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# Experimental Persistence Probability for Fluctuating Steps

## Abstract

The persistence behavior for fluctuating steps on the $`Si(111)`$ $`(\sqrt{3}\times \sqrt{3})R30^0Al`$ surface was determined by analyzing time-dependent STM images for temperatures between 770 and 970K. The measured persistence probability follows a power law decay with an exponent of $`\theta =0.77\pm 0.03`$. This is consistent with the value of $`\theta =3/4`$ predicted for attachment/detachment limited step kinetics. If the persistence analysis is carried out in terms of return to a fixed reference position, the measured persistence probability decays exponentially. Numerical studies of the Langevin equation used to model step motion corroborate the experimental observations.

With increasing interest in exploiting the special properties of nanostructures, characterization of the general stability or ”memory” over long times of a fluctuating structure is likely to be valuable . The idea of persistence that has been developed theoretically in recent years provides one way of addressing these issues . The persistence probability $`p(t)`$ is defined simply as the probability that a random variable never crosses a chosen reference level within the time interval $`t`$. It is related to the First-Passage probability  and is not determined by a small number of moments of the random variable. The ideas of persistence can be directly related to the stability of crystalline structures by realizing that structural fluctuations occur at steps (e.g. the edges of crystal planes), and that the model classes that have been used to describe these one-dimensional boundaries can be related to the same model classes that have been investigated in theoretical studies of persistence .

In the last decade, the unifying concepts of the continuum step model and lattice models of varying complexity have been applied with great success to experimental observations of fluctuating steps on both metallic  and covalently bonded  materials. The resulting fundamental understanding has led to quantitative success in kinetic descriptions of experimentally measured structural transformations on the nanometer to micron scale . However, in addition to the deterministic envelope of kinetic processes, the stochasticity of step fluctuations will become an increasingly important component of structural evolution at the nanoscale. The concepts of persistence are well matched to evaluating the impact of many interesting consequences of such stochasticity, such as the average time required for a structure to $`first`$ fluctuate into an unstable configuration, or for neighboring structures to $`first`$ fluctuate into contact. To develop such applications, it is necessary to demonstrate that the concepts of persistence are indeed applicable to step fluctuations. In this manuscript, we report an experimental demonstration of persistence phenomena on a solid surface, specifically for the temporal fluctuations of steps with moderately complex structure.

For crystalline structures, persistence can be defined in terms of the fluctuation of a step with respect to a chosen coordinate of interest. Numerous analytical and numerical studies on a wide variety of systems have indicated that the persistence probability has a universal scaling form

$$p(t)t^\theta ,$$
(1)
where $`\theta `$, the persistence exponent, has a nontrivial value characteristic of the dynamics governing the evolution of the variable in question. Systems ranging from the simple diffusion equation  to kinetic Ising models  have been found to display the scaling form. Despite the number of interesting models studied theoretically, few experiments have been carried out to test the validity and utility of the persistence concept. Experiments on soap froth coarsening , liquid crystals , droplet condensation , and magnetization in spin polarized Xe gas  appear to support the proposed universality of the persistence probability and agree with quantitative predictions of the persistence exponent.

We have applied persistence ideas to the case of fluctuating monatomic steps on a metal/semiconductor adsorption system $`Si(111)`$ $`(\sqrt{3}\times \sqrt{3})R30^0Al`$ . A fluctuation in the position of the step edge requires correlated motion of several atoms to effect the smallest unit of displacement, that of a single kink on the step edge. Because atomic processes in this system are more complex than in the lattice models often used in numerical studies, it provides a challenging test of universality.

Experiments were performed in UHV (base pressure $`6\times 10^{11}`$ Torr) by depositing $`0.25÷0.33`$ ML of Al onto a clean $`Si(111)(7\times 7)`$ sample and imaging the resulting reconstructed surface at temperatures between 770 and 970 K with a Variable-Temperature STM (Omicron). More extensive experimental details have been published elsewhere . Images were obtained by scanning the STM tip repeatedly over a single point (e.g. fixed $`y`$ coordinate, scan in $`x`$-direction) on a step edge for time between 23 and 107 seconds. An example of one of these line-scan images is shown in Fig.1. The digitized step positions extracted from the images generate a function, $`x(t)`$, that can be used to study the statistics of fluctuating steps, for example the usual time correlation function:

$$G(t)=<\left(x(t)x(0)\right)^2>$$
(2)
as well as the persistence probability.

The time correlation function for equilibrium step fluctuations can be determined through a Langevin formalism, which has achieved great success over the past decade . In this phenomenological approach, the coarse-grained step position evolves in time via

$$_tx(y,t)=F[x(y,t)]+\eta (y,t),$$
(3)
where $`F`$ is the appropriate functional describing the relaxation of the step position and $`\eta `$ represents random noise due to thermal fluctuations. The $`y`$ direction runs parallel to the average step edge so that $`x(y,t)`$ describes the step’s perpendicular excursions from its average. For the two most commonly observed step fluctuation mechanisms, random attachment-detachment and diffusion along the step edge, $`F`$ is proportional to $`(^2)^{z/2}`$, where the dynamic exponent $`z`$ equal to either $`2`$ or $`4`$ respectively . The statistical properties of the noise (volume conserving for $`z=4`$ and white for $`z=2`$) are chosen to satisfy relevant conservation laws and the fluctuation-dissipation theorem. For the two cases mentioned, the correlation function has the simple form,

$$G(t)=c(T)t^{1/z},$$
(4)
where $`c(T)`$ contains the coarse-grained step stiffness and step mobility. A previous analysis of the time correlation function for this experimental system  yielded an average exponent of $`z=2.17\pm 0.09`$ from a fit to Eq.(4) over the temperature range studied. Supporting evidence suggests that the rate-limiting step fluctuation mechanism is most likely random exchange of mass between the step edges and the intervening terraces, and that the system thus corresponds to the case with F in Eq.(4) proportional to $`^2`$ . Extraction of $`c(T)`$ from the experimental data yielded time constants for elementary microscopic attachment/detachment events that vary from $`1.2`$ ms at $`970K`$ to $`260`$ ms at $`770K`$ .

The persistence probability is non-trivially related to the correlation function of the position-time data, and thus must be determined through a separate analysis. To do this, the experimental persistence probability was calculated by dividing the time axis from the image into intervals of length $`t`$ and then determining the fraction of those intervals for which the digitized step position never crossed a chosen reference. The persistence probability was determined from a number of images ($`414`$) for each temperature, and the results for each temperature were averaged to obtain the final persistence probability.

The first-return question for each small time interval was investigated by choosing the reference as the initial step position in that specific interval. Figure 2 shows linear behavior on a double log scale, clearly indicating power law decay. Between $`770`$ and $`970K`$ the slopes in Fig.2 yield an average effective persistence exponent of $`0.77\pm 0.03`$. This result agrees with computational predictions of a value of $`0.75`$ for the exponent for attachment-detachment limited step kinetics  and for other systems in the same dynamic universality class. Thus, the two exponents, $`z`$ and $`\theta `$, computed independently from the same experimental data, lead to a consistent interpretation in terms of the model stochastic equation governing the rate-limiting step fluctuation mechanism.

The choice of the reference level used in the analysis above corresponds to a specific physical question. That is: Given the position $`x`$ of theof the step at some time zero, what is the probability that the step will not have returned to $`t`$? One can imagine a different physical question, relevant for equilibrated steps fluctuating about a known average position $`x_0`$. This question is: Given an arbitrary time zero, at which the step position may be any accessible value of $`x`$, what is the probability that the step position will not have returned to $`x_0`$ within time interval $`t`$? The second question corresponds to a persistence-like analysis with a fixed absorbing boundary. Experimentally, the choice of reference level will be dictated by the specific purpose for which persistence is intended. In particular, first passage into some fixed region of a surface could easily influence the design and placement of small structures in nanometer scale electronic devices.

It was possible to analyze the data with a fixed return point because the surface under study was near equilibrium, and therefore the steps had well-defined average positions. Thus the average position computed from the entire STM time image was used as a fixed reference level. The resulting fixed-reference persistence probability was observed to decay exponentially with a time constant of $`1.5`$ seconds for all three temperatures investigated, as shown in Fig. 3. At short times, the data is better fit to a power law with an exponent of $`0.4`$ as shown in the inset. At long times for this choice of reference, very few segments of the image had avoided crossing the reference for the entire history of the evolution and the computed probability dropped precipitously to zero.

To model the experimental system, the $`^2`$ linear Langevin equation was solved numerically on small lattices (32 sites) using the discretization taken from Ref.. STM line-scan data was simulated by following one point of the lattice over the full time evolution and performing the calculations of persistence as described above. Figure 4 shows the results averaged over 100 independent numerical solutions for each choice of reference level. The behavior in both cases agrees with the experimental observations. For the return to the initial configuration, a persistence exponent of $`0.76`$ is obtained as expected from Ref. and within the estimated experimental uncertainty of the present study. In addition, the rollover from power law to exponential decay associated with the average reference level occurs in the numerical integration as in the experimental data.

