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# Natural Inflation, Planck Scale Physics and Oscillating Primordial Spectrum

## I Introduction

In the past decade, inflation theory has successfully passed several non-trivial tests. In particular, recent cosmic microwave background (CMB) observations show that the spatial geometry of the observable Universe is very close to flat de Bernardis00 ; Lange00 ; Hanany00 ; Balbi00 ; Jaffe00 , just as inflation theory predicts. Inflation theory also offers an elegant way of generating the primordial fluctuations which seed the formation of galaxies and large scale structures (LSS)(see e.g., Ref. Lyth-Riotto99  and references therein). In particular, slow-roll inflation models predict that the perturbations are adiabatic, gaussian, and nearly scale-invariant (i.e with a power index $`n_s1`$). It has long been known that these predictions are also in broad agreement with the observed properties of large scale structures and CMB anisotropy, although at present the data is still not very restrictive Wang01 : $`n_s=0.91_{0.07}^{+0.15}`$.

This general success of inflation theory brings up the hope of extracting even more detailed information of the inflaton potentialLyth-Riotto99 ; Lidsey97  from high quality observational data. There are two complementary approaches to this problem. In the first approach, one tries a model-independent (subject to some standard assumptions) reconstruction of the primordial power spectrum, then the inflaton potential from the data Hannestad01 ; MSY01 ; Wang-Mathews02 . Alternatively, one can look for specific features in the power spectrum and study their observational consequences. In particular, there have been many investigations on inflationary models with broken scale invarianceKLS85 ; Starobinsky92 ; ARS97 ; LPS98 ; Chung00 ; WK00 ; L00 . Such features have been invoked to explain the tentatively observed feature at $`k0.05Mpc^1`$GSZ00 ; HHV01 ; BGSS00 ; GH01 , or even to solve the small scale problem of the CDM model KL00 .111For other solutions to this problem, see Refs. Spergel PRL -Bode APJ  and for a recent review on this issue see Ref.Tasitsiomi

In the present work, we consider a new type of feature, periodic in the primordial power spectrum. This type of feature is interesting from both a theoretical and phenomenological point of view. Theoretically, if discovered, it gives a strong hint on the nature of the inflaton field. Phenomenologically, it might change the position, shape or even the number of acoustic peaks in the CMB power spectrum.

This paper is organized as follows: in Sec. II, we describe our model, and show how this type of feature could arise from Planck scale physics by constructing a toy model. Our toy model, which is based on the “natural inflation” model, is by no means the only possibility, but in this context it is particularly easy to see how this might happen. In Sec. III we derive the power spectrum in this model, and then consider how it would affect CMB and large scale structure in Sec. IV. The final section, Sec.V is on the summary and discussions of our results.

## II The Model

In addition to phenomenological success, a compelling inflation model should also be based on plausible particle physics. To be in agreement with observations, the inflaton potential must be very flat. Since the radiative corrections to a scalar field mass are quadratically divergent, some physical mechanism, e.g., a symmetry is required to maintain the flatness of the potential, unless we want to accept ad hoc fine tuning.

For the natural inflation model FFO90 , several possible physical mechanisms ABFFO93  are available for producing a inflaton potential of the form

$$V(\varphi )=\mathrm{\Lambda }^4\left[1\pm \mathrm{cos}(\varphi /f)\right].$$
(1)
Customarily, the positive sign is taken, with identical results for the negative sign. If $`\mathrm{\Lambda }10^{16}\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`f10^{19}\mathrm{GeV}`$, which are the grand unification scale and Planck scale respectively, a successful inflation model could be obtained, with the correct quantum fluctuation amplitudes MT01 .

In this paper we extend the natural inflation model above and include a term in the potential in Eq.(1) which is also periodic but with greater frequency:

$$V_{planck}(\varphi )=\delta \mathrm{\Lambda }^4\mathrm{cos}(N\varphi /f+\theta ).$$
(2)
We will argue below that this term may come from the Planck scale physics.

In natural inflation, one introduces a pseudo Nambu-Goldstone boson (PNGB) as the inflaton. Specifically let’s consider an anomalous global $`U(1)`$ symmetry which is spontaneously broken at scale $`f`$ via a non-vanishing value of a complex scalar field $`\mathrm{\Phi }\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}fe^{i\varphi /f}`$ with $`\varphi `$ the Nambu-Goldstone boson. At lower energy scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ like Axion a potential for the Goldstone boson $`\varphi `$ is generated from the non-perturbative effects and its mass is order of $`m_\varphi \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}{f}`$.

Recently there are a lot of interests in studying the effects of the Planck scale physics on the primordial spectrum and CMB anisotropy laoB . In the original paper of this subject, Martin and Brandenberger considered a modified dispersion relation and showed explicitly a sizable effect. In this paper we take an effective lagrange approach to new physics and argue that Planck scale physics can correct the inflaton potential, generate oscillating and scale-dependent power spectrum which may be detectable in the future.

The Planck scale physics which can be parameterized by higher dimensional operators makes two types of contributions to the effective lagrangian of the inflaton $`\varphi `$. Since $`\varphi `$ is the phase of the scalar field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, if the Planck scale physics preserves the $`U(1)`$ symmetry the Goldstone theorem requires that there must be derivatives involved in the operators with $`\varphi `$. The operators with the lowest dimension are like $`\frac{^2\varphi ^2\varphi }{M_{pl}^2}`$. The authors of Ref.kaloper  have studied the effects of this type of operators on CMB and shown that the corrections to CMB is order of $`H_{inflation}^2/M_{planck}^210^{11}`$. And Ref.shiu  pointed out that higher order terms like $`\frac{(_\mu \varphi ^\mu \varphi )^2}{M_{pl}^4}`$ would be possible to enhance the effects. In this paper we study another type of the Planck scale physics effects where the higher dimensional operators involve no derivatives and modify the inflaton potential. This requires an explicit violation of the global symmetry U(1). In fact, as argued in Refs.kamion  the quantum gravitational interactions break the global symmetries and one expects the existence of a type of higher dimension operators like

$$O_{planck}(\mathrm{\Phi },\mathrm{\Phi }^{})=g_{MN}\frac{(\mathrm{\Phi }^{}\mathrm{\Phi })^M\mathrm{\Phi }^N}{M_{Pl}^{2M+N4}}+h.c.,$$
(3)
which gives rise to a correction to the inflaton potential of $`\varphi `$:

$$V_{planck}(\varphi )=\delta \mathrm{\Lambda }^4\mathrm{cos}(N\varphi /f+\theta ),$$
(4)
where

$$\delta =2^{MN/2+1}\left|g_{MN}\right|\frac{M_{Pl}^4}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^4}\left(\frac{f}{M_{Pl}}\right)^{2M+N}$$
(5)
with $`\theta `$ the phase of the parameter $`g_{MN}`$. Taking $`M=2`$, we have

$$\delta =\frac{|g|f^4}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }^4}\left(\frac{f}{\sqrt{2}M_{Pl}}\right)^N\frac{f^4}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }^4}\left(\frac{f}{\sqrt{2}M_P}\right)^N,$$
(6)
where we have taken $`\left|g\right|1`$.

For most of the studies in this paper we will assume that the gravitational interaction correction to the mass of the Goldstone scalar $`\varphi `$ is less than that from the non-perturbative effects i.e. $`\delta N^2<1`$. This implies that $`N`$ in general is expected to be large. For instance taking $`f=0.5M_{pl}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=2.6\times 10^4M_{Pl}`$, $`\delta N^2<1`$ requires that $`N>36`$, and for $`f=0.95M_{pl},\mathrm{\Lambda }=9.7\times 10^4M_{Pl}`$ , one needs $`N>90`$. This requirement makes the basic feature of the original natural inflation phenomenologically unchanged, however theoretically it requires an convincing argument to understand why the operators with dimensions less than $`N`$ are forbidden or much suppressed. In this paper we will focus on the phenomenological studies.

The inflaton potential under investigation in this paper is the sum of $`V_{planck}`$ and the one in Eq.(1), namely

$$V(\varphi )=\mathrm{\Lambda }^4[1+\mathrm{cos}(\varphi /f)+\delta \mathrm{cos}(N\varphi /f+\theta )].$$
(7)
In additional to the two parameters $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`f`$ in the original natural inflation we introduce in our model three more parameters $`\delta ,N`$ and $`\theta `$. The $`\delta `$ and $`N`$, however are related by Eqs.$`(5)`$ and $`(6)`$. And for simplicity of the discussions we will restrict ourself to two cases that $`\theta =0`$ or $`\theta =\pi `$ in this paper. Choosing $`\theta =\pi `$ is equivalent to changing $`\delta `$ to $`\delta `$. Before concluding this section, we point out that $`\delta `$ term shifts the minimum of the potential away from zero, however since $`\delta `$ is extremely small, it will not change the results when minimizing the potential to zero, which we have made a numerical check for the calculation of the primordial spectrum and CMB results.

## III Primordial Power Spectrum Calculation

During inflation, the contribution of other matter can be neglected, and the background evolution of the Universe is described by

$$H^2=\frac{8\pi }{3M_{Pl}^2}\left[V(\varphi )+\frac{1}{2}\dot{\varphi }^2\right],$$
(8)
$$\ddot{\varphi }+3H\dot{\varphi }+V_\varphi =0,$$
(9)
where $`H\dot{a}/a`$ is the expansion rate, and $`V_\varphi V/\varphi `$. Slow rolling (SR) requires

$$ϵ\frac{\dot{H}}{H^2}\frac{M_{Pl}^2}{16\pi }(\frac{V_\varphi }{V})^21,$$
(10)
$$\beta \frac{\ddot{\varphi }}{H\dot{\varphi }}\frac{M_{Pl}^2}{16\pi }(\frac{V_\varphi }{V})^2\frac{M_{Pl}^2}{8\pi }\frac{V_{\varphi \varphi }}{V}1.$$
(11)
For the model under consideration in this paper, we have

$$ϵ\frac{M_{Pl}^2}{16\pi f^2}\frac{(\mathrm{sin}(\varphi /f)+\delta N\mathrm{sin}(N\varphi /f))^2}{\left(1+\mathrm{cos}(\varphi /f)\right)^2},$$
(12)
$$\beta \frac{M_{Pl}^2}{16\pi f^2}\left(1+\frac{2\delta N^2\mathrm{cos}(N\varphi /f)}{1+\mathrm{cos}(\varphi /f)}\right).$$
(13)
The primordial spectrum of the scalar perturbation is defined as

$$P_S(k)\frac{k^3}{2\pi ^2}\left|\zeta _k\right|^2,$$
(14)
where $`\zeta _k`$ is the coefficient of the Fourier transform of the Bardeen parameter $`\zeta `$ MFB92 . The scalar spectrum index is given by

$$n_s(k)1+\frac{d\mathrm{ln}P_s(k)}{d\mathrm{ln}k}.$$
(15)
The primordial spectrum of the tensor perturbation is

$$P_T(k)\frac{k^3}{2\pi ^2}\left|\psi _k\right|^2,$$
(16)
where $`\psi _k`$ is the coefficient of the Fourier transform of tensor linear perturbations $`\psi `$ MFB92 . For the tensor spectrum index:

$$n_T(k)\frac{d\mathrm{ln}P_T(k)}{d\mathrm{ln}k}.$$
(17)
In SR regime,

$$n_s=14ϵ2\beta ,n_T=2ϵ.$$
(18)
One can see from Eq. (12) and Eq. (13) that the relative contributions of the $`\delta `$ term to the SR parameter $`ϵ`$ given by the terms of $`\delta N`$ or $`\delta ^2N^2`$ are proportional to $`1/N`$ or $`\delta `$ for a fixed $`\delta N^2`$. Numerically they are small with the parameters (large $`N`$ and small $`\delta `$) we consider in this paper. But $`\beta `$ can be strongly modulated by large $`\delta N^2`$, then $`P_s(k)`$ and $`n_s`$ are changed correspondingly. Note here $`V`$ and $`V_\varphi `$ are changed minorly by $`\delta `$ term, hence the background evolution of the inflaton field will not be affected much.

