi }^\mu \stackrel{~}{\psi }_\mu =g_{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}=(r^2+a^2\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _0)\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0>0.`$ (21)
Namely, it is always positive-definite meaning that $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }^\mu `$ is everywhere spacelike and can never go timelike even near the ring singularity. Therefore, if one works in this new coordinates $`(\stackrel{~}{t},r,\stackrel{~}{\varphi })`$, no possibility of causality violation is encountered anywhere he/she goes in the Kerr-Newman spacetime ! To conclude, the possible timelike-going behavior of the rotational Killing field and hence the seemingly possible causality violation near the ring singularity turns out to be just a gauge artifact, i.e., it can be attributed to the poor choice of (Boyer-Lindquist) coordinates and can be eliminated by transforming to the new coordinates introduced in the present work in much the same way as the coordinate singularity at the event horizon of the Kerr-Newman metric can be gauged away by transforming to null coordinates such as Kerr coordinates or Kruskal-Szekers coordinates. As is well understood, since the gauge, or equivalently, coordinate transformation from one to another in gravity amounts to the shift of observer’s “state of motion” from one to another in curved spacetime, this apparent gauge dependence of the occurrence of closed timelike curves indicates that they, like the appearance of event horizon, may be present or absent depending on the observer’s state of motion. In fact, there is a simple observation that might provide a clue to the nature of relative motion between the two observers representing the two coordinate systems at each $`\theta =\theta _0`$ hypersurface. To this end, we begin with the computation of the angular velocity of zero-angular-momentum-observer (ZAMO)  in each of the two coordinates. Generally, the orthonormal tetrad is a set of four mutually orthogonal unit vectors at each point in a given spacetime that give the directions of the four axes of locally Minkowskian coordinate system. And the ZAMO frame (or the locally-non-rotating-frame (LNRF)) is one such orthonormal tetrad that singles out since an observer at rest in it has zero angular momentum with respect to the rotating Kerr-Newman black hole. Also, ZAMO is a fiducial observer (FIDO) moving with the 4-velocity which is orthogonal to spacelike hypersurfaces $`t=`$const. Namely, the ZAMO geodesic is defined by $`ds^2=N^2dt^2`$ or equivalently $`\{dr=0,d\theta =0,(d\varphi +N^\varphi dt)=0\}`$ for Kerr-Newman spacetime given in Boyer-Lindquist coordinates and as a result, ZAMO angular velocity is given by $`\mathrm{\Omega }=d\varphi /dt=N^\varphi =g_{t\varphi }/g_{\varphi \varphi }`$. Thus the ZAMO angular velocity when evaluated in each of the two coordinates is given by

$`\mathrm{\Omega }={\displaystyle \frac{g_{t\varphi }}{g_{\varphi \varphi }}}={\displaystyle \frac{a(r^2+a^2\mathrm{\Delta })}{(r^2+a^2)^2\mathrm{\Delta }a^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0}},\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}={\displaystyle \frac{g_{\stackrel{~}{t}\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}}{g_{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}}}={\displaystyle \frac{a}{r^2+a^2\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _0}}.`$ (22)
Next, the angular velocity of the horizon (and hence the black hole) is nothing but that of ZAMO at $`r=r_+`$ and again in each of the two coordinates, it is

$`\mathrm{\Omega }_H={\displaystyle \frac{g_{t\varphi }}{g_{\varphi \varphi }}}|_{r_+}={\displaystyle \frac{a}{r_+^2+a^2}},\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_H={\displaystyle \frac{g_{\stackrel{~}{t}\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}}{g_{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}}}|_{r_+}={\displaystyle \frac{a}{r_+^2+a^2\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _0}}`$ (23)
where $`r_+=M+(M^2a^2e^2)^{1/2}`$ denotes the location of the event horizon which turns out to be precisely the same (we shall come back to this issue shortly) in the two coordinates. As we shall see in a moment, the static limit, i.e., the outer boundary of the ergoregion, turns out to occur exactly at the same point $`r_s=M+(M^2a^2\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _0e^2)^{1/2}`$ in the two coordinates as well. It is now straightforward to see that $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}>\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_H>\mathrm{\Omega }_H`$ for $`rr_+`$ and $`\theta _00,\pi `$. Thus if we combine these observations, i.e., the invariance of the causal structure and $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}>\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and hence $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_H>\mathrm{\Omega }_H`$ (for $`\theta _00,\pi `$), we can conclude that the two observers associated with the two coordinate systems have no relative radial motions but just relative azimuthal angular motions and the new coordinates (and the observer in it) appears to rotate in opposite direction around the hole’s rotation axis with respect to the Boyer-Lindquist coordinates (and the observer in it) at the angular velocity that changes with $`\theta _0`$ such that it gets maximized at the equatorial plane $`\theta _0=\pi /2`$ while becomes zero on the poles $`\theta _0=0,\pi `$. To summarize, the closed timelike curves and the event horizon are on equal footing in that they have apparent gauge dependence and hence should be distinguished from the unavoidable curvature singularity, i.e., the ring singularity at $`r=0,\theta _0=\pi /2`$ that clearly is the drawback of the Kerr-Newman solution as a classical solution to the Einstein-Maxwell equations. Indeed, due to the occurrence of closed timelike curves and hence the emergence of causality violation near the ring singularity, the Kerr-Newman solution has been regarded as not being able to represent the interior region of charged, rotating black holes thus far. In this regard, the demonstration of the possible elimination of closed timelike curves near the ring singularity (and elsewhere) via the transformation to the new coordinates discovered in the present work appears to lend support to the viability of the Kerr-Newman solution as a legitimate, physical metric being able to represent both the exterior and interior of charged, rotating black hole spacetime.
(2) Invariance of the causal structure
Note that it is the linear combinations

