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# Modulation of Ca II H & K Emission by Short-Period Planets

## 1. Introduction

Current planet detection methods give basic information on the planet: a minimum mass if the orbital inclination is not known, an estimate of surface temperature, and, in the case of the one transiting system, a possible sodium detection in the planet’s atmosphere. There remains a lack of constraints on the planet’s structure leaving astronomers to explore new observational probes.

Cuntz, Saar, & Musielak (2000) suggested that there may be an observable interaction between a parent star and a close-in giant planet. The effect could be tidal, magnetic, or a combination of the two. Such an interaction could manifest itself in the form of chromospheric and coronal heating which are predicted to produce a variation of a few percent (Saar & Cuntz 2001). If the surface of the star is indeed heated by the planet, then a hot-spot would follow the planet around its orbit, appearing hottest at the sub-planetary point if the interaction is with the planet’s magnetosphere, or twice per orbit if the interaction is tidal. There are several indicators of increased chromospheric activity, one of which is the Ca II H & K line reversal. Due to the accessibility of these lines with ground-based telescopes, we chose to monitor the spectral region over several nights for five planetary systems whose orbital periods are between 3.1 and 4.6 days.

## 2. Observations

High-resolution (R = 110,000) and high signal-to-noise (S/N per pixel $``$ 500 in the continuum and 150 in the H & K cores) spectra were obtained over 3.5 nights at the CFHT with the fiber-fed coudé spectrograph. The spectral range spanned 60 Å centered on 3947 Å. Differential radial velocities were measured to better than 20 m/s allowing current ephemerides and hence accurate phases ($`\pm `$0.05) to be determined for each spectrum.

The data showed significant nightly modulations in the Ca II H & K reversal structure in the spectra of $`\tau `$ Boo, 51 Peg, HD179949, HD 209458 and $`\upsilon `$ And. For the first four of these stars, the highest enhancement in the K-line emission occurred at the sub-planetary point where $`\varphi `$ 0. However, for $`\upsilon `$ And, the modulation was not correlated to orbital phase and was at a smaller level, though significantly higher than the two standards, $`\tau `$ Ceti and the Sun. Table 1 lists the target stars with the RMS of the maximum K-line activity measured relative to each star’s normalized mean. As a test of stability of the spectra, the identical analysis was performed on the aluminum line (3944Å) which is of comparable depth to the H & K absorption features. The RMS of these are also included in Table 1.

The residuals taken from the normalized mean of four nights of HD 209458 and $`\tau `$ Ceti, a star known not to have a close-in giant planet, are shown in Figure 1. From these, a large 3-Å variation with varying intensity is evident along with smaller features (0.5-Å) superimposed. These smaller features are more evident for HD 179949. An example of the Ca II K-line for HD 179949 is shown in Figure 2 with the residuals. There appear to be changes in the three individual features of the reversal: the central self-absorption and the blue and red shoulders. The two spectra taken on different nights but of similar phase ($`\varphi `$0.7) appear to have a consistent shape while the spectrum at $`\varphi `$=0.07 has a clear enhancement in the center self-reversal.

Preliminary evidence indicates that the emission increases once per orbit in four of the five stars near the sub-planetary point, $`\varphi `$=0. This may suggest that the planet-star interaction is of a magnetic nature and any tidal heating that may be occurring is as yet undetected. If follow-up observations confirm phase-dependent heating of the stellar chromosphere, then this could be the first evidence of an extra-solar planet’s magnetosphere.

## References

Cuntz, M., Saar, S. H., & Musielak, Z. E. 2000, ApJ, 533L, 151

Saar, S. H. & Cuntz, M. 2001, MNRAS, 325, 55


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# Non-commutative Solitons in Finite Quantum Mechanics

## 1 The Heisenberg–Weyl Group and its Consistent Discretization

In gauge theories in the continuum the fields take values in the corresponding Lie algebra,

$$A_\mu (x)=A_\mu ^a(x)T_a$$

The theory is invariant under Lorentz transformations and under gauge trasnformations.

In lattice gauge theories the fields take values in the group corresponding to the Lie algebra

$$U_\mu (x)=\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{i}A_\mu (x))$$

The continuous Lorentz symmetry is broken to a discrete subgroup–but the internal (gauge) symmetry is preserved. Note that it is this feature that renders the study of lattice supersymmetry so non-trivial, since supersymmetry mixes Lorentz symmetry and internal symmetry in a non-trivial way.

In quantum mechanics we consider functions that take values in phase space. These functions are valued in the Heisenberg algebra

$$[q,p]=\mathrm{i}\mathrm{}I$$
(1)
This algebra has only infinite dimensional representations, so discretization of the phase space does not preserve this symmetry. It is known since Weyl, however, that the exponentials of these generators,

$$\begin{array}{cc}P=\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{i}p)\hfill & \hfill Q=\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{i}q)\end{array}$$
(2)
do admit finite–dimensional representations, that respect the group law

$$QP=\underset{\omega _N}{\underset{}{e^{\mathrm{i2}\pi /N}}}PQ$$
(3)
for an $`N`$dimensional representation.

The generators of the Heisenberg–Weyl group are the displacement operators

$$J_{r,s}=\omega _N^{rs/2}P^rQ^s$$
(4)
where $`(r,s)`$ denotes the point on the classical discretized phase space.

The strategy will now be to write the evolution operator that realizes a consistent quantization of the classical motion. This will turn out to involve the arithmetic nature of the discretization in a non-trivial way. One thus hopes to extract non-trivial information, in the same way the continuum limit of a lattice field theory is non-trivial, if a second order phase transition occurs.

In what follows we will highlight, through explicit examples, the non-trivial $`N`$dependence of the evolution operator and indicate how one may also compute correlation functions.

We will further construct a subset of states that are permuted among themselves by certain evolution operators and whose dispersion in position and momenta remain constant in time–they may thus be called solitons. They depend non-trivially on the discretization, $`N`$. Recent work seems to hint towards a close relation with the solitons of non-commutative scalar field theory .

## 2 The Evolution Operator on a Discrete Phase Space

We work on toroidal phase spaces, where a convenient parametrization of the Hilbert space of functions is given by

$$f(z|\tau )=\underset{n\mathrm{N}}{}c_ne^{\mathrm{i}\pi n^2\tau +2\pi \mathrm{i}nz}$$
(5)
On these functions we define the action of the following operators

$$\begin{array}{c}S_bf(z)=f(z+b)\hfill \\ T_af(z)=e^{\mathrm{i}\pi a^2\tau +2\pi \mathrm{i}az}f(z+a\tau )\hfill \end{array}$$
(6)
and we may easily verify that they realize an infinite dimensional representation of the Heisenberg–Weyl group. Taking periodic coefficients, $`c_n=c_{n+N}`$ leads to an $`N`$dimensional representation.

Using the formalism set forth in refs. , we obtain the operator, that realizes the quantization of the classical motion, i.e. the quantum evolution operator, in the form

$$U(𝖠)_{k,l}=c_N(𝖠)\omega _N^{A_1k^2+A_2kl+A_3l^2}$$
(7)
where the indices $`k`$ and $`l`$ take the values $`0,1,\mathrm{},N1`$.

The coefficients $`A_{1,2,3}`$ as well as the prefactor $`c_N(𝖠)`$ are fixed by demanding that

* $$U(𝖠𝖡)=U(𝖠)U(𝖡)$$

for all matrices $`𝖠`$ and $`𝖡`$ of $`SL(2,\mathrm{Z}_N)`$ i.e. that they be a group representation; and
* $$J_{(r,s)𝖠}U(𝖠)=U(𝖠)J_{r,s}$$

i.e. that they enjoy the metaplectic property. (it is interesting to note that the second implies the first)

We find $`A_1=a/(2c)`$, $`A_2=1/c`$, $`A_3=d/(2c)`$ and $`c_N(𝖠)=\sigma _N(1)\sigma _N(2ad)/N`$, where $`\sigma _N(a)=(1/\sqrt{N})_{r=0}^{N1}\omega _N^{ar^2}`$ is the quadratic Gauss sum. All operations are taken mod $`N`$.

## 3 Solitons on $`𝕋^2/_N`$

Let us now pass to issues of dynamics. The evolution operator acts on states and one is particularly interested in studying their dispersion with time. An interesting classical motion is a dilatation, where $`a=1/d`$ and $`b=c=0`$ (mod $`N`$). Using the results of  it is possible to show that the corresponding quantum operator is proportional to $`\delta _{k,k^{}a}`$, i.e. a permutation operator. We thus find that this classical motion leads to states that are non-dispersive in both position and momentum–they are solitons. All classical motions, whose matrix $`𝖠SL(2,_N)`$ is diagonalizable mod $`N`$ describe such states. An example, for $`N=4l+1`$, is the classical rotation, since

$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}a& b\\ b& a\end{array}\right)=𝖵\left(\begin{array}{cc}atb& 0\\ 0& a+tb\end{array}\right)𝖵^1$$

with

$$𝖵=\frac{1}{1+t}\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 1\\ t& t\end{array}\right)$$

and

$$tq^l\mathrm{mod}N$$

where $`q`$ is the generator of $`/_N`$.

## 4 Correlation Functions

Using Gauss sum technology it is possible to evaluate correlation functions. Indeed, any operator may be written as a linaer combination of the Heisenberg-Weyl group generators $`J_{r,s}`$ so, for integer values of the inverse temperature on may readily evaluate

$$\frac{\mathrm{Tr}[J_{r1,s1}\mathrm{}J_{r_k,s_k}U(𝖠)^\beta ]}{\mathrm{Tr}[U(𝖠)^\beta ]}$$

These computations are similar to the so-called number theoretic quantum spin chains studied by Knauf and collaborators.

## 5 Conclusions and Outlook

Working directly in phase space, instead of configuration space leads to alternative quantization schemes, that go back to Weyl and Wigner. One advantage is the natural existence of finite dimensional representations, that respect the group structure. While the continuum limit is a non-trivial one, as it involves resumming oscillating terms (cf. however ref.) the formalism holds promise of naturally including features, hard to describe by other approaches.

An appropriate example is in the recent proposal for supersymmetry on a spatial lattice, where the lattice is indeed a phase space of a quantum mechanical system.


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# Physics at a Photon Collider

## 1 Introduction

The Photon Collider option of a Linear Collider (LC) is based on laser photon back-scattering on high energy electrons. The maximum photon energy is 205 GeV for a laser with $`\lambda =1.06\mu \text{m}`$ and an electron beam energy of 250 GeV. A high degree of polarisation with opposite helicities of the electron and the laser photon is crucial for obtaining a peaked spectrum of high energy polarised photons close to the maximum energy. In this case the high energy part of the $`\gamma \gamma `$ spectrum is dominated by the spin-0 configuration which is important to enhance the signal and suppress the background for Higgs production. Alternatively, e$`\gamma `$ interactions are also possible. The technical aspects of the photon collider are discussed in .

## 2 Higgs Production

Neutral Higgs bosons are produced in the scattering of two photons as a $`s`$-channel resonance through a loop. In this loop all charged particles contribute which obtain their mass from electroweak symmetry breaking. The two-photon partial width of the Higgs boson is therefore sensitive to physics beyond the SM.

For Higgs bosons decaying predominantly into $`\text{b}\overline{\text{b}}`$, the main source of background are $`\gamma \gamma \text{Q}\overline{\text{Q}}`$ processes (Q=c,b). The spin-0 component of these processes is suppressed in Leading Order (LO) by a factor $`m_Q^2/s`$. Since this suppression is only valid in LO, a realistic background simulation should be based on a next-to-leading (NLO) calculation.

