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# Quintessence and black holes

## 1 Introduction

Recent astronomical observations convincingly show the accelerating expansion of Universe , implying a valuable presence of state with the negative pressure. The origin of the negative pressure could be twofold. The first is the cosmological constant, while the second is the so-called quintessence with the state equation given by the relation between the pressure $`p_q`$ and the energy density $`\rho _q`$, so that $`p_q=w_q\rho _q`$ at $`w_q`$ in the range of $`1<w_q<\frac{1}{3}`$, which causes the acceleration111The phenomenological constraints on the value of $`w_q`$ are given in .. The border case of $`w_q=1`$ of the extraordinary quintessence covers the cosmological constant term. As was recognized , the acceleration makes a challenge for the consistent theory of quantum gravity because of the outer horizon, which does not allow one to introduce the observable S-matrix in terms of asymptotic past and future states. The outer horizon of de Sitter space significantly differs from the inner horizon of black hole, which has asymptotically flat space far away from the black hole.

The future horizon for the Robertson–Walker metric with the accelerating scale factor caused by the quintessence was studied in . In this paper we investigate the Einstein equations for the static spherically-symmetric quintessence surrounding a black hole and solve them exactly for a specific choice of a free parameter, characterizing the energy-momentum tensor of the quintessence, $`T_{\mu }^{}{}_{}{}^{\nu }`$. So, under the spherical symmetry of a static state one can write down a general expression for the time and spatial components

$$T_{t}^{}{}_{}{}^{t}=A(r),T_{t}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}=0,T_{i}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}=C(r)r_ir^j+B(r)\delta _{i}^{}{}_{}{}^{j},$$

with the metric

$$\mathrm{d}s^2=g_{tt}(r)\mathrm{d}t^2g_{rr}(r)\mathrm{d}r^2r^2(\mathrm{d}\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}\varphi ^2),$$

and after averaging over the angles of isotropic state we get

$$T_{i}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}=D(r)\delta _{i}^{}{}_{}{}^{j},D(r)=\frac{1}{3}C(r)r^2+B(r).$$

For the quintessence we have

$$D(r)=w_qA(r).$$

Therefore, fixing the state parameter $`w_q`$ gives the expression for the function $`D(r)`$ being the combination of $`C(r)`$ and $`B(r)`$, in terms of density $`A(r)`$, while $`w_q`$ itself does not provide us with the complete information on the form of energy-momentum tensor in the static spherically-symmetric case.

The problem with the free quintessence under the condition of

$$C(r)0$$

was considered in  and in  by P.F.Gonzalez-Diaz. The result was the metric, which has no horizon, no ‘hair’ and no black hole, i.e. the metric does not allow one to ‘embrace a black hole term’.

In the present paper we consider nonzero $`C(r)`$ proportional to $`B(r)`$, so that the exact solutions with the black hole charged or not are possible, including the generalization to the asymptotically flat or de Sitter space. The appropriate constant coefficient $`C(r)/B(r)`$ is defined by the condition of additivity and linearity, and it allows us to get correct limits for the well know cases of the relativistic matter of electric field for the charged black hole ($`w_q=\frac{1}{3}`$), the dust matter of $`w_q=0`$, and the extraordinary quintessence with $`w_q=1`$, i.e. the cosmological constant.

We find that in the static coordinates the exact solutions of spherically-symmetric Einstein equations for the quintessence produce the outer horizons at $`1<w_q<\frac{1}{3}`$ in the cases of free state as well as for the black hole surrounded by the quintessence.

In section 2 we construct a general solution of spherically-symmetric static Einstein equations for the quintessence satisfying the condition of the additivity and linearity, which allows us to cover the problems with the black hole charged or not in the flat or de Sitter space. Section 3 is devoted to the consideration of examples and limits known for the relativistic matter and the cosmological constant. The Gibbons–Hawking temperatures  of the free quintessence as well as for the black hole surrounded by the quintessence with $`w_q=\frac{2}{3}`$ are described in Section 4. The results are summarized in Conclusion.

## 2 Exact solutions in static coordinates

Following the notations in , we parameterize the interval of spherically-symmetric static gravitational field by

$$\mathrm{d}s^2=e^\nu \mathrm{d}t^2e^\lambda \mathrm{d}r^2r^2(\mathrm{d}\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}\varphi ^2),$$
(1)
with the functions $`\nu =\nu (r)`$ and $`\lambda =\lambda (r)`$. Then, in units with the normalization of gravitational constant $`G`$ by $`4\pi G=1`$, the Einstein equations get the form

$`2T_{t}^{}{}_{}{}^{t}=e^\lambda \left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda ^{}}{r}}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2}},`$ (2)
$`2T_{r}^{}{}_{}{}^{r}=e^\lambda \left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\nu ^{}}{r}}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2}},`$ (3)
$`2T_{\theta }^{}{}_{}{}^{\theta }=2T_{\varphi }^{}{}_{}{}^{\varphi }={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}e^\lambda \left(\nu ^{\prime \prime }+{\displaystyle \frac{\nu _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\nu ^{}\lambda ^{}}{r}}{\displaystyle \frac{\nu ^{}\lambda ^{}}{2}}\right),`$ (4)
with $`u^{}\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\mathrm{d}u(r)/\mathrm{d}r`$. The appropriate general expression for the energy-momentum tensor of quintessence is given by

$`T_{t}^{}{}_{}{}^{t}=\rho _q(r),`$ (5)
$`T_{i}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}=\rho _q(r)\alpha \left[(1+3B){\displaystyle \frac{r_ir^j}{r_nr^n}}+B\delta _{i}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}\right],`$ (6)
so that the spatial part is proportional to the time component with the arbitrary parameter $`B`$ depending on the internal structure of quintessence. The isotropic averaging over the angeles results in

$$T_{i}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}=\rho _q(r)\frac{\alpha }{3}\delta _{i}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}=p_q(r)\delta _{i}^{}{}_{}{}^{j},$$
(7)
since we put $`r_ir^j=\frac{1}{3}\delta _{i}^{}{}_{}{}^{j}r_nr^n`$. Therefore, we derive the relations

$$p_q=w_q\rho _q,w_q=\frac{1}{3}\alpha .$$
(8)
The quintessential state has

$$1<w_q<03<\alpha <0.$$

Let us define a principle of additivity and linearity by the equality, putting the relation between the metric components,

$$T_{t}^{}{}_{}{}^{t}=T_{r}^{}{}_{}{}^{r}\lambda +\nu =0,$$
(9)
without any lose of generality due to the static coordinate system fixed by the above gauge of $`\lambda +\nu =\text{const}=0`$, since the constant can be nullified by an appropriate rescaling of time.

Then, substituting for

$$\lambda =\mathrm{ln}(1+f),$$

we get linear differential equations in $`f`$, so that

$`T_{t}^{}{}_{}{}^{t}=T_{r}^{}{}_{}{}^{r}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2r^2}}(f+rf^{}),`$ (10)
$`T_{\theta }^{}{}_{}{}^{\theta }=T_{\varphi }^{}{}_{}{}^{\varphi }={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4r}}(2f^{}+rf^{\prime \prime }).`$ (11)
Eqs. (10) and (11) imply that the linear sum of various solutions for $`f`$ is transformed to the sum of corresponding terms in the energy-momentum tensor of matter,

$$\underset{n}{}c_nf_n(r)\underset{n}{}c_nT_{\mu }^{}{}_{}{}^{\nu }[f_n(r)].$$

The condition of the additivity and linearity fixes the free parameter of the energy-momentum tensor for the matter

$$B=\frac{3w_q+1}{6w_q},$$
(12)
which implies

$`T_{t}^{}{}_{}{}^{t}=T_{r}^{}{}_{}{}^{r}=\rho _q,`$ (13)
$`T_{\theta }^{}{}_{}{}^{\theta }=T_{\varphi }^{}{}_{}{}^{\varphi }={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\rho _q(3w_q+1).`$ (14)
Making use of (10)-(11) with (13)-(14), we deduce

$$(3w_q+1)f+3(1+w_q)rf^{}+r^2f^{\prime \prime }=0,$$

with two solutions in the form

$`f_q={\displaystyle \frac{c}{r^{3w_q+1}}},`$ (15)
$`f_{\mathrm{BH}}={\displaystyle \frac{r_g}{r}},`$ (16)
where $`c`$ and $`r_g`$ are the normalization factors. The function of $`f_{\mathrm{BH}}`$ represents the ordinary Schwarzschild solution for the point-like black hole, and it coincides with the particular choice of dust matter with $`w_q=0`$ in $`f_q`$, which gives $`\rho _q=0`$ at $`r0`$.

If we put the density of energy to be positive, $`\rho _q>0`$, then from the formula

$$\rho _q=\frac{c}{2}\frac{3w_q}{r^{3(1+w_q)}}$$

we deduce that the sign of the normalization constant should coincide with the sign of the matter state parameter, i.e.

$$cw_q0,$$

implying that $`c`$ is negative for the quintessence.

The curvature has the form

$$R=2T_{\mu }^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu }=3cw_q\frac{13w_q}{r^{3(w_q+1)}},$$
(17)
and it has the singularity at $`r=0`$, if $`w_q\{0,\frac{1}{3},1\}`$.

Thus, we have found a general form of exact spherically-symmetric solutions for the Einstein equations describing black holes surrounded by the quintessential matter with the energy-momentum tensor, which satisfies the condition of the additivity and linearity in accordance with eqs.(13)–(14), so that the metric is given by

$$\mathrm{d}s^2=\left[1\frac{r_g}{r}\underset{n}{}\left(\frac{r_n}{r}\right)^{3w_n+1}\right]\mathrm{d}t^2\frac{\mathrm{d}r^2}{\left[1{\displaystyle \frac{r_g}{r}}{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{r_n}{r}}\right)^{3w_n+1}\right]}r^2(\mathrm{d}\theta ^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}\varphi ^2),$$
(18)
where $`r_g=2M`$, $`M`$ is the black hole mass, $`r_n`$ are the dimensional normalization constants, and $`w_n`$ are the quintessential state parameters.

## 3 Some examples

Let us start with checking the important limits, i.e. the charged or neutral black holes in the asymptotically flat and de Sitter spaces.

The electrically charged black hole surrounded by the static spherically-symmetric electric field corresponds to the case with the relativistic matter state parameter $`w=\frac{1}{3}`$. The general solution of (18) with

$$g_{rr}=\frac{1}{g_{tt}}$$

gives the Reissner–Nordström metric for the charged black hole or the Schwarzschild one at the charge equal to zero, $`e=0`$, so that

$$g_{tt}=1\frac{r_g}{r}+\frac{e^2}{r^2},$$
(19)
as well as the transparent generalization to the case of de Sitter space

$$g_{tt}^{\mathrm{dS}}=1\frac{r_g}{r}+\frac{e^2}{r^2}\frac{r^2}{a^2}.$$
(20)
Therefore, we get convincing reasons to see that the condition of the additivity and linearity allows us to maintain the valid limits to the known solutions for the spherically-symmetric black holes, which have a rigorous physical meaning.

The solution for the Reissner–Nordström–de Sitter black hole surrounded by the quintessence gives

$$g_{tt}^{\mathrm{QdS}}=1\frac{r_g}{r}+\frac{e^2}{r^2}\frac{r^2}{a^2}\left(\frac{r_q}{r}\right)^{3w_q+1},$$
(21)
which has the meaningful limits with no charge ($`e=0`$), no de Sitter curvature ($`a^2\mathrm{}`$) as well as the self-gravitating quintessence without the black hole ($`r_g=0`$ and $`e=0`$).