The clear power-law decay of the first return persistence probability for the fluctuations of steps on $`Si(111)`$ $`(\sqrt{3}\times \sqrt{3})R30^0Al`$ demonstrates the feasibility of obtaining useful first-passage statistics from STM data. The fact that the same exponent is observed for three temperatures that correspond to more than two orders of magnitude difference in the underlying time constant of the physical system  is a significant demonstration of the universal behavior predicted theoretically. Despite the complexity of the atomic-scale processes underlying the step fluctuations the value of the first return persistence exponent agrees well with theoretical predictions for a model Langevin equation expected to describe fluctuations governed by random attachment/detachment of atoms at the step edge . This class of behavior is also one of the cases consistent with the previously measured scaling of the time correlation function . Since different physical mechanisms will generally lead to different values of the persistence exponent, it provides corroborating evidence for concluding that the step fluctuations are dominated by attachment/detachment events.

The persistence probability associated with crossing the average step position was both qualitatively and quantitatively different from that of the conventional first-return problem. There have been few theoretical analyses of the dependence of persistence properties on the reference level  to guide interpretation of this result. However, it is interesting that the time constant of the exponential decay for the fixed reference case is found to be independent of large changes in the physical parameters of the system. Rescaling the Langevin calculation to account for the change in the physical parameters of the experimental system with temperature suggest that this observation is physical .

As the number of experimental studies of persistence addressing various theoretical issues increases, it will be possible to evaluate the potential applications of the concept. At the least, it provides an independent dynamic critical exponent that can be associated with the physical mechanism underlying the observed kinetics. As noted by Cueille and Sire  for more complicated systems than considered in this study, the increased sensitivity of the persistence probability to the details of temporal correlations also allows a more complete understanding of the extent to which the usual dynamic critical exponents uniquely characterize model universality classes. Recent generalizations of persistence  may bring added insight to the dynamics of complicated stochastic processes. From an applied perspective, given the increased importance of thermal fluctuations with decreasing size scale, experimental and theoretical studies of persistence may prove useful in controlling fabrication, stability, and response of nanostructures.

The authors acknowledge useful discussions with T.L. Einstein and Z. Toroczkai. This work was supported by the NSF-MRSEC under DMR-00-80008.


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# Role of Single Defects in Electronic Transport through Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect Transistors

## Abstract

The influence of defects on electron transport in single-wall carbon nanotube field effect transistors (CNFETs) is probed by combined scanning gate microscopy (SGM) and scanning impedance microscopy (SIM). SGM reveals a localized field effect at discrete defects along the CNFET length. The depletion surface potential of individual defects is quantified from the SGM-imaged radius of the defect as a function of tip bias voltage. This provides a measure of the Fermi level at the defect with zero tip voltage, which is as small as 20 meV for the strongest defects. The effect of defects on transport is probed by SIM as a function of backgate and tip-gate voltage. When the backgate voltage is set so the CNFET is “on” (conducting), SIM reveals a uniform potential drop along its length, consistent with diffusive transport. In contrast, when the CNFET is “off”, potential steps develop at the position of depleted defects. Finally, high-resolution imaging of a second set of weak defects is achieved in a new “tip-gated” SIM mode.

preprint: APS/123-QED

Unique structural and electronic properties of single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) allow them to act as molecular wires Tans1  and switching elements in nanoscale devices and logic gates.Tans2 ; Martel1 ; Derycke ; Bachtold1 ; Radosavljevic ; Fuhrer1  Successful implementation of SWNT electronic devices necessitates quantitative characterization of local structure and properties. Scanning tunneling microscopy resolves local atomic and electronic structure,Wildoer  but application to nanotube circuits is problematic because tip current feedback cannot be used when the tip is over an insulating substrate. Local characterization of active devices can be done with recently developed techniques such as scanning gate microscopy (SGM),Bachtold2 ; Tans3  electrostatic force microscopy,Bachtold2  and scanning impedance microscopy (SIM).Kalinin

Schottky barriers form where semiconducting tubes contact metal electrodesFreitag1 ; Martel2  or metallic tubes.Fuhrer2  These barriers can be imaged by SGM and controlled electrostatically by a voltage-biased SGM tip.Freitag1 ; Freitag2  SGM can also resolve valanceBachtold2 ; Tans3  and conductionRadosavljevic  band potential modulations in carbon nanotube field-effect transistors (CNFETs). These might be associated with atomic defects on the SWNT, e.g., bond-rotations, add-dimers, or vacancies. Alternatively, they might be ascribed to dopants such as adsorbed or encapsulated impurities,Hornbaker  or trapped charges in the substrate.

Here we present combined SGM and SIM measurements that illuminate the role of defects on electron transport in CNFETs. Through analysis of electrostatic interactions in SGM, we quantify the depletion surface potential for single defects and the size of their associated valence band modulations, key inputs to the design of CNFET devices. SIM is used to measure the potential distribution in the CNFET at different back gate voltages. We observe a crossover from diffusive conduction along the full length of the nanotube to conduction inhibited at barriers localized at depleted defects. Finally, we present a SIM mode where the tip simultaneously perturbs the local density and probes the electrostatic potential. This “tip-gating” mode of SIM reveals a set of weak defects that are not resolved in conventional SGM.

Carbon nanotubes are grown by catalytic chemical vapor depositionKong  on a SiO2/Si substrate. SWNTs are identified by an apparent height less than 3 nm in AFM and then contacted by Cr/Au electrodes defined by e-beam lithography. Semiconducting nanotube samples display a strong field effect in response to a back-gate voltage applied to the degenerately-doped silicon substrate. Figure 1(a) shows the SGM/SIM measurement set-up, based on a Digital Instruments Dimension 3000 NS-IIIA AFM using gold-coated tips (CSC12A, Micromasch). Interleave scans are used for SGM and SIM with a lift height of about 10 nm. CNFET bias voltage $`V_{ac}`$ is $`0.11`$ $`V_{pp}`$ at a drive frequency a few kilohertz away from the cantilever resonance. To reduce screening due to charge injection from the tube into oxide traps,Radosavljevic ; Fuhrer1  the back gate is triggered by the microscope line-synchronization signal.

In SGM, a conductive tip with an applied potential acts as a spatially localized gate scanned under AFM-feedback near the voltage-biased CNFET. The image formed from the transport current as a function of tip position reveals precise locations where the CNFET has a strong response to the tip gate. We use AC-SGM, with an AC modulation applied to the sample and current measured with a lock-in amplifier, significantly reducing measurement noise compared to the DC mode used in earlier work.

Our samples are p-type CNFETs, so the Schottky barrier at the positively biased electrode is under reverse bias and limits the current. A negatively-biased tip positioned near the reverse biased Schottky barrier gives marked current enhancement,Freitag1  showing that the barrier can be lowered electrostatically.Freitag1 ; Martel2  In DC-SGM, only the barrier at the positive electrode is imaged. In AC-SGM, each electrode is at positive bias during half of the AC cycle, and both Schottky barriers are imaged (data not shown). At positive bias, the tip probes valence band modulations by depleting carriers (holes) locally. As described in the following paragraphs, images in “depletion mode SGM” are used to quantify the depletion surface potential and Fermi level associated with individual defects.

SGM images at different tip voltages are shown in Figs. 2(a)-(e). Four strong defects are visible, labeled 1 - 4. The imaged diameter of each defect increases linearly with tip voltage (Fig. 3). We explain this observation by considering the surface potential distribution below the tip using image charges appropriate for a spherical tip above a dielectric.Jackson  This approach is applicable for small tip-surface separation, $`dR`$, where $`R`$ is the tip radius. We assume that the surface potential is not screened by the nanotube; this is expected if the Debye length in the CNFET is significantly larger than the tube diameter, e.g., when the neighborhood of a defect is nearly depleted. The surface potential below the tip then becomes:

$$V(\rho )=\frac{1}{4\pi ϵ_0}\frac{2}{\kappa +1}\underset{i=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{Q_i}{\sqrt{(R+dr_i)^2+\rho ^2}}$$
(1)
where $`\rho `$ is the distance from tip projection on the surface and $`Q_i`$ a set of image charges located distances $`r_i`$ from the center of the sphere:

$$Q_{i+1}=\frac{\kappa 1}{\kappa +1}\frac{R}{2(R+d)r_i}Q_i,$$
(2)
$$r_{i+1}=\frac{R^2}{2(R+d)r_i}$$
(3)
$`R`$ is the tip radius, $`d`$ the tip-surface separation, $`Q_0=4\pi ϵ_0RV_{tip}`$, $`r_0=0`$, $`\kappa =3.9`$ the dielectric constant of $`SiO_2`$, and $`V_{tip}`$ the tip bias. For $`\rho d,R`$ the surface potential becomes $`V(\rho )=2\alpha RV_{tip}/(\kappa +1)\rho `$, where $`\alpha `$ is the ratio of the tip-surface capacitance to that of a sphere of radius $`R`$.Kalinin3  Current through the CNFET is suppressed at a defect if the local surface potential is $`VV^{}`$, where $`V^{}`$ is the defect depletion surface potential.

The SGM-imaged diameter of the $`i`$-th defect therefore increases linearly with $`V_{tip}`$ (Fig. 3): $`D_i=(V_{tip}/V_i^{})4\alpha R/(\kappa +1)`$. This result lets us determine the relative strength of defects observed in SGM images.

