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# Carbon Monoxide bands in M dwarfs

## 1 Introduction

More than 70% of stars in the vicinity of the Sun are M dwarfs. These numerous low-mass stars (0.08 M $``$ M $`<`$ 0.6 M ), together with substellar objects - brown dwarfs (M $``$ 0.08 M) can contain an appreciable amount of the baryonic matter in the Galaxy. Research of M dwarf spectra are of interest for many branches of modern astrophysics. Verification of the theory of stellar evolution and structure of stars, the detection among M dwarfs of a subset of young brown dwarfs, the physical state of plasma of their atmospheres at low temperatures, as well as the chemical and physical processes of dust formation are only a few of them.

The dominant opacity sources in the optical and IR spectra of M dwarfs is absorption by band systems of diatomic molecules, such as TiO and VO, as well as rotational-vibrational bands of H2O . M dwarf infrared spectra additionally contain absorption bands of CO. Apart from being readily identifiable in M dwarf spectra, CO bands have the advantage of being extremely well modelled. This is in contrast to the relatively poor modelling of other molecules and atomic lines in M dwarf atmospheres. For example, the structure of rotational-vibrational levels of two-nuclear molecules CO is much simpler, than H2O . That allows computations of CO line lists to be carried out with high accuracy (e.g., Goorvitch 1994). One of the most promising observational regions is located in the K band from 2.2 to 2.4 $`\mu `$m. Second overtone bands 12C16O and 13C16O are located here. As well as parameters such as effective temperature and gravity, they can be used for determination of carbon and/or oxygen abundances and the 12C/13C ratio in atmospheres of late-type stars. The determination of the 12C/13C ratio in M dwarf atmospheres is especially interesting. Following the conventional theory of stellar evolution (see Aller & McLaughlin 1965), M dwarfs save their initial 12C/13C from their time of formation. Since the galactic 12C/13C ratio is expected to change by around a factor of four over the lifetime of our Galaxy, the determination of the 12C/13C ratio for M dwarfs potentially gives a strong constraint on their age. However, determining the 12C/13C ratio is only a strong constraint on age if that ratio is a single-valued function of time and Galactic location. If that underlying assumption is not valid, any dispersion of 12C/13C in M-dwarf atmospheres might give for us some clues about mixing processes inside our Galaxy. Until now, measurements of the 12C/13C ratio for planetary nebulae, red giants and asymptotic giant branch stars do not fit particularly well with theory. Nonetheless, the discrepancies found for such evolved stars may well arise from the lack of realistic stellar models. Atmospheric models need to include additional physical processes in their prescription for mixing between nucleosynthetic cores and observable atmospheres (Palla et al. 2000). M dwarfs, on the other hand, are not expected to modify their 12C/13C and are fully convective. Thus the 12C/13C ratios for a diverse sample of M dwarfs is expected to be a relatively straight-forward function of time and galactic location.

Until now studies of CO bands in the K-band were mainly used for the quantitative analysis of the evolution of 12C/13C in atmospheres of red giants (cf. Hinkle 1978; Sneden & Pilachowski 1984; McGregor 1987; Lazaro et al. 1991; Suntzeff & Smith 1992; Scott et al. 1994; Pilachovski et al. 1997). However, they are also observed in the spectra of many objects - from symbiotic stars (Schild et al. 1992), Be stars (Kraus et al. 2000) and supernova remnants (Gerardy et al. 2000) up to planets (Forbes et al. 1970). Baldwin et al. (1973) and many others since have shown the prevalence of the CO bands in the K band spectra of M dwarfs. Viti et al. (2002) have shown that the CO bands in the K band are relatively well-matched by synthetic spectra and thus can be used to determine M dwarf properties. In our study we make comparisons of synthetic and observed spectra across the 2.3–2.4 $`\mu `$m region to quantify the usefulness of the CO bands as a diagnostic of effective temperatures and metallicities for M dwarfs.

## 2 Observations

The properties of observed stars for which spectra are fitted in our paper are listed in Table 1. Observations were made with the Cooled Grating Spectrometer 4 on the UK Infrared Telescope (UKIRT) on Mauna Kea, Hawaii. The instrument then had a 58 $`\times `$ 62 InSb array which was moved in the focal plane in order to three times over-sample the spectrum. Sky subtraction was performed by nodding the telescope approximately 30 arcsec up and down the slit, ensuring that during alternate ‘object’ and ‘sky’ observations the star remained on the detector. The observations presented in this paper were made during three nights, 1992 May 8, 10 and 12 in reasonable optical seeing (0.75–1.5 arcsec) and of atmospheric humidity (10–50 per cent). The airmass difference between object and standard never exceeded 0.05 and so we are confident that the spectra have good cancellation of atmospheric features.

The 150 lines mm-1 grating was used in third order with the 150 mm focal length camera at a central grating wavelength of 2.34 $`\mu `$m. This grating position was chosen to be closed to the centre of the CO bands, at a maximum in the grating efficiency have high atmospheric transmission ($`>`$95 per cent) and gives a relatively high resolution, $`\lambda /\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda `$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda `$ is the detector resolution at wavelength $`\lambda `$, of 1085 (equivalent to 276 km/s).

### 2.1 Standards

Stars in the spectral type ranges B5–A5 and F6–G0 were used to remove the effects of atmospheric absorption. These standards were expected to be featureless at the spectral resolution used and to be well described by a Rayleigh-Jeans tail. However, the F6–G0 standards were not very useful as they show weak metal lines. Although the lines tended to be weaker and different from the M dwarf features we avoided using them where possible. In the reduction of spectra, we have followed the same procedures as in Jones et al. (1996). All observations were wavelength calibrated using lines from observations of an argon lamp in the CGS4 calibration unit. This procedure is typically accurate to 0.1 $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`\lambda `$.

## 3 Procedure

We used local thermal equilibrium (LTE) model atmospheres of M dwarfs with effective temperatures Teff = 2400–3800 K from the NextGen grid of Hauschildt et al. (1999). Unless otherwise mentioned all models are for log g = 5.0 and solar metallicity. Computations of LTE synthetic spectra were carried out by the program WITA6 (Pavlenko 2000) assuming LTE, hydrostatic equilibrium for an one-dimensional model atmosphere and without sources and sinks of energy. The equations of ionisation-dissociation equilibrium were solved for media consisting of atoms, ions and molecules. We took into account $``$ 100 components (Pavlenko 2000). The constants for equations of chemical balance were taken from Tsuji (1973). We adopt the dissociation potential D0 =9.5 eV for H2O and D0 =11.105 eV for 12C16O , 13C16O . It is worth noting that the chemical balance in M dwarf atmospheres is governed by the CO molecule (see section 4.1).

Line lists of 1H$`{}_{}{}^{16}{}_{2}{}^{}`$O were computed using the AMES database (Partrige & Schwenke 1998). The partition functions of H2O were also computed on these data (Pavlenko 2002). We used 12C16O and 13C16O line lists of Goorvitch (1994). The CO partition functions were taken from Gurvitz et al. (1989). The atomic line list was taken from VALD (Kupka et al. 1999).

The profiles of molecular and atomic lines are determined using the Voigt function $`H(a,v)`$, parameters of their natural broadening $`C_2`$ and van der Waals broadening $`C_4`$ from databases (Kupka et al. 1999) or in their absence computed following Unsold (1955). Owing to the low temperatures in M dwarf atmospheres and consequently, electron densities, Stark broadening may be neglected. As a whole the effects of pressure broadening prevail. Computations for synthetic spectra were carried out with a step 0.00005 $`\mu `$m for microturbulent velocity $`v_t`$ = 2 km/s.

The instrumental broadening was modelled by triangular profiles set to the resolution of the observed spectra. To find the best fits to observed spectra we follow the scheme of Jones et al. (2002). Namely, for every spectrum we carry out the minimisation of a 3D function $`S=f(x_s,x_f,x_w)=1/N\times (1F_{obs}/F_{synt})^2`$, where $`F_{obs},F_{synt}`$ are observed and computed fluxes,N is the number of points in observed spectrum to be fitted, $`x_s,x_f,x_w`$ are relative shift in wavelength scale, a normalisation factor which was used to coincide observed and computed spectra and parameter of instrumental broadening, respectively.

## 4 Results

### 4.1 CO and H2O molecules in M dwarf atmospheres

The overall chemical balance in the atmospheres of cool stars depends significantly on the C/O = log N(C) - log N(O)(see Tsuji 1973). In the atmospheres of cool (Teff $`<`$ 3600 K) oxygen rich stars C/O $`<`$ 1, almost all atoms of carbon are bound in CO molecules. CO and H2O are the most abundant molecules containing oxygen atoms.

In the atmospheres of M dwarfs with Teff $`>`$ 2600 K, molecules of CO dominate by number in comparison with other oxygen containing molecules (Tsuji 1973). Throughout most of the atmosphere changes of the ratio C/O by $`\pm `$ 0.2 dex have little effect on the molecular densities of CO (Fig. 1). In contrast the dependence of molecular densities on H2O on log N (C) is more complex. At lower Teff (e.g. Fig. 1b) the dependence of $`n_{\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{O}}`$ on log N(C) in M dwarfs atmospheres weakens appreciably though the chemical balance remains governed by CO. In general, H2O and CO are competitors for bound-free oxygen atoms. Therefore their molecular densities respond in opposite ways to changes of carbon abundance. For solar abundances of oxygen and carbon molecular densities of H2O and CO are comparable. CO molecular densities increase only a little when log N(C) increases from -3.48 up to -3.12111In our paper we use an abundance scale $`\mathrm{\Sigma }N_i=1`$.. At the same time CO reduces molecular densities of H2O . However, relative changes of H2O densities are comparatively weak for variations of log N(C) in the range from -3.48 to -3.18. Only when the carbon abundance rises to log N(C) $``$ -3.18, molecular densities of H2O decrease, as an appreciable fraction of oxygen atoms become bound in CO.