Several analyses of $`\text{H}\text{b}\overline{\text{b}}`$ decays for a SM Higgs boson in the mass range from 120 GeV to 160 GeV have been performed . All analyses exploit the kinematic differences between the $`s`$-channel signal and the $`t`$-channel background by cutting on visible energy and angular distributions. The results are shown in Fig. 1.

Before b-tagging the ratio of background from $`\gamma \gamma \text{c}\overline{\text{c}}`$ events to $`\gamma \gamma \text{b}\overline{\text{b}}`$ events is approximately 16 due to the quark charges. Excellent b-tagging is therefore required to suppress the charm background. The need to minimize the radius of the beam pipe is one of the main challenges for a Photon Collider, since the beam pipe has to accomodate the optical system for producing back-scattered photons.

The analyses presented here have assumed that $`\text{b}\overline{\text{b}}`$ events are tagged with $`70\%`$ efficiency and $`\text{c}\overline{\text{c}}`$ events with $`3.5\%`$ efficiency. For a luminosity corresponding to roughly one year of running, a statistical uncertainty of about $`2\%`$ for a Higgs mass of 120-140 GeV for the two photon width measurement can be achieved. The uncertainty increases to about $`10\%`$ for a Higgs mass of 160 GeV.

At Higgs boson masses above 160 GeV decays into WW and ZZ pairs become important. In this case the interference between signal and $`\gamma \gamma \text{WW}`$ background needs to be taken into account. The interference gives access to an additional observable, the phase $`\varphi _{\gamma \gamma }`$ of the $`\gamma \gamma \text{H}`$ amplitude. The combined precision of phase and partial width determination gives sufficient precision to distinguish the SM from SM-like 2HDM (II) scenarios . The results of a detector simulation are shown in Fig. 2.

The neutral MSSM Higgs Boson H,A for masses above 200 GeV and for moderate $`\mathrm{tan}\beta 7`$ might escape detection at the LHC. In this parameter region, where decays into $`\text{b}\overline{\text{b}}`$ are the dominant SM decays up to Higgs masses around 550 GeV, the Photon Collider can discover the neutral MSSM Higgs Bosons . In contrast to the $`\text{e}^+\text{e}^{}`$ option of the LC, the Photon Collider can produce these Higgs Boson with masses up to about $`80\%`$ of $`\sqrt{s}_{\mathrm{ee}}`$. Cross-sections for signal and background are shown in Fig. 3.

Many other Higgs scenarios have been studied for the Photon Collider option, adding to the discovery potential: For example, the measurement of CP properties of the Higgs bosons A,H in $`\text{t}\overline{\text{t}}`$ decays  or the production of charged Higgs bosons in the process $`\gamma \gamma \text{H}^+\text{H}^{}`$ .

## 3 Non-Commutative Field Theories

One of many other interesting topics which can be studied at a $`\gamma \gamma `$ or at an e$`\gamma `$ collider are non-commutative quantum field theories (NCQFT) with non-commuting (NC) space-time operators . The additional cubic coupling ($`\gamma \gamma \gamma `$) contributing to the process $`\gamma \gamma \text{f}\overline{\text{f}}`$ is shown in Fig. 4.

The parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}`$ characterises the threshold where NC effects become relevant. The current limit from $`\text{e}^+\text{e}^{}`$ scattering is $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{NC}}>142`$ GeV at $`95\%`$ confidence level .

A theoretical analysis has been performed of the processes $`\gamma \gamma \text{f}\overline{\text{f}}`$ and $`\text{e}\gamma \text{e}\gamma `$ for $`L_{\mathrm{ee}}=500`$ fb<sup>-1</sup>. A transverse momentum greater than 10 GeV and a polar angle in the range $`10^{}<\theta <170^{}`$ has been required for the final state particles.

In Fig. 5 the NCQFT effects on the angular distributions of the final state photons in $`\text{e}\gamma \text{e}\gamma `$ scattering are shown. The parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\gamma `$ are related to the Maxwell field tensor . Significant deviations from the SM can be observed.

## 4 Conclusion

Studies of various Higgs scenarios show that a Photon Collider has a unique potential for Higgs boson physics over a wide range of masses and model parameters. Excellent b-tagging and good energy resolution are very important for the Photon Collider to suppress background. The e$`\gamma `$ option of the Photon Collider is complementary to the $`\text{e}^+\text{e}^{}`$ Linear Collider in discovering effects from Non-Commutative Field Theories. Many other topics which can be studied at a Photon Collider (e.g. SUSY, Leptoquarks, QCD) had to be omitted in this short summary.


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# Prospects for R Measurement at BABAR using Radiative Return

## 1 Introduction

In recent years, precision electroweak measurements have probed some of the fundamental parameters of the Standard Model. Following the successful prediction of the mass of top quark, the precise measurement of electroweak parameters can now put significant constraints on the Higgs boson mass. Similarly, the unprecedented precision of the BNL measurement of the muon anomalous magnetic moment ($`g2`$ could also offer sensitivity to beyond-the-Standard-Model physics.

However, interpreting those results requires precise theoretical predictions of Standard Model contributions. At present the leading source of uncertainty in these calculations arises from hadronic corrections, which cannot be computed from first principles. For the Higgs mass, this corresponds mainly to hadronic contributions to the running of $`\alpha _{QED}`$, and hadronic corrections to the QED vertex for $`g2`$. These contributions can be related through dispersion integrals to the cross-section for $`e^+e^{}\text{hadrons}`$, or equivalently to $`R(s)`$, defined as its ratio with the Born cross-section for $`e^+e^{}\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$. For the running of $`\alpha _{QED}`$, and the muon magnetic moment, we have respectively

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha _{QED}^{Had}(M_Z^2)_{4m_\pi ^2}^{\mathrm{}}as\frac{R(s)}{s(sM_Z^2)}\text{and}\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{Had}_{4m_\pi ^2}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑s\frac{R(s)K(s)}{s}$$
(1)
where $`K(s)`$ is the QED kernel function. A precise measurements of $`R(s)`$ over a wide energy range would have a significant influence on the determination of both these quantities. It would also shed some light on recently discovered discrepancies between hadronic data from $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions and $`\tau `$ decays, which have significant impact on the interpretation of the $`g2`$ measurement. 111See Andreas Hoecker’s contribution in these proceedings. At present $`R(s)`$ can be reliably calculated above $`10\mathrm{GeV}`$ using perturbative QCD. It would therefore be particularly useful to provide a precise measurement for energies below $`10\mathrm{GeV}`$.

## 2 The radiative return method

There has recently been a renewed interest in the possibility that the the measurement of $`R(s)`$ could be performed at fixed-energy colliders by using radiative return to lower energies . An especially attractive possibility would be to use the large event rates provided by the B-factories, where the fiducial cross-section is estimated to be of the order of $`40\mathrm{pb}`$ for events with a hadronic system invariant mass less than $`7\mathrm{GeV}`$. , yielding about $`3.6`$ million fiducial events in the current BABAR dataset of $`90\text{ fb}^1`$.

It would in particular be possible to perform an inclusive analysis, which would rely only on the identification of the tagged initial-state radiation (ISR) photon. A highly efficient hadronic selection would be performed, with minimal sensitivity to detector efficiency and event shape modeling. Alternatively, an exclusive analysis could be performed, in which each possible hadronic decay channel is analysed separately. This would be especially advantageous for energies near to the $`\rho `$ mass, which provide the largest contribution to the $`g2`$ integral, since the measurement of $`R(s)`$ through $`\sigma (e^+e^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\gamma )/\sigma (e^+e^{}\mu ^+\mu ^{}\gamma )`$ benefits from the cancellation of radiative and efficiency corrections. The inclusive method would present the disadvantage that the photon energy resolution gives a large uncertainty on the effective center-of-mass energy $`s^{}`$ in the deep ISR regime. This would however not be a significant problem in the case of the running of $`\alpha _{QED}`$, for which the dispersion integral has little sensitivity to uncertainties on $`s^{}`$.

## 3 Comparison with other methods

Using the radiative return offers several advantages over energy-scan methods. The entire energy range — for BABAR, from the $`\rho `$ peak to about $`7\mathrm{GeV}`$ — can be covered in a single measurement. With the currently available datasets, the event rates in each energy region are expected to be competitive with other experiments: the latest BES measurement of $`R(s)`$ , in the energy range $`25\mathrm{GeV}`$ is based on about $`120,000`$ events, while the current BABAR dataset should include about $`950,000`$ events in the same interval. The higher center-of-mass energy of the collision also leads to a different event geometry, with a collimated hadronic system recoiling at high momentum against the ISR photon. By selecting tagged photons well within the detector we can ensure high fiducial acceptance for the hadronic system. In addition, the boost imparted to the hadron system produces particles with higher transverse momentum, thus reducing the kinematic bias in the event selection due to limited $`p_T`$ coverage. The high energy of the photon can also be used to reduce contamination from beam backgrounds such as beam-gas interactions, which form an important systematic uncertainty in the BES measurement. Finally, the situation with respect to final-state radiation (FSR) is improved, with a clear geometrical separation between ISR, mostly located in the vicinity of the collision axis, and FSR, which follows the directions of outgoing hadrons. This can furthermore be verified in data by studying the forward-backward asymmetry produced by ISR/FSR interference.

## 4 Conclusion

The radiative return method offers promising prospects at BABAR and other facilities. Competitive measurements can already be made based an available datasets and preliminary results are expected in the coming months.


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# The general double-dust solution

## I Introduction

The study of the gravitational field of light beams (null dust) has a long history. In the linear approximation to general relativity this was done 71 years ago . Later, Bonnor found exact solutions which belong to the class of pp-waves (algebraically special solutions of Petrov type N and no expansion) . He showed that beams shining in the same direction do not interact. The gravitational field of two counter-moving light beams is very complicated and particular solutions were found only recently . One of them was generalized to the case of two colliding non-null dusts and named the double-dust solution . It is based on a one-parameter relation between two metric components.

In this paper we find the general double-dust solution and study its properties. It depends on one almost arbitrary function and one free parameter. All previous solutions are derived as special cases.

In section 2 the field equations are written and their general solution is given in three different ways. The condition of elementary flatness is imposed, which reduces the number of free parameters to one. The restrictions on the arbitrary function, the positivity of the energy density and the regular character of the metric are studied. In section 3 some particular examples are given such as the solutions of Lanczos , Lewis  and the two Kramer solutions (for null and non-null dust). In section 4 the properties of the 4-velocities of the two dust beams are studied. It is proved that the general solution satisfies the dominant energy condition. The appearance of closed timelike curves is discussed in the stationary version of the Kramer double-dust solution. In section 5 the general interior solution is matched smoothly to the vacuum Lewis solution at any distance from the axis. Section 6 contains a short discussion.