In what follows, the characteristic example we are going to study in detail corresponds to the choice of $`w_q=\frac{2}{3}`$, so that

$$\stackrel{~}{g}_{tt}^{\mathrm{QdS}}=1\frac{r_g}{r}+\frac{e^2}{r^2}\frac{r^2}{a^2}\frac{r}{r_q},$$
(22)
whereas the free quintessence determines the interval

$$\mathrm{d}\stackrel{~}{s}^2=\left[1\frac{r}{r_q}\right]\mathrm{d}t^2\frac{1}{1{\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_q}}}\mathrm{d}r^2r^2(\mathrm{d}\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}\varphi ^2),$$
(23)
which we compare with the case of de Sitter metric

$$\mathrm{d}\overline{s}^2=\left[1\frac{r^2}{a^2}\right]\mathrm{d}t^2\frac{1}{1{\displaystyle \frac{r^2}{a^2}}}\mathrm{d}r^2r^2(\mathrm{d}\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}\varphi ^2).$$
(24)
The curvature of this static quintessential state is equal to

$$\stackrel{~}{R}_\mathrm{Q}=\frac{6}{r_qr}.$$

Under the coordinate transformation by

$$\chi =\frac{1}{2r_q}_0^r\frac{\mathrm{d}r}{\stackrel{~}{g}_{tt}(r)}=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}\left(1\frac{r}{r_q}\right),$$

and $`tt/2r_q`$, we find the hyperbolic representation of interval

$$\mathrm{d}\stackrel{~}{s}^2=4r_q^2e^{2\chi }\left[\mathrm{d}t^2\mathrm{d}\chi ^2\mathrm{sinh}^2\chi (\mathrm{d}\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}\varphi ^2)\right],$$
(25)
with $`0\chi <\mathrm{}`$, while an appropriate similar transformation of de Sitter metric gives

$$\mathrm{d}\overline{s}^2=\frac{a^2}{\mathrm{cosh}^2\chi }\left[\mathrm{d}t^2\mathrm{d}\chi ^2\mathrm{sinh}^2\chi (\mathrm{d}\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}\varphi ^2)\right].$$
(26)
Eqs. (25) and (26) reveal that at $`\chi \mathrm{}`$, i.e. near the horizon, these two metrics are infinitely close to each other up to a constant conformal factor. The curvature takes the form

$$\stackrel{~}{R}_\mathrm{Q}=\frac{3}{r_q^2}\left(1+\frac{1}{\mathrm{tanh}\chi }\right).$$

Next, under the Fock transformation from the hyperbolic coordinates to the flat ones,

$`\tau =e^t\mathrm{cosh}\chi ,`$ (27)
$`\rho =e^t\mathrm{sinh}\chi ,`$ (28)
we find

$$\mathrm{d}\stackrel{~}{s}^2=4r_q^2\frac{1}{(\tau +\rho )^2}\left[\mathrm{d}\tau ^2\mathrm{d}\rho ^2\rho ^2(\mathrm{d}\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}\varphi ^2)\right],$$
(29)
with the curvature

$$\stackrel{~}{R}_\mathrm{Q}=\frac{3}{r_q^2}\frac{\tau +\rho }{\rho }.$$

The conformal-time expression for the metric of de Sitter is given by

$$\mathrm{d}\overline{s}^2=a^2\frac{1}{\tau ^2}\left[\mathrm{d}\tau ^2\mathrm{d}\rho ^2\rho ^2(\mathrm{d}\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}\varphi ^2)\right],$$
(30)
which allows the treatment in terms of Friedmann–Robertson–Walker evolution of flat universe, in contrast to (29), which reveals the dependence of conformal factor on both the time and the distance from the singular point at $`\rho =0`$.

The constant curvature of de Sitter space allows one to write down the invariant presentation in the 5-dimensional Minkowski space222The metric is given by diag$`(1,1,1,1,1)`$. in terms of

$`\overline{z}_0=\sqrt{a^2r^2}\mathrm{sinh}[t/a],`$
$`\overline{z}_4=\sqrt{a^2r^2}\mathrm{cosh}[t/a],`$ (31)
$`\overline{z}_i=r_i,i=\{1,2,3\},`$
so that

$$\overline{z}_0^2\overline{z}_4^2\overline{z}_i^2=a^2,$$

with the SO(1,4) invariance. For the static quintessential state one can introduce the analogous variables in the 5-dimensional Minkowski space

$`\stackrel{~}{z}_0=2r_q\sqrt{1{\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_q}}}\mathrm{sinh}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{t}{2r_q}}+\sqrt{1{\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_q}}}\right],`$
$`\stackrel{~}{z}_4=2r_q\sqrt{1{\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_q}}}\mathrm{cosh}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{t}{2r_q}}+\sqrt{1{\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_q}}}\right],`$ (32)
$`\stackrel{~}{z}_i=r_i,i=\{1,2,3\},`$
so that

$$\stackrel{~}{z}_0^2\stackrel{~}{z}_4^2\stackrel{~}{z}_i^2=\left(2r_q\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{z}_i^2}\right)^2,$$
(33)
with the evident 4-parametric symmetry of SO(1,1)$``$SO(3). The corresponding surface is not smooth. It is represented in Fig. 1 by putting $`z_2=z_3=0`$.

The intersections of two sheets take place at $`z_1=0`$, i.e. at $`r=0`$, where the curvature has the singular point, and the continuation into the external wings corresponds to the negative $`r`$ and, hence, the negative curvature.

## 4 Horizons and thermodynamics

Using (21) we see that the free quintessence generates the outer horizon of de Sitter kind at $`r=r_q`$ if

$$1<w_q<\frac{1}{3},$$

or the inner horizon of the black hole kind at $`r=r_q`$ if

$$\frac{1}{3}<w_q<0.$$

The Gibbons–Hawking temperature is given by the equation

$$\mathrm{T}=\frac{1}{4\pi }\left|\frac{\mathrm{d}g_{tt}(r_q)}{\mathrm{d}r}\right|,$$
(34)
which results in

$$\mathrm{T}_\mathrm{Q}=\frac{1}{4\pi }\frac{|3w_q+1|}{r_q}.$$
(35)
In the characteristic case of the neutral black hole surrounded by the quintessence with $`w_q=\frac{2}{3}`$ in (22) we get the inner and outer horizons,

$`r_{\mathrm{in}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(r_q\sqrt{r_q^24r_qr_g}\right),`$ (36)
$`r_{\mathrm{out}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(r_q+\sqrt{r_q^24r_qr_g}\right),`$ (37)
if

$$r_q>4r_g,$$

whereas

$$r_g<r_{\mathrm{in}}<r_{\mathrm{out}}<r_q.$$

Then, the temperatures at the horizons are given by the following expression:

$$\mathrm{T}_{\mathrm{QBH}}^{\mathrm{in},\mathrm{out}}=\frac{1}{4\pi }\left(\frac{r_g}{r_{\mathrm{in},\mathrm{out}}^2}\frac{1}{r_q}\right),$$
(38)
so that we observe the hierarchy

$$\mathrm{T}_\mathrm{Q}<\mathrm{T}_{\mathrm{QBH}}^{\mathrm{out}}<\mathrm{T}_{\mathrm{QBH}}^{\mathrm{in}}<\mathrm{T}_g,$$

implying that the quintessence decreases the temperature of isolated black hole $`\mathrm{T}_g`$, while the black hole increases the temperature of free quintessence.

The minimal temperature $`\mathrm{T}_{\mathrm{QBH}}^{\mathrm{in},\mathrm{out}}=0`$ corresponds to the degenerate case of $`r_q=4r_g`$.

## 5 Conclusion

We have got exact solutions of Einstein equations for the static spherically-symmetric quintessential state free or surrounding a black hole charged or not. These solutions are possible under the special choice of internal parameter in the energy-momentum tensor of quintessence, depending on the state parameter $`w_q`$. The corresponding condition of the additivity and linearity results in the linear equations for the various matter terms consistent with the simple summation of their contributions in the total energy-momentum tensor.

The free spherically-symmetric quintessential state in the static coordinates reveals the outer horizons of de Sitter kind at $`w_q<\frac{1}{3}`$ in agreement with . We have calculated also the temperatures at horizons in some specific examples.

To the moment we have presented the problem with the quintessence itself being a perfect fluid with no physical motivations, so that the consideration has followed a general model-independent way. In practice, however, one usually handles a field-theoretical approach in terms of Lagrangian formalism. So, the quintessence is treated as a scalar field with a specific potential and, probably, a kinetic term ($`k`$-sense). Spherically symmetric solutions in dimensionally reduced spacetimes were in detail investigated by Mignemi and Wiltshire in . In that study the vacuum Einstein equations in $`2+m+n`$ dimensions $`=\text{time}+\text{radius}+m\text{-dimensional sphere}+n\text{-dimensional compact extra-space}`$ are equivalent to the field equations for a scalar field coupled to the gravity in $`2+m`$ dimensions. This field has an exponential potential, which generally leads to the perfect fluid approximation with a variable state parameter. Such the approximation is meaningful in the cosmological models of Universe evolution. The authors of  found that the no-hair theorem remains valid, while some non-trivial solutions (not Schwarzschild ones) can be possible under non-flat asymptotics. The critical points leading to naked singularities were described. The consideration were further extended to the black holes in higher-derivative gravity theories by , wherein the authors classified all static spherically symmetric solutions of D-dimensional gravity coupled to a scalar field with a potential consisting of a finite sum of exponential terms. The analysis for global properties of static spherically symmetric charged dilaton spacetimes with a Liouville potential was done by Poletti and Wiltshire in . A treatment of scalar field in the context of dark matter and dark energy was developed in . So, the static solutions for the spherically symmetric scalar field were found for the description of flat rotation curves in spiral galaxies provided the potential of the field is exponential, while the energy density and presure behaves as $`1/r^2`$ with the distance. The properties of solutions are in agreement with the general analysis in . The problem of such the treatment is twofold. First, the potential has a negative sign in contrast to the cosmological applications. Second, small rotation velocities lead to the extra compact dimension $`n1`$. Nevertheless, authors of  found that the origin of quintessence at the cosmological and galaxy scales could be significantly different. Indeed, the flat rotation curves in the geodetic analysis make a preference for the quintessence with the state parameter $`w=\frac{1}{3}`$ in contrast to $`w`$ close to $`1`$ for the accelerating evolution of Universe. So, the exponential potentials as well as the scalar fields responsible for the dark matter and dark energy can be different.

Next, the $`1/r^2`$-falling of energy-momentum tensor for the scalar field responsible for the flat rotation curves  can be obtained in the general solution presented in this work by implementing the limit $`w_q\frac{1}{3}`$ yielding

$$T_{t}^{}{}_{}{}^{t}=T_{r}^{}{}_{}{}^{r}\frac{1}{r^2},T_{\theta }^{}{}_{}{}^{\theta }=T_{\varphi }^{}{}_{}{}^{\varphi }=0,$$

while in  one found

$$\left|T_{t}^{}{}_{}{}^{t}\right|\left|T_{\theta }^{}{}_{}{}^{\theta }\right|=\left|T_{\varphi }^{}{}_{}{}^{\varphi }\right|\left|T_{r}^{}{}_{}{}^{r}\right|\frac{1}{r^2},$$

in the limit of scalar field alone. We see that the physical contents of these two approaches can be similar if we suggest that the perfect fluid in the present paper is represented by a coherent state formed by a scalar field and a cold dark matter (the pressure equals zero). Of course, such the suggestion should be tested in a model way elsewhere.

