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# Measurement of the Zero Crossing in a Feshbach Resonance of Fermionic 6Li

## Abstract

We measure a zero crossing in the scattering length of a mixture of the two lowest hyperfine states of 6Li. To locate the zero crossing, we monitor the decrease in temperature and atom number arising from evaporation in a CO2 laser trap as a function of magnetic field $`B`$. The temperature decrease and atom loss are minimized for $`B=528\pm 4`$ G (1 G=$`10^4`$ T), consistent with no evaporation. We also present preliminary calculations using potentials that have been constrained by the measured zero crossing and locate a broad Feshbach resonance at approximately 860 G, in agreement with previous theoretical predictions. In addition, our theoretical model predicts a second and much narrower Feshbach resonance near 550 G.

PACS numbers: 32.80.Pj, 34.50.Pi, 05.30.Fk

Recently, three groups have predicted the possibility of high-temperature superfluid transitions arising from the strong pairing of a two-component Fermi gas in the vicinity of a Feshbach resonance . Transition temperatures as large as half the Fermi temperature are expected . This is a much larger fraction than in standard Bardeen-Cooper-Schriefer (BCS) theory. One promising atomic system is 40K, for which a Feshbach resonance has been observed  and degeneracy has been achieved . Another promising candidate is 6Li, which is predicted to exhibit magnetically tunable Feshbach resonances in mixtures of the two lowest hyperfine states. Such transition temperatures are within the reach of current experiments involving degenerate 6Li Fermi gases . Hence, locating the resonance is of importance for studies of atomic gas analogs of high temperature superconductivity.

As is well known, a Feshbach resonance arises in a colliding two-atom system when the energy of the incoming open elastic channel is magnetically tuned into resonance with a bound molecular state of an energetically closed channel. The tuning dependence arises from the difference in the magnetic moments of the open and closed channels . In the vicinity of a Feshbach resonance, the $`s`$-wave scattering length $`a(B)`$ is described approximately by

$$a(B)=a_{bg}\left(1\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }B}{BB_0}\right),$$
(1)
where $`B`$ is the applied field, $`a_{bg}`$ is the background scattering length, $`B_0`$ is the field at which the resonance occurs, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }B`$ is proportional to the strength of the coupling between the open and closed channels.

For an ultracold gas which is a mixture of the two lowest hyperfine states, $`|1`$ and $`|2`$, of 6Li (the $`|1/2,\pm 1/2`$ states in the low-field, total angular momentum $`|f,M_f`$ basis), $`s`$-wave collisions only occur between atoms in these two different spin states. Hence, at sufficiently low temperatures, the scattering length of the mixture is the scattering length of this collision. The incoming channel of the Feshbach resonance in this mixture is predominantly triplet in character . Thus near the resonance, $`a_{bg}`$ is nearly equal to the triplet $`a^3\mathrm{\Sigma }_u^+`$ scattering length which is large and negative . The vibrational level that gives rise to the resonance is due to the most weakly-bound vibrational level ($`v=38`$) of the singlet $`X^1\mathrm{\Sigma }_g^+`$ potential. The zero field binding energy of the $`v=38`$ vibrational level has not been directly measured, and the uncertainty in the binding energy can lead to significant theoretical uncertainty in the location of the Feshbach resonance and the associated zero crossing.

Figure 1 shows an analytic model  of the scattering length as a function of magnetic field between 0 G and 1500 G, and is based on adjusting model parameters to fit the results of previous multichannel calculations . The scattering length is predicted to cross zero between 500 G and 600 G for a mixture of states $`|1`$ and $`|2`$ in 6Li and in Fig. 1 is shown to cross the horizontal axis near 540 G.

Previously, we have shown  that the scattering length for a mixture of the $`|1`$ and $`|2`$ states is very small at zero magnetic field in agreement with predictions . This was accomplished by confining the mixture in an ultrastable CO2 laser trap for several hundred seconds at $`100\mu `$K with negligible evaporation. At magnetic fields of 100-300 G, we have observed large evaporation rates suitable for achieving degeneracy . Further, we observed scattering cross sections corresponding to a scattering length with a magnitude of 540 $`a_0`$ at a magnetic field of 8 G in a mixture of the $`|1`$ and $`|3=|f=3/2,M_f=3/2`$ hyperfine states. The measured scattering cross section is consistent with a calculation based on the predicted  singlet (45.5 $`a_0`$) and triplet (-2160 $`a_0`$) scattering lengths .

In this paper, we observe the vanishing of the elastic scattering cross section, and hence the vanishing of the elastic scattering length, for a mixture of the $`|1`$ and $`|2`$ hyperfine states of 6Li in a magnetic field. This provides a first step in determining the location of a Feshbach resonance in this system. To determine the location of the zero crossing, we monitor the temperature drop and atom loss after 40 seconds of free evaporation in a stable CO2 laser trap as a function of applied magnetic field.

Our 6Li experiments employ a stable CO2 laser trap with a single focused and retroreflected beam . The atoms evaporate from the trap, which has a fixed depth of $`0.75`$ mK and a geometric mean trap frequency of $`2.5`$ kHz . Since the scattering length for the 6Li $`|1`$ and $`|2`$ mixture is extremely small at zero magnetic field, evaporation is turned on and off simply by applying or not applying a magnetic field.

The CO2 laser trap is continuously loaded from a 6Li magneto-optical trap (MOT) . Typically, $`2\times 10^6`$ atoms in a nominally 50-50 mixture of the $`|1`$ and $`|2`$ states are initially contained in the trap at a temperature of 140 $`\mu `$K, as determined by time-of-flight absorption imaging. Holding the atoms at zero magnetic field for an additional 40 seconds does not produce a measurable temperature change in the time-of-flight images, consistent with the prediction of a small scattering length at $`B=0`$ G. In free evaporation, the number of atoms decreases rapidly to approximately 1/3 of the initial value as the hottest atoms are lost .

To measure the magnetic field dependence of the evaporation rate, a pair of high field magnets with currents of 0-240 A are used to generate a uniform field of 0-1100 G in the trap region. The magnets have a diameter of $`20`$ cm and are located $`12.5`$ cm from the trap, producing negligible field curvature. The MOT gradient field is generated by reversing the current in one magnet for the trap loading stage. Each of the magnets is powered by a pair of current-regulated supplies which dissipate up to 10 kW per magnet.

In the experiments, the trap is initially loaded at zero magnetic field. Then a uniform magnetic field is applied for 40 seconds, during which time the atoms evaporate from the trap. Finally, the field is returned to 0 G and the temperature and number are measured by time-of-flight absorption imaging . The final temperature obtained as a function of magnetic field between 400 G and 610 G is shown in Fig. 2.

For magnetic fields far from the peak at 530 G, the final temperature of the atoms is 35 $`\mu `$K, well below the Doppler cooling limit of 140 $`\mu `$K observed when the magnetic field is held at 0 G for 40 seconds. As the magnetic field approaches the peak, the observed temperature increases to 87 $`\mu `$K, which is below the loading temperature, but well above the minimum temperature observed far from the zero crossing. The drop in the maximum temperature from 140 $`\mu `$K to 87 $`\mu `$K arises from the 0.3 seconds during which the current-regulated supplies change current. Since the field is switched from 0-530 G and back to 0 G, the atoms evaporate for an extra period of 0.6 seconds. By switching the magnetic field from 0-530 G and back to 0 G without the 40 second holding time, we find that the final temperature is 90 $`\mu `$K. The remaining 3 $`\mu `$K temperature drop over the 40 second holding period at 530 G can be accounted for by assuming a small error in determining the zero crossing.

To confirm that the peak in temperature arises from a reduced cooling rate and not from heating, we also extracted the number of remaining atoms from the time-of-flight data, Fig. 3. Consistent with a reduced evaporation rate, we observe a peak in the number at 526 G, nearly overlapping the peak in the temperature. Further, near the zero crossing field, we observe a $`30`$% increase in the number of atoms with a negligible temperature change when the holding time is decreased from 40 to 20 seconds, indicating a negligible heating rate.

We also observe a decrease in the remaining trap population as the magnetic field is tuned above 600 G, as shown in Fig. 3. This appears to arise from a broad magnetic field dependent loss feature which we observe to be near 650 G. In this region, we observe loss and heating over time scales of a second in a sample at a temperature of $`5\mu `$K and a density of $`3\times 10^{13}/\mathrm{cm}^3`$. This loss feature also has been observed by Dieckmann et al. . Note that inelastic loss rates should not cause heating in the region of the zero crossing, since the elastic scattering cross section is small and secondary scattering does not occur. However, the rapid increase in loss with increasing magnetic field may be partially responsible for the 4 G shift between the peaks in the number (Fig. 3) and temperature (Fig. 2).

The magnetic field is calibrated using optical absorption resonances to measure the splitting between the $`M_J=3/2`$ and $`M_J=1/2`$ levels of the $`2P_{3/2}`$ excited electronic state. Acousto-optic (A/O) modulators are used to produce two copropagating probe beams differing by a tunable frequency up to $`1000`$ MHz. One beam is z polarized and interacts with the $`2S_{1/2}`$, $`M_J=1/2`$ $`2P_{3/2}`$, $`M_J=1/2`$ transition originating from the $`|2`$ ground hyperfine state. The other beam is x polarized and interacts with the $`2S_{1/2}`$, $`M_J=1/2`$ $`2P_{3/2}`$, $`M_J=3/2`$ transition originating from the $`|2`$ ground hyperfine state. For fields near the zero crossing, note that $`|2|m_s=1/2,m_I=0`$.

At the magnetic field corresponding to the zero crossing, the z polarized beam is blocked and the dye laser frequency is adjusted to tune the x polarized beam into resonance. The resonance peak is determined by spatially integrating a time-of-flight absorption image for each dye laser frequency. This method avoids degradation of the image by diffraction arising from the small radial profile of the trapped atoms. The integrated absorption signal is insensitive to phase shifts arising from a nonzero index of refraction when the laser is detuned. The laser is then locked at the resonance frequency. Then the x polarized beam is blocked and a similar method is used to tune the z polarized beam into its resonance by adjusting an A/O frequency. The excited state frequency splitting is measured from the beat frequency of the two beams using a diode detector. At the magnetic field for the atom loss minimum, Fig. 3, we find a beat frequency of 994 MHz.

The magnetic field corresponding to the measured beat frequency is determined by calculating the expected splitting versus magnetic field, including the Zeeman, hyperfine, and fine structure mixing contributions. From the 994 MHz splitting, the atom number peak (loss minimum) is determined to be at 526 G. The minimum temperature decrease is then determined to be at 530 G. Note that at 526 G, magnetic field-induced fine structure mixing causes a quadratic Zeeman shift of $`12`$ MHz in Li, due to the small fine-structure splitting.