## II Field equations and the general solution

We shall work in the stationary formalism when the cylindrically symmetric metric is given by

$$ds^2=e^{2u}\left(dt+Ad\phi \right)^2+e^{2u}\left[e^{2k}\left(dx^2+dz^2\right)+W^2d\phi ^2\right]$$
(1)
and there is only radial $`x`$-dependence. The static metric may be obtained by complex substitution: $`tiz`$, $`zit`$, $`AiA`$. The energy-momentum tensor of the two dust beams reads

$$T_{\mu \nu }=\mu _1k_\mu k_\nu +\mu _2l_\mu l_\nu ,$$
(2)
$$k_\mu k^\mu =1,l_\mu l^\mu =1$$
(3)
where $`\mu _i`$ are the density profiles of the rotating and flowing beams. The only components of their 4-velocities are $`k^t=l^t=V`$, $`k^z=l^z=Z`$. Eq. (3) becomes

$$e^{2u}V^2=1+e^{2\left(ku\right)}Z^2.$$
(4)
To write the Einstein equations we use the combinations of Ricci tensor components utilized in Refs. . We shall work, however, with curved mixed components $`R_\nu ^\mu `$. The only non-trivial ones are the diagonal components and $`R_\phi ^t`$, $`R_t^\phi `$. The Einstein equations for the corresponding $`T_\nu ^\mu `$ components give after some rearrangement Eq. (4) and

$$k^{\prime \prime }=u^2B,B=\frac{a_0^2}{4}e^{4u},$$
(5)
$$k^{}\frac{W^{}}{W}=u^2B,$$
(6)
$$A^{}=a_0We^{4u},$$
(7)
$$8\pi \mu e^{2\left(ku\right)}=u^{\prime \prime }+\frac{u^{}W^{}}{W}\frac{W^{\prime \prime }}{W}+2B,$$
(8)
$$16\pi \mu Z^2e^{4\left(ku\right)}=\frac{W^{\prime \prime }}{W}.$$
(9)
Here  is a $`x`$-derivative, $`2\mu =\mu _1+\mu _2`$ and $`a_0`$ is an integration constant resulting from Eq. (7). Units are used with $`G=c=1`$. The equations for the rest $`T_\nu ^\mu `$ components are satisfied either identically or when $`\left(\mu _1\mu _2\right)Z=0`$. Therefore, we accept in the following the relation $`\mu _1=\mu _2=\mu `$. In the case of a single beam, we must put instead $`Z=0`$, which halts its motion along the axis.

There are 6 equations (4-9) for 7 quantities; $`u,k,W,A,\mu ,Z,V`$. Let us take $`u\left(x\right)`$ to be an arbitrary function. The equations decouple and starting with Eq. (5) and finishing with Eq. (4) the unknowns are found in the above-mentioned order. The function $`k`$ is obtained by integrating Eq. (5). Thus we have

$$k^{}\left(x\right)=k_uu^{}\left(x\right)=_0^x\left(u^2+B\right)𝑑x$$
(10)
and $`k_u`$ may be expressed either as a function of $`x`$ or $`u`$ if $`u^{}\left(x\right)`$ or $`u^{}\left(u\right)`$ is used. The other quantities also have double representations

$$W=W_0k^{}e^{2_0^x\frac{u^2}{k^{}}𝑑x}=W_0k_uu^{}e^{2_0^u\frac{du}{k_u}},$$
(11)
$$A=a_0W_0_0^xk^{}e^{2_0^x\frac{u^2}{k^{}}𝑑\overline{x}4u}𝑑x=a_0W_0_0^uk_ue^{2_0^u\frac{d\stackrel{~}{u}}{k_{\stackrel{~}{u}}}4u}𝑑u,$$
(12)
$`8\pi \mu `$ $`=`$ $`\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{2u^{}}{k^{}}}\right)\left(u^{\prime \prime }+{\displaystyle \frac{u^3}{k^{}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2k^{}u^{}}{4k^{}}}a_0^2e^{4u}\right)e^{2\left(ku\right)}=`$ (14)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{k_u2}{k_u^2}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{a_0^2}{2}}\left(k_u1\right)e^{4u}k_{uu}u^2\right]e^{2\left(ku\right)},`$
$$Z^2=\frac{u^{}e^{2\left(ku\right)}}{k^{}2u^{}}=\frac{1}{k_u2}e^{2\left(ku\right)},$$
(15)
$$V^2=\frac{k^{}u^{}}{k^{}2u^{}}e^{2u}=\frac{k_u1}{k_u2}e^{2u}.$$
(16)
Eq. (14) shows that $`k_u>2`$. The second representation requires the passage to a new radial variable $`u`$ or $`f=e^u`$ and correspondingly $`g_{xx}`$ becomes

$$g_{uu}=\frac{e^{2\left(ku\right)}}{u^2},$$
(17)
where $`u^{}=u^{}\left(u\right)`$.

One can pass to $`u`$ in another way, by defining the arbitrary function $`g\left(u\right)=k^{}`$. Then Eq. (5) becomes a quadratic equation for $`u^{}`$ with solutions

$$2h\left(u\right)=2u^{}=g_u\pm \sqrt{g_u^24B}$$
(18)
and $`k_u=g/h`$. Eqs. (11)-(15) are easily rewritten in terms of $`g\left(u\right)`$. The restriction $`k_u>2`$ holds iff

$$g=\sqrt{e^uF\left(\lambda \right)},\lambda =e^{3u},$$
(19)
where $`F`$ is an arbitrary positive function, satisfying $`F_\lambda >a_0^2/3`$. A sufficient condition for the radical in Eq. (17) to be real is

$$F>2a_0^2\lambda ,$$
(20)
which encompasses the previous inequality.

In the above equations we have set $`u\left(0\right)=0`$, so the axis of rotation still coincides with the $`z`$-axis. The indefinite integral in Eq. (11) was replaced by a definite one and the integration constant $`W_0`$. Another constant $`k\left(0\right)=k_0`$ appears when Eq. (10) is further integrated. The condition for elementary flatness

$$\underset{x0}{lim}\frac{e^{uk}}{x}\left(e^{2u}W^2e^{2u}A^2\right)^{1/2}=1$$
(21)
must be satisfied at the axis. $`A`$ should vanish there which is accounted for by the lower limit of the integral in Eq. (12). $`W`$ should vanish too. One can see from Eq. (7) that $`A=o\left(W\right)`$ when $`x0`$ and can be neglected in Eq. (20) like in many other cases . Therefore we obtain the static case condition

$$\underset{x0}{lim}\frac{e^k\left|W\right|}{x}=1.$$
(22)
We inset the expression for $`W`$ from Eq. (11) and take the limit. Eq. (10) gives

$$k_u\left(0\right)=\frac{a_0^2}{4u^{\prime \prime }\left(0\right)},$$
(23)
so that $`u^{\prime \prime }\left(0\right)<0`$ and is finite. Then Eq. (11) shows that $`W\left(0\right)=0`$ due to $`u^{}\left(0\right)=0`$. Eq. (21) yields

$$a_0^2\left|W_0\right|=4e^{k_0}.$$
(24)
Hence, elementary flatness gives a relation between the 3 integration constants without affecting the arbitrary functions. The constant $`k_0`$ may be put zero by a coordinate change. We won’t do this for matching purposes. Thus the general solution depends on one free parameter and the function $`u\left(x\right)`$, $`u^{}\left(u\right)`$ or $`g\left(u\right)`$. The only restriction for $`u^{}\left(u\right)`$ comes from the condition $`k_u>2`$. For $`g\left(u\right)`$ this leads to Eq. (19), while $`u\left(x\right)`$ should satisfy

$$_0^x\left(u^2+B\right)𝑑x>2u^{}.$$
(25)
Both sides vanish on the axis, hence, a sufficient condition is

$$2u^{\prime \prime }+u^2+B<0\text{or}f^{7/2}\left(f^{1/2}\right)^{\prime \prime }>\frac{a_0^2}{16}$$
(26)
An important physical requirement is $`\mu >0`$ in some region around the axis, which is enough for a interior solution. According to Eq. (13) $`\mu \left(0\right)0`$ always. If $`k_{uu}<0`$, then $`\mu `$ is positive everywhere. Otherwise the energy density may become negative at some distance from the axis.

Eq. (16) indicates that the change of coordinates $`xu`$ is always singular at the origin. This may be avoided by introducing a third radial coordinate $`r`$, such that $`u=u\left(r^2\right)`$ . This is equivalent to going back to the first version of the solution by choosing $`u\left(x\right)`$. However, some solutions look simpler when $`u`$ is the radial coordinate.

## III Some particular solutions

Let us derive several concrete solutions. For a single beam we must set $`Z=0`$ in order to use metric (1) and the field equations above. Then Eq. (14) gives constant $`u`$, which is set to zero. The solution should be found from Eqs. (4-9). We obtain

$$V=1,W=x,A=\frac{1}{2}a_0x^2,$$
(27)
$$k=\frac{1}{8}a_0^2x^2,8\pi \mu =\frac{1}{2}a_0^2e^{2k}.$$
(28)
This is the cherished Lanczos solution  in comoving coordinates. It represents a cylinder of rigidly rotating dust. In the absence of $`u\left(x\right)`$ it depends just on the parameter $`a_0`$.

Another important case is $`\mu =0`$, which, at first sight, should lead to vacuum solutions. Two obvious candidates are $`k=2u`$ and $`k=u`$. Both of them belong to the one-parameter series $`k=\left(a+1\right)u`$. This case was solved  in the static formulation of the problem. It is worth to do this in the stationary frame and see the differences. We must have $`a>1`$ and $`k_0=0`$. Eqs. (14-15) give directly

$$Z^2=\frac{f^{2a}}{a1},V^2=\frac{af^2}{a1}.$$
(29)
Eqs. (11,12) yield the expressions

$$W=\left(a+1\right)W_0f^{}f^{\frac{1a}{1+a}},$$
(30)
$$A=\frac{a_0W_0\left(a+1\right)^2}{2\left(2a+1\right)}\left(1f^{2\frac{2a+1}{a+1}}\right),$$
(31)
Eq. (23) gives $`W_0=4/a_0^2`$. It is necessary to express $`f^{}`$ through $`f`$. Eqs. (5-6) yield

$$k^{}=\frac{a_0A}{2W}.$$
(32)
Combining the last three equations gives the result

$$f^2=\frac{a_0^2}{4\left(2a+1\right)}\left(f^2f^{\frac{2a}{a+1}}\right).$$
(33)
Positivity requires $`u<0,f<1,k<0`$. This equation may be integrated

$$\frac{a_0\sqrt{2a+1}}{a+1}x=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{1}{2\left(2a+1\right)}\right)\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{a}{2a+1}\right)}B_\xi (\frac{1}{2\left(2a+1\right)},\frac{1}{2}),$$
(34)
where $`\xi =f^{2\frac{2a+1}{a+1}}`$ and $`B_\xi (p,q)`$ is the incomplete beta function. The formula above can not be inverted, but this is not necessary, since we have chosen a new radial variable. Inserting Eq. (32) into Eqs. (29), (16) and (13) we find explicit expressions for $`W,g_{uu}`$ and $`\mu `$, which simplifies to

$$8\pi \mu =\frac{a_0^2a\left(a1\right)}{2\left(a+1\right)^2}f^{2a4}.$$
(35)
The gravitational field is determined completely.

In the static formulation $`0a<1,f>1,k>0`$. Here we have the opposite. The sign of $`a1`$ is changed correspondingly. The model has two parameters, $`a`$ (remnant of the arbitrary function) and $`a_0`$. Kramer puts $`a_0=1`$. Then the central density is bounded, $`8\pi \mu \left(0\right)1/2`$. In fact, it can be as big as we want it, as seen from Eq. (34). In principle, one can choose an arbitrary density profile, but the extraction of $`g\left(u\right)`$ out of it is not possible explicitly. In Ref.  it is asserted that $`f\left(x\right)`$ has no analytical expression. This is true, however, Eq. (33) shows that $`x\left(f\right)`$ does have one in special functions.

