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# ITP Budapest 586 August 2002 Lattice QCD Results at Finite Temperature and Density

## 1 Introduction

QCD at finite temperatures ($`T`$) and/or chemical potentials ($`\mu `$) is of fundamental importance, since it describes particle physics in the early universe, in neutron stars and in heavy ion collisions. According to the standard picture, at high $`T`$ and/or high density there is a transition from a state dominated by hadrons to a state dominated by partons. The expression “transition” (which occurs at the transition temperature $`T_c`$) is used for first/second order phase transitions and crossovers. (Observables change rapidly during a crossover, but no singularities appear.) Extensive experimental work has been done with heavy ion collisions at CERN and Brookhaven to explore the $`\mu `$-$`T`$ phase boundary at relatively small $`\mu `$ values. At large $`\mu `$ a rich phase structure is conjectured .

There are well established nonperturbative lattice techniques to study this transition at vanishing density. At $`\mu `$=0 we have fairly good description of the transition (e.g. the order of the transition as a function of the quark masses or the the equation of state as a function of T). For recent reviews see the summaries of the lattice conferences  or the review talk on finite T lattice QCD at this conference .

Our knowledge is far more limited at nonvanishing $`\mu `$. Due to the sign problem (oscillating signs lead to cancellation in results, a phenomenon which appears in many fields of physics) nothing could have been said for almost 20 years about the experimentally important case at nonvanishing densities. In the last year new, and for the first time successful approaches appeared and physically relevant results were obtained .

The aim of this review is to give a self-contained picture on the lattice approach at $`\mu `$$``$0 for real QCD (QCD-like models, such as SU(2), random matrix or NJL models are not discussed). In Section 2 the qualitative features of the phase diagram are summarised both at $`\mu `$=0 and $`\mu `$$``$0. Section 3 briefly presents the lattice formulation and shows the associated sign problem. The main emphasis is put to the origin of the problem and technical details are not discussed. In Section 4 the two new techniques (the overlap improving multi-parameter reweighting  and the analytic continuation ) are presented. Readers who are not interested in the origin of the sign problem and in the new techniques should skip Section 3 and 4. In Section 5 results of the Budapest group  are listed (the phase line, the location of the critical endpoint and the equation of state at $`\mu `$$``$0). They are obtained by the direct application of the overlap improving multi-parameter reweighting. Section 6 gives the findings  of the Bielefeld-Swansea group (the phase line, the equation of state at $`\mu `$$``$0 and $`T`$$``$$`T_c`$ and the response of the critical endpoint to the change of $`\mu `$). They also use the multi-parameter reweighting technique; however, the $`\mu `$-dependence of the determinant is approximated by a Taylor expansion. Section 7 discusses the phase line obtained by analytic continuation . Section 8 concludes.

## 2 Qualitative features of the phase diagram

Our knowledge on the phase diagram of QCD at $`\mu `$=0 and $`\mu `$$``$0 is summarized on Figure 1. Some ingredients are rigorous lattice results, others are indications from models.

What are the characteristics of the $`\mu `$$`T`$ phase diagrams, relevant for heavy ion collisions? (See the right panel of Figure 1.) One of the most interesting features of the phase diagram is a critical endpoint E connecting the first order phase transition line with the crossover region, which separates the low T hadronic and high T quark-gluon plasma phases. It is a long-standing open question, whether such a critical point exists on the $`\mu `$-$`T`$ plane, and particularly how to predict theoretically its location .

Let us discuss first the $`\mu `$=0 case (see the left panel of Figure 1; note, that now we study only those features of the figure, which are relevant for the critical endpoint at $`\mu `$$``$0, for more details see  and references therein). Universal arguments  and lattice results  indicate that in a hypothetical QCD with a strange (s) quark mass ($`m_s`$) as small as the up (u) and down (d) quark masses ($`m_{u,d}`$) there would be a first order phase transition at finite $`T`$ (point in the E–B–F region). The $`n_f`$=2 case with small (but nonvanishing) u/d quark masses but with $`m_s=\mathrm{}`$ there would be no phase transition only an analytical crossover. This means that between the two extremes there is a critical strange mass ($`m_s^c`$) at which one has a second order finite $`T`$ phase transition. $`n_f`$=2+1 lattice results with two light quarks and $`m_s`$ around the $`T_c`$ indicated that $`m_s^c`$ is about half of the physical $`m_s`$. Thus, in the real world we probably have a crossover. (Clearly, more work is needed to approach the chiral and continuum limits .)

At nonvanishing $`\mu `$, arguments based on a variety of models predict a first order finite $`T`$ phase transition at large $`\mu `$. Combining the $`\mu =0`$ and large $`\mu `$ informations an interesting picture emerges on the $`\mu `$-$`T`$ plane. For the physical $`m_s`$ the first order phase transitions at large $`\mu `$ should be connected with the crossover on the $`\mu =0`$ axis. This suggests that the phase diagram features a critical endpoint $`E`$ (with chemical potential $`\mu _E`$ and temperature $`T_E`$), at which the line of first order phase transitions ($`\mu >\mu _E`$ and $`T<T_E`$) ends . At this point the phase transition is of second order and long wavelength fluctuations appear, which results in characteristic experimental consequences, similar to critical opalescence. Passing close enough to ($`\mu _E`$,$`T_E`$) one expects simultaneous appearance of signatures, which exhibit nonmonotonic dependence on the control parameters , since one can miss the critical point on either of two sides. The location of this endpoint is an unambiguous, nonperturbative prediction of the QCD Lagrangian. Unfortunately, no ab initio, lattice work was done earlier to locate the endpoint. Only results from models  were available.

The goal of present $`\mu `$$``$0 lattice studies is to determine the phase diagram, to locate the endpoint and also to calculate the equation of state.

## 3 Lattice QCD and the sign problem at $`\mu `$$``$0

The continuum QCD Lagrangian in Euclidean spacetime is $`=\frac{1}{4}F_{\mu \nu }^aF^{a\mu \nu }+\overline{\psi }(D_\mu \gamma ^\mu +m)\psi `$. The first term gives the gauge, the second one the fermionic contribution. In the discretised lattice formulation the anti-commuting $`\psi (n)`$ quark fields live on the sites ($`n`$) of the lattice, whereas the $`A_\mu ^a`$ gluon fields are used as link ($`U_\mu (n)`$) and as plaquette ($`P_{\mu \nu }(n)`$) variables

$$U_\mu (n)=\mathrm{exp}(ig_s_n^{n+e_\mu }𝑑x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu }A_\mu ^a(x^{})\lambda _a/2),P_{\mu \nu }(n)=U_\mu (n)U_\nu (n+e_\mu )U_\mu ^{}(n+e_\nu )U_\nu ^{}(n)$$
(1)
Here $`\mu `$ represents the direction and $`e_\mu `$ the corresponding unit vector. Similarly to the continuum formulation the action $`S=S_g+S_f`$ consists of the pure gluonic and the fermionic parts. The gluonic part is written with the help of the plaquettes: $`S_g=6/g_s^2_{n,\mu ,\nu }\left[1\mathrm{Re}(\mathrm{Tr}P_{\mu \nu }(n))\right]`$, where $`g_s`$ is the gauge coupling. The fermionic part on the lattice needs a differencing scheme for quarks. In the naive, noninteractive case one obtains: $`\overline{\psi }(x)\gamma ^\mu _\mu \psi (x)\overline{\psi }(n)\gamma ^\mu (\psi (n+e_\mu )\psi (ne_\mu ))`$. The interacting case has $`D_\mu `$ instead of $`_\mu `$, thus the gauge field is also included: $`\overline{\psi }(x)\gamma ^\mu D_\mu \psi (x)\overline{\psi }(n)\gamma ^\mu U_\mu (n)\psi (n+e_\mu )+\mathrm{}`$ (fermion doublers do not play any role in the sign problem, therefore we do not discuss them). Fermion fields appear only in bilinear expressions, thus we can write $`S_f=\overline{\psi }(n)M_{nm}\psi (m)`$, where M is the $`U`$-dependent fermion matrix. Note, that the number of raws or coloumns of M is proportional to the lattice volume. In our case the matrix M is sparse, only diagonal ($`m`$) and next-neighbour ($`U_\mu `$) elements are nonvanishing.

Our system can be described by the Euclidean partition function. It is given by integrating the Boltzmann weights over the gauge and fermionic fields. The action is bilinear in the fermionic variables, thus this part of the integral can be calculated explicitely.

$$\text{Z}=𝒟U𝒟\overline{\psi }𝒟\psi e^{S_gS_f}\text{=}𝒟Ue^{S_g}detM(U).$$
(2)
The remaining integral over the $`U`$ fields is calculated by stochastic methods. A canonical ensemble of field configurations is generated by Monte-Carlo algorithms. Observables are obtained as averages over the field configurations. The intrinsic feature of these techniques is importance sampling, thus we sample only the most important configurations and these individual configurations have equal weights in the averages.

We use the most straightforward technique, the Metropolis algorithm as an illustration (the Metropolis method is very CPU-intensive, thus usually faster but more complicated techniques are used). The basic step of the method is a stochastic, reversible modification of a link variable: $`U_\mu (n)U_\mu ^{}(n)`$. It is accepted or rejected. The Metropolis condition

$$P(UU^{})=\mathrm{min}[1,\mathrm{exp}(S_g(U)S_g(U^{}))detM(U^{})/detM(U)]$$
(3)
gives the probability to accept the new $`U^{}`$ field variable. It is easy to show, that by sweeping through the whole lattice many times, we reach the canonical distribution, and physical observables can be determined. Note, that for real gauge fields $`detM(U)`$ is real, thus eq. (3) really has a probability interpretation. This feature is essential not only for the Metropolis algorithm, but for any importance sampling based method.

