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# 𝜎(770) RESONANCE AND THE BREAKING OF SCALE AND CHIRAL SYMMETRY IN EFFECTIVE QCD

## I Introduction

In 1968, Mack, Wilson and Gell-Mann recognized that scale invariance is a broken symmetry of strong interactions. In 1969, Salam and Strathedee showed that to formulate a broken chiral as well as scale symmetry within an effective lagrangian approach one has to assume the existence of a chirally invariant scalar field $`\sigma `$ of dimension 1. In 1970, Ellis proposed to identify this scalar field with the $`\sigma (700)`$ meson the existence of which was suggested by earlier measurements of forward - backward asymmetry in $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^{}\pi ^+n`$. The scalar meson dominance of the trace of the energy-momentum tensor (also referred to as a partially conserved dilatation current) has been used to study the couplings of the $`\sigma (700)`$ meson.

With the advent of QCD in 1970’s it has been recognized that the quantization of QCD lagrangian leads to breaking of scale invariance in QCD. The anomalous breaking of scale symmetry results in QCD scale anomaly which was shown to have the form

$$_\mu J_{scale}^\mu =\theta _\mu ^\mu =\frac{\beta (g)}{2g}G_{\mu \nu }G^{\mu \nu }+(1+\gamma _m)\underset{u,d,s}{}m_q\overline{q}q$$
(1)
Here $`G_{\alpha \beta }`$ and $`q`$ are the gluon field strength and the quark field with running mass $`m_q`$. $`\beta `$ and $`\gamma _m`$ are the Gell-Mann $`\beta `$-function and quark anomalous dimension. The summation over colour is understood. $`\theta _\mu ^\mu `$ is the trace of the energy - momentum tensor.

In the absence of a technology to solve the fundamental QCD theory and find the hadron spectrum and the interactions of the composite states, we use the effective lagrangian method to study the hadron dynamics at low energies. The basic ingredient in constructing effective lagrangians is anomaly matching. The effective lagrangian must posses not only the symmetries but also the anomalies of the original QCD theory.

In 1981, Schechter suggested that a scalar gluonium field $`\sigma `$ plays a major role in effective QCD lagrangian through its connection to the QCD trace anomaly. Effective lagrangians with such dilaton-gluonium field $`\sigma `$ were subsequently examined from various aspects in a series of studies.

In 1985, Ellis and Lanik constructed an effective QCD lagrangian with broken scale and chiral symmetry in which the dilaton-gluonium scalar field $`\sigma (x)`$ is related to the scalar gluonic current $`H(x)`$ by a relation

$$H(x)\frac{\beta (g)}{2g}G_{\mu \nu }G^{\mu \nu }=\frac{m_\sigma ^4}{16\pi H_0}\sigma (x)^4$$
(2)
In Eq. (1.2) $`m_\sigma `$ is the $`\sigma `$ meson mass and $`H_0=<0|H|0>`$ is related to gluon condensate $`G_0`$

$$G_0=<0|(\alpha _s/\pi )G_{\mu \nu }G^{\mu \nu }|0>$$
(3)
by an approximate relation

$$H_0=\frac{9}{8}G_0$$
(4)
The gluon condensate $`G_0`$ parametrizes the nonperturbative effects of QCD and is related to the energy density of QCD vacuum. The relation (1.2) is unique to Ellis-Lanik lagrangian. Starting with the Salam-Strathedee chirally invariant field $`\sigma (x)`$, it is the result of matching of the QCD trace anomaly in gluonic sector with the trace of the energy-momentum tensor of the $`\sigma `$ field and low-energy theorems for scalar gluonic current $`H(x)`$. From their lagrangian Ellis and Lanik derived the following relations for $`\sigma `$ decay widths

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma \pi ^{}\pi ^+)=\frac{m_\sigma ^5}{48\pi G_0}$$
(5)
$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma \gamma \gamma )=\frac{3}{4}\left(\frac{R\alpha }{8\pi ^2}\right)^2\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma \pi ^{}\pi ^+)$$
(6)
where $`R=\sigma (e^{}e^+hadrons)/\sigma (e^{}e^+\mu ^{}\mu ^+)`$.

The appearance of the Gell-Mann function $`\beta `$ in the scale anomaly (1.1) reflects the QCD confinement. In the Ellis-Lanik lagrangian the $`\sigma `$ field codes the QCD confinement which is often a missing feature in other effective QCD lagrangians.

The CERN measurements of $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^{}\pi ^+n`$ and $`\pi ^+n\pi ^+\pi ^{}p`$ on polarized targets reopened the question of existence of the $`\sigma (750)`$ meson. These measurements allow a model independent determination of normalized production amplitudes, including the two $`S`$-wave transversity amplitudes. Evidence for a narrow $`\sigma (750)`$ resonance was found in amplitude analyses of CERN data on $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^{}\pi ^+n`$ at 17.2 GeV/c in the mass range 600 - 900 MeV and on $`\pi ^+n\pi ^+\pi ^{}p`$ at 5.98 and 11.85 GeV/c in the mass range 580 - 980 MeV. Further evidence was found recently in amplitude analysis of measurements $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^{}\pi ^+n`$ on polarized target at 1.78 GeV/c at ITEP.

Our new amplitude analysis of the CERN measurements of $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^{}\pi ^+n`$ on polarized targets at 17.2 GeV/c and momentum transfer $`t`$ = 0.005 - 0.20 $`(GeV/c)^2`$ extends the mass range to 580 - 1080 MeV and allows to study the effects of $`\sigma (750)f_0(980)`$ interference. There are two solutions for the unnormalized moduli $`|\overline{S}|^2\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and $`|S|^2\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ of the two $`S`$-wave transversity amplitudes $`\overline{S}`$ and $`S`$ corresponding to recoil nucleon transversity ”up” and ”down” relative to the scattering plane. Here $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=d\sigma /dtdm`$ is the integrated cross-section. Both moduli in both solutions exhibit a resonant behaviour around 750 - 780 MeV.

In our analysis we supplement the CERN data with an assumption of analyticity of production amplitudes in dipion mass. Analyticity allows to parametrize the transversity amplitudes $`S`$ and $`\overline{S}`$ as a sum of Breit-Wigner amplitudes for $`\sigma (750)`$ and $`f_0(980)`$ with complex coefficients and a complex background. Next we performed simultaneous fits to the moduli $`|S|^2\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and $`|\overline{S}|^2\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ in the four solution combinations $`(1,\overline{1})`$, $`(2,\overline{1})`$, $`(1,\overline{2})`$ and $`(2,\overline{2})`$. In each solution combination we obtained two fits, A and B, with the same resonance parameters for $`\sigma (750)`$ and $`f_0(980)`$ and the same $`\chi ^2/dof`$. The average values of $`\sigma `$ mass and width are $`m_\sigma =778\pm 16`$ MeV and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma =142\pm 33`$ MeV.

The transversity amplitudes $`S`$ and $`\overline{S}`$ are linear combinations of nucleon helicity nonflip amplitude $`S_0`$ and nucleon helicity flip amplitude $`S_1`$ corresponding to $`a_1`$ and $`\pi `$ exchange in the $`t`$-channel, respectively. These amplitudes are physically interesting since the residue of the pion pole in $`S_1`$ is related to the $`S`$-wave partial wave in $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering. The residue of the $`a_1`$ pole in $`S_0`$ is related to the $`S`$-wave partial wave in $`\pi ^{}a_1^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering.

Analyticity imparts the fitted transversity amplitudes with an absolute phase. This allows to determine the helicity amplitudes from the fitted transversity amplitudes. Due to a sign ambiguity there are two solutions, ”up” and ”down” in each solution combination and in each fit A and B. In the ”down” solution the $`\sigma (770)`$ is suppressed in the flip amplitude $`S_1`$ while it dominates the nonflip amplitude $`S_0`$. In the ”up” solution the situation is reversed. In Ref.  we show that unitarity in $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering excludes the ”up” solution. Furthermore, the ”down” solution - and thus the evidence for the narrow $`\sigma (770)`$ \- is in agreement with unitarity in both $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ and $`\pi ^{}a_1^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering.

In the ”down” solution the narrow $`\sigma (770)`$ manifests itself as a broad resonance centered at $``$ 720 MeV in the helicity flip mass spectra $`|S_1|^2`$ in solution combinations $`(1,\overline{1})`$ and $`(2,\overline{1})`$. In contrast, the contribution of $`\sigma (770)`$ is small in $`|S_1|^2`$ in combinatins $`(1,\overline{2})`$ and $`(2,\overline{2})`$.

The dual manifestation of the $`\sigma (770)`$ as a narrow resonance in nonflip amplitude $`S_0`$ and as a broad resonance in the flip amplitude $`S_1`$ is connected to symmetries of QCD. In this paper we show that Ellis - Lanik relation (1.5) selects the solution combinations $`(1,\overline{1})`$ and $`(1,\overline{2})`$. Weinberg’s mended symmetry of spontaneously broken chiral symmetry selects solutions $`(1,\overline{1})`$ and $`(2,\overline{1})`$. The combined preferred solution is thus $`(1,\overline{1})`$ for which $`m_\sigma =769\pm 13`$ MeV and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma =154\pm 22`$ MeV.

The agreement with Ellis-Lanik relation imparts the $`\sigma (770)`$ resonance with a dilaton-gluonium interpretation and relates its existence to breaking of scale symmetry in QCD. At the same time, the degeneracy of $`\sigma (770)`$ mass with $`\rho (770)`$ and the metamorphosis of the narrow $`\sigma (770)`$ into a broad $`S`$-wave structure in $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering is in agreement with Weinberg’s mended symmetry which predicts $`m_\sigma =m_\rho `$ with a broad width. We suggest that the broad resonant $`S`$-wave structure in $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering associated with the spontaneous breaking of chiral symmetry is due to the interaction of the chirally invariant and narrow $`\sigma (770)`$ with the chirally noninvariant QCD vacuum in $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering.

The paper is organized as follows. In Section II. we use the most recent values of gluon condensate to show that Ellis-Lanik relation (1.5) selects the solutions $`(1,\overline{1})`$ and $`(1,\overline{2})`$. In Section III. we show how Weinberg’s mended symmetry selects the solutions $`(1,\overline{1})`$ and $`(2,\overline{1})`$ and comment on the role of QCD vacuum in hadron reactions. The observed degeneracy of $`\sigma (770)`$ and $`\rho ^0(770)`$ is used in Section IV. to derive new relations between gluon condensate and pion decay constant, and between chiral condensate and gluon condensate. We find that these relatons are well satisfied. The paper closes with a summary and remarks in Section V.

## II Dilaton - gluonium structure of $`\sigma (770)`$ resonance

The moduli of the $`S`$-wave transversity amplitudes $`\overline{S}`$ and $`S`$ measured in $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^{}\pi ^+n`$ at 17.2 GeV/c on polarized target are shown in Figure 1. The figure shows the two solutions for $`|\overline{S}|^2\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and $`|S|^2\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and the results of simultaneous fits to the four solution combinations $`(1,\overline{1})`$, $`(2,\overline{1})`$, $`(1,\overline{2})`$ and $`(2,\overline{2})`$. Two fits, A and B, give essentially identical curves, the same resonance parameters for $`\sigma (750)`$ and $`f_0(980)`$, and the same $`\chi ^2/dof`$. The transversity ”up” amplitude $`|\overline{S}|^2\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ clearly resonates below 800 MeV while the transversity ”down” amplitude $`|S|^2\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ shows a broader structure around 800 MeV.

