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# RXTE All-Sky Monitor Detection of the Orbital Period of Scorpius X-1

## 1 Introduction

Scorpius X-1 is the most prominent of the bright Galactic bulge X-ray sources. These are persistent, high-luminosity X-ray sources located in directions more or less towards the Galactic center, and are typified by, in addition to Sco X-1, GX340+0, GX349+2, GX3+1, GX5–1, GX9+1, GX9+9, GX13+1, and GX17+2. The 2 to 10 keV intensities of these sources are often seen to vary within a range limited to about a factor of two or so; much larger changes in strength are rare. Neither eclipses nor persistent periodic pulsations have been detected in any of them. These sources are believed to be low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXBs), binaries with short orbital periods in which accretion onto a neutron star primary is fed by Roche lobe overflow from a companion less massive than the Sun. Two classes of LMXBs, the “Z” and “atoll” types, are distinguished by distinctive tracks seen in X-ray color-color diagrams. In both types of source, the overall intensity and features of Fourier power density spectra, including quasiperiodic oscillations, also change in a characteristic way with location along the color-color track (Hasinger & van der Klis, 1989; van der Klis, 2000). The brightest bulge sources are of the Z-type, which may be emitting close to the Eddington limit for a neutron star of mass $`1.4M_{}`$. Although Sco X-1 is by far the brightest persistent source, it is not likely to be intrinsically more luminous than the other Z sources; rather it is thought to be $`3`$ times closer than most of the bulge sources (Bradshaw, Fomalont, & Geldzahler, 1999).

Sco X-1 exhibits only the so-called normal and flaring branches of the Z-source X-ray color-color diagram; it does not exhibit a “horizontal branch” (Hasinger & van der Klis, 1989). During frequent excursions onto the flaring branch, the source intensity increases by up to a factor of $`2`$. These flares often come and go on time scales of hours (Bradt et al., 1975, and references therein).

The high level of activity that Sco X-1 displays in X-rays also appears in the optical and radio bands where the variability is correlated with the variability in the X-ray band (Sandage et al., 1966; Bradt et al., 1975; Canizares et al., 1975; Wright, Gottlieb, & Liller, 1975). In the optical, it ranges over blue magnitudes of 11.8 to 13.6, but on time scales of 1 day or less it rarely changes by more than 1 magnitude.

Apart from strong X-ray emission and occasional weak radio emission, the binary nature of the bright Galactic bulge sources is only subtly, if at all, manifested observationally. Of the 9 sources listed above, orbital periods have been determined for only Sco X-1, GX 9+9, and, possibly, GX349+2 (Gottlieb, Wright & Liller 1975, hereafter GWL; Hertz & Wood 1988; Schaefer 1990; Wachter & Margon 1996).

The orbital period of Sco X-1 was first found by GWL in a search for periodicities in 85 years of photometric optical data obtained from plates in the Harvard collection. GWL found four distinct candidates for the orbital period, viz., 0.787313 d, 0.78901 d, 0.81069 d, and 3.74001 d. They identified 0.787313 d as the likely orbital period, while the other periods were explained as one year, one month, and one day sidebands, respectively, i.e., as artifacts of the limited coverage of the observations. Use of a large number of measurements was critical to GWL’s success in elucidating these periodicities against the background of high frequency noise from random variations in brightness; in the optical the orbital modulation has a full amplitude of only $`0.2`$ magnitude (Gottlieb, Wright, & Liller, 1975; Wright, Gottlieb, & Liller, 1975).

Cowley & Crampton (1975) carried out spectroscopic observations of Sco X-1 and found radial velocity variations in the He II and H emission lines with a period of $`0.787\pm 0.006`$ d and thereby conclusively demonstrated the orbital nature of the 0.787 day variations. If the emission lines are formed, e.g., in an accretion disk around the X-ray emitting star, then the epoch of minimum brightness found by GWL corresponds to superior conjunction of the X-ray source (Cowley & Crampton, 1975; Crampton et al., 1976).

The presence of a 0.787 d period has been confirmed in a number of other studies based on optical photometry (e.g., van Genderen 1977; see Augusteijn et al. 1992) or on radial velocities obtained from optical spectroscopy (e.g., Bord et al. 1976; LaSala & Thorstensen 1985). Further information on the binary system has recently been obtained by Steeghs & Casares (2002), who used optical spectroscopy to uncover evidence of the donor star in the binary system and to obtain estimates of its radial velocity amplitude.

No significant periodicity at 0.787313 d or any nearby period in the X-ray flux from Sco X-1 has been reported. Priedhorsky & Holt (1987) searched for a signal at the GWL period in 5 years of 3-6 keV intensity measurements from the All-Sky Monitor on Ariel V  and found only a weak modulation with an amplitude of $`0.4`$%. Priedhorsky & Holt did not report any investigations of variability at other periods.

We have analyzed X-ray intensities of Sco X-1 recorded over more than six years by the All Sky Monitor (ASM) on board the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer, and have found evidence of a periodicity with a period of 0.78893 d. This period is consistent with GWL’s 0.78901 d period, and we therefore tentatively propose that the latter value is the orbital period of Sco X-1, while the 0.787313 d period is a one-year sideband produced as a consequence of the observational window function.

## 2 Observations

The ASM comprises 3 coded-aperture cameras, or Scanning Shadow Cameras (SSCs), mounted as an assembly that can be rotated around a single axis by a motorized drive (Levine et al., 1996). The shadow pattern data from each 90-second exposure with a single SSC are analyzed to obtain intensity estimates of each pre-cataloged source that is within the field of view. The analysis is done for the overall energy band of the ASM, $``$ 1.5-12 keV, as well as the nominal 1.5-3 keV, 3-5 keV, and 5-12 keV bands (the A, B, and C bands, respectively).

Our analysis involves both intensities and colors, i.e., ratios of intensities from different energy bands. We utilized the intensities produced as part of the standard processing done by the RXTE  ASM team (Levine et al., 1996). In the derivation of these intensity estimates, corrections are made for instrumental characteristics which have changed over time. The correction factors are constructed to remove trends in the derived intensities of the Crab Nebula (including the pulsar) over the course of the mission and to remove any dependence on SSC, position in the field of view, etc. The factors obtained for the Crab Nebula are also applied to other sources even though this is an approximation that becomes less accurate as the source spectrum deviates more strongly from that of the Crab. One may therefore expect some systematic errors in the intensities of Sco X-1 since its spectrum is not the same as that of the Crab; these are expected to be small in the intensities derived from SSC 2 and larger in the intensities derived from SSCs 1 and 3. The gas-filled proportional counter detector in SSC 1 has a slow leak that has resulted in the photon energy to pulse height conversion gain increasing at a rate of approximately 9% per year. On one occasion, early in the year 2000, the flight software pulse height intervals that define the individual energy bands of SSC 1 were modified to reduce the effects of the gain changes. For the present analysis, we have made additional empirical corrections to the A and B channel intensities from observations with SSC 1 to remove much of the remaining signature of instrumental gain changes. In SSC 3, 2 of 8 carbon-coated quartz fiber anodes were irretrievably damaged in the first week after launch, and a third anode failed after about 7 months. Gross calibration changes since then have rendered 2 of the remaining 5 anodes unusable. Because of these complications, we do not use data from SSC 3 in the present analysis. In all cases, however, the gain changes and correction factors should not contribute any significant amount of spurious power at temporal frequencies close to 1 cycle d-1 where the search for orbital modulations takes place.

Over 11,000 intensity measurements of Sco X-1 have been obtained by each of SSCs 1 and 2 since the ASM began routine operations in late February 1996. The 1.5-12 keV light curve of Sco X-1 using data from SSC 2 only is presented in Figure 1a. The flaring behavior associated with excursions onto the flaring branch is clearly visible, with frequent and irregular flares above a relatively stable baseline. In Figure 1b we show the hardness ratio I(5-12 keV)/I(3-5 keV). Note, in particular, that the hardness ratio increases strongly during the flares (Hasinger & van der Klis, 1989; van der Klis, 2000).

## 3 Analysis

In this section we first describe a standard Fourier transform analysis of the time series of X-ray intensity data obtained from Sco X-1. The prominent flaring activity is shown to introduce a significant amount of noise into the transform which will likely mask any signature of a weak orbital modulation. We then introduce a new analysis algorithm which greatly reduces the effects of the flaring behavior. This approach makes use of the strong spectral changes during the flares.

To begin our analysis, the intensities from each of SSCs 1 and 2 were assigned to 0.01-d time bins, and the mean intensity was subtracted from the populated bins. Each resulting linear array was extended by a factor of eight by padding with zeros and was then transformed using a Fast Fourier Transform (hereafter FFT) code. The power at each frequency (the quadratic sum of the real and imaginary parts of the output of the FFT) was divided by the mean power of the entire spectrum. The extension of the linear arrays yields interpolated power density spectra (PDSs) in which the sensitivity for detection of periodicities is more uniform than in an uninterpolated PDS. The results from SSC 2 are shown in Figure 2a, and provide no obvious evidence for any significant periodicity. Even modulations with frequencies close to one cycle per day, which often appear in PDSs of ASM data as a result of the observational window function acting on low-frequency source variability, are not noticeable in the PDS of the raw data. This is taken as evidence that the power density is dominated by the effects of the flares in the intensity of Sco X-1, and thus any small amplitude modulations due to the orbit are likely to be undetectable as well.

In order to significantly reduce the noise power introduced by the flaring behavior and possibly increase the sensitivity for detection of weak modulation at the orbital frequency, we utilize the fact that the intensity of Sco X-1, like other Z sources, exhibits distinct spectral hardening during the flares (see, e.g., Hasinger & van der Klis, 1989). The relation between intensity and spectral hardness from the ASM data set itself is illustrated in Figure 3, where the intensity in each of the A, B, and C bands, which we will denote by $`I_A`$, $`I_B`$, and $`I_C`$, respectively, is plotted vs. the hardness ratio defined as $`R_{\mathrm{C},\mathrm{B}}=I_C/I_B`$. Note that on the average the intensity increases monotonically, though not quite linearly, as $`R_{\mathrm{C},\mathrm{B}}`$ increases. The smooth curves in each panel illustrate models of the spectral behavior of the flares that we utilize below.