The uncertainty in the field determination arises primarily from the widths of the observed optical absorption resonances, which are about 10 MHz or 5 G in the vicinity of the zero crossing. The shape of each optical resonance exhibits some saturation arising from optical pumping. However, the centers are easily located with a statistical uncertainty of less than $`\pm 2`$ G. We report the location of the zero crossing as 528 G, the average of the locations of the peaks in the temperature, Fig. 2, and number, Fig. 3. The uncertainty, $`\pm 4`$ G, is the root mean square or combined standard uncertainty of the systematic and statistical uncertainties. This value is dominated by the systematic error which we estimate as the shift between the temperature and number peaks (4 G).

The measurement of the zero crossing can be used to further constrain the singlet potential and hence the singlet scattering length. Therefore we present preliminary results of a coupled-channel calculation that attempts to optimize the singlet potential. The interaction potentials in these calculations are constructed using the short-range singlet potential of Ref. , the short-range triplet potential of Ref. , the long-range dispersion coefficients of Ref. , and the methodology of Ref.  to connect the short- and long-range potentials. In addition, the triplet potential has been modified to be consistent with the measured binding-energy of the most weakly bound state of the $`a^3\mathrm{\Sigma }_u^+`$ state of 6Li . The singlet potential has been made to agree with the most recent prediction of the 6Li singlet scattering length . Subtle mass-polarization corrections which affect the dissociation energy for 6Li and 7Li have been neglected.

The scattering length of the singlet potential can be varied within the uncertainty given by Ref. . The corresponding uncertainty of the magnetic field position of the zero in the scattering length does not exclude our observed zero crossing. In Fig. 4 we show the scattering length as a function of magnetic field, where the scattering length of the singlet potential has been fixed to obtain a zero crossing at 530 G. Close examination of the zero crossing region has also revealed a narrow $`s`$-wave Feshbach resonance not found in previous calculations. This resonance is positioned at approximately 550G between the zero crossing and the peak of the broad resonance which is centered at approximately 860G. These two resonances correspond to hyperfine components of the same weakly bound singlet state. In fact at zero field the two states are labeled by $`F=0`$ and $`2`$, where $`F`$ is the vector sum of the atomic spin $`f`$ of the two atoms. Similar hyperfine structure has been observed in near-threshold singlet sodium spectroscopy . Dieckmann et al.  have observed two loss features in this magnetic field region, one broad and one narrow. The narrow feature at 550 G is in agreement with the position of our predicted narrow resonance, but the width is an order of magnitude larger than we predict. No uncertainties are given for the positions of the resonances as these are preliminary results.

In conclusion, we have observed a zero crossing in the elastic scattering length of a mixture of the two lowest hyperfine states of 6Li. The observed broad loss feature near 650 G is not centered on the broad two-body Feshbach resonance whose zero crossing is located at $`528\pm 4`$ G and whose theoretical maximum is centered near 860 G. We have used the measured zero crossing to further constrain the singlet potential and also predict a second, narrow Feshbach resonance at approximately 550 G. The observation of this resonance will require magnetic field resolution beyond the capability of our present system. Further, the cross section near 860 G is unitarity limited at the trap depths and temperatures employed in the present experiments. The evaporation rate is therefore insensitive to the scattering length, and nearly independent of magnetic field near the resonance. Since a Feshbach resonance does appear to exist in the magnetic field region below 1 kG and the loss rates occur over time scales of a second at the densities and temperatures of interest, mixtures of the two lowest-lying hyperfine states of 6Li appear promising for studies of Fermi superfluidity.

Note added: The Duke experimental and NIST theory groups wish to acknowledge experimental input from R. Grimm, whose group has made similar measurements of the zero crossing of the scattering length in collaboration with A. Mosk and M. Weidmüller. Their results closely agree with measured data reported here.

The Duke research is supported by the Physics divisions of the Army Research Office and the National Science Foundation, the Fundamental Physics in Microgravity Research program of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the Chemical Sciences, Geosciences and Biosciences Division of the Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Office of Science, U. S. Department of Energy. The NIST effort is supported in part by the Office of Naval Research.


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# Are there phase transitions in information space?

## Abstract

The interplay between two basic quantities – quantum communication and information – is investigated. Quantum communication is an important resource for quantum states shared by two parties and is directly related to entanglement. Recently, the amount of local information that can be drawn from a state has been shown to be closely related to the non-local properties of the state. Here we consider both formation and extraction processes, and analyze informational resources as a function of quantum communication. The resulting diagrams in information space allow us to observe phase-like transitions when correlations become classical.

Quantum communication (QC) – the sending of qubits between two parties – is a primitive concept in quantum information theory. Entanglement cannot be created without it, and conversely, entanglement between two parties can be used to communicate quantum information through teleportation Bennett et al. (1983). The amount of quantum communication needed to prepare a state, and the amount of quantum communication that a state enables one to perform, are fundamental properties of states shared by two parties. This amount, is identical to the entanglement cost $`E_c`$ Hayden et al. (2001) and entanglement of distillation $`E_D`$ Bennett et al. (1996) respectively. Perhaps surprisingly, these two quantities are different Vidal et al. (2002). There are even states which are ”bound” in the sense that quantum communication is needed to create it, but nothing can be obtained from it Horodecki et al. (1998a). Yet QC is a distinct notion from entanglement. For example, one may need to use a large amount of QC while creating some state of low $`E_c`$, in order to save some other resource. In the present paper we will consider such a situation. The second primitive resource of interest will be information which quantifies how pure a state is. The motivation comes from (both classical or quantum) thermodynamics: it is known that bits that are in a pure state can be used to extract physical work from a single heat bath Szilard (1929), and conversely work is required to reset mixed states to a pure form Landauer (1961); Bennett (1982).

For distant parties, in order to use information to perform such tasks, it must first be localized. In Oppenheim et al. (2002) we considered how much information (i.e. pure states) can be localized (or drawn) from a state shared between two parties. Thus far, the amount of information needed to prepare a state has not been considered, a possible exception being in Bennett et al. (1999) where it was noted that there was a thermodynamical irreversibility between preparation and measurement for ensembles of certain pure product states. However, given the central role of quantum communication and information, it would be of considerable importance to understand the interplay between these two primitive resources. In this Letter, we attempt to lay the foundation for this study by examining how much information is needed to prepare a state and how much can be extracted from it as a function of quantum communication. For a given state, this produces a curve in information space. The shapes of the curve fall into a number of distinctive categories which classify the state and only a small number of parameters are needed to characterize them. The curves for pure states can be calculated exactly, and they are represented by a one parameter family of lines of constant slope. The diagrams exhibit features reminiscent of thermodynamics, and phase-like transitions (cf. Aharonov ) are observed.

An important quantity that emerges in this study is the information surplus $`\mathrm{\Delta }_f`$. It quantifies the additional information that is needed to prepare a state when quantum communication resources are minimized. $`\mathrm{\Delta }_f`$ tells us how much information is dissipated during the formation of a state and is therefore closely related to the irreversibility of state preparation and therefore, to the difference between the entanglement of distillation and entanglement cost. When it is zero, there is no irreversibility in entanglement manipulations. Examples of states with $`\mathrm{\Delta }_f=0`$ include pure states, and states with an optimal decomposition Bennett et al. (1996) which is locally orthogonal.

Consider two parties in distant labs, who can perform local unitary operations, dephasingdep , and classical communication. It turns out to be simpler to substitute measurements with dephasing operations, since we no longer need to keep track of the informational cost of reseting the measuring device. (This cost was noted by Landauer Landauer (1961) and used by Bennett Bennett (1982) to exorcize Maxwell’s demon.) The classical communication channel can also be thought of as a dephasing channel. Finally, we allow Alice and Bob to add noise (states which are proportional to the identity matrix) since pure noise contains no information. Note that we are only interesting in accounting for resources that are ”used up” during the preparation procedure. For example, a pure state which is used and then reset to its original state at the end of the procedure, does not cost anything.

Consider now the information extraction process of Oppenheim et al. (2002). If the two parties have access to a quantum channel, and share a state $`\varrho _{AB}`$, they can extract all the information from the state

$$I=nS(\varrho _{AB})$$
(1)
where $`n`$ is the number of qubits of the state, and $`S(\varrho _{AB})`$ is its Von Neumann entropy. Put another way, the state can be compressed, leaving $`I`$ pure qubits. However, if two parties do not have access to a quantum channel, and can only perform local operations and communicate classically (LOCC), then in general, they will be able to draw less local information from the state. In Oppenheim et al. (2002) we defined the notion of the deficit $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ to quantify the information that can no longer be drawn under LOCC. For pure states, it was proven that $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ was equal to the amount of distillable entanglement in the state.

Let us now turn to formation processes and define $`\mathrm{\Delta }_f(Q)`$ as follows. Given an amount of quantum communication $`Q`$, the amount of information (pure states) needed to prepare the state $`\varrho _{AB}`$ under LOCC is given by $`I_f(Q)`$. Clearly at least $`E_c`$ bits of quantum communication are necessary. In general, $`I_f(Q)`$ will be greater than the information content $`I`$. The surplus is then

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_f(Q)=I_f(Q)I.$$
(2)
The two end points are of particular interest I.e. $`\mathrm{\Delta }_f\mathrm{\Delta }_f(E_c)`$ where quantum communication is minimized, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_f(E_r)=0`$ where we use the quantum channel enough times that $`I_f(E_r)=I`$. Clearly $`E_cE_rmin\{S(\rho _A),S(\rho _B)\}`$ where $`\rho _A`$ is obtained by tracing out on Bob’s system. This rough bound is obtained by noting that at a minimum, Alice or Bob can prepare the entire system locally, and then send it to the other party through the quantum channel (after compressing it). We will obtain a tight bound later in this paper.

The general procedure for state preparation is that Alice uses a classical instruction set (ancilla in a classical state) with probability distribution matching that of the decomposition which is optimal for a given $`Q`$. Since the instruction set contains classical information, it can be passed back and forth between Alice and Bob. Additionally they need $`n`$ pure standard states. The pure states are then correlated with the ancilla, and then sent. The ancilla need not be altered by this procedure, and can be reset and then reused and so at worse we have $`I_fI_f(E_c)n`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_fS(\varrho _{AB}).`$ We will shortly describe how one can do better by extracting information from correlations between the ancilla and the state.

The pairs $`(Q,I_f(Q))`$ form curves in information space. In Figure 1

we show a typical curve which we now explain. Since we will be comparing the formation curves to extraction curves, we will adopt the convention that $`I_f(Q)`$ and $`Q`$ will be plotted on the negative axis since we are using up resources. It can be shown that $`I_f(Q)`$ is concave, monotonic and continuous. To prove concavity, we take the limit of many copies of the state $`\varrho _{AB}`$. Then given any two protocols, we can always toss a coin weighted with probabilities $`p`$ and $`1p`$ and perform one of the protocols with this probability. There will always be a protocol which is at least as good as this. Monotonicity is obvious (additional quantum communication can only help), and continuity follows from monotonicity, and the existence of the probabilistic protocol.

