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# Experimental observation of high field diamagnetic fluctuations in Niobium

## Abstract

We have performed a magnetic study of a bulk metallic sample of Nb with critical temperature $`T_c=8.5`$ K. Magnetization versus temperature ($`M`$ vs $`T`$) data obtained for fixed magnetic fields above 1 kOe show a superconducting transition which becomes broader as the field is increased. The data are interpreted in terms of the diamagnetic lowest Landau level (LLL) fluctuation theory. The scaling analysis gives values of the superconducting transition temperature $`T_c(H)`$ consistent with $`H_{c2}(T)`$. We search for universal 3D LLL behavior by comparing scaling results for Nb and YBaCuO, but obtain no evidence for universality.

PACS numbers: 74.30

High field diamagnetic fluctuations are predicted to occur in superconductors in a strong magnetic field, $`H`$. This constrains the paired quasi-particles to remain in the lowest Landau level (LLL), reducing their effective dimensionality . The width of the region around the superconducting temperature transition, $`T_c(H)`$, where the high field fluctuations occur is given by the field dependent Ginzburg criterion $`G(H)=(8\pi \kappa ^2k_BT_cH/\varphi _0\xi _cH_{c2}^2)^{2/3}`$ , where $`\kappa `$ is the Ginzburg-Landau (GL) parameter, $`\varphi _0`$ is the quantum flux, $`\xi _c`$ is the c-axes coherence length at zero temperature, and $`H_{c2}`$ is the upper critical field at zero temperature and for fields applied along the c-axes direction. One important effect of the LLL fluctuations is to produce a rounding of various data curves around $`T_c(H)`$ . Consequently, the superconducting transition appears continuous, rather than distinct, as expected for a second order transition $`T_c(H)`$ . High $`T_c`$ superconductors (HTSC), with their small $`\xi `$, high $`\kappa `$, and high critical temperatures, $`T_c`$, display a broad fluctuation region. The LLL fluctuation theory has been invoked to explain the nature of the broad “fan”-shaped transition observed in high-field magnetic measurements in YBaCuO . Predictions of the LLL theory include scaling laws for various physical quantities . For magnetization in particular, the scaling predicts that $`M`$ vs $`T`$ data obtained at different fields, $`H`$, should collapse onto a single curve when the variable $`M/(TH)^{(D1)/D}`$ is plotted against $`(TT_c(H))/(TH)^{(D1)/D}`$. Here, $`T_c(H)`$ becomes a fitting parameter, and $`D`$ is the dimensionality of the system. This scaling law has been used to identify LLL fluctuations in a given material, and determine its dimensionality . An important check of the scaling is that it should provide reasonable values of $`T_c(H)`$ . For lower-dimensional or layered materials, the LLL analysis also helps to explain the crossing points observed in $`M(T)`$ curves, .

Despite the relevance of LLL fluctuations for HTSC there are few comparable studies in conventional superconductors. Niobium is one of the most studied type II superconductors. Observations of an irreversibility line and a broad high-field reversible region in Nb , similar to HTSC, have renewed interest in this element. Extensive studies of fluctuations have been performed in Nb at low fields . For pure samples, high field diamagnetic fluctuations were observed in specific heat measurements for $`H=4`$ kOe, but only over a narrow temperature range, of order 40 mK . It is therefore a matter of interest to gather further evidence for high field diamagnetic fluctuations in Nb. Our work is motivated by the possibility that a Nb sample with an elevated value of $`\kappa >1`$ could show enhanced high field fluctuation effects.

We address this issue by performing magnetization measurements as a function of field and temperature in an impure but homogeneous Nb sample. The results show that $`M(T)`$ curves obtained for different fields follow the 3D LLL scaling. The Nb curves are somewhat more separated than comparable curves in HTSC, where LLL scaling has been applied . The crossing point behavior sometimes observed in HTSC is not here observed for Nb, as consistent with its expected 3D nature.

The Niobium sample adopted in the present study is an ellipsoid with axes $`2r_1`$ = 4.7 mm and $`2r_2`$ = 5.3 mm, mass = 0.6487 g, and $`T_c=8.5`$ K with $`\mathrm{\Delta }T=0.3`$ K determined at low fields. The sample was manufactured in an arc melt furnace from 99.9 % Nb wire. X-ray diffraction shows the metallic Nb phase. Magnetization data were always taken after cooling the sample in zero field. A commercial Quantum Design SQUID magnetometer (7T) with 3 cm scans was utilized in the measurements. Hysteresis loops of $`M`$ vs $`H`$ were obtained at fixed temperatures with values running from 3 K to 6 K. Isofield magnetization curves, $`M`$ vs $`T`$, were also obtained, for fixed applied magnetic fields with values running from 1 kOe to 10 kOe. The value of $`T_c`$ = 8.5 K, lower than 9.2 K found for pure Nb , indicates the possible existence of magnetic impurities. Neverthless, the corresponding magnetic signal is very small and could not be resolved from the background magnetization. The corrected background magnetization is found to be field dependent but not temperature dependent, as expected for Pauli paramagnetism in the studied temperature range. The demagnetization factor of the sample is obtained from the Meissner region in hysteresis magnetization curves $`M`$ vs $`H`$ and is very close to 1/3 as expected for a sphere. A previous study performed in our sample  determined the value of the Ginzburg parameter $`\kappa =4`$. Since the temperature width of the high-field fluctuations can be expressed as $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mathrm{fluct}}G(H)T_c\kappa ^{4/3}`$, large values of $`\kappa `$ can be expected to enhance fluctuations effects. High purity Nb, with $`T_c=9.2`$ K, has $`\kappa 1`$ .

Figure 1 shows zero-field cooled $`M`$ vs $`H`$ hysteresis curves. The inset shows the superconducting transition $`T_c`$. The entire transition occurs within a temperature window of less than 0.3 K. However the step, which accounts for 80% of the transition, has a 80 mK width, between 8.42 and 8.5 K. Most of the $`M(H)`$ curves in Fig. 1 display a pronounced peak effect occurring near the irreversible field $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$, reminiscent of HTSC.

Figure 2 shows a detail of the reversible region of the hysteresis $`M`$ vs $`H`$ curve obtained at 3.5 K. The reversible diamagnetic region extends more than 2 kOe above $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$. Figure 2 shows the standard linear extrapolation of the reversible magnetization down to M = 0, used to estimate $`H_{c2}`$ . The linear extrapolation is clearly an approximation, since there is a large region of the curve which deviates from the linear behavior as the magnetization approaches zero. To this level of accuracy, $`H_{c2}`$ is located 1.2 kOe above $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$. The inset of Fig. 2 shows a detail of the $`M`$ vs $`H`$ curve obtained at 6 K, for which the reversible diamagnetic region extends only approximately 300 Oe above $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$. The results for $`H_{c2}`$ and $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$ obtained from Fig. 1 are plotted in Fig. 3.

Figure 4 shows zero field cooled $`M(T)`$ curves obtained for fields $`H`$ = 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 3, 2, and 1 kOe. For $`H`$ = 10, 9, and 8 kOe the field cooled data are also plotted to show the extent of the reversible regions at high fields. (We mention that values of $`(T_{\mathrm{irr}},H)`$ obtained from $`M`$ vs $`T`$ curves agree with values of $`(T,H_{\mathrm{irr}})`$ obtained from $`M`$ vs $`H`$ curves.) The temperature interval between magnetization data in each curve is 50 mK. The rounding of the curves at high fields makes it difficult to extract a value for the critical temperature $`T_c(H)`$. To illustrate the rounding effect, we mark the transition temperatures, as interpolated from Fig. 3, with arrows for the $`H`$ = 1, 2 and 10 kOe curves. By visual inspection of Fig. 4, it is possible to see a sharp transition for $`H`$ = 1 kOe, which evolves into a broader transition as the field increases.

We now consider possible explanations for the rounded curves in Figure 4. In Ref. , high field diamagnetic fluctuations were observed for Nb at $`H`$ = 4 kOe, suggesting that the rounding above 5 kOe in our data may also be due to LLL-type fluctuations. An alternative explanation for the broadening could be surface superconductivity, which may occur above $`T_c(H)`$. However, the surface superconductivity signal for a sphere is expected to be rather small  as confirmed for our sample in the $`M`$ vs $`T`$ curve for $`H`$ =1 kOe, where no diamagnetic signal was detected above $`T_c(H)`$. Additionally, rounding effects in the magnetization due to surface superconductivity would only occur above $`T_c(H)`$  while in Figure 4 for $`H`$ = 10 kOe the rounding also occurs below $`T_c(H)`$. Based on these observations, and the fact that the data follow the 3D LLL scaling, we disregard the influence of surface superconductivity in the present measurements. Another possible explanation for the rounding in $`M`$ vs $`T`$ curves is sample inhomogeneity due to the impurities. We believe that our sample is homogeneous based on three points: (1) the sample shows only one superconducting transition at low fields which is relatively sharp, (2) there is no rounding above the transition for the $`H=1`$ kOe $`M`$ vs $`T`$ curve, and (3) the data follow the 3D LLL scaling.

We now perform a Lowest Landau Level scaling analysis on the high field data of Fig. 4, with $`D=3`$, as appropriate for Nb. $`M/(TH)^{2/3}`$ is plotted vs $`(TT_c(H))/(TH)^{2/3}`$. The transition temperature, $`T_c(H)`$, becomes a fitting parameter, chosen to make the data collapse onto a single curve. The resulting values are plotted in Fig. 3, with a significant correspondence to the values of $`H_{c2}(T)`$ estimated from the isothermic $`M`$ vs $`H`$ curves. The results of the scaling analysis are presented in Figure 5. The inset shows the unscaled data while the collapsed data is shown in the main figure. Note that only high-field data in the field range $`H`$ = 5 - 10 kOe have been scaled. The arrows in the inset identify the scaling values of $`T_c(H)`$, evidencing the breadth of the LLL fluctuation range. A visual inspection of this inset suggests that the LLL fluctuations occur over a large region in the 9 and 10 kOe curves, including data below $`T_c(H)`$. However, for 7, 6 and 5 kOe, the LLL scaling seems appropriate only above $`T_c(H)`$. We may compare the observed temperature width of the scaling range to its expected width, $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mathrm{fluct}}G(H)T_c(H)`$. $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mathrm{fluct}}`$ is expected to grow with field as $`H^{2/3}`$. We observe the predicted $`H^{2/3}`$ behavior for H = 10, 9 and 8 kOe , but not for $`H`$ = 7, 6, and 5 kOe. It is possible that the high-field conditions, namely, the paired quasi-particles lying in the lowest Landau level, are not fully met for the latter data.

The recent interest in LLL scaling has been stimulated by high temperature superconductors, which exhibit extensive high field fluctuations . It is of fundamental interest to ask whether scaling in low and high temperature superconductors could exhibit universal behavior. To investigate this point we obtain magnetization measurements from the sample of YBaCuO (mass = 1.7 mg, $`T_c=91.7`$ K) used in Ref. . Although YBaCuO is known to be more anisotropic than Nb, it is still expected to behave three dimensionally, justifying the use of 3D-LLL scaling. It is possible that the 3D scaling form could break down away from $`TT_c(H)`$, owing to the layered nature of the material . (This is the same regime where the simple scaling forms used in this work become inaccurate, due to the more complicated nature of LLL scaling theory in 3D .) We perform simultaneous scaling of YBaCuO and Nb in analogy to Fig. 5, however we now incorporate sample-dependent scaling factors along both the $`x`$ and $`y`$ axes. Specifically, the YBaCuO data has been multiplied by the relative factors of 1.5 and 1/150, along the $`x`$ and $`y`$ axes, respectively. The results are shown in Fig. 6 . The collapse of data from the two different samples is good, and may give support to the notion of universality.