The relative strengths of H2O and CO bands at 2600 K and 3600 K are shown in Fig.2. These spectra were computed separately by switching on/off the absorption of H2O or CO bands.

The relative intensity of the CO bands decrease from $`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$ = 1 to $`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$ = 3. Although the second overtone bands ($`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$ = 2) of CO have intermediate intensities they are located in a relatively accessible region for observation.

#### 4.1.1 Bands of the second overtone of CO from 2.28–2.4 $`\mu `$m

The relative intensities of 12C16O , 13C16O and H2O bands from 2.28–2.38 $`\mu `$m are shown in Fig. 3. These computations are carried out for a model atmosphere with 2600 K and 12C/13C = 0.5. The large ratio of 12C/13C was chosen to show the positions of the main details which might be observed in M dwarf spectra. Overall, H2O absorption dominates the infrared spectral region. However, strong features are also formed there by first overtone bands of 12C16O . The positions of the 13C16O bandheads are marked by vertical arrows in Fig. 3. The results of our 13C16O modelling of spectra of our dwarfs are discussed in sections 4.1.3 and 4.1.4.

#### 4.1.2 Fits to the observed spectra

Our numerical procedure for the determination of best fits allows us to quantify the possible solutions. For each observed spectra we compute synthetic spectra for different Teff . We also allow for small variations of carbon abundances. Based on Fig. 1, we suggest that small variations of log N(C) from -3.48 to -3.28 cannot substantially affect the temperature structure of the model atmospheres. From the family of curves $`S=f`$(Teff , logN (C)) we choose “the best solution” for each observed spectrum.

LHS2924. The observed spectrum of this M9V object is of relatively low signal-to-noise. For example, our best fit minimisation value $`S_{\mathrm{min}}`$ for LHS2924 is a factor 10 larger than VB10 (fig. 4). Our best fit provides Teff = 2800 K for log N(C) = -3.28 and Teff = 2600 K for a solar abundance of carbon (log N(C)=–3.48).

VB10. VB10 is an archetypal late-type M dwarf with an effective temperature Teff $``$ 2600 K (Jones et al. 1996). Lithium lines are absent from VB10’s spectrum (Schweitzer et al. 1996; Martin 1999) and it has typical old disk properties (Leggett 1992) and hence VB10 is a star right at the end of the main sequence. For the solar abundance of carbon and other elements $`S_{\mathrm{min}}`$ occurs for 2600 K. However, if we increase log N(C), $`S`$ decreases, and we find a best fit value of 2800 K for log N(C) = -3.28$`\pm `$0.1. In general, for higher log N(C), CO bands intensities increase and best fits move to higher Teff . The same effect is found for all dwarfs of our sample.

GJ406. Best fits are found for 2800 K for the solar abundance case, and 3000 K for log N(C) = -3.28 (Fig. 6). Our new estimation of effective temperature corresponds better with empirical values for the effective temperature of the spectral class M6V than the Jones et al. (2002) analysis found using a similar technique but using a region dominated by water vapour. Our best fits for GJ406 are found for solar metallicity rather than the metal poor result found by Jones et al. (2002).

GJ699. The observed spectrum of GJ699 (M4V) is of lower resolution and taken from the setup used in Jones et al. (1994). The details in observed spectrum are best fit by metal-poor (log N(C) = -3.68; i.e., \[C\] = -0.2) synthetic spectra of Teff = 3200 K (see fig. 7). The same best fit temperature is also found for the solar abundances log N(C)= -3.48, (\[C\] =0) case. However, a carbon-deficient case log N(C) = -3.68 (\[C\]=-0.2) provides lower $`S`$. We note that Jones et al. (2002) found an effective temperature Teff = 3300 K and metallicity \[M/H\] = – 0.5 (\[O\] = -0.5). On the other hand, our fits with log N(C) = -3.88 (\[C\] = -0.4) provide less satisfactory fits. i.e fits of higher $`S`$. We have probably reached the limit at which a single metallicity parameter is appropriate for fits to the spectra of M-dwarfs.

GJ411 is the hottest dwarf in our sample. The fit to the observed spectrum is shown in Fig. 8. Within our observed spectral region the intensities of observed and computed band heads of are fitted for Teff = 3400 K and log N(C) = -3.48 (Fig. 8). Although the relatively poorer description of the M dwarf spectrum slope testifies to the presence of certain problems in the definition of its physical characteristics: abundances, homogeneity of atmospheres, chromospheres or other reasons (see Section 5).

#### 4.1.3 Isotopic ratio 12C/13C in M dwarf atmospheres

The temperatures in M dwarf interiors are relatively low (T $`<`$ 106 K), so that hydrogen burning is only possible in pp chain reactions and the hydrogen burning lifetimes are rather long (e.g. Laughlin et al. 1997). Thus despite the large convective envelopes extending down to the hydrogen burning region in a short timescales, carbon isotope abundances cannot be changed even in Hubble-scale times. M dwarfs are expected to preserve their initial carbon isotopes abundance from their time of formation. The situation is very different for massive (M $`>`$ 0.8 M) stars, which burn hydrogen in CNO reactions and are observed to change their isotopic abundances of C,N,O. The determination of the 12C/13C ratio in the atmospheres of M dwarfs might provide important constraints on the theory of the evolution of the Galaxy.

We investigated the determination of the carbon isotopic ratio in the atmospheres of our observed M dwarfs. The analysis of the weak 13C16O bands in our comparatively low-resolution spectra of dwarfs is rather difficult (e.g., Fig. 9 for VB10). The CO band head at 2.345 is mimiced by H2O absorption. Moreover, the overall shape of the energy distribution at these wavelengths is governed by H2O absorption, Fig. 2. From the fit of our spectra for VB10 we can estimate the lower limit 12C/13$`>`$ 15. For more accurate determination using this feature it will be necessary to use spectra of better resolution ($`>`$ 50000 for 12C/13C in range 40 — 90, e.g., upper panel of Fig. 9). The other band of 13C16O at 2.375 $`\mu `$m provides a more sensitive tool for 12C/13C determination in M-dwarf spectra. From the fit of the observed band to our models we find 12C/13$``$ 10. Unfortunately our confidence in this fit is weakened because our data do not extend beyond 2.38 $`\mu `$m. To be sure we are measuring this feature we need to have data beyond 2.38 $`\mu `$m. For the other M dwarfs the fits are not so good so it is necessary to confirm this result with spectra of higher resolution and signal-to-noise. Nevertheless, from the fit of our spectra we can estimate the lower limit 12C/13$`>`$ 10 or all stars.

#### 4.1.4 Bands of the first overtone of CO from 4.3 to 4.6 microns

As with the $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu `$ = 2 CO bands at 2.3$`\mu `$m it might be feasible to pursue the 12C/13C ratio using the $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu `$=1 CO bands at 4.4$`\mu `$m. A theoretical picture of formation of the absorption features in the region of the bands of the first overtone of CO is shown in Fig. 10. Again, as for the 13CO feature at 2.345 $`\mu `$m, lines of H2O dominate in region (see also Fig. 2). Bands of 12CO (and 13CO) are actually of lower intensities relative to water. The band heads of 13C fall such that their heads lie in the tails of 12C bands, which are stronger. Therefore the determination of the 12C/13C ratio for $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu `$ = 1 CO bands is also problematic.

## 5 Discussion

Our effective temperature determinations are based primarily on 12C16O lines but also affected by H2O lines. In Table 2 it can be seen that we find similar temperatures to those found for M dwarfs for H2O lines alone. These results support the expected quality of the 12C16O and H2O line lists.

In general, we find Teff of our dwarfs with internal errors of around $`\pm `$ 150 K. Table 2 shows Teff derived for M dwarfs by different methods. It illustrates indicates that whilst there is some agreement for the earlier type M dwarfs, the temperatures we derive for late spectral types are much too hot. This discrepancy arises because in the atmospheres of red dwarfs of spectral class M6 and later (Tsuji, Ohnaka & Aoki 1996; Jones & Tsuji 1997) appreciable amounts of dust forms (e.g., Tsuji 2002) that can absorb and/or scatter radiation. This dust changes the structure of model atmospheres of M dwarfs, and, hence, their spectra. The outermost layers of late M dwarf atmospheres increase due to appearance there of the “dusty” opacity. In general, we get the much more sophisticated picture of formation of late dwarf spectra in the “dusty” atmospheres in comparison with “non-dusty” case. For the case of our fits the dust in cooler stars causes the CO bands to be relatively weaker and thus best-fit by a high temperature, non-dusty model. Analysis of our data to determine reliable temperatures for VB 10 and LHS 2924 thus requires the use of dusty models. Such models are now in preparation (Pavlenko et al., in preparation).

