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# Constraints on Neutrino Parameters by Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay Experiments

## 1 Introduction

Although it is well known that neutrinos are massive by neutrino oscillation experiments \[2-4\], the values of their masses are still unknown. The answer is never given by oscillation experiments because oscillation probabilities depend on $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{ij}^2m_j^2m_i^2`$. Thus, we rely on non oscillation experiments such as single beta decay measurements , which are direct measurements of neutrino mass, neutrinoless double beta decay ($`0\nu \beta \beta `$) searches  and cosmological measurements  or Z-burst interpretation of the highest energy cosmic ray .

Double beta decay experiments seems to have rather higher sensitivities than those of other non oscillation experiments. Recent results of negative observations of $`0\nu \beta \beta `$ put upper bounds on the observable $`m_{\beta \beta }`$ as $`m_{\beta \beta }<0.35\text{eV}`$ (90 % C.L.) by Heidelberg-Moscow  and $`m_{\beta \beta }<0.331.35\text{eV}`$ (90 % C.L.) by IGEX  222 The bounds on $`m_{\beta \beta }`$ depend on nuclear matrix elements. The actual observable is the half-life $`T_{1/2}^{0\nu }`$: $`T_{1/2}^{0\nu }>1.9\times 10^{25}`$ y was obtained by Heidelberg-Moscow, and $`T_{1/2}^{0\nu }>1.57\times 10^{25}`$ y by IGEX.. The energy regions to be probed can reach to the order of $`10^2\text{eV}`$ by some of the future experiments \[11-17\]. Such experiments seem to have strong possibility of $`0\nu \beta \beta `$ observations. Actually, an observation of $`0\nu \beta \beta `$ was announced late last year as $`0.05\text{eV}m_{\beta \beta }0.84\text{eV}`$ (95 % C.L.) with $`\pm 50\%`$ uncertainty of the nuclear matrix elements (KDHK result ; See also comment on the results and the replies ). While this result should be checked in the future experiments, it is fruitful to investigate what kind of information can be extracted from $`0\nu \beta \beta `$ observations.

The constraints imposed on neutrino mixing parameters by $`0\nu \beta \beta `$ experiments have been discussed by many authors (See the references in ). The implications of the KDHK result have been also discussed (See, for example, the references of the second article in ). In this talk, the constraints on a neutrino mass and the solar mixing angle are discussed in the generic three flavor mixing framework by observations (as well as non-observations) of $`0\nu \beta \beta `$.

## 2 Constraints

We use the following standard parametrization of the MNS matrix :

$$U_{\text{MNS}}\left[\begin{array}{ccc}c_{12}c_{13}& s_{12}c_{13}& s_{13}e^{i\delta }\\ s_{12}c_{23}c_{12}s_{23}s_{13}e^{i\delta }& c_{12}c_{23}s_{12}s_{23}s_{13}e^{i\delta }& s_{23}c_{13}\\ s_{12}s_{23}c_{12}c_{23}s_{13}e^{i\delta }& c_{12}s_{23}s_{12}c_{23}s_{13}e^{i\delta }& c_{23}c_{13}\end{array}\right].$$

The mixing matrix for three Majorana neutrinos is

$$UU_{\text{MNS}}\times \text{diag}(1,e^{i\beta },e^{i\gamma }),$$
(1)
where $`\beta `$ and $`\gamma `$ are extra CP-violating phases which are characteristic of Majorana particles . In this parametrization, the observable of double beta decay experiments is described as

$`m_{\beta \beta }`$ $``$ $`\left|{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}}m_iU_{ei}^2\right|`$ (2)
$`=`$ $`\left|m_1c_{12}^2c_{13}^2+m_2s_{12}^2c_{13}^2e^{2i\beta }+m_3s_{13}^2e^{2i(\gamma \delta )}\right|,`$
where $`U_{ei}`$ denote the elements in the first low of $`U`$ and $`m_i`$ ($`i=1,2,3`$) are the neutrino mass eigenvalues. In the convention of this talk, the normal hierarchy means $`m_1<m_2<m_3`$ and the inverted hierarchy $`m_3<m_1<m_2`$.

In order to utilize $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}`$ which is an experimental upper bound on $`m_{\beta \beta }`$, we derive a theoretical lower bound on $`m_{\beta \beta }`$. An appropriate choice of the phase-factor $`e^{2i(\gamma \delta )}`$ in eq. (2) leads to an inequality

$`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}m_{\beta \beta }c_{13}^2\left|m_1c_{12}^2+m_2s_{12}^2e^{2i\beta }\right|m_3s_{13}^2.`$ (3)
Strictly, the right-hand side (RHS) should be the absolute value of it. It is, however, not necessary to consider the absolute value because $`s_{13}^2`$ has a very small value. The RHS of (3) is minimized by replacing $`e^{2i\beta }`$ with $`1`$ and $`s_{13}^2`$ with the largest value $`s_{\text{CH}}^2`$ ($`0.03`$) which is determined by reactor experiments . Thus, we obtain

$`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}c_{\text{CH}}^2\left|m_1c_{12}^2m_2s_{12}^2\right|m_3s_{\text{CH}}^2.`$ (4)
Next, we derive a theoretical upper bound on $`m_{\beta \beta }`$ to utilize an experimental lower bound $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}`$. Since the RHS of (2) is maximized by setting the phase-factors unity, we obtain

$`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}\left(m_1c_{12}^2+m_2s_{12}^2\right)c_{13}^2+m_3s_{13}^2.`$ (5)
Furthermore, $`s_{13}^2`$ is replaced by $`s_{\text{CH}}^2`$ (zero) for the normal (inverted) hierarchy in order to set the RHS to be the largest value with respect to $`s_{13}^2`$. Then, the inequality results in

$`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}\left(m_1c_{12}^2+m_2s_{12}^2\right)c_{\text{CH}}^2+m_3s_{\text{CH}}^2`$ (6)
for the normal hierarchy, and

$`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}m_1c_{12}^2+m_2s_{12}^2`$ (7)
for the inverted hierarchy.

Constraints (4), (6) and (7) determine an allowed region on the plane of a neutrino mass versus the mixing angle. In this talk, we use the $`m_l`$ \- $`\mathrm{cos}2\theta _{12}`$ plane, where $`m_l`$ denotes the lightest neutrino mass for each hierarchy.

## 3 Discussion

In this section, we analyze the constraints obtained in the previous section. Two example cases of experimental results are considered below; the case 1 is $`0.1\text{eV}m_{\beta \beta }0.3\text{eV}`$ which is within the region of the KDHK result, and the case 2 is $`0.01\text{eV}m_{\beta \beta }0.03\text{eV}`$ which is outside of the region of the KDHK result. The LMA solution of the solar neutrino problem, which is only one allowed at 99% C.L. , is considered mainly. Therefore, the mass square difference are fixed here after as $`|\mathrm{\Delta }m_{12}^2|=5.0\times 10^5\text{eV}^2`$ and $`|\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2|=3.0\times 10^3\text{eV}^2`$.

### 3.1 Case 1 : $`0.1\text{eV}m_{\beta \beta }0.3\text{eV}`$

The bounds for this case are presented in Fig. 1. It is remarkable that the bounds (6) and (7), which are obtained with $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}`$, are almost vertical because of small $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{12}^2`$. The lines cross the horizontal axis at $`m_lm_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}`$ for not very small $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}`$ (See the next subsection for very small $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}`$). Therefore, $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}`$ is approximately regarded as the lower bound on $`m_l`$:$`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}<m_l`$.

On the other hand, since there are asymptotes $`\mathrm{cos}2\theta _{12}=\pm t_{\text{CH}}^2`$ for the bounds (4), no upper bound on $`m_l`$ exists for $`|\mathrm{cos}2\theta _{12}|t_{\text{CH}}^2`$. The LMA solution is fortunately outside of the region. Note that the bounds (4) for the normal and inverted hierarchy are very similar to each other. It means that the degenerate mass approximation $`m_im_\nu `$ is very good in this case. In this approximation, the constraint (4) becomes

$$m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}m_\nu \left(c_{\text{CH}}^2\left|\mathrm{cos}2\theta _{12}\right|s_{\text{CH}}^2\right).$$
(8)
We see that $`m_\nu /m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}`$ is a good parameter. In Fig. 2, the bounds (4) are presented on the $`m_l/m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}`$ \- $`\mathrm{cos}2\theta _{12}`$ plane for $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}=0.1\text{eV}`$. The similarity between the bounds for two hierarchies means the goodness of the degenerate mass approximation for $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}0.1\text{eV}`$ and also for larger values of $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}`$. Thus, the same bounds as those in Fig. 2 can be used for $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}>0.1\text{eV}`$. For example, the simple constraint $`m_l2.2\times m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}`$ is read off in the figure for the LMA best fit value $`\mathrm{cos}2\theta _{12}=0.49`$, which corresponds to $`\mathrm{tan}^2\theta _{12}=0.34`$ given by the second article in .

### 3.2 Case 2 : $`0.01\text{eV}m_{\beta \beta }0.03\text{eV}`$

The bounds for this case are presented in Fig. 3. It is clear that the degenerate mass approximation is no longer good because the relevant energy scale is smaller than the atmospheric one $`\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2}0.05\text{eV}`$. The bounds for the normal and inverted hierarchy differ significantly. One of the important point is the disappearance of the bound for the inverted hierarchy by (7). It means that the constraint (7) is satisfied even for $`m_l=0`$. It is also possible for the normal hierarchy with smaller $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}`$. There are the smallest $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}`$ needed for the existence of the bound by (6) and that by (7). The values are extracted approximately from the RHS of (6) and (7) with $`m_l=\mathrm{cos}2\theta _{12}=0`$ as

$$\frac{1}{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}c_{\text{CH}}^2\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{12}^2}+s_{\text{CH}}^2\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2}0.005\text{eV}\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{12}^2}$$
(9)
for the normal hierarchy, and

$$\frac{1}{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}c_{\text{CH}}^2\left(\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2\mathrm{\Delta }m_{12}^2}+\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2}\right)0.053\text{eV}\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2}$$
(10)
for the inverted one. In the case 2, $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}=0.01\text{eV}`$ is smaller than 0.053 eV, and that is why there is no lower bound on $`m_l`$ for the inverted hierarchy in Fig. 3.

Another important point of Fig. 3 is that the bound (4) for the inverted hierarchy crosses the vertical axis at $`\mathrm{cos}2\theta _{12}=0.57`$. It means that a small $`m_{\beta \beta }`$ excludes large values of $`\mathrm{cos}2\theta _{12}`$ for the hierarchy. Conversely, a $`\mathrm{cos}2\theta _{12}`$ larger than $`t_{\text{CH}}^2`$ gives a theoretical minimum of $`m_{\beta \beta }`$.