Further, the angle surplus caused by the scalar field as found in  can be obtained in the perfect fluid approach used, too. Indeed, the limit of $`w_q\frac{1}{3}`$ implies that the metric component $`g_{rr}`$ tends to a constant value. Therefore, we can rescale the definition of radius by $`rr/\sqrt{g_{rr}}`$, so that the sphere surface gets the angle defect (surplus or deficit) since its area becomes $`4\pi r^2/g_{rr}`$ instead of $`4\pi r^2`$. In addition, an interesting point is that in the case $`w_q=\frac{2}{3}`$, which we have concerned with in section 3, in the absence of a de Sitter term the spacetime is not asymptotically flat but has an asymptotic defect angle, just as was noted for the model in ref. . Note, that in typical quintessence models the cosmological constant is omitted since the quintessence field is taken play the role of driving the acceleration of the universe at late times. If that is the case, then presumably the asymptotic properties of the solutions are also transparently changed, so that the inner horizons of free static spherically symmetric quintessence lead to a flat spacetime at infinity ($`\frac{1}{3}<w_q<0`$), while the outer horizons produce essentially non-flat asymptotics, though at typical values expected for the quintessence energy density the numbers involved might be so small that the effect is negligible for the real black hole formation until one does not touch the problem of halos in spiral galaxies.

Finally, Zloshchastiev studied exactly soluble models of Einstein–Maxwell–dilaton gravity including the case of string-motivated prescriptions with the exponential potentials . His results cover the situation with both the black hole, which mass can include the logarithmic variation, and the electric charge varied logarithmically, too, if one suggests the flat limit of two-dimensional sphere. The horizons and Hawking temperatures were also studied in .

Thus, we see that the perfect fluid under consideration of present work can be in some sense modelled by a scalar field with an exponential potential, probably, coupled to a cold dark matter. A motivation for the specific choice of parameter in the energy-momentum tensor of quintessence by the additivity and linearity condition may be twofold. First, such the choice matches the well-known limits as described. Second, it allows us to consistently incorporate a back reaction of matter on the metrics. In detail, consider the black hole surrounded by the matter fields. The quantum corrections caused by the matter loops in the given external classical gravitational field, for instance, have to influence the metric, too. So, the expectation value of the energy-momentum tensor for the matter could be considered as a classical source of gravity. That is the case we consider in the present paper. Hence, if we suggest validity of the correspondence principle implying the smooth limit of problem solution with a source to the probelm solution without the source, then we could expect a continous matching of two exact solutions with the source and without it. Indeed, imagine we introduce a small amount of spherically symmetric matter in the field of black hole. One could expect that, by continuity, the exact solution with matter is close to the exact solution without the matter, i.e., the black hole is not destroyed by a negligible amount of matter, including the case of perfect fluid with a negative presure we study. Then, the matter with the negative presure should form a coherent perfect fluid state, in which the energy-momentum tensor under the spherical symmetry is given by the expression with the definite relation between the state parameter $`w`$ and the fraction of radial and isotropic spatial components. With another choice of relation between two spherically symmetric parts in the energy-momentum tensor of perfect fluid, the black hole metric will be crutially broken by a small amount of matter as was mentioned in the Introduction, since, for instance, in the case of purely isotropic strength tensor one found solutions with no black hole at all. Anyway, if the state parameter is adiabatically varied with the distance in the field theory framework, the perfect fluid solution should give a meaningful approximation for the exact quantum state. This solution could be also an attractor of fluctuations in the real problem with a scalar field and a cold dark matter, which is a question for a study elsewhere.

If the quintessence field is varying, this could possibly have an effect in the past. In this work we do not concern for the cosmological aspects of the static quintessence considered.

This work is supported in part by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, grants 01-02-99315, 01-02-16585, and 00-15-96645.


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# Confirmation of persistent radio jets in the microquasar LS~5039

## 1 Introduction

Microquasars are radio emitting X-ray binaries with relativistic jets, like SS~433, GRS~1915+105, GRO~J1655$-$40 or Cygnus~X-3. The reader is referred to Mirabel & Rodríguez (mirabel99 (1999)) for a detailed review and to Castro-Tirado et al. (castro01 (2001)) and Durouchoux et al. (durouchoux02 (2002)) for the most recent studies of microquasars.

The $`V=11.2`$ star LS~5039, located at an estimated distance of $`3`$ kpc and close to the galactic plane ($`l=16.88\mathrm{°}`$, $`b=1.29\mathrm{°}`$), was initially proposed by Motch et al. (motch97 (1997)) to be the optical counterpart of the X-ray source RX~J1826.2$-$1450, a likely High Mass X-ray Binary (HMXB). Using data from the NRAO VLA Sky Survey and follow-up VLA observations, Martí et al. (marti98 (1998)) discovered that the source was also a non-thermal radio emitter with moderate variability. X-ray observations of RX~J1826.2$-$1450 carried out by Ribó et al. (ribo99 (1999)) showed that the X-ray spectrum was significantly hard up to 30 keV, with a strong Gaussian iron line at 6.6 keV, and neither pulsed nor periodic emission was found on time scales of 0.02–2000 s and 2–200 days, respectively. Paredes et al. (paredes00 (2000)) discovered that the system displays relativistic radio jets at milliarcsecond (mas) scales, revealing the microquasar nature of LS~5039, and proposed an association with the $`\gamma `$-ray source 3EG~J1824$-$1514. While in the past the mass donor had been classified as an O7V((f)) star, optical and near-IR spectroscopic observations by Clark et al. (clark01 (2001)) show that it is in fact an O6.5V((f)) star. McSwain et al. (mcswain01 (2001)) obtained the radial velocity curve of the system, with their fitted parameters being a short period of $`P=4.117`$ days, a high eccentricity of $`e=0.41`$, a radial velocity of the system of $`V_0=4.6`$ km s-1 and a mass function of $`f(m)=0.00103M_{\mathrm{}}`$. Ribó et al. (ribo02 (2002)) obtained optical and radio proper motions, and found that LS~5039 is a runaway X-ray binary with a space velocity $`150`$ km s-1. McSwain & Gies (mcswain02 (2002)), based on wind accretion models, have recently suggested a neutron star as the compact object in LS~5039, and proposed an inclination of $`i30\mathrm{°}`$ for this binary system.

The persistent radio emission of LS~5039 suggests that the jet is always present. With the aim to confirm this hypothesis, and also to detect the jet at larger angular scales than those imaged with the previous Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) measurements, we observed this microquasar with the European VLBI Network (EVN) and the Multi-Element Radio-Linked Interferometer Network (MERLIN). In this Letter we present the obtained results.

## 2 Observations and results

We observed LS~5039 simultaneously with the EVN and MERLIN on March 1 2000 (3:20–7:10 UT, MJD 51604.2) at 5 GHz. The EVN observations were performed with 7 antennas, namely (antenna, location, diameter) Effelsberg, Germany, 100 m; Jodrell Bank, UK, 25 m; Cambridge, UK, 32 m; Westerbork, The Netherlands, 14$`\times `$25 m; Medicina, Italy, 32 m; Noto, Italy, 32 m; and Toruń, Poland, 32 m. Data were recorded in MkIV mode with 2-bit sampling at 256 Mbps at left hand circular polarization, yielding a full bandwidth of 64 MHz. The data were correlated at the Joint Institute for VLBI in Europe (JIVE). Standard fringe fitting and imaging analysis were carried out using aips and difmap. MERLIN recorded data with 2-bit sampling at dual polarization and a total 32 MHz bandwidth. We analyzed the left hand circular polarization data excluding 1 MHz channel at both edges of the band, yielding a final bandwidth of 14 MHz.

Inspection of the shortest MERLIN baselines reveals a constant flux density during the full run. That allowed us to image the source directly without splitting the data in time blocks. We present the obtained EVN and MERLIN images in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. The MERLIN image is presented convolved with a circular beam, equivalent in solid angle to the interferometric synthesized beam of 142$`\times `$46 mas at position angle (P.A.) $``$47°. Our images clearly show that LS~5039 has a bipolar jet emanating from a central core. In both images the southeast (SE) jet is brighter and larger than the northwest (NW) one, as can be seen in Table 1, where we have quoted the flux densities of the core and the jets and the lengths and P.A. of the jets. Their total lengths are $`60`$ mas in the EVN image and $`300`$ mas in the MERLIN one.

## 3 Jet parameters and intrinsic sizes

These results confirm the existence of a two-sided radio jet in LS~5039 reported in previous VLBA 5 GHz observations by Paredes et al. (paredes00 (2000)). This source does not present any strong outburst or, at least, none has been detected during the eleven month monitoring carried out by the Green Bank Interferometer between 1998 September 16 and 1999 August 22 (Clark et al. clark01 (2001)). On the other hand, inspection of the RXTE All Sky Monitor data (Levine et al. levine96 (1996)) reveals that the X-ray flux was at the typical low level (Ribó et al. ribo99 (1999)) at the epoch of the EVN and MERLIN observations and several weeks before. All this suggests that the jets are persistent, as the VLBI images obtained up to now seem to indicate.

In the observations reported here, the jets extend further away than the $`6`$ mas of the VLBA observations at the same frequency. In all the images the jets have similar position angles, $`125\mathrm{°}`$ in the VLBA image from Paredes et al. (paredes00 (2000)), $`140\mathrm{°}`$ in our EVN image, and $`150\mathrm{°}`$ in our MERLIN image. These results suggest a bending of the jets with increasing distance from the core and/or precession.

The brightness and length asymmetry of the jet components may involve special relativity effects (Mirabel & Rodríguez mirabel99 (1999)). Hence, assuming that this is the reason for the detected length asymmetry of the jets, we can estimate some parameters by using the following equation:

$$\beta \mathrm{cos}\theta =\frac{\mu _\mathrm{a}\mu _\mathrm{r}}{\mu _\mathrm{a}+\mu _\mathrm{r}}=\frac{d_\mathrm{a}d_\mathrm{r}}{d_\mathrm{a}+d_\mathrm{r}},$$
(1)
where $`\beta `$ is the velocity of the jet flow in units of the speed of light, $`\theta `$ is the angle between the direction of motion of the ejecta and the line of sight and $`\mu _\mathrm{a}`$ and $`\mu _\mathrm{r}`$ are the proper motions of the approaching (SE) and receding (NW) components, respectively. Although we do not know the epoch of ejection of the terminal plasma, we can cancel the time variable by using the relative distances to the core $`d_\mathrm{a}`$ and $`d_\mathrm{r}`$, as expressed in Eq. 1. We will identify $`d_\mathrm{a}`$ and $`d_\mathrm{r}`$ with the lengths of the approaching and receding jet, respectively. Using Eq. 1 and the EVN values in Table 1 we obtain $`\beta \mathrm{cos}\theta =0.17\pm 0.05`$, and hence $`\beta >0.17\pm 0.05`$ and $`\theta <80\mathrm{°}\pm 3\mathrm{°}`$. For the MERLIN values we obtain $`\beta >0.15\pm 0.06`$ and $`\theta <81\mathrm{°}\pm 3\mathrm{°}`$. These values are similar to those previously derived from the VLBA image, of $`\beta >0.15\pm 0.04`$ and $`\theta <81\mathrm{°}\pm 2\mathrm{°}`$. We have not considered an eventual larger size for the NW jet with a brightness below the image noise level. McSwain & Gies (mcswain02 (2002)) have recently proposed an inclination of $`i30\mathrm{°}`$ for LS~5039. If we assume that the jet is perpendicular to the accretion disk, and that the disk lies in the orbital plane of the binary system, then $`\theta =i=30\mathrm{°}`$, and using the values from the EVN image, we obtain $`\beta =0.20\pm 0.06`$, which indicates a mildly relativistic jet.

