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# Tetramerisation of a frustrated spin-1/2 chain

## Abstract

We investigate a model of a frustrated spin-1/2 Heisenberg chain coupled to adiabatic phonons with a general form of magnetoelastic coupling. For large enough frustration and lattice coupling a new tetramerised phase with three different bond lengths is found. We argue that the zig-zag spin-1/2 chain LiV2O5 might be a good candidate to observe such a phase.

Quasi one-dimensional (1D) quantum antiferromagnets exhibit fascinating magnetic properties at low temperatures. Inorganic compounds such as CuGeO3 (Ref.review, ) or LiV2O5 (Ref.LiV2O5, ) are almost ideal prototypes of the spin-1/2 frustrated chain, the so-called antiferromagnetic (AF) Heisenberg $`J_1J_2`$ chain (see Fig. 1). The chemistry of these compounds enables the synthesis of single crystals much larger than their organic analogs and consequently the achievement of new experimental studies. Recently, the discovery of a spin-Peierls (SP) transition in CuGeO3 (Ref.hase, ) has drawn both experimental and theoretical interest.

At temperatures larger than the interchain couplings the quasi-1D compounds CuGeO3 or LiV2O5 are well described as independent AF Heisenberg chains including next-nearest neighbor (NNN) interactions responsible for frustration. The nearest neighbor (NN) $`J_1`$ and NNN $`J_2`$ exchange integrals can be estimated by a fit of the magnetic susceptibility, the high temperature behavior being governed by $`J_1`$ and the position of the maximum by the frustration ratio $`J_2/J_1`$. Values such as $`J_1160`$ K and $`J_2/J_10.36`$ have been proposed for CuGeO3 (Ref.rieradobry, ). On the other hand, in LiV2O5 the spin-1/2 V4+ ions form double-chains similar to Fig. 1(b) well separated by inert double-chains of V5+ ions. Quantum chemistry calculations suggest that $`J_2`$ could even be larger than $`J_1`$ in that case DFT .

The SP transition is an instability due to magnetoelastic effects which is characterized (below a critical temperature $`T_{\mathrm{SP}}`$) by the opening of a spin gap and the appearance of a lattice dimerisation. It was first predicted to occur in the non-frustrated S=1/2 chain SP\_mechanism , but the properties of the $`J_1J_2`$ chain suggest that it is also a natural instability in that case since the ground-state of that model is spontaneously dimerized for $`J_2/J_10.24`$. This is particularly clear at the so-called Majumdar-Ghosh point MG  (MG) $`J_2/J_1=0.5`$, where the ground state (GS) is two-fold degenerate, corresponding to two possible dimerisation patterns formed by a succession of disconnected singlet dimers. However, when $`J_2/J_1`$ becomes very large, another instability could occur: The $`J_2`$ chains are only weakly coupled, and they could undergo a SP transtion of their own. The interplay between both instabilities has not been considered so far.

In this Letter, we investigate on equal footings the role of the frustration and of the lattice coupling. Special emphasis is put on the search for new phases which would result from the combination of both effects. The competition between various orderings which could eventually appear simultaneously can only be addressed by going beyond pertubative approaches. Using Exact Diagonalisation techniques we report evidences for a new mixed phase with both dimerisation and tetramerisation amplitudes. Lastly, we discuss our results in the context of the quasi-1D antiferromagnets CuGeO3 and LiV2O5.

The Hamiltonian of a frustated spin chain on $`L`$ sites coupled to (adiabatic) lattice displacements is written as,

$``$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}K{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\delta _i^2+J_1{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}(1A_1\delta _i)\stackrel{}{S}_i\stackrel{}{S}_{i+1}`$ (1)
$`+`$ $`J_2{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}[1A_2(\delta _i+\delta _{i+1})]\stackrel{}{S}_i\stackrel{}{S}_{i+2},`$
where $`\delta _i`$ is the distortion of the bond between site $`i`$ and $`i+1`$, $`K`$ the spring constant and the first term corresponds to the elastic energy loss. In general, this term might also contain cross-terms such as $`\delta _i\delta _{i+1}`$ (depending on the underlying geometry of the structure). We have checked that they do not affect the basis physics of this model so that we omit them for simplicity. Unless specified otherwise, $`J_1`$ sets the energy scale. The spin-lattice couplings $`A_a`$ are assumed to be dimensionless so that the distortions $`\delta _i`$ are given in units of the lattice spacing. Note also that, as can be seen from a trivial re-definition of the $`\delta _i`$, the coupling strengths can be re-defined by the reduced variables $`\stackrel{~}{A}_1=A_1(J_1/K)^{1/2}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{A}_2=A_2(J_1/K)^{1/2}`$ and used to investigate the phase diagram. However, the “physical” values for the modulations $`\delta _i`$ depends on the $`A_a`$’s and $`K`$ separately. Estimations of these parameters can be given on physical grounds as will be discussed later on. Values such that $`A_2=A_1`$ and $`A_2=2A_1`$ are relevant for the physical systems we are interested in.

The phase diagram of the frustrated chain in the absence of lattice couplings ($`A_1=A_2=0`$) is well known. The GS is uniform for small frustation (with power-law decay of the spin correlations) and becomes dimerized (with a finite spin gap) for $`J_2/J_1`$ larger than a critical value haldane  $`j_c`$ which has been determined with great accuracy by numerical methods, $`j_c0.241167`$ (Ref. j1j2\_num, ). Interestingly enough, incommensurate spin correlations (away from the AF momentum $`q=\pi `$) appear for $`J_2/J_1>0.5`$ (Ref. incommensurate, ).

Before investigating the full Hamiltonian (1), it is instructive to first consider “generalised” dimer susceptibilities of the form,

$$\stackrel{~}{S}(q,a)=<(\frac{1}{L}\underset{j}{}\stackrel{}{S}_j\stackrel{}{S}_{j+a}\mathrm{exp}(iqr_j))^2>_0,$$
(2)
where the expectation value $`<\mathrm{}>_0`$ is taken in the GS of the $`J_1J_2`$ chain in the absence of lattice coupling. Physically, any instability towards a modulated dimer phase involving dimers at distance $`a`$ would be signaled by a sharp peak of $`\stackrel{~}{S}(q,a)`$ at a given $`q`$ associated to the wavevector of the modulation. As seen in Fig. 2 (Ref. note1, ), sharp peaks are indeed seen in $`\stackrel{~}{S}(q,1)`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{S}(q,2)`$ at momentum $`q=\pi `$ and $`q=\pi /2`$ respectively signaling proximity of instabilities toward the formation of dimerised ($`q=\pi `$) and tetramerized ($`q=\pi /2`$) phases involving NN and NNN dimers respectively. Note that NNN $`q=\pi /2`$ dimer correlations increase with increasing frustration $`J_2/J_1`$ while the maximum NN dimer susceptibility occurs around $`J_2/J_10.5`$. Since the order parameter $`<\frac{1}{L}_j\stackrel{}{S}_j\stackrel{}{S}_{j+2}\mathrm{exp}(i\frac{\pi }{2}r_j)>`$ of the tetramerised phase is directly coupled to $`A_2`$ in Hamiltonian (1), the finite magnetoelastic $`A_2`$ coupling is then the key feature of the model.

In order to solve Hamiltonian (1) including the magnetoelastic coupling we use Lanczos diagonalisations of small finite rings of size $`L`$ with periodic boundary conditions. An iterative procedure is used to determine the displacements $`\delta _i`$ by solving a set of coupled non-linear equations iterative ,

$`K\delta _i`$ $``$ $`J_1A_1<\stackrel{}{S}_i\stackrel{}{S}_{i+1}>`$
$``$ $`J_2A_2(<\stackrel{}{S}_i\stackrel{}{S}_{i+2}>+<\stackrel{}{S}_{i1}\stackrel{}{S}_{i+1}>)=0,`$
where $`<\mathrm{}>`$ is the expectation value in the GS of Hamiltonian (1). Note that no translation symmetry is a priori assumed in order to search for lattice modulations of arbitrary periodicity (compatible with system size). We found that, generically, the lowest energy lattice configuration is obtained for a single or a superposition of the following distortions; (i) a uniform (negative) component $`\delta _i=\delta _0`$ (which is due to the finite compressibility of the system note2 ), (ii) a dimerisation $`\delta _i=\delta _D(1)^i`$ and (iii) a tetramerisation $`\delta _i=\delta _T\mathrm{cos}(\frac{\pi }{2}i+\varphi _T)`$. Although, the tetramerisation could be either site-centered (with $`\varphi _T=\pi /4`$) or bond-centered (with $`\varphi _T=0`$), only the second bond-centered type (i.e. a modulation of the bonds like $`\delta _T`$–0–($`\delta _T`$)–0) was found. This particular pattern can easily be understood in the large-$`J_2`$ limit which consists of two weakly coupled $`J_2`$ Heisenberg chains (see Fig. 1(b)). In that limit, the magnetoelastic coupling $`A_2`$ tends to produce a dimerisation of each chain so that $`(\delta _{2p}+\delta _{2p+1})(1)^p`$ which can indeed be realized by a tetramerisation of the chain with $`\varphi _T=0`$.

The domains of stability of the various phases are shown in Fig. 3 for two values of the parameter $`A_2/A_1`$. Data are shown for cyclic rings of size $`L=12`$, $`16`$ and $`20`$ so that tentative phase diagrams can be obtained (see Fig. 4) from a finite size scaling analysis. Various regimes have to be distinguished for these extrapolations. First, when $`J_2/J_1<j_c`$, the Heisenberg chain is critical and one expects that a dimerised GS would be stabilized for arbitrary magnetoelastic coupling SP\_mechanism . Indeed, the finite critical value of the coupling $`\stackrel{~}{A}_1`$ exhibits a clear $`1/\sqrt{L}`$ power-law behavior with system size. In the range $`j_c<J_2/J_1<0.5`$ the system size dependence of the critical value of $`\stackrel{~}{A}_1`$ becomes exponential signaling the fact that the infinite Heisenberg chain forms singlet dimers, even in the absence of the lattice. Note that at the special MG point $`J_2/J_1=0.5`$ the critical coupling for $`\stackrel{~}{A}_1`$ vanishes for all sizes. Special care is needed to analyse the data for $`J_2/J_1>0.5`$: In a narrow range of $`J_2/J_1`$, $`0.5<J_2/J_1<j_{\mathrm{crit},1}`$, which depends on the $`A_2/A_1`$ ratio the system only dimerises above a small critical value of the coupling $`A_1`$. In a range $`j_{\mathrm{crit},1}<J_2/J_1<j_{\mathrm{crit},2}(L)`$ (which extends with increasing system size), when $`\stackrel{~}{A}_1`$ exceeds a higher critical value, a tetramerisation superposes to the existing dimerisation. For $`J_2/J_1>j_{\mathrm{crit},2}(L)`$ dimerisation and tetramerisation occur both for the same critical value of the coupling constant. However, our data are consistent with the fact that $`j_{\mathrm{crit},2}(L)\mathrm{}`$ when $`L\mathrm{}`$ so that this last regime seems irrelevant. For $`0.5<J_2/J_1<j_{\mathrm{crit},2}(L)`$, the critical coupling for dimerisation rapidly vanishes with increasingly large system sizes (although some increase has been observed for small sizes). For $`J_2/J_1>j_{\mathrm{crit},1}`$ (e.g., $`j_{\mathrm{crit},1}0.85`$ for $`A_2=A_1`$), the finite size dependence of the critical coupling for tetramerisation is consistent with a rapid exponential behavior converging to a finite value. An estimation of the infinite size phase diagram is then possible with reasonable accuracy as shown in Fig. 4. In summary, our calculations predict that the $`J_1J_2`$ chain is always dimerised once it is coupled to the adiabatic lattice. Tetramerisation, however, occurs only for large enough frustration and when the lattice couplings $`\stackrel{~}{A}_1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{A}_2`$ exceeds some critical values which vanish when $`J_2/J_1`$ increases to infinity. Interestingly enough, our data also suggest that the nature of the D $``$ T transition might change when frustration increases, from first order (with discontinuities in the dimerisation and tetramerisation amplitudes) to a continuous second order-like line at large $`J_2`$. Note that, even for large $`J_2/J_1`$ (limit of weakly coupled chains), one still expects finite critical lattice couplings since, in the absence of the lattice, an arbitray small perturbation $`J_1`$ introduces an exponentially small gap and a finite spin correlation length.

