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# Pattern Formation and Dynamics in Rayleigh-Bénard Convection: Numerical Simulations of Experimentally Realistic Geometries

## I Introduction

Rayleigh-Bénard convection has played a crucial role in guiding both theory and experiment towards an understanding of the emergence of complex dynamics from nonequilibrium systems Cross and Hohenberg (1993). However, an important missing link has been the ability to make quantitative and reliable comparisons between theory and experiment.

Nearly all previous three-dimensional convection calculations have been subject to a variety of limitations. Many simulations have been for small aspect ratios where the lateral boundaries dominate the dynamics, and as a result, complicate the analysis. When larger aspect ratios are considered, it is often with the assumption of periodic boundaries, which is convenient numerically yet does not correspond to any laboratory experiment. As a result of algorithmic inefficiencies, or the lack of computer resources, simulations have frequently not been carried out for long times. This presents the difficulty in determining whether the observed behavior represents the asymptotic non-transient state, which is usually the state that is most easily understood theoretically.

Fortunately, advances in parallel computers, numerical algorithms and data storage are such that direct numerical simulations of the full three-dimensional time dependent equations are possible for experimentally realistic situations. We have performed simulations with experimentally correct boundary conditions, in geometries of varying shapes and aspect ratios over long enough times so as to allow a detailed quantitative comparison between theory and experiment.

Alan Newell has made numerous important contributions to the discussion of pattern formation in non-equilibrium systems. In this paper, presented in this special issue in his honor, we give a survey of our recent results that touch on many of the issues he has raised, and in turn make use of some of the tools that he has helped develop to understand our simulations.

## II Simulation of Realistic Geometries

We have performed full numerical simulations of the fluid and heat equations using a parallel spectral element algorithm (described in detail elsewhere Fischer (1997)). The velocity $`\stackrel{}{u}`$, temperature $`T`$, and pressure $`p`$, evolve according to the Boussinesq equations,

$`\sigma ^1\left(_t+\stackrel{}{u}\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{}\right)\stackrel{}{u}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{}{}p+RT\widehat{z}+^2\stackrel{}{u},`$ (1)
$`\left(_t+\stackrel{}{u}\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{}\right)T`$ $`=`$ $`^2T,`$ (2)
$`\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{u}`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (3)
where $`_t`$ indicates time differentiation, $`\widehat{z}`$ is a unit vector in the vertical direction opposite of gravity, $`R`$ is the Rayleigh number, and $`\sigma `$ is the Prandtl number. The equations are nondimensionalized in the standard manner using the layer height $`h`$, the vertical diffusion time for heat $`\tau _vh^2/\kappa `$ where $`\kappa `$ is the thermal diffusivity, and the temperature difference across the layer $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$, as the length, time, and temperature scales, respectively.

We have investigated a wide range of geometries including cylindrical and rectangular domains, which are the most common experimentally, in addition to elliptical and annular domains. Rotation about the vertical axis of the convection layer for any of these situations is also possible but will not be presented here. All bounding surfaces are no-slip, $`\stackrel{}{u}=0`$, and the lower and upper surfaces and are held at constant temperature, $`T(z=0)=1`$ and $`T(z=1)=0`$.

A variety of sidewall boundary conditions are shown in Fig. 1. Common thermal boundary conditions on the lateral sidewalls are insulating, $`\widehat{n}\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{}T=0`$ where $`\widehat{n}`$ is a unit vector normal to the boundary at a given point, and conducting, $`T=1z`$. In the future we will have the flexibility of imposing a more experimentally accurate thermal boundary condition by coupling the fluid to a lateral wall of finite thickness and known finite thermal conductivity that is bounded on the outside by a vacuum.