Let us look at the case $`a=1`$. The factors $`a1`$ in $`\mu ,Z^2,V^2`$ cancel each other, while Eq. (4) becomes $`V^2=Z^2`$. The two beams turn into null-dust and the metric coincides with Eq. (21) (with $`\lambda =\sqrt{3}/4`$) from Ref.  when $`a1`$ is set effectively to $`2`$, $`a_0=1`$ and $`\xi =1+3r^2/16`$. This is the proper choice of the final radial coordinate $`r`$, instead of $`\xi =\left(1+r^2\right)^1`$ in the static case.

The case $`a=0`$ is a true vacuum case. The static metric becomes simply flat spacetime. Here we have

$$W=x,f=x^2c_0^2,A=\frac{a_0x^2}{2c_0^2f},e^{ku}=1,$$
(36)
with $`c_0`$ being an integration constant. We should compare this metric to the general Lewis solution

$$W_L=x,f_L=lx^{1n}\frac{c^2}{n^2l}x^{n+1},$$
(37)
$$A_L=\frac{cx^{n+1}}{nlf_L}+b,e^{2\left(k_Lu_L\right)}=x^{\frac{1}{2}\left(n^21\right)},$$
(38)
which includes 4 constants $`b,c,l,n`$. Obviously, Eq. (35) is a particular case of Eqs. (36,37) with $`n=1`$, $`l=1`$, $`c=c_0`$, $`b=c_0^1`$ and $`2c_0=a_0`$. The solution belongs to the Weyl class and has a regular one-parameter metric when $`x^2>c_0^2`$.

## IV Properties of the general solution

Let us study first the properties of $`k^\mu `$ and $`l^\mu `$. The 4-velocities are geodesic (no acceleration) and have zero expansion and shear. The vorticity (twist) vector $`w^\mu `$ has been calculated with the help of GRTensor for the general cylindrical metric (1) and for the general solution. We have $`w^x=0`$ and for $`k^\mu `$

$$w^z=\frac{A^{}V^2}{2W}e^{6u2k}=\frac{a_0\left(k_u1\right)}{2\left(k_u2\right)}e^{2k},$$
(39)
$$w^\phi =\frac{e^{2u}}{2W}\left[2VZ\left(2u^{}k^{}\right)+ZV^{}Z^{}V\right]=\frac{2\left(k_u2\right)\left(k_u1\right)k_{uu}}{4W_0k_u\sqrt{k_u1}\left(k_u2\right)}e^{2uk2_0^u\frac{du}{k_u}},$$
(40)
$$w^t=Aw^\phi +\frac{A^{}ZV}{2W}e^{2u}=Aw^\phi +\frac{a_0\sqrt{k_u1}}{2\left(k_u2\right)}e^{2uk}.$$
(41)
For $`l^\mu `$, $`w^\phi `$ and $`w^t`$ change sign. These expressions coincide in the Kramer case $`k=\left(a+1\right)u`$ with Eq. (39) from Ref.  after the passage to the static metric is done and one takes into account the difference between $`x`$ and $`\zeta =f^2`$.

Another useful quantity is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=k^\mu l_\mu `$. It reads for the different metrics

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }=\left[1+2e^{2\left(ku\right)}Z^2\right]=\frac{k_u}{k_u2}=\frac{a+1}{a1}.$$
(42)
The proof of the dominant energy condition in Ref.  may be lifted to the general solution. It depends crucially on the fact that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^2>1`$, which is obvious from the above formula.

It is well known that closed timelike curves (CTC) exist when $`g_{\phi \phi }<0`$. This condition is rather intractable further for the general solution. In the Kramer case we have

$$g_{\phi \phi }=\frac{4\left(a+1\right)^2}{\left(2a+1\right)^2}f^2\left[\left(2a^2+2a+1\right)f^{\frac{2}{a+1}}a^2f^{\frac{4a}{a+1}}\left(a+1\right)^2f^4\right].$$
(43)
The sign is determined basically by the competition of the first and the second terms in the square brackets. It becomes negative when

$$\xi >1+\frac{a^2}{\left(a+1\right)^2}.$$
(44)
This happens always for big enough $`r`$. In the static metric formulation $`g_{\phi \phi }`$ is strictly positive and there are no CTC as seen from Ref. , Eq. (36). In this case a matching can be done at some $`r_0`$ to the Levi-Civita static metric and a realistic global solution constructed. In the stationary case the matching should be done to the Lewis solution (36,37) whose Weyl class is essentially static, but the Lewis class contains CTC.

## V The global solution

We shall show that the general interior solution can be matched smoothly to the Lewis solution (36,37) for any value $`x_0`$ of the radial coordinate. For this purpose we perform scaling on two of the coordinates in the exterior, $`\overline{t}=\tau t`$ and $`\overline{\phi }=\mathrm{\Omega }\phi `$. Instead of scaling $`z`$ we introduce again $`k_0`$ in the interior. In Ref.  the transformation $`f^2=h\left(\rho \right)`$ was also applied, where $`h`$ is an arbitrary function of the exterior radial coordinate $`\rho `$. The general solution, however, already includes an arbitrary (modulo some positivity requirements) function $`u\left(x\right)`$ and it is redundant to introduce a second one. The effect of such transformation then is that $`u\left(x_0\right)`$ and $`u^{}\left(x_0\right)`$ become free parameters, while quantities given by integrals, like $`k\left(x_0\right)`$, are fixed by the interior solution. The matching procedure is the following: we choose an interior solution which fixes $`a_0`$, $`k\left(x_0\right)`$, $`k^{}\left(x_0\right)`$, $`W\left(x_0\right),`$ $`A\left(x_0\right)`$ and $`A^{}\left(x_0\right)`$ up to $`W_0`$. Next we demand that the metric should be continuous together with its first derivative at the junction. This gives several algebraic equations for the free constants $`u\left(x_0\right)`$, $`u^{}\left(x_0\right)`$, $`k_0`$, $`\tau `$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, $`n`$, $`l`$, $`c`$ and $`b`$. Finally, we fix them by solving the equations, the only free parameter remaining being $`x_0`$. We consider the first representation of the general solution and all functions in the following are taken at the point $`x_0`$.

The continuity of the metric yields four conditions

$$f_L^2\tau ^2=f^2,f_L^2A_L\tau \mathrm{\Omega }=f^2A,$$
(45)
$$\left(f_L^2A_L^2+f_L^2W_L^2\right)\mathrm{\Omega }^2=f^2A^2+f^2W^2,$$
(46)
$$f_L^2e^{2k_L}=f^2e^{2k+2k_0}.$$
(47)
The continuity of the metric derivatives supplies another four. After some rearrangement, the total system of 8 equations becomes

$$e^{2k_0}=x_0^{\frac{1}{2}\left(n^21\right)}e^{2u2k},$$
(48)
$$n^21=4x_0\left(k^{}u^{}\right),$$
(49)
$$A_L=\frac{A^{}}{A}A_L^{},$$
(50)
$$\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{\tau }=\frac{A}{A_L},\tau \mathrm{\Omega }=\frac{W}{x_0},$$
(51)
$$\frac{W^{}}{W}x_0=1,$$
(52)
$$f_L^2A_L^{}=a_0x_0f^2,$$
(53)
$$\frac{f_L^{}}{f_L}=u^{}.$$
(54)
Eq. (47) determines $`k_0`$. Then Eq. (23) determines $`W_0`$ and, hence, $`W`$. Eq. (48) determines $`n`$, while Eqs. (37,49) fix $`b`$. Eq. (50) yields expressions for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\tau `$

$$\mathrm{\Omega }^2=\frac{a_0W^2}{x_0A_L^{}f^4},\tau ^2=\frac{A_L^{}f^4}{x_0a_0}.$$
(55)
Eqs. (51-53) form a system for $`f`$, $`u^{}`$ and $`c/l`$

$$u^2=\frac{4k^{}f^8+x_0a_0^2}{4x_0f^8},$$
(56)
$$\frac{c}{l}=\frac{na_0x_0^{1n}}{f^2\left(1+n2u^{}x_0\right)},$$
(57)
$$1n2x_0u^{}=\frac{ca_0x_0^{n+1}}{nlf^2}.$$
(58)
Replacing Eq. (56) into Eq. (57) and using Eq. (48) we obtain

$$4x_0^2u^2=x_0^2a_0^2f^4+4x_0k^{}.$$
(59)
The combination of Eqs. (55,58) gives

$$f=1,u^2=\frac{4k^{}+x_0a_0^2}{4x_0}.$$
(60)
Inserting these formulas in the previous equations, everything is determined in terms of the interior solution and $`x_0`$. For example, we have for the parameter $`n`$, which measures the line mass density

$$n^2=1+4x_0k^{}\left[4x_0\left(4k^{}+x_0a_0^2\right)\right]^{1/2}.$$
(61)
There are several interesting features of the matching. The gravitational potential $`f`$ does not depend on any parameters at the junction and has the same value as at the axis. Only the ratio of $`l`$ and $`c`$ is determined. The quantity $`n^2`$ is not necessarily positive. When $`n^2<0`$ we enter the Lewis class of the Lewis solution, which possesses CTC .

## VI Discussion

We have obtained in this paper the general global stationary cylindrically symmetric solution for the gravitational field of two identical, rotating and counter-moving dust beams. Three representations of the interior solution have been given. They depend on the free parameter $`a_0`$ and the arbitrary function $`u\left(x\right)`$, $`u^{}\left(u\right)`$ or $`g\left(u\right)`$, which satisfies the condition (25), $`k_u>2`$ or (19) respectively. A particular solution with $`a_0=1`$ and depending on the arbitrary parameter $`a`$ has been found by Kramer . Many of its nice properties are shared also by the general solution. It satisfies the dominant energy condition. The energy density of the beams is non-negative. The axis is regular and elementary flat. The solution is necessarily non-diagonal. We have studied its stationary alternative. Rotation compensates gravitational attraction and prevents collapse and appearance of singularities.

It was shown that two non-zero components of the dust four-velocities are enough for a solution with arbitrary density profile. In the case of colliding null-dust three such components are necessary .

The interior solution can be matched at any distance $`x_0`$ to an exterior vacuum stationary solution, the Lewis solution . Thus a global solution is formed. An important property is the traditional appearance of CTC in rotating cylindrically symmetric solutions. This happens both in the interior when $`x_0`$ is big enough and in the exterior, when the Lewis class is induced. The Weyl class is locally equivalent to the Levi-Civita solution . It is causal and serves as an exterior for the general static solution.


text:
# Numerical Exploration of the RI/MOM Scheme Gauge DependenceTalk given at Lattice 2002 by N.T.

## 1 Introduction and Strategy

Non-perturbative renormalization techniques  have become a crucial ingredient in lattice computations of fundamental QCD parameters and hadronic matrix elements. The RI/MOM non–perturbative renormalization proposed in Refs.  has been successfully applied to compute renormalization constants of composite fermion operators in many lattice regularizations . The method imposes renormalization conditions on conveniently defined amputated Green functions computed non-perturbatively between off-shell quark states at large virtuality in a fixed gauge:

$$Z_\mathrm{\Gamma }p\left|O_\mathrm{\Gamma }\right|p|_{p^2=\mu ^2}=p\left|O_\mathrm{\Gamma }\right|p_0.$$
(1)
The renormalization constants depend in general on the external states and therefore on the gauge in which the renormalization conditions have been imposed. For gauge-invariant operators the coefficients needed to match in a given gauge-invariant scheme has to cancel these dependences up to higher orders in the continuum perturbative expansion and up to discretization errors.