Our flare-suppression algorithm utilizes simple analytic functions to describe the mean intensity–hardness-ratio behavior. These expressions are then used to “correct” the intensity history of Sco X-1 so as to largely remove the flaring behavior. In the following detailed description of the method, we use unprimed symbols to denote quantities that would be observed in the hypothetical absence of any modulations due to the orbit, and primed symbols to denote quantities affected by orbital modulations.

We start by defining the mean spectral track that would be followed by the source in an intensity–hardness diagram, such as those shown in Figure 3, in the absence of orbital modulations by:

$$\widehat{I}_k(t)=F_k\left[R_{ij}(t)\right],$$
(1)
where $`\widehat{I}_k(t)`$ is the model intensity in the $`k`$th energy channel, $`t`$ is the elapsed time, and $`F_k`$ describes the shape of the track which is taken to be a function of the hardness ratio in two energy channels $`i`$ and $`j`$:

$$R_{ij}(t)\frac{I_i(t)}{I_j(t)}$$
(2)
with channel $`i`$ being at higher energies than channel $`j`$. Here, the energy channel $`k`$ whose intensity we are modeling may or may not be the same as channel $`i`$ or $`j`$. The intensities $`I_k(t)`$, model intensities $`\widehat{I}_k(t)`$, and hardness ratios $`R_{ij}(t)`$ are defined as those that would be detected if there were no modulations due to the orbit.

When any orbital modulation is defined so as to have a mean value of zero and is small in amplitude, we can still describe the mean intensity–hardness relation using the same function $`F_k`$:

$$\widehat{I}_k^{}(t)F_k\left[R_{ij}^{}(t)\right],$$
(3)
where, as stated above, the primes indicate hardness ratios and model intensities affected by orbital modulations. We model the orbital modulation in the $`k`$th channel by a simple multiplicative term, $`M_k(t)`$, to represent a small increase or decrease from the mean in the degree of scattering or absorption out of the line of sight, or scattering into the line of sight. Thus,

$$R_{ij}^{}(t)\frac{I_i(t)M_i(t)}{I_j(t)M_j(t)}.$$
(4)
A modified data set, $`C_k(t)`$, approximately corrected for the flaring, is then given by:

$$C_k(t)\frac{I_k^{}(t)}{F_k\left[R_{ij}^{}(t)\right]}\frac{I_k(t)M_k(t)}{F_k\left[R_{ij}(t)M_i(t)/M_j(t)\right]},$$
(5)
where the first ratio is expressed in terms of measured quantities (i.e., with the orbital modulation included), and the second ratio is expressed in terms of the intrinsic source behavior.

In order to learn about the properties of the corrected data set, we expand the numerator and denominator in Taylor series about the point $`M_i=M_j=1`$, i.e., we take $`M(t)=1+\delta M(t)`$. The above expression can then be written:

$$C_k\frac{I_k(1+\delta M_k)}{\left[F_k(R_{ij})+\left(\frac{F_k}{R_{ij}^{}}\right)_0\left(\frac{R_{ij}^{}}{M_i}\right)_0\delta M_i+\left(\frac{F_k}{R_{ij}^{}}\right)_0\left(\frac{R_{ij}^{}}{M_j}\right)_0\delta M_j\right]},$$
(6)
where we have dropped explicit time dependences in the interest of simplicity. After collecting terms and making use of the assumption that the $`\delta M^{}`$s are small, we find the following simplified expression for the behavior of the corrected data set in the presence of orbital modulations:

$$C_k\frac{I_k}{F_k(R_{ij})}\left\{1+\delta M_k\frac{d\mathrm{ln}F_k}{d\mathrm{ln}R_{ij}}\left[\delta M_i\delta M_j\right]\right\}.$$
(7)
To the extent that the flaring behavior follows a distinct track in the color–intensity diagram, the factor $`I_k/F_k(R_{\mathrm{i},\mathrm{j}})`$ is nearly constant, i.e., independent of flaring behavior. This factor will also contain some residual random fluctuations in the source intensity that do not follow the color–intensity track, as well as any measurement errors. The factor in curly brackets contains the desired time-dependent orbital modulations, i.e., the $`\delta M^{}`$s.

From equation (7) one may see that the manifestation of orbital modulations in the corrected data set consists of two parts: (i) the modulation in the channel being corrected, and (ii) a term proportional to the difference in the orbital modulation in the two channels used to define the hardness ratio. There are a couple of noteworthy combinations of terms in this equation. First, if $`\delta M_i=\delta M_j`$, the modulation appearing in $`C_k`$ is just that of the orbital modulation in the $`k`$th energy band being studied. Second, if the energy dependence of the modulations in the different bands accidentally resembles that of the flaring, i.e., $`\delta M_kd\mathrm{ln}F_k/d\mathrm{ln}R_{\mathrm{i},\mathrm{j}}(\delta M_i\delta M_j)`$, then the modulations in the corrected data set will have a greatly reduced amplitude, possibly rendering them undetectable.

We have chosen a simple functional form to represent the spectral-intensity changes in the different energy channels of the ASM (also see Figure 3):

$$F_k(R_{\mathrm{i},\mathrm{j}})=\alpha _k+\beta _kR_{\mathrm{i},\mathrm{j}}^{\gamma _k}.$$
(8)
A table of parameters for the various ASM energy channels is given for reference in Table 1. For this particular functional form we have

$$d\mathrm{ln}F_k/d\mathrm{ln}R_{\mathrm{i},\mathrm{j}}=\frac{(F_k\alpha _k)\gamma _k}{F_k}.$$
(9)
Note that $`d\mathrm{ln}F_k/d\mathrm{ln}R_{\mathrm{i},\mathrm{j}}`$ is only approximately constant through the flaring cycle and, in fact, varies by $`\pm 7`$% to $`\pm 20`$%, depending on the energy band. Typical values of $`d\mathrm{ln}F_k/d\mathrm{ln}R_{\mathrm{i},\mathrm{j}}`$ for each of the energy bands of SSC 2 are also listed in Table 1.

## 4 Results

We have applied the hardness-ratio-based correction procedure described above (see, e.g., eq. 5) to each of the energy channels in each of SSCs 1 and 2. The corrected data set for the C channel of SSC 2 is shown as an example in Figure 1c, while the hardness ratios used in the procedure are shown in Fig. 1b. A comparison of the corrected data with the raw data indicates a dramatic reduction in source variability (relative to mean source strength). Corrected data sets from the A and B channels of SSC 2, as well as from all three channels from SSC 1, also have greatly reduced variability.

As was done for the raw data, the corrected data were binned into 0.01-d time bins and the mean value subtracted from those bins containing data. The binned data sets were padded with zeros and then transformed using the FFT. Again, the resulting powers were normalized to the mean power across the spectrum. The results for the C channel of SSC 2 are shown in Figure 2b. Peaks near frequencies of $`1`$ cycle d-1, related to a window function frequency, are now clearly evident in the PDS.

Amongst the other potentially interesting peaks in the frequency range of 0.5 to 1.75 d-1 is one at a frequency corresponding to a period of $`0.78893\pm 0.00010`$ d. The normalized power reaches a value of 11 close to this frequency, and for an assumed exponential probability distribution, the probability of a statistical fluctuation causing a peak this large in a particular frequency bin is $`2\times 10^5`$. Given that there are roughly 2500 independent frequencies in the range displayed in Fig. 2b, the probability of finding a peak this large in any bin is $`5\%`$. Although this is not of great significance by itself, this frequency is actually of a priori interest. A blowup of this region of the PDS is shown in Figure 4a. The peak appearing in the SSC 2, channel C data is clearly removed from the frequency corresponding to the GWL period, but it does appear to be coincident with one of the other frequencies identified in the analysis of GWL, i.e., the frequency corresponding to a period of 0.78901 d. In fact, the difference in frequency between the GWL prime frequency and the frequency of the peak we see corresponds to a period of $`384\pm 22`$ days – i.e., quite consistent with a 1-year sideband of the GWL period at a frequency corresponding to a period of 0.789014 d ($`1.0/0.787313`$ d $`1.0/365.25`$ d $`=1.0/0.789014`$ d).

This peak at 0.78893 d appears with roughly equal amplitude in the A, B, C and summed (A+B+C) bands (see Fig. 5). Note that, while the data in the three different bands are independent in terms of photon counting statistics, the power in them is dominated by the variability of Sco X-1 whose spectrum does not change by large factors. Thus, the different channels are all similarly affected by both the source variability and the window function. Moreover, the flaring in each of the bands was removed utilizing the same hardness ratio $`R_{\mathrm{C},\mathrm{B}}`$ (not the same functions $`F_k`$, however). Thus, the corrected data sets used to produce the PDSs in Fig. 5 do not represent three completely independent sets of observations.

The analysis procedure described above, with the appropriate hardness ratio corrections, was also applied to the data from SSC 1. The results are shown in Figure 4b. The normalized power in the bin that we have identified as the likely orbital frequency of Sco X-1 is 5.7. This is not very statistically significant. In fact, one expects a peak this large by random chance somewhere within the frequency range displayed in Figure 4. Nonetheless, this peak at 0.78895 d is the second highest among the $`100`$ independent frequencies in the plot. We take this as a weak confirmation that this particular frequency is interesting. The difference between the peak heights in the transforms of data from the two different cameras is more or less consistent with a signal that is of intermediate strength and therefore at the margin of detectability in each.

We compared the results of the correction procedure described above with other methods of reducing the power from the flaring behavior. The other methods included (i) eliminating those measurements above a specified intensity threshold chosen to be just above a baseline value, e.g., 1050 cts s-1 in the 1.5-12 keV band of SSC 2, and (ii) eliminating those measurements with hardness ratios corresponding to typical flaring values, i.e., $`R_{\mathrm{C},\mathrm{B}}>1.25`$ (see Fig. 3). In general, these other methods yielded smaller peaks close to a period of 0.789014 d than did our correction procedure described above. Combination of our correction procedure with alternative method (ii) resulted in peaks which are comparable in strength to those found without elimination of any measurements.