We finish by discussing some applications of the present study to real materials. The magnetoelastic couplings are generically due to strong dependence of the exchange integrals with respect to distance, typically $`J_a(r)r^{\alpha _a}`$, with an exponent $`\alpha _a`$ in the range 7–15. A small change of length $`\delta \stackrel{}{r}`$ of the bond connecting two sites at distance $`r_a`$ along some direction $`\stackrel{}{u}_a`$ ($`\stackrel{}{r}=r_a\stackrel{}{u}_a`$) leads to a linear change of the AF coupling,

$$J_a(\delta \stackrel{}{r})=J_a(1\frac{\alpha _a}{r_a}\stackrel{}{u}_a\delta \stackrel{}{r}).$$
(4)
In the case of the linear chain of Fig. 1(a) where the displacements occurs along the chain direction, Eq. (4) predicts $`A_2=A_1/2`$ assuming the same values of $`\alpha _a`$ for the two chemical bonds. In the case of CuGeO3, the superexchange path giving rise to $`J_2`$ involves more intermediate states (in particular Germanium orbitals) so that one expects $`\alpha _2>\alpha _1`$ and $`A_2A_1`$ seems more physical in that case. According to the phase diagram of Fig. 4(a), conditions for a small tetramerisation seem clearly not realised in CuGeO3. Indeed, for a frustration $`J_2/J_10.4`$ and a small physical value for the dimensionless coupling $`\stackrel{~}{A}_1`$, the $`A_2`$ coupling becomes irrelevant (apart from producing a tiny overall contraction of the lattice) and we expect a simple dimerisation $`\delta _DA_1J_1/K`$. Assuming $`A_110`$, $`J_1100\mathrm{Kelvins}`$ and $`K10\mathrm{eV}`$ a dimerisation around $`0.1`$-$`0.3\%`$ of the lattice spacing is expected in agreement with X-ray diffraction experiments xrays .

We now turn to the case of the LiV2O5 compound. If one assumes that atomic displacements in Fig. 1(b) would occur along the zig-zag chain direction and that the exponents $`\alpha _a`$ are identical for the two bonds, Eq. (4) implies that $`A_2=2A_1`$. As shown in Figs. 4(a-b), the stability of the tetramerised phase increases with increasing ratio $`A_2/A_1`$. Hence, due to larger $`A_2/A_1`$ and $`J_2/J_1`$ ratios, LiV2O5 seems, contrary to CuGeO3, an interesting candidate for the new tetramerised phase. Typical exponents like $`\alpha _1=\alpha _2=10`$ gives $`A_1=5`$ and $`A_2=10`$. Assuming a physical value $`J_1=400\mathrm{Kelvins}`$ for the exchange constant and choosing $`K=1\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}`$ ($`=\mathrm{10\hspace{0.17em}000}\mathrm{Kelvins}`$) and $`K=9\mathrm{eV}`$ ($`=\mathrm{90\hspace{0.17em}000}\mathrm{Kelvins}`$), we get $`\stackrel{~}{A}_1=1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{A}_1=1/3`$ respectively. The magnitudes of the dimerisation and tetramerisation for these parameters are shown in Fig. 5 as a function of the frustration $`J_2/J_1`$. For rather large magnetoelastic couplings such as the one used in Fig. 5(a) where finite size effects are negligible we observe, for increasing magnetic frustration, a transition from a purely dimerized phase to a new phase with a dominant tetramerisation and a small dimerisation component. For realistic couplings, let’s say $`K/J_1>200`$, as seen in Fig. 5(b), finite size effects become large. Nevertheless we expect a behavior similar to that of Fig. 5(a) although with much smaller lattice displacements. Typically, while $`\delta _T`$ might be of the order of a percent of the lattice spacing, $`\delta _D`$ is expected to remain much smaller.

To conclude, from numerical calculations we have obtained the generic properties of the frustrated spin-1/2 chain coupled to adiabatic phonons. Our results are confronted to experimental systems such as the (quasi) linear CuGeO3 chain and the zig-zag LiV2O5 chain. While the observed small dimerisation of the SP phase of CuGeO3 can easily be accounted for within such a simple model, we argue that LiV2O5 is a good candidate to observe a novel tetramerised phase with a doubling of the zig-zag chain periodicity (leading to new superstructure peaks in diffraction experiments) and two (slightly) non-equivalent V4+ sites, a feature which could be observed in NMR-experiments.

###### Acknowledgements.

D. P. thanks the Institut de Physique Théorique (Université de Lausanne) where part of this work was carried out for hospitality and acknowledges support from the Fondation Herbette and the Swiss National Fund. F. B. also thanks L. Capriotti, A. Parola, and S. Sorella for helpful discussions.


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# Decomposition of the Superwind in M821footnote 11footnote 1Based on data collected at Subaru Telescope, which is operated by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan.

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Bursts of massive star formation (starbursts) are considered to play important roles in the evolution of galaxies from high redshift to the present day. Approximately 10% of nearby galaxies show evidence for such starburst activity (Weedman et al. 1981; Balzano 1983; Ho et al. 1997). In particular, some of them also show evidence for galactic-scale bipolar outflows (superwinds) driven by collective effects of a large number of supernova explosions occurred in the central region of galaxies (e.g., Chevalier & Clegg 1985; Tomisaka & Ikeuchi 1988; Heckman et al. 1990; Suchkov et al. 1994; Tenorio-Tagle & Munoz-Tunon 1998; Strickland & Stevens 2000). The superwind phenomenon is also very important as well as the starburst activity itself because it provides metal-enriched gas into the intergalactic medium.

Since the identification of optical emission-line filaments in M82 (Lynds & Sandage 1963; Burbidge et al. 1964), much attention has been paid to this galaxy and it is now widely accepted that M82 is the archetypal starburst galaxy with evidence for the bipolar superwinds emanating from the central region to the outer halo area (e.g., Heckman et al. 1987; Nakai et al. 1987; Bland & Tully 1988; Shopbell & Bland-Hawthorn 1998; Lehnert et al. 1999). Because of its proximity (a distance to M82, $`D=`$ 3.63 Mpc; Freedman et al. 1994), M82 allows us to investigate detailed characteristics of the superwind activity. Indeed, previous studies of the M82 superwind have shown that the gas in this superwind takes various phases: I) hot ($`T10^7`$ K) soft X-ray emitting gas (e.g., Bregman, Schulman, & Tomisaka 1995; Strickland, Ponman, & Stevens 1997; Lehnert et al. 1999), II) warm ($`T10^4`$ K) ionized gas probed by optical emission lines (e.g., Heckman et al. 1987; Bland &Tully 1988; McKeith et al. 1995; Shopbell & Bland-Hawthorn 1998), III) cool ($`T100`$ K) neutral gas probed by dust grains, including i) dusty molecular-gas halo (e.g., Scarrott, Eaton, & Axon 1991; Sofue et al. 1992) and ii) complex dark lanes seen in the upper disk regions (Ichikawa et al. 1994; 1995), and IV) cold ($`T10100`$ K) molecular and atomic gas (e.g., Nakai et al. 1987; Yun, Ho, & Lo 1993). However, it is not yet clear how such various gaseous components are related to each other although the observational properties of each component have been discussed extensively.

In order to improve our understanding of this superwind activity, we present new sensitive high-resolution images of M82 taken with the 8.2 m Subaru telescope (Kaifu et al. 1998). These images are analyzed in various ways to reveal new detailed structures of the galactic disk (stars), dark lanes (dust grains), ridge-dominated and diffuse components (shock-heated warm gas and dust grains scattering the nuclear light, respectively) of the nebula. Combining with the previous information of X-ray image for hot ionized gas, we investigate the multi-structured superwind phenomenon in M82.

## 2 OBSERVATIONS AND DATA ANALYSIS

The optical imaging observations of M82 were made with the FOCAS (Faint Object Camera and Spectrograph: Kashikawa et al. 2000, Yoshida et al. 2000) on the Subaru Telescope during a commissioning run on 2000 February 2 (UT). The seeing condition was 0.7″ - 0.8″ for all images. In order to investigate the emission-line nebula associated with the superwind, we obtained direct images with two narrowband filters, N658 and N642. The N658 filter centered at 6588Å with a band width of 73Å was used to probe both H$`\alpha `$ $`\lambda `$6563 and \[N ii\] $`\lambda \lambda `$6548, 6583 emission lines (hereafter, H$`\alpha `$ \+ \[N ii\]), while the N642 filter centered at 6428Å with a band width of 127Å was used to measure the adjacent continuum emission. We obtained five N658 images and three N642 ones. Each exposure time was set to be 120 seconds and thus the total integration was 600 seconds and 360 seconds for the N658 and N642 images, respectively. We also obtained optical $`B`$\- and $`V`$-band images. The total integration time was 120 seconds (4 $`\times `$ 30 seconds) and 75 seconds (3 $`\times `$ 25 seconds) for $`B`$ and $`V`$, respectively. No photometric standard star was observed and thus we do not calibrate the flux scale of any images. All the data reduction was made using the dedicated software for FOCAS implemented with IDL (Yoshida et al. 2000) and IRAF222IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories, which are operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation..

These images were further processed in the following ways. A pure H$`\alpha `$ \+ \[N ii\] emission-line image (hereafter H$`\alpha `$ \+ \[N ii\] image) was made by subtracting the scaled N642 image from the N658 one 333 The scaling of the N642 image was done by comparing fluxes of nearby stars around M82. Although we did not take account of the possible underestimate of the scaled N642 flux due to H$`\alpha `$ absorption in N658 image, this effect is estimated to be negligibly small since the disk stellar emission could be subtracted clearly over the entire disk.  . A pure continuum image around 6500Å (hereafter 6500Å continuum image) was made by summing N642 and N658 images and subtracting the H$`\alpha `$ \+ \[N ii\] image from the summed one. The H$`\alpha `$ \+ \[N ii\] image is shown superimposed on the true-color images of the M82 galaxy disk (made from $`B`$, $`V`$, and 6500Å continuum images) in Figure 1. The emission-line nebula appears to consist of the following two major components; (1) the ridge component which corresponds to the bipolar filament-dominated component, and (2) the diffuse component which is more widely extended around the ridge component.

In the ridge component (Figure 2), many shell- and loop-like filaments are recognized. Their typical sizes are 0.8″ (unresolved) \- 2″ wide and 5″ - 20″ long. In order to show such filaments more clearly, we developed a ridge detection program which searches for any regions with large negative value of the second derivative of the image (i.e., tracing local peaks in the emission-line image). The sky area without filaments was extracted from the H$`\alpha `$ \+ \[N ii\] image by masking out the ridges detected, and the image of the diffuse component was made by filling-in the masked regions by interpolating the surrounding pixel values. Subtracting the diffuse component image from the H$`\alpha `$ \+ \[N ii\] image, we obtain an image of the ridge component. Figure 3 shows images of H$`\alpha `$ \+ \[N ii\] nebula shown separately in ridge and diffuse components. Note that since our ridge-detection program can only detect the extreme limbs or tangent points of the structures, structures resolved slightly around the peak of the ridges are included in the diffuse component, and are notable especially near the root of the nebula. Therefore the amount of the diffuse component is overestimated. The broadband color image was made by dividing the $`B`$-band image with the 6500Å continuum image, and is shown in Figure 4 along with the ridge and diffuse components of the nebula.

## 3 RESULTS and DISCUSSION

### 3.1 The Ridge Component

The ridge component comprises many filaments along the superwind. Each filament shows either shell- or loop-like structures directing radially from the nuclear region. Similar filament-dominated emission-line nebulae are also found in some well-known Galactic objects with an outflow \[such as M1-67: a Wolf-Rayet star with stellar wind (Grosdidier et al. 2001) and M57: a planetary nebula with a ring (Komiyama et al. 2000)\]. It is widely accepted that such a filament can be a local shock front between the inner expanding matter and the outer interstellar medium. The observed filaments in M82 are also considered to be driven by shocks. This interpretation is supported by the optical emission-line diagnostics (Heckman et al. 1987) although their data probe both ridge and diffuse components.

