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# Scattering from supramacromolecular structures

## Abstract

We study theoretically the scattering imprint of a number of branched supramacromolecular architectures, namely, polydisperse stars and dendrimeric, hyperbranched structures. We show that polydispersity and nature of branching highly influence the intermediate wavevector region of the scattering structure factor, thus providing insight into the morphology of different aggregates formed in polymer solutions.

I. Introduction:

Scattering by light, x-rays or neutron radiation provides a fundamental tool to investigate the shapes and statistical nature of large molecules in solution. For objects of fixed shape, like spherical, ellipsoidal or cylindrical colloids, the scattering functions are known and can easily be compared to experimental data, thus allowing for a determination of shapes and relevant dimensions of the objects in a given experimental sample. For objects of a relatively simple geometry, but with a fluctuating nature, like polymer chains or semi-flexible rods the scattering spectra contains not only information about the average shape of the mass distribution but carries also a signature of the conformational disorder determined by the nature of the thermodynamic fluctuations. For flexible polymers, for instance, one can determine from the scattering data whether monomer-monomer excluded volume interactions are relevant or not in a particular, given solvent.

Association of fixed-shape objects, like the aggregation of spherical colloids that lead to fractal D.L.A.(diffusion-limited aggregation) structures, brings also some degree of disorder into the spatial distribution of the scattering elements. Although the object as a whole does not fluctuate in time, the spatial distribution of the scattering elements is statistically fixed by the aggregation process itself. D.L.A. and other related processes have been shown to lead to self-similar aggregates, where the frozen position correlations $`g(r)`$ between different elements at a distance $`r`$ are described by a power law $`g(r)r^m`$. It is well known that the scattering data from these objects also carries the signature of the exponent $`m`$, thus providing some insight on the type of the aggregation process ruling the solution behavior.

When the aggregation process involves fluctuating objects, the scattering function carries information both on the connectivity between different scattering elements and on the statistics of the fluctuations. In this paper we discuss the interplay between these two factors by studying a number of branched polymer structures. Branched polymers are arguably the larger class of systems of connected fluctuating elements, systems that also include aggregates of soft gel beads, emulsion droplets and others. In many polymer or polymer-like structures, control of the branching chemistry allows for a careful choice of the connectivity, like in dendrimers or in star-branched polymers, and to some extent in dendrimeric (also called hyperbranched) polymers. Geometries with higher degree of disorder are obtained by spontaneous aggregation in solutions of polymers carrying sticking groups, and by random branching during polymerization growth. This leads to a great diversity in the connections and to a polydispersity in sizes of the constitutive elements. In order to clarify the role of each of these factors in shaping the scattering functions, we explore a number of structures obtained by variations of star-like polymers: stars with polydisperse arms, and dendrimeric polymers with different degrees of polydispersity.

The paper is organized as follows. In section II we recall some basic general features of the scattering amplitude for well known, fixed-shape and fluctuating objects. Section III discusses the scattering function of gaussian branched and hyperbranched structures, and also discusses qualitatively the effects of excluded volume. Finally, in the conclusions we discuss the different scattering signatures according to branching structure and statistical nature of the fluctuations.

II. Scattering from simple polymer architectures. The structure factor of an aggregate is given by

$$S(\text{q})=\frac{1}{𝒩}\underset{n,m=1}{\overset{𝒩}{}}\mathrm{exp}\{i\text{q}(\text{ R}_n\text{R}_m)\},$$
(1)
where $`𝒩`$ is the number of scattering units in the aggregate (monomers), $`\text{R}_i`$ is the position of the $`i`$-th scattering unit, the ensemble average is denoted by $`\mathrm{}`$, and q is the momentum transfer given by $`\text{q}=\text{q}_s\text{q}_i`$. Here $`\text{q}_i`$ and $`\text{q}_s`$ are the wave vectors of the incident and scattered fields. For elastic scattering $`|\text{q}_s|=|\text{q}_i|=2\pi /\lambda `$, where $`\lambda `$ is the wavelength of the incident wave. Hence, $`q|\text{q}|=(4\pi /\lambda )\mathrm{sin}\theta /2`$, with $`\theta `$ the scattering angle.

An illustration of the form of the scattering amplitude for two objects of well defined shapes is shown in Fig.1. In this figure, the spherically averaged scattering function of an infinitely thin uniform rod of length $`L`$ is compared to that of an uniform sphere of radius $`R=L/2`$. For simplicity both curves have been normalized to $`1`$ at the origin. The curve corresponding to the rod shows a power law region with slope $`1`$ for large wavevector $`q`$, reflecting the unidimensional nature of the rod. Indeed, for a mass density distribution of the form $`g(r)r^{(3D)}`$, where $`D`$ is the fractal dimension of the object, one expects the scattering behavior $`S(\text{q})q^D`$. For rods, $`D=1`$, and $`S(\text{q})q^1`$. This holds for spatial scales $`rR_g`$ or reciprocal lengths $`qR_g1`$, where $`R_g`$ is the radius of gyration of the object $`R_g^2=(1/2𝒩^2)_{i,j}(R_iR_j)^2`$. For rods, $`R_g^2=L^2/12`$. At small wavevectors $`qR_g1`$, $`S(\text{q})`$ rolls off into a plateau (Guinier) region. Deviations from the plateau value give a measure of the radius of gyration of the object. In this region $`S(\text{q})1q^2R_g^2/3`$. The structure factor of the sphere also shows a Guinier zone that rolls off from the plateau at a smaller wavevector $`q`$ indicating that the radius of gyration of this sphere is larger than the radius of gyration of the rod. For larger values of $`q`$, the sphere structure factor oscillates, the separation between the peak positions being also a measure of the size of the sphere. The decaying envelope has a slope $`4`$, typical of objects with sharp interfaces.

As an example of the scattering function of fluctuating objects, we consider the structure factor of a linear Gaussian polymer with $`P\times N`$ monomers and of an uniform star of $`P`$ arms of $`N`$ monomers each one \[see Fig.2 and also Eq.(21)\]. For the linear polymer, the large $`q`$ behavior follows a power law with a slope $`2`$, a manifestation of the fractal dimension of a Gaussian chain, $`D=2`$. The same behavior is seen at large wave vectors for the star scattering function. However, the star shows a second power law region with slope $`4`$ before saturating at the plateau value. Notice that a steepest curve is necessary to connect a plateau extending further in $`q`$ (the radius of gyration of the star is smaller than the radius of gyration of the linear polymer) to a coincidental high $`q`$ region in which both, the polymer and the star, have the same local statistical structure. Quantitatively, the value $`4`$ is related to the average concentration profile. Indeed, it can be shown that, when scattering from an inhomogeneous region of average concentration $`\varphi (r)`$ dominates the spectrum, $`S(\text{q})`$ is calculated from

$$S(\text{q})\frac{1}{𝒩}\left[_0^{\mathrm{}}r^2𝑑r\frac{\mathrm{sin}qr}{qr}\varphi (r)\right]^2.$$
(2)
For a Gaussian star polymer, the average concentration profile is given by $`\varphi (r)=3P/(2\pi a^2r)\mathrm{erfc}(r/2R_g)`$, where $`r`$ is the distance from the center of the star, $`a`$ is the monomer size, and $`\mathrm{erfc}(x)`$ is the complementary error function. Equation (2) thus leads to

$$S(\text{q})\frac{P}{Nq^4},1qR_gP^{1/2},$$
(3)
Note that this form crosses over correctly from the plateau region $`S(q)P\times N`$ at $`qR_g^1`$ to the high $`q`$-region $`S(q)q^2`$ at $`qP^{1/2}R_g^1`$.

Even in the absence of an exact form for the radial concentration profile, a general argument can be made in order to extract the value of the intermediate slope. For a star with $`P`$ arms, the average concentration inside an infinitesimal spherical shell of volume $`4\pi r^2dr`$ and radius $`r`$, centered on the star, is given by

$$\varphi (r)=PdN(r)/(4\pi r^2dr),$$
(4)
with $`dN(r)`$ is the average number of monomers per arm in the shell. For a Gaussian arm $`N(r)3r^2/a^2`$ and one easily recovers the exact result for the concentration in the scaling regime $`rR_g`$. The Daoud and Cotton argument (4), combined with equation(2) also allows to compute the intermediate regime of the scattering factor of a star in a good solvent, where excluded volume interactions are important. In this case, the star can be described as a semi-dilute solution, with a local, position dependent screening length $`\xi (r)`$. Pictorially, this is represented by arms made of a succession of blobs of increasing size $`\xi (r)`$. The arms are stretched and within a distance $`r`$ from the center one finds $`N(r)(r/a)^{5/3}P^{1/3}`$ monomers, the size of the star in a good solvent being $`R_{\mathrm{star}}N^{3/5}P^{1/5}`$. It follows that the average concentration varies radially as $`\varphi (r)P^{2/3}r^{4/3}`$ and the intermediate regime is described by

$$S(\text{q})\frac{P^{1/3}}{Nq^{10/3}},1qR_{\mathrm{star}}P^{2/5}.$$
(5)
For higher wavevectors, $`qR_{\mathrm{star}}P^{2/5}`$, the function $`S(\text{q})`$ crosses over to a slope $`5/3`$ indicative of the local excluded volume statistics of the arms.

III. Branched structures: The objective of this section is to show how the internal branched structure of the aggregate modifies the form of the structure factor. In order to do this, we consider two different types of aggregates, (a) polydisperse stars, and (b) dendrimeric structures (see Fig.3).