The total length of the EVN and MERLIN jets is $`60`$ and $`300`$ mas, respectively. Considering that the source is located at 2.9 kpc (Ribó et al. ribo02 (2002)), these angular lengths translate into linear lengths in the plane of the sky of $`175`$ and $`870`$ AU, respectively. Assuming that $`\theta =30\mathrm{°}`$ we obtain intrinsic total lengths of $`350`$ and $``$1740 AU, respectively, and lengths of the SE jet arm of $`200`$ and $``$1000 AU, respectively. Moreover, the jet width is smaller than one synthesized beam even in the EVN image. This implies a jet half opening angle $`6\mathrm{°}`$.

## 4 A scenario based on the $`\gamma `$-ray/radio emission

It is interesting to use the presence of 5 GHz synchrotron emitting particles so far away in order to constrain the jet physical parameters. The starting point of the following calculations will be the scenario for the proposed EGRET emission of LS~5039 presented in Paredes et al. (paredes00 (2000)). In this context, the high energy $`\gamma `$-ray photons arise from inverse Compton (IC) scattering of UV photons from the luminous companion star by the relativistic electrons that later, after having lost part of their original energy due to IC losses, will account for the radio emission in the jets.

We will adopt here a very simple model of an expanding jet. Cylindrical coordinates, $`z`$ and $`r`$ measured parallel and perpendicular to the jet axis, are the best choice in our case. The jet is assumed to form at a distance $`z_0`$ from the compact object and flows with a velocity $`v=\beta c`$. The lateral expansion of the jet is parameterized as $`r=r_0(z/z_0)^ϵ`$, where $`r_0`$ is the initial jet radius. A freely expanding conical jet would correspond to $`ϵ=1`$, while for slowed lateral expansion we would have $`ϵ<1`$ (see e.g. Hjellming & Johnston, hjellming88 (1988)). The expansion velocity perpendicular to the jet axis is thus $`v_{}=dr/dt=ϵvr/z`$. Concerning the magnetic field, we will only consider the component perpendicular to the jet axis, because it has the slowest decay if conservation of the magnetic flux is assumed. The magnetic field along the jet will be thus parameterized as $`B=B_0(r/r_0)^1=B_0(z/z_0)^ϵ`$.

A relativistic electron injected at the base of the jet will decrease its energy mainly through adiabatic expansion, IC and synchrotron losses according to:

$$\frac{dE}{dt}=\frac{2}{3}\frac{v_{}E}{r}\alpha _{\mathrm{IC}}U_{\mathrm{rad}}E^2\alpha _\mathrm{S}B^2E^2.$$
(2)
The factor 2/3 in the adiabatic expansion term comes from the lateral expansion of the jet. The constants $`\alpha _{\mathrm{IC}}=3.97\times 10^2`$ and $`\alpha _\mathrm{S}=2.37\times 10^3`$ (c.g.s. units) are the coefficients of the terms accounting for IC and synchrotron losses, respectively. The radiation energy density $`U_{\mathrm{rad}}`$ is assumed to be dominated by stellar UV photons from the O6.5V star, whose luminosity above 10 eV amounts to $`L_{}5\times 10^{38}`$ erg s-1 and $`U_{\mathrm{rad}}=L_{}/[4\pi c(a^2+z^2)]`$. With the recently determined orbital parameters (McSwain et al. mcswain01 (2001), McSwain & Gies mcswain02 (2002)), the likely semimajor axis of the orbit is $`a=2.6\times 10^{12}`$ cm. Adopting these parameters, the radiation energy density close to the compact object is so high that electrons with energies higher than $`10^3`$ erg will easily produce $`\gamma `$-ray photons with energies of 100–1000 MeV, as detected by EGRET. Moreover, integration of Eq. 2 taking only into account the IC losses, reveals that the energy of the electrons decays very fast to values of $`5\times 10^4`$ erg, regardless of their initial energy.

The IC contribution in Eq. 2 should be comparable to adiabatic losses at least at the base of the jet. Later on, the adiabatic expansion term will soon become dominant due to its slower decay ($`z^1`$). Therefore, at the base of the jet we can request:

$$\alpha _{\mathrm{IC}}\frac{L_{}}{4\pi c(a^2+z_0^2)}E_0^2\frac{2ϵ}{3}\frac{vE_0}{z_0}.$$
(3)
We can use the values quoted above, together with $`v=0.2c`$ and an energy of $`E_0=5\times 10^4`$ erg for the electrons injected at the base of the jet, to solve for $`z_0`$ in this quadratic equation. The obtained results are 0.35, 0.85 and 1.30 AU for $`ϵ=1`$, 1/2 and 1/3, respectively. The synchrotron term can be shown to be negligible a posteriori and has not been considered here.

Hereafter, we will proceed taking into account only the adiabatic expansion term, because it is dominant compared to the IC one, and rewrite Eq. 2 as:

$$\frac{dE}{dt}\frac{2ϵ}{3}\frac{vE}{z}.$$
(4)
This can be easily integrated to give $`EE_0(z/z_0)^{2ϵ/3}`$. As the energy decays, the synchrotron emission of relativistic electrons will shift towards lower frequencies. In particular, the synchrotron frequency expected at a distance $`z`$ is given by:

$$\nu _\mathrm{c}=6.27\times 10^{18}BE^26.27\times 10^{18}B_0E_0^2(z/z_0)^{7ϵ/3}.$$
(5)
The electrons still producing 6 cm ($`\nu _\mathrm{c}=5\times 10^9`$ Hz) synchrotron emission at about $`z=1000`$ AU (the size of the MERLIN jets) are probably those originally injected with energies of $`E_05\times 10^4`$ erg. Then, the magnetic field $`B_0`$ at the base of the jet can be roughly estimated as:

$$B_08.0\times 10^{10}E_0^2\left[\frac{z}{z_0}\right]^{7ϵ/3}.$$
(6)
This provides values of $`3.6\times 10^5`$, 12 and 0.6 G for $`ϵ=1`$, $`1/2`$ and $`1/3`$, respectively. If magnetic flux is conserved, the corresponding field at the end of the MERLIN jet would be $`B_{1000\mathrm{AU}}=128`$, $`0.4`$ and $`0.06`$ G. For comparison, the only independent estimates of the magnetic field in the LS~5039 jets come from simple equipartition arguments. The results are merely indicative of the average magnetic field in the solid angle of the sky covered by the jets. Using the total flux density and size of the MERLIN jets given in Table 1 we derive a field value of $`>8\times 10^3`$ G, although this is only a lower limit because the jet width is unresolved. The VLBA image by Paredes et al. (paredes00 (2000)), allowed them to estimate an approximate magnetic field of $`0.2`$ G for radio jets reaching up to a few mas. It is clear that a field of such intensity is more consistent with the $`ϵ<1`$ results than with the too high magnetic fields implied by a simple conical jet ($`ϵ=1`$). Therefore, a slowly expanding jet, and hence well collimated, is favored to power the LS~5039 radio emission up to $`1000`$ AU by the electrons that previously contributed to the $`\gamma `$-ray emission, without in situ acceleration being required. This is also in agreement with our upper limit of $`6\mathrm{°}`$ for the jet half opening angle.

## 5 Future prospects

The high eccentricity of LS~5039 provides both, a variable accretion rate along the orbit implying a variable rate of electrons injected into the jet, and a variable radiation energy density close to the compact object. Hence, it is predicted a variability in the $`\gamma `$-ray luminosity correlated with the orbital period, which may hopefully be detected by INTEGRAL and/or GLAST. On the other hand, if the star exhibits intrinsic variations in the UV photon flux, a variability in $`\gamma `$-rays would be seen correlated to it.

Since LS~5039 seems to have persistent radio jets, it would be interesting to study the possibility of detecting Doppler-shifted lines. As the jet flow has an estimated velocity of $`0.2c`$, the amount of Doppler-shift is expected to be comparable to that found in SS~433 (Kotani et al. kotani96 (1996); Marshall et al. marshall02 (2002)). Hence, spectroscopic X-ray observations with XMM or Chandra could be very useful to constrain the physics of the relativistic flow and to study the matter content within the jet. Finally, as pointed out by Levinson & Waxman (levinson01 (2001)) and by Distefano et al. (distefano02 (2002)), if the jets are hadronic we would expect the formation of TeV neutrinos, that could be detected in the future with detectors of km2-scale effective area.

Overall, these results confirm the existence of persistent relativistic radio jets in LS~5039, indicating that this source is a very good target to be studied with new instruments in order to gain knowledge on jet physics.

###### Acknowledgements.

We acknowledge J. García-Sánchez and A. Lobanov for their useful comments and suggestions after reading through a draft version of this paper. We acknowledge detailed and useful comments from L. F. Rodríguez, the referee of this Letter. We are very grateful to S. T. Garrington, M. A. Garrett, D. C. Gabuzda, and C. Reynolds for their valuable help in the data reduction process. This paper is based on observations with the 100-m telescope of the MPIfR (Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie) at Effelsberg. We thank the staff of the JIVE correlator and of the observing telescopes. The European VLBI Network is a joint facility of European, Chinese and other radio astronomy institutes funded by their national research councils. MERLIN is operated as a National Facility by the University of Manchester at Jodrell Bank Observatory on behalf of the UK Particle Physics & Astronomy Research Council. The EVN observations were carried out thanks to the TMR Access to Large-scale Facilities programme under contract No. ERBFMGECT950012. Part of the data reduction was done at JIVE with the support of the European Community - Access to Research Infrastructure action of the Improving Human Potential Programme, under contract No. HPRI-CT-1999-00045. J. M. P., M. R. and J. M. acknowledge partial support by DGI of the Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología (Spain) under grant AYA2001-3092, as well as partial support by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF/FEDER). During this work, M. R. has been supported by two fellowships from CIRIT (Generalitat de Catalunya, ref. 1998 BEAI 200293 and 1999 FI 00199). J. M. has been aided in this work by an Henri Chrétien International Research Grant administered by the AAS, and has been partially supported by the Junta de Andalucía.


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# Stick-Slip Motion and Phase Transition in a Block-Spring System

## 1 Introduction

Stick-slip behaviors in frictional motion have been observed in wide variety of systems such as atomically thin lubricant films , granular materials  and earthquake faults . Batista and Carlson proposed a phenomenological model of one block and one spring, in which the transition from steady sliding to stick slip occurs via a subcritical Hopf bifurcation. The block is subject to a friction force, which depends on the state of the sliding surface and the velocity of the block. A more complicated equation was proposed for the transition by Hayakawa. A chain of blocks and springs was studied numerically and experimentally by Burridge and Knopoff for the earthquake faults. Each block is connected to its neighbors with a harmonic spring and the blocks are further pulled individually forward through elastic coupling. Each block is subject to friction force, which depends only on the velocity of the block. Carlson and Langer studied numerically a homogeneous chain of blocks and springs being pulled slowly, more in detail. In their model, the sliding friction decreases with velocity (the velocity weakening friction) and the steady sliding motion is always unstable for all Fourier modes. All sizes of stick-slip events are observed and the size distribution exhibits a power law in small scales, but, great events occur more frequently than is expected from the power law.