NLTE (Non Local Thermal Equilibrium) effects provide another possible source of error. Carbon et al. (1976) investigated NLTE effects in CO lines of the fundamental systems formed in the atmospheres of stars of giant late-type spectral classes. However, they used a rather simple model of rotational-vibrational levels of CO. Furthermore they considered the model atmospheres of red giants, where the densities are much lower, than in M dwarf atmospheres. Nevertheless, they showed the possibility of NLTE effects in CO lines, formed on depths $`\tau _{1\mu m}<10^4`$. CO lines in our cases are strong, they are formed deep in the atmosphere (due to the low opacities in continuum). The formation of absorption lines of CO occurs in M dwarfs atmospheres on a background of strong H2O absorption. The additional absorption should strengthen the thermalisation of the radiation field on CO lines. The temperature structure of M dwarf atmospheres is smoother, in comparison to the giants. Indeed, their structure is governed by convection, which “smoothes” the temperature contrast between photosphere and upper layers, which are more pronounced in atmospheres of red giants. Atmospheres of cool dwarfs are denser, than giants which strengthens the thermalisation of the radiation field. All these factors should reduce NLTE effects in CO lines formed in M dwarf atmospheres. More precise estimations are possible and would be desirable when making comparisons with higher resolution data though we consider to be beyond the scope of the current work.

Our computations were carried out for model atmospheres of solar abundance. Such abundances should be prevalent for the majority M dwarfs in the vicinity of solar system. Although, our sample of M dwarfs is rather small, we have found some deviation in carbon abundances from the solar case. A more refined solution should be made using self-consistent abundances of oxygen and nitrogen.

The model atmospheres used in this work were computed in the framework of the classical assumptions by Hauschildt et al. (1999). Energy transfer in atmospheres is provided by radiation field and convection. The reliability of the computed model atmosphere is determined by both the completeness of the opacity sources as well as the model of convective processes(Ludwig et al. 2002). Absorption by H2O bands determines the opacity in the infrared spectra of red stars. However, the existing line lists are not sufficiently complete (e.g., Jones et al. 2002). The CO line list used in this work was computed for solar work and so is believed to be more than adequate for the lower energy states accessed in M dwarf atmospheres (Goorvitch 1994). Overall we do not consider that incompleteness in the H2O line lists will cause temperatures derived from CO bands to change by more than 150 K.

The spectra presented here can not be used to determine reliable 12C/13C ratios. Nonetheless we propose that with a slightly different wavelength coverage than observed for this study, the 13CO feature at 2.375 $`\mu `$m should be a strong constraint on the 12C/13C ratio. For the other 13CO feature we investigated the situation is complicated by 13C16O bands forming amongst strong H2O absorption. One way of dealing with such ’contamination’ would be to obtain higher resolution data. In the upper panel of Fig. 9 we show synthetic spectra at a resolution of around 46000, here even at low 12C/13C ratios the 12CO and 13CO bands can be distinguished. We have also investigated the possible use of the 4.4-4.6 micron region. However, this region does not appear to improve the possibility of determining 12C/13C .

## 6 Acknowledgments

This work is based on observations obtained at the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope (UKIRT), which is operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the UK Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council. We thank David Schwenke and David Goorvitch for providing AMES H2O and CO databases in digitial form. We are also grateful to the anonymous referee for a number of useful suggestions which significantly improved this manuscript. This work was partially supported by a PPARC visitors grant to the Astrophysics Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University. YPs studies are partially supported by a Small Research Grant from American Astronomical Society.


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# Spectral Features and Masses in the PeV Region

## 1 Introduction

In our Single Source Model ( updated version is in  ) we explained the knee as the effect of a local, recent supernova, the remnant from which accelerated mainly oxygen and iron. These nuclei form the intensity ’peaks’ which perturb the total ’background’ intensity. The comprehensive analysis of the world’s data gives as our datum the plots given in the Figure 1; these are ’deviations from the running mean’ for both the energy spectrum mostly from Cherenkov data and the summarised electron size spectrum. It is against these datum plots that our comparison will be made.

In the present work we endeavour to push the subject forward by examining a number of aspects. They are examined, as follows:
(i) Can we decide whether the solar system is inside the supernova shock or outside it ?
(ii) Is the identification of Oxygen and Iron in the peaks correct ?
(iii) Can both the peaks be due to protons rather than nuclei ? In view of claims from a few experiments ( DICE, BLANCA ) that the mean mass is low in the PeV region, it is wise to examine this possibility.

## 2 The Solar System’s position with respect to the nearby SNR

The appreciation that the frequency of SN in the local region of the Interstellar Medium ( ISM ) has been higher than the Galactic average, over the past million years, has improved the prospects for the SSM being valid  and thereby increases the probability that we are close to the surface of a remnant.

It is doubtlessly possible for particles to escape from an SNR shock and propagate ahead. Such a situation has been considered in the ’Berezhko-model’. The problem concerns uncertainties in the diffusion coefficient for the ISM; however, estimates have been made  and Figure 1 shows the result for the Sun being outside the shock at the distance of 1.5$`R_S`$ for the center of SNR ( $`R_S`$ is the radius of the remnant ).

It is seen that the result does not fit well the datum points at all. The model tested must be rejected in its given form.

It is possible to restore it by taking an energy spectrum of more nearly the form for the ’inside SNR’ location or at the position outside, but very close to the shell. The corresponding cureves are shown in Figure 1 by full lines.

## 3 SNR: Helium and Oxygen

A tolerable astrophysical case could be made for helium and oxygen rather than oxygen and iron, and the direct measurements at lower energies than the knee region do not really rule it out.

Figure 2 shows the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-values for the corresponding spectra. The separation of the He and O peaks is a little greater than for O and Fe ( 8/2 compared with 26/8 ) and this causes the He, O pattern to be displaced somewhat. Although the fit to the datum points is not as good as for O, Fe, the He, O combination cannot be ruled out on the basis of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-plots alone. The absence of the preferred-by-us nuclei between the two peaks is a worry, though ( incertion of carbon does not help to fill the gap between two peaks ). The Fe peak would then be expected at log($`N_e/N_e^{knee}`$) = 1.1.

## 4 Proton Peaks

Calculations have been made for the case of two proton peaks, the proton spectra having been taken to be the standard interior-to-the SNR form. The result is also shown in Figure 2.

An interesting situation develops here. Although it is possible to tune either the energy spectrum or the size spectrum to fit the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-results, it is not possible to choose an energy spectrum which fits both. This arises because of the sensitivity of the number of electrons at the detection level to the primary mass. In Figure 2 the separation of the proton peaks in the energy spectrum was chosen such that the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-distribution for shower size was a reasonable fit to the data. However, the separation of the peaks in the energy spectrum necessary for the shower size fit is less than that for O,Fe by 0.15; the result is that after the necessary binning ( 0.2 in $`logE`$ units ) for the energy spectrum there is no agreement there.

## 5 Discussion about the Nature of the Peaks and our Location

It is evident from the foregoing that the two-proton peak model is unacceptable. This result cast doubt on the analyses of EAS data which conclude that the mean primary mass is ’low’ ( $`lnA1.5`$ ) in the PeV region. As mentioned already, it is our view that some, at least, of the models used in the mass analyses are inappropriate for the interactions of nuclei, particularly for the production and longitudinal development of the electromagnetic component. It is interesting to know, in connection with mean mass estimates, that the recent work using the Tibet EAS array  has given strong support for the result - favoured by us - in which the average cosmic ray mass increases with energy. In fact, their mass is even higher than ours: $`lnA3.1`$, compared with our 2.4, at 1 PeV, and 3.3, compared with 3.0 at 10 PeV. Equally significant is the fact that the sharpness of the iron component that they need to fit the overall data is quite considerable: $`S`$ = 1.4. It will be remembered that straightforward Galactic diffusion - the ’conventional model’ - gives $`S0.6`$ for any one mass component and $`S0.3`$ for the whole spectrum .

Returning to the question of ’our’ location with respect to the SNR it seems difficult to account for the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-distribution if we are some distance outside the shell, unless the diffusion coefficient for cosmic ray propagation in the ISM is almost energy-independent. We appear to be inside, or only just outside.

Finally, concerning the nature of the peaks: O, Fe or He, O, it is difficult to rule out the latter from the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-plots alone, although the lack of an iron peak is surprising. However, there is some evidence from the Tunka-25 Cherenkov experiment for a further peak at roughly the correct energy for the third ( Fe ) peak . There is also a hint of a peak in KASCADE spectrum, which is observed at an even higher energy than in Tunka-25 . Most other experiments - but not all - do not have the sensitivity to detect a further peak so the situation here is still open.

We still prefer our original suggestion, viz. that the peaks are due to O and Fe, and their shape is the consequence of the sharp cut-off in the energy spectrum of particles accelerated by SNR. The main reason for the preference is the fact that O and Fe spectra extrapolate and fit direct measurements of those components rather well  and there are good astrophysical reasons favouring these nuclei.

## 6 Conclusions

The Single Source Model, with its explanation of the knee in the cosmic ray energy spectrum in terms of particles ( probably principally nuclei of oxygen and iron ) from a recent, local SN, has been examined further. It is true that the identity of the nuclei is not completely secure and it is just possible that rather than O, Fe, the combination is He, O: however, we still prefer the original explanation.

The question of the nature of the particles responsible for the knee is, therefore, still somewhat uncertain; however, that there is structure in the spectrum, indicative of a single source, seems to be rather secure.