The largest uncertainty in the absolute depletion surface potential $`V_i^{}`$ of a given defect is the tip radius of curvature $`R`$, taken to be 20 nm. The capacitance ratio $`\alpha `$ can be calculated for known tip geometries and varies weakly $`\alpha =1.01.5`$ for tip radii from 10 nm to 100 nm, and tip-surface separations of 1 - 100 nm; we take $`\alpha 1.1`$ as a representative value. For the strong defects (numbered 1 - 4) seen in Fig. 2(a) - (e), we find depletion surface potentials of 220 meV, 460 meV, 680 meV, and 340 meV, respectively, with uncertainties from data fitting of 10 - 20 meV. The two strongest defects are close to the electrodes, suggesting that the Schottky barriers at the contacts lead to additional band bending that enhances the impact of nearby defects.

The measured depletion surface potential can be converted into an estimate of the local Fermi energy near the defect with $`V_{tip}=0`$. As carriers are added to the depleted region, both the electrostatic potential, $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, and the Fermi energy, $`ϵ_F`$, increase. With $`N`$ carriers added to a region of length $`l`$, these become $`e\mathrm{\Phi }=Ne^2/Cl`$, and $`ϵ_F=N/Dl`$, where $`C`$ is the total capacitance of the region per unit length, and $`D`$ is the density of states per unit length, assumed constant for clarity. We estimate the capacitance from a co-axial geometry ($`C2\pi ϵϵ_0/ln(2h/r)`$ 30 pF/m = 0.2 e/V-nm, where $`h`$ = 200 nm is the oxide thickness and $`r`$ = 1 nm the CNFET radiusMartel1 ) and compare it to the “quantum capacitance”Lury  $`e^2D`$ = 2.4 e/V-nm, assuming four-fold level degeneracy (spin and subband) and Fermi velocity $`\mathrm{}v_F`$ = 0.5 eV-nm, appropriate for metallic nanotubes. Semiconducting tubes have a larger density of states near the band edge but approach this value away from the van Hove singularity. The ratio $`C/e^2D=1/12`$ leads to an estimated Fermi energy of 20, 35, 50, and 25 meV for the strong defects 1 - 4 in Fig. 2(a) - (e).

To further characterize defect related transport properties of the nanotube, we perform simultaneous SIM (Ref. Kalinin ; schematic Fig. 1(a)) to determine the local potential along the CNFET length. The tip and backgate are held at constant voltages $`V_{tip}`$ and $`V_g`$. A lateral bias: $`V_{lat}=V_{dc}+V_{ac}cos(\omega t)`$ is applied to the sample to give an oscillating surface potential $`V_{surf}=V_s+V_{ac}(x)cos((\omega t)+\phi (x))`$, where $`V_{ac}(x)`$ and $`\phi (x)`$ are the amplitude and phase shift of the voltage oscillation, and $`V_s`$ the dc surface potential. The first harmonic of the electrostatic force on the tip is directly proportional to $`V_{ac}(x)`$, and the amplitude and phase shift signal from the cantilever reflect the amplitude and phase of the surface potential oscillation.Kalinin

When biased at a small negative voltage (e.g. $`V_{tip}=`$ -1 V), the tip slightly enhances the local carrier density but acts as a weakly-invasive probe of the potential distribution. In Fig. 4(a) we see that when the CNFET is “off” (poorly conducting, transport current 40 nA) at $`V_g=`$ +0.7 V, SIM shows clearly resolved potential steps at defects 2 and 4, while a series of weaker scattering centers give a uniform voltage increase in the neighborhood of defect 3. The nanotube is divided into multiple conducting segments separated by distinct barriers at stronger defects. Figure 4(b) shows that SIM indicates a uniform potential drop along the device when the CNFET is “on” (conducting, transport current 350 nA) with $`V_g=`$ 0 V. All defects are far from depletion, and each acts as a weak scatterering site: transport along the CNFET is diffusive. We have reported evidence for ballistic transport in semiconducting nanotubes at very high electrostatic doping.Radosavljevic ; CJ  SIM measurements in this regime are in progress and will be reported elsewhere.

Figures 2(d)-(e) show that the large SGM signal from defects 3 and 4 obscure a set of weak defects that lie between these two. These weaker defects can be studied using a “tip-gated” SIM mode with a large positive voltage applied to the tip gate. At this voltage, the tip gate strongly alters the density and voltage profile beneath it. If the tip voltage is sufficient to deplete a defect, a potential step is created at the defect site, resulting in a large SIM signal when the tip is precisely above the defect, with a sharp reduction in signal as the tip moves away. This “tip-gating” mode enables high resolution imaging of weak defects, even if they lie near other stronger defects (Fig. 2 (i)-(j)). This approach is extremely effective in detecting weak defects and will be used in future experiments to determine their associated Fermi energies.

In conclusion, we have studied defects in semiconducting SWNTs by AC-SGM and SIM. The imaged defect size in SGM increases linearly with tip potential, in agreement with an analysis of the electrostatic interactions. This is used to determine the depletion surface potential and Fermi energy for individual defects, ranging from 110 - 340 meV and 20 - 55 meV respectively, for the strong defects observed in this experiment. SIM shows a series of potential drops located at defect sites when the CNFET is in the “off” state, and a uniform potential drop along the CNFET, indicative of diffusive conduction, when it is in the “on” state. Finally, a novel self-gating SIM mode is used to image defects with enhanced resolution even when they are weak and located close to strong defects.

We acknowledge the support from MRSEC grant NSF DMR 00-79909 and valuable discussions with M. Cohen, E.J. Mele, and M. Radosavljević.

Figure Captions

Figure 1. (a) Setup for scanning gate microscopy (SGM) and scanning impedance microscopy (SIM). In SGM, transport current is measured as a function of tip-gate position. In SIM, the local voltage oscillation is measured. (b) AFM topography image of the CNFET. (c) Schematic of valence band energy modulation due to defects. Vertical black bar is the local Fermi energy. The tip depletes the shaded part of the tube below it.

Figure 2. (a) - (e) SGM images with tip voltage of 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 V, respectively. Lateral bias is 0.3 $`V_{pp}`$ for (a) - (c), 0.1 $`V_{pp}`$ for (d), (e). Back-gate voltage is -1 V. (f) \- (j) Simultaneously acquired SIM images. Weak defects are clearly resolved at high tip voltage (see text). Defects 1 - 4 and the edges of the electrical contacts are shown in (c). The diagonal line in (c) is used for the SIM line scans of Fig. 4.

Figure 3. SGM imaged defect diameter increases linearly with tip voltage. The slope of the line gives the depletion surface potential of each defect.

Figure 4. (a) When the CNFET is in the “off” state, SIM shows voltage steps at the position of strong defects. The bias, backgate, and tip voltages are $`V_{ac}=`$ 0.1 $`V_{pp}`$, $`V_g=`$ 0.7 V, and $`V_{tip}=`$ -1 V. Lateral bias is $`V_{ac}=`$ 0.1 $`V_{pp}`$. At the voltage of $`V_{tip}=`$ -1 V the tip is a non-invasive probe. (b) SIM images a uniformly increasing potential along the CNFET in the “on” state (backgate = 0 V). The line for both scans is indicated in Fig. 2(c).


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# Everpresent Λ

## I Introduction

The most startling discovery to emerge from the recent plethora of cosmological data is that the universe appears to be dominated by dark energy Concordance ; SN ; CMB . We know that this dark energy accounts for roughly seventy percent of the energy density in the universe, does not cluster like ordinary matter, and has negative pressure. Otherwise, we are in the dark about the nature of this extraordinary phenomenon.

Perhaps the most popular explanation is that the dark energy is due to a cosmological constant, for such a parameter was introduced into general relativity at its birth Einstein  and has remained an important tool for cosmologists seeking to model the observed universe age . The strongest argument against the cosmological constant is that naively we expect it to contribute an energy density, $`\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, of order $`m_p^4=(8\pi G)^2`$, where $`G`$ is Newton’s constant and $`m_p`$ is the reduced Planck Mass111In this paper, we will use units in which $`\mathrm{}=c=m_p=1`$.. This estimate is some one hundred and twenty orders of magnitude larger than the observed value. An equivalent way of stating the problem is to note that only today is the cosmological constant of order the ambient density in matter or radiation. At all past epochs, $`\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ was sub-dominant and immensely so. Many people have felt that no theory could naturally predict such a tiny value for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ (or equivalently such a late epoch for it to become relevant) without predicting $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ to vanish entirely, and for this reason they have sought other explanations of the observations.

Many alternatives to the cosmological constant have been proposed. Most significant among these are quintessence models in which the dark energy is due to a homogeneous scalar field shifted away from the true minimum of its potential quintessence . Like a simple cosmological constant, many of these suffer from the “Why Now?” problem: Why does the quintessence field come to dominate only recently? They also typically need to explain the small mass scale necessary for the field to be important today ($`m\begin{array}{c}<\hfill \\ \hfill \end{array}10^{33}`$ eV). Even more disturbing, none of them are connected to realistic particle physics models. Perhaps then, instead of altering the energy content of the universe, we need to look in another direction and modify gravity in order to explain the dark energy today.