We can take this comparison a step further by analyzing the collapse in Fig. 6. Because of the different geometries of the two samples, it is not possible to make a direct comparison of the magnetizations ($`y`$-axis). However, Ullah and Dorsey  provide an analytical expression for the full 3D-LLL temperature scaling variable along the $`x`$ axis: $`x=(\gamma /(2\kappa ^21)TH)^{2/3}(H_{c2}/T)(TT_c(H))`$, where the anisotropy parameter is given by $`\gamma =\xi _c(0)/\xi _{ab}(0)`$. The ratio of the respective YBCO and Nb scaling factors, $`r=[(\gamma /(2\kappa ^21))^{2/3}H_{c2}/T]_{\mathrm{YBaCuO}}/[(\gamma /(2\kappa ^21))^{2/3}H_{c2}/T]_{\mathrm{Nb}}`$, can therefore be used to rescale the YBCO data to make it collapse onto the Nb data. Using typical values of $`\gamma =0.2`$, $`\kappa =55`$, and $`H_{c2}/T=15`$ kOe/K for YBaCuO, and $`\gamma =1`$, $`\kappa =4`$, and $`H_{c2}/T=1.5`$ kOe/K for our Nb sample, we calculate $`r=0.1`$, which is more than an order of magnitude different than the measured value, $`r=1.5`$. Thus, independently, the Nb and YBCO samples appear to scale as expected. A naive universal collapse of the data sets appears outwardly successful. However the detailed scaling results cannot be reconciled with Ref. .

There are two possible explanations for these mixed results, which do not necessarily invalidate the observed 3D-LLL scalings: (1) The temperature range of 3D LLL scaling could be so narrow for YBCO, due to its layered nature, that the observed 3D LLL collapse is either rendered invalid or belongs to a different universality class. (2) The theory of Ullah and Dorsey , employed here to determine $`r`$, may not be applicable to isotropic superconductors such as Nb, because of its origins in the layered Lawrence-Doniach model. The expression we use for $`r`$ would therefore be inaccurate, although the basic scaling theory (ignoring scaling factors) is expected to be independently valid for the two types of superconductors.

There is also a third possible explanation for the failure of universal scaling. It has been shown in Ref.  that 3D LLL scaling in YBaCuO is obeyed better for data in the high field region ($`H>5`$ T) than in the 1 - 5 T field region. Unfortunately we do not have high field data for YBaCuO to test this possibility. The inset of Fig. 6 shows YBaCuO unscaled data used in the main figure. The arrows identify the scaling values of $`T_c(H)`$, as in Fig. 5. Comparison of Figs. 5 an 6 shows that LLL scaling in Nb is all the more spectacular due to the wide separation of the unscaled data.

Finally, we point out that the $`M`$ vs $`T`$ curves of Fig. 4 exhibit no crossing points. In HTSC the $`M`$ vs $`T`$ curves for which LLL have been successfully applied show crossing points  which are related to the layered structure (2D character) of those systems. We also mention that we tried to scale our Niobium data using a 3D $`XY`$ critical scaling theory  without success. The 3D $`XY`$ theory has been used to explain fluctuations of HTSC in the reversible regime .

Work partially supported by CNPq, and FAPESP.

* Corresponding author; e-mail: said@ if.ufrj.br


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# A correlation between Earth’s inclinations and the times of the cold events recorded in Devils Hole climate data

## Acknowledgement

The authors thank H.-U. Nissen for helpful discussions.


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# Simulations of X–ray spectral/timing properties in a propagation model of variability of accreting black holes

## 1 Introduction

X–ray emission from accreting compact objects carries information about geometry and physical conditions of the accreting plasma. Spectral and timing analyses of the data from sources in low/hard state have enabled formulating a number of phenomenological scenarios for accretion onto black holes. The scenarios belong to two main groups: (1) models invoking standard optically thick accretion disc with an active corona and (2) models assuming that the optically thick disc is truncated at a radius larger than the last stable orbit, and is replaced by inner hot, optically thin flow (see Done 2002, Czerny 2002 for reviews). Models of both groups have some physical foundations. Magnetic dynamos in the disc may give rise to the active corona, as suggested by recent magneto-hydrodynamical simulations (Miller & Stone 2000), with plasma outflow and/or hot ionized disc skin responsible for the observed correlations between spectral parameters: the power law slope and amplitude of the reflected component (Zdziarski, Lubiński & Smith 1999; Gilfanov, Churazov & Revnivtsev 2000); On the other hand, disappearance of the cold disc due to evaporation may create the inner hot flow (Różańska & Czerny 2000). Both classes of models can explain time average energy spectra, as well as correlations between spectral parameters (see discussion of models and more references in Życki 2002; hereafter Z02).

Specific models of X–ray variability were constructed for both geometries (see Poutanen 2001 for review). In the active corona geometry the model of magnetic flare avalanches of Poutanen & Fabian (1999; hereafter PF99) is very successful in reproducing a number of observed properties (e.g. power spectra, hard X–ray time lags). However, its simple extension to accretion disc with the ionized skin fails to reproduce the Fourier-frequency resolved spectra (Revnivtsev, Gilfanov & Churazov 1999, 2001) observed from black hole binaries (Z02). In the inner hot flow geometry the drifting blob model (Böttcher & Liang 1999) reproduces certain observed characteristics. However, Maccarone, Coppi & Poutanen (2000) argue that flares in hard (Comptonized) X-rays are the primary driver of variability, the soft (thermal) emission being merely reprocessed hard X-rays (see also Malzac & Jourdain 2000).

The observed logarithmic energy dependence of the hard X–ray time lags was shown to be compatible with a simple propagation model, where X–ray emitting perturbations move radially towards the central black hole, the emitted spectrum hardening as the perturbations approach the center (Miyamoto & Kitamoto 1989; Nowak et al. 1999; Kotov, Churazov & Gilfanov 2001). Moreover, the observed characteristic ’dip’ in the energy dependence of time lags at the energy of the Fe K$`\alpha `$ line can be explained in the propagation model, if the line emission from inner disc is suppressed (Kotov et al. 2001).

Therefore in this paper we consider a phenomenological propagation model, where the variable X–ray emission is attributed to active regions and/or perturbations moving radially towards the central compact object. X–rays are assumed to be produced by inverse Compton upscattering of soft photons coming from a cool, optically thick disc. X–ray luminosity is assumed to increase as the emission progresses, thus creating a flare of radiation. The Comptonized spectrum is assumed to evolve from softer to harder during the flare due to diminishing supply of seed photons. This may be due to either the optically thick disc being absent at small radii, or the thickness of the ionized disc skin increasing towards the center. From the simulated event files a number of statistics will be computed, which may be compared to available data. In particular, the Fourier-frequency resolved spectral properties are studied: both the continuum slope and Fe K$`\alpha `$ line strength as functions of Fourier frequency, $`f`$, will be computed. The observed Fourier-frequency resolved spectra, calculated from the RXTE data of black hole binaries in the low/hard state, show two important characteristics: the continuum spectra get harder with increasing $`f`$, while the amplitude of reflection decreases with $`f`$ (Revnivtsev et al. 1999, 2001).

We emphasize that the main feature of the considered models is the radial propagation of the X-ray emitting structures, with the related spectral evolution. This is meant to be compared with the models assuming radially localized flares (e.g. the model of PF99). However, we do not hypothesize here about possible correlations between flares (although the idea of flare avalanches will be implemented in Sec 3.2), hence this model is not meant to explain in detail the X–ray power spectra and higher order statistics of the variability (Maccarone & Coppi 2002).

Plan of the paper is as follows: the model is described in Sec. 2, results for the hot inner flow geometry are presented in Sec. 3, while results for the case of an accretion disc with hot ionized skin are presented in Sec. 3.3. In Sec. 4 a variant of the model is considered, which is compatible with the multi-Lorentzian description of power spectra (Nowak 2000).

## 2 The Model

The X–ray emitting structures are assumed to originate at a certain radius $`r_{\mathrm{out}}`$, which will be assumed $`50r_\mathrm{g}`$ ($`r_\mathrm{g}GM/c^2`$; precise value of $`r_{\mathrm{out}}`$ has little influence on our results, since the contribution to emission from large distances is insignificant). They move towards the center at a fraction of the free-fall speed,

$$v=\beta v_{\mathrm{ff}}=\beta \sqrt{\frac{2GM}{r}},$$
(1)
where $`\beta `$ is a model parameter. Since the heating of the plasma must ultimately come from the dissipation of the gravitational energy, we assume that the plasma heating rate scales as the dissipation rate of the latter for a disc-like accretion,

$$l_\mathrm{h}(t)r(t)^2b[r(t)],$$
(2)
where the exponent $`2`$ corresponds to dissipation per ring of matter. Here $`l`$ is the compactness parameter, $`l\frac{L}{R_{\mathrm{flare}}}\frac{\sigma _\mathrm{T}}{m_\mathrm{e}c^3}`$ ($`R_{\mathrm{flare}}`$ is the characteristic radius of the structure), and $`b(r)`$ is the boundary term which is assumed to have its Newtonian form $`b(r)=1\sqrt{6r_\mathrm{g}/r}`$ (Shakura & Sunyaev 1973). Other prescriptions for $`l_\mathrm{h}(r)`$ could be used here, since the relation between the overall disc accretion flow and the motion of structures is obviously uncertain111One subtle geometrical effect here is the radial dependence of the size of the emiter, $`R_{\mathrm{flare}}`$. Actually, it is the luminosity from each emitter that can be expected to scale as $`r^2`$. Then, eq. 2 is equivalent to an assumption $`R_{\mathrm{flare}}=\mathrm{const}`$. If $`R_{\mathrm{flare}}`$ varies with $`r`$, radial dependencies of $`L`$ and $`l_\mathrm{h}`$ will be different, but the observed quantity is $`L`$ and this should scale as $`r^2`$. Precise values of $`l_\mathrm{h}(r)`$ is not important in our paper because of approximations used to compute the spectra (eq. 4). In particular, pair production processes are neglected. This problem will be more apparent in Section 3.3. . The heating rate is normalized to have an assumed maximum value, $`l_{\mathrm{h},\mathrm{max}}`$. Solving the equation of motion (Eq. 1) gives

$$r(t)=(r_{\mathrm{out}}^{3/2}At)^{2/3},$$
(3)
where $`A=\frac{3}{2}\frac{\sqrt{2}\beta c}{r_\mathrm{g}}`$, and the radial positions are expressed in units of $`r_\mathrm{g}`$. The duration of a flare is $`t_{\mathrm{trav}}=(r_{\mathrm{out}}^{3/2}6^{3/2})/A`$, since the final radial position is assumed $`6r_\mathrm{g}`$. The resulting flare, $`l_\mathrm{h}(t)`$, is characterized by a slow rise and a sudden decrease (Fig. 1a) in agreement with the constraints derived by Maccarone et al. (2000).

The soft photons are assumed to come from reprocessing and thermalization of the hard X–rays, so that the feedback loop is realized as needed to explain the $`R`$$`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ correlation (Zdziarski et al. 1999; Gilfanov et al. 2000). Two geometrical scenarios may be considered here:

1. an inner hot flow partially overlapping a cold, optically thick disc disrupted at certain radius, $`r_{\mathrm{tr}}`$, (see e.g. Poutanen, Krolik & Ryde, 1997, for arguments for the overlap). The luminosity of soft photons crossing an active region is therefore parametrized as

$$l_\mathrm{s}(t)=l_\mathrm{h}(t)\times N_\mathrm{s}\{\begin{array}{cc}1& \text{for }rr_{\mathrm{tr}}\\ \left(\frac{r}{r_{\mathrm{tr}}}\right)^2& \text{for }r<r_{\mathrm{tr}},\end{array}$$
(4)
where $`N_\mathrm{s}0.5`$,
2. a standard optically thick accretion disc with an active corona and a hot ionized skin on top of the disc (Nayakshin & Dove 2001). The flux of soft photons crossing an active region is computed using the method of Życki & Różańska (2001) and Z02, for an assumed height of the active region above the disc, as it travels towards the center.

It should be noted here that for a truncated disc, wholly replaced by a hot flow, and for a compact emission region, the resulting dependence $`l_\mathrm{s}(r)/l_\mathrm{h}(r)`$ is much steeper than the assumed $`r^2`$. That is, once the active region is within the central hole, it can intercept only a tiny fraction of the thermalized emission, if its size is comparable or smaller than the transition radius. This would produce much harder spectra than observed, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }<1`$. Therefore we choose here a weaker dependence, although the particular value of the exponent is chosen rather arbitrarily and no attempt is made here to tune it to the observed data. The slow dependence may be interpreted as the optically thick plasma slowly disappearing (disc disrupted into small clouds; covering factor gradually decreasing from 1 to 0) with decreasing $`r`$, or the emission coming from perturbations propagating in the entire volume of the hot plasma.