During inflation, the equation of motion for a Fourier mode of fluctuation is MFB92

$$u_k^{\prime \prime }+\left(k^2\frac{z^{\prime \prime }}{z}\right)u_k=0,$$
(19)
where

$$uz\zeta ,za\dot{\varphi }/H.$$
(20)
Here the prime denotes the derivative with respect to the conformal time $`d\eta dt/a(t)`$. Well inside the horizon, according to flat spacetime quantum field theory, the vacuum modes are

$$u_k\frac{1}{\sqrt{2k}}e^{ik\eta }\text{as}k^2\frac{z^{\prime \prime }}{z};$$
(21)
Coming out of the horizon, the growing mode solution is

$$u_kz\text{for}k^2\frac{z^{\prime \prime }}{z},$$
(22)
with no explicit dependence on the behavior of scale factor $`a`$ in this limit (frozen). For the slow roll approximation (SRA), $`\frac{z^{\prime \prime }}{z}`$ can be expressed in terms of two SR parameters $`ϵ`$ and $`\beta `$:

$$\frac{z^{\prime \prime }}{z}=2a^2H^2(1+\frac{3}{2}\beta +ϵ+\frac{1}{2}\beta ^2+\frac{1}{2}ϵ\beta +\frac{1}{2}\frac{1}{H}\dot{ϵ}+\frac{1}{2}\frac{1}{H}\dot{\beta }).$$
(23)
If $`ϵ`$ and $`\beta `$ can be approximatively considered as constants, Eq. (19) can be rewritten as

$$u_k^{\prime \prime }+\left(k^2\frac{\nu ^2\frac{1}{4}}{\eta ^2}\right)u_k=0,$$
(24)
where $`\nu =\frac{1+\beta +ϵ}{1ϵ}+\frac{1}{2}`$ and $`\eta =\frac{1}{aH}\left(\frac{1}{1ϵ}\right)`$. The solution of Eq. (24) is a Bessel function,

$$u_k=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\pi }e^{i(\nu +\frac{1}{2})\frac{\pi }{2}}(\eta )^{\frac{1}{2}}H_\nu ^{(1)}(k\eta ).$$
(25)
When $`k/aH0`$, from the asymptotic form of $`H_\nu `$ one obtains an expression of the scalar spectrum $`P_S`$:

$$P_S(k,a)\frac{2^{2\nu 3}}{4\pi ^2}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }^2(\nu )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }^2(\frac{3}{2})}(1ϵ)^{2\nu 1}\frac{H^4}{\dot{\varphi }^2}(\frac{k}{aH})^{32\nu },$$
(26)
where $`P_S(k,a)`$ varies with time. Traditionally one takes $`k=aH`$, and gets the primordial spectrum SL

$$P_S(k)\frac{2^{2\nu 3}}{4\pi ^2}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }^2(\nu )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }^2(\frac{3}{2})}(1ϵ)^{2\nu 1}\frac{H^4}{\dot{\varphi }^2}_{k=aH}.$$
(27)
The calculation for the gravitational wave spectrum is very similar MFB92 . The equation of motion for tensor linear perturbations is

$$v_k^{\prime \prime }+(k^2\frac{a^{\prime \prime }}{a})v_k=0,$$
(28)
where $`va\psi `$, and

$$v_k\frac{1}{\sqrt{2k}}e^{ik\eta }\text{as}k^2\frac{a^{\prime \prime }}{a};$$
(29)
$$v_ka\text{for}k^2\frac{a^{\prime \prime }}{a}.$$
(30)
Therefore,

$$P_T(k)=\frac{k^3}{2\pi ^2}|\frac{v_k}{a}|^2.$$
(31)
For SRA, one can get

$$P_T(k)2^{2\mu 3}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }^2(\mu )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }^2(\frac{3}{2})}(1ϵ)^{2\mu 1}\frac{H^2}{4\pi ^2}_{k=aH},$$
(32)
where

$$\mu =\frac{1}{1ϵ}+\frac{1}{2}.$$
(33)
The Stewart-Lyth formula given in Eq.(27) and Eq.(32) are valid under certain conditions that both of the parameters $`ϵ`$ and $`\beta `$ are almost constants and the asymptotic value of $`P_S(k)`$ can be approximated by $`P_S(k=aH)`$. In Ref.WenBin  the authors pointed out a subtlety in the approximations in obtaining the formula in Eq.(27), however numerically they have also demonstrated that the Stewart-Lyth formula works fairly well for the chaotic and natural inflation models. In the presence of the $`\delta `$ term, the SRA is not necessarily true and $`\beta `$ is oscillating, especially in the case when $`\delta N^2`$ is relatively large. Thus, to ensure the validity of Eq.(18), we calculate the spectrum numerically in this paper.

We numerically solve Eq. (8), Eq. (9), Eq. (19) and Eq. (28) and obtain the horizon crossing amplitude for each mode with the following initial conditions WenBin ; ACE01  :

$`u_k(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2k}}},`$ (34)
$`u_k^{}(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{ik}{\sqrt{2k}}};`$ (35)
$`v_k(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2k}}},`$ (36)
$`v_k^{}(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{ik}{\sqrt{2k}}}.`$ (37)
Our results show that for $`\delta N^2<1`$, the Stewart-Lyth formula works well and the relative error is within $`1\%`$ in comparison with the numerical results. However, for $`\delta N^2>1`$, which we will discuss in detail in section V, the error could be large. In Fig.1, we plot $`P_S(k)`$ with numerical results and the Stewart-Lyth approximation. One can see that the difference is about 30 percent; for gravitational waves, the difference is little.

In the natural inflation model, the scalar spectrum index $`n_s`$ is generally smaller than 1. The $`\delta `$ term in our inflaton potential induces a modulation on the power spectrum. In Fig. 2, we plot the primordial scalar spectrum and index for a typical set of model parameters: $`f=0.7M_{Pl}`$, and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^4=2.0\times 10^{13}M_{Pl}^4`$. As can be seen from the figures, the amplitude of the modulation in this model could be $`𝒪(10\%)`$.

Before concluding this section we should point out that the size of the modulation depends on the parameters of the model, and $`P_S(k)`$ behaves quite differently for small and large $`f`$. This can be understood qualitatively from the following two equations for natural inflation in the SR regime (Here we’ve set $`8\pi G=1`$) :

$$\frac{d\varphi }{d\mathrm{ln}a}\frac{\frac{1}{f}\mathrm{sin}(\varphi /f)}{1+\mathrm{cos}(\varphi /f)},$$
(38)
and

$$\varphi _𝒩=2f\mathrm{arcsin}(\frac{\sqrt{2}f}{\sqrt{1+2f^2}}e^{\frac{𝒩}{2f^2}}),$$
(39)
where $`𝒩`$ is the number of $`e`$-$`folding`$ between the corresponding horizon exit and the end of inflation . For smaller $`f`$, $`\varphi _𝒩`$ would be much smaller than for larger $`f`$. For example $`\varphi _𝒩2.03`$ for $`f=0.95M_{Pl}`$, while $`f=0.4M_{Pl}`$ gives $`\varphi _𝒩6.3\times 10^4`$ for a given number of $`e`$-$`folding`$ $`𝒩=70`$. Such a small $`\varphi `$ for $`f=0.4M_{Pl}`$ would also make $`\frac{d\varphi }{d\mathrm{ln}a}`$ much smaller than $`f=0.95M_{Pl}`$. This is also true for our model when SRA is well satisfied.

In Fig.3, we plot the $`P_S(k)`$ and $`n_S(k)`$ for a small $`f`$. One can see from this figure that for $`f=0.4M_{Pl}`$, $`P_S(k)`$ has lost the feature of oscillation in the range of scale relevant to CMB and LSS, but the amplitudes of $`P_S`$ and $`n_S`$ change a lot.

## IV Results and comparison with observations

In this section we study the implications of our model on CMB and LSS. The matter power spectrum is related to the primordial scalar power spectrum by

$$P(k)=T^2(k)P_S(k),$$
(40)
where $`T(k)`$ is the matter transfer function, which can be calculated for a given set of the cosmological background parameters. The matter power spectrum in a large range of scales can now be obtained by combining different data sets of CMB and LSS measurementsTZ02 . For example, currently the Lyman alpha forest probes comoving scale of $`0.110hMpc^1`$, the 2dF galaxy correlation $`0.010.1hMpc^1`$, and CMB measurements $`0.0010.1hMpc^1`$. The CMB anisotropy is related to the primordial scalar power spectrum byMB95

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(\stackrel{}{n}_1)\mathrm{\Delta }(\stackrel{}{n}_2)\frac{1}{4\pi }\underset{l=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(2l+1)C_lP_l[\mathrm{cos}(\stackrel{}{n}_1\stackrel{}{n}_2)],$$
(41)
$$C_l\frac{2\pi }{l(l+1)}\stackrel{~}{C_l}=\frac{4\pi }{(2l+1)}\frac{dk}{k}T_l^2(k)P_S(k),$$
(42)
where $`T_l(k)`$ is the photon transfer function, which can be calculated for a given set of the cosmological parameters. Here $`C_l`$, $`\stackrel{~}{C_l}`$ and $`T_l`$ stand for the temperature angular power spectrum and transfer function. We’ve omitted the subscript $`T`$ for simplicity. We calculate $`C_l`$ by modifying the publicly available CMBFAST Seljak ; CMBFAST  code. Similar calculations for running $`n_S`$ have been performed in, for example, Refs. Chung00 ; MT01 ; Covi . The fiducial model adopted in our calculation is the best fit model of Ref. Wang01 : $`h=0.64,\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.66,\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2=0.02`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_k=0`$. We used the combined CMB data set from Ref.MM02  in our plots. In Fig. 4 we plot the CMB angular power spectrum and the matter power spectrum with the primordial power spectrum shown in Fig.2. One can see that the theoretical predictions of our model are quite different from that with $`\delta =0`$ and the CMB data disfavor the case with $`\delta N^2=0.8`$.

One interesting point of our model is the running behavior of $`n_s`$ in the case with a small $`f`$, which we have shown in Fig. 3. One can see that without $`\delta `$ term the model predicts $`n_s`$ below 0.8, which is ruled out already by the data. However with the help of the $`\delta `$ term the theoretical predictions can be made to be consistent with the observations which can be seen from Fig. 5. Numerically in natural inflation with $`f=0.4M_{pl}`$ it predicts $`n_S0.76`$. And the fine tuning of the $`V_0`$ would not be able to make the theory consistent with $`C_l`$ and $`P(k)`$ Wang01 . However the presence of the $`\delta `$ term makes the fit better.

Up to now we have restricted ourself to the parameter space $`\delta N^2<1`$, however it would be interesting to take the potential in Eq. (7) as a phenomenological model and study the cosmological implications with an extended parameter space $`\delta N^2>1`$ . In this case, there are four parameters, where we take $`f`$ , $`N`$ and $`\delta `$ free, however $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ can be normalized by observations.