In this paper, we study a modified version of the single block and spring system of Batista and Carlson more in detail. The friction force depends on the velocity and state variable, and the friction force increases with the velocity. Then, we study numerically a chain of blocks and springs, each of which obeys the modified model of Batista and Carlson. In contrast to the Carlson-Langer model, in which all blocks are pulled uniformly, only the first block is forced to move with velocity $`V`$ and the other blocks are coupled only with the neighbors by harmonic springs. This type of forcing was treated also in the original paper by Burridge and Knopoff.. Elmer studied this type of train model with velocity strengthening friction and found a size distribution with complex scaling exponents. Using this block-spring system, we find that a dynamical phase transition occurs from the steady sliding to stick slips, and the size distribution of the stick-slip events exhibits a power law in all scales at the critical point, however, great events occur more frequently as the parameter is decreased from the critical point.

## 2 Time Evolution and the Period of a Single Block and Spring System

The model equation of a single block and spring system is written as

$`M{\displaystyle \frac{d^2x}{dt^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`K(Vtx)F(\theta ,v),`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\theta }{dt}}`$ $`=`$ $`\theta (1\theta )\alpha \theta v,`$ (1)
where $`M,x`$ is the mass and the position of the block, $`v=dx/dt`$ is the velocity, $`K`$ is the spring constant, and $`V`$ is the pulling velocity. The state of the sliding surface is expressed by $`\theta `$. The value $`\theta =1`$ represents that the surface is in a solid state, and lower values of $`\theta `$ imply that the

surface is partially melted. The term $`\alpha \theta v>0`$ implies that the value of $`\theta `$ is decreased, i.e., the surface state becomes more melted, as the block velocity $`v`$ is increased. The sliding friction force $`F(\theta ,v)`$ is assumed to be

$$F(\theta ,v)=\sigma \theta +\beta v.$$

The sliding friction contains a standard term $`\beta v`$ which increases in proportion to the velocity, and the term $`\sigma \theta `$ which depends on the state variable. There are many parameters, however, eq. (1) can be rewritten by scale changes: $`x=\sigma /M\stackrel{~}{x},v=\sigma /M\stackrel{~}{v},V=\sigma /M\stackrel{~}{V},\stackrel{~}{K}=K/M,\stackrel{~}{\beta }=\beta /M`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }=\alpha \sigma /M`$ as

$$\frac{d^2\stackrel{~}{x}}{dt^2}=\stackrel{~}{K}(\stackrel{~}{V}t\stackrel{~}{x})\theta \stackrel{~}{\beta }\stackrel{~}{v},$$

$$\frac{d\theta }{dt}=\theta (1\theta )\stackrel{~}{\alpha }\theta \stackrel{~}{v}.$$

That is, the parameters $`M`$ and $`\sigma `$ can be fixed to be $`M=\sigma =1`$ in eq. (1), and only the parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ are important parameters. We have further fixed as $`\alpha =1`$ and studied the model system by changing $`\beta `$ in this paper for the sake of simplicity. We have tried several other parameter values of $`\alpha `$, and observed similar results. However, the detailed parameter survey is left to the future study. When the block velocity is decreased to zero, the block stops. The block does not move until the spring force $`K(Vtx)`$ goes over a limit value $`F_s`$ of the static friction. We have assumed that $`F_s`$ is constant and it is definitely larger than $`\sigma \theta `$ in contrast to the model of Batista and Carlson.

A steady sliding solution is expressed as $`v=v_0=V,\theta =\theta _0=1V`$ and $`x=x_0=Vt\{1(1\beta )V\}/K`$. The stability can be investigated from the linearized equation of eq. (1)

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^2\delta x}{dt^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`K\delta x\delta \theta \beta \delta v,`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\delta \theta }{dt}}`$ $`=`$ $`(12\theta _0v_0)\delta \theta \theta _0\delta v.`$ (2)
For example, the Hopf bifurcation occurs at $`V_c=0.106`$ for $`K=10`$ and $`\beta =0.08`$. The steady sliding solution becomes unstable and only the stick-slip motion appears for $`V<V_c`$. However, the bifurcation is subcritical and the stick-slip motion appears in wide range of parameters. For example, the steady sliding solution is linearly stable for any $`V>0`$ for $`K=10`$ and $`\beta =1`$. Stick-slip motion appears at $`V=0.001`$ as shown in Fig. 1. The numerical simulation was performed with the Heun method with time step 0.005. The initial condition is $`x(0)=0,v(0)=0`$ and $`\theta (0)=0.1`$. The inverse transition from stick slip to steady sliding occurs at $`V=0.345`$ for $`\beta =1`$ and $`F_s=3`$, as $`V`$ is slowly increased. The time evolution of $`v=dx/dt`$ and $`\theta (t)`$ in the slip process hardly depends on the pulling velocity $`V`$, when $`V`$ is sufficiently small, which was pointed out in a granular experiment by Nasuno et al. . The time evolution in the slip process in the limit of $`V=0`$ is expected to obey

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^2x^{}}{dt^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`F_sKx^{}\theta \beta v,`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\theta }{dt}}`$ $`=`$ $`\theta (1\theta )\theta v,\mathrm{for}t_c<t<t_e`$ (3)
where $`t_c`$ and $`t_e`$ are the starting and ending time of a slip process, the position variable is changed as $`x^{}(t)=xx(t_c)`$, and the pulling velocity $`V`$ is neglected, and the fact that the spring force $`K(Vtx)`$ is equal to $`F_s`$ at the starting time $`t=t_c`$ is used. The initial condition for eq. (3) is $`x^{}(t_c)=0`$, $`v(t_c)=dx^{}/dt=dx/dt=0`$ and $`\theta (t_c)=1`$, since the state variable is recovered to 1 during a long stick interval. Figure 2(a) compares two time evolutions of $`v(tt_c)`$ for eq. (1) at $`V=0.001`$ and eq. (3) for $`F_s=3`$, and Fig. 2(b) compares two phase portraits of $`(v(tt_c),\theta (tt_c))`$ for eq. (1) at $`V=0.001`$ and eq. (3) for $`F_s=3`$. The difference cannot be seen in these plots. The interval of the stick depends strongly on $`V`$. According to the numerical simulation of eq. (3), the time when the block stop again is $`t_e=t_c+1.035`$, and $`F_sKx^{}=0.432`$ at the time $`t=t_e`$. The spring force $`f`$ is slowly increased as $`f=K(Vtx)`$ in the stick interval, until the limit $`f=F_s=3`$ of the static friction. The interval of the stick process is therefore evaluated as $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=3.432/(KV)`$. The total period $`T`$ is therefore evaluated as $`T=t_et_c+\mathrm{\Delta }t=1.035+3.432/(KV)`$. Figure 3 displays numerically obtained values of the periods of the stick slip motions and the theoretical curve. These numerical results support the model equation eq. (3) for $`V=0`$. We have shown some numerical results for specific parameter values, however, the qualitative properties do not depend on the parameter values.

## 3 Dynamic Phase Transition in a Long Chain of Blocks and Springs

Next we consider a chain of N blocks and N springs. The model equation is written as

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^2x_i}{dt^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`K(x_{i+1}2x_i+x_{i1})F(\theta _i,v_i),`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\theta _i}{dt}}`$ $`=`$ $`\theta _i(1\theta _i)\theta _iv_i+D(\theta _{i+1}2\theta _i+\theta _{i1}),i=1,2,\mathrm{}N`$ (4)
where $`x_i,v_i`$ and $`\theta _i`$ represent respectively position, velocity and state variable for the $`i`$th block, $`K`$ is the spring constant, and a diffusion type coupling with strength $`D`$ is assumed in the equation of the state variable. The sliding friction is assumed to be $`F(\theta _i,v_i)=\theta _i+\beta v_i`$ for nonzero $`v_i`$. Once the $`i`$th block stops, the block does not move until the spring force goes over the maximum value $`F_s`$ of the static friction as the case of the single block-spring system. The first block is assumed to be pulled with a constant velocity as $`x_0=Vt`$. The steady sliding solution is written as $`v_i=v_0=V,\theta _i=\theta _0=1V`$ and $`x_i=Vt\{1(1\beta )V\}/K\{N^2(iN)^2\}/2`$. The steadily sliding state is nonuniformly strained. The stability of the steadily sliding solution can be investigated from the linearized equation of eq. (4)

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^2\delta x_i}{dt^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`K(\delta x_{i+1}2\delta x_i+\delta x_{i1})\delta \theta _i\beta \delta v_i,`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\delta \theta _i}{dt}}`$ $`=`$ $`(12\theta _0v_0)\delta \theta _i\theta _0\delta v_i+D(\delta \theta _{i+1}2\delta \theta _i+\delta \theta _{i1}).`$ (5)
The real parts of the largest two eigenvalues for the Fourier modes with wavenumber $`k`$ are shown at three parameter values 0.5,1 and 1.5 of $`\beta `$ for $`K=10`$ and $`D=5`$ in Fig. 4. The steady sliding solution becomes unstable against long wavelength perturbations for $`\beta 1`$. The parameter $`\beta =1`$ is a critical value.

We have performed numerical simulations with $`N=399`$ for $`K=10,D=5,V=0.001`$ and $`F_s=3`$. No-flux boundary conditions are assumed: $`x_{N+1}=x_N,\theta _{N+1}=\theta _N`$ and $`\theta _1=\theta _2`$. The initial conditions are $`x_i(0)=0,v_i(0)=0.1`$ and $`\theta _i(0)=0.1`$. Irregular stick-slip motions are observed initially. A steady sliding state is finally obtained for $`\beta >1`$ after a long run, however, stick-slip motions are maintained for $`\beta 1`$. Figure 5(a) compares a snapshot pattern of $`x_i(t)`$ at $`t=2\times 10^7`$ for $`\beta =1`$ with the steady sliding solution $`x_i=Vt\{1(1\beta )V\}/K\{N^2(iN)^2\}/2`$. The good agreement implies that the stick-slip state is very close to the steady sliding solution at $`\beta =1`$. The average value of the total length $`L=x_1x_N`$ is displayed in Fig. 5(b). For $`\beta >1`$, the steady sliding solution appears and the total length is close to $`L=\{1(1\beta )V\}N^2/2`$. In the stick slip phase, the total length decreases continuously from the value of the steady sliding solution. These results suggest that the transition from the steady sliding phase to the stick slip phase is a continuous transition. Chaotic motion appears at the onset of the instability.

The slip motion starts at $`i=1`$ in most cases and the rupture process propagates and ends at a certain position. There are a long interval of stick between two slip motions for small pulling velocity $`V`$. The slip events occur in a variety of sizes. In small slips, the rupture process ends at small $`i`$. In large slips, the rupture reaches $`i=N`$. Figure 6 displays time evolutions of a large-size slip near $`t=19100`$ and an intermediate-size slip near $`t=40400`$, where the displacement $`\mathrm{\Delta }x_i=x_i(t+\mathrm{\Delta }t)x_i(t)`$ during a time interval $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=20`$ is plotted. The leading edge of the rupture propagates with a nearly constant velocity $`c=1.43`$ for large $`i`$, which is fairly smaller than the sound velocity $`\sqrt{K}=3.16`$. (Langer and Tang studied rupture propagation in their homogeneous model, epicenters are randomly distributed, and the rupture propagates in both directions from the epicenter. )

Figure 7 (a) and (b) display a distribution of the event size and the time evolution of the event at $`\beta =1`$. Here the event size is defined as the total displacement $`S=_{i=1}^N\mathrm{\Delta }x_i`$ during each slip event. For the critical parameter $`\beta =1`$, the distribution exhibits a power law with exponent nearly 1.5. Various size of events occur as is seen in Fig. 7(b). The largest size seems to be determined by the system size. Figure 7 (a) and (b) display a distribution of the event size and the time evolution of the event at $`\beta =0.2`$. For $`\beta =0.2`$, the distribution seems to obey a power law with exponent about 1.6 for small events, however, the distribution deviates from the power law and very large events occur more frequently than is expected from the power law. Very large events with similar sizes occur frequently.