The emitting structures are assumed to originate at $`r_{\mathrm{out}}r_{\mathrm{tr}}`$ at a mean rate of $`\lambda `$ per second. Time intervals between the launch of successive flares are generated from the $`\lambda \mathrm{exp}(\lambda t)`$ distribution, as appropriate for a Poissonian process. Each flare is followed until it reaches the marginally stable orbit at $`r_{\mathrm{ms}}=6r_\mathrm{g}`$. At each time step the primary Comptonized component and its reprocessed component are computed. The truncation radius is assumed $`r_{\mathrm{tr}}=30r_\mathrm{g}`$, so that the time average spectral slope of the Comptonized continuum is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.6`$–1.7.

The Comptonized spectrum is computed using the code thComp (Zdziarski, Johnson & Magdziarz 1996), solving the Kompaneets equation. Computations are parametrized by the photon spectral index, which we compute from $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2.33(l_\mathrm{h}/l_\mathrm{s})^{1/6}`$ (Beloborodov 1999a,b), and electron temperature $`kT_\mathrm{e}/(m_\mathrm{e}c^2)`$ computed using formulae from Beloborodov (1999b). Plasma optical depth is assumed $`\tau _{\mathrm{es}}=1.8`$ (PF99).

The reprocessing medium is assumed to be ’cold’, (only hydrogen and helium ionized) with elements abundances of Morrison & McCammon (1983). The spectrum of the Compton reflected continuum is computed from the simple formula of Lightman & White (1988),

$$S_{\mathrm{refl}}(E)=\frac{1ϵ}{1+ϵ}S_{\mathrm{prim}}(E),ϵ=\sqrt{\frac{\kappa _{\mathrm{abs}}}{\kappa _{\mathrm{abs}}+\kappa _{\mathrm{es}}}},$$
(5)
where $`\kappa _{\mathrm{abs}}(E)`$ and $`\kappa _{\mathrm{es}}(E)`$ are the photo-absorption and electron scattering opacities, respectively. The above formula is multiplied by a simple exponential cutoff to mimic the high energy cutoff. This is sufficient for our purposes since only the spectra up to $`30`$ keV will be considered. The Fe K$`\alpha `$ line is added to the reflected continuum, with equivalent width (EW) as a function of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, following computations of Życki & Czerny (1994; see also Z02). Importantly, the instantaneous amplitude of the reprocessed component is assumed to depend on radius of emission,

$$R(r)=\{\begin{array}{cc}1& \text{for }r>r_{\mathrm{tr}}\\ \frac{rr_{\mathrm{ms}}}{r_{\mathrm{tr}}r_{\mathrm{ms}}}& \text{for }r<r_{\mathrm{tr}},\end{array}$$
(6)
i.e. it linearly decreases from 1 at $`r=r_{\mathrm{tr}}`$ to 0 at $`r=r_{\mathrm{ms}}`$. Again, the particular form of the function $`R(r)`$ for $`r<r_{\mathrm{tr}}`$ is chosen rather arbitrarily, the general condition being that $`R(r)`$ decreases inwards. Time evolution of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`R`$ during a flare is plotted in Fig 1b.

Thus created sequence of spectra is subject to standard analysis in the time and Fourier domains (see e.g. van der Klis 1995; Nowak et al. 1999; Poutanen 2001). In particular, the Fourier frequency resolved ($`f`$-resolved hereafter) spectra are computed according to the prescription given by Revnivtsev et al. (1999; see also Z02). The normalized power spectral density (PSD) is computed as

$$P_j=2\frac{T}{\overline{C}^2}|C_j|^2,j=0,\mathrm{},N1$$
(7)
$$C_j=\underset{k=0}{\overset{N1}{}}c_ke^{2\pi if_jt_k},$$
(8)
where the discrete frequencies $`f_jj/T`$ for $`j=N/2,\mathrm{},N/2`$; $`T`$ is the total light curve time, $`\overline{C}`$ is the mean count rate, while $`c_k`$ are the number of counts in $`k`$-th time bin. The $`f`$-resolved spectrum at energy $`E_i`$ and Fourier frequency $`f_j`$ is then defined as

$$S(E_i,f_j)=\overline{C}_i\sqrt{P_i(f_j)\mathrm{\Delta }f_j}=\sqrt{\frac{2|C_{i,j}|^2}{T}\mathrm{\Delta }f_j}.$$
(9)
All computations are done assuming the central black hole mass $`M=10\mathrm{M}_{}`$.

## 3 Results

### 3.1 The case of a single value of velocity of the active regions

In the simple case of a single value of $`\beta `$ we do not expect the observed PSD to be reproduced, since the $`f^1`$ behaviour generally requires a distribution of parameters and/or correlations between flares (Lehto 1989, Lochner, Swank & Szymkowiak 1991). It is nevertheless instructive to study other observables from the model. The velocity proportionality coefficient was adopted $`\beta =0.02`$ and $`r_{\mathrm{out}}=60r_\mathrm{g}`$, so that the duration of a flare is $`t_{\mathrm{trav}}0.5`$ s, and the PSD peaks at 0.5–1 Hz. Fig. 2 shows the $`f`$-resolved spectra and time lags as functions of energy. The model predictions do not match well the observed trends. The time lags as a function of energy are independent of Fourier frequency, at least for $`f1`$ Hz, that is below the peak frequency of PSD. This contrasts the observed $`\delta \tau (E)`$, which shows longer lags at a given $`E`$, for lower $`f`$ (Nowak et al. 1999). The logarithmic dependence of energy is true for any flare profile, if the change of spectral index during the flare, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, is small compared to time average $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ (Kotov et al. 2001). In the considered case $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }0.8`$, so it is not small compared to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1.7`$, but the logarithmic dependence $`\delta \tau (E)\mathrm{log}E`$ is still obeyed, at least for higher $`f1`$ Hz, and energies not exceeding $`30`$ keV. This is consistent with analytical solution, which can be obtained for a simple exponential profile and a linear dependence of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(t)`$. Assuming

$$S(E,t)=\mathrm{exp}\left(t/t_\mathrm{r}\right)E^{\mathrm{\Gamma }_f+at},t<0,$$
(10)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_f`$ is the spectral index at the peak of a flare, at $`t=0`$, the Fourier transform can be computed,

$$\widehat{S}(E,f)=E^{\mathrm{\Gamma }_f}\frac{t_\mathrm{r}}{1it_\mathrm{r}2\pi f+at_\mathrm{r}\mathrm{ln}E}.$$
(11)
The phase lags are

$$\varphi (f)\mathrm{arg}\left[\widehat{S}(E_1,f)\widehat{S}^{}(E_2,f)\right],$$
(12)
where

$`\mathrm{tan}\varphi (f)=`$ (13)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{at_\mathrm{r}^2\mathrm{ln}(E_1/E_2)2\pi f}{1+at_\mathrm{r}\mathrm{ln}(E_1E_2)+a^2t_\mathrm{r}^2\mathrm{ln}E_1\mathrm{ln}E_2+t_\mathrm{r}^2(2\pi f)^2}}.`$
From this it can be seen that for small $`\varphi `$, the time lags $`\delta \tau (E)`$ are independent of $`f`$, $`\delta \tau =\varphi /(2\pi f)\mathrm{tan}\varphi /(2\pi f)\mathrm{const}`$.

The dip in $`\delta \tau (E)`$ at the energy of the Fe K$`\alpha `$ line, seen in the real data, is reproduced by the model, confirming the result of Kotov et al. (2001).

The observed spectral slope of the comptonized continuum and the equivalent width of the Fe K$`\alpha `$ line are monotonic functions of $`f`$, at least above $`0.5`$ Hz (Revnivtsev et al. 1999). In contrast to these, the model $`f`$-resolved spectra show complex dependence on $`f`$. In particular the EW of the K$`\alpha `$ line first decreases above $`1`$ Hz, then increases again above $`10`$ Hz. This means that in the Fourier decomposition of the flare profile the highest frequencies form the first part of the rising profile, which, in real space, is formed above the accretion disc (i.e. $`r_{\mathrm{tr}}<r<r_{\mathrm{out}}`$). The spectra from that part are soft, and the amplitude of reflection is close to 1. However, we note that the $`f`$-resolved spectra are dependent on the radial profile of the heating function (Eq. 2). Experimenting with the $`l_\mathrm{h}(r)`$ function we find that a more peaked $`l_\mathrm{h}(r)`$ (e.g. $`r^\gamma `$, $`\gamma 3`$) produces the $`f`$-resolved spectra monotonically hardening with $`f`$ and EW$`(f)`$ monotonically decreasing.

### 3.2 Distribution of parameters

The full model obviously has to explain all observable characteristics of the X–ray emission. The complex but universal PSD of X–ray emission in low/hard state points out towards a universal mechanism of generating the complexity. One such mechanism was suggested by Stern & Svensson (1996) in the context of gamma-ray bursts and implemented by PF99 for accreting black holes. Their idea is that each flare can stimulate one or more flares to produce an ’avalanche’ of many flares. Parameters of avalanches can be adjusted so that the power spectrum can have the observed slope of $`1`$ (i.e. $`P(f)f^1`$) in a given frequency band.

The idea of avalanches of flares may be easily implemented in the present model. Different time-scales of individual flares correspond to different coefficients $`\beta `$, and the stimulated flares are assumed to originate from the same radius as the stimulating ones. Specifically, we assume that $`\beta `$ follows a power law distribution $`P(\beta )\beta ^k`$ between $`\beta _1`$ and $`\beta _2`$. There are $`\lambda `$ spontaneous flares per second, and each flare has a probability $`\mu `$ of stimulating a secondary flare, the latter being delayed by $`t_{\mathrm{delay}}=\alpha t_{\mathrm{trav}}/7`$, where $`t_{\mathrm{trav}}`$ is the duration of the stimulating flare, while $`\alpha `$ is drawn from a Poisson distribution of mean $`\alpha _0`$ (the factor 7 approximately translates $`t_{\mathrm{trav}}`$ to flare time scale used by PF99; see there for detailed description of the model). The adopted values of the parameters are such that they give good description of PSD from black hole binaries: $`k=0.5`$, $`\beta _1=0.007`$, $`\beta _2=0.35`$, $`\lambda =90`$, $`\mu =0.7`$, $`\alpha _0=5`$. The perturbations start from $`r_{\mathrm{out}}=60r_\mathrm{g}`$, so the duration of the flares cover the range from 0.03 to 1.5 sec.

Results for this model are presented in Figure 3. They match the observed dependencies reasonably well. Time lags as functions of energy are in good quantitative agreement with the observed values in the whole range of computed $`f`$ (compare with Cyg X-1 data in Nowak et al. 1999). Interestingly, by superposing flares of different durations, the rising trend in EW$`(f)`$ for $`f>10`$ Hz (see Fig. 2) was compensated for, and the equivalent width is now monotonically decreasing with $`f`$. Correspondingly, the continuum hardens monotonically with $`f`$. Both trends are as observed in black hole binaries (Revnivtsev et al. 1999, 2001). This means that not only are higher frequencies formed from shorter flares, but within the flares the dominant contribution to a given $`f`$ moves towards the peak of the flare, as $`f`$ increases.

For comparison, Fig. 4 shows results obtained assuming a simple distribution of velocities of the emission structures (no correlations between flares). Coefficients $`\beta `$ was drawn from a uniform distribution between $`\beta _1=0.003`$ and $`\beta _2=0.1`$ (flare durations 0.1 s to 3.5 s). Importantly, the lower value $`\beta _1`$ is now much smaller than that in the avalanche prescription, to give flat $`P(f)`$ down to $`0.1`$ Hz. As a result, the time lags are now longer than those for avalanches, clearly longer than those observed.

### 3.3 Accretion disc with hot ionized skin

The presented propagation model can also be formulated in the geometry of an accretion disc extending down to the last stable orbit, with the X–ray emitting structures moving above the disc towards the center. As a result of irradiation by hard X–rays, the hot ionized skin will form on the disc (Różańska & Czerny 1996; Nayakshin & Dove 2001). Making the same assumption about increasing luminosity of the moving flare as in Section 2 (equation 2), the result is obtained that the thickness of the hot skin, $`\tau _{\mathrm{hot}}`$, increases towards the center (Nayakshin 2000; Życki & Różańska 2001). This reduces the effectiveness of reprocessing/thermalization as the flare progresses. This in turn leads to diminishing supply of soft photons for Comptonization and hardening of the continuum as a consequence. Simultaneously, the relative amplitude of the “cold” reprocessed component decreases, since fewer photons penetrate to the cold disc beneath the hot skin (e.g. Done & Nayakshin 2001; Życki & Różańska 2001). Qualitatively, the situation is thus analogous to the disrupted disc scenario, and could reproduce observed trends of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`R`$ with Fourier frequency. In this Section a quantitative analysis of the model is performed.