The effect of the modulation on the power spectrum depends on the amplitude, frequency, and phase. And the effect is more apparent for a high frequency (large $`N`$), as can be seen in Figs. 6-10. In Fig. 6 we take $`N=599`$ and find the variation of primordial scalar spectrum index is very frequent and its amplitude changes from about $`0.3`$ to $`1.6`$, although the value of $`\delta `$ is very small. However, our results also show that the tensor perturbation $`P_T`$ changes little since $`ϵ1`$. We have checked the validity of the consistency relationCR0 222The consistency relation holds for single-field SRA inflation. The authors of Ref.CR  argue that the trans-Planckian physics may change the vacuum and provides an example for the violation of consistency relation.. One can see from Fig. 7 for different range of $`k`$, $`|n_T|`$ is larger or smaller than $`P_T/P_S`$. The reason responsible for the violation of consistency relation in our model is due to a large running of $`\beta `$ from $`0.3`$ to $`0.3`$ , which indicates SRA isn’t satisfied well. However, we will show below that this type of primordial spectrum doesn’t contradict to the current observations. In Fig.8 we plot the CMB anisotropy and the matter power spectrum for the given parameters and find that there can be a clear modulation on the matter power spectrum, which is somewhat similar to the baryonic oscillation wiggles, but has an entirely different origin. Of course, at present there is no observational evidence of such wiggles in the power spectrum. The peaks found in recent CMB measurements seem to agree reasonably well with the predictions of power law primordial spectrum. In the large scale structure data, there is some tentative report on wiggles in the power spectrum P01 ; M01a ; M01b ; H02 . These are generally thought to be due to baryonic oscillation, but the effect discussed here could also give rise to such wiggles. Since the position and frequency of the baryonic wiggles can be predicted, and there is no reason to expect that the primordial power spectrum modulation to coincide with it, there is hope to distinguish these two cases with high precision data. However, we note that at present time there is still no clear evidence even for the baryonic wiggles Xu ; MNC02 . Note that the modulation on the power spectrum is coherent, with different $`P_S`$ the shape of the CMB peaks can be also quite different, some would drastically change the structure of the $`\stackrel{~}{C_l}`$ spectrum, the peaks of the $`\stackrel{~}{C_l}`$ can be split into two in some particular cases. In the left panel of Fig.8, the first peaks have been clearly split, while in Fig.9, it shows that the original first and second peaks have been split, the third peak is highly raised and new peaks are also generated. In Fig. 10 we plot the CMB polarizations which are given by

$$C_{El}=\frac{4\pi }{(2l+1)}\frac{dk}{k}T_{El}^2(k)P_S(k),$$
(43)
$$C_{Cl}=\frac{4\pi }{(2l+1)}\frac{dk}{k}T_l(k)T_{El}(k)P_S(k)$$
(44)
for the E-mode and cross correlation spectrum polarization. These effects might be detectable by further CMB observationsPlank .

Current CMB observations do not exclude entirely the oscillating primordial spectrums. Consider the difference between $`\stackrel{~}{C_l^0}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{C}_l^1`$ where $`\stackrel{~}{C_l^0}`$ is calculated with $`f=0.95M_{pl}`$, $`\delta =0`$ ($`n_S0.945`$) and $`\stackrel{~}{C}_l^1`$ with $`f=0.95M_{pl}`$ , $`N=599`$ , $`\delta =3\times 10^5`$, then compare them with the cosmic variancevariance  limits on $`\stackrel{~}{C_l^0}`$. In Fig.11, the solid line stands for $`\frac{\stackrel{~}{C}_l^1\stackrel{~}{C}_l^0}{\stackrel{~}{C}_l^0}`$ and the region between the dashed lines is given by the cosmic variance limits. Here $`\stackrel{~}{C}_l^1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{C}_l^0`$ are normalized by COBE. Cosmic variance plays a fundamental limit to the $`\stackrel{~}{C_l}`$ spectrum that can be measured, with

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{~}{C_l}}{\stackrel{~}{C_l}}\sqrt{\frac{2}{2l+1}}.$$
(45)
One can see from Fig.11 that $`\stackrel{~}{C}_l^1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{C}_l^0`$ are hardly distinguishable. Even though the primordial spectrum (see, Fig.6) is oscillating, its contribution to CMB, because of being averaged over multiple l, becomes insignificant in this case.

## V Discussions and Summary

In this paper we present a model which is a variation of natural inflation. We have shown two features of the primordial spectrum of this model, oscillating and scale-dependence and studied the implications on CMB and LSS. In the presence of the $`\delta `$ term the parameter space allowed for a successful natural inflation will be enlarged relative to the original natural inflation modelMT01 . When the parameter space is enlarged and extended to $`\delta N^2>1`$ for example due to some other physical motivationsFLZZ , there are several additional interesting effects. Although the SR approximation is violated and the spectral index oscillates with a large scale variation, there could be a large parameter space not ruled out by the observations. As we can see from Fig.8 when we gradually increase the value of $`\delta `$ the effects on CMB firstly take place on the first peak which can be slightly split, meanwhile wiggles on the matter power spectrum are gradually enhanced. The effects on CMB first peak and large scale structure are potentially observable and can be tested by future precise experiments.

In summary we have studied in this paper a model which is a variation of natural inflation and show that there are some interesting phenomenological features of this model, such as oscillating and scale-dependence in the primordial spectrums. And we have also discussed their implications on CMB and LSS.

Acknowledgments We thank R. Brandenberger for comments and suggestions on the manuscript. This work is supported in part by National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No.90303004 and by Ministry of Science and Technology of China under Grant No.NKBRSF G19990754.


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PHOTOMETRIC INVESTIGATION OF THE MBM 12 MOLECULAR CLOUD AREA IN ARIES. I. PHOTOELECTRIC PHOTOMETRY

A. Kazlauskas, K. Černis, V. Laugalys and V. StraižysInstitute of Theoretical Physics and Astronomy, Goštauto 12, Vilnius 2600, Lithuania; e-mail addresses: algisk@itpa.lt, cernis@itpa.lt, vygandas@itpa.lt, straizys@itpa.ltReceived May 25, 2002.

Abstract. The results of photoelectric photometry in the Vilnius seven-color system are given for 152 stars down to 12.2 mag in the area of the molecular cloud MBM 12 and the dust clouds L1454 and L1457 in Aries. The results of photometric classification of stars are also given. The investigation of interstellar extinction in the area is described in the next paper.

Key words: techniques: photometric: Vilnius photometric system – stars: fundamental parameters – molecular clouds: individual: MBM 12 – dust clouds: individual: L1454 and L1457

1. INTRODUCTION

This paper extends the program of investigation of the Taurus–Auriga–Perseus–Aries dark clouds by photoelectric photometry in the Vilnius seven-color system (Straižys 1977, 1992).

The area investigated in this paper includes the molecular cloud MBM 12 (Magnani, Blitz & Mundy 1985) and is bounded by the following 2000.0 coordinates: RA from $`2^\mathrm{h}51^\mathrm{m}`$ to $`3^\mathrm{h}01^\mathrm{m}`$ and DEC from +1830 to +2130. The molecular cloud coincides with two large dust clouds L1454 and L1457 (Lynds 1962). Inside the L1454 cloud, two smaller clouds, L1453 and L1458, have been identified by Lynds.

In the present paper we describe the methods of observation and reductions and give the results of photometry and photometric classification. The methods of photometric classification of stars and determination of absolute magnitudes, color excesses, interstellar extinctions and distances are given in Straižys, Černis, Kazlauskas, Laugalys (2002, Paper II). That paper also contains the investigation of interstellar extinction in the area and the determination of distance to the dust cloud.

2. OBSERVATIONS, REDUCTIONS AND THE CATALOG

Photoelectric photometry of 152 stars, identified in Figures 1 and 2, in the standard passbands of the Vilnius system was performed in 2000–2001 with the two telescopes: the 165 cm telescope of the Molėtai Observatory in Lithuania and the 150 cm telescope of the University of Arizona at Mt. Lemmon, Arizona. In the area almost all stars down to 12.2 mag and some fainter stars down to 13.5 mag were measured. In all cases we tried to reach the accuracy of flux measurements better than $`\pm `$0.01 mag, so at least 10 000 pulses were usually counted in each filter. For the faintest stars this condition was sometimes disobeyed, and the accuracy of their magnitudes and color indices can be somewhat lower, especially in the ultraviolet filters for red or reddened stars.

The extinction coefficients in the atmosphere for every moment of observation were determined by the Nikonov (1976) method adjusted to the Vilnius system by Zdanavičius (1975, 1996). In the Molėtai observations, for the extinction determination the stars HD 23609 ($`V`$ = 6.97, F9 IV) in Pleiades and HD 18106 ($`V`$ = 8.64, G2 V) in the investigated area were used. In the Arizona observations, the stars HD 2688 ($`V`$ = 7.52, F6 IV) in SA 44 and HD 27406 ($`V`$ = 7.48, G0 V) in Hyades were used. Transformation equations from the instrumental systems to the standard system were determined by photometry of $``$20 stars of various spectral types in the Cygnus Standard Region (Zdanavičius & Černienė 1985).

The catalog of the observed stars is given in Table 1. It contains the star identification number in Figures 1 and 2, the GSC and BD numbers, right ascensions and declinations, spectral types determined photometrically, spectral types from other sources (HD, AGK, PPM catalogs), magnitudes $`V`$, six color indices and the number of independent observations for each star, $`n`$, used to take the average values of magnitudes and color indices. The HD and Hipparcos (HIP) numbers are given in the Notes.

Fig. 1. Identification chart for the northern section of the Aries area.

Fig. 2. Identification chart for the southern section of the Aries area.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The investigation is partly supported from the AAS Chretien Grant of 2000. We are grateful to the Arizona University telescope time allocation committee for the observing time on Mount Lemmon, to the Vatican Observatory community, especially Richard Boyle, for their help and hospitality during the observing run. We are also grateful to K. Zdanavičius and J. Zdanavičius for their help in the Molėtai observations.

REFERENCES

Lynds B. T. 1962, ApJS, 7, 1

Magnani L., Blitz L., Mundy L. 1985, ApJ, 295, 402

Nikonov V. B. 1976, Izvestija Crimean Obs., 54, 3

Straižys V. 1977, Multicolor Stellar Photometry, Mokslas Publishers, Vilnius, Lithuania

Straižys V. 1992, Multicolor Stellar Photometry, Pachart Publishing House, Tucson, Arizona

Straižys V., Černis K., Kazlauskas A., Laugalys V. 2002, Baltic Astronomy, 11, 231 (Paper II, this issue)

Zdanavičius K. 1975, Bull. Vilnius Obs., No. 41, 3

Zdanavičius K. 1996, Baltic Astronomy, 5, 549

Zdanavičius K., Černienė E. 1985, Bull. Vilnius Obs., No. 69, 3

NOTES:

1. HD 17659 (F8), HIC 13269.

5. HD 17768 (K5), HIC 13337.

11. HD 17834 (F).

19. HD 17870 (G5), HIC 13418.

30. HIC 13496.

37. HD 18019 (K0), HIC 13532.

43. HD 18066 (K0), HIC 13571.

44. HD 18091 (A3), HIC 13579.

46. HD 18106 (F8), HIC 13589, standard star.

47. HD 18090 (F2).

57. HIC 13631.

61. HD 18190 (F), binary (see Paper II).

67. HD 18256 (F5), HIC 13702, $`\rho `$ Ari.

72. HD 18283 (A5), HIC 13723.

96. Binary (see Paper II).

97. HD 18404 (F0), HIC 13834.

111. HIC 13855.

117. HD 18484 (A3), HIC 13892, binary (see Paper II).

118. HD 18485 (K0), HIC 13893.

123. HD 18508 (F0), HIC 13913.

131. Binary (see Paper II).

138. HD 18654 (A0), HIC 14021, 50 Ari, binary (see Paper II).

152. HIC 14201.


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# The quark mass and 𝜇 dependence of the QCD chiral critical point Presented by Ch. Schmidt. The work has been supported by the DFG under grant FOR 339/1-2 and by PPARC grant PPA/A/S/1999/00026.

## 1 INTRODUCTION

The phase transition in 3-flavor QCD is first order in the chiral limit ($`m0`$). This first order transition will persist for small but non-zero values of $`m`$ up to a critical value, $`\overline{m}`$, of the quark mass. QCD at this chiral critical point belongs to the universality class of the 3d Ising model . The generic phase diagram of QCD is shown in figure 1.

In the space of two light quark masses $`m_{u,d}`$, one heavier quark mass $`m_s`$ and the quark chemical potential $`\mu `$, one expects a critical surface, which bends over the quark mass plane and separates the regime of first order phase transitions from the crossover regime.