Our primary goal is to understand QCD at finite densities. As usual, finite densities can be studied by introducing a chemical potential. One adds the following term to the continuum action: $`\mu \overline{\psi }(x)\gamma _4\psi (x)`$. In this formula $`\mu `$ acts as a fourth component of an imaginary, constant vector potential . As we have seen real gauge fields result in real $`detM(U)`$; however, the inclusion of $`\mu `$ (thus a constant imaginary gauge field) gives complex $`detM(U)`$. This spoils the probability interpretation of eq. (3) and any other importance sampling based method. Instead of an ensemble of equally important configurations (importance sampling) we might have configurations with complex Boltzmann weights. These complex weights with oscillating real parts largely cancel each other in observables. In the literature this phenomenon is referred to as the “sign problem”.

## 4 New lattice techniques at finite chemical potential

The overlap improving multi-parameter reweighting  opened the possibility to study lattice QCD at nonzero $`T`$ and $`\mu `$. First one produces an ensemble of QCD configurations at $`\mu `$=0 and at T$``$0. Then the Ferrenberg-Swendsen type reweighting factors  of these configurations are determined at $`\mu `$$`0`$ and at a lowered T. The idea can be easily expressed in terms of the partition function

$`Z(\mu ,\beta )={\displaystyle 𝒟U\mathrm{e}^{S_g(\beta ,U)}detM(\mu ,m,U)}=`$ (4)
$`{\displaystyle 𝒟U\mathrm{e}^{S_g(\beta _0,U)}detM(\mu =0,m,U)\left\{\mathrm{e}^{S_g(\beta ,U)+S_g(\beta _0,U)}\frac{detM(\mu ,m,U)}{detM(\mu =0,m,U)}\right\}},`$
where $`S_g(U)`$ is the action of the gluonic field, $`\beta =6/g^2`$ fixes the coupling of the strong interactions ($`g`$). Note that for a given lattice $`T`$ is an increasing function of $`\beta `$. The quark mass parameter is $`m`$ and $`detM`$ comes from the integration over the quark fields (see eq.(2)). At nonzero $`\mu `$ one gets a complex $`detM`$ which has no probability interpretation, thus it spoils any importance sampling. Thus, the first line of eq. (4) at $`\mu `$$``$0, is rewritten in a way that the first part of the second line is used as an integration measure (at $`\mu `$=0, for which importance sampling works) and the remaining part in the curly bracket is measured on each configuration and interpreted as a weight factor $`\{w(\beta ,\mu ,m,U)\}`$. (For $`n_f`$$``$4 fractional powers of $`detM`$ is needed. This complication can be solved .)

The reweighting is performed along the best weight lines on the $`\mu `$$`\beta `$ plane (or equivalently on the $`\mu `$$`T`$ plane). One such line is the transition line. The best weight lines are determined by minimising the spread of $`\mathrm{log}w`$. The technique works for $`T`$ at, below and above $`T_c`$. Using the above weights any observable $`𝒪`$ can be determined at $`\mu `$$``$0

$$\overline{𝒪}(\beta ,\mu ,m)=\frac{\{w(\beta ,\mu ,m,U)\}𝒪(\beta ,\mu ,m,U)}{\{w(\beta ,\mu ,m,U)\}}.$$
(5)
The method is illustrated on Fig. 3. Using multi-parameter reweighting one simultaneously changes T and $`\mu `$. A much better overlap can be obtained by the multi-parameter reweighting than by the single $`\mu `$-reweighting Glasgow-method . The Glasgow-method reweights pure hadronic configurations to transition ones. By the new technique transition (or hadronic/QGP) configurations are reweighted to transition (or hadronic/QGP) ones. Since the original ensemble is collected at $`\mu `$=0 one does not expect that even the new technique is able to describe the physics of the large $`\mu `$ region with e.g. colour superconductivity. Fortunately, the typical $`\mu `$ values at present heavy ion accelerators are smaller than the covered region.

An alternative approach  uses Taylor expansion of eqs. (4,5) as a function of $`\mu `$ (or $`m`$) and hence estimates the derivatives of various quantities with respect to $`\mu `$ (or $`m`$). Thus, for the case of a Taylor expansion in $`\mu `$ one has

$`\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{detM(\mu )}{detM(0)}}\right)={\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mu ^n}{n!}}{\displaystyle \frac{^n\mathrm{ln}detM(0)}{\mu ^n}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}R_n\mu ^n.`$ (6)
Instead of using the explicit form of the determinants in eq. (4) the Bielefeld-Swansea group used the derivatives in $`\mu `$. Compared to the explicit calculation of the determinants, the Taylor technique needs less CPU-time (derivatives can be estimated stochastically); however, only valid for somewhat smaller $`\mu `$ values than the full technique.

The other promising and absolutely independent approach is the analytic continuation from imaginary to real chemical potentials . One computes first the critical line for imaginary chemical potential. For these $`\mu `$ values there is no sign problem, therefore Monte-Carlo simulations based on importance sampling can be carried out. One can check the convergence of the Taylor expansion of the critical line, thus $`\beta _c`$ as a function of Im($`\mu `$). The convergence seems to be surprisingly fast for the whole range of chemical potentials accessible to this method. Analytic continuation of the Taylor series then reduces to simply flipping the sign of the appropriate terms. Finally, the infinite volume limit has to be taken from the continued results at real $`\mu `$. Using this technique the phase line separating the hadronic and quark-gluon plasma phases were determined . The order of the transition can then be determined in a $`(V,\mu )`$-range where the truncation error of the series is smaller than finite size scaling effects.

## 5 Overlap improving multi-parameter reweighting: direct approach

This section summarizes some results of the Budapest group  obtained in 2+1 flavour dynamical staggered QCD on $`N_t`$=4 lattices.

Figure 4 shows the phase diagram on the $`\mu `$–T plane in physical units, thus $`T_c`$ as a function of $`\mu _B`$, the baryonic chemical potential (which is three times larger then the quark chemical potential). The analysis is consisted of three steps. First one determines the transition points as a function of $`\mu `$. Then the $`V\mathrm{}`$ behaviour is inspected to separate the crossover and the first order phase transition region. Finally one transforms lattice units into physical ones. In physical units the endpoint  is at $`T_E=160\pm 3.5`$ MeV, $`\mu _E=725\pm 35`$ MeV. At $`\mu _B`$=0 we obtained $`T_c=172\pm 3`$ MeV. Note, that due to CPU-limitations in this analysis the light quark masses are approximately three times larger than their physical value and the lattice spacing is $``$0.28 fm. Clearly more work is needed to extrapolate to the thermodynamic, chiral and continuum limits.

The equation of state at $`T0`$ and $`\mu 0`$ is also determined . In order to help the continuum interpretation of the figures we normalize the raw lattice results with the dominant correction factors between $`N_t`$=4 and the continuum in the $`T\mathrm{}`$ (Stefan-Boltzmann; SB) case (see Ref. ). Therefore, the results presented on the figures might be interpreted as continuum estimates and could be directly used in phenomenological applications.

Figure 5 shows the pressure ($`p`$) at $`\mu `$=0 and $`\mathrm{\Delta }p`$($`T`$,$`\mu `$)=$`p`$($`T`$,$`\mu `$)-$`p`$($`T`$,$`\mu `$=0) normalized by $`T^4`$. Note, that normalizing $`\mathrm{\Delta }p`$($`T`$,$`\mu `$) by $`\mathrm{\Delta }p`$($`T\mathrm{}`$,$`\mu `$) leads to an almost universal $`\mu `$-independent function . The left panel of Figure 6 shows $`ϵ`$-3$`p`$ normalized by $`T^4`$, which tends to zero for large $`T`$ ($`ϵ`$ is the energy density). The right panel gives the baryon number density as a function of $`T/T_c`$ for different $`\mu `$-s. As it can be seen the densities exceed the nuclear density by up to an order of magnitude.

## 6 Overlap improving multi-parameter reweighting: Taylor expansion

This section summarizes some results of the Bielefeld-Swansea group  obtained in dynamical staggered QCD with p4 action on $`N_t`$=4 lattices.

Instead of evaluating the determinants in eq. (4) explicitely one can approximate them by using a Taylor expansion as given by eq. (6). One calculates observables as a function of $`\mu `$ using eq. (5). The left panel of Figure 7 shows the chiral susceptibility as a function of the gauge coupling for three different $`\mu `$ values. Note, that the peak indicates the transition and that its position moves as $`\mu `$ changes. Since the gauge coupling is directly connected to T one can convert the position of the peaks into physical units and obtain the $`T_c`$ as a function of $`\mu `$ (right panel of Figure 7). The authors of Ref.  concludes that the curvature of the phase diagram at $`\mu `$=0 is in good agreement with that of Ref.  (they show the endpoint of Ref.  by a diamond signaled as Fodor & Katz).

The equation of state was also studied at small $`\mu `$ values. At the RHIC point both $`ϵ`$ and $`p`$ increase by around 1% from its $`\mu `$=0 value. Along the transition line their change is consistent with zero within the current precision .

In a hypothetical QCD with degenerate quark masses and $`m_\pi `$$``$$`m_K`$$``$190 MeV the critical endpoint is at $`\mu `$=0. Note, that $`\mu `$$``$0 values correspond to larger critical masses ($`m_{crit}`$). A preliminary result is shown in Figure 8. Using the $`\mu `$ dependence of $`m_{crit}`$ one could, in principle, estimate the location of the endpoint for physical quark masses.

## 7 Analytic continuation from imaginary $`\mu `$

This section summarizes the results obtained by the analytic continuation technique. $`N_t`$=4 lattices are used with 2 flavour  and 4 flavour  dynamical staggered QCD.

In Ref.  an alternative approach was developed, avoiding reweighting in $`\mu `$ altogether. This is achieved by simulating with imaginary $`\mu `$, where there is no sign problem and hence no need for reweighting. In this case one may fit the nonperturbative data of an observable (even of the critical line) by truncated Taylor series in $`\mu /T`$ (see left panel of Figure 9). In the absence of nonanalyticities, the series may be analytically continued to real values of $`\mu `$ (right panel of Figure 9). For the transition temperature  one gets $`T_c(\mu )=T_c(0)0.0056\mu ^2/T`$ (note, that similar value was obtained in four flavour QCD by Ref. ). These results are in complete agreement with those of the previous two sections.