As mentioned before, the overall structure of the ridge component looks like a pair of elongated cylinders rather than a pair of cones, and hence hereafter we simply denote it as the cylinder. The diameter of the cylinder at the galaxy disk plane (35″ \- 40″) is similar to, or slightly larger than, that of the nuclear starburst region traced both by near-infrared emission (30″ \- 35″; e.g., Lester et al. 1990) and by an ensemble of non-thermal point-like sources (e.g., Kronberg, Biermann, & Schwab 1985). It seems worthwhile noting that the cylinder shows the sharp boundary, in particular at NE, SE, and SSE of the nebula, causing the limb-enhanced morphology. All these features can be well reproduced by numerical simulations of the superwind in which radiative shock occurs around the expanding hot gas (e.g., Suchkov et al 1994; Strickland & Stevens 2000) (see section 3.3).

The hot gaseous component probed by soft X-ray emission is known to be collimated rather tightly along the minor axis of the galaxy than the optical emission-line nebula (Bregman et al. 1995; Strickland et al. 1997; Lehnert et al. 1996). We found that the ridge component surrounds the hot gaseous nebula more closely than the diffuse component. However, the tangential profiles along the galaxy disk at high latitude look different between the ridge component (showing limb-enhanced profile) and the soft X-ray nebula (showing the ridge along the centerline). Note, however, that such difference can be explained if we assume that the optical filaments are distributed on the thin surface around the inner hot gas component. All these lines of evidence suggest that the radiative shock at the thin interface between the expanding hot X-ray emitting gas and the ambient cold gaseous matter would be responsible for the ridge component.

### 3.2 The Diffuse Component

The diffuse component was first found by Bland & Tully (1988) and was confirmed by Shopbell & Bland-Hawthorn (1998). It shows rather oval shape elongated along the minor axis of the galaxy as a whole, but is divided into NW and SE parts around the disk plane. It is extended more widely in the tangential direction (parallel to the galaxy disk) and does not show a limb-enhanced morphology, being much different from the ridge component 444 As noted in the earlier section, separating the ridge and diffuse components by the ridge-detection program could not be perfectly done because some part of the flux separated as “diffuse” may actually be structures which are resolved slightly around the peak of the ridges. However, since the ridge component sppares to be a collimated cylindrical structure outer parts of the nebula around the ridge component are likely to be truly “diffuse”. Therefore the comparison of the overall shapes between the ridge and diffuse components can be made with less ambiguity.  . These observational properties suggest that this component does not have a form of thin surface but occupies a large part of the volume probed by optical emission lines.

Here a question arises as what the origin of the diffuse component is. Previous imaging polarimetries of the M82 nebula have revealed strongly-polarized emission whose $`E`$ vectors show circular symmetric pattern around the nucleus. Since this property is a typical signature of the reflection nebulae, the dust scattering of the galaxy light would contribute to the nebula (e.g., Bingham et al. 1976; Schmidt, Angel, & Cromwell 1976). It is thus suggested that the diffuse component arises from the scattering of the galaxy light at dusty halo.

In addition to the dusty halo, M82 is well known to have rich dark lanes across the galaxy disk. They are peculiar and complex in shape, and are remarkably different from those found in normal spiral galaxies. The most prominent and peculiar dark lane is seen on SE side of the disk (the front side of the disk: e.g., Shopbell & Bland-Hawthron 1998; McKeith et al. 1995). It runs through the nuclear region out to 2.5 arcmin (2.6 kpc) from the nucleus (Figure 5). Interestingly it curves toward both SE and SW directions at both ends of the dark lane, and can be traced up to $`1`$′ ($`1`$ kpc in projection) above/below the galaxy disk at their tips. Similar but less-prominent dark lanes are also found at another side of the disk emanating to NE and NW from the nuclear region. These two sets of the dark lanes make an “X”-shaped morphology around the nucleus. They are considered to be distributed not within the galaxy disk but above/below the disk (e.g., Ichikawa et al. 1994; 1995). We find that the diffuse component can be seen even on the dark lanes, suggesting that dust grains responsible for the dark lanes are also responsible for the scattering of the diffuse component.

The next question is addressed to the origin of the dark lanes. The dark lanes have the following characteristics. First, the X-shaped dark lanes seem to be streaming out from the nucleus. Second, the NW boundary (and also probably the NE boundary) of the SE dark lane is smoothly curved comparing with other complicated dark lanes. Finally one-dimensional profile of the SW dark lane, cut perpendicular to the disk across the dark lane (Figure 5), shows highly asymmetric structure of the extinction, i.e., the dust extinction increases monotonically toward the NW side, and then decreases suddenly at the NW edge the SE dark lane. Such characteristics can be understood if we assume that the dust is distributed in a wide cone-like geometry and we see a higher extinction near the cone surface due to projection effect. This supports a scenario of the dusty superwind in which dust grains are provided from the nuclear region with the outflow associated with the superwind probed in optical emission-lines and soft X-ray emission. If this is the case, high-latitude dusty halo may be created in a similar way as for the dark lanes (i.e., the dusty superwind) since there are no distinct boundaries in the diffuse component dividing the dust scattering on the dark lane near galaxy plane and high-latitude halo area up to $`2`$ kpc from the disk. Yun et al. (1993) suggested that a part of the high-latitude HI gas of M82 may be affected dynamically by the superwind, supporting for the presence of a high-latitude cold gas associated with the superwind outflow. Although we do not rule out an alternative possibility that the past tidal interaction with the neighbor galaxy M81 has brought some dusty matter from the galaxy disk up to the halo (Yun, Ho, & Lo 1993; 1994), the observational properties discussed in this paper suggest that the dusty superwind scenario is more reasonable.

Such a dusty cold-gas outflow can be made as a result of the pushing out and/or dragging out process of the dusty gas around the nucleus by the expanding hot high-pressure gas within the superwind (e.g., Suchkov et al. 1994; Strickland & Stevens 2000). Indeed dusty outflows associated with superwinds have been suggested by optical observations (Nakai 1989; Heckman et al. 2000; Veilleux & Rupke 2002; Rupke, Veilleux, & Sanders 2002) and submillimeter observations (Alton, Davies, & Bianchi 1999).

Finally we give a comment on the previous claim that even the inner filamentary nebula shows strong polarization whose direction is nearly aligned to that of the outer diffuse nebula (Scarrott et al. 1991), which could be inconsistent with our conclusion since no polarized flux is expected from the shock-excited emission. We suspect that the imaging polarimetry with insufficient spatial resolution could be the cause of this apparent contradiction. Separate polarimetric measurement of the filaments in the ridge and diffuse components are required to disentangle the polarimetric properties of the narrow filamentary structures (typically $`2`$″ in width) and the overlapping diffuse component.

### 3.3 Implications for Superwind Model

Important characteristics of the M82 superwind nebula are that the shock-driven ridge component contains numerous shells and filaments and its overall shape is rather collimated out to outer region of the nebula. In recent hydrodynamical simulations of the superwind conducted by Strickland & Stevens (2000), two types of the interstellar medium (ISM) density distribution, thin or thick disk, are adopted to see its effect on the evolution of the wind. It turns out that the model with the thick ISM can reproduce the characteristics of M82 nebula: The thick and dense wall of ISM created around the starbursting region works to collimate the wind, and Rayleigh-Taylor instability at the wall creates small-scale structures which are eventually dragged out with the wind to form shells/filaments (Strickland & Stevens 2000). Although these hydrodynamical simulations with thick ISM look successful, we point out the following points which require some cautions. As Strickland & Stevens (2000) noted, the thick ISM cannot reproduce the observed rotation curve of M82. Therefore one may need more realistic ISM distribution models or improved treatment of gas dynamics at the circumnuclear region to reproduce both a collimated wind and the rotation curve consistently. It seems also noteworthy that the morphology of the small-scale structures of the nebula depend rather strongly on the numerical resolution in the simulation, and higher resolution tends to result in finer shell/filament structures (Strickland & Stevens 2000). Therefore one may need even finer-scale numerical simulation to enable us to compare sizes and spatial distributions of shells/filaments between observations and the models. Note that, although observed small-scale structures with a typical size of $`90350`$ pc (5″ - 20″) are already resolved by their simulations with a cell size of $`4.914.6`$ pc, the simulation resolution would not be fine enough to resolve the circumnuclear region where smaller-scale instability begins to work. Finally, we show a cartoon in which all the superwind components discussed here are summarized (Figure 6).

We would like to thank all staffs of the Subaru telescope.


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# Resolving the 47 Tucanae Distance Problem

## 1. Introduction

Recent empirical distance estimates to 47 Tuc are very discrepant. MS-fitting by several studies (e.g. Carretta et al. 2000) results in an apparent distance modulus of $`(mM)_V>13.5`$, whilst the recent White Dwarf fitting study of Zoccali et al. (2001) finds a much shorter distance, $`(mM)_V=13.27`$. The results are not consistent within their quoted errors and the discrepancy in distance moduli implies an uncertainty in age of $``$ 3 Gyr.

Previous MS-fitting studies have suffered from a severe lack of suitable, homogeneous, subdwarf (SD) data with which to determine the cluster distance, which in turn leads to questions concerning the accuracy of the method. We have identified a large sample of suitable local SDs which enables us to investigate the MS-fitting method thoroughly. Our multi-waveband data also allows us to fit simultaneously in $`V/(BV)`$ and $`V/(VI)`$ and because of the different sensitivities of the 2 colours to metallicity and reddening, obtaining consistent results is a strong test of the reliability of the derived distance.

## 2. Data and MS-fitting Method

We have acquired $`B`$, $`V`$ and $`I_C`$ data for 43 local subdwarfs with $`HIPPARCOS`$ parallaxes (errors $`<13\%`$), $`M_V>5.5`$ and $`1.0<[Fe/H]<0.3`$. Metallicities are determined from Strömgren indices in the literature, and a template (lower) main sequence is constructed by applying metallicity dependent colour shifts to each star, calculated from theoretical isochrones. The 47 Tuc main line was derived from the data of Kaluzny et al. (1998), which we recalibrated using Stetson’s ‘secondary’ standards (Stetson 2000). Full details of sample selection, data collection and the MS-fitting method can be found in Percival et al. 2002.

## 3. Results

Assuming $`[Fe/H]=0.7\pm 0.1`$ and $`E(BV)=0.04\pm 0.02`$ for the cluster, our best-fit distance modulus in both colour planes is $`(mM)_V=13.37_{0.11}^{+0.10}`$ (figure 1), leading to a dereddened distance modulus of $`(mM)_0=13.25_{0.07}^{+0.06}`$. From the turn off luminosity, the implied cluster age is $`11\pm 1.4`$ Gyr.

Independent support for our MS-fitting distance comes from consideration of the Red Clump (RC) as a distance indicator. The red horizontal branch of 47 Tuc is the counterpart of the RC in the solar neighbourhood, whose $`I`$-band absolute magnitude is precisely determined by HIPPARCOS parallaxes. Applying the appropriate evolutionary correction from Girardi & Salaris (2001) to the cluster RC, we derive a dereddened distance modulus of $`(mM)_{0,RC}=13.31\pm 0.05`$, which agrees well with our MS-fitting result.

## References

Carretta, E., Gratton, R.G., Clementini, G., & Fusi Pecci F. 2000, ApJ, 533, 215

Girardi, L., & Salaris, M. 2001, MNRAS, 323, 109

Kaluzny, J., Krzeminski, W., Mazur, B. et al. 1998, Acta Astronomica 48, 439

Percival, S.M., Salaris, M., van Wyk, F., & Kilkenny, D. 2002, ApJ, 573, 174

Stetson, P. B. 2000, PASP, 112, 925

Zoccali, M., Renzini, A., Ortolani, S. et al. 2001, ApJ, 553, 733


text:
# A FLARED, ORBITING, DUSTY DISK AROUND HD 233517

## 1 INTRODUCTION

The evolution of dust disks into large solid bodies such as asteroids, planets and comets is of central importance in astronomy. While it is usually assumed that such disks are primordial and associated with young stars, some binary systems such as the Red Rectangle apparently create orbiting reservoirs of gas and dust during their post main sequence evolution (see Waters et al. 1993, Jura & Kahane 1999). To date, there are only a few good candidate systems for orbiting dusty circumstellar material around evolved stars, and therefore every example of this phenomenon is worth studying. Here, we propose that the puzzling infrared excess around HD 233517, a first ascent red giant, can be naturally understood as resulting from a flared, orbiting disk.