The method of calculation for the structure factor of aggregates (a) and (b) starts by considering an arbitrary aggregate whose scattering function is known. If a new arm is added to the structure, the scattering function that accounts for the new arm can be calculated in terms of the known scattering function plus corrections due to the correlations between the monomers of the new arm with themselves and with all the monomers of the previous aggregate. A more detailed discussion of the procedure is given in Appendix A where the structure factor of a dendrimer of two generations is computed in terms of the structure factor of a monodisperse star.

III.(a) Polydisperse stars

Consider a star-branched polymer made of $`P_1`$ arms of $`N_1`$ monomers, $`P_2`$ arms of $`N_2`$ monomers and so on (see Fig.3a). The structure factor of this aggregate is

$`S(𝐪)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{_{i=1}^GP_iN_i}}{\displaystyle \underset{p,q=1}{\overset{G}{}}}P_pP_q{\displaystyle \frac{N_pN_q}{x_px_q}}(\mathrm{exp}(x_p)1)(\mathrm{exp}(x_q)1)`$ (7)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{_{i=1}^GP_iN_i}}{\displaystyle \underset{q=1}{\overset{G}{}}}P_q{\displaystyle \frac{N_q^2}{x_q^2}}\left[2(\mathrm{exp}(x_q)1+x_q)(\mathrm{exp}(x_q)1)^2\right].`$
Here, $`G`$ is the number of different lengths, $`x_q=q^2a^2N_q/6`$. Note that this expression can be decomposed, as for the monodisperse star, in a contribution from the average concentration of the star plus contributions from the fluctuations. However, as we will see below, the general shape of the scattering curve now exhibits a richer behavior. The low wavevector and the high wavevector regions still present the usual Guinier roll-off from a plateau and a “ -2 slope”, respectively. The signature of the star polydispersity is carried by the shape of the intermediate scattering region. Consider the case of arm-size polydispersity. Here, we take the star to be made of $`G`$ different stars, each of them with equal arm number $`P`$ but an arm-size distribution $`N_i`$. For the form $`N_i=N_{max}i^{2m}`$, where $`m0`$, $`i`$ runs from $`1`$ to $`G`$ and $`N_{max}`$ is the number of monomers of the largest arms, the radius of gyration of each arm is $`R_i=\mathrm{Cte}i^ma`$, and the average concentration can be written as

$$\varphi (r)=\underset{i}{}\varphi _i(r)=\frac{3P}{2\pi a^2r}\underset{i}{}\mathrm{erfc}(r/2R_i)\frac{3P}{2\pi a^3}\frac{(2\mathrm{Cte})^{\frac{1}{m}}\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{1+m}{2m})}{\sqrt{\pi }}\left(\frac{a}{r}\right)^{\frac{m+1}{m}},$$
(8)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the gamma function $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(a)=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑xx^{a1}\mathrm{exp}\{x\}`$. If the exponent $`m`$ is very large, only the $`P`$ largest arms contribute to the concentration profile which is very similar to a monodisperse star. As the distribution width increases, the smaller arms start to significantly contribute to the profile. In this case, several different regimes can be identified, as shown in Fig.(4). By inserting the continuous limit of Eq.(8) in Eq.(2) we find an intermediate regime that scales as $`S(q)q^{2(21/m)}`$, for $`m1/2`$. This means that for the polydispersity considered here, the exponent varies from $`0`$ when $`m=1/2`$ to $`4`$ when $`m\mathrm{}`$. Interestingly, a second intermediate regime develops due to the finite distribution of the arm polydispersity. When the size of arms has a finite small cutoff at $`N_{min}=N_G`$, the polydisperse star consist of two parts: the outer polydisperse shell and a central star-like core. This second intermediate regime therefore appears at length scales smaller than the length of the smaller arms and follows the usual $`q^4`$ scaling. At low wavevectors $`q`$ the spectrum shows a Guinier plateau. The transition point between the Guinier zone and the first intermediate region occurs at $`(qR_g)^21`$ as can be verified by inserting the exact form of Eq.(8) in Eq.(2) and exploring the small $`q`$ limit of the resulting expression. The radius of gyration of the polydisperse star is $`R_g^2=[_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑rr^4\varphi (r)]/[_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑rr^2\varphi (r)]=3R_1^2[_ii^{4m}]/[_ii^{2m}]`$ where $`R_1aN_1^{1/2}`$ is the gyration radius of the largest arm. For large values of $`m`$ one recovers the limit of the monodisperse star $`R_g^2=3R_1^2`$. Written in terms of the monomer size $`a`$, the transition point between the Guinier zone and the first intermediate regime occurs at $`(qa)^21/N_{max}`$, where $`N_{max}=N_1`$ is the number of monomers of the largest arms. The transition point between the two intermediate regions occurs at $`(qa)^21/N_{min}`$, where $`N_{min}=N_G`$ is the number of monomers of the shortest arms. Finally, the transition between the second intermediate region and the region where fluctuations dominate occurs at $`(qa)^2P/N_{max}(N_{max}/N_{min})^{1/m}`$. One can see that the region where fluctuations dominates appears only if $`N_{max}>P^{m/(m1)}N_{min}^{1/(m1)}`$. If the exponent $`m`$ is larger than one and the number of monomers $`N_{max}`$ is very large, $`N_{max}N_{min}P^{m/(m1)}`$, the region with slope $`q^4`$ disappears and one crosses over directly to the region dominated by fluctuations with slope $`q^2`$. The transition point then occurs at $`(qa)^2P^{m/(m1)}/N_{max}`$ (see Fig.4). For values of $`m`$ between $`1`$ and $`1/2`$, the scattering function always crosses from the regime $`S(q)q^{2(21/m)}`$ to a regime $`S(q)q^4`$ independently of the number of monomers $`N_{max}`$. Examples of some of these cases are presented in Fig. 5 (see note ). In the limit $`m=1/2`$ the scattering function does not exhibit a developed scaling but rolls over gently from the Guinier plateau to the large wavevector limit of slope $`2`$.

For a polydisperse star in a good solvent a Daoud-Cotton argument can also be applied to determine the scattering regimes. Let $`p(r)`$ be the number of arms at distance $`r`$ from the center. Then, the local correlation length is set by $`\xi (r)=rp(r)^{1/2}`$ and the concentration is $`\varphi (r)=p(r)^{2/3}r^{4/3}`$. In the infinitesimal shell of volume $`dV=4\pi r^2dr`$, there are then $`dn=p(r)^{1/3}r^{2/3}dr`$ monomers in one arm. By knowing the polydispersity of the chains $`p(n)`$ one can compute the function $`p(r)`$ and extract the concentration. If we choose, as for the precedent Gaussian example, $`N_i=N_{max}i^{2m}`$, and a constant arm number of each length, $`P_i=P`$, we get in the continuous limit $`p(n)=P(n/N_{max})^{1/2m}`$, leading to $`p(r)r^{5/(6m1)}`$. Correspondingly, the concentration scales as $`\varphi (r)r^\alpha `$ with the exponent $`\alpha =\frac{2}{3}(2+\frac{5}{6m1})`$ and the scattering from that intermediate region scales as $`S(q)q^s`$, with exponent $`s=\frac{10}{3}(1\frac{2}{6m1})`$. In the limit where $`m`$ is very large one recovers the usual intermediate slope $`s=10/3`$. As $`m`$ decreases we reduce the intermediate slope, as for the Gaussian case. The transition point between the Guinier zone and this region occurs at $`(qa)^{5/3}1/(N_{max}P^{1/3})`$. As in the Gaussian case, we find a second intermediate region that scales as $`S(q)q^{10/3}`$. The transition point between the two intermediate regions occurs at $`(qa)^{5/3}1/(N_{min}P^{1/3})`$. Finally, the transition between the second intermediate region and the fluctuating regime occurs at $`(qa)^{5/3}P^{1/3}/N_{max}(N_{max}/N_{min})^{4/(6m1)}`$. These results are shown in Fig.4. One can see that the region where fluctuations dominates appears only if $`N_{max}>P^{1/3(6m1)/(6m5)}N_{min}^{4/(6m5)}`$. If the exponent $`m5/6`$ and the number of monomers $`N_{max}`$ is very large, $`N_{max}N_{min}P^{2/3(6m1)/(6m5)}`$, the region with slope $`q^{10/3}`$ disappears and one crosses over directly to the region dominated by fluctuations with slope $`q^{5/3}`$. The transition point then occurs at $`(qa)^{5/3}P^{(2m+1)/(6m5)}/N_{max}`$. Again, by choosing the value of $`m`$ between $`\mathrm{}`$ and $`5/6`$, it is possible to obtain scattering functions with intermediate slopes ranging from the monodisperse star value of $`10/3`$ to $`5/3`$ slope. For values of $`m`$ between $`5/6`$ and $`1/2`$, the scattering function always crosses from the regime $`S(q)q^{10/3(12/(6m1))}`$ to a regime $`S(q)q^{10/3}`$ independently of the number of monomers $`N_{max}`$.