We carried out two further checks of our analysis of the data from SSC 2. First, we transformed the window function corresponding to the data set from this camera. No interesting peaks were found near the period of Sco X-1. Second, we transformed different subsections of the data to ascertain whether the amplitude of the orbital modulation might be varying with time. Unfortunately, with such a weak signal we are able to say only that the modulation is consistent with having been stronger during the first half of the RXTE mission.

We see no interesting harmonic peaks in the PDS at two or three times the frequency of the peak that we have identified.

Next, we estimate the amplitude of the orbital modulation detected in SSC 2. Due to the fact that the data have been corrected by dividing by a function of the hardness ratio, it is not obvious what the Fourier amplitude or a fold, modulo the orbital period, will reveal about the intrinsic amplitude or shape of the orbital modulation. Therefore, we have chosen, somewhat arbitrarily, to calibrate the amplitude scale in the forward direction by the following means. We introduce a fictitious orbital modulation at a nearby frequency $`f_{cal}=1.2600\mathrm{d}^1`$ with a $`1\%`$ amplitude in all three energy channels by multiplying the actual data from SSC 2 by the factor $`1+0.01\mathrm{sin}(2\pi f_{cal}t+\varphi )`$. The results are shown in the transforms displayed in Figure 5. From a direct comparison of the “calibration” peak and the one at 0.78893 d (1.2675 d-1), we conclude that the orbital modulation amplitude lies in the range $`0.7\%1.4\%`$. The higher end of this range allows for the possibility that the modulations were present during only half the time of the ASM observations. This is quite consistent with the fact that the peak at 0.78893 d appears broader than the calibration peak by a factor of $`2`$. Finally, we note that introducing equal calibration amplitude signals into each energy band is equivalent to assuming that the orbital modulations are colorless and that the third term in curly brackets in equation (7) vanishes.

Under the assumption that the amplitudes of the orbital modulations are not strongly dependent on the energy band, we have used a folded light for the corrected SSC 2 data set to determine the time of minimum X-ray intensity. We find that these minima occur at times $`t`$(X-ray minimum) $`=\mathrm{MJD}51334.93+0.789014\mathrm{E}`$ (MJD = Modified Julian Date = Julian Date$`2,400,000.5`$). The times of optical photometric minimum are given by GWL as $`t`$(opt. minimum) $`=\mathrm{MJD}40080.63+0.787313\mathrm{E}`$. On 1999 June 6 (MJD 51335), the GWL ephemeris predicts $`t`$(opt. minimum) $`=\mathrm{MJD}51335.26`$ which is 0.33 d or 0.42 cycles after X-ray minimum. Thus, X-ray minimum is coincident with optical photometric maximum within the uncertainty in the phases of the cycles ($`\delta \varphi 0.1`$). However, we point out that equation (7) allows for the possibility of a phase reversal (i.e., by $`180^{}`$) in the X-ray minimum of a light curve formed from the corrected data, depending on the details of the hardness ratio behavior of the orbital modulations.

## 5 Discussion

We find evidence for a periodicity in the X-ray flux from Sco X-1 with a period of $`0.78893\pm 0.00010`$ d, and identify this as likely caused by some physical effect producing modulations of the flux at the orbital period. We do not find good evidence for variability at the 0.787313 d period. In fact, GWL found a periodicity at 0.78901 d that is consistent with the period we find in the ASM data, but since they found that periodicity to be $`20`$% weaker than that at 0.787313 d, they concluded that the latter was the orbital period while the former was the 1-year sideband produced by the observational window function. We suggest rather that the true orbital period is 0.78901 d and that the 0.787313 d period is the 1-year sideband. Unfortunately, we are unable to evaluate quantitatively the likelihood of the sideband appearing stronger in the photometric data than the true modulation frequency since we do not have access to the plate stack data used by GWL.

We note, however, that ASM observations of Sco X-1 are generally available for more than 10 months each year while most ground-based optical observations of Sco X-1 were likely taken within a couple of months of early June when Sco X-1 is nearly opposite from the Sun. Thus, it is likely that the window function of the optical observations analyzed by GWL would have strong components at a 1-year period. We further note that a modulation with a period of 0.78901 d that is in phase with a modulation at 0.787313 d as described by GWL in early June would be difficult for optical observers to distinguish without observations at other times of the year. For example, the two oscillations would be out of phase by only 0.08 cycles in early May or early July. At even earlier or later dates, the phases of the two modulations would gradually drift apart until they came back together (with a difference of 1 cycle) after one year. We can therefore speculate that there were a limited number of optical observations in the set used by GWL that could have differentiated between the two periods.

The difference between the two periods could well have been missed by independent observers who confirmed the GWL period. Although the optical spectroscopic results of Cowley & Crampton (1975) do support the presence of a periodicity, they did not have the frequency resolution to distinguish between the GWL period and a one year sideband. We also expect that the independent measurements of LaSala & Thorstensen (1985) cannot be used to distinguish the GWL period from one which differs by 1 cycle yr-1.

Due to the small observed amplitude of the X-ray orbital modulation in Sco X-1 we are unable to investigate either the detailed shape of the light curve or the spectral character of the modulations. However, it is clear from the lack of higher harmonics in the FFTs and the similarity in amplitudes of the peaks in Fig. 5 that the light curve has no prominent sharp structure nor is it highly energy dependent. Specifically, the modulation cannot be due to photoelectric absorption in unionized matter which would have a much larger effect in the 1.5-3 keV channel than in the 5-12 keV band. As noted in the previous section, the phase of X-ray minimum appears to be 0.42 cycles earlier than that in the optical. Based on any simple picture for scattering or absorption in the system, one would expect the optical and X-ray minima to be roughly coincident, unless the outgoing radiation is affected by structure on the rim of the accretion disk which is fixed asymmetrically in the rotating frame of the binary. At the low inclination angle that we are likely to be viewing Sco X-1 (e.g., $`i30^{}`$, Steeghs & Casares 2002) we would not expect this type of effect. Thus, if our orbital period is correct, we have no ready explanation for the phase of X-ray minimum.

In general, the orbital modulation could be due to attenuation of the beam, i.e., scattering or absorption along the line of sight, or to scattering into the line of sight. Possible sources of the scattering and/or absorption could include a stellar wind of the companion, the surface of the companion, a wind from the accretion disk, or an accretion disk corona (see, e.g., Priedhorsky & Holt 1987). If the modulation takes place near the accretion disk, then some asymmetry around the azimuth of the disk, fixed in the rotating frame of the binary, must be present.

If the donor star serves as a source of scattered radiation (see Priedhorsky & Holt 1987), then we can estimate the maximum effect by computing the solid angle subtended by the donor star. The fractional solid angle is given by $`0.053(1+q)^{2/3}`$, where $`q`$ is the ratio of the mass of the neutron star to that of the donor star. For plausible masses (see Steeghs & Casares 2002) this fraction is $`2`$%. In order for a $`1`$% orbital modulation to be due to X-rays scattered into the line of sight from the companion star, this would require an implausibly high X-ray albedo of $`0.5`$.

The accretion disk might afford a larger solid angle for intercepting X-rays and scattering them into the line of sight. For example, an accretion disk with a half opening angle of $`10^{}`$ would subtend at the neutron star a fractional solid angle of $``$17%. For reasonable X-ray albedos of $`10`$% for glancing incidence (see below), this could result in some 1.7% of the X-rays emanating from the Sco X-1 system being scattered. If there is some asymmetry around the disk that yields about a factor of two more scattering at some azimuths than others, this could produce a net orbital modulation of $`1`$%.

The X-ray albedo is $`0.5\sigma _e/\sigma _{pe}`$, where $`\sigma _e`$ is the angle-averaged electron scattering cross section, and $`\sigma _{pe}`$ is the energy-dependent photoelectric absorption cross section appropriate for the composition and ionization state of the scattering medium. The exact coefficient depends on the geometry experienced by the incident and emerging X-rays. For material that is of solar composition and nearly unionized, the albedo should scale roughly as $`E^{8/3}`$; it should be a strongly increasing function of photon energy, $`E`$, that reaches $`6`$% in the middle of the ASM C band. For more highly ionized plasmas, the albedo can be substantially higher and less energy dependent. The latter property would be relevant in trying to model the nearly energy-independent amplitude we find for the orbital modulation.

A small number of X-ray sources that exhibit orbital modulation have been classified as “accretion disk corona” (ADC) sources, e.g., 4U 1822–37 and 4U 2129+47 (see, e.g., White & Holt 1982). The ADC sources are supposedly viewed nearly edge on, with the direct path of X-rays from the neutron star blocked by an accretion disk. In this case, most of the X-rays detected at the Earth may be scattered by a hot corona located above and below the inner parts of the accretion disk. The orbital modulation of the observed X-ray flux may then be produced by a thickened disk rim that occults the corona to differing degrees as a function of orbital phase (White & Holt, 1982). The modulation is typically large enough in amplitude, e.g., $``$20% of the average flux, to be easily detectable even outside of the relatively narrow partial eclipse. However, we cannot say whether similar systems observed at much lower inclinations would show modulations at the $``$ 1% level, because (1) the neutron star would be visible and (2) the disk rim would not occult the corona.

Finally, to help establish the correct orbital period in Sco X-1 we urge optical astronomers to search for modulations in the light from or radial velocity of this system as far from June as practicable.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Bill Liller, Ron Remillard, and Ned Wright for very helpful discussions, and Arnout van Genderen and Jan Lub for providing some of their archival optical data from Sco X-1. Partial support for this research was provided by NASA Contract NAS5-30612 and NASA Grant NAG5-9189.


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# Baryon and antibaryon production in hadron-hadron and hadron-nucleus interactions

## 1 Introduction

The NA49 experiment is unique in measuring $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}^+`$ production over the full range of hadronic interactions, from $`p+p`$ collisions via centrality controlled $`p+Pb`$ to central $`Pb+Pb`$ reactions. This offers interesting possibilities of comparison, in particular concerning the nuclear enhancement factors in $`p+A`$ and $`A+A`$ collisions. The extraction of these factors is straightforward for the symmetric $`p+p`$ and $`Pb+Pb`$ interactions, however the interpretation of central rapidity yields from $`p+A`$ collision poses certain problems of normalization or, rather, separation of projectile and target contributions. In addition, the effects of projectile and target isospin and of net baryon stopping have to be properly addressed.