Performing the analytic continuation for different volumes, a finite volume scaling analysis should reveal the nature of the transition. In particular, it might then be possible to locate the critical endpoint by this technique, too.

## 8 Conclusions

Due to the notorious sign problem this is the first time that basic thermodynamic quantities could be obtained on the lattice at finite chemical potentials. Completely different new techniques lead to very similar result, which indicates that in the near future lattice QCD could be a major contributor to the field. Clearly, more work has to be done in order to reach the thermodynamic, chiral and continuum limits.

Acknowledgements: The work has been partially supported by Hungarian Scientific grants, OTKA-T34980/T29803/M37071/OMFB1548/OMMU-708. Preliminary results from the Bielefeld-Swansea group are also acknowledged .


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# Probing Confinement with Chromomagnetic Fields

## Abstract

Using the lattice Schrödinger functional we study vacuum dynamics of SU(3) gauge theory at finite temperature. The vacuum is probed by means of an external constant Abelian chromomagnetic field. We find that by increasing the strength of the applied external field the deconfinement temperature decreases towards zero. This implies that strong enough Abelian chromomagnetic fields destroy confinement of color.

To study vacuum structure of lattice gauge theories we introduced  a gauge invariant effective action, defined by means of the lattice Schrödinger functional

$$𝒵[U_\mu ^{\mathrm{ext}}]=𝒟Ue^{S_W}.$$
(1)
$`S_W`$ is the standard Wilson action and the functional integration is extended over links on a lattice $`L_s^3\times L_4`$ with the hypertorus geometry and satisfying the constraints ($`x_t`$: temporal coordinate)

$$U_k(x)|_{x_t=0}=U_k^{\mathrm{ext}}(x),(k=1,2,3),$$
(2)
$`U_k^{\mathrm{ext}}(x)`$ being the lattice version of the external continuum gauge field $`\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}(x)=\stackrel{}{A}_a^{\mathrm{ext}}(x)\lambda _a/2`$.

The lattice effective action for the external static background field $`\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}(x)`$ is given by

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }[\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}]=\frac{1}{L_4}\mathrm{ln}\left\{\frac{𝒵[\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}]}{𝒵[0]}\right\}$$
(3)
and is invariant for gauge transformations of the external links $`U_k^{\mathrm{ext}}`$.

At finite temperature $`T=1/aL_t,L_tL_s`$, we introduced  the thermal partition function in presence of a given static background field:

$$\begin{array}{cc}& 𝒵_T\left[\stackrel{}{A}^{\text{ext}}\right]=\hfill \\ & _{U_k(L_t,\stackrel{}{x})=U_k(0,\stackrel{}{x})=U_k^{\text{ext}}(\stackrel{}{x})}𝒟Ue^{S_W}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(4)
In this case the relevant quantity is the free energy functional

$$F[\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}]=\frac{1}{L_t}\mathrm{ln}\frac{𝒵_T[\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}]}{𝒵_T[0]}.$$
(5)
We used the above defined lattice effective actions to investigate the response of the vacuum to an external constant Abelian chromomagnetic field:

$$\stackrel{}{A}_a^{\mathrm{ext}}(\stackrel{}{x})=\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}(\stackrel{}{x})\delta _{a,3},A_k^{\mathrm{ext}}(\stackrel{}{x})=\delta _{k,2}x_1H.$$
(6)
On the lattice we have:

$$\begin{array}{cc}& U_1^{\mathrm{ext}}(\stackrel{}{x})=U_3^{\mathrm{ext}}(\stackrel{}{x})=\mathrm{𝟏},\hfill \\ & U_2^{\mathrm{ext}}(\stackrel{}{x})=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}\mathrm{exp}(i\frac{gHx_1}{2})& 0& 0\\ 0& \mathrm{exp}(i\frac{gHx_1}{2})& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right]\hfill \end{array}$$
(7)
To be consistent with the hypertorus geometry we impose that the magnetic field is quantized:

$$\frac{a^2gH}{2}=\frac{2\pi }{L_1}n_{\mathrm{ext}},n_{\mathrm{ext}}\text{integer}.$$
(8)
This field gives rise to constant field strength, then due to gauge invariance it is easy to show that both the vacuum energy density and the free energy density are proportional to spatial volume $`V=L_s^3`$. Therefore the relevant quantity is the density of energy $`\epsilon [\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}]`$ or free energy $`f[\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}]`$. At zero temperature we consider the derivative of $`\epsilon [\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}]`$ with respect to $`\beta `$ by taking $`gH`$ fixed and consider only the contribution due to the dynamical links (i.e. the links that are not constrained in the functional integration):

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \epsilon _{\mathrm{int}}^{}[\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}]& =\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{int}}}\underset{x\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }},\mu >\lambda }{}\frac{1}{3}\text{Re}\text{Tr}U_{\mu \nu }(x)_0\hfill \\ & \frac{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{int}}}\underset{x\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }},\mu >\lambda }{}\frac{1}{2}\text{Re}\text{Tr}U_{\mu \nu }(x)_{\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}},\hfill \end{array}$$
(9)
where $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ is the ensemble of the internal lattice sites. In order to extract $`\epsilon _{\mathrm{int}}(\beta ,n_{\mathrm{ext}})`$ we can numerically integrate the data for $`\epsilon _{\mathrm{int}}^{}(\beta ,n_{\mathrm{ext}})`$ using the trapezoidal rule.

We find that our data satisfy the scaling law:

$$x^\alpha \frac{\epsilon _{\mathrm{int}}^{}(\beta ,n_{\mathrm{ext}},L_{\mathrm{eff}})}{\epsilon _{\mathrm{ext}}^{}}=\kappa (\beta ).$$
(10)
where $`x=\frac{a_H}{L_{\mathrm{eff}}}`$, $`a_H=\sqrt{\frac{2\pi }{gH}}`$ is the magnetic length, and $`L_{\mathrm{eff}}=\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{int}}^{1/4}`$ is the lattice effective linear size (see Fig. 1). In Eq. (10) $`\epsilon _{\mathrm{ext}}^{}`$ is the derivative of the classical energy due to the external applied field $`\epsilon _{\mathrm{ext}}^{}=\frac{2}{3}[1\mathrm{cos}(\frac{gH}{2})]=\frac{2}{3}[1\mathrm{cos}(\frac{2\pi }{L_1}n_{\mathrm{ext}})]`$ . Remarkably, the value of the exponent $`\alpha =1.5`$ in Eq. (10) agrees with the one we found for the SU(2) gauge theory. From Eq. (10) we can determine the infinite volume limit of the vacuum energy density $`\epsilon _{\mathrm{int}}`$:

$$\underset{L_{\mathrm{eff}}\mathrm{}}{lim}\epsilon _{\mathrm{int}}(\beta ,n_{\mathrm{ext}},L_{\mathrm{eff}})=0.$$
(11)
As a consequence, in the continuum limit the SU(3) vacuum screens the external chromomagnetic Abelian field.
At finite temperature the relevant quantity is the $`\beta `$-derivative of $`f[\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}]`$:

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill f^{}[\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}]& =\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{int}}}\underset{x\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }},\mu <\nu }{}\frac{1}{3}\text{Re}\text{Tr}U_{\mu \nu }(x)_0\hfill \\ & \frac{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{int}}}\underset{x\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }},\mu <\nu }{}\frac{1}{3}\text{Re}\text{Tr}U_{\mu \nu }(x)_{\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(12)
It turns out that, if we start with the SU(3) gauge system at zero temperature in a constant Abelian chromomagnetic background field of fixed strength and increase the temperature, then the perturbative tail of the $`\beta `$-derivative of the free energy density increases with $`1/L_t`$ and tends towards the “classical” value. So that, we may conclude that by increasing the temperature there is no screening effect in the free energy density confirming that the zero-temperature screening of the external field is related to the confinement. Moreover, $`f_{\mathrm{int}}^{}(\beta ,n_{\mathrm{ext}})`$ can be used to get an estimate of the deconfinement temperature $`T_c`$. To this end, we evaluate $`f^{}[\stackrel{}{A}^{\mathrm{ext}}]`$ as a function of $`\beta `$ for different lattice temporal sizes $`L_t`$. To determine the pseudocritical couplings we parameterize $`f^{}(\beta ,L_t)`$ near the peak as

$$\frac{f^{}(\beta ,L_t)}{\epsilon _{\mathrm{ext}}^{}}=\frac{a_1(L_t)}{a_2(L_t)[\beta \beta ^{}(L_t)]^2+1}.$$
(13)
Once determined $`\beta ^{}(L_t)`$ we estimate the deconfinement temperature as

$$\frac{T_c}{\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{latt}}}=\frac{1}{L_t}\frac{1}{f_{SU(3)}(\beta ^{}(L_t))},$$
(14)
with

$$f_{SU(N)}(\beta )=\left(\frac{\beta }{2Nb_0}\right)^{b_1/2b_0^2}\mathrm{exp}\left(\beta \frac{1}{4Nb_0}\right),$$
(15)
where $`N`$ is the color number, $`b_0=(11N)/(48\pi ^2)`$, $`b_1=(34N^2)/(3(16\pi ^2)^2)`$.

Following  we perform a linear extrapolation to the continuum of our data for $`T_c/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{latt}}`$ (see Fig. 2). We see that the continuum limit deconfinement critical temperature does depend on the applied Abelian chromomagnetic field.

Therefore we decided to vary the strength of the applied external Abelian chromomagnetic background field to study quantitatively the dependence of $`T_c`$ on $`gH`$. In Fig. 3 we display our determination of $`T_c`$ as a function of the external chromomagnetic field $`gH`$. We see that the critical temperature decreases by increasing the external Abelian chromomagnetic field. If the magnetic length $`a_H1/\sqrt{gH}`$ is the only relevant scale of the problem, then for dimensional reasons one expects that $`T_c^2gH`$ .