The simulations reported here flesh out an old heuristic prediction LamPred  of a fluctuating cosmological term arising from the basic tenets of causal set theory.222For an introduction to the causal set hypothesis see prlcs . In normal usage, the words “cosmological term” refer to a contribution to the effective stress-energy-momentum tensor of the form $`T_{\mu \nu }=g_{\mu \nu }\mathrm{\Lambda }(x)`$. However, in classical General Relativity (GR) such a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(x)`$ must be constant if the total energy momentum in other matter components is separately conserved. Here we consider a specific modification of GR motivated by the search for a theory of quantum gravity based on causal sets.

Although the ultimate status and precise interpretation of the prediction of a fluctuating $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ must await the development of a quantum dynamics for causal sets dprrds , the basic lines of the argument are simple and general enough that they have a certain independence of their own. In this paper we review the motivation for a fluctuating $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ from causal set theory, propose an ansatz for the form of these fluctuations, apply the latter to the Friedmann equation with time-dependent cosmological term, and find that we can have a viable cosmology for some fraction of the solutions. Finally, we address issues related to our choice of evolution equations.

## II Causet Theory

Here, we will review the arguments leading to a fluctuating cosmological term and then describe the specific ansatz via which we have chosen to implement their main implication: that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ can be expected to fluctuate and with a magnitude that diminishes as the universe grows older.

In causal set (“causet”) theory, the predicted fluctuations arise, as a kind of residual (and nonlocal) quantum effect, from the underlying space-time discreteness. More specifically, the basic inputs to the argument are: space-time discreteness leading to a finite number $`N`$ of elements; the interpretation of space-time volume $`𝒱`$ as a direct reflection of $`N`$; the conjugacy of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ to space-time volume $`𝒱`$; and the existence of fluctuations in $`𝒱`$ coming from Poisson fluctuations in $`N`$. (Of these four inputs, the first is not peculiar to causal sets, but the remaining ones all are to a greater or lesser extent.)

The two most basic tenets of causal set theory are first, that the causal ordering of events in macroscopic space-time reflects a more fundamental order relation among the elements of an underlying discrete structure to which continuous spacetime is only an approximation, and second, that the four-volume of a region of spacetime reflects the number of discrete elements of which the region is “composed”. The hypothesized discrete substratum or causal set is taken to be a partially ordered set and its dynamics is conceived of as a kind of growth process in which elements come into being, one at a time. Although a classically stochastic dynamics expressing these ideas is by now fairly well developed developed , a corresponding quantum dynamics is only just beginning to be sought. Any prediction of quantum fluctuations in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ must therefore rest on an anticipation of certain features of this “new QCD” (quantum causet dynamics).

Let us begin by assuming that, at some level of approximation, this dynamics will correspond to a space-time “path integral” in which one is summing over certain classes of four-geometries. At the deeper level however, this will still be a sum over causal sets. Then let us take from the already developed classical growth models for causal sets the feature that the ever growing number $`N`$ of causet elements plays the role of a kind of parameter time – the time in which the stochastic process which mathematically represents the growth unfolds, and with respect to which the probabilities are normalized. Just as one does not sum over time in ordinary quantum mechanics, one would not expect to sum over causets with different values of $`N`$ in the quantum theory. But, because number corresponds macroscopically to volume $`𝒱`$, this translates into the statement that one should hold $`𝒱`$ fixed in performing the gravitational path integral. Any wave function that arises will therefore depend not only on suitable boundary data (say a three-geometry) but also on a four-volume parameter $`𝒱`$. Such a restricted path integral may be called “unimodular”.

Now the unimodular modification of ordinary GR has been fairly well studied unimodular , and it is understood that within it, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`𝒱`$ are conjugate in the same way that energy and time are conjugate in ordinary quantum mechanics. (Indeed this is almost obvious from the fact that the cosmological constant term in the action-integral of general relativity is just the product $`\mathrm{\Lambda }𝒱`$.) In particular, this means that, to the extent that $`𝒱`$ is held fixed in the gravitational sum-over-histories, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ will be entirely undetermined by the fundamental parameters of the theory. (Again this is almost obvious by reference to the classical limit of unimodular gravity, where the Lagrange multiplier used to implement the fixed $`𝒱`$ constraint combines with any “bare” $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ in such a way that the observed or “renormalized” $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ represents nothing more than a constant of integration.)

If this were the whole story, then our conclusion would be that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is subject to quantum fluctuations (just like energy $`E`$ in ordinary quantum mechanics) but it would not be possible to say anything about their magnitude, nor about the magnitude of the mean $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ about which the fluctuations would occur.

But here there enters a second aspect of the causal set hypothesis that we have not mentioned earlier. In order to do justice to local Lorentz invariance, the correspondence between number and volume cannot be exact, but it must be subject to Poisson type fluctuations333More specifically, the correspondence between the underlying causet and the approximating space-time is via a notion of “Poisson sprinkling” at unit density, see references prlcs ; lucadavid  for details., which of course have a typical scale of $`\sqrt{N}`$. This means that, in holding $`N`$ fixed at the fundamental level, we in effect fix $`𝒱`$ only up to fluctuations of magnitude $`\pm \sqrt{𝒱}`$. (Notice that these are not dynamical fluctuations. Rather they occur at a kinematic level: that of the correspondence between order theoretic and spatio-temporal variables.) Hence, we do end up integrating over some limited range of $`𝒱`$ after all, and correspondingly we do determine $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ to some degree — but only modulo fluctuations that get smaller as $`𝒱`$ gets larger. Specifically, we have

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Lambda }1/\mathrm{\Delta }𝒱1/\sqrt{𝒱}.$$
(1)
As any proper dilemma should, that of the cosmological constant has two horns: Why is $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ so nearly zero and Why is it not exactly zero? None of what we have said so far bears on the first question, only on the second. All we can conclude is that partially integrating over $`𝒱`$ in the effective gravitational path integral will drive us toward some value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. We must assume, as the evidence overwhelmingly suggests, that this “target value” is zero, for reasons still to be understood.444One possible mechanism is that only $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ is stable against the destructive interference induced by non-manifold fluctuations of the causal set. Then we end up predicting fluctuations about zero of a magnitude given by (1).

Independent of specifics, the space-time volume $`𝒱`$ should be roughly equal to the fourth power of the Hubble radius, $`H^1`$. Therefore, at all times we expect the energy density in the cosmological constant to be of order

$$\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }𝒱^{1/2}H^2\rho _{\mathrm{critical}}$$
(2)
the critical density (recall that we are setting $`8\pi G=1`$). We thus obtain a prediction for today’s $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ which agrees in order of magnitude with current fits to the astronomical data. And this argument is not limited to today: at all times we expect the energy density in the cosmological constant to be of order the critical density.

This is the basic idea, but any attempt to implement it immediately raises questions whose answers we can at present only guess at, pending the development of a fuller quantum dynamics for causets. At a conceptual level there is first of all the question of precisely how to interpret the $`𝒱`$ that figures in equation (1) and second of all the question how to incorporate a fluctuating $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ into some suitable modification of the Einstein equations. At a more practical level, if we aim to understand, for example, how fluctuations in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ would have affected structure formation, we need to know, not only their typical magnitude at each moment of cosmic time, but also how the fluctuations at one moment correlate with those at other moments.

Concerning the conceptual questions, we will, for present purposes, resolve them provisionally as follows. First we impose spatial homogeneity, so that the Einstein equations reduce to a pair of ordinary differential equations for the scale factor $`a`$. Of these two equations, one, the so called Friedmann equation or Hamiltonian constraint, is first order in time and embodies the energy law in this setting, while the second involves $`\ddot{a}`$ and, in the case of a non-fluctuating $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, adds no information to the first, except at moments when $`\dot{a}=0`$. They cannot both be compatible with a time dependent cosmological term when other energy momentum components are separately conserved, so we choose one over the other. Specifically, we choose to interpret $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ via its role in the Friedmann equation. That is, we retain the Friedmann equation but let $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ be a function of time, dropping the second equation entirely.

The quantity $`𝒱`$ which governs the magnitude of the fluctuations in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ we will identify (up to an unknown factor of order unity) with the volume of the past light cone of any representative point on the hypersurface for which we want the value of $`𝒱`$, as illustrated in Figure 1. Although this interpretation is somewhat at odds with the meaning that $`𝒱`$ has in the unimodular context, it seems more in accord with causality, and it is the only number accessible to observation in any useful sense.

With these choices made, the only remaining question is what sort of random process we want to use to simulate our fluctuating $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. Ideally perhaps, this would be some sort of “quantal stochastic process” (since the underlying process is quantal), but here we do the simplest thing possible and let the fluctuations in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ be driven by those of an unadorned random walk. In fact the ansatz we will use has some appeal in its own right as an independent “story” of why the cosmological constant might be expected to fluctuate in any discrete quantum gravity theory that incorporates the equality $`N=𝒱`$ between volume and number of elements.