In Table I we present the mass $`m_\sigma `$ and the width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma `$ of the $`\sigma `$ resonance for the best fits in each solution combination. The measured width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma `$ is the total width of the $`\sigma `$ decays. To compare our results with the Ellis-Lanik relation (1.5) we need partial width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma \pi ^{}\pi ^+)=\xi \mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma `$ where $`\xi `$ is the fraction of charged $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ decays. As we shall see below, the partial width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma \gamma \gamma )`$ is small. We also assume that $`4\pi `$ decays of $`\sigma `$ are suppressed. Then isospin conservation requires that $`\xi =\frac{2}{3}`$. With this value of $`\xi `$ we then calculate the value $`G_0`$ of the gluon condensate from Ellis-Lanik relation for each solution combination.

The numerical values of $`G_0`$ were estimated originally by the ITEP group to be $`G_00.012`$ (GeV)4 or up to $`G_00.030`$ (GeV)4 in later calculations. More recent estimates are $`G_0=0.023\pm 0.003`$ (GeV)4  and $`G_0=0.016\pm 0.010`$ (GeV)4. The latest estimate based on analysis of the $`CP`$ violating ratio $`ϵ^{}/ϵ`$ is $`G_0=0.0123\pm 0.0011`$ (GeV)4. The most recent estimate based on charmonium sum rules gives a similar result $`G_0=0.011\pm 0.009`$ (GeV)4. This new ITEP value includes a contribution from $`<G^3>`$ condensate in dilute instanton model. In this paper we will use the average value of the two last results

$$G_0=0.0117\pm 0.0050\mathrm{GeV}^4$$
(7)
The comparison of $`G_0`$ in (2.1) with the results for $`G_0`$ from Ellis -Lanik relation in Table I shows the best agreement is for solution combinations $`(1,\overline{1})`$ and $`(1,\overline{2})`$. The Ellis-Lanik relation thus selects the solutions $`(1,\overline{1})`$ and $`(1,\overline{2})`$ and imparts the $`\sigma (770)`$ resonance with a dilaton-gluonium interpretation.

We can now use the relation (1.6) to calculate the decay width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma \gamma \gamma )`$. Assuming $`R=5`$ and $`\xi =\frac{2}{3}`$ we obtain results shown in Table I. We see that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma \gamma \gamma )`$ is too small for $`\sigma (770)`$ to be observed in $`\gamma \gamma `$ decays. This result is in full agreement with the measurements of reactions $`\gamma \gamma \pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ and $`\gamma \gamma \pi ^0\pi ^0`$ which found no evidence of resonance structure below $`f_0(980)`$. The fact that $`\sigma (770)`$ is not observed in these reactions strongly suggests a gluonium interpretation of this state since gluons do not couple directly to photons. These experiments support the Ellis-Lanik identification of the scalar dilaton field $`\sigma `$ with a scalar gluonium which they based solely on the dominance of the scalar gluonic current $`H(x)`$ by the field $`\sigma `$.

A theoretical support for the gluonium interpretation of $`\sigma (770)`$ comes from recent studies of QCD sum rules. It was shown by Elias and collaborators in  that QCD sum rules require that a scalar state with a mass below 800 MeV has a narrow width. Several analyses using QCD sum rules concluded that the scalar states with a mass below $`f_0(980)`$ are non-$`q\overline{q}`$ states. The QCD sum rules are thus consistent with the identification of the narrow $`\sigma (770)`$ resonance with the lowest mass scalar gluonium.

## III Weinberg’s Mended Symmertry

In 1990, Weinberg showed that even where a symmetry is spontaneously broken it can still be used to classify hadron states. Such mended symmetry leads to a quartet of particles with definite mass relations and C-parity. He showed that $`\pi `$, $`\sigma `$, $`\rho `$ and $`a_1`$ mesons corresponding to spontaneously broken chiral symmetry of strong interactions occupy the quartet. Weinberg’s mended symmetry predicts $`m_\sigma =m_\rho `$ in agreement with our results for $`m_\sigma `$ shown in Table I.

Central to Weinberg’s mended symmetry are current algebra and superconvergence sum rules for helicity amplitudes. In 1968, Gilman and Harari studied saturation of such sum rules in a framework of a linear sigma model. They found that $`m_\sigma =m_\rho `$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma =\frac{9}{2}\mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho `$ which gives $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma =675`$ MeV. A broad resonant structure below 900 MeV in the $`S`$-wave in $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ is required to saturate the Adler-Weisberger sum rule for $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering and to produce the equality $`m_\sigma =m_\rho `$. A narrow resonance like $`\sigma (770)`$ will not do it. But then, what does saturate the Adler-Weisberger sum rule for $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering?

We suggest that the solutions $`(1,\overline{1})`$ and $`(2,\overline{1})`$ provide the answer. In these two solutions the narrow $`\sigma (770)`$ manifests itself as a broad resonant structure at $``$ 720 MeV in the flip helicity amplitude $`S_1`$. This broad resonant structure will appear also in the $`S`$-wave in $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ and we conjecture that it will saturate the Adler’s sum rule as required by Weinberg’s mended symmetry.

Weinberg’s mended symmetry then selects the solution combinatins $`(1,\overline{1})`$ and $`(2,\overline{1})`$. When combined with the Ellis-Lanik relation, the preferred solution is $`(1,\overline{1})`$. From Table I we see that the corresponding $`m_\sigma =769\pm 13`$ MeV compares well with Particle Data Group value $`m_\rho =769.3\pm 0.8`$ MeV. In the following we thus refer to the $`\sigma `$ resonance as $`\sigma (770)`$.

A question now arises how a chirally invariant and narrow resonance in the nonflip amplitude $`S_0`$ can also manifest itself as a broad resonant state breaking chiral symmetry in the flip amplitude $`S_1`$, i.e. in $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering. We suggest that the answer may lie in the interaction of the chirally invariant $`\sigma (770)`$ with the chirally noninvariant QCD vacuum in the $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering.

It is well-known that QED vacuum participates in electromagnetic processes. For instance, the photon propagator is modified by the vacuum polarization. In Ref.  it is shown that the scalar gluonic current interacts strongly with QCD vacuum. Recently Kharzeev and collaborators demonstrated that QCD vacuum participates in hadron interactions at low as well as at high energies with involvement of the QCD trace anomaly. In general, the involvement of the QCD vacuum may depend on the hadronic process and in $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering it could result in the metamorphosis of the narrow and chirally invariant $`\sigma (770)`$ into a broad resonant structure associated with breaking of the chiral symmetry.

Chiral symmetry allows for two phases of QCD vacuum: asymmetric and degenerate Nambu-Goldstone phase and a symmetric Wigner-Weyl phase. The interaction of the chirally invariant $`\sigma (770)`$ with QCD vacuum in $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering could also modify the vacuum itself. Brown and Rho used the dilaton-gluonium scalar field $`\sigma `$ and Ellis-Lanik effective lagrangian to describe the change of QCD vacuum in a dense medium.

Superconvergence sum rules assumed in Weinberg’s mended symmetry are based on analyticity of helicity amplitdes. Analyticity connects hadron dynamics at low and high energies and is thus used also in amplitude analyses of hadronic reactions. QCD vacuum participates in hadron scattering also at low and high enegies. The reason why analyticity seems to reflect important aspects of hadron dynamics could be that it originates in some way from the structure of QCD vacuum.

Finally we note that in 1968 when Gilman and Harari published their paper, only $`\sigma `$ and $`\rho `$ were assumed to contribute to $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering. Today we know of many more resonances the contribution of which should be taken into account in the saturation of the sum rules each of which becomes more complicated. Also, the presence of these resonances enlarges the set of sum rules equations. We suggest that the sum rules equations factorize into a chain of solvable sets with the Gilman-Harari set of $`\pi ,\sigma ,\rho `$ and $`a_1`$ forming the first (lowest mass) set. These sets could in fact be the representations (multiplets) of the Weinberg’s mended symmetry. If such is the case, then mended symmetry could provide a new organizing principle of the hadron spectra and effective QCD dynamics.

## IV $`\sigma (770)\rho ^0(770)`$ degeneracy, pion decay constant and $`SU(2)`$ chiral condensate

The mass and width of the $`\sigma `$ resonance in the preferred solution combination $`(1,\overline{1})`$ are from Table I

$$m_\sigma =769\pm 13\mathrm{MeV},\mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma =154\pm 22\mathrm{MeV}$$
(8)
A comparison with Particle Data Group values for mass and width of the $`\rho ^0`$ meson

$$m_\rho =769.3\pm 0.8\mathrm{MeV},\mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho =150.2\pm 0.8\mathrm{MeV}$$
(9)
indicates a strong $`\sigma (770)\rho ^0(770)`$ degeneracy. This experimentally observed $`\sigma \rho `$ degeneracy leads to some interesting consequences. In the following we set $`m_\sigma =m_\rho `$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma =\mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho `$.

Using the usual $`\rho ^0\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ coupling, the $`\rho ^0\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ decay width is given by

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho =\mathrm{\Gamma }(\rho ^0\pi ^{}\pi ^+)=\frac{q_\rho ^3}{12\pi }\frac{1}{F_\pi ^2}$$
(10)
where $`F_\pi `$ is the pion decay constant and $`q_\rho =\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{m_\rho ^24m_\pi ^2}`$ is the pion momentum in the rest frame of $`\rho ^0`$. With $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma \pi ^{}\pi ^+)=\xi \mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma `$, the Ellis-Lanik relation (1.5) then relates the gluon condensate and the pion decay constant

$$G_0=\frac{1}{\xi }\frac{2m_\sigma ^5}{(m_\rho ^24m_\pi ^2)^{\frac{3}{2}}}F_\pi ^2$$
(11)
The $`SU(2)`$ chiral condensate $`<\overline{q}q>`$ is related to the pion decay constant by the Gell-Mann, Oakes and Renner (GMOR) relation

$$m_\pi ^2F_\pi ^2=(m_u+m_d)<\overline{q}q>$$
(12)
The new measurements of $`K_{e4}^+`$ decay by E865 Collaboration at BNL have been used recently to verify the validity of the GMOR relation. Combining (4.4) and (4.5) we get a new relation for chiral condensate in terms of the gluon condensate

$$(m_u+m_d)<\overline{q}q>=\xi m_\pi ^2\frac{(m_\rho ^24m_\pi ^2)^{\frac{3}{2}}}{2m_\sigma ^5}G_0$$
(13)
The new relations (4.4) and (4.6) are a nontrivial consequence of Ellis-Lanik effective lagrangian which is coding the breaking of scale symmetry and confinement in QCD and the CERN measurements of pion production on polarized target.

With PDG value $`F_\pi `$ = 92.4 MeV, the relation (4.4) gives the following value for the gluon condensate

$$\xi =\frac{2}{3}:\mathrm{G}_0=0.0187\mathrm{GeV}^4$$
(14)
With PDG average value $`m_u+m_d`$ = 8 MeV and using $`G_0`$ from (4.7) we obtain from relation (4.6) a value of chiral condensate

$$\xi =\frac{2}{3}:<\overline{q}q>=0.0208\mathrm{GeV}^3=(275\mathrm{M}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V})^3$$
(15)
The value of $`G_0`$ is in agreement with the value from Ellis-Lanik relation for the solution combination $`(1,\overline{1})`$ shown in Table I and in a reasonable agreement with the accepted value (2.1). The value of the QCD scale $`<\overline{q}q>=(\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD})^3`$ from (4.8) is in agreement with recent expectations.