III.(b)Dendrimeric Structures

These structures are formed by starting from a uniform star of $`P_1=P`$ arms of $`N_1`$ monomers each one, and branching each arm twice so that in the second generation there are $`P_2=2P_1`$ arms of length $`N_2`$. We then branch each of the newest arms twice so that in the third generation there are $`P_3=2P_2=2^2P_1`$ arms of length $`N_3`$. We repeat this process up to any desired number of generations (see Fig.3b). This means that the number of arms in each generation is $`P_i=2^{i1}P`$. As in the case of the polydisperse stars, for a large number of arms and generations, asymptotic shapes can be reached for particular types of polydispersity distributions. Let us consider the case of a dendrimer of $`G`$ generations with arm-size polydispersity of the form $`𝒩_i=2^{2m(i1)}𝒩_{min}`$, where $`𝒩_i=_{j=1}^iN_j`$ is the sum of monomers per arm from generation $`1`$ up to generation $`i`$. By choosing $`m1/2`$, we assure that the first generation always has the smallest number of monomers per arm. By using arguments similar to the ones for the polydisperse star, we find for the Gaussian dendrimer, an average concentration $`\varphi (r)r^{(11/m)}`$, that gives rise to an intermediate scaling regime $`S(q)q^{2(2+1/m)}`$. Again, if $`m`$ is very large, only the last generation contributes to the scattering, which is similar to the monodisperse star with $`P_G`$ arms. As $`m`$ decreases, the first generations start to contribute significantly, modifying the slope of the scattering curves that reaches the steepest value of $`8`$ when $`m=1/2`$. The transition point between the Guinier zone and this region occurs at $`(qa)^21/𝒩_{max}`$, where $`𝒩_{max}=𝒩_G`$. Also, there is a second intermediate region which scales as $`S(q)q^4`$. The transition point between these two intermediate regions occurs at $`(qa)^21/𝒩_{min}`$, where $`𝒩_{min}=𝒩_1`$ (see Fig.4). Finally, the transition between the second intermediate region and the fluctuating regime occurs at $`(qa)^2P/𝒩_{max}(𝒩_{max}/𝒩_{min})^{1/2m}`$. The region where fluctuations dominates appears only if $`𝒩_{max}>P^{2m/(2m+1)}𝒩_{min}^{1/(2m+1)}`$. The regime with $`S(q)q^4`$ disappears when $`𝒩_{max}𝒩_{min}P^{2m/(2m+1)}`$. In this case the transition point between the region with $`S(q)q^{2(2+1/m)}`$ and the fluctuating regime occurs at $`(qa)^2P^{m/(m+1)}/𝒩_{max}(𝒩_{max}/𝒩_{min})^{1/2(m+1)}`$. Note that for large $`𝒩_{max}`$ and by tuning $`m`$ between $`\mathrm{}`$ and $`1/2`$, it is possible to obtain scattering functions with intermediate slopes ranging from the monodisperse star value of $`4`$ to $`8`$ slope. In Fig.6 we show examples of some of these cases.

Applying a Daoud-Cotton argument to the case of dendrimers in good solvent we determine the corresponding scaling regimes. In this case, $`p(r)r^{5/(6m+1)}`$. Correspondingly, the concentration scales as $`\varphi (r)r^\alpha `$, with $`\alpha =\frac{2}{3}(2\frac{5}{6m+1})`$ and the scattering from that intermediate region scales as $`S(q)q^s`$, with $`s=\frac{10}{3}(1+\frac{2}{6m+1})`$. In the limit where $`m`$ is very large one recovers the usual intermediate slope $`s=10/3`$. As $`m`$ decreases we reduce the intermediate slope, as for the Gaussian case. The transition point between the Guinier zone and this region occurs at $`(qa)^{5/3}1/(P^{1/3}𝒩_{max})(𝒩_{max}/𝒩_{min})^{1/6m}`$. As in the Gaussian case, we find another intermediate region that scales as $`S(q)q^{10/3}`$. The transition point between the two intermediate regions occurs at $`(qa)^{5/3}1/(P^{1/3}𝒩_{min})`$. Finally, the transition between the second intermediate region and the fluctuating regime occurs at $`(qa)^{5/3}P^{1/3}/𝒩_{max}(𝒩_{max}/𝒩_{min})^{1/2m}`$. These results are shown in Fig.4. The region where fluctuations dominates appears only if $`𝒩_{max}>𝒩_{min}^{1/(2m+1)}P^{2m/(3(2m+1))}`$. If $`𝒩_{max}`$ is very large, $`𝒩_{max}𝒩_{min}P^{4m/(3(2m+1))}`$, the region with slope $`q^{10/3}`$ disappears and one crosses over directly to the region dominated by fluctuations with slope $`q^{5/3}`$. The transition point then occurs at $`(qa)^{5/3}P^{(2m1)/(6m+5)}/𝒩_{max}(𝒩_{max}/𝒩_{min})^{(2m1)/(2m(6m+5))}`$. Again, by choosing the value of $`m`$ between $`\mathrm{}`$ and $`1/2`$, it is possible to obtain scattering functions with intermediate slopes ranging from the monodisperse star value of $`10/3`$ to $`5`$ slope.

The results for the scaling regimes and the transitions between these regimes for both, polydisperse stars and hyperbranched structures are summarized in Appendix B.

In Fig.7 we plot the structure factor for Gaussian dendrimers with arms of equal size for all the generations. In this case a non-scaling regime is present between the Guinier zone and the high $`q`$ region. This region shows a hump that reflects the fact that as we increase the number of generations, the outer core of the aggregate becomes very dense thus dominating the structure of the spectrum which resembles the one for a spherical shell. We see in Fig.7 that the size of the hump increases as we increase the number of generations in qualitative agreement with the experimental results of Ref.. Note that while growth of dendrimers to a high number of generations is usually hindered by steric reasons, a polydisperse dendrimer can grow indefinitely if the polydispersity is correctly tuned.

From the scattering curves of branched structures in which there is a $`q`$ region where fluctuations dominate, we note that there is always an intermediate $`q`$ region with a steeper slope than the corresponding one for a linear polymer. This can be understood by using a simple graphical argument. Consider a linear Gaussian polymer of mass $`N`$. Its structure factor consist of a power law region with slope $`2`$ and a Guinier zone for low wave vector $`q`$. Now, let us consider any branched Gaussian polymer. Its structure factor coincides, in slope and absolute value, with the one for the linear Gaussian polymer at short wave lengths. This reflects the fact that the internal structure of the polymer is the same in both cases. If the branched polymer has the same mass than the linear one, both spectra must coincide in the plateau Guinier zone. However, since the radius of gyration of any branched polymer is always smaller than the corresponding one for the linear polymer, the Guinier zone must extend to a larger wave vector value, as shown for example in Fig.2. Therefore, the only possible way of crossing from one region to the other is by an intermediate region with an average slope larger than the slope at short-wave lengths. This argument is also valid in good solvent conditions where the Gaussian model is not valid and monomer-monomer interactions play an important role.

IV. Conclusions: In this paper we have shown how different branched polymers give rise to different structure factors. This information can be used to probe the morphology of supramacromolecular aggregates. We have shown how the slope in the intermediate $`q`$ region can be tailored according to the polydispersity in the length of the constitutive linear chains of the branched aggregates. In particular, for polydisperse stars we found scaling regimes with slopes ranging from $`2`$ to $`4`$ in $`\theta `$ solvent conditions and between $`5/3`$ and $`10/3`$ for athermal solvent. In the case of dendrimeric structures, scaling regimes ranging from $`4`$ to $`8`$ in $`\theta `$ solvent and between $`10/3`$ and $`5`$ for athermal conditions, although richer behavior was obtained for specific choices of the polydispersity parameters. We have shown using simple arguments that whenever there is a region where fluctuations dominate the scattering response, then the structure factor of branched structures always present an intermediate $`q`$ regime with at least a small region where the slope in a log-log plot is larger than the corresponding slope of the linear polymer. This means that these aggregates are not strictly self-similar over the entire range of length scales $`a<l<R_g`$. Results presented in this paper can be qualitatively used as a guiding tool for exploring the branching morphology of aggregates according to the type of regimes presented in the scattering intensity curves. They also provide qualitative information from the analysis of the values of the slopes of the intermediate $`q`$ regimes.

Appendix A: Method of Calculation In this appendix we outline the procedure to obtain the structure factor for the branched structures described in this paper by considering a specific example. Suppose a branched polymer that grows following a given rule like the one shown in Fig. 3b. In this figure, we show a polymer that grows from a star of $`P_1`$ arms each one made of $`N_1`$ monomers. Each arm is then branched in two other arms made of $`N_2`$ monomers. Then, each arm of the newest generation is branched again in two arms and so on. The structure factor of the structure made of $`G`$ generations is related to the structure factor of the structure made of $`G1`$ generations by the equation

$$S_G(\text{q})=\frac{_{i=1}^{G1}P_iN_i}{_{i=1}^GP_iN_i}S_{G1}(\text{q})+S_{corr}(\text{q}),$$
(9)
where $`P_i`$ and $`N_i`$ are the number of arms and monomers in the $`i`$-th generation, respectively, $`S_i(\text{q})`$ is the structure factor of the structure made of $`i`$ generations and the $`corrections`$, $`S_{corr}(\text{q})`$, are due to the correlations between the arms grown in the $`G`$-th generation with themselves and the rest of the arms. Assuming that $`S_{G1}(\text{q})`$ is known, the problem consist in calculate these corrections. Then, applying the procedure recursively, the structure factor of any structure made of an arbitrary number of generations can be calculated.