## 2 A two component picture of hadronic interactions

Invoking the absence of charge and flavor exchange at SPS energies one may postulate hadronic factorization in the sense of splitting particle production into two independent components, one from the target and one from the projectile, fig.1.

This picture has been verified  for net proton production both for $`p+p`$ and $`p+Pb`$ interactions, using pion beams. It has been shown that particle densities in $`p+Pb`$ collisions at central rapidity are built up from a target part which is proportional to the number of projectile collisions, $`\nu `$, and a projectile part which carries the imprint of the hadron which has undergone $`\nu `$ collisions. The presence of nuclear enhancement in $`p+A`$ collisions can accordingly be analyzed along two different lines: either this enhancement $`E`$ is equally distributed to target and projectile components (”wounded nucleon” model),

$$\left(\frac{\mathrm{d}n}{\mathrm{d}X_F}\right)_{X_F=0}^{p+A}=\left[\frac{\nu \alpha }{2}E(\nu )+\frac{1}{2}E(\nu )\right]\left(\frac{\mathrm{d}n}{\mathrm{d}X_F}\right)_{X_F=0}^{p+p}$$
(1)
or it is fully credited to the projectile contribution,

$$\left(\frac{\mathrm{d}n}{\mathrm{d}X_F}\right)_{X_F=0}^{p+A}=\left[\frac{\nu \alpha }{2}+\frac{1}{2}E(\nu )\right]\left(\frac{\mathrm{d}n}{\mathrm{d}X_F}\right)_{X_F=0}^{p+p}$$
(2)
The latter possibility has been shown to be valid by NA49 at least for net protons . Alpha is an isospin factor as discussed below.

## 3 Cascade enhancements

Using the measured $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}`$ cross sections  the extracted enhancement factors turn out to be largely different following the two prescriptions, as shown in fig.2 for $`\alpha =1`$. Clearly, the projectile enhancement obtained from method (2) in $`p+A`$ collisions is very similar to the one seen in $`Pb+Pb`$ reactions whereas method (1), due to the overriding target contribution, yields little or no overall enhancement in $`p+A`$ collisions. A noteworthy feature of fig.2 is the sizeable difference in enhancement between $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}^+`$ which amounts to about a factor of two.

## 4 Isospin effects

Since heavy nuclei contain about $`60\%`$ neutrons, eventual differences in particle yields between neutron and proton fragmentation have to be carefully taken into account. It has been shown  that for anti-protons for example there is a $`50\%`$ yield difference between neutron and proton induced elementary interactions. This difference has been traced to an important component of asymmetric baryon pair production (e.g. $`n\overline{p}`$ or $`p\overline{n}`$) which strongly depends on projectile isospin. In the absence of measurements of $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ production from neutrons, it seems reasonable to assume that similar pair production mechanisms hold for $`\mathrm{\Xi }\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}`$ production. Given the charge structure of the isospin triplet of $`\mathrm{\Xi }\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}`$ states,

$$\mathrm{\Xi }^{}\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}^0\mathrm{\Xi }^{}\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}^+/\mathrm{\Xi }^0\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}^0\mathrm{\Xi }^0\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}^+$$

a decrease in $`\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}^+`$ and an increase of $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ production is to be expected when switching from proton to neutron projectiles. Taking account of the $`40/60\%`$ mixture of protons and neutrons in $`Pb`$ nuclei and assuming the same asymmetry factor as measured for $`S=0`$ baryons this results in an effective isospin factor $`\alpha =1.3`$ for $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ and $`0.77`$ for $`\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}^+`$. The isospin corrected enhancement factors (see equation 2) are shown in fig.3. Apparently the similarity between $`p+A`$ and $`Pb+Pb`$ interactions is preserved and the large asymmetry between $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}^+`$ enhancements, fig.2, is strongly reduced.

## 5 Net baryon stopping

The transfer of net baryon number from forward to central region in multiple collision processes (”stopping”) may play an important role in the interpretation of central baryon densities. The net proton yield from the projectile e.g. increases by a factor of about $`3`$ at central rapidity when comparing $`p+p`$ and central $`p+Pb`$ interactions  (see fig. 5). For $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ production, corresponding studies would imply the measurement of complete $`x_F`$ distributions in pion and proton induced collisions. Such measurements are not available. Nevertheless one may conjecture that — given the steeper $`x_F`$ dependence of $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ as compared to $`p`$ — the ”enhancement” of net $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ at $`x_F=0`$ in multiple collision processes should be smaller. The experimental situation concerning net $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ production is given in fig.5 which shows the enhancement factors as function of $`\nu `$. One may conclude that — compared to $`\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}^+`$ — the relative increase is of order $`1.5`$ which might well originate from net $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ stopping.


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# Running coupling constant and propagators in 𝑆𝑈(2) Landau gaugeTalk presented by A. Cucchieri

## 1 INTRODUCTION

We consider, on the lattice, a running coupling constant $`g^2(p)`$ defined by

$$g^2(p)g_0^2\left[p^2D(p)\right]\left[p^2G(p)\right]^2$$
(1)
where $`D(p)`$ and $`G(p)`$ are, respectively, the gluon and ghost propagators evaluated in Landau gauge. Clearly $`g^2(p)`$ is a gauge-dependent quantity; however, notice that $`g^2(p)`$ is renormalization-group invariant in Landau gauge since, in this case, $`Z_gZ_3^{1/2}\stackrel{~}{Z_3}=\stackrel{~}{Z_1}=1`$. This running coupling strength enters the quark Dyson-Schwinger equation directly and can be interpreted as an effective interaction strength between quarks .

Studies of the coupled set of Dyson-Schwinger equations for the gluon and ghost propagators have shown that: (i) the gluon propagator behaves as $`D(p)p^{2+4\kappa }`$ in the infrared limit \[and thus $`D(0)=0`$ if $`\kappa >0.5`$\], (ii) the ghost propagator behaves as $`G(p)p^{22\kappa }`$ at small momenta and (iii) the running coupling strength $`\alpha _s(p)=g^2(p)/4\pi `$ defined in eq. (1) has a finite value $`\alpha _c`$ at zero momentum (infrared fixed point). Using different approximations, in order to solve the Dyson-Schwinger equations, the following values have been obtained: $`\kappa 0.92`$ and $`\alpha _c9.5`$ , $`\kappa 0.77`$ and $`\alpha _c11.5`$ , $`\kappa 0.60`$ and $`\alpha _c8.9/N_c`$ . \[Here, the first two results refer to $`SU(3)`$.\] We stress that the large value for $`\alpha _c`$ obtained in  is related to the angular approximation used in the integration kernels. Let us notice that, using stochastic quantization , Zwanziger also obtained that the transverse gluon propagator in the infrared limit behaves as $`D(p)p^{2+4\kappa }`$ with $`\kappa 0.52`$.

From the lattice point of view we know that lattice gauge-fixed Landau configurations belong to the region $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ delimited by the first Gribov horizon, and that $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is not free of Gribov copies. One can also prove  that the restriction of the path integral to the region $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ implies a suppression of the (unrenormalized) transverse gluon propagator $`D(p)`$ in the infrared limit. At the same time, the Euclidean probability gets concentrated near the Gribov horizon and this implies enhancement of $`G(p)`$ at small momenta .

## 2 RESULTS

Simulations have been done in São Carlos for $`\beta =2.2,2.3,\mathrm{},2.8`$ and $`V=14^4`$, $`20^4`$, $`26^4`$, and in Tübingen for $`\beta =2.1,2.15,\mathrm{},2.5`$ and $`V=12^3\times 24`$, $`16^3\times 32`$. The simulations carried out in Tübingen are based on a direct evaluation of the form factors $`F(p)=D(p)p^2`$ and $`G(p)p^2`$ appearing in eq. (1). Also, for the evaluation of $`F(p)`$, the gluon field has been defined in terms of the adjoint links  instead of the usual link variables. The gluon field obtained in this way is invariant under non-trivial $`Z_2`$ transformations.

Gribov-copy effects for the two propagators, if present, are smaller than the numerical accuracy . Preliminary results have been presented in .

In order to compare lattice data obtained for the two propagators at different $`\beta `$ values we used a standard scaling analysis  based on maximum overlap without considering any phenomenological fit functions. (Details will be presented in .) Also, for the data produced in São Carlos, we have discarded data points at small momenta that are affected by finite-size effects. (These finite-size effects are less pronounced when one evaluates the form factor directly.)

We have considered two different sets of fitting functions, namely

$`\alpha (p)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c_0+t^\delta }}\left[c_0a_0+\alpha _2(t+\lambda )t^\delta \right]`$ (2)
$`D(p)p^2`$ $`=`$ $`A{\displaystyle \frac{t}{c_1+c_2t^{\frac{1}{2}}+t}}\alpha ^{13/22}(p)`$ (3)
$`G(p)p^2`$ $`=`$ $`B\left({\displaystyle \frac{c_1+c_2t^{\frac{1}{2}}+t}{t}}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}\alpha ^{9/44}(p)`$ (4)
where $`t=p^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2`$ and $`\alpha _2(p)`$ is the 2-loop running coupling constant , and

$`\alpha (p)`$ $`=`$ $`Cp^4/\left[(p^4+m)s(a)\right]`$ (5)
$`D(p)`$ $`=`$ $`Ap^2/\left[(p^4+m)s^{\gamma _D}(a_D)\right]`$ (6)
$`G(p)`$ $`=`$ $`B/\left[p^2s^{\gamma _G}(a_G)\right]`$ (7)
where $`s(a)=(11/24\pi ^2)\mathrm{log}[1+(p^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)^a]`$, $`\gamma _D=13/22`$ and $`\gamma _G=9/44`$. Note that, in the first case, the fitting functions correspond to $`\kappa =0.5`$, while in the second case one has $`\kappa _G=a_G\gamma _G`$ and $`\kappa _D=1a_D\gamma _D/2`$. Also, both sets of fitting functions satisfy the leading ultraviolet behavior of the two propagators.

Results of the fits are reported111Notice the logarithmic scale in the $`y`$ axis in Figs. 3, 4. in Figs. 15. From our data there is evidence for the suppression of the transverse gluon propagator $`D(p)`$ in the infrared limit and for the enhancement of the ghost propagator $`G(p)`$ in the same limit. Also, the running coupling strength $`\alpha _s(p)`$ defined in eq. (1) probably has a finite value at zero momentum. However, in order to probe the infrared region and give a final value for $`\kappa `$ and $`\alpha _c`$ one needs to simulate at larger lattice volumes.