It is interesting to calculate the gluon and chiral condensates for $`\xi =1`$

$$\xi =1:\mathrm{G}_0=0.0125\mathrm{GeV}^4$$
(16)
$$\xi =1:<\overline{q}q>=0.0311\mathrm{GeV}^3=(315\mathrm{M}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V})^3$$
(17)
Comparing the values (4.7) and (4.9) for the gluon condensate $`G_0`$ we notice that the value (4.9) for $`\xi `$ = 1 is in a better agreement with the accepted value $`G_0`$ = 0.0117 $`\pm `$ 0.0051 GeV4 in (2.1). We note that the values of $`G_0`$ calculated from Ellis-Lanik relation assuming $`\xi =1`$ are also closer to the accepted value of $`G_0`$ in (2.1) but still selecting solutions $`(1,\overline{1})`$ and $`(1,\overline{2})`$ with $`G_0`$ = 0.0116 $`\pm `$ 0.0028 GeV4 and $`G_0`$ = 0.0122 $`\pm `$ 0.0056 GeV4, respectively. It appears that these improved agreements with the accepted value of gluon condensate require an additional factor of $`\frac{2}{3}`$ in the Ellis-Lanik relation (1.5) and in relations (4.4) and (4.6). However we note that $`\sigma (770)`$ is suppressed in $`S`$-wave intensity in $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ at 18.3 GeV/c. This suggests that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma \pi ^0\pi ^0)0`$ so that $`\xi 1`$ and improved agrrements follow. An additional term in the Ellis-Lanik effective lagrangian may thus be required by the $`\pi ^0\pi ^0`$ production data to suppress or cancel the $`\sigma \pi ^0\pi ^0`$ coupling.

## V Summary and Remarks

CERN measurements of $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^{}\pi ^+n`$ on polarized target enable experimental determination of partial wave production spin amplitudes. The measured $`S`$-wave transversity amplitudes provide evidence for existence of a narrow scalar resonance $`\sigma (770)`$. The assumption of analyticity of production amplitudes in dipion mass allows the deterimation of the $`S`$-wave helicity amplitudes $`S_0`$ and $`S_1`$.

The unitarity in $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ selects ”down” solutions $`(1,\overline{1})`$, $`(2,\overline{1})`$, $`(1,\overline{2})`$ and $`(2,\overline{2})`$. Ellis-Lanik relation selects solutions $`(1,\overline{1})`$ and $`(1,\overline{2})`$ while Weinberg’s mended symmetry selects solutions $`(1,\overline{1})`$ and $`(2,\overline{1})`$. The combined preferred solution $`(1,\overline{1})`$ has the $`\sigma `$ meson mass and width degenerate with $`\rho ^0(770)`$. The agreement with Ellis-Lanik relation imparts the $`\sigma (770)`$ resonance with a dilaton-gluonium interpretation and relates its existence to breaking of scale symmetry in QCD. The QCD vacuum participates in hadron reactions and the interaction of chirally invariant and narrow $`\sigma (770)`$ with chirally noninvarinat QCD vacuum in $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ scattering is proposed as the mechanism for its metamorphosis into a broad resonant $`S`$-wave structure in $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ related to spontaneous breaking of chiral symmetry. The observed $`\sigma \rho ^0`$ degeneracy leads to two new relations for pion decay constant and $`SU(2)`$ chiral condensate which are both well satisfied experimentally.

Scalar mesons are probes of QCD vacuum and the complexity of scalar states reflects the complex structure of the QCD vacuum. There is an emerging evidence for a $`\sigma (600)`$ resonance from tau decays $`\tau ^{}a_1^{}\nu \sigma \pi ^{}\nu \pi ^0\pi ^0\pi ^{}\nu `$, from $`D^+\pi ^+\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ decays and from measurements of $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ at 18.3 GeV/c. The CERN measurement of $`K^+nK^+\pi ^{}p`$ on polarized target at 5.98 GeV/c suggests existence of a strange scalar $`\kappa (890)`$. Several recent investigations examined the possibility of a scalar nonet below 1 GeV. However a non-$`\overline{q}q`$ structure of $`\sigma (600)`$ and $`\kappa (890)`$ has been also proposed. High statistics measurements of $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ and $`KNK\pi N`$ on polarized targets would help clarify the evidence for these scalar states.

Due to its dilaton-gluonium nature, the $`\sigma (770)`$ may play a special and a broader role. Estimate of the cosmological constant from QCD scale anomaly yields a value in a remarkable agreement with the latest astrophysical data. A dilatonic nature of the quintessence has been recently proposed by Damour, Piazza and Veneziano. Bulk dilaton field in AdS brane world models can be stabilized on the brane and allow for an interaction of the dilaton field with the standard matter through its fluctuation corresponding to an observable massive dilaton. QCD/string duality stemming from the AdS/CFT correspondence in AdS brane world model predicts the lowest mass of the scalar gluonium $`0^{++}`$

$$m_g(0^{++})=\frac{1}{gN\alpha ^{}}\frac{\alpha ^{}}{R^4}$$
(18)
where $`g`$ is the string coupling constant, $`1/\sqrt{\alpha ^{}}`$ is the string energy scale, $`N`$ is the number of branes and $`R`$ is the AdS radius. It is inviting to identify the predicted $`m_g(0^{++})`$ with the mass of $`\sigma (770)`$. The resonance parameters of $`\sigma (770)`$ may then be related to large scale structure and evolution of the Universe.

Lattice QCD calculations in pure-gauge theory predict large masses for $`0^{++}`$ gluonium. Recent calculations predict $`m_g=1730\pm 80`$ MeV. Lower masses are obtained in lattice calculations with scalar glueball - scalar meson mixing in a quenched approximation. Implementing chiral symmetry in lattice calculations can also modify the predicted mass of the scalar gluonium. Conformal symmetry may be another additional ingredient in lattice calculations that may bring the predicted gluonium mass closer to the 770 MeV inferred from the CERN measurements of pion production on polarized target.

The $`\sigma \rho ^0`$ degeneracy leads to observable effects in hadron reactions. The degeneracy implies that the $`\sigma (770)`$ Regge trajectory $`\alpha _\sigma `$ is a daugther trajectory of the $`\rho (770)`$ Regge trajectory $`\alpha _\rho `$. Such $`\sigma `$ exchange Regge amplitude is required to describe the observed anomalous energy dependence of polarizations in $`pp`$ and $`np`$ elastic scattering and the deviation from the mirror symmetry in polarizations in $`\pi ^{}p`$ and $`\pi ^+p`$ elastic scattering at intermediate energies. This indicates that polarization measurements of hadron reactions even at intermediate energies may provide a testing ground for the renewed efforts to develop Regge amplitudes from AdS/CFT and QCD/string duality. The Regge behaviour of helicity amplitudes is essential to superconvergence sum rules assumed in Weinberg’s mended symmetry. The relationship between nonlinearly realized conformal invariance developed by Salam and Strathdee and the breaking of chiral symmetry and its connection to mended symmetry was first discussed by Beane and van Kolck in 1994.

A remarkable feature of hadron collisions is the conversion of the kinetic energy of colliding hadrons into the matter of produced particles. The pion production is the simplest of these matter creation processes. The measurements of pion production on polarized targets access the production process on the fundamental level of spin amplitudes rather than spin averaged cross-sections. Our results emphasize the need for a dedicated and systematic study of various production processes on the level of spin amplitudes measured in experiments with polarized targets. Such ”amplitude spectroscopy” will be feasible at high intensity hadron facilities. The first high intensity hadron facility will be the Japan Hadron Facility at KEK. It will become operational in 2007 and the formation of its experimental program is now in progress.

###### Acknowledgements.

I wish to thank V. Elias for his interest and helpful e-mail correspondence concerning QCD sum rules, scale invariance and $`\sigma `$ meson. I thank M. Rho for bringing to my attention the role of $`\sigma `$ meson in the change of QCD vacuum in a dense medium and to references. My special thanks go to S. Weinberg for stimulating and encouraging e-mail correspondence concerning $`\sigma `$ meson and mended symmetry.


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# The ends of manifolds with bounded geometry, linear growth and finite filling area

## 1. Introduction

A ubiquitous theme in Riemannian geometry is the relationship between the geometry (e.g. curvature, injectivity radius) and the topology. In studying non-compact manifolds constraints come from the asymptotic behaviour of geometric invariants (e.g. curvature decay, volume growth) as functions on the distance from a base point. The expected result is the manifold tameness out of geometric constraints. This is illustrated by the classical theorem of Gromov which asserts that a complete hyperbolic manifold of finite volume and dimension at least 4 is the interior of a compact manifold with boundary. Our main result below yields tameness in the case when the filling area is finite, for those manifolds having bounded geometry and linear growth. We recall that:

###### Definition 1.1.

A non-compact Riemannian manifold has bounded geometry if the injectivity radius $`i`$ is bounded from below and the absolute value of the curvature $`K`$ is bounded from above.

###### Remark 1.1.

One can rescale the metric in order that $`i1`$ and $`K1`$ hold.

###### Definition 1.2.

The filling area function $`F_X(l)`$ of the simply connected manifold $`X`$ is the smallest number with the property that any loop of length $`l`$ bounds a disk of area $`F_X(l)`$.

It is customary to introduce the following equivalence relation:

###### Definition 1.3.

Two positive real functions are equivalent, and one writes $`fg`$, if

$$c_1f(c_2x)+c_3g(x)C_1f(C_2x)+C_3,$$

for positive $`C_i,c_i`$. By abuse of language we will call filling area the equivalence class of the filling area function.

###### Remark 1.2.

The equivalence class of the filling area function $`F_{\stackrel{~}{X}}`$ of the universal covering space of a compact manifold $`X`$ is independent of the metric we chose on $`X`$. In fact the filling area is a quasi-isometry invariant, and hence an invariant of the fundamental group of $`X`$, which we keep calling the filling area of the group.

There are two interesting classes of open Riemannian manifolds of bounded geometry:

* the universal coverings of compact manifolds. Up to quasi-isometry these manifolds are determined by their deck transformations groups. This is part of Gromov’s program of classifying discrete groups up to quasi-isometry.
* manifolds of bounded geometry with linear volume growth. It is known that for any $`\epsilon >0`$ there exists a metric on a given open manifold which has bounded geometry and growth less that $`1+\epsilon `$. Thus super-linear growth seems to be topologically unobstructed. However there exists (see ) a complete topological characterization of those manifolds supporting a metric of linear growth and bounded geometry, following Cheeger and Gromov (): these are the manifolds of finite topology at infinity. Specifically, this means that there exists a proper Morse function $`\lambda `$, such that the level hypersurfaces $`\lambda ^1(n)`$ are pairwise diffeomorphic for all $`n𝐙`$.

The filling area has been studied for universal coverings and shown to be equivalent to the Dehn function of the group, measuring the complexity of the group. This topic received recently a lot of consideration (see  for a survey).

###### Remark 1.3.

It is worth mentioning that sub-quadratic filling area implies linear filling area and this is equivalent to the group being word-hyperbolic. On the other hand the exponents of the polynomial filling areas fill in a dense subset in $`[2,\mathrm{})`$.

This motivates the study of the filling function in the second case, as well. The definition of the filling area can be quite unappropiate for general non-compact Riemannian manifolds. Even for manifolds of bounded geometry, it might take only infinite values, in which case it does not give any valuable information about the topology. We introduce for this reason the following refined version:

###### Definition 1.4.

Let $`X`$ be non-compact. The filling area function $`F_X(l,r)`$ is the smallest area of the disk in $`X`$ filling a loop of length $`l`$ lying in the metric ball $`B_X(r)`$ of radius $`r`$ on $`X`$.

###### Definition 1.5.

The positive functions $`f(l,r)`$ and $`g(l,r)`$ are equivalent, and we write $`fg`$, if

$$c_1(l)f(c_2(l),r)+c_3(l)g(l,r)C_1(l)f(C_2(l),r)+C_3(l),$$

for positive increasing functions $`C_i(l),c_i(l)`$. By filling (area) growth one means the equivalence class of the filling area function.