Turning to our location, the analysis suggests that we are just inside the shell, although, with a different diffusive mode of propagation for the particles we could be just outside it.

Acknowledgements

The Royal Society and the Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council are thanked for their financial support.


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# The Low Mass X-ray Binary-Globular Cluster Connection II: NGC 4472 X-ray Source Properties and Source Catalogs Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of University for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555, and on on observations made with the Chandra X-ray Observatory.

## 1 Introduction

Early X-ray studies of elliptical and S0 galaxies showed that they were significant sources of X-ray emission,with both a soft, kT$`1`$ keV X-ray component and a harder X-ray component (fitting to a $`6`$ keV bremstrahlung spectrum or a $`\frac{dN}{dE}`$$`E^{1.7}`$ power law) with a flux roughly proportional to the optical luminosity (Matsumoto et al. 1997; White, Sarazin & Kulkarni 2002 and references within). The soft component is associated with hot virialized interstellar gas while the hard component is associated with low mass X-ray binaries - systems where a neutron star or black hole is accreting gas from a Roche lobe overflowing companion star (e.g. Forman, Jones & Tucker 1985; Trinchieri & Fabbiano 1985). Since the advent of the Chandra X-ray Observatory, these X-ray binaries have been resolved, with about half typically associated with globular clusters, ranging from at least 70% in NGC 1399 (Angelini, Loewenstein & Mushtozky 2001) to 40% in NGC 4472 (Kundu, Maccarone & Zepf 2002 - hereinafter Paper I), and a lower limit of 20% in NGC 4697 (Sarazin, Irwin & Bregman 2000).

The lifetime of an X-ray source steadily accreting at the typical $`10^{37}`$ ergs/second detection threshold for Chandra observations of elliptical galaxies is no more than a few hundred million years (see e.g. Bhattacharya 1995). Thus for a low mass X-ray binary (LMXB) in an elliptical galaxy to be observable with Chandra, it must either have been recently formed or it must be an outbursting transient system (Piro & Bildsten 2002). Most of the low mass X-ray binaries in spiral galaxies are formed when a massive star in a tight binary system undergoes a supernova explosion and leaves behind a compact remnant in a close enough orbit for Roche lobe overflow from the secondary star to occur. In most elliptical galaxies, little or no star formation has occurred for several billion years, so the only means of LMXB formation are stellar interactions or the evolution off the main sequence of a binary companion to a compact star. In contrast to low mass X-ray binaries, high mass X-ray binaries are those systems where the accretion is driven by the compact object’s capture of stellar wind from a massive, secondary star (typically an O star or an early B-type star). Because the lifetimes of these early-type stars are typically $`10^7`$ years or less, high mass X-ray binaries should only appear in regions with active star formation, thus eliminating them as possible sources in low redshift elliptical galaxies and old globular clusters (i.e. all globular clusters except the very young ones seen in currently merging galaxies).

Globular clusters have long been known to be fertile breeding grounds for X-ray binaries. About 10% of the Milky Way’s LMXBs are contained within globular clusters (see e.g. Liu, van Paradijs & van den Heuvel 2001 and references within) , despite the fact that less than 1% of the stellar mass of the Galaxy is contained in globular clusters. The dominant mechanism for forming new X-ray binaries outside of globular clusters in spiral galaxies cannot work in elliptical galaxies. Furthermore, elliptical galaxies have higher fractions of their stellar mass in their globular clusters (see e.g. Ashman & Zepf 1998; Rhode & Zepf 2001). Hence it is not surprising that the well-observed elliptical galaxies all show much higher fractions of their LMXBs in globular clusters than does the Milky Way.

In paper I of this series, we explored what properties make a globular cluster most likely to contain an X-ray source. The red (i.e. metal rich) globular clusters are $`3`$ times as likely as the blue (i.e. metal poor) clusters to host an X-ray source. As an aside, we note that elliptical galaxies have a larger fraction of their globular cluster system in the red globular clusters, which may be an additional reason for them to have a higher fraction of their low mass X-ray binaries in globular clusters. The luminosity function for the X-ray sources associated with globular clusters is consistent with being the same as the luminosity function for the sources where there is no globular cluster counterpart. Here we extend that work by presenting the source lists of the globular clusters and the X-ray sources, and show the associated optical parameters for each X-ray source. We discuss additional possible correlations between the source parameters in greater detail than in Paper I. We compare summed X-ray spectra of field sources with globular cluster sources, of sources in blue clusters with those in red clusters, and of sources at different luminosities. We show that very massive black holes accreting from the interstellar medium cannot make up the X-ray sources in NGC 4472 or most other elliptical galaxies. We note the similarities between the properties of the field and cluster LMXBs and consider the relative merits of different scenarios for producing the field LMXB populations. We discuss the nuclear emission and the possible existence of an equatorial outflow.

## 2 Reduction Procedure

### 2.1 X-ray Data Reduction

NGC 4472 is a giant elliptical galaxy, located at a distance of about 16 Mpc (e.g. Macri et al. 1999) in the Virgo cluster. Chandra observed NGC 4472 for 39588 seconds on June 12, 2000. We examine only the data from the ACIS-S3 detector. We remove hot columns following the guidelines on the “ACIS Recipes:Clean the Data” web page at Penn State University (http://www.astro.psu.edu/xray/acis/recipes/clean.html). Because of the large diffuse background in these observations (due to the X-ray emission from the interstellar gas) no sources are detected with fewer than 10 counts so the flaring pixels are likely to be of minimal importance, but we nonetheless remove flaring pixels using the Flagflare script written by T. Miyaji.

We create three images for source detection - a full band image from 0.5 to 8.0 keV, a soft band image from 0.5 to 2.0 keV, and a hard band image from 2.0 to 8.0 keV. While some source photons may be missed in the 8.0-10.0 keV range, it has generally been found that this band contributed far more noise than signal even in the ACIS-I detector (see e.g. Baganoff 1999); the ACIS-S chips are more sensitive to soft X-rays than the ACIS-I, and less sensitive to hard X-rays, so ignoring the 8-10 keV band should be even more beneficial for these observations. We then run WAVDETECT from the CIAO 2.2 package using wavelet scales from 1 to 16 pixels spaced by factors of 2. We set a false source probability detection threshold of $`10^6`$, which should yield an expectation value of slightly less than one false source over the entire ACIS-S chip.

We extract spectra using the psextract script from the Chandra X-ray Center. We define the source regions to be the 3$`\sigma `$ ellipses given by WAVDETECT and the background regions to be an elliptical annulus centered on the source position with the outer major and minor axes equal to twice the major and minor axes of the source region, respectively, and the inner region defined by the outer boundaries of the source region. The spectra are binned so that at least 20 photons from the source region (which includes some background photons) are in each channel to allow reliable $`\chi ^2`$ fitting, although the highest and lowest energy bins may have less than 20 photons. We have not corrected the response matrix for the time dependent changes in the quantum efficiency; however, this is unlikely to present a significant problem since the data analyzed are from the first year of Chandra’s operation and channels below 0.5 keV (where the problems are most severe) are ignored (L. David, CXC memo, available at http://cxc.harvard.edu/cal/Acis/Cal\_prods/qeDeg/index.html). This effect should be less than 10% and should affect only the spectral region from 0.5 to about 0.7 keV, and hence should not change the measured spectral indices by more than about 0.05, an amount smaller than the measurement errors for all the fits presented in this paper.

We then fit the spectra in XSPEC 11.0 (Arnaud 1996) to find the fluxes. In all cases, we freeze the neutral hydrogen column to the value $`1.6\times 10^{20}`$ cm-2 (the Galactic value from the FTOOL nH which uses the measurements of Dickey & Lockman 1990). We include channels from 0.5 to 8.0 keV and fit absorbed power law spectra for all the sources. Where there are fewer than 4 channels from 0.5-8.0 keV for the spectral fit, we freeze the spectral index, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ (defined such that $`\frac{dN}{dE}=E^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) to 2.0 and fit only the normalization. We note that the 2.0 spectral index is a bit softer than that typically used for these sources, but since we do not compare the spectral indices of individual sources in this paper, this difference should not be too important. This will result in the source luminosity estimates being about 35% lower than those assuming $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.5`$ or 20% lower than those assuming $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.7`$, yielding systematic uncertainties of the same order as the uncertainties due to the small photon numbers for these sources; this may cause the luminosity functions we presented in Paper I to be systematically steeper than those presented by other authors who assume a harder spectrum for the sources with few counts, but should not affect the conclusions of this paper, since in this work, the luminosity functions of different subsamples of the sources are compared to one another and are computed in a consistent manner. In all but a few cases, the fits give $`\chi ^2/\nu <2.0`$, which generally represents an acceptable fit for such a small number of photon bins. Error bars are not estimated for the poorly fitting sources (i.e. those with $`\chi ^2/\nu >2`$), as errors for poor spectral fits are of little meaning. We estimate the fluxes of the sources using the flux command in XSPEC. The absorbed (i.e. observed) fluxes are presented in the tables. We then compute the inferred (0.5-8.0) keV luminosity assuming a distance of 16 Mpc (Macri et al. 1999) and isotropic emission after correcting the fluxes for absorption, which is typically about a 5% effect.