In experiment, however, small sidewall thermal forcing can have a significant effect upon the resulting patterns and, as a result, finned boundaries have been employed Daviaud and Pocheau (1989); de Bruyn et al. (1996); Pocheau and Daviaud (1997). These are formed by inserting a very thin piece of paper or cardboard between the top and bottom plates near the sidewalls. This suppresses convection over the finned region ($`Rh^3`$ and the layer height has effectively been reduced) whereas in the bulk of the domain, i.e. the un-finned region, supercritical conditions prevail. This is accomplished numerically by extending a no-slip surface into the domain from the lateral sidewall. In all of our simulations we have chosen the vertical position of the fin to be $`z=0.5`$ but this is not necessary. The result is that the supercritical portion of the convection layer is bounded by a subcritical region of the same fluid and hence with the same material properties. An additional effect is that the mean flow may extend into the finned region which presents an interesting scenario for exploring the effect of mean flows upon pattern dynamics that has been investigated both experimentally and theoretically by Pocheau and Daviaud Daviaud and Pocheau (1989); Pocheau and Daviaud (1997) and is discussed further below.

The sidewalls can also have an orienting effect and ramped boundaries have been used as a “soft boundary” Kramer et al. (1982) in an effort to minimize this. By gradually decreasing the plate separation as the lateral sidewall is approached the convection layer eventually becomes critical and then increasingly subcritical. Using the spectral element algorithm we are able to investigate arbitrary ramp shapes: we have chosen to investigate the precise radial ramp utilized in recent experiments Bajaj et al. (1999); Ahlers et al. (2001) on a cylindrical convection layer. Again the mean flow is able to extend into the subcritical region.

Perhaps the most common method employed experimentally to reduce the influence of sidewalls is to use a large aspect ratio $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=r/h`$ in a cylindrical domain where $`r`$ is the radius and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=L/h`$ in a square domain where $`L`$ is the length of side. Experiments can attain aspect ratios as large as $`500`$. However, the majority of large aspect ratio experiments are for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }100`$. We have performed numerical simulations using the spectral element algorithm for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }60`$ as shown in Fig. 2.

The top panel in Fig. 2 illustrates the convection pattern present for the parameters of the classic paper Ahlers (1974) where flow visualization was not possible. Although the simulation has only been performed for a short time $`t_f100\tau _v`$ it appears that a slow process of domain coarsening Cross and Tu (1995) is occurring. The bottom of Fig. 2 illustrates the time dependent spatiotemporal chaotic state of spiral defect chaos Morris et al. (1993). These, and other, interesting large aspect ratio problems can now be addressed through the use of numerical simulation.

Heuristically, using the spectral element algorithm on an IBM SP parallel supercomputer, it is our experience that it is practical to perform full numerical simulations for aspect ratios $`\mathrm{\Gamma }30`$ for simulation times of $`t_f\tau _h`$ (36 hours on 64 processors), where $`\tau _h`$ is the horizontal diffusion time for heat $`\tau _h=\mathrm{\Gamma }^2\tau _v`$, and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }60`$ for $`t_f300\tau _v`$ (36 hours on 256 processors) for $`ϵ1`$, $`0.5\sigma 10`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }t0.01`$, and approximately cubic shaped spectral elements with an edge length of unity and $`11^{th}`$ order polynomial expansions (where $`ϵ=(RR_c)/R_c`$ and $`R_c`$ is the critical value of the Rayleigh number). Of course for smaller domains the computational requirements significantly decrease.

A major benefit of numerical simulations is that a complete knowledge of the flow field is produced. For example, we have first used this to address a long standing open question concerning chaos in small cylindrical domains. The existence of a power-law behavior in the fall-off of the power spectral density derived from a time series of the Nusselt number was not understood Ahlers (1974). The Nusselt number, $`N(t)`$, is a global measurement of the temperature difference across the fluid layer. In cryogenic experiments very precise measurements of $`N(t)`$ are possible Ahlers (1974); Ahlers and Behringer (1978); Ahlers and Walden (1980); Libchaber and Maurer (1978), however the flow field can not be visualized easily. Subsequent room temperature experiments using compressed gasses allowed flow visualization at the expense of precise measurements of the Nusselt number Pocheau et al. (1985); Croquette et al. (1986); Pocheau (1989).