Basic model element is the spectral evolution during a single flare. Here the radial dependence of the disc illuminating flux, $`F_{\mathrm{irr}}(r)`$, is crucial since it determines the $`\tau _{\mathrm{hot}}(r)`$ dependence. The illuminating flux can be written as $`F_{\mathrm{irr}}=(\eta /\pi )L/(R_{\mathrm{flare}}^2+3H^2)`$, where $`\eta 0.5`$ is the anisotropy factor, $`R_{\mathrm{flare}}`$ is the radius of a flare and $`H`$ is its height above the disc (see PF99). Since, as argued above (equation 2), $`L(r)r^2`$, we would obtain $`F_{\mathrm{irr}}(r)r^2`$ if $`R_{\mathrm{flare}}=\mathrm{const}`$ and $`H=\mathrm{const}`$. However, for $`\tau _{\mathrm{hot}}`$ to have a significant radial dependence, $`F_{\mathrm{irr}}`$ must be a stronger function of $`r`$. For example, for illumination due to local dissipation, $`F_{\mathrm{irr}}(r)r^3`$. To achieve this, we assume here $`R_{\mathrm{flare}}(r)H(r)r^{1/2}`$. That is, the flare shrinks and its height decreases as it approaches the center. The condition $`R_{\mathrm{flare}}H`$ is required in order to reproduce the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$$`R`$ correlation, since it ensures that the geometry of the flare is constant and the only varying factor is the thickness of the hot skin. The proportionality coefficient in the $`R_{\mathrm{flare}}(r)=R_0r^{1/2}`$ relation can be computed if the maximum heating compactness, total source luminosity and flare occurence rate are known (see eq. 7 in Z02).

Energy spectra during a flare are computed as in Z02. The thickness of the hot skin, $`\tau _{\mathrm{hot}}`$, is computed as a function of $`F_{\mathrm{irr}}`$ and $`r`$ using the fitting formula (eq. 9) from that paper, while the amount of soft photons from thermalization re-entering an active region and the effective amplitude of reflection were computed from eqs. 3, 11 and 10 in Z02, respectively, following PF99 and Poutanen (2002). The feedback parameter $`D_0=0.5`$ (eq. 3 in Z02 and PF99)222 We note that the parametrization adopted by PF99 hides the fact that the required $`D_0`$ is actually incompatible with an emission region whose horizontal and vertical extent are comparable, if the emission is isotropic. According to PF99 for $`D_0=0.5`$ one half of the emitted X–rays return to the emission region if $`H=0`$. This in reality implies the horizontal extent much larger than vertical one (slab-like geometry).. The height $`H`$ is assumed to be 0, so that in the absence of the hot skin $`\mathrm{\Gamma }2`$. It should be emphasized that in the present scenario the time/radial dependencies of $`l_\mathrm{h}/l_\mathrm{s}`$ and $`R`$ can be predicted from physical considerations. Thus, eq. 4 and eq. 6 are not used here.

An example of a flare computed in this model is shown in Fig 5. The spectrum does evolve from soft to hard, but the change of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is very small, clearly insufficient to produce any difference in $`f`$-resolved spectra. A sequence of spectra was simulated, assuming a distribution of velocities of active regions and other parameters as in pulse avalanche prescription (Sec. 3.2). Computing the $`f`$-resolved spectra we confirm that they all have the same slope, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }2`$, while the EW of the K$`\alpha `$ line is approximately constant at $`55`$ eV. Thus, the hot skin disc model in the simple version considered here is not able to reproduce the $`f`$-resolved spectra.

The irradiation flux would have to be a very strong function of $`r`$ for the hot skin thickness to increase enough to produce the required hard spectrum ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }1.6`$$`1.7`$ at the peak of the flare). This would mean a significant decrease of the size of the emitting region as it approaches the center, if the luminosity $`L(r)r^2`$ dependence is kept. That in turn would increase the compactness parameter, $`l_\mathrm{h}`$, as well as the temperature of the soft thermalized radiation. The former cannot be uniquely constrained by the data, if the plasma is thermal (Maciołek-Niedźwiecki, Zdziarski & Coppi 1995), but the latter is observed to be no higher than $`T_00.3`$ keV (e.g. Di Salvo et al. 2001). It remains to be seen whether a physically plausible model can be constructed fulfilling all the constraints.

## 4 A model compatible with multi-Lorentzian decomposition of power spectra

X-ray power spectra from accreting compact objects can be interpreted in terms of a (small) number of relatively narrow Fourier components (Nowak 2000; Belloni, Psaltis & van der Klis 2002). Higher quality data from RXTE clearly reveal that PSD, which were previously considered a roughly featureless power law with two or three breaks, consist of a number of peaks. This interpretation is strengthened by the correlations between frequencies of the components (Belloni et al. 2002), reducing the complexity of broad band variability to possibly just one parameter, at least within a given spectral state. The parameter seems to be related to the geometry of accretion flow, as evidenced by correlations between the characteristic frequencies and energy spectral properties (spectral slope, amplitude of the reprocessed component; Revnivtsev et al. 2001; Gilfanov et al. 2000). The obvious interpretation of the geometrical factor is the variable transition radius between the outer optically thick standard accretion disc and inner optically thin hot flow (Revnivtsev et al. 2001; Psaltis & Norman 2002).

The narrow components of PSD are usually modeled as Lorentz profiles. If the Lorentz profiles are taken seriously, the emission may be envisioned to consists of a collection of exponentially damped (or forced i.e. rising) harmonic oscillators. Obviously, the oscillations may be reduced to simple exponential shots, if the quality factor of the Lorentzians, $`Q\mathrm{\Delta }f/f_0`$ ($`f_0`$ is the resonant frequency while $`\mathrm{\Delta }f`$ is the half-width of the Lorentzian), is low enough, $`Q1`$. In the interpretation of Psaltis & Norman (2002), the frequencies would be connected to characteristic frequencies at the disc truncation radius: orbital, periastron-precession and nodal-precession (Stella & Vietri 1998). However, it is the hard X-ray emission that is actually variable, and the most likely reason for the variability is a variable energy dissipation in the hot plasma, rather than variable input of soft photons (Maccarone et al. 2000; Malzac & Jourdain 2000), even though it is far from obvious how to make a connection between the disc frequencies and the energy dissipation in the hot plasma. Furthermore, hard X-ray time lags can be interpreted as a result of spectral evolution during individual emission events (shots/flares in the usual shot noise models; PF99; Kotov et al. 2001).

In this Section we consider a descriptive model compatible with the above ideas. Adopting the form of the Lorentzian function as in Nowak (2000),

$$P(f)=\pi ^1\frac{N^2Qf_0}{f_0^2+Q^2(ff_0)^2}$$
(14)
where $`N`$, $`Q`$ and $`f_0`$ are amplitude, quality factor and resonant frequency of the oscillations, we simulate the shots of the following temporal profile:

$$A(t)=A_0\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{t}{t_\mathrm{r}}\right)\mathrm{cos}(2\pi f_0t+\varphi _0),t<0.$$
(15)
Here, the normalization $`A_0=NQ^{1/2}`$, the rise time $`t_\mathrm{r}=2Q/(2\pi f_0)`$ and $`\varphi _0`$ is a randomly chosen initial phase. Parameters of the Lorentzians are taken from fits to Cyg X-1 0–4 keV light curves (Table 2 in Nowak 2000). We ignore the lowest amplitude component QPO2, which leaves us with 5 components.

The crucial assumption we make here is that the shots correspond to perturbations traveling through the plasma, from the truncation radius, $`r_{\mathrm{tr}}`$, towards the center, at a speed which may, but does not need to be, the same for all components. In actual computations the speed is assumed constant in time, but assuming $`vv_{\mathrm{ff}}`$ (as in previous Sections) would not change our conclusions. The heating rate of the plasma is assumed to be proportional to the energy of the oscillations, i.e. $`l_\mathrm{h}(t)[A(t)]^2`$, as in usual oscillatory motion (the square of a damped/forced oscillator is again a damped/forced oscillator with a Lorentzian PSD). We emphasize that the heating is now not described by eq. 2, since it is determined by $`A(t)`$, but formulae for $`l_\mathrm{s}(t)`$ and $`R(t)`$ (eq. 4 and eq. 6) are adopted. Each of the 5 components is chosen with the same probability, while the overall frequency of shots is adjusted to give the r.m.s. variability $`30`$ percent. Computations of spectra and subsequent Fourier analysis proceeds as in previous models.

In the particular case considered here the longest $`t_\mathrm{r}1.2`$ sec for the lowest $`f_0`$ component, and $`t_\mathrm{r}`$ is progressively shorter for the higher-$`f_0`$ components. The propagation speed, $`v`$, is chosen such that the travel time, $`t_{\mathrm{trav}}=(r_{\mathrm{tr}}r_\mathrm{f})/v`$ is at least $`5t_\mathrm{r}`$. This means that a shot is launched from $`r_{\mathrm{tr}}`$ at $`t=5t_\mathrm{r}`$, where $`t_\mathrm{r}`$ is the corresponding rise time-scale (the beginning of an exponential shot is obviously not well defined). The final minimum radius, $`r_\mathrm{f}`$, reached at $`t=0`$, is determined by $`v`$.

It is easy to predict qualitatively the results for $`f`$-resolved spectra, if the propagation speed is the same for all components. The higher the $`f_0`$ (the shorter the $`t_\mathrm{r}`$), the shorter the distance traveled. Shorter distance means softer energy spectrum, since spectra produced closer to the truncation radius are, by construction, softer. Thus the $`f`$-resolved spectra can be expected to become softer with increasing $`f`$, opposite to those observed. Thus, obviously, a necessary condition for this model to reproduce the observed $`f`$-spectra is to assume that the speed of the perturbations increases with $`f_0`$. Then, the higher the frequency $`f`$, the farther from the cold disc the emission takes place, producing harder spectra. Adjusting the speeds accordingly we indeed obtain the required dependence of $`f`$-spectra (including EW of the K$`\alpha `$ line) on Fourier frequency.

## 5 Discussion

We have considered a propagation model of X–ray variability in application to high energy emission from accreting compact objects. The motivation for our considerations comes from two directions: (1) problems faced by the models of localized flares (PF99) in explaining the $`f`$-resolved spectra (Z02), and (2) demonstration by Kotov et al. (2001) that a propagation model with spectral evolution can naturally explain the hard X–ray time lags. The model can be formulated in both considered geometries: truncated standard disc with inner hot flow and a standard disc with an active corona and the hot ionized skin. It should be emphasized, however, that the main parameters entering the spectral computations, $`l_\mathrm{h}/l_\mathrm{s}(t)`$ and $`R(t)`$ can be predicted only in the latter model, while they have to be assumed rather arbitrarily in the former. It is the greater predictive power of the hot skin scenario what enables to find unique model predictions and demonstrate the problems which the model faces.

Similar computations of variability could be performed in the context of the plasma outflow model of Beloborodov (1999a,b). Here the main parameter is the outflow speed. Qualitatively, the requirement for the model to work is that the speed increases inwards. A good physical model predicting the speed as a function of distance, X–ray flux and other parameters is necessary, in order to make quantitative predictions.

Let us concentrate now on the geometry of an inner hot X–ray producing flow with an outer standard optically thick disc. This is one of the possibilities of the geometrical arrangement of accreting multi-phase plasma. It naturally accounts for hard spectra of black hole X–ray binaries, small amplitude of the reprocessed component, and observed correlations between these spectral parameters (Done 2002 and references therein). Emission in the form of flares (shots) associated with active regions and/or perturbations traveling in the hot plasma might then be responsible for observed time and spectral variability, considering that X–ray variability is generally of stochastic character (Czerny & Lehto 1997). Such an extension of models of steady emission from hot flows (e.g. Esin, McClintock & Narayan 1997) is necessary, considering the many observable characteristics related to variability. The situation is fully analogous to models invoking active regions above an accretion disc (e.g. Stern et al. 1995). These models could explain the steady Comptonized emission by basically adjusting one parameter, the ratio of heating to cooling compactnesses. When supplemented with the idea of plasma outflow (Beloborodov 1999a,b) or a hot ionized skin (Nayakshin & Dove 2001), they cloud explain the diversity of spectra and correlations between spectral parameters. However, in order to explain the complex time variability, a number of additional features had to be added: correlations between flares (avalanches) to explain the PSD and spectral evolution during a flare as a result of, e.g., rising the active region above the disc (PF99). Similar developments can be expected in the hot flow scenario.