## 4 Summary and Discussion

We have proposed a model which exhibits a phase transition from steady sliding to stick slip. For a single block spring system, we have reconfirmed that the time evolution in the slip process hardly depends on the pulling velocity $`V`$ when $`V`$ is sufficiently small. The equation of the time evolution and the period have been evaluated in the limit $`V=0`$. Hayakawa evaluated similar quantities for his model through the reduction to the Amontons-Cloulomb model in the limit of $`V=0`$, neglecting the friction force . We have evaluated the period in the limit $`V=0`$, retaining the friction force. In a long chain of blocks and springs, the blocks are connected to the neighbors only with harmonic springs, and only the first block is pulled with a constant velocity $`V`$. We have found a continuous transition from steady sliding to stick slip. In most cases, slip processes, i.e., ruptures start from the first block. At the critical point, the distribution of slip size obeys a power law, however, large events with a typical size occur more frequently than is expected from the power law for small $`\beta `$, which is consistent with the model of Carlson and Langer. Our model is a deterministic system, however, it exhibits a dynamical phase transition similar to the thermodynamic phase transition including the critical phenomena. Bifurcations and chaotic behaviors were studied in a model of two blocks and the connecting springs by Vieira , but our model of a long chain of blocks and springs exhibits a continuous transition from a stationary sliding state to a spatio-temporal chaotic state. Our model suggests that the size distribution depends on a parameter, and the power law distribution is observed near the transition point, although direct relevance to physical systems such as earthquakes is not clear yet.


text:
# QCD soft gluon exponentiation: YFS MC ApproachWork partly supported by the US Department of Energy Contract DE-FG05-91ER40627 , by NATO Grant PST.CLG.977751, and by Polish Government grant 5P03B09320.

## 1 Introduction

The problem of soft gluon resummation is well known  and some of its many phenomenological applications are also: the FNAL tt̄ production cross section higher order corrections ( the current situation  has the experimental cross section $`6.2\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{+1.2}{1.1}`$pb to be compared with a theoretical prediction  of $`5.1\pm 0.5`$pb) and the attendant soft gluon uncertainty in the extracted value of $`m_t=0.1743\pm 0.0051`$TeV, where  $`23`$GeV of the latter error could be due to soft gluon uncertainties; RHIC hard scattering polarized pp scattering processes, etc. For the LHC/TESLA/LC, the requirements on the corresponding theoretical precisions will be even more demanding and the QCD soft $`n(G)`$ MC exponentiation which we discuss in the following will be an important part of the necessary theory – YFS  exponentiated $`𝒪(\alpha _s^2)L`$ corrections realized on an event-by-event basis.

The results which we present also will allow us to investigate from a different perspective some of the outstanding theoretical issues in perturbative QCD, such as the treatment of phase space, no-go theorems for the soft regime, etc. – see ref. .

For definiteness, we will use the process in Fig. 1 , $`\overline{Q}(p_1)Q(q_1)\overline{t}(p_2)t(p_1)+G_1(k_1)\mathrm{}G_n(k_n)`$, as our proto-typical process.

Extension of the methods we develop to other related processes will be immediate – one of us (B.F.L.W.) has realized a new approach to quantum gravity as a by-product. Although we shall use the older EEX formulation of YFS MC exponentiation as defined in ref. , the realization of our results via the the newer CEEX formulation of YFS exponentiation in ref.  is also possible and is in progress .

After a brief review of the QED case, we prove our result for the QCD case and conclude with some illstrative results.

## 2 Review of YFS Theory: An Abelian Gauge Theory Example

The Abelian gauge theory example of QED has been worked-out and realized in many applications for SLC/LEP1 and LEP2 physics in the MC’s YFS2, YFS3, BHLUMI, BHWIDE, KORALZ, $`𝒦𝒦`$ MC, YFSWW3, YFSZZ and KoralW by S. Jadach et al. in refs. . For example, for the process $`e^+(p_1)e^{}(q_1)\overline{f}(p_2)f(q_2)+n(\gamma )(k_1,,k_n)`$, renormalization group improved YFS theory  gives

$`d\sigma _{exp}=e^{2\alpha ReB+2\alpha \stackrel{~}{B}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{n!}}{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{d^3k_j}{k_j^0}\frac{d^4y}{\left(2\pi \right)^4}}`$
$`e^{iy\left(p_1+q_1p_2q_2_jk_j\right)+D}\overline{\beta }_n(k_1,\mathrm{},k_n){\displaystyle \frac{d^3p_2d^3q_2}{p_2^0q_2^0}}`$ (1)
where the YFS infrared functions $`\stackrel{~}{B},B`$ and the IR finite function $`D`$ are known . For example, the YFS hard photon residuals $`\overline{\beta }_i`$ in (1), $`i=0,1,2`$, are given in refs.  for BHLUMI 4.04 realizing the YFS exponentiated exact $`𝒪(\alpha )`$ and LL $`𝒪(\alpha ^2)`$ cross section for Bhabha scattering via a corresponding Monte Carlo implementation of (1). Here, we will develop and apply the analogous theoretical paradigm to the prototypical QCD higher order radiative corrections problem for $`Q\overline{Q}t\overline{t}+n(G)`$.

## 3 Extension to non-Abelian Gauge Theories: Proof

Viewing the YFS theory as a general re-arrangement of renormalized perturbation theory based on its IR behavior just as the renormalization group as a general property of renormalized perturbation theory based on its UV(ultra-violet) behavior, for the process $`q_i+\overline{q}_it\overline{t}+n(G)`$, let the amplitude be $`_{\gamma \overline{\gamma }}^{(n)\alpha \overline{\alpha }}=_{\mathrm{}}M_{\gamma \overline{\gamma }\mathrm{}}^{(n)\alpha \overline{\alpha }}`$, where $`M_{\mathrm{}}^{(n)}`$ is the contribution to $`^{(n)}`$ from Feynman diagrams with $`\mathrm{}`$ virtual loops. If $`S_{QCD}(k)`$, as defined in ref.  is the virtual gluon IR emission factor, we get the “YFS representation”, by analogy with the YFS analysis,

$$^{(n)}=exp(\alpha _sB_{QCD})\underset{j=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝗆_j^{(n)},$$
(2)
where $`\alpha _s(Q)B_{QCD}`$ is the usual YFS integral  of $`S_{QCD}(k)`$ and $`𝗆_j^{(n)}`$ do not contain the virtual IR singularities in the product $`S_{QCD}(k_1)\mathrm{}S_{QCD}(k_i)`$.

For the respective real IR singularities, we proceed as in ref.  so that, for the real emission factor $`\stackrel{~}{S}_{QCD}(k)`$ defined in ref. , upon effecting the analogous YFS expansion in $`\stackrel{~}{S}_{QCD}(k)`$ and summing on $`n`$, we arrive at the “YFS-like” result

$`d\widehat{\sigma }_{\mathrm{exp}}={\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}d\widehat{\sigma }^n=e^{\mathrm{SUM}_{\mathrm{IR}}(\mathrm{QCD})}{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{d^3k_j}{k_{}^{0}{}_{j}{}^{}}}`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^4y}{(2\pi )^4}e^{iy(p_1+q_1p_2q_2{\scriptscriptstyle k_j})+D_{\mathrm{QCD}}}}`$
$`\overline{\beta }_n(k_1,\mathrm{},k_n){\displaystyle \frac{d^3p_2}{p_2^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d^3q_2}{q_2^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}}},`$
(3)
where the IR finite functions $`SUM_{IR}(QCD),D_{\mathrm{QCD}}`$ are defined in ref.  and the $`\overline{\beta }_n`$ are the QCD hard gluon residuals .

Each order in $`\alpha _s`$ must make an infrared finite contribution to $`d\overline{\widehat{\sigma }}_{\mathrm{exp}}\mathrm{exp}[\mathrm{SUM}_{\mathrm{IR}}(\mathrm{QCD})]d\widehat{\sigma }_{\mathrm{exp}}`$ since both $`SUM_{IR}(QCD)`$ and $`d\widehat{\sigma }_{\mathrm{exp}}`$ are IR finite. If $`\overline{\beta }_n^{(\mathrm{})}=\stackrel{~}{\overline{\beta }}_n^{(\mathrm{})}+D\overline{\beta }_n^{(\mathrm{})}`$, where $`\stackrel{~}{\overline{\beta }}_n^{(\mathrm{})}`$ is completely free of IR divergences, then the IR finiteness just noted allows  us to conclude that the contributions from the $`\{D\overline{\beta }_n^{(\mathrm{})}\}`$ cancel in $`d\widehat{\sigma }_{\mathrm{exp}}`$ so that we arrive at the new result

$`d\widehat{\sigma }_{\mathrm{exp}}={\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}d\widehat{\sigma }^n=e^{\mathrm{SUM}_{\mathrm{IR}}(\mathrm{QCD})}{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{d^3k_j}{k_j}}`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^4y}{(2\pi )^4}e^{iy(p_1+q_1p_2q_2{\scriptscriptstyle k_j})+D_{\mathrm{QCD}}}}`$
$`\stackrel{~}{\overline{\beta }}_n(k_1,\mathrm{},k_n){\displaystyle \frac{d^3p_2}{p_2^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d^3q_2}{q_2^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}}},`$
(4)
where the new hard gluon residuals $`\stackrel{~}{\overline{\beta }}_n(k_1,\mathrm{},k_n)=_{\mathrm{}=0}^{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{~}{\overline{\beta }}_n^{(\mathrm{})}(k_1,\mathrm{},k_n)`$ are completely free of IR divergences. Earlier arguments in ref.  were insufficient to derive the analog of (4.

There are many consequences of (4) and the theory which underlies it . We illustrate some of them in the next section. In addition, one of us (B.F.L.W.) recently pointed-out  that the YFS resummed propagators in quantum gravity, via the formula

$`i\mathrm{\Delta }_F^{}(k)|_{YFSresummed}={\displaystyle \frac{ie^{B_g^{\prime \prime }(k)}}{(k^2m^2\mathrm{\Sigma }_s^{}+iϵ)}},`$ (5)
with the graviton exponent, in the deep UV, ( here, $`\kappa ^2=8\pi G_N`$ )

$`B_g^{\prime \prime }(k)={\displaystyle \frac{\kappa ^2|k^2|}{8\pi ^2}}\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{m^2}{m^2+|k^2|}}\right),`$ (6)
leads to exponential damping of all propagators in the deep UV and thereby by to UV finite loop corrections for quantum gravity. This is then a new approach  to quantum gravity.

## 4 YFS Exponentiated QCD Corrections to tt̄ Production at High Energies

We have realized the result (4) via semi-analytical methods and via MC methods . Here we illustrate these realizations.

For the process $`p\overline{p}t\overline{t}+X`$ at FNAL energies, we use a semi-analytical realization of (4) together with the standard formula structure function formula  for $`\sigma (t\overline{t}+X)`$, where the DGLAP synthesization procedure presented in ref.  is applied to avoid over-counting resummation effects already included in the structure function DGLAP evolution. In the MC realization, we employ the MC methods of ref.  to get the MC ttp1.0 as the respective event-by-event simulation. For the semi-analytical analysis, we have found in ref.  the normalization $`n(G)`$ effect ($`r_{exp}^{nls}`$ is the ratio of the exponentiated and Born cross sections) $`r_{exp}^{nls}=1.086,1.103,1.110`$ for $`\alpha _s`$ evaluated at the scales $`\sqrt{s},2m_t,m_t`$, respectively, which implies  that the corrections for $`𝒪(\alpha _s^n,n2)`$ give $`0.0060.008`$ of the NLO cross section, in agreement with ref. . This is an important cross check of our methods.