Now we proceed with the calculation of the $`corrections`$. In order to show the general idea, we are going to treat the simple case of a dendrimer with $`G=2`$ generations (see Fig.8). Any monomer $`m`$ that belongs to the last generation $`(G=2)`$ interacts with all other monomers of the structure. These interactions can be classified according to the relative location, in the structure, of the second monomer $`n`$ with respect to to monomer $`m`$. This is shown in Fig.8 where we classify the position of the second monomer in 5 different families. The monomers $`n`$ of family 1 belongs to the same generation and to the same arm of monomer $`m`$. Family 2 comprises all the monomers $`n`$ of the same generation of $`m`$ but that belong to a different arm whenever this arm has a common origin with the arm where $`m`$ is located. Family 3 consists of monomers $`n`$ of the same generation of $`m`$ and whose respective arms originate in different arms of the previous generation. For family 4 one monomer, say $`m`$, belongs to generation $`G`$ and the other $`(n)`$ belongs to generation $`G1`$, and the arm where $`m`$ is located originates in the arm where $`n`$ is located. Finally, family 5 consists of monomers $`n`$ of different generation than that of monomer $`m`$, and the monomer $`m`$ can not be reached by going through the arm where $`n`$ is located. All the monomers that participate in the corrections belong to one of these families. Contributions to the structure factor from a given family $`f`$ are calculated from the expression

$$S_{corr}^f(\text{q})=\frac{1}{N_T}\underset{m,n}{}𝑑\text{R}_m𝑑\text{R}_nG_{m,n}^f(\text{R}_n,\text{R}_m)\mathrm{exp}\{i\text{q}(\text{R}_n\text{R}_m)\}$$
(10)
where $`N_T`$ is the total number of monomers, the sum runs over monomer $`m`$ and $`n`$ with at least one of them belonging to the latest generation ($`G=2`$), and $`G_{m,n}^f(\text{R}_n,\text{R}_m)`$ is the Green function of the $`f`$ family given by

$$G_{m,n}^1(\text{R}_n,\text{R}_m)=G(\text{R}_n,\text{R}_m;mn),$$
(11)
$$G_{m,n}^2(\text{R}_n,\text{R}_m)=G(\text{R}_n,\text{R}_m;m+n),$$
(12)
$$G_{m,n}^3(\text{R}_n,\text{R}_m)=G(\text{R}_n,\text{R}_m;m+n+2N_1),$$
(13)
$$G_{m,n}^4(\text{R}_n,\text{R}_m)=G(\text{R}_n,\text{R}_m;mn+N_1),$$
(14)
$$G_{m,n}^5(\text{R}_n,\text{R}_m)=G(\text{R}_n,\text{R}_m;m+n+N_1),$$
(15)
where

$$G(\text{R}_n,\text{R}_m;\alpha )=\left(\frac{3}{2\pi a^2|\alpha |}\right)^{(3/2)}\mathrm{exp}\left\{\frac{3(\text{R}_m\text{R}_n)^2}{2a^2|\alpha |}\right\}.$$
(16)
Substituting these expressions in Eq.(10) and taking the continuos limit by transforming the sums into integrals we find the structure factor for the dendrimer of two generations

$`S_2(\text{q})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{N_1}{N_1+2N_2}}S_1(\text{q})`$ (20)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{2N_2}{N_1+2N_2}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{N_2}{x_2^2}}(\mathrm{exp}\{x_2\}1)^2+{\displaystyle \frac{2N_2}{x_2^2}}(\mathrm{exp}\{x_2\}1+x_2)\right]`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{2N_2}{N_1+2N_2}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{2N_2}{x_2^2}}(P_01)\mathrm{exp}\{2x_1\}(\mathrm{exp}\{x_2\}1)^2\right]`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{2N_2}{N_1+2N_2}}{\displaystyle \frac{2N_2}{x_2^2}}\left[1+(P_01)\mathrm{exp}\{x_1\}\right](\mathrm{exp}\{x_1\}1)(\mathrm{exp}\{x_2\}1),`$
where

$$S_1(\text{q})=\frac{(P_11)N_1}{x_1^2}(\mathrm{exp}\{x_1\}1)^2+\frac{2N_1}{x_1^2}(\mathrm{exp}\{x_1\}1+x_1),$$
(21)
is the structure factor of a star of $`P_1`$ arms and $`N_1`$ monomers . This expression contains two terms. The first term of the right-hand side expresses cross-correlations between the different arms of the star. The second term refers to the normal Debye function for a linear polymer of $`N_1`$ monomers, as found by taking the appropriate limit $`P_1=1`$. Note that the general procedure explained above can be easily generalized to calculate the structure factors of general branched structures like the ones studied in this paper.

Appendix B: Summary for the scaling regimes In this appendix we summarize the results for the scaling regimes of the branched and hyperbranched structures studied in this work and write them using a simpler notation. (a), (b), (c), and (d) show the results for Gaussian polydisperse stars, SAW polydisperse stars, Gaussian dendrimers and SAW dendrimers, respectively.

First intermediate regime $`S(q)q^s`$:

(a) $`s=4(1\frac{1}{2m})`$

(b) $`s=\frac{10}{3}(1\frac{2}{6m1})`$

(c) $`s=4(1+\frac{1}{2m})`$

(d) $`s=\frac{10}{3}(1+\frac{2}{6m+1})`$

Transition points between the Guinier and the first intermediate regime:

(a) $`(qR_g)^21`$

(b) $`(qR_g)^{5/3}1`$

(c) $`(qR_g)^21`$

(d) $`(qR_g)^{5/3}1`$

Transition points between the first and second intermediate regimes:

(a) $`(qR_g)^2N_{max}/N_{min}`$

(b) $`(qR_g)^{5/3}N_{max}/N_{min}`$

(c) $`(qR_g)^2𝒩_{max}/𝒩_{min}`$

(d) $`(qR_g)^{5/3}𝒩_{max}P_G^{1/3}/𝒩_{min}P^{1/3}`$

Transition points between the second intermediate regime and the region where fluctuations dominate:

(a) $`(qR_g)^2P(N_{max}/N_{min})^{1/m}`$

(b) $`(qR_g)^{5/3}P^{2/3}(N_{max}/N_{min})^{\frac{4}{6m1}}`$

(c) $`(qR_g)^2P_G(𝒩_{max}/𝒩_{min})^{1/m}`$

(d) $`(qR_g)^{5/3}P_G^{2/3}(𝒩_{max}P_G^{1/3}/𝒩_{min}P^{1/3})^{\frac{4}{(6m+1)}}`$

Transition points between the first intermediate regime and the region where fluctuations dominate:

(a) $`(qR_g)^2P^{m/(m1)}`$

(b) $`(qR_g)^{5/3}P^{(2/3)(6m1)/(6m5)}`$

(c) $`(qR_g)^2P_G^{m/(m+1)}`$

(d) $`(qR_g)^{5/3}P_G^{(2/3)(6m+1)/(6m+5)}`$


format: text

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# Observations of quasar hosts with adaptive optics at Lick Observatory

## 1 Introduction

All massive elliptical galaxies, and all the bulge components of spiral galaxies, seem to contain black holes whose masses correlate well with the depth of the potential wells of the stellar systems containing them (Ferrarese & Merritt 2000; Gebhardt et al. 2000). This implies that all such systems were probably quasars at some stage in their lifetimes, and indeed the luminosity density produced by quasars is probably consistent with this (Yu & Tremaine 2002). The importance of the evolution of quasars as diagnostics of galaxy formation models was recognized by Kauffmann & Haehnelt (2000), who produced predictions for the nature of quasar host galaxies as a function of quasar luminosity and redshift, based around semi-analytic models of galaxy formation.

Two main problems exist with current studies of quasar hosts. First, the samples are small. The hosts of only $`30`$ quasars with $`z13`$ have been observed with NICMOS on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) (Ridgway et al. 2001; Kukula et al. 2001; Rix et al. 2001). Comparison with, e.g., the Kauffmann & Haehnelt models using samples of this size is difficult, as the models predict a wide range in host galaxy magnitudes for a given quasar luminosity and significant redshift evolution in the host magnitudes. Second, quasar samples are selected using very different techniques, with different selection biases. For example, UV excess selection may select against spiral hosts, which are dustier than ellipticals, and radio selection probably selects the biggest black holes, in giant elliptical hosts (e.g. Lacy et al. 2001). Studying large samples of high redshift quasar hosts with HST is impractical due to the large amount of time required. Therefore our best hope of improving our knowledge of the nature of quasar hosts at $`z\stackrel{>}{_{}}1`$ is to use adaptive optics (AO) from the ground. So far, only small samples (such as the one in this paper) have been studied with AO. The quasar survey component of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), however, contains a large enough number of quasars that a significant number of quasars have good AO guide stars nearby. Furthermore, because this survey selects quasars on the basis of their being unresolved optically and and having colors lying off the stellar locus (Fan 1999; Richards et al. 2001), it is much more sensitive than most previous optical surveys to quasars with a modest amount of dust reddening. We thus expect that host galaxies of quasars from this survey should give a more complete picture of the quasar host galaxy population.

AO is, however, is a new technique with problems of its own. Previous attempts at studying host galaxies with AO, although largely successful in detecting both close companions and diffuse emission around the quasars, have encountered problems with PSF characterization and stability, which has limited the amount of quantitative information obtainable from the images (Stockton, Canalizo & Close 1998; Hutchings et al. 1999; Márquez et al. 2001). In this paper we present a pilot study of a small sample of $`z1`$ quasars from the SDSS Early Data Release (Stoughton et al. 2002; hereafter EDR) observed with the Lick Adaptive Optics system in Natural Guide Star mode. We discuss issues related to PSF stability and subtraction, and present the results and a brief discussion of our observations and prospects for future quantitative studies of larger samples of quasar hosts with AO. We assume a cosmology with $`H_0=65\mathrm{k}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{M}=0.3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$

## 2 Sample selection

The targets were selected from $`0.7<z<1.5`$ quasars in EDR list by matching them to the HST Guide Star Catalog, then selecting objects with guide stars bright enough to act as natural guide stars for the Lick Adaptive Optics System ($`R\stackrel{<}{_{}}12`$) within 45-arcsec. The three quasars in this paper were then selected on the basis of RA and guide star suitability. They were SDSS J005008.48+011330.4 ($`z=1.14`$; hereafter SDSS 0050+0113), SDSS J172732.39+584634.4 ($`z=0.84`$; hereafter SDSS 1727+5846) and SDSS J232351.60+004034.4 ($`z=0.76`$; hereafter SDSS 2323+0040). Only SDSS 1727+5846 is radio-loud. Table 1 gives details of the quasars, and Table 2 the details of the quasar guide star (hereafter QGS) chosen for each of them.