$`\chi ^\mu =\xi ^\mu +\mathrm{\Omega }_H\psi ^\mu ,\stackrel{~}{\chi }^\mu =\stackrel{~}{\xi }^\mu +\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_H\stackrel{~}{\psi }^\mu `$ (24)
constructed out of the time-translational and rotational Killing fields $`\{\xi ^\mu ,\psi ^\mu \}`$ and $`\{\stackrel{~}{\xi }^\mu ,\stackrel{~}{\psi }^\mu \}`$ in Boyer-Lindquist and new coordinates respectively which are tangential to the null geodesic generator of the horizon. And $`\mathrm{\Omega }_H`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_H`$ above are as given earlier in eq.(18). Now, the event horizon is a Killing horizon and generally speaking, Killing horizons occur at points where the KIlling field $`\chi ^\mu `$ or $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }^\mu `$ above becomes null. As is well-known, $`\chi ^\mu \chi _\mu =0`$ occurs for $`\mathrm{\Delta }=r^22Mr+a^2+e^2=0`$, namely at $`r_\pm =M\pm (M^2a^2e^2)^{1/2}`$. Interestingly, but as expected to some extent, even in the new coordinates, $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }^\mu \stackrel{~}{\chi }_\mu =0`$ occurs again for $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$. Next, we turn to the static limit, the outer boundary of the ergoregion. It occurs at the point where the time-translational Killing field $`\xi ^\mu `$ or $`\stackrel{~}{\xi }^\mu `$ becomes null. Thus again, it is amusing to note both in the old Boyer-Lindquist and in the new coordinates, the static limit occurs exactly at the same point $`r_s=M+(M^2a^2\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _0e^2)^{1/2}`$ since $`\xi ^\mu \xi _\mu =\stackrel{~}{\xi }^\mu \stackrel{~}{\xi }_\mu =g_{tt}=\left[\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }a^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0}{\mathrm{\Sigma }}\right]=0`$ occurs for $`(\mathrm{\Delta }a^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _0)=0`$. To summarize, the Killing horizons and the static limit occur respectively at precisely the same locations and hence the causal structure of the Kerr-Newman black hole spacetime remains the same regardless of the coordinate systems (old or new) used to represent the metrics of $`\theta =\theta _0`$ submanifolds. And of course, it can be attributed to the nature of the coordinate transformation in which the radial coordinate “$`r`$” remains unaffected.

IV. Concluding Remarks

We now conclude with some comments worth mentioning. First, we would like to point out the complementary roles played by the two alternative time coordinates $`t`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$. The Boyer-Lindquist time coordinate $`t`$ is the usual Killing time coordinate with which one can obtain the rotating hole’s characteristics such as the angular velocity of the event horizon or the surface gravity as measured by an outside observer who is “static” with respect to, say, a distant star. The “new” time coordinate $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$, on the other hand, is a kind of an unusual one in that it can be identified with the time coordinate of a non-static frame which rotates around the axis of the Kerr-Newman black hole in opposite direction to that of the hole (of course outside the ergoregion) with an angular velocity that increases with the polar angle. This new time coordinate, however, is particularly advantageous in exploring the global stucture of the $`\theta =`$ const. submanifolds of Kerr-Newman black hole since it allows one to transform to Kruskal-type coordinates and hence eventually allows one to draw the Carter-Penrose diagrams much more easily than the case when one employs the usual Boyer-Lindquist time coordinate. Yet, however, the most remarkable point to be emphasized concerning the important roles played by the new time coordinate $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$ is that in terms of which the seemingly possible causality violation near the ring singularity can be eliminated as we pointed out earlier. Namely, consider the norm of the rotational Killing field $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }^\mu =(/\stackrel{~}{\varphi })^\mu `$ evaluated on a $`\theta =\theta _0`$ ($`0\theta _0\pi /2`$) timelike submanifold. Unlike the case when one employs the usual Boyer-Lindquist time coordinate $`t`$, if one employs the new time coordinate $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$, then $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }^\mu \stackrel{~}{\psi }_\mu =g_{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}>0`$, i.e., $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }^\mu `$ is everywhere spacelike and can never go timelike even near the ring singularity. This observation implies that the possible occurrence of closed timelike curves and hence the possibility of causality violation in the vicinity of ring singularity is just a gauge artifact as it disappears upon a gauge (coordinate) transformation. This last point appears to be a big discovery and hence the introduction of the “new” time coordinate $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$ leads us to regard the Kerr-Newman spacetime as a valid solution to describe both the exterior and the interior regions of a rotating charged black hole with ever more credibility.

Acknowledgement

This work was supported in part by BK21 project in physics department at Hanyang university and by grant No. R01-1999-00020 from the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation.

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