Indeed we try to fit our data with

$$\frac{T_c(gH)}{\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\text{latt}}}=\frac{T_c(0)}{\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\text{latt}}}+\alpha \sqrt{gH}.$$
(16)
We find a satisfying fit with $`\alpha =42.4\pm 7.4`$ and $`T_c(0)/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\text{latt}}`$ that agrees within errors with Ref. . We see that there exists a critical field $`gH_c0.68`$ such that $`T_c=0`$ for $`gH>gH_c`$.
The existence of a critical chromomagnetic field is naturally explained if the vacuum behaves as an ordinary relativistic color superconductor, a condensate of a color charged scalar field whose mass is proportional to the inverse of the magnetic length. A natural candidate for such tachyonic color charged scalar field is the famous Nielsen-Olesen unstable mode. However, it must be observed that the chromomagnetic condensate cannot be uniform due to gauge invariance of the vacuum, which disorders the system in such a way that there are not long range color correlations.
Another important aspect of this work might be related to astrophysics applications. Our results implies the exciting possibility of a new class of compact quark stars.


text:
# Outflows from ellipticals: the role of supernovae

## 1. Introduction

Several mechanisms have been suggested so far for the formation and evolution of elliptical galaxies. One scenario is based on an early monolithic collapse of a gas cloud or early merging of lumps of gas where dissipation plays a fundamental role (Larson 1974; Arimoto & Yoshii 1987; Matteucci & Tornambè 1987). In this scenario the star formation stops soon after a galactic wind develops and the galaxy evolves passively since then. Bursts of star formation in merging subsystems made of gas had been also suggested (Tinsley & Larson 1979); in this picture star formation stops after the last burst and gas is lost via stripping or wind. The alternative and more recent scenario is the so-called hierarchical clustering scenario, where merging of early formed stellar systems in a wide redshift range and preferentially at late epochs, is expected (Kauffmann et al. 1993). The main difference between the monolithic collapse and the hierarchical merging relies in the time of galaxy formation, occurring quite early in the former scenario (at reshifts $`z>3`$) and continuously in the latter scenario. There are arguments either in favour of the monolithic or the hierarchical scenario, but the former one gives a more likely picture since it can reproduce the majority of the properties of stellar populations in ellipticals, in particular some fundamental facts such as that the ellipticals are dominated by old stars (K-giants) and that the \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\]$`>0`$ in the dominant stellar population (Worthey et al. 1992; Weiss et al. 1995; Kuntschner et al. 2001). This high \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] ratio is the clear signature of the pollution from massive stars. The same occurs in the most metal poor stars in our Galaxy and is due to the fact that SNe II are the main producers of $`\alpha `$-elements (O, Ne, Mg, Si. S and Ca) whereas SNe Ia, which explode with a delay relative to type II SNe, are thought to be responsible for the production of Fe. Therefore, the high \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] ratio in ellipticals argues strongly in favor of a short period of star formation during which type Ia SNe did not have time to substantially pollute the insterstellar medium (ISM).

In this paper we will discuss a monolithic model (Pipino et al. 2002) for the formation and evolution of ellipticals, where these objects suffer a short ($``$ 1Gyr) but intense star formation period halted by a SN driven galactic wind. After the onset of the wind, which devoids the galaxy of all the gas present, star formation is assumed to stop. This is because the galaxy, after the wind, contains hot and rarified gas, a situation which is unfavorable to star formation. The time for the occurrence of the wind, $`t_{GW}`$, is therefore crucial in determining the evolution of the galaxy and the intracluster/intergalactic medium. Therefore, the assumptions about the energy transferred from SNe into the ISM are very important. Unfortunately, very little is known about this feed-back and one has to choose the assumptions which produce a realistic model for ellipticals. In section 2 we will discuss the condition for the occurrence of a galactic wind and the chemical evolution model. In section 3 we will present the results and draw a few conclusions.

## 2. The model for ellipticals

The model we are adopting here is described in detail in Pipino et al. (2002). The main feature of the model is that it assumes a strong star formation rate for ellipticals (roughly 20 times stronger than adopted in the solar vicinity) and takes into account in detail the contributions from SN II and Ia.

### 2.1. SN rates

It is very important to compute detailed SN rates, taking into account the stellar lifetimes ($`\tau _m`$), in order to study the different roles played by SNII and SN Ia in galaxy evolution.

Type II SNe originates from the explosion of massive stars ($`M>10M_{}`$), the SNII rate is:

$$R_{SNII}=_{M_m}^{M_M}\psi (t\tau _m)\varphi (m)𝑑m$$
(1)
with $`M_m=10`$ and $`M_M=100M_{}`$ and $`\varphi (m)`$ being the IMF. Type Ia SNe originate from the thermonuclear explosion of a CO-white dwarf (WD) in a binary system. The binary system can be made of a CO WD plus a red giant star or by two CO WDs. The type Ia SN rate in the single degenerate case can be written as:

$`R_{SNIa}=A{\displaystyle _{M_{Bm}}^{M_{BM}}}\varphi (m)[{\displaystyle _{\mu _{min}}^{0.5}}f(\mu )\psi (t\tau _{m2})𝑑\mu ]𝑑m`$
where $`\mu =\frac{M_2}{M_B}`$ (with $`M_2`$ mass of the secondary star) and $`M_B`$, the total mass of the binary system, is defined in the range 3-16 $`M_{}`$ (see Matteucci & Greggio, 1986).

### 2.2. Stellar nucleosynthesis

Type II SNe produce mainly $`\alpha `$-elements (O, Ne, Mg, Si, S, Ca) and part of Fe. The adopted yields are from Woosley & Weaver (1995). Type Ia SNe produce mainly Fe-peak elements ($`0.60.7M_{}`$ of Fe). The adopted yields are from Thielemann et al. (1993) The yields from low and intermediate mass stars ($`0.8M/M_{}8`$) are from Renzini & Voli (1981)

## 3. The development of a galactic wind

The condition for the occurrence of a wind, where for wind we intend an outflow which carries the gas out of the potential well of the galaxy, is:

$$(E_{th})_{ISM}E_{Bgas}$$
(3)
where $`(E_{th})_{ISM}`$ is the thermal energy of the gas and $`E_{Bgas}`$ is the potential energy of the gas.

### 3.1. The thermal energy of gas

The thermal energy of gas due to SN and stellar wind heating is:

$$(E_{th})_{ISM}=E_{th_{SN}}+E_{th_w}$$
(4)
with:

$$E_{th_{SN}}=_0^tϵ_{SN}R_{SN}(t^{^{}})𝑑t^{^{}}$$
(5)
and

$$E_{th_w}=_0^t_{12}^{100}\phi (m)\psi (t^{^{}})ϵ_w𝑑m𝑑t^{^{}}$$
(6)
for the contribution from SNe and stellar winds, respectively. The efficiencies of energy transfer from SNe into the ISM is $`ϵ_{SN}=\eta _{SN}ϵ_o`$ with $`ϵ_o=10^{51}`$erg (typical SN energy) and that typical of stellar wind is: $`ϵ_w=\eta _wE_w`$ with $`E_w=10^{49}`$erg (typical energy injected by a $`20M_{}`$ star).

The simplest approach is to consider the $`\eta _{SN}`$ and $`\eta _w`$ efficiencies as constant. Bradamante et al. (1998) estimated such efficiencies by computing the ratio between the energy in the shell of the supernova remnant and in the initial blast wave, at the time of the merging of the shell with the ISM, by taking into account results from hydrodynamical calculations. They found that under typical conditions, namely $`ϵ_o=10^{51}`$ erg, $`n_o=1cm^3`$ (density of the ISM) and $`c_o=10^6cmsec^1`$ (sound speed), $`\eta _{SN}`$=0.007-0.13 and $`\eta _w0.03`$. Therefore, the majority of the initial blast wave energy of SNe and stellar winds is radiated away. However, this hypothesis is strictly valid for an isolated object and multiple SN explosions can radically change the situation. In addition, the contributions from different SN types can be different. For example, SNe Ia exploding after type II should provide more energy into the ISM since they explode in a hot cavity.

In the present model we adopt a more complex formulation which assumes that the $`ϵ_{SN}`$ is varying in time. In particular, we assume the formulation of Cox (1972) for the efficiency of energy injection from SNe:

$$ϵ_{SN}=0.72ϵ_oerg$$
(7)
for $`t_{SN}t_c`$ , where $`t_c`$ is the cooling time of a supernova remnant, $`ϵ_o=10^{51}`$ erg is the explosion energy and $`t_{SN}`$ is the time elapsed from the SN explosion.

For $`t_{SN}>t_c`$ holds:

$$ϵ_{SN}=2.2ϵ_o(t_{SN}/t_c)^{0.62}erg$$
(8)
For the cooling time we adopt the formulation of Cioffi et al. (1988) as a function of metallicity:

$$t_c=1.4910^4ϵ_o^{3/14}n_o^{4/7}(Z/Z_{})^{5/14}yrs$$
(9)
It is worth noting that also with these prescriptions $`\eta _{SN}=0.010.02`$. Recchi et al. (2001) assumed that $`\eta _{SNII}=0.03`$ and $`\eta _{SNIa}=1`$ in successful chemodynamical models of dwarf irregular galaxies, in order to account for the fact that type Ia SNe occur with a delay and in an already hot cavity produced by type II SNe. Pipino et al. (2002) tried several assumptions for SN feedback in ellipticals including this one and concluded that no more than 35-40% of the initial blast wave energy of SNe II+ Ia should heat the ISM in order to have realistic models for ellipticals and the intracluster medium (ICM).

### 3.2. The potential energy of the gas

The total mass of the galaxy is expressed as $`M_{tot}(t)=M_{}(t)+M_{gas}(t)+M_{dark}(t)`$ with $`M_L(t)=M_{}(t)+M_{gas}(t)`$ being the luminous mass. The binding energy of the gas is computed as in Matteucci (1992 and references therein). For all galaxies here we assumed $`M_{dark}/M_L=10`$ and $`r_L/r_D=0.1`$, being the ratio between the effective radius and the radius of the dark matter core.