The probabilistic protocol can be drawn as a straight line between the points $`(E_r,I_f(E_r))`$ and $`(E_c,I_f(E_c))`$. There may however exist a protocol which has a lower $`I_f(Q)`$ than this straight line, i.e. the curve $`I_f(Q)`$ satisfies

$$I_f(Q)I+\frac{I(E_r)I_f(E_c)}{E_cE_r}(QE_r)$$
(3)
Let us now look at extraction processes. The idea is that we draw both local information (pure separable states), and distill singlets. The singlets allow one to perform teleportations, so that we are in fact, extracting the potential to use a quantum channel. We can also consider the case where we use the quantum channel to assist in the information extraction process. We can therefore write the extractable information $`I_l(Q)`$ as a function of $`Q`$. When $`Q`$ is positive, we distill singlets at the same time as drawing information, and when $`Q`$ is negative, we are using the quantum channel $`Q`$ times to assist in the extraction (see also Figure 1).

There appear to be at least three special points on the curve. The first, is the point $`I_lI_l(0)`$. This was considered in Oppenheim et al. (2002) when we draw maximal local information without the aid of a quantum channel. Another special point is the usual entanglement distillation procedure $`I_g=I_l(E_D)`$. The quantity $`I_g`$ is the amount of local information extractable from the ”garbage” left over from distillation. $`I_g`$ can be negative as information may need to be added to the system in order to distill all the available entanglement. Finally, $`I=I_l(E_r)`$ is the point where we use the quantum channel enough times that we can extract all the available information. This is the same number of times that the quantum channel is needed to prepare the state without any information surplus since both procedures are now reversible.

Just as with the formation curve, $`I_l(Q)`$ is convex, continuous and monotonic. For $`Q0`$ there is an upper bound on the extraction curve due to the classical/quantum complementarity of Oppenheim et al. (a).

$$I+QI_l$$
(4)
It arises because one bit of local information can be drawn from each distilled singlet, destroying the entanglement. One might suppose that the complementarity relation (4) can be extended into the region $`Q<0`$. Perhaps surprisingly, this is not the case, and we have found that a small amount of quantum communication can free up a large amount of information. In Figure 2a we plot the region occupied by pure states.

For extraction processes, pure states saturate the bound of Eq. (4) Oppenheim et al. (a). For formation processes they are represented as points.

In general, if $`\mathrm{\Delta }_f=0`$ then $`E_c=E_D`$. Examples include mixtures of locally orthogonal pure statesHorodecki et al. (1998b). The converse is not true, at least for single copies, as there are separable states such as those of Bennett et al. (1999) which have $`\mathrm{\Delta }_f0`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }0`$.

It therefore appears that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_f`$ is not a function of the entropy of the state, or of the entanglement, but rather, shows how chaotic the quantum correlations are. It can also be thought of as the information that is dissipated during a process, while $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ can be thought of as the bound information which cannot be extracted under LOCC. Figure 2b-d shows the curves for some different types of states. It is interesting the extent to which one can classify the different states just by examining the diagrams in information space.

The quantities we are discussing have (direct or metaphoric) connections with thermodynamics. Local information can be used to draw physical work, and quantum communication has been likened to quantum logical work Horodecki et al. (1998b). One is therefore tempted to investigate whether there can be some effects similar to phase transitions. Indeed, we will demonstrate such an effect for a family of mixed states where the transition is of second order, in that the derivative of our curves will behave in a discontinuous way.

To this end we need to know more about $`E_r`$ and $`I_f`$. Consider the notion of LOCC-orthogonality (cf. Horodecki et al. (1998b)). One says that $`\varrho ^i`$ is LOCC-orthogonal, if by LOCC Alice and Bob can transformed $`_ip_i|i_A^{}i|\varrho _{AB}^i`$ into $`|0_A^{}0|_ip_i\varrho _{AB}^i`$ and vice versa; $`|i_A^{}`$ is the basis of Alice’s ancilla. In other words, Alice and Bob are able to correlate the state $`\varrho _i`$ to orthogonal states of a local ancilla as well as reset the correlations. Consider a state $`\varrho _{AB}`$ that can be LOCC-decomposed, i.e. it is a mixture of LOCC-orthogonal states $`\varrho =_ip_i\varrho _i`$. The decomposition suggests a scheme for reversible formation of $`\varrho `$. Alice prepares locally the state $`\varrho _{A^{}AB}=_ip_i|i_A^{}i|\varrho _{AB}^i`$. This costs $`n_{A^{}AB}S(\varrho _{A^{}AB})`$ bits of information. Conditioned on $`i`$, Alice compresses the halves of $`\varrho _i`$, and sends them to Bob via a quantum channel. This costs $`_ip_iS(\varrho _B)`$ qubits of quantum communication. Then, since the $`\varrho _i`$ are LOCC-orthogonal, Alice and Bob can reset the ancilla, and return $`n_A^{}`$ bits. One then finds, in this protocol, formation costs $`n_{AB}S(\varrho _{AB})`$ bits, hence it is reversible. Consequently $`E_r_ip_iS(\varrho _B)`$, hence

$$E_r(\varrho _{AB})inf\underset{X}{\mathrm{min}}\underset{i}{}p_iS(\varrho _X^i),X=A,B$$
(5)
where the infimum runs over all LOCC-orthogonal decompositions of $`\varrho _{AB}`$.

We can also estimate $`I_f`$ by observing that the optimal decomposition for entanglement cost is compatible with LOCC-orthogonal decompositions, i.e. it is of the form $`\{p_iq_{ij},\psi _{ij}\}`$ where $`_jq_{ij}|\psi _{ij}\psi _{ij}|=\varrho _i`$. Now, Alice prepares locally the state $`\varrho _{A^{}A^{\prime \prime }AB}=_ip_iq_{ij}|i_A^{}i||j_{A^{\prime \prime }}j||\psi _{ij}_{AB}\psi _{ij}|`$. Conditional on $`ij`$, Alice compresses the halves of $`\psi _{ij}`$’s and sends them to Bob. This costs on average $`E_c`$ qubits of communication. So far Alice borrowed $`n_{A^{}A^{\prime \prime }AB}S(\varrho _{A^{}A^{\prime \prime }AB})`$ bits. Alice and Bob then reset and return ancilla $`A^{}`$ (this is possible due to LOCC-orthogonality of $`\varrho _i`$) and also return ancilla $`A^{\prime \prime }`$ without resetting. The amount of bits used is $`n_{AB}(S(\varrho _{AB})_ip_iS(\varrho _i))`$, giving

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_finf\underset{i}{}p_iS(\varrho _i)S(\varrho )$$
(6)
where, again, the infimum runs over the same set of decompositions as in Eq. (5) providing a connection between $`\mathrm{\Delta }_f`$ and $`E_r`$. In the procedure above, collective operations were used only in the compression stage. In such a regime the above bounds are tight. There is a question, whether by some sophisticated collective scheme, one can do better. We conjecture that it is not the case, supported by the remarkable result of Hayden et al. . The authors show that an ensemble of nonorthogonal states cannot be compressed to less than $`S(\varrho )`$ qubits even at the expense of classical communication. In our case orthogonality is replaced by LOCC-orthogonality, and classical communication by resetting. We thus assume equality in Eqs. (5), (6). Thus for a state that is not LOCC-decomposable (this holds for all two qubit states that do not have a product eigenbasis) we have $`\mathrm{\Delta }_f=S(\varrho _{AB})`$, $`E_r=\mathrm{min}\{S(\varrho _A),S(\varrho _B)\}`$.

Having fixed two extremal points of our curves, let us see if there is a protocol which is better than the probabilistic one (a straight line on the diagram). We need to find some intermediate protocol which is cheap in both resources. The protocol is suggested by the decomposition $`\varrho =_ip_i\varrho _i`$ where $`\varrho _i`$ are themselves LOCC-orthogonal mixtures of pure states. Thus Alice can share with Bob each $`\varrho _i`$ at a communication cost of $`Q=_ip_iE_c(\varrho _i)`$. If the states $`\varrho _i`$ are not LOCC-orthogonal, Alice cannot reset the instruction set, so that the information cost is $`I=n_ip_iS(\varrho _i)`$. We will now show by example, that this may be a very cheap scenario. Consider

$$\varrho =p|\psi _+\psi _+|+(1p)|\psi _{}\psi _{}|,p[0,\frac{1}{2}]$$
(7)
with $`\psi _\pm =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|00\pm |11)`$. When $`p0`$ we have $`E_r=1`$, $`I_f=2`$, $`E_c=H(\frac{1}{2}+\sqrt{p(1p)})`$ Vidal et al. (2002) where $`H(x)=x\mathrm{log}x(1x)\mathrm{log}(1x)`$ is the binary entropy; thus our extreme points are $`(1,2H(p))`$ and $`(E_c,2)`$. For $`p=0`$ the state has $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$ hence the formation curve is just a point. We can however plot it as a line $`I=1`$ (increasing $`Q`$ will not change $`I`$). Now, we decompose the state as $`\varrho =2p\varrho _s+(12p)|\psi _{}\psi _{}|`$, where $`\varrho _s`$ is an equal mixture of LOCC-orthogonal states $`|00`$ and $`|11`$. The intermediate point is then $`(12p,22p)`$. A family of diagrams with changing parameter $`p`$ is plotted in Fig. (3). The derivative $`\chi (Q)=\frac{Q}{I}`$ has a singularity at $`p=1/2`$. Thus we have something analogous to a second order phase transition. The quantity $`\chi (Q)`$ may be analogous to a quantity such as the magnetic susceptibility. The transition is between states having $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$ (classically correlated)Oppenheim et al. (2002) and states with $`\mathrm{\Delta }0`$ which contain quantum correlations. It would be interesting to explore these transitions and diagrams further, and also the trade-off between information and quantum communication. To this end, the quantity $`\mathrm{\Delta }_f(Q)+QE_c`$ appears to express this tradeoff. Finally, we hope that the presented approach may clarify an intriguing notion in quantum information theory, known as the thermodynamics of entanglement Popescu and Rohrlich (1997); Horodecki et al. (1998b); Oppenheim et al. (b).

Acknowledgments: This work supported by EU grant EQUIP, Contract IST-1999-11053. J.O. acknowledges Lady Davis, and grant 129/00-1 of the ISF. M.H. and R.H. thank C. Tsallis for discussions.


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# Jamming under tension in polymer crazes

## Abstract

Molecular dynamics simulations are used to study a unique expanded jammed state. Tension transforms many glassy polymers from a dense glass to a network of fibrils and voids called a craze. Entanglements between polymers and interchain friction jam the system after a fixed increase in volume. As in dense jammed systems, the distribution of forces is exponential, but they are tensile rather than compressive. The broad distribution of forces has important implications for fibril breakdown and the ultimate strength of crazes.