### 2.2 Optical Data Reduction and Astrometry

Given the high density of GCs, subarcsecond relative astrometry between the Chandra and HST images is essential to accurately determine GC-LMXB overlaps and to eliminate false matches. The problem is compounded by the fact that the absolute astrometry of the Chandra image and each of the HST-WFPC2 frames may be inaccurate by 1-2′′, and very few Chandra sources are seen in the outer HST fields. We adopted the following procedure to bootstrap all the images to the USNO A2.0 (Monet et al. 1998) system: Using the IRAF TFINDER routine and the positions of USNO A2.0 stars we first tied the large field of view, ground-based image of NGC 4472 of Rhode & Zepf (2001) to the USNO A2.0 astrometric system. We then used the positions of the globular cluster candidates identified by Rhode & Zepf (now in the USNO 2.0 system) to obtain new astrometric plate solutions for each of the four HST frames using TFINDER. The r.m.s. error of the astrometric solution achieved for each HST image, and the relative astrometry of the 4 WFPC2 frames is of the order of a hundredth of an arcsecond. In order to bootstrap the optical and X-ray images we attempted to isolate background galaxies/AGNs, but found too few to obtain reliable relative astrometry. Therefore we decided to use the obvious GC-LMXB matches themselves to recalculate the plate solution of the Chandra image and bootstrap it to the USNO system. Note that though we calculate the plate solution of the X-ray image using GC-LMXB matches, we then use the X and Y positions of the X-ray detections along with the plate solutions to calculate the ”final” RAs and decs of the X-ray sources, which we then use to determine whether an X-ray source matches a GC. We determined the reliability of the X-ray plate solution by using different subsets of the optical GC positions to create the X-ray plate solution e.g. only the ground-based GC candidates in the outer regions of NGC 4472, only the HST identified GCs in the inner regions etc. and found that in each case we identified the same set of GC-LMXB matches. Thus we are confident that we have achieved 0.3′′ r.m.s. relative astrometric accuracy by the bootstrapping procedure identified here. This is likely to be the best optical to X-ray astrometric accuracy obtained to date. All positions reported in the tables are in the USNO A2.0 coordinates.

## 3 Source Catalogs

### 3.1 X-ray catalogs

We detect a total of 148 sources - 136 in the full band, 11 in the soft band only, and 1 in the hard band only. Sources are considered to be matches if there is a positional offset between the different bands of less than 1 arcsecond. Three sources are within 8 arcseconds of the center of the galaxy and appear to be associated either with a weak active galactic nucleus or with brightness enhancements in the hot interstellar gas - these sources are discussed in section 7. One additional source appears to be a spurious detection, as WAVDETECT assigns it a count rate of 1.5 counts, and visual inspection fails to find evidence of a source at that location. Furthermore, the background region around this source contains more photons than the source region. This source is flagged in the table, with all its parameter values except the position listed as zeroes. The remaining 144 sources should mostly be X-ray binaries associated with NGC 4472, with about 10 likely to be foreground stars or background active galactic nuclei (see Paper I and references within).

In Table 1, we list the X-ray ID number (with the sources sorted by right ascension), IAU name, power law index, flux in the 0.5-2.0, flux in the 2.0-8.0 band, the luminosities from 0.5-8.0 keV assuming the power law model, a distance of 16 Mpc, and isotropic emission. We include flags for the “good” sources (i.e. those which appear to be real and to be point sources upon visual inspection), whether the source is within one or more of the HST fields of view, and the optical ID numbers of the optical counterparts where such counterparts exists.

### 3.2 Optical catalogs

Within the HST regions, we detect 1102 optical sources whose half light radii are small enough to be globular cluster candidates, using the source detection algorithm of Kundu & Whitmore (2001) - see also Paper I. In Table 2, we list the ID numbers (sorted by right ascension), $`V`$ band magnitude, $`I`$ band magnitude, $`VI`$ color, and half-light radii. We also include flags which indicate whether the source is within the Chandra field of view, and whether the source has a typical globular cluster color (i.e. $`0.8<VI<1.4`$). There are 928 globular cluster candidates in the HST fields, 829 of which are also within the Chandra fields. Four of these sources are within the central 8 arcseconds of the galaxy, so we attempt to match only 825 with the X-ray catalog. For sources with X-ray counterparts, the X-ray ID number is listed; for sources without, an “N” appears in this column.

### 3.3 The matching catalog

We match sources between the X-ray and optical lists, ignoring sources within 10 arcseconds of the center of NGC 4472, where the brightness of the hot gas and the possible weak AGN activity makes the X-ray detection procedure likely to find sources which are not X-ray binaries. We find 30 X-ray sources within 0.7 arcseconds of an optical source with optical colors consistent with being globular clusters. Two additional sources show optical colors outside the globular cluster color range and are likely to be either foreground or background objects. In table 3, we list the X-ray and optical properties of the 30 globular clusters with X-ray sources - the X-ray ID number, the IAU name, the best fitting power law spectral index, the 0.5-2 keV and 2-8 keV fluxes, the luminosity, the $`\chi ^2`$ and number of degrees of freedom of the spectral fit, the optical catalog ID number, the position of the optical source, the $`V`$ magnitude, the $`I`$ magnitude, the $`VI`$ color, and the half-light radius of the optical counterpart. Throughout the remainder of this paper, we will define the “globular cluster sources” to be the members of the matching catalog and the “field sources” to be only those sources which do not have an optical counterpart but are within the HST field of view. Sources outside the regions observed by HST are not included in discussions of the “field sources.”

## 4 X-ray spectral models

As this work may be of some interest to researchers generally unfamiliar with the detailed spectral properties of accreting black holes and neutron stars, we include a very brief review of the topic. It is known that the spectral form of the X-ray binary systems in the Milky Way galaxy changes with luminosity as the sources enter different spectral states. There are two key continuum components to X-ray spectra of black hole binaries in the 0.5-8.0 keV range - a multi-temperature thermal component which dominates at the lower energy end of the spectral range, and a power law tail which dominates at the higher energy end of the range. The thermal component is generally thought to arise from a geometrically thin, optically thick accretion disk where the disk’s temperature varies as $`R^{3/4}`$ (Shakura & Sunyaev 1973), and the power law tail is generally thought to arise from Compton upscattering of the disk photons in a cloud of hot electrons (see e.g. Sunyaev & Titarchuk 1980).

The three basic bright spectral states seen in black hole systems are, in order of increasing luminosity, the low/hard state, characterized by a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1.5`$ power law, the high/soft state, characterized by a disk blackbody component with $`kT_{inner}12`$ keV and a weak $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2.5`$ power law, and the very high state, which is similar to the high/soft state, except that the power law component, rather than the disk component dominates the bolometric luminosity of the very high state. For Galactic sources, the rapid variability properties can also help in classifying the spectral state of a source, but extragalactic X-ray sources are far too faint for these techniques to be of use. For a more detailed discussion of the spectral and variability characteristics of sources in the different spectral states, we refer the readers to Nowak (1995) and Tanaka & Lewin (1995), which discuss black hole binaries, and van der Klis (1995) which includes some discussion of black hole systems but focuses more heavily on neutron star systems.

Neutron stars also show different spectral states but they are generally classified using a different nomenclature (see e.g. van der Klis 1995). The low magnetic field neutron stars have typically been broken into two classes - the atoll sources and the Z-sources, although this distinction has been blurred by recent observations (see e.g. Muno, Remillard & Chakrabarty 2002). The high-magnetic field neutron stars are predominantly accretion-powered pulsars, where the accreted matter is funneled down the magnetic poles. About 90% of X-ray pulsars in the Galaxy are found in high mass X-ray binaries, the few which are in LMXBs all emit at well below $`10^{37}`$ ergs/sec (Liu et al. 2001 and references within). The atoll sources (or “atoll-state” sources) are all also much fainter than our detection limits. Thus, all the neutron star sources detected in these observations (and most observations of elliptical galaxies made to date) are likely to be Z sources. The spectra of Z sources are rather complicated, but typically are well fit by a model dominated by thermal Comptonization in an optically thick ($`\tau 10`$), relatively low temperature ($`k_BT3`$keV) medium (see e.g. di Salvo et al. 2001).

In this paper, we will fit three spectral models to the observed data. Two of these models, the power law model and the thermal bremsstrahlung model, are standard spectral models. These two models have been fit to X-ray spectral data since the earliest days of X-ray spectroscopy because they often provide good parameterizations of the data. The power law model fits a normalization and a spectral index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, defined such that $`\frac{dN}{dE}E^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. The bremsstrahlung model is parameterized in terms of a normalization and a temperature, generally expressed in keV. The third model we fit is the disk blackbody model (Mitsuda et al. 1984), which models the spectrum of a standard accretion disk. It is parameterized in terms of a temperature at the inner edge, generally expressed in keV and a normalization. While other models, such as thermal Comptonization models, may provide a more physically motivated description of the spectra, these models typically require too many physical parameters to be fit given the relatively small number of photons observed with Chandra.