## 4. Model results

The galactic winds in the models for ellipticals in the mass range $`10^910^{11}M_{}`$ occur on a timescale less than 1 Gyr (Pipino et al. 2002). Therefore, due to the short star formation period assumed for ellipticals, the abundance ratios in their stars show the signature of type II SN nucleosynthesis, namely \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\]$`>`$0, as it is evident in figure 1 where we show the predictions of the model for the chemical composition of the gas in a galaxy with initial luminous mass $`10^{11}M_{}`$, Salpeter (1955) IMF and feedback prescriptions as in Recchi et al. (2001). In the figure is marked the age for the occurrence of a galactic wind ($`t_{GW}0.25`$ Gyr). After the wind no more star formation is taking place, so it is evident from the figure that the majority of the stars in this galaxy will show \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] $`>`$ 0, whereas the gas that goes into the ICM will show \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\]$`0`$. This is due to the occurrence of type Ia SNe which have a maximum at 0.3-0.5 Gyr (Matteucci & Recchi, 2001), namely after star formation has stopped. The same is true for the energetics of type II and Ia SNe if we assume $`\eta _{SNII}=\eta _{SNIa}`$. On the other hand, if SNe Ia are assumed to inject all of their initial blast wave energy, the situation is reverted, as shown in figure 1 (right side); SNe Ia dominate the energetics even before the onset of the wind.This also implies that both the energetics and the chemistry of the ICM are dominated by type Ia SNe (see Pipino et al. 2002). Finally, in figure 2 we show the predicted \[X/Fe\] vs. \[Fe/H\] relations for ellipticals of different initial luminous mass. Overimposed are the data for a Lyman-break galaxy MS 1512-cB58 at redshift $`z=2.7276`$ obtained by Pettini et al. (2002).

The good agreement between the predictions for ellipticals and the observations strongly suggest that Lyman-break galaxies at high redshift could be ellipticals in formation, thus supporting the monolithic scenario.

## References

Arimoto, N., Yoshii, Y. 1987, A&A

Bradamante, F., Matteucci, F., D’Ercole, A. 1998, A&A337, 338

Cioffi, D.F., McKee, C.F., Bertschinger, E. 1998, ApJ334, 252

Cox, D.P. 1972, ApJ178, 159

Kauffmann, G., White, S.D.M., Guiderdoni, B., 1993, MNRAS264, 201

Kuntschner, H., Lucey, J.R., Smith, R.J., Hudson, M.J., Davies, R.L., 2001 MNRAS323, 615

Larson, B.R. 1974, MNRAS166, 585

Matteucci, F. 1992, ApJ397, 32

Matteucci, F. Pipino, A. 2002, ApJ569, L69

Matteucci, F. Recchi, S. 2001, ApJ558, 351

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Pettini, M., Rix, S.A., Steidel, C.C., Adelberger, K.L., Hunt, M.P., Shapley, A.E., 2002, ApJ569, 742

Pipino, A., Matteucci, F., Borgani, S., Biviano, A., 2002, New Astronomy7, 227

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text:
# There is no unmet requirement of optical coherence for continuous-variable quantum teleportation

## Acknowledgments

I wish to acknowledge recent discussions with T. Rudolph, B. C. Sanders, C. Fuchs and S. L. Braunstein.


text:
# Untitled Document

The Effects of a Non-Ferroelectric Slab on the Polarization and the Susceptibility of the Ferroelectric Multilayer
Yin-Zhong Wu,1,2 Dong-Lai Yao1, Wen Dong1, and Zhen-Ya Li3,1 1Department of Physics, Suzhou University, Suzhou, 215006, China
2Department of physics, Changshu College, Changshu, 215500, China
3CCAST(World Laboratory), P. O. Box 8730, Beijing 100080, China

## Abstract

The polarization and the susceptibility of a ferroelectric multilayer with a non-ferroelectric slab are investigated within the framework of transverse Ising model with a four-spin interaction term. The effect of the thickness and the position of the non-ferroelectric slab are investigated in this paper. We find that the increase of the thickness of the non-ferroelectric will decrease the polarization and the susceptibility of the film. If the position of the non-ferroelcetric slab shifts from the center of the film to the surface, the number of the peaks of the susceptibility will change. And a step-like polarization curve is found.

Keywords: Ferroelectric heterostructure, Non-ferroelectric layer.

PACS number: 77.80
$``$ Mailing Address in China
E-mail: yzwu@csgz.edu.cn or zyli@suda.edu.cn

I. INTRODUCTION

During the past decade, there has been considerable interest in study of the ferroelectric heterostructure, such as ferroelectric film, multilayer, and superlattice. Heterostructure ferroelectric materials have important applications in ferroelectric memory, sensor, microelectromechanical system, and optical devices. Shen et al. studied a ferroelectric sandwich structure using the Ginzburg-Landau phenomenological theory, they investigated the effects of the long-range interaction and the thickness of the middle layer on the polarization of the ferroelectric sandwich structure. Wang and Kaneyoshi applied the transverse Ising model(TIM) to investigate the phase transition properties of the ferroelectric film, ferroelectric/ferroelectric superlattice, and ferroelectric bilayer. The ferroelectric/paraelectric superlattice was studied in experiments\[5-9\] and in theories\[10-11\]. The enhancement of remnant polarization is found in the epitaxial $`BaTiO_3/SrTiO_3`$ superlattice with asymmetric structure, which is about three times of the $`BaTiO_3`$ single-phase film formed under the same condition. And they proposed that the ferroelectric/paraelectric strained superlattice or multilayer was one of the effective approaches to enhance the remnant polarization of ferroelectric heterostructure. However, No study on the ferroelectric film with a non-ferroelectric slab is found in the literature. The non-ferroelectric slab inside the ferroelectric multilayer may be impurity or polymer, etc., which is inserted to the ferroelectric film to enhance the polarization and dielectric properties, or to improve the mechanical properties of the ferroelectric multilayer. Here we define the inserted slab as a non-ferroelectric slab uniformly. If a non-ferroelectric material is introduced into the ferroelectric film, what kind of interesting phenomenon, if any, will happen? What is its effect on the surface and the susceptibility of the film? This is the motivation of our paper. As is well known, the long-range interactions dominate in the ferroelectric materials\[12-14\]. We use the transverse Ising model with long-range interaction to investigate the ferroelectric film with a non-ferroelectric slab. Since most ferroelectric heterostructure, studied in the experiments, are the ferroelectric material with first-order phase transition, four-spin interaction is included in the transverse Ising model(TIM). The TIM is simple, however it is convenient. It has been successfully applied in the studying of the surface and size effects in finite ferroelectric system. We use the TIM to investigate the effects of the thickness of the ferroelectric slab and that of the non-ferroelectric slab on the average polarization, the surface polarization, and the susceptibility of the ferroelectric multilayer. We obtain that the thicker non-ferroelectric slab will lower the polarization, phase transition temperature, and the susceptibility of the film. The position of the non-ferroelectric slab will have an important role on the polarization and the susceptibility of the film. A step-like polarization is found when the non-ferroelectric slab sites on an asymmetric position. We give a detailed discussion about the origin of the step-like polarization in Sec.III.

II. Model and Formulation

We consider a sandwich structure composed of two-sided ferroelectric slabs and a middle non-ferroelectric slab with different number of layers. Each layer is defined on the $`x`$-$`y`$ plane. And pseudo spins site on a square lattice(see Fig. 1). For ferroelectric with a first-order phase transition, a term of four-spin interaction should be included in the transverse Ising model. The system can be described by the following Ising Hamiltonian in the presence of a transverse field,

$$H=\underset{<ij>}{}J_{ij}S_i^zS_j^z\underset{ijkl}{}J_{ijkl}S_i^zS_j^zS_k^zS_l^z\underset{i}{}\mathrm{\Omega }_iS_i^x2\mu E\underset{i}{}S_i^z,$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_i`$ is the transverse field. $`S_i^z`$ and $`S_i^x`$ are components of spin-1/2 operator at site $`i`$. $`\mu `$ is the dipole moment on site $`i`$, and $`E`$ is the applied electric field. $`J_{ij}`$ and $`J_{ijkl}`$ are the two-spin and four-spin interaction coupling constant respectively. Since the properties of the surface and the interface are different from those of the bulk, we distinguish the interactions of the pseudo spins and the transverse field on the surface and the interface from those inside the ferroelectric slabs.

$$J_{ij}=\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{J_s}{r_{ij}^\sigma },\hfill & \mathrm{for}i,j\mathrm{on}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{surface}\mathrm{layer},\hfill \\ \frac{J_b}{r_{ij}^\sigma },\hfill & \mathrm{for}i,j\mathrm{in}\mathrm{slab}\mathrm{A},\hfill \\ \frac{J_{in}}{r_{ij}^\sigma },\hfill & \mathrm{for}i,j\mathrm{on}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{interface},\hfill \\ \frac{J_b}{r_{ij}^\sigma },\hfill & \mathrm{for}i\mathrm{in}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{upper}\mathrm{slab}\mathrm{A},j\mathrm{in}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{down}\mathrm{slab}\mathrm{A},\hfill \end{array}$$

$$J_{ijkl}=\{\begin{array}{cc}J_{4s},\hfill & \mathrm{for}i,j,k,l\mathrm{on}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{surface},\hfill \\ J_{4b},\hfill & \mathrm{for}i,j,k,l\mathrm{inside}\mathrm{slab}\mathrm{A},\hfill \\ J_{4in},\hfill & \mathrm{for}i,j,k,l\mathrm{on}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{interface},\hfill \end{array}$$