The common features of jammed systems ranging from molecular glasses to granular media have sparked great interest . These systems jam as the available volume becomes too small to allow relative motion of particles. Unifying features of the jammed state are the presence of an exponential force tail at large compressive forces and the appearance of a network of forces on scales much larger than the size of the constituent molecules or grains . The origins of these features are still debated.

In this Letter, we consider a qualitatively different jammed state that forms under tension. Many amorphous polymers expand from a typical dense glass to a “craze” consisting of a network of fibrils and voids . As shown in Fig. 1, the dense and expanded jammed states coexist at a fixed tensile stress $`S`$, much like liquid and gas phases coexist at a fixed pressure. There are no covalent bonds that keep the craze from unravelling, but experiments suggest that the topological constraints called entanglements that limit dynamics in polymer melts behave like crosslinking bonds . These experiments cannot address how deformation occurs, the distribution of forces within the system, or the configurations of individual chains within the intricate craze structure. We describe extensive molecular dynamics simulations that address all of these issues. We find that the distribution of tensile forces in the craze has an exponential tail analogous to that observed for compressive forces in dense jammed systems. The polymer undergoes an approximately affine displacement as it deforms into the craze. Expansion stops when segments that are only 1/3 of the distance between entanglements are pulled taut. This factor can be understood from simple geometric arguments and the assumption that entanglements act like chemical crosslinks between chains.

We study a standard coarse-grained model , where each linear polymer is modeled by $`N`$ beads of mass $`m`$. Van der Waals interactions are modeled with a standard 6-12 Lennard-Jones (LJ) potential with energy scale $`ϵ`$ and length scale $`\sigma `$. A simple analytic potential  is used for covalent bonds, with equilibrium length $`l_0=0.96\sigma `$ between adjacent beads along the chain. In this fully flexible (fl) model, the number of beads between entanglements (entanglement length) is $`N_e^{\mathrm{fl}}70`$ . In order to analyze entanglement effects, we also consider semiflexible chains (sfl) where an additional bond-bending potential stiffens the chain locally and reduces the entanglement length to $`N_e^{\mathrm{sfl}}30`$ beads . We consider two temperatures $`T=0.1ϵ/k_B`$ and $`T=0.3ϵ/k_B`$, where the latter is close to the glass transition temperature. The strength of adhesive interactions between beads is varied by truncating the LJ force at either $`r_c=1.5\sigma `$ or $`r_c=2.2\sigma `$ .

An amorphous glassy state is created in a cubic simulation cell of side $`L`$ using standard techniques . The period in the $`z`$-direction is then increased at a small constant velocity . After an initial nucleation period, the system separates into two phases (Fig. 1). The craze network grows at constant tensile stress $`S`$ through plastic flow in a narrow interfacial region called the “active zone.” The volume occupied by the polymer increases by an “extension ratio” $`\lambda `$ that is remarkably insensitive to all parameters other than $`N_e`$. For example, increasing the temperature and interaction range leads to much larger fibrils in Fig. 1(b) than (a), yet there is no measurable change in $`\lambda `$. From the ratios of the initial and final densities we obtain $`\lambda _{\mathrm{fl}}=6.0\pm 0.6`$ and $`\lambda _{\mathrm{sfl}}=3.5\pm 0.3`$, independent of $`N`$, $`T`$, and $`r_c`$. Experimental values of $`\lambda `$ range from about 2 to 7 .

Although strain rate is strongly localized at the instantaneous position of the active zone, the net effect is a nearly uniform or affine expansion of each region of the polymer. As shown in Figure 2(a), the final height $`z_f`$ of beads with an initial height of $`z_i`$ is very close to $`\lambda z_i`$. The rms variation in the final height (half the errorbar length), has a relatively small constant value. For reasons discussed below, it is close to $`N_e/3`$ for both flexible and semiflexible chains at all $`T`$ and $`r_c`$ studied. There are also much smaller rms displacements in the $`xy`$ plane. These allow chains to lower their free energy by gathering into fibrils whose local density is close to that of the dense glass. The magnitude of lateral displacements varies with the size and spacing of fibrils, which depends on both $`T`$ and $`r_c`$. For example, the lateral displacement increases from $`2.5\sigma `$ in Fig. 1(a) to $`5.6\sigma `$ in Fig. 1(b).

The affine nature of the deformation along $`z`$ can also be inferred from the change in the conformation of individual polymers. In the initial state, chains exhibit an ideal random walk (RW) structure inherited from the melt. The rms distance $`\mathrm{\Delta }r(\mathrm{\Delta }N)`$ between beads that are $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$ neighbors apart scales as $`\mathrm{\Delta }r^2=l_pl_0\mathrm{\Delta }N`$, which defines the persistence length $`l_p`$. In the dense glass, the mean-squared projection along each of the three axes is equal. An affine deformation by $`\lambda `$ along z will only change the displacements along the $`z`$-axis, yielding $`\mathrm{\Delta }z^2=\lambda ^2l_pl_0\mathrm{\Delta }N/3`$. Fig. 2(b) shows that the final conformation of chains follows this expression at large scales. The in-plane components of the displacement are not changed during crazing.

The expansion along z pulls short segments of the chains taut, so that $`\mathrm{\Delta }z^2`$ rises quadratically at small $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$ in Fig. 2(b). The typical number of beads in a taut segment, $`\stackrel{~}{N}_{\mathrm{st}}`$, can be obtained from the intersection between the two asymptotic scaling forms: $`(\stackrel{~}{N}_{\mathrm{st}}l_0)^2=\lambda ^2l_pl_0\stackrel{~}{N}_{\mathrm{st}}/3`$, yielding $`\stackrel{~}{N}_{\mathrm{st}}=\lambda ^2l_p/3l_0`$. Inserting the observed values of $`\lambda `$ and $`l_p`$ ($`l_p^{\mathrm{fl}}=1.65\sigma `$ and $`l_p^{\mathrm{sfl}}=2.7\sigma `$), we arrive at $`\stackrel{~}{N}_{\mathrm{st}}^{\mathrm{fl}}21\pm 4`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{N}_{\mathrm{st}}^{\mathrm{sfl}}12\pm 2`$, respectively. The length of taut sections can also be determined by direct analysis of the chain geometry. Fig. 3(a) shows the distribution $`P(N_{\mathrm{st}})`$ of the number $`N_{\mathrm{st}}`$ of successive beads whose displacement continues upwards or downwards. Here a bond is considered up (down) if it is within 45 of the +z (-z) axis. For both flexible and semiflexible chains, $`P(N_{\mathrm{st}})`$ has an exponential tail with a characteristic decay length that, like $`\lambda `$, is independent of $`N`$, $`T`$, and $`r_c`$. The decay lengths, $`\stackrel{~}{N}_{\mathrm{st}}^{\mathrm{fl}}24\pm 3`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{N}_{\mathrm{st}}^{\mathrm{sfl}}13\pm 2`$, are in good agreement with the prediction from RW statistics. Essentially the same length scales appear in the decay of the correlation function for the $`z`$-component of successive bonds, Fig. 3(b), or the bond-angle correlation function (not shown).

It is not surprising that all the above lengths are comparable to the deviations from a purely affine deformation in Fig. 2(a), since segments of length $`\stackrel{~}{N}_{\mathrm{st}}`$ are stretched taut from their initial RW configuration. However, a very successful expression for $`\lambda `$ is usually derived by assuming that the taut segments contain $`N_e`$ beads rather than $`N_e/3`$ . The maximum extension ratio, $`\lambda _{\mathrm{max}}`$, is defined as the ratio between the fully stretched length $`N_el_0`$ and the initial end-to-end distance of a RW of $`N_e`$ steps

$$\lambda _{\mathrm{max}}N_el_0/(l_0l_pN_e)^{1/2}=\sqrt{l_0N_e/l_p}.$$
(1)
Calculated values of $`\lambda _{\mathrm{max}}`$ are very close to values of $`\lambda `$ measured in experiments and in our simulations where $`\lambda _{\mathrm{max}}=6.5\pm 0.5`$ and $`3.5\pm 0.3`$ for flexible and semiflexible chains, respectively. However, it was noted in early work that fully stretched chains would actually yield an even larger extension ratio because the initial end-to-end vector of segments of length $`N_e`$ is randomly oriented . Since the mean-squared projection along any direction is only 1/3 of the total, $`\lambda `$ would be $`\sqrt{3}\lambda _{\mathrm{max}}`$ for fully stretched chains. The observation that $`\lambda \lambda _{\mathrm{max}}`$ implies that the average length of stretched segments is only $`N_e/3`$, as we have shown. However those segments that are initially along the $`z`$-axis are fully stretched when $`\lambda =\lambda _{\mathrm{max}}`$, and it appears that these few segments are sufficient to prevent further elongation. Thus the factor of 1/3 results from the random nature of the entangled network. Note that a recent study of chains with random crosslinks  is consistent with Eq. (1), while all segments between crosslinks were fully stretched in a similar study of ordered networks .

A crosslinked system will jam when there is a network of fully stretched covalent bonds, but it is less clear how entanglements can lead to a jammed network. The entanglement length is typically determined from the response of a polymer melt to a sudden strain . The resulting time-dependent stress shows a broad plateau where the polymer has relaxed on short length scales, but is unable to relax at larger length scales because interpenetrating loops of polymer cannot pass through each other. The entanglement length corresponds to the typical length along the backbone between these constraints. The stress ultimately decays by the slow diffusion of polymers along their length until their ends pass through the loops and release all remaining constraints. Expansion of the polymer into a craze is also limited by the inability of polymer loops to pass through each other and interchain friction prevents the chains from unraveling by the snake-like motion that allows diffusion in the melt. The tension pulling two interpenetrating loops in opposite directions creates large compressive forces at the entanglements. As in conventional jammed systems this increases the barrier for sliding. Long chains have many interpenetrating loops, and the tensions pulling in each direction nearly cancel. Chains with $`N<2N_e`$ disentangle rather than forming a craze .

The distance between entanglements is determined by the chain statistics  which are inherited from the melt. They are not sensitive to temperature because there is no evolution of large scale structure in the glassy phase, and they are relatively insensitive to the strength of adhesive interactions and density. Thus $`\lambda `$ is nearly constant, while the fibril structure at scales less than $`N_e`$ may vary dramatically (Fig. 1). We have verified that $`\lambda `$ only depends on chain statistics by artificially varying the persistence length $`l_p`$ in the glassy state. As expected, the value of $`\lambda `$ depends only on $`l_p`$ and not on the flexibility of the chains, $`r_c`$, or other details of the interaction potential.