## 3 Observations

### 3.1 The Lick AO system

Data were acquired using the Natural Guide Star AO system on the 3-m Shane Telescope at Lick Observatory. The AO system has 40 subapertures and uses a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor and a 61-actuator deformable mirror. The Lick AO system is further described in Bauman et al. (1999) and Gavel et al. (2000). The IRCAL near-infrared camera was used for the observations. This camera contains a PICNIC HgCdTe 256x256 array (Lloyd et al. 2000), which sits behind the AO system reimaging optics. The f/28 output of the AO system gives a plate scale of 0.076″/pixel and a field of view of 19.4″$`\times `$ 19.4 ″.

### 3.2 Observational strategy

In addition to a small PSF, surface brightness sensitivity is essential for successful observations of quasar hosts. The best AO performance of the Lick system is obtained in $`K`$-band. However, the thermal background in $`K`$ is high due to the warm optical elements in the AO system. We therefore chose to make our observations in $`H`$-band.

We tried to pick an observational strategy that was a good compromise between low overheads and reliable PSF monitoring. Observations of the quasars were therefore interleaved with on-axis observations of their guide stars at intervals of $`4575`$ min. We also made a single observation of a PSF star - PSF guide star pair for each quasar, selected such that the PSF star was at the same distance and position angle from its guide star as the quasar was from its guide star. We used the PSF star observation to calibrate the effect of going off-axis (i.e. the anisoplanatism). The PSF star – PSF guide star (hereafter PGS) pairs are listed in Table 3.

The quasar observations were made on the night of 2001 August 14th (UT). The data were taken as several five-point mosaics, with each pointing lasting 3-5 min, depending on sky stability. Small offsets of 1-2 arcsec were made between each mosaic. Total integration times were 75min for SDSS 0050+0113, 135 min for SDSS 1727+5846 and 120 min for SDSS 2323+0040. The interleaved observations of the QGS were made on the same five-point grid with exposure times of 10s per frame. The PSF stars were also observed on a five-point grid, with exposure times of 20-60 s per point. Flux calibration was achieved using the standard star HD162208 (Elias et al. 1982). The natural seeing was $`0.75`$ arcsec in $`H`$-band. AO corrections were made at 100 Hz for all the targets. This maintained a level of $`200`$ counts on each subaperture of the wavefront sensor for our guide stars. Images of the fields are shown in Figure 1. Typically we were able to achieve FWHM of about 0.2 arcsec on axis (compared to the diffraction limit of 0.14 arcsec), however this degraded to about 0.4 arcsec off axis.

## 4 Analysis

Following flat-fielding, the quasar data were analysed with the dimsum package within iraf. Just before the final combination step, a second order polynomial was subtracted from each column to improve the the images, removing a “step” between two halves of the array. The most likely cause of this seems to be different, time-variable bias offsets which were not well-removed by the dark subtraction.

## 5 PSF synthesis

The AO PSF is both variable in time and dependent on many of the observing parameters. The brightness and color of the guide star (which determines the accuracy of the AO correction), the anisoplanatism (which may vary both with guide-star – object distance and position angle between the objects and the guide star), and the color of the object compared to that of the PSF star all need to be considered. Ideally, one would interleave quasar observations with frequent sampling of the off-axis PSF, using observations of a nearby PSF star – PGS pair well matched in guide star brightness, color, separation and position angle to the quasar – QGS pair. To produce a more efficient procedure, however, we observed as described in section 3.2, and subsequently attempted to reconstruct the PSF from frequent observations of the on-axis guide star, and a single observation of a PSF star – PGS pair chosen for proximity to the quasar rather than for exact matches in color and brightness to the quasar – QGS pair. (We have not attempted to correct for color differences between the PSF and quasar.) Our procedure, as described below, enables us to synthesize a PSF with a FWHM close to that of the quasar observations, even if the QGS and PGS have different brightnesses and therefore AO corrections which differ in quality. It also allows us to remove any component of the aberration due to anisoplanatism effects which is constant in time. Steinbring et al. (2002) show that a similar strategy of determining a kernel map for the off-axis variation of the PSF by observing a crowded stellar field can be effective, and remove the bulk of the anisoplanatism effects on the PSF.

The first step involves deconvolving the PSF star observation by the PGS. The Lucy deconvolution algorithm was used. Sufficient iterations were made to reduce the FWHM of the PSF star to significantly less than that of its guide star, with care being taken to stop the deconvolution process before obvious artifacts (e.g. ringing) appeared in the deconvolved image. This produces an “off-axis kernel” (Figure 2). In the second step, the off-axis kernel is then convolved with the average of the on-axis guide star observations to produce a synthesized PSF. This technique minimizes the problems of a mis-match in brightness and color of the PGS and QGS.

To investigate the variation of the off-axis kernel with time and the particular choice of PSF star/PGS pair, we performed a test using data obtained during non-photometric conditions on 2002 May 26 (UT). We used the same observational setup and observed in similar seeing conditions as our 2001 August observations. This test involved observing two different PSF stars close to 1709+6225 (J2000). The two PSF star/PGS pairs had similar separations (about 40″) and position angles, and the observations were separated in time by 3 hrs. The results of this test showed that the off-axis kernel was significantly different, although there was a common axis of symmetry aligned with the vector joining the PSF to its guide star (Figure 3). The guide star for the second PSF was about two magnitudes brighter than that for the first PSF, so the AO corrections may have differed in quality. More tests need to be made to establish which of time variability of the off-axis kernel or AO correction quality are more important, but this test at least allowed us to obtain some estimate of the uncertainty in the reconstructed PSFs.

In one case (SDSS 2323+0040) the quasar was sufficiently faint that inaccuracies in individual image registrations when constructing the final mosaic add significantly to the width of the effective PSF. Fortunately, the quasar is relatively faint compared to the host galaxy in this case, so the uncertainty in the exact amount by which the PSF was broadened translates to only a small error in the host galaxy magnitude. We estimated the uncertainty in the centroiding by comparing the centroid estimates used to combine the data with independent estimates using the iraf task radprof and estimates based on the peak pixel position. Both techniques suggested that the rms error in the centroiding was 0.05-arcsec in $`x`$ and $`y`$, so we convolved synthesized PSF by a Gaussian with $`\sigma =0.05`$ arcsec. Table 4 summarizes the QGS, PGS and PSF star FWHM.

## 6 Determination of host galaxy properties

### 6.1 Model-independent host properties

Before making a full model of the host plus quasar system, we obtained approximate constraints on the host magnitudes and scale-sizes by subtracting the PSF, scaled such that the residual was approximately flat in the center of the quasar host within a radius $`r_{\mathrm{in}}`$, and declined monotonically outside $`r_{\mathrm{in}}`$. The radius $`r_{\mathrm{in}}`$ was chosen such that outside this radius the PSF residuals were small compared to the noise in the images. This technique, although somewhat subjective and resulting in a small oversubtraction of the nuclei, has the advantage that galaxy parameters are model independent. It also provides a good starting point for the full modeling, described below.

### 6.2 Modeling the host galaxies

The host galaxies were modelled following the procedure in McLure, Dunlop & Kukula (2000) by fitting PSF plus galaxy model profiles (convolved by the PSF) by minimizing $`\chi ^2`$. Systematic errors from the PSF subtraction dominate the error budget close to the center; to prevent these regions dominating the fit, the inner 0.1-0.4 arcsec region was downweighted by factors of 0.5-0.7 to ensure that the $`\chi ^2`$ surface was fairly uniform across the fitting aperture. We fitted the scale size and flux of the host galaxy model, and the flux and position of the nucleus. To obtain stable convergence, we fixed the host galaxy position angle and axial ratio using measurements of the outer isophotes of the “subtracted to flatness” hosts discussed above. Small adjustments in the background level were also found to be necessary at this stage to set the residual to zero at large radius. The host galaxies, after subtraction of the best-fitting PSF corresponding to the quasar nucleus, are shown in the top row of Figure 4, with the residuals after subtraction of the galaxy models shown below. Both elliptical and disk models were tried, but neither was a significantly better fit to the data. The results of the modeling are summarized in Table 5.

Errors in the magnitudes of the hosts were estimated by combining estimated errors from noise, systematics from PSF mismatch, and photometric errors. Errors in the magnitudes and scale sizes due to noise in the $`\chi ^2`$ fitting were estimated by a bootstrap technique which involved randomly shuffling the pixel values in the residual image, adding back the model and refitting with a starting vector randomly changed by $`10`$% in each fitted parameter (PSF scale, galaxy flux and half-light radius) from the best-fitting parameter set. This exercise was repeated 30 times for each quasar to estimate the error in the host galaxy magnitudes and scale sizes.