Finally, let us extract the bound on $`m_l`$ from the KDHK result. Since $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}=0.84\text{eV}`$ is large enough, we can use Fig. 2. Therefore, the upper bound on $`m_l`$ is extracted as

$`m_l<2.2\times m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}=1.85\text{eV}`$ (11)
for the LMA best fit parameters. On the other hand, $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}=0.05\text{eV}`$ is larger than (9) but smaller than (10). Thus, although there is the lower bound on $`m_l`$ for the normal hierarchy, not for the inverted one. Roughly, $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}`$ is the lower bound on $`m_l`$ for the normal hierarchy. By combining those results, we obtain

$`0.05\text{eV}(0\text{eV})<m_l<1.85\text{eV}`$ (12)
for the normal (inverted) hierarchy with the LMA best fit parameters. If $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}`$ becomes a little larger, $`0\nu \beta \beta `$ observations can give the first exclusion of $`m_l=0`$ for both hierarchies.

## 4 Conclusions

Allowed regions on the plane of a neutrino mass versus the solar mixing angle $`\theta _{12}`$ were obtained by using $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}`$ ($`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}`$), which is an experimental upper (lower) bound on the observable $`m_{\beta \beta }`$ of double beta decay experiments. For given $`\theta _{12}`$, these become constraints on a neutrino mass such as the lightest mass $`m_l`$; Roughly, $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}<m_l<2.2\times m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{max}}`$ for the LMA best fit parameters.

It became clear that the condition $`|\mathrm{cos}2\theta _{12}|>t_{\text{CH}}^20.03`$ was necessary for the upper bound on $`m_l`$ to exist. On the other hand, the condition $`m_{\beta \beta }^{\text{min}}>0.005\text{eV}(0.053\text{eV})`$ needs to be satisfied for the normal (inverted) hierarchy, for the lower bound on $`m_l`$ to exist.

For example, $`0.05\text{eV}m_{\beta \beta }0.84\text{eV}`$ gives $`0.05\text{eV}(0\text{eV})<m_l<1.85\text{eV}`$ for the normal (inverted) hierarchy.

## Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Prof. H.V. Klapdor-Kleingrothaus and other organizers of the conference for the invitation and hospitality at Oulu.

## References


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# On Goldbach’s Conjecture

## 1 Introduction

In 1742 Goldbach wrote a letter to Euler conjecturing that every integer greater than 2 is the sum of three prime numbers. Euler replied that this conjecture breaks up into two: every even integer is the sum of two primes; every odd integer is the sum of three primes. The conjecture “every even integer $`n>2`$ is the sum of two primes” is now known as Goldbach’s conjecture and the conjecture “every odd integer $`n>5`$ is the sum of three primes” is known as “the weaker”, “the odd” or “the ternary” Goldbach’s conjecture.

The ternary Goldbach’s conjecture, abbreviated here as “ternary GC”, is considered the easiest of the two cases. In 1937 Vinogradov  proved that the ternary GC is true for sufficiently large odd number. In 1956 Borodzkin  showed that odd numbers greater than $`3^{3^{15}}`$ are sufficiently large in Vinogradov’s proof. This bound was reduced to $`e^{e^{11503}}(10^{43000})`$ by Chen and Wang  in 1989 and to $`e^{e^{9715}}(10^{7194})`$ in 1996 .

The Goldbach’s conjecture is known to be true up to $`10^{16}`$. Deshouillers, te Riele and Saouter  have checked it up to $`10^{14}`$, Richstein  up to $`4\times 10^{14}`$ and Silva  up to $`1\times 10^{16}`$.

Deshouillers et alli  outlined a proof in which if the Generalized Riemann Hypothesis holds, then the ternary GC is true. As far as we are concerned, there is not an analogous conditional proof for Goldbach’s conjecture.

## 2 The same truth value

Let us notice that if Goldbach’s conjecture is true then the ternary GC is true. In the case Goldbach’s conjecture is true if the ternary GC is true, the conditional proof of Deshouillers et alli  can be used to conditionally prove Goldbach’s conjecture.

###### Theorem 2.1

If every odd integer $`n>5`$ is the sum of three primes, then every even integer $`n>2`$ is the sum of two primes.

Proof:

Let us assume that exists an even integer $`m`$ greater than 2 that can not be expressed as the sum of two primes, that is,

$$pq[p+qm]$$
(1)
where $`p`$ and $`q`$ belong to the set of prime numbers. The formula (1) can be rewritten as

$$pq[(p+1)+qm+1]$$
(2)
The integers $`p`$ and $`q`$ are not equal to 2 because if one is equal to 2 the other must be equal to 2 and this contradicts the hypothesis made about $`m`$. The number $`p+1`$ is an even integer and it can be expressed as the sum of two odd integers $`j`$ and $`k`$, that is,

$$(p+1)+q=j+k+qm+1$$
(3)
If the ternary GC is true there are three prime numbers $`a`$, $`b`$ and $`c`$ such that

$$a+b+c=m+1$$
(4)
Since that $`m+1`$ is an odd integer we have the alternatives: ($`i`$) $`a`$, $`b`$ and $`c`$ are odd integers or ($`ii`$) $`a`$ and $`b`$ are equal to 2 and $`c`$ is an odd integer. Considering the alternative ($`i`$) and comparing (4) with (2) and (3) we obtain a contradiction. Considering the alternative ($`ii`$) we have

$$3+c=m$$
(5)
Comparing (5) with (1) we again obtain a contradiction. The reason of the contradictions is the hypothesis that “there is an even integer $`m`$ that can not be expressed as the sum of two primes”. Therefore if every odd integer $`n>5`$ is the sum of three primes, then every even integer $`n>2`$ is the sum of two primes.

## 3 A conditional proof of the ternary GC

Let $`A`$ be the well-ordered set of odd integers greater than 5. Let us denote by $`B`$ the finite well-ordered subset of $`A`$ such that ($`i`$) each element of $`B`$ is a value for which is unknown if the ternary GC is true, $`(ii)`$ each element of $`AB`$ is a value for which the ternary GC is true and ($`iii`$) the set of elements of $`A`$ less than $`\alpha `$ is not empty.

$$B=\{\alpha ,\alpha +2,\alpha +4,\mathrm{},\beta 4,\beta 2,\beta \}$$
(6)
If Goldbach’s conjecture is true for all even integers less than $`\alpha `$ and if any element $`n`$ of $`B`$ satisfies an equation of the form

$$n=p+r$$
(7)
where $`p`$ is a odd prime number and $`r`$ belongs to the well-ordered subset

$$\{4,6,8,\mathrm{},\alpha 5,\alpha 3,\alpha 1\}$$
(8)
of $`A`$, we have that the ternary GC is true for all elements of $`B`$.

If the gap between each prime less or equal to $`\beta (\alpha 1)`$ and its consecutive prime is less than or equal to $`\alpha 4`$, then some $`p`$ that satisfies (7) exists for any element $`n`$ of $`B`$. Let us assume that Cramér’s conjecture  is true, that is,

$$\underset{p_nk}{\mathrm{max}}(p_{n+1}p_n)\mathrm{log}^2k$$
(9)
where $`k`$ is an integer and $`p_n`$ is the $`n`$-th element of the well-ordered set of prime numbers. Substituting $`k`$ by $`\beta `$ in (9), we have

$$\underset{p_n\beta }{\mathrm{max}}(p_{n+1}p_n)\mathrm{log}^2\beta $$
(10)
Let us consider $`\beta `$ equal to $`10^{7194}`$, with this value of $`\beta `$ we obtain a maximum gap of

$$\left(\frac{7194}{\mathrm{log}_{10}e}\right)^2<274400000$$
(11)
###### Theorem 3.1

If

$$\underset{p_n\beta }{\mathrm{max}}(p_{n+1}p_n)<\mathrm{log}^r\beta $$
(12)
where

$$\mathrm{log}^r\beta =\alpha $$
(13)
$$\alpha >10\times \mathrm{log}^2\beta $$
(14)
and the ternary GC is true for odd integers less than $`\alpha `$ and is also true for odd integers greater than $`\beta `$, then the ternary GC is true.

Proof:

Let us consider $`\alpha =1\times 10^{16}`$  and $`\beta =10^{7194}`$ . With these values we have that the right member of (14) is

$$2.744\times 10^9$$
(15)
and the value of $`r`$ is

$$r=\mathrm{log}_{(\mathrm{log}\beta )}\alpha $$
(16)
$$r3.7921$$
(17)
Comparing (15) with $`\alpha `$ we see that the gap between each prime less or equal to $`\beta (\alpha 1)`$ and its consecutive prime is less than or equal to $`\alpha 4`$. Therefore exists some $`p`$ that satisfies (7) for any element $`n`$ of $`B`$. Considering that Goldbach’s conjecture is true for all even integers less than $`\alpha `$, we can conclude that if (12) holds, then the ternary GC is true.

The statement of theorem 3.1 assumes in (14) that Cramér’s conjecture is true in the worst case. With the values used for $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$, we have a proof of the ternary GC if the following conjecture is true for odd integers less than or equal to $`\beta `$

$$\underset{p_n\beta }{\mathrm{max}}(p_{n+1}p_n)<\mathrm{log}^{3.7921}\beta $$
(18)
with $`\beta =10^{7194}`$.

## 4  On Cramér’s model

In 1943 Selberg  proved, assuming Riemann’s hypothesis, that

$$\pi (x+\mathrm{\Phi }(x))\pi (x)\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }(x)}{\mathrm{log}x}(x\mathrm{})$$
(19)
is true for almost all $`x`$ if

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }(x)}{\mathrm{log}^2x}\mathrm{}(x\mathrm{})$$
(20)
and, in 1985, Maier  concluded that Selberger’s result is true with exceptions. To try to guess the number of primes between $`x`$ and $`x+y`$, Maier first removed those integers that have a small prime factor (following Eratosthenes), and only then did he apply density arguments (following Gauss) . Maier’s result contradicts what one expected from Cramér’s model.

Let us consider two integers $`x`$ and $`y`$ such that

$$x>y$$
(21)
and

$$x+yp$$
(22)
where $`p`$ is the greatest prime less than or equal to the square root of $`x+y`$. Let us assume that the chance that a given integer $`n`$ be a prime is $`\frac{1}{\mathrm{log}n}`$. Let $`q`$ be a prime less than or equal to $`p`$ and let $`F(n,q)`$ be a function such that

$$\frac{F(n,q)}{\mathrm{log}n}$$
(23)
is the chance that a given integer $`n`$ belonging to $`(x,x+y]`$ be prime after crossing out of the interval those integers that are divisible by the primes less than or equal to $`q`$. For $`q=p`$ we have

$$\frac{F(n,p)}{\mathrm{log}n}=1$$
(24)
or

$$F(n,p)=\mathrm{log}n$$
(25)
In accordance with Friedlander and Granville  and Maier  the probability of a ‘randomly chosen’ integer $`n`$ belonging to $`(x,x+y]`$ being prime, given that it has no prime factors $`z`$ and being $`z`$ a ‘small’ prime, is

$$\frac{1}{\left\{_{sz}\left(1\frac{1}{s}\right)\right\}\mathrm{log}n}$$
(26)
Considering (22) let $`z`$ be equal to $`p`$. Since that

$$\frac{1}{\left\{_{sp}\left(1\frac{1}{p}\right)\right\}}\mathrm{log}n$$
(27)
we have a contradiction between (25) and (27). The probability (26) is crucial in Maier’s work .


