text:
# 𝝁SR in Ce1-xLaxAl3: anisotropic Kondo effect?

## Abstract

Zero-field $`\mu `$SR experiments in the heavy-fermion alloys Ce1-xLaxAl3, $`x=0`$ and 0.2, examine a recent proposal that the system exhibits a strong anisotropic Kondo effect. We resolve a damped oscillatory component for both La concentrations, indicative of disordered antiferromagnetism. For $`x=0.2`$ the oscillation frequency decreases smoothly with increasing temperature, and vanishes at the specific heat anomaly temperature $`T^{}2.2`$ K. Our results are consistent with the view that $`T^{}`$ is due to a magnetic transition rather than anisotropic Kondo behavior.

and

The theory of the anisotropic Kondo model (AKM) has been studied extensively in recent years. In spite of this interest there have been few experimental studies of physical realizations of the AKM in systems of local d or f moments in metals, which were the earliest manifestations of the “ordinary” Kondo effect.

The heavy-fermion compound CeAl3 was long thought to exhibit a nonmagnetic “Kondo-lattice” ground state. $`\mu `$SR  and NMR  studies showed, however, that inhomogeneous weak-moment magnetic order sets in below $``$1 K. Moreover, as lanthanum is doped onto cerium sites the specific heat coefficient $`\gamma (T)=C(T)/T`$ is drastically modified, and a maximum in $`\gamma (T)`$ at a characteristic temperature $`T^{}`$ ($`0.4`$ K in CeAl3) moves up in temperature and grows into a large peak ; $`T^{}=2.2`$ K for $`x=0.2`$. This behavior was initially taken as evidence for development of a weak-moment magnetically ordered phase of CeAl3, and attributed to reduction of the hybridization between Ce f electrons and ligand-derived conduction electrons.

This interpretation has been called into question  on the basis of inelastic neutron scattering experiments on Ce0.8La0.2Al3, which found a broad inelastic peak below $`T^{}`$. This peak was taken as evidence for applicability of the AKM to the Ce1-xLaxAl3 system. Zero-field $`\mu ^+`$ spin relaxation (ZF-$`\mu `$SR) experiments  at the ISIS pulsed muon facility  indicated magnetic freezing at $`T=T^{}`$, but the frozen moment was claimed to be weak ($`0.05\mu _B`$/Ce ion), principally because no neutron diffraction peak was observed. Recent ZF-$`\mu `$SR studies , also carried out at ISIS, conclude that for $`x=0.05`$ the magnetic freezing persists to temperatures well above $`T^{}`$. This is taken as further evidence that the specific heat peak at $`T^{}`$ reflects the anisotropic Kondo effect and is unrelated to spin freezing.

Specific heat measurements in Ce0.8La0.2Al3 at applied fields of up to 14 T  disagree with the theoretical behavior of the AKM, however. Furthermore, the argument for applicability of the AKM depends strongly on evidence that the frozen moments are small, viz., the absence of neutron Bragg peaks. Neutron diffraction would not necessarily be sensitive to spin freezing of a glassy nature or short-range order, however, whereas the ZF-$`\mu `$SR relaxation rate reflects spin freezing independently of the degree of long-range order.

We have carried out ZF-$`\mu `$SR experiments in Ce1-xLaxAl3, $`x=0`$ and 0.2, at TRIUMF and PSI. For $`x=0.2`$ we observe a strongly damped but resolved oscillation in the muon asymmetry data at low temperatures, as shown in Fig. 1.

For both La concentrations the precession frequency disappears at $`T^{}`$, in disagreement with the results of Ref.  for $`x=0.05`$, and in agreement with the expected result if $`T^{}`$ were a magnetic ordering transition temperature. The strong damping indicates a distribution of static local fields at muon sites, as might be expected in a strongly disordered substitutional alloy, but the oscillation reflects a fairly well-defined average local field. For comparison with the analysis of Ref.  asymmetry data for both La concentrations were fit assuming magnetic and nonmagnetic volume fractions; a “damped cosine” form was used for the precessing signal. The form of the relaxation function is

$$G(t)=A_m\left[\frac{2}{3}\mathrm{exp}(\lambda _Tt)\mathrm{cos}(2\pi \nu t+\varphi )+\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{exp}(\lambda _Lt)\right]+A_nG_{\mathrm{KT}}(t).$$
(1)
Here the relaxation from the magnetic volume fraction $`f_{\mathrm{mag}}`$ is modeled by the component with asymmetry amplitude $`A_m`$. The static field at the muon site is assumed to be randomly oriented. Relaxation of muons in the remaining nonmagnetic fraction is due to nuclear dipolar fields and is described by a static Kubo-Toyabe function $`G_{\mathrm{KT}}(t)`$ ; thus $`f_{\mathrm{mag}}=A_m/(A_m+A_n)`$. The relaxation rates $`\lambda _T`$ and $`\lambda _L`$ characterize the transverse and longitudinal relaxation, respectively; the former is expected to be dominated by static disorder whereas $`\lambda _L`$ reflects dynamic spin-lattice relaxation. The qualitative features of the fits are unchanged if the damped Bessel function found by Amato in CeAl3  is used.

The temperature dependence of the fit parameters is given in Fig. 2.

It can be seen that $`\nu (T)`$ (a) is independent of $`x`$ at low temperatures, (b) decreases markedly as $`T^{}`$ is approached from below, and (c) is suppressed to zero at $`T=T^{}`$ for $`x=0.02`$. Unfortunately the muon stopping site in CeAl3 is not known, otherwise the ordered moment $`\mu _{\mathrm{ord}}`$ could be estimated accurately. Amato  gives a range $`\mu _{\mathrm{ord}}=0.11`$–0.5 $`\mu _B`$/Ce ion in CeAl3, which is 2–10 times larger than the value reported in Ref. . The entropy release at $`T^{}`$ implies $`\mu _{\mathrm{ord}}0.3\mu _B`$/Ce ion , comparable to values obtained from NMR and other measurements .

In CeAl3 $`\nu (T)`$ is not completely suppressed to zero and $`\lambda _T(T)`$ increases rapidly at $`T^{}`$. This is not necessarily a sign of a first-order transition since it can be understood as an effect of inhomogeneity in the transition temperature, as observed in La2CuO4 . No such increase in broadening is observed in Ce0.8La0.2Al3. CeAl3 also exhibits a decrease of $`f_{\mathrm{mag}}`$ as $`T^{}`$ is approached from below; this is also not seen in Ce0.8La0.2Al3.

In conclusion, our ZF-$`\mu `$SR data are consistent with a scenario  in which the specific heat anomaly in Ce1-xLaxA3 is associated with the onset of static magnetism below $`T^{}`$, with or without long-range order. In particular, there is no sign of such static magnetism above this temperature in Ce0.8La0.2Al3.