By performing long-time simulations, on the order of many horizontal diffusion times, for the same parameters in cylindrical domains with $`\sigma =0.78`$ and for a range of $`ϵ`$, with realistic boundary conditions, we had access to both precise measurements of the Nusselt number, Fig. 3, and flow visualization, Fig. 4, allowing us to resolve the issue Paul et al. (2001). Conducting sidewalls were used and all simulations were initiated from small, $`\delta T0.01`$, random thermal perturbations. Flow visualization of the simulations represented in Fig. 3 display a rich variety of dynamics similar to what was observed in the room temperature experiments. Using simulation results, the particular dynamical events responsible for the $`N(t)`$ signature were identified. The power-law behavior was found to be caused by the nucleation of dislocation pairs and roll pinch-off events. Additionally, the power spectral density was found to decay exponentially for large frequencies as expected for time-continuous deterministic dynamics. The large frequency regime was not accessible to experiment because of the presence of the noise floor.

## III Role of mean flow

The mean flow present in these flow fields, and in general for $`\sigma 1`$, plays an important role in theory Newell et al. (1990); Cross and Newell (1984) yet it is not possible to measure or visualize the mean flows in the current generation of experiments. In our simulations, however, we can quantify and visualize the mean flow.

The mean flow field, $`\stackrel{}{U}(x,y)`$, is the horizontal velocity integrated over the depth and originates from the Reynolds stress induced by pattern distortions. Recalling the fluid equations, Eqs. (1) and (3), it is evident that the pressure is not an independent dynamic variable. The pressure is determined implicitly to enforce incompressibility,

$$^2p=\sigma ^1\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{}\left[\left(\stackrel{}{u}\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{}\right)\stackrel{}{u}\right]+R_zT.$$
(4)
Focussing on the nonlinear Reynolds stress term and rewriting the pressure as $`p=p_o(x,y)+\overline{p}(x,y,z)`$ yields,

$$p_o(x,y)\sigma ^1𝑑x^{}𝑑y^{}\mathrm{ln}\left(1/\left|rr^{}\right|\right)\stackrel{}{}^{}\stackrel{}{}\left[\left(\stackrel{}{u}\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{}\right)\stackrel{}{u}\right]_z.$$
(5)
In Eq. (5) the $`\mathrm{ln}(1/|rr^{}|)`$ is not exact, in order to be more precise the finite system Green’s function would be required. However, the long range behavior persists. This gives a contribution to the pressure that depends on distant parts of the convection pattern. The Poiseuille-like flow driven by this pressure field subtracts from the Reynolds stress induced flow leading to a divergence free horizontal flow that can be described in terms of a vertical vorticity.

The mean flow is important not because of its strength; under most conditions the mean flow is substantially smaller than the magnitude of the roll flow making it extremely difficult to quantify experimentally. The mean flow is important because it is a nonlocal effect acting over large distances (many roll widths) and changes important general predictions of the phase equation Cross and Newell (1984). The mean flow is driven by roll curvature, roll compression and gradients in the convection amplitude. The resulting mean flow advects the pattern, giving an additional slow time dependence.

The mean flow present in the simulation flow fields, $`\stackrel{}{U}_s(x,y)`$, is formed by calculating the depth averaged horizontal velocity,

$$\stackrel{}{U}_s(x,y)=_0^1\stackrel{}{u}_{}(x,y,z)𝑑z$$
(6)
where $`\stackrel{}{u}_{}`$ is the horizontal velocity field. Furthermore it will be convenient to work with the vorticity potential, $`\zeta `$, defined as

$$_{}^2\zeta =\widehat{z}\stackrel{}{}\left(\stackrel{}{}_{}\times \stackrel{}{U}_s\right)=\omega _z$$
(7)
where $`\omega _z`$ is the vertical vorticity and $`_{}^2`$ is the horizontal Laplacian.