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# Line-driven winds in presence of strong gravitational fields

## Abstract

We propose a general physical mechanism which could contribute to the formation of fast line-driven outflows at the vicinity of strong gravitational field sources. We argue that the gradient of the gravitational potential plays the same role as the velocity gradient plays in Sobolev approximation. Both Doppler effect and gravitational redshifting are taken into account in Sobolev approximation. The radiation force becomes a function of the local velocity gradient and the gradient of the gravitational potential. The derived equation of motion has a critical point that is different from that of CAK. A solution that is continuous through the singular point obtained numerically. A comparison with CAK theory is presented. It is shown that the developed theory predicts terminal velocities which are greater than those obtained from the CAK theory.

Key words: hydrodynamics - quasars: general - radiation mechanisms

## Introduction

Acceleration of matter due to radiation pressure in lines plays an important role in formation of outflows from hot stars and possibly from active galactic nuclei (QSO, Seyfert galaxes, etc). This paper is the first in a series of papers on the effects that strong gravitational fields play in formation and structure of winds driven by radiation pressure in lines.

Theory of winds from O-type stars is well-developed and has a good agreement with observations. In a pioneering paper of Sobolev (1960), it was recognized that a radiation transfer in accelerated medium is simplified drastically in comparison with that of static atmosphere. The importance of the line opacity for the formation of winds from hot stars was pointed out in paper of Lucy & Solomon (1970). A prominent step in this field was made in papers of Castor, Abbott & Klein (1975), ( hereafter CAK ). In these papers it was shown that absorption of the radiation flux in lines can be an effective mechanism of redistributing of momentum from radiation to the wind. The presence of the velocity gradient gives additional effect on the acceleration because of the Sobolev effect. CAK showed that the resultant radiation force, which is due to absorption in an ensemble of optically thin and optically thick lines, may be several orders of magnitude greater than that due to electron scattering. The ideas and technique of CAK were developed by Abbott (1980) and in works of many other authors.

Theory of winds accelerated by the radiation pressure in lines is usually applied to explain outflows from active galactic nuclei (AGN). The many puzzling, observational characteristic features of AGNs are: the blue-shifted, relative to the emission line rest frequency broad absorption lines (BALs) - the most convincing evidence of outflows with velocities as large as $`0.1c`$; NALs -narrow absorption lines seen in UV and X-ray spectra associated with $`1000\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ outflows; BELs - broad emission lines observed in UV indicate the flow with the characteristic velocity about several thousand $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. From the short time-scale of the X-Ray variability (Tennant et al 1981) it is concluded that the size of the emitting region is $`10^{14}\mathrm{cm}`$. (Although there exist an uncertainty in the estimation of the column densities, see Arav et al, 2002, and references therein) Only black hole (BH) as a central object can couple this small length scale with the total luminosity $`L10^{46}\mathrm{egr}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The existence of BALs together with large luminosity makes radiation driven mechanism plausible. Line-locking, observed in spectra of some QSO gives additional evidence of the importance of radiation in acceleration of the wind. Murray at al. (1995) model the wind that originates not far from BH $`10^{16}\mathrm{cm}`$. Simplifying assumptions allowed to solve separately equation of motion in radial and polar angle directions. Two-dimensional time-dependent hydrodynamic calculations of radiation-driven winds from luminous accretion disks were made in Proga et al. (1998), Proga et al. (2000).

In all papers where the radiation pressure was assumed as a main driving force forming outflows from AGNs, authors adopted modifications of the CAK theory (although effects which are not included in the CAK theory were taken into account). A serious difference between a hot star wind and AGN outflow is due to different geometry. Wind from O-type star is nearly spherically-symmetric whereas an outflow from AGN originates from accretion disc an thus is closely axially-symmetric. From observations we know that wind from AGN is exposed to a very high X-ray and UV flux. The AGN spectra is harder then that of O-type star thus the radiation force could be smaller due to a higher ionization state. On the other hand the observations of spectral lines from moderately and highly ionized species pose a problem of how the wind avoids over-ionization. This problem can be overcame if there exist some gas that shields the wind from the ionizing radiation. The second way is to assume that the wind is in the form of dense clouds which are confined by some mechanism. The ionizing effects of the X-ray flux in the winds from massive X-ray binary systems were considered in Stevens & Kallman (1990).

The main underpinning assumption of CAK, is that of the velocity gradient leads to enhancement of the radiation force. If there is no velocity gradient then the radiation force is simply due to absorption of the fraction of the radiation flux which is blocked by lines. If there is a velocity gradient, the absorbing ions are exposed to the unattenuated radiation flux due to Doppler shifting.

In this paper we propose a general physical mechanism which could play an important role in the formation of fast outflows at the vicinity of strong gravitational field sources. We argue that the gradient of the gravitational potential $`d\varphi /dr`$ (in case of sufficiently strong gravitational fields) plays the same role as $`dv/dr`$ plays in acceleration of line-driven winds from hot stars.

Taking into account gravitational redshift of frequency we conclude that the gradient of the gravitational potential allows a line to shift out from behind of its own shadow. The line is shifted to the extent where the continuum flux is not reduced by absorption, hence $`d\varphi /dr`$ exposes the line to powerful radiation. Thus we call the resultant wind: ”Gravitationally Exposed Flow” (GEF).

In this paper the following toy model is adopted. Consider a wind accelerated by the radiation pressure in lines at the vicinity of BH. For simplicity we assume the wind to be spherically-symmetric and skip ionization problem. These crude assumptions are justified by the question we are going to answer that is to compare a solution for gravitationally exposed flow with CAK solution. We are addressing 2d modeling of the problem to the separate paper.

The plan of the paper is as follows. In Section 1. we discuss relations for the optical depth $`\tau _L`$ and radiation force $`f_r`$ in standard CAK theory. In Section 2. a relation for the radiation force is derived taking into account gravitational redshifting. Equation of motion describing stationary, spherically-symmetric wind is derived. Properties of the solution at the critical point are investigated. The numerical solution is provided. The results are summarized in the Discussion and Conclusions.

## 1 Radiation force

Assume that a radiation flux $`F_c(\nu )`$ ($`F_c(\nu _i)`$ \- is the continuum flux per interval of frequency on the line frequency $`\nu _i`$) emitted by the photosphere (or disc) is radially-directed. The radiation force that results from absorption in a single line with the Doppler width $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _D\nu v_{th}/c`$ may be represented in the following form (Castor, Abbott & Klein 1975):

$$f_l=\kappa _l\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _DF_c(\nu _i)}{c}\right)\frac{1e^{\tau _l}}{\tau _l}\text{,}$$
(1)
The effective optical depth $`\tau _l`$ is calculated on the frequency of line, which obtained taking into account the Doppler shifting, $`\kappa _l`$ ($`\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{g}^1`$) is the opacity at the line centre:

$$\kappa _l=\frac{\pi e^2}{mc}\frac{gf}{\rho }\frac{N_l/g_lN_u/g_u}{\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _D}\text{.}$$
(2)
In Sobolev approach $`dv/dr`$ is taken into account when calculating $`\tau _l`$. A relation for the optical depth was derived by Castor (1970):

$$\tau _l=_r^{\mathrm{}}\psi \rho \kappa _l𝑑r\frac{\rho v_{th}\kappa _L}{|dv/dr|}\text{.}$$
(3)
When calculating $`\tau _l`$ it is necessary to take into account only those absorbers which are in a section of the column across which the velocity changes by $`v_{th}`$. Relation (3) was obtained assuming that the line profile $`\psi `$ is a delta function. CAK introduced an optical depth parameter independent of line opacity:

$$t\sigma _e\rho \frac{v_{th}}{dv/dr}\text{,}$$
(4)
where $`\sigma _e=0.4\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{g}^1`$. If the velocity gradient is large the optical depth parameter $`t`$ may be much less then the corresponding electron optical depth. If $`t1`$ the radiation force is determined by the part of the radiation flux that is blocked by lines. In the opposite case of small $`t`$, the radiation force may exceed gravity by several orders of magnitude for a typical O-star atmosphere. Summing equation (1) over an ensemble of lines, CAK obtained the following relation:

$$f_l=\frac{L\sigma _e}{4\pi r^2c}M(t)\text{,}$$
(5)
where $`M(t)`$ is the force multiplier:

$$M(t)=\underset{i}{}\frac{F_c(\nu _i)\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _D}{F}\mathrm{min}(\beta _L,t^1)\text{,}$$
(6)
where $`\beta _L=\kappa _L/\sigma _e`$ (note that $`t=\tau _L/\beta _L`$), $`F`$ \- is the total radiation flux. $`\tau _l/\kappa _l`$ \- is the column of mass which absorbs radiation, $`(1e^{\tau _l})`$ multiplier in (1) gives the probability of absorption. If there are only strong lines then the radiation force is proportional to the number of strong lines. Thus in optically thick case $`f_l`$ is independent of the line strength and $`f_ldv/dr`$. If lines are all optically thin then each ion is absorbing the unattenuated radiation flux, and thus the radiative acceleration is independent of the wind dynamics. For the ensemble of optically thin and thick lines CAK found that $`M(t)`$ can be fitted by the power-law:

$$M(t)=kt^\alpha \text{.}$$
(7)
$`\alpha =1`$ represents a case when all lines are optically thick, $`\alpha =0`$ \- optically thin. With (7) and (4), equation (5) reads:

$$f_L=\frac{L\sigma _ek}{4\pi r^2c}(\sigma _ev_{th})^\alpha \left(\frac{1}{\rho }\frac{dv}{dr}\right)^\alpha \text{.}$$
(8)
## 2 Gravitationally Exposed Flow

### 2.1 The radiation force due to gradient of gravitational field

If a wind is accelerated in a strong gravitational field we may expect that a photon emitted by the disc may become resonant with the opacity of some line not only because of the Doppler effect but also because of the gravitational redshifting. The redshifting of the photon’s frequency is the only effect of general relativity (hereafter GR) we take into account in our approximate treatment. A photon with the frequency $`\nu _d`$, emitted at the point with the gravitational potential $`\varphi _1`$ will be registered at the point where $`\varphi =\varphi _2`$ ($`\varphi _1>\varphi _2`$, $`\varphi <0`$) reddened according to the well-known approximate formulae (see for example Landau & Lifshitz, 1960):

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\nu \nu _2\nu _d=\frac{\varphi _1\varphi _2}{c^2}\nu _d\text{.}$$
(9)
If there is a velocity difference between these two points the photon will be additionally red-shifted due to the Doppler effect. The resultant frequency, seen by the absorber at his rest frame reads:

$$\nu \nu _d+\nu _d\left(\frac{v}{c}+\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi }{c^2}\right)\text{.}$$
(10)
To derive a relation for the radiation force we need to calculate the corresponding Sobolev optical depth, but now taking into account the gravitational redshifting. Assuming that absorption occurs in a line with the delta-function profile, for the optical depth in a radial direction we obtain:

$$\tau _l=_r^{\mathrm{}}\kappa _l\rho 𝑑r\frac{\rho v_{th}\kappa _l}{dv/dr+\frac{1}{c}d\varphi /dr}\text{.}$$
(11)
A characteristic length: $`\delta rv_{th}/(dv/dr+\frac{1}{c}d\varphi /dr)`$ gives a thickness of a shell where the absorption due to a single line take place.