As in other jammed systems, the distribution of forces in the craze follows a universal curve with an exponential tail (Fig. 4). The tensions $`f`$ in the covalent bonds along the chains carry most of the stress. Only 10-20% of covalent bonds are under compression ($`f<0`$), and this part of the distribution does not change much during crazing. The tensile ($`f>0`$) part of the distribution is exponential, and results for all systems collapse after normalizing by the average $`f`$ over the tensile region. Intuitively, one might expect the crazes with the larger extension ratio (and $`N_e`$) to exhibit a larger average tension than the less stretched crazes. However, we find that $`f`$ is a function of temperature $`T`$ and cutoff range $`r_c`$ only (see caption) and does not depend on $`N_e`$. Expanding the craze elastically beyond $`\lambda `$ increases $`f`$, but the normalized probability is unchanged until bonds begin to break.

In equilibrium, the energy of any region follows the exponential Boltzmann distribution because this maximizes the number of microstates available to the entire system at fixed total energy. In jammed systems the total force is conserved, and one may imagine that the exponential distribution of local forces also arises because it maximizes the number of microstates. Two more detailed models for the exponential distribution have been suggested for dense jammed systems.

The “q-model”  and its generalizations  assume that stress propagates unevenly through the system. The fraction of stress passed to each neighbor, $`q`$, is chosen at random from a distribution $`R(q)`$. For a wide range of $`R`$ one obtains an exponential force distribution. In addition, the stress is concentrated in force chains like those seen in experiments on granular systems. The fibril network in a craze naturally provides a branching path for transmission of stress. Force is conserved along each fibril and then redistributed at the nodes where fibrils merge or split. Study of the stress along chains shows that tension is correlated along straight segments and then changes when the chain changes direction at a node. A more detailed comparison to the q-model is in progress.

Recently, O’Hern et al.  have proposed an alternative explanation for the exponential force tail in jammed materials. In equilibrium, the separation of beads at small distances is weighted by a Boltzmann-factor $`\mathrm{exp}[V(r)/k_BT]`$, where $`V(r)`$ is the interaction potential. The corresponding distribution of forces is also nearly exponential if the force varies rapidly with $`r`$. The repulsive part of the LJ potential satisfies this criterion, but our covalent bond potential does not. We have calculated the distribution of bond energies in the craze and find that it is not exponential.

The presence of an exponential stress distribution has consequences for the ultimate fracture of craze fibrils. In a minimal model often employed in the literature , the maximum breaking force $`F_{\mathrm{max}}`$ of a fibril composed of $`n`$ strands is estimated by assuming that each strand carries an equal share of the load and all covalent bonds break at a critical force $`f_c`$. This implies $`F_{\mathrm{max}}/f_c=n`$, and all strands break at the same time. If the distribution of forces among strands is exponential, the most stressed strand will break at a lower $`F_{\mathrm{max}}`$. The force needed to initiate failure can be estimated using a simple scaling argument. The first strand will break when $`nP(f>f_c)=n_{f_c}^{\mathrm{}}1/f\mathrm{exp}(f/f)𝑑f=n\mathrm{exp}(nf_c/F_{\mathrm{max}})=1`$, where we have used $`f=F_{\mathrm{max}}/n`$. This implies a breaking force of $`F_{\mathrm{max}}/f_c=n/\mathrm{ln}(n)`$ instead of $`n`$. The redistribution of load after a strand breaks will cause the remaining strands to break sequentially. Note that no chain scission occurs in the simulations presented here, but it does occur upon further straining of the craze. A detailed analysis of fibril breakdown will be presented elsewhere.

In summary, we have shown that crazing transforms a conventional dense jammed state into a unique expanded jammed state. Expansion is limited by the same interlocking of polymer loops that leads to entanglements in polymer melts. However, the average length of straight segments is only $`N_e/3`$ due to the random nature of the network. Interchain friction prevents disentanglement of the loops. As in dense jammed systems, the distribution of forces is exponential. However, the forces are tensile rather than compressive. We hope that contrasting this new jammed state with conventional ones will help unravel the microscopic origin of their common features.

This work was supported by the Semiconductor Research Corporation (SRC) and by the NSF grant No. DMR0083286. We thank E. J. Kramer,H. R. Brown, and C. Denniston for useful discussions.


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# Mass Outflow from the X-ray Binary X2127+119 in M15

## 1 The X-ray binary in M15

The X-ray binary X2127+119 (AC211) in the core of the globular cluster M15 is optically one of the brightest and most well-studied of the low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXBs), and yet it remains a highly enigmatic system. Its optical and X-ray light-curves, along with its very low $`L_\mathrm{X}`$/$`L_{\mathrm{opt}}`$, make it a classic accretion disc corona (ADC) source (Fabian, Guilbert & Callanan 1987; Naylor et al. 1988), in which the system is seen almost edge-on and the compact object and hot, luminous inner disc are obscured by the accretion disc rim. The X-ray flux we observe comes entirely from photon-scattering by a large corona above the disc, and is only a small fraction of the source’s intrinsic X-ray flux.

The X-ray source X2127+119 has recently been discovered by Chandra to be two separate sources (White & Angelini 2001). The second X-ray binary is 2.7 arcsec from AC211, is 4 magnitudes fainter in the U-band, but its Chandra count-rate is 2.5 times higher. The discovery of a second LMXB in the core of M15 explains one of most puzzling aspects of AC211: luminous X-ray bursts showing expansion of the neutron star photosphere have been observed in X2127+119 (Dotani et al. 1990, van Paradijs et al. 1990, Smale 2001), which has been difficult to reconcile with AC211’s optical and X-ray light curves which showed it to be an ADC – to observe X-ray bursts with photospheric expansion the neutron star surface has to be visible, but in ADC sources the neutron star is hidden from view by the accretion disc. This problem goes away if it is the second LMXB, and not AC211, which is the burster. The Chandra discovery may solve one mystery but it produces another: the fact that AC211’s X-ray luminosity is even fainter than previously believed makes its unusually high optical luminosity even more puzzling, and suggests that the central X-ray source hidden from view must be exceptionally luminous, possibly indicating a very high mass-transfer rate from the companion star.

Determining whether AC211 has an extremely high mass-transfer rate and is in an unusual evolutionary state is important: it is relevant to the understanding of LMXB evolution and to the understanding of stellar interactions within, and the evolution of, globular clusters. Theoretical determinations of the numbers of neutron stars in globular clusters and the efficiency with which they interact with stars in the cluster cores to form binaries, combined with the large number of millisecond radio pulsars (end-products of LMXB evolution) observed in the clusters, imply that we see far fewer LMXBs in globular clusters than we should. This may imply that the evolution of LMXBs within globular clusters is accelerated, and that their lifetimes are very short (less than 108 years; Hut, Murphy & Verbunt 1991), which in turn implies high mass-transfer rates.

Not much is known about either the compact object or the donor star comprising AC211, although its location in the core of a globular cluster enables us to make reasonable assumptions about their nature. No globular cluster X-ray binary is known to contain a black hole, and neutron stars are abundant in globular clusters: theory predicts that the number of neutron stars in a dense globular cluster such as M15 is $``$4000 (Hut, Murphy & Verbunt 1991). The chances therefore that the compact object in AC211 is a neutron star are high. The system has an orbital period of 17.1 hours, indicating that it is unlikely that the companion star is on the main sequence (at that orbital period a main sequence donor star would not fill its Roche lobe). The main sequence turn off point for M15 occurs at $``$0.8 M (Fahlman et al. 1985), so we assume that AC211’s donor star is an 0.8-M star which has begun to evolve off the main sequence.

## 2 Previous observations and models

### 2.1 The Absorption Line Profiles: Structured Mass Outflow?

The most striking features in the spectra of AC211 are the blue-shifted absorption components seen in the Balmer and He i$`\lambda `$4471 lines. The line centres are blue-shifted with velocities ranging from 150 to 800 km s-1 with respect to the cluster core (Naylor et al. 1988, Ilovaisky 1989). Initially these high blue-shifts led Naylor et al. (1988) to propose that AC211 is the product of a 3-body interaction, and that its formation resulted in its ejection from the cluster core.

However, Ilovaisky (1989) showed that the He i$`\lambda `$4471 and H$`\beta `$ absorption lines were complex in structure, each consisting of a blend of two or three Gaussian absorption components of different strengths and velocities. The least blue-shifted absorption component in the He i$`\lambda `$4471 line, which we assume is formed somewhere on or close to the components of the binary system (possibly on the accretion disc rim), had a velocity close to the cluster velocity, which means that AC211 is not being ejected from the cluster core. The multiple-component nature of AC211’s absorption lines indicates that we are seeing some kind of structured outflow from the system.

Outflow from the binary system has been a popular idea ever since Charles, Jones & Naylor (1986) determined a value for the mass transfer rate of $`10^8\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{y}^1`$, which is extremely high. A high mass transfer rate for AC211 is also indicated by its large orbital period, which requires an evolved donor star. Evolved stars tend to give higher mass transfer rates: evolutionary calculations for mass transfer from the donor star, derived by Rappaport, Verbunt & Joss (1983), give mass transfer rates of

$$\dot{M}=2\times 10^{11}P_{\mathrm{orb}}^{3.2}(h)\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{y}^1.$$
(1)
An alternate derivation by McDermott & Taam (1989) gives,

$$\dot{M}=2\times 10^{11}P_{\mathrm{orb}}^{3.7}(h)\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{y}^1.$$
(2)
These equations give $`\dot{M}`$ values for AC211 of $`1.8\times 10^7\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{y}^1`$ and $`7.3\times 10^7\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{y}^1`$ respectively, both of which substantially exceed the Eddington-limited value of $`1.6\times 10^{10}\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{y}^1`$ for a $`1.4\mathrm{M}_{}`$ neutron star (Frank, King & Raine 1992). This indicates that most of the material flowing from the companion star never accretes onto the compact object, but must somehow escape the binary system; hence the interest in mass-outflow mechanisms in AC211.

Two mass-outflow models have been proposed to attempt to explain the velocities of AC211’s absorption lines: an accretion disc wind (Fabian, Guilbert & Callanan 1987) and a common envelope (Bailyn, Garcia & Grindlay 1989), discussed in detail below.

### 2.2 The Accretion Disc Wind Hypothesis

Based on X-ray observations of AC211, Fabian, Guilbert & Callanan (1987) proposed an ionized accretion disc corona with a Thomson scattering depth $`\tau _\mathrm{T}>1`$ extending to R $`10^{11}`$ cm from the compact object (the radius of the compact object’s Roche-lobe is $`10^{11}`$ cm). Beyond $`10^{11}`$ cm, they argue, the corona cannot be maintained by X-ray heating, and the coronal gas must be in the form of a cold ($`T10^5`$ K), supersonic wind with velocities $``$ 300 km s-1. They calculate the wind mass-loss rate to be in excess of $`10^7\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{y}^1`$.