We are grateful to A. Amato, C. Baines, M. Good, D. Herlach, B. Hitti, S. Kreitzman, P. Russo, and A. Savici for help with the experiments, and to E. Goremychkin, K. Ingersent, R. Osborn, and B. Rainford for useful discussions. This work was supported in part by the U.S. NSF, Grant nos. DMR-9731361 and DMR-0102293 (UC Riverside), DMR-9820631 (CSU Los Angeles), and DMR-0104240 (U. of Florida), and by the Netherlands NWO and FOM, and was performed in part under the auspices of the U.S. DOE.


format: text

text:
# 1 AEI and QPO in microquasars

## 1 AEI and QPO in microquasars

Low frequency Quasi Periodic Oscillations (LFQPO) are commonly observed in microquasars when a strong power law component is detected in their X-ray energy spectra, with a typical frequency of 0.1–10 Hz. During the Low Hard State (LHS) they have high amplitude ($`15\%`$ rms), and during the Intermediate/Very High State (IS/VHS) they have a moderate amplitude ($`5\%`$ rms). Their presence can be explained in the context of the Accretion Ejection Instability (AEI, ), which occurs in the innermost region of an accretion disk threaded by vertical magnetic field lines. The instability manifests as a spiral density wave (a hot point) rotating at $`1030\%`$ of the Keplerian frequency at the inner edge of the disk, producing the modulation detected as a LFQPO. One would then expect the frequency $`\nu `$ of the QPO to vary as $`\nu r^{3/2}`$, r being the inner radius of the disk. We have shown  that due to general relativistic effects this relation is modified whenever the disk is close to its last stable orbit (LSO). This could explain the behavior we observed in the case of GRO J$`1655`$$`40`$, where the relation between the QPO frequency and the disk inner radius was inverted compared to GRS $`1915`$+$`105`$ , whereas the energy dependence of the QPO amplitude in GRS $`1915`$+$`105`$ may suggest the presence of a hot point in the disk .

## 2 Spectral Overview of the 2000 outburst

XTE J$`1550`$$`564`$ is a microquasar  hosting a black hole of $`M=10.5\pm 1.5`$ $`M_{}`$ , located at $`5.35.9`$ kpc . On 2000 April 6 (MJD 51640), XTE J$`1550`$$`564`$ became active  undergoing an episode of outburst. From MJD 51644–51690 the source was monitored with RXTE. We fitted the PCA+HEXTE spectra between $`3`$ and $`150`$ keV with a model consisting of interstellar absorption, a smeared Iron edge at $`7`$ keV, and a power law. A high energy cut-off is needed to fit some spectra, and a thermal component is also included in some others. The evolution of the spectral parameters is plotted in Fig. 1. Based on the spectral evolution of the source we estimate that XTE J$`1550`$$`564`$ has transited from a low hard state (LS, photon index $`<`$2) (MJD 51644–51658) into an intermediate state (IS, photon index $`>`$2, thermal component) between MJD 51658 and MJD 51660. It stayed in that state until MJD 51680, and then transited back to a LS at least until the end of our study .

During the IS the small values of the color radius returned from the fits, and their relative constancy over $`10`$ days suggest that the inner disk is close to its LSO, in good agreement with the detection of HFQPO .The disk contributes a fairly constant $`250`$ keV luminosity of $`4050\%`$ during most of the IS, and after MJD 51674 the temperature starts to decrease and the disk becomes undetectable on MJD 51682. Although the late behavior of the inner radius is relatively difficult to constrain given the errors on this parameter, the disappearance of the thermal component on MJD 51682, and the observation of a 65 Hz QPO  favors an interpretation where as the inner edge of the disk is moving outward, its maximum temperature drops down to low values.

## 3 Evolution of the QPO frequency

For both epochs the evolution of the QPO frequency (Fig. 2) correlates better with the $`24`$ and $`47`$ keV band fluxes. If the evolution of the soft flux follows the behavior of the disk radius, as suggested by our spectral analysis, then the energy dependent frequency behavior favors an interpretation where the LFQPO is somehow related to the evolution of the disk. During the rising part, the energy spectra of XTE J$`1550`$$`564`$ are dominated by the power law component. If that component characterizes an inverse Compton effect of the soft disk photons as usually assumed, the rise to outburst may indicate that the disk is approaching the black hole during the initial low state. Hence, although the frequency–flux relation is not absolutely linear (left part of Fig. 2), the increase of the frequency with the flux still favors an association with the disk. When the disk brightens, in particular when it becomes detectable in the spectra (from MJD 51660 through MJD 51680, Fig. 1), the plot (Fig. 2, right) becomes linear, which is predicted by the AEI. The plateau and the inversion of the slope (Fig. 2) occur at high soft flux, at times where the disk reaches the highest temperatures, and contributes the most to the energy spectra. If the disk is close to the LSO during the IS, and on MJD 51674 when the QPO re-appears, the decrease of the QPO frequency after the plateau (Fig. 2) might have the same origin as the frequency-radius inversion of the correlation observed in the case of GRO J$`1655`$$`40`$ , and is what one would expect from the theoretical predictions of the AEI : when the disk is close to the LSO, the rotation frequency of the spiral/vortex is modified due to general relativistic effects. As the disk is moving outward (decaying soft luminosity, and no detection of the thermal component during the final LS), the frequency of QPO decreases as expected when relativistic effects are negligible.

## 4 Energy dependence of the LFQPO

The energy dependence of the QPO amplitude (Fig. 3 left) suggests a strong coupling between the Compton medium and the modulation, since the amplitude is high (in particular at low energies) when the source spectrum shows a strong power law (LS), and vice versa. If we assume the power-law flux is modulated and the soft component is un-modulated (i.e. the flux from the soft component does not contain the QPO), the flattening of the QPO spectrum at low energies (Fig. 3) may come from the dilution of the power law by the soft component flux. However when we look at the QPO spectra (Fig. 3 right), where we plotted the modulated flux as a function of the energy channel, and superimposed the power law returned from the spectral fits (i.e. with the same spectral index), it appears that during the LS there is a slight excess at intermediate energies, whereas during the IS there is a flattening in the soft X-rays. Our observations may suggest that the QPO originates from an independent medium, dynamically linked to the disk. The QPO flux at high energies would then simply reflect the inverse Compton reprocessing of soft photons on the coronal electrons, while at lower energy this additional component would explain the observed spectra.

The addition of a 1.3 keV blackbody (not shown) may allow a better fit to the spectra, at least during the initial LS . This would be consistent with the theoretical predictions of the AEI. In that case, the QPO would be the direct signature of the instability as it forms shocks (spiral) and warms locally the disk, giving birth to a local hot point a bit warmer than the entire disk in its average.

## 5 Conclusion

We propose that theoretical predictions of the AEI model match many observational constraints, starting with the non trivial evolution of the QPO frequency vs. the (soft) flux, and by extension the disk radius. We show that a hot point rotating in the disk, which is an expected signature of the AEI, is compatible both with the frequency evolution of the flux modulation and the energy spectrum of the QPO.

## Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge P. Durouchoux and P. Varnière for usefull discussions.


text:
# Controllable Frequency Entanglement via Auto-Phase-Matched Spontaneous Parametric Down-Conversion

Quantum Imaging Laboratory homepage: \]http://www.bu.edu/qil

## Abstract

A new method for generating entangled photons with controllable frequency correlation via spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) is presented. The method entails initiating counter-propagating SPDC in a single-mode nonlinear waveguide by pumping with a pulsed beam perpendicular to the waveguide. The method offers several advantages over other schemes, including the ability to generate frequency-correlated photon pairs regardless of the dispersion characteristics of the system.

Spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) is a convenient process for generating pairs of photons that are entangled in one or more of their respective degrees of freedom (direction, frequency, polarization). This entanglement can be used to demonstrate counter-intuitive features of quantum mechanics and to implement the growing suite of quantum information technologies Nielsen and Chuang (2001). In a typical down-conversion experiment, a photon from a monochromatic pump beam decays into two photons (often referred to as signal and idler) via interaction with a nonlinear optical crystal. While the signal and idler may be broadband individually, conservation of energy requires that the sum of their respective frequencies equals the single frequency of the monochromatic pump. This engenders frequency anti-correlation in the down-converted beams. Aside from the frequency-anti-correlated case, the frequency-correlated and frequency-uncorrelated cases were also investigated theoretically by Campos et al. in 1990 Campos et al. (1990). At that time, neither a method of creating these novel states nor a practical application of the states was known.

Two developments in quantum information theory have renewed interest in these generalized states of frequency correlation. First, quantum information processes requiring the synchronized creation of multiple photon pairs have been devised, such as quantum teleportation Bennett et al. (1993) and entanglement swapping Pan et al. (1998). The requisite temporal control can be achieved by pumping the crystal with a brief pulse. The availability of pump photons of differing frequencies relaxes the strict frequency anti-correlation in the down-converted beams Keller and Rubin (1997). Second, applications such as entanglement-enhanced clock synchronization Giovannetti et al. (2002a) and one-way auto-compensating quantum cryptography Walton et al. (2002) have been introduced that specifically require frequency correlation, as opposed to the usual frequency anti-correlation.

Methods for preparing these novel states of frequency correlation have emerged as well. Keller and Rubin were first to observe that when a specific relationship between the group velocities of the pump and down-converted beams holds, the down-converted photons are anti-correlated in time Keller and Rubin (1997). Using a first-order Taylor approximation of the relevant dispersion curves, they provided two examples of bulk nonlinear crystals that satisfied this relationship when used in a collinear type-II configuration (signal and idler orthogonally polarized). Erdmann et al. pointed out that the time-anti-correlated state described by Keller and Rubin entails frequency correlation (which can be seen immediately by Fourier duality), and further emphasized that perfect frequency correlation requires an infinite crystal, just as perfect frequency anti-correlation requires a pump with an infinite coherence length Erdmann et al. (2000). More recently, Giovannetti et al. demonstrated the feasibility of frequency-correlated down-conversion in a periodically-poled nonlinear crystal Giovannetti et al. (2002b) and presented a formalism for parameterizing the space of states between the cases of perfect frequency correlation and perfect frequency anti-correlation Giovannetti et al. (2002c).

In this article, we present a new method for obtaining controllable frequency entanglement that has distinct advantages over the previously proposed methods. Our method entails initiating type-I SPDC (signal and idler identically polarized) in a single-mode nonlinear waveguide by pumping with a pulsed beam perpendicular to the waveguide (see Fig. 1). The down-converted photons emerge from opposite ends of the waveguide with a joint spectrum that can be varied from frequency anti-correlated to frequency correlated by adjusting the temporal and spatial characteristics of the pump beam. The primary advantage of this method is that the limiting cases of perfect frequency correlation and perfect frequency anti-correlation can be obtained regardless of the dispersion relation of the waveguide. Thus, we refer to the method as auto-phase-matched. It is well known that the frequency-anti-correlated case is achievable regardless of the dispersion relations in a collinear configuration with a monochromatic pump and a thin bulk crystal; however, the frequency-correlated case has hitherto been associated with a constraint on the dispersion relations (cf. the “group velocity matching” condition introduced in Ref. Keller and Rubin (1997)). The geometry we propose restores the symmetry between the two cases by ensuring the appropriate phase-matching regardless of the dispersion relation of the waveguide.

This article is organized as follows. First, we write the output state of the SPDC produced in our new configuration and provide an estimate of the conversion efficiency. Second, we analyze the state using a Franson interferometer Franson (1989), which illustrates the duality between frequency correlation and anti-correlation. Third, we quantify our method’s advantage by comparing the visibility achieved in a Franson interferometer by the frequency-correlated, collinear configuration described in Ref. Giovannetti et al. (2002b) with the visibility achieved in our counter-propagating configuration.

The transverse-pump, counter-propagating geometry depicted in Fig. 1 has been noted as a promising source of entangled-photon pairs for both type-I Booth et al. (2002) and type-II De Rossi and Berger (2002) SPDC. The most obvious advantages of this geometry over a collinear geometry pertain to the separation of the three interacting beams. In a transverse-pump, counter-propagating geometry, all three beams are traveling in different directions. Thus, the usual techniques for filtering the pump beam from the down-conversion and separating the down-converted beams at a beamsplitter are unnecessary.

The investigations in Refs. Booth et al. (2002); De Rossi and Berger (2002) were limited to the case of a monochromatic pump beam. There are two primary advantages of pumping with a broadband beam perpendicular to the waveguide and arranging for type-I down-conversion. First, the dispersion relation for the pump beam plays no role in the phase-matching analysis, since the waveguide ensures phase-matching in the transverse direction. Second, the counter-propagating, identically-polarized signal and idler fields will be phase-matched in the long-crystal limit only if they have equal and opposite propagation vectors, a condition which entails equal frequency. Thus, the bandwidth of the pump determines the allowable range of the sum frequency of the signal and idler, and the longitudinal length of the illuminated portion of the crystal determines the allowable range of the difference frequency.

We assume that the nonlinear coefficient and the propagation constants vary sufficiently slowly with frequency that they may be taken outside any frequency integrals in which they appear as integrand prefactors. Furthermore, we assume that the waveguide is long compared to the width of the pump beam such that the interaction length is controlled by the pump beam profile along the z-axis (see Fig. 1). Following the derivation in Ref. Booth et al. (2002) of the quantum state of a counter-propagating photon pair, we have

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }𝑑\omega _l𝑑\omega _r\stackrel{~}{E_t}(\omega _l+\omega _r)\stackrel{~}{f_z}\left[\mathrm{\Delta }\beta (\omega _l,\omega _r)\right]|\omega _l_l|\omega _r_r,$$
(1)
where $`\stackrel{~}{E_t}(\omega )`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{f_z}(\mathrm{\Delta }\beta )`$ are the respective Fourier transforms of the temporal and spatial functions describing the pump beam $`E_p(t,z)=E_t(t)f_z(z)`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\beta (\omega _l,\omega _r)=\beta (\omega _l)\beta (\omega _r)`$ is the difference in the waveguide propagation constant evaluated at $`\omega _l`$ and $`\omega _r`$, and $`|\omega _{l(r)}`$ denotes a single photon at frequency $`\omega `$ moving to the left(right).