For the MC data from ttp1.0, which are preliminary, show in Fig. 2

where we see in the gluon transverse momentum distribution that $`<p_{}>`$ is indeed large at FNAL and its effect must be taken into account in precision studies of the top quark production and decay systematics.

One of us (B.F.L.W.) thanks Prof. S. Bethke for the support and kind hospitality of the MPI, Munich, during the final stages of this work. The authors also thank Profs. G. Altarelli and Prof. Wolf-Dieter Schlatter for the support and kind hospitality of CERN while a part of this work was completed. These same two authors also thank Profs. F. Gilman and W. Bardeen of the former SSCL for their kind hospitality while this work was in its development stages.


text:
# Topics in Electroweak Physics

## 1 Effective Scheme of Renormalization

Precise calculations in the Standard Model (SM) are based on a number of renormalization frameworks. Two of the most frequently employed are: 1) the On-Shell Scheme (OS)  2) the $`\overline{MS}`$ approach . The OS scheme is “very physical” in the sense that the renormalized parameters are identified with physical, scale-independent observables, such as $`\alpha `$, $`G_F`$, $`M_Z`$, $`M_W`$, …The $`\overline{MS}`$ approach is frequently applied in a hybrid version, with couplings defined by $`\overline{MS}`$ subtractions, but retaining physical masses. It employs scale-dependent parameters such as $`\widehat{s}^2\mathrm{sin}^2\widehat{\theta }(\mu )`$, $`\widehat{e}^2(\mu )`$ (usually evaluated at $`\mu =M_Z`$) and exhibits very good convergence properties . It plays an important rôle in the analysis of Grand Unified Theories. However, it leads to a residual scale dependence in finite orders of perturbation theory (PT). Very recently, a novel approach, called the Effective Scheme of Renormalization (EFF), was proposed . It shares the good convergence properties of the $`\overline{MS}`$ scheme, but it eliminates the residual scale dependence in finite orders of PT. A distinguishing feature is that the basic electroweak mixing parameter (EWMP) is directly identified with $`s_{eff}^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{eff}^{lept}`$ , employed by the Electroweak Working Group (EWWG) to describe the on-resonance asymmetries measured at LEP and SLC. It may be evaluated by means of the basic relation

$$s_{eff}^2c_{eff}^2=\frac{\pi \alpha }{\sqrt{2}G_FM_Z^2\left(1\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}\right)},$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}`$ is the relevant radiative correction. In order to calculate $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}`$ the following strategy was followed:
i) Since current calculations of $`s_{eff}^2`$ incorporate two-loop effects enhanced by powers $`(M_t^2/M_Z^2)^n`$ (with $`n=1,2`$), we first express $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}`$ in terms of corrections $`\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{r}_W`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{\rho }`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{k}`$ and $`\widehat{f}`$, for which the irreducible contributions of this order have been evaluated . ii) To ensure the absence of a residual scale dependence, we use scale-independent couplings, such as $`e^2`$, $`s_{eff}^2`$, $`G_F`$, $`M_Z^2`$, retain only two-loop effects enhanced by factors $`(M_t^2/M_Z^2)^n`$ ($`n=1,2`$), and employ a single definition of the EWMP, identified with $`s_{eff}^2`$. In particular, $`\widehat{s}^2`$ can be expressed in terms of $`s_{eff}^2`$ by means of the relation

$$s_{eff}^2=\left[1+\frac{\widehat{e}^2}{\widehat{s}^2}\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{k}(M_Z^2,\mu )\right]\widehat{s}^2(\mu ),$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{k}(q^2,\mu )`$ is an electroweak form factor . The analysis leads to the expression :

$$\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}=\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{r}_W\frac{e^2}{s_{eff}^2}\left[\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{\rho }\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{k}\left(1\frac{s_{eff}^2}{c_{eff}^2}\right)\right]$$

$$\frac{e^2}{s_{eff}^2}x_t\left[2\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{\rho }\left(\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{\rho }\right)_{lead}\widehat{f}+\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{k}\frac{s_{eff}^2}{c_{eff}^2}\right],$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{\rho }Re\left[A_{WW}(M_W^2)\widehat{c}^2A_{ZZ}(M_Z^2)\right]/M_W^2`$, $`x_t=3G_FM_t^2/(8\sqrt{2}\pi ^2)`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{r}_W=2\delta e/e+(e^2/\widehat{s}^2)\widehat{f}`$, $`\left(\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{\rho }\right)_{lead}=\left(3/64\pi ^2\right)M_t^2/M_W^2`$, $`\widehat{f}\left(ReA_{WW}(M_W^2)A_{WW}(0)\right)/M_W^2+V_W+M_W^2B_W`$, $`A_{WW}`$ and $`A_{ZZ}`$ are the $`W`$ and $`Z`$ self-energies modulo a factor $`\widehat{e}^2/\widehat{s}^2`$, $`V_W`$ and $`B_W`$ are vertex and box corrections contributing to $`\mu `$-decay, and $`\delta e`$ stands for the charge renormalization counterterm. It is understood that, in Eq. (3), $`\widehat{s}^2`$ is replaced everywhere by $`s_{eff}^2`$. The corrections $`\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{r}_W`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{\rho }`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{k}`$, and $`\widehat{f}`$ depend also on $`c^2=M_W^2/M_Z^2`$. In order to obtain an expression that depends solely on $`c_{eff}^2=1s_{eff}^2`$, $`M_W^2`$ is replaced by $`c^2M_Z^2`$; in two-loop contributions, $`c^2`$ is replaced by $`c_{eff}^2`$, since the difference is of third order; in one-loop corrections, a Taylor expansion about $`c^2=c_{eff}^2`$ is made, in conjunction with the one-loop expression for $`c^2c_{eff}^2`$. The corresponding expression for $`M_W`$ is given in Ref. . An interesting feature is that the calculation of $`s_{eff}^2`$ is completely decoupled from that of $`M_W`$, while the $`s_{eff}^2`$ results are employed to calculate $`M_W`$. The results for the leptonic partial widths $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_l`$ of the $`Z`$ have been recently obtained . A detailed comparison shows that, for $`M_H=100\text{GeV}`$, the difference $`|s_{eff}^2(\overline{MS})s_{eff}^2(EFF)|`$ of the $`\overline{MS}`$ and EFF calculation of $`s_{eff}^2`$ is $`10^5`$ over the range $`30\text{GeV}\mu 200\text{GeV}`$ and exhibits a maximum at $`\mu 70\text{GeV}`$. In the $`M_W`$ case, one finds $`|M_W(\overline{MS})M_W(EFF)|1\text{MeV}`$ over the range $`50\text{GeV}\mu 205\text{GeV}`$ and a maximum at $`\mu 100\text{GeV}`$. At $`\mu =300\text{GeV}`$, the differences amount to $`3\times 10^5`$ and $`3\text{MeV}`$, respectively. These findings give support to the usual choice $`\mu =M_Z`$ in the $`\overline{MS}`$ calculations of observables in the resonance region. It should be pointed out, however, that this satisfactory state of affairs holds when the corrections of $`𝒪\left(\alpha ^2(M_t/M_W)^2\right)`$ are included. If these contributions are excluded, $`M_W(\overline{MS})`$ is a monotonically decreasing function of $`\mu `$ over the range $`30\text{GeV}\mu 500\text{GeV}`$ , and the choice of scale is very ambiguous. In summary, the EFF approach has the virtue of eliminating the scale ambiguity which, in some cases, may create a significant theoretical uncertainty.

## 2 Evidence for Electroweak Bosonic Corrections

It turns out that $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}`$ is very sensitive to electroweak bosonic contributions (EWBC), i.e. corrections involving virtual bosons: $`W`$’s, $`Z`$, $`H`$, $`\varphi `$’s. They are subleading numerically, but very important conceptually! One way to obtain sharp evidence for these corrections is to measure $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}`$. Using the current experimental value $`(s_{eff}^2)_{exp}=0.23149\pm 0.00017`$ and Eq.(1), we find $`(\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff})_{exp}=0.06047\pm 0.00048`$. On the other hand, subtracting the EWBC, the theoretical evaluation leads to: $`(\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff})_{theor}^{subtr}=0.05106\pm 0.00083`$. The difference is $`0.00941\pm 0.00096`$, thus providing evidence for the presence of EWBC at the $`9.8\sigma `$ level !

## 3 The Higgs-less Scenario

The corrections $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }r`$ have been also employed to discuss the scale of new physics in a hypothetical scenario in which the Higgs boson is absent . At the one-loop level, the Higgs boson contribution to $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}`$ is a complicated function of $`\xi =M_H^2/M_Z^2`$, given in Ref. . It may be written in the form

$$(\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff})_H=\frac{\alpha }{4\pi \widehat{s}^2\widehat{c}^2}(\frac{5}{3}\frac{3}{2}c^2)$$

$$\times \left(\frac{1}{n4}+C+\mathrm{ln}\frac{M_Z}{\mu }\right)+(\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff})_H^{\overline{MS}},$$
(4)
where the first term is the divergent part and the second one is the $`\overline{MS}`$-renormalized contribution evaluated at $`\mu =M_Z`$ ($`C=[\gamma \mathrm{ln}4\pi ]/2`$, $`\mu =`$’t Hooft scale). Subtracting $`(\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff})_H`$ from $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}`$ we have

$$\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}(\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff})_H=\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}(\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff})_H^{\overline{MS}}$$

$$\frac{\alpha }{4\pi \widehat{s}^2\widehat{c}^2}(\frac{5}{3}\frac{3}{2}c^2)(\frac{1}{n4}+C+\mathrm{ln}\frac{M_Z}{\mu }).$$
(5)
Clearly, Eq.(5) is divergent and scale dependent. We now conjecture that contributions from unknown new physics (NP) cancel the divergence and scale dependence of Eq.(5). Thus, the NP contribution to $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}`$ must be of the form:

$$X=\frac{\alpha }{4\pi \widehat{s}^2\widehat{c}^2}(\frac{5}{3}\frac{3}{2}c^2)\left(\frac{1}{n4}+C+\mathrm{ln}\frac{M}{\mu }\right).$$
(6)
We note that in the $`\overline{MS}`$ renormalization approach, the term proportional to $`\mathrm{ln}M/\mu `$ represents the NP contribution to $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}`$ at scale $`\mu `$. If the NP is characterized by a scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, we may decompose

$$\mathrm{ln}\frac{M}{\mu }=\mathrm{ln}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\mu }+K,$$
(7)
where the term involving $`K\mathrm{ln}\frac{M}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ represents the NP contribution to $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}`$ at scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. Adding $`X`$ to $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}(\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff})_H`$ we find the expression for $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}`$ in the new scenario (NS) in which the Higgs boson contribution has been replaced by new physics:

$`(\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff})_{NS}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}(\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff})_H^{\overline{MS}}`$ (8)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha }{4\pi \widehat{s}^2\widehat{c}^2}}({\displaystyle \frac{5}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}c^2)\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{M}{M_Z}}.`$
The last term represents the NP contribution to $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}`$ at scale $`M_Z`$. Calculating $`\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff}(\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff})_H^{\overline{MS}}`$ and equating $`(\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff})_{NS}=(\mathrm{\Delta }r_{eff})_{exp}`$, we can determine $`\mathrm{ln}\frac{M}{M_Z}`$. Employing $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha _h^{(5)}=0.02761\pm 0.00036`$ and the other experimental inputs, one finds

$$\mathrm{ln}\frac{M}{M_Z}=0.307\pm 0.485,$$
(9)
which corresponds to a central value $`M_c=124\text{GeV}`$ and a 95% CL upper bound $`M^{95}=275\text{GeV}`$. If the model-dependent constant $`K`$ is positive, we see from Eq.(7) that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is sharply bounded: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }275\text{GeV}\mathrm{@}\text{95\% CL}`$. Instead, if $`K<0`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is not bounded by these considerations. Thus, we can group the NP models into two classes, according to the sign of $`K`$. Furthermore, if for instance $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=1\text{TeV}`$, we have $`\mathrm{ln}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{M_Z}=2.395`$ and we find from Eqs.(7,9) that $`K=2.088\pm 0.435`$. Thus, for such $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ values, a substantial cancellation of logarithmic and constant terms is required . Similar results are obtained from the corresponding analysis of $`\mathrm{\Delta }r`$ .