With reference to the Einstein-Hilbert Lagrangian, one could describe the cosmological constant as the “action per unit space-time volume which is due just to the existence of space-time as such, independent of any excitations such as matter or gravitational waves”. Re-interpreting volume as number of elements, we can say then that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the “action per element”. One would expect this to be of order unity in fundamental units, and if we identify the latter with Planck units, we get the old answer which is off by some 120 orders of magnitude. On the other hand, if we suppose that each element makes its own contribution and these contributions fluctuate in sign555It would probably be more suitable to speak not in terms of action $`S`$ but rather $`\mathrm{exp}(iS/\mathrm{})`$ and say that the contributions (now multiplicative rather than additive) fluctuate in phase. then the relative smallness of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ will be explained; but one would also expect a residual $`\sqrt{N}`$ contribution to $`S`$ to remain uncanceled. Consequently, there would remain a residual contribution to the action per element of $`\sqrt{N}/N=1/\sqrt{N}`$, in agreement with our earlier argument.

To implement such an ansatz is now straightforward. What we need for the sake of the Friedmann equation is just $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ as a function of $`N`$ (or equivalently of $`𝒱`$). To produce such a function we just generate a string of random numbers of mean 0 and standard deviation 1 (say) and identify $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(N)`$ with the ratio $`S(N)/N`$, where $`S(N)`$ is the sum of the first $`N`$ of our random numbers. Modulo implementational details this is the scheme we have used in the simulations on which we report next.

## III Simulations

We take as the space-time volume

$$𝒱(t)=\frac{4\pi }{3}_0^t𝑑t^{}a(t^{})^3\left[_t^{}^t𝑑t^{\prime \prime }/a(t^{\prime \prime })\right]^3$$
(3)
where $`a(t)`$ is the scale factor of the universe at proper time $`t`$. Note from this formula that the backward light-cones depicted in Figure 1 are quite deceptive: because $`a(t)`$ was much smaller in the past and vanishes at the Big Bang, most of the four-volume $`𝒱`$ of these light cones accumulates recently. One consequence of this is that $`𝒱H^4`$ recently even if there was a period of cosmic inflation in the early universe.

Our algorithm for calculating the cosmological constant at time-step $`i+1`$ is then to set

$$\delta N_iN_{i+1}N_i=𝒱(t_{i+1})𝒱(t_i)$$
(4)
and then write

$`\rho _{\mathrm{\Lambda },i+1}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{S_{i+1}}{N_{i+1}}}`$ (5)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{S_i+\alpha \xi _{i+1}\sqrt{\delta N_i}}{N_i+\delta N_i}}.`$
Here $`\alpha `$ is an unknown dimensionless parameter which governs the dynamics of the theory; $`\xi _{i+1}`$ is a random number with mean 0 and standard deviation 1; and $`S_0`$ is set to zero at some very early time $`t_0`$. We then expand the universe according to

$$H^2=\left(\frac{\dot{a}}{a}\right)^2=\frac{1}{3}\left(\rho _{\mathrm{matter}}+\rho _{\mathrm{radiation}}+\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }\right),$$
(6)
recompute the new space-time volume and repeat.

Figure 2 shows the evolution of the energy density in one such realization. During the radiation era, $`\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ scales roughly as $`a^4`$, while during the matter era it scales as $`a^3`$. Thus at all times it is comparable to the ambient energy density. If the recipe we have devised for implementing the ideas of causal set theory and unimodular gravity is an accurate approximation to the ultimate quantum theory, then these modifications of GR do indeed lead to an Everpresent $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, a cosmological term which is always with us tracker .

Hidden in the gross structure of Figure 2 are the fluctuations about this average scaling. These fluctuations are crucial if the theory is to describe the real universe for two reasons: First, there cannot be too much excess energy at $`a10^9`$ or else the successful predictions of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN) will be destroyed. Second, if $`\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ scales exactly as matter today, it will not have the correct equation of state to account for the cosmological observations. Figure 3 shows the ratio of the energy density in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ to the total energy density as a function of the scale factor for another realization, this time with a slightly larger value of $`\alpha `$. This ratio, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, fluctuates about zero with an amplitude of order $`0.5`$ (as we will shortly see, this amplitude is a function of $`\alpha `$). In this particular realization, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ accounts for over fifty percent of the energy density today and changes very little going back to redshift $`z=1`$ ($`a=0.5`$); thus it behaves recently as a true cosmological constant, and therefore satisfies the observed cosmological constraints.

In half the realizations, $`\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ will be positive today. Whether or not it is positive enough to explain the observations then becomes a question of probability. For $`\alpha =0.02`$, it clearly is not that improbable (indeed in the same run, we see another spike in the energy density at $`a0.1`$).

The same qualitative argument applies to the BBN constraint. In fact the situation there is even better. Half the time the extra energy density will be negative, thereby reducing the total energy density in the universe. This in turn will reduce the predicted abundance of 4He. There is some disagreement at present as to whether the current observations agree with the standard cosmological model or not bbn , with some cosmologists arguing that the observed abundances are too low. A negative $`\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ fixes this problem.

Why have we chosen $`\alpha `$ to be small? Our choice is in response to a fundamental incompleteness in our implementation. If $`\alpha 1`$, there will inevitably be times during which the total effective energy density, the sum of the terms in parenthesis on the right side of equation (6), goes negative, thereby invalidating the equation. (Whenever this happens, we terminate the run.) In the next section we offer some thoughts on this problem; here we simply spell it out.

Figure 3 shows a history for $`\alpha =0.02`$ going back to the time of decoupling. If we had started earlier, say at the “Planck time” $`a=10^{32}`$, we would have had only about a 1 in 3 chance of completing the run without hitting a time at which $`\rho _{\mathrm{tot}}`$ went negative. Moving $`\alpha `$ down to $`0.01`$ evades this problem; for that parameter choice, very few runs hit a time at which the total energy goes negative. However, for $`\alpha `$ that small, the fluctuations are also small. Figure 4 shows a histogram of final values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ for $`6000`$ realizations each with $`\alpha =0.01`$. Only rarely does the final value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ approach those necessary to explain the observations.

There is therefore a tension: if we push $`\alpha `$ too low, it becomes very unlikely that $`\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ will be large enough today to agree with observations. If we push $`\alpha `$ too high, there inevitably comes a time at which the total energy density in the universe becomes negative, and the simulation cannot continue. Of course we are dealing with probabilities, so for any value of $`\alpha `$ there is always the chance that the total energy density remains positive throughout the history of the universe and the final value of $`\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is large enough to account for observations. Fortunately, this happens reasonably often for $`\alpha `$ in the range $`0.010.02`$. Nonetheless, we suspect that we will ultimately have to deal more directly with possibility that $`\rho _{\mathrm{tot}}`$ goes negative.

## IV Complications

We can think of two ways to deal with a negative $`\rho _{\mathrm{tot}}`$ without having to terminate the simulation: change the implementation so that this never occurs or reinterpret $`\rho _{\mathrm{tot}}`$ going to zero (or negative) so as to give a viable cosmology without having to fine tune $`\alpha `$.

One approach would be to suppose that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ fluctuates but is positive semi-definite. This is the position adopted by Ng and van Dam in reference Ng01 . There, they argue that the kernel for the Euclidean gravitational path integral over $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ histories takes the form

$$e^{S_E}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{24\pi ^2}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\right),$$
(7)
in our units. From this, they argue that the most probable value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is zero and that, if it is not zero, it must be positive. As they observe, however, this result is peculiar to the assumptions of Euclidean quantum gravity with all its uncertainties and controversy. In particular, this result does not seem to follow from causal set theory or unimodular gravity by themselves and we do not favour it.

Another possibility would be to suppose that the cosmological term comes from a decrease in the local energy of one of the matter fields or gravitational waves. This is the philosophy of, for example, Chen and Wu ChenWu  who consider a non-fluctuating, but time dependent, cosmological term $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(t)a^2(t)`$. Of course, this supposition is forced upon us if all of Einstein’s equations are to be simultaneously satisfied exactly. That is, Einstein’s equations—the contracted Bianchi identity in particular—require that total energy-momentum be conserved. Thus, in classical GR, the cosmological term cannot fluctuate without a compensating fluctuation in the energy-momentum density of one or more of the matter fields.