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_i=\{\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{\Omega }_s,\hfill & \mathrm{for}i\mathrm{on}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{surface},\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Omega }_b,\hfill & \mathrm{for}i\mathrm{inside}\mathrm{ferroelectric}\mathrm{slabs},\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Omega }_{in},\hfill & \mathrm{for}i\mathrm{ontheinterface},\hfill \end{array}$$

where $`J_b`$ is the nearest-neighbor coupling constant inside slab $`A`$. $`J_s`$ is the nearest-neighbor pseudo-spin interaction constant on the surface of slab A. $`J_{in}`$ is the nearest neighbor pseudo-spin interaction constant on the interface. $`r_{ij}`$ is the distance between lattice site $`i`$ and $`j`$ ($`r_{ij}1`$), $`\sigma `$ is introduced to describe the magnitude of the long-range interaction. Here, the long-range interaction is supposed to decay as $`1/r^3`$ at large distance, and we take $`\sigma =3`$ in this paper. Considering that the environment of different site at the same layer is identical, we assume that the average value of the pseudo spin in the same layer of the ferroelectric slab has the same value. Within the frame work of the mean-field approximation and the decoupling approximation $`<s_j^zs_k^zs_l^z><s_j^z><s_k^z><s_l^z>`$ , the average pseudo spin along $`z`$ direction in $`ith`$ layer can be expressed as following:

$$R_i=<S_i^z>=\frac{<H_i^z>}{2|H_i|}\mathrm{tanh}\frac{|H_i|}{2k_BT},$$
(2)
where

$$<H_i^z>=\underset{j}{}J_{ij}R_j+\underset{jkl}{}J_{ijkl}R_jR_kR_l+2\mu E,$$

$$|H_i|=\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_i^2+(<H_i^z>)^2},$$
(3)
where $`i`$ runs over all the sites within the ferroelectric multilayer structure. In order to make the computation practicable, the long-range interaction is cut off at the 14th-neighbor in our calculations. It indicates that the value $`R_i`$ is related to $`R_j`$ for $`|r_{ij}|4`$ (according to our cut-off approximation). The error of the cut-off approximation can be neglected and the feasibility of the cut-off approximation has been discussed in our previous work. When $`i`$ runs over all the ferroelectric layers in the multilayer, the above Eq. (5) forms a set of simultaneous nonlinear equations from which $`R_i`$ can be calculated numerically. Then, the polarization of the $`ith`$ ferroelectric layer is

$$P_i=\{\begin{array}{cc}n\mu R_i,\hfill & \mathrm{for}i\mathrm{the}\mathrm{two}\mathrm{sided}\mathrm{ferroelectric}\mathrm{slabs},\hfill \\ 0,\hfill & \mathrm{for}i\mathrm{the}\mathrm{non}\mathrm{ferroelectric}\mathrm{slab},\hfill \end{array}$$

where $`n`$ is the number of pseudo spins in a unit volume. The average polarization of the multilayer is obtained:

$$P_{av}=\frac{1}{N}\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}P_i,$$
(4)
where $`N`$ is the total layers of the multilayer structure(including the non-ferroelectric layers).

The dielectric susceptibility of the ferroelectric multilayer is defined as

$$\chi (T)=\frac{P(E,T)}{E}|_{E=0}=\frac{1}{N}\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}2n\mu \frac{R_i(E,T)}{E}|_{E=0}.$$
(5)
The deviation $`\frac{R_i}{E}|_{E=0}`$ can be obtained by numerical differential calculation, then $`\chi (T)`$ is obtained numerically. By changing the position and the thickness of the non-ferroelectric slab, we investigate the effects of the non-ferroelectric slab on the polarization and the susceptibility of the ferroelectric film.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

As reported, the increase of the lattice parameter $`c`$ is caused by the mismatch of the in-plane lattice parameters between $`BaTiO_3`$/$`SrTiO_3`$. Here we take $`J_{in}>J_b`$ in order to ensure the enhancement of the polarization on the interface at a finite temperature. The coupling constant $`J_s`$ on the surface is weaker than the bulk in the general case. In this paper, we select $`J_{in}=2.0`$, $`J_s=0.5`$, and $`J_b=1.0`$. Different ratios of the four-spin and two-spin interaction coupling constant in the pure ferroelectric bulk material and ferroelectric film will result in many interesting phenomena, such as the change of the order of the phase transition. If $`J_s/J_b<1`$ and $`J_{4s}/J_{4b}<1`$, the polarization and the phase transition temperature are reduced at the surface. If $`J_{in}/J_b>1`$ and $`J_{4in}/J_{4b}>1`$, both of the polarization and the phase transition will increase at the interface. We take the four-spin interaction coupling constant as $`J_{4s}/J_s=J_{4b}/J_b=J_{4in}/J_{in}=6.0`$. The selected parameters will ensure that the order of phase transition of the corresponding bulk ferroelectric material is first-order, and the polarization of the interface between the ferroelectric layer and the non-ferroelectric layer will be enhanced.

Firstly, we investigate the effect of the thickness of the film on the polarization and the phase transition temperature of the film with fixed thickness of the middle non-ferroelectric slab. Let $`L_b=2`$, and $`L_a=L_a^{^{}}=2,5,8`$. From Fig. 2(a), we can see that the average polarization and the phase transition temperature of the film will increase with the increase of $`L_a`$($`L_a^{^{}}`$). And the surface polarization also follows this tendency (See Fig. 2(b)). If $`L_a=L_a^{^{}}`$, the ferroelectric film with a middle non-ferroelectric slab can be considered as two symmetric coupled ferroelectric film without defects. So, the increase of the thickness of the ferroelectric film with a fixed thickness of the non-ferroelcetric slab is equivalent to the increase of the thickness the ferroelectric film without defects. It is the reason why the polarization and the phase transition temperature increase with the increase of the thickness of the film with fixed value of $`L_b`$.

From Fig. 3, we can see as the increase of the non-ferroelectric slab, the average polarization of the film will decrease, and susceptibility of the film will also decrease. There are two reasons for the decrease of the average polarization. The first reason is the increase of the component of the non-ferroelectric slab. The second reason is that the corelation between the upside slab and the underside slab becomes weak when the thickness of the non-ferroelectric slab increases. The decrease of the susceptibility is resulted by the increase of the component of the non-ferroelectric slab that is irrelevant to the external electric field.

In order to investigate the position effects of the non-ferroelectric slab, the thickness of the non-ferroelectric and the total thickness of the film are fixed as $`L_b=1`$, $`L_{total}=11`$. The effects of the position of the non-ferroelectric slab on the polarization of the film and the upper surface are given in Fig. 4(a) and 4(b) respectively. It is found that the polarization of the upper surface and the film decrease with the decrease of the distance between the non-ferroelectric layer and the upper surface at low temperature, and increase with the decrease of the distance at the region of high temperature. The phase transition temperature goes up with the decrease of the distance. From Fig. 4, we can see a step-like polarization, which is also found in the pure ferroelectric thin film within the framework of the Landau Theory. As the shift of the position of the non-ferroelectric slab to the upper surface, the upper surface will become disordered more easily, compared with the whole film, as the increase of the temperature. Supposing only the nearest neighbor interactions are considered, the surface phase transition temperature will be lower than the film. This step-like polarization is not corresponding to the ferroelectric-ferroelectric phase transition defined in ref.. Here no phase transition is taken place at the temperature ($`T_s`$) where a step-like polarization occur. Due to the exist of the long-range interaction, the upper surface is still a ferroelectric state for $`T>T_s`$. We can safely say that the occurrence of the step-like polarization is associated with a partial disorder of the pseudo-spins at the surface. If the long-range interaction is not taken into account, the surface will become complete disordered at $`T=T_s`$. The more the non-ferroelectric slab near the surface, the larger polarization ”step” will occur.

The change of the susceptibility with the change of the position of the non-ferroelectric slab is given in Fig. 4(c). When the position of the non-ferroelectric slab shifts to the upper surface, two peaks is observed in the susceptibility curve, and the two peaks correspond to the disorder of the pseudo spins in the upside slab and the underside slab of the film respectively. As the decrease of $`L_a`$, the first peak will shift to the region of low temperature, and the second peak will shift to the high temperature region. When the non-ferroelectric slab sites on the middle position of the film($`L_a=L_a^{^{}}=5`$), only one peak of the susceptibility is found. This is because the upside slab and the underside slab are symmetric when the non-ferroelectric slab sites on the center of the thin film, the two peaks will merged into one.

In summary, we have investigated the polarization and the susceptibility of a ferroelectric film with first-order phase transition. The effects of the non-ferroelectric slab on the film can be concluded as follows: (1) The increase of the thickness of the non-ferroelectric slab will lower the polarization of the film and the susceptibility of the film. (2)When the position of the non-ferroelectric shifts to the upper surface, a step-like polarization is found in the surface, and the phase transition temperature of the ferroelectric film will be heighten, the number of the peaks of the susceptibility will change from one to two.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work was supported by the National Science Foundation of China under the grant No.10174049.

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CAPTIONS OF FIGURES

Fig. 1:

The schematic graph of a ferroelectric multilayer structure with a non-ferroelectric slab.

Fig. 2:

The surface polarization and the average polarization of the ferroelectric multilayer versus temperature for different thickness of the ferroelectric slab $`L_a`$ ($`L_a^{^{}}=L_a`$, $`L_b=2`$).

Fig. 3:

The surface polarization, the average polarization, and the susceptibility of the ferroelectric multilayer versus temperature for different thickness of the non-ferroelectric slab $`L_b`$ ($`L_a^{^{}}=L_a=5`$).

Fig. 4:

The surface polarization, the average polarization, and the susceptibility of the ferroelectric multilayer versus temperature for selected positions of the non-ferroelectric slab in the ferroelectric film. $`L_b=1`$, $`L_{total}=11`$.


text:
# Missing baryons and the soft X-ray background

## 1 Introduction

The X-ray background (XRB) is mostly generated by discrete extragalactic sources (e.g. Lehmann et al. (2001), and references therein). Among those sources, various classes of AGNs constitute a dominating part. Probably 5 to 10 % of the soft XRB is produced by hot gas in clusters of galaxies. Around and below $`1\mathrm{keV}`$ hot plasma in the Galaxy also contributes to the total background flux (Hasinger 1992). Apart from the source contribution, truly diffuse emission of extragalactic origin is also expected. Using hydrodynamic simulations Cen & Ostriker (1999) investigated evolution of the primordial gas density and temperature. Baryons not condensed in stars and interstellar medium within galaxies, occupy the intergalactic space and are spread over a wide range of temperatures and densities. This question is discussed in detail by Davé et al. (2000), Bryan & Voit (2001) and Croft et al. (2001). According to all the simulations, the hottest phase is located in the high mass concentrations of clusters of galaxies and it is responsible for the cluster X-ray emission. Relatively cold phase with temperature below $`10^5`$ K reveals its presence by the Lyman alpha forest. The fraction which still escapes detection, described as Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium (WHIM), comprises of $`30`$$`40`$ % of all baryons in the present-day universe (Davé et al. 2000). Its temperatures are between $`10^5`$ and $`10^7`$ K and the hottest and high density fragments surround mass concentrations as groups and clusters of galaxies. Thus, the thermal emission by WHIM should be easiest to detect in the soft X-rays in the vicinity of rich clusters and high galaxy density areas. However, as pointed by Bryan & Voit (2001), compact sources produce most of the background and observations put tight constraints on the level of truly diffuse XRB component.