The existence of both continuum and lattice Gribov copies and the numerical noise that they can generate (for a recent review see Ref. ) is an unsolved problem of the lattice non-perturbative gauge fixing. The real concern is, of course, the influence that these phenomena may have on the values of the renormalization constants, when computed using non-gauge-invariant quantities as in the RI/MOM scheme.

Here we discuss the results of a numerical study of the systematics induced by the gauge-fixing procedure on the RI/MOM determinations of the quark field ($`Z_\psi `$), the axial-vector ($`Z_A`$) and of the scalar density ($`Z_S`$) renormalization constants (for more details see Ref. ). We have done this by imposing the standard lattice Landau gauge and another realization of the Landau condition (Landau1 gauge). Whereas the two realizations impose the same gauge-fixing condition in the naive continuum limit, they are affected by different Gribov ambiguities. By comparing the different sets of results for the renormalization constants, we have found differences which are negligible within our statistical errors (of the order of $`(1÷1.5)\%`$).

An interesting feature of the Landau1 gauge is that it can be generalized to impose a generic covariant gauge on the lattice, as proposed in Ref. . By exploiting this opportunity, we have performed an exploratory study of the gauge dependence of off-shell Green functions measured in a generic covariant gauge.

## 2 Results and Discussion

We have used a sample of $`80`$ SU(3) gauge configurations retrieved from the repository at the “Gauge Connection” (http://qcd.nersc.gov/), which were generated with the Wilson gluonic action at $`\beta =6.0`$ and $`V\times T=16^3\times 32`$. By using the discretized version (see  for details) of the following functionals:

$$F_A[G]=A^G^2=d^4x\text{Tr}\left[A_\mu ^GA_\mu ^G\right]$$

$$H_A[G]=d^4x\text{Tr}\left[(_\mu A_\mu ^G)^2\right]$$

$$H_{(A,\mathrm{\Lambda })}[G]=d^4x\text{Tr}\left[(_\mu A_\mu ^G\mathrm{\Lambda })^2\right],$$
(2)
we have rotated each configuration in the Landau gauge, in the Landau1 gauge and in the covariant gauge. The function $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ belongs to the Lie algebra of the group and has been generated with a gaussian distribution corresponding to the value $`\xi =8`$ of the bare gauge fixing parameter.

Once the quark propagator $`𝒮(x,0)`$ has been computed for each SU(3) configuration and gauge and Fourier-transformed, we have determined the inverse Euclidean bare-quark propagator $`𝒮^1(pa)`$. We have computed the amputated Green functions of the local quark bilinears $`O_\mathrm{\Gamma }(x)=\overline{\psi }(x)\mathrm{\Gamma }\psi (x)`$ in the Fourier space (in what follows we adopt the conventions of Ref. )

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_\mathrm{\Gamma }(pa)=𝒮^1(pa)G_\mathrm{\Gamma }(pa)𝒮^1(pa),$$
(3)
where

$$G_\mathrm{\Gamma }(p)=d^4xd^4ye^{ip(xy)}\psi (x)O_\mathrm{\Gamma }(0)\overline{\psi }(y)$$
(4)
and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a generic Dirac matrix corresponding to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\{\text{A},\text{S}\}=\{\gamma _\mu \gamma _5,\text{1I}\}`$. The renormalization constant $`Z_\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\text{RI}}(\mu a,g_0)`$, which defines the renormalized operator $`\widehat{𝒪}_\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\text{RI}}=Z_\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\text{RI}}𝒪_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, is fixed by imposing in the chiral limit the renormalization condition

$$Z_\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\text{RI}}(\mu a)Z_\psi ^1(\mu a)\text{Tr}\text{I}\text{P}_\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Lambda }_\mathrm{\Gamma }(pa)|_{p^2=\mu ^2}=1,$$
(5)
where $`\text{I}\text{P}_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a suitable projector on the tree-level amputated Green function and where the RI wave-function renormalization constant $`Z_\psi `$ is defined as

$$Z_\psi (\mu a)=\underset{m0}{lim}i\frac{1}{12}\text{Tr}\left[\frac{S^1(pa)}{\text{ / }p}\right]_{p^2=\mu ^2}.$$
(6)
Even though $`𝒪_A`$ and $`𝒪_S`$ are gauge-independent operators, their matrix elements between quark states are gauge dependent. In Fig. 1, the numerical results for $`Z_\psi `$, $`Z_A`$ and $`Z_S`$ calculated in the Landau and in the Landau1 gauge as a function of the square lattice momenta, are shown. Our data are in very good agreement with the results reported in the literature .

The results for all correlators, corresponding to Landau and Landau1 gauges, coincide within the statistical errors. As a consequence we can conclude that the data do not show any residual effect due to the presence of lattice Gribov’s copies in the statistical sample of configurations generated and for the lattice used.

To show our sensitiveness to the choice of the gauge, we compare the results obtained in the Landau and in the covariant gauge with the bare gauge parameter fixed to $`\xi =8`$.

The primary quantities measured on the lattice, $`Z_\psi `$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_A`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_S`$, show a statistically significant gauge dependence (as you can see in Fig. 2 of Ref. ) while the renormalization constants $`Z_A`$, $`Z_S`$ shown in Fig. 2, obtained by computing the ratios as indicated in Eq. (5), could have at most a residual gauge dependence (of the order of 1.5%) which is not detectable within the statistical precision of our simulation. For these quantities, the fluctuations of the simulation hide the weak gauge dependence that is expected in perturbation theory from the next-to-leading order terms in $`\alpha _s`$.

These results indicate an upper limit to the numerical troubles that can be expected in the RI/MOM renormalization constants because of the lattice gauge fixing.


text:
# Phonon-mediated anisotropic superconductivity in the Y and Lu nickel borocarbides

## Abstract

We present scanning tunneling spectroscopy and microscopy measurements at low temperatures in the borocarbide materials RNi2B2C (R=Y, Lu). The characteristic strong coupling structure due to the pairing interaction is unambiguously resolved in the superconducting density of states. It is located at the superconducting gap plus the energy corresponding to a phonon mode identified in previous neutron scattering experiments. These measurements also show that this mode is coupled to the electrons through a highly anisotropic electron-phonon interaction originated by a nesting feature of the Fermi surface. Our experiments, from which we can extract a large electron-phonon coupling parameter $`\lambda `$ (between 0.5 and 0.8), demonstrate that this anisotropic electron-phonon coupling has an essential contribution to the pairing interaction. The tunneling spectra show an anisotropic s-wave superconducting gap function.

In most known superconductors the formation of Cooper pairs is based on an attractive interaction mediated by phonons. However, Cooper pairing driven by other bosonic excitations has also attracted much attention due to its fundamental interest. Some of the proposed mechanisms have been used to interpret the superconducting behavior of different compounds discovered during the last decades. But clear microscopic information is very much needed in this field. The situation is especially puzzling in the borocarbide materials (RNi2B2C, R=Y, Lu, Tm, Er, Ho, Dy), where recent experiments have shown that the question about the pairing interaction, initially thought to be conventional electron-phonon couplingMattheiss94 ; Yanson97 ; Cheon99 , is far from being understood. These compounds show moderate critical temperatures (between 6K and 16.5KCava ; Canfieldgeneral ) and very interesting phase diagrams where superconductivity coexists with antiferromagnetic order (when R is a magnetic rare earth, R=Tm, Er, Ho, Dy). The behaviors observed in the thermal conductivityBoaknin01 ; Izawa02 , photoemission spectroscopyYokoya00 , specific heatIzawa01 ; Nohara00 , microwave surface impedanceIzawa01 ; Jacobs  and Raman-scatteringSangYang  experiments of the non-magnetic Y and Lu borocarbides (which also present the highest critical temperatures of 15.5 K and 16.5 K respectively) show that the superconducting gap is highly anisotropic. Indirectly, this could be related to an also anisotropic pairing interaction, but no experiment has given an indication of its nature.

On the other hand, Fermi surface nesting seems to be a general feature of the whole family of borocarbide materials. It produces Kohn anomalies and has directly been observed using angular correlation of electron-positron annihilation radiation in YNi2B2C and LuNi2B2CBullock98 ; Zarestky99 ; Dugdale99 . Moreover, the antiferromagnetic ordering found in the borocarbides with a magnetic rare earth has a wavevector very close to the nesting vector Q$`(0.5,0,0)`$ Lynn ; Rhee  (in R=Er, Ho and Dy; in Tm it appears in a magnetic field phase). Nesting is generally considered to play against the formation of a phonon mediated superconducting state, as evidenced in other families of superconductors (e.g. in the dichalchogenidesNalseiro ; CastroNeto ). Here we present measurements of tunneling spectroscopy of the non-magnetic YNi2B2C and LuNi2B2C, which show that the highly anisotropic electron-phonon interaction produced by Fermi surface nesting drives the system to an also anisotropic superconducting state. We give new insight into the nature of the pairing mechanism, the order parameter symmetry and the gap anisotropy.

Tunneling spectroscopy is in principle one of the most powerful experimental tools to investigate the anisotropy of the superconducting gap and to obtain information about the pairing mechanismParks . We use the same scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy (STM/STS) set-up as in ref.Suderow01 , where we studied the magnetic TmNi2B2C, with an improved resolution allowing now measurements down to 0.5K. We have also characterized other materials with the same set-up (AlSuderow02a , Pb and NbSe2) and demonstrated that this is indeed the actual temperature of tip and sample and that we do not need any additional pair breaking parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$Yokoya00  to explain our data. Previous works about the spectroscopy of borocarbides had a lower resolution in energyYokoya00 ; Ekino ; Wilde ; Sakata . The sample is broken in air on the sample holder of the STM and cooled down immediately. The resulting surface presents the same topology as for the Tm borocarbide, which consists of inclined planes and bumps, typical of a conchoidal fracture, presenting no clear crystallographic orientationSuderow01 . So it is crucial to characterize the superconducting behavior in well-differentiated regions of the sample. We use a home made x-y table that gives the possibility to change in-situ the scanning window (of 1$`\times `$1$`\mu `$m2) in an area of 2$`\times `$2mm2. We measured three different samples (in three different cool-downs) of each compound. In the case of LuNi2B2C, all of them were freshly broken pieces of the same single crystal grown by a flux technique described in ref.Canfieldgeneral . The YNi2B2C samples came from two different single crystals, one grown by the same flux technique and the other in an image furnace. The tunneling conditions were always very good, with high valued measured work functions of several eV.

The tunneling differential conductance, $`\sigma `$=dI/dV, between a normal metal and a superconductor gives a direct (temperature smeared) measurement of the superconducting density of states. Therefore, data show the eventual presence of very low energy excitations within the superconducting gap, $`2\mathrm{\Delta }`$, and a high quasiparticle peak at voltages close to the gap. But if the measurement is sufficiently precise, one can also try to resolve tiny features at voltages corresponding to the sum of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and the characteristic energy of the bosonic excitations leading to superconductivity, in order to obtain information about the nature of these excitationsParks ; Carbotte90 ; Suderow02b . We could indeed observe these features in the tunneling conductance spectra for the Y and Lu borocarbides. In Fig.1 we show a typical curve together with a histogram where the number of times that such features are observed is presented as a function of the bias voltage (their voltage position is determined from the maximum of the derivative of the conductance above the gapParks ; Carbotte90 ; Suderow02b ). Most of them appear centered at a voltage between 6 and 7mV. Substracting the values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, as estimated below, the maxima become centered between 4 and 5 mV. This is precisely the energy at which a high peak develops in neutron scattering experiments due to a low energy phonon modeBullock98 ; Zarestky99 . An estimation of the electron phonon coupling constant $`\lambda `$ from our data gives rather high values between 0.5 and 0.8 in both compoundsnote . On the other hand, previous estimations using thermodynamic measurements, which take into account the Eliashberg function at all relevant phonon frequencies, but which do not directly specify the nature or spectral weight of each mode, have given values of $`\lambda `$ between 0.75 and 1.2Manalo ; Michor . The fact that we find values of $`\lambda `$ smaller but very close to the ones estimated with thermodynamic measurements means that the structures in the Eliashberg function associated with higher energy phonon modes El-Hagary ; Shulga  are more spread-out in energy than the peak corresponding to the 4mV phonon mode and fall below our experimental resolution. It also means that the low energy phonon mode measured here is essential in the formation of superconducting correlations.