Six consecutive snapshots in time for the periodic dynamics shown in Fig. 3 case ii) are illustrated in Fig. 4. One half period is displayed illustrating the nucleation of a dislocation pair and its subsequent annihilation in the opposing wall foci. The vorticity potential, $`\zeta `$, is shown on a grey scale: dark regions represent negative vorticity and light regions represent positive vorticity which will generate a clockwise and a counter clockwise rotating mean flow, respectively. The quadrupole spatial structure of $`\zeta `$ in the first panel, i.e. four lobes of alternating positive and negative vorticity with one lobe per quadrant, generates a roll compressing mean flow that pushes the system closer to a dislocation pair nucleation event. During dislocation climb and glide the spatial structure of the vorticity potential is more complicated until the pan-am pattern is reestablished in final panel and a quadrupole structure of vorticity is again formed and the process repeats. The dislocations alternate gliding left and right resulting is a slight rocking back and forth of the entire pattern with each half period which is visible in the different pattern orientations in the first last panels. This alternation persists for the entire simulation.

A numerical investigation of the importance of the mean flow for this small cylindrical domain was performed by implementing the ramped and finned boundary conditions. In all of these simulations the bulk region of constant $`R`$ extended out to a radius $`r_0=4.72`$. In the finned case a fin at half height occupied the region $`4.72r7.66`$. In the ramped case a radial ramp in plate separation was given by,

$$h(r)=\{\begin{array}{cc}1,\hfill & r<r_0\hfill \\ 1\delta _r\left[1\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{rr_0}{r_1r_0}\pi \right)\right],\hfill & rr_0\hfill \end{array}$$
(8)
where $`r_0=4.72`$, $`r_1=10.0`$, and $`\delta =0.15`$.

The different mean wavenumber behavior (using the Fourier methods discussed in Morris et al. (1993)) exhibited in these three different cases is shown in Fig. 5. As illustrated in Fig. 6 the behavior of the vorticity potential suggests an explanation. In the simulations with a rigid sidewall, not ramped or finned, the vorticity potential generates a mean flow that enhances roll compression, as described above. In the case of the finned and ramped boundaries the vorticity potential and the resulting mean flow are being generated by gradients in the convection amplitude and are largely situated away from the bulk of the domain. Furthermore, the mean flow generated is strongest in the subcritical finned or ramped region away from the convection rolls. This is demonstrated by comparing the average value of the mean flow over a fraction of the bulk of the domain, $`r1`$, where it was found that $`\overline{U}_s=`$ 0.23, 0.09, and 0.02 for the rigid, finned and ramped domains, respectively, and that the maximum flow field velocity is $`|\stackrel{}{u}|10`$.

It is attractive to pursue the case of a radial ramp in plate separation because the variation in the convective amplitude caused by the ramp can be determined analytically and the influence of a mean flow upon nearly straight rolls can be quantified Paul et al. (2002). Usually the mean flow can only be determined once the texture is known and it is hard to calculate because of defects acting as sources, in addition to the regions of smooth distortions.

Near threshold an explicit expression for the mean flow, $`\stackrel{}{U}`$, that advects the convection pattern is Cross and Newell (1984)

$$\stackrel{}{U}(x,y)=\gamma \stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{}_{}\stackrel{}{}\left(\stackrel{}{k}|A|^2\right)\stackrel{}{}_{}p_o(x,y)$$
(9)
where $`\gamma `$ is a coupling constant given by $`\gamma =0.42\sigma ^1(\sigma +0.34)(\sigma +0.51)^1`$, $`|A|^2`$ is the convection amplitude normalized so that the convective heat flow per unit area relative to the conducted heat flow at $`R_c`$ is $`|A|^2R/R_c`$, $`p_o`$ is the slowly varying pressure (see Eq. (5)) and $`\stackrel{}{}_{}`$ is the horizontal gradient operator. The vertical vorticity is then given by the vertical component of the curl of Eq. (9),