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# The 𝑸²-Dependence of Nuclear Transparency for Exclusive 𝝆⁰ Production

The HERMES Collaboration

(. To be submitted to Phys. Rev. Lett.)

## Abstract

Exclusive coherent and incoherent electroproduction of the $`\rho ^0`$ meson from 1H and 14N targets has been studied at the HERMES experiment as a function of coherence length ($`l_c`$), corresponding to the lifetime of hadronic fluctuations of the virtual photon, and squared four-momentum of the virtual photon ($`Q^2`$). The ratio of 14N to 1H cross sections per nucleon, known as nuclear transparency, was found to increase (decrease) with increasing coherence length for coherent (incoherent) $`\rho ^0`$ electroproduction. For fixed coherence length, a rise of nuclear transparency with $`Q^2`$ is observed for both coherent and incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ production, which is in agreement with theoretical calculations of color transparency.

One of the fundamental predictions of QCD is the existence of a phenomenon called color transparency (CT), whose characteristic feature is that, at sufficiently high squared four-momentum transfer $`(Q^2)`$ to a hadron, the initial state and final state interactions of that hadron traversing a nuclear medium vanish Kop81 ; Ber81 ; Bro88 ; Nik92 ; Kop93 ; Bro94 ; Fra94 . The idea is that the dominant amplitudes for exclusive reactions at high $`Q^2`$ involve hadrons of reduced transverse size, and that these small color-singlet objects or small size configurations (SSC) have reduced interactions with hadrons in the surrounding nuclear medium. Moreover, it is assumed that these SSC remain small long enough to traverse the nucleus.

Several experiments in search of CT Car88 ; Mak94 ; One95 ; Abb98  have been carried out over the last fifteen years. Although none of these experiments is in conflict with CT only a few have shown evidence for it. The strongest evidence for CT so far comes from Fermilab experiment E791 on the $`A`$-dependence of coherent diffractive dissociation of 500 GeV/c pions into di-jets Ait01 . This result shows a platinum to carbon cross section about ten times larger than expected if soft processes would dominate, which is qualitatively consistent with theoretical calculations of CT effects Fra93 ; Fra00 . Also experiment E665 on exclusive incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ muoproduction from nuclei Ada95  gives an indication of CT. However, that signal is of indecisive statistical significance. In this letter we report new evidence of CT in exclusive coherent and incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ electroproduction using a novel analysis technique.

When searching for CT, a commonly used observable is the nuclear transparency $`T=\sigma _A/(A\sigma _p)`$, which is the ratio of the nuclear cross section per nucleon to that on the proton. For diffractive incoherent reactions on a nuclear target, where the nucleus is excited or breaks up, CT predicts that as $`Q^2`$ becomes large, $`T`$ approaches unity, independent of $`A`$. For coherent reactions, where the interaction leaves the whole nucleus intact in its ground state, the same observable is used in spite of the fact that it can no longer be associated directly with the probability of escape of the hadron from the nucleus. This complication arises because of the strong influence of the nuclear form factor, which is sensitive to the kinematics of the reaction.

In order to study CT for exclusive electroproduction of $`\rho ^0`$ mesons, one has to select a sample of $`\rho ^0`$ mesons produced by photons with large $`Q^2`$. In these processes, the hadronic structure of a high energy virtual photon Bau78  in the form of a $`q\overline{q}`$ pair has a transverse size $`r_{}1/Q`$ Bro88 . The $`q\overline{q}`$ fluctuation of the virtual photon can propagate over a distance $`l_c`$ known as the coherence length. It is given Bau78 ; Nik92  by $`l_c=\frac{2\nu }{Q^2+M_{q\overline{q}}^2}`$, where $`\nu `$ is the virtual photon energy and $`M_{q\overline{q}}`$ is the invariant mass of the $`q\overline{q}`$ pair. This SSC can propagate through the nuclear medium with little interaction. After the $`q\overline{q}`$ pair is put on-shell, it will evolve to a normal-size $`\rho ^0`$ meson over a distance $`l_f`$ called the formation length. It is a governing scale for the CT effect and is given Bro88  by $`l_f=\frac{2\nu }{m_V^{}^2m_V^2}`$, where $`m_V`$ is the mass of the $`\rho ^0`$ meson in the ground state and $`m_V^{}`$ the mass of its first radial excitation.

The phenomena determining nuclear transparency form an intricate mixture of coherence and formation length effects. They have a different appearance for coherent and incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ production. For incoherent production, the probability for the $`q\overline{q}`$ pair to interact with the nuclear medium increases with $`l_c`$ until $`l_c`$ exceeds the nuclear size Huef96 ; clincoh . For values of the $`l_c`$ smaller than the nucleus, this coherence length effect clincoh  can mimic the $`Q^2`$-dependence of the nuclear transparency predicted by CT. For coherent $`\rho ^0`$ production, in contrast, the nuclear form factor suppresses the apparent nuclear transparency. Small $`l_c`$ corresponds to a large longitudinal momentum transfer ($`q_c1/l_c`$), where the form factor is small. Hence, $`T`$ decreases with $`Q^2`$ in coherent production. This behaviour cannot mimic CT, but also in this case, the coherence length effects can significantly modify the $`Q^2`$-dependence, thus obscuring the clean observation of a CT effect. In order to disentangle the effects of coherence length from those of CT, it is important to study the variation of $`T`$ with $`Q^2`$, while keeping $`l_c`$ fixed Kop02 . In this way, a change of $`T`$ with $`Q^2`$ can be associated with the onset of CT.

A rigorous quantum mechanical description of the SSC evolution, based on the light-cone Green function formalism Kop02 , naturally incorporates the effects of both coherence length and CT. In this formalism it is shown that the signature of CT is a positive slope of the $`Q^2`$-dependence of nuclear transparency at fixed coherence length for both coherent and incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ production. We have sought this signature.

The data were obtained during the 1996-1997 running periods of the HERMES experiment in the 27.5 GeV HERA positron storage ring at DESY. Stored beam currents ranged from 5 to 40 mA. Integrated luminosities of 108 and 50 pb-1 were collected on 1H and 14N internal gas targets, respectively. The corresponding average target thicknesses were $`10^{14}`$ and $`10^{15}`$ nucleons/cm2. The thicknesses were additionally varied by factors of 0.5 to 10, depending on how much the HERMES internal target was allowed to limit the HERA beam lifetime. The scattered $`e^+`$ and the $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ pair from the $`\rho ^0`$ decay were detected in the HERMES spectrometer hermes\_spec .

The $`\rho ^0`$ production sample was extracted from events with exactly three tracks: a scattered positron and two oppositely charged hadrons, as described in detail in Ref. clincoh . Evaluated for each event were the Bjorken scaling variable $`x=Q^2/2m_p\nu `$, with $`m_p`$ the mass of the proton, the squared four-momentum transfer to the target $`t^{}=tt_0`$, with $`t_0`$ its minimum value, and the photon-nucleon invariant mass squared $`W^2=m_p^2+2m_p\nu Q^2`$. The kinematic coverage in $`\nu `$, $`x`$ and $`W`$ is $`5<\nu <24`$ GeV, $`0.01<x<0.35`$ and $`3<W<6.5`$ GeV, with mean values of 13.3 GeV, 0.07 and 4.9 GeV, respectively.

The exclusive $`\rho ^0`$ production signal was extracted in the kinematic region $`2<\mathrm{\Delta }E<0.6`$ GeV and $`0.6<M_{\pi \pi }<1`$ GeV, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }E=\nu E_\rho +\frac{t}{2m_p}`$ is the exclusivity variable clincoh ; rhoxsect  with $`E_\rho `$ the energy of the produced $`\rho ^0`$ meson, and $`M_{\pi \pi }`$ the invariant mass of the detected hadron pair, assuming that they were pions. In the analysis of nuclear transparency for coherent production, the exclusive $`\rho ^0`$ mesons have been selected with $`|t^{}|<0.045`$ GeV2 for nitrogen and $`|t^{}|<0.4`$ GeV2 for hydrogen, while in the analysis for incoherent production the $`t^{}`$ restriction was $`0.09<|t^{}|<0.4`$ GeV2 for both data samples. The resolution of $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ is about 0.25 GeV rhoxsect , and the $`t^{}`$ resolution is about 0.008 GeV2. It has been shown clincoh  that the incoherent $`t^{}`$ slope parameter $`b_p`$ for various nuclei is consistent with the hydrogen value $`b_p=(7.08\pm 0.3)`$ GeV-2, and that the observed $`Q^2`$-dependence of $`b_p`$ agrees well with other existing data tytgat . The coherent slope parameter on nitrogen, $`b_{{}_{}{}^{14}\mathrm{N}}=(57.2\pm 3.3)`$ GeV-2, is in agreement with the values predicted by the relationship $`b_AR_A^2/3`$ Alv70 , where $`R_A`$ is the nuclear radius.

The background under the exclusive $`\rho ^0`$ peak has been described earlier clincoh . It is mainly caused by hadrons from semi-inclusive deep inelastic scattering (DIS). Part of this background is removed by excluding the region $`|t^{}|>0.4`$ GeV2, where the background dominates the $`\rho ^0`$ yield. The remaining background $`(6\pm 3\%)`$ is estimated from the number of events measured at $`|t^{}|<0.4`$ GeV2 and $`\mathrm{\Delta }E>3`$ GeV, and subtracted clincoh . The double-diffractive contribution to the incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ production cross section is found to be $`(4\pm 2\%)`$ rhoxsect , for which the data were corrected. For coherent $`\rho ^0`$ production the contamination due to double-diffractive dissociation is found to be negligible.

For incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ production the nuclear transparency has been evaluated as $`T_{inc}=\sigma _{inc}^A/(A\sigma _p)=N_{inc}^A_p/(AN_p_A)`$ clincoh , where $`p`$ refers to 1H, $`A`$ to 14N, $`N_{inc}^A`$ is the number of incoherent events, $`N_p`$ the number of events on 1H, and $`_{A,p}`$ the effective luminosity of the nitrogen or hydrogen samples, corrected for detector and reconstruction inefficiencies. In addition, a “Pauli blocking” correction has been applied, which accounts for the absence of incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ production on nitrogen at momentum transfers $`|t^{}|`$ smaller than the nuclear Fermi momentum Tref69 .