Precise geometry of the X–ray emitting structures in the hot flow is obviously uncertain, but certain constraints can be obtained. For example, compact active regions (size much smaller than the inner disc radius) moving through hot plasma totally devoid of optically thick plasma (i.e. the cold disc sharply disrupted at certain radius), would intercept so few soft photons at $`r<r_{\mathrm{tr}}`$ that the continuum slope would be much harder than observed. One possibility would then be that the active regions are compact but the disappearance of the optically thick phase is gradual, moving from $`r_{\mathrm{tr}}`$ inwards. This could mean that small optically thick clouds form inside the hot plasma at $`r<r_{\mathrm{tr}}`$ and their filling factor gradually decreases inwards from $`1`$ to 0. Detailed simulations would be necessary to predict spectra from such a configuration (e.g. Malzac & Celotti 2002). At a rather speculative level one might point out two possibilities of formation of such compact traveling active regions. The accreting plasma might form multiple shocks where the dissipation of energy would preferentially take place, or the active regions might have something to do with the dissipation of magnetic energy inside the hot flow, which dissipation is necessary to maintain the equipartition between the magnetic and thermal energy (Bisnovatyi-Kogan & Lovelace 2000).

Another possibility for the geometry is to assume that the disc is rather sharply truncated but the X–ray emission comes from global coherent perturbations propagating through the entire volume of the hot plasma. Then the decrease of $`l_\mathrm{s}/l_\mathrm{h}`$ would roughly correspond to the decrease of the solid angle subtended by the cold disc, as the perturbation approaches the center.

Temporal profiles of the flares considered in this paper were rather simple, therefore to produce a broad band PSD a distribution of parameters (e.g. flare timescale) was required. One might envision more complex profiles based on, e.g., recent considerations of Maccarone & Coppi (2002). They suggest correlations between launch times of short flares ($`t_\mathrm{r}0.5`$ sec), such that the short flares fill in a specific temporal envelope function. We note that their flares do not explain the whole range of time-scales, since the PSD above $`1`$ Hz is under-predicted. Even shorter flares would be necessary to generate enough power at sub-second time-scales, perhaps filling in the short flares considered by Maccarone & Coppi (2002) as envelopes. The result might then be equivalent to a hierarchical scenario proposed by Uttley & McHardy (2001), where a long time-scales perturbation propagate from outside, breaking down into smaller, faster structures in a fractal-like manner.

## Acknowledgments

This work was partly supported by grant no. 2P03D01718 of the Polish State Committee for Scientific Research (KBN).


text:
# The Paraldor Project

## 1 INTRODUCTION

The main goal of the Paraldor project is to investigate to what extent we can use a high level categorical language like Aldor to write programs for large scale numerical simulations, and in particular for lattice QCD, on massively parallel computers. The design constraints are that we want a code that is portable over many different architectures e.g., SMP, MPP, Cluster, Workstations, Vector, Short Vector etc. At the same time we also want efficiency on all architectures, meaning the code has to interface with assembler kernels and their data layouts. We do not wish to rely on the compiler to make clever optimizations, but merely to perform simple transformations such as inlining. We want modular code where we have abstracted away both the machine layout and the mathematical structure from the code so we know only the structure relevant for a particular algorithm. This should lead to reusability since by partitioning the problem effectively we leave clear top level code which can easily be changed without knowledge of, or alteration of low level code.

## 2 ALDOR STRUCTURE

The structure of Aldor is based on categories and domains. Categories contain signatures expressing only the necessary structure of the category. Domains are particular instances of a category. They implement the signatures of the category with perhaps some extra structure, however the only common structure required by different domains is that of the category. It is important to notice the difference between this model and the analogous model of base classes and derived classes in C++. This is perhaps most clearly illustrated by the relationships “domain $``$ category whereas class $``$ base class”. Interfaces in Java use the same model as base classes, and so don’t gain anything over the C++ mechanism.

With the Aldor structure we can write physics code purely in terms of categories and their signatures. By doing this we ensure that the code can be used with any domain implementing the category. This means we can use our code on different machines or choose a different algorithm for a particular sub-task without any real change to the code. We can also build categories with more structure from a tower of simpler ones. Algorithms can then be written purely in terms of the minimum categorical structure they need.

## 3 COMPARISON

It is perhaps necessary at this point to justify why this approach would be useful when there are many other more popular languages in use. What deficiences are we trying to address and what advantages are we looking to gain ?

Until recently the standard practice was to write large codes in C or Fortran. For particularly time critical operations assembler kernels were added to optimize routines. This of course has the problem that we cannot write completely modular code. The codes must rely on too much global data making them very hard to maintain, and the assembler routines are completely architecture dependent. To write generic routines we must use macros/templates which have the disadvantages of lacking type safety and usually having poor error reporting.

When looking at object-oriented languages the obvious benchmarks for comparison are C++ and Java. What does Aldor have to offer over these languages ?

Firstly the idea of categories has advantages over inheritance. In particular C++ cannot distinguish between things with the same structure. An example of this would be if we had classes SU(2) and SU(3) which were derived from a base class “group”. Since in C++ these would be seen as subsets of the base class with some extra structure, the binary operation defined in “group” would still be valid, so we could form nonsensical products like $`xy`$ where $`x`$ SU(2) and $`y`$SU(3). This is avoided in the categorical approach as all that is stored is a signature of the form “each domain D implements a product which takes two elements of D and returns an element of D”, so operations are only allowed within an individual domain. Java has the same problem, it just requires a cast to convert an argument of type interface to a specific class. It would assume the binary operation defined in the first class was the correct one then attempt to cast the element of the second class into the first. If this cast was not possible as in the above example it would return a ClassCastException. Although this catches the error, the cast checking is done at run time and not at compile time which is clearly much less desirable.

Aldor is a very strongly typed language. It allows operator overloading which is forbidden in Java. It has parameterized types and allows overloading on return types, neither of which are permitted in Java or C++. These features allow us to write generic code once for all types that are being used with the types being checked at compile time. The alternative in say C++ is to either write separate routines for different types, or to write the routines as macros/templates which again have the disadvantages of no compile time type checking and are hard to debug.

## 4 PERFORMANCE

We set up a toy model to test the performance of the code in comparison to a baseline C code.
Consider inverting an $`N\times N`$ Hermitian positive definite matrix by the Conjugate Gradients (CG) algorithm. We have implemented the CG algorithm in C, and have implemented several Aldor variations of the algorithm for comparison. All the Aldor variations share the same categorical structure (see Figure 1), only the back end domains, which implement matrix-vector and vector-vector operations differ.

We will denote the various code versions as follows:

C – Our baseline C Code

A1 – Aldor Categories, Aldor Back End, Aldor Garbage Collection (GC)

A2 – Aldor Categories, Aldor Back End, Manual Memory Management

A3 – Aldor Categories, C Back End, Aldor Garbage Collection

A4 – Aldor Categories, C Back End, Manual Memory Management

Our results are shown in Figure 2, where we plot the ratio of the test run time to the baseline C code runtime for a problem of the same size. The results from the C code are also plotted.

The Aldor back end test results (A1, A2 - top graph) appear to be over 100 times slower than baseline code and the Aldor mark and sweep garbage collector is clearly not effective and leads to thrashing. The C Back End Test Results (A3, A4 - bottom graph) are seen to be of the same order of magnitude as C Code (until thrashing for A3). For A4 the ratio of timings is tending towards 1 with increasing problem size. A3 starts to thrash due to memory leak, as the Aldor garbage collector cannot see memory allocated by the C routines.

From these results a few things become immediately obvious. Firstly using C-back-ends and memory management, Aldor code performs nearly as fast as the corresponding C code. Also the overhead decreases with problem size (and should already be negligible for lattice of $`V=2^4`$ sites where the fermion matrix has dimension $`N=2^4\times 4\times 3=192`$). This demonstrates that the complexity of categories etc, is quite successfully optimised away by the Aldor compiler and that one can write efficient code using Aldor. It is also clear that memory management is an important issue. We need ways to manage memory better than the compiler currently does either by using other garbage collection schemes or by performing some kind of manual memory management.

## 5 MEMORY MANAGEMENT

A by-product of writing code in a totally modular way, as was apparent in the performance results, is that the memory management becomes highly non trivial. One major problem that arises is that individual program elements which interact may have no way of knowing when data is no longer required and hence that memory can be freed. This forces us to have a more automated memory management scheme. We also have different types of data to handle. To maintain efficiency we must have a modular memory management system as well. This leads to the idea of memory spaces.

With memory spaces we store different types of data in different areas of memory, each with its own memory management scheme. For large objects (such as an entire pseudofermion field) a reference counting method may be preferred as it will free these objects as soon as they go out of scope with only a small relative overhead in terms of storage and keeping the reference count. For smaller objects such as closures it is not as critical that they are cleaned up immediately and so a mark and sweep process is preferable.

## 6 SUMMARY & FUTURE WORK

By writing top level physics code in Aldor and implementing switchable machine dependent back ends in C we have shown in principle that we can write portable, modular, readable and reusable code without sacrificing efficiency. The next step is to categorise Krylov space methods to implement a wide variety of efficient inverters and eigenvalue solvers. We also have to begin building the physical objects such as gauge fields and to categorise Monte Carlo algorithms and other relevant structures with a long term view of a full QCD code.

## 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work is supported by the European Community’s Human potential programme under HPRN-CT-2000-00145 Hadrons/LatticeQCD.


text:
# Spin-dependent transmission of holes through periodically modulated diluted magnetic semiconductor waveguides

In recent years spin transport has attracted considerable attention as it offers a possibility for a new type of transistor , quantum computation and quantum logic . A significant part of the work has concentrated on spin-polarized electronic transport through diluted magnetic semiconductors (DMS)  despite the fact that the reported experimental spin polarizations are very low, about 1%, and make the results controversial and attributable to extraneous effects. Experimental work  showed that DMS materials $`Ga_{1x}Mn_xAs`$ can be in the metallic ferromagnetic phase with heavy holes as carriers for $`0.03x0.05`$.

In previous work  we demonstrated that the electronic transmission through periodically stubbed waveguides, in the presence of spin-orbit interaction, shows a rich structure and a spin-transistor behavior as a function of the stub parameters. Here we demonstrate similar effects in the transmission of heavy holes through waveguides made of many identical units each of which consists of a nonmagnetic part, A, followed by a DMS one, B, as shown in Fig. 1 (a). Stubs can be attached to either part but it is advantageous to attach them to part B.

The spin-structure for holes is obtained  self-consistently in reciprocal space. The hole interaction with magnetic impurities is described by the potential

$$U_{mag}(𝐫)=I\underset{𝐢=\mathrm{𝟏}}{\overset{𝐍_𝐢}{}}𝐬(𝐫).𝐒(𝐑_𝐢)\delta (𝐫𝐑_𝐢),$$
(1)
where $`I`$ is the $`pd`$ exchange coupling constant, $`𝐑_𝐢`$ denotes the positions of the $`N_i`$ impurities $`Mn`$ , uniformly distributed in the DMS layers, $`𝐒(𝐑_𝐢)`$ is the spin of the impurity, and $`𝐬`$ the spin of the hole. We assume the magnetization of each layer to be oriented along a single direction, each layer being in its ferromagnetic phase. Thus, the spin of the hole is well defined in this direction, being parallel (down) or antiparallel (up) to it. Integrating $`U_{mag}(𝐫)`$ over z and x gives the effective potential $`V_{mag}(y)`$ in terms of the average magnetization $`<𝐌>_𝐣`$:

$$V_{mag}^\sigma (y)=V_0\sigma \underset{j}{}<M>_jg_j(y),$$
(2)
where $`g_j(y)=1`$ if $`y`$ lies inside the $`j`$-layer, and $`g_j(y)=0`$ otherwise; $`\sigma =\pm 1`$ for spin-up and spin-down holes, respectively, and $`V_0`$ is a sample-dependent parameter for the strength of the potential. The total potential felt by a hole is $`U_{eff}^\sigma (y)=[U_c(y)+V_{mag}^\sigma (y)+U_h(y)]`$, where $`U_c(y)`$ is the confining potential, and $`U_h(y)`$ the Hatree hole-hole interaction potential. Setting $`E_k=h^2k^2/2m^{}`$ the hole Hamiltonian in the DMS section becomes

$`H=E_k+U_{eff}^\sigma (y)\left[\begin{array}{cc}E_k+U_{eff}^+(y)& 0\\ 0& E_k+U_{eff}^{}(y)\end{array}\right]`$

The direction of the spin polarization depends on that of $`<𝐌>_𝐣`$. We assume the latter is along the waveguide (y axis) or along the stub (x axis). Generally, $`U_{eff}^\sigma (y)`$ is not constant inside the DMS layer and depends on parameters such as the Mn density, the layer size, the temperature, etc. For simplicity we assume that $`U_{eff}^\sigma (y)`$ is constant and $`U_{eff}^\pm =\pm V`$. A $`y`$-dependent potential can be treated by considering a DMS layer as a seriers of equal-width ’flat’ potential layers of unequal height. Even for high hole densities, the resulting wave functions can be well approximated  by those of a square well.