## 5 The X-ray Spectral Parameters

### 5.1 Comparison between cluster members and non-members

While a substantial fraction of the LMXBs in NGC 4472 (and other elliptical galaxies) are clearly not associated with globular clusters, it is not yet clear that these sources were formed outside globular clusters. Stars may be ejected from globular clusters in stellar collisions, and this effect is likely to be most important for hard (i.e. tight) binary systems (see e.g. Phinney & Sigurdsson 1991). Additionally, globular clusters may be destroyed by evaporation and tidal interactions with the galactic potential, leaving behind whatever X-ray binaries they contained as field sources (see e.g. Murali & Weinberg 1997; Vesperini 2000). If the formation mechanism for the bulk of the field sources is different than the formation mechanism for the globular cluster sources, then one might expect to see a difference between the X-ray spectra of the field sources and those of the globular cluster sources. On the other hand, the luminosity functions of the field and cluster sources have already been shown to be consistent with one another (Paper I). Since the spectral properties of accreting compact objects are generally well-tied to the accretion rate in Eddington units (see the discussion in the previous subsection), one would only expect a difference in the spectral properties if the field and cluster sources if the sources below the Eddington limit for a neutron star were composed mostly of high Eddington fraction neutron stars in one case and of low Eddington fraction black holes in the other. It is not clear whether the field and cluster LMXB populations should be contain the same relative fractions of black hole and neutron star primaries. Thus it may be beneficial to test whether the spectral properties of the field and cluster sources are consistent with one another.

Given this motivation, we extract a composite X-ray spectrum for the field sources and composite spectrum for the globular cluster sources. As above, we bin the data so that at least 20 photons are included in each channel, ignore channels below 0.5 keV and above 8.0 keV, and fix the neutral hydrogen absorption column at 1.6$`\times 10^{20}`$cm-2 (the Galactic value along the line of sight to NGC 4472). We then fit an absorbed power law model to both summed spectra. For the field sources, we find the photon index, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$=1.44$`\pm 0.10`$ (90% confidence interval), while for the globular cluster sources, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.38\pm 0.10`$, with values of $`\chi ^2/\nu `$ of 66/71 and 45/65, respectively. A bremsstrahlung model gives $`kT_{GC}=17.5\pm _{6.5}^{20.5}`$ keV and $`kT_{field}=11.5\pm _{4.1}^{10.3}`$ keV, with values of $`\chi ^2/\nu `$ of 44/65 and 63/71, respectively, while a disk blackbody model (diskbb in XSPEC - see Mitsuda et al. 1984) gives $`kT_{GC}=1.53\pm _{0.20}^{0.24}`$ keV and $`kT_{field}=1.38\pm _{0.17}^{0.22}`$ keV for the inner disk temperatures, with values of $`\chi ^2/\nu `$ of 58/65 and 71/71, respectively. Thus we find that the summed spectra of the globular cluster and field sources are consistent with being the same, and that all three models provide statistcally acceptable fits for both the field and the globular cluster integrated source spectra.

We note that the spectral indices and bremstrahlung temperatures we find here indicate a somewhat harder spectrum than that typically found for the hard excess in elliptical galaxies from ASCA observations. Multiple explanations are possible. The first is that, because our detection threshold is at $``$ a few times $`10^{37}`$ ergs/sec (the faintest source measured is at $`10^{37}`$ ergs/sec, but there are severe incompleteness effects at this luminosity), we are biased towards sources that have hard spectra in the 0.5-8 keV range. To those familiar with state transitions in the X-ray band, this may seem counter-intuitive, as the “hard” state for black holes typically occurs at luminosities less than $`5\times 10^{37}`$ ergs/sec, so only a small fraction of the black holes observed should be hard state objects. However, the spectra of the high/soft state are typically dominated by a thermal disk component with a temperature of $`12`$ keV (i.e. similar to the observed composite spectrum). The effective area of Chandra drops above the peak of the disk blackbody, so moderate depth Chandra observations will not be particularly sensitive to this cutoff. Hence a power-law model fit, dominated by the low energy portion of the disk blackbody spectrum, is acceptable in $`\chi ^2`$ terms, and will tend to have a flatter (i.e. harder) spectral index than the typical low/hard state in the 0.5-8.0 keV range. The ASCA observations, on the other hand, see a larger fraction of their total flux from the low luminosity sources which have true power law spectra (since they include all the flux from X-ray binaries and not just the flux from those X-ray binaries bright enough to be resolved in the Chandra observations). Furthermore, the effective area of Chandra falls off more sharply above 4 keV than does that of ASCA, so the best power law fit to a $`1`$ keV disk blackbody spectrum from Chandra will have a harder spectral index than the best fitting power law model made by ASCA to the same intrinsic spectrum (since ASCA will give more weight to the low flux data above the blackbody’s cutoff energy).

### 5.2 Correlation between X-ray luminosity and spectral properties

For the sources which have luminosities higher than the Eddington limit for neutron stars, we attempt to determine if evidence for state transitions between the different black hole spectral states can be seen. Below the Eddington limit for accreting neutron stars, it will be impossible to disentangle, solely on the basis of luminosity, neutron stars accreting at a high fraction of the Eddington luminosity from black holes accreting at a lower fraction of the Eddington luminosity. We thus restrict this analysis to sources above the Eddington limit for a neutron star. The Eddington limit for a neutron star occurs at about 15% of the Eddington luminosity for a 10 $`M_{}`$ black hole. Typical luminosities for the state transition from the low/hard to the high/soft state are $`510`$% of the Eddington luminosity, while the transition from the high/soft to the very high state typically occurs at about 30% of the Eddington luminosity, although hysteresis is sometimes seen in the state transitions (see e.g. Nowak, Wilms & Dove 2002; Maccarone & Coppi 2002).

We create two groups of sources from which to make summed spectra - the sources with luminosities between 2 and 4$`\times 10^{38}`$ ergs/second, which are assumed to be in the high/soft state and the sources with luminosities greater than 4$`\times 10^{38}`$, which are assumed to be in the very high state. We include sources with and without optical counterparts. For a power law model, the high state and very high state spectral indices are $`1.42\pm 0.09`$ and $`1.44\pm 0.08`$ respectively, with $`\chi ^2/\nu `$ of 51/55 and 74/66, respectively. For the disk blackbody, the high/soft state fits well ($`\chi ^2/\nu `$=38/55) for $`kT=1.32\pm _{0.14}^{0.17}`$ keV, while the very high state has a best fitting temperature of $`1.30\pm _{0.14}^{0.16}`$ keV; however, the very high state spectrum shows a residual excess above 4 keV and has $`\chi ^2/\nu `$=95.8/66, ruling out the model at the 99% confidence level. The summed “high/soft state” and “very high state” spectra are plotted in Figure 1.

This result is not particularly robust, since when we restrict the summed spectra to those with globular cluster counterparts, both the high/soft state and the very high state spectra fit well to a single disk blackbody model with temperatures consistent with being equal. Thus it is possible that one or more of the high flux sources without an optical counterpart is a background active galaxy with a hard spectrum and not a very high state black hole system in NGC 4472. This issue merits further attention in larger samples of sources. The bulk of the sources should be sufficiently well separated for XMM to observe them; XMM spectra could help determine whether there are stronger power law tails in the systems above 4$`\times 10^{38}`$ ergs/second, since its energy coverage between 8 and 15 keV will provide good measurements in a region of the spectrum that should be dominated by the power law tail.

### 5.3 Comparison between red and blue cluster X-ray sources

Given that there is a clear difference between the formation efficiency of X-ray binaries in the red globular clusters and that in the blue globular clusters (Paper I), it is possible that there is a fundamental difference between the X-ray properties of the sources in the red globular clusters and those in the blue globular clusters. We thus extract summed spectra for the red and blue globular clusters separately and fit them using the same procedures as we used to compare the globular cluster and field sources.

We find that the blue globular clusters clearly have harder spectra than the red ones. The best fit power law indices of the blue and red systems are $`1.02\pm 0.27`$ and $`1.46\pm _{0.10}^{0.11}`$ respectively, while the best fitting disk blackbody inner temperatures are $`2.8\pm _{1.1}^{6.6}`$ keV and $`1.37\pm _{0.18}^{0.21}`$ keV, respectively. For a bremstrahlung model, the red globular clusters are best fit by a temperature of $`10.7\pm _{3.7}^{8.7}`$ keV, while the lower limit for the bremstrahlung temperature of the blue clusters’ summed spectrum is 28 keV. The red clusters X-ray sources dominate the globular cluster system’s X-ray source population, so it is not surprising that the summed spectral properties of the red clusters are consistent with the globular cluster sample as a whole and very similar to those of the field sources. The difference between the red and blue clusters’ integrated X-ray spectra are illustrated in Figure 2.

While there is a statistically significant difference between the X-ray spectral properties of the red and blue globular cluster X-ray sources, we believe it is premature to ascribe this difference to the metallicity. There are only 7 X-ray sources in the blue globular cluster systems, and the two brightest of these systems contribute about 70% of the total luminosity in the blue globular cluster X-ray source sample. The luminosity distribution of the 23 red globular cluster X-ray sources appears less top heavy, but the two luminosity functions cannot be distinguished with a KS test. Because there are so few X-ray sources in the blue globular cluster systems, a degree of caution must be exercised in making broad statements about their nature. We thus believe only that it will be important to perform similar analyses on the globular cluster systems of other galaxies in order to determine whether the source spectra depend upon the globular cluster’s color. Some credence to the notion that this result is physically significant comes from the result of Irwin & Bregman (1999) that showed the most metal rich globular clusters in the local group had the softest spectra in the soft X-ray band observed by ROSAT.