Attention was originally drawn to HD 233517 because it is a K type star (mV = 9.72 mag) that is an IRAS source with an unusually large fractional infrared excess ($`L_{IR}/L_{}`$ $``$ 0.06, Sylvester, Dunkin & Barlow 2001) produced by cold grains ($`T`$ $``$ 100 K), and it was thought to be an example of the Vega phenomenon – a main sequence star with dust (Walker & Wolstencroft 1988). However, detailed spectroscopic studies strongly suggest that HD 233517 is a first ascent red giant with a luminosity near 100 L (Fekel et al. 1996, Balachandran et al. 2000, Zuckerman 2001). While infrared excesses are common around second ascent red giants on the Asymptotic Giant Branch with luminosities in excess of 1000 L (see, for example, Habing 1996), relatively few first ascent red giant stars with their lower luminosities have detectable infrared excesses (Judge, Jordan & Rowan-Robinson 1987, Zuckerman, Kim & Liu 1995). HD 233517 has a uniquely high value of $`L_{IR}/L_{}`$ among first ascent red giants where this ratio is generally less than 10-3 (see Zuckerman et al. 1995). It is unlikely that HD 233517 is a pre-main sequence star since it does not lie near any known region of star formation and since it lies far from the location of young stars in the H-R diagram (Fekel et al. 1996, Balachandran et al. 2000). Also, HD 233517 appears to be similar to a few other K giants which rotate rapidly, have strong lithium lines, a detectable far-infrared excess and are definitely post main sequence since at least in the case of PDS 365, the carbon isotope ratio, 12C/13C, is approximately 12 (Drake et al. 2002).

Three models to explain infrared excesses around first ascent red giants are (1) dust is being produced by mass loss, (2) nearby interstellar dust is illuminated accidentally by the red giant, and (3) the dust is orbiting (see Jura 1999, Kalas et al. 2002). The fraction of red giants that display true dust excesses is uncertain and controversial (Jura 1990, Plets et al. 1997, Jura 1999, Kim, Zuckerman & Silverstone 2001). In any case, since ground-based imaging shows that the 10 $`\mu `$m excess is physically associated with HD 233517 (Skinner et al. 1995, Fisher et al. 2000), at least for this particular star, the dust producing the infrared excess either is orbiting or is expanding away from the star. For some other stars, the infrared excess has been resolved with ISO and in these objects, the dust is probably not orbiting (Kim et al. 2001).

There are difficulties with the model that HD 233517 is currently losing enough mass to produce the observed infrared excess. As with other first ascent red giants with dust, the infrared spectrum of HD 233517 peaks near 60 $`\mu `$m. This spectral energy distribution is characteristic of cool material and is very different from that associated with a continuous mass loss rate where there is a substantial amount of dust near a temperature of 1000 K (see, for example, Sopka et al. 1985). One possibility is that the mass loss rate from HD 233517 is episodic and currently the star is not expelling much matter. However, as noted by Jura (1999), the characteristic time scale for the dust to expand around a first ascent red giant to its inferred location may be less than 20 years. There is no evidence for recent infrared variability of this star, although the star does exhibit a full amplitude optical variation of 0.02 mag with a 47.9 day period which may be caused by star spots rotating in and out of the view (Balachandran et al. 2000).

Since the dust around HD 233517 may not be carried in a wind, we consider models where the dust is orbiting the star. One scenario is that the dust around HD 233517 is simply “left over” from the main sequence phase. However, a major difficulty with this model is that the fractional infrared excess around HD 233517, $`L_{IR}/L_{}`$, of 0.06 is much larger than that found for even the “dustiest” main sequence stars such as $`\beta `$ Pic and HR 4796 where $`L_{IR}/L_{}`$ is 2-4 $`\times `$ 10-3 (see, for example, Zuckerman 2001).

Here, we speculate that HD 233517 had a low mass companion which was engulfed when it became a red giant. Although uncertain, the engulfment of this companion could have led to the ejection of an equatorial ring of orbiting material (see Taam & Sandquist 2000, Spruit & Taam 2001). As discussed by Pringle (1991), after this ring is created, the matter expands under the action of tidal torques which transfer angular momentum from the binary into the circumstellar material which thus evolves into an extended disk. Although not required in Pringle’s model, it is possible that in this dense equatorial ring, dust grains formed. We suggest that the structure of the circumstellar system is described by the models of Chiang & Goldreich (1997) for passive, orbiting disks which flare in response to the illuminating radiation. Below, we present details of this idealized model.

## 2 THE DISK AND THE STAR

### 2.1 Stellar parameters

First, we list our assumed parameters for the star. Following Balachandran et al. (2000), we adopt a distance, $`D_{}`$, of 620 pc, an effective temperature, $`T_{}`$, of 4475 K a radius, $`R_{}`$, of 1.1 $`\times `$ 1012 cm and a luminosity of 100 L. We assume that the mass of the star, $`M_{}`$, is approximately 1 M, consistent with the star’s location on the H-R diagram and measured surface gravity (Balachandran et al. 2000). The rotational velocity of the star is $`vsini`$ = 17.6 km s-1 which implies if the star rotates as a solid body and if the moment of inertia of the star is $`0.1M_{}R_{}^2`$ (taken from Schwarzschild 1958) that the angular momentum of the star is at least 4 $`\times `$ 1050 g cm2 s-1.

### 2.2 Predicted Infrared Emission

Dust is required to explain the emission from HD 233517 for $`\lambda `$ $``$ 10 $`\mu `$m (see Skinner et al. 1995). Here, we use the model of a opaque, flared disk which is locally in vertical hydrostatic equilibrium (Chiang & Goldreich 1997). In this model, the temperature, $`T_{disk}`$, as a function of distance from the star, $`R`$, is (see Jura et al. 2002):

$$T_{disk}=\left(\frac{1}{7}\right)^{2/7}\left(\frac{R_{}}{R}\right)^{3/7}\left(\frac{2k_BT_{}R_{}}{GM_{}\mu }\right)^{1/7}T_{}$$
(1)
where $`k_B`$ is Boltzmann’s constant, $`G`$ is the gravitational constant and $`\mu `$ is the mean molecular weight of the gas. Here, we assume that the gas is primarily H2 with \[He\]/\[H2\] = 0.2 so that $`\mu `$ = 3.9 $`\times `$ 10-24 g. In view of the many uncertainties, and to be consistent with inferences for disks around pre-main sequence stars (Chiang et al. 2001), we assume a simple model where the half-thickness of the vertically-isothermal disk is taken equal to the parameter, $`h`$, in Jura et al. (2002) which is a factor of $`\sqrt{2}`$ larger than $`h`$ in Chiang & Goldreich (1997), that characterizes the Gaussian density distribution above the plane.

Since the disk is opaque, we can determine the flux from the source, $`F_\nu `$, by:

$$F_\nu =\frac{2\pi cosi}{D_{}^2}_0^{R_{out}}B_\nu (T_{disk})R𝑑R$$
(2)
where $`R_{out}`$ denotes the outer boundary of the disk where the temperature is $`T_{out}`$. For simplicity, we assume a sharp outer boundary although an exponential decay would be more realistic (see Jura et al. 2002). It is convenient to introduce the dimensionless parameter, $`x`$:

$$x=\frac{h\nu }{k_BT}$$
(3)
From equations (1) and (2):

$$F_\nu =\frac{28\pi }{3}\frac{cosiR_{}^2}{D_{}^2}\left(\frac{k_BT_{}}{h\nu }\right)^{5/3}\frac{(k_BT_{})^3}{(hc)^2}\left(\frac{2k_BT_{}R_{}}{49GM_{}\mu }\right)^{2/3}_0^{x_{out}}\frac{x^{11/3}}{e^x\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}1}}𝑑x$$
(4)
At high frequencies with $`x_{out}`$ $`>`$ 10, the observed flux is insensitive to the outer boundary condition since the integral in equation (4) is approximately 15. The spectrum is predicted to vary as $`\nu ^{5/3}`$. At low frequencies where $`x_{out}`$ $`<`$2, we may re-write equation (4) to find that:

$$F_\nu =\frac{28\pi }{11}\frac{cosiR_{}^2}{\lambda ^2D_{}^2}\left(\frac{T_{}}{T_{out}}\right)^{11/3}\left(\frac{2k_BT_{}R_{}}{49GM_{}\mu }\right)^{2/3}k_BT_{}$$
(5)
If the disk is opaque, then at low frequencies, Fν varies as $`\nu ^2`$.

For the data in the IRAS Faint Source Catalog, between 12 $`\mu `$m and 60 $`\mu `$m, Fν varies as $`\nu ^{1.70}`$, in good agreement with the prediction that Fν should vary as $`\nu ^{1.67}`$. Furthermore, with $`x_{out}`$ $`>>`$ 1 and cos $`i`$ = 0, from equation (4), the predicted value of Fν(25 $`\mu `$m) is 3.9 Jy which agrees with the observed value of 3.4 Jy. Thus, without any “tweaking”, the predictions are close enough to the data that the model should be taken seriously.

Near 60 $`\mu `$m, the slope of the spectral energy distribution turns over. In the flared disk model, the peak in the spectral energy distribution is governed by the outer boundary of the disk. As shown in Figure 1, we have found that a model with $`T_{out}`$ = 70 K, which occurs at $`R_{out}`$ = 45 AU, can reproduce much of the infrared data. However, at 1.35 mm, much more flux is predicted than the observed value of 2.6 $`\pm `$ 1.0, which is conservatively interpreted as a 3$`\sigma `$ upper limit of 3 mJy by Sylvester et al. (2001). A possible resolution of this discrepancy is discussed below.

### 2.3 Predicted Millimeter Continuum Emission

The flared disk model drastically overestimates the flux at 1.35 mm. It is observed that between 1.35 mm and 100 $`\mu `$m, Fν varies as $`\nu ^{2.8}`$ which suggests that at least at the longer wavelength, the system is optically thin. If the circumstellar dust particles are smaller than 100 $`\mu `$m in diameter, then the opacity at 1.35 mm is probably considerably smaller than the opacity at 100 $`\mu `$m. Although the composition and size distribution of the dust particles are unknown; we adopt parameters representative of circumstellar “silicates” from Ossenkopf, Henning & Mathis (1992) and Pollack et al. (1994). Thus, we take $`\chi _\nu `$(100 $`\mu `$m) = 25 cm2 g-1, and for $`\lambda `$ $`>`$ 100 $`\mu `$m, we assume that $`\chi _\nu `$ scales as $`\nu ^2`$ so that $`\chi _\nu `$(1.35 mm) = 0.14 cm2 g-1.

To calculate the flux for the optically thin regime, we need to describe the mass distribution. If $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ denotes the total dust surface density of the disk, then we approximate the model of Pringle (1991) for a circumbinary disk by assuming that all the matter is confined within angular radius $`\varphi _{out}`$, where $`\varphi `$ = $`R/D_{}`$, and that within this region,

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }=\mathrm{\Sigma }_0\left(\frac{\varphi _{out}}{\varphi }\right)^{3/2}$$
(6)
With this description, if $`M_{dust}`$ denotes the mass of dust in the disk, then:

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }_{out}=\frac{M_{dust}}{4\pi R_{out}^2}$$
(7)
The flux from the disk, $`F_{disk}`$, is:

$$F_{disk}=cosi_0^{\varphi _{out}}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\pi \varphi 𝑑\varphi B_\nu (T)\left(1exp^{\chi _\nu \mathrm{\Sigma }_{dust}(\varphi )/cosi}\right)$$
(8)
We evaluate equation (8) for the condition that at $`R`$ = $`R_{out}`$ (or 45 AU), $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{out}`$ = 0.04 g cm-2. As discussed below, this value of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{out}`$ is chosen so that the disk is opaque at 100 $`\mu `$m at its outermost region. The results are shown in Figure 1. With the revised model, we see that the predicted flux at 1.35 mm is consistent with the upper limit reported by Sylvester et al (2001).