To investigate the dependence of $`|\mathrm{\Psi }`$ on the characteristics of the pump, we choose Gaussian profiles in space and time for the pump pulse, such that $`\stackrel{~}{E_t}(\omega )e^{\frac{1}{2}(\omega \tau )^2}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{f_z}(\mathrm{\Delta }\beta )e^{\frac{1}{2}(\mathrm{\Delta }\beta W)^2}`$, where $`\tau `$ and $`W`$ are the duration and width (along the $`z`$-axis in Fig. 1) of the pump pulse, respectively. In the limit of a monochromatic pump ($`\tau \mathrm{}`$) with finite spatial extent, $`\stackrel{~}{E_t}(\omega _l+\omega _r)`$ is sharply peaked around the pump center frequency. Thus, the sum frequency of the signal and idler is fixed. This is the familiar frequency-anti-correlated case that is readily achievable in thin bulk crystals. In the limit of a finite-duration pump pulse of infinite spatial extent ($`W\mathrm{}`$), $`\stackrel{~}{f_z}\left[\mathrm{\Delta }\beta (\omega _l,\omega _r)\right]`$ is sharply peaked around $`\mathrm{\Delta }\beta =0`$. Thus, photon pairs for which $`\omega _l\omega _r`$ predominate. This is the frequency-correlated case that has hitherto only been achieved by imposing a group velocity matching condition.

The efficiency of this geometry in an GaAs-based waveguide of length 1 mm and transverse dimension 3 $`\mu \text{m}`$ is calculated in Ref. De Rossi and Berger (2002) to range between $`10^9`$ and $`10^{11}`$ depending on the transverse profile of the waveguide. These figures compare favorably with the SPDC efficiencies achieved in more conventional bulk-crystal configurations (e.g., $`10^{13}`$ in Ref. Jennewein et al. (2000)), though they are still several orders of magnitude less than that achieved in periodically poled lithium niobate waveguides (e.g., $`10^6`$ in Ref. Tanzilli et al. (2001)).

The Franson interferometer Franson (1989) is a natural tool for distinguishing frequency correlation and frequency anti-correlation. When the two delays ($`\tau _1`$ and $`\tau _2`$) are equal to within the reciprocal bandwidth of down-conversion, coincidence detections can be associated with indistinguishable pair-creation events (see Fig. 2A). If the down-converted photons are correlated in time (anti-correlated in frequency), the short-short two-photon amplitude interferes with the long-long amplitude (see Fig. 2B). If the down-converted photons are anti-correlated in time (correlated in frequency), the short-long amplitude interferes with the long-short amplitude (see Fig. 2C). The duality between these two cases can be seen by comparing the loci of indistinguishable pair-creation events in the spacetime diagrams of Fig. 2B and Fig. 2C. The frequency-anti-correlated case depicted in Fig. 2B arises from the coherent superposition of pair-creation events at a fixed position over a range of times, while the frequency-correlated case depicted in Fig. 2C arises from the coherent superposition of pair-creation events at a fixed time over a range of positions. Note that while the interference visibility decreases in both cases as $`\tau _1\tau _2`$ approaches the reciprocal bandwidth of down-conversion, the relative phase between the interfering amplitudes depends on $`\tau _1+\tau _2`$ in the frequency-anti-correlated case, and on $`\tau _1\tau _2`$ in the frequency-correlated case.

In Fig. 3 we plot the probability of coincidence in the Franson interferometer for the aforementioned limiting cases of the two-photon source: perfect frequency anti-correlation ($`\tau \mathrm{}`$, $`W`$finite), and perfect frequency-anti-correlation ($`\tau `$finite, $`W\mathrm{}`$). The finite values of $`\tau `$ and $`W`$ are chosen such that the bandwidth of downconversion is $`\omega _p/10`$ in each case. The fourth-order fringes in the $`\tau _1\tau _210/\omega _p`$ region show that the Franson interferometer clearly distinguishes the two cases. The modulation is in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _1=\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _2`$ direction the frequency-anti-correlated case and in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _1=\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _2`$ direction in the frequency-correlated case.

By establishing the signature of the perfect frequency-correlated state (the fourth-order fringes in Fig. 3B), we are able to compare the performance of experimental methods designed to produce this state. Specifically, the visibility of the fringes in Fig. 3B provides a measure of the quality of the frequency-correlated state. In Fig. 4 we plot a numerical calculation of the visibility achieved by the source described in Ref. Giovannetti et al. (2002b) (thin line) and that achieved by our auto-phase-matched method (thick line) in a GaAs-based waveguide, for a range of interaction lengths. In the method of Ref. Giovannetti et al. (2002b) the interaction length is the thickness of the crystal, while in our method the interaction length is the width of the pump beam in along the z-axis (see Fig. 1). In order to minimize the complicating effect of second-order interference, the visibility is calculated at the delay offset $`(\tau _1,\tau _2)=(4/\sigma ,4/\sigma )`$ where $`\sigma `$ is the bandwidth of down-conversion.

While the fourth-order visibility in Fig. 3B is 0.5, we have scaled the visibilities to range between 0 and 1 in Fig. 4 since methods exist for restoring maximal visibility in the Franson interferometer. The first method put forward involves time-gating the detectors Brendel et al. (1991). For that method to work with the source described here, the waveguide would have to be much longer ($`>`$5 cm) than those in current experimental designs ($``$3 mm in Ref. De Rossi et al. (2001)). A more promising approach for restoring visibility exploits polarization entanglement, as demonstrated in Ref. Strekalov et al. (1996). At the end of this paper we discuss the natural way in which the source described here enables concurrent polarization and frequency entanglement.

The parameters of the source described in Ref. Giovannetti et al. (2002b) are as follows: periodically-poled potassuium titanyl phosphate (PPKTP) with a poling period of 47.7 $`\mu \text{m}`$, pump wavelength of 790 nm, pump bandwidth of 3 THz, and collinear propagation along the crystal’s $`x`$ axis with the signal $`z`$-polarized and the pump and idler $`y`$-polarized. For our new geometry, we consider a GaAs slab waveguide which is 3 $`\mu \text{m}`$ in the transverse dimension and configured as depicted in Fig. 1, with the pump $`z`$-polarized and the signal and idler polarized in the $`x`$-$`y`$ plane. Since both schemes rely on a long-crystal phase-matching condition, it is not surprising that the visibility of each increases with increasing interaction length; however, while the deleterious influence of higher-order terms in the crystal dispersion relations is exacerbated as the crystal length is increased in the method of Ref. Giovannetti et al. (2002b), our auto-phase-matched approach provides an increasingly close approximation to the desired state, regardless of the dispersion relations.

Finally, it is worth noting that our source may be used to create photon pairs that are entangled in polarization. In Fig. 1, we were only concerned with down-converted photons polarized along the y-axis. If the pump beam is polarized along the z-axis and we use a material with the symmetry properties of GaAs which has $`\chi _{zxy}^{(2)}=\chi _{zyx}^{(2)}`$ and $`\chi _{zxx}^{(2)}=\chi _{zyy}^{(2)}=0`$ Yariv (1988), we will get a counter-propagating polarization-entangled state ($`|HV+|VH`$ directly from the crystal 111The relative phase between the two terms ($`|HV`$ and $`|VH`$) in the superposition is unity since GaAs is not birefringent.. Furthermore, we can obtain this polarization-entanglement while independently controlling the frequency entanglement by manipulating the pump beam, as previously described.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was supported by the National Science Foundation; the Center for Subsurface Sensing and Imaging Systems (CenSSIS), an NSF Engineering Research Center; the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA); and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation.


text:
# Naked Singularity and Thunderbolt

## 1 Introduction

A question of whether the cosmic censorship holds is one of the most important issues in classical general relativity, but still remains far from being settled. Many attempts have so far been made to prove the validity of this conjecture and have achieved partial success under some particular setup. On the other hand, some of those attempts have resulted in rather showing the counter examples, indicating that the classical framework of general relativity admits appearance of naked singularities (See e.g., Review ). In the present situation of research on the cosmic censorship hypothesis described above, it is probably more sensible to classify naked singularities and ask whether it is a disastrous one for physics or a practically harmless one.