To probe the order of the phase transition we compute the Binder Cumulant of the chiral condensate $`B_4`$ at $`\mu =0`$ for several quark masses at the corresponding critical coupling $`\beta _c(m)`$. Monte Carlo simulations for $`\mu 0`$ are not possible due to the sign problem. $`B_4`$ is given by

$$B_4=\frac{(\delta \overline{\psi }\psi )^4_{\beta _c,m}}{(\delta \overline{\psi }\psi )^2_{\beta _c,m}^2},\delta \overline{\psi }\psi =\overline{\psi }\psi \overline{\psi }\psi .$$
(1)
This quantity is a renormalization group invariant quantity for $`m=\overline{m}`$ with a universal value, which depends on the universality class only. For the 3d Ising model we have $`B_4=1.604`$ . The critical surface is given by the surface of constant $`B_4=1.604`$. We define the critical coupling $`\beta _c`$ as the peak position of the chiral susceptibility.

BI-TP 2002/22
SWAT/347

## 2 REWEIGHTING IN $`m`$ AND $`\mu `$

In order to compute lines within the critical surface, we apply a reweighting technique based on a Taylor expansion . Reweighting in couplings $`w=m,\mu `$ which couple to fermionic operators, is possible by introducing a reweighting factor $`R`$ in the expectation value

$$O_w=OR(w,w_0)_{w_0}/R(w,w_0)_{w_0}.$$
(2)
Here the reweighting factor is given by

$$\mathrm{ln}R=\mathrm{ln}detQ(w)\mathrm{ln}detQ(w_0),$$
(3)
with the fermion matrix $`Q`$. After expanding $`\mathrm{ln}R`$ one is left with

$$\mathrm{ln}R=\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{(ww_0)^n}{n!}R_n.$$
(4)
For fermionic observables like $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ it is also necessary to expand the observable itself. For details see . In addition we perform a reweighting in $`\beta `$ by the usual multi histogram reweighting, which is mandatory to follow the critical line and ensures the overlap of the configurations. Multi-parameter reweighting was first applied to the problem of finite density QCD in .

## 3 THE $`m`$ DEPENDENCE

The 3-flavor critical point for standard staggered fermions was determined in . To estimate the dependence of this critical point on non-degenerate quark masses, we performed 2+1 flavor simulations for fixed $`am_{u,d}=0.03`$ and $`am_s=0.045,0.06`$. The volume is $`12^3\times 4`$. For each mass point we have three $`\beta `$-values. The total number of trajectories is $`52000`$ for $`am_s=0.045`$ and 7300 for $`am_s=0.06`$. The results for the Binder Cumulants are shown in figure 2a.

The straight line fit of $`B_4`$ together with the assumption of the 3d-Ising universality class, yields a critical strange quark mass. The critical values of the 2+1, and 3-flavor calculations are listed in table 1.

For mass reweighting the operator $`R_1`$ is the chiral condensate. We use the 3-flavor data of mass value $`am=0.03`$ to compute the line of constant $`B_4=1.604`$ in the quark mass plane. The result is shown in figure 2b. The result is a straight line due to the reweighting order, for higher order reweighting one would expect deviations from a straight line. The validity range of the straight line is not known; nevertheless it is in agreement with the calculations of . The slope is $`2`$ within errors, which is the expected value in the vicinity of the 3-flavor critical point.

## 4 THE $`\mu `$ DEPENDENCE

For 3-flavors of p4-improved fermions, a mass value of $`am=0.005`$ and a volume of $`12^3\times 4`$, we measured the reweighting operators $`R_1,R_2`$ for $`m`$ and $`\mu `$ reweighting. Here we have five $`\beta `$-values, with a total number of 6100 trajectories. For $`am=0.01`$ and $`V=16^3\times 4`$ we use $`R_1=\overline{\psi }\psi `$ for mass reweighting. To determine the critical mass value $`\overline{m}`$, we compute $`B_4`$ as a function of $`m`$. The result is shown in figure 3a.

The two different volumes have an intersection point near the value of $`B_4=1.604`$, i.e. 3d Ising universality class. Due to the large errors we give an upper bound for the critical mass only, which is $`a\overline{m}<0.0075`$, or in terms of the pion mass $`\overline{m}_{PS}<190MeV`$.

For increasing quark chemical potential $`\mu _u=\mu _d=\mu _s`$ we find a decreasing Binder Cumulant, as shown in figure 3b for the $`12^3\times 4`$ lattice. From the two partial derivatives $`B_4/(am)`$ and $`B_4/(a^2\mu ^2)`$, which we get from straight line fits of the reweighted data, and the assumption that $`B_4/(am)`$ is constant in $`am`$, one can compute the quantity $`(a\overline{m})/(a^2\mu ^2)`$. The first derivatives $`B_4/(a\mu )`$ and $`(a\overline{m})/(a\mu )`$ vanish because of symmetry reasons. A jackknife analysis yields $`a^1\overline{m}/(\mu ^2)=0.82(23)`$, or equivalent $`T\overline{m}/(\mu ^2)=0.21(6)`$. The resulting phase diagram is sketched in figure 4. The straight line corresponds to the curved dashed line in figure 1.


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# Solar Surface Magneto-Convection

## 1. Introduction

We model magneto-convection in a small domain near the solar surface by solving the partial differential equations for mass, momentum and internal energy conservation and the induction equation for the vector potential. Our goal is to make a realistic representation of the solar surface (Stein & Nordlund 2000). Our domain is 6 $`\times `$ 6 Mm horizontally and extends from the temperature minimum, 0.5 Mm above continuum optical depth unity, to 2.5 Mm below the visible surface, using a grid 253 $`\times `$ 253 $`\times `$ 163 grid points, which gives a horizontal resolution of 25 km and a vertical resolution of 15 km near the surface increasing to 35 km at the bottom. The initial state was a snapshot of non-magnetic solar convection on which was imposed a uniform magnetic field: either a horizontal seed field of 1 G or 30 G, or a vertical field of 400 G. The boundary conditions are periodicity in horizontal directions, open boundaries for the fluid in the vertical direction, and the magnetic field at the top tends toward a potential field. The magnetic bottom boundary condition for horizontal seed fields was that inflows advect in horizontal 1G or 30G field, while in outflows the vector potential is advanced in time from the induction equation with the current calculated using spline derivatives with the cubic spline condition that the third derivative is continuous. The magnetic bottom boundary condition for the vertical field was that the field tend toward the vertical. Rotation and coriolis forces are neglected, because on this small scale of mesogranulation, with a depth of only 3 Mm, the flows don’t feel the rotation.

## 2. Three-dimensional Effects on the Mean Structure

The mean atmospheric structure is different in 3D than in 1D. There are two major reasons for this. First is a 3D radiative transfer effect. The temperature is very inhomogeneous near the surface of stars. In cool stars the dominant opacity source is H-, which is very temperature sensitive – hot gas is much more opaque than cool gas. As a result, we only see the cool gas. Therefore, the average temperature, for a given effective temperature, is higher in 3D models than in 1D models and thus the scale height is larger and the atmosphere more extended. Second, convective motions produce a turbulent pressure which also contributes to the support of the atmosphere. The net effect of these two phenomena together is that atmosphere is raised about one full scale height in the 3D models compared to the 1D models.

## 3. Magneto-Convection

### 3.1. Magnetic Field Organization

For the case of horizontal field advected in from the bottom, to date we have run an almost two hour sequence with a 1G field and a 30 min. sequence with a 30 G field. Figure 1 shows selected magnetic fieldlines for one snapshot for the 30G case. At the bottom there is horizontal magnetic field being advected into the computational domain by ascending fluid. Higher up are the twisted filed lines produced by the turbulent convective motions. It looks pretty chaotic. However, viewed from the top one sees that the the field is actually organized on a larger scale than the granulation (Fig. 2). It is being organized on the scale of the underlying mesogranules. The horizontal field is entering in the interiors of the mesogranules where there are the upflows. The overlying magnetic field has been twisted and stretched and swept out of the granules and mesogranules into the boundaries of the mesogranules, where the plasma is descending. This produces a highly intermittent field with a stretched exponential distribution of field strengths, as has been found in the Boussinesq calculations of Cattaneo (1999) and as observed by, e.g. Harvey & White (1999) and Hagenaar (2001). This means that the stronger the field the tinier the fraction of the area it occupies. Fields stronger than 3 G, fill all the intergranular lanes and exist even inside some of the granules. Fields that are stronger than 30 G have been swept out of the granules into the intergranular lanes and even some the intergranular lanes have no field stronger than 30 G. Finally, fields stronger than 300G occur hardly anywhere in the domain (Fig. 3).

### 3.2. Flux Emergence and Disappearance

In these simulation we see examples of flux emergence, merging, fragmentation, and cancellation. Figure 4 is a sequence of images at 10 sec. intervals showing a flux loop emerging on the right hand side and its foot points separating. New flux emerges sometimes inside granules, sometimes at their edges, and sometimes in intergranular lanes. Flux emerging inside granules is quickly swept into intergranular lanes by the diverging upflows of the granulation. Inside the intergranular lanes, the magnetic field is advected by horizontal flows (cf. Stein & Nordlund 1998). At the same time, on the left side, oppositely (vertical component) directed flux is coming together and partially annihilating. We still need to analyze this process to see what is actually occurring.

### 3.3. Stokes Profile Observations

Resolution has a tremendous impact on how one interprets observations. At low resolution (even with the old 47 cm Swedish Solar Telescope on La Palma) magnetograms show objects that look like round flux tubes (Fig. 5, left image). The new telescope with twice the diameter will reveal a much more complex structure (center image), while the simulations show that the actual situation is even more complex (right image). The topology of the observed field may be dramatically altered at low resolution. Hence, high resolution observations are crucial for learning the actual solar magnetic field structure.

Stokes profiles are used to determine the vector magnetic field at the solar surface. Figure 6 shows the stokes profiles for FeI 6302 as would be observed by the 97 cm Swedish Solar Telescope on La Palma with perfect seeing (thick lines). The light gray lines show the profiles from the 9 individual 25 km2 pixels covering a 75 $`\times `$ 75 km region around the central point. The observed profile amplitudes are significantly degraded from what would be seen with infinite resolution. Observers should take this as a warning in interpreting their measured profiles.

### 3.4. Flux Tubes

How relevant is the concept of a “flux tube” for the weak, incoherent magnetic fields in the quiet Sun. Figure 7 shows strong magnetic field concentrations from a snapshot of the 1G simulation. There appear to be small magnetic loops extending up through the surface layers (about 1/7 of the distance down from the top). However, figure 8 shows that the magnetic field lines go in and out of these loops and connect several of them. Thus, what might look like an individual flux tube is really part of a larger structure.

Sometimes, magnetic flux gets concentrated at the vertices of intergranular lanes and forms a “flux tube” (fig. 9). The “flux tube” is cooler than its surroundings and is being evacuated by downflows, which are strongest at its periphery, in the intergranule lanes leading into the vertex. Near the surface and above the density inside the “flux tube” is already less than its surroundings, but at greater depth the density is still higher than its surroundings. Notice, that the individual magnetic field lines that are collected into the “flux tube” connect to several different locations below the surface.

## 4. Surface Dynamo?

For a dynamo to work there must be magnetic field amplification by stretching and twisting, diffusion to reconnect magnetic field lines and alter their topology, and recirculation to continue the process. Diverging upflows sweep the fluid into the downflows and concentrate the magnetic flux, but do not give rise to dynamo action. Vortical downdrafts stretch and twist the magnetic field to amplify it (as can be seen in the highly twisted magnetic field lines in fig. 8). Resistive diffusion allows the magnetic field to diffuse through the fluid and to reconnect. The crucial question is whether the field is recirculated to be continually amplified.

Boussinesq simulations in a closed domain exhibit convection driven local dynamo action even in the absence of rotation and shearing motions (Cattaneo 1999, Emonet & Cattaneo 2001). The big difference between our simulation and those of Cattaneo and Emonet is that our simulation is stratified and has open boundaries. Magnetic flux is advected in through the bottom and can also be carried out through the bottom. At the top the field tends toward a potential field, so magnetic flux can also escape that way. The crucial question is how much recirculation there is within the near surface layers of the solar convection zone.