Detailed analysis of the diffuse emission produced by the intergalactic medium has been presented by Bryan & Voit (2001) and Croft et al. (2001). Using hydrodynamic simulations they generated maps of the X-ray sky which included contribution from the WHIM component. These maps have been used to calculate the model autocorrelation function of the XRB at small angular scales (below $`10^{}`$) as well as the cross-correlation with the galaxy distribution.

In the present paper the distribution of the XRB in the vicinity of galaxy concentrations is carefully investigated from the observational point of view. Lick counts (Shane & Wirtanen 1967, hereafter SW111The Lick galaxy counts in $`10^{}`$ pixels have been kindly provided to us in the electronic form by Dr. M. Kurtz.) and Abell clusters of galaxies (Abell 1958, Abell et al. 1989) have been used to select areas of the high mass concentrations. Since the predicted WHIM temperatures are substantially lower than those of the intra-cluster gas, and the WHIM emission is softer that the average extragalactic XRB, the objective of our analysis is to look for the systematic variations of the XRB spectral slope as a function of the distance from peaks of the galaxy distribution. The expected WHIM contribution to the XRB is small in comparison to the total background flux. To increase signal-to-noise ratio we have measured the excess XRB flux around galaxy concentration using the cross-correlation technique. The X-ray data contained in the ROSAT All-Sky Survey (RASS) have been used. For a comprehensive description of the RASS see Snowden & Schmitt (1990), Voges et al. (1999) and Snowden et al. (1995). Due to limited angular resolution of the RASS we have concentrated on the larger scales than those investigated by Croft et al. (2001). In the next section the basic concept of our investigation is presented and in Sect. 3 results of calculations are given. We end our investigation with the short conclusions in the Sect. 4.

## 2 The Method

It is well established that the XRB exhibits fluctuations over a wide range of angular scales (e.g. Śliwa et al. (2001) and references therein). It is expected that the XRB variations result from the nonuniform distribution of sources which generate the XRB (e.g. Sołtan et al. (1999)). One should note, however, that intrinsically large, extended sources also produce fluctuations at the corresponding angular scales. Such fluctuations associated with rich clusters of galaxies have been detected by Sołtan et al. (1996). They calculated the cross-correlation function (CCF) between the distribution of the Abell clusters and the RASS maps. The region apparently free from the strong galactic emission has been used. The positive amplitude of the CCF extended up to $`7^{}`$ and $`3^{}`$ for nearby and more distant clusters, respectively. The CCF signal indicated that clusters are surrounded by halos of the enhanced X-ray emission. They estimated the average size of the halo at approximately $`20`$ Mpc. The amplitude of the X-ray enhancements above the average XRB level is extremely low. It amounts to about $`1`$ % of the total XRB surface brightness. Such weak signal could not be detected using an individual cluster observation but it was identified in the statistical sense in the cluster population using the cross-correlation analysis.

Two explanations have been proposed in the original paper: discrete and diffuse. In the discrete model the excess emission is produced by a large number of sources. The X-ray enhancements result from the fact that the spatial density of galaxies around clusters is larger. This increased density extends up to at least $`10`$ Mpc from the clusters (Seldner & Peebles 1977). Such concentrations of galaxies naturally generate excess X-ray volume emissivity, associated with the X-ray emission of normal galaxies and weak AGN sources populating those galaxies. In the diffuse model it was ad hoc assumed that the X-ray emission was produced in the extended hot clouds of gas surrounding the clusters.

These two models demonstrate significantly different spectral properties. As shown by Cen & Ostriker (1999) and Davé et al. (2000) the WHIM which would be a source of the X-ray enhancements contributes mostly at and below $`1\mathrm{keV}`$, while the normal galaxy and AGN emission is substantially harder and is expected to have spectral shape not distinctly different from the integrated XRB flux. The hot intra-cluster gas with $`\mathrm{k}T`$ typically between $`2`$ and $`10\mathrm{keV}`$ also produces a harder spectrum than the WHIM.

The CCF of the RASS and the SW counts has been determined in Sołtan et al. (1997). The clear correlation signal was interpreted as a result of the clustering of galaxies, but some indication of the extended emission associated with galaxies has been reported there.

The excess emission $`\delta \rho (\theta )`$ at angular distance $`\theta `$ from the randomly chosen galaxy or cluster is related to the amplitude of the corresponding CCF, $`w(\theta )`$, in the following way:

$$\delta \rho (\theta )=\rho w(\theta ),$$
(1)
where $`\rho `$ is the average XRB signal. The details of the CCF calculations are given in Sołtan et al. (1996). Here we recall the main points. The final RASS data are binned into $`12^{}\times 12^{}`$ pixels. We have binned the galaxy/cluster samples in the same way and the CCF was estimated using the formula:

$$w(\theta )=\frac{\frac{1}{m(\theta )}\underset{\mathrm{ij}}{}\rho _\mathrm{i}n_\mathrm{j}}{\overline{\rho }\overline{n}}1,$$
(2)
where $`\rho _\mathrm{i}`$ and $`n_\mathrm{j}`$ denote the X-ray count rate in the $`i`$-th pixel and number of galaxies/clusters in the $`j`$-th pixel, respectively; $`m(\theta )`$ is the number of pixel pairs with the separation equal to $`\theta `$ and the sum extends over all such pairs; $`\overline{\rho }`$ and $`\overline{n}`$ are the mean values of the XRB and galaxy/cluster distributions.

The objective of the present calculations is to determine the X-ray excess flux, $`\delta \rho (\theta )`$, as a function of the photon energy. Unfortunately, the energy range of the ROSAT PSPC useful in the present investigation covers a rather narrow energy range, roughly between $`0.7`$ and $`2.0\mathrm{keV}`$ 222The soft band below $`0.28\mathrm{keV}`$ is highly contaminated by local galactic emission (Snowden et al. 1995).. In the calculations we have used three standard ROSAT energy bands: R5, R6 and R7 with peak response at $`0.8`$, $`1.1`$ and $`1.5\mathrm{keV}`$, respectively (see Snowden et al. 1994 for details). Since the PSPC energy resolution is relatively poor, those bands overlap what additionally reduces the sensitivity of our analysis.

## 3 Results

In the present calculations we have used the data at high galactic latitude in the northern hemisphere ($`b>40^{}`$), where the extragalactic signal seems to be least contaminated by the galactic emission: $`70^{}<l<250^{}`$ (Sołtan et al. 1996). Although in this region some local contribution is still present, the CCFs between the RASS maps and optical samples are determined with relatively high accuracy.

Since the present calculations are based on the angular cross-correlations, the effect depends on the galaxy distances. The redshift distribution of SW galaxies is relatively wide with a median value of $`0.068`$ and $`80`$ % of galaxies have redshifts between $`0.045`$ and $`0.17`$. These estimates are based on extrapolations of the redshift distribution of the early SDSS data (Dodelson et al. 2001).

The Abell clusters (Abell 1958, Abell et al. 1989) have been divided into two distance groups. Sample I contains clusters with Distance Class $`1`$ through $`4`$ and all Richness Classes, and sample II contains DC = $`5`$ and RC $`1`$. In the investigated area samples I and II consist of 57 and 210 clusters, respectively. In our analysis both samples give consistent results for all three energy bands (see below). However, due to the small number of clusters in the sample I, uncertainties of our measurements for that sample are too large to draw restrictive conclusions on the spectral properties of the X-ray halos. For this reason, the subsequent analysis is limited to the sample II. Using the Abell et al. (1989) data it is estimated that $`80`$ % of DC $`=5`$ clusters have redshifts between $`0.07`$ and $`0.17`$.

The SW counts and Abell clusters cover comparable redshift ranges and the distributions of objects in both data sets are strongly correlated. To make the cross-correlation analysis of the SW and RASS data independent of the Abell clusters, all the calculations involving the SW galaxies were performed using a mask which removed the galaxies and X-ray flux related to clusters 333Radius of the masked out area depends on the cluster distance. For the nearest clusters (DC $`=1`$) pixels within $`48^{}`$ from the cluster position are removed, while for DC $`5`$ only pixels centered on the cluster and 8 neighbouring pixels are not used..

The results of our calculations are shown in Figs. 1 through 4 in the form of X-ray ‘colour-colour’ diagrams using different combinations of bands R5, R6 and R7. To see effects of gas temperature variations with distance from galaxy concentrations, the excess fluxes have been calculated using the corresponding CCF amplitudes at different separations. Data representing clusters are shown with squares while the data referring to SW galaxies – with pentagons.

In Fig. 1 the distribution of excess count rates in the R5 and R7 bands normalized to the cumulative count rate excess in all three bands is shown. The empty square representing the central cluster regions shows the emission determined from pixels containing the cluster center; the full symbol – represents the ‘halo’ region which is defined as an annulus with the inner and outer radius of $`0\stackrel{}{.}3`$ and $`2\stackrel{}{.}1`$. The solid and dotted ellipses denote $`68`$% and $`90`$% confidence areas. The SW data are shown for 4 separation bins: the largest symbol denotes signal for separations smaller than $`0\stackrel{}{.}3`$, and the next three pentagons of decreasing size represent three separation bins of $`0\stackrel{}{.}30\stackrel{}{.}7`$, $`0\stackrel{}{.}71\stackrel{}{.}5`$, and $`1\stackrel{}{.}53\stackrel{}{.}1`$, respectively.

To assess effectiveness and to inquire into potential systematic effects of our method, we have calculated also excess emission associated with the population of AGNs listed in the Veron catalogue (Véron-Cetty & Véron 2000).