In the previous work , as a physically sensible classification of naked singularities, we proposed the wave approach to probe naked singularities. There, we studied the wave propagation in various static spacetimes with naked singularities. The essential point was the uniqueness of self-adjoint extension of the time-translation operator $`A`$, defined by the spatial derivatives in the wave equation. We call the classical singularity wave-regular if the self-adjoint extension is unique, i.e., there is no ambiguity in the boundary condition at the singularity. In the wave-regular case, thus there exists a unique solution to the wave equation for a given initial value; the predictability holds at least for the probe fields even in the classical framework. In this sense, the concept of wave-regularity is closely related to Clarke’s idea of generalised hyperbolicity 333The question of hyperbolicity has also been discussed in conical spacetimes , and in spacetimes with hypersurface singularities .  Such a would-be singularity can be regarded as a harmless singularity. On the other hand, if the time evolution of an initial value is not unique so that the predictability for a probe wave field breaks down, such a naked singularity is called wave-singular.

The idea of the wave probe rather than particle probe is based on semi-classical theory, in which geometry is treated classically but matter fields quantum mechanically, with the probe waves identified with the mode functions for quantum fields. One might anticipate that, once a theory of quantum gravity is established, one would not need be afraid of the emergence of naked singularities; a naked singularity could be resolved by replacing it with something like a boundary of Planck energy scale, and in the neighborhood of the resolved singular boundary, the predictability of physics would be restored quantum mechanically. But even in such a case, a remaining question will be how such an extremely high energy boundary looks like from distant observers who live in a low energy scale governed by (semi-) classical theories. Then, it seems plausible that a naked ‘singularity’ resolved by any kind of quantum gravitational theory looks wave-regular from distant observers, as the wave-regularity respects the predictability of low energy (semi-) classical physics. In this sense, naked singularities can be classified into two types: one of which can be resolved to be wave-regular by quantum gravity, while the other should be somehow prohibited. 444Recently, this kind of classification of singularities has also been argued from the stringy theoretical view point (See e.g., Review ).  Here, we would like to propose a version of (quantum-) cosmic censorship advocating that, in semi-classical theory, wave-singular naked singularities are prohibited to appear by quantum field theoretical effects.

In the present work, aiming at examining the above version of quantum cosmic censorship, we shall focus our attention on the wave-singular case in which a timelike singularity emerges at some stage and the boundary condition is not a priori specified. This feature may manifest itself when the singularity appears in occasion of gravitational collapse. A simplified version will be the case that the boundary condition suddenly changes at some time so that the boundary becomes a naked timelike singularity.

We shall consider such a case in the context of quantum field theory. The time-translation operator $`A`$ for a field changes in time by the change of its domain $`𝒟(A)`$ so that we naturally expect particle creations from a vacuum state of the field. We shall first show that this is indeed the case in the perhaps simplest example: a massless scalar field theory in a $`(1+1)`$-dimensional spacetime $`\times [0,\pi ]`$, with the boundary condition at $`0`$ and $`\pi `$ suddenly changing from the Neumann to the Dirichlet boundary condition. We shall compute the vacuum expectation value of the energy-momentum tensor and see that it just gives the standard Casimir energy inside the domain of dependence while it is divergent at the Cauchy horizon for the initial hypersurface $`\{0\}\times [0,\pi ]`$. We will observe the thunderbolt effect  in the sense that there appears a delta function like singularity which has a support only on the Cauchy horizon. If the backreaction on the geometry is taken into account, the thunderbolt effects will destroy the Cauchy horizon, resulting in quantum mechanical restoration of the global hyperbolicity. We shall also give discussion for the general boundary conditions case in the appendix.

Long ago Anderson and DeWitt  discussed a similar problem in the context of topology change in spacetime which exhibits a splitting of the compact universe like ‘trousers.’ They discussed particle creations with an infinite amount of energy which appear an infinitely bright flash emanating from the crotch of the trousers. In a sense the emergence of a naked singularity is a kind of topology change which alters the domain of definition for quantum fields. Not surprisingly their result, which is not fully quantitatively described, is qualitatively very similar to ours.

It is interesting to point out a possible application to string and brane theories . In the brane picture of universe, an open string can propagate along a brane with both the ends satisfying the Dirichlet boundary conditions on the brane but also can pinch off from the brane to the bulk spacetime as a closed string. In that process the boundary condition at the ends changes. The emerged closed string will be highly excited because of the sudden change of the boundary condition as an analog of the phenomenon described in the present work.

## 2 Hair of wave-singular naked singularity

For self-containedness we briefly recapitulate the self-adjoint extension of the time-translation operator in a static spacetime case. The relevant mathematical materials are collected in the appendix of Ref. . For thorough study of this issue, see Ref. .

When probing timelike singularities in a static spacetime with a scalar wave $`\varphi `$, the wave equation can take the form

$$\frac{^2}{t^2}\varphi =A\varphi ,$$
(1)
where $`t`$ is the Killing time and $`A`$ denotes an operator containing only spatial coordinates and derivatives. We will find the preliminary time-translation operator $`A`$ as a symmetric operator on a given Hilbert space $``$ with domain $`C_0^{\mathrm{}}`$, a set of smooth functions with compact support on $`t=const.`$ surface. A trivial symmetric extension is immediately made by taking its closure. Consider then the sets $`𝒦_\pm :=\{\varphi _\pm |A^{}\varphi _\pm =\pm i\varphi _\pm \}`$, which are called the deficiency subspaces of $`A`$, and the pair of numbers $`(n_+,n_{}):=(dim𝒦_+,dim𝒦_{})`$ called the deficiency indices of $`A`$. If $`A`$ with domain $`𝒟(A)`$ is a closed symmetric operator with $`n_+=n_{}`$, then $`A`$ has self-adjoint extensions. Let $`U`$ be the partial isometries $`𝒦_+𝒦_{}`$. Then the self-adjoint extensions $`A_E`$ can be obtained by taking the domain as

$$𝒟(A_E):=\{\varphi _0+\varphi _++U\varphi _+|\varphi _0𝒟(A),\varphi _+𝒦_+\}.$$
(2)
Given self-adjoint extension $`A_E`$, dynamics of the scalar field $`\varphi `$ for any initial data $`(\varphi (0),_t\varphi (0))\times `$ can be defined as

$`\varphi (t)=\mathrm{cos}\left(\sqrt{A_E}t\right)\varphi (0)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{A_E}}}\mathrm{sin}\left(\sqrt{A_E}t\right){\displaystyle \frac{}{t}}\varphi (0).`$ (3)
The point is that, once a self-adjoint extension is given, the vector $`\varphi (t)`$ is defined not only inside the future domain of dependence for the initial hypersurface but also even outside the domain of dependence .