The subject of this paper is a transistor-like modulation of a spin current. Motivated by previous results on electronic stub tuners  we consider ballistic spin transport of holes through waveguides with double stubs attached to them as in Fig. 1 (a) or without stubs.

Since the Hamiltonian is diagonal in the spin index, we can consider the propagation of spin-up and spin-down holes inside the structure independently and denote the wave functions by $`\varphi ^+`$ and $`\varphi ^{}`$, repectively. In each region of Fig. 1 (c) we have $`\varphi _n^\sigma (x)=\sqrt{2/w}\mathrm{sin}(n\pi (x+w/2)/w)`$, where $`w`$ is the width of the region along $`x`$. Including spin we can write the eigenfunction $`\varphi _1^\sigma `$ of energy $`E`$ in region I as

$$\varphi _1^\sigma =\underset{m}{}\{a_{1m}^+e^{i\beta _m^\sigma y}+b_{1m}^+e^{i\beta _m^\sigma y}\}\mathrm{sin}[c_m(x+c/2)]$$
(3)
Here $`c_m=m\pi /c`$ and $`\beta _m^\sigma =[2m^{}(EU_{eff}^\sigma )c_m^2]^{1/2}`$. In region III $`\varphi _2`$ is given by Eq. (3) with the changes $`1m2m`$, $`U_I^\sigma U_{III}^\sigma `$, and $`yyb_1`$. In the stub region II, Eq. (3) remains valid with the changes $`ch`$, $`U_I^\sigma U_{II}^\sigma `$, and $`x+c/2x+h/2d`$.

Matching the wave function and its derivative at $`y=0`$ and $`y=b_1`$ connects the incident waves (to the left of region I) with the outgoing ones (to the right of region III) with a spin-dependent transfer matrix $`\widehat{M}`$

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}a_{in}^\sigma \\ b_{in}^\sigma \end{array}\right)=\widehat{M}^\sigma \left(\begin{array}{c}a_{out}^\sigma \\ b_{out}^\sigma \end{array}\right).$$
(4)
In DMS layers the hole momentum $`\beta ^\sigma `$ is strongly spin-dependent; this results in a phase difference between the spin-up and spin-down wave functions and in the spin-dependence of the transfer matrix $`\widehat{M}^\sigma `$. If we inject unpolarized holes to the left of the structure, we can obtain spin polarized outgoing holes to its right because the transfer matrix $`\widehat{M}^\sigma `$ and the transmission $`T^\sigma `$ depend strongly on the spin $`\sigma `$ of the holes. Here are the results.

In Fig. 2 we plot $`T`$ vs the stub width $`b_1`$ for the parameters given in the caption. As shown, for a simple unit the spin-up transmission $`T^+`$ decreases very fast whereas the spin-down one $`T^{}`$ oscillates. This fast decrease can be used to filter out the spin-up holes. This result agrees qualitatively with that for an unconfined single DMS layer in the presence of a normal magnetic field . For a composite unit ($`b_1b_2`$) the result is similar. An interesting feature is shown in the inset. $`T^\pm `$ oscillates with the length between the DMS segments, i.e., it shows longitudinal resonances as that of spinless electrons .

The values of $`l`$ at which $`T^+`$ maxima occur, $`l_m`$, in Fig. 2 can be utilized to maximize the gaps in the transmission. In Fig. 3 we show $`T`$ vs $`b_1`$ for a waveguide with 40 composite units and two different temperatures. Any $`l_m`$ value leads to a maximum gap as dephasing of the wave between the DMS and GaAs sections is maximal.

So far we considered waveguides without stubs. If we attach stubs, we obtain several interesting results. The first of them is shown in Fig. 4 where we plot, for symmetric stubs, the relative output polarization $`P_r=(J_uJ_d)/(J_u+J_d)`$ vs the stub height $`h`$, with $`J_u`$ ($`J_d`$) being the up (down) current. As $`N`$ increases the gaps become wider and deeper and reach a limit for $`N=6`$. Notice how $`P`$ switches, nearly periodically, between +1 and -1, as $`h`$ is changed. This behavior can be understood by inspection of the inset where we plot separately the currents $`J_u`$ and $`J_d`$ vs $`h`$. Due to the large effective Zeeman splitting the dependence of $`T^+J_u`$ and $`T^{}J_d`$ on $`h`$ is different and translates directly to that of $`P_r`$.

Another interesting result is shown in Fig. 5 for asymmetric stubs where $`P_r`$ is plotted vs the asymmetry parameter $`d`$, cf. Fig. 1 (c). Notice the wide ranges of $`d`$ in which $`P_r`$ takes the values -1, +1, and 0. The nearly square-wave pattern of $`T`$ shown in the inset is similar to that for electrons with spin neglected  or considered in the presence of spin-orbit interaction .

A qualitative understanding of the results shown in Figs. 2-5 is easily reached if we combine the basic idea of a stub tuner  and its refinements  with the effective, spatially modulated potential of Fig. 1 (b) which makes holes of up (down) spin ”see” a barrier (well) when propagating through the DMS sections. In a stub tuner waves reflected from the walls of the stub, where the wave function vanishes, may interfere constructively or destructively with those in the main waveguide and result, respectively, in an increase or decrease of the transmission. Refining this idea showed  that using asymmetric double stubs the transmission of spinless electrons could be blocked completely. Combining several stubs leads to a nearly square-wave transmission as a function of the asymmetry parameter $`d`$. The same idea applies to the holes we consider here and the transmission shown in the inset of Fig. 5 is simply the result of this behavior. In addition, the large effective Zeeman splitting between the spin-up and spin-down holes readily explains the oscillations of $`T^{}`$ in Figs. 2-3, since spin-down holes ”see” a well whereas spin-up holes ”see” a barrier which results in $`T^+0`$ upon increasing its width. The behavior of $`P_r`$ in Figs. 4-5 stems directly from that of $`J_u`$ and $`J_d`$ which have a different dependence on $`h`$ or $`d`$ due to the large Zeeman splitting. As for the longitudinal resonances of $`T^\pm `$ in Fig. 2 , they have the same origin as those for spinless electrons : in essence they result from matching of the phase of the wave between the GaAs and DMS sections. In contrast, absence of this matching leads to the large gaps of $`T^{}`$ in Fig. 3. Finally, with regard to the temperature dependence of some of the results, the reduction (and rounding off) of the transmission peaks and of the gaps in Fig. 3 is expected and in line with that for electrons ; it can be offset by increasing the ratio of the Fermi to the thermal energy. An important question concerns the influence of the stub shape on the transmission output. But as in electronic stub tuners , we have verified that here too changing the stub shape does not change the transmission qualitatively; it only alters its period when plotted, e.g., vs $`h`$, and several units are combined.

The results presented so far are valid when only a single mode propagates in the main waveguide. If more modes propagate, the transmission pattern becomes more complex but it is still possible to have a periodic output, as in Fig. 2, if $`b_1`$ is short enough that only a single mode penetrates in the stub . Details will be given elsewhere.

The DMS devices, on which the observability of the results relies, could be fabricated using the recently developed low-temperature MBE technique  to grow a superlattice which could be etched perpendicularly to produce a surface superlattice. Then patterned gates can be deposited on its surface to control the shape of the stubs.

In summary, we combined the spin-dependent transmission through a DMS section with the basic physics of a stub tuner and applied it to hole transport through a stubless or stubbed waveguide. We showed that the large effective Zeeman splitting results in a spin-dependent transmission. The transmission of the spin-up holes can be blocked whereas that of the spin-down ones oscillates with the DMS width showing wide gaps. More important, in stubbed waveguides the relative polarization varies nearly periodically with the stub height, switching from -1 to +1, while the transmission shows a nearly square-wave pattern upon using asymmetric stubs. The results should lead to the creation of efficient spin filters.

We thank Dr. I.C. da Cunha Lima for helpful discussions. Our work was supported by the Canadian NSERC Grant No. OGP0121756.


text:
# References

September 2002

Newton potential in deSitter braneworld

Shin’ichi NOJIRI111nojiri@cc.nda.ac.jp and Sergei D. ODINTSOV222 odintsov@tspu.edu.ru

Department of Applied Physics
National Defence Academy, Hashirimizu Yokosuka 239-8686, JAPAN

$`\mathrm{}`$ Lab. for Fundamental Study, Tomsk State Pedagogical University, 634041 Tomsk, RUSSIA

ABSTRACT

Using graviton correlator on deSitter (dS) brane in 5d AdS or dS bulk we calculate the four-dimensional Newton potential. For flat brane in AdS bulk the Randall-Sundrum result is recovered. For flat brane in dS bulk the sign of subleading ($`1/r^3`$) term in Newton potential is negative if compare with AdS bulk. In accordance with dS/CFT correspondence this indicates that dual CFT should be non-unitary (for example, higher derivative conformal theory).

PACS: 98.80.Hw,04.50.+h,11.10.Kk,11.10.Wx

1. There are natural reasons to study deSitter braneworld where brane is deSitter (dS) space and bulk may be arbitrary up to some extent. Indeed, first of all, recent astrophysical data indicate that our universe is (or will be ) in dS phase. Second, recently conjectured dS/CFT correspondence  shows that dS space may be used to describe the dual CFT living on the brane. Moreover, gravity trapping occurs on dS brane for both AdS or dS bulks (see ) like in the original Randall-Sundrum braneworld  where brane is flat and bulk is 5d AdS space.

In the study of gravity trapping, the Newton potential on the brane is relevant object to search for. Starting from the quantum corrected Newton potential  in four dimensions and using AdS/CFT table and braneworld relation between 4d gravitational constant and 5d quantities it was possible to prove  the complementarity between AdS/CFT correspondence and Randall-Sundrum braneworld. Definitely, this sheds some light to the structure of dual CFT. (Such complementarity is seen in another way: reincarnation of trace anomaly driven inflation  in the new braneworld inflation ).

In the present letter we calculate the Newton potential (up to sub-leading term) in dS or flat brane when bulk is 5d AdS or dS space. First of all, we check that when brane is flat (bulk is AdS), the Newton potential coincides with the one found in refs.. However, for curved dS brane the Newton potential at short distances shows the drastically different behaviour if compare with result for 4d gravity. For flat brane in dS bulk the sub-leading ($`1/r^3`$) correction to the Newton potential becomes negative if compare with the case of AdS bulk. As the corresponding one-loop correction from usual 4d conformal matter is positive, in accordance with predictions of dS/CFT correspondence  it indicates that dual CFT should be non-unitary (like higher derivative CFT).

2. We will start from the deSitter brane in AdS bulk space. The initial action looks as:

$`S`$ $`=`$ $`S_{\mathrm{EH}}+S_{\mathrm{GH}}+S_1,S_{\mathrm{EH}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{16\pi G}}{\displaystyle d^5x\sqrt{g}\left(R+\frac{12}{l^2}\right)},`$
$`S_{\mathrm{GH}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi G}}{\displaystyle d^4x\sqrt{\gamma }K},S_1={\displaystyle \frac{3}{8\pi Gl^{}}}{\displaystyle d^4x\sqrt{\gamma }}.`$ (1)
Here the coefficient of $`S_1`$ is chosen to be arbitrary for a while. The 5-dimensional Euclidean anti deSitter space (hyperboloid) is natural solution of above theory. The corresponding metric is given by

$`ds_{\mathrm{S}_5}^2`$ $`=`$ $`l^2\left(dy^2+\gamma _{ij}dx^idx^j\right)`$
$`\gamma _{ij}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{sinh}^2y\widehat{\gamma }_{ij},`$ (2)
where $`\widehat{\gamma _{ij}}dx^idx^j`$ describes the metric of S4 with unit radius. The equation determing the radius of the brane has the following form :

$$_yA|_{\mathrm{on}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{brane}}=\frac{l}{l^{}}.$$
(3)
Here $`A`$ is given by

$$A=\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{sinh}y\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{cosh}\sigma .$$
(4)
If there is a brane at $`y=y_0`$, defining the radius of S4 as $`R_b=l\mathrm{sinh}y_0`$, one obtains the following equation from (3):

$$\frac{1}{R_b}\sqrt{1+\frac{R_b^2}{l^2}}=\frac{1}{l^{}}.$$
(5)
When $`R_b+\mathrm{}`$, the r.h.s. of (5) goes to $`\frac{1}{l}`$ and when $`R_b0`$, the r.h.s. goes to the positive infinity. Then if

$$l^{}<l,$$
(6)
there is a unique non-trivial solution. When $`l^{}l0`$, the brane radius tends to infinity and spherical brane becomes flat one.