###### Remark 1.4.

The filling growth is a quasi-isometry invariant.

###### Definition 1.6.

The filling growth is said to be sub-linear if:

$$\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{F_X(l,r)}{r}=0,$$

holds for every $`l`$.

###### Remark 1.5.

If the filling area is finite then it is automatically sub-linear.

###### Definition 1.7.

A non-compact polyhedron $`X`$ is simply connected at infinity (s.c.i.), and we write also $`\pi _1^{\mathrm{}}(X)=0`$, if given a compact set $`KX`$ there exists another compact set $`L`$ with $`KLX`$, such that any loop in $`XL`$ is null-homotopic in $`XK`$. Alternatively the map induced by the inclusion $`\pi _1(XL)\pi _1(XK)`$ is trivial (i.e. the zero map).

###### Remark 1.6.

Some authors call this $`\pi _1`$-triviality at infinity or 1-LC at infinity and reserve the term s.c.i. for the special case in which $`L`$ can be chosen so that, in addition, $`XL`$ is connected. These notions are equivalent for one ended spaces, such as contractible spaces.

###### Remark 1.7.

The simple connectivity at infinity is an important tameness condition on the ends of the space. It has been used to characterize Euclidean space among contractible open topological $`n`$-manifolds by Siebenmann () for $`n5`$, Freedman () for $`n=4`$ and by Edwards () and Wall () for $`n=3`$ (after assuming the irreducibility to avoid the Poincaré conjecture). An earlier related result is the Stallings-Zeeman engulfing theorem (see ), one of whose consequences is the fact that an open contractible PL $`n`$-manifold ($`n5`$) which is s.c.i. (notice that Stallings used a slightly stronger notion of s.c.i. than that commonly used now) is PL-homeomorphic to the Euclidean space. It is thus of some interest of finding criteria which imply that a space is s.c.i.

The main result of our paper is the following topological characterization:

###### Theorem 1.1.

A simply connected open Riemannian manifold of bounded geometry, linear growth and sub-linear filling growth is simply connected at infinity.

###### Corollary 1.1.

An open contractible Riemannian manifold of bounded geometry, linear growth and sub-linear filling growth is diffeomorphic (only homeomorphic in dimension 4) to the Euclidean space (one needs to assume the irreducibility in dimension 3).

###### Remark 1.8.

The s.c.i. for universal coverings is a group theoretical property, which is not yet fully understood. A. Casson, V. Poenaru and M. Mihalik, among others, gave geometric conditions on the group insuring the s.c.i. Nevertheless these are not general enough in order to include all infinite 3-manifold groups, as claimed by the uniformization conjecture.

Acknowledgements. The authors are indebted to Pierre Pansu and the referee for helpful comments and advice.

## 2. A geometric finiteness result

Before we proceed let us fix the notations. We denote by $`K_M`$, $`i_M`$ the sectional curvature and the injectivity radius of the Riemannian manifold $`M`$. When $`WM`$ is a submanifold, $`i_{WM}`$ stands for the normal injectivity radius (i.e. the maximal radius of a tube around $`W`$ which is embedded in $`M`$). By $`\mathrm{II}_W`$ one denotes the second fundamental form of $`W`$. We fix once for all a base point $`p`$ on $`M`$, so that all metric balls in the sequel are centered at $`p`$, unless the opposite is explicitly stated. The Riemannian metric on $`M`$ induces a distance $`d_M`$ (or $`d`$ if no confusion arises), a volume form $`vol`$ and a 2-dimensional $`area`$. The length of the curve $`\gamma `$ is usually denoted by $`l(\gamma )`$.

The result of this section adds some geometric control to the finiteness theorem of . Specifically, we will prove below that:

###### Proposition 2.1.

Let $`M`$ be an open simply connected Riemannian manifold of bounded geometry and linear growth. There exist then:

1. an exhaustion of $`M`$ by compact submanifolds $`M_jM_{j+1}\mathrm{}M`$,
2. tubular neighborhoods $`Z_j`$ of $`M_j`$ in $`M`$,
3. constants $`c`$, $`A`$ and $`\delta >0`$ depending only on $`M`$,
4. a closed Riemannian manifold $`V`$ of dimension one less than $`M`$,

such that the Lipschitz distance between $`Z_j`$ and $`V\times [0,c\delta ]`$ is bounded by $`c`$, and also $`d(p,M_j)Aj`$, for all $`j`$.

###### Proof.

We need first a slight improvement of a lemma due to Cheeger and Gromov:

###### Lemma 2.2.

Let $`M`$ be a Riemannian manifold of bounded geometry, $`XM`$ a subset, $`\epsilon >0`$. We denote by $`T_\epsilon (X)=\{x;d(x,X)<\epsilon \}`$ the set of points having distance less than $`\epsilon `$ from $`X`$. There exists a hypersurface $`WT_\epsilon (X)X`$ such that:

1. $`vol(W)\alpha (\epsilon )(vol(T_\epsilon (X)X))`$.
2. $`\mathrm{II}_W\beta (\epsilon )`$.
3. $`i_Wc(\epsilon )>0`$.
4. $`i_{WM}c(\epsilon )>0`$.

where $`\alpha ,\beta ,c`$ denote constants depending only on $`\epsilon `$.

###### Proof.

The first two requirements are granted by the approximation theorems from (, p.127-135) and (). The third part was proved in lemma 3 from . It remains therefore to prove that the hypersurface $`W`$ provided there can be supposed to satisfy also the fourth condition.

Moreover, the normal injectivity radius can be controlled by means of the second fundamental form and the curvature:

###### Lemma 2.3.

If $`\mathrm{II}_WA`$ and $`K_MA`$, then $`i_{WM}c(A)>0`$ holds true.

###### Proof.

This result seems to be well-known. One has to bound from below the distance to the closest focal point. The Jacobi theorems hold for the index form associated to the compact submanifold $`W`$ (see e.g. ): thus the normal unit speed geodesic $`\gamma `$ has no conjugate points in some interval iff the index form is positive. The proof of the Morse-Schoenberg (or Rauch comparison) theorem extends (see , p.79) without essential modifications to this setting (see also , p.172-175). Otherwise one can use the more general Rauch comparison theorem sketched in (, Remark 3.4., p.135). Effective estimates for the constant are given in  where only positively curved manifolds are considered, but the arguments work for curvature bounded from above. ∎

This yields the claim of lemma 2.2. ∎

A result similar to lemma 2.2 has been used in , in order to obtain the existence of an exhaustion $`M_j`$ whose boundaries $`M_j`$ belong to a finite family of diffeomorphism types. One has then to see that the Lipschitz distances are uniformly bounded and further that the distance to the boundaries grows linearly.

The lemma 2.2 yields uniform lower bounds (away from zero) for the normal injectivity radii $`i_{M_jM}`$, and the fact that the metrics induced on the manifolds $`M_j`$ (which are pairwise diffeomorphic) are at uniformly bounded Lipschitz distance one from each other. This implies the first assertion from proposition 2.1.

In what concerns the second claim of proposition 2.1, we follow closely the proof of the main result from . Specifically we can state:

###### Lemma 2.4.

There exists an exhaustion $`\{M_j\}`$ and constants $`c_i=c_i(M)`$ such that:

1. the boundary manifolds $`M_j`$ inherit metrics fulfilling

$$K_{M_j}c_1,i_{M_j}c_2>0,vol(M_j)c_3,\text{ for all }j,$$
2. the boundary $`M_j`$ is sandwiched between two metric spheres, namely

$$c_4jd(p,M_j)c_5j,\text{ for all }j.$$

###### Proof.

In order to obtain (2) it suffices to improve the sub-lemma 2.1 from (, p.853), as follows:

###### Lemma 2.5.

Let $`A(n)=B_M(n+1)B_M(n)`$ be the annuli of unit width, where $`B_M(n)`$ denotes the ball of radius $`n`$ centered at $`p`$. Then there exists a sequence $`n_k`$ and constants $`c,C`$ such that

1. $`vol(A(n_k))c`$,
2. $`n_kCk`$.

###### Proof.

The linear growth hypothesis is that $`vol(B_M(n))an`$, for some constant $`a`$. Let $`S=\{n_+;vol(A(n))2a\}`$. Assume that $`card(S\{1,2,\mathrm{},N\})<\frac{N}{2}`$. Then $`vol(B_M(N))>(2a)\frac{N}{2}=aN`$, contradiction. This shows that one can take $`c=C=2`$ above. ∎

In particular there exists an exhaustion $`M_j`$ with the property that all $`M_j`$ are diffeomorphic and moreover $`d(p,M_j)ACj`$, where $`A`$ is the number of diffeomorphism types of manifolds satisfying the first condition in lemma 2.4 (and $`A`$ being finite by Cheeger’s finiteness theorem). This proves lemma 2.4. ∎

As already remarked this lemma ends the proof of proposition 2.1. ∎

## 3. The proof of the theorem

Assume that we fixed an exhaustion $`M_j`$ and the tubular neighborhoods $`Z_j`$ like in the proposition 2.1. One knows that $`Z_j`$ is canonically identified with a cylinder $`M_j\times [0,r_j]`$, where all $`r_j`$ are bounded from below by some $`\delta >0`$.

###### Lemma 3.1.

There exists a constant $`c_6`$ with the following property. For any 2-disk $`D`$ transverse to $`Z_j`$, such that $`DZ_j`$ is not null-homotopic (i.e. $`DM_j\times \{t\}`$ is not null-homotopic, for any $`t[0,r_j]`$) we have $`area(DZ_j)c_6`$.

###### Proof.

Let $`cl_0`$ be the 1-systole of $`V`$, i.e. the length of its smallest closed geodesic. By proposition 2.1 the length of each non-trivial component of $`DM_j\times \{t\}`$ is bounded from below by $`l_0`$. Then the projection $`p:M_j\times [0,\delta ][0,\delta ]`$ is decreasing the length, i.e. $`p1`$. We take then $`c_6=\delta l_0`$. In fact the coarea formula states that:

$$area(DM_j\times [0,\delta ])=_0^\delta 𝑑t_{DM_j\times \{t\}}\frac{ds}{p}$$

$$_0^\delta 𝑑t_{DM_j\times \{t\}}𝑑s_0^\delta l(DM_j\times \{t\})𝑑t\delta l_0$$

Proof of the theorem. Suppose that the contrary holds so that $`M`$ is not simply connected at infinity.

###### Lemma 3.2.

There exists then a compact $`K`$ such that the maps induced by the inclusions $`\iota _j:\pi _1(M_j)\pi _1(MK)`$ are non-zero, for all large enough $`j`$.

###### Proof.

There exists a compact $`K`$ such that arbitrary far loops bound only disks touching $`K`$. If $`KM_{j_0}`$ consider loops $`l_j`$ outside $`M_j`$ with this property. Any disk $`D_j`$ bounding $`l_j`$ should intersect $`K`$ hence $`M_j`$. One puts the disk $`D_j`$ in general position with respect to $`M_j`$. It follows that at least one loop component of $`M_jD_j`$ is not null-homotopic. Further the image of at least one loop component in $`\pi _1(MK)`$ is non-zero. In fact, otherwise $`l_j`$ would bound a disk not touching $`K`$, when capping off the null-homotopy disks of these loops with the annuli $`D_jMM_j`$. This contradicts the choice of $`l_j`$. ∎

Recall that all $`M_j`$ are diffeomorphic to the closed manifold $`V`$. If $`a_1,\mathrm{},a_N`$ is a system of generators of $`\pi _1(V)`$, one has then an induced system of generators for $`\pi _1(M_j)`$, which we keep denoting by the same letters. There exists therefore $`k\{1,2,\mathrm{},N\}`$, such that the images $`\iota _j(a_k)`$ are non-zero, for all large enough $`j`$. Let now $`a_{k,j}`$ denote a loop in $`M_j`$ representing $`a_k`$ in $`\pi _1(M_j)`$.