In our calculations we are neglecting the influence of the gravitational field on the geometry of space-time, because in that case it our treatment will be too complicated. Introducing an optical depth parameter, which is analogous to (4), we have:

$$t\frac{\sigma _e\rho v_{th}}{dv/dr+\frac{1}{c}d\varphi /dr}\text{.}$$
(12)
Note that relations (5), (7) are derived in such a way that all information about wind dynamics (distribution of $`v`$ that is responsible of redshifting) is imbedded into parameter $`t`$. It is assumed that $`\tau `$ must be calculated taking into account redshifting. No assumptions about the particular physical mechanism that produces redshifting are made. In our case $`t`$ contains also an information about additional redshifting which is due to gradient of gravitational potential. Note that (12) may be represented in the form $`t={\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _e\rho v_{th}}{dv^{}/dr}}`$, where $`v^{}=v+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}\varphi `$. The distribution of $`v^{}`$ contains all the information about redshifting. These considerations hold so far Sobolev approximation is assumed and until the influence of the gravitational field on the geometry of space-time is neglected. We are justified in making use of (12) instead of (4) when calculating (7).

By substituting (12) into (5) and (7) the radiation force is obtained:

$$f_L=\frac{L\sigma _ek}{4\pi r^2c}\left(\frac{4\pi }{|\dot{M}|\sigma v_{th}}\right)^\alpha \left[vr^2\left(\frac{dv}{dr}+\frac{1}{c}\frac{d\varphi }{dr}\right)\right]^\alpha \text{,}$$
(13)
where the radiation force was transformed making use of the continuity equation:

$$\dot{M}=4\pi \rho vr^2\text{.}$$
(14)
### 2.2 Basic equations

An equation of motion describing stationary, spherically-symmetric, isothermal, line-driven wind reads:

$$v\frac{dv}{dr}=\frac{1}{\rho }\frac{dP}{dr}\frac{d\varphi }{dr}+\frac{L\sigma }{4\pi r^2c}+\frac{L\sigma _ek}{4\pi r^2c}\left(\frac{4\pi }{|\dot{M}|\sigma v_{th}}\right)^\alpha \left[vr^2\left(\frac{dv}{dr}+\frac{1}{c}\frac{d\varphi }{dr}\right)\right]^\alpha \text{.}$$
(15)
As well as the equation of motion of CAK, equation (15) is nonlinear with respect to the velocity gradient. This bahaviour complicates a structure of (15) and slows numerical solution. Investigating (15) we hope to find a trans-critical solution, which starts subsonically, proceeds through the critical point and goes to infinity approaching a terminal velocity $`v^{\mathrm{}}`$. Equation (15) resembles CAK equation of motion except the radiation pressure term. Instead of $`(dv/dr)^\alpha `$ term, equation (15) includes a combination: $`(dv/dr+\frac{1}{c}d\varphi /dr)^\alpha `$. As we will see this property of the equation (15) changes the structure of transcritical solution.

We adopt two types of potentials: Newtonian potential (NP) and Paczynski and Wiita (hereafter PW ) potential:

$$\varphi =\frac{GM}{rr_g}\text{.}$$
(16)
We make use of the modified potentials to model approximately the GR effects. PW potential, for the Schwarzschild black hole correctly reproduces the positions of both the last stable orbit and the marginally bound orbit. The many properties of modified potentials are discussed in Artemova, Bjornsson & Novikov (1996). Introduction of the modified potentials allows to take approximately into account some properties of the exact relativistic description. For simplicity hereafter we use Newtonian potential. The case of the PW-potential is described in Appendix. For Newtonian gravity $`\varphi =GM/r`$, equation (15) reads:

$`F`$ $`=`$ $`\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{a}{v^2}}\right)v{\displaystyle \frac{dv}{dr}}{\displaystyle \frac{2a^2}{r}}+{\displaystyle \frac{GM}{r^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{L\sigma }{4\pi r^2c}}`$ (17)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{L\sigma k}{4\pi r^2c}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{4\pi }{|\dot{M}|\sigma v_{th}}}\right)^\alpha \left[vr^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{dv}{dr}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle \frac{GM}{r^2}}\right)\right]^\alpha =0\text{,}`$
where $`a=\left({\displaystyle \frac{P}{\rho }}\right)_T^{1/2}`$ \- a sound velocity. When obtaining equation (17) it was assumed that the wind is isothermal $`T=\mathrm{const}.`$ and $`P=a^2\rho `$.

Introducing nondimmensional variables:

$$x=\frac{r}{r_c}\text{,}\stackrel{~}{v}=\frac{v}{v_c}\text{,}$$
(18)
where $`r_c`$ is the critical point radius and $`v_c`$ is the velocity of matter at the critical point. Taking into account (18), equation (17) reads:

$`F(p,v,x)`$ $`=`$ $`\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{a_1^2}{v^2}}\right)vx^2p2a_1^2x+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta ^2}{2}}\left(1\mathrm{\Gamma }\right)`$ (19)
$`\mu \beta ^2\left[{\displaystyle \frac{v}{\beta ^2}}x^2\left(p+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta }{2x^2}}\right)\right]^\alpha =0\text{,}`$
where $`p{\displaystyle \frac{dv}{dx}}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }{\displaystyle \frac{L\sigma _e}{4\pi GMc}}`$. For simplicity hereafter we omit tilde. The following nondimmentional parameters were introduced:

$$a_1=\frac{a}{v_c}\text{,}\beta =\frac{c}{v_c}\text{.}$$
(20)
Note that $`\beta ={\displaystyle \frac{c}{a}}a_1`$ and there is only one independent parameter $`a_1`$. A constant $`\mu `$ is determined according to relation:

$$\mu \mathrm{\Gamma }k\left[\frac{8\pi GM}{\dot{M}\sigma _ev_{th}}\right]^\alpha $$
(21)
Equation (19) is non linear with respect to $`p`$. The point where the speed of sound is equal to velocity of the flow is no longer the singular point of the equation of motion. To treat such equations a special technique must be applied. We are interested of the solution that starts subsonic near BH is continuous through the singular point and goes supersonically to infinity. Singular point is defined by the condition:

$$\left(\frac{F}{p}\right)_c=0\text{.}$$
(22)
The second condition comes from the fact that at the critical point the velocity gradient is continuous which requires that $`\stackrel{~}{v}^{\prime \prime }`$ is defined at the critical point. The regularity condition reads:

$$\left(\frac{F}{x}\right)_c+p_c\left(\frac{F}{v}\right)_c=0\text{,}$$
(23)
where $`p_c={\displaystyle \frac{r_g}{v_c}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{dv}{dr}}\right)_c`$.
From (19), (22) the following useful relation is obtained:

$$\mu =\alpha ^1(1a_1^2)\left[\frac{x_c^2}{\beta ^2}\left(p_c+\frac{\beta }{2x_c^2}\right)\right]^{1\alpha }\text{,}$$
(24)
where $`x_c={\displaystyle \frac{r_c}{r_g}}`$. Substituting (19) to (22), taking into account (24) will result in the following equation:

$$2a_1^2x_c^2p_c^2+\frac{1}{2}(a_1^21)\beta p_c2a_1^2=0\text{.}$$
(25)
The momentum equation (19) is valid a hole domain of the investigation, thus calculating it at the critical point and substituting $`\mu `$ from (24) will obtain the following equation:

$$\frac{\alpha 1}{\alpha }(1a_1^2)x_c^2p_c2a_1^2x_c+\frac{\beta ^2(1\mathrm{\Gamma })}{2}(1a_1^2)\frac{\beta }{2\alpha }=0\text{.}$$
(26)
Equations (25), (26) form the system of equations from which $`p_c`$ and $`a_1`$ may be calculated. For example, assuming that the critical point is situated at $`100r_g`$, from (25), (26) we find: $`a_1=0.0393124`$, $`p_c=10.4831`$. As it will be clear from the following, equations (25)- (26) are not only more complicated than those of CAK, but also manifest the different physical behavior of GEF. Equation (25) differs from those of CAK by the second term. Dropping in (25) this term will reveal the result of CAK for the isothermal wind: $`p_c=\pm 1/x_c^2`$, or $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{dv}{dr}}\right)_c=\pm {\displaystyle \frac{v_c}{r_c}}`$. To solve (25), (26) for $`a_1`$, $`p_c`$, we must take into account that $`\beta ={\displaystyle \frac{c}{v_{th}}}a_1`$, where $`v_{th}=\sqrt{k{\displaystyle \frac{T}{m_n}}}`$.

### 2.3 Numerical solution

For a given position of the critical point $`x_c=r_c/r_g`$ equations (25), (26) are used to obtain the velocity gradient at the critical point. In contrast to CAK wind, the GEF case is more difficult to analyze. In the isothermal limit of the CAK wind, equations (25), (26) could be solved analytically. Anfortunately it is not possible (albeit see the end of this section) in GEF case. In order to obtain $`p_c`$ and $`a_1`$ equations (25), (26) must be solved numerically. All calculations in this paper are made for $`10^7M_{}`$ black hole, the temperature of the flow is $`T=410^4\mathrm{K}`$ other parameters are: $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=0.5`$, $`\alpha =0.6`$, $`k=0.1`$.

In case of stellar winds a photospheric boundary condition is usually adopted. Adjusting the position of the critical point one obtains a solution that gives the position of the photosphere ($`r=r_{ph}`$ at $`\tau _e=2/3`$) at some prescribed radius $`R`$, which is identified with the radius of a star (Bisnovatyi-Kogan 2001). Similar procedure was adopted by CAK. In case of AGN such ”photospheric” conditions are clearly unphysical. The solution for the wind should be continuously fitted with the solution for the accretion disc. This requires 2D modelling which is beyond the scope of this paper. In spherically-symmetric approximation adopted here it is not possible to fit self-consistently a wind solution with that of accretion disc.