Thermal Bremsstrahlung spectra are given by the solid curve; labels denote temperatures in keV. In Fig. 2 the same data points are superimposed on the solid curve indicating the location of pure power law spectra; marks with labels give the photon indices. Potential effects of the Local Bubble and our own Galaxy halo emission on the integrated background flux are shown with two dashed lines. The lower line represents the sum of the power law spectrum with the photon index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2`$ and the thermal Bremsstrahlung with $`\mathrm{k}T=0.1\mathrm{keV}`$. The contribution of the thermal component increases along the line from $`0`$ at the left-hand end of the line to $`0.1`$ of the counts in the R6 band at the right-hand end. The upper line represents spectra with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.4`$ and the thermal component varying in the same range.

Uncertainty ellipses for the cluster sample have been delineated using the distributions of 1000 simulations. In each simulation, the count rates in randomly chosen RASS pixels were used to perform analogous computations as for the real data. In each simulated run the number of drawn pixels was equal to the number of clusters in the sample. Because the halo signal is substantially weaker than the ‘core’ signal, our estimates of the halo temperatures are much less accurate.

The error ellipses for the core and halo emission containing more than $`94`$ % of the simulation runs begin to overlap. This puts the lower limit for the significance of the temperature difference for these two cluster-centered regions. The statement is strengthened by the fact that the effect is present for any combination of the X-ray colours (see the remaining figures below).

In the Figs. 3 and 4 the distribution of all the categories of objects is shown using different combinations of the ROSAT bands. Although both SW and cluster points exhibit large uncertainties and scatter, all the data display a common feature. Namely, the emission parametrized by the temperature (or the spectral slope) correlated with the cluster and SW galaxies distribution becomes systematically softer as the distance from the galaxy concentration increases.

The results for the cluster sample can be summarized as follows: the cluster flux is consistent with the thermal emission with $`\mathrm{kT}1.52\mathrm{keV}`$ (see below) and the halo flux - with $`\mathrm{k}T0.50.8`$ keV. Although halo uncertainties are large and this temperature difference is barely significant, the general trend in all the ‘colour-colour’ diagrams is highly suggestive. Similar temperature differences between the core and halo excesses derived for all combinations of the energy bands demonstrate that the distribution of count rates in each band contributes to the resultant temperature effect around the cluster population. The excess associated with the cluster halos appears to be consistent with thermal emission generated by the WHIM.

The excess emission correlated with the SW galaxies is still softer than that around clusters indicating lower gas temperature in qualitative agreement with simulations. Quantitative assessments of this effect are hindered by systematic effects (see below) as well as large statistical errors. Although in the case of the SW points alone systematic colour variations with the increasing separation are of low statistical significance, combined analysis of the cluster and SW samples shows that the effect is real. The error bars (not shown in figures for clarity) for three colours of the ‘zero lag’ SW data representing separations below $`0\stackrel{}{.}3`$ are in the range of $`0.0180.022`$. Thus, the SW signal is distinctly softer than the cluster ‘core’ emission. At larger separation the CCF amplitude suffers from substantially larger uncertainties and consequently colours of the ‘$`1\stackrel{}{.}53\stackrel{}{.}1`$’ bin differ from the ‘$`<0\stackrel{}{.}3`$’ bin by just over $`1\sigma `$. One should note however, that the resultant CCF amplitude is a superposition of signals generated by the galaxy clustering and the extended emission surrounding galaxies. This conclusion is supported by our earlier analysis of the SW – RASS correlation (see Sołtan et al. 1997).

Our estimates of the CCF between the RASS maps and the SW galaxies cannot be directly compared with the CCFs generated by Croft et al. (2001) for two reasons. Galaxies simulated by Croft et al. are more distant than the SW galaxies and, what is more important, those simulations are not devised to reproduce the discrete emission by galaxies, while in our measurements the CCF amplitude represents the total correlation signal. In the present investigation the IGM emission is revealed because it is substantially softer than the galactic emission.

It is disturbing that our estimate of the average cluster temperature falls below $`2\mathrm{keV}`$. This value is significantly lower than the median temperature of $`5\mathrm{keV}`$ observed in rich clusters (e.g. David et al. 1993, Horner et al. 1999). This discrepancy could be removed by a measured adjustment of the instrument calibration. However, modification of the effective area in bands R5, R6 and R7 which are required to remove the cluster temperature inconsistency are of the order of $`1015`$ % what is larger than residual uncertainties of the X-ray telescope/PSPC parameters (see below). In the recent study of the cluster X-ray emission distribution Bonamente et al. (2002) report detection of soft excesses in a large fraction of sources. The authors claim that in the soft ROSAT band of $`0.25`$ keV detected fluxes are on the average $`9`$ % larger than it is expected from extrapolation based on measurements at higher energies (above $`2`$ keV).

To test if this phenomenon could explain our low temperature cluster measurement, we have calculated ‘colours’ of the X-ray emission (defined by the R5, R6 and R7 bands) for the two temperature thermal Bremsstrahlung. Small amount of the low temperature emission was added to the main ‘standard’ component of $`5`$ keV. It was found that $`0.7`$ keV emission normalized to $`9`$ % in the low energy band used by Bonamente et al. (2002) affects the R5, R6 and R7 colours in such a way that they mimic the thermal emission with the temperature of $`22.5`$ keV. Thus, this effect only partially explains our cluster temperatures, but the discrepancy is substantially reduced.

A question of the ‘soft excess’ is complicated further by systematic uncertainties of the instrument calibration below the carbon edge (i.e. $`0.28`$ keV). The comparison between PSPC, Chandra and XMM soft sources shows that the PSPC gives about $`2030`$ % larger absolute fluxes at these energies. The agreement above $`0.5`$ keV is much better ($`510`$ %). Thus, the present investigation is practically unaffected by uncertainties in the soft bands since the R5 – R7 bands have negligible responses below $`0.5`$ keV (Snowden et al. 1994), but the Bonamente et al. (2002) result could be subject to calibration errors.

Systematic errors of the X-ray ’colours’ in the RASS indicated by the cluster ’core’ temperature are of the order of $`0.05`$. Although we are unable to point out rigorously a single cause of this error, no potentially responsible effect could alter the main conclusion of the present investigation, that the excess emission correlated with the galaxy distribution softens with the increasing size of the investigated area. Systematic errors in the ’colour - temperature’ relationship introduce uncertainty of the cluster ’halo’ temperature at the level of $`0.10.2`$ keV, and in the case of large separations in the SW galaxies - of about $`0.1`$ keV. Consequently, all our temperature determinations should be increased correspondingly. Thus, the cluster ‘core’ temperature disagreement and statistical noise precludes us from making a quantitative determination of the IGM temperature. But our investigation shows convincingly that concentrations of galaxies are surrounded by emission of significantly lower temperature than the average XRB and the cluster ’core’ emission.

One should note that the typical surface brightness of the IGM in the cluster halo is roughly two orders of magnitude lower than the signal measured in pixels centered on clusters. Thus, a halo contribution to the amplitude of the CCF at zero lag is negligible. It implies that our estimate of the core temperature remains practically unaffected by the halo component.

## 4 Summary and conclusions

A perceptible fraction of the XRB fluctuations is correlated with rich clusters of galaxies and with the overall galaxy distribution. The cross-correlations between the XRB and Abell clusters/SW galaxies extends up to several degrees. The large angular size enhancements of the XRB which surround regions of higher galaxy densities have distinctly softer spectrum than the genuine cluster emission. It is highly suggestive that these enhancements are generated by the WHIM. The halo emission is consistent with the thermal Bremsstrahlung with $`\mathrm{k}T`$ below $`1`$ keV. Taking into account large uncertainties of the present estimates and a wide range of plasma temperatures predicted by Cen & Ostriker (1999) and Croft et al. (2001), our results are in good agreement with theoretical models. Limited energy range used in this investigation combined with the moderate energy resolution of the PSPC data prevent us from more detailed conclusions.

This limitation applies also to our evaluations of the AGN spectral characteristics. Although the average X-ray colours of a population of AGNs are adequately mimicked by the thermal spectrum (Fig. 1), simple power law spectral models also provide good fits (Fig. 2). Uncertainties (not shown in figures) of the AGN colours are of the order of $`0.009`$, $`0.015`$, $`0.050`$ for redshift bins $`0.10.4`$, $`0.41.0`$, $`1.02.0`$, respectively. Thus, all three samples do not exhibit significant colour differences. The majority of AGNs used in the present analysis are luminous X-ray sources and their average spectral properties are not identical with the average spectrum of weak sources which generate most of the XRB. Additionally, the integral soft XRB is contaminated by thermal emission of our Galaxy (Hasinger 1992). Importance of this effect in our calculations is illustrated in Fig. 2 with dashed lines.

Most if not all shortcomings of the present investigation would be eliminated with the ROSITA mission which is being proposed. The ROSITA telescope mounted on board of the International Space Station would perform an all-sky survey within the energy range of $`0.510`$ keV and a sensitivity about 100 times better than the RASS. These characteristics are particularly suitable for the analysis of the low surface brightness features generated by the WHIM. Such investigation requires large, unlimited field of view. Also wide energy range extending well above the WHIM domain would help to isolate the WHIM thermal emission from the non-thermal components of the X-ray emission correlated with the galaxy distribution. High sensitivity would substantially increase efficiency of the correlation method by reducing the photon noise statistics.

Finally, we would like to note that although the extended clouds of hot gas around clusters in principle are sources of the Sunyaev-Zel’dovich (S-Z) effect (Sunyaev & Zel’dovich (1980)), simple estimates by Sołtan et al. (1996) and Śliwa et al. (in preparation) indicate that for temperatures of the gas lower than $`1\mathrm{keV}`$, the amplitude of the S-Z effect generated by halos is below the detection threshold of the COBE DMR measurements.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The ROSAT project has been supported by the Bundesministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft, Forschung und Technologie (BMBF/DARA) and by the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (MPG). This work has been partially supported by the Polish KBN grant 5 P03D 022 20.