###### Lemma 3.3.

There exists some $`c_7`$ such that representatives loops $`a_{k,j}`$ can be chosen to be of length uniformly bounded by $`c_7`$, for all $`k`$ and $`j`$.

###### Proof.

This is a consequence of the fact that $`M_j`$ are at uniformly bounded Lipschitz distance from $`V`$. ∎

Consider now a disk $`D_j`$ in $`M`$, filling the loop $`a_{k,j}`$.

###### Lemma 3.4.

For large enough $`j`$ we have $`area(D_j)\frac{c_6}{2}j`$.

###### Proof.

One can assume that $`D_j`$ is transverse to all $`Z_i`$’s. By hypothesis $`D_jK\mathrm{}`$. Let $`j_0`$ be the minimal number with the property that $`KM_{j_01}`$. We claim that for all $`i\{j_0,\mathrm{},j\}`$ the intersections $`Z_iD_j`$ are not null-homotopic. Otherwise we could replace the disk $`D_j`$ by a more economical one, contained in $`M_jM_{j_0}`$, which would contradict our choice of $`j_0`$. Further, by using lemma 3.1 one derives:

$$area(D_j)\underset{i=j_0}{\overset{j}{}}area(D_jZ_i)c_6(jj_0).$$

This proves the lemma 3.4.∎

Eventually we observe that the loops $`a_{k,j}`$ have uniformly bounded length and stay at distance $`c_5j`$ far from the base point, because $`a_{k,j}M_j`$. In particular the filling growth is linear in the radius. This contradicts our hypothesis, and hence the theorem follows.

## 4. A counterexample to the converse

The metrics of bounded geometry on open s.c.i. manifolds need not have a sub-linear filling area, as the following example shows:

###### Example 4.1.

There exists a Riemannian metric $`g`$ of bounded geometry on $`𝐑^n`$ (for $`n3`$) such that

$$\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{F_{(𝐑^n,g)}(l,r)}{r}0.$$

###### Proof.

The method consists in modifying a decomposition of $`𝐑^n`$ into compression bodies by adding trivial cylinders of sufficiently large length. A loop bounding in a compression body can be translated along the cylinder and thus the bounding disk for the new loop is the union of the former with a long cylinder. In particular we can achieve a linear area function for this type of loops.

Specifically let us focus on $`n=3`$, and set $`T_j`$ for an increasing family of solid tori, such that:

1. $`T_{j+1}int(T_j)`$ is a product $`T^2\times [0,1]`$ for all $`j`$ but an infinite sequence $`A=\{j_1,j_2,\mathrm{},j_k,\mathrm{}\}_+`$. Here $`T^2`$ stands for the 2-torus.
2. if $`jA`$ then the inclusion $`T_jT_{j+1}`$ is trivial up to isotopy, and thus $`T_j`$ is contained in a ball $`B^3`$ embeded in $`T_{j+1}`$. Hence $`T_{j_i+1}int(T_{j_i})=V^3`$ has a fixed diffeomorphism type, and it is not diffeomeorphic to $`T^2\times [0,1]`$. In particular the map $`\pi _1(T_{j_i+1})\pi _1(T_{j_i+1}int(T_{j_i}))`$ is not zero.

We consider a metric structure $`g`$ on each $`T_{j+1}int(T_j)`$, which is a product along the boundary (corresponding to each one of the two models, $`V^3`$ or $`T^2\times [0,1]`$), with isometric boundaries at unit distance from each other. We obtain a metric on $`𝐑^3T_1`$, which can be completed by capping off with a Riemannian structure on $`T_1`$. This metric has linear growth.

Let $`c`$ be a loop on $`T_{j_i}`$, which is not null-homotopic and does not bound in $`𝐑^3T_{j_i}`$, and thus it is not a longitude. Then any disk $`D^2`$ filling $`c`$ has a component in $`T_{j_i}`$, and the innermost circle component of $`D^2T_{j_i}`$ is still homotopically non-trivial. We can suppose that this component is actually $`c`$, and hence that $`c`$ bounds in $`T_{j_i}`$. It follows that $`D^2T_{j_i}T_{j_{i1}+1}`$, because $`T_{j_i}T_{j_i+1}`$ is a cylinder $`T^2\times [0,j_ij_{i1}]`$ retracting on $`T_{j_i}`$. Therefore $`D^2`$ intersects $`T_{j_{i1}}`$ and thus $`D^2`$ intersects non-trivially (i.e. along loops which are not null-homotopic) the $`j_ij_{i1}`$ intermediary tori $`T_j`$ with $`j_{i1}+1jj_i`$. Since these tori have uniformly bounded normal injectivity radii (thus neighborhoods isometric with $`T^2\times [0,\delta ]`$) we obtain that $`area(D^2)\delta (j_ij_{i1})`$. Now $`T_j`$ is at distance $`j1`$ from $`T_1`$ and thus we find that:

$$\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{F_{(𝐑^3,g)}(l,r)}{\delta r}\underset{i\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{j_ij_{i1}}{j_i}.$$

By choosing $`j_i`$ growing fast enough we can insure that the right hand limit is $`1`$. ∎

## 5. Comments

There exists a further refinement of the filling area function, as follows. Set $`f_X(l,r;\lambda )`$ for the smallest area of the disk in $`X`$ filling an arbitrary loop of length $`l`$ lying in the annulus $`B_X(r)B_X(\lambda r)`$ of $`X`$. The function $`f_X(l,r;\lambda )`$ need not being increasing anymore. The filling growth is said to be weakly sub-linear if

$$\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim}inf\frac{f_X(l,r;\lambda )}{r}=0,\text{ for any }0<\lambda 1.$$

The growth of $`f_X(l,r;\lambda )`$ is not a quasi-isometry invariant since the modulus of the annulus might be changed by a quasi-isometry. However the property of having a weak sub-linear filling area is a quasi-isometry invariant, as it can be easily checked. It is not difficult to see that the proof of our theorem actually shows that a manifold of bounded geometry and linear volume growth whose filling growth is weakly sublinear should be simple connected at infinity.


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# W Boson Cross Section and Decay Properties at the Tevatron

## 1 $`W/Z`$ production cross sections

$`W`$ and $`Z`$ boson production cross-section measurements in $`p\overline{p}`$ collisions are a test of the consistency of Standard-Model couplings, constrain proton parton distribution functions, and provide information on higher-order QCD corrections. They also test the mettle of an experiment, as the measurements require good understanding of detection efficiencies, backgrounds, and luminosity. If experimental uncertainties are small, and the cross sections can be well-estimated from theory, the boson production rates can be interpreted as a measure of luminosity, and can also be used to normalize measurements of other production cross sections. Finally, $`W`$ and $`Z`$ bosons provide a path to the physics of Run II at the Tevatron, where many signatures of top-quark and Higgs-boson production can include these bosons.

At the Tevatron, protons and antiprotons collide at a center-of-mass energy of 1.96 TeV. A $`W`$ boson appears in the detector as a high-momentum lepton and large missing energy due to the undetected neutrino. As the $`z`$ component of $`p^\nu `$ is unmeasured, all quantites are measured in the transverse plane. A $`Z`$ boson appears as two high-momentum opposite-signed leptons with an invariant mass around 90 GeV. The cross section can be expressed as

$$\sigma B=\frac{N_{obs}N_{bg}}{Aϵ𝑑t},$$
(1)
where $`N_{obs}`$ is the number of observed boson events, $`N_{bg}`$ is the estimated number of background events, $`A`$ is the kinematic and geometric acceptance, $`ϵ`$ is the total efficiency, and $`𝑑t`$ is the integrated luminosity.

The lepton plus missing transverse-energy sample can be accounted for by $`W\mathrm{}\nu `$, $`Z\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, $`W\tau \nu `$, QCD jets (fake leptons), and (for muons) cosmic rays, as illustrated in Figure 1. CDF measures the $`W`$ cross section in the electron and muon decay channels, and D0 does so in the electron channel. (CDF also looks at monojet events with large missing energy, and sees an enhancement in the number of jets with one and three charged tracks, evidence for $`W\tau \nu `$ decays.) The inputs and results for the cross-section measurements are given in Table 1. The measurements are systematics-limited, with the overall uncertainty typically dominated by the uncertainty in the integrated-luminosity measurement. The quoted uncertainty on the luminosity should be considered an upper limit.

The dilepton samples are quite clean and allow for easy identification of the $`Z`$ resonance, as seen in Figure 2. D0 measures $`\sigma B(Zee)`$, with the result shown in Table 2. From this and the $`W`$ cross-section measurement, D0 calculates the ratio of cross sections $`R_{\mathrm{}}=\sigma ^W/\sigma ^Z`$, also given in Table 2; CDF measures the same ratio in the muon channel. This ratio can be expressed as

$$R_{\mathrm{}}=\frac{\sigma (p\overline{p}W)}{\sigma (p\overline{p}Z)}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(W\mathrm{}\nu )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(Z\mathrm{}\mathrm{})}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(Z)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(W)}.$$
(2)
Taking the total cross-section values and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(W\mathrm{}\nu )`$ from theory, and the $`Z`$ branching fraction from measurements at the $`Z`$ pole, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(W)`$ can be extracted. The D0 $`R`$ measurement gives $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(W)=2.26\pm 0.18_{\mathrm{stat}}\pm 0.29_{\mathrm{sys}}\pm 0.04_{\mathrm{external}}`$ GeV, and the CDF measurement of $`R`$ implies $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(W)=1.67\pm 0.24_{0.13}^{+0.14}\pm 0.01`$ GeV. The current world average is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(W)=2.114\pm 0.043`$ GeV .

All of the CDF and D0 cross-section measurements are summarized in Table 2. For comparison, the best measurements of these quantities in Run I data are $`\sigma ^W`$ = 2.49 $`\pm `$ 0.12 nb , $`\sigma ^Z`$ = 249 $`\pm `$ 11 pb , and $`R`$ = 10.90 $`\pm `$ 0.43 . The Run II measurements have not reached that level of precision, but they should with additional data. In addition, the $`W`$ and $`Z`$ production cross sections at the Run II energy of 1.96 TeV are expected to be about 10% larger than those at the Run I energy of 1.8 TeV; theory predicts values of $`\sigma ^W`$ = 2.73 (2.50) nb and $`\sigma ^Z`$ = 250 (230) pb at $`\sqrt{s}`$ = 1.96 (1.8) TeV . The measured values are consistent with this predicted rise, as illustrated in Figure 3.

## 2 $`W`$-decay angular distributions

Understanding QCD effects in $`W`$ production helps reduce uncertainties in $`M_W`$ and other electroweak measurements. Without QCD, when the $`W`$ has no transverse momentum ($`p_T^W`$), the differential cross section for the charged lepton in the $`W`$ decay is $`(1+q_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{cos}\theta )^2`$, as predicted by the $`VA`$ interaction. But in NLO QCD, the differential cross section in the Collins-Soper rest frame is given as

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^4\sigma }{dp_T^Wdyd(\mathrm{cos}\theta )d\varphi }}`$ $``$ $`1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta +`$ (3)
$`A_0(13\mathrm{cos}^2\theta )/2+`$
$`A_1\mathrm{sin}2\theta \mathrm{cos}\varphi +`$
$`A_2(\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{cos}2\varphi )/2+`$
$`A_3\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}\varphi +`$
$`A_4q_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{cos}\theta +`$
$`A_5\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{cos}2\varphi +`$
$`A_6\mathrm{sin}2\theta \mathrm{sin}\varphi +`$
$`A_7\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{sin}\varphi ,`$
where the $`A_i`$ depend on $`p_T^W`$ and the boson rapidity; the latter is typically integrated out. (The $`A_1`$, $`A_5`$, $`A_6`$ and $`A_7`$ terms can be safely neglected.) Thus, angular distributions when $`p_T^W0`$ probe the values of the $`A_i`$, which can then be compared to predictions from NLO QCD. The D0 experiment has made a measurement of $`A_0`$ in Run I data, and CDF now has measurements of $`A_0`$, $`A_2`$ and $`A_3`$ from Run I data.