## 6 How are the LMXBs formed?

A key result of this investigation and of Paper I is that the properties of globular cluster LMXBs are generally consistent with those of the field LMXBs. There are several mechanisms for creating a population LMXBs which can be found in the field population rather than in the globular clusters of elliptical galaxies - (1) the presence of a large, low duty cycle transient population (Piro & Bildsten 2001), (2) ejection of binaries formed in globular clusters (e.g. Phinney & Sigurdsson 1991), and (3) tidal disruption of globular clusters, releasing systems formed in clusters into the field (see e.g. Fall & Zhang 2001; Vesperini 2000; Ostriker & Gnedin 1997). We will discuss how the observational results found here may help to determine the relative importance of the different scenarios. As we discuss the “dominant” formation mechanism here, we refer to the mechanism for forming the observed sources; given a sufficiently low duty cycle, there could exist many more quiescent LMXBs than LMXBs in outburst, and those sources could constitute the bulk of the LMXB population of a galaxy while at the same time contibuting a small fraction of the observed sources.

### 6.1 Spatial distributions and evidence for an ejection model

The spatial distribution of the field and globular cluster LMXBs of NGC 4472 are consistent with one another and with the optical globular cluster distribution, but appear to be different from the galaxy’s field light profile (see Figure 4 of Paper I). In fact, the globular clusters show a shallower surface density than the integrated light not only in NGC 4472, but in most elliptical galaxies (see e.g. Ashman & Zepf 1998). The similarity between the LMXB and GC spatial distributions (and the differences of these from the stellar light profile) in NGC 4472 suggest that the bulk of the observed LMXBs are formed in globular clusters. If this result is confirmed in observations of additional galaxies, it would indicate that mechanism (1) above is relatively less important than mechanisms (2) and (3). If mechanism (3) were the most important, then one would expect the field LMXB distribution to be more centrally concentrated than the current observed cluster distribution, as tidal destruction of clusters is most effective in the center of the galaxy where the tidal forces are strongest (Vesperini et al. 2002, in prep.). Mechanism (2) predicts that the field LMXBs should have a slightly more spatially extended distribution than the globular cluster distribution as a whole, as the escape velocity from a globular cluster is about 10 km/sec and the lifetime of a bright persistent LMXB is about 300 million years or less, so the system will travel about 5 kiloparsecs, or about 1 arcminute from its initial location at the distance of NGC 4472. This distance will be large enough to make the initial globular cluster associated with the LMXB impossible to determine (except in the outer regions of the galaxy), but small enough that there will not be a large population of LMXBs which have traveled very far from the center of the galaxy.

The similar spectral properties of the field and cluster sources in NGC 4472 provide additional evidence that the two populations have a common origin. At the present time, no work has been done to show whether the long timescale transients should spend the same fraction of their lives in the different spectral states as do the shorter period transients and persistent sources, but it would seem to be an unusual coincidence if they did. The identical luminosity functions and summed spectra of the two populations present a challenge to any mechanism which posits a different origin for the cluster sources than for the bulk of the field sources. As noted above, the luminosity functions present a stronger constraint on these grounds than do the spectral properties. Spectral properties are generally well-tied to a source’s fraction of the Eddington luminosity, so given identical luminosity functions and identical proportions of black holes and neutron stars, one would expect a priori identical summed spectral properties. The proportion of black holes and neutron stars among the sources above $`10^{37}`$ ergs/sec may differ for transient and persistent source, but this is presently not clear. Hence, at the present, the identical luminosity functions present stronger evidence for the common origin of the bulk of the field and globular cluster sources in NGC 4472.

It should be noted that mechanisms (1) and (3) may be at play in addition to mechanism (2). In fact, transient systems have been seen in the field LMXB populations of elliptical galaxies (Kraft et al. 2001), although it will not be clear without multi-epoch observations of some elliptical galaxies what fraction of these transients have long recurrence timescales and hence low duty cycles. Some or all of them may be like the Galactic source Aql X-1, which is a transient, but has a recurrence timescale of roughly one year and a duty cycle of about 20%. Additionally, low duty cycle transients may be present within the globular clusters as well as the field sources.

There are several reasons why, if ejections supply a substantial fraction of the field sources, then these ejections are likely to be caused by collisions and not by supernova kicks. Firstly, binaries immediately ejected by supernova kicks take no advantage of the stellar interaction rates in the globular clusters - they should be formed at the same rate in globular clusters as in the field, which means that they should account for $`<`$ 0.1% of the field X-ray binaries in their host galaxies. Secondly, the binaries most likely to be long period, low duty cycle transients when their secondary stars evolve off the main sequence (Piro & Bildsten 2001) are also more likely to have small velocity kicks (Brandt & Podsiadlowski 1995; BP95). Thirdly, it has been suggested that black hole systems tend to have systematically lower velocity kicks than neutron stars (BP95), which means that if the ejected systems leave immediately after becoming the supernova explosions, then the globular cluster systems would be expected to have a substantially larger black hole fraction than the field, while the observations show no signature of this effect.

### 6.2 Implications of the GC color-spectral index correlation

If the correlation between globular cluster color and spectral index of the X-ray sources is verified, possible causes might be a dependence on metallicity of the relative proportion of black hole and neutron star primaries in the X-ray binaries or of the mean binary separation and hence mean accretion rate that causes different fractions of the systems to be in different spectral states depending on the metallicity. It may be, for example, that the dependence of binary fraction on globular cluster color is partly due to the fact that the red globular clusters are younger than the blue ones, rather than due to the fact that they are more metal rich, and that X-ray binaries are preferentially formed early in the lifetimes of globular clusters. If the primary formation mechanism is the hardening of existing binary systems by stellar interactions so that they can undergo Roche lobe overflow, rather than the formation of new compact object binary systems by tidal captures, then the depletion of a “ reservoir” of binary systems may cause the younger (red) clusters to have more X-ray emitting systems than the older (blue) clusters. If this scenario is correct, then one would expect the blue globular cluster X-ray binary sample to have a larger fraction of transient sources, which would in turn possibly have different spectral characteristics than the steady accretors. At the present, no definitive statement can be made on this topic. Our future work will include observations of systems such as NGC 4365, NGC 3115 and NGC 1399 where there is broader band optical data which can be used to place stronger constraints on the red globular clusters’ ages, and theoretical investigations to determine whether the “reservoir depletion” scenario outlined above is capable of quantitatively reproducing the observations. Additionally, multiple epoch observations with Chandra can help determine whether the blue cluster sources are more likely than the red cluster sources to be transient systems and whether the field or globular clusters sources are more likely to be transients. At present, only one elliptical galaxy in which the X-ray point source population can be well studied, NGC 5128, has been observed twice and it was found that a substantial fraction of its sources were transients (Kraft et al. 2001).

### 6.3 Comparisons with other galaxies and possible evidence for an in situ population

Through preliminary work we have done on the S0 galaxy NGC 3115 and the elliptical galaxy NGC 4365, we have found that roughly 25% and 35%, respectively, of the X-ray binaries in these systems are associated with globular clusters (the details of this work will appear in a future paper). This would seem to suggest that the fraction of X-ray binaries in globular clusters varies with Hubble type, with the highest fraction of globular cluster sources in the earliest type galaxies. There may additionally be some evidence for a correlation between the fraction of X-ray binaries in globular clusters and the fraction of total stellar mass in globular clusters, as NGC 1399 has the highest values in the currently well-studied sample for both these quantities and NGC 3115, the Milky Way and M31 have lower values for both these quantities (although recent star formation could explain the large number of field LMXBs in the Milky Way and M31). NGC 4472 and NGC 4365 have intermediate values for both quantities.

This correlation, if verified, would probably imply that a significant fraction of the field sources are, in fact, generated in the field. There would then be three populations of X-ray binaries - (a) the globular cluster sources (b) the sources generated in globular clusters but released into the field and (c) the population of field X-ray binaries generated in situ. Let us define the number of globular cluster sources to be $`N_{GC}`$, the number of field sources created in globular clusters to be $`N_{FGC}`$, and the number of field sources preoduced in situ to be $`N_{IS}`$. Furthermore, let us define the ratio between the number of globular cluster X-ray sources and the number of field sources produced in globular clusters to be $`\eta `$, so that $`N_{FGC}=\eta N_{GC}`$. We then find that:

$$\frac{N_{GC}}{N_{LMXB}}=\frac{N_{GC}}{N_{GC}(1+\eta )+N_{IS}},$$
(1)
where $`N_{LMXB}`$ is the total number of LMXBs in the galaxy. Thus the fraction of sources in globular clusters may depend upon $`\eta `$, $`\frac{N_{GC}}{N_{IS}}`$, or both. It might be expected, for example, that in the lenticular galaxy NGC 3115, which has the lowest estimated value of $`\frac{N_{GC}}{N_{LMXB}}`$ among the early-type galaxies, that $`\eta `$ could be especially large because more stellar interactions within the globular clusters are caused by the greater tidal forces in the disk-like galaxy. Studies of a much larger sample of galaxies are needed to separate the effects of $`\eta `$ and $`\frac{N_{GC}}{N_{IS}}`$.

We also find in NGC 4365 and NGC 3115 that the fraction of globular clusters with LMXBs is about 4%. This fraction is also 4% in NGC 4472 (Paper I) and NGC 1399 (Angelini, Loewenstein & Mushotzky 2001), and is 2-3% in M31 (di Stefano et al. 2002; Barmby & Huchra 2001) and 1-4% (Liu, van Paradijs & van den Heuvel 2001; Harris 1996) in the Milky Way with the large uncertainties coming from the difficulty in counting the known transients. Thus while this quantity may have some effects on the relative fractions of LMXBs in globular clusters in the spiral galaxies compared to the elliptical galaxies, it seems to be fairly universal in the ellipticals and not to be a major factor causing the wide range in the fraction of LMXBs in the field versus the fraction in globular clusters.