The most striking point however is that the phononic density of states at these energies results from a mode having a wavevector comparable to the nesting vector Q (0.5,0,0) Rhee ; Dugdale99 . Neutron scattering experiments show indeed pronounced Kohn anomaliesBullock98 ; Zarestky99 , where the nesting feature of the Fermi surfaceRhee ; Dugdale99  leads to a significant softening, when decreasing temperature, of the low-lying transverse phonon branches at wavevectors close to (0.5,0,0). This behavior results in a strong and highly anisotropic electron-phonon coupling. Our experiment demonstrates for the first time that this anisotropic electron-phonon interaction, produced by Fermi surface nesting, leads to superconducting correlations, having an important contribution to the total electron-phonon coupling constant $`\lambda `$. Correspondingly, we can expect the superconducting gap to be also highly anisotropic.

Tunneling conductance measurements done with a STM give the superconducting density of states averaged over part (but not all) of the Fermi surface, depending on the relative position of the tip onto the sampleChen . In most cases we measure tunneling conductance curves as the ones shown in Fig.2, where the conductance is zero below 0.8mV and then increases up to a peak located at 2.6mV in Lu and 2.3mV in Y. These curves cannot be fitted by conventional BCS theory. The discrepancy with most simple BCS theory is not due to a lifetime smeared BCS density of states, which leads to a non zero density of states at low energies, not observed in our data. The situation is clearly very different from the one found in the very similar borocarbide material TmNi2B2C Suderow01 , where the spectra can be fitted by BCS theory. The form of the curves in Fig.2 shows that the electrons contributing to the tunneling current at this precise location come from parts of the Fermi surface with a continuous distribution of values of the superconducting gapHess90 ; Hayashi . This reveals that the gap function must be anisotropic. Moreover, the spectra in (Y,Lu)Ni2B2C remain with the same shape over regions much larger than the coherence length (usually dimensions about 200$`\times `$200nm2 or bigger whereas $`\xi `$$``$7nm Izawa01 ), maintaining their overall form when we increase the temperature, and becoming completely flat at the bulk critical temperature. Similar observations have been made in the anisotropic superconductor NbSe2 Hess90 ; Hayashi , where the spectra have, qualitatively, the same form.

On the other hand, although the behavior shown in Fig.2 appears most frequently on the surface, we can also find different topographical regions of similar sizes with very different spectra, as shown in Fig.3a. In Fig.3b we compare the temperature dependence of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, as estimated from the voltage position of the maximum of d$`\sigma `$/dV, and in Fig.3c the corresponding tunneling density of states at 0.5K in three different locations of YNi2B2C (the same is observed in LuNi2B2C). Clearly, the differences in the spectra are associated with smaller values of the superconducting gap and also a reduced critical temperature. Remarkably, the mean value of the superconducting gaps shown in Fig.3b follows well the temperature dependence predicted by simple BCS theory (lines). What is more, the curves corresponding to a smaller critical temperature in Fig.3c (top curve) approach much better an isotropic BCS s-wave behavior than those corresponding to the bulk Tc (bottom curve). This must be related to changes in the anisotropy as a function of the local Tc. To obtain more quantitative information about this effect we have fitted the experiment to a modified BCS s-wave density of states assuming that the dispersion in the values of the superconducting gap can be modelled by a gaussian distribution centered around $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ with a width of $`\epsilon `$ (a similar approach has been previously used in the anisotropic superconductor NbSe2Hayashi ). The dashed lines in Fig.3c give the best fit to this model. The agreement with the experiment is much better in regions with a smaller Tc, where $`\epsilon `$ decreases. The inset in Fig.3b represents the dependence of the estimated anisotropy, $`\epsilon /\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$, as a function of the measured critical temperature in several topographical regions of the same samples. Note that these values do not give an indication of the whole distribution of values of the superconducting gap, as a given STM spectrum is a local measurement which probes only part of the Fermi surfaceChen . Therefore, our data are in good agreement to previous macroscopic measurements Nohara00 ; Izawa01 ; Boaknin01 ; Izawa02 ; Jacobs ; Yokoya00 ; SangYang ; Cheon ; Gammel .

Anisotropic superconductivity is expected to be very sensitive to even non-magnetic defects that reduce Tc and decrease the anisotropyCarbotte81 ; Golubov97 . Therefore, in an anisotropic superconductor, local measurements in topographically different positions on the surface can in principle show different forms of the superconducting gap and values of the local critical temperature, associated with the presence of defects lying near the surface or with an irregular topographyBascones02 . Isotropic superconductors, by contrast, present BCS spectra and the bulk critical temperature over the whole surfaceSuderow01 ; Suderow02a ; Pan .

In (Y,Lu)Ni2B2C we observe a gradual decrease of the local critical temperature down to about half its bulk value and of the anisotropy (inset of Fig.3b) in different locations which also show a different topography (Fig.3a). Our measurements show a direct correlation between the local depression of Tc with a local change of the form of the gap. This also demonstrates that the superconducting gap must be highly anisotropic, and it provides an additional test of the nature of the order parameter in these materials. If the anisotropy is due to a d-wave order parameter, the defects tend to suppress superconductivity altogether and low energy excitations appear, filling the density of states below the gap. If, however, the superconducting wave function is anisotropic s-wave, the defects tend to suppress the anisotropy, leading to a more isotropic gap and a decreased critical temperatureHirschfeld ; Norman . The curves plotted in Fig.3c, with no low energy excitations, definitely imply that superconductivity in YNi2B2C and LuNi2B2C is highly anisotropic but s-wave.

Using the same experimental protocol, we find a completely different behavior in the chemically very similar magnetic TmNi2B2C compound (Tc=11K), where BCS s-wave like spectra without a significant anisotropy (and bulk critical temperature) are measured over the whole surfaceSuderow01 . However, we can state that the surface is analogous in all three compounds, because the measured work function and the topographical images are similar. This could be interpreted as an indication that mechanisms inducing anisotropy in YNi2B2C and LuNi2B2C are not operating in this borocarbide, or that the intrinsic magnetic disorder already smears out homogeneously the anisotropy.

In conclusion, we have studied the tunneling spectroscopy in the non-magnetic borocarbides using high resolution STM/STS. We have been able to characterize important microscopic aspects of the superconducting state, which is an anisotropic s-wave state, where a significant part of the electron-phonon coupling leading to superconducting correlations is also highly anisotropic and due to soft phonons. The demonstration of this new mechanism strengthens the hope for further discoveries in the area of new high-Tc superconducting materials.

We acknowledge discussions with F. Guinea, A. I. Buzdin, J. Flouquet, A. Levanyuk and support from the ESF programme VORTEX, from the MCyT (Spain; grant MAT-2001-1281-C02-0), from FERLIN and from the Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid (Spain). The Laboratorio de Bajas Temperaturas is associated to the ICMM of the CSIC. Ames Laboratory is operated for the U. S. Department of Energy by Iowa State University under Contract No. W-7405-Eng-82. This work was supported by the Director for Energy Research, Office of Basic Energy Sciences.


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# High-pressure X-ray diffraction study on 𝛼-PbF2

## 1 Introduction

Lead fluoride can be found in two polymorphs at ambient conditions: $`\beta `$-PbF2 in the fluorite type structure  and $`\alpha `$-PbF2 in the orthorhombic cotunnite type structure (fig. 1) with space group $`Pnma`$ and $`a`$=6.440 Å, $`b`$=3.899 Å, and $`c`$=7.651 Å . The structure is built up by corrugated layers of tricapped trigonal PbF9 prisms along $`a`$ sharing an edge parallel to the $`b`$ direction. All atoms occupy the Wyckoff position 4$`c`$ (x, 1/4, z) with x=0.2527(13), z=0.1042(7) for Pb, x=0.8623(21), z= 0.0631(15) for F(1) and x=0.4662(20), z=0.8457(17) for F(2), respectively .

It is not clear which polymorph is thermodynamically stable at ambient conditions. In recent years both phases have intensively been studied due to their potential industrial applications . $`\beta `$-PbF2 shows a high superionic conductivity with a low superionic transition temperature suitable for solid state batteries and sensors . The $`\alpha `$-phase is a strong scintillator useful in detector technology . The high-pressure behaviour of PbF2 has been studied recently by various experimental and theoretical techniques. Lorenzana et al  investigated the high-pressure properties of PbF2 by Raman spectroscopy in conjunction with a first principles, full-potential linear muffin-tin orbital total energy method in the pressure range from ambient pressure up to 30 GPa. The authors detected a phase transition at approximately 0.5 GPa from the cubic $`\beta `$-PbF2 to the orthorhombic $`\alpha `$-PbF2. At 14.7(5) GPa a second phase transition to $`\gamma `$-PbF2 with a yet unknown structure has been observed. Considering previously investigated high-pressure phases of isotype ionic AX2 compounds (e.g. SnCl2, PbCl2, BaCl2 and BaF2 ), Lorenzana et al proposed a hexagonal Ni2In type structure and a monoclinic structure with a doubled $`a`$ axis as possible structures for $`\gamma `$-PbF2. Their calculations revealed that above 16.4 GPa, PbF2 in the Ni2In type structure is more stable than $`\alpha `$-PbF2. However, $`\gamma `$-PbF2 in a hexagonal symmetry could not explain the observed Raman spectra and consequently, the authors proposed the monoclinic structure for the high-pressure $`\gamma `$ polymorph. High-pressure and high-temperature neutron diffraction experiments have been performed from ambient conditions up to pressures of 1 GPa and temperatures of 966 K to investigate the phase diagram and to determine the nature of the disorder of the fluorine ions at high temperature and its pressure dependence within the $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ polymorphs of PbF2 . The phase stability of PbF2 under high-pressure has also been studied by ab initio calculations using the perturbed ion method . The calculations have been performed for the $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ polymorphs as well as for the two proposed $`\gamma `$-PbF2 structures. The results of the calculations support the existence of $`\gamma `$-PbF2 in the hexagonal Ni2In type structure above 20.2 GPa. Experimentally determined high-pressure data are mainly for cubic $`\beta `$-PbF2 . Hence, the goal of the work presented here was to measure the structural changes induced by high-pressures in order to elucidate the compression mechanism of $`\alpha `$-PbF2 and to extend the limited pressure range of the study of Hull and Keen  for a precise determination of the equation-of-state. Here we present the results of a high-pressure synchrotron powder diffraction study of $`\alpha `$-PbF2 up to 6.55 GPa.