The $`\theta `$ distribution of the decay leptons is obtained by integrating Equation 3 over $`\varphi `$:

$$\frac{d\sigma }{d(\mathrm{cos}\theta )}1+q_{\mathrm{}}\alpha _1\mathrm{cos}\theta +\alpha _2\mathrm{cos}^2\theta ,$$
(4)
with $`\alpha _1=A_4/(2+A_0)`$, $`\alpha _2=(23A_0)/(2+A_0)`$. There is no sensitivity to $`\alpha _1`$ due to the unknown $`p_z^\nu `$, but there is sensitivity to $`\alpha _2`$ through the shape of the $`W`$ transverse-mass spectrum, which changes with $`p_T^W`$. The Run I CDF $`W`$ sample is separated into four bins of $`p_T^W`$, and in each one a maximum-likelihood fit to the $`M_T`$ spectrum is performed to extract $`\alpha _2`$, accounting for background contamination and detector acceptance. The results are shown in Figure 4, along with the earlier D0 results and the prediction from QCD. There is good agreement among all three; the decrease in $`\alpha _2`$ with $`p_T^W`$ indicates increasing longitudinal polarization, as is expected. The CDF measurement is statistics-limited, with systematic uncertainties dominated by uncertainty in $`M_W`$, $`p_z^W`$, and the model of the $`W`$ recoil.

Similarly, one can integrate over $`\theta `$ in Equation 3 to obtain an expression that depends on $`\varphi `$. Measuring the $`\varphi `$ distribution of the lepton from $`W`$ decay gives information on the $`A_2`$ and $`A_3`$ coefficients. Again, events from the Run I CDF $`W`$ sample are separated into four bins of $`p_T^W`$; the events are required to have at least one hadronic jet to ensure that $`p_T^W>0`$. A maximum-likelihood fit to the $`\varphi `$ distribution is performed to extract $`A_2`$ and $`A_3`$. The results are shown in Figure 5, along with the prediction from QCD. As before, the experimental results are in agreement with the theory prediction. The $`A_2`$ measurement is systematics-limited, with the dominant uncertainties coming from the knowledge of $`A_0`$ and $`A_4`$, and the renormalization and factorization scale. By contrast, the $`A_3`$ measurement is statistics-limited.

## 3 Summary

Run I at the Tevatron has produced a trove of knowledge about the $`W`$ and $`Z`$ bosons, as evidenced by the new CDF measurement of the $`W`$ angular-decay distributions. These sophisticated analyses will be completed soon. The CDF and D0 collaborations are now turning their attention to the Run II data, and their $`W`$ and $`Z`$-based analyses are underway. Both experiments have established techniques to identify the bosons with high efficiency. They have a good understanding of the acceptances and efficiencies of their detector, and this understanding will improve as more data are collected. The $`W`$ cross-section measurements are consistent with the theory predictions and expectations from earlier measurements, and are already systematics-limited. Measurements of the $`Z`$ cross section and $`R`$ tend to be statistics-limited, but that too will change as the datasets grow. This work provides a solid foundation for the studies of high-$`p_T`$ physics that are among the goals of Run II.


text:
# Seyfert Galaxies in Compact Groups

## 1 Introduction

Because of their high density (comparable to the galaxy density in clusters) and relatively low velocity dispersion ($``$ 200-300 $`km/s`$) Compact Groups (CGs) are predicted to constitute the most probable sites for strong galaxy-galaxy interactions and mergers to occur. So far, this general expectation has been tested mainly on the Hickson Compact Group sample (HCGs, Hickson 1982, 1997). Indeed, several HCGs show evidence of ongoing interaction, but component usually remain distinct, with recognizable morphological type (Sulentic 1997). Zepf (1993) has estimated the fraction of currently merging galaxies in HCGs to be $``$ 7%, and the fraction of blue ellipticals (which are plausible merger remnants) to be similarly low (4 in 55), and predominantly associated to faint members (Zepf et al. 1991). Concerning the far infrared (FIR), Hickson et al. (1989) found the FIR emission to be enhanced in HCGs, however Sulentic & de Mello (1993) and Verdes-Montenegro et al. (1998) suggest there is no firm evidence for enhancement. A similar lack of FIR enhancement is found in the UZC-CG sample by Kelm et al. (2002). These authors also state that data are compatible with IRAS galaxies in CGs being plausible candidates for accordant redshift projections, rather than interaction triggered starbursting galaxies.

Addressing the issue of AGNs in HCGs, Kelm et al. (1998) find that only $``$ 2% of the HCG member galaxies display a Seyfert spectrum. They find Sy to be hosted in luminous spirals, as is usually the case. However, computing also low-level AGN activity appears to dramatically increase the fraction of AGNs in CGs (Coziol et al. 1998, 2000), with a significant preference for early type hosts. Coziol et al. (2000) state that AGNs (including low luminosity/dwarf sources) are the most frequent (41%) activity type encountered in CGs. A similar high fraction of AGNs in HCGs is retrieved by Shimada et al. (2000), who additionally compare AGN in HCGs with field sources and claim that the dense galaxy environment in HCGs does not affect the triggering of either AGNs or nuclear starbursts.

## 2 Seyfert galaxies in CGs: how common are they?

We investigate here the occurrence of AGNs in a new large sample of nearby Compact Groups (Focardi & Kelm 2002) identified in a 96% complete flux-limited (2+1)D galaxy catalogue (UZC, Falco et al. 1999). The analysis is restricted to CGs in the radial velocity range 2500-7500 $`km/s`$ and to high excitation Sy (type 1 and 2). Sy are identified through cross correlation with the Veron-Cetty & Veron (2001) AGN catalogue (V&V) and/or with the NED database. Out of 639 galaxies in 192 CGs only 16 (2.5%) turn out to be Sy. The fraction slightly rises restricting computation to spiral hosts (3.3%) or to the brightest (upper quartile) galaxies in CGs (4.4%). The inclusion of Sy3/LINERs would enhance the fraction of AGNs to 4.5%, a value still an order of magnitude lower than estimated by Coziol et al. (2000) or Shimada et al. (2000).

Among Sy in CGs only 3 are Sy1. For comparison, in the V&V catalogue the number of Sy1 (within the same redshift range) is only half the number of Sy2, thus confirming the paucity of type 1 sources in CGs (Coziol et al. 2000).

## 3 CGs with and without a Seyfert: is there any difference?

Interactions with companion galaxies are predicted to generate instabilities that will possibly lead to the (re)activation of an active nucleus. CGs identified in redshift catalogues constitute, by definition, an extremely dense environment, however only a minor fraction displays a Sy member. This means that additional parameters, linked to the exact dynamical status of the group and/or to the host galaxy internal parameters do control the Sy-triggering mechanism. Following, we include data analysis indicating that among CGs those resembling rich-group/poor-cluster appear more likely to host a Sy member.

In figure 1-left the velocity distribution of galaxies in CGs with Sy (SyCGs) and in CGs without Sy (nonSyCGs) is displayed. The figure shows the distribution of the difference between the observed galaxy radial velocity and the mean velocity of galaxies in the group to which it belongs. The majority of velocities fall below 200 $`km/s`$ in both samples. However it clearly emerges that galaxies in SyCGs are more likely (at 3 $`\sigma `$ c.l. according to the KS test) than those in nonSyCGs to display larger velocity differences.

In figure 1-right distributions of the number-of-neighbours within an region of 1$`h^1`$$`Mpc`$ radius and $`|`$$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`cz`$$`|`$$`<`$1000$`km/s`$ from the CG center are shown, tracing the galaxy number density around CGs on a scale much larger than the CG scale. Statistical analysis indicates that SyCGs are more likely (at 3 $`\sigma `$ c.l.) than nonSyCGs to be associated to large number of companion galaxies, i.e. they reside in a denser large-scale environment.

In figure 2 the morphological segregation of galaxies in CGs with/without a Sy member are compared. Difference points towards a population in SyCGs richer in ellipticals. However, among Sy themselves only one is an elliptical; accordingly, data indicate that Sy are more common when the fraction of ellipticals among companions is high.

## 4 Conclusions

We retrieve only a marginal fraction of Sy galaxies in the UZC-CG galaxy sample, suggesting that either the interaction-activity connection does not hold for CGs, or, that most CGs are actually systems undergoing only mild interactions. Significant dynamical and environmental differences between CGs hosting/non-hosting a Sy member might indicate that Sy are typically associated to CGs already resembling rich-groups/poor-clusters. This interpretation is also supported by the fact that an excess of ellipticals is retrieved among companions to Sy. Our analysis clearly suggests that the low fraction of Sy among UZC-CGs galaxies results from a low fraction of physical systems in the sample. Accordingly, most CGs turn out to be accordant redshift projected groups, or groups at first approach in which no strong interaction has yet occurred.

## References


text:
# Determinant Calculations Using Random Walk Worldline Loops

## Abstract

We use statistical ensembles of worldline loops generated by random walk on hypercubic lattices to calculate matter determinants in background Yang-Mills fields.

Introduction  The World Line Formalism ( \- see also  and references therein) permits a transparent discussion of matter determinants and the related 1-loop effective action in some background. We here consider a lattice implementation of this method. Consider the bosonic determinant in a gauge field background

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }(A)`$ $`=\mathrm{log}det(𝒟^2+m^2)=\mathrm{tr}\mathrm{log}(𝒟^2+\mathrm{m}^2)`$
$`={\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{dT}{T}}{\displaystyle d^Dx_{x(0)=x(T)=x}[Dx]}`$
$`\times `$ $`\mathrm{tr}_\mathrm{P}\mathrm{exp}\left\{{\displaystyle _0^\mathrm{T}}d\tau \left({\displaystyle \frac{\dot{\mathrm{x}}^2}{4}}+\mathrm{ig}𝐀_\mu \dot{\mathrm{x}}_\mu +\mathrm{m}^2\right)\right\}`$
The (Euclidean) worldline sum above is over all closed paths ($`\mathrm{tr}_\mathrm{P}`$ indicates path ordering). We use Random Walk (RW) paths on a D-dimensional hypercubic lattice $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_D`$  and discretize $`T`$ using $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau =T/L=a^2/2D`$, then:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }^{discr}(U)=\underset{x\mathrm{\Lambda }_D}{}(U,x),$$
(1)
$`(U,x)={\displaystyle \underset{L}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{L}}e^{\frac{m^2L}{2D}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2D}}\right)^L{\displaystyle \underset{\{\omega _L(x)\}}{}}\mathrm{tr}{\displaystyle \underset{\mathrm{l}\omega _\mathrm{L}(\mathrm{x})}{}}\mathrm{U}_\mathrm{l}`$
Dimensionfull quantities are understood as given in lattice units $`a`$. $`\{\omega _L(x)\}`$ is the set of all closed lattice paths with length $`|\omega _L|=L`$ obtained by RW starting and ending at $`x`$. The free RW “measure” $`(2D)^L`$ is implemented by the actual procedure, the mass dependence $`e^{m^2T}`$ is kept explicit. $`U_l`$ are link variables. For detail see .