### 2.4 Predicted CO Emission

The flared disk model requires that gas be in hydrostatic equilibrium vertical to the orbiting plane of the system. We can estimate the expected amount of CO emission from HD 233517 if the gas and grain temperatures are equal to each other. First,

$$T=T_{out}\left(\frac{\varphi _{out}}{\varphi }\right)^{3/7}$$
(9)
If the gas is optically thick, then in a telescope of beam size, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{tel}`$, the observed brightness temperature, $`T_{obs}`$ is

$$T_{obs}=cosi_0^{\varphi _{out}}\frac{2\pi \varphi T(\varphi )d\varphi }{\mathrm{\Omega }_{tel}}=\frac{14\pi }{11}\frac{T_{out}\varphi _{out}^2cosi}{\mathrm{\Omega }_{tel}}$$
(10)
Within the 10$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 beam of the IRAM telescope, Jura & Kahane (1999) placed a 1$`\sigma `$ upper limit to the CO J 2$``$1 emission line of 29 mK. In our model, $`\varphi _{out}`$ = 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$073, and the predicted brightness temperature in this line is 17 mK. Thus the model is consistent with the observed upper limit to the CO line emission.

### 2.5 Disk Mass and Angular Momentum

We derive a minimum mass of the disk from the criterion that our model requires the disk to be opaque even at $`R`$ = $`R_{out}`$ at 100 $`\mu `$m or $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{out}\chi _\nu `$(100 $`\mu `$m) $`>`$ 1. With $`\chi _\nu `$(100 $`\mu `$m) = 25 cm2 g-1, this implies that $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{out}`$ $``$ 0.04 cm2 g-1. Therefore, from equation (7), the mass of the dust in the disk is 2 $`\times `$ 1029 g. If the gas to dust ratio is 100, the total disk mass is $``$0.01 M

Another important parameter is the disk angular momentum, $`J`$. With a sharp outer boundary and the surface density variation given by equation (6), we may write:

$$J=\frac{M_{disk}}{2}\sqrt{GM_{}R_{out}}$$
(11)
We therefore estimate a total angular momentum of the disk of 3 $`\times `$ 1051 g cm2 s-1, which is larger than the total angular momentum of the star estimated above to be $``$ 4 $`\times `$ 1050 g cm2 s-1.

## 3 DISCUSSION

We have found that the infrared fluxes from HD 233517 are naturally explained with the simple flared disk model. The origin of this disk is uncertain. One possible model to account both for the creation of a disk and the unusually high rotation speed of the red giant is that while on the main sequence, HD 233517 had a companion at an orbital separation of about 1 $`\times `$ 1012 cm (see Soker, Livio & Harpaz 1984). We speculate that when HD 233517 became a red giant, it engulfed this companion with the consequences of both creating an orbiting ring of circumbinary matter and spinning up the primary star. With the parameters derived above, the total angular momentum of HD 233517 and its associated disk is 3 $`\times `$ 1051 g cm2 s-1. This amount of angular momentum could have been supplied by a companion star of 0.12 M in a circular orbit of radius 1.1 $`\times `$ 1012 cm.

HD 233517 is a lithium-rich star (Fekel et al. 1996, Balachandran et al. 2000). While single-star models might explain this result (de la Reza et al. 1997, Jasniewicz et al. 1999, Charbonnel & Balachandran 2000), in our picture, this lithium enrichment results because the system was a binary. The absence of 6Li argues against the simple idea that incorporation of lithium from a planet or low mass companion into the envelope of the star (Balachandran et al. 2000) can explain the observed abundance of this element, but the capture of a companion might have led to an episode that stimulated interior mixing of lithium to the surface (Denissenkov & Weiss 2000).

With a value of $`L_{IR}/L_{}`$ $`>`$ 10-2, HD 233517 is a distinctive red giant. In the sample of Zuckerman et al. (1995) of more than 40,000 of the nearest luminosity class III giants, the highest value of $`L_{IR}/L_{}`$ is 10-3. Although the statistics are poor, perhaps only 10-4 of all first ascent red giants have as much circumstellar opacity as does HD 233517. We suggest that HD 233517 is unusual for two reasons. First, according to Duqennoy & Mayor (1991), only $``$2% of all solar-mass main sequence stars have detectable companions with orbital periods near 10 days. Such binaries are the kinds of systems that can evolve into a red giant with a substantial disk as is found around HD 233517. Furthermore, once the disk is formed, it must have a limited lifetime. The massive dusty disk around HD 233517 may evolve in a fashion somewhat like disks around pre-main sequence stars. For A type stars which have luminosities somwhat less than that of HD 233517, the lifetime of the disk as a system with $`L_{IR}/L_{}`$ $`>`$ 10-2 is near 3 $`\times `$ 106 years, although some small amount of dust could linger for as long as 4 $`\times `$ 108 years (see Habing et al. 1999, Spangler et al. 2001). Since the lifetime of a 1 M red giant as it evolves from 10 L to its maximum luminosity of 2700 L is $``$2 $`\times `$ 108 years (Girardi et al. 2000), only $``$ 1% of the disks around red giants might have $`L_{IR}/L_{}`$ as large as 10-2. Given these two considerations, it is not too surprising that a system like HD 233517 occurs among first ascent red giants with a frequency of perhaps 10-4. A plausible explanation for the inferred decrease of $`L_{IR}/L_{}`$ with time is that the dust particles coalesce into larger bodies.

## 4 CONCLUSIONS

We have modeled the currently available infrared data for HD 233517 and find that the observations can be naturally explained by a flared, orbiting disk of mass $``$0.01 M and outer radius of $``$45 AU. We speculate that this disk was created by the engulfment of a low mass stellar companion.

This work has been partly supported by NASA.


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# Charm and bottom baryon masses in the 1/N expansion

## 1 INTRODUCTION

The $`1/N_c`$ expansion has proven useful for studying the spin-flavor properties of baryons containing light quarks. A spin-flavor symmetry for baryons is defined in large-$`N_c`$ QCD. Away from the $`N_c\mathrm{}`$ limit, $`1/N_c`$ corrections which break large-$`N_c`$ baryon spin-flavor symmetry can be classified in terms of the spin and flavor symmetries which remain for finite $`N_c`$. Since explicit $`SU(3)`$ flavor symmetry breaking $`ϵm_s/\mathrm{\Lambda }_\chi `$ is comparable to $`1/N_c=1/3`$ for QCD baryons, a combined expansion in $`1/N_c`$ and $`ϵ`$ is necessary to explain the symmetry-breaking pattern. The $`1/N_c`$ expansion has had considerable phenomenological success for $`qqq`$ baryons; $`1/N_c`$ suppression factors clearly are present in experimental data.

For baryons containing a single heavy quark $`Q`$ in HQET, there is spin-flavor symmetry in the large-$`N_c`$ limit as well as in the heavy quark limit . The spin-flavor symmetry of heavy quark baryons with one heavy quark flavor contains a $`SU(6)_{\mathrm{}}`$ symmetry of the light degrees of freedom in the $`N_c\mathrm{}`$ limit, and a $`SU(2)_Q`$ spin symmetry of the heavy quark in both the $`m_Q\mathrm{}`$ and $`N_c\mathrm{}`$ limits. The spin-flavor symmetry of the light degrees of freedom is broken by corrections suppressed by factors of $`1/N_c`$ and $`SU(3)`$ flavor symmetry breaking, whereas the heavy-quark spin symmetry is broken by terms suppressed by factors of $`1/N_c`$ and heavy quark symmetry breaking $`\delta _Q\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}/m_Q`$. Note that $`SU(3)`$ flavor symmetry and heavy quark spin symmetry are better symmetries for baryons than for mesons because violation of spin-flavor symmetry is suppressed by additional factors of $`1/N_c`$ for baryons.

Heavy quark symmetry for two heavy quark flavors $`Q=c`$ and $`Q=b`$ in HQET generalizes to heavy-quark spin-flavor symmetry $`SU(4)_Q`$, which relates the heavy quark spin-flavor properties of charm and bottom hadrons. Again, heavy quark spin-flavor symmetry is a better symmetry for baryons than for mesons because heavy quark spin-flavor symmetry violation is accompanied by factors of $`1/N_c`$.

The lowest-lying spin-flavor representation for $`Qqq`$ baryons consists of a completely symmetric spin-flavor representation of two light quarks combined with a single heavy quark with $`J_Q=\frac{1}{2}`$. Under light-quark spin and flavor, this representation decomposes into a $`J_{\mathrm{}}=0`$ flavor $`\overline{\mathrm{𝟑}}`$, which consists of the isosinglet $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_Q(Qud)`$ and the isodoublet $`\mathrm{\Xi }_c(Qsq)`$ with $`J=J_{\mathrm{}}+J_Q=\frac{1}{2}`$, and a $`J_{\mathrm{}}=1`$ flavor $`\mathrm{𝟔}`$, which consists of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_Q`$, $`\mathrm{\Xi }_Q^{}`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ with $`J=\frac{1}{2}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_Q^{}`$, $`\mathrm{\Xi }_Q^{}`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q^{}`$ with $`J=\frac{3}{2}`$.

The mass hierarchy of the lowest-lying charm and bottom baryon masses was predicted in a combined expansion in $`1/N_c`$, $`ϵ`$ and $`\delta _Q`$ in Ref. . Here, the theoretical hierarchy is compared with experiment for charm baryon masses, and the predicted pattern is seen. Bottom baryons are predicted to obey the same mass hierarchy with $`1/m_c`$ replaced by $`1/m_b`$.

## 2 $`1/N_c`$ Expansion

In the $`1/m_Q`$ expansion of HQET, the mass of a hadron containing a single heavy quark is given by

$$M(H_Q)=m_Q+\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\frac{\lambda _1}{2m_Q}d_H\frac{\lambda _2}{2m_Q}+\mathrm{},$$
(1)
where

$`\lambda _1`$ $`=`$ $`H_Q(v)|\overline{Q}_v(iD)^2Q_v|H_Q(v),`$ (2)
$`d_H\lambda _2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}Z_QH_Q(v)|\overline{Q}_vgG_{\mu \nu }\sigma ^{\mu \nu }Q_v|H_Q(v),`$
are the matrix elements of the $`1/m_Q`$-suppressed operators in the heavy hadron, $`d_H=4\left(J_{\mathrm{}}J_Q\right)`$, and corrections of order $`1/m_Q^2`$ have been neglected. Eq. (1) can be applied to mesons and to baryons, but the values of $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$, $`\lambda _1`$ and $`\lambda _2`$ will be different in the two cases.

The spin-$`\frac{1}{2}`$ $`\mathrm{𝟑}`$, and spin-$`\frac{1}{2}`$ and $`\frac{3}{2}`$ $`\mathrm{𝟔}`$ baryons have masses given by the $`1/m_Q`$ expansions

$`T_Q`$ $`=`$ $`m_Q+\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}_T{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _{1T}}{2m_Q}}+\mathrm{},`$
$`S_Q`$ $`=`$ $`m_Q+\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}_S{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _{1S}}{2m_Q}}{\displaystyle \frac{4\lambda _{2S}}{2m_Q}}+\mathrm{},`$ (3)
$`S_Q^{}`$ $`=`$ $`m_Q+\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}_S{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _{1S}}{2m_Q}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2\lambda _{2S}}{2m_Q}}+\mathrm{},`$
respectively. Large-$`N_c`$ spin-flavor symmetry implies that the hadronic matrix elements of these baryons are equal in the $`N_c\mathrm{}`$ limit. For finite $`N_c`$, the matrix elements have expansions in terms of $`1/N_c`$ operators given by

$`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ $`=`$ $`N_c\text{1}\text{1}+{\displaystyle \frac{J_{\mathrm{}}^2}{N_c}},`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _1}{2m_Q}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{m_Q}}N_Q+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_c^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{m_Q}}N_QJ_{\mathrm{}}^2,`$ (4)
$`d_H{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _2}{2m_Q}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_c}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{m_Q}}\left(J_{\mathrm{}}J_Q\right),`$
where $`N_Q`$ is the heavy quark number operator which is equal to $`1`$ for baryons containing a single heavy quark, 11 is the unit operator for baryons, and $`J_{\mathrm{}}^i`$ and $`J_Q^i`$ are the spins of the light degrees of freedom and the heavy quark, respectively. In Eq. (2), it is to be understood that each $`1/N_c`$ operator is accompanied by an unknown, dimensionful, $`𝒪(1)`$ coefficient, which has been suppressed for simplicity. Eq. (2) makes a number of interesting predictions. For instance, $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}_T`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}_S`$ are equal at leading order $`N_c`$ in the $`1/N_c`$ expansion. However, at order $`1/N_c`$, the two matrix elements are not equal, but are split by a contribution which is order $`1/N_c^2`$ relative to the leading $`𝒪(N_c)`$ term. Similar remarks apply for the $`\lambda _1`$ matrix elements.