## 4 Simple formulae for $`s_{eff}^2`$, $`M_W`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_l`$

Simple formulae that reproduce accurately the numerical results of the codes in the range $`20\text{GeV}M_H300\text{GeV}`$, probed by recent experiments, have been presented . They are of the form:

$`s_{eff}^2`$ $`=`$ $`(s_{eff}^2)_0+c_1A_1+c_5A_1^2+c_2A_2`$ (10)
$`c_3A_3+c_4A_4,`$
$`M_W`$ $`=`$ $`M_W^0d_1A_1d_5A_1^2d_2A_2`$ (11)
$`+d_3A_3d_4A_4,`$
$`\mathrm{\Gamma }_l`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_l^0g_1A_1g_5A_1^2g_2A_2`$ (12)
$`+g_3A_3g_4A_4,`$
where $`A_1\mathrm{ln}\left(M_H/100\text{GeV}\right)`$, $`A_2\left[\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha _h^{(5)}/0.02761\right]1`$, $`A_3\left(M_t/174.3\text{GeV}\right)^21`$, $`A_4\left[\alpha _s(M_Z)/0.118\right]1`$. The constants $`c_i`$, $`d_i`$, $`g_i`$ $`(i=15)`$ are given in Ref.  for the EFF, $`\overline{MS}`$, and OS schemes of renormalization. Furthermore, Eqs.(10-12) retain their accuracy over the range of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha _h^{(5)}`$ results from recent calculations. Using Eq. (10) in the EFF scheme and $`(s_{eff}^2)_{exp}=`$ $`0.23149\pm 0.00017`$, one finds $`M_H=124_{52}^{+82}\text{GeV}`$ and a 95% CL upper bound $`M_H^{95}=280\text{GeV}`$. Instead, Eq. (11) and $`(M_W)_{exp}=80.451\pm 0.033\text{GeV}`$ lead to $`M_H=23_{23}^{+49}\text{GeV}`$, $`M_H^{95}=122\text{GeV}`$. Thus, $`M_W`$ constrains $`M_H`$ much more sharply than $`s_{eff}^2`$! It is important to note that the $`M_H^{95}`$ value derived from $`M_W`$, and the direct exclusion bound $`M_H>114\text{GeV}`$ @ 95% CL, suggest a very narrow window for $`M_H`$! One may also extract $`A_1`$ from $`(s_{eff}^2)_{exp}`$ and Eq. (10), to predict $`M_W`$ via Eq. (11): $`(M_W)_{indir.}=80.374\pm 0.025\text{GeV}`$, which is close to the corresponding value $`(M_W)_{indir.}=80.379\pm 0.023\text{GeV}`$ obtained in the global analysis , and differs from $`(M_W)_{exp.}`$ by $`1.86\sigma `$. Finally, we may use simultaneously Eq. (10-12) in conjunction with $`(s_{eff}^2)_{exp}`$, $`(M_W)_{exp}`$, and $`(\mathrm{\Gamma }_l)_{exp}`$ to obtain $`M_H=97_{41}^{+66}\text{GeV}`$, $`M_H^{95}=223\text{GeV}`$, to be compared with $`M_H=85_{34}^{+54}\text{GeV}`$, $`M_H^{95}=196\text{GeV}`$ in the recent EWWG fit.
The current determination of $`(s_{eff}^2)_{exp}`$ has $`\chi ^2/\text{d.o.f.}=10.6/5`$, corresponding to a CL of only $`6\%`$, and shows an intriguing dichotomy: the leptonic observables ($`A_l(SLD)`$, $`A_l(P_\tau )`$, $`A_{fb}^{(0,l)}`$) lead to $`(s_{eff}^2)_l=0.23113\pm 0.00021`$, while the value from the hadronic ones ($`A_{fb}^{(0,b)}`$,$`A_{fb}^{(0,c)}`$, $`<Q_{fb}>`$) is $`(s_{eff}^2)_h=0.23220\pm 0.00029`$. Thus, there is a $`3\sigma `$ difference between the two determinations! Furthermore, from $`(s_{eff}^2)_l`$ one finds $`M_H=59_{29}^{+50}\text{GeV}`$, $`M_H^{95}=158\text{GeV}`$, closer to the result from $`(M_W)_{exp}`$. If $`(s_{eff}^2)_l(s_{eff}^2)_h`$ reflects a statistical fluctuation, one possibility is to enlarge the error by $`[\chi ^2/\text{d.o.f.}]^{1/2}`$ (PDG prescription), leading to $`s_{eff}^2=0.23149\pm 0.00025`$. Interestingly, increasing the error in $`s_{eff}^2`$ leads to smaller $`M_H^{95}`$ in the combined $`s_{eff}^2`$-$`M_W`$-$`\mathrm{\Gamma }_l`$ analysis: $`223\text{GeV}201\text{GeV}`$! The reason is that this procedure gives enhanced weight to the $`M_W`$ input, which prefers a smaller $`M_H`$. If $`(s_{eff}^2)_l(s_{eff}^2)_h`$ is due to new physics involving the $`(t,b)`$ generation, a substantial, tree-level change in the $`Zb_R\overline{b}_R`$ coupling is required . If the discrepancy were to settle on the leptonic side, a scenario with light $`\stackrel{~}{\nu }`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{g}`$ would improve the agreement with the electroweak data and the direct lower bound on $`M_H`$ .
It has been pointed out by several people that, if the central values of $`M_t`$ and $`M_W`$ remain as they are now, but the errors shrink sharply as expected at Tevatron/LHC or even much better at LC + GigaZ, a discrepancy would be established with the SM, that can be accommodated in the MSSM!
The comparison of the calculations of $`s_{eff}^2`$, $`M_W`$, and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_l`$ in the EFF, $`\overline{MS}`$, and OS frameworks has been applied to study the scheme dependence and to estimate the theoretical error arising from the truncation of the perturbative series . Including QCD uncertainties, the theoretical errors have been estimated to be $`\delta s_{eff}^26\times 10^5`$ and $`\delta M_W7\text{MeV}`$.

## 5 Field Renormalization Constant for Unstable Particles

In Ref.  it was found that, in the gauge theory context, the conventional definitions of mass and width of unstable particles are gauge dependent in next-to-next-to-leading order (NNLO). Furthermore, the conventional expression for the field renormalization constant tends to 0 as the particle mass approaches from below some physical thresholds, which implies the absurd conclusion that, in such a case, all decays are forbidden. In Ref. , it was proposed that the first problem can be solved by considering the complex valued position $`\overline{s}`$ of the propagator’s pole, which is gauge invariant. We have: $`\overline{s}=M_o^2+A(\overline{s})`$, where $`M_o`$ is the bare mass and $`A(s)`$ the self-energy. Decomposing $`\overline{s}=m_2^2im_2\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$, where $`m_2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ are real, one identifies $`m_2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ with the mass and width of the particle:

$$m_2^2=M_o^2+ReA(\overline{s}),$$
(13)
$$m_2\mathrm{\Gamma }_2=ImA(\overline{s}).$$
(14)
In Ref., it was proposed that the second problem can be solved by defining the field renormalization constant $`\widehat{Z}`$ by means of the normalization condition

$$m_2\mathrm{\Gamma }_2=\widehat{Z}ImA(m_2^2),$$
(15)
which, in conjunction with Eq. (14), leads to

$$\widehat{Z}^1=1+\frac{Im\left(A(\overline{s})A(m_2^2)\right)}{m_2\mathrm{\Gamma }_2}.$$
(16)
In the narrow width approximation, the r.h.s. of Eq. (16) becomes $`1ReA^{}(m_2^2)1ReA^{}(M^2)`$, where $`M^2`$ is the on-shell mass, and $`\widehat{Z}`$ reduces to the conventional expression. We note that: i) $`\widehat{Z}`$, defined by Eq. (16), involves a finite difference, rather than a derivative, thus avoiding the threshold problem; ii) using Eq. (16) we see that the r.h.s. of Eq. (15) is gauge invariant, since it equals $`m_2\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ as a mathematical identity. It was also shown that the use of Eq. (16) removes unphysical threshold singularities in the relation between on-shell and pole widths . This approach has been recently discussed in the framework of renormalization theory . Dividing the unrenormalized transverse propagator $`iQ_{\mu \nu }[sM_o^2A(s)]^1`$ ($`Q_{\mu \nu }=g_{\mu \nu }q_\mu q_\nu /q^2`$) by $`\widehat{Z}`$, and introducing $`S(s)\widehat{Z}A(s)`$, $`\delta M^2ReS(\overline{s})`$, $`\widehat{Z}1\delta \widehat{Z}`$, we obtain the renormalized propagator:

$$𝒟=iQ_{\mu \nu }/(sm_2^2S^{(r)}(s)),$$
(17)
where

$$S^{(r)}(s)=S(s)\delta M^2+\delta \widehat{Z}(sm_2^2)$$
(18)
stands for the renormalized self-energy. Since $`\delta M^2`$ and $`\delta \widehat{Z}`$ are real, they should be chosen so that $`ReS^{(r)}(s)`$ is ultraviolet convergent to all orders. Once this is done, $`ImS^{(r)}(s)=ImS(s)=\widehat{Z}ImA(s)`$ must also be convergent, since there are no additional counterterms available. This means that $`\widehat{Z}`$ may be defined by imposing an appropriate normalization condition on $`ImS(s)`$. A particularly simple one is

$$ImS(m_2^2)=m_2\mathrm{\Gamma }_2,$$
(19)
which coincides with Eq. (15)! It was proposed independently in Ref.  to solve the threshold and gauge-dependence problems, and in Ref.  to implement a systematic order by order removal of the ultraviolet divergences in $`S^{(r)}(s)`$. In Ref.  it was also emphasized that in this formulation one can derive closed and exact expressions for the mass and field-renormalization counterterms, to wit

$$\delta M^2=ReS(\overline{s});\delta \widehat{Z}=\frac{Im\left[S(\overline{s})S(m_2^2)\right]}{m_2\mathrm{\Gamma }_2}.$$
(20)
In many cases, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2=𝒪(g^2)`$, where $`g`$ is a generic gauge coupling. If $`\delta M^2`$ and $`\delta \widehat{Z}`$ admit expansions in powers of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$, they can be expressed as series involving $`RReS(s)`$, $`IImS(s)`$, and their powers and derivatives evaluated at $`s=m_2^2`$. These expansions of Eq. (20) coincide with the order by order analysis in Ref. . However, in other important instances, such as the photonic corrections to the $`W`$ self-energy, such expansions are ill-defined and lead to power-like infrared divergences! In such cases one should employ the exact formulae in Eq. (20), which lead to sensible expressions for $`\delta M^2`$, $`\delta \widehat{Z}`$, and the renormalized propagator .