The expansion according to the loop lengths (1) is equivalent to the usual hopping parameter expansion for the logarithm of the determinant (see, e.g., , , ), e.g., in the bosonic case:

$`\kappa ^L=(m^2+2D)^L\begin{array}{c}\\ m^22D\end{array}(2D)^L\mathrm{e}^{m^2\frac{L}{2D}}`$ (4)
The number of different loops of length $`L`$ increases exponentially with $`L`$, therefore one usually stops the expansion at a rather low order. Since loops $`L`$ are typically relevant at scale $`\sqrt{L}`$, we then may completely miss physical effects at large scales (or need to use rough lattices). Our procedure amounts instead to sampling loops statistically in a wide interval of lengths (see also ). By construction, the loops appear with the correct probabilities. We thus trade the systematic errors for statistical ones, hoping to reproduce also effects at “large” scale, albeit within statistical uncertainties. For a quantum gauge field vacuum the (quenched) vacuum energy obtains by averaging (1) with the Yang-Mills action.

The lattice loop ensemble  The factor $`(2D)^L`$ in (1) is reproduced by RW and we only need to weight the loop contributions $`\mathrm{tr}\left(_{\mathrm{l}\omega _\mathrm{L}}\mathrm{U}_\mathrm{l}\right)`$ with $`L^1\mathrm{e}^{m^2\frac{L}{2D}}`$. We specify a maximal number of trials $`𝒩_L`$ for each given number of steps $`L`$. We first generate an $`\{\omega (x_\mu =1)\}`$ ensemble of loops by starting the random walk at the point $`x_\mu =1`$ of the periodic lattice and collecting the loops which after $`L`$ steps have returned to $`x_\mu =1`$, independently on self-crossings or retracing. Using this $`\{\omega (x_\mu =1)\}`$ ensemble we define $`(A,1)`$. If we want to calculate $`(A,x)`$ we shift the $`\{\omega (x_\mu =1)\}`$ ensemble by $`x`$ as a whole. The full loop ensemble – the $`x`$-summation $`_{x\mathrm{\Lambda }_D}`$ in (1) – is approximated by considering sufficiently many random translations of each of the loops of the $`\{\omega (x_\mu =1)\}`$ ensemble (this reproduces the correct multiplicities in the $`\kappa `$ \- expansion ). We have for the loop frequencies:

$$\nu _L=\frac{2n_L}{(2\pi /D)^{D/2}𝒩_L}\begin{array}{c}=\\ L1\end{array}L^{D/2}.$$
(5)
with $`n_L`$ the number of loops generated at $`L`$. The factor 2 appears because $`L`$ is even. The second equality in (5) is the well known result for unbiased RW . Since the number of loops decreases with $`L`$, if large loops are important we may have large statistical errors. One improves on this by using larger $`𝒩_L`$ at high $`L`$, to produce more loops there (using $`\nu _L`$ automatically renormalizes their contributions). We work in $`D=3(4)`$ and use an $`\{\omega (x_\mu =1)\}`$ ensemble of up to 600000(250000) loops on lattices of $`N_xN_yN_zN_t`$ with $`N_\mu =\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}12},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}16},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}24}`$ and 32, p.b.c. See Fig. 1.

Special configurations  For a test we use:

a) Homogeneous field In continuum :

$`(b_+,b_{})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(4\pi )^{D/2}}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{dT}{T}}T^{D/2}\mathrm{e}^{m^2T}`$ (6)
$`\times `$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{b_+T}{\mathrm{sinh}(b_+T)}}{\displaystyle \frac{b_{}T}{\mathrm{sinh}(b_{}T)}},`$
$$b_\pm ^2=\frac{1}{2}\left[\stackrel{}{E}^2+\stackrel{}{B}^2\pm \sqrt{(\stackrel{}{E}^2+\stackrel{}{B}^2)^24(\stackrel{}{E}\stackrel{}{B})^2}\right]$$
(7)
(with subtraction at $`T=0`$). With

$$b_\mu =2\pi k_\mu /\widehat{N}_\mu ,k_\mu :\mathrm{integer},$$
(8)
$$U_{n,\widehat{1}}=\mathrm{e}^{in_yb_y},U_{n,\widehat{2}}=\mathrm{e}^{in_xb_x},1n_\mu \widehat{N}_\mu $$
(9)
with $`\widehat{N}_\mu =N_\mu `$ (all other links 1) realizes a constant, Abelian magnetic field $`b=b_+=b_x+b_y,b_{}=0`$. Alternatively, with $`\widehat{N}_\mu =N_\mu =N`$,

$$U_{n,\widehat{1}}=\mathrm{e}^{i\sigma _3n_yb_y},U_{n,\widehat{3}}=\mathrm{e}^{i\sigma _3n_tb_t},1n_\mu N$$
(10)
(all other links 1) realizes an SU(2) configuration of constant topological charge density $`q=\frac{b^2}{8\pi ^2}`$ (here $`k_{y,t}=k;b_\pm =b=b_x=b_t`$). We calculate

$$F(L,b)=\frac{1}{n_L}\underset{i=1}{\overset{n_L}{}}\mathrm{tr}\underset{\mathrm{l}\omega _\mathrm{L}^\mathrm{i}}{}\mathrm{U}_\mathrm{l}.$$
(11)
From (6,7) this should be

$$F_{\mathrm{mag}.}(L,b)=u/\mathrm{sinh}u,u=bL/2D,$$
(12)
$$F_{\mathrm{top}.}(L,b)=u^2/\mathrm{sinh}^2u,u=bL/4D$$
(13)
for the first (9) and second (10) case, respectively. For small fields the points scale well with the field and lattice size and reproduce the continuum results (12) or (13). For large fields lattice artifacts are seen on small lattices. See Fig. 2.

b) Magnetic field in half space Consider a magnetic field (9) in $`D=3`$ pointing into $`z`$-direction in half space $`1x\widehat{N}_x=N_x/2`$ . Then:

$`(L_1,L_2,b,m,x)={\displaystyle \underset{L=L_1}{\overset{L_2}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{L}}e^{\frac{m^2L}{2D}}\nu _LF(L,b,x),`$
$$F(L,b,x)=\frac{1}{n_L}\underset{i=1}{\overset{n_L}{}}\mathrm{tr}\underset{\mathrm{l}\stackrel{~}{\omega }_\mathrm{L}^\mathrm{i}(\mathrm{x})}{}\mathrm{U}_\mathrm{l}$$
(14)
The lattice is $`64\times 32^2,m0,\stackrel{~}{\omega }^i(x)`$ are centered at $`x`$. On physical grounds we expect for $``$

$`({\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _1}{b}},{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _2}{b}},b,\mu \sqrt{b},\xi \sqrt{b}+x_0)=b^{\frac{3}{2}}f(\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\mu ,\xi )`$
$$f(0,\mathrm{},\mu ,\xi )\mathrm{e}^{M(\mu )\xi }\mathrm{for}\xi >0$$
(15)
Here $`x_0=\frac{N_x}{2}+0.5`$ ($`\xi =0`$) is the separation between regions. We have systematic errors due to $`0<\lambda _{1,2}<\mathrm{}`$ and discretization artifacts. The slope $`M`$ appears reasonably stable against these uncertainties, however. See Fig. 3. We also observe scaling (for small $`b`$ and $`m`$) and smooth dependence on $`m`$. We obtain $`M(0)=1.7\pm 0.2`$, in apparent disagreement with . See .

Discussion  The above results indicate that using statistical ensembles of RW loops allows one to calculate the matter free energy in gauge field backgrounds where large loops may be relevant. This method could be applied to non-trivial configurations such as instantons, sphalerons, bounce solutions. It also could be used to calculate the quenched free energy in a quantum vacuum . Non-zero spin can also be handled by adding a spin term in the worldline Lagrangian containing the outer field  (for fermions it is advantageous to use second order formalism – suggestion by W. Wetzel). See also . Of course one can use direct numerical methods for determinants. The above method may, however, allow more insight into the relevant phenomena and scales involved.

Acknowledgment: We should like to thank Martin Reuter and Werner Wetzel for discussions.


text:
# Controlling the cold collision shift in high precision atomic interferometry

\[

## Abstract

We present here a new method based on a transfer of population by adiabatic passage that allows to prepare cold atomic samples with a well defined ratio of atomic density and atom number. This method is used to perform a measurement of the cold collision frequency shift in a laser cooled cesium clock at the percent level, which makes the evaluation of the cesium fountains accuracy at the $`10^{16}`$ level realistic. With an improved set-up, the adiabatic passage would allow measurements of atom number-dependent phase shifts at the $`10^3`$ level in high precision experiments.

PACS numbers: 32.88.Pj, 06.30.Ft, 34.20.Cf

\]

Collisions play an important role in high precision atomic interferometry . In most experiments, a precise control of the atomic density is hard to achieve, which sets a limit to how accurately systematic effects due to collisions can be corrected for. This is particularly true for clocks using laser cooled Cs atoms . The accuracy of the BNM SYRTE cesium fountains reaches now $`1\times 10^{15}`$. It is currently limited by a 10 to 20 % systematic and statistical uncertainty on the determination of the cold collision shift . To reach such an accuracy, one has to operate with a moderate number of detected atoms, typically $`10^5`$, which sets a standard quantum limit to the frequency stability  of about $`10^{13}\tau ^{1/2}`$, where $`\tau `$ is the averaging time in seconds. However, when using a high number of atoms ($`10^610^7`$), a stability approaching $`3\times 10^{14}\tau ^{1/2}`$ has already been demonstrated , which would make the evaluation at the $`10^{16}`$ level practicable. Under these conditions, the cold collision frequency shift is very large ($`10^{14}`$). To actually reach such an accuracy and to take full advantage of this capability, this shift has to be determined more accurately than presently achieved.

In this letter, we present a method using adiabatic passage (AP)  that allows to prepare atomic samples with well defined density ratios. This enables the determination of the collisional frequency shift at the percent level, or better.

The measurement of the cold collision shift is based on a differential method . One alternates sequences of measurements with two different, high and low effective atomic densities. One then measures the frequency difference between the two situations, as well as the difference in the number of detected atoms. Knowing the effective densities, the clock frequency can be corrected for the collisional shift by extrapolation to zero density. Unfortunately, the effective density cannot be measured directly : in a fountain, one only measures the number of detected atoms. A full numerical simulation (which takes into account the whole geometry of the fountain and the parameters of the atomic cloud) is then necessary to estimate the effective density, as in . Nevertheless, extrapolating the clock frequency to zero density is still possible if one assumes that the effective density and the number of detected atoms are proportional. Under these conditions, the collisional frequency shift $`\delta \nu `$ is proportional to the number of detected atoms $`N_{det}`$, say $`\delta \nu =KN_{det}`$. The important point is that the coefficient $`K`$ should be the same for the low and high density configurations, otherwise the extrapolation to zero detected atoms is inaccurate.

Up to now, two methods have been used to change the density, and hence $`N_{det}`$. Atoms are initially loaded in an optical molasses, whose parameters (duration, laser intensity) can be varied. A better technique consists in keeping the same loading parameters but changing the power in a selection microwave cavity, which is used to prepare atoms in the $`|F=3,m_F=0`$ state. One can select all (resp. half) of the atoms initially in the $`|F=4,m_F=0`$ state by applying a $`\pi `$ (resp. $`\pi /2`$) pulse. However, due to the microwave field inhomogeneities in the cavity, the pulses cannot be perfectly $`\pi `$ and $`\pi /2`$ pulses for all the atoms. Both techniques affect the atomic densities, velocity distribution and collisional energy , and consequently the $`K`$ coefficients usually differ for the low and high density cases. Numerical simulations show that the $`K`$ coefficient may differ by 10% to 15% in our set-up, depending on parameters such as microwave power, velocity and position distribution. Fluctuations and imperfect determination of those parameters prevent from performing an accurate evaluation of the $`K`$ coefficient.