To estimate the size of the likely systematic error due to PSF mismatch, we tested the modeling code with a PSF rather than quasar data. We took the PSF for SDSS 2323+0040 and convolved it to the width of the PSF for SDSS 1727+5847. We then used the same modeling code as for the real quasars to fit to the PSF for SDSS 1727+5847 as if it were a quasar plus host galaxy system, using the convolved PSF of SDSS 2323+0040 as the PSF in the model. Constraining the half-light radius of the residual “host galaxy” to be between 0.1 and 1.2 arcsec, we estimated that errors due to PSF mis-match in this case were $`1020`$%. We also performed a similar test using our two PSFs from 2002 May 26 (UT). Again we scaled the results to SDSS 1727+5847, finding a residual with $`H=20.5`$, i.e. a 17% flux error. The errors for the monotonic subtraction technique were smaller ($`10`$%), as expected, as this estimate is less dependent on the nature of the PSF residuals close to the center of the host.

The error estimates for the quasar magnitudes were then constructed by adding in quadrature the estimated photometric error of 0.1 mag., the errors from the bootstrap modeling and an estimated error from PSF mis-match (0.2 mag. for SDSS 0050+0113 and SDSS 1727+5846, where the quasar flux dominates, and 0.1 mag. for SDSS 2323+0040 where the PSF and host fluxes are comparable). The errors for the scale sizes are those from the bootstrap procedure; as these scale sizes are most sensitive to regions of the fit away from the center, they are probably fair estimates.

### 6.3 Galaxy magnitudes and black hole masses

To calculate the absolute magnitudes of the host galaxies, and thereby obtain an estimate of their black hole masses by using the black hole mass – bulge luminosity relation, we first needed to estimate the $`K`$-corrections from observed-frame $`H`$-band to rest-frame $`V`$-band. In order to do this, we assumed the host galaxies were ellipticals which formed at high redshift, $`z5`$. This is consistent with most known quasar hosts at low redshifts, and in any case the difference in $`K`$-correction between a spiral and an elliptical host is only $`0.2`$ magnitudes. We will also assume the host galaxy parameters from the elliptical galaxy models (though again these are little different from those of the other models). The assumption that our hosts are ellipticals was more important when we tried to estimate the black hole masses from the galaxy luminosities; naturally we will have overestimated the black hole masses for disk-dominated systems if we assume our hosts are ellipticals. The example of low redshift AGN hosts suggests, however, that even those in spiral galaxies are mostly in early-type spirals, with high bulge fractions (Dunlop et al. 2001).

We used the elliptical galaxy model of Fioc & Rocca-Volmerange (1997) to make the $`K`$-corrections. To calculate the black hole masses, we also needed to estimate the passive evolution of the stellar luminosity of the host galaxy in order to relate the host galaxies at $`z=1`$ to those in the local Universe, on which the black hole mass – bulge luminosity correlation is calibrated. Observations suggest elliptical galaxies fade by about one magnitude between $`z1`$ and the present (e.g. Lubin & Sandage 2001). We again used the Fioc & Rocca-Volmerange predictions for their elliptical galaxy model, which results in a 0.9 mag. correction in $`V`$-band at $`z=1`$.

Black hole masses were estimated from the galaxy luminosities using the empirical relationship of van der Marel (1999), adapted to $`H_0=65\mathrm{kms}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$. Masses were also estimated using the FWHM of the Mgii emission line as described by McLure & Jarvis (2002). Absolute magnitudes and black hole mass estimates are given in Table 6.

## 7 Comments on individual objects

### 7.1 SDSS 0050+0113

This host is the most luminous galaxy in the sample, so was fairly easily detected despite its high redshift and the relatively short total integration time we obtained. Some PSF residual is visible in Figure 4, but extended host emission is clearly detected.

### 7.2 SDSS 1727+5846

This quasar is the only radio-loud quasar in our sample. It is also the least well-detected host, with clear PSF residual being visible in Figure 4, due to a combination of a relatively faint host and a bright quasar nucleus. The radio structure is slightly resolved in the Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-cm (FIRST) survey, with a size of 3″, a PA of 55 deg and a total flux density of 180 mJy; 30″ away at PA 43 deg there is an unresolved 22mJy source, which may be associated. The NRAO VLA Sky Survey (NVSS) flux density is 216 mJy, greater than the sum of the two candidate components in FIRST, suggesting that the quasar has additional diffuse emission which is resolved out in FIRST. The radio spectral index is $`\alpha 0.4`$ from 151 MHz to 1.4 GHz, steepening to $`\alpha 0.7`$ between 1.4 GHz and 5 GHz (where $`\alpha `$ is defined in the sense that flux density, $`S_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$). The radio morphology and low-frequency spectral index both suggest that the radio flux density is enhanced by Doppler boosting, though probably not by a factor of more than a few. Nevertheless, this may help to explain why this quasar has a relatively low-luminosity host and small black hole mass for a radio-loud quasar. The black hole mass from the emission line width may also be underestimated somewhat due to orientation effects if the broad-line region (BLR) is in the form of a disk perpendicular to the radio axis (Brotherton 1996).

### 7.3 SDSS 2323+0040

The host galaxy of this quasar was comfortably detected, largely due to the weakness of the quasar nucleus, and consequently has the best-determined magnitude and scale size. It is the only one of our quasar hosts to show evidence of interaction. There is a faint companion galaxy 1.4″ east of the quasar with faint emission between it and the quasar (Figure 4). In addition, there are other galaxies nearby, one 4.3″ to the southwest, and one 4.5″ to the south, though there is no clear evidence of interaction of either of these galaxies with the host.

## 8 Discussion

Our AO observations have proved successful at detecting hosts around three $`z1`$ quasars. The accuracy of our host galaxy flux density measurements are, as expected, limited most by the accuracy of our PSFs. For our $`z1`$ quasars, errors in the PSF have not been large enough to prevent us obtaining scientifically-useful results. It will, however, be necessary to make a better PSF calibration if we wish to study systems with significantly brighter quasars relative to their hosts, or higher redshift quasars where surface brightness dimming makes extended emission from the host harder to detect. This may simply involve taking more frequent PSF observations, or better matching the PSF star/PGS pair to the quasar/QGS pair, but it may turn out that better PSF calibration will require a different approach than the one described here.

Although a substantial improvement over the natural seeing at Lick was obtained through the use of adaptive optics, our resultant image quality is only comparable to the natural seeing at a first-class astronomy site such as Mauna Kea. Similar techniques could, however, be used at such sites to deliver even better quality images. One complication not addressed in this paper is that of altitude-azimuth mounted telescopes. In these, the component of the PSF due to the telescope optics rotates with the field, and thus will vary rapidly with time, though the off-axis component, determined by the atmosphere, should not be affected. How useful our technique would be for such telescopes will depend on the details of the optical system, although given that a large contribution to the PSF width comes from the off-axis component our technique may still be useful.

The magnitudes and scale sizes of the quasar hosts are comparable to the nine $`z1`$ quasar hosts from the HST/NICMOS study of Kukula et al. (2001) (Figure 5), although our hosts are on average a little fainter. They are therefore closer to the predictions of Kauffmann & Haehnelt (2000). Though our sample is too small to make a definitive statement, if this trend continues to be seen in a larger sample, it may be a result of the SDSS quasar survey having fewer selection biases than conventional optical surveys. Previous optical surveys tended to select very blue quasars and are thus sensitive to small amounts of reddening in the host. One might therefore expect them to favour quasars in less dusty hosts, such as giant ellipticals.

A comparison between the black hole mass estimates from the galaxy luminosities and the Mgii linewidths shows that for SDSS 1727+5946 and SDSS 0050+0113, the agreement is very good, within a factor of two, but for SDSS 2323+0040 the black hole mass estimated from the linewidth is an order of magnitude less than that derived from the host. Dunlop et al. (2002) also find that their black hole mass estimates for $`z0.2`$ quasars imaged with HST usually agree well, but a few objects also have order-of-magnitude discrepancies between black hole mass estimates, in the same sense, that the emission line estimates are too low. They ascribe these to disk-like broad-line regions being seen face-on. However, it is also true that the three most discrepant black hole mass estimates in the Dunlop et al. sample all show evidence for interactions, and include the two most spectacular mergers in their sample. SDSS 2323+0040 is also the only one of our hosts to show signs of interactions. Perhaps the bulge mass luminosity estimates in merger systems are too high. Possible reasons for this include a starburst in the merger system lowering the mass-to-light ratio of the stellar population, or a delay between the galaxy merger and the merger of the black holes of the two galaxies and the subsequent accretion of significant amounts of matter onto the merged black hole. Large differences between black hole mass estimates derived from emission-line widths and host bulge luminosities may thus be indicators of a quasar formed from a recent merger event. All our quasars are accreting at or below the Eddington rate using either black hole mass estimate.

The advent of large samples of quasars from the SDSS and the Anglo-Australian 2dF surveys means that significant numbers of quasars near bright AO guide stars have already become available. Even larger samples will be possible using laser guide stars. The image quality with laser guide stars will also be better as the AO corrections will be made on-axis. Thus we expect to be able to form statistically-useful samples of high quality quasar host images in the near future.

We thank Don Gavel for valuable support, and the AO group at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) as a whole for their hard work on the AO system over the years. We also thank Michael Gregg for help with the host galaxy fitting software, and the referee, Alan Stockton, for a helpful report. This work was partly carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with NASA, and partly under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration by the University of California, LLNL, under contract No. W-7405-Eng-48, with additional support from NSF grant AST-98-02791 (University of California, Davis). The Guide Star Catalog was produced at the Space Telescope Science Institute under U.S. Government grant.


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# Model atmospheres and SEDs of chemically peculiar stars.