In general, self-adjoint extension is not necessarily unique, when spacetime fails to be globally hyperbolic. Even when spacetime admits naked singularities, if $`n_+=n_{}=0`$, then $`A`$ has a unique self-adjoint extension and dynamics of the probe field is uniquely determined everywhere from the initial data by Eq. (3). This case is referred to as wave-regular. If $`n_+=n_{}=N0`$, then the partial isometry $`U`$ is represented by an $`N\times N`$ unitary matrix $`U(N)`$, and $`A`$ has infinitely many different self-adjoint extensions, which are in one-to-one correspondence with $`U(N)`$. In this case the naked singularity is called wave-singular. Each self-adjoint extension corresponds to the different boundary condition at the singularity and accordingly describes different time evolution of the wave for the same initial data. In other words, a wave-singular naked singularity has degrees of freedom for the possible choice of the time-translation operator $`A_E`$. The degrees of freedom can be interpreted as the character or the hair of the wave-singular naked singularity, described by the isometries $`U(N)`$. For example, when a scalar probe field is considered in $`(1+1)`$-dimensions of the finite spatial interval with the wave-singular singularities at both the ends, the hair of the singularities is $`U(2)`$.

It should be commented that the wave-regularity depends on the choice of our Hilbert space $``$. As emphasized in Ref. , the Sobolev space, which requires $`L^2`$ of the derivatives of $`\varphi `$ as well as $`\varphi `$ itself, will provide a physically sensible Hilbert space for the singularity probe. In the present work, however, as a simple illustration, we shall take $`L^2`$-space of square integrable functions as adopted in Ref. . The analysis in the next section can be straightforwardly generalized to the Sobolev space case. The results will somewhat change depending on the choice of the Hilbert space.

## 3 Quantum behavior of a probe field

### 3.1 A simple model

In this section, as one of the simplest cases, we shall consider a quantum field theory of a massless scalar field in $`(1+1)`$-dimensional Minkowski spacetime $`\times [0,\pi ](t,x)`$. As mentioned before, the hair for the boundary “singularities” in this case becomes the group $`U(2)`$, but here we shall consider only its subgroup $`U(1)\times U(1)`$ with each $`U(1)`$ corresponding to the arbitrariness of the boundary conditions at $`x=0,\pi `$, respectively. We are concerned with quantum field theoretical effects in the situation that the hair $`U(1)\times U(1)`$ suddenly changes at some time, say $`t=0`$, which can be interpreted as a sudden appearance of wave-singular timelike singularities at $`x=0,\pi `$ for $`t>0`$.

The scalar field $`\varphi `$ obeys the Klein-Gordon equation (1) with an elliptic operator

$`A:={\displaystyle \frac{^2}{x^2}}.`$ (4)
We require the square integrability for the scalar field, i.e., $`\varphi L^2(0,\pi )=\{\varphi |_0^\pi 𝑑x|\varphi |^2<\mathrm{}\}`$, so that we can regard $`A`$ with $`𝒟(A)=C_0^{\mathrm{}}(0,\pi )`$ as a positive symmetric operator in the Hilbert space $`L^2(0,\pi )`$ with the inner product,

$$(\varphi _1,\varphi _2):=_0^\pi 𝑑x\varphi _1^{}(x)\varphi _2(x).$$
(5)
Then, having a suitable self-adjoint extension $`A_E`$ of $`A`$, we can obtain the solution for any initial data $`(\varphi (0,x),_t\varphi (0,x))`$ from Eq. (3).

We shall focus on a particular situation that the boundary conditions at $`x=0,\pi `$ are the Neumann boundary conditions, $`\varphi /x=0`$, before $`t=0`$ but switch to the Dirichlet boundary condition, $`\varphi =0`$ at $`x=0,\pi `$, after $`t=0`$. This sudden change of the boundary conditions can be viewed as a particular case of the occurrence of wave-singular naked singularities at $`x=0,\pi `$ after $`t=0`$.

### 3.2 Mode functions

Before $`t=0`$ the positive frequency mode functions satisfying the Neumann boundary condition at $`x=0,\pi `$ are given by

$`f_n^{(in)}(t,x)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e^{int}}{\sqrt{\pi n}}}\mathrm{cos}nx,(n=1,2,\mathrm{}),`$ (6)
which are normalized by the Klein-Gordon inner product: $`i\left\{(f,_tg)(_tf,g)\right\}`$. Then we can expand the field $`\varphi (t,x)`$ for $`t<0`$ as

$$\varphi (t,x)=f_0(t,x)+\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left\{a_n^{(in)}f_n^{(in)}(t,x)+a_{n}^{(in)}{}_{}{}^{}f_{n}^{(in)}{}_{}{}^{}(t,x)\right\},$$
(7)
where

$$f_0(t,x)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\pi }}(q+pt),$$
(8)
is the zero-mode. The expansion coefficients are required to satisfy the canonical commutation relations

$`[a_n^{(in)},a_{n^{}}^{(in)}{}_{}{}^{}]=\delta _{nn^{}},[a_n^{(in)},a_n^{}^{(in)}]=[a_{n}^{(in)}{}_{}{}^{},a_{n^{}}^{(in)}{}_{}{}^{}]=0,[q,p]=i,`$ (9)
and $`a_n^{(in)}`$, $`a_{n}^{(in)}{}_{}{}^{}`$ commute with $`q`$ and $`p`$ so that the canonical quantization is reproduced:

$$[\varphi (t,x),_t\varphi (t,x^{})]=i\delta (xx^{}).$$
(10)
Now let us consider the time evolution of $`\varphi (t,x)`$ into the future ($`t>0`$) region of the initial surface $`t=0`$, where the probe field $`\varphi (t,x)`$ is supposed to satisfy the Dirichlet boundary condition $`\varphi (t,0)=\varphi (t,\pi )=0`$, and accordingly the positive frequency mode functions are given by

$$f_m^{(out)}(t,x)=\frac{e^{imt}}{\sqrt{\pi m}}\mathrm{sin}mx.$$
(11)
In order to study the time evolution of $`\varphi `$ into $`t>0`$ region, we need to modify the initial data at $`t=0`$ so as to fit the Dirichlet boundary condition. We shall discuss the positive frequency modes $`f_n^{(in)}`$ and the zero-mode $`f_0`$ separately.