For coherent $`\rho ^0`$ production the quantity $`T_c=\sigma _c^A/(A\sigma _p)`$ is evaluated. Some additional correction factors have been applied to $`\sigma _c^A`$ to extract $`T_c`$ because different $`t^{}`$ requirements have been applied to the nitrogen and the hydrogen data. These include the ratio of the different acceptance correction factors caused by the different $`t^{}`$ regions selected, which has been obtained from Monte Carlo simulations of exclusive $`\rho ^0`$ production in a $`4\pi `$ geometry and in the HERMES acceptance rhoxsect ; the radiative correction factors radcor , which were calculated separately for nitrogen and hydrogen for each $`l_c`$ bin; and the contamination of incoherent background in the coherent sample. No $`Q^2`$-dependence has been observed for the ratios of any of the correction factors.

The nuclear transparencies for coherent and incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ production are presented in Fig. 1. The data for incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ production supersede the previously published data clincoh , as the present analysis includes “Pauli blocking” corrections and the same requirement on $`t^{}`$ over the entire coherence length region. The data decrease with increasing $`l_c`$, as expected from the effects of initial state interactions.

The nuclear transparency for coherent $`\rho ^0`$ production increases with coherence length as expected from the effects of the nuclear form factor Kop02 . Good agreement is found between the measured nuclear transparencies, integrated over the available $`Q^2`$ region, and calculations including both the coherence length and CT effects Kop02  evaluated for each $`l_c`$ bin at their mean experimental $`l_c`$ and $`Q^2`$ values, given by the curves in Fig. 1. The effect of the nuclear form factor on $`T_c`$ is included in the calculations. Moreover, when extracting the $`Q^2`$-dependence of $`T_c`$ for separate $`l_c`$ bins, the nuclear form factor effect does not contribute as it depends on $`t`$ rather than $`Q^2`$ Kop02 . Hence, the slope with $`Q^2`$ is unaffected if $`l_c`$ (and hence to a very good approximation $`t`$) is fixed.

The systematic uncertainties are separated into $`Q^2`$\- and $`l_c`$-dependent and kinematics-independent contributions. The ratio of the integrated luminosities represents the largest source of kinematics-independent uncertainties. An additional contribution comes from double-diffractive dissociation. The total estimated systematic uncertainty from all normalization factors is $`11\%`$. The kinematics-dependent systematic uncertainties have been studied as a function of $`l_c`$ and $`Q^2`$ on a bin-by-bin basis. The main contributions come from DIS background subtraction, from acceptance corrections, the efficiency of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ exclusivity cut, the corrections due to “Pauli blocking”, and the application of radiative corrections. None of the kinematics-dependent systematic uncertainties cancel in the coherent nuclear transparency because of the different $`t^{}`$ cuts that are applied, and they increase at small and at large coherence length values. At small $`l_c`$, and correspondingly large $`Q^2`$, the uncertainties in the coherent to incoherent separation via the $`t^{}`$ slope parameters $`b_p`$ and $`b_{{}_{}{}^{14}\mathrm{N}}`$, and the background subtraction dominate. At large $`l_c`$, the uncertainty in the acceptance correction factor becomes large. Thus, the contribution of the kinematics-dependent systematic uncertainty varies between $`8\%`$ and $`14\%`$. This results in a combined systematic uncertainty of $`14\%`$ to $`18\%`$ for the nuclear transparency measurements presented in Fig. 1.

A two-dimensional analysis of the nuclear transparency as a function of coherence length and $`Q^2`$ has been performed, which represents a new approach in the search for CT. It is constrained by the phase space boundaries displayed in Fig. 2. Since the combination of statistical significance and $`Q^2`$ coverage is largest near $`l_c2.0`$ fm, the region $`1.3<l_c<2.5`$ fm has been chosen for this two-dimensional analysis. To deconvolute the CT and coherence length effects, coherence length bins of 0.1 fm were used. These finite bins introduce an additional systematic uncertainty in the $`Q^2`$-slope of 0.008 and 0.004 GeV-2 for coherent and incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ production, respectively. In order to extract the $`Q^2`$-dependence, each $`l_c`$ bin was independently split into 3 or 4 $`Q^2`$ bins.

The nuclear transparency was extracted in each $`(l_c,Q^2)`$ bin, and is shown in Figs. 3 and 4 for twelve $`l_c`$ bins each for coherent and incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ production. The low statistics in each $`(l_c,Q^2)`$ bin makes it difficult to fit the slope of the $`Q^2`$-dependence for each coherence length bin separately. Instead, the data have been fitted with a common $`Q^2`$-slope $`(P_1)`$, which has been extracted assuming $`T_{c(inc)}=\sigma _{c(inc)}^{{}_{}{}^{14}N}(l_c,Q^2)/A\sigma _p=P_0+P_1Q^2`$, letting $`P_0`$ vary independently in each $`l_c`$ bin and keeping $`P_1`$ as common free parameter. The results are displayed as the lines in Figs. 3 and 4. In both cases the reduced-$`\chi ^2`$ values are close to unity. The common slope parameter of the $`Q^2`$-dependence, $`P_1`$, represents the signature of the CT effect averaged over the coherence length range. This procedure was performed separately for the coherent and incoherent data. The results of these fits are compared to theoretical calculations Kop02  in Table 1. If the results are combined, the common value and the total uncertainty for the slope of the $`Q^2`$-dependence of exclusive $`\rho ^0`$ production is ($`0.074\pm 0.021`$) GeV-2. This is in agreement with the combined theoretical prediction of about 0.058 GeV-2.

In summary, the transparency of the 14N nucleus to exclusive coherent and incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ electroproduction was measured by the HERMES collaboration as a function of both $`Q^2`$ and the coherence length of $`q\overline{q}`$ fluctuations of the virtual photon. Positive slopes of the $`Q^2`$-dependence of the nuclear transparency have been observed on nitrogen for $`l_c=1.32.5`$ fm and $`Q^2=0.94`$ GeV2 for exclusive coherent and incoherent $`\rho ^0`$ production. Those values are in agreement with theoretical calculations Kop02 , wherein a positive slope of the $`Q^2`$-dependence of the nuclear transparency is a signature of color transparency. This result not only adds further evidence for the existence of the color transparency phenomenon, but it also elucidates the complex interplay of various effects on the production of exclusive $`\rho ^0`$ mesons at modestly high energies.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank B.Z. Kopeliovich and J. Nemchik for stimulating discussions and their calculations, and S. Brodsky, L. Frankfurt, and M. Strikman for many fruitful discussions. We gratefully acknowledge the DESY management for its support and the staff at DESY and the collaborating institutions for their significant effort, and our funding agencies for financial support.


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# DGLAP analyses of nPDF: constraints from data

## 1 Introduction

Parton distribution functions (PDF) are needed to compute hard processes in hadronic and nuclear collisions. The method to obtain the PDF from experimental data is well established in the case of the free proton: the initial distributions at $`Q_0^2`$ are evolved by the DGLAP equations  to larger $`Q^2`$ and fitted to available data. The data from deep inelastic lepton-proton scattering (DIS) are of main importance in these analyses. The nuclear structure functions $`F_2^A`$ measured in DIS experiments differ from those of the free nucleons. Definining the ratio vs. deuterium, $`R_{F_2}^A(x,Q^2)=\frac{1}{A}F_2^A(x,Q^2)/(\frac{1}{2}F_2^D(x,Q^2)),`$ several nuclear effects can be distinguished: shadowing ($`R_{F_2}^A<1`$) at small values of $`x`$, antishadowing ($`R_{F_2}^A>1`$) at intermediate $`x`$ and EMC effect ($`R_{F_2}^A<1`$ again) and Fermi motion at large $`x`$. The nuclear effects in $`F_2^A`$ translate in nuclear PDF (nPDF) which are modified from the ones of the free proton. The goal then is to obtain a set of nPDF following the well established procedure used for the free proton. In practice, a set of ratios of the PDF in bound and free protons, $`R_i^A(x,Q^2)=f_i^A(x,Q^2)/f_i^p(x,Q^2)`$ for $`i=g,u_V,d_V,\overline{u}\mathrm{}`$, are extracted for a known set of the free proton PDF $`f_i^p(x,Q^2)`$.

## 2 EKRS analysis

The main problem in the nuclear case is the lack of experimental data. The DGLAP analysis of EKRS, which lead to the set EKS98 , uses several sets of DIS data on $`F_2^A`$ (see  for the refs.) and data on the Drell-Yan (DY) process measured in pA collisions . Some other sets of data could be very helpful in constraining the nuclear effects for different parton flavours, e.g. charm production to constrain gluons. However, so far they are not included in  because of large error bars (open charm in $`pA`$) or the presence of final state nuclear effects (charmonium in $`pA`$). Further constraints which are used are momentum and baryon number sum rules. At an initial scale, chosen as $`Q_0^2=2.25`$ GeV2, the ratios for valence quarks $`R_V^A(x,Q_0^2)`$ (same for $`u_V^A`$ and $`d_V^A`$), sea quarks $`R_S^A(x,Q_0^2)`$ (same for $`\overline{u}^A`$, $`\overline{d}^A`$ and $`\overline{s}^A`$) and gluons $`R_g^A(x,Q_0^2)`$ are obtained in the following way:

* At large values of $`x`$ ($`x>0.3`$) valence quarks dominate, and the data on $`R_{F_2}^A`$ fix the ratio $`R_V^A`$ but do not constrain the ratio $`R_S^A`$. There are no constraints for the nuclear gluons, either, in this region. For consistency of the DGLAP evolution, it is assumed that $`R_S^AR_V^A`$, and that a similar EMC effect also exists in $`R_g^A`$ already at $`Q_0^2`$.
* At intermediate values of $`x`$ ($`0.04<x<0.3`$) both DIS and DY data constrain the ratios $`R_V^A`$ and $`R_S^A`$. The use of DY data  is essential in order to fix the relative strength of the valence and sea quark modifications, as DIS alone cannot distinguish between them. The baryon number sum rule imposes also constraints to $`R_V^A`$. The gluon ratio $`R_g^A`$ is constrained at $`0.02<x<0.2`$ by the NMC data on the $`Q^2`$ dependence of the ratio $`F_2^{\mathrm{Sn}}/F_2^\mathrm{C}`$ , and by momentum conservation. A 20% antishadowing is found for gluons at $`x0.1`$.
* At small values of $`x`$ ($`x<0.04`$), $`F_2`$ is dominated by sea quarks, so DIS data constrains mainly $`R_S^A`$. The ratio $`R_V^A`$ is fixed by baryon number conservation and turns out to be larger (less shadowing) than $`R_S^A`$. At $`x<0.005`$, where no information from data is obtained in the region $`Q^2>1`$ GeV2, a saturation of the shadowing ($`R_{F_2}^Aconst.`$) is assumed. This phenomenon has been observed but only at $`Q^21`$ GeV2. At the initial scale, $`R_g^AR_{F_2}^A`$ is assumed at $`x<0.01`$, which leads to positive $`\mathrm{log}Q^2`$ slopes for $`F_2^A`$ (observed at $`x0.01`$ ).