### 6.4 Discussion of selection effects

There are a few causes for concern in applying the observational constraints directly to the theoretical models. There are signficant selection effects in the X-rays that make our detected sample incomplete. The X-ray completeness may vary with radial distance from the center of the galaxy due to both the degradation of the Chandra point spread function as one moves off-axis and the variation of the effective background from the diffuse gas as a function of radius. Preliminary results seem to suggest that the two effects balance one another for NGC 4472 (Kim & Fabbiano 2002). There will also be similar selection effects in the optical (the faintest clusters will be missed in the central regions of the galaxy because of the contamination from the field starlight). These should not be too severe as it is likely that there are very few X-ray sources in the faint globular clusters below the sensitivity limit of the HST observations (see Paper I). We can be fairly confident that the spatial distribution and the luminosity function for the field and cluster X-ray sources are consistent with one another, since the selection effects should apply to the two X-ray populations equally. The results of Kim & Fabbiano (2002) suggest that spatial profile of the X-ray sources is also unaffected by selection effects, so the similarity between the spatial profiles of the optical globular cluster sample and the X-ray sources is also likely to be a real effect. The final potential problem with gleaning results from these data is that there are still relatively few sources. With only 30 sources in globular clusters, and only 11 of those at luminosities higher than the Eddington luminosity for a neutron star, comparisons of luminosity functions, for example, are likely to suffer from small number statistics.

## 7 Very Massive Black Holes

It has been recently noted that there may be relatively large populations of very massive black holes (VMBHs) produced by supernova explosions of population III stars (Schneider et al. 2002) since the inefficiency of cooling of metal-free gas results in a top-heavy initial mass function (Abel et al. 2000; Bromm et al. 2001), and the supernova explosions of these heavy stars may produce black holes that contain a very large fraction of the initial mass being locked up in the final black hole (see e.g. Heger & Woosley 2001). It has further been suggested that Bondi-Hoyle accretion from the interstellar medium by the VMBHs could explain the bright non-nuclear X-ray source population (Schneider et al. 2002). On purely observational grounds, we cannot rule out the hypothesis that isolated accreting VMBHs represent some fraction of the X-ray sources, but we note that our finding that 40% of the X-ray sources are associated with globular clusters indicates that the observations of these sources cannot be used as a lower limit for the number of VMBHs, and that subsequent lower limits on the redshift of star formation and on the fraction of Population III stars that contribute to the metal enrichment of the early universe (Schneider et al. 2002) must be revised. The similarities of all the X-ray properties of the globular cluster and field X-ray sources would further suggest that VMBHs represent a small fraction of the field sources.

Theoretical arguments also indicate that VMBHs are unlikely to make up any of the observed X-ray sources in NGC 4472 and other elliptical galaxies. For NGC 4472 (and in fact, for most elliptical galaxies), the Bondi-Hoyle accretion rate (Bondi 1952) is far too low to supply a 200 $`M_{}`$ black hole with enough mass to be observable at the detection threshold of $`10^{37}`$ ergs/sec. The Bondi-Hoyle accretion rates of the $`10^9M_{}`$ black holes at the centers of elliptical galaxies are typically of order $`1M_{}`$/yr (di Matteo et al. 2000), and given that the Bondi-Hoyle rate scales with $`M^2`$ of the accreting object, the accretion rate for a $`200M_{}`$ black hole should be $`10^{14}M_{}`$/yr, or $`7\times 10^{11}`$ g/sec, which would provide a luminosity of $`6\times 10^{31}`$ ergs/sec given the standard $`0.1c^2`$ efficiency, or a substantially lower luminosity given the reduced radiative efficiencies expected to be seen at very low accretion rate (see e.g. Rees et al. 1982; Narayan & Yi 1994; Blandford & Begelman 1999; di Matteo et al. 2000; Quataert & Gruzinov 2000). Because the Bondi-Hoyle accretion rate also goes as $`T^{3/2}`$, the neutral interstellar medium may actually contribute more mass than the hot X-ray emitting gas; for NGC 4472 (as in most elliptical galaxies), the upper limit on the neutral hydrogen gas mass is a factor of $``$200 lower than the mass of the X-ray emitting gas (Kumar & Thonnard 1983). We can thus place a limit on the Bondi-Hoyle accretion rate of the neutral hydrogen at $`1\times 10^{14}`$ g/sec and hence on the luminosity of $`1\times 10^{34}`$ ergs/sec, so we still would not expect to observe such sources. Accretion onto isolated VMBHs thus may be of some importance in spiral galaxies, where the interstellar medium may be colder and denser (in molecular clouds, for example), and hence the Bondi-Hoyle accretion rate may be higher, but cannot explain X-ray sources in any low redshift elliptical galaxies except the ones most rich in neutral hydrogen. As VMBHs should be undetectable in NGC 4472, they may still contribute to the dark matter budget as suggested by Schneider et al. (2002).

## 8 The nuclear emission

Three point sources are detected within 8” of the nucleus. The brightest, source 71 in the X-ray list, is likely to be a very weak active galactic nucleus, with a luminosity of about $`10^{39}`$ ergs/second. Previous studies of these same data for NGC 4472 failed to identify this source as a point source (Loewenstein et al. 2001), most likely because these analyses used the CELLDETECT algorithm to identify point sources rather than the more sensitive WAVDETECT algorithm used in our work. The 0.5-8 keV luminosity of our detected source is very close to the 2-10 keV upper limit determined by Loewenstein et al. (2001), so conclusions about the radiative efficiency of this source are not significantly changed. Observations of weak radio lobes in NGC 4472 indicate a minimum energy content of only $`10^{54}`$ ergs with a corresponding equipartition magnetic field of $`10^5`$ G, which gives a minimum particle lifetime of $`10^8`$ years, and hence requires a minimum luminosity of only $`3\times 10^{38}`$ ergs/sec (Ekers & Kotanyi 1978). Hence, it is not surprising to find that the X-ray luminosity of the NGC 4472 nucleus is so low. We find the position of the optical center to be $`\alpha =12:29:46.78`$, $`\delta =8:00:02.2`$ in the USNO system, offset by about 1” arcsecond from the X-ray center, and within the rounding errors of the radio core position (Ekers & Kotanyi 1978). We find an offset of about 2” with regards to the SIMBAD optical center position, but our optical center should be far more reliable and we find good agreement with the position of the center reported by NED.

The two other point sources are collinear with the presumed nucleus and the major axes of their source ellipses as detected by WAVDETECT are approximately parallel to the line connecting the sources. Furthermore, the line connecting the sources is perpendicular to the weak core-dominated radio jets seen in previous observations (Ekers & Kotanyi 1978). Recently, equatorial radio emission has been seen simultaneously with jet emission in the Galactic source SS 433 (Paragi et al. 1998,1999a,1999b; Blundell et al. 2001), and it has been suggested that at least a fraction of the X-ray emission seen from this source might come from the equatorial outflow if the equatorial radio emission is produced by bremstrahlung processes (Blundell et al. 2001). Strong disk winds are predicted at very high accretion rates (in sources such as the likely super-Eddington SS 433) or low accretion rates in sources such as NGC 4472 by theoretical work (see e.g. Blandford & Begelman 1999), and may be responsible for the production of such “ruffs” and the very low radiative efficiency of the AGN in NGC 4472. The radio observations initially used to detect the jet in NGC 4472 had very poor North-South angular resolution and would not have been capable of resolving a ruff in this source. Deep, high resolution radio images are needed to test whether the equatorial X-ray sources are associated with a disk wind or the alignment of the sources on an axis perpendicular to the radio jet is a coincidence.

## 9 Conclusions

Source lists for the optical and X-ray sources in NGC 4472 are presented. The X-ray properties of the sources associated with globular clusters are consistent with those of the sources without optical counterparts. The mean X-ray spectrum of the sources in the blue globular clusters is harder than that in the red globular clusters but this result may be spurious because there are so few X-ray sources in the blue globular clusters. There is marginal evidence for a hard tail in the sources whose luminosities indicate they are in the very high state, and no evidence for such a tail in the sources whose luminosities indicate they are in the high/soft state. We show that the current observational evidence suggests tenatively that the bulk of the field sources were ejected from globular clusters. On the other hand, a tentative correlation between the fraction of LMXBs in globular clusters and the fraction of stellar mass in globular clusters across the four well-studied elliptical galaxies suggests that there may also be a field population generated in situ. We discuss future observations which may help test this picture. We show that accreting isolated very massive black holes cannot produce observable X-ray sources in NGC 4472 or most other elliptical galaxies. There is possible evidence for an equatorial “ruff” near the galactic nucleus which may be associated with a disk wind.

## 10 Acknowledgments

We gratefully thank Kathy Rhode for providing us with her large field of view optical image which was essential for this study to tie together accurately the various HST images to the Chandra image and all the satellite images to the USNO system. We thank Lars Bildsten for a critical review of this manuscript. We thank the anonymous referee for several useful suggestion which helped improve the clarity and the technical accuracy of this paper. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. SEZ and AK gratefully acknowledge support from NASA via the LTSA grant NAG5-11319.