The generalization of Eq. (2) to include $`SU(3)`$ flavor symmetry and its breaking is provided in Ref. . At the time of this work, the $`\mathrm{\Xi }_c^{}`$ mass had not been measured, and the $`1/N_c`$ analysis was used to successfully predict $`\mathrm{\Xi }_c^{}=2580.8\pm 2.1`$ MeV , to be compared with the subsequent experimental value $`\mathrm{\Xi }_c^{}=2576.5\pm 2.3`$ MeV. This theoretical prediction and its precision required the $`1/N_c`$ expansion.

Today the masses of all singly charmed baryons are measured except for the spin-$`\frac{3}{2}`$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c^{}`$. The most suppressed mass combination

$$\frac{1}{4}\left[\left(\mathrm{\Sigma }_c^{}\mathrm{\Sigma }_c\right)2\left(\mathrm{\Xi }_c^{}\mathrm{\Xi }_c^{}\right)+\left(\mathrm{\Omega }_c^{}\mathrm{\Omega }_c\right)\right],$$
(5)
which is suppressed by $`\delta _Qϵ^2/N_c^3`$ relative to the $`𝒪(N_c)`$ baryon mass, can be used to extract $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c^{}=2770.7\pm 5.9`$ MeV. Thus, it is possible to evaluate the charm baryon mass hierarchy and compare with theory. For bottom baryons, only the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_b^0`$ mass is measured. Using heavy quark spin-flavor symmetry, it is possible to predict all of the other bottom baryon masses in terms of the charm baryon masses .

Figure 1 plots seven of the eight independent mass combinations of the lowest-lying charm baryon spin-flavor multiplet. \[The mass splitting Eq. (5) is not plotted since it was used to determine the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c^{}`$ mass.\] The first mass combination is the leading order $`N_c\mathrm{\Lambda }+m_Q`$ baryon mass where $`Q=c`$. The remaining mass splittings are order $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ times $`\frac{1}{N_c}`$, $`ϵ`$, $`\frac{ϵ}{N_c}`$, $`\frac{ϵ^2}{N_c}`$, $`\frac{\delta _Q}{N_c}`$ and $`\frac{ϵ\delta _Q}{N_c^2}`$, respectively. Fig. 1 shows that the $`1/N_c`$ splitting is comparable to the $`ϵ`$ splitting, and that the $`\delta _Q/N_c`$ splitting is a bit larger than the $`ϵ/N_c`$ splitting for $`Q=c`$. The most suppressed splittings are consistent with the predicted $`\frac{ϵ^2}{N_c}`$ and $`\frac{ϵ\delta _Q}{N_c^2}`$ hierarchy as well.

It is possible to determine the $`1/m_Q`$-dependent contributions to the charm baryon mass splittings which do not violate heavy quark spin symmetry by comparison with the analogous mass splittings for baryons containing no heavy quark. The $`1/N_c`$ expansions of $`qqq`$ and $`Qqq`$ baryon masses are given in the flavor symmetry limit by

$`M_{(qqq)}`$ $`=`$ $`N_c\text{1}\text{1}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_c}}J_{\mathrm{}}^2,`$
$`M_{(Qqq)}`$ $`=`$ $`N_c\text{1}\text{1}+N_Qm_Q+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_c}}J_{\mathrm{}}^2`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_c^2m_Q}}N_QJ_{\mathrm{}}^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_cm_Q}}\left(J_{\mathrm{}}J_Q\right),`$
which shows that the $`N_Q`$ and the $`N_QJ_{\mathrm{}}^2`$ splittings can be extracted by making this comparision.

Figure 2 plots the $`1/m_Q`$-dependent portion of the first five mass splittings of Fig. 1 together with the two heavy quark spin-violating mass splittings (points 6 and 7) of Fig. 1. The first mass (point 1) yields $`m_Q`$ or the charm quark mass at leading order in $`1/m_Q`$, whereas the six other mass splittings are order $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ times the the dimensionless suppression factors $`\frac{\delta _Q}{N_c^2}`$, $`\frac{ϵ\delta _Q}{N_c}`$, $`\frac{ϵ\delta _Q}{N_c^2}`$, $`\frac{ϵ^2\delta _Q}{N_c^2}`$, $`\frac{\delta _Q}{N_c}`$, and $`\frac{ϵ\delta _Q}{N_c^2}`$, respectively. It is interesting to note, for example, that the two $`\frac{ϵ\delta _Q}{N_c^2}`$ splittings (points 4 and 7) are in good agreement, showing that the same heavy quark symmetry-violating parameter $`\delta _Q`$ is governing heavy quark spin-conserving and spin-violating mass splittings.

## 3 CONCLUSIONS

The $`1/N_c`$ hierarchy of the $`1/N_c`$ expansion is evident in the masses of $`Qqq`$ baryons as well as $`qqq`$ baryons. The $`1/N_c`$ expansion, together with $`SU(3)`$ flavor violation and heavy-quark symmetry violation, gives a quantitative understanding of spin-flavor symmetry breaking for heavy quark baryons. An intricate pattern of spin-flavor symmetry breaking is predicted since $`1/N_c`$, $`ϵ`$, and $`\delta _Q`$ for $`Q=c`$ are comparable in magnitude. The same $`1/N_c`$ hierarchy is expected to appear for bottom baryon masses, and it is possible to predict the bottom baryon mass splittings in terms of charm baryon mass splittings. Heavy quark spin-flavor symmetry is a better symmetry for $`Qqq`$ baryons than for heavy quark mesons because violation of the spin-flavor symmetry is suppressed by factors of $`1/N_c`$ as well as $`1/m_Q`$.


text:
# Moments of inertia for neutron and strange stars: limits derived for the Crab pulsar

## 1 Introduction

The moment of inertia of neutron stars plays a crucial role in the models of radio pulsars. In the standard case of rigid rotation the total energy expenditure per unit time $`\dot{E}_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ is related to the measured pulsar angular frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and its time derivative $`\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}`$ by $`\dot{E}_{\mathrm{tot}}=I\mathrm{\Omega }\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}`$. However, even in the simplest case of slow rotation ($`\mathrm{\Omega }^2(c/R)^2GM/Rc^2`$, $`R\mathrm{\Omega }c`$) characteristic of observed radio pulsars, the relation of $`I`$ to the matter distribution within the star is complicated by the general relativistic effects such as the dragging of the local inertial frames. Among all global neutron star parameters the moment of inertia is the most sensitive to the dense matter equation of state (EOS). The “theoretical maximum mass” of neutron stars increases by a factor of two when going from the softest to the stiffest EOS. The “theoretical maximum moment of inertia” however increases then by a factor of seven (Haensel 1990). In view of this particular sensitivity of $`I`$ to the largely unknown equation of state (EOS) of dense matter at supra-nuclear density, it is of interest to look for observational evaluations $`I`$, which could then be used to constrain theoretical models.

In the present paper we use recent evaluations of the parameters of the expanding Crab nebula, in order to derive constraints on the Crab-pulsar neutron star. In Sect. 2 we reconsider the energetics of the Crab nebula, and using expanding-shell model of the nebula we derive a constraint on the moment of inertia of the Crab pulsar. In Sect. 3 we derive approximate formulae for $`I`$ of neutron stars and strange stars, based on a statistical analysis of a numerical data sample obtained for thirty theoretical EOSs of dense matter. These formulae are then used in Sect. 4 to derive constraints in the $`MR`$ plane, implied by the value of $`I_{\mathrm{Crab}}`$, deduced in Sect. 2. Appendix presents results of an analysis of the correlation between the maximum value of $`I`$ and the mass and radius of the configuration with maximum allowable mass.

## 2 Energetics of the Crab nebula and constraints on $`I_{\mathrm{Crab}}`$

The present values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}`$ for the Crab pulsar are $`188.119\mathrm{s}^1`$ and $`2.36610^{13}\mathrm{s}^2`$, respectively (Lyne & Graham-Smith 1998). Therefore, the present rate of the rotational energy loss is

$$I\mathrm{\Omega }\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}=\dot{E}_{\mathrm{rot}}=4.4510^{38}I_{45}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1.$$
(1)
It is commonly accepted that $`\dot{E}_{\mathrm{rot}}`$ has to account for the luminosity of the pulsar and the nebula, as well as for the accelerated expansion of the nebula, so that

$$\dot{E}_{\mathrm{rot}}>\dot{E}_{\mathrm{rad}}+\dot{E}_{\mathrm{exp}}.$$
(2)
Although the nebula has a complicated shape we will assume for simplicity that it is spherically symmetric with a radius $`R_{\mathrm{neb}}1.25`$pc (see e.g. Douvion et al. 2001, Petersen 1998). The total power of radiation in the X, UV, and optical domains is given by Petersen (1998):

$$\dot{E}_{\mathrm{rad}}1.510^{38}\left(\frac{d}{2\mathrm{kpc}}\right)^2\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1.$$
(3)
Nugent (1998) calculated the velocities of expansion of 50 bright filaments by comparing their positions on four high-resolution photographs taken in 1939, 1960, 1976 and 1992. After projecting the motion of filaments backward in time, he obtained convergence in AD $`1130\pm 16`$ yr, in accordance with Trimble (1968). The calculated moment of the supernova event is by $`\mathrm{\Delta }=76\mathrm{yr}`$ later than the date recorded by the Chinese astronomers, AD 1054. Therefore, the actual expansion had a non-zero acceleration. Assuming a constant value of the acceleration, $`\dot{v}`$, and putting the present mean expansion velocity, determined from the measurements of the spectra, $`v1.510^8\mathrm{cm}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (e.g. Davidson & Fesen 1985, Bietenholtz et al. 1991, Sollerman et al. 2000), we obtain

$$\dot{v}=\frac{2v\mathrm{\Delta }}{T^2}0.8210^3\mathrm{cm}\mathrm{s}^2.$$
(4)
The Crab nebula expands in the interstellar, mostly hydrogenic, gas. Let the number density of the hydrogen atoms be $`n_\mathrm{H}`$. The expanding shell sweeps the interstellar medium, which becomes a part of the shell after being accelerated to the shell velocity. Consequently, the mass of the nebula increases at the rate

$$\dot{M}_{\mathrm{neb}}=4\pi R_{\mathrm{neb}}^2n_\mathrm{H}m_\mathrm{H}v,$$
(5)
where $`m_\mathrm{H}`$ is the mass of the hydrogen atom. The corresponding rate of the kinetic energy injection needed to support the expansion is $`\dot{M}_{\mathrm{neb}}v^2/2`$. The total power needed to support the nebula expansion is therefore

$$\dot{E}_{\mathrm{exp}}=M_{\mathrm{neb}}v\dot{v}+2\pi R_{\mathrm{neb}}^2n_\mathrm{H}m_\mathrm{H}v^3.$$
(6)
Under our assumptions, $`\dot{E}_{\mathrm{rot}}`$ should exceed the sum $`\dot{E}_{\mathrm{rad}}+\dot{E}_{\mathrm{exp}}`$. This condition results in a lower-bound on the moment of inertia of the Crab pulsar,

$$I_{\mathrm{Crab}}>\frac{\dot{E}_{\mathrm{exp}}+\dot{E}_{\mathrm{rad}}}{\mathrm{\Omega }|\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}|}.$$
(7)
which can be rewritten as

$`I_{\mathrm{Crab},45}>0.34\left({\displaystyle \frac{d}{2\mathrm{kpc}}}\right)^2+0.55{\displaystyle \frac{M_{\mathrm{neb}}}{M_{}}}+`$
$`0.15\left({\displaystyle \frac{R_{\mathrm{neb}}}{1\mathrm{pc}}}\right)^2{\displaystyle \frac{n_\mathrm{H}}{0.2\mathrm{cm}^3}}.`$ (8)
We will use the canonical distance to the Crab nebula given by Davidson & Fesen (1985), $`d=1.83`$ kpc. The second term on the right-hand-side of Eq. (8) is the most important one - alas, it is also the most uncertain. Davidson & Fesen (1985) give the estimate $`23M_{}`$, while MacAlpine & Uomoto (1991) evaluate this mass as $`12M_{}`$. The most recent estimate was obtained by Fesen et al. (1997), who get much higher value $`4.6\pm 1.8M_{}`$.