For a given initial condition, LO DGLAP evolution is done. Then, comparing with the data at different $`Q^2`$, the best initial distributions are obtained through a recursive procedure. The resulting initial ratios at $`Q_0^2`$ can be seen in Figure 1.

## 3 Comparison with other approaches

For the moment there is only one global DGLAP analysis on the nPDF similar to EKRS , that of HKM . Figure 1 shows a comparison of the EKS98 and HKM results for the ratios $`R_V^A`$, $`R_S^A`$ and $`R_g^A`$ at $`Q^2=2.25`$ GeV2. The difference between the results follows from the fact that the data on the DY process  and on the $`Q^2`$ dependence of $`F_2^A`$  are not used as contraints in the HKM analysis.

The DY data set is important in the EKRS analysis in fixing $`R_V^A`$ and $`R_S^A`$ at intermediate $`x`$: the DIS data forces $`R_V^A>1`$ at $`x0.1`$ and, as the the DY cross sections show almost no nuclear effects (in $`x_2`$) there, the ratio $`R_S^A`$ is bound to be less than one (no antishadowing for sea quarks). In this conference, preliminary results from the HKM analysis with the DY data included were presented . As a result, a better agreement with EKS98 was found.

The $`Q^2`$-dependence of the structure function $`F_2`$ is very sensitive to the gluon distribution at small values of $`x`$. LO DGLAP evolution of the nPDF gives  $`R_{F_2}^A(x,Q^2)/\mathrm{log}Q^2R_g^A(2x,Q^2)R_{F_2}^A(x,Q^2)`$. NMC has measured  positive $`\mathrm{log}Q^2`$ slopes for the ratio $`F_2^{\mathrm{Sn}}/F_2^\mathrm{C}`$. This implies that within the DGLAP framework gluon shadowing cannot be much stronger than that in $`F_2^A`$ in the measured region $`x>0.01`$. Also too weak a gluon shadowing is outruled  by the NMC data.

## 4 Improvements from neutrino DIS data

DIS experiments with neutrino and antineutrino projectiles could measure

$`F_2^{\nu p}=2x\left(\overline{u}+d+s+\overline{c}\right)`$ $`F_2^{\overline{\nu }p}=2x\left(u+\overline{d}+\overline{s}+c\right)`$
$`xF_3^{\nu p}=2x\left(\overline{u}+d+s\overline{c}\right)`$ $`xF_3^{\overline{\nu }p}=2x\left(u\overline{d}\overline{s}+c\right)`$
with similar relations for neutrons. Different flavors could then be disentangled and some of the uncertainties discussed above (e.g. valence at small $`x`$ and sea at large $`x`$) would become more directly constrained by data. This would allow for a more detailed analysis of the nPDF. Moreover, the valence/sea separation at medium $`x`$ would be measured and could be compared with the results from DY data. This would test the universality of the nPDF. Measuring sea and valence quark distributions in $`\nu A`$ experiments would also shed more light on some open questions of QCD in nuclei, such as the probability interpretation of the (n)PDF .

CAS thanks S. Brodsky and M. Mangano for useful discussions. CAS is supported by a Marie Curie Fellowship HPMF-CT-2000-01025. Financial support from the Academy of Finland, grant no. 50338, is gratefully acknowledged.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Muon detection is of prime importance for many of the most interesting physics studies at CDF. In the course of Run-II, the collaboration expects to collect hundreds of $`t\overline{t}`$ decays yielding a muon as well as several million B-hadron events involving $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ decays. Muon detection is also of fundamental importance in the study of W-boson properties and in the search for Higgs production associated with W\- or Z-bosons . Considerable effort therefore went into extending the muon detector coverage for Run-II, which started in March 2001.

The CDF-II muon detector system consists of multiple layers of drift chambers and scintillation counters, which cover the range of pseudorapidities ($`|\eta |`$) between 0 and 1.5. Detectors spanning different ranges have different geometries and the muon scintillation counter system includes subsystems in the regions, which have come to be known as the “central” ($`0<|\eta |<0.6`$), “extended” ($`0.6<|\eta |<1.2`$) and “intermediate” ($`1.2<|\eta |<1.5`$) regions of the detector. During Run-I, the “extended” region (referred to by the acronym CMX) covered only three quarts of the azimuthal acceptance with 8 layers of drift tubes sandwiched between two layers of scintillation counters (known as the CSX) . Though much of the missing 900 of the azimuthal coverage, on both the east and west sides of the detector, were constructed before Run-I, installation was delayed until the “CDF Upgrade” and, at that time, it was found necessary to introduce several modifications to the original design. These subsystems of the CMX came to be known as the “miniskirts” because they covered the lower section of the azimuthal range. The counters (which we refer to collectively as the MSX) of one of these miniskirts are illustrated in Fig. 1.

In this note we recall the original design parameters and describe in detail the modifications, testing and installation of the MSX counters in the course of the CDF Upgrade Project.

## 2 Design parameters

Like the CSX, the MSX are trapezoidal counters of NE114 scintillator, produced about 10 years ago by Nuclear Enterprises . However, the MSX are 15 mm thick (as opposed to the CSX, which are 20 mm thick) and the scintillator turned out to be of better quality than that used for the CSX and for the central counters (known as the CSPs) in that it has not yet shown any evidence of the premature aging, which has shown up in these latter counters . The dimensions of the CSX and MSX are shown in Fig. 2.

The CSX  counters sandwich the drift chambers as shown in Fig. 2a. The “internal” (i.e. those closest to the interaction point) and the “external” counters are read out of opposite sides and fed to meantimers in order to reduce the time variation associated with hit position . Due to space restrictions the MSX cover only one side (that closest to the interaction point) of the miniskirts and the counters are read out of both ends, through curved Lucite light guides coupled to 2′′ EMI-type  photomultipliers (PMTs), as illustrated in Fig. 2b. However, additional space restrictions, not foreseen in the original design did not allow the Lucite light guides to be installed on one end of four counters (referred to as the MSX) on each side of each of the two miniskirts (see Fig. 1). Conventional readout was therefore substituted by wavelength-shifter ($`WLS`$) fiber readout as illustrated in Fig. 2c. The $`WLS`$ fibers (1 mm-diameter Y11 (200 ppm) fiber produced by $`Kuraray`$) were assembled into 15-fiber ribbons, which were glued (using BC-600 optical cement) to one of the long edges of the scintillators and read out by means of $`Hamamatsu`$ H5783 photomultiplier assemblies which incorporate new ultra compact photomultiplier R5600. Light collection was augmented by “mirroring” the end of the fibers furthest from the PMT photocathode. “Mirroring” was obtained by evaporating an Aluminium coating on the polished ends of individual fibers. Reflection coefficients ranging between 70% and 90% were obtained in this manner.

This solution was arrived at after preliminary studies of the mean timing resolution. Issues related to time resolution are discussed in section 5.

## 3 Counter calibrations and performance parameters

Phototubes were “calibrated” by illuminating them with low-level light pulses from a fast blue LED (NICHIA NSPB310A), as illustrated schematically in Fig. 3a. The peak corresponding to the single photoelectron was used to extract the calibration constant k (in channels/photoelectron) corresponding to the specific PMT and ADC combination, according to a procedure similar to that described in . These parameters, as well as the average number of photoelectrons $`\mu `$ used for the calibration, the HV at which the calibration was performed, and the noise rate at that HV, are listed in Table 1 for a pool of EMI PMTs on hand. Of these, 20 PMTs were selected for low noise, high gain and, for counters with light-guide readout on both sides, similar characteristics. The remaining 50 PMTs were new .

After calibration and assembly, the number of photoelectrons npe at the photocathode, corresponding to the passage of a cosmic muon, which we refer to here as the “counter sensitivity”, were measured for all counters. These were obtained from the ADC measurements of the integrated signals as follows:

$$n_{pe}=\frac{\overline{Q}Q_o}{k/A},$$
(1)
where $`\overline{Q}`$ is the mean of the ADC output distribution, $`Q_o`$ is the pedestal, $`k`$ is the calibration constant (in channels/photoelectron), for the specific PMT and ADC combination and $`A`$ is the amplification factor necessary for isolating the single photoelectron peak while calibrating.

The characteristics of all MSX counters are listed in Table 2, together with their operating plateau voltages and, in some cases, dark currents at those voltages. Noise rates (not all) corresponding to 15 mV discriminator settings are also shown for a set of counters. These plateau voltages were obtained on the bench, using cosmic muons prior to installation.

A typical light yield distribution corresponding to cosmic muons is shown in Fig. 3b. On the average, the counter sensitivity is $``$80 p.e./muon.

## 4 Counter assembly

All counters were wrapped with diffuse, 0.005′′-thick, aluminized paper reflector and a combination of 0.015′′-thick black PVC sheet and 0.007′′-thick black electrical tape. Single sheets of the reflector and the black PVC sheet were successively laid on all flat scintillator faces, which were then taped down at the edges so the overall thickness of the wrapping material covering the scintillator was 0.054′′ except for $``$1/2′′ along the edges where the electric tape overlapped the PVC sheet.