As stated in the introduction, our approach has been to solve this problem by maintaining only the Friedmann equation as exact. Nevertheless, let us try instead to adapt the solution above to our case. Suppose that some matter component, let us take gravitational waves as a concrete example, is somehow converted into the energy density of a cosmological term, while the energy density in every other component (dust, radiation, etc.) is separately covariantly conserved. The first law, $`\frac{d}{dt}\left[\left(\rho _{\mathrm{tot}}+p_{\mathrm{tot}}\right)a^3\right]=a^3\frac{dp_{\mathrm{tot}}}{dt}`$, applied to these two components becomes:

$$\dot{\rho }_{\mathrm{grav}}=4H\rho _{\mathrm{grav}}\dot{\mathrm{\Lambda }}(t),$$
(8)
where $`H`$ is the Hubble parameter. As could be expected, an increase in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ must lead to a decrease in the energy density in the gravity waves. However, for a generic fluctuating $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(t)`$, the cosmological term might increase enough that the energy density in gravity waves becomes negative. It’s not clear how this could be interpreted and it appears that we would simply exchange one problem with another. Note that, in the case of Chen and Wu ChenWu , this is not a problem. Their cosmological term decreases monotonically with the expansion of the universe. Thus, we see that this solution can work with a fluctuating $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ if we demand that $`\dot{\mathrm{\Lambda }}0`$. In fact, relaxation processes of this sort have been considered for some time. The earliest we are aware of is that of Abbott Abbott . Recently, there has been renewed interest in a similar suggestion of Brown and Teitelboim BT  where domains of four-form flux decay spontaneously, relaxing the effective local value of the cosmological term, see GHT  for recent references. The difficulty with these proposals is again the “Why now?” problem: relaxation rates and/or boundary values must be tuned for any hope to obtain a viable cosmology.666Of course, back when Abbott and Brown and Teitelboim first made their suggestions, there was no compelling evidence for a non-vanishing cosmological term. One needed only to make it small enough.

All in all, neither of these proposals really seems to address the central difficulty: Within the contexts of causal set theory and unimodular gravity, the sign of the total effective energy density is fundamentally not constrained. We see no good reason to assume either that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is positive definite or that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ will always decrease. Thus, let us seek instead to understand what happens when $`\rho _{\mathrm{tot}}`$ approaches and perhaps goes through zero. Our guide will be the classical theory. Consider, for example, a dust filled, flat universe with a negative cosmological constant $`\lambda _0<0`$ (a true constant). The 0-0 component of Einstein’s equations gives us the Friedmann equation: $`3H^2=\rho _{\mathrm{tot}}`$. Meanwhile, the $`i`$-$`i`$ component gives us the deceleration: $`2\frac{\ddot{a}}{a}=|\lambda _0|H^2`$. We see that, once the matter has red-shifted enough that the total energy density vanishes, the universe stops expanding and begins to contract. As it contracts, the energy density in matter once again begins to exceed the magnitude of the cosmological term and $`\rho _{\mathrm{tot}}`$ never becomes negative.

We expect that something like this phenomenology will carry over into our case except that, with a fluctuating cosmological term, it seems likely that the collapse can reverse itself if the cosmological term later becomes sufficiently negative a second time. This is in contrast with the classical example above where once the universe starts to collapse, the matter term always dominates and keeps $`\ddot{a}/a`$ negative. In our model, however, we would expect the amplitude of the cosmological term’s fluctuations to track the matter or radiation energy density in the collapsing universe.

Of course, none of this follows from the simple evolution ansatz we have applied in this paper. Such detailed dynamical understanding must await further developments. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to suppose that the complete theory will reduce in stages: a full theory with non-metric structures at the Planck scale and a semi-classical theory describing metric structures at larger scales. Furthermore, it is reasonable that the semi-classical theory will be describable as some sort of sum-over-histories, where the intermediate states are three-geometries. We can envisage the evolution equation we propose as some sort of classical approximation to propagation in a stochastic potential. In the sum-over-histories theory, we expect the case $`\rho _{\mathrm{tot}}<0`$ will correspond to a tunneling-type solution. Our difficulty in handling $`\rho _{\mathrm{tot}}<0`$ here is, in this sense, no different from the standard problem of finding an effective, classical description of barrier penetration.

## V Conclusion

It is still too early to understand the full implications of recent cosmic discoveries that point to dark energy in the universe. A number of possibilities have previously been explored in detail, including a non-zero cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and zero $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ with dark energy hidden in a scalar field.

It is also possible, though, that the measurements are telling us that we need to modify our understanding of space and time. In particular, the notion that space-time is continuous may be simply an approximation that breaks down on scales as small as the Planck scale. If so, drawing on ideas from causal set theory – which postulates a discrete space-time – and unimodular gravity, we have shown that the cosmological “constant” need not be a fixed parameter. Rather, it arguably fluctuates about zero with a magnitude $`1/\sqrt{𝒱}`$, $`𝒱`$ being some measure of the past four volume. The amplitude of these fluctuations is then of the right order of magnitude to explain the dark energy in the universe. This argument is so general that it would apply at all times, and, indeed, we expect the energy density in the cosmological “constant” to always be of order the ambient density in the universe.

In §IV, we presented a number of issues which inevitably will confront anyone wishing to implement this idea. Until these issues are resolved, it will be difficult to make unambiguous, robust predictions. Nevertheless, one can already see that this theory of a fluctuating $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ differs significantly from most other solutions to the dark energy problem. Most important for its testability is the notion that it may have affected the evolution of the universe at early times. Thus, the primordial generation of perturbations during a possible inflationary phase; production of light elements in Big Bang Nucleosynthesis; acoustic oscillations in the background radiation; and the evolution of structure at more recent times all may yield clues and tests of the idea of an everpresent $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$.

This work was supported by the DOE at Fermilab, by NASA grant NAG5-10842 and by NSF Grant PHY-0079251. It was also supported at Syracuse University by NSF Grant PHY-0098488 and by an EPSRC Senior Fellowship at Queen Mary College, University of London. SD and RDS would like to acknowledge the hospitality of the Aspen Center for Physics where their collaboration began, and RDS would like to acknowledge the hospitality of Goodenough College, London, where part of this work was done. PBG would like to acknowledge useful conversations with J. Moffatt at the University of Toronto and the hospitality of the Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics while there.


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# Interaction between the Northeastern Boundary of Sgr A East and Giant Molecular Clouds

## 1 Introduction

Sgr A East has frequently been interpreted as a supernova remnant due to its shell structure and non-thermal spectrum (Jones 1974; Goss et al. 1983 and references therein; and see the more recent references in Maeda et al. 2002). Some recent research, however, has suggested that the energetics, size, and elongated morphology ($`3\times 4`$ arcmin or $`7\times 9`$ pc at $`d=8.5`$ kpc) of Sgr A East cannot have been produced by a typical supernova (Yusef-Zadeh & Morris, 1987; Mezger et al., 1989). Mezger et al. (1989) estimate the required energy to produce Sgr A East to be more than $`4\times 10^{52}`$ ergs. Modeling of the entire spectrum of Sgr A East by Fatuzzo et al. (1999), which fits very well with the observations of the non-thermal emission of Sgr A East and EGRET $`\gamma `$-ray sources, supports the energy estimate by Mezger et al. (1989). Those authors concluded that a single supernova explosion could explain the existence of Sgr A East only if it occurred within the cavity formed by the stellar wind from a progenitor star. In that scenario, however, the formation of the cavity takes too much time ($`10^6`$ yr) compared with the orbital period ($`10^5`$ yr) of matter circling around the Galactic centre (Mezger et al., 1989).

Yusef-Zadeh & Morris (1987) suggested that a different kind of explosive event could create Sgr A East. The energy required to make a huge shell such as Sgr A East has been associated with a ‘hypernova’ (Woosley, Eastman, & Schmidt, 1999). Khokhlov & Melia (1996) hypothesize that Sgr A East may be the remnant of a solar mass star tidally disrupted by a massive black hole. Their model can naturally explain the elongated shape of Sgr A East as well as the extreme energetics. However, from their observation with the Chandra X-ray Observatory, Maeda et al. (2002) suggest that Sgr A East should be classified as a metal-rich ‘mixed morphology’ supernova remnant . They argue that the model of Khokhlov & Melia (1996) cannot reproduce the metal-rich abundances observed at the centre of Sgr A East. They also conclude that a single Type II supernova explosion with an energy of $`10^{51}`$ ergs into an homogeneous ambient medium with a density of $`10^3\mathrm{cm}^3`$ can most simply explain the results of both radio and X-ray observations, and thus that the extreme energy of $`10^{52}`$ ergs is not required.

In principle, the energy of the explosive event can be directly measured by studying regions where Sgr A East is colliding with ambient interstellar material. By tracing the dynamics of molecular gas, an interaction between the eastern part of Sgr A East and the giant molecular cloud (GMC) M-0.02-0.07 (also known as the ‘$`50\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ cloud’) has been inferred (Genzel et al., 1990; Ho et al., 1991; Serabyn, Lacy, & Achtermann, 1992; Mezger, Duschl, & Zylka, 1996; Novak, 1999; Coil & Ho, 2000). Recent observations of NH3(3,3) emission in the region show that Sgr A East impacts material to the north and west as well (see Fig. 1) (McGary, Coil, & Ho, 2001). As direct evidence of this interaction, several 1720 MHz OH masers, which are a good diagnostic of the continuous, or C-type, shock excitation (Frail et al., 1996; Wardle, Yusef-Zadeh, & Geballe, 1999), have been detected along the southern edge of Sgr A East and to the north of the circum-nuclear disc (CND) (Yusef-Zadeh et al., 1996).