## 1. Introduction

In many aspects, the existence of the irregular hydrogen-deficient (Hd) variables remains puzzling so far. R CrB is the most known member of the post-AGB group. Sakurai’s object (SO, V4334 Sge) provides another, extreme case of stellar evolution.

It has been firmly established that the most abundant elements in atmospheres of R CrB-like stars are helium and carbon. Determination of abundances in their atmospheres is possible only in the frame of self-consistent approach (Asplund et al. 1998). Still even in the case of the “normal” red giants that approach should be used. Otherwise, abundance determination results might be affected by significant errors ($`>`$ 0.2-0.3 dex, see Pavlenko & Yakovina 1994 for more details).

HD 101065 (V816 Cen) presents another case of the peculiar stellar spectrum (see Cowley et al. 2000) —- the strongest spectral lines in the spectrum of HD 101065 generally belong to lanthanides.

## 2. Ionization-dissociation equilibrium

In comparatively cool (Teff $`<`$ 6500 K) atmospheres of Hd stars densities of carbon containing molecules increase (Pavlenko 2002b). Strong molecular bands of CO, CN, C2 appear in optical and IR spectra of Sakurai’s object (Pavlenko 2002b, Pavlenko & Geballe 2002).

## 3. Opacities

At photospheric levels of hotter Hd stars (Teff $`>`$ 7000 K), the continuum opacity is governed mainly by a bound-free absorption of C atoms (Fig. 1, see also Pavlenko 1999). To compute opacities due to bf absorption of C, N, O atoms we used TOPBASE (Seaton 1982) crossections (Pavlenko & Zhukovska 2002). At the same time, opacity above the photosphere of Hd stars with Teff $`<`$ 6500 K is determined, to a large extent, by absorption of molecules contained C, N, O atoms (Pavlenko, Yakovina & Duerbeck 2000). Naturally, this severely limits the use of ODF-like methods for the computation of blanketing effects (see discussion in Mihalas 1978). We used JOLA and “line by line” models of absorption by molecules to compute opacities in atmospheres of late-type stars for Kurucz (1993), Partrige and Schwenke (1998), Goorvitch (1994) and Harris (2002) lists.

## 4. Dependence $`\tau _{ross}=f(T,P)`$

Due to drop of H- absorption the mean opacity $`\kappa _{ross}`$ is reduced in photosheres of Hd stars. As result, they are shifted downwards higher pressure regions (Fig.2).

## 5. Model atmospheres

We computed a grid of stellar model atmospheres of Teff = 7000-4000 K, log g = 0 - 1 by SAM12 program (Pavlenko 2002, 2002a). SAM12 is a modification of ATLAS12 (Kurucz 1999). Opacity sampling treatment was used to account atomic and molecular absorption.

## 6. Sakurai’s object

Fits of theoretical SEDs to observed in 1997 - 1998 ones allow us to determine Teff and EB-V of Sakurai’s object at the latest stages of its evolution (Fig. 3 in the frame of self-consistent approach(Pavlenko et al. 2000, Pavlenko & Duerbeck 2001, Pavlenko & Geballe 2002). Fits to IR spectra allows to clearly determine an infrared excess due to emission of hot (T $`>`$ 1000 K) dust (Fig.4, see Pavlenko & Geballe 2002 for more details).

## 7. Przybylski’s star

Model atmospheres with Teff = 6400-6800 K, $`\mathrm{log}g`$ =4.0 and abundances from Cowley et al. (2000) were computed using the opacity sampling method using VALD (Kupka et al. 1999) and DREAM (DREAM 2002) line lists. Atomic lines are the main source of opacity in Paczinsky’s star (Fig. 5). We found, however, that a contribution of the bound-bound r-elements into opacity is rather low in comparison with other elements. The most probably, it is a consequence of incompleteness of the used line lists of r-elements. Computation of complete line lists of r-elements is of crucial importance for now.

## 8. C-giants

Two grids of model atmospheres of different 12C/13C and C/O ratios were computed by SAM12 program for opacities provided by diatomic molecules (Kurucz 1993) lists and HCN (Harris 2002). Our model atmospheres of C-giants (see Pavlenko 2002a) depend on input parameters, therefore fits to observed spectra are not good enough in some cases (Fig. 6).

### Acknowledgments.

I thank SOC and LOC of the Symposium for financial support of my participation. I thank Drs. Hilmar Duerbeck, Larisa Yakovina & Tomas Geballe for very fruitful collaboration. Partial support of my investigations was provided by Small Research Grant of AAS.

## References

Asplund, M., Gustafsson, B., Kameswara Rao, N., Lambert, D.L. 1998, A&A, 332, 651.

Barnbaum C., Stone R.P.S., Keenan P.C. 1996. ApJ. Suppl. 105, 419.

Cowley, C.R., Ryabchikva, T., Kupka, F., Bord, D.J., Mathys, G., BIdelman, W.P.. 2000. MNRAS, 317, 299.

Duerbeck. H. 2001. Astroph. Space Sci., in press.

Goorvitch, D., 1994, Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 95, 535.

Harris, G. 2002. PhD Thesis, UCL.

Kupka, F., Piskunov, N., Ryabchikova, T. A., Stempels, H. C., Weiss, W. W. 1999. A&A Suppl., 138, 119.

Kurucz R.L., 1993, CD-ROMs, Cambridge, Harvard Univ.

Kurucz, R.L. 1999. http://cfa5.harvard.edu

Mihalas. D. 1978. Stellar atmospheres. Freeman and Co. San Francisco

Partridge H., Schwenke D.W., 1997, J.Chem. Phys., 106, 4618

Pavlenko, Ya., Yakovina, L. 1994, Astr. Reports, 38, 768

Pavlenko, Ya. 1999, Astr. Reports, 43, 94

Pavlenko, Ya.,Yakovina, L., Duerbeck, H.W. 2000, A&A, 354, 229

Pavlenko, Ya.,Duerbeck, H.W. 2001, A&A, 367, 933.

Pavlenko, Ya. 2002. Astron. Repts, submitted

Pavlenko, Ya. 2002a. http://www.mao.kiev.ua/staff/yp/TOP-mod.htm

Pavlenko, Ya. 2002b. Ap&SS, 279, 91

Pavlenko, Ya., Geballe T., 2002. A&A, 390, 621.

Pavlenko, Ya., Zhukovska, S. KFNT, submitted

Seaton, M.J. 1992 Rev. Mexicana Astron. Astrofis. 23, 180.


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# Electrons as Quasi-Bosons in Strong Magnetic Fields and the Stability of Magnetars

## Abstract

Following the recent ideas of Dryzek, Kato, Muñoz and Singleton  (henceforth we call this paper as R1), that the composite system consisting of an electron along with its screened electric field and within the sphere of influence, the trapped magnetic field of white dwarf can behave like a boson, we have argued that such an exotic transition (bosonization) of electronic component in strongly magnetized neutron star matter in $`\beta `$-equilibrium can make the existence of magnetars physically viable.

One of the oldest subject of physics, ”the study of the effect of strong magnetic field on dense matter of charged particles” has gotten a new dimension after the discovery of a few magnetars. These exotic objects are believed to be strongly magnetized young neutron stars of surface magnetic field $`10^{15}`$G and at the core region it may go up to $`10^{18}`$G . It is therefore very much advisable to examine throughly the effect of such strong magnetic field on various physical properties of dense neutron star matter as well as on the physical processes taking place inside neutron stars. An extensive studies have already been done on the equation of state of dense neutron star matter in presence of strong magnetic field. Such studies are based on the quantum mechanical effect of strong magnetic field . The effect of strong quantizing magnetic field on the gross properties, e.g., the mass, radius, moment of inertia etc., of neutron stars, which are strongly dependent on the equation of state of matter have been obtained . How the weak processes, e.g., weak reactions and decays are affected by the quantum mechanical effect of strong magnetic field have also been derived from the first principal . These studies show that the $`\beta `$-equilibrium condition too depends on the strength of magnetic field. Since the cooling of neutron stars is dominated by the emission of neutrinos produced by weak processes inside the stars, these studies also give an idea of the effect of strong magnetic field on the thermal evolution of neutron stars. Not only that, the presence of strong magnetic field can change significantly, both qualitatively and quantitatively, the transport coefficients (e.g., viscosity coefficient, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity etc.) of dense neutron star matter . The magnetic field can change the tensorial character of transport coefficients of neutron star matter. Such qualitative changes in transport coefficients can cause significant changes in thermal evolution of neutron star matter and also the evolution of its magnetic field. There are another kind of studies; the effect of strong quantizing magnetic field on quark-hadron phase transition. It was shown explicitly that a first order quark-hadron phase transition is absolutely forbidden if the strength of magnetic field exceeds $`10^{15}`$G. However, a metal insulator type (color insulator to color metal) second order phase transition is possible unless the field strength exceeds $`10^{20}`$G . It has also been shown, that even if there is a first order quark-hadron phase transition for magnetic field strength $`<10^{15}`$G at the core region of a neutron star, an investigation of chemical evolution of quark matter, with various initial conditions, leads to the system in $`\beta `$-equilibrium, revealed that the system becomes energetically unstable in chemical equilibrium . In a class of completely different type of studies, the mechanical stability and some of the gross properties of deformed stellar objects are analyzed with general relativity. The presence of strong magnetic field can destroy the spherical symmetry of a neutron star . Then it is quite possible for a deformed and rotating neutron star to emit gravity waves, which in principle can be detected . It has also been shown with the help of general relativity that the presence of strong magnetic field may pose a serious problem on the stability of magnetars, in the extreme case it may become either a black disk or black strings . In a very recent work, we have critically studied the ferro-magnetism of neutron star matter, which is believed to be one of the sources of residual magnetism of old neutron stars/sources of magnetic field of millisecond pulsars. In these studies, we have shown explicitly that spontaneous ferromagnetic transition in absence of an external magnetic field is absolutely forbidden in neutron star matter in $`\beta `$-equilibrium . However in the case of neutrino trapped neutron star matter (proto-neutron star matter), the possibility of such a transition can not be ruled out, provided the neutrinos carry some non-zero mass. We have also analyzed the problem of occupancy of only zeroth Landau levels by electrons/protons, which occur in presence of ultra-strong magnetic fields . It has been argued in this microscopic model analysis that in presence of a strong quantizing magnetic field the existence of neutron star matter in $`\beta `$-equilibrium is questionable. Which further opens up a vital question on the possibility of magnetars as young and strongly magnetized neutron stars. The macroscopic general relativistic studies and the microscopic model calculations therefore arrive at the same conclusion- ”the nonexistence of magnetars”. To resolve this controversy, we have followed the ideas of reference R1. We have also assumed that it is possible for the electrons to become quasi-bosons after combining with the screened electric field of the electron and the magnetic field of the star trapped within the screened region. Since pions or kaons can not condense in presence of ultra strong magnetic field , it is therefore not energetically favorable for the system to produce $`\pi ^{}`$ or $`K^{}`$ instead of electrons. On the other hand, the condensation of quasi-bosonic states of composite electron system to almost zero kinetic energy state is energetically more favorable even with respect to the occupancy of only the zeroth Landau level for electrons. Now it is found in the literature that fermi-bose transition plays a significant role in various branches of physics, e.g., high energy particle physics, and condensed matter physics. We therefore consider the feasibility of bosonization of electrons inside the magnetars to solve this serious problem of instability of neutron star matter in $`\beta `$-equilibrium in presence of ultra strong magnetic field and hence try to resolve the controversial issue of the existence of magnetars.