All 2′′ PMTs were coupled to their light-guides using standard CERN mounting assemblies for the EMI 9814B PMT, and they were surrounded by 0.5 mm-thick mu-metal and 1 cm-thick iron shields. The smaller Hamamatsu tubes were coupled to the polished ends of the fiber ribbons via Lucite adapters and mounted on Lucite extensions of the counters as shown in Fig. 2c. They were then surrounded by an aluminium light shield, which was taped down to the Lucite extension with black electrical tape. All PMTs were air-coupled to their respective light-guides/adapter.

## 5 Timing considerations

Given the length of the scintillators, which range between $``$160 and $``$180 cm, and the average speed of light in the scintillator ($``$15 cm/ns), the uncertainty in the time at which a muon reaches the counter edge varies between $``$10 and $``$12 ns. This is comparable to the difference in the time a muon takes to reach the counters from the interaction point and the time a background muon takes to reach the same counters from the beam pipe upstream of the detector, at some point close to the MSX. During Run-I, the background of this type  would have overwhelmed the CSX signal had it not been for the introduction of a mean timer (MT) circuit, described in ref. 2, to sharpen the timing and eliminate this type of background. In order to reduce this background, additional shielding (two concentric rings of 18′′-thick steel, known as the snout and 24′′ donut between the beam pipe and the CSX and MSX counters ), was introduced as a part of the CDF upgrade, however, the acceptance of the plug calorimeters at low $`P_t`$ was also increased, with a corresponding increase of material close to the beam pipe, and additional material in the form of small $`P_t`$ calorimeters (known as the miniplugs) has been added upstream of the plug calorimeters. Therefore, we estimated the worst acceptable timing resolution from the MSX to be a standard deviation $`\sigma `$=3 ns, which was sufficient to extract the signal from the background during Run-I .

Mean timing is based on the assumption that the two ends of the detector are symmetrical. Under these conditions, if the time $`t_a`$ at which the signal is emitted from the PMT at one end of the detector is $`t+x`$, where $`x`$ is the distance (in ns) from the muon hit to that end of the detector, then the corresponding time $`t_b`$ from the other side of the detector will be $`t+lx`$, where $`l`$ is the length (in ns) of the detector. The mean of these times then differs from the hit time $`t`$ which fluctuates because of the combined fluctuations in the number of photoelectrons ($`n_{pe}`$) at the PMT photocathodes and in the multiplication factor of the PMTs. If the counter is not symmetrical, a systematic uncertainty can also be expected to contribute to the total uncertainty.

Trapezoidal counters are not symmetrical and the MSX counters, which are read out through a conventional light guide on the one end and via a $`WLS`$ fiber ribbon on the other, are much less so. One might therefore expect a significant systematic contribution from this asymmetry to the overall $`\sigma `$. Furthermore, because the $`n_{pe}`$ for $`WLS`$ fiber readout is smaller than for conventional readout, we can also expect an increase in the statistical contribution to the overall uncertainty. Our first concern, before adopting this solution, was therefore to ascertain that the mean timing resolution obtained under these conditions was adequate.

### 5.1 Preliminary Tests

The first tests were performed in a non-destructive manner by leaving the Lucite light guides on both ends of an MSX counter and optically coupling a $`WLS`$ fiber ribbon to one of the counter’s long edges by means of optical grease. The light guides were read out by means of EMI 9814B PMTs whereas the two ends of the $`WLS`$ ribbon were read out by Hamamatsu R4125 PMTs (see Fig. 4). By combining different readouts one could investigate how the corresponding asymmetries in the light readout contributed to the mean time resolution. For this investigation, the statistical contribution was reduced by using a relatively high-intensity pulsed (5 ns half-width) U/V laser  to illuminate the scintillator at localized positions corresponding to 2 mm-diameter holes in the 0.001′′ black PVC sheet used to wrap the scintillator (see Fig. 4).

The outputs of each of the four PMTs were discriminated and used to stop TDCs, which had been started by the laser trigger. Sums and differences of pairs of TDCs corresponding to similar readouts are plotted in Fig. 5a as a function of position along the long dimension of the counter. The effective velocity of the light in the scintillator and the $`WLS`$ fiber were calculated from the differences and found to be 14.6$`\pm `$0.3 cm/ns and 14.5$`\pm `$0.7 cm/ns, respectively. The sums of these outputs correspond to the mean times. Ideally, they should be constant but Fig. 5a shows significant variations. In the case of light guides readout a variation of $``$0.5 ns is observed between the two ends of the counter. However, the variation is not linear with displacement from one end and it reaches a maximum of $``$1 ns at $``$1/3 of the distance from the wider end of the counter. These variations are attributed to a combination of the trapezoidal shape of the counter and of the increase of light acceptance as the light source approaches the light guide. The maximum deviation in the mean times calculated from the two $`WLS`$ fiber outputs is similar ($``$1 ns) and it appears, as might be expected, to be approximately linear with displacement along the counter. Statistical uncertainties are considerably larger in this latter case because of the smaller light collection efficiency.

Systematics related to the displacement of the light source in the direction transverse to the longer dimension, i.e. across the detector were also investigated and found to be negligible in the case of conventional light pipe readout. However, variations of up to 1 ns were observed for the $`WLS`$ fiber readout.

Variation in the mean times obtained when the outputs from dissimilar readouts are combined, are shown in Fig. 5b. Though statistical uncertainties increase due to the effect of the lower light-collection efficiency of the $`WLS`$ fiber readout, the systematic variation in the mean times does not increase significantly.

The conclusion drawn from these measurements was that the asymmetric readout method would not significantly influence the overall uncertainty in the mean times. Though the effect on the statistical uncertainty of the lower light collection efficiency from the $`WLS`$ readout was apparent, these preliminary tests could not provide a realistic evaluation of the statistical uncertainty corresponding to minimally-ionizing particles. Measurements of this uncertainty were made using cosmic muons and obtained $`\sigma `$=2.9$`\pm `$0.2 ns for $`similar`$, light guide, readouts (this result is consistent with that reported for the CSX in ), and $`\sigma `$=6.3$`\pm `$0.5 ns for $`dissimilar`$ readouts. Given, however, that we expected to increase the light collection efficiency considerably by “mirroring” and by improved optical coupling, we expected that statistical uncertainties would be reduced to acceptable values when these improvements were introduced. This expectation was borne out by the tests described below.

### 5.2 Timing measurements on the final version of the MSX
counters

Timing measurements on the MSX counters, constructed according to the final design parameters outlined in section 2, were performed with cosmic muons using a scintillator “telescope” as illustrated schematically in Fig. 6 (a more detailed description of the data acquisition (DAQ) electronics is shown in Fig. 7). Two 15x15x2 cm3 scintillators were located above and below the counter being tested. The coincidence of these scintillators was used to trigger the DAQ and to start the TDCs which were stopped by the counter outputs. The contribution $`\sigma _{tr}`$ of the trigger counters to the total timing uncertainty was measured to be 1.1 ns. Mean times were calculated by summing the TDC outputs corresponding to the two ends of the detector. They were also measured directly using a $`LeCroy`$ 624 meantimer. No significant difference was found between calculated and measured mean times.

Measurements were performed at 3 different positions along the counters: the center (referred to as X2), a position (X1), closer to the wider end, at 77 cm from the center, and another position (X3), closer to the narrower end, at 82 cm from the center. The results of these measurements are reported in Table 3, where both the full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) and the standard deviation $`\sigma `$ of individual times and mean times are tabulated together with the mean times $`<T>`$ for all but the shortest (counter 1) of the MSX counters. The standard deviation $`\sigma `$ was corrected for the contribution of the scintillator telescope by subtracting it in quadrature: $`\sigma =\sqrt{\sigma _{FWHM}^2\sigma _{tr}^2}`$. It was noted that values of the standard deviation were generally higher at X3 (the end furthest from the PMT) than at other positions. This might be attributed to the presence of Cherenkov light produced by the passage of the cosmic muons through the light guide, which overlaps this region.

The maximum systematic variations in the mean times $`<T>`$ are seen to be compatible with those measured during the preliminary tests. In order to evaluate their effect on the overall uncertainty, the following algorithm was adopted:

$$FWHM_{tot}=|<T_{X1}><T_{X3}>|+\frac{FWHM_{X1}+FWHM_{X3}}{2},$$
(2)
as illustrated in Fig. 8. $`\sigma _{tot}`$ was then calculated from $`FWHM_{tot}`$ by dividing by 2.35. From these values (tabulated for each counter in Fig. 8), it is apparent that $`\sigma _{tot}`$ does not exceed 2.2 ns. This is quite compatible with the requirement that the resolution be sufficient to discriminate against background in conditions similar to those of Run I , as outlined in section 5.

## 6 Installation and operation

Teflon guides and steel runners were then installed on each counters so they could be slid into position along steel guides fixed to the corresponding drift chamber assemblies. The disposition of counters, power supply and readout between the collision hall and the CDF electronics room are shown schematically in Fig. 9.

Power is supplied to the EMI-type PMTs by power supplies, known as “Gamma Boxes”  (located in the “counting room”), via 40-channel distribution units, known as “Pisa Boxes”  (located close to the detector), through RG58 HV cables. The $`Hamamatsu`$ PMTs received their power from supply and distribution units known as CCUs , located close to the detector. All power distribution is controlled and monitored by custom software . This software allows for channel-by-channel control and monitoring, both manually and automatically, on a regularly scheduled basis.

Analog signals from the EMI-type PMTs are routed to $`LeCroy`$ 4416 discriminators, located in the counting room, through 220 ft RG58 cables. All discriminator thresholds are set to their minimum values (15 mV). Discriminator outputs are split and routed both to meantimer units (located close to the discriminators) and to TDCs (via 40 ft twist and flat cable). Meantimer outputs are also routed to TDCs via the same twist and flat cables.

Presently (fall 2002), only three sections of standard (i.e. light-guide readout on both sides) are presently installed. The remaining (North-West) section and the four wedges with the MSX counters will probably be installed during a forthcoming shutdown.

An example of regularly monitored “occupancy plots”, recorded by the YMON program, is shown in Fig. 10 for both beam and cosmic data.