In (5), the r.h.s. comes from the brane tension and the l.h.s. from gravity. When $`l^{}>0`$, the brane tension makes the radius of the brane smaller. Then Eq.(5) tells that the gravity tends to make the radius larger. We should also note that l.h.s. is the monotonically decreasing function of $`R_b`$. Then if the radius of the brane becomes smaller than $`R_b`$ given by (5), the contribution from gravity becomes larger that that from the brane tension. Then the radius of the brane tends to become larger. On the other hand, if the radius becomes larger than $`R_b`$, the contribution from the tension becomes dominant and the radius tends to become smaller. Then one can find the solution in (5) is stable.

We now rewrite the bulk metric which includes the effect of the perturbations $`h_{ij}(y,x)`$ as follows:

$$ds^2=l^2\left(dy^2+\left(\gamma _{ij}+h_{ij}(y,x)\right)dx^idx^j\right).$$
(7)
$`h_{ij}`$ is transverse and traceless with respect to the metric on the spherical spatial sections:

$`\widehat{\gamma }^{ij}h_{ij}(y,x)=\widehat{}^ih_{ij}(y,x)=0,`$ (8)
with $`\widehat{}`$ being the covariant derivative defined by the metric $`\widehat{\gamma }_{ij}`$. Then the linearized Einstein equation has the following form:

$`^2h_{\mu \nu }={\displaystyle \frac{2}{l^2}}h_{\mu \nu }.`$ (9)
We now use the standard tensor spherical harmonics $`H_{ij}^{(p)}(x)`$  to expand the metric perturbations

$`\widehat{\gamma }^{ij}H_{ij}^{(p)}(x)=\widehat{}^iH_{ij}^{(p)}(x)=0,`$ (10)
They are tensor eigenfunctions of the Laplacian:

$`\widehat{}^2H_{ij}^{(p)}=\left(2p(p+4)\right)H_{ij}^{(p)},`$ (11)
where $`p=2,3,\mathrm{}`$. As usual in quantum mechanics, the eigenvalue of $`^2`$ can be regarded as the square of the momentum. Especially when $`p`$ is large, we can regard $`p`$ as the absolute value of the momentum. Besides $`p`$, $`H_{ij}^{(p)}`$ has integer indeces $`k`$, $`l`$, and $`m`$, which take values in the ranges $`0kp`$, $`0lk`$, and $`kmk`$. Then for a fixed $`p`$, the degree of the degeneracy is defined by

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{p}{}}\underset{l=0}{\overset{k}{}}\left(2k+1\right)=\frac{(p+1)(p+2)(2p+3)}{6},$$
(12)
which reduces to $`\frac{p^3}{3}`$ for large $`p`$. One can also normalize $`H_{ij}^{(p)}`$ as

$$\sqrt{\gamma }d^4\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{S}_4}H_{ij(klm)}^{(p)}H_{i^{}j^{}(k^{}l^{}m^{})}^{(p^{})}=\delta ^{pp^{}}\delta _{ii^{}}\delta _{jj^{}}\delta _{kk^{}}\delta _{ll^{}}\delta _{mm^{}}.$$
(13)
Here $`\sqrt{\gamma }d^4\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{S}_4}`$ is the volume element of S4 with unit radius. The condition of the completeness is given by

$$\frac{1}{\sqrt{\gamma }}\delta ^{ii^{}}\delta ^{jj^{}}\delta \left(\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Omega }^{}\right)=\underset{p,k,l,m}{}H_{ij(klm)}^{(p)}(\mathrm{\Omega })H_{i^{}j^{}(k^{}l^{}m^{})}^{(p)}(\mathrm{\Omega }^{}).$$
(14)
Here $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ ($`\mathrm{\Omega }^{}`$) expresses the coordinates of a point on S4.

The degeneracy corresponding to the measure of the continuous momentum $`q`$ in the limit of $`R_b\mathrm{}`$ is:

$$\underset{p}{}\frac{(p+1)(p+2)(2p+3)}{6}\mathrm{}\frac{V_4R_b^4}{\left(2\pi \right)^4}V_3q^3𝑑q\mathrm{}.$$
(15)
Here $`V_4`$ and $`V_3`$ are the volumes of S4 and S3 with unit radius:

$$V_4=\frac{8\pi ^2}{3},V_3=2\pi ^2.$$
(16)
Then Eq.(15) tells

$$\frac{p^3}{3}dp\frac{R_b^4q^3dq}{3}.$$
(17)
that is

$$q\frac{p}{R_b}.$$
(18)
The metric perturbations can be written as a sum of separable perturbations of the form

$`h_{ij}(y,x)=f_p^{\mathrm{AdS}}(y)H_{ij}^{(p)}(x).`$ (19)
Then as in , the graviton correlator may be calculated as follows:

$`h_{ij}(x)h_{i^{}j^{}}(x^{})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{p=2}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}W_{iji^{}j^{}}^{(p)}(x,x^{}){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2T_p(y_0)}},`$
$`T_p(y_0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{l^3}{2\pi G}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{32l^4}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{f_{}^{\mathrm{AdS}}{}_{p}{}^{}(y_0)}{f_p^{\mathrm{AdS}}(y_0)}}+4\mathrm{coth}y_0{\displaystyle \frac{6l}{l^{}}}\right),`$
$`W_{iji^{}j^{}}^{(p)}(x,x^{})`$ $``$ $`H_{ij}^{(p)}(x)H_{i^{}j^{}}^{(p)}(x^{}).`$ (20)
¿From the linearized Einstein equation (9), we find $`f_p^{\mathrm{AdS}}(y)`$ satisfies the following equation:

$$f_p^{\prime \prime }(y)\left[4+\left\{p(p+3)+2\right\}\mathrm{sinh}^2y\right]f_p(y)=0.$$
(21)
Taking $`f_p^{\mathrm{AdS}}(y)=\mathrm{sinh}^{\frac{1}{2}}yF_p\left(\mathrm{cosh}y\right)`$, we obtain

$$0=\left(1z^2\right)F_p^{\prime \prime }(z)2zF_p^{}(z)+\left[\frac{3}{2}\frac{5}{2}\frac{\left(p+\frac{3}{2}\right)^2}{1z^2}\right]F_p.$$
(22)
Here $`z=\mathrm{cosh}y`$. The solution is given by the associated Legendre functions:

$$F_p(z)=P_{\frac{3}{2}}^{\left(p+\frac{3}{2}\right)}(z)=P_{\frac{5}{2}}^{\left(p+\frac{3}{2}\right)}(z),Q_{\frac{3}{2}}^{\left(p+\frac{3}{2}\right)}(z)=Q_{\frac{5}{2}}^{\left(p+\frac{3}{2}\right)}(z).$$
(23)
We now consider the limit $`l^{}l0`$ and we assume $`1|p||z|`$. Then Eq.(22) is reduced into

$$0=z^2F_p^{\prime \prime }(z)2zF_p^{}(z)+\left[\frac{3}{2}\frac{5}{2}+\frac{p^2}{z^2}\right]F_p(z).$$
(24)
The solution of the above equation is given in terms of the deformed Bessel functions

$$F_p=z^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(aI_2\left(\frac{p}{z}\right)+bK_2\left(\frac{p}{z}\right)\right).$$
(25)
When $`z`$ is large (or $`i\frac{p}{z}`$ is small), the deformed Bessel functions behave as

$`I_2\left({\displaystyle \frac{p}{z}}\right)`$ $``$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)^2\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{48}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)^4+\mathrm{}\right],`$ (26)
$`K_2\left({\displaystyle \frac{p}{z}}\right)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)^2\left[1\left({\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)^4\left(\gamma +\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)\right)+\mathrm{}\right].`$
Here $`\gamma `$ is the Euler number: $`\gamma =0.57721\mathrm{}`$. Note that $`K_2\left(\frac{p}{z}\right)`$ gives the dominant contribution when $`z`$ is large. With $`a=0`$ we find in the limit of $`R_b\mathrm{}`$

$$T_p(y_0)=\frac{l^3}{2\pi G}\frac{1}{32l^4}\left\{\frac{pl}{R_b}\frac{K_2^{}\left(pl/2R_b\right)}{K_2\left(pl/2R_b\right)}2\right\}.$$
(27)
When the momentum $`q`$ is Wick-rotated $`qiq`$, the modified Bessel function $`K_2`$ is replaced by the (second class) Bessel function or Neumann function $`N_2`$:

$$T_p(y_0)=\frac{l^3}{2\pi G}\frac{1}{32l^4}\left\{\frac{pl}{R_b}\frac{N_2^{}\left(pl/2R_b\right)}{N_2\left(pl/2R_b\right)}2\right\}.$$
(28)
For large $`ql=\frac{pl}{R_b}`$, $`N_2\left(pl/2R_b\right)`$ in (28) behaves as

$$N_2\left(pl/2R_b\right)\sqrt{\frac{4R_b}{\pi pl}}\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{pl}{2R_b}+\frac{\pi }{4}\right).$$
(29)
Then we find

$$T_p(y_0)\frac{l^3}{2\pi G}\frac{1}{32l^4}\left\{\frac{pl}{R_b}\mathrm{tan}\left(\frac{pl}{2R_b}+\frac{\pi }{4}\right)\frac{3}{2}\right\}.$$
(30)
Then for large $`p`$, $`T_p`$ vanishes at

$$\frac{pl}{2R_b}=\frac{ql}{2}\left(n\frac{1}{4}\right)\pi $$
(31)
for large integer $`n`$. There appear infinite number of massive modes

$$m^2\left(n\frac{1}{4}\right)^2\frac{\pi ^2}{l^2}.$$
(32)
When $`pl/R_b`$ is small

$`T_p(y_0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{l^3}{2\pi G}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{32l^4}}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{p^2l^2}{2R_b^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{p^4l^4}{4R_b^4}}\left(\gamma +{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}+\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{pl}{2R_b}}\right)+\mathrm{}\right\}`$ (33)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{l}{128\pi G}}\left\{q^2+{\displaystyle \frac{q^4l^2}{2}}\left(\gamma +{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}+\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{ql}{2}}\right)+\mathrm{}\right\}.`$
If we define a scalar propagator $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ as

$`\mathrm{\Delta }(q)=\left\{q^2+{\displaystyle \frac{q^4l^2}{2}}\left(\gamma +{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}+\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{ql}{2}}\right)+\mathrm{}\right\}^1=\mathrm{\Delta }_0(q)+\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{KK}}(q)+𝒪\left(q^2\right),`$
$`\mathrm{\Delta }_0(q){\displaystyle \frac{1}{q^2}},\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{KK}}(q)={\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{2}}\left(\gamma +{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}+\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{ql}{2}}\right).`$ (34)
$`\mathrm{\Delta }_0(q)`$ corresponds to the contribution from the zero mode, which is trapped on the brane and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{KK}}(q)`$ to that from the massive Kaluza-Klein (KK) modes . (Note that 4d graviton is massive in constant curvature space, for a recent discussion of appearence of such mass see ). Then the Newton potential is given by

$`V\left(\left|𝐫\right|\right)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{m_1m_2G^{(4)}}{\left(2\pi \right)^2}}{\displaystyle d^3q\mathrm{e}^{i𝐪𝐫}\left(\mathrm{\Delta }_0(q)+\frac{4}{3}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{KK}}(q)\right)}`$ (35)
$`=`$ $`m_1m_2G^{(4)}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2l^2}{3r^3}}\right].`$
The factor $`\frac{4}{3}`$ in the first line of (35) appears since the KK modes are massive. In (35), the four dimensional gravitational coupling $`G^{(4)}`$ is defined by

$$G^{(4)}=\frac{G}{2l},$$
(36)
In , the $`r^3`$ loop correction from the CFT to the Newton potential has been calculated as follows

$$V(r)=\frac{G^{(4)}m_1m_2}{r}\left(1+\frac{\alpha G^{(4)}}{r^2}\right).$$
(37)
The coefficient $`\alpha `$ is given by

$$\alpha =\frac{1}{45\pi }\left(12n_1+3n_{1/2}+n_0\right).$$
(38)
Here $`n_1`$, $`n_{1/2}`$, and $`n_0`$ are the the numbers of vectors, (Majorana) fermions, and (real) scalars of the CFT. For $`𝒩=4`$ $`SU(N)`$ or $`U(N)`$ super Yang-Mills theory, we have $`(n_1,n_{1/2},n_0)=(N^2,4N^2,6N^2)`$ then $`\alpha =\frac{2N^2}{3\pi }`$. On the other hand, by using the AdS/CFT and braneworld relation, we have $`N^2=\pi l^2/G^{(4)}`$ and therefore

$$\alpha G^{(4)}=2l^2/3,$$
(39)
which reproduces the result in the Randall-Sundrum model :

$$V(r)=\frac{G^{(4)}m_1m_2}{r}\left(1+\frac{2l^2}{3r^2}\right).$$
(40)
The above expression also coincides with Eq.(35). Thus, within our method where explicit form of spherical graviton correlator is used, we reproduced the Newton potential of RS brane in AdS bulk.