Naylor et al. (1988) argue that the He i$`\lambda `$4471 and He ii$`\lambda `$4686 line profiles are inconsistent with the Fabian, Guilbert & Callanan model, and that the required mass-loss rate in the wind of $`10^7\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{y}^1`$ is implausibly high. However, Naylor et al. base their argument on the assumption that the He i$`\lambda `$4471 absorption and He ii$`\lambda `$4686 emission are formed in the same gas. This is not necessarily true: the He i$`\lambda `$4471 and He ii$`\lambda `$4686 line profiles are extremely complex, and it is possible that some components of the lines may be formed in an ADC wind beyond $`10^{11}`$ cm as Fabian, Guilbert & Callanan suggest, while other line-forming regions exist elsewhere in the system, for example the accretion disc. We will return to the disc wind scenario in §4.

### 2.3 The Common-Envelope/L2-Outflow Hypothesis

The explanation that has become the favoured model over the last decade is that of Bailyn, Garcia & Grindlay (1989) (hereafter BGG) who propose a common-envelope scenario in which the blue-shifted lines are formed in material flowing through the second Lagrangian point (L2), located at the back of the companion star (Fig. 1). On evolutionary grounds, BGG argue that AC211 consists of a 1.4 $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ neutron star and an 0.8 $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ secondary which has recently left the main sequence (the main sequence turn-off point for M15 is at $`0.8\mathrm{M}_{}`$; Fahlman et al. 1985). They suggest that tidal capture created a system close enough that mass transfer began very soon after the companion star left the main sequence. BGG argue that at this mass transfer is initially thermally unstable, resulting in the accumulation of material between the companion’s Roche lobe and the L2 surface. As soon as sufficient material has transferred from the companion to the primary to move the mass ratio $`M_2/M_1`$ out of the unstable regime, BGG suggest that stable, super-Eddington mass transfer sets in which maintains the common envelope.

Fig. 1 is a schematic of the common-envelope/L2-outflow model proposed by BGG and the resulting mass-outflow geometry. Material flowing over the L2 saddle-point and escaping the system would spiral steadily outwards (the so-called ‘garden-sprinkler’ effect). At each phase in the binary orbit an observer would therefore see a blue-shift in absorption lines originating within the outward-spiraling material. BGG model the radial velocity curve produced by absorption lines originating within this outflowing material; we show a schematic diagram of their modelled radial-velocity curve in Fig. 2. Note that for all phases there is a blue-shift, and that, for an L2-outflow scenario, the maximum blue-shift has to occur just before phase 0.0, when the absorption is dominated by material which, in the rotating frame, has already circled the binary once and has a higher velocity than material leaving L2.

In modelling the radial velocity curve represented in Fig. 2, BGG assume that the material flowing from L2 has a temperature of 10,000 K (close to the recombination temperature of helium). This low temperature is not unreasonable: the material at L2 is shielded from irradiation from the compact object and hot inner disc by the companion star. Furthermore, the outflowing spiral, because it remains in the orbital plane, is shielded by the rim of the accretion disc. BGG find that the spreading of the particles is small enough to preserve the identity of the first few turns of the outward-moving spiral, but find that gas from outside the innermost turn of the spiral contributes only marginally to the integrated He i$`\lambda `$4471 absorption.

BGG derive a plausible estimate for the mass-outflow rate $`\dot{M}_{\mathrm{spiral}}`$ of the spiral which gives a column of neutral He sufficient to produce the observed He i$`\lambda `$4471 absorption. Using an order-of-magnitude Strömgren sphere-like calculation, they derive the following expression for $`I_{\mathrm{He}}`$, the number of ionizations of He per second, in the ‘wedge’ of gas formed by the spiral expanding in the equatorial plane:

$$I_{\mathrm{He}}=\alpha _{R_0}^{R_s}N^2(r)4\pi r^2𝑑r=\frac{\alpha \dot{M}_{\mathrm{spiral}}^2}{v^2}(R_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{1}R_{s}^{}{}_{}{}^{1}),$$
(3)
where $`\alpha N^2`$ is the number of recombinations of He per cm3, $`\alpha `$ is the recombination cross-section for states other than the ground state; $`\alpha 2\times 10^{13}`$ for He at 10,000 K (Osterbrock 1974), $`R_0`$ = $`R_{\mathrm{L}_2}1.45\mathrm{R}_{}10^{11}`$ cm, $`R_s`$ is the radius of the Strömgren “wedge” inside of which He will be ionized, and $`v=150\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, the mean observed velocity of the He i$`\lambda `$4471 line. They assume that 1/4$`\pi `$ of the observed luminosity passes through the outflow spiral (which is shielded from AC211’s intrinsic luminosity by the accretion disc), and that $``$ 1/10 of these photons interact with a helium rather than a hydrogen atom (ionization is assumed to be efficient even though most photons are in the form of X-rays; the excess energy will result in kinetic motion, leading to collisional ionizations). Assuming $`R_s`$/$`R_0`$ = 1.1 (to ensure an insignificant column of ionized material), they find that $`\dot{M}_{\mathrm{spiral}}10^9\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{y}^1`$.

Although this common envelope scenario has some very appealing features, and has for a long time been a very popular explanation for AC211’s peculiar behaviour, it has some potentially serious drawbacks. It is incompatible with the observed extensive corona: it is not clear how cooler, denser common envelope material can lie above a very hot, low-density corona and remain stable, unless most of the common-envelope is somehow confined to the orbital plane.

## 3 Reanalysis of Archival Data

In all the early work published on AC211 (e.g. Naylor et al. 1988; BGG; Ilovaisky 1989), the system’s orbital period was believed to be $``$ 8.5 hours. Extensive observations by Ilovaisky et al. (1993), and eclipse analyses of archival X-ray data by Homer & Charles (1998), have since revealed the true orbital period to be 17.11 hours. Using the most up-to-date ephemeris for AC211 (Ioannou et al. 2001), we have re-examined the original spectroscopy obtained by PAC and TN in three sets of observing runs: August 1986 (published in Naylor et al. 1988), August 1987 (published in Naylor & Charles 1989), and August 1988 (unpublished). A summary of the observations is given in Table 1. The data were obtained with the RGO Intermediate Dispersion Spectrograph and IPCS (1986 & 1987) or CCD (1988) on the Isaac Newton Telescope at the Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on La Palma. Each dataset consists of three or four nights of 600-s exposures. The mean spectrum for each year is plotted in Fig. 3. A detailed description of how the spectra were extracted from the IPCS data can be found in Naylor et al. (1988).

### 3.1 The Balmer Lines

AC211, located in the core of M15, is situated in an exceptionally crowded field, which makes observing it a considerable technical challenge, and requires superb seeing. Ground-based spectra of AC211 are heavily contaminated with light from the cluster core. Variations in seeing between and during exposures leads to changes in the relative contribution of the cluster background in AC211’s spectra, which makes it impossible to determine AC211’s continuum flux and hence obtain reliable equivalent widths for its absorption and emission lines.

The cluster contamination is clearly visible in the Balmer lines. In Fig. 4 we have for clarity merged the H$`\beta `$, H$`\gamma `$ and H$`\delta `$ lines, to reduce visual errors in order to highlight orbital-phase-dependent changes in the Balmer line profiles. As noted by Ilovaisky (1989), the Balmer line profiles are complex in structure. The strongest feature in the line profiles is the relatively narrow (FWHM $``$3 Å) absorption component (at $`v=0`$ km s-1 in Fig. 4) which corresponds to the cluster background contamination. Other prominent features in the Balmer profiles are the broad blue absorption features and the infilling due to emission in the red wing of the cluster background absorption lines. Ilovaisky (1989) finds strong red-wing emission in the Balmer lines: his data were obtained on the 3.6-m Canada-France-Hawaii telescope in excellent seeing conditions; therefore the cluster background contamination in his spectra is much smaller than in our INT data, where the red-wing emission in the Balmer lines is swamped by the cluster light.

We analysed all the Balmer lines in each spectrum using a multi-Gaussian routine, based on Marquardt’s method of minimization, within the molly spectral analysis package of T. R. Marsh. We fitted various combinations of Gaussians to the line profiles to try to model simultaneously the cluster absorption, the red wing emission infilling and the broad blue absorption wing. We found that the models with the best $`\chi ^2`$ consisted of an absorption component at the cluster velocity and two additional blue-shifted absorption components. We find absorption component 2 to have an average blue shift of $``$200 km s-1, and $``$440 km s-1 for absorption component 3. Our results are similar to those of Ilovaisky, who finds (with data of considerably higher signal-to-noise) that the blue wings of the Balmer lines consist of two or more distinct absorption components with velocities ranging from 150 to 800 km s-1 blue-wards of the cluster background absorption component. The radial velocities of the two blue components are plotted in Fig. 5. What is immediately apparent is that there is no obvious orbital phase dependency.

The signal-to-noise of our data is too poor to allow us to investigate the behaviour of the widths of the blue absorption components: in our multi-Gaussian analysis we fixed the FWHM of the components using mean values from the Ilovaisky data.

The Balmer radial velocities present two challenges: it is difficult to see how the lines can be free of any phase dependence, and it is difficult to imagine what could give rise to the two distinct blue-shifted absorption components (if real). It is possible that the Balmer absorption profiles represent something more complex than our simple multi-Gaussian models allow for. With so many possible free parameters and the low signal-to-noise of our line profiles, degeneracy cannot be excluded and our minimum-$`\chi ^2`$ fits may not represent the intrinsic nature of the line profiles. If our radial velocity results are real, then we are dealing with some kind of highly structured mass outflow: the velocities appear to indicate expanding shells or rings. The physical mechanism that might produce such structures from an X-ray binary is a mystery.

Intriguingly, Torres et al. (2001) have found, in MMT spectra of AC211 obtained in 1996, that the Balmer line velocities do show some evidence of phase dependency in 1996, and that their greatest blue shift is at phase $`0.25`$. Other studies (van Zyl et al. in preparation) find that the blue-shifted absorption components of the H$`\alpha `$ line profiles in HST/STIS observations of AC211 show no orbital variation in velocity at all. It appears that AC211 can exhibit different states, in which the Balmer line profiles sometimes have an orbital-phase dependence and at other times not. P-Cygni-profiled Balmer lines that show no correlation with orbital phase have been observed in other interacting binaries, for example in the cataclysmic variable BZ Cam (Ringwald & Naylor 1988), but the reasons for this behaviour are unknown.

### 3.2 The He i$`\lambda `$4471 Line

The signal-to-noise in the He i$`\lambda `$4471 line is poor, especially in the 1987 and 1988 data with their higher resolution. We have therefore summed the spectra into (roughly) hour-long means. These hour-long mean spectra do not unfortunately have a signal-to-noise high enough to allow multi-Gaussian fitting of the He i$`\lambda `$4471 line; the two discrete absorption components reported by Ilovaisky are not resolved in our data. We have had to determine the radial velocities by fitting only a single Gaussian to the He i$`\lambda `$4471 line. This should nonetheless still give us information about the radial velocity behaviour of the line: Ilovaisky’s work shows that one absorption component remains nearly constant. This indicates that our single-Gaussian velocities will give us the shape of the He i$`\lambda `$4471 radial-velocity curve, but that the values we obtain for the mean velocity and semi-amplitude will be too low.

Ilovaisky also reports P Cygni behaviour in the He i$`\lambda `$4471 line. We do not detect any evidence of a red emission component in our data, probably because of our poorer signal-to-noise (in Ilovaisky’s data the emission component at its strongest is less than 1/4 the strength of the absorption components). The possible presence of P Cygni features further complicates any radial velocity study of the He i$`\lambda `$4471 line.

In Fig. 6 we plot AC211’s He i$`\lambda `$4471 -line radial velocities, folded, for the first time, on the correct (17.1-h) orbital phase. All previous radial velocity studies of AC211 have assumed the incorrect 8.5-h period. We make use of the most recent ephemeris derived for AC211 (Ioannou et al. (2001), an extension of work by Ilovaisky et al. (1993) and Homer & Charles (1998). Three orbital cycles of the folded data are plotted for clarity.

Some striking features of the He i$`\lambda `$4471 -line radial velocities are immediately evident. First, the velocities display a strong orbital-phase dependency, completely unlike the Balmer absorption lines. Secondly, it is also apparent that there is a substantial long-term temporal variation in the shape of the radial-velocity curve. The most significant feature however, from a mass-outflow point of view, is that the phase of maximum blue-shift does not occur at phase zero (i.e., when the compact object and disc are behind the companion star), as required by BGG for L2-outflow, but rather near phase 0.25. This presents a serious challenge to the plausibility of the common envelope model. A discussion of the possible sites of He i$`\lambda `$4471 formation is given in §4.

### 3.3 The He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Line

Fig. 7 is a trailed spectrogram of AC211’s He ii$`\lambda `$4686 line, taken from two nights in 1986 and three in 1988; the nights on which the signal-to-noise is greatest. The line clearly exhibits complex behaviour.

The 1988 spectrogram appears to show three distinct sinusoidal components, which we have labeled A, B and C in Fig. 7. Component B has maximum blue and red shifts near phase $``$ 0.75 and $``$ 0.25 respectively, and a semi-amplitude of $``$ 200 km s-1. The blue part of component B is very weak on night 1, and seems to disappear between phases $``$ 0.45 and $``$ 0.65, but on night 3 it is strong at these phases. AC211 evidently exhibits substantial variations in behaviour from orbit to orbit.

The phasing of component B, which is also clearly present in the 1986 spectrogram, is consistent with the motion of an irradiated companion. Assuming the canonical value of 1.4 $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ for the mass of a neutron star primary and 0.8 $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ for the mass of the companion (corresponding to the main sequence turn-off point for M15), and assuming an inclination of 90 for the system, Kepler’s laws give a velocity for the companion of 198 km s-1, which coincides very closely with the amplitude of component B. If we are indeed seeing recombination He ii$`\lambda `$4686 from the X-ray-irradiated face of the companion star, it would be the first time that the companion of AC211 has been detected.

Component A is substantially broader and stronger than B, and its phasing and velocity correspond to the motion of the compact object. This component could come from the hot inner regions of the accretion disc, from a disc wind, or from the accretion disc corona, which will all have the same phase-dependence as the compact object. This component may be formed predominantly in AC211’s large accretion disc corona or disc wind, because the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 emission is never eclipsed, indicating that the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 -emitting region is substantially larger than the companion star. Indeed, work by Ioannou et al. (2001) on HST UV spectra, and Torres et al. (2001) on optical spectra, shows that the equivalent width of the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 lines increases sharply during eclipse as the continuum flux drops, supporting the idea that the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 emission is formed in a large corona. We expect the accretion disc corona of AC211 to be particularly large because of M15’s (and therefore AC211’s) very low metallicity (Fabian, Guilbert & Callanan 1987).

Component C, a third, weaker component in the 1988 spectrogram, appears most strongly between phases 0.1 and 0.3. Its phasing suggests that it may come from an accretion stream overflowing the disc. A similar He ii$`\lambda `$4686 emission component, attributed to an overflowing stream, has been observed in the SW Sex star V1315 Aql (Hellier 1996). The velocity amplitude of component C is much lower than what one would expect from a ballistic stream; however at the phases at which it is most clearly observed, an overflowing stream would be viewed almost perpendicularly, and therefore its line-of-sight velocity would be low. In addition, Armitage and Livio (1998) show that an overflowing stream would have a velocity well below free-fall.

### 3.4 Doppler Tomograms

Fig. 8 shows the trailed spectra and Doppler tomograms of the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 line. The signal-to-noise in the lines is poor, but the multiple-component structure of the line profiles is evident in the 1986 and 1988 data (the 1987 dataset is the victim of poor weather; we have not included it in Fig. 8). Unlike in Fig. 7, the spectra have been phase-binned. The Roche lobe of the companion and the centres of mass of the companion, neutron star and binary system are indicated; we have assumed a mass ratio of $`M_2/M_1=0.8\mathrm{M}_{}/1.4\mathrm{M}_{}0.57`$. We have plotted a full orbit of the accretion stream, and the ring indicates the position in velocity space of the outer accretion disc, assumed to be $`0.85R_\mathrm{L}`$.

In these He ii$`\lambda `$4686 tomograms there is no evidence of emission from the accretion disc or bright spot: the characteristic ring and the bright-spot signature in the upper-left quadrant typically seen in tomograms of interacting binaries is entirely absent here. In this respect these tomograms resemble those of the SW Sex class of CVs. SW Sex tomograms, however, tend to be bright in the lower-left quadrant (believed to be the signature of an overflowing accretion stream re-impacting the disc), while these data are bright in the lower-right quadrant, a position in velocity-space which does not coincide with any obvious sites of excess emission within the binary’s geometry. The very low velocity of this emission indicates that it may be formed in a bipolar disc wind viewed almost edge-on, or in the ADC, although the off-set to the right (if real) is puzzling.

Our tomograms also show emission in regions associated with the mass donor, which is consistent with the suggestion in the previous subsection that we may have detected the irradiated companion. Component C in Fig. 7, possibly a signature of disc overflow, appears as a faint feature to the left of the compact object in the 1988 tomogram, in a region associated with disc overflow in SW Sex stars. Intriguingly, there also appears to be a brightening in this area in the 1986 tomogram.

## 4 Discussion

BGG’s common envelope model implies that outflow from L2 would result in the HeI lines having a maximum blue shift at phase 0.0. A maximum blue-shift at phase $`0.25`$, which our reanalysis of the original radial velocity study has revealed, would appear to be incompatible with this model. However, BGG’s modelling involves many simplifications and approximations, and a more extensive development of this option may yield somewhat different results.

If our new results do rule out an L2-outflow scenario, an alternative explanation for the blue-shifted absorption lines will have to be found. We consider four possible alternative scenarios:

* Material flowing through the L3 point (located on the opposite side of the binary system to L2) would have travelled through the compact object’s Roche lobe on a ballistic trajectory, and therefore would show a maximum blue-shift near phase $`0.25`$. Intense irradiation of an overflowing accretion stream by the compact object and inner disc may give stream material enough energy to escape the system through the L3 saddle-point.
* An L3-outflow may be the result of a magnetic propeller, whereby overflowing stream material is accelerated out of the system by the magnetic field of a rapidly-spinning compact object (e.g. Wynn, King & Horne 1997), or by the magnetic field of the inner accretion disc (Horne 1999). Hynes et al. (2001) claim to have observed such a magnetic propeller in action in the LMXB XTE J2123-058.
* Groot et al. (2001) show that the lines formed at the stream-disc impact site have maximum blue-shifts at phases 0.25 – 0.4, consistent with our He i$`\lambda `$4471 results. A sufficiently energetic stream-disc impact site (expected for AC211’s inferred high mass transfer rate) could produce the temperatures and material necessary for He i$`\lambda `$4471 absorption. However, for the line to be visible in eclipse, the impact region would require a vertical extent comparable to that of the companion star. Intriguingly, the 1986 (and perhaps also the 1988) He i$`\lambda `$4471 velocities in Fig. 6 show a sharp discontinuity at phase 0.1, which is when the impact region re-emerges.
* Material flowing out from an accretion disc wind would be expected to have a maximum blue-shift which coincided with the compact object’s approach velocity, i.e. at phase $`0.25`$. HST/STIS UV observations of C iv$`\lambda `$1550 (Ioannou et al. 2001) show that AC211 does have an accretion disc wind. However, the wind velocity ($``$1500 km s-1) shows no detectable variation with orbital phase.

Apart from the final item, the above scenarios (along with BGG’s L2-outflow scenario) still require extensive and rigorous modelling before they will have sufficient predictive power to be of use. Accretion disc winds, however, have been modelled extensively for over two decades (e.g. Drew 1987; Begelman, McKee & Shields 1983). Nevertheless, it is difficult to understand AC211’s He i$`\lambda `$4471 absorption in terms of an accretion disc wind, mainly because X-rays should over-ionize the wind (Drew 2002, private communication).

## 5 Conclusions

The evolutionary state of X2127+119/AC211 is of great interest because of theoretical predictions that globular cluster LMXBs evolve much faster than their galactic cousins (Hut, Murphy & Verbunt 1991). That AC211 appeared to be embedded in a common envelope seemed to imply that at least one globular cluster LMXB did have an unusual evolutionary history. Our results, however, show that AC211 is unlikely to be a common envelope system because the He i$`\lambda `$4471 radial velocities appear to be inconsistent with an L2 outflow. We may also have detected the irradiated face of the elusive companion star in the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 line profiles.

The Balmer and He i$`\lambda `$4471 lines indicate the presence of outflows from the system, but without better data it is difficult to determine their exact nature. There are several possible scenarios which may explain the nature of these outflows, but each requires rigorous modelling before it can be considered seriously as a mechanism for producing our observed He i$`\lambda `$4471 line profiles.

## Acknowledgments

This paper is based on observations made with the Isaac Newton Telescope operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias.

LvZ acknowledges the hospitality of the University of Southampton, where much of this paper was written. LvZ would like to thank Rob Hynes, Danny Steeghs, Paul Groot and Coel Hellier for useful discussions on the nature of AC211 and on Doppler tomography, and Tom Marsh for the use of his molly, doppler and trailer spectral analysis software. LvZ acknowledges the support of scholarships from the Vatican Observatory, the National Research Foundation (South Africa), the University of Cape Town, and the Overseas Research Studentship scheme (UK).

TN acknowledges the support of a PPARC Advanced Fellowship during part of this work.

We would also like to thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments.


text:
# Josephson current in ballistic Nb/InAs/Nb highly transmissive junctions

## Abstract

Highly transmissive ballistic junctions are demonstrated between Nb and the two-dimensional electron gas formed at an InAs/AlSb heterojunction. A reproducible fabrication protocol is presented yielding high critical supercurrent values. Current-voltage characteristics were measured down to 0.4 K and the observed supercurrent behavior was analyzed within a ballistic model in the clean limit. This investigation allows us to demonstrate an intrinsic interface transmissivity approaching 90%. The reproducibility of the fabrication protocol makes it of interest for the experimental study of InAs-based superconductor-semiconductor hybrid devices.

Superconductor-semiconductor-superconductor (S-Sm-S) hybrid devices have been of considerable interest over recent years as a result of their potential for use in a significant number of applications ruggero . Amongst these the Josephson field effect transistor (JoFET) tak  is of particular technological relevance. Operation of the JoFET is based on the modulation of the Josephson coupling between two adjacent S contacts by the variation of the carrier density of the Sm layer separating them. In these hybrid structures supercurrent originates from current-carrying bound states kulik  due to *Andreev reflection* andr . The latter converts quasiparticle current in the semiconductor into Cooper-pair current in the superconductor. Key issues to be addressed in order to make these devices of practical interest include high S-Sm interface transmissivity (as required for an efficient Andreev reflection) and fabrication schemes allowing inter-electrode distances ($`L`$) much smaller than the semiconductor coherence length $`\xi _{Sm}`$ (in fact critical supercurrent values decrease proportionally to $`e^{L/\xi _{Sm}}`$ likharev ). Favorable $`L/\xi _{Sm}`$ ratios can be achieved by electron beam lithography (EBL), yielding a small electrode spacing, in combination with Sm layers consisting of high-quality two-dimensional electron gases (2DEGs). The latter provide electron mean free path $`\mathrm{}_m`$, mobility and coherence-length values significantly exceeding those obtained in bulk semiconductors. A more challenging issue is the fabrication of high-transmissivity S-Sm contacts. For GaAs-based 2DEGs the dominant factor limiting interface-transmissivity is represented by the presence of the Schottky barrier for which penetrating alloyed superconducting ohmic contacts proved to be effective in achieving good interface transparency gaas . This method, however, suffers from the poor geometric definition intrinsic to the alloying process making it poorly compatible with high-resolution EBL. An efficient alternative is based on the exploitation of III-V semiconductor alloys with high In content ingaas  and in particular on InAs-based 2DEGs inas . These can provide Schottky barrier-free metal-semiconductor contacts. The residual transparency-limiting factors are much less severe and stem from Fermi-velocity mismatch blonder  and/or interface contaminants.

In this letter we report the fabrication and characterization of highly transmissive Nb/2DEG/Nb ballistic junctions made in the InAs/AlSb system. Current-voltage characteristics were measured down to 0.4 K and the observed supercurrent behavior was analyzed within a ballistic model in the clean limit. This investigation allows us to demonstrate an intrinsic interface transmissivity close to 90% in our system. The reproducibility of the fabrication protocol makes it of interest for the experimental study of InAs-based S-Sm hybrid devices.

The semiconductor portion of the structure (sketched in Fig. 1(a)) was grown by molecular beam epitaxy without intentional doping on a semi-insulating GaAs(100) substrate. The Sm link consists of a 10-nm-wide InAs quantum well sandwiched between AlSb barriers. A 5 nm GaSb cap layer was grown on top of the structure in order to protect the AlSb layer from oxidation. Standard photolithographic techniques and wet etching etching  were used to define a 20-$`\mu `$m-wide Hall-bar mesa. At $`T=0.3`$ K we measured a sheet electron concentration $`n7.4\times 10^{11}`$ cm-2 and an electron mobility $`\mu 75000`$ cm2/Vs. An effective mass $`m^{}=0.036m_e`$, with $`m_e`$ the free electron mass, was deduced from temperature-dependent Shubnikov-de Haas measurements. Another useful parameter, the single-particle dephasing length $`\mathrm{}_\varphi `$ was measured at $`T=0.3`$ K by weak localization magnetoresistance measurements and a value of 2.7 $`\mu `$m was obtained . These results allow us to calculate the electron mean free path $`\mathrm{}_m1.1`$ $`\mu `$m and a thermal coherence length in the clean limit $`\xi _{Sm}(T)=\mathrm{}v_F/2\pi k_BT=0.85`$ $`\mu `$m/$`T`$, where $`v_F`$ is the Fermi velocity in the InAs layer. For $`T0.8`$ K, $`\xi _{Sm}(T)<\mathrm{}_m`$, i.e. electron transport in the sample is in the clean limit.

S/2DEG/S junctions were patterned with a single EBL step. First, two 20-$`\mu `$m-wide openings separated by a 190-nm-wide channel were defined in a single PMMA layer (see Fig. 1(b),(c)) and the GaSb/AlSb top layers were removed by wet etching in order to expose the InAs well. The sample was then loaded into an UHV deposition chamber (background pressure of $`p=1.2\times 10^{10}`$ Torr) to carry out the S electrode deposition. Before performing the latter, the exposed areas were subjected to RF sputter-cleaning procedure inas . The cleaning treatment was performed at $`p=12`$ mTorr of Ar partial pressure, exposing the etched areas for 6 minutes to a 0.3 W/cm2 plasma power density. Immediately after this, 50-nm-thick Nb electrodes were deposited in situ by DC-magnetron sputtering at a rate of about 30 Å/s. The resulting Nb layer shows a critical temperature $`T_c=8.5`$ K, corresponding to an energy gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }=1.4`$ meV. The Nb/InAs-2DEG/Nb junctions were electrically characterized in a closed-cycle 3He refrigerator from 0.4 K to temperatures larger than $`T_c`$ and current-driven four-terminal measurements were performed between the two Nb electrodes.

Figure 2 shows the current-voltage characteristics of a typical Nb/InAs/Nb junction in the $`0.4÷5.0`$ K temperature range. The curves display a well-developed supercurrent $`I_c`$ and no evidence of hysteresis was observed, as expected for overdamped junctions likharev . At $`T=0.4`$ K a 11 $`\mu `$A critical supercurrent was measured corresponding to a critical-current linear density of 0.55 A/m. To the best of our knowledge this value is among the highest reported for S/InAs-2DEG/S of comparable length and free-carrier concentration inas . Furthermore, from the junction normal-state resistance $`R_N=15\mathrm{\Omega }`$, a characteristic product $`I_cR_N=165\mu `$V is extracted which suggests good interface morphology inas . The inset of Fig. 2 displays the current-voltage characteristic at $`T=0.4`$ K over a wider bias range. The linear extrapolation of the curve from $`eV2\mathrm{\Delta }`$ to zero bias (dashed line in the inset) allows us to determine the junction excess current, $`I_{exc}57`$ $`\mu `$A. This quantity is an important figure of merit in S-Sm-S weak links the magnitude of which strongly depends on interface quality. The excellence of this value can be understood by following the idealized one-dimensional S-Normal metal-S model in Ref. otbk  which yields a rather high intrinsic barrier transparency $`Z`$ 0.65 nota .

More information about the success of the fabrication protocol and on the properties of the hybrid system realized can be obtained by analyzing $`I_c`$ as a function of temperature in the temperature range up to $`T_c`$. In fact this analysis allows us to determine some crucial junction parameters like the true interface transmissivity. Figure 3(a) (full diamonds) shows the measured supercurrents normalized to the $`I_c`$ value at $`T=0.4`$ K as a function of the reduced temperature ($`T/T_c`$). The $`I_c(T)`$ behavior follows a characteristic trend and $`I_c`$s decrease with increasing temperatures likharev . For temperatures lower than $`T/T_c0.1`$ data appear to saturate as expected for a non-perfectly transmissive S-Sm interface schussler ; chrestin . A quantitative description of the data can be performed, but much care must be taken in carrying out this analysis owing to the two-dimensional nature of the InAs region, which is coupled to bulk Nb electrodes. Indeed supercurrent values may be deeply affected by the abrupt dimensionality change at the S-Sm contact, by the change in electron effective mass and by band-edge discontinuities.

As mentioned above, the electrode separation ($`L=190`$ nm) favorably compares with $`\mathrm{}_m`$ ($`\mathrm{}_mL`$) and allows a ballistic analysis of the system. This makes it possible to take advantage of the model developed by Chrestin and co-workers chrestin . These authors considered the S/2DEG/S structure sketched in the inset of Fig. 3(a). It consists of an InAs-2DEG of length $`L`$ laterally contacted through identical potential barriers to two superconducting bulk leads. In our case of InAs-based weak links the contact transmissivity is limited by the Fermi-velocity mismatch between the S and the Sm layers and by contaminants at the interface resulting from the fabrication procedure. The influence of the latter on interface transparency can be conveniently modeled by a $`\delta `$ function weighted by a dimensionless parameter $`Z`$ btk . The normal-state contact transmissivity $`𝒯`$ can be readily obtained from these two contributions as $`𝒯=4[4Z^2+(1+)^2]^1`$ blonder , where $``$ is the ratio of the Fermi velocities between S and Sm. Solving the Bogolubov-de Gennes equations, the Josephson current in the system can be calculated as a function of the structure parameters. The temperature dependence of the critical current $`I_c(T)`$ can also be obtained and compared with our experiment. Figure 3(a) (open circles) shows the best fit to the data computed with the model described above. It was calculated employing the parameters for InAs and Nb determined experimentally with a single fitting parameter: a barrier strength $`Z=0.4`$ parametri . The experimental data are well described by this model over the whole temperature range thus further supporting our description of the system in the clean limit. The fitted value $`Z=0.4`$ translates into an intrinsic barrier transmissivity exceeding 86% and in a total contact transmissivity of the order of 80% (including the existing Nb/InAs Fermi-velocity mismatch). This very large value is consistent with the differential-conductance versus bias ($`G(V)`$) behavior in the $`4.6÷8.5`$ K temperature range (see Fig. 3(b)). (In this temperature range the supercurrent was not measurable.) The curves show a large enhancement for energies lower than $`2\mathrm{\Delta }/e`$ and a peculiar reproducible structure is visible within this energy range on the $`G(V)`$ spectra. The non monotonic behavior observed can be ascribed to multiple Andreev reflections off the Nb electrodes otbk . The resulting resonances are too weak to allow a detailed comparison with the theory, but this very fact is fully consistent with the highly transmissive nature of S-Sm contacts as theoretically predicted in Ref. otbk .

In summary, Nb/InAs-2DEG/Nb ballistic weak links were fabricated and characterized as a function of temperature. The devices shows a supercurrent of 11 $`\mu `$A at $`T=0.4`$ K and a good value for the product $`I_cR_N=165`$ $`\mu `$V. A theoretical model in the clean limit describes well the experimental behavior of these structures and allows us to estimate a high value for the intrinsic contact transmissivity approaching 90%. Our results were made possible by the fabrication procedure adopted here and suggest that the Nb/InAs-2DEG combination may be considered as the prototype system on which to implement successfully high-performance Josephson-type devices.

The authors would like to acknowledge P. Pingue for fruitful discussions. This work was supported by INFM under the PAIS projects EISS and TIN, and by EPSRC (UK). EHL acknowledges support from Toshiba Research Europe Ltd.