The magnetic energy grows linearly rather than exponentially and saturates at a small fraction of the kinetic energy (Fig. 10), because the magnetic field typically passes only once through this region of concentration and amplification by small scale convective flows. Unlike a Boussinesq fluid, the Sun is highly stratified and convection is asymmetric, with slow, nearly laminar, diverging upflows and fast, highly turbulent downflows. There is only a little local recirculation near the surface. Most of the fluid reaching the near surface layers turns over into downflows and is transported towards the bottom of the convection zone. This is illustrated by figure 11 which shows the history of fluid parcels that are moving upward at the surface at one instant. Nine minutes earlier they were mostly at a depth of 1 Mm and occupied a very small fraction of the horizontal plane. They occupied only a small fraction of the area because most ascending fluid must turn over within a scale height in order to conserve mass, so only a small fraction of the fluid at depth reaches the surface. They all come from approximately the same depth (1 Mm) because they were in upflows with fairly similar velocities. Hardly any of them came from near the surface, an indication of the lack of local recirculation. Nine minutes later most of the fluid has left the surface region, many in narrow downdrafts, and some has even descended to the bottom of the computational domain, because downflows are fast, converging and turbulent. Hardly any are left at or above the surface. Only a small portion of the fluid is recirculated to the near surface layers. This property is a consequence of the finite physical separation between the turbulent downdrafts and the small sub-volumes of the ascending flow that manage to reach the surface, and does not depend to any significant extent on the Reynolds number. Due to the lack of local recirculation, the magnetic energy grows linearly rather than exponentially because the magnetic field typically passes only once through the surface region where it is concentrated and amplified by small scale convective flows.

Mass conservation requires that at any depth most upflowing fluid must turn over and head back down within about a scale height. Hence, only a tiny fraction of fluid starting up from the bottom of the convection zone makes it all the way to the surface. By tracing individual fluid parcels in time, we have found that the fraction reaching the surface from a depth where the density is $`\rho (z)`$ decreases as $`(\rho (z)/\rho (\text{surface}))^{2/3}`$ (fig. 12). The weak incoherent magnetic field, unlike the strong coherent active region flux, is dominated by drag and advected by the fluid. Hence, most of the magnetic field will be located in the deeper parts of the convection zone. This has been verified by numerical simulations (Dorch & Nordlund 2001, Tobias et al. 2001). Magnetic field placed anywhere in the convection zone gets distributed throughout the convection zone and into the overshoot layer (fig. 13). The field strength increases with depth and its maximum lies in the overshoot layer, but most of the magnetic flux and energy is inside the convection zone, concentrated near the bottom. (In the Sun the tachocline is much thinner than it is in this toy simulation, so the amount of magnetic energy and flux in it is a small fraction of the total magnetic energy and flux.) The magnetic energy and flux near the surface is likewise small compared to the total magnetic energy and flux because it gets carried down to deeper layers by the downflows and only a little is brought back to the surface by the upflows.

Is there a surface dynamo? In the Sun, unlike simulations with closed boundaries and without stratification, there is little local surface recirculation. The recirculation is global. Surface magnetic fields are carried toward the bottom of the convection zone by downdrafts. The time scale at the bottom of the convection zone is long, months. Only a tiny fraction of fluid ascending from the bottom of the convection zone reaches the surface. Hence, much more flux and magnetic energy resides in the deep convection zone than near the surface and the energy added to flux that visits the surface is tiny compared to the global magnetic energy. These results lead us to conclude that there is no localized surface dynamo. Rather, there is a global dynamo in which a small fraction of weak, incoherent fields residing inside the convection zone is dragged to the surface, where it is shredded, concentrated, stretched and twisted by the small scale surface convective motions into the observed, incoherent, intermittent continually emerging, small scale surface field. This one-pass surface dynamo action on granular and mesogranular (and probably supergranular) scales would distinguish these incoherent fields from the active region magnetic fields which represent another component of the global dynamo: strong, coherent fields that are buoyant and sufficiently large scale to feel the coriolis force, differential rotation and meridional circulation.

#### Acknowledgments.

This work was supported in part by NASA grant NAG 5 9563 and NSF grant AST 9819799, and by the Danish Research Foundation through its establishment of the Theoretical Astrophysics Center. The calculations were performed at National Center for Supercomputing Applications (which is supported by NSF), Michigan State University, and DCSC, Denmark. Their support is greatly appreciated.

## References

Cattaneo, F. 1999, ApJ, 515, L39

Dorch, S.B.F. & Nordlund, Å. 2001, A&A, 365, 562

Emonet, T. & Cattaneo, F. 2001, ApJ, 560, L197

Hagenaar, H.J. 2001, ApJ, 555, 448

Harvey, K.L. & White, O.R. 1999, ApJ, 515, 812

Nordlund, Å., Dorch, S.B.F., & Stein, R.F. 2000, J. of Astrophys. & Astron., 21, 307

Stein R.F. & Nordlund Å. 2000, Solar Phys., 192, 91

Tobias, S.M., Brummell, N.H., Clune, T.L. & Toomre, J., 2001, ApJ, 549, 1183


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# HIGGS SEARCH RESULTS

## 1 Introduction

The Standard Model (SM)  of electroweak interactions is a well established theory which has been very successful in accounting for various experimental observations as well as in its predictions of new physics phenomena. The unproven keystone of the SM is the mechanism of mass generation. The most favoured one is the so-called Higgs mechanism . A doublet of scalar complex fields with non-zero vacuum expectation value is postulated, breaking electroweak symmetry and generating weak boson and fermion masses. The Higgs mechanism gives rise to one more physical state $``$ the Higgs boson. The discovery of this particle would be a crucial step in establishing the mechanism of electroweak symmetry breaking and in our understanding of the origin of mass. One Higgs doublet is the minimum which is required to generate weak boson and fermion masses. There are extensions of the SM postulating additional Higgs multiplets and thus predicting a spectrum of physical Higgs particles . Over the last decade searches for Higgs bosons of various theoretical models have been performed at the Tevatron $`\mathrm{p}\overline{\mathrm{p}}`$ collider and the Large Electron-Positron (LEP) collider. The results of these searches are reviewed.

## 2 The Standard Model Higgs Boson

### 2.1 Search for the SM Higgs Boson at LEP

Over the last three years of LEP running, the four LEP collaborations, ALEPH, DELPHI, L3 and OPAL, have collected 2460 pb-1 of data at centre-of-mass energies between 189 and 209 GeV with about 530 pb-1 above 206 GeV. These data provided sensitivity to the SM Higgs boson up to a mass of $`\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{H}`$ $``$ 115 GeV.

At LEP, the production of the Higgs boson is expected mainly via the Higgs-strahlung process, $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{Z}^{}\mathrm{HZ}`$. The processes of WW and ZZ fusion, giving rise to the $`\mathrm{H}\nu \overline{\nu }`$ and $`\mathrm{He}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ final states, contribute with a smaller rates to the Higgs boson production. The dependence of the production cross sections on the Higgs boson mass at a typical LEP energy, attained in the year 2000, is illustrated in Figure 1 (left). The SM Higgs boson decay branching fractions as a function of the Higgs boson mass are displayed in Figure 1 (right).

The search for the SM Higgs boson is based on the study of four distinct topologies, arising from the Higgs-strahlung process: $`\mathrm{HZ}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$ (four-jet channel); $`\mathrm{HZ}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}\nu \overline{\nu }`$ (missing energy channel); $`\mathrm{HZ}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}\mathrm{}^+\mathrm{}^{}(\mathrm{}=\mathrm{e},\mu )`$ (semileptonic channel) and $`\mathrm{HZ}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}\tau ^+\tau ^{},\tau ^+\tau ^{}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$ (tau channels). Searches in channels with hadronic decays of the Higgs boson are optimised for the $`\mathrm{H}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$ decay mode, which is predicted to be dominant in the mass range accessible at LEP. Hence, tagging b quarks plays a crucial role in identification of signal events. The main processes contributing to the background for the Higgs boson searches are: quark antiquak pair production with possible initial state radiation, $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}(\gamma )`$, pair-wise production of W bosons, $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{W}^+\mathrm{W}^{}`$, pair-wise production of Z bosons, $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{ZZ}`$, single W boson production, $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{We}\nu `$, and single Z boson production, $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{Ze}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$.

The results of the individual analyses are expressed in terms of one (or more) final variable, also called discriminant. It is constructed, exploiting event features, which discriminate between background and signal. Among them are the invariant mass of the two jets (or two tau leptons) assumed to stem from the Higgs boson, hereafter called the reconstructed Higgs boson mass, $`\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{H}^{\mathrm{rec}}`$, b-tag variable, quantifying the probability for an event to contain b jets, and topological characteristics of an event. As an example, Figure 3 shows the distribution of $`\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{H}^{\mathrm{rec}}`$ after combining data from all four experiments in all search channels.

The final variable, built in the same way for data, Monte Carlo background and Monte Carlo signal samples, is then used to evaluate on statistical basis the presence of a signal in data.

An excess of $`3\sigma `$ beyond background expectation compatible with the production of the Higgs boson with the mass near 115 GeV is reported by ALEPH collaboration . This effect comes from events of the $`\mathrm{HZ}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$ topology and is not confirmed neither by other search channels nor by other LEP collaborations . In the LEP combined search, the excess is diminished down to about $`1.7\sigma `$  due to background-like observations by the other experiments. The LEP combined data are used to set a lower limit on the Higgs boson mass. Figure 3 shows the dependence of the confidence level $`\mathrm{CL}_\mathrm{s}`$, used to exclude the signal hypothesis, on the tested Higgs boson mass. An observation of the $`\mathrm{CL}_\mathrm{s}`$ value smaller than 5% means that the signal hypothesis is ruled out at 95% C.L.. A lower limit of 114.4 GeV on the mass of the SM Higgs boson is derived at 95% C.L..

### 2.2 Searches for the SM Higgs Boson at Tevatron

The searches for the SM Higgs boson are performed by the CDF and D0 collaborations  using about 0.1 fb-1 of data collected per experiment at centre-of-mass energy $`\sqrt{\mathrm{s}}`$ = 1.8 TeV during the RunI data taking period at Tevatron.

Although single Higgs boson production via gluon fusion, $`\mathrm{gg}\mathrm{H}`$, has the highest cross-section, the more promising channels for the SM Higgs boson search are $`\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}^{}\mathrm{HW}`$ and $`\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}\mathrm{HZ}`$ production, since a large fraction of copious QCD background can be suppressed by tagging leptons originating from decays of W or Z bosons. The Higgs boson is searched for by its decay into $`\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$. Four final states are studied: $`\mathrm{HZ}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}\mathrm{}^+\mathrm{}^{}(\mathrm{}=\mathrm{e},\mu )`$; $`\mathrm{HZ}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}\nu \overline{\nu }`$; $`\mathrm{HW}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}\mathrm{}\nu (\mathrm{}=\mathrm{e},\mu )`$ and $`\mathrm{HZ}(\mathrm{HW})\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$. Data are found to agree with the SM background predictions. However, the sensitivity of this search does not reach the SM expectations for a signal: the 95% C.L. upper limit on the quantity $`\sigma (\mathrm{p}\overline{\mathrm{p}}\mathrm{HV})\times \mathrm{Br}(\mathrm{H}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}})`$ (where V stands for W and Z) is larger than the values predicted by the SM, as can be seen in Figure 4. Hence, a mass limit cannot be derived.