## 2 Experimental

The X-ray diffraction experiments were performed using a commercial (Merck, omnipur) polycrystalline sample of PbF2. By conventional X-ray powder diffraction it was found that the sample is pure $`\alpha `$-PbF2. High-pressure powder diffraction experiments up to 6.55(8) GPa were performed at the wiggler beam-line 5.2R at the ELETTRA synchrotron in Trieste, Italy. The beam-line optic consists of a Si(111) double-crystal monochromator in non-dispersive configuration followed by a three-segment platinum-coated toroidal focusing mirror with a horizontal acceptance of 2.8 mrad. The incident beam was collimated to 80 $`\mu `$m diameter. High-pressure powder diffraction patterns were collected at the wavelength $`\lambda `$=0.6888 Å using a marresearch (mar345) image plate detector with a pixel-size of 100 $`\times `$100 $`\mu `$m. The exposure time per image was about 20 minutes. Pressure was applied using a Diacell DXR-6 diamond anvil cell mounted on a $`xz`$-positioning-stage for the adjustment in the incident beam. The sample was placed in the hole ($`\mathrm{}`$ =150 $`\mu `$m) of an Inconel gasket preindented to 100 $`\mu `$m. In order to ensure hydrostatic conditions a 16:3:1 methanol-ethanol-water mixture was used as pressure transmitting fluid . We used the ruby fluorescence method for the pressure determination applying the Piermarini pressure scale . The sample to detector distance was determined by measuring the sample in the uncompressed cell. Geometry parameters for the radial integration of the two-dimensional data were determined using FIT2D . For the transformation into standard one-dimensional powder patterns the software TWO2ONE  was used, which allows for counting statistics of multiply measured data points in order to provide proper error estimates of the intensities and hence, a correct weighting scheme in subsequent least-squares refinements . The one-dimensional powder patterns were corrected for attenuation by the pressure cell. Lattice parameters were obtained from profile matching and the structure was refined at five different pressures by the Rietveld method employing the program FULLPROF . The background was described by a linear interpolation between selected points and the peak profile was modelled using a pseudo-Voigt function . The structural parameters from Boldrini and Loopstra  were taken as the initial values for the refinements. The isotropic displacement parameters (Uiso) for lead and the two fluorine atoms were determined from the measurement at ambient pressure and assumed to be constant in the observed pressure range. The standard deviations of the refined parameters were scaled with the Berar-factor . The pressure-volume data were fitted by a 3rd-order Birch-Murnaghan equation-of-state . Since pressure and volume are subject to experimental errors, which have to be weighted correctly in the fit procedure, the conventional least-squares fit is not appropriate. Consequently, the method of orthogonal distance regression (ODR) was used and the equation-of-state implemented in the program code ODRPACK  to minimise

$$\underset{i}{}(w_{p,i}(p_i^op_i^c))^2+(w_{V,i}(V_i^oV_i^c))^2,$$
(1)
with weights $`w_{p,i}=c_1/\sigma _{p_i^o}^2`$ and $`w_{V,i}=c_2/\sigma _{V_i^o}^2`$. The parameters $`c_{1,2}`$ are adjustable parameters ensuring that the weighted experimental errors $`w`$ are in the same order of magnitude for both variables . , The difference between the observed and the calculated values for pi and Vi are at least one order of magnitude smaller than the experimental error bars, when the experimental error bars are used as weights in the fit-procedure. This indicates that the relative precision of the observed data points, which influences the fit, is higher than that represented by the error bars. Taking the differences $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$p and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$V between the observations and the equation-of-state as weighted errors in the subsequent fitting cycle did not affect the values of the fitted parameters themselves but their error estimates.

## 3 Results and Discussion

As an example the observed and calculated diffraction patterns resulting from the Rietveld refinement of the 3.8(1) GPa data are presented in Figure 2. The pressure dependence of the normalised lattice parameters $`a/a_0`$, $`b/b_0`$, $`c/c_0`$ and the unit cell volume are shown in Figures 3 and 4, respectively. In Table 1 the lattice parameters and the residuals resulting from the Rietveld refinement at five selected pressures are given. The refined atomic positions and the resulting bond distances are given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The atomic displacement parameters (Uiso) were refined to 0.027(3) Å2 and 0.029(2) Å2 for lead and the two fluorine ions, respectively

The compression of $`\alpha `$-PbF2 is extremely anisotropic. The compression parallel to the $`a`$ axis is 1.5 times larger than that parallel to the $`b`$ axis and twice as large as along the $`c`$ direction. The volume at zero pressure V0=194.14(4) Å3, the bulk modulus b0=47.0(6) GPa and its pressure derivative b’=$``$b/$``$p=7.9(4) were determined from the equation-of-state fit.

These results compare to V0= 198.48 Å3, b0=40 GPa and b’=4.8 derived from quantum mechanical calculations at the density functional theory level  and with b0=57.87 GPa and b’=4.98 derived from Hartree-Fock calculations  within the accuracy usually obtained in such types of calculations . The bulk modulus for $`\alpha `$-PbF2 of 117(4) GPa reported by Hull and Keen  differs significantly from the value derived in this work. However, this difference can be attributed to the limited pressure range and the linear fitting of the volume data for the determination of the bulk modulus in the work by Hull and Keen . The values for the b0 and b’ obtained in this work are in the same order of magnitude as found for other halides crystallising in the cotunnite type structure, e.g. PbCl2 with b0=34(1) GPa and b’=7.4(6)  and CaCl2 with a b0=51 GPa .

The changes of the atomic positional parameters in the investigated pressure range are small. The Pb-F distances in the tricapped trigonal prism range from 2.38(2) to 3.12(3) Å at ambient conditions (Tab. 3). The mean of the Pb-F distance in the coordination polyhedron (2.66(2) Å) is close to the sum of the ionic radii  for Pb2+ (1.35 Å) in ninefold- and F- (1.33 Å) in fourfold-coordination. Under a pressure of 6.55(8) GPa the average Pb-F distance is reduced to 2.59(2) Å. The individual Pb-F bonds show a different compression behaviour. The following notation of the fluorine ions is according to fig. 1. The bonds in the $`ab`$-plane decrease by 3.64 %, 7.34 % and 0.8 % for Pb-F(1), Pb-F(3) and Pb-F(8), respectively . The Pb-F(2) bond is increased by 4.62 %, Pb-F bonds oriented along the $`c`$ direction are less compressible. The Pb-F(5) and the Pb-F(6) bonds are shortened by 1.8 % and 2.88 % at 6.55(8) GPa.

The structural changes in a compound under high-pressure can be described by considering the distortion of the respective coordination polyhedron. Recently, two different approaches have been developed  to quantify the distortion of a polyhedron by comparison of an ideal to the real one.

The capped square anti-prism and the tricapped trigonal prism (TTP) are ideal polyhedra for a nine-fold coordination . The TTP is found in $`\alpha `$-PbF2. The regular TTP, shown in fig. 5, is characterised as follows: all nine ligands are located on the surface of a sphere with radius rs, and the polyhedra edge lengths are AB=AC=2rs/$`\sqrt{3}`$ and AD=2rs/3$`\sqrt{5}`$ . The distortion measure of Mackovicky and Balić-Žunić  indicates the volume difference between real and ideal coordination polyhedra. Therefore the ligands of the real and ideal polyhedra have to be located on a common circumsphere with radius rs. However, this measure is not applicable to polyhedra with a large variation in the bond distances as found in $`\alpha `$-PbF2. Hence, the distortion measure based on the continuous symmetry measure (CSM)  was used. In this method a regular tricapped trigonal prism is embedded in the observed one. As an additional free parameter the radius around the three cap atoms re was used to consider non-spherical deformation. In order to find the best conformation, an evolution strategy  was used to minimise the euclidean norm (instead of the standard least-squares method employed by Pinsky and Avnir , which requires the computation of the two-dimensional derivative with respect to rs and re). For various pressures the results of the embedding are given in table 4. At ambient pressure the TTP is slightly distorted (CSM=1.378) compared to the ideal value (CSM=1). The nine fluorine ions are not arranged on the surface of a sphere (rq=1) but on an ellipsoid of revolution (rq=1.062). Remarkably, the lead ion is not located in the conjoined centroid of the fluorine ligands. The variance of the fluorine bond distances increase with pressure, reflecting the difference in the compression of the individual Pb-F bonds. The lead ion shifts towards the TTP-centroid, and the arrangement of the fluorine ligands becomes more spheric with pressure. However, the minimal distance between the observed and the embedded fluorine ions increases. Compared to TTP the distortion is larger and the spheroidal arrangement of the fluorine ligands extends, both effects can be attributed to increasing angular distortions.

Raman spectroscopy measurement above 14.7 GPa in PbF2 indicate a structural phase transition to a post-cotunnite structure with monoclinic symmetry  as observed in the isotype SnCl2 and PbCl2 compounds . The extrapolation of the CSM to higher pressures indicate a increasing distortion of the TTP polyhedron. However, from the present CSM data a saturation of the CSM may not be excluded. Such a behaviour would suggest a ridged-unit like behaviour of the TTP as it can be found e.g. for the tetrahedral building units in silicates. Since the structure of the post-cotunnite phase is not known for PbF2, a further examination of the high-pressure behaviour seems to be justified.

## 4 Acknowledgements

LE, KK and HV would like to thank the European Union for financial support under the TMR program. We are greatful to Korth Kristalle GmbH Kiel for the donation of the sample and to the German Science Foundation (DFG) for funding under grant Wi-1232/10.


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# Deeply Virtual Compton Scattering at HERA

## 1 Introduction

The internal structure of the nucleon has long been studied with inclusive deep-inelastic lepton scattering. From these studies, the spin-dependent and spin-independent nucleon structure functions and corresponding parton distribution functions have been extracted. Recently, the formalism of generalized parton distributions (GPD) - was introduced. In this framework, non-forward degrees of freedom are probed in exclusive processes such as meson production or deeply virtual Compton scattering (DVCS), the electroproduction of a single real photon on the nucleon, which has been studied at DESY - and Jefferson Lab . This opens the way to access the distribution of partons in the nucleon perpendicular to its momentum , and to access the contribution of the orbital angular momenta of the quarks to the nucleon spin .

## 2 DVCS at HERA

### 2.1 DVCS at H1 and ZEUS

The HERA storage ring at DESY provides an 820-920 GeV proton beam and a 27.6 GeV electron or positron beam to the two collider experiments, H1 and ZEUS. At collider energies, the leading order handbag diagram (Fig. 1 a) is accompanied by a sizable contribution of colour singlet two-gluon exchange (Fig. 1 b). In both cases, the final state is indistinguishable from that of the Bethe-Heitler (BH) process, in which the real photon is radiated off the lepton. The BH process constitutes a background to the DVCS process. Since it is purely electromagnetic, its amplitude can be calculated exactly. This contribution is subtracted from the combined DVCS+BH data by means of a Monte Carlo simulation that is cross checked with a BH-dominated sample of the experimental data .

The cross section from the H1 experiment, shown in Figs. 2 and 3, was measured in the 1997 running period with an 820 GeV proton energy. The sample corresponds to an integrated luminosity of 8 pb-1. The data cover a kinematic range in four-momentum transfer squared $`Q^2`$ from 2 to 20 GeV2, invariant mass of the photon-nucleon system $`W`$ from 30 to 120 GeV and the square of the momentum transfer to the proton $`|t|`$$`<`$1 GeV2, over which the cross section is integrated. The data in Figs. 2 and 3 have been scaled to central values of $`W`$=75 GeV and $`Q^2`$=4.5 GeV2, respectively. Here, also theoretical predictions for DVCS at H1 kinematics from a GPD-based model (FFS, ), as well as from a colour dipole model (DD, ), are shown. In both models, the exponential $`t`$-dependence factorizes from the $`Q^2`$ and $`W`$ dependences. Since the $`t`$-dependence of the cross section was not measured, upper and lower bounds are determined by taking values of the $`t`$-slope parameter $`b`$ of 5 and 9 GeV-2. A newer GPD-based approach can be found in .