To compare GEF solution with that of CAK we start deeply subsonic ($`vv_s`$), starting from some initial density $`\rho _{in}`$ and calculating both CAK and GEF solutions. Mathematically it is equivalent to the problem of fitting of the wind solution with that of a static core when calculating a structure of a star when mass loss is taken into account. In such a case a solution for the outflowing envelope is continuously fitted with that of a static core. As it results from a stellar wind theory (for stationary spherically-symmetric wind) to fit continuously a solution for a stationary outflowing envelope with that of a static core, only $`\rho `$ and $`T`$ should be fitted. In case of stellar wind this condition reads: $`\rho _{in}^{env}=\rho _{out}^{core}`$, $`T_{in}^{env}=T_{out}^{core}`$ where the fitting point must lay in a deep subsonic region $`vv_s`$ (see Bisnovatyi-Kogan & Dorodnitsyn 1999 and references therein).

The adopted procedure is equivalent to that if we start from some static configuration ($`v<<v_s`$) with the density $`\rho _{in}`$ and then relax to stationary wind solution (CAK and GEF). Prescribing $`\rho _{in}`$ at the very bottom of the wind ($`vv_s`$) at $`r_{in}`$ we may find the solution which satisfies boundary condition. This requirement allows to compare GEF solution with that of obtained from CAK theory.

We step out from the critical point $`x_c`$ by means of the approximate formulas: $`v=1\pm p_c\mathrm{\Delta }x`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }x=xx_c`$. On every integration step equation (19) is solved numerically in order to obtain $`dv/dx`$. The forth order, adaptive Runge-Kutta scheme was used to obtain solutions depicted on Figure 1. - Figure 4.

Adjusting $`x_c^{\mathrm{CAK}}`$, $`x_c^{\mathrm{GEF}}`$ we select those solutions which both satisfy inner density condition. The following densities at the inner boundaries were adopted: $`\rho _{in}=10^{12}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$ for $`x_c=50`$, $`\rho _{in}=10^{14}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$ for $`x_c=100`$, $`\rho _{in}=10^{16}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$ for $`x_c=500`$, $`\rho _{in}=10^{21}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$ for $`x_c=8000`$. The comparative results of the numerical integration of (19) for $`s=1`$ (GEF solution) and for $`s=0`$ (CAK wind theory) are shown on Fig.1. These solutions were obtained for the following set of parameters:

| $`x_c^{\mathrm{GEF}}`$ | $`x_c^{\mathrm{CAK}}`$ | $`v_{\mathrm{GEF}}^{\mathrm{}}\frac{\mathrm{cm}}{\mathrm{s}}`$ | $`v_{\mathrm{CAK}}^{\mathrm{}}\frac{\mathrm{cm}}{\mathrm{s}}`$ | $`\dot{M}_{\mathrm{GEF}}\frac{\mathrm{g}}{\mathrm{s}}`$ | $`\dot{M}_{\mathrm{CAK}}\frac{\mathrm{g}}{\mathrm{s}}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`50`$ | $`75`$ | $`510^9`$ | $`3.6710^9`$ | $`2.5659710^{26}`$ | $`2.5569210^{26}`$ |
| $`100`$ | $`155.2`$ | $`3.310^9`$ | $`2.610^9`$ | $`2.5659710^{26}`$ | $`2.5569310^{26}`$ |
| $`500`$ | $`751.7`$ | $`1.3710^9`$ | $`1.1510^9`$ | $`2.5659910^{26}`$ | $`2.5569710^{26}`$ |

The difference between GEF and CAK wind is more pronounced when the considerable portion of the wind is accelerated at a distance less than $`100r_g`$ from BH. Note that the terminal velocity changes form $`\mathrm{\Delta }v^{\mathrm{}}/v^{\mathrm{}}=0.36`$ for $`x_c=50`$ to $`\mathrm{\Delta }v^{\mathrm{}}/v^{\mathrm{}}=0.19`$ for $`x_c=500`$. The obtained results show that the GEF flow can be sufficiently more fast than the flow which is described by CAK theory.

It is illustrative to demonstrate that CAK solution may be obtained from (17) by ”switching off” smoothly the gravitational redshifting. To obtain the continuous transition from the GEF solution to the CAK solution of equation (17) the following procedure was adopted. We assumed that the radiation force in (17) is $`f_Ldv/dr+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}sGM/r^2`$ The introduced parameter $`s`$ continuously changes from 1 (GEF case) to 0 (CAK wind). Numerically calculating solutions of (17) for different values of $`s`$, applying the inner density boundary conditions it is possible to demonstrate the continuous transition of these solutions from the limiting cases of CAK and GEF solutions. The results are shown on Figure 2.

The introduction of the Paczynski - Wiita ( PW ) (16) potential, allows to simulate the effects of general relativity. Equations analogous to (19), (25), (26) are derived in Appendix. The results of the numerical integration are shown on Figure 4. Introduction of the modified potential can give a gain in $`v^{\mathrm{}}`$ that varies from $`\mathrm{\Delta }v^{\mathrm{}}/v^{\mathrm{}}0.1`$ for $`x_c=30`$ to $`\mathrm{\Delta }v^{\mathrm{}}/v^{\mathrm{}}0.03`$ for $`x_c=100`$.

#### Approximate relations for $`a_1`$, $`p_c`$.

Introducing the following nondimmentional combination $`ϵ={\displaystyle \frac{a}{c}}`$, equation (25) will read:

$$4a_1x_c^2ϵp_c^2+(a_1^21)p_c4a_1ϵ=0\text{.}$$
(27)
To obtain an approximate solution of (27) we take into account that $`ϵ<<1`$. Equation (27) has two roots:

$$(p_c)^\pm \frac{1}{8a_1ϵx_c^2}\left[1a_1^2\pm (1a_1^2)\left(1+\frac{32a_1^2x_c^2ϵ^2}{(a_1^21)^2}\right)\right]\text{.}$$
(28)
From (28) we obtain

$$p_{c,1}\frac{4a_1ϵ}{1a_1^2}\text{,}p_{c,2}\frac{1a_1^2}{4a_1x_c^2ϵ}\text{.}$$
(29)
We are looking for the solution with $`p_c>0`$ and with $`a_1=a_1/v_{cr}<1`$, thus the second root of (29) should be considered:

$$p\frac{1}{4a_1x_c^2ϵ}\text{,}$$
(30)
where it was supposed that $`a_1<<1`$. The accuracy of (30) is $`\mathrm{\Delta }p_c/p_c10^3`$ (for $`x_c=1`$, $`p_c=12.0027`$, $`p_1^{appox}=12.0169`$).

To obtain an approximate relation for $`a_1`$ we substitute $`p_{c,2}`$ from (29) to (26). Taking into account that $`\beta =a_1/ϵ`$, the resulting equation reads:

$$2a_1^2x_cϵ^2+\frac{\alpha 1}{\alpha }\frac{(1a_1^2)^2}{4a_1}ϵ+\frac{a_1^2(1\mathrm{\Gamma })}{2}\frac{ϵa_1}{2\alpha }(1a_1^2)=0\text{.}$$
(31)
Neglecting in (31) terms which contain $`a_1^4`$ and $`a_1^3ϵ^2`$ will result in the following equation for determining $`a_1`$:

$$2a_1^3(1\mathrm{\Gamma })2a_1^2ϵ+\frac{\alpha 1}{\alpha }ϵ=0\text{.}$$
(32)
The second term in (32) is small compared with other two. It allows to obtain the following simple relation for $`a_1`$:

$$a_1\left(\frac{ϵ}{2(1\mathrm{\Gamma })}\frac{1\alpha }{\alpha }\right)^{1/3}\text{.}$$
(33)
Calculating numerically $`a_1`$, $`p_c`$, from (25), (26) we have found that the value of $`a_1`$ depends rather weakly on $`x_c`$: $`x_c=50`$, $`a_1=0.034347`$, $`p_c=48.0109`$; $`x_c=500`$, $`a_1=0.034348`$, $`p_c=0.480112`$; $`x_c`$=5000, $`a_1=0.034369`$, $`p_c=0.004806`$; (obtained for $`\alpha =0.6`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=0.5`$). Relation (33) has a relatively good accuracy: for $`ϵ=610^5`$ (33) gives $`a_1^{appr}0.03430`$ with accuracy $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_1/a_1=10^3`$. Velocity of the wind at the critical point is approximately $`30a_s`$ ($`v_c=a_1^1a_s`$).

Above the critical point the influence of the $`d\varphi /dr`$ (GEF) on the additional acceleration of the radiationally driven wind is small compared to the effect due to $`dv/dr`$.

## 3 Discussion

The most successive model describing winds from hot stars presented so far is that of Castor (1970), Castor,Abbott & Klein (1975). Geometry and ionization balance differ O-star wind from AGN outflow. Line driven wind from O-type star is spherically-symmetric. Outflows in AGN are assumed to be originated from the luminous accretion discs and approximately axially-symmetric. Powerful X-ray and UV radiation from the disc pose a problem of overionization of the outflowing plasma. In Sobolev approximation, which is in the background of the CAK theory, the radially streaming radiation flux is absorbed in a line transition in a wind with the gradually increasing velocity. A photon, emitted by a disc will be red-shifted due to Doppler effect. The resultant Sobolev optical depth $`\tau _l(dv/dr)^1`$. As it was shown by CAK, the radiation force that is due to an ensemble of optically thin and optically thick lines is proportional to $`(dv/dr)^\alpha `$. The more $`dv/dr`$ the more effectively a line is shifted to the powerful continuum. In a number of studies, CAK theory was applied to AGN in order to explain fast (up to $`0.1c`$) outflows Arav & Li (1994), Arav, Li & Begelman (1994), Murray at al. (1995), Proga et al. (1998), Proga et al. (2000). The CAK theory was enhanced by adopting axial symmetry. Ionization balance was studied in details simultaneously with 2D hydrodymanical calculations.

In this paper we developed a theory of winds that takes into account effects of the strong gravitational fields. We point out that if a wind is accelerated near super-massive BH a gravitational change of photon’s frequency must be taken into account. In a strong gravitational field a photon, emitted by a disc, will be red-shifted due to both the Doppler effect $`v/c`$ and gravitational redshifting $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu /\nu =\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi /c^2`$. We argue that taking into account gravitational redshifting can substantially change the wind dynamics and structure. Although it should be mentioned that the developed theory (in the adopted toy model) cannot be directly applied to explain outflows from close to BH. An exact self-consistent solution of this problem is possible only in general relativity. We avoid this sophisticated task by considering all equations in flat space and time.

Basing on considerations of Sobolev we conclude that the greater $`d\varphi /dr`$ the more effectively a line is shifted to the extent where the radiation flux is unattenuated. In such a case gravitational field ”exposes” a wind to the unattenuated continuum. Note that this effect is independent of the wind dynamics, it works also in a medium with $`v=0`$. We determine a wind accelerated in this regime: ”Gravitationally Exposed Flow” (GEF).

The main goal of this paper has been to compare a solution for GEF with that obtained from a standard line driven wind theory ( CAK ). To solve this problem a very simple input physics was assumed: spherical symmetry, constant temperature and no ionization balance. We found that in such a case the radiation force $`f_l(dv/dr+\frac{1}{c}d\varphi /dr)^1`$. Numerical analysis shows that the introduced effect changes drastically a slope of a solution curve at the bottom of the wind. It is clearly a result of the fact that the role of the gravitational field is important when the field is high an velocity gradient is low. As soon as $`dv/dr`$ becomes sufficient, Sobolev effect efficiently stimulates the acceleration of the wind. Obtained equation of motion is nonlinear with respect to $`dv/dr`$ but this nonlinearity is different form that of CAK. Critical point of the equation of motion is neither a sonic point nor a CAK critical point. The position of the critical point $`r_c`$ is the only free parameter of the problem. Adjusting $`r_c`$ in order to satisfy density boundary conditions we compared solution for GEF with that of CAK which was obtained for the same physical and boundary conditions. Numerically solving equations describing spherical symmetric, stationary outflowing wind we found that gravitational redshifting can make acceleration up to $`35\%`$ (for $`r_{cr}=50r_g`$) more efficient.

In order to take approximately into account effects of general relativity, we made use of modified potential (Paczynski-Wiita potential). Numerical analysis demonstrated that if the critical point is located as far as $`30r_g÷100r_g`$ the difference between PW case and Newtonian case is $`\mathrm{\Delta }v^{\mathrm{}}/v^{\mathrm{}}=0.1÷0.03`$

Acknowledgements  Author is deeply grateful to G.S. Bisnovatyi-Kogan for continuous and stimulating attention to this work.

## 4 Conclusions

1. A theory of winds accelerated by the radiation pressure in lines with account of gravitational redshifting of photons is developed. A system of equations describing stationary, spherically-symmetric, isothermal flow is derived.
2. A solution of these equations is obtained numerically for two cases: a standard line-driven wind (CAK theory), Gravitationally Exposed Flow (GEF)- a wind that is accelerated by the radiation pressure in lines if to take into account gravitational redshifting. It is shown that an increase of up to $`35\%`$ in $`v^{\mathrm{}}`$ can be obtained.
3. To take approximately into account effects of general relativity, Paczynski - Wiita potential is adopted. A wind solution is calculated for this type of potential and comparative analysis with Newtonian case is presented.
4. The developed theory can be used to explain fast outflows from AGN.

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## 5 Appendix

Substituting Paczynski - Wiita potential into equation (15) will obtain equation of motion:

$`F`$ $`=`$ $`\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{a}{v^2}}\right)v{\displaystyle \frac{dv}{dr}}{\displaystyle \frac{2a^2}{r}}+{\displaystyle \frac{GM}{(rr_g)^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{L\sigma }{4\pi r^2c}}`$ (34)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{L\sigma k}{4\pi r^2c}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{4\pi }{|\dot{M}|\sigma v_{th}}}\right)^\alpha \left[vr^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{dv}{dr}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle \frac{GM}{(rr_g)^2}}\right)\right]^\alpha =0\text{,}`$
Scaling all variables according to (18), omiting tilda, equation (34) reads:

$`F(p,v,x)=\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{a_1^2}{v^2}}\right)vpx^22a_1^2x+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta ^2}{2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{x^2}{(x1)^2}}\mathrm{\Gamma }\right)`$
$`\mu \beta ^2\left[{\displaystyle \frac{v}{\beta ^2}}\left(p+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta }{2(x1)^2}}\right)\right]^\alpha =0\text{,}`$ (35)
where $`pdv/dx`$, $`\mu `$ is determined by (21) and $`a_1`$, $`\beta `$ by (20). Making use of (22) and (23) will result in the following relations:

$$\frac{\alpha 1}{\alpha }(1a_1^2)x_c^2p_c2a_1^2x_c+\frac{\beta ^2}{2}(\frac{x_c^2}{(x_c1)^2}\mathrm{\Gamma })(1a_1^2)\frac{\beta }{2\alpha }\frac{x_c^2}{(x_c1)^2}=0\text{,}$$
(36)
$$c_2p_c^2+c_1p_c+c_0=0\text{.}$$
(37)
Coefficients $`c_i`$ are determined from the following relations:

$`c_2`$ $`=`$ $`2a_1^2x_c^2\text{,}`$ (38)
$`c_1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(a_1^21)x_c^2\beta }{2(x_c1)^2}}\text{,}`$ (39)
$`c_0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{x_c(\beta 1)\beta +a_1^2(2(x_c1)^3\beta x_c)}{(x_c1)^3}}\text{.}`$ (40)
Equation for $`\mu `$ reads:

$$\mu =\alpha ^1(1a_1^2)\left[\frac{x_c^2}{\beta ^2}\left(p_c+\frac{\beta }{2(x_c1)^2}\right)\right]^{1\alpha }\text{.}$$
(41)
Equation (41) is analoguis to (24) except the last term in brackets. For a given $`x_c`$, equations (36), (37) are solved numerically to determine $`p_c`$ and $`a_1`$. Then (35) is integrated numerically as described in the text. Comparative results of the numerical solution of (35) are depicted of Figure 4.


text:
# I Introduction

## I Introduction

In past years a growing interest in the electronic and optical properties of organic materials has been shown . Some of the works have been centered in some particular aspects of the material under study  as well as in certain applications . At the very beginning of the insulator and electret research one of the phenomena extensively studied was the Costa-Ribeiro effect , among the materials in which one can find some waxes (natural as well as synthetic ones) and in organic semiconductors .

In this work we are interested in studying some electrical and thermal properties of Candelilla wax, a natural wax from a bush wildly grown in northern Mexico. We measured the thermal diffusivity, conductivity, and capacity of this material using the standard method of photoacoustic spectroscopy  combined with the measurement of thermal decay of a cooling process in vacuum  to obtain the value of the product: mass density and thermal capacity. The electric conductivity is studied employing the Corona Discharge and the Kelvin null method .

## II Experimental Details

The samples were small pieces of candelilla wax fused and cooled in order to shape them as platelets of $`500`$ microns in thickness and with an area of $`1cm^2`$. The measured fusion temperature of this wax is $`T_c69^{}\text{C}`$, which is in good agreement with the $`6769^{}\text{C}`$ reported in the literature .

### A Open-cell photoacoustic technique

The photoacoustic technique used in this work was the open cell method widely reported in the literature . The thermal diffusivity $`\alpha _s`$, was measured using the experimental arrangement shown in Fig. 1. The sample is directly mounted onto a commercial electret microphone. The beam of a 170 W tungsten lamp was focused onto the sample and mechanically chopped. As a result of the periodic heating of the sample by the absorption of the modulated light, the microphone produces a signal that was monitored with a lock-in amplifier as a function of modulation frequency. The temperature reached by the periodically illuminated sample was $`44^{}\text{C}`$, which is far below the fusion temperature $`T_c`$.

### B Description of the method used for measuring $`\rho c`$

Fig. 2 shows the experimental set-up used for measuring the product of the mass density and the specific heat . Prior to the measurements both faces of the sample are sprayed with black paint in order to make its emissivity approximately equal to one. The sample is positioned inside the vacuum chamber with one of its faces (which we will call front face) illuminated by the light beam of a 60 W tungsten lamp properly focused. The temperature of the back face (the non-illuminated face) of the sample is traced with a Cu-constantan type thermopar connected to a temperature monitor while the temperature increases up to its equilibrium value, about 26 degrees above room temperature. Later on, the light is interrupted and the temperature is traced out, acquiring its value while the sample cools down up to its equilibrium value at room temperature.

### C Corona dicharge and Kelvin null method

The experimental set up for measuring the resistivity is a standard one  as seen on Fig. 3. The sample was provided with an ohmic contact on the back face and mounted with the free surface upward, as shown in the figure. It was placed on an arm that could be moved on the horizontal plane. In one position (Fig. 3a) it was charged by a negative 30 kV corona discharge in air, and in the other (Fig. 3b) the surface potential was measured by a Kelvin method. The discharge was driven from the tip of a fine wire using a DC voltage amplifier. The tip was positioned about 5 mm above the sample. After charging the sample, this was moved into the measuring position under the tracing electrode. The electrode consists of a conducting metal plate of about the same size of the sample and was driven back and forth in a vertical motion by a mechanical setup at a rate of approximately 1 Hz over a path of 1 mm. The sample was positioned in such a way as to be 1 mm away from the tracing electrode plate at the closest approach. This vibrating capacitor gave an output signal that was detected using an electrometer. Then the signal was balanced to a null voltage when the two plates (electrode and sample) are at the same potential. The balancing voltage was driven by a variable high DC voltage power supply. All the system was shielded by a Faraday box.

## III Results and Discussion

### A Measurement of the thermal diffusivity

In the open-cell photoacoustic technique, it is well known that the acoustic signal has two main contributions, one coming from the thermal diffusion phenomenon and the other one from the thermoelastic bending effect . In orther to differenciate which one of these two contributions dominates in generating the photoacoustic (PA) signal, one has to compare the experimental measurement with the expression that describes those contributions. By means of this comparison we have found that the thermoelastic bending effect is predominant in the generation of the PA signal when it comes to samples of candelilla wax. Once identified where the main contribution to the PA signal comes from, one can calculate the thermal diffusivity $`\alpha _s`$ from the modulation frequency dependance of the signal phase. For a thermally thick sample, the expression for the pressure fluctuations inside the PA chamber induced by the thermoelastic bending effect is

$$p_{el}\frac{3\alpha _TR^4\gamma P_0I_0\alpha _s}{4\pi R_c^2I_s^2l_gk_sf}\left[\left(1\frac{1}{x}\right)^2+\frac{1}{x^2}\right]^{1/2}e^{j\left[\omega t+\left(\pi /2\right)+\varphi \right]}$$
(1)
where $`\alpha _T`$ is the linear thermal expansion coefficient, $`R`$ is the microphone inlet hole radius, $`\gamma `$ is the air specific heat ratio, $`P_0`$ is the ambient pressure, $`I_0`$ is the absorbed light intensity, $`R_c`$ is the radius of the PA chamber in front of the diaphragm, $`f`$ is the modulation frequency, $`x=l_s(\pi f/\alpha _s)^{1/2}`$, $`l_i`$, $`k_i`$ and $`\alpha _i`$ are the length, thermal conductivity, and the thermal diffusivity of material $`i`$, with subscripts $`g`$ and $`s`$ standing for gas media and sample respectively, and $`\mathrm{tan}\varphi =1/(x1)`$.

From equation (1) one gets that the thermoelastic contribution to the PA signal amplitude, at high modulation frequencies ($`x1`$), varies as $`f^1`$ and its phase $`\varphi _{el}`$ approaches $`90^o`$ as

$$\varphi _{el}\pi /2+\mathrm{arctan}[1/(\sqrt{b_sf}1)],$$
(2)
here, $`b_s`$ is a fitting parameter. The other condition that must be fulfilled for an optically opaque sample to be thermally thick is $`ff_c`$, where the cutoff frequency $`f_c`$ is given by $`f_c=\alpha _s/(\pi l_s^2)`$.

In a process where the main contribution to the PA signal comes from the thermal diffusion phenomenon, the almplitude and phase of the signal have a dependency on the frequency of the form $`(1/f)\mathrm{exp}a_s\sqrt{f}`$ and $`\varphi _{th}=(\pi /2)a_s\sqrt{f}`$, respectively, see Ref. . Where $`a_s`$ is a fitting parameter which is related to the diffusivity $`\alpha _s`$ by $`a_s=l_s\sqrt{\pi /\alpha _s}`$.

Figure 4 shows the amplitude and the phase of the PA signal for the candelilla wax sample. We can notice a good correspondence to the models presented before corresponding to the thermoelastic bending effect. In the case of the amplitude of the PA signal (Fig. 4a), it reproduces very well the $`f^1`$ dependency with an exponent equal to $`1.0866`$. Equation (2) was used to fit the results shown in Fig. 4b (continuous line) together with our measured values (clear circles) for the phase of the PA signal. It is possible to estimate the thermal diffusivity $`\alpha _s`$ from the fitting parameter $`b_s`$ considering the relationship

$$\alpha _s=\frac{\pi l_s^2}{b_s},$$
(3)
and using $`l_s=643\mu \text{m}`$. In this case $`f_c2\text{Hz}`$, then from Fig. 4 we can see that we are in the thermally-thick-sample regime.

Finally we obtained the value $`\alpha _s=0.026\pm 0.00095\text{cm}^2\text{/sec}`$ for the thermal diffusivity of candelilla wax.

### B Measurement of $`\rho c`$ and computation of the thermal conductivity

When one of the faces of the sample is illuminated as shown in Fig. 2, with a constant flux of light a lack of the equilibrium between the frontal (illuminated) and back (traced) faces of the sample is established. For the case where the width of the sample (including the two coats of black paint) $`l`$, is smaller than its transversal dimension, which is our case, this phenomenon can be described by a 1D equation. Thus, the conservation condition for the energy is

$$J_0\sigma T_1^4\sigma T_2^4=\frac{d}{dt}_0^1\rho cT(x,t)𝑑x,$$
(4)
where $`J_0`$ is the flux of incident light over the frontal face, $`\sigma `$ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, $`T_1`$ is the temperature of the frontal face, $`T_2`$ is the temperature of the back face, $`\rho `$ is the mass density of the sample and $`c`$ its specific heat at a constant pressure. In this equation we use explicitly the fact that the sample is painted with a thin coat of black paint that has an emissivity coefficient approximately equal to one .

We define $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_i(t)=T_{i,max}T_i(t)`$, $`(i=1,2)`$, where $`T_{1,max}`$ and $`T_{2,max}`$ are the maximum temperatures reached by the frontal and back faces of the sample respectively, for long times when the equilibrium is reached. Substituting $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_i(t)`$ in equation (4) and linearizing the resultant equation in terms of $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_i/T_i`$ we obtain

$$J_0\sigma T_{1,max}^4\sigma T_{2,max}^4+4\sigma T_{1,max}^3\mathrm{\Delta }T_1(t)+4\sigma T_{2,max}^3\mathrm{\Delta }T_2(t)=\frac{d}{dt}_0^1\rho cT(x,t)𝑑x.$$
(5)
The sum of the first three terms of this equation is equal to zero, since for long times the flux of incident radiation and the flux of emitted radiation cancel out each other. The integral on the right hand side can be written as

$$\frac{d}{dt}_0^1\rho cT(x,t)𝑑x\frac{\rho cl}{2}\frac{d}{dt}\left[T_1(t)+T_2(t)\right]=\frac{\rho cl}{2}\frac{d}{dt}\left[\mathrm{\Delta }T_1(t)+\mathrm{\Delta }T_2(t)\right]$$
(6)
using the fact that $`c`$ does not depend on the position and that it is practically constant in the interval of a few degrees above the room temperature. It is also a fact that for the values of $`l`$ and $`J_0`$ that we used in the laboratory it is fulfilled that $`l\frac{dT(x,t)}{dt}T_1(t)T_2(t)`$. From this condition we can assume that $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_1(t)\mathrm{\Delta }T_2(t)`$, then for a decrease of the temperature from $`T_{2,max}`$ to $`T_{2,0}`$ after the light is interrupted, equation (4) can be written as

$$8\sigma T_{2,0}^3\mathrm{\Delta }T_2(t)=\rho cl\frac{d\mathrm{\Delta }T_2(t)}{dt}.$$
(7)
Substituting the definition for $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_2(t)`$ and using the boundary conditions $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_2(0)=0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_2(\mathrm{})=T_{2,max}T_{2,0}`$, we obtain the solution

$$T_2(t)=T_{2,0}+\left(T_{2,max}T_{2,0}\right)\mathrm{exp}(t/\tau _d)$$
(8)
for the decay of the temperature immediately after the illumination of the sample is interrupted. In this case the relaxation mean time $`\tau _d`$ is given by

$$\tau _d=\frac{\rho cl}{8\sigma T_{2,0}^3}.$$
(9)
Figure 5 presents the evolution of the temperature of the sample as a function of time in a typical thermal decay experiment. From the time constant $`\tau _d=26\pm 1\text{s}`$, which fits very well to the relationship given by equation (8), one obtains the value of the product $`\rho c`$ from equation (9). In our case $`\rho c=820030.44\text{J/m}^3\text{K}`$ with an error of $`\pm 3.89`$ percent, where $`T_{2,0}=23.88^{}\text{C}`$ and $`l=377\mu \text{m}`$.

In order to obtain the thermal conductivity $`k`$, we can use the very well known relationship

$$\alpha _s=\frac{k}{\rho c},$$
(10)
which yields to $`k=2.132\pm 0.16\text{W/mK}`$.

### C Measurement of electrical resistivity

We consider a laminar sample with parallel surfaces (of thickness $`l`$ and surface area $`A`$) which after corona-charged behaves as an $`RC`$ circuit with time decay constant $`\tau _e=RC`$.

The resistance $`R`$ and the capacitance $`C`$ of the sample are given by $`R=\rho _e(d/A)`$ and $`C=\xi (A/4\pi d)\times (1.1\times 10^{12})`$, where $`\rho _e`$ is the electrical resistivity and $`\xi `$ is the dielectric constant ($`R`$ and $`C`$ are given in ohms and farads, respectively. $`A`$ and $`d`$ in centimeters). Then we have that $`\tau _e=(\rho _e\xi /a\pi )\times (1.1\times 10^{12})\text{s}`$. We can make the approximation $`\xi \pi `$, valid for many materials , and obtain

$$\rho _e=\tau _e\times 10^{12}\text{ohm-cm}.$$
(11)
It is known that the process for the discharge of a $`RC`$ circuit as a function of time is an exponential decay for the charge $`q(t)=q_0\mathrm{exp}(t/\tau _e)`$.

A typical experiment of the dark decay of surface potential in a negatively charged candelilla wax sample is shown in Fig. 6, which is a plot of the surface potential as a function of time. Since the surface potential is proportional to the charge ($`V=qC`$), the experimental results in Fig. 6 can be fitted to the relationship

$$V(t)=V_0\mathrm{exp}(t/\tau _e).$$
(12)
The time constant obtained from these results was $`\tau _e=166.17\pm 5.48\text{hours}`$, and using equation (11) one obtains a resistivity of $`\rho _e=5.98\pm 0.19\times 10^{17}\text{ohm-cm}`$.

## IV Conclusions

Although candelilla wax has a huge amount of industrial applications, some of its electric and thermal properties are not well understood. In some handbooks one can find the value of its dielectric constant but not its thermal diffusivity or its thermal conductivity, nor its resistivity . From the standard open-cell photoacoustic and thermal decay techniques one very easily finds some of the above-mentioned physical properties. Using equations (3) and (9) we obtained the thermal diffusivity $`\alpha _s`$, and the product $`\rho c`$ respectively, starting with the values obtained from the fittings of the data to equations (2) and (8). One can calculate the heat capacity once one measures the mass density $`\rho `$ of the sample. In our case the heat capacity was measured to be $`c=754.71\pm 29.35\text{J/kgK}`$ and the thermal diffusivity $`\alpha _s=0.026\pm 0.00095\text{cm}^2\text{/sec}`$. The density measured in this work is $`\rho =1086.54\text{kg/m}^3`$. The thermal conductivity was obtained from the relation (10) to be $`k=2.132\pm 0.16\text{W/mK}`$.

Concerning the electric properties of candelilla wax, the time constant for the dark decay of the surface potential found in this work, is an evidence that we are dealing with a very high resistivity material. As we can see from Fig. 6, the dark decay of the surface potential obeys quite well the behaviour of an insulator, considered from the point of view of a parallel plate capacitor as presented on section 3.3. In this work we found from the fitting of the data to equation (12) that the time constant $`\tau _e=166.17\pm 5.48\text{hours}`$, means a resistivity $`\rho _e=5.98\pm 0.19\times 10^{17}\text{ohm-cm}`$ given by equation (11).

We can say also that for high resistivity materials, the combination of photoacoustic spectroscopy, the thermal decay method, and the dark decay of the surface potential is a well recommended one, since one can obtain some physical properties of this kind of materials in a very simple way.

Acknowledgements. The authors thank Dr. J. L. Martínez for kindy providing the candelilla wax. This work was partially supported by CONACyT.


text:
# Dust grain properties in atmospheres of AGB stars

## 1. Introduction

Mass loss by dust driven winds of asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars probably is one of the major mechanism which recycle material in the Galaxy (e.g. Sedlmayr 1994). Most stars ($`M_{}<8M_{}`$) will eventually become AGB stars and subsequently end their life as white dwarfs surrounded by planetary nebulae.

AGB stars are cool ($`T_{}<3500`$ K) and luminous ($`L_{}`$ of a few $`10^3`$ to a few $`10^4`$ L) and a majority of them are pulsating long-period variables (LPVs). The outer layers of many AGB stars provide favorable conditions for the formation of molecules and dust grains. Dust grains play an important role for the heavy mass loss of these stars (up to ($`\dot{M}10^4M_{}`$/yr).