## 3 Searches for Higgs Bosons beyond the SM

Among all possible extensions of the SM, Two Higgs Doublet Models (2HDM)  are of particular interest, since this structure of the Higgs sector is required in “low-energy” supersymmetric models. The Higgs sector of 2HDM is characterised by eight degrees of freedom. After spontaneous symmetry breaking, three of them become longitudinal polarisations of W and Z bosons, while the remaining five manifest themselves as physical states: two neutral CP-even Higgs bosons, the lighter of which is denoted as h and the heavier as H, one CP-odd Higgs boson, A, and a pair of charged bosons, $`\mathrm{H}^\pm `$. At this point one should mention two parameters of 2HDM, which play a crucial role in the Higgs boson phenomenology. These are $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, the ratio of vacuum expectation values of the two Higgs doublets, and $`\alpha `$, the mixing angle in the CP-even Higgs sector.

### 3.1 Flavor Independent Search for $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{hZ}`$

The distinct feature of 2HDM is the modified couplings of the Higgs bosons to fermions and gauge bosons. Table 1 illustrates the dependence of the neutral Higgs boson couplings to fermions on the parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ in 2HDM of type II, in which one Higgs doublet couples to up-type quarks while the other one to down-type quarks and charged leptons.

As one can see, specific choices of parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ are possible, which lead to the suppression of the Higgs boson couplings to $`\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$. SM Higgs searches would have a reduced sensitivity in such cases, because of their strong reliance on identification of b-quarks. To investigate these specific scenarios, all four LEP collaborations have performed flavor independent searches for hadronic decays of the Higgs bosons . The preliminary LEP combination of the search results is done for the Higgs-strahlung production mechanism111 Flavor independent searches were also performed for the $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{hA}`$ production mechanism individually by DELPHI, L3 and OPAL collaborations. However, no LEP combined results of these searches are available yet. . All decay channels of the Z boson are studied and decays of the Higgs boson into $`\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$, $`\mathrm{c}\overline{\mathrm{c}}`$ and a pair of gluons are considered. None of the LEP collaborations observes an indication of a signal and the search results are translated into the 95% C.L. upper limits on the Higgs-strahlung cross section. This is shown in Figure 5. Assuming SM cross section for the Higgs-strahlung process and the hadronic branching fraction of the Higgs boson equal 1, a lower bound of 112.9 GeV on the Higgs boson mass is obtained at 95% C.L. regardless of the flavor content of the Higgs boson decay products.

### 3.2 Searches for Charged Higgs Bosons

At LEP, charged Higgs bosons are expected to be produced in pairs through virtual Z or $`\gamma `$ exchange: $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{Z}^{}/\gamma ^{}\mathrm{H}^+\mathrm{H}^{}`$. In 2HDM, the $`\mathrm{H}^\pm `$ mass is not predicted and the tree-level cross-section is fully determined by the mass. The searches are carried out under the assumption that the two decay modes $`\mathrm{H}^+\mathrm{c}\overline{\mathrm{s}}`$ and $`\mathrm{H}^+\tau ^+\nu `$ exhaust the $`\mathrm{H}^+`$ decay width but the relative branching ratio is regarded as a free parameter. Thus, the searches encompass the following final states: $`\mathrm{c}\overline{\mathrm{s}}\overline{\mathrm{c}}\mathrm{s}`$, $`\tau ^+\nu \tau ^{}\overline{\nu }`$ and $`\mathrm{c}\overline{\mathrm{s}}\tau ^{}\overline{\nu }+\overline{\mathrm{c}}\mathrm{s}\tau ^+\nu `$. An excess of candidates in the pure hadronic channel in the mass region around 68 GeV is found in the L3 data . However, this effect is not confirmed by other LEP experiments . No signal is found in the pure leptonic and mixed channels. The results from the four collaborations are combined and used to set the 95% C.L. lower limit on the $`\mathrm{H}^+`$ mass in dependence of the branching fraction $`\mathrm{B}(\mathrm{H}^+\tau ^+\nu )`$, as shown in Figure 6.

A lower limit of 78.6 GeV on the $`\mathrm{H}^+`$ mass is obtained at 95% C.L. independent of $`\mathrm{B}(\mathrm{H}^+\tau ^+\nu )`$.

In the SM, the primary decay of the top quark is $`\mathrm{t}\mathrm{W}^+\mathrm{b}`$. The addition of the second Higgs doublet allows the $`\mathrm{t}\mathrm{H}^+\mathrm{b}`$ mode, provided that $`\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{t}>\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{H}^+}+\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{b}`$. The dependence of the branching fraction $`\mathrm{B}(\mathrm{t}\mathrm{H}^+\mathrm{b})`$ on $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ is presented in Figure 8 for several representative values of the charged Higgs boson mass. $`\mathrm{B}(\mathrm{t}\mathrm{H}^+\mathrm{b})`$ has a minimum at $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =\sqrt{\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{t}/\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{b}}`$. If $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ differs by about a factor of 10 from $`\sqrt{\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{t}/\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{b}}`$, the branching fraction becomes large, and decreases as $`\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{H}^+}`$ increases. Two different searches for $`\mathrm{t}\mathrm{H}^+\mathrm{b}`$ are performed at Tevatron. An indirect search  makes use of the fact that a large branching fraction $`\mathrm{B}(\mathrm{t}\mathrm{H}^+\mathrm{b})`$ suppresses decay rates of $`\mathrm{t}\overline{\mathrm{t}}`$ into the $`\mathrm{W}^+\mathrm{W}^{}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$ final states. Hence, an observation of a decrease in the $`\mathrm{t}\overline{\mathrm{t}}\mathrm{W}^+\mathrm{W}^{}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$ signal expected from the SM would be an indirect indication of the $`\mathrm{t}\mathrm{H}^+\mathrm{b}`$ mode. Direct searches  aim to select the $`\mathrm{t}\overline{\mathrm{t}}\mathrm{H}^+\mathrm{bH}^{}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$ and $`\mathrm{t}\overline{\mathrm{t}}\mathrm{H}^\pm \mathrm{W}^{}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$ final states, exploiting the $`\mathrm{H}^+\tau ^+\nu `$ decay mode. The latter dominates at high $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ values, as shown in Figure 8. The decay mode $`\mathrm{H}^+\mathrm{c}\overline{\mathrm{s}}`$ is not useful for direct searches due to a large QCD background. Dedicated analyses, performed at Tevatron, assume that there are no top quark decays other than $`\mathrm{t}\mathrm{W}^+\mathrm{b}`$ and $`\mathrm{t}\mathrm{H}^+\mathrm{b}`$. No signal is found and the results are used to constrain parameters of 2HDM. As an example, Figure 8 presents D0 results, expressed in terms of the 95% C.L. excluded regions in the $`(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{H}^+},\mathrm{tan}\beta )`$ plane.

### 3.3 Searches for the Neutral Higgs Bosons of the MSSM

Supersymmetry is a tempting theoretical concept which provides an elegant solution of the so-called “hierarchy” problem and incorporates gravity in a consistent way into the model . The Higgs sector of the Minimal Supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model (MSSM)  corresponds to the 2HDM of type II and hence contains the five physical states indicated above.

At LEP, searches for the neutral Higgs bosons of the MSSM are performed, exploiting two production mechanisms: the Higgs-strahlung and associated Higgs boson pair production, $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{Z}^{}\mathrm{hA}`$. For the Higgs-strahlung process, the same event topologies as in the SM Higgs search are studied. For the hA production, the final states studied are: $`\mathrm{hA}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$ and $`\mathrm{hA}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}\tau ^+\tau ^{},\tau ^+\tau ^{}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$. To improve search sensitivity in the MSSM parameter regions where the decay $`\mathrm{h}\mathrm{AA}`$ opens, some collaborations have searched also for the $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{hZ}\mathrm{AAZ}`$ process . No evidence for the production of the neutral MSSM Higgs bosons is found in the LEP combined data . Hence, the search results are interpreted in terms of exclusion of the MSSM parameter regions. Figure 9 shows the 95% C.L. excluded regions in the $`(\mathrm{tan}\beta ,\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{h})`$ plane for the so-called “$`\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{h}\mathrm{max}`$” scenario, which yields the maximal theoretical upper limit on $`\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{h}`$ in the model. In this scenario, the LEP combined data establish the 95% C.L. lower limits on the h and A boson masses of 91.0 GeV and 91.9 GeV, respectively.

Using RunI data, the CDF collaboration has carried out the search for the neutral supersymmetric Higgs bosons in the process $`\mathrm{p}\overline{\mathrm{p}}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}\varphi \mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$ with $`\varphi =\mathrm{h},\mathrm{H}`$ and A, exploiting the enhanced Higgs-bottom Yukawa coupling at high values of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ . A dedicated analysis is elaborated to select events with four or more jets of which at least three being tagged as b jets. The study of dijet invariant mass spectra in the selected sample revealed no evidence for a signal. Shown in Figure 10 are the exclusion contours in the $`(\mathrm{tan}\beta ,\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{h})`$ plane for the two representative scenarios of the scalar top mixing.

## 4 Conclusions

Searches for Higgs bosons of various theoretical models are performed at LEP and Tevatron. No strong indication of the production of Higgs bosons is found. Negative results of the searches are used to constrain parameters in the Higgs sector of the SM and its various extensions. In the SM, the 95% C.L. lower limit of 114.4 GeV on the Higgs boson mass is obtained from the direct searches at LEP.

Searches for Higgs bosons will be one of the main objectives during the RunII data taking period at Tevatron. Higgs searches will be also continued at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN. If the Higgs boson is found, its profile will be explored at a future linear $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ collider. The physics results from these experimental facilities are anticipated to shed a light on the problem of electroweak symmetry breaking and give an insight into the origin of mass.

## Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. Wolfgang Lohmann for giving talk at Physics in Collision Conference on behalf of my name and for his help in preparation of this paper.


text:
# Jet measurements at DØ using a 𝑘_𝑇 algorithm

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Until recently, only cone algorithms were used to reconstruct jets in $`p\overline{p}`$  colliders. The cone algorithm used to reconstruct the $`1992`$-$`1996`$ Tevatron data  presents several shortcomings:

* An arbitrary procedure must be implemented to split and merge overlapping calorimeter cones.
* An ad-hoc parameter, $`R_{\mathrm{sep}}`$ , is required to accommodate the differences between jet definitions at the parton and detector levels.
* Improved theoretical predictions calculated at the next-to-next-to-leading-order (NNLO) in pQCD are not infrared safe, but exhibit sensitivity to soft radiation.

A second class of jet algorithms, free of these problems, was developed during the past decade . These recombination algorithms successively merge pairs of nearby objects (partons, particles, or calorimeter towers) in order of increasing relative transverse momentum. A single parameter, $`D`$, which approximately characterizes the size of the resulting jets, determines when this merging stops. No further splitting or merging is involved because each object is uniquely assigned to a jet. There is no need to introduce any ad-hoc parameter, because the same algorithm is applied at the theoretical and experimental level. Furthermore, by design, clustering algorithms are infrared and collinear safe to all orders of calculation.

The DØ Collaboration has implemented a $`k_{}`$ algorithm to reconstruct jets from data taken during the $`1992`$-$`1996`$ collider run. This paper is a review of the associated measurements recently performed by the DØ experiment .

## 2 THE RUN I DØ DETECTOR

DØ is a multipurpose detector designed to study $`p\overline{p}`$ collisions at the Fermilab Tevatron Collider. A full description of the Run I DØ detector can be found in Ref. . The primary detector components for jet measurements at DØ are the calorimeters, which use liquid-argon as the active medium and uranium as the absorber. The DØ calorimeters provide full solid angle coverage and particle containment (except for neutrinos or high $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ muons), as well as linearity of response with energy and compensation ($`e/\pi `$ response ratio is less than 1.05). Transverse segmentation is $`\mathrm{\Delta }\eta \times \mathrm{\Delta }\varphi =0.1\times 0.1`$, with $`\eta =\mathrm{ln}\left[\mathrm{tan}(\theta /2)\right]`$. The single particle energy resolutions for electrons (e) and pions ($`\pi `$), measured from test beam data, are approximately 15$`\%`$ and 50$`\%`$ respectively.

## 3 $`k_{}`$ JET ALGORITHM

The DØ $`k_{}`$ jet algorithm  starts with a list of energy pre-clusters, formed from calorimeter cells, final state partons or particles. The angular separation between pre-clusters is $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }\eta ^2+\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi ^2}>0.2`$.