Wardle et al. (1999) and Yusef-Zadeh et al. (1999b, 2001) detected H2 line emission in regions where OH-masers have been detected. In most cases H2 line emission arises either from thermal excitation (e.g. by shock heating) or from non-thermal excitation by far-UV absorption (Black & van Dishoeck, 1987; Burton, 1992; Pak et al., 1998). One can in principle distinguish between these two mechanisms by comparing near-infrared (near-IR) line intensities. The $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)`$ / $`\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ ratio has been an effective discriminant in a number of shocked regions (where the ratio should be $`0.3`$) and photodissociation regions (PDRs) (where it is about 0.5 – 0.6). However, a ‘thermal’ line ratio can be observed in a PDR – even though fluorescence is the dominant excitation mechanism – if the gas density is high ($`10^5\mathrm{cm}^3`$; Sternberg & Dalgarno 1989). Gatley et al. (1984) observed the CND and concluded that the H2 molecules are excited by collisions, while the results for larger regions (about $`2\times 2`$ deg2) by Pak, Jaffe, & Keller (1996a, b) are consistent with non-thermal excitation. The interpretation of Wardle et al. (1999) and Yusef-Zadeh et al. (1999b, 2001) that the line emission in Sgr A East is thermal is supported by the presence of the 1720 MHz OH masers. It is therefore likely that Sgr A East is indeed driving shocks into the adjacent GMCs to the south and into the CND.

The fields observed by Wardle et al. (1999) and Yusef-Zadeh et al. (1999b, 2001) are restricted to the vicinity of the CND and cover only some of the regions where interaction of the Sgr A East shell with surrounding material is expected. Before one can hope to estimate the energy released in the event that created Sgr A East, it is necessary to observe additional interaction regions in diagnostic lines of H2 at high spectral resolution. In this paper we present velocity-resolved, near-IR H2 observations at the northeastern boundary of Sgr A East. By measuring $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)`$ / $`\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ line ratios and line profiles simultaneously we aim to study the excitation and kinematics of the interaction between Sgr A East and M-0.02-0.07.

## 2 Observation and Data reduction

We observed the $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)(\lambda =2.1218\mathrm{\mu m})`$ and the $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)(\lambda =2.2477\mathrm{\mu m})`$ spectra at the 3.8 m United Kingdom Infra-Red Telescope (UKIRT) in Hawaii on 2001 August 3 and 4 (UT), using the Cooled Grating Spectrometer 4 (CGS4; Mountain et al. 1990) with a 31 l/mm echelle grating, 300 mm focal length camera optics and a two-pixel-wide slit. The spatial resolution along the slit was 0.90 arcsec for $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ with the grating angle of 64 $`\stackrel{}{.}`$691 and 0.84 arcsec for $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)`$ with 62 $`\stackrel{}{.}`$127, respectively; the slit widths on the sky were 0.83 and 0.89 arcsec, respectively, for these two configurations. The slit length is $``$ 90 arcsec. The instrumental resolutions, measured from Gaussian fits to sky lines in our raw data, were $`17\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ for $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ and $`19\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ for $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)`$, respectively.

Ten parallel slit positions were observed, sampling a $`90\times 27`$ arcsec area on the northeastern boundary of Sgr A East. The slit was oriented $`40\mathrm{°}`$ east of north for each measurement; adjacent slit positions were separated by 3 arcsec perpendicular to the slit axis. The coordinates at the centre of the observed area are $`\alpha =17^\mathrm{h}45^\mathrm{m}45\stackrel{s}{.}9,\delta =28\mathrm{°}59\mathrm{}05\mathrm{}`$ (J2000) (see Fig. 1). The southwestern part of this region includes the ‘outer H2 clumps’ from which H2 emission was detected by Yusef-Zadeh et al. (2001). Only the ninth slit position, hereafter called ‘Slit 9’, was observed in both $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ and $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)`$. The telescope was nodded between object and blank sky positions every 25 minutes, to subtract the background and telluric OH line emission. The sky positions were offset by about 2 $`\stackrel{}{.}`$5 ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha =2\stackrel{}{.}03,\mathrm{\Delta }\delta =0\stackrel{}{.}85`$) from the on-source positions.

Initial data reduction steps, involving bias-subtraction and flat-fielding (using an internal blackbody lamp), were accomplished by the automated Observatory Reduction and Acquisition Control (orac) pipeline at UKIRT. iraf was used for the remainder of the reduction. We corrected the spectral distortion along the dispersion axis using the spectrum of the standard star HR 6496 as a template. The sky OH lines were then used to correct for spatial distortion perpendicular to this axis and also for wavelength calibration. We also corrected for the motions of the Earth and Sun in order to determine local standard of rest (LSR) velocities.

Only part of the flux from a standard star is detected due to the narrow slit; hence for proper flux calibration the measured signal must be corrected. We assumed a circularly symmetric PSF for the star, based on the flux profile along the slit length, to estimate the missing flux. The correction factor, which varies with the seeing, ranged from 2.06 to 2.56. Near-IR emission from the Galactic centre is attenuated by interstellar material in the foreground (mostly 4 – 8 kpc from the Galactic centre) and by material in the Galactic centre itself. Since we believe that the H2 line emission originates from the surface of the cloud, we ignore the latter (Pak et al., 1996a, b) and correct only for foreground extinction; which we assume to be $`A_K=2.5`$ mag (Catchpole, Whitelock, & Glass, 1990).

## 3 Results and Discussion

### 3.1 $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ emission

Bright (1.6 – 21 $`\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}10}^{18}\mathrm{W}\mathrm{m}^2\mathrm{arcsec}^2`$) H2 emission was detected from most of the observed region ($`90\times 27`$ arcsec) along the northeastern boundary of Sgr A East. We created a SE–NW cut parallel to the boundary of Sgr A East (‘Cut B’) by extracting spectra from each of the ten slit positions. A second cut perpendicular to the boundary (i.e., SW–NE) is composed of six positions from Slit 9. The positions of Cut B and Slit 9 are marked in Fig. 1. Along Cut B, the intensity of NH3 emission varies dramatically; we can investigate both high and low density regions along this cut. Slit 9 is the only slit observed both in $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ and $`\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)`$, the line ratio of which we can use to constrain models for the excitation of H2. In this paper, we present the results of these two cuts, rather than the whole data set, as a preliminary report. We aim to concentrate on the excitation mechanism of the detected H2 emission, and the map the structure and kinematics perpendicular to and parallel to the boundary. From the sixteen $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ spectra in Figs. 2 & 3 we measure line centres and line widths along the interaction region. Each spectrum is well fitted by one or two Gaussian components.

Figs. 4 & 5 show the distributions of the derived $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ line parameters along Cut B and Slit 9, respectively. For direct comparison, we include in these figures data from the NH3(3,3) observations of McGary et al. (2001); the NH3 emission essentially traces the cool ($`100`$ K), dense ($`10^5\mathrm{cm}^3`$), cloud material. From these data we note the following.

* In Figs. 4(a) & 5(a) there are two velocity components, at $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}0\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and $`+50\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Both components are evident in H2 and NH3, although the 0 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ features are not spatially coincident. The variation in the velocity of either component is less than $`20\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ along both Slit 9 and Cut B.
* The H2 line widths in Figs. 4(b) & 5(b) are much broader than the NH3 widths and show no obvious trend along either Slit 9 or Cut B.
* Along Cut B, the distribution of the total intensity of H2 (the solid line in Fig. 4(c)) is quite different from the NH3 (the dashed line; the units are arbitrarily scaled). The NH3 emission increases to the southeast as the cut passes deeper into the body of the GMC M-0.02-0.07, but the H2 emission decreases in this direction. The decrease in H2 may be explained either by exhaustion of the source of excitation (e.g. shock energy or UV photons) or by obscuration, at the inner, more dense, regions of the cloud, or by the geometry of the interaction region (see Section 3.3).
* Along Slit 9, the distribution of the H2 intensity (solid line) in Fig. 5(c) is generally similar to that of NH3 (dashed line). It should be noted that NH3 is attenuated at positions greater than $`+30\mathrm{}`$ by the edge of the primary beam in the VLA mosaic (McGary et al., 2001). There is a small discrepancy between NH3 and H2 between $`+10\mathrm{}`$ and $`+30\mathrm{}`$ which may be the result of the same effects discussed in Cut B. Note that Slit 9 covers a very large spatial scale (90 arcsec). The brightest emission along Slit 9, between offsets $`20\mathrm{}`$ to $`45\mathrm{}`$ (the southwestern part), arises from the outer H2 clumps of Yusef-Zadeh et al. (2001).

### 3.2 H2 excitation

The $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)`$ line was detected at three locations along Slit 9, at positions NE $`23\stackrel{}{.}7`$, SW $`10\stackrel{}{.}5`$, and SW $`22\stackrel{}{.}2`$ relative to the centre of the slit ($`\alpha =17^\mathrm{h}45^\mathrm{m}45\stackrel{s}{.}3,\delta =28\mathrm{°}58\mathrm{}58\mathrm{}`$; J2000). From these data we measured line ratios ($`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)`$ / $`\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$) of $`0.40\pm 0.12`$, $`0.51\pm 0.17`$, and $`0.27\pm 0.07`$, respectively (see Fig. 3). At other positions only the $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ line was detected, with 3$`\sigma `$ upper limits to the ratio of 0.5, 0.6, and 0.1 at offsets of NE $`31\stackrel{}{.}8`$, NE $`4\stackrel{}{.}8`$, and SW $`44\stackrel{}{.}7`$ along Slit 9, respectively.