A method immune of these systematic effects prescribes to change the number of atoms of the sample without changing neither its velocity distribution, nor its size. This can be realized by an adiabatic transfer of population, which allows one to prepare two atomic samples, where both the ratio of the effective densities and the ratio of the atom numbers are exactly $`1/2`$. In contrast to previous methods, this one is insensitive to fluctuations of experimental parameters such as the size and temperature of the atomic sample, or the power coupled into the selection cavity.

First, an adiabatic passage in the selection cavity is used to transfer with a 100% efficiency all the atoms from the $`|F=4,m_F=0`$ state to the $`|F=3,m_F=0`$ state . This requires that the microwave field in the cavity is swept across resonance, and that the Rabi frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }/2\pi `$ has an appropriate shape and maximum intensity. We choose to use Blackman pulses (BP), following , which minimizes off-resonance excitation. In order to fulfill the adiabaticity condition, the frequency chirp $`\delta `$ has to be shaped according to

$$\delta (t)\mathrm{\Omega }^2(t)𝑑t.$$
(1)
Figure 1 shows the evolution of the microwave field amplitude together with the frequency chirp.

Second, we exploit another striking property of AP. If we stop the AP sequence when $`\delta =0`$ (half-Blackman pulse HBP), the atoms are left in a superposition of the $`|F=4,m_F=0`$ and $`|F=3,m_F=0`$ states, with weights rigourously equal and independent of the Rabi frequency. After removal of the $`|F=4`$ atoms with a pushing laser beam, half of the atoms are in the $`|F=3,m_F=0`$ state, as desired.

In order to optimize this AP method and to evaluate its sensitivity to experimental parameters, we first performed a simple numerical simulation, solving the time-dependent Schr$`\ddot{\mathrm{o}}`$dinger equation for a two level atom in a homogeneous microwave field. The choice of the pulse parameters comes from a compromise between the insensitivity of the transition probabilities to fluctuations and the parasitic excitation of non-resonant transitions. Figure 2 displays as lines the calculated transition probabilities as a function of the maximum Rabi frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{max}/2\pi `$, for BP and HBP. The parameters were a duration $`\tau _{int}=4`$ ms, and $`\delta _{max}=5`$ kHz, which were constant over the course of the experiment. The simulation shows that the transition probabilities deviate from 1 and 1/2 by less than $`10^3`$ as soon as $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{max}/2\pi `$ is larger than 2.4 kHz. A more realistic simulation has been performed, taking into account the gaussian spatial distribution of the atomic cloud (characterized by $`\sigma =3.5`$ mm) in the selection cavity, its trajectory in the microwave cavity, as well as the microwave field distribution of the TE011 mode for our cylindrical cavity. The simulation indicates that the transition probability deviates from the ideal value by less than $`10^3`$ for both BP and HBP for all the atoms contained within $`\pm 3.5\sigma `$ of the vertical spatial distribution (more than 99.95 % of the atoms in the cloud). In this calculation, $`\delta =0`$ when the center of the cloud reaches the center of the cavity, which minimizes the sensitivity of the transfer efficiency to microwave field inhomogeneities and timing errors. For instance, a delay as large as 1 ms with respect to the optimal timing induces only a $`7\times 10^5`$ variation on the transition probability. The only critical parameter is the accuracy of the frequency at the end of the chirp $`\delta _0`$, for HBP. We calculate a linear sensitivity of the transition probability to $`\delta _0`$ of $`7\times 10^5`$/Hz.

We use one of our Cs fountain to demonstrate the AP method and the resulting ability to control the collisional shift. This clock is an improved version of the Rb fountain already described elsewhere . We use a laser slowed atomic beam to load about $`10^9`$ atoms within 800 ms in a lin $``$ lin optical molasses, with 6 laser beams tuned to the red of the $`F=4F^{}=5`$ transition at 852 nm. The atoms are then launched upwards at $`4.1`$ m/s within 2 ms, and cooled down to an effective temperature of $`1\mu `$K. After launch, the atoms are prepared into the $`|F=3,m_F=0`$ state using a combination of microwave and laser pulses : they first enter a selection cavity ($`Q`$1000) tuned to the $`|F=4,m_F=0|F=3,m_F=0`$ transition, where they experience either BP or HBP pulses. The atoms left in the $`F=4`$ state are pushed by a laser beam tuned to the $`F=4F^{}=5`$ transition, 10 cm above the selection cavity. The amplitude of the pulses are shaped by applying an adequate voltage sequence (500 steps) to a microwave voltage-controlled attenuator (60 dB dynamic range), whereas the frequency chirp is performed with a voltage controlled oscillator. The Rabi frequency profile agrees with the expected Blackman shape within a few percent. The frequency chirp, and more specifically its final frequency, was not controlled as it cannot be easily checked at the required precision level of 10 Hz for HBP. The selected atoms then interact with a 9.2 GHz microwave field synthesized from a high frequency stability quartz oscillator weakly locked to the output of a H-maser. The two $`\pi `$/2 Ramsey interactions are separated by 500 ms. The number of atoms $`N_{F=3}`$ and $`N_{F=4}`$ are finally measured by time of flight fluorescence, induced by a pair of laser beams located below the molasses region. From the transition probabilities $`N_{F=4}/(N_{F=3}+N_{F=4})`$ measured on both sides of the central Ramsey fringe, an error signal is computed to lock the microwave interrogation frequency to the atomic transition using a digital servo loop.

The transition probabilities are first measured as a function of the maximum Rabi frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{max}`$, for the Blackman and half-Blackman pulses. The atoms are launched and selected with the pushing beam off for this evaluation phase only. To reject the fluctuations of the initial number of atoms, we measure the ratio of the atoms transferred into $`|F=3,m_F=0`$ and the total number of launched atoms, in all magnetic sub-levels. We then rescale the transfer probability in between 0 and 1 using only one free parameter : the initial population of the $`|F=4,m_F=0`$ state. The results are shown in figure 2 and reproduce very well the numerical simulations.

As the maximum Rabi frequency during the experiment was set to $`7.5`$ kHz, the resonance frequencies for transitions between $`m_F0`$ states have to be significantly shifted away from the 0-0 transition. A magnetic field of $`180`$ mG is applied during the pulses which keeps the parasitic excitation of magnetic field sensitive transitions below 0.3 %. This pulse induces a quadratic Zeeman shift on the 0-0 transition of about 14 Hz than must be taken into account to meet the resonance condition $`\delta =0`$ for HBP.

For each sequence of the differential measurement, we measure the mean atom number for the Blackman and half-Blackman pulses, and compute their ratio $`R`$. We then calculate $`R_N`$, the average of $`R`$ for N successive sequences. In figure 3, the standard deviation $`\sigma _R(N)`$ for various N is plotted. The stability of $`R`$ reaches $`3\times 10^4`$ after a one-day integration. This reflects the insensitivity of the AP to the experimental parameter fluctuations. The mean value of the ratio is $`R=0.506`$, whereas it was expected to be 0.5 at the $`10^3`$ level. This deviation cannot be explained by a non-linearity of the detection, which could arise from absorption in the detection beams. When the absorption in the detection laser beams is changed by a factor 2, we observe no change in the ratio larger than $`10^3`$. We attribute this deviation to the uncertainty in the final frequency of the sweep. In our present set-up, the sweep is generated by an oscillator whose accuracy is limited to 50 Hz for a frequency sweep from -5 to +5 kHz (this difficulty can be solved by using a dedicated DDS numerical synthesizer). We measure a linear deviation in the transition probability of $`7.5(3)\times 10^5`$/Hz in agreement with the predicted value. This can explain a deviation of the ratio by about $`4\times 10^3`$. However, it is important to notice that even when the final frequency is detuned by 50 Hz, the spatial variation of the transition probability across the atomic sample is less than $`10^3`$. All the tests performed here demonstrate that AP is at least accurate at the 1% level.

Measurements of the collisional frequency shift are then carried out using BP and HBP pulses with a large number of atoms ($`N_{det}10^7`$) in order to amplify the collisional shift. From a differential measurement, one can extrapolate the frequency of the clock at zero density with respect to the H-maser. The relative resolution of the frequency difference is $`2\times 10^{13}\tau ^{1/2}`$, limited by the phase noise of the quartz oscillator used for the fountain interrogation. To check whether this extrapolation is correct, we measure the corrected frequency for two different initial temperatures of the atomic cloud, 1.1 and 2.3 $`\mu `$K, for which the effective densities, number of detected atoms and K coefficients are expected to be different. We switch every 50 cycles between four different configurations : 1.1 $`\mu `$K and BP, 1.1 $`\mu `$K and HBP, 2.3 $`\mu `$K and BP, 2.3 $`\mu `$K and HBP. This rejects long term fluctuations in the experiment induced by frequency drift of the H-maser used as a reference, variation of the detection responsivity, and fluctuations of other systematic effects.

The results are summarized in table I. For each configuration, the measurement of the clock frequency and number of atoms is averaged over a total time of about 50 hours. One can then extract the differential collisional shifts with a relative resolution of $`5\times 10^{16}`$. The K constants are thus determined with an uncertainty of about 1 %. They are found to differ by about 20 %. The difference between the corrected frequencies can then be estimated. The uncertainty on this measurement is two-fold, a statistical uncertainty, and a systematic error which reflects the 1 % uncertainty on the ratio $`R`$. We find a difference between the corrected frequencies of -0.012(7)(5) mHz, which is less than 2 % of the collisional shift at high density, and compatible with zero within its error bars.

Table II displays the results obtained using either the standard selection method (SSM) or AP, for a temperature of $`1.1\mu K`$. The $`K`$ coefficients are found to differ by about 10%. Indeed, when using a $`\pi /2`$ pulse with the standard selection, the density distribution is transversally distorted : atoms along the symmetry axis of the cavity are more efficiently transferred than off-axis atoms. This increases the effective density for the same number of detected atoms with respect to AP, giving a larger collision shift at low density. In fact, $`K`$ is expected to be lower with SSM than AP, in agreement with our measurement. Extrapolating the frequency to zero density when using SSM then leads to an error of about $`3\times 10^{15}`$ at this density.

It is also important to notice that we measure simultaneously the collisional frequency shift and the shift due to cavity pulling , which is proportional to the number of atoms crossing the Ramsey cavity. Both are correctly evaluated by our method.

In conclusion, we demonstrate here a powerful method based on an adiabatic transfer of population to prepare atomic samples with a well-defined density ratio. An important point is that the cold collisional shift is measured precisely without any absolute calibration, nor numerical simulation. This holds even when parameters of the atomic sample, or even of the atomic detection are fluctuating. This method can lead to a potential control of the cold collision shift at the $`10^3`$ level, or even better. This capability could be demonstrated by using an ultra stable cryogenic oscillator , allowing a frequency resolution of $`10^{16}`$ per day. Having now at hand a powerful method to determine the collisional shift with the required resolution, the evaluation of the Cs fountain accuracy at the $`10^{16}`$ level is reachable. Any other high precision measurement using cold atoms should also benefit from this method to evaluate phase shifts induced by atomic interactions.

Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank D. Calonico for his contribution in previous stage of the experiment, A. Gérard and G. Santarelli for technical assistance, and P. Lemonde for fruitful discussions. This work was supported in part by BNM and CNRS. BNM-SYRTE and Laboratoire Kastler-Brossel are Unités Associées au CNRS, UMR 8630 and 8552.

a Present address: Time and Frequency Division National Institute of Standards and Technology 325, Broadway Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA