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# Neutrino flux predictions for galactic plerions

## 1 Introduction

Plerions are supernova remnants (SNRs) with a filled morphology. These remnants are characterized by a center-brightened nebula often seen in the radio and X-ray wavelenghts and believed to be powered by an embedded pulsar. Typified by the Crab Nebula, they have non thermal spectra at all wavelengths. They have a flat power-law spectral index ($`\alpha 00.3,S_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$) in the radio band and hard photon index ($`\gamma 2,\gamma =\alpha +1`$) in the X-ray band. Out of $`220`$ Galactic SNRs only about 10% are classified as plerions (or Crab-like SNRs) .

Plerion spectra are usually well interpreted from the radio to the X-ray band as synchrotron emission of a population of relativistic pairs continuously supplied by the central pulsar. At higher energies the Inverse Compton Scattering of the same electrons and positrons off either an internal or external target radiation can play a role. However it is not clear whether this latter process can be responsible for the emission recently observed from a few objects at TeV energies . An alternative mechanism to produce TeV photons may be the decay of neutral pions produced through nuclear collisions of relativistic protons.

In this paper we investigate the consequences of a possible hadronic origin of these TeV detections. Following the line of a recent work by Alvarez-Muñiz & Halzen , we compute the high energy neutrino flux at earth and find that the predicted fluxes may be detectable by large, $`\mathrm{km}^2`$ effective area, high energy neutrino telescopes, such as the planned south pole detector IceCube  or the Mediterranean sea detectors under construction (ANTARES, ; NESTOR, ) and planning (NEMO, ; see Ref.  for a recent review).

## 2 TeV observations of plerions

Four plerions have been so far detected at TeV energies, while upper limits exist for a few others. The objects for which the detection is at a high confidence level ($`\stackrel{>}{}4\sigma `$) are: the Crab Nebula , the Vela X SNR , the pulsar wind nebula around PSR1706-44  and the radio nebula surrounding PSR1509-58 . The VHE emission is unpulsed and therefore likely to be associated to the pulsar wind nebula rather than to the pulsar magnetosphere.

In Table 1 we report the list of pulsar wind bubbles which have been detected at TeV energies, supplied with the central pulsar luminosity and distance (Ref.  and references therein), and the observed TeV spectrum.

Two of the objects in the table deserve some comment. First of all, it should be noticed that the association between pulsar B1706-44 and the remnant G343.1-2.3 is questionable as discussed by Giacani et al., and in the following we refer to the radio nebula detected by Frail et al. as the remnant associated to this pulsar.

As to B1509-58, this pulsar is found in a very extended supernova remnant with a complex morphology. However a synchrotron nebula has been found with confidence surrounding the pulsar at X-ray frequencies , although no pulsar wind bubble has been detected at radio frequencies . Moreover the spectral index at TeV energies has not been determined with confidence . In the following we use a value of 2.5 in analogy with the spectra of the other objects and derive the normalization from the integrated photon flux measured by CANGAROO.

As we mentioned in the introduction, a possible mechanism to interpret the TeV fluxes is the Inverse Compton Scattering (ICS), on the ambient photon field, of the electrons responsible for the synchrotron emission at lower frequencies. The target radiation for ICS is given by the sum of two different contributions: the external photon field and the internal radiation produced by the source itself. A detailed discussion of the relative importance of the different contributions, within the context of the objects considered here, can be found in Ref. . The conclusion is that the target photon density is expected to be dominated by the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) at 2.7 K, corresponding to an energy density $`w_{\mathrm{ph}}=0.26\mathrm{eV}\mathrm{cm}^3`$.

When one considers the ICS and synchrotron emission in frequency ranges such that they are produced by the same electrons, the ratio of the synchrotron and ICS luminosities ($`L_{\mathrm{sync}}`$ and $`L_{\mathrm{ICS}}`$, respectively) is equal to the ratio between the energy density of the magnetic and radiation fields. Since, as we mentioned above, the target radiation is mainly made of CMB photons, we can write, for the ratio between the ICS and synchrotron emission:

$$\frac{L_{\mathrm{ICS}}}{L_{\mathrm{sync}}}=\frac{w_{\mathrm{CMB}}}{w_\mathrm{B}},$$
(1)
where $`w_{\mathrm{CMB}}`$ and $`w_\mathrm{B}`$ indicate the CMB and magnetic field energy densities respectively. Eq. 1 can be used to estimate the magnetic field, once we specify the frequency bands in which $`L_{\mathrm{ICS}}`$ and $`L_{\mathrm{sync}}`$ have to be taken.

The energy $`E_e`$ of an electron producing TeV photons by upscattering the CMB is given by:

$$E_e[\mathrm{TeV}]20\left(\frac{E_\gamma }{\mathrm{TeV}}\right)^{1/2},$$
(2)
where $`E_\gamma `$ is the photon energy. Therefore the synchrotron photons emitted by the same electrons will have a typical energy of:

$$ϵ_{\mathrm{sync}}0.08B_5\mathrm{keV},$$
(3)
where $`B_5`$ is the nebular magnetic field in units of $`10^5`$ Gauss. This value of the magnetic field strength is of order of that typically estimated for these nebulae assuming equipartition.

If the TeV flux is due to ICS on the CMB, we then find for the magnetic field strength:

$$B_{IC}=3\times 10^6\left(\frac{L_x}{L_{\mathrm{TeV}}}\right)^{1/2}\mathrm{Gauss}.$$
(4)
where $`L_{\mathrm{TeV}}`$ is the luminosity at TeV energies obtained integrating the TeV spectrum given in Table 1 above 1 TeV.

In Table 2 we compare the value of $`B_{IC}`$ with what can be found assuming equipartition $`B_{\mathrm{eq}}`$. For the first three remnants we have computed the equipartition magnetic field based on the radio data while in the case of the nebula surrounding PSR B1509-58 we have used the luminosity and size at X-ray frequencies, as given in Ref. .

It is apparent from the table that while for two of our four sources the ICS and the equipartition values of the field are very close, in the case of B1706-44 and Vela a noticeable discrepancy (a factor of 4 and 10 respectively) is found. For these two objects the possibility that the TeV emission is due to hadronic processes is particularly appealing. If this is actually the case, then we expect a neutrino flux from these sources that we compute in the next section.

## 3 Neutrino events

A way to disentangle electromagnetic and hadronic sources of high energy $`\gamma `$-ray emission observationally is to look for the neutrino signals. Relativistic protons may produce TeV $`\gamma `$-rays either by photo-meson production or inelastic nuclear collisions. The relative importance of the two processes depends on the target density of radiation and matter in the source. The main difference, as far as their outcome is concerned, is in the fraction of energy that goes into charged pions compared to neutral ones. This translates in a different ratio between the total neutrino and photon energy flux. In the case of plerions the most likely process at work is p-p scattering, as can be readily seen by comparing the rates of photomeson production and p-p scattering estimated below.

For photo-meson production the target for high energy protons is the plerion emission. The fractional energy loss rate of a proton with energy $`E_p`$ (= $`\mathrm{\Gamma }m_pc^2`$) due to pion production results in (Ref. ):

$`t_{p\gamma }^1(E_p)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2^{p+1}}{p+2}}\sigma _{\mathrm{peak}}\xi _{\mathrm{peak}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ}{ϵ_{\mathrm{peak}}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{R}_N}}\right)^2{\displaystyle \frac{F_\nu (\nu _\mathrm{p})}{4\pi h}}`$ (5)
$``$ $`2.5\times 10^{16}{\displaystyle \frac{2^{p+1}}{p+2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{d}_{\mathrm{kpc}}}{\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{pc}}}}\right)^2F_{\nu _\mathrm{p}}[\mathrm{mJy}]\mathrm{yr}^1.`$
Here we have treated the plerion as homogeneous and used the fact that the photon spectrum is a power law, $`F_\nu \nu ^p`$. We have also made the approximation that the main contribution to pion production comes from photon energies $`ϵ_\gamma ϵ_{\mathrm{peak}}`$=0.3 GeV, where the p-$`\gamma `$ cross section peaks due to the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ resonance. The numerical values are obtained using: $`\sigma _{\mathrm{peak}}=5\times 10^{28}\mathrm{cm}^2`$, $`\xi _{\mathrm{peak}}`$ =0.2, $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ`$=0.2 GeV, $`\nu _\mathrm{p}=ϵ_{\mathrm{peak}}/(\mathrm{\Gamma }h)`$ and $`\beta _p1`$. Finally we have scaled the nebular radius and distance to the typical values of 1 pc and 1 kpc, respectively ( $`\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{pc}}=\mathrm{R}_N/\mathrm{pc}`$ and $`\mathrm{d}_{\mathrm{kpc}}=\mathrm{d}/\mathrm{kpc}`$), and expressed the nebular synchrotron radiation flux in units of mJy.

The energy loss-rate of a relativistic proton due to inelastic nuclear collisions can be estimated as

$$t_{pp}^1\zeta n_t\sigma _0c\zeta \frac{\mathrm{M}_N}{m_p}\frac{3}{4\pi \mathrm{R}_N^3}\sigma _0c,$$
(6)
where $`n_t`$ is the target density, which we have expressed in terms of the nebular radius $`R_N`$ and content of thermal material $`M_N`$. Introducing in Eq. 6 the numerical values of the cross section for p-p scattering, $`\sigma _0=5\times 10^{26}\mathrm{cm}^2`$, and of the average fraction of energy lost by the proton, $`\zeta 20\%`$, we obtain:

$$t_{pp}^110^7\frac{M_\mathrm{N}}{\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{pc}}^3}\mathrm{yr}^1,$$
(7)
where $`M_\mathrm{N}=M_\mathrm{N}/M_{}`$. From the comparison between Eq.7 and Eq.5, it is apparent that nuclear collisions are by far the most likely mechanism for pion production in plerions.

From this follows that the relation between the neutrino and photon flux is:

$$_{E_\nu ^{\mathrm{min}}}^{E_\nu ^{\mathrm{max}}}E_\nu \frac{dN_\nu }{dE_\nu }𝑑E_\nu =_{E_\gamma ^{\mathrm{min}}}^{E_\gamma ^{\mathrm{max}}}E_\gamma \frac{dN_\gamma }{dE_\gamma }𝑑E_\gamma ,$$
(8)
where $`E_\gamma ^{\mathrm{min}}`$ ($`E_\gamma ^{\mathrm{max}}`$) is the minimum (maximum) energy of the p-p produced photons and $`E_\nu ^{\mathrm{min}}(1/2)E_\gamma ^{\mathrm{min}}`$ and $`E_\nu ^{\mathrm{max}}(1/2)E_\gamma ^{\mathrm{max}}`$ are the corresponding minimum and maximum neutrino energies.

We estimate the neutrino flux in the energy range 1-100 TeV, which is the range in which the future $`\mathrm{km}^2`$ neutrino detectors will operate. Therefore we are concerned with photon energies above 2 TeV.

In Table 3 we report the total number of neutrino events expected in a yr of operation of a $`\mathrm{km}^2`$ detector. This is obtained directly from:

$$N_\mu =4A_{\mathrm{eff}}\times T\times _{1\mathrm{T}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}^{100\mathrm{T}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}\frac{dN_\gamma }{dE_\gamma }(2E_\nu )P_{\nu \mu }(E_\nu )𝑑E_\nu ,$$
(9)
where $`P_{\nu \mu }=1.310^6E_{\nu ,\mathrm{TeV}}`$  is the detection probability for neutrinos with $`E_\nu \stackrel{>}{}`$ 1 TeV, $`T`$ is the observation time and $`A_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ is the effective area.

The number of atmospheric neutrino events collected in a $`\mathrm{km}^2`$ detector during 1 yr is of order 1. This is estimated assuming a background neutrino spectrum $`\varphi _{\nu ,\mathrm{bkg}}10^7E_{\nu ,\mathrm{TeV}}^{2.5}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{sr}^1`$ for $`E_\nu >1`$ TeV, and a detector angular resolution of $`0.3^{}`$ like NEMO .

Our calculation suggests that the neutrino signal from three of the plerions considered here maybe identified above the atmospheric neutrino background by the next generation underwater (ice) neutrino telescopes.

## 4 Discussion

We have investigated the implications of a possible hadronic origin of the high energy emission from the plerions which have been detected by CANGAROO at TeV energies. The alternative explanation for this emission is based on ICS. From the comparison of the implied magnetic field strength under this latter assumption with the equipartition value, we have found that the ICS origin of TeV photons poses some difficulties for at least two of our four sources, namely Vela and the remnant surrounding B1706-44.

We have computed the implied neutrino flux under the assumption that the emission seen by CANGAROO is due to p-p scattering. We conclude that, for three of these objects, this hypothesis can be confirmed or disproven with confidence, given that the upcoming neutrino telescopes will be operated for a few years.

The positive detection of neutrinos with $`E_\nu \stackrel{>}{}`$ TeV would not only provide the final answer to the origin of the detected VHE $`\gamma `$-rays but also confirm the hypothesis that protons can be accelerated upto at least tens of TeV in these objects.

## Acknowledgments

We thank the referee for his suggestions. We aknowledge M. Salvati and F. Pacini for useful conversations.


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# Global 8.4-GHz VLBI observations of JVAS B0218+357

## 1 Introduction

Few gravitational lens systems are as well studied as JVAS B0218+357 (Patnaik et al., 1993), perhaps the best example of a lens system for which the method of Refsdal (1964) can be used to determine the Hubble parameter, $`H_0`$. Unlike many other methods, this is done in a single step and involves well understood, and relatively simple, astrophysics. We point out that there remain significant uncertainties in $`H_0`$ as determined by traditional methods (e.g. Shanks et al., 2001). For example, the use of Cepheid-calibrated distances to determine the distance to galaxies hosting Type Ia supernovae has resulted in final values of $`H_0`$ that do not agree at the $`1\sigma `$ ($``$10 per cent) level (Parodi et al., 2000; Freedman et al., 2001). This is despite a large overlap between the samples of SNIa.

Whilst the gravitational lens route to $`H_0`$ can be a particularly “clean” one, and despite many lens systems now having measured time delays, almost all suffer in one way or another from effects that significantly increase the uncertainty in the final determination of $`H_0`$. In most cases the main source of uncertainty is in the modelling of the gravitational potential responsible for the image splitting and distortion. A lack of observational data to constrain the lens model and multiple-galaxy lenses are both significant factors in this regard (see e.g. Schechter, 2000). A list of the time delays measured to date can be found in Courbin, Saha & Schechter (2002).

With JVAS B0218+357 on the other hand, the potential exists to reduce the uncertainty in the lens model to a level comparable to that in the time delay; this currently stands at 3 per cent ($`\tau =10.5\pm 0.4`$ d; Biggs et al., 1999). Other authors find a value for the time delay consistent with this (Cohen et al., 2000). This reduction in model uncertainty is possible due to the large number of observational model constraints available from multi-frequency, multi-resolution imaging. Both images (A and B) of the $`z=0.96`$ background quasar/BL Lac are easily resolved with VLBI into two subcomponents (e.g. Patnaik, Porcas & Browne, 1995; Kemball, Patnaik & Porcas, 2001) which constrain the radial mass profile to be close to isothermal. The lens systems with the largest numbers of model constraints are those that contain Einstein rings, such as B0218+357. The resolved arcsec-scale structure of the ring probes the lens potential along multiple lines of sight and along all azimuthal position angles relative to the lens centre. The ring (see Fig. 4) has been mapped at high resolution using combined MERLIN and VLA data at 5 GHz (Biggs et al., 2001) and the model constrained using a version of the LensClean algorithm (Kochanek & Narayan, 1992); preliminary results can be found in Wucknitz (2001). Finally, the deflecting mass is concentrated in a single, isolated galaxy and so the effect of tidal shear due to nearby structure is very small ($``$1 per cent, Lehár et al. 2000). This results in a relatively uncomplicated mass model compared to other lens systems. A VLA map of B0218+357 can be seen in Fig. 4.

The main stumbling block to date in measuring $`H_0`$ with JVAS B0218+357 has been that, due predominantly to the small size of the system (A-B separation of 334 mas), it has been difficult to measure the position of the $`z=0.6847`$ lensing galaxy relative to the lensed images accurately using optical ($`HST`$) data. For example, the positions derived from two NICMOS observations differ by 46 mas (Lehár et al., 2000) and this uncertainty translates into a large uncertainty in $`H_0`$. With LensClean we have estimated the galaxy position to a theoretical accuracy of a few mas, but this relies to some extent on the lens model and so could be biased.

In this paper we present new 8.4-GHz observations of JVAS B0218+357 taken with a global VLBI array that were designed to increase the available model constraints by other means. With the great sensitivity of a global array we hoped we might detect:

1. extended structure associated with the radio jet in both A and B. This is detected in 5-GHz data from the First Caltech-Jodrell Bank (CJ1) VLBI survey (Xu et al., 1995) that we have re-analysed to produce maps (Fig. 1) that are superior to those published in Xu et al.. With a resolution of $``$5 mas these new maps reveal a jet that extends out to 30 mas from the core in each image.
2. a third image, as detected in, e.g. APM 08279+5255 (Ibata et al., 1999; Lewis et al., 2002) and MG 1131+0456 (Chen & Hewitt, 1993; Chen, Kochanek & Hewitt, 1995), and
3. the galaxy core. Emission from the lensing galaxy has been detected in several systems e.g. B0957+561 (Harvanek et al., 1997) and CLASS B2045+265 (Fassnacht et al., 1999). A third radio component is detected in PMN J1632-0033, but it is not known if this is a lensed image or the lens galaxy (Winn et al., 2002).

The observations have also been used to investigate the mas-scale polarisation structure of this system. Whilst the cores of most quasars/BL Lacs are polarised at a level of about 2–3 per cent (Saikia & Salter, 1988), images A and B of B0218+357 are both much more highly polarised, reaching $``$10 per cent at frequencies 8.4 GHz and above (Patnaik et al., 1993; Biggs et al., 1999). Also, the polarisation position angles of the images are not the same, in conflict with the expected behaviour of a lens system which preserves the polarisation position angle on the sky (Dyer & Shaver, 1992). It is thought that Faraday rotation in the magnetoionic medium of the lensing galaxy itself rotates the position angles of the images by different amounts (Patnaik et al., 1993). Thus the extended nature of the emission in images A and B allows the interstellar medium (ISM) of a high-redshift galaxy to be studied on parsec scales. Both images also depolarise at low frequencies.

## 2 Observations and data reduction

The goals of this experiment required a combination of high sensitivity, high resolution and excellent $`(u,v)`$ coverage in order to reliably image complex and faint structures. For this reason we used a global VLBI array including the ten antennas of the VLBA, six from the European VLBI Network (EVN), the VLA (Y) in phased-array mode and the two 70-m antennas of the Deep Space Network (DSN) at Goldstone and Robledo. Details of these antennas are given in Table 1 with their diameters and system equivalent flux densities (SEFD). We chose to observe at 8.4 GHz instead of at 5 GHz (where the surface brightness sensitivity is better) due to the improved resolution and because there is less chance that the lensed emission would be affected by scattering; there is evidence that the image sizes in this system may be enlarged by scattering at low frequencies (Biggs et al., in preparation, although see Porcas & Patnaik (1996b) for a 1.7-GHz map that illustrates the large size increase). Scattering would possibly reduce the surface brightness of the third image or the galaxy core which is clearly undesirable when searching for such weak features.

Due to the fact that the VLA was in its largest configuration (‘A’) at the time of the observations, using the full complement of 27 antennas as a single phased array was not possible as the synthesised beam would have been significantly smaller than the separation between the two images A and B. Therefore we were forced to use only the inner nine antennas of the array, Y9, to give a large enough beam. It should be noted that in order to calibrate the absolute polarisation position angle, the strategy for which is described later in this section, three short additional observations of 3C48 and 3C138 were added to the inner subarray schedule. These two sources were not observed by any other antenna in the global array. The remaining 18 antennas of the VLA observed as an outer subarray operating in normal interferometric mode.

The observations took place during 11 November 2000 to 12 November 2000 over the time range 20:00–07:00 UT for the European antennas and 21:00–09:00 UT for those in the US. Both senses of polarisation were recorded with the exception of three of the stations where only right circular polarisation (RCP) was available (Nt, On and Yb). Data were recorded in four 8 MHz sub-bands with one-bit sampling giving a data rate of 128 Mbps. Of the 19 antennas scheduled (VLBA+EVN+DSN+Y), only 17 took part in the observations; Yebes suffered from a broken data formatter whilst the receiver at VLBA Owens Valley was non-operational. The various calibration sources observed are shown in Table 2 along with their flux densities. The data were correlated at the VLBA correlator in Socorro producing 16 0.5-MHz channels per sub-band (IF) and using an averaging time of two seconds. All polarisation pairs (RR, LL, RL and LR) were produced.

Data reduction was performed using the NRAO aips package. Amplitude calibration was carried out using system temperatures ($`T_{\mathrm{sys}}`$) recorded during the observations scaled by a priori measurements of the antenna gains. For the DSN antennas no $`T_{\mathrm{sys}}`$ measurements were available, but values were estimated from measurements of the total power. Delay residuals were calculated using short segments of B0234+285 data and applied to all sources. This source was then fringe-fitted, solving for delays, rates and phases for the entire dataset. Following this the calibrated B0234+285 data were mapped in imagr and self-calibrated in calib. The residual amplitude voltage gain solutions found during the self-calibration were large for many antennas (up to a factor of two for VLBA Pie Town) and so were subsequently applied to all sources in order to correct the initial amplitude calibration. Next the B0218+357 data were fringe-fitted, initially with a single component located at the location of the brighter A component relative to the correlation position, but later with a more realistic model made from mapped and self-calibrated data. The delay difference between the left and right polarisations was calibrated using a single scan of 3C84 data and two baselines to the reference antenna (VLBA North Liberty). The 3C84 data were also used to calibrate the bandpasses of the antennas.

Next the various steps to calibrate the polarisation were undertaken. Firstly, the leakage (or $`D`$-) terms were solved for using the 3C84 data which had first been mapped and self-calibrated; 3C84 was assumed to be unpolarised. Secondly the absolute position angle of the polarisation was calibrated using the data from the inner subarray of the VLA (Y9) in normal interferometric mode666The antennas of the phased array also produce the usual baseline combinations as a matter of course.. As mentioned earlier, the bright calibration sources 3C48 and 3C138 were included in the Y9 schedule and with these it was possible to determine the true position angle of the source 0059+581. Once this was known it was possible to calibrate the position angle of the global array data by rotating the RCP$``$LCP phase difference until the 0059+581 polarisation position angle agreed with that found with the VLA data.

At this point the calibrated B0218+357 data were averaged in frequency to produce one channel per IF and averaged in time over 10 s intervals. The regions around images A and B were CLEANed using the imagr wide-field mapping task and the data self-calibrated in calib. Many cycles of mapping and self-calibration were undertaken, initially only allowing the phases to vary, but later the amplitudes as well. It was found that the sensitivity of the Westerbork (Wb) telescope was changing by up to a factor of four, cycling over 20 min timescales. Due to this, and the fact that the polarisation leakage terms were excessively large (up to 45 per cent), the Wb data were flagged and took no further part in the analysis. Much of the previous calibration was then repeated to make sure that the Wb data was not biasing the calibration for the other antennas. Data from the Noto and Onsala antennas could not be included when making the Stokes $`Q`$ and $`U`$ maps as neither was able to observe both right and left circular polarisations.

Unlike the antennas that formed the global VLBI array (VLBA+EVN+DSN+Y9) the outer subarray of the VLA observed with a separate schedule, nodding between B0218+357 (15 mins on source) and 0234+285 (2 mins on source) over a period of six hours. The data were calibrated in aips using 0234+285 as the phase, amplitude and polarisation calibrator. The $`D`$-terms were solved for assuming a point-source for 0234+285 (a good approximation to the polarised intensity image) whilst simultaneously solving for the source polarisation. The position angle of polarisation was again aligned using the inner VLA subarray (Y9) data. These data were then mapped and self-calibrated, again in aips.

## 3 Results

### 3.1 Global VLBI maps (total intensity)

The final VLBI maps are shown in Fig. 2 and are made from uniformly-weighted data in all cases. This results in an off-source rms noise of 30 $`\mu `$Jy beam-1 (compared to a theoretical noise of $``$10 $`\mu `$Jy beam-1) and a synthesised beam of $`1.36\times 0.41`$ mas for the total intensity maps; these are shown in the top two panels. Here the images are dominated by two bright sub-components, with a separation of $``$1 mas in both A and B. These were designated (A or B) 1 and 2 by Patnaik et al. (1995) and observations at higher frequencies (15, 22 and 43 GHz) show the same two sub-component structure (Porcas & Patnaik, 1996a). The core is believed to be the most westerly sub-component (1) in each case, based on its compactness relative to sub-component 2. Its spectrum also turns over at a higher frequency, as expected for a more compact component. As well as the two bright sub-components though, we have also detected large quantities of extended emission, in both A and B. This, however, looks quite different in each of the images, image A being considerably more resolved than image B. It is exactly these differences that can be used as constraints on the lens model as they must be explicable, in the absence of effects such as scattering, by the action of the lensing galaxy.

Interpreting image B is straightforward as it looks like a typical core-jet radio source, with a knotty jet extending eastwards from the bright core region. This is in line with what we would expect given the new CJ maps of Fig. 1. However, in order to aid the eye in comparing images A and B, the structures that we will now describe have been labelled on the maps in Fig. 2. The jet in B appears to bend, pointing in an approximate north-easterly direction immediately after emerging from the core (Jet 1), before gently curving over the next 5 mas to point in a more south-easterly direction (Jet 2). Finally the jet changes direction again, returning to a north-easterly trajectory before fading completely (Jet 3). Returning to the core region, there is a small counter-component that appears to emerge from the south-west of B1.

In image A sub-components 1 and 2 are, as already stated, clearly detected. However, they appear to sit in a large structure that is edge-brightened on its western side and extended to the north and south. This has been observed before at this frequency (Kemball et al., 2001) as well as at 15 GHz (Patnaik et al., 1995), but the greater sensitivity of our maps makes the effect much more pronounced. The majority of this structure, as has been noted by previous authors, is in fact emission from the core region that has been tangentially stretched along a position angle $`30^{}`$ (perpendicular to the A-lens galaxy separation) as part of the lensing process. Lens models predict just such a stretching of the brighter image in two-image lens systems, but it is not usually as resolved as that seen in B0218+357. We can quantify the magnitude of the stretching by noticing that the separations A1-A2 and B1-B2 are approximately equal ($`1.45\pm 0.02`$ mas). From observations with MERLIN and the VLA the flux density ratio between A and B at centimetre wavelengths is known to lie between three and four (Patnaik et al., 1993; Biggs et al., 1999; Cohen et al., 2000). As this flux density ratio is due to an increase in the size of image A relative to B then image A must be stretched by a factor 3–4 relative to B in the observed direction. A similar conclusion was reached by Patnaik et al. (1995).

The other features identified in image B are also clearly visible in image A and with properties consistent with gravitational lensing. The jet emerges from the core region in A and is parity reversed as expected – whilst Jet 1 in B initially lies above a line joining B1 and B2, in A it lies below a line joining A1 and A2. The tangential stretching displaces this jet feature away from the 1-2 separation vector compared to B. Proceeding eastwards the jet emission remains tangentially stretched (the Jet 2 region is seen in the CJ1 map (Fig. 1) as a bright extension to the east of the core) before fading as in B into discrete blobs. Note, however, the opposite direction of the very faint emission at the far end of the jet (Jet 3). In A this lies along a south-east line compared to north-east in B. The counter-component in A is also visible, but is located to the north of the A1-A2 separation, as opposed to south of the B1-B2 separation vector.

In order to search for emission from either the core of the lens galaxy or a third image, we have also made maps of the region in between images A and B. No evidence is found for either. If we assume that these components would have been detected if their peak surface brightness was greater than the 6-$`\sigma `$ rms noise level of 180 $`\mu `$Jy beam-1, we conclude that the third image has a flux density less than 180 $`\mu `$Jy, 0.02 per cent of the component A total flux density. Here we have assumed that the third image will be unresolved as its size should be that of A ($`10\times 10`$ mas) divided by the relative de-magnification factor of $``$5000 i.e. less than the size of the beam. Multi-path scattering (which we show is probably affecting the size of image A in Section 4.2) could though broaden the third image and reduce its surface brightness. If this is the case then the upper limit given above for the flux density of the third image is an under-estimate.

### 3.2 Global VLBI maps (polarised intensity)

Our polarised intensity maps ($`P=\sqrt{Q^2+U^2}`$, bottom row of Fig. 2) show no polarised jet emission outside of the core region. Sub-components 1 and 2 though are prominent and in image A are, as in the total intensity maps, tangentially stretched. In image B polarised inter-component emission between B1 and B2 is visible and appears as a small jet-like extension from sub-component B1, again supporting the hypothesis that this is the core.

The top row of Fig. 3 shows polarisation E-field vectors overlaid on total intensity contours. The effect of the differential Faraday rotation between the images can be seen as a rotation of the polarisation vectors in image A by $`50^{}`$ clockwise relative to image B. In image B it is possible to identify changes in the polarisation position angle along the jet axis, including across B2, the least compact sub-component. Generally though the position angle tends to lie approximately parallel to the jet axis. This “alignment” is entirely coincidental as both the jet axis and polarisation position angles are changed from their true values, the first by the gravitational effect of the lens and the second by Faraday rotation. In image A the distribution of the position angle is more complicated, there being an anomalous region of polarisation that stretches northwards from the midway point between A1 and A2. Here the polarisation vectors are oriented at $`0^{}`$ as opposed to elsewhere in this image where the majority of the polarisation is oriented between position angles of $``$30–40. This anomalous region is also seen in the maps of Kemball et al. (2001).

The bottom row of Fig. 3 shows (in greyscale) percentage polarisation maps of A and B, plotted on the same angular scale as the polarisation position angle figures above. The inner jet of B is particularly prominent here as it is very highly polarised, with a peak of 20 per cent. Interestingly, the distribution of percentage polarisation looks very different in image A where the peak polarisation is lower at only 12 per cent. There is also no sign of a significantly more highly polarised sub-component between A1 and A2.

### 3.3 Global VLBI maps (model fitting)

We measured the flux densities and sizes for sub-components 1 and 2 by fitting elliptical Gaussians to the total intensity maps using the aips tasks jmfit and imfit. We choose to fit to the maps, rather than to the $`(u,v)`$ data, as the biasing effect of the extended jet emission can then be more easily reduced. This is achieved by removing all pixels from the images whose surface brightness is less than 2.88 mJy beam-1. This corresponds to the sixth-lowest positive contour in the total intensity maps of Fig. 2, above which there is little evidence of jet emission in either image A or B. The possibility of contamination from the inner jet remains and the effect of this, although probably small due to this being relatively weak, will be different in each image. The positions of the Gaussians are constrained to lie at the maxima of sub-components 1 and 2.

The measured flux densities and deconvolved sub-component sizes are shown in Table 3. Errors have been estimated by comparing the results from imfit and jmfit, but are probably underestimates of the true uncertainties due to the systematic effects alluded to in the previous paragraph. If we consider only image B, where the errors are smaller, we see that sub-component 1 is the more compact and that its flux density is significantly lower than that measured by Kemball et al. (2001). As that of B2 has remained unchanged over the intervening five years, these maps support the identification of sub-component 1 as the core and the origin of the variability seen in the VLA monitoring campaigns.

### 3.4 VLA maps (outer subarray)

The total intensity map of the VLA-only data is shown in Fig. 4 with polarisation E-field vectors overlaid. It shows all the major features of B0218+357 on arcsec scales – the radio cores A and B, the Einstein ring and the radio jet. In addition, the region around the Einstein ring is shown with the polarisation vectors corresponding to images A and B omitted. This enables the polarisation vectors in the ring to be seen more clearly. It is interesting to see that around the majority of the ring the polarisation vectors are aligned radially outwards. As gravitational lensing preserves the orientation of polarisation on the sky (Dyer & Shaver, 1992) this is somewhat unexpected. Although it is possible that the polarisation is Faraday rotated in the jet as well as in the cores, it would be surprising if the spatial distribution of Faraday depths was such that the polarisation became aligned with the total intensity structure of the Einstein ring. However, this seems to be the case.

We have estimated the flux densities of images A and B by fitting two delta components to the $`(u,v)`$ data in difmap (Shepherd, 1997). The results are shown in Table 4. In fitting to the Stokes $`I`$ data we include a third component (a ring, component type 4 of the difmap modelfit function) to approximate the bright Einstein ring structure and improve the fit. No such additional component was added when fitting to the Stokes $`Q`$ and $`U`$ maps as the Einstein ring is much fainter. Also included in Table 4 are values for the total intensities, polarised intensities and polarisation position angles as measured from the VLBI data. These are calculated from the integrated $`I`$, $`Q`$ and $`U`$ flux densities which facilitates a comparison with the values measured from the lower-resolution VLA (outer subarray) dataset. From the $`P`$ and $`I`$ measurements we calculate the corresponding percentage polarisations, $`m`$ (%), which are also tabulated.

The good correspondence between the polarisation position angles as measured from the VLA and VLBI data suggests that the absolute position angle calibration has been successful. Similarly, the excellent correspondence between the integrated polarised intensities signifies that the flux scale of the two arrays are correctly aligned. However, in the VLBI maps we only detect 81 per cent of the VLA flux density in image A and 75 per cent in image B. We think this is due to a combination of the poorer surface-brightness sensitivity of the VLBI array (most of the jet visible in Fig. 1 is not detected) and over-estimation of the VLA flux densities due to blending with the ring emission in the map. This latter hypothesis is supported by the fact that we detect more of the VLA flux density in image A (which is less blended with the ring in the VLA map) as well as by the very similar polarised intensities measured by the VLA and VLBI arrays. We have made tapered maps of the VLBI data in an attempt to recover more of the A and B image flux densities. More is detected ($``$5 per cent in each image), but the VLBI flux densities of A and B still fall significantly short of their VLA values.

## 4 Discussion

Our global VLBI 8.4-GHz maps have revealed a great deal of substructure in images A and B of JVAS B0218+357. Neither the lens galaxy core nor the third image were detected, both of which would be very useful constraints on the lens model, especially in this system where the centre of the lensing galaxy is currently uncertain.777The lack of detection of a third image can be used though to place an upper limit on a finite core radius of the lens galaxy. This has been done for B0218+357 by Norbury (2002). In this section we discuss three main topics: the constraints that the new maps can already put on lens mass models, the evidence that the image suffers from multi-path scattering and the different polarisation distributions in each image.

### 4.1 Mass model constraints

The extensive substructure that we have detected will be useful for lens modelling and ultimately it is our intention to use the LensClean algorithm on these data for this purpose, the results of which will be presented in a future paper. In the interim we have back-projected each image into the source plane in order to qualitatively demonstrate the accuracy of the model. This has been done using the clean components and an isothermal model of the lens galaxy optimized using the positions of the 15GHz VLBI sub-components (Patnaik et al., 1995), a flux density ratio of 3.75 and the galaxy position found from our LensClean of VLA and MERLIN data (Wucknitz, 2001). With $`x`$ and $`y`$ pointing along the major and minor axis of the ellipsoid, the potential is written as

$$\varphi =\alpha _0\sqrt{\frac{x^2}{(1+ϵ)^2}+\frac{y^2}{(1ϵ)^2}}.$$
(1)
The critical radius is $`\alpha _0=160.6\mathrm{mas}`$, the ellipticity $`ϵ=0.0583`$ and the position angle of the major axis $`\theta =41.9\mathrm{deg}`$, measured from north through east. The centre of the lens is at $`𝒛_0=(260,117.5)\mathrm{mas}`$ relative to A.

In order to compensate for the very different effective resolution of A compared to B, the back-projected CLEAN components of both images have been restored with the same beam. This beam is just large enough that both the A and B back-projected beams are encompassed by it, which in practice means that it is approximately equal to the restoring beam in the image plane back-projected from image B to the source plane. This makes the nominal resolution in each the same. The back-projected maps are shown in Fig. 5.

Compared to the lens-plane images of Fig. 2, the source-plane images look quite similar. Worthy of note is the excellent correspondence between the counter-components to the west of the core region which are probably images of a weak counterjet. This is intriguing though as the lensed radio source in B0218+357 has been classified as a BL Lac (O’Dea et al., 1992; Browne et al., 1993; Stickel & Kühr, 1993), a class of objects that are not expected to display counterjets according to the unification schemes of extragalactic radio sources. This theoretical prediction is supported by the non-detection of counterjets in BL Lac sources, a notable exception being PKS 1413+135 (Perlman et al., 1994, 1996).

A closer comparison of the A and B source-plane maps shows that the B jet seems to be stretched by about 10 per cent relative to the A jet i.e. the jet in B is longer. This stretching can only be explained with a different radial mass profile, compared to that used in the model, since the jet is directed more or less radially relative to the galaxy’s centre. Writing the radial surface mass density as a function of radius as a power law, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(r)r^\beta `$, we find $`\beta 1.04`$. A very similar value is found ($`\beta =1.06\pm 0.03`$) if we use the 15-GHz sub-component positions of Patnaik et al. (1995) as constraints (Wucknitz, 2001).

### 4.2 Multi-path scattering

In Fig. 5 image A looks smoother than image B. We suggest that this is due to scatter-broadening, which may also explain the frequency-dependent sizes of the images at low ($``$2.3 GHz) frequencies (Biggs et al., in preparation). Other examples of where scattering is believed to modify the surface brightness of gravitationally lensed images are PKS 1830-211 (Jones et al., 1996; Guirado et al., 1999) and CLASS B1933+503 (Marlow et al., 1999). In B0218+357, as well as in the other two systems, the scattering would most likely originate in the lensing galaxy as we know from the observed Faraday rotation and differential depolarisation that this is both highly ionised and non-homogeneous. Also, at the lens redshift of $`z=0.6847`$ it is perfectly reasonable to expect that the ISM in front of each image, with a separation of 334 mas (2.4 kpc)888Throughout this paper we assume a flat universe with $`H_0=70`$ km s$`^1`$Mpc-1, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0.3`$ and $`\lambda _0=0.7`$. between them, could be significantly different.

In order to quantify the effect, we have fitted Gaussians to sub-components 1 and 2 of the back-projected images of A and B using the task jmfit. The deconvolved major ($`a`$) and minor ($`b`$) axes, as well as the position angle of the major axis ($`\varphi `$), are shown in Table 5 where it can be seen that for each sub-component the geometric mean of the axes (equivalent circular size) is bigger in A than in B; the area of the deconvolved A1 is approximately eight times that of B1. Also, whilst the position angles of B are as expected (they point more or less down the jet as in the image plane) those of A remain approximately perpendicular to this.

The advantage of model-fitting to the core sub-components in the source plane is that the back-projection removes the differences between the two images, reducing the need for removal of confusing pixels corresponding to the jet emission and rendering any bias that might exist identical in each. The disadvantage of fitting in the source plane is the potential for errors to accumulate during the many convolutions and deconvolutions that have been applied to the data at various stages of the data reduction. However, we note that the measured sizes in the image plane also show that image A is larger than image B, by a factor greater than the relative magnification. From the deconvolved sizes of Table 3 the image-plane area ratios A1/B1 and A2/B2 are approximately 14 and 9. For the remainder of this analysis we only consider the source-plane size measurements.

We assume that the observed size of an A sub-component is the sum, in quadrature, of the intrinsic size and a scattering scale size ($`\theta _{\mathrm{sc}}`$). We further assume that, for each sub-component, the true intrinsic size is actually that of its image B counterpart i.e. that this image is unaffected by scattering at this frequency. This assumption is supported by the similarity of the deconvolved size of B1 as measured from these data and the 15-GHz data of Patnaik et al. (1995). The derived size of $`\theta _{\mathrm{sc}}`$ is also shown in Table 5 and is the same for both sub-components, 0.8 mas. The true size of the scattering disc (we have measured sub-component sizes in the source plane) is

$$\widehat{\theta }_{\mathrm{sc}}=\theta _{\mathrm{sc}}\frac{D_\mathrm{s}}{D_{\mathrm{ds}}},$$
(2)
where $`D_\mathrm{s}`$ is the angular diameter distance between the Earth and the lensed source and $`D_{\mathrm{ds}}`$ that between the lensing galaxy and the lensed source. The relation in equation (2) is analogous to that between the true deflection angle ($`\widehat{\alpha }`$) and the apparent deflection angle ($`\alpha `$) (e.g. Refsdal & Surdej, 1994). No correction for the lens magnification is required as the displacement in the image plane due to scattering is the scattering angle magnified by the lens, and this was removed when back-projecting each image. We calculate $`\widehat{\theta }_{\mathrm{sc}}=3.4`$ mas.

The size of the scattering disk is equal to the refractive length scale ($`r_{\mathrm{ref}}`$) subtended at the distance of the lensing galaxy (Narayan, 1992). Using the formulation of Walker (1998) we have estimated the scattering strength (SM) of the ionised medium. With the observed frequency of 8.4 GHz corrected to the redshift of the lensing galaxy we measure $`\mathrm{SM}150\mathrm{kpc}\mathrm{m}^{20/3}`$. This is a very large value compared to those seen along typical lines of sight through the Galaxy, although comparable (and in some cases much higher) values have been measured, particularly towards the Galactic centre (Cordes & Lazio, 2002). Therefore, although the scattering in front of B0218+357 image A is extreme, it is not ruled out by observations in the Galaxy.

### 4.3 Depolarisation

The polarisation properties of this system continue to intrigue. From observations of this system with MERLIN and the VLA, a general picture has emerged of image A being less polarised than image B and of both depolarising with increasing wavelength, albeit much more steeply in A. The reason for this is probably inhomogeneities in the magneto-ionic medium that is responsible for the Faraday rotation of the polarisation position angles, inhomogeneities that are greater in the region of A than B. Complications that hinder the interpretation of the polarisation results include “beating” of the polarisation position angles of sub-components 1 and 2 (for observations which do not resolve the sub-components), changing source structure with frequency and different magnification gradients across each image.

The resolution afforded by VLBI observations allows the polarisation structure of the source to be resolved and constraints to be put on the angular scale of the inhomogeneities in the Faraday screen. In Fig. 3 we see that image B, the least resolved of the images, is seen to have a higher peak polarisation (20 per cent) than that of A (12 per cent). This shows that we are not seeing the effects of intrinsic changes in the polarisation structures across the radio source as the lower effective resolution of B would cause these to be averaged incoherently more than in A i.e. we would expect image B to be less polarised than image A. Therefore, our global VLBI maps support the theory that the depolarisation is due to non-uniformities in the Faraday screen which are greater in front of image A. They also allow us to constrain the size of these irregularities which must be smaller than the synthesised beam i.e. $``$1 mas. This corresponds to a linear distance of $``$7 pc at the redshift of the lensing galaxy.

We also note that the scatter-broadening identified in Section 4.2 could cause the depolarisation. This is because scatter-broadening effectively blurs a source, causing regions with different polarisations to overlap and be averaged together. As the scattering is different in front of each image the polarisations of each will be different and, as scattering increases at longer wavelengths, the observed frequency dependence of the depolarisation could also result.

Another interpretation is that the differences between the images could result from the combination of intrinsic polarisation variability and time delay. VLA monitoring (Corbett et al., 1996; Biggs et al., 1999) has shown that this source is variable in polarisation as well as in total flux density. Two-epoch VLBI observations separated by the time delay, $`10.5\pm 0.4`$ d, could help to clarify the polarisation structure in this source. At the same time the picture of A being more depolarised than B is too simplistic. From earlier VLA monitoring observations (Corbett et al., 1996) it was found that, with the time delay removed, the polarisation of image B was lower than that of image A at 15 GHz, the opposite to what is usually observed. This could signify time variability within the magneto-ionic medium or movement of the source relative to this.

## 5 Summary and future work

We have presented new maps of the lens system JVAS B0218+357 made with a global VLBI array that combine excellent sensitivity and resolution to produce the best maps yet of the mas-scale structure of this system. Unfortunately, we were unsuccessful in detecting the third image or the core of the lensing galaxy. With the new maps we have been able to explore several aspects of the lensing galaxy. From the different lengths of the jet in each image we have been able to constrain the radial mass profile and find that it is slightly steeper than isothermal ($`\beta 1.04`$). We also find evidence for multi-path scattering and depolarisation due to the disparity between the component sizes and polarisations in each image. These physical effects most likely result from propagation through the turbulent ionised ISM of the lensing galaxy and, in this way, B0218+357 is probably the best example of how gravitational lensing can act as a unique probe of the ISM of high-redshift galaxies.

These data will be used with LensClean (Kochanek & Narayan, 1992) in order to exploit fully the resolved structure of the images and provide further constraints for the lens model. Whilst the effects of scatter-broadening might seem to limit the usefulness of these data for lens modelling, we note that the effects of the scattering and the lens can be separated. This is because scattering only effects the sizes of components whilst the lens changes both the component sizes and separations. Therefore, future modelling will be able to not only constrain the lens model, but also to characterise the scattering more accurately than has been possible in this paper.

Further observations with a Global VLBI array at 5 GHz may be worthwhile to try and detect, with higher dynamic range, the jet emission that has been revealed in the new CJ maps (Fig. 1). The present and future VLBI maps will be used to constrain the lens model, in conjunction with MERLIN, VLA and $`HST`$ data. $`HST`$ observations will be carried out with the Advanced Camera for Surveys which our simulations predict will give us an accuracy of $``$10 mas in the galaxy position relative to the lensed images. With this vital parameter in the lens model finally measured directly (as opposed to the modelled position found from LensClean) the uncertainty in the $`H_0`$ determination from this system will be reduced to a level of about 3 per cent.

## Acknowledgments

The VLBA and VLA are operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory which is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. The European VLBI Network is a joint facility of European and Chinese radio astronomy institutes funded by their national research councils. We would like to thank the staff of the DSN at Goldstone and Robledo for their assistance in making these observations possible. This research was supported in part by the European Commission TMR Programme, Research Network Contract ERBFMRXCT96-0034 ‘CERES’. OW was partially funded during this work by the European Commission, Marie Curie Training Site programme, under contract no. HPMT-CT-2000-00069. ADB would like to thank the staff of JIVE for their help with writing the observing schedule. Much thanks goes to Alok Patnaik for his contribution to the proposal as well as for his help with the initial stages of the data reduction. We also thank the anonymous referee for a number of suggestions and comments that improved the paper.


text:
# Design and Expected Performance of the BTeV RICH

## 1 Introduction

The BTeV experiment is designed to carry out a comprehensive program of precision measurements of the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM) matrix as they relate to CP violation in the b-quark sector. In addition, the experiment will conduct a wide array of measurements on rare decays in both the bottom and charm quark sector. These measurements will provide perhaps the most stringent tests of the CKM description of CP violation as well as provide complementary probes to the LHC for the presence of physics which is not described by the standard model (“new physics”).

The first indication of a non-zero value for $`\mathrm{sin}(2\beta )`$ as measured in $`BJ/\psi K_S`$ decays was presented by CDF . The B-factory experiments, BaBar and Belle, which operate on the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(4S)`$ have improved significantly on this measurement, and now have unambiguous confirmation of a non-zero value for $`\mathrm{sin}(2\beta )`$ . Despite their impressive achievements, construction of a dedicated $`b`$-physics experiment at a hadron collider holds several key advantages. First, the production cross-section is $``$10,000 times larger at the Tevatron than at the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(4S)`$. Secondly, $`e^+e^{}`$ machines operating at the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(4S)`$ cannot perform CP violation measurements in the $`B_s`$ system, whose decays can be used to probe the angles $`\gamma `$ and $`\chi `$. Given these advantages, $`B`$-factories operating at the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(4S)`$ (at a luminosity of $`10^{34}`$ cm-2 s-1) cannot compete with a hadron collider, even on the time scale of 2007.

In $`p\overline{p}`$ collisions at $`\sqrt{s}`$=2 TeV, $`b`$ quark pairs exhibit a high degree of correlation. In particular, when one $`b`$ quark has large pseudorapidity ($`\eta `$), the other $`b`$-quark is also preferentially produced at large $`\eta `$. As a result, both $`b`$-quarks are often either both forward, or both backward, with respect to the direction of the proton beam. The advantages of this are two fold. First, at large $`\eta `$, the $`b`$-hadron is boosted with $`<\beta \gamma >6`$, which results in larger decay lengths. These larger decay lengths aid in separating the $`b`$-daughter particles from those in the interaction vertex. Not only does this improve the overall detection efficiency, but it allows BTeV to trigger on $`b`$-hadron decays at the lowest level of the trigger.

Unlike CDF  and D0  which are central detectors, BTeV  is a forward detector optimized for $`B`$ physics. The detector consists of an array of 31 pixel modules inside a dipole magnet centered on the interaction region. Tracking beyond the pixel system is provided by 7 tracking stations which are each a combination of silicon-strip detectors for the forward high-occupancy region and straw-tube drift chambers at larger angles. Downstream of the last tracking chamber is a PbWO4 electromagnetic calorimeter and a muon detection system. The RICH is situated between the sixth and seventh straw/silicon tracking chambers.

The RICH is used for separating charge particle species from one another. When a particle exceeds the speed of light in a dielectric medium, Cerenkov photons are emitted at a characteristic angle (called the Cerenkov angle) given by $`\mathrm{cos}\theta _c=1/\beta n`$, where $`\beta =v/c`$ is the speed of the particle relative to the speed of light in the radiating medium, $`n`$ is the index of refraction of the medium and $`\theta _c`$ is the Cerenkov angle. By using the momentum measured in the tracking system and measuring the Cerenkov angle, the particle type (ie., the mass of the radiating particle) can be deduced.

## 2 BTeV RICH

To separate kaons from pions in two-body $`B`$ decays, we require that the RICH provides at least 3$`\sigma `$ separation between kaons and pions up to 70 GeV/c. At the low momentum end, the RICH is used for flavor tagging. These particles peak at lower momentum, as shown in Fig. 1, and therefore the low momentum cut-off is set by the spectrometer acceptance, which drops off around 2.5 GeV/$`c`$.

To achieve particle separation over this large momentum range a heavy gas is required. We chose $`C_4F_{10}`$ because of it is among the heaviest gases which has high transparency with respect to visible light and is a gas at room temperature. This gas has also been used in a number of other experiments  as well as LHCb . No gas can provide kaon/proton separation below about 9 GeV, and we therefore are designing a 1 cm thick $`C_5F_{12}`$ liquid radiator system. The Cerenkov angle as a function of momentum for the two radiators are shown in Fig. 2. The gas radiator has n=1.00138, whereas the liquid has n=1.24, resulting in vastly different Cerenkov angles and hence momentum coverage.

A cartoon of the baseline RICH for BTeV is shown in Fig. 3. The system consists of a 1 cm $`C_5F_{12}`$ liquid radiator, followed by $``$3 m of $`C_4F_10`$ gas. At the back end of the RICH, two spherical mirrors, each tilted by 15o, focus Cerenkov photons from the gas radiator onto one of two arrays of hybrid photodiodes (HPDs) located on either side of the BTeV dipole magnet. The arrays consist of about 1000 HPD’s, each with 163 channels. Photons from the liquid radiator are detected directly by arrays of photomultiplier tubes which cover the walls of the RICH vessel and are tilted at $`60^o`$ so that photons strike perpendicularly, on average. A total of about 5000 PMTs are required. Because of the large difference in Cerenkov angle between the gas and liquid radiator, gas photons are detected almost entirely in the HPD’s and liquid photons in the PMT’s.

At 70 GeV/c, the difference in $`\theta _c`$ between kaon and pions is only 0.4 mrad, and therefore, to achieve at least 3 $`\sigma `$ separation, we must keep the total uncertainty in the Cerenkov angle ($`\sigma `$) below about 0.130 mrad. Detailed simulations have been carried out, and they indicate that we expect to detect $`80`$ photons per track. After removing photons which are consistent with more than one track, we expect about 60-65 photons per track on average. This implies that the single photon angular resolution must be kept below 1 mrad. The primary contributions to the intrinsic angular resolution are from photon position resolution, emission point uncertainty and chromatic uncertainty. In collaboration with DEP we have developed a 8.3 cm diameter, 163 channel HPD which will contribute an uncertainty of 0.51 mrad to the Cerenkov angle uncertainty. The emission point uncertainty contributes another 0.51 mrad uncertainty. The chromatic uncertainty yields a shallow minimum at 0.37 mrad if we restrict our wavelength detection to larger than 280 nm. All together, we expect to achieve $``$0.8 mrad uncertainty on the Cerenkov angle per photon, or $`100\mu `$rad per track. The expected separation (in number of sigma’s) between kaons and pions as a function of momentum is shown in the inset in Fig. 2.

The liquid radiator extends the coverage for kaon/proton separation down to the low momentum cutoff of the BTeV spectrometer ($``$2 GeV/c). For the liquid radiator, the difference in kaon-proton Cerenkov angle is about 5.3 mrad at 9 GeV. We therefore are required to keep the Cerenkov angle resolution below about 1.7 mrad per track. To determine the expected number of detected photons, we simulated a photodection system consisting of large arrays of single anode PMTs along the walls of the RICH tilted at an angle of 60o. We also included the shadowing produced by mu-metal tubes which will likely be necessary to cope with the residual magnetic field of the interaction region magnet. We simulated both 2 in. and 3 in. diameter tubes. The 3 in. diameter tubes provide sufficient resolution and are more cost effective. The simulation shows that for a 3 in. diameter PMT, we would expect to detect about 15 photoelectrons, and, with this granularity, the Cerenkov angle uncertainty per photon is about 6.5 mrad. This dominates over the chromatic and emission point uncertainty, and therefore the 3 inch tube is our baseline choice for detecting photons from the liquid radiator. We expect to obtain a total uncertainty in the Cerenkov angle of 1.7 mrad per track.

The expected angular uncertainties for the gas and liquid radiator systems are summarized in Table 1.

Photo-electrons (PE) produced from the HPD photo-cathode are accelerated by a 20 kV potential and impinge upon a silicon-pixel array. The PEs are cross-focused and demagnified by a factor of four using two focusing electrodes operating at 19.89 and 15.6 kV. The photoelectrons deposit all of their energy in the silicon pixel, giving rise to a signal of 5000 electrons. The HPDs will be read out with a custom ASIC ($`VA\mathrm{\_}BTeV`$) being developed in collaboration with IDE AS Norway. The ASIC is a 64-channel circuit featuring a low noise front end amplifier capable of achieving a noise of $``$700 electrons, a shaper and a comparator. Thresholds for each channel can be fine-tuned via an initialization sequence. Each channel has binary output (ON or OFF). To reach this low noise level, the front end is not clocked but rather is always active after it is initialized. One result of this feature is that after a channel is hit, it requires about 200 ns for the front end to return to its baseline level. Since the Tevatron will have a beam crossing every 132 ns, a hit channel is unavailable for the next beam crossing. The HPD pixel occupancy was simulated at an instantaneous luminosity of $`2x10^{32}`$ cm-2 s-1 and the results show that the number of channels per HPD with hits in two consecutive beam crossings is less than 10% in the busiest HPD. In the busiest 12 HPDs, the rate of consecutive hits is approximately 2-3% and outside this region it is well below 1%. We therefore are confident that the occupancy is low enough that inefficiency due to hits in consecutive beam crossings is a non-issue. A more detailed report on the performance of the HPD’s is given in the references . The PMTs will most likely be read out with a similar chip to the $`\mathrm{VA}\mathrm{\_}\mathrm{BTeV}`$, modified to deal with the larger PMT signal.

## 3 Expected Performance

We have simulated both the gas and liquid radiator systems. One measure of the performance of the gas system is to compare the efficiency for tagging both pions in $`B\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ versus the cross-efficiency for assigning one or more of the of the pions to be a kaon. The results of the simulation are shown in Fig. 4. The study indicates that we can achieve a $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ efficiency of 80% (90%) while keeping the $`K^{}\pi ^+`$ misidentification rate at 5% (12%).

Since the separation between pions and kaons increases as the number of B-daughter tracks increase (lower average momentum per track), it is clear that the gas portion of the BTeV RICH will provide excellent $`K/\pi `$ separation.

The liquid radiator system was also simulated using $`b\overline{b}`$ events. The resulting proton fake rate versus kaon efficiency is shown in Fig. 5. The analysis was performed using a full GEANT simulation with 0 and 2 (Poisson distributed) minimum-bias events added into each event. We conclude that we can achieve $``$80% kaon efficiency while rejecting $``$85% of the protons. A study to assess the impact on flavor tagging was conducted, and our simulations indicated that this system can improve the flavor tagging for $`B_s`$ by 25% and by 10% for $`B^0`$. This improvement comes mainly from improved rejection of protons faking kaons below 9 GeV/c, where neither the kaon nor proton produce Cerenkov radiation in the gas. The significantly larger improvement in $`B_s`$ over $`B^0`$ is attributed to the large flavor tagging efficiency for same-side kaon tags over same-side pion tags.

In summary, we plan to construct a RICH detector which includes both gas and liquid radiator subsystems. The gas radiator system uses a $`C_4F_10`$ gas radiator and HPDs for photodetection. The gas system provides $``$4$`\sigma `$ $`K/\pi `$ separation for momenta in the range from 3-70 GeV/$`c`$ and $``$10$`\sigma `$ $`p/K`$ separation for momenta greater than 9.5 GeV/$`c`$. The liquid radiator system utilizes a 1 cm thick $`C_5F_{12}`$ liquid radiator whose Cerenkov photons are detected in an array of 3 in. PMT’s which line the walls of the gas vessel. The liquid system extends the capabilities of the RICH to provide excellent $`K/p`$ separation for momentum below 9 GeV/$`c`$ and will improve BTeV’s flavor tagging capabilities.


text:
# Hidden Quantum Critical Point in a Ferromagnetic Superconductor

## Abstract

We consider a coexistence phase of both Ferromagnetism and superconductivity and solve the self-consistent mean-field equations at zero temperature. The superconducting gap is shown to vanish at the Stoner point whereas the magnetization doesn’t. This indicates that the para-Ferro quantum critical point becomes a hidden critical point. The effective mass in such a phase gets enhanced whereas the spin wave stiffness is reduced as compared to the pure FM phase. The spin wave stiffness remains finite even at the para-Ferro quantum critical point.

The study of itinerant Ferromagnetic materials are becoming more and more important due to the role of strong electronic correlations and the appearance of many exotic phases such as non-Fermi liquid (NFL), superconductivity (SC) etc. near the para-Ferro quantum critical point (QCP). In earlier times, Ferromagnetism (FM) was believed to suppress SC but the recent discovery of SC  below 1 K in the pressure range of 1 to 1.6 GPa in a high purity single crystal of UGe2 has ruled out the above possibility. This rather suggests that FM and SC could be cooperative. Also, there are other materials such as ZrZn2  and URhGe , where the coexistence of FM and SC has been found. SC phase in all the above mentioned materials is completely covered within the FM phase and disappears in the paramagnetic (PM) region.

The standard way to look for a coexistence phase of FM and SC theoretically is to introduce two kinds of fermions. FM could be caused by local f-electrons whereas SC, by itinerant ones. But in the above materials such as, UGe2 and URhGe, both the roles were played by the same Uranium 5-f electrons which are itinerant and strongly correlated. Thus, it would be interesting to study microscopically a model where the coexistence of both FM and SC can be described by only one kind of electrons. Such a model study has recently been initiated by Karchev et. al. . Of course, this model is confined to singlet SC which is unlikely to occur inside a FM.

In this letter, we study the coexistence phase of both FM and SC and look for the consequences. We solve the zero temperature self-consistent mean-field equations. It is shown that the SC gap vanishes at the para-Ferro QCP in such a model whereas the magnetization doesn’t. This suggests that the SC pairing induces a small but finite magnetization which doesn’t vanish even at the Stoner threshold. This is an indication of the para-Ferro QCP becomming a hidden QCP. We also computed the effective mass as well as the spin wave stiffness in the coexistence phase. The later eventhough reduced, is nonzero at the para-Ferro QCP.

We presume that the relevant magnetic behaviour of the system is adequately described by Stoner RPA-mean-field theory  and do not question on its stability. This can be obtained from Hubbard Hamiltonian. In order to get SC pairing, we add a reduced BCS Hamiltonian to it. We would like to mention here that the pairing Hamiltonian is not due to the FM spin fluctuation rather it may be due to some other means. Thus, to describe a coexistence phase of both FM and SC, one can start with a minimal effective Hamiltonian,

$$H=\underset{k,\sigma }{}ϵ_kc_{k\sigma }^{}c_{k\sigma }+U\underset{i}{}n_in_iV\underset{k,k^{}}{}c_k^{}c_k^{}c_k^{}c_k^{},$$
(1)
where $`U`$ and $`V`$ are respectively the on-site Hubbard interaction energy and the reduced BCS pairing energy. $`n_{k\sigma }=c_{k\sigma }^{}c_{k\sigma }`$ is the electron density and $`c_{k\sigma }^{}(c_{k\sigma })`$ are the standard electron creation (annihilation) operator with wave vector $`k`$ and spin projection $`\sigma `$. In order to obtain a coexistence phase of both FM and SC, we can perform a mean-field theory by defining the averages, $`2\mathrm{\Delta }_F=U(<n_{}><n_{}>)`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }=V_k<c_k^{}c_k^{}>`$. Here $`2\mathrm{\Delta }_F`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ are respectively the FM and the SC order parameter in the coexistence phase. At this stage, one can diagonalize the above Hamiltonian through the standard Bogoliubov transformation and the new energy dispersions are obtained as,

$$E_k^\alpha =\mathrm{\Delta }_F+\sqrt{(ϵ_k\mu )^2+|\mathrm{\Delta }|^2},$$
(2)
$$E_k^\beta =\mathrm{\Delta }_F\sqrt{(ϵ_k\mu )^2+|\mathrm{\Delta }|^2}.$$
(3)
The subscript $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ above denote the two different Bogoliubov Fermions in the coexistence phase. The self-consistent mean-field equations are derived as,

$$2\mathrm{\Delta }_F=\lambda 𝑑ϵ(1n_k^\beta n_k^\alpha ),$$
(4)
$$|\mathrm{\Delta }|=g𝑑ϵ\frac{|\mathrm{\Delta }|}{2E}(n_k^\beta n_k^\alpha ),$$
(5)
where $`n_k^{\beta ,\alpha }`$ are the momentum distribution for the corresponding Bogoliubov Fermions and $`\lambda =U\rho (0)`$, $`g=V\rho (0)`$, $`E_k=\sqrt{(ϵ_k\mu )^2+|\mathrm{\Delta }|^2}`$, $`\rho (0)`$, being the density of state at the Fermi level in the PM phase.

It is obvious from equations (2) and (3) that for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_F>0`$, $`E_k^\alpha >0`$ for all $`k`$ and thus, at zero temperature, $`n_k^\alpha =0`$. On the other hand, for $`E_k^\beta `$, there are two possibilities, (i) $`E_k^\beta >0`$ and (ii) $`E_k^\beta <0`$. In case (ii) $`n_k^\beta =1`$ for all $`k`$. Substituting this in equation (4) yields $`\mathrm{\Delta }_F=0`$. Thus, the only solution for equation (4) which allows nonzero $`\mathrm{\Delta }_F`$ in order to get a coexistence phase is $`E_k^\beta >0`$. The dispersion of the $`\beta `$-Fermion becomes positive only in the energy interval $`ϵ_F^{}<ϵ_k<ϵ_F^+`$, where $`ϵ_F^\pm `$ are the solutions of the equation $`E_k^\beta =0`$, which is given as, $`ϵ_F^\pm =ϵ_F\pm \sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }_F^2|\mathrm{\Delta }|^2}`$. It should be noted here that $`ϵ_F^\pm `$ are the new Fermi energies in the coexistence phase. However, to get a nonzero $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ from equation (5), one can have $`E_k^\beta <0`$, which corresponds to the case $`ϵ_F^{}>ϵ_k>ϵ_F^+`$. Thus, the above self-consistent mean-field equations (4) and (5) at $`T=0`$ take the form,

$$2\mathrm{\Delta }_F=\lambda _{ϵ_F^{}}^{ϵ_F^+}𝑑ϵ,$$
(6)
$$|\mathrm{\Delta }|=g|\mathrm{\Delta }|(_{W/2}^{W/2}_{ϵ_F^{}}^{ϵ_F^+})dϵ\frac{1}{\sqrt{(ϵ\mu )^2+|\mathrm{\Delta }|^2}},$$
(7)
$`W`$ being the band width. Equation (6) can be solved analytically and the FM order parameter is obtained as,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_F=\frac{\lambda }{\sqrt{\lambda ^21}}|\mathrm{\Delta }|.$$
(8)
Now, the SC order parameter from equation (7) can be computed by assuming the standard procedure of integration in a shell $`(\mathrm{\Lambda }/2)`$ around $`ϵ_F`$. In this approximation, equation (7) reduces to,

$$\frac{1}{g}=(_{ϵ_F\mathrm{\Lambda }/2}^{ϵ_F+\mathrm{\Lambda }/2}_{ϵ_F^{}}^{ϵ_F^+})dϵ\frac{1}{\sqrt{(ϵ\mu )^2+|\mathrm{\Delta }|^2}}.$$
(9)
where $`ϵ_F+\mathrm{\Lambda }/2>ϵ_F^+`$ and $`ϵ_F\mathrm{\Lambda }/2<ϵ_F^{}`$. Performing the integration and substituting $`\mathrm{\Delta }_F`$ from equation (8), one obtains,

$$|\mathrm{\Delta }|=\sqrt{\frac{\lambda 1}{\lambda +1}}\mathrm{\Lambda }e^{1/g}.$$
(10)
Thus, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_F`$ can be calculated from equation (8) as,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_F=\frac{\lambda }{\lambda +1}\mathrm{\Lambda }e^{1/g}.$$
(11)
Furthermore, putting the above values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_F`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ in the expression for $`ϵ_F^\pm `$, one obtains,

$$ϵ_F^\pm =ϵ_F\pm \frac{1}{\lambda +1}\mathrm{\Lambda }e^{1/g}.$$
(12)
The above equations (10), (11) and (12) are of crucial importance in the present manuscript. It is clear from these equations that the SC gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ as well as the uniform magnetization ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_F`$) decrease as one approaches the Stoner threshold ($`\lambda =1`$). $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ vanishes exactly at $`\lambda =1`$ whereas $`\mathrm{\Delta }_F`$ doesn’t. This is an indication that the SC pairing induces spontaneous magnetization in the system which does not vanish at Stoner threshold (In principle $`\mathrm{\Delta }_F=0`$ at Stoner threshold). Thus, the para-Ferro QCP becomes a hidden one due to the presence of SC pairing. Furthermore, the new Fermi energy $`ϵ_F^\pm `$ moves away more and more from $`ϵ_F`$, as one approaches the Stoner point. It becomes exactly equal to the Fermi energy of the Stoner FM ($`ϵ_F^\pm =ϵ_F\pm \mathrm{\Delta }_F`$) at the Stoner threshold.