In what follows, we will consider two estimates of $`M_{\mathrm{neb}}`$. The lower one, $`2M_{}`$, is a mean of the evaluations given by Davidson & Fesen (1985) and MacAlpine & Uomoto (1991). The higher one, $`4.6M_{}`$, uses the ”central value” of the mass calculated by Fesen et al. (1997).

Most recent estimates of $`n_\mathrm{H}`$ are based on the evaluation of the hydrogen column density in the direction of Crab. Such a method yields $`n_\mathrm{H}0.5\mathrm{cm}^3`$ (Sollerman et al. 2000, Willingale et al. 2001). However, this might be a severe overestimate of $`n_\mathrm{H}`$, because the Crab radiation goes through the Galaxy disk on his way to the detector. In view of this, we will prefer to use a conservative value $`n_\mathrm{H}=0.2\mathrm{cm}^3`$ quoted by Manchester & Taylor (1977).

Using the above mentioned values of the quantities entering the right-hand-side of Eq. (8), we get two lower bounds for the moment of inertia $`I_{\mathrm{Crab}}`$, corresponding to two different estimations of the Crab nebula mass: $`I_{\mathrm{Crab},45}>1.61`$ for $`M_{\mathrm{neb}}=2M_{}`$, and $`I_{\mathrm{Crab},45}>3.04`$ for $`M_{\mathrm{neb}}=4.6M_{}`$.

## 3 The $`I(M,R)`$ correlation

In their seminal paper, Ravenhall & Pethick (1994) studied the properties of the ratio $`I/MR_{\mathrm{}}^2`$, where $`R_{\mathrm{}}`$ stands for an apparent (radiation) stellar radius, determined in the analyzes of thermal radiation from the close by neutron stars,

$$R_{\mathrm{}}=\frac{R}{\sqrt{12GM/Rc^2}},$$
(9)
where $`R`$ is the coordinate radius of the space-time metric. In particular, they found that for an intermediate range of $`(M/M_{})(\mathrm{km}/R)0.050.15`$ the ratio $`I/MR_{\mathrm{}}^2`$ stays nearly constant, and depends rather weakly on the dense matter EOS. This finding resulted in their approximate formula for $`I`$.

In our quest for a universal, i.e., independent of the specific EOS approximate relation between $`I`$, $`M`$ and $`R`$, we relied on a large set of more than thirty EOSs of dense matter. This set includes various models of dense matter, which were obtained under different hypotheses on the composition of the matter at $`\rho >2\rho _0`$, where $`\rho _0=2.710^{14}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$ is the normal nuclear density. Considered compositions of the super-dense matter in neutron stars (NS) include: nucleons and leptons (EOSs of Baldo et al. 1997, Bombaci 1995, Balberg & Gal 1997; Balberg et al. 1999; Bethe & Johnson 1974, Pandharipande 1971, Pandharipande & Ravenhall 1989, Douchin & Haensel 2001, Wiringa et al. 1988, Walecka 1974, Haensel & Prószyński 1980, Akmal et al. 1998); nucleons, hyperons, and leptons (EOSs of Glendenning 1985, 1997, Balberg & Gal 1997, Weber et al. 1991, Balberg et al. 1999); deconfined quark matter mixed with baryonic matter (EOSs of Glendenning 1997); pion and kaon condensates coexisting with baryonic matter, in a pure or a mixed-phase configuration (EOSs of Glendenning 1997, Kubis 2001). We considered also three models of self-bound absolutely stable strange quark matter, forming hypothetical strange stars (SS; EOS of Haensel et al. 1986). After studying various types of correlations between $`I`$, $`M`$ and $`R`$, we found, in accordance with Lattimer & Prakash (2001), that it is the ratio $`I/MR^2`$ which has the most universal dependence on the compactness $`M/R`$. Our result is seen in Fig. 1.

In what follows, we will use, following Ravenhall & Pethick (1994), the dimensionless compactness parameter $`xM/R\mathrm{km}/M_{}`$. The dependence of $`I/MR^2`$ on $`x`$ is well approximated, up to $`M_{\mathrm{max}}`$, by a function $`a(x)`$, different for neutron stars (NS) and strange stars (SS), $`a_{\mathrm{NS}}(x)=\{\begin{array}{cc}x/(0.1+2x),\hfill & \mathrm{if}x0.1\hfill \\ \frac{2}{9}(1+5x),\hfill & \mathrm{if}x>0.1\hfill \end{array}`$

$$a_{\mathrm{SS}}(x)=\frac{2}{5}(1+x).$$
(10)
The difference in the $`x`$-dependence of $`I/MR^2`$ between neutron stars and strange stars stems from the qualitative difference in their density profiles. The density profile within a moderate mass strange star is very flat. On the contrary, density falls by many orders in the outer layer of a neutron star. Consequently, at a same $`x0.2`$, $`(I/MR^2)_{\mathrm{SS}}>(I/MR^2)_{\mathrm{NS}}`$ (the case of $`x>0.2`$ will be discussed later in this section). As we see in Fig. 1, the precision of the formulae given in Eqs. (3) is typically better than 10%. The formula for neutron stars breaks down only at very low $`M`$, below $`0.2M_{}`$. Such low masses do not seem relevant for neutron stars observed as pulsars. 111Approximate formula for very low values of $`M/R`$ corresponding to the vicinity of the $`M_{\mathrm{min}}0.1M_{}`$ is given in the footnote on p. 850 of Ravenhall & Pethick (1994).(We believe, that we have found a couple of misprints in this footnote: the equation for very small $`x=M/R`$ should be rewritten as $`I7.5M^2R`$, and for greater $`x`$, $`I/MR^2\mathrm{\Lambda }(R)0.230.07(110x)^2\sqrt{x}`$) The formula for $`a_{\mathrm{SS}}`$ looses its validity only for very low-mass ($`M<0.1M_{}`$) strange stars with crust. On the contrary, the formula for $`I`$ becomes exact for low-mass bare strange stars, because they are Newtonian and their density is to a very good approximation constant, which corresponds to $`a_{\mathrm{SS}}2/5`$.

The overall upper-bound on $`x`$ is reached at $`M_{\mathrm{max}}`$ for a pure causality-limit EOS $`P=c^2(\rho \rho _\mathrm{s})`$, and does not depend on $`\rho _\mathrm{s}`$: $`x_{\mathrm{max}}^{\mathrm{CL}}=0.240`$ (see Lindblom 1984, Haensel et al. 1999). Within General Relativity, static compact star models with EOS satisfying $`v_{\mathrm{sound}}c`$ have $`xx_{\mathrm{max}}^{\mathrm{CL}}`$. We obtain $`a_{\mathrm{NS}}(x_{\mathrm{max}}^{\mathrm{CL}})=0.489`$ and $`a_{\mathrm{SS}}(x_{\mathrm{max}}^{\mathrm{CL}})=0.496`$, so that in the $`x=x_{\mathrm{max}}^{\mathrm{CL}}`$ limit $`a_{\mathrm{SS}}a_{\mathrm{NS}}`$ within about 1%.

## 4 Estimate of $`I_{\mathrm{Crab}}`$ and constraints in the $`MR`$ plane

In Sect. 2 we obtained two lower bounds for the Crab pulsar moment of inertia $`I_{\mathrm{Crab}}`$, which depend on the different evaluations of the expanding shell mass: $`I_{\mathrm{Crab},45}>1.61`$ for $`M_{\mathrm{neb}}=2M_{}`$ (conservative estimate), and $`I_{\mathrm{Crab},45}>3.04`$ for $`M_{\mathrm{neb}}=4.6M_{}`$ (newest estimate).

These bounds on $`I_{\mathrm{Crab}}`$, combined with our fitting formulae, derived in Sect. 3, imply constraints on the mass and radius of the Crab pulsar (for details, see Fig. 2). Neutron star configurations below the thick solid lines are ruled out. The weaker, conservative constraint eliminates a number of soft and moderately stiff EOS.

For those EOS which are acceptable, this constraint gives the range of possible mass and radius of the Crab pulsar, $`M_{\mathrm{Crab}}>1.2M_{}`$ and $`R_{\mathrm{Crab}}=1014`$ km. The second ($`M_{\mathrm{neb}}=4.6M_{}`$) constraint is much more dramatic. Only a very stiff EOSs are accepted, because $`M_{\mathrm{Crab}}=1.9M_{}`$ and $`R_{\mathrm{Crab}}=1415\mathrm{km}`$.

For the strange-star model we obtain strong constraints (thick dashed line in Fig. 2) even for the conservative estimate $`M_{\mathrm{neb}}=2M_{}`$: $`M_{\mathrm{Crab}}^{(\mathrm{SS})}>1.5M_{},R_{\mathrm{Crab}}^{(\mathrm{SS})}=1011\mathrm{km}`$. Putting $`M_{\mathrm{neb}}=4.6M_{}`$ excludes definitely the strange-star model. Note, however, that the strange-star constraint is likely to be an academic one anyway because the glitches in the timing of the Crab pulsar are widely believed to rule-out the strange-star model (Alpar 1987, nevertheless see Glendenning & Weber 1992).

The formula expressing $`I`$ in terms of $`M`$ and $`R`$ may be useful for putting constraints, resulting for pulsar observations, on the neutron-star models. Consider a pulsar-powered supernova remnant of the Crab type. If the measured total power needed to sustain the radiation of the system and the acceleration of the nebula expansion is $`\dot{E}_{\mathrm{tot}}`$, this implies the lower bound on the pulsar moment of inertia, $`I>\dot{E}_{\mathrm{tot}}/(\mathrm{\Omega }|\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}|)`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}`$ are measured pulsar angular frequency and its time derivative. Reliable estimates of $`\dot{E}_{\mathrm{tot}}`$, combined with “empirical formula” for $`I`$, would then imply constraints on the neutron-star models in the $`MR`$ plane. Bounds for the mass and radius of the Crab pulsar obtained for $`M_{\mathrm{neb}}=4.6M_{}`$ are very strong and should therefore be considered with caution. More advanced models of the structure and evolution of the Crab nebula deserve to be developed. This problem will be addressed in a subsequent paper.

###### Acknowledgements.

We would like to thank Prof. B. Paczyński for helpful remarks. This research was partially supported by the KBN grant No. 5P03D.020.20.