Pulsation causes an extended atmosphere where the dust is condensing. The dust absorbs the light of the central star and re-radiates it at longer wavelengths in the infrared rage ($`\lambda >2\mu `$m). The density of material in the circumstellar envelope may be so large that the star becomes completely obscured in the optical rage. Due to observational difficulties in determining the mass loss rates of these objects considerable effort has been put into a theoretical description of the mass loss of AGB stars (e.g. Fleischer et al. 1992; Höfner & Dorfi 1997). The overall goal is to develop a mass loss description that can be used as input to evolutionary models and thereby probe the chemical evolution of the Galaxy.

We present here how the wind properties of carbon-rich models are influenced by the micro-physical properties of the dust grains.

## 2. The Atmosphere Model

The models predict mass loss rates, wind velocities and dust-to-gas ratios by solving the equations of continuity, motion and energy for the gas and a set of equations describing the formation of dust grains. The transfer of radiation is calculated frequency-dependently for the gas and dust (Höfner 1999; Höfner et al. 2002). Basically only four stellar parameters are needed as input for the models; the stellar mass ($`M_{}`$), the effective temperature ($`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$), the luminosity ($`L_{}`$) of the star and the gas abundance ratio ($`\epsilon _\mathrm{C}/\epsilon _\mathrm{O}`$) of carbon to oxygen. However, to describe the pulsations of the star two additional parameters are required for the prescription of the inner boundary condition; a pulsation period (P) and a velocity amplitude ($`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$), which simulates a pulsating stellar surface as a means of mechanical energy input.

The number densities of the molecules relevant to the carbon dust formation are calculated assuming chemical equilibrium between H, H2, C, C2, C2H and C2H2 after the fraction of carbon bound in CO has been subtracted. Nucleation, growth and destruction of dust grains are supposed to proceed by reactions involving C, C2, C2H and C2H2.

Dust is formed by a series of chemical reactions in which atoms or molecules from the gas phase combine to clusters of increasing size. The molecular composition of the gas phase determines which atoms and molecules are available for the cluster formation and grain growth. This can lead to a layered structure of the circumstellar envelope. Dust formation alters the atmospheric structure which significant influence the local and global circumstellar envelope dynamics and the detailed time-dependent spectral appearance.

In the case of pulsating atmospheres of Mira and other LPVs the condensation of dust grains is strongly connected with the shock wave structure of the circumstellar envelope, usually triggered by a 2-step mechanism. First there is nucleation of critical clusters followed by growth to macroscopic dust grains. Grain growth will usually proceed far from equilibrium and it is necessary to use a time-dependent description of grain growth to determine the degree of condensation and other relevant properties of the dust.

The grain growth is treated by the moment method which describe the time evolution of an ensemble of macroscopic dust grains of various sizes and requires the nucleation rate as input (Gail & Sedlmayr 1988; Gauger et al. 1990). The moment method needs the following dust properties as external input: (1) the optical properties of the relevant dust types, (2) the intrinsic density of the dust material(s), (3) the sticking coefficient which describes the efficiency of growing dust grains from the atomic precursors, and (4) the surface tension of the dust grains which controls the efficiency of nucleation. The purpose of this work is to investigate in detail how the predicted wind properties of the carbon-rich AGB models are influenced by the choice of these quantities.

For the mass loss models it is important to know how the uncertainty in the chosen dust parameters affects the obtained results. The model parameters are listed in Tables $`25`$. For a given set of stellar parameters and elemental abundance, the mass loss rate, the outflow velocity and the degree of condensation is obtained by averaging the outflow of the time-dependent models. Previous models presented in earlier papers (e.g. Andersen et al. 1999) were all based on gray radiative transfer while the models presented here are calculated using frequency dependent radiative transfer for the gas and dust (see Höfner et al. 2002 for details). Dynamic atmosphere models are undergoing a transition from qualitative modeling of physical processes to realistic quantitative predictions and interpretations of observations.

## 3. Amorphous carbon dust

Amorphous carbon particles are considered to be a very good candidate for the most common type of dust present in circumstellar envelopes of carbon-rich AGB stars. The infrared data of late-type stars generally show a dust emissivity law ($`Q(\lambda )\lambda ^\beta `$) with a spectral index of $`\beta 1`$ (e.g. Campbell et al. 1976; Sopka et al. 1985; Martin & Rogers 1987; Gürtler et al. 1996). A $`\lambda ^1`$ behavior can be expected in a very disordered two-dimensional material like amorphous material (e.g. Huffmann 1988; Jäger et al. 1998). Graphite formation in AGB stars is ruled out, because of the absence in the observed spectra of the narrow band at $`11.52\mu `$m and the overall shape of infrared graphite spectra which are proportional to $`\lambda ^2`$ (e.g. Draine & Lee 1984).

Amorphous carbon covers by nature a broad span of material properties. The difference in optical properties for three different types of amorphous carbon can be seen in Fig. 1. The dust properties needed as input for the models are not always know from laboratory experiments. In the case of amorphous carbon it has therefore been custom to use values of the intrinsic density for graphite material instead of the real value. If the intrinsic density of graphite is used instead of the correct laboratory value for amorphous carbon it will influence the efficiency of dust formation and therefore the predicted mass loss and colors as seen from Table 3.

## 4. Results and Discussion

A frequency-dependent treatment of the radiative transfer in the dynamical models has turned out to be crucial for obtaining realistic structures, synthetic spectra, and reliable mass loss rates (Höfner et al. 2002). How the choice of the micro-physical parameters can change the predictions for the mean outflow velocity of the gas and dust, the degree of dust condensation and the mass loss is discussed in the following focusing on the optical dust properties, the intrinsic dust density, the sticking coefficient and the surface tension.

### 4.1. Dust opacity

The direct influence of the extinction efficiency ($`Q_{\mathrm{ext}}`$) on the structure and the wind of the dynamical models are shown in Table 2. The models are dependent on the choice of laboratory measurements of the extinction efficiency ($`Q_{\mathrm{ext}}`$) as already show for gray models in Andersen et al. (1999). In contrast to the gray models then for the frequency-dependent models both the absolute value and the slope of the dust opacity data become relevant. The absolute value of the extinction efficiency has a profound influence on the determined outflow velocity of the models, while the slope of the extinction efficiency determines the grain temperature. In the models where the Jäger 400 data is used for the extinction efficiency of the dust, no dust is formed, since the slope of the material opacity dictates a high grain temperature which make the grains unstable against evaporation.

### 4.2. Intrinsic dust density

We have calculated models with different intrinsic densities for the given material assumed to be formed in the stellar wind. When the moment method was developed by Gail & Sedlmayr (1988) the intrinsic density for the amorphous carbon used in that generation of models was not know. The value of graphite (2.25 g/cm3) was therefore assumed. This value was later used in almost all of the existing models (e.g. Fleischer et al. 1992; Höfner & Dorfi 1997). The models become much redder when the intrinsic density of graphite is used instead of the value for amorphous carbon since significantly more dust is formed in these models. Even a small increase of about 10% in the intrinsic density of the dust material (as is the case from Model l13dj10$`\rho `$199 to l13dj10$`\rho `$225) results in a doubling of the degree of condensation and a substantial increase in the outflow velocity, $`u`$.

The influence on the mass loss rate is very sensitive to the discrepancy between the value of the intrinsic density of the amorphous carbon and the value for graphite. For the models l13drou$`\rho `$185 and l13drou$`\rho `$225 where the only difference is a 20% difference in the value used for the intrinsic density, the estimated mass loss rate differ almost by a factor of 2. For the models using the Jäger 400 material data (l13dj04$`\rho `$144 to l13dj04$`\rho `$225), where the difference is almost 40%, using the true material value instead of the higher value for graphite result in a model that will not develop a wind at all.

### 4.3. Sticking coefficient

The sticking coefficient (also called the reaction efficiency factor) $`\alpha `$ is not definitely know as long as we do not know explicitly the sequence of chemical reactions responsible for the dust formation. To isolate the importance of how uncertainties in the value of $`\alpha `$ will influence the results of the models we have varied this parameter in otherwise identical models. Choosing a value for the sticking coefficient of one increases the degree of condensation and the outflow velocity by about a factor of 2 compared to when a value of 0.3 is chosen. Dust formation occurs beyond $`2R_{}`$ independent of the value assumed for the sticking coefficient since the condensation threshold is determined mainly by the temperature. With the low choice of sticking coefficient ($`0.3`$) only about 10% of the condensable carbon material present in the gas actually condense into grains, while for the much more favorable choice of sticking coefficient ($`1`$) twice as much material condense into grains. A complete condensation of carbon grains is prevented by the rapid velocity increase after the onset of avalanche nucleation and the subsequent rapid dilution.

### 4.4. Surface tension

The surface tension $`\sigma _{\mathrm{dust}}`$ of amorphous carbon is not know from laboratory experiments, it has therefore become a custom to use the values for graphite e.g. given by Tabak et al. (1975). One problem however is that there are huge variations in the values determined due to the anisotropy with orientation of graphite.

The surface tension enters into the surface contribution to the free energy, $`\mathrm{\Delta }F`$, calculated on the basis of classical thermodynamics, see Gail et al. (1984) for details.

As already demonstrated by Tabak et al. (1975) then variating the value of the surface tension produces an enormous change in the nucleation rate. To determine how significant the prescribed value for the surface tension that we use in the models is for the results we have varied the value around the value of 1400 erg/cm2 which were used in all previous models, see Table 5. Altering the value of the surface tension of the forming dust grains by 28% around the value of graphite will make the difference between obtaining a mass loss or not for the model. Also it has a substantial influence on how much of the available material in the circumstellar envelope will condense into dust grains. For a comparison the measured surface tension for other materials are: Fe ($`\sigma _{\mathrm{dust}}=1400`$ erg/cm2), MgS ($`\sigma _{\mathrm{dust}}=800`$ erg/cm2) and SiO ($`\sigma _{\mathrm{dust}}=500`$ erg/cm2) (Gail & Sedlmayr 1986).

## 5. Conclusions

We have investigated in detail how the predicted wind properties of the carbon-rich AGB models are influenced by the choice of micro-physical dust parameters.

For the mass loss models it is important to know how the uncertainty in the chosen dust parameters affects the obtained results. The choice of the micro-physical parameters can change the predictions for the mean outflow velocity of the gas and dust by a factor of 4, the predicted degree of dust condensation by a factor of 10 and the predicted mass loss by a factor of 2. In the transition between models with and without mass-loss the choice of micro-physical parameters is vital for whether a particular set of stellar parameters will give rise to a dust-driven mass loss or not.

#### Acknowledgments.

ACA gratefully acknowledges financial support from the Carlsberg Foundation. This work was supported by NorFA, the Royal Swedish Academy of Science and the Swedish Research Council.

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