Finally in this section, we consider the case that $`\frac{R_b}{l}`$ is finite but $`p`$ is large. This is the case of spherical brane. Since when $`p`$ is large, the associated Legendre function $`P_{\frac{5}{2}}^{p\frac{1}{2}}\left(z\right)`$

$$P_{\frac{3}{2}}^{p\frac{1}{2}}\left(z\right)\frac{\mathrm{e}^{\left(p\frac{1}{2}\right)\pi i}}{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{3}{2}+p\right)}\left(\frac{1+z}{1z}\right)^{\frac{p+\frac{1}{2}}{2}}.$$
(41)
one finds

$$T_p(y_0)\frac{p}{64\pi Gl}\frac{\mathrm{cosh}y_0+1}{\mathrm{sinh}y_0}.$$
(42)
This tells that the potential of the gravity behaves as $`\frac{1}{r^2}`$ rather than $`\frac{1}{r}`$ at the short distance. At the very short distances, any manifold can be regarded to be flat. For the pure 4d theory, for any (curved or flat) manifold, the graviton correlator behaves as

$$h_{ij}(x)h_{i^{}j^{}}(x^{})\frac{d^4p}{p^2}\mathrm{e}^{ip\left(xx^{}\right)}\frac{1}{\left|xx^{}\right|^2},$$
(43)
which tells that the gravitational potential shows the Coulomb-like behavior in 4 dimensions. On the other side, Eq.(42) gives at the short distances

$$h_{ij}(x)h_{i^{}j^{}}(x^{})\frac{d^4p}{p}\mathrm{e}^{ip\left(xx^{}\right)}\frac{1}{\left|xx^{}\right|^3}.$$
(44)
The behavior of $`\left|xx^{}\right|^3`$ is nothing but the 5-dimensional one. Therefore the potential of the gravity behaves as $`\frac{1}{r^2}`$ rather than $`\frac{1}{r}`$. Then the gravity force in the induced gravity becomes stronger at short distances than that in the pure 4d case.

3. After the explicit calculation of Newton potential for flat and dS branes in AdS bulk in the previous section, we will discuss such the brane in dS bulk space. We start with the following action:

$`S`$ $`=`$ $`S_{\mathrm{EH}}+S_{\mathrm{GH}}+S_1,S_{\mathrm{EH}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{16\pi G}}{\displaystyle d^5x\sqrt{g}\left(R\frac{12}{l^2}\right)},`$
$`S_{\mathrm{GH}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi G}}{\displaystyle d^4x\sqrt{\gamma }},S_1={\displaystyle \frac{3}{8\pi Gl^{}}}{\displaystyle d^4x\sqrt{\gamma }}.`$ (45)
Here the coefficient of $`S_1`$ is chosen to be arbitrary for a while. There exists the 5-dimensional Lorentzian deSitter space solution:

$`ds_{\mathrm{dS}_5}^2`$ $`=`$ $`l^2\left(dy^2+\gamma _{ij}dx^idx^j\right)`$
$`\gamma _{ij}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{cosh}^2y\widehat{\gamma }_{ij},`$ (46)
which can be obtained from the following metric of 5-dimensional sphere $`S^5`$:

$`ds_{\mathrm{S}_5}^2`$ $`=`$ $`l^2\left(dy^2+\gamma _{ij}dx^idx^j\right)`$
$`\gamma _{ij}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{sin}^2y\widehat{\gamma }_{ij},`$ (47)
by analytically continuing $`y`$ as

$$y\frac{\pi }{2}iy.$$
(48)
Then from the equation determining the radius of the brane (3)

$$A=\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{cosh}y\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{cosh}\sigma ,$$
(49)
defining the radius $`R_b`$ of the brane as $`R_b=l\mathrm{cosh}y_0`$, and assuming that there is a brane at $`y=y_0`$, we find

$$\frac{1}{R_b}\sqrt{\frac{R_b^2}{l^2}1}=\frac{1}{l^{}}.$$
(50)
Eq.(50) has a solution labeled by $`l^{}`$ if $`\frac{l}{l^{}}<1`$ :

$$R_b=\frac{ll^{}}{\sqrt{l_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}l^2}}.$$
(51)
Then $`R_b`$ goes to infinity when $`\frac{l}{l^{}}10`$.

As in (5), the r.h.s. in (50) expresses the contribution from the brane tension and the l.h.s. from gravity. The brane tension tends to make the radius of the brane smaller and the gravity tends to make the radius larger, again. We should note, however, in contrast with the case of (5), that the l.h.s. is the monotonically increasing function of $`R_b`$ if $`R_b>l`$. Then if the radius of the brane becomes smaller than $`R_b`$ given by (50), the contribution from the tension becomes dominant and the radius tends to become further smaller. On the other hand, if the radius becomes larger than $`R_b`$, the contribution from gravity becomes larger and the radius tends to become further larger. Therefore, the solution in (50) is instable in contract with that of (5). This indicates also that dual CFT should be non-unitary theory.

We now rewrite bulk metric which includes the effect of the perturbations $`h_{ij}(y,x)`$ as in (7):

$$ds^2=l^2\left(dy^2+\left(\gamma _{ij}+h_{ij}(y,x)\right)dx^idx^j\right).$$
(52)
(The relevance of metric perturbations in dS/CFT correspondence has been recently discussed in ). Then the linearized Einstein equation has the following form:

$`^2h_{\mu \nu }={\displaystyle \frac{2}{l^2}}h_{\mu \nu }.`$ (53)
As in (19), the metric perturbations can be written as a sum of separable perturbations of the form

$`h_{ij}(y,x)=f_p(y)H_{ij}^{(p)}(x).`$ (54)
The graviton correlator may be calculated as follows :

$`h_{ij}(x)h_{i^{}j^{}}(x^{})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{p=2}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}W_{iji^{}j^{}}^{(p)}(x,x^{}){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2T_p(y_0)}},`$
$`T_p(y_0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{l^3}{2\pi G}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{32l^4}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{f_p^{}(y_0)}{f_p(y_0)}}+4\mathrm{tanh}y_0{\displaystyle \frac{6l}{l^{}}}\right).`$ (55)
¿From the linearized Einstein equation (53), $`f_p(y)`$ satisfies the following equation:

$$f_p^{\prime \prime }(y)+\left[4+\left\{p(p+3)+2\right\}\mathrm{cosh}^2y\right]f_p(y)=0.$$
(56)
With $`f_p(y)=\mathrm{cosh}^{\frac{1}{2}}yF_p\left(i\mathrm{sinh}y\right)`$, we obtain (22) again with $`z=i\mathrm{sinh}y`$. Then the solution is again given in terms of the associated Legendre functions. In the limit $`\frac{l}{l^{}}10`$, the solution is given by the Bessel functions

$$F_p=z^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(aJ_2\left(i\frac{p}{z}\right)+bN_2\left(i\frac{p}{z}\right)\right).$$
(57)
When $`z`$ is large (or $`i\frac{p}{z}`$ is small), the Bessel functions behave as

$`J_2\left(i{\displaystyle \frac{p}{z}}\right)`$ $``$ $`\left(i{\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)^2\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}\left(i{\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{48}}\left(i{\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)^4+\mathrm{}\right],`$ (58)
$`N_2\left(i{\displaystyle \frac{p}{z}}\right)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi }}\left(i{\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)^2\left[1+\left(i{\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)^2\left(i{\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)^4\left(\gamma +\mathrm{ln}\left(i{\displaystyle \frac{p}{2z}}\right)\right)+\mathrm{}\right].`$
when $`z`$ is large, $`N_2\left(i\frac{p}{z}\right)`$ gives the dominant contribution. If we put $`a=0`$, we find in the limit of $`R_b\mathrm{}`$

$$T_p(y_0)=\frac{l^3}{2\pi G}\frac{1}{32l^4}\left\{\frac{pl}{R_b}\frac{N_2^{}\left(pl/2R_b\right)}{N_2\left(pl/2R_b\right)}2\right\}.$$
(59)
Then when $`pl/R_b`$ is small

$`T_p(y_0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{l^3}{2\pi G}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{32l^4}}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{p^2l^2}{2R_b^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{p^4l^4}{4R_b^4}}\left(\gamma +{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}+\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{pl}{2R_b}}\right)+\mathrm{}\right\}`$ (60)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{l}{126\pi G}}\left\{q^2{\displaystyle \frac{q^4l^2}{2}}\left(\gamma +{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}+\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{ql}{2}}\right)+\mathrm{}\right\}.`$
Using similar way as in previous section, the Newton potential is found to be

$$V\left(\left|𝐫\right|\right)m_1m_2G^{(4)}\left[\frac{1}{r}\frac{2l^2}{3r^3}\right].$$
(61)
We should note that the sign of the $`1/r^3`$ correction term is different from that in (35).

For large $`ql=\frac{pl}{R_b}`$, $`N_2\left(pl/2R_b\right)`$ in (59) behaves as in (29). Then we find

$$T_p(y_0)\frac{l^3}{2\pi G}\frac{1}{32l^4}\left\{\frac{pl}{R_b}\mathrm{tan}\left(\frac{pl}{2R_b}+\frac{\pi }{4}\right)\frac{3}{2}\right\}.$$
(62)
For large $`p`$, $`T_p`$ vanishes at

$$\frac{pl}{2R_b}=\frac{ql}{2}\left(n\frac{1}{4}\right)\pi $$
(63)
for large integer $`n`$. Since $`q`$ is spacelike or Euclidean momentum, Eq.(63) tells that there appear the tachyon modes with masses, which corresponds to (32),

$$m^2\left(n\frac{1}{4}\right)^2\frac{\pi ^2}{l^2}.$$
(64)
This is consistent with the instability of solution in (50). Then the field theory on the brane seems to be non-unitary. Indeed, Strominger  and Hull  have conjectured that CFT in dS/CFT correspondence is not unitary. Then the above result seems to be consistent. Since the usual field theory gives positive contribution to the $`1/r^3`$ corrections to the Newton potential , then the dual field theory on the brane might be higher derivative conformal theory like higher derivative scalar, which is not unitary in general. Indeed, for the higher derivative conformal scalar $`\alpha =\frac{8}{45\pi }`$.

In the above argument, the limit $`1|p||z|=\frac{R_b}{l}`$ is considered. Let us consider the case that $`\frac{R_b}{l}`$ is finite but $`p`$ is large. Since when $`p`$ is large, we find

$$T_p(y_0)\frac{p}{64\pi Gl}\mathrm{tanh}y_0,$$
(65)
the potential of the gravity behaves as $`\frac{1}{r^2}`$ rather than $`\frac{1}{r}`$ at short distance as in (44). The leading behavior is not changed with that in the case that the bulk is AdS although the sub-leading behavior might be changed. It is not easy to compare such subleading behavior with the experimental data, when the energy is very large. Furthermore in general there appears the anomaly induced effective action on the brane , which changes the short distance behavior drastically . Then it would be difficult to predict if the bulk is dS or AdS from the structure of Newton potential.

Acknowledgments

We thank J. Isern for interest in this work. The work by S.N. is supported in part by the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture of Japan under the grant n. 13135208.