## Appendix: Correlation between $`I_{\mathrm{max}}`$ and $`M_{\mathrm{max}}`$, $`R_{M_{\mathrm{max}}}`$

The fact that $`a_{\mathrm{NS}}`$ and $`a_{\mathrm{SS}}`$ converge at the highest values of compactness parameter suggests that there might exist a universal correlation between the maximum value of $`I`$, $`I_{\mathrm{max}}`$, and $`M_{\mathrm{max}}`$ and $`R_{M_{\mathrm{max}}}`$, valid for both neutron stars and strange stars. Such a correlation has been pointed out by Haensel (1990) for a set of nineteen EOS developed in 1970s and 1980s: $`I_{\mathrm{max},45}=0.98(M_{\mathrm{max}}/M_{})(R_{M_{\mathrm{max}}}/10\mathrm{km})^2`$. For the EOS set considered by Haensel (1990) this “empirical formula” reproduced values of $`I_{\mathrm{max}}`$ with an overall accuracy $`\chi ^2=0.03`$. 222In the present paper the value of $`\chi ^2`$ is actually scaled by the variance, i.e., it is equal to the standard value of $`\chi ^2`$ divided by $`\sigma ^2`$. Such a treatment is convenient in our case, where we have to compare the qualities of different fits. Within our sample of numerical results, obtained for selected thirty EOSs, we found correlation $`I_{\mathrm{max}}𝒞(M_{\mathrm{max}}/\mathrm{M}_{})(R_{M_{\mathrm{max}}}/10\mathrm{km})^2`$, the same as in (Haensel 1990), but with a slightly lower numerical factor $`𝒞=0.97`$; the overall fit is characterized by $`\chi ^2=0.05`$. The value of $`\chi ^2`$ can be significantly reduced if one takes into account an additional correlation between the ratio $`I_{\mathrm{max}}/(M_{\mathrm{max}}R_{M_{\mathrm{max}}}^2)`$ and the maximum compactness parameter $`x_{\mathrm{max}}`$ reached at $`M_{\mathrm{max}}`$. The improved empirical formula yields:

$$I_{\mathrm{max},45}(0.368+7.122x_{\mathrm{max}})\left(\frac{M_{\mathrm{max}}}{\mathrm{M}_{}}\right)\left(\frac{R_{M_{\mathrm{max}}}}{10\mathrm{km}}\right)^2.$$
(11)
It is valid both for neutron stars and strange stars, with the overall quality of the fit $`\chi ^2=0.02`$. The coefficient $`𝒞=0.97`$ in the simplest empirical formula corresponds to an “average value of $`x_{\mathrm{max}}`$”, $`\overline{x}_{\mathrm{max}}=0.19`$. Some general statements concerning different classes of the EOS can be made. The “empirical formula”, Eq. (11), under-estimates $`I_{\mathrm{max}}`$ for the superluminal EOSs. On the contrary, it overestimates $`I_{\mathrm{max}}`$ for the EOSs with high-density softening due to the appearance of hyperons. Finally, for the “minimal composition EOSs” (nucleons and leptons) as well as for the strange matter EOSs, our formula reproduces $`I_{\mathrm{max}}`$ within better than $`5\%`$.

A different, very precise formula for $`I_{\mathrm{max}}`$ of strange stars (bare or with crust) results from “scaling properties” (Haensel et al. 1986) of the configurations with $`M_{\mathrm{max}}`$ and $`I_{\mathrm{max}}`$. For the simplest model of strange quark matter composed of massless, non-interacting quarks, scaling with respect to the value of the bag constant implies exact relation $`I_{\mathrm{max},45}=0.94\left(M_{\mathrm{max}}/M_{}\right)\left(R_{M_{\mathrm{max}}}/10\mathrm{km}\right)^2`$. After inclusion of the QCD interaction and finite strange-quark mass the above equation is no longer exact. For $`m_\mathrm{s}c^2=(150200)`$MeV, the numerical prefactor to be put in the expression for $`I_{\mathrm{max},45}`$ is 0.97, and the formula is precise within a few percent.

One might argue that the validity of a simplest ”empirical formulae” for $`I_{\mathrm{max}}`$ is a consequence of the fact that realistic EOSs are well approximated by the polytropes. For a polytropic EOS $`P=Kn_\mathrm{b}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ (where $`n_\mathrm{b}`$ is baryon density of matter) with a fixed $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, the relation $`I_{\mathrm{max},45}=𝒞(M/M_{})(R_{M_{\mathrm{max}}}/10\mathrm{km})^2`$ is exact, with $`𝒞`$ independent of $`K`$. We get $`𝒞_{\mathrm{\Gamma }=2}=0.83`$ and $`𝒞_{\mathrm{\Gamma }=3}=1.04`$, so that the ”best fit” value for realistic EOSs lies roughly in the middle of the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2`$ values. However, the realistic EOSs at super-nuclear densities are not polytropes. One can speak only about a local, density dependent $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(n_\mathrm{b})`$. For example, in the case of dense matter with hyperons the EOS softens considerably (and in a discontinuous way) at the thresholds for the appearance of a new hyperon, with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ dropping below one (Balberg & Gal 1997). Clearly, the validity of the empirical formula for $`I_{\mathrm{max}}`$ is not due to the polytropic character of the EOS of dense matter.


text:
# The 𝐾-group of ℝ-constructible Sheaves

## Abstract

Let $`Z`$ be a smooth projective manifold. In these notes I will prove that the $`K`$-group of $``$-constructible sheaves is isomorphic to the free abelian group with one generator for each open semialgebraic subset $`U`$ (which I will denote by the same letter) modulo the Mayer-Vietoris relations: $`U+VUVUV=0`$.

I will prove it by showing that both groups in question are isomorphic to the group of all integer-valued semialgebraic functions on $`Z`$.

Let us introduce notations first. Let $`Z`$ be a smooth projective manifold. The $`K`$-group of $``$-constructible sheaves on $`Z`$ will be denoted by $`𝔎`$. Let $`𝔊`$ denote the factor-group of the free abelian group with one generator for each open semialgebraic set $`U`$ by the subgroup generated by expressions of the form $`U+VUVUV=0`$. Let $`𝔉`$ denote the group of all integer-valued semialgebraic functions on $`Z`$. For any subset $`SZ`$, let $`\chi _S`$ denote the indicator function of $`S`$, $`_S`$ the constant sheaf on $`S`$, and $`j_S:SZ`$ the inclusion map.

###### Theorem 1

$`𝔊𝔉𝔎`$. The composition isomorphism $`𝔊\stackrel{~}{}𝔎`$ sends $`U`$ into $`[j_{U!}(_U)]`$.

Proof. Since for any open $`U,VZ`$ we have $`\chi _U+\chi _V\chi _{UV}\chi _{UV}=0`$, we have a well-defined map

$$\alpha :𝔊𝔉,U\chi _U.$$

Integer-valued semialgebraic functions are integral linear combinations of characteristic functions of semialgebraic sets. By definition, a semialgebraic set is a disjoint union of locally closed ones. Let $`QZ`$ be a locally closed semialgebraic set, write $`Q=UC`$, where $`U`$ and $`C`$ are open and closed semialgebraic sets respectively. Then

$$\chi _Q=\chi _{UC}=\chi _U\chi _{UC}$$

which shows that $`\alpha `$ is surjective.

###### Lemma 2

$`\alpha `$ is injective and hence isomorphism.

Proof. Suppose that $`_ia_iU_iG`$ ($`a_i\{0\}`$) is such that $`_ia_i\chi _{U_i}=0`$. We need to show that $`_ia_iU_i=0`$ in $`𝔊`$. Applying the Mayer-Vietoris relations we can assume that all the $`U_i`$’s are connected. Grouping terms we can assume that all the $`U_i`$’s are different. Let $`M=\mathrm{max}_i|a_i|`$.

First we will show that using the Mayer-Vietoris relations we can arrange the $`U_i`$’s so that any two $`U_j`$, $`U_k`$ are either disjoint or one is contained in the other. Let us call two sets $`A`$ and $`B`$ *overlapping* if $`AB\mathrm{}`$, $`AB\mathrm{}`$ and $`BA\mathrm{}`$. That is $`A`$ and $`B`$ overlap if they have nonempty intersection and none of them is contained in the other.

Fix a finite Borel measure $`\mu `$ on $`Z`$ such that $`\mu (U)>0`$ whenever $`U`$ is a nonempty open set.

Let us check that we can always find two overlapping sets with coefficients of the same sign as long as there are some overlapping sets. Suppose that $`U_j`$ and $`U_k`$ overlap and $`a_j>0`$, $`a_k<0`$. Pick points $`x_1U_jU_k`$ and $`x_2U_jU_k`$ (such points exist because $`U_j`$ and $`U_k`$ are connected). Then $`(a_j\chi _{U_j}+a_k\chi _{U_k})(x_1)>(a_j\chi _{U_j}+a_k\chi _{U_k})(x_2)`$. Since $`_ia_i\chi _{U_i}(x_1)=_ia_i\chi _{U_i}(x_2)=0`$, there exists $`l`$ such that $`a_l\chi _{U_l}(x_1)<a_l\chi _{U_l}(x_2)`$. Let us say $`a_l>0`$, then $`x_2U_l`$ and $`x_1U_l`$. It easily follows that $`U_j`$ and $`U_l`$ overlap and $`a_j`$ has same sign as $`a_l`$. If $`a_l<0`$, then for the same reasoning $`U_k`$ and $`U_l`$ overlap and $`a_k`$, $`a_l`$ have same signs.

Suppose that $`U_j`$ and $`U_k`$ overlap and $`a_ja_k>0`$ or $`a_ja_k<0`$, then we replace $`a_jU_j+a_kU_k`$ with $`(a_ja_k)U_j+a_k(U_jU_k)+a_j(U_jU_k)`$. The open set $`U_jU_k`$ may not be connected in which case we replace it with algebraic sum of its connected components. Observe that the number $`_i|a_i|\mu (U_i)`$ does not increase, and it decreases if and only if at least one cancellation is performed. That is either $`U_jU_k`$ or one of the connected components of $`U_jU_k`$ appeared in the original expression $`_ia_iU_i`$ with coefficient of opposite sign. Also, the number $`\mathrm{max}_i|a_i|`$ does not increase either.

We will show that if we keep performing these replacements then the process will stop after a finite number of steps, that is we will arrive at an expression with no overlaps.

Indeed, observe that the number of expressions of the form $`_ib_iV_i`$ where $`0<|b_i|M`$ and $`V_i`$’s are distinct connected open sets obtained from $`U_i`$’s by taking unions and connected components of intersections is finite. Thus to show that the process stops it is enough to check that we cannot get the same expression twice. For the sake of contradiction suppose an expression $`E`$ appeared twice. Then because the function $`_i|a_i|\mu (U_i)`$ is non-increasing it must stay constant. Thus there will be no cancellations in the coefficients at each step.

Let $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ consists of all open sets $`U`$ satisfying the following two properties:

1. The set $`U`$ appears in the expression $`E`$ or in an intermediate expression.
2. If $`U`$ appears in $`E`$, then there is an intermediate expression where $`U`$ appears with a coefficient of larger absolute value than in $`E`$.

$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is not empty because the very first step introduces an element of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, namely a connected component of $`U_jU_k`$. Clearly, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is finite. Let $`V`$ be a minimal element of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, that is $`V`$ is not contained in any other $`V^{}\mathrm{\Omega }`$. But then once $`V`$ appears in an intermediate expression with coefficient of greater absolute value than in $`E`$ it cannot be canceled. Thus we arrive at contradiction which proves that no expression can appear twice. Therefore, the process terminates at an expression with no overlaps.

Our last step is to show that the sum $`_ia_iU_i`$ is empty when there are no overlaps. Suppose not, then pick any $`U_j`$ which is not contained in any other $`U_k`$. Since $`a_j0`$ there must be $`U_k`$ such that $`U_kU_j`$ and no other $`U_l`$ contains $`U_k`$. Since $`U_j`$ is connected, $`U_jU_k\mathrm{}`$ and we can pick a point $`xU_jU_k`$. Then because there are no overlaps $`0=_ia_i\chi _{U_i}(x)=a_j\chi _{U_j}(x)=a_j0`$, a contradiction. This finishes our proof of the lemma. $`\mathrm{}`$

Next we construct a map

$$\beta :𝔎𝔉.$$

If $`\mathrm{\S }`$ is an $``$-constructible sheaf, $`\beta (\mathrm{\S })`$ is a function whose value at a point $`zZ`$ is the dimension of the stalk of $`\mathrm{\S }`$ at $`z`$. Clearly, this map descends to the $`K`$-group. It is also clear that if $`U`$ is an open semialgebraic subset of $`Z`$, then $`\beta (j_{U!}(_U))=\chi _U`$. On the other hand, the elements $`[j_{U!}(_U)]`$ generate $`𝔎`$ and one can show that the map $`\beta `$ is injective and surjective using the same reasoning as for $`\alpha `$. Thus $`\beta `$ is an isomorphism. Alternatively, Theorem 9.7.1 in \[KaScha\] states that $`\beta `$ is an isomorphism.

As a result we obtain an isomorphism

$$\beta ^1\alpha :𝔊𝔎$$

which sends $`U`$ into $`[j_{U!}(_U)]`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

matvei@math.umass.edu

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, LEDERLE GRADUATE RESEARCH TOWER, 710 NORTH PLEASANT STREET, AMHERST, MA 01003