The jet reconstruction is performed in three steps:

1. For each object $`i`$ in the list, the algorithm defines $`d_{\mathrm{ii}}=p_{\mathrm{T},\mathrm{i}}^2`$, where $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ is the momentum transverse to the beam. For each pair $`(i,j)`$ of objects, it also defines $`d_{\mathrm{ij}}=\mathrm{min}(p_{\mathrm{T},\mathrm{i}}^2,p_{\mathrm{T},\mathrm{j}}^2)\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{ij}}^2}{D^2}`$, where $`D`$ is a resolution parameter.

2. If the minimum of all possible $`d_{\mathrm{ii}}`$ and $`d_{\mathrm{ij}}`$ is a $`d_{\mathrm{ij}}`$, the algorithm replaces objects $`i`$ and $`j`$ by their 4-vector sum before going back to step 1. If the minimum is a $`d_{\mathrm{ii}}`$, then $`i`$ is defined as a jet and removed from the list of objects.

3. While there is an object left in the list, the algorithm returns to step 1.

The final product of this process is a list of jets, separated by $`\mathrm{\Delta }>D`$ from each other. Subjets may be defined by re-running the $`k_{}`$ algorithm from a list of pre-clusters in a given jet. Pairs of objects with the smallest $`d_{\mathrm{ij}}`$ are merged successively until all remaining $`d_{\mathrm{ij}}`$ satisfy $`d_{\mathrm{ij}}>y_{\mathrm{cut}}p_{\mathrm{Tjet}}^2`$. The resolved objects are called subjets, and the number of subjets within the jet is the subjet multiplicity $`M`$. For $`y_{\mathrm{cut}}`$=$`1`$, the entire jet consists of a single subjet ($`M`$=$`1`$). As $`y_{\mathrm{cut}}`$ decreases, the subjet multiplicity increases, until every pre-cluster becomes resolved as a separate subjet in the limit $`y_{\mathrm{cut}}0`$.

## 4 CALIBRATION OF JET MOMENTUM

The uncertainty in the jet energy or momentum is the dominant error in almost every jet measurement at a hadron collider. The jet momentum calibration is described in Ref. . The calibration at DØ accounts for detector effects like response, noise, and signal pile-up from previous crossings. It also removes the underlying event formed by the remnant soft partons (u.e.), and the contribution of multiple $`p\overline{p}`$ interactions. These corrections enter a relation between the momentum of a jet measured in the calorimeter $`p_{\mathrm{jet}}^{\mathrm{meas}}`$ and the “true” jet momentum $`p_{\mathrm{jet}}^{\mathrm{true}}`$:

$$p_{\mathrm{jet}}^{\mathrm{true}}=\frac{p_{\mathrm{jet}}^{\mathrm{meas}}p_O(\eta ^{\mathrm{jet}},,p_\mathrm{T}^{\mathrm{jet}})}{R_{\mathrm{jet}}(\eta ^{\mathrm{jet}},p^{\mathrm{jet}})}$$
(1)
where the offset term $`p_O`$ corrects for u.e., noise, pile-up, and multiple interactions, while $`R_{\mathrm{jet}}`$ corrects for the response of the calorimeter to jets. The true jet momentum is defined as the particle level jet momentum. A particle level jet is reconstructed from the final state particles, after hadronization but before interaction with the calorimeter material. The calibration procedure follows closely that of the calibration of the fixed-cone jet algorithm .

The fractional momentum resolution for $`k_{}`$ jets ($`D`$=$`1`$) is determined from the measured $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ imbalance in dijet events. At 100 (400) GeV, the fractional resolution is 0.061$`\pm `$0.006(0.039$`\pm `$0.003). Within statistical and systematic uncertainties, there is not a significant difference between energy resolutions associated with $`k_{}`$ ($`D`$=$`1`$) and cone $``$=$`0.7`$ jets.

## 5 PHYSICS RESULTS

DØ has performed a number of measurements using the $`k_{}`$ jet algorithm. These include a study of the structure of quark and gluon jets , and measurements of the central ($`|\eta |<0.5`$) inclusive jet cross section , and thrust distributions.

### 5.1 Subjet multiplicities

In LO QCD, the fraction of final state jets which are gluons decreases with $`xp_\mathrm{T}/\sqrt{s}`$, the momentum fraction of initial state partons within the proton. For fixed $`p_\mathrm{T}`$, the gluon jet fraction decreases when $`\sqrt{s}`$ is decreased from 1800 GeV to 630 GeV. We select gluon and quark enriched samples with identical cuts in events at $`\sqrt{s}=1800`$ and 630 GeV to reduce experimental biases and systematic effects. Of the two highest $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ jets in the event, we select $`k_{}(D=0.5)`$ jets with $`55<p_\mathrm{T}<100`$ GeV and $`|\eta |<0.5`$.

There is a simple method to extract a measurement of quark and gluon jets on a statistical basis. If $`M`$ is the subjet multiplicity in a mixed sample of quark and gluon jets, it may be written as a linear combination of subjet multiplicity in gluon and quark jets:

$$M=fM_\mathrm{g}+(1f)M_\mathrm{q}$$
(2)
The coefficients are the fractions of gluon and quark jets in the sample, $`f`$ and $`(1f)`$, respectively. Consider Eq. (2) for two similar samples of jets at $`\sqrt{s}=1800`$ and 630 GeV, assuming $`M_\mathrm{g}`$ and $`M_\mathrm{q}`$ are independent of $`\sqrt{s}`$. The solutions are

$$M_\mathrm{q}=\frac{f^{1800}M^{630}f^{630}M^{1800}}{f^{1800}f^{630}}$$
(3)
$$M_\mathrm{g}=\frac{\left(1f^{630}\right)M^{1800}\left(1f^{1800}\right)M^{630}}{f^{1800}f^{630}}$$
(4)
where $`M^{1800}`$ and $`M^{630}`$ are the experimental measurements in the mixed jet samples at $`\sqrt{s}=1800`$ and 630 GeV, and $`f^{1800}`$ and $`f^{630}`$ are the gluon jet fractions in the two samples. The method relies on knowledge of the two gluon jet fractions, which are extracted from the herwig 5.9 Monte Carlo event generator and used in Eqs. (3-4).

Figure 2 shows the average subjet multiplicity ($`y_{\mathrm{cut}}=10^3`$) for quark and gluon jets. $`M_\mathrm{g}`$ is significantly larger for gluon jets than for quark jets. The gluon jet fractions are the dominant source of systematic error. We also compute the ratio $`R=\frac{M_g1}{M_q1}=1.84\pm 0.15(\mathrm{stat})_{0.18}^{+0.22}(\mathrm{sys})`$. Figure 3 shows a comparison between the ratio measured by DØ , the herwig 5.9 result of r=1.91, the ALEPH value of r=1.7$`\pm 0.1`$ ($`e^+e^{}`$ annihilations at $`\sqrt{M_\mathrm{Z}}=M_\mathrm{Z}`$) , and the associated Monte Carlo and resummation prediction . Good agreement is observed. All of the experimental and theoretical values for $`r`$ are smaller than the naive QCD prediction value of 2.25 for the ratio of color charges. This is because of higher-order radiation in QCD, which tends to reduce the ratio from the naive value.

### 5.2 Central inclusive jet cross section

The inclusive jet cross section for $`|\eta |<0.5`$, $`d^2\sigma /(dp_\mathrm{T}d\eta )`$, was measured as $`N/(\mathrm{\Delta }\eta \mathrm{\Delta }p_\mathrm{T}ϵL)`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }\eta `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }p_\mathrm{T}`$ are the $`\eta `$ and $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ bin sizes, $`N`$ is the number of jets reconstructed with the $`k_{}`$ ($`D`$=$`1`$) algorithm in that bin, $`ϵ`$ is the overall efficiency for jet and event selection, and $`L`$ represents the integrated luminosity of the data sample .

The fully corrected cross section for $`|\eta |<0.5`$ is shown in Fig. 4, along with the statistical uncertainties. The systematic uncertainties include contributions from the jet and event selection, unsmearing, luminosity, and the uncertainty in the momentum scale, which dominates at all transverse momenta. The fractional uncertainties for the different components are plotted in Fig. 5 as a function of the jet transverse momentum.

The results are compared to the NLO pQCD prediction from jetrad , with the renormalization and factorization scales set to $`p_\mathrm{T}^{\mathrm{max}}/2`$, where $`p_\mathrm{T}^{\mathrm{max}}`$ refers to the $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ of the leading jet in an event. The comparisons are made using parameterizations of the parton distribution functions (PDFs) of the CTEQ  and MRST  families. Figure 6 shows the ratios of (data-theory)/theory. The predictions lie below the data by about $`50\%`$ at the lowest $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ and by (10-20)$`\%`$ for $`p_\mathrm{T}>200`$ GeV. To quantify the comparison in Fig. 6, the fractional systematic uncertainties are multiplied by the predicted cross section, and a $`\chi ^2`$ comparison, using the full correlation matrix, is carried out . Though the agreement is reasonable ($`\chi ^2/\mathrm{dof}`$ ranges from $`1.56`$ to $`1.12`$, the probabilities from $`4`$ to $`31\%`$), the differences in normalization and shape, especially at low $`p_\mathrm{T}`$, are quite large. The points at low $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ have the highest impact on the $`\chi ^2`$. If the first four data points are not used in the $`\chi ^2`$ comparison, the probability increases from $`29\%`$ to $`77\%`$ when using the CTEQ4HJ PDF.

The NLO predictions of the inclusive cross section for $`k_{}`$ ($`D`$=$`1`$) and cone jets ($``$=$`0.7`$, $`R_{\mathrm{sep}}`$=$`1.3`$) in the same $`|\eta |<0.5`$ interval are within a few percent of each other in the $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ range relevant in this analysis . The measured $`k_{}`$ cross section, however, is $`37\%`$ ($`16\%`$) higher than the published cone algorithm  at $`60`$ ($`200`$) GeV. This difference in the cross sections is consistent with the measured difference in $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ for cone jets matched in $`\eta `$-$`\varphi `$ space to $`k_{}`$ jets, as shown in Fig. 7. For the same energy clusters the $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ of $`k_{}`$ jets ($`D`$=$`1`$) is higher than the $`E_\mathrm{T}`$ of associated cone jets ($``$=$`0.7`$). The difference increases with jet $`p_\mathrm{T}`$, from about 5 GeV (or $`5\%`$) at $`p_\mathrm{T}100`$ GeV to about 7 GeV (or $`3\%`$) at $`p_\mathrm{T}250`$ GeV . Fig. 7 proves, however, that the energy difference does not depend on the instantaneous luminosity associated with the sample. After offset subtraction, it is clear that $`k_{}`$ jets are not contaminated by energy coming from pile-up, uranium noise, or multiple interactions.

The effect of final-state hadronization on reconstructed energy, which might account for the discrepancy between the observed cross section using $`k_{}`$ and the NLO predictions at low $`p_\mathrm{T}`$, and also for the difference between the $`k_{}`$ and cone results, was studied using herwig (version $`5.9`$) simulations. Figure 8 shows the ratio of $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ spectra for particle-level to parton-level jets, for both the $`k_{}`$ and cone algorithms. Particle cone jets, reconstructed from final state particles (after hadronization), have less $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ than the parton jets (before hadronization), because of energy loss outside the cone.

In contrast, $`k_{}`$ particle jets are more energetic than their progenitors at the parton level, due to the merging of nearby partons into a single particle jet. Including the hadronization effect derived from herwig in the NLO jetrad prediction improves the $`\chi ^2`$ probability from $`29\%`$ to $`44\%`$ ($`31\%`$ to $`46\%`$) when using the CTEQ4HJ (MRST) PDF.