Fluorescent excitation in a low-density PDR ($`\mathrm{n}(\mathrm{H}_2)<5\times 10^4\mathrm{cm}^3`$) should yield a ratio of about 0.6. A lower ratio is expected in a more dense PDR environment (Black & van Dishoeck, 1987), or in a shock. There are two basic types of shock; ‘jump’ or J-type and ‘continuous’ or C-type (see Draine & McKee 1993 for a review). A J-type shock is formed in a highly ionized or weakly magnetized gas. Fluid parameters such as density and temperature undergo a discontinuous change (jump) at the shock front where the molecules may be dissociated. J-type shocks (with velocities greater than about 24 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) will completely dissociate the molecules (Kwan, 1977); H2 emission occurs from a warm, recombination plateau in the post-shock region. J-type shocks typically produce low line intensities and $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)/\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ line ratios as large as 0.5 are possible (Hollenbach & McKee, 1989). At lower shock velocities, below the H2 dissociation speed limit, J-type shocks may yield much lower line ratios; $`<0.3`$ (Smith, 1995). In a C-type shock, where the magnetic field softens the shock front via ion-magnetosonic wave propagation so that the fluid parameters change continuously across the shock front, the H2 dissociation speed limit is much higher ($``$ 45 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$; depending on the density and magnetic field strength in the pre-shock gas). Smaller line ratios of about 0.2 are then predicted (Smith, 1995; Kaufman & Neufeld, 1996).

From the observed ratios alone we are not able to unambiguously distinguish between excitation mechanisms. Our results can either be explained by fast J-type shocks or dense PDRs, or by a combination of fluorescence and either C-type shocks or slow J-type shocks, since the higher line ratios associated with fluorescence will be tempered by the low $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)`$ intensities associated with collisional excitation in shocks.

To help distinguish between the H2 excitation mechanisms, we consider kinematic information and the spatial variation of the line ratio along slit 9 . At most positions in Figs. 4(b) & 5(b), the H2 line widths are high (typically 40 – 70 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, but as high as 120 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ in some positions). This suggests shock excitation and turbulent motions in the gas and tends to exclude the pure fluorescence models (in which the H2 line emission generally arises from the stationary gas at the edges of neutral clouds illuminated by Far-UV photons from early-type stars). However, in other shocked regions the line ratio is found to be constant over a wide range of $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ intensities and spatial positions (Davis & Smith, 1995; Richter, Graham, & Wright, 1995), although this is not necessarily predicted from theory (Draine & McKee, 1993). Conversely, in a PDR the ratio is sensitive to the incident FUV flux and the molecular gas density (the $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ intensity increases but the $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)`$ / $`\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ ratio decreases with increasing gas density or UV intensity; Usuda et al. 1996; Takami et al. 2000). Thus an unchanging $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)/\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ ratio is found in shocks, while a varying ratio is expected in the pure fluorescent case. The measured line ratio and the $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ intensity in Fig. 5(c), show evidence of an anti-correlation in our data, as expected in dense PDRs. Although the wide line profiles point to shock excitation, fluorescence appears to play a significant role at at least some locations.

Considering the kinematics further, we note that J-type shocks produce narrow lines that peak at the velocity of the shock, while C-type shocks produce broader lines which peak at the velocity of the pre-shock gas and extend up to the shock velocity. Figs. 4(a) & 5(a) show that there are two velocity components that are similar in H2 and NH3. The H2 emission traces hot ($`2000`$ K) gas and the NH3 cool ($`100`$ K) gas. Thus, if we assume that shocks are driven by Sgr A East into cold molecular gas, whose velocities are given by the NH3 data, then fast J-type shocks are inconsistent with our results, due to the low peak velocities of the H2 lines relative to the molecular clouds.

In summary, then, the wide line profiles and low peak velocities indicate C-type shock excitation. However, the high values of the line ratio at some positions along Slit 9 and the spatial variation in that ratio, point to a fluorescent component to the excitation in some locations. A combination of C-type shocks and fluorescence (see e.g. Fernandes, Brand, & Burton 1997) is therefore the most reasonable explanation for the H2 excitation. For the fluorescence, the source of the UV radiation could be either nearby early type stars or J-type shocks. However, as noted above, we see no evidence of J-type shocks in our data. Also, we cannot establish whether nearby stars are the source of the UV flux due to the lack of information on where or how many early type stars there are in the region.

### 3.3 Structure of the interaction region

The extended +50 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ component of the NH3 emission traces the GMC M-0.02-0.07, while the 0 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ component corresponds to the ‘northern ridge’ of McGary et al. (2001) (see the NH3(3,3) channel maps in their Fig. 4). The NH3 component at $``$ +20 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ seen in Fig. 5(a) at negative offsets seems to trace hotter gas according to the NH3(2,2) to (1,1) line ratio map by McGary et al. (2001), which they suggest may be the result of an impact by Sgr A East.

The difference in line width between NH3 and H2 as well as the different spatial locations of their 0 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ features (Fig. 5(a)) indicate that the NH3 and H2 trace fundamentally different components of the gas. The narrow NH3 line widths arise in ambient clouds. The broader H2 line emission traces shocked gas where the NH3 molecules are likely destroyed. One can envision a situation in which Sgr A East is located adjacent to both M-0.02-0.07 (the +50 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ component) and the northern ridge (the 0 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ component), with Sgr A East driving C-type shocks into these clouds.

On the other hand, the fact that the two H2 velocity components overlap along the line-of-sight, yet are roughly equally bright seems somewhat unlikely, as one must be attenuated by the molecular cloud associated with the other. The rough equality might be explained by clumpiness of the foreground cloud, regardless of which one is in the foreground, where a small filling factor of high density clumps are embedded within a less dense medium (Burton, Hollenbach, & Tielens, 1990). The size of such clumps seems to be $`10^4`$$`10^3`$ pc (Garay, Moran, & Reid, 1987; Churchwell et al., 1987), which is smaller than our resolution of $``$ 1 arcsec ($`4\times 10^2`$ pc at the distance of $``$ 8.5 kpc to the Galactic center). As illustrated in Fig. 6, this clumpy structure could explain both the observed decrease of NH3 line emission and the observed increase of H2 line emission toward the edge of the cloud (see the +50 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ components in Figs. 4(c) & 5(c)).

## 4 Conclusion

We observed the northeastern part of the Sgr A East shell in order to investigate its interaction with the GMC M-0.02-0.07. The bright $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ emission is strong evidence that Sgr A East is physically adjacent to, and interacting with, M-0.02-0.07.

By comparing the relative intensities of $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ and $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)`$ emission, the distribution of the $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=21\mathrm{S}(1)`$ / $`\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ line ratio, and the radial velocities of the H2 emission, we can to some extent distinguish between excitation mechanisms for the H2. The line ratios tend to support emission in either fast J-type shocks or a dense PDR. However, on considering the bright $`\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{v}=10\mathrm{S}(1)`$ intensity, the large line widths, and the spatial variation in the line ratio, we conclude that a combination of C-type shocks and fluorescence is required. The presence of shocks is direct evidence that Sgr A East is driving into the surrounding material, and is consistent with the detection of 1720 MHz OH masers to the north of the CND and to the south of Sgr A East (Yusef-Zadeh et al., 1996). Very recently Karlsson et al. (2003) detected the 1720 MHz OH masers also at two positions near our target region, which is more direct evidence supporting our conclusion on the C-type shocks.

The H2 emission covers most parts of our targeted region ($`90\times 27`$ arcsec). The line profiles are made up of two velocity components both of which extend over a significant portion of the region ($`15\times 27`$ arcsec). We find that the NH3(3,3) emission lines observed by McGary et al. (2001) also show a similar kinematic structure, with almost the same velocities. We suggest that the H2 line emission arises at the interfaces between Sgr A East and two independent molecular clouds, with line-of-sight velocities of $``$ +50 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (M-0.02-0.07) and $``$ 0 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (the northern ridge). Both the observed two velocity components of the H2 emission and the difference in the intensity distributions between the H2 and NH3 emission can be understood if the molecular clouds are composed of small dense clumps with a very small filling factor.

To study the origin and evolution of Sgr A East, it would be important to know the total H2 luminosity and the total cooling rate (based on that) over the interaction region, which could be compared with those of well studied SNRs. However, it is very difficult to estimate them with the small amount of information we have at present. Given the uncertainty in the emission mechanisms, even estimating the total H2 luminosity in the small mapped region would be difficult, without considering the entire interaction region. It would be premature for us to estimate the required energy to make the Sgr A East shell. We will be able to do this in the future, after observations of more of the interaction region.

## Acknowledgments

We give special thanks to Young-Sam Yu and Tae-Hyun Kim for their help with the observation. Fig. 1 is reproduced from Fig. 10 of McGary et al. (2001) by permission of the AAS. The United Kingdom Infrared Telescope is operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the U.K. Particle Physics and Astronomy Council. This work was financially supported by the BK21 Project of the Korean Government. TRG’s research is supported by the Gemini Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., on behalf of the international Gemini partnership of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, the United Kingdom and the United States of America.