The ZEUS results are based on data taken between 1996 and 2000, and, for the first time, also make use of the HERA electron beam. The integrated luminosities are 95 pb-1 for $`e^+p`$ and 17 pb-1 for $`e^{}p`$ collisions. The data were analyzed in the kinematical region defined by 5$`<`$$`Q^2`$$`<`$100 GeV2 and 40$`<`$$`W`$$`<`$140 GeV, with no cut on $`t`$. The data were found to agree for both lepton charges. The $`e^+p`$ data shown in Figs. 4 and 5 are scaled to central values of $`W`$ = 89 GeV and $`Q^2`$ = 9.6 GeV2, respectively. The data are overlaid with theoretical predictions from the same models as the H1 data. Due to the larger kinematical range and integrated luminosity, the ZEUS data have enough leverage and statistical accuracy to discriminate between different theoretical predictions and can be used to constrain the predicted $`Q^2`$ dependence of theoretical models. Here, the ZEUS data are seen to favour the less steep slope in $`Q^2`$ of the colour dipole model. The $`W`$-dependence of the data is described well in both cases, reflecting the steep rise in gluon density at lower $`x_B`$, the momentum fraction of the struck parton in the nucleon.

The ZEUS and H1 data cannot be compared directly due to the different kinematic ranges. However, if the observed functional behaviour in $`Q^2`$ is used to scale the H1 data to the ZEUS central kinematics, the two data sets agree.

### 2.2 DVCS at HERMES

The fixed target experiment HERMES makes use of the 27.6 GeV polarized HERA positron beam incident on a storage cell that is filled with unpolarized gas (hydrogen, deuterium, or heavier nuclei). At HERMES kinematics, the BH amplitude largely dominates the DVCS amplitude. However, the DVCS and BH amplitudes interfere, giving rise to a single-spin asymmetry, which depends on beam charge, helicity, and the azimuthal angle $`\varphi `$ between the lepton scattering plane and the reaction plane of the real photon and recoil proton. By extracting the $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi `$ and $`\mathrm{cos}\varphi `$ moments of the exclusive data, access is obtained to certain combinations of DVCS amplitudes .

The $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi `$ moment of the beam spin asymmetry is calculated as

$$A_{\mathrm{LU}}^{\mathrm{sin}\varphi }=\frac{2}{N}\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{\mathrm{sin}\varphi _i}{\left(P_l\right)_i},$$

where $`P_l`$ is the beam polarization for each event. The $`\mathrm{cos}\varphi `$ moment is determined similarly from the beam charge asymmetry with an unpolarized beam.

The HERMES forward spectrometer detects the scattered lepton and the real photon, but not the recoiling proton. Therefore the exclusivity of an event is measured through the missing mass ($`M_x`$) of the event, which in the exclusive case is equal to the proton mass. Examples are shown in Figs. 6 and 7, in which the $`\mathrm{cos}\varphi `$ moment of the beam charge asymmetry for the 1998 and 2000 data, and the $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi `$ moment of the beam spin asymmetry for the 1996/1997 data  and the 2000 data are shown. Asymmetries are observed at values of $`M_x`$$`<`$1-2 GeV, in the exclusive region. At higher missing masses, where non-exclusive processes dominate, asymmetries vanish. The two regions overlap slightly, because the resolution in $`M_x`$ is limited by the energy resolution of the electromagnetic calorimeter. The $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi `$ measurements were confirmed at Jefferson Lab . GPD-based predictions can be found in Refs. .

From the exclusive sample ($`M_x`$$`<`$1.7 GeV) of the 1996/97 data the kinematic dependences of the beam spin asymmetry were extracted as functions of $`Q^2`$, $`x_B`$ and $`t`$ (preliminary results shown in Fig. 8). In the case of $`t`$, as with $`M_x`$, the reconstruction relies on the photon energy measured in an electromagnetic calorimeter. Therefore some events are reconstructed at $`t`$$`<`$0.

## 3 Outlook

The HERA run II starting in 2002 will be used by all three experiments to improve the DVCS measurements. In the 2001 shutdown, spin rotators were installed before and after the collider experiments H1 and ZEUS, thus allowing for spin-dependent measurements. It is planned to run alternately with electron and positron beams.

The H1 experiment will install a Very Forward Proton Spectrometer in 2003 , allowing it to measure $`|t|`$ at small values of $`W`$. In addition, the precise tracking data from the Backward Silicon Tracker will be used for a measurement of azimuthal asymmetries. The measurement of differences in the cross section for the available beam polarizations and charges will be the main goal of the ZEUS DVCS analysis. The HERMES experiment will improve the exclusivity of its DVCS sample, as well as the $`t`$-resolution, by installing a large acceptance recoil detector around the HERMES target .

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Rainer Stamen, Paul R. Newman, Iwona Grabowska-Bołd and Yuji Yamazaki for useful and enlightening discussions.


text:
# Masses of singlet and non-singlet 0⁺⁺ particles.

## 1 INTRODUCTION

The $`0^{++}`$ singlet state is an excitation of the vacuum. The complicated non-perturbative nature of the vacuum is one of the reasons that QCD is hard to solve at low energies. The precise computation of scalar meson masses via a first principles full QCD calculation would demonstrate that low energy QCD could be tamed.

The work of many groups  has shown that the lightest $`0^{++}`$ state is 1611(30)(160) MeV  in pure SU(3) Yang-Mills theory. The priority now is to find evidence for glueballs in nature. This almost certainly requires an understanding of the mixing of glueballs with quark anti-quark states. Experimentally, there are more singlet $`0^{++}`$ states in the region 1200 to 2000 MeV than can be organised into SU(3) nonets . An understanding of the non-singlet $`0^{++}`$ states is also required to show there are additional degrees of freedom beyond $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ states.

In full QCD all operators with $`J^{PC}`$ = $`0^{++}`$ quantum numbers can mix. The singlet $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ operator also has $`0^{++}`$ quantum numbers, hence these operators will mix with Wilson loop $`0^{++}`$ operators used for glueballs in quenched QCD. The mixing of Wilson loop and $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ states has been studied in quenched QCD by Lee and Weingarten . They claimed that in the continuum limit the mixing between Wilson loop and $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ $`0^{++}`$ states is small. Constructive criticism of the Lee-Weingarten calculation is in .

In this work we report results for the masses of singlet and non-singlet $`0^{++}`$ states. We use unquenched gauge configurations  with a smaller lattice spacing ($`a`$ 0.1 fm) than our previous study  ($`a`$ 0.13 fm).

## 2 METHOD

To extract masses we use factorising (or variational) fits of $`M`$ exponentials to correlators of operators $`\{O_i\}`$,

$$O_i^{}(t)O_j(0)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{M}{}}c_i^nc_j^ne^{E_nt}.$$
(1)
Using additional operators helps to stabilise the multi-exponential fit. We include $`0^{++}`$ operators made out of a quark and anti-quark and Wilson loops in the same fit. This basis of operators should couple well to the glueball mixing.

The Wick contraction of the singlet $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ operators requires the calculation of fermion loops .

$$\overline{\psi }(t,\underset{¯}{x})\psi (t,\underset{¯}{x})\overline{\psi }(0,\underset{¯}{0})\psi (0,\underset{¯}{0})$$
(2)
The correlator in equation 2 can be computed using $`Z_2`$ noise techniques. We used 100 noise sources and the double source techniques described in . In the fermion sector we use fuzzed  and local operators as basis states. Two types of smeared Wilson loop operators  were included. We use $`M=1`$ and 2 in this calculation.

The non-perturbatively improved clover action was used to generate the configurations, with $`c_{SW}=2.02`$, $`\beta =5.2`$, and volume of $`16^332`$ . The configurations with sea $`\kappa =0.135`$ and $`\kappa =0.1355`$ were used. We use $`f_0`$ ($`a_0`$) to label the singlet (non-singlet) $`0^{++}`$ states.

## 3 RESULTS FOR THE $`a_0`$

The interpretation of the experimental spectrum of the $`a_0`$ hadrons is confused by the $`a_0(980)`$, that many people believe is a $`\overline{K}K`$ molecule . In quenched QCD the $`a_0`$ channel is complicated by a severe quenched chiral artifact , caused by the $`\pi \eta ^{}`$ state being treated incorrectly in quenched QCD.

One prediction  of the analysis of Bardeen et al. is that the mass of the $`a_0`$ should not reduce smoothly with quark mass, but actually start to increase. This behavior was observed by Lee and Weingarten , who saw the mass of the $`a_0`$ rise with quark mass below that of strange for small volumes (less than 1.8 fm). Other groups have seen similar behavior .

The $`a_0`$ channel was fitted using a variational basis of local and fuzzed operators. We do a partially quenched analysis, where the sea quark mass is fixed and the valence quark mass is varied. The partially quenched theory also has pathologies that tend to be less severe than for the quenched theory. In figure 1, we plot the mass of the $`\rho `$ and $`a_0`$ as a function of pseudoscalar mass squared, using $`r_0`$  to make a dimensional ratio, in both quenched ($`\beta =5.93`$) and unquenched QCD. Figure 1 does show the quenched pathology predicted by . The results in figure 1 convince us that it is preferable to study the $`a_0`$ mass in unquenched lattice calculations. If we chirally extrapolate the $`a_0`$ mass for the unquenched data in figure 1 to $`\kappa _{critical}`$ we get $`1.0(2)`$ GeV. More work is required to control the systematic errors on the mass of the $`a_0`$, so that lattice QCD calculations can distinguish between the mass of the $`a_0(980)`$ and $`a_0(1450)`$.

## 4 RESULTS FOR THE $`f_0`$

The results from unquenched QCD lattice calculations, with light quark masses and fine lattice spacings, should automatically include the physics of glueball $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ mixing. However, the results from $`n_f=2`$ lattice calculations from the HEMCGC  and SESAM  collaborations did not show a large deviation of the masses of $`0^{++}`$ glueballs between quenched and unquenched QCD.

In figure 2 we show a compendium of lattice results for the mass of the $`f_0`$ state in quenched and $`n_f`$ = 2 QCD . All the calculations used the Wilson gauge action.

Hart and Teper measured the glueball correlators, using only Wilson loop interpolating operators, on this data set . They found that the $`0^{++}`$ mass was significantly smaller in $`n_f=2`$ QCD, by a factor of ($`0.84\pm 0.03`$), over quenched QCD at comparable lattice spacing. In figure 2 we plot the masses from the calculation by Hart and Teper (diamonds) with the masses obtained in this analysis (bursts). The inclusion of the $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ operators with the Wilson loop operators has produced a further suppression of the mass of the $`f_0`$ at the lattice spacing we use. The combined use of both Wilson loop and $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ operators is clearly a superior technique for extracting masses than just using the Wilson loop operators on their own, hence the result for the $`f_0`$ mass from this analysis is now the preferred result.

Figure 2 shows the suppression of the mass of the $`f_0`$ between $`n_f=2`$ and quenched QCD is less at this new lattice spacing than our previous result at $`a0.13fm`$ . To make physical predictions about the spectrum of the $`f_0`$ hadrons requires the continuum limit to be taken for the $`n_f=2`$ results. In quenched QCD it was found necessary to use a lattice spacing of 0.05 fm , this size of lattice spacing will also be required for full QCD calculations that use the Wilson gauge action. This will be computationally expensive  with clover fermions.