We have also investigated the sensitivity of the measurement to the modeling of the background from spectator partons through the use of minimum bias events, and found that it has a small effect on the cross section: at low $`p_\mathrm{T}`$, where the sensitivity is the largest, an increase of as much as $`50\%`$ in the underlying event correction decreases the cross section by less than $`6\%`$.

### 5.3 Thrust cross sections

Event shape variables have been extensively used in $`e^+e^{}`$ and $`ep`$ collider experiments to study the spatial distribution of hadronic final states, to test the predictions of perturbative QCD, and to extract a precise value of the coupling constant $`\alpha _\mathrm{s}`$. Over the last few years, they have attracted considerable interest, as they have proved to be a fruitful testing ground for recent QCD developments like resummation calculations and non-perturbative corrections.

There are several observables which characterize the shape of an event. To be calculable by perturbation theory, these quantities must be infra-red safe, i.e. insensitive to the emission of soft or collinear gluons. A widely used variable that meets this requirement is the thrust, defined as

$$T=\mathrm{max}_{\widehat{n}}\frac{_\mathrm{i}\left|\stackrel{}{p}_\mathrm{i}\widehat{n}\right|}{_\mathrm{i}\left|\stackrel{}{p}_\mathrm{i}\right|}$$
(5)
where the sum is over all partons, particles or calorimeter towers in the event. The unit vector $`\widehat{n}`$ that maximizes the ratio of the sums is called the thrust axis. The values of thrust range from $`T`$=$`0.5`$ for a perfectly spherical event, to $`T`$=$`1`$ for a pencil-like event, when all emitted particles are collinear. In this latter case, the thrust axis lies along the direction of the particles.

In most of the kinematic range, $`e^+e^{}`$ and $`ep`$ collider experiments  report good agreement of event shape distributions with $`O(\alpha _\mathrm{s}^2)`$ pQCD corrections to the lowest order QED diagram that governs the interaction. Fixed order QCD calculations, however, fail when two widely different energy scales are involved in the event, leading to the appearance of large logarithmic terms at all orders in the perturbative expansion . This happens in the limit of the two jet back-to-back configuration, when $`T1`$. This case is handled by the resummation technique, which identifies the large logarithms in each order of perturbation theory and sums their contributions to all orders. DELPHI reports excellent agreement of thrust distributions in $`Z`$ hadrons once resummation and hadronization corrections are added to the $`O(\alpha _\mathrm{s}^2)`$ QCD prediction .

In a hadron collider, it is convenient to introduce “transverse thrust”, $`T^\mathrm{T}`$, a Lorenz invariant quantity under $`z`$-boosts, which is obtained from Eq. 5 in terms of transverse momenta:

$$T^\mathrm{T}=\mathrm{max}_{\widehat{n}}\frac{_\mathrm{i}\left|\stackrel{}{p}_{\mathrm{T}_\mathrm{i}}\widehat{n}\right|}{_\mathrm{i}\left|\stackrel{}{p}_{\mathrm{T}_\mathrm{i}}\right|}$$
(6)
Transverse thrust ranges from $`T^\mathrm{T}`$=$`1`$ to $`T^\mathrm{T}`$=$`2/\pi `$ ($`|\mathrm{cos}\theta |`$) for a back-to-back and an isotropic distribution of particles in the transverse plane, respectively. To minimize systematics associated with the busy environment in a $`p\overline{p}`$ collider, we use only the two leading jets in the event, reconstructed with a $`k_{}`$ $`D`$=$`1`$ algorithm, rather than using all calorimeter towers. Other particles in the event are inferred from the angular distribution of the two leading jets.

The measurement of the dijet transverse thrust, $`T_2^\mathrm{T}`$ presents a good opportunity to test resummation models, as well as the recently developed NLO pQCD three-jet generators . $`T_2^\mathrm{T}`$ is binned in terms of $`H_{\mathrm{T3}}`$, defined as the scalar sum of the transverse momenta of the three leading jets of the event $`p_{\mathrm{T1}}+p_{\mathrm{T2}}+p_{\mathrm{T3}}`$. $`H_{\mathrm{T3}}`$ is an estimator of the energy scale of the event. The lowest order at which pQCD does not give the trivial result $`T_2^\mathrm{T}`$=$`1`$ is $`O(\alpha _\mathrm{s}^3)`$, corresponding to up to three parton jets in the final state. A $`O(\alpha _\mathrm{s}^3)`$ calculation, like jetrad, does not cover the whole physical range of $`T_2^\mathrm{T}`$. A $`O(\alpha _\mathrm{s}^3)`$ prediction will also fail at $`T_2^\mathrm{T}1`$, where soft radiation in dijet events contribute large logarithms which need to be resummed.

Figures 9 and 10 show thrust cross sections as a function of $`1T_2^\mathrm{T}`$ for the lowest and highest $`H_{\mathrm{T3}}`$ bins: 160-260 GeV and 430-700 GeV.

The error bars are statistical, and the systematic uncertainties are in the 15-30$`\%`$ range. The higher the value of $`1T_2^\mathrm{T}`$, the more dominant is the contribution of high order terms in $`\alpha _\mathrm{s}`$. This explains the disagreement between the data and the $`\alpha _\mathrm{s}^3`$ prediction jetrad in the high $`1T_2^\mathrm{T}`$ range. For example, for $`T_2^\mathrm{T}`$ between $`\sqrt{2}/2`$ and $`\sqrt{3}/2`$, the $`\alpha _\mathrm{s}^4`$ terms contribute to LO. When we expand the range of thrust around unity using a logarithmic scale, we verify that jetrad also fails, suggesting the need to resum higher order terms to improve agreement. Table 1 displays the agreement probability between the DØ data and jetrad, which decreases sharply as we incorporate data points in the high and low $`1T_2^\mathrm{T}`$ range. The probabilities are calculated using the full covariance error matrix in a $`\chi ^2`$ test.

## 6 Conclusions

DØ has successfully implemented and calibrated a $`k_{}`$ jet algorithm in a $`p\overline{p}`$ collider. Quark and gluon jets have a different structure consistent with the herwig prediction and previous experimental results from $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders. The thrust cross section measurements indicate the need to include higher than $`\alpha _\mathrm{s}^3`$ terms and resumation in the theoretical predictions. They also offer an excellent opportunity to test the recently developed NLO three jet generators . The marginal agreement between the measurement of the particle level inclusive $`k_{}`$ jet cross section with the $`\alpha _\mathrm{s}^3`$ theory is opening a debate on matters such us hadronization, underlying event, and algorithm definition.


text:
# Two-particle correlations measured by PHENIX in Au-Au collisions at √𝑠_{𝑁𝑁}=200 GeV.

## 1 Introduction

Particle interferometry provides a tool to study the final stage of relativistic heavy ion collisions. Intensity interferometry is based on the Hanbury-Brown Twiss, or HBT, effect. The HBT analysis in relativistic high-energy heavy-ion experiments was originally motivated by theoretical predictions that a large source size and the long duration of particle emission  would be observed due to softening of the equation-of-state in a first-order phase transition from a quark-gluon-plasma state. To analyze the HBT data, the Bertsch-Pratt parameterization is employed in a longitudinal co-moving (LCMS) frame, where the three-dimensional Gaussian radii are parameterized to be $`R_{side}`$, $`R_{out}`$ and $`R_{long}`$ . Assuming a cylindrically symmetric, longitudinally expanding, transversely homogeneous source, $`R_{side}`$ corresponds to a radial size of the source, while $`R_{out}`$ is a combination of the radial size and a temporal term of the source duration time. To study the space-time evolution of the source, we introduce two independent external parameters: the transverse momentum of the particle pair and the collision centrality. The transverse momentum, $`k_T`$, of the pair is defined by $`k_T=(p_{T1}+p_{T2})/2`$, where $`p_{Ti}`$ is the transverse momentum of each particle in the pair. Recently, transport models  have been used to predict the radius parameters and their $`k_T`$ dependence. We will compare our results to these predictions.

## 2 Analysis

The PHENIX detector provides powerful particle identification (PID) capabilities over a wide momentum range . In this analysis, charged pions and kaons are identified by the time-of-flight technique using the beam-beam counters and the electromagnetic calorimeter (EMCal), combined with momentum measurement by the drift chamber (DCH). The detector covers the pseudorapidity region $`|\eta |<0.35`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi =\pi /2`$ in azimuthal angle. The timing resolution is approximately 500 ps. Charged pions and kaons are identified in squared mass versus momentum space using momentum-dependent PID bands which take into account the EMCal timing resolution and DCH momentum resolution. Charged pions and kaons must lie within 1.5$`\sigma _{m^2}`$ of their squared mass peak, but 2.5$`\sigma _{m^2}`$ away from neighboring PID bands. Using 50 million minimum bias events, $``$70 million charged pions and $``$6 million charged kaons are selected in a momentum range from 0.2 to 2.0 GeV/c. Similar to our previous analyses at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$ = 130 GeV , two-track separation cuts were applied using the DCH and EMCal such that pairs within 1 cm in the longitudinal direction and 0.02 radians in the azimuthal direction of each other are removed to eliminate ghost tracks and DCH inefficiency. Pairs that share the same cluster in the EMCal are also removed. The systematic error of the resultant radius parameters from these pair cuts is about 10$`\%`$ in total. The systematic error is evaluated by varying the condition of pair cuts, and the amount of the changes of radius parameters. After the pair cuts, about 160 million charged pion pairs and 1 million charged kaon pairs remain. The statistics are 70 times larger than that obtained in the previous runs . A full Coulomb correction was applied assuming a Gaussian source without pairs coming from resonance decays . The systematic error originating from the Coulomb correction is small compared to the systematic errors for the pair cuts. Figure 1 shows projections of the three-dimensional correlation function onto $`q_{side}`$, $`q_{out}`$ and $`q_{long}`$ for positive pions (top) and negative kaons (bottom) after the full Coulomb correction.

## 3 Results

Figure 3 shows the $`k_T`$ dependence of the chaoticity and the Bertsch-Pratt radius parameters of pions at the most central 30$`\%`$ of the cross section. The radius parameters at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$ = 200 GeV are, within errors, equal to the corresponding results at 130 GeV  at the same $`k_T`$. While the radius parameters show a strong $`k_T`$ dependence, the chaoticity is constant in all the $`k_T`$ bins. The kaon radius parameters are slightly larger than those of pions at the same $`k_T`$ (the $`k_T`$ bin for kaons is between 0.2 to 2.0 GeV/c) as shown in Fig. 3; however, the kaon chaoticity is significantly larger than that of pions. Figure 3 shows the collision centrality dependence of the radius parameters. The number of participants ($`N_{part}`$) is evaluated from the charged particle multiplicity using a Glauber model calculation . The radius parameters depend linearly on $`N_{part}^{1/3}`$. In order to study the duration time, we plot $`R_{out}/R_{side}`$ in Fig. 4 as a function of (a) $`k_T`$ and (b) centrality. The ratio is independent of centrality and is constant for $`k_T`$ up to 1.2 GeV/c within error, and is systematically below one.

## 4 Summary

We have presented HBT results in the Bertsch-Pratt frame for identified charged pions and kaons measured by PHENIX in Au+Au collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$ = 200 GeV. We have obtained the three-dimensional correlation functions with 160 million charged pion pairs and 1 million kaon pairs. A clear $`k_T`$ dependence of the pion radius parameter was found, in agreement with the results at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$ = 130 GeV. The kaon radius parameters are equal to or slightly larger than the pion radius parameters at the same $`k_T`$ bin. The pion radius parameters are consistent with a linear parameterization as a function of $`N_{part}^{1/3}`$. It should be noted that the measured radius parameters in the transverse directions ($`R_{side}`$ and $`R_{out}`$) contradict recent transport model predictions . However, the measured longitudinal radius parameter ($`R_{long}`$) is well reproduced by those models. The $`R_{out}/R_{side}`$ ratios are independent of both $`k_T`$ and centrality, and are systematically smaller than unity albeit with large errors. No evidence is seen for the anomalous increase of $`R_{out}/R_{side}`$ as predicted from calculations based on the formation of a QGP .