In the recent work (R1), the possibility of bosonization of electrons in magnetized white dwarfs has been proposed. In this paper, some of the interesting properties of white dwarfs relevant for such exotic transition have been discussed. The collapse of white dwarfs to neutron stars, because of bosonization has also been addressed in this reference.

Now several authors have investigated the fermi-bose transition during the last few decades in various branches of physics, e.g., in high energy particle physics, condensed matter physics - especially in strongly correlated electron system, fractional quantum Hall effect, anyon physics etc.

In the case of high energy particle physics, the application of fermi-bose transition has been studied in both abelian as well as in non-abelian field theories and also in non-linear Sine-Gordon model, in the low dimension and later, extended to $`3+1`$ dimensions . In the condensed matter physics, there are certain systems in which fermions can be converted to quasi-bosons. The bosonization has been studied in detail for the crystalline as well as for the disordered condensed matter systems. Such studies are mainly concentrated in the low dimensional cases. However, an extension to $`3+1`$ dimensions have also been done for certain cases. In $`2D`$, the anyons, which are the composite system of fermions and quantized magnetic flux, satisfy any statistics, have also been studied. The other interesting studies are on the strongly correlated electron system, the mesoscopic systems and the quantum Hall effect, and the high $`T_c`$ super-conductivity .

The theoretical model presented in reference $`(R1)`$ is the first attempt to apply bosonization in the study of compact stellar objects. Following the ideas proposed in this reference, we shall try to convince that if electrons in magnetars are converted to quasi-bosons, the serious problem on the existence of magnetars and also on the stability of dense neutron star matter in $`\beta `$-equilibrium in presence of extremely strong magnetic field posed by the electrons occupying only the zeroth Landau levels can in principle be solved.

We assume that the electrons in magnetars can behave like quasi-bosons in combination with its screened coulomb field and the strong magnetic field trapped within the sphere of influence. The size of these composite objects is $`R_{sc}`$ $`10^{11}10^{12}`$ cm in the relativistic region, where $`R_{sc}`$ is the screening length of the electrostatic field of electrons. To obtain the screening length we use the relativistic version of Thomas-Fermi model. According to which, the chemical potential of the electron is given by

$$\mu _e=(p_{F_e}^2(r)+m_e^2)^{1/2}e\varphi (r)=\mathrm{constant}$$
(1)
where $`p_{F_e}(r)`$, $`m_e`$ and $`e`$ are respectively the fermi momentum, mass and magnitude of charge of the electron and $`\varphi `$ is the effective electrostatic field experienced by the electron. The well known Poisson’s equation is then given by

$$^2\varphi =4\pi en_p^{}(r)+4\pi en_e^{}(r)$$
(2)
where $`n_p^{}`$ and $`n_e^{}`$ are respectively the perturbed densities of proton and electron from their equilibrium values $`n_p^0`$ and $`n_e^0`$ satisfy the relation $`n_p^0=n_e^0`$, to fulfill the charge neutrality condition. Then it is quite obvious that in the perturbed case, the total electron density is given by

$$n_e=n_e^0+n_e^{}$$
(3)
Now

$$n_e=\frac{1}{3\pi ^2}p_{F_e}^3=\frac{1}{3\pi ^2}\{(\mu _e+e\varphi )^2m_e^2\}^{3/2}$$
(4)
Hence we get for small $`\varphi `$ approximation

$$n_e^{}(r)\frac{3en_e^0\varphi (r)\mu _e}{\mu _e^2m_e^2}$$
(5)
On substituting $`n_e^{}`$ in the Poisson’s equation, we have the screening length

$$R_{sc}=\left(\frac{\mu _e^2m_e^2}{12\pi e^2n_e^0\mu _e}\right)^{1/2}$$
(6)
Now the angular momentum of electromagnetic field (combination of screened electrostatic field of electron and the strong magnetic field of the magnetar trapped within this region) is given by (we have assumed $`\mathrm{}=c=1`$)

$$\stackrel{}{L}^{em}=2eBR_{sc}^2\widehat{z}$$
(7)
where $`\widehat{z}`$ is an unit vector along Z-axis which is also assumed to be the direction of strong magnetic field $`B`$. Then the total spin of the composite system is given by

$$\stackrel{}{S}_{eff}=\stackrel{}{S}_e+\stackrel{}{L}^{em}$$
(8)
If the eigen value of $`L^{em}`$ is an odd integer multiple of $`1/2`$, the composite system behaves like a quasi-boson.

To explain how the bosonization of electron gas depends on matter density and to obtain the corresponding critical value of magnetic field strength at which the composite system behaves like a quasi-boson, we put

$$L^{em}=\frac{s}{2}$$
(9)
where $`s`$ is a positive odd integer parameter. The quasi-bosons will therefore behave either like scalar, vector or tensor particles depending on the value of $`s`$.

In fig.1 we have plotted the critical strength of magnetic field against the baryon number density for various values of the parameter $`s`$. This figure shows that if there is possibility of any such composite objects of electrons along with its screened electro-static field and the magnetic field of the star trapped within the sphere of radius $`R_{sc}`$, then the quasi-bosons are not necessarily of scalar or vector type, but they can have tensorial character too of rank $`2`$, depending on the magnitude of magnetic field strength. Although, theoretically predicted upper limit for spin of boson is $`2`$, which is called graviton, it is in principle possible to have quasi-bosons (which are of course not real bosons) of spin $`2`$ inside the magnetars, especially, if the magnetic field at the core region $`10^{18}`$G, for which the maximum value of spin for quasi-boson states at the core region can be $`4\mathrm{}`$. Since these composite objects are not real bosons and also have finite dimension ($`R_{sc}`$), then instead of comparing them with real bosons, it is better to draw some analogy with the high spin states of nuclei formed in nuclear fusion reactions. The finite dimension of these composite objects justifies to draw the comparison with high spin states of the nuclei. Whatever be the corresponding real world picture, these quasi-bosons should condense within the magnetar. Since the stability of the neutron stars is governed by the degeneracy pressure of neutron matter, the condensation (transition to almost zero momentum state) of the quasi-bosons does not affect the mechanical equilibrium of the system. Further, the problem arises out of the occupancy of only the zeroth Landau level by electrons is also solved. As a consequence, the stability of strongly magnetized dense neutron star matter in $`\beta `$-equilibrium is gurrented. Now there are two different kinds of general relativistic studies on the stability of strongly magnetized neutron stars. In purely classical studies, it has been shown that the inward magnetic pressure along the magnetic axis deforms the spherically symmetric structure of a star to an oblate shape. In the extreme case, it can become a black disk. Which of course needs a very high magnetic field ($`10^{20}`$G). If it is so, the instability of strongly magnetized neutron stars as predicted by classical general relativity can not be solved with microscopic (bosonization) model described in this article. In the other type of general relativistic studies, the effect of paramagnetism of Landau diamagnetic system has been considered. Now the paramagnetic behavior of Landau diamagnetic system dominates if only the zeroth Landau levels are occupied by the charged fermions. In this case all the spins are aligned. In such a scenario, the spherically symmetric structure of the star will be distorted to prolate shape and in the extreme case, it takes the shape of a cigar or reduces to a black string (one dimensional object). Since this kind of instability is connected to the paramagnetic behavior of charged fermions (mainly electrons) occupying Landau levels, the possibility of bosonization of electronic components can solve this problem. Which therefore removes the controversy on the non-existence of magnetars.

Acknowledgment: SC is thankful to the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, for partial support of this work, Sanction number:SP/S2/K3/97(PRU).


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# Local scale invariance, conformal invariance and dynamical scaling

## References