First, using the Fourier expansion,

$$\mathrm{cos}nx=\sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi }}\underset{\stackrel{m=1}{(m\pm n:odd)}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(\frac{1}{m+n}+\frac{1}{mn}\right)\mathrm{sin}mx,$$
(12)
we can express the initial data of the positive frequency modes as

$`f_n^{(in)}(0,x)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi }}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{2}{n}}}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{m=1}{(m\pm n:odd)}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{m+n}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{mn}}\right)\mathrm{sin}mx,`$ (13)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{}{t}}f_n^{(in)}(0,x)`$ $`=`$ $`inf_n^{(in)}(0,x).`$ (14)
The evolution of the mode function $`f_n^{(in)}`$ into $`t>0`$ region is obtained by inserting the above initial data (13) and (14) into Eq. (3), in which $`𝒟(A_E)`$ is now spanned by the basis $`\{f_m^{(out)}\}`$ so as to respect the Dirichlet boundary condition. Then we can find

$`f_n^{(in)}(t,x)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left\{\alpha _{nm}f_m^{(out)}(t,x)+\beta _{nm}f_{m}^{(out)}{}_{}{}^{}(t,x)\right\},`$ (15)
with the coefficients

$`\alpha _{nm}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{\pi }}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{m}{n}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{mn}}\delta _{m\pm n:odd},\beta _{nm}={\displaystyle \frac{2}{\pi }}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{m}{n}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{m+n}}\delta _{m\pm n:odd},`$ (16)
where and hereafter $`\delta _{m\pm n:odd}`$ means $`\delta _{m\pm n:odd}=1`$ if $`m\pm n=\text{an odd number}`$ and $`\delta _{m\pm n:odd}=0`$ otherwise.

The consistency of the canonical commutation relations (9) requires the unitarity relation

$$\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(\alpha _{nm}\alpha _{nm^{}}^{}\beta _{nm}^{}\beta _{nm^{}}\right)=\delta _{mm^{}}.$$
(17)
This can be checked by using the formula

$$\underset{\stackrel{n=1}{(n:odd)}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{n^2}=\frac{\pi ^2}{8}.$$
(18)
Next, let us expand the mode which is the time evolution after $`t=0`$ of the zero-mode before $`t=0`$ in terms of the late time mode functions (11) as

$$f_0(t,x)=\underset{m=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left\{C_mf_m^{(out)}(t,x)+C_m^{}f_{m}^{(out)}{}_{}{}^{}(t,x)\right\}.$$
(19)
The initial data is then given by

$`f_0(0,x)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}(C_m+C_m^{}){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}mx}{\sqrt{\pi m}}}={\displaystyle \frac{q}{\sqrt{\pi }}},`$ (20)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{}{t}}f_0(0,x)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}(im)(C_mC_m^{}){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}mx}{\sqrt{\pi m}}}={\displaystyle \frac{p}{\sqrt{\pi }}},`$ (21)
by continuity at $`t=0`$. Then, by using the formula: $`(\mathrm{sin}mx,\mathrm{sin}nx)=\frac{\pi }{2}\delta _{m,n}`$, the expansion coefficients are obtained as

$`C_m={\displaystyle \frac{2}{\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{m}}}\left(q+{\displaystyle \frac{i}{m}}p\right)\delta _{m:odd}.`$ (22)
### 3.3 Particle creations

Suppose the quantum field $`\varphi `$ is expanded in terms of the (out)-mode functions as

$`\varphi (t,x)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m}{}}\left\{a_m^{(out)}f_m^{(out)}(t,x)+a_{m}^{(out)}{}_{}{}^{}f_{m}^{(out)}{}_{}{}^{}(t,x)\right\}.`$ (23)
Then, from Eqs. (7), (15), and (19), we have the Bogoliubov transformation

$`a_m^{(out)}`$ $`=`$ $`C_m+{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}\left\{\alpha _{nm}a_n^{(in)}+\beta _{nm}a_{n}^{(in)}{}_{}{}^{}\right\},`$ (24)
$`a_{m}^{(out)}{}_{}{}^{}`$ $`=`$ $`C_m^{}+{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}\left\{\alpha _{nm}^{}a_{n}^{(in)}{}_{}{}^{}+\beta _{nm}^{}a_n^{(in)}\right\}.`$ (25)
This clearly exhibits the mode mixing of the positive and the negative frequency parts, which implies particle creations in quantum mechanics .

The expansion coefficients of the (out)-mode functions are now required to satisfy the canonical commutation relations

$`[a_m^{(out)},a_{m^{}}^{(out)}{}_{}{}^{}]=\delta _{mm^{}},[a_m^{(out)},a_m^{}^{(out)}]=[a_{m}^{(out)}{}_{}{}^{},a_{m^{}}^{(out)}{}_{}{}^{}]=0,`$ (26)
so that $`a_m^{(out)}`$ and $`a_{m}^{(out)}{}_{}{}^{}`$ are an annihilation and a creation operator, respectively, as well as $`a_n^{(in)}`$ and $`a_{n}^{(in)}{}_{}{}^{}`$. Note that, for the unitarity, the contribution from the zero-mode is indispensable. Then, defining the (in)-vacuum state as

$`a_n^{(in)}|\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}_{in}>=p|\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}_{in}>=0,`$ (27)
we can construct the Hilbert space of quantum states in the Fock representation.

Now we can evaluate the expectation value of the number operator $`N_m:=a_{m}^{(out)}{}_{}{}^{}a_m^{(out)}`$ of the $`m`$-mode particle in $`|\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}_{in}>`$ as

$`<0_{in}|N_m|\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}_{in}>`$ $`=`$ $`<0_{in}|C_m^{}C_m|\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}_{in}>\delta _{m:odd}+{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}|\beta _{mn}|^2`$ (28)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{\pi ^2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{<0_{in}|q^2|\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}_{in}>}{m}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{m^2}}\right)\delta _{m:odd}+{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{m}{n}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(m+n)^2}}.`$
This is finite, but the total number of the created particles $`_{m=1}^{\mathrm{}}<0_{in}|N_m|\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}_{in}>`$ is logarithmically divergent, so that the Bogoliubov transformation is not unitarily implementable . This means the final Fock space is not equivalent to but completely different from the initial Fock space:

$$<0_{out}|\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}_{in}>=0.$$
(29)
This also suggests that the physics completely changes by the emergence of wave-singular naked singularities. We can see in the subsequent section that this is indeed the case from the study of the vacuum expectation value of the energy-momentum tensor before and after the incident at $`t=0`$.

### 3.4 Thunderbolts

Let us see the physical effects of the particle creations by the sudden change of the boundary conditions, computing the vacuum expectation value of the energy-momentum tensor. It is convenient to introduce the advanced and the retarded time $`z_\pm :=t\pm x`$, respectively. Then, from Eqs. (7) and (8), we can compute the renormalized energy-momentum tensor in $`t<0`$ region as

$`<0_{in}|T_{\pm \pm }|\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}_{in}>_{t<0}`$ $`=`$ $`<0_{in}|(_\pm \varphi )^2|\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}_{in}>`$ (30)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{8}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}n+<0_{in}|(_\pm f_0)^2|\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}_{in}>`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{96}},`$
where we have adopted the $`\zeta `$-function regularization . The right hand side is the Casimir energy due to the finiteness of the spatial section.