Next, let us consider the distribution functions $`n_k^{}`$ and $`n_k^{}`$ for the spin up and spin down quasi particles in terms of the Bogoliubov Fermions. These are already discussed in an earlier literature  and for completeness we can write them as,

$`n_k^{}=u_k^2n_k^\alpha +v_k^2n_k^\beta `$ (13)
$`=v_k^2[\theta (k_F^{}k)+\theta (kk_F^+)],`$ (14)
$`n_k^{}=1u_k^2n_k^\beta v_k^2n_k^\alpha `$ (15)
$`=n_k^{}+[\theta (k_F^+k)\theta (k_F^{}k)],`$ (16)
where $`u_k^2`$ and $`v_k^2`$ are the coherence factors involved in the Bogoliubov transformation which have the standard form in any mean-field theory. As already discussed before, at $`T=0`$, $`n_k^\alpha =0`$ and $`n_k^\beta =\theta (k_F^{}k)+\theta (kk_F^+)`$. $`k_F^\pm `$ are the wave vectors corresponding to the new Fermi energy $`ϵ_F^\pm `$. It should be noted at this point that, in a standard SC theory, a gap appears around the Fermi surface, but in the present case, Fermi surfaces appear for the Bogoliubov Fermion $`\beta `$ in the coexistence phase which is completely unexpected. This could be due to the fact that the itinerant FM had already have the Fermi surfaces which still persist in the coexistence phase. Therefore, the existence of two Fermi surfaces is a generic property of the coexistence phase of both FM and SC since it is caused by the same quasi particles in the system. These Fermi surfaces are already reflected in the spin up and down momentum distribution functions and will lead to different properties in the system as compared to a standard mean-field theory. The single particle density of states which appears in almost all the properties of the system turns out to be,

$$N(0)=\frac{\rho (0)(ϵ_F^++ϵ_F^{})\mathrm{\Delta }_F}{2ϵ_F\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }_F^2|\mathrm{\Delta }|^2}}=N^+(0)+N^{}(0),$$
(17)
where $`N^+(0)`$ and $`N^{}(0)`$ are respectively the density of states on the two Fermi surfaces $`ϵ_F^+`$ and $`ϵ_F^{}`$ of the Bogoliubov Fermion $`\beta `$. For finite $`\mathrm{\Delta }_F`$, the density of states increases with $`\lambda `$, as opposed to the case of a standard FM metal. The presence of Fermi surfaces together with the enhanced density of states at the Fermi level have important consequences in the thermodynamic properties of the system. The specific heat capacity, for example, at low temperature shows linear temperature dependence ($`C_v(T)=\gamma T`$) as opposed to the activated behaviour. This can again be understood in terms of the presence of Fermi surfaces of the $`\beta `$-Fermion. Moreover, the $`\gamma `$-coefficient in the specific heat which depends on $`N(0)`$ also gets enhanced due to increase in the density of states.

The increase in the single particle density of states can be understood in the following way: One can investigate the changes in the energy dispersion of the $`\beta `$-Fermion due to the appearence of the new Fermi energy in the coexistence phase. Substituting the expression for $`ϵ_F^\pm `$ in $`E_k^\beta `$ and approximating $`\frac{ϵ_kϵ_F}{\mathrm{\Delta }_F}1`$, one can obtain the energy dispersion for the $`\beta `$-fermion as,

$$E_k^\beta \pm \frac{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }_F^2\mathrm{\Delta }^2}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_F}(ϵ_kϵ_F),$$
(18)
which is just the renormalized free Fermion dispersion. The renormalization factor $`\frac{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }_F^2\mathrm{\Delta }^2}}{\mathrm{\Delta }_F}`$ enters not only in the energy dispersion but also in the density of states which is obvious from equation (17) and (18). Thus, the enhancement in the density of states at the Fermi level can be thought to be due to the reduction in the band width. This can also cause an increase in the effective mass ($`m^{}=\frac{m\mathrm{\Delta }_F}{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }_F^2\mathrm{\Delta }^2}}`$) similar to that of density of states. However, the enhancement in the density of states/effective mass or the reduction in the $`\beta `$-Fermion band becomes prominent when one moves away from the para-Ferro QCP. This is due to the fact that the renormalization factor becomes unity at the Stoner point.

Let us now consider the effect of induced magnetization due to SC pairing in the spin wave dispersion. This can be achieved by analyzing the RPA transverse susceptibility  in the coexistence phase, which is given as,

$$\chi _{RPA}^+(q,\omega )=\frac{\chi _0^+(q,\omega )}{1U\chi _0^+(q,\omega )},$$
(19)
where $`\chi _0^+(q,\omega )`$ is the unperturbed transverse susceptibility in the coexistence phase. Using the expressions for the Bogoliubov coherence factors, it can be computed as,

$`\chi _0^+(q,\omega )={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}{\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}(1{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ_kϵ_{k+q}+\mathrm{\Delta }^2}{E_kE_{k+q}}})`$ (20)
$`({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega +2\mathrm{\Delta }_F+E_{k+q}+E_k}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega +2\mathrm{\Delta }_FE_{k+q}E_k}})`$ (21)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}{\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}(1+{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ_kϵ_{k+q}+\mathrm{\Delta }^2}{E_kE_{k+q}}})`$ (22)
$`({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega +2\mathrm{\Delta }_F+E_{k+q}E_k}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega +2\mathrm{\Delta }_FE_{k+q}+E_k}}).`$ (23)
Spin wave dispersion can be obtained from the divergence of $`\chi _{RPA}^+(q,\omega )`$, i. e., from the solutions of the equation $`1U\chi _0^+(q,\omega )=0`$. Expanding $`\chi _0^+(q,\omega )`$ for small $`q`$ and $`\omega `$ and for $`\frac{\omega }{2\mathrm{\Delta }_F}1`$, the spin wave dispersion turns out to be,

$$\omega =Dq^2,$$
(24)
where the spin wave stiffness D is computed as, $`D=\frac{1}{18}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_F\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }_F^2\mathrm{\Delta }^2}}{ϵ_F^2m}`$, $`m`$ being the bare electron mass. The spin wave stiffness is reduced compared to that in the pure FM phase and becomes finite even at the Stoner critical point. This is due to the fact that the induced magnetization caused by SC pairing in the coexistence phase remains finite at the Stoner critical point.

Another important feature of the coexistence phase is the appearance of Fermi surfaces in the system. The consequence of this is the presence of paramagnons which describe the longitudinal spin fluctuations . They not only survive in the FM metallic phase but also in the coexistence phase of both FM and SC. The propagator for the longitudinal spin fluctuations is given as,

$$\chi _l(q,\omega )=\frac{1}{\eta +bq^2+\frac{ic|\omega |}{q}},$$
(25)
where b and c are constants depending on the parameters in the system and $`\eta `$, which is the inverse of the static susceptibility is given by,

$$\eta =1UN(0).$$
(26)
As we have already mentioned earlier, the density of states equation (17), increases with $`\lambda `$ which makes the inverse of the static susceptibility $`\eta `$ to vanish even if for small $`\mathrm{\Delta }_F`$. This is quite different from that of weak FM metals where $`\eta `$ becomes zero at zero magnetization. Thus, the finite value of induced magnetization makes the Stoner QCP hidden.

The results obtained for the coexistence phase in the present manuscript is described only in the mean-field level which becomes a starting point for going beyond it. Since the appearance of induced magnetization in the coexistence phase makes the para-Ferro QCP a hidden one, it would be important to investigate the role of quantum fluctuations on it which is left for future study . The conclusion that the para-Ferro QCP becomes a hidden one has also been pointed out recently in case of the coexistence of FM and spin triplet SC . Thus, one can conclude that the hidden QCP might be a generic property of the coexistence phase where both the spin rotational and the gauge symmetry are broken and is independent of the symmetry of the SC order parameter.

However, in the present work, the SC QCP is dressed in the sense that SC can occur at zero magnetization. This is due to the fact that the SC pairing is caused not by spin fluctuations rather by some other means such as phonons. This could be contrasted with the standard spin fluctuation theory in an itinerant FM  where the QCP is naked. In the later case, the FM-SC transition temperature vanishes at the QCP. From the above scenarios, it might be possible to differentiate whether the SC in a FM is due to spin fluctuations or by some other means. The materials about which we mentioned at the beginning of the present manuscript fall into the second category where both SC and FM transition temperature vanish at the QCP. Thus, the SC mechanism in these materials might be thought to be due to spin fluctuations.

In conclusion, we briefly outline our findings. We consider a possible coexistence phase of both FM and SC. We solve the self-consistent mean-field equations for the uniform magnetization as well as the SC order parameter. It has been shown that both the order parameter decrease as one approaches the Stoner critical point. The SC gap vanishes exactly for $`\lambda =1`$ but on the contrary, the uniform magnetization doesn’t. This shows that the SC pairing induces a finite nonzero magnetization in the coexistence phase which washes out the Stoner QCP and makes it hidden. Moreover, we computed the effective mass as well as the spin wave dispersion in the coexistence phase. The former is enhanced but the later gets reduced and remains finite even at the Stoner threshold. Furthermore, the Bogoliubov Fermions in the coexistence phase retains the Fermi surfaces, which gets reflected in the thermodynamic properties of the system. In particular, the specific heat capacity has linear temperature dependence as in the standard itinerant FM, but the $`\gamma `$-coefficient increases anomalously for a small magnetization. This is due to the fact that the single particle density of state in the coexistence phase gets enhanced.

The author would like to thank Amit Dutta for carefully reading the manuscript.


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# Milne phase for the Coulomb quantum problem related to Riemann’s hypothesis

## References