On the other hand, from Eq. (23), and the Bogoliubov transformation (24) and (25), we can have in $`t>0`$ region,

$`<0_{in}|T_{\pm \pm }|\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}_{in}>_{t>0}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{96}}+\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi }}<0_{in}|q^2|\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}_{in}>+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{n}}\right)\left\{\delta (z_\pm )\delta (z_\pm \pi )\right\}^2,`$ (31)
with the aid of the formula

$`{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{l=\mathrm{}}{(l:odd)}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{e^{ilz}}{l}}=\pi i\left\{\mathrm{\Theta }(z)\mathrm{\Theta }(z\pi ){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\right\},{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{l=\mathrm{}}{(l:odd)}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}e^{ilz}=\pi \left\{\delta (z)\delta (z\pi )\right\}.`$ (32)
The first term in the right hand side of Eq. (31) is the Casimir energy, which is present also in the $`t<0`$ case. From the second term, it turns out that the energy density diverges along the null boundaries $`z_+=\pi `$ and $`z_{}=0`$, which form the Cauchy horizon for the $`t=0`$ initial surface as illustrated in Fig. 1. Besides the logarithmically divergent factor, the square of the delta function implies that not only the energy density but also the total energy will be unbounded. In other words, classical observers passing through the Cauchy horizon will see the thunderbolts.

## 4 Summary and Discussion

We have studied quantum effects of the sudden change of the boundary conditions which mimics the occurrence of wave-singular naked singularities. To be specific, we have dealt with the massless scalar field in $`(1+1)`$-dimensional Minkowski spacetime with finite spatial interval. We have shown that the particle creations occur due to the sudden change of the boundary condition from the Neumann to the Dirichlet condition at $`t=0`$. Quantum particle creation is known to happen when the time-translation operator, or the Hamiltonian is time dependent. As we have emphasized, an operator of the spatial part of the wave equation is defined as a pair of the action $`A`$ and its domain of definition $`𝒟(A)`$. The sudden change of the boundary condition is nothing but the change of the domain $`𝒟(A)`$ so that in this sense the time-translation operator is time dependent. The behavior of the Bogoliubov coefficients in this model implies that the unitarity implementability breaks down, and the Fock space for $`t>0`$ is not equivalent to the one for $`t<0`$. Furthermore, having computed the vacuum expectation value of the energy-momentum tensor, we explicitly showed that, the singular null waves or the thunderbolts appear along the null lines emanating from the edges of the emerging singularities, while the energy-momentum tensor is the Casimir energy inside the future domain of dependence of the initial hypersurface.

Our result suggests that the Cauchy horizon associated with wave-singular naked singularities will be destroyed by the thunderbolts and the global hyperbolicity will be restored by the quantum effects. Thus this will be a support for quantum cosmic censorship stating that wave-regular naked singularities could appear but wave-singular ones are not admitted to emerge when quantum theoretical effects are taken into account.

Although the present analysis is restricted to the simplest case such that the boundary conditions change from the Neumann condition to the Dirichlet condition, it is possible to explicitly work out the general boundary condition case. Since $`U(N)`$ parameters which appear in general boundary condition characterize the hair of a wave-singular naked singularity, the calculation of the general boundary conditions case will tell us the relation between the strength of thunderbolt and a hair of the wave-singular naked singularity. A brief discussion of the general boundary condition case is given in the appendix.

In the present work we have examined only the $`(1+1)`$-dimensional model, for explicit demonstration. The results might be applicable even to the 4-dimensional spacetime case, following the discussion by Anderson and DeWitt . The point is that the appearance of the thunderbolts is due to the sudden change of the domain $`𝒟(A)`$ of $`A`$ at the initial surface. The discontinuous change of the basis functions $`\{f_n\}`$ of $`𝒟(A)`$ implies a delta-function like behavior of the gradient $`f_n`$ at the initial surface. Since the energy-momentum tensor is bilinear in $`f_n`$, the square of the delta-function, like the second term of Eq. (31), are naturally expected to appear in a $`4`$-dimensional setup.

So far there have appeared many works on quantum effects around a Cauchy horizon, showing the divergence of the expectation value of the energy-momentum tensor along or near the horizon (See e.g., Review  and references therein). The particle creation occurs as a result of the spacetime dynamics just before the instant of the naked singularity formation by gravitational collapse (See e.g., Ref. ), but is not directly related to the nature of the singularity itself. On the other hand, in the present simple analysis, no dynamics of the spacetime metric has been considered. The appearance of the thunderbolts may be interpreted as a result of the wave scattering off at $`t=0+`$ by the boundary singularities. We can extend our present analysis to a gravitational collapse model in $`(3+1)`$-dimensions. Then as commented above, we expect a quantum effect, leading to the thunderbolt. This is a new phenomenon, because it is not merely a consequence of dynamics which creates naked singularities but directly reflects the character of the wave-singular naked singularities.

## Acknowledgments

A.I. thank Professor H. Kodama for useful comments. This work is supported in part by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (A.I.) and the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of Japan under grant no. 09640341 (A.H.).

## Appendix

Here we shall consider the general boundary condition case in which the boundary conditions at $`x=0,\pi `$ are given as $`b_x\varphi =\varphi `$ before the incident $`t=0`$ but suddenly changes to $`a_x\varphi =\varphi `$ after $`t=0`$, with $`a,b`$ being constants. Note that when $`a,b=0`$, the field satisfies the Dirichlet boundary condition and when $`a,b\mathrm{}`$, the Neumann boundary condition.

The positive frequency (in)- and (out)- mode functions are respectively given by

$`f_m^{(out)}(t,x)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e^{imt}}{\sqrt{\pi m}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{1+a^2m^2}}}\left(\mathrm{sin}mx+am\mathrm{cos}mx\right),\text{in }t>0,`$ (33)
$`f_n^{(in)}(t,x)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e^{int}}{\sqrt{\pi n}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{1+b^2n^2}}}\left(\mathrm{sin}nx+bn\mathrm{cos}nx\right),\text{in }t<0,`$ (34)
so that $`b_xf_n^{(in)}=f_n^{(in)}`$ and $`a_xf_m^{(out)}=f_m^{(out)}`$ at $`x=0,\pi `$. Besides these positive frequency modes, when $`a`$ or $`b\mathrm{}`$, there exist zero-modes. But here we do not treat the contributions from zero-modes, just for simplicity.

Then, following the same step in Section 3.2, we can find the Bogoliubov coefficients:

$`\alpha _{nn}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1+abn^2}{\sqrt{1+a^2n^2}\sqrt{1+b^2n^2}}}\delta _{m,n},`$ (35)
$`\alpha _{mn}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{\pi }}(ba){\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{mn}}{\sqrt{1+a^2m^2}\sqrt{1+b^2n^2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{mn}}\delta _{m\pm n:odd},`$ (36)
$`\beta _{mn}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{\pi }}(ba){\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{mn}}{\sqrt{1+a^2m^2}\sqrt{1+b^2n^2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{m+n}}\delta _{m\pm n:odd}.`$ (37)
From this we can immediately see that, if $`ab0`$, then $`_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}_{m=1}^{\mathrm{}}|\beta _{nm}|^2`$ is finite, while if $`ab=0(ab)`$, then it is logarithmically divergent, hence in this case the Fock space of the (in)-states and that of the (out)-states are unitarily inequivalent.

The vacuum expectation value of the energy-momentum tensor can be computed in the same way in Section 3.4. The result can be written down in terms of Lerch’s transcendent, which is rather complicated and not so illuminating for drawing the physical consequence.