$$\omega _z=\widehat{z}\stackrel{}{}\left(\stackrel{}{}_{}\times \stackrel{}{U}\right)=\gamma \widehat{z}\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{}_{}\times \left[\stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{}_{}\stackrel{}{}\left(\stackrel{}{k}|A|^2\right)\right].$$
(10)
Consider a cylindrical convection layer with a radial ramp in plate separation containing a field of x-rolls given by $`\stackrel{}{k}=k_o\widehat{x}`$. The amplitude can be represented for large $`ϵ_o`$, using an adiabatic approximation, as $`|A|^2=ϵ(r)/g_o`$ for $`ϵ>0`$ and $`|A|^2=0`$ for $`ϵ(r)<0`$ as shown in Fig. 7, making the amplitude a function of radius only $`|A|^2=f(r)`$.

Inserting $`|A|^2=f(r)`$ into Eq. (10) yields, after some manipulation, the following expression for the vertical vorticity,

$$\omega _z=\frac{\gamma k_{o}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{2}\left[\frac{d^2|A|^2}{dr^2}\frac{1}{r}\frac{d|A|^2}{dr}\right]\mathrm{sin}2\theta .$$
(11)
The vorticity generated by the amplitude variation caused by the ramp is also shown in Fig. 7: there is a negative vorticity for $`r_0<r<r_c`$ and then a delta function spike of positive vorticity at $`r_c`$. To correct for nonadiabaticity and to smooth $`|A(r)|^2`$ near $`r_c`$, the one-dimensional time independent amplitude equation Newell and Whitehead (1969) is solved,

$$0=ϵ(r)A+\xi _{o}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{cos}^2\theta \frac{^2A}{r^2}g_o|A|^2A,$$
(12)
where $`\xi _{o}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}=0.148`$, $`g_o=(0.69950.0047\sigma ^1+0.0083\sigma ^2)`$ and $`ϵ(r)`$ is determined by

$$ϵ(r)=\{\begin{array}{cc}ϵ_o,\hfill & r<r_0\hfill \\ ϵ_o(h^3h_c^3)/(1h_c^3),\hfill & rr_0\hfill \end{array}$$
(13)
where $`h_c=h(r_c)`$. Equation (12) is solved numerically using the boundary conditions $`_rA=0`$ at $`r=0`$, and $`A=0`$ at $`r=r_1`$.

To compare these analytical results with simulation we have chosen to investigate a large-aspect-ratio cylinder with a gradual radial ramp, defined by Eq. (8), given by the parameters: $`r_0=11.31`$, $`r_1=20.0`$, $`\delta _r=0.036`$, and $`\sigma =0.87`$. For small $`ϵ`$ the amplitude $`A^2(r)`$ is unable to adiabatically follow the ramp, this nonadiabaticity results in a deviation from $`ϵ(r)/g_o`$ as shown in Fig. 8a. However, as $`ϵ_0`$ increases the amplitude $`A^2(r)`$ follows $`ϵ(r)/g_o`$ adiabatically almost over the entire ramp except for a small kink at $`r_c`$. The structure of $`\omega _z`$ depends upon this adiabaticity and is shown in Fig. 8b where we have used the solution to Eq. (12) at $`\theta =\pi /4`$ in Eq. (11). This is not strictly correct since the non-adiabaticity of the amplitude is $`\theta `$ dependent which will induce higher angular modes of the vorticity not given by Eq. (11). However, the calculation should give a good approximation to the main $`\mathrm{sin}2\theta `$ component of the vorticity. It is evident from Fig. 8b that the vertical vorticity, calculated from the simulation results as an angular average weighted by $`\mathrm{sin}2\theta `$ has an octupole angular dependence (octupole in the sense of an inner and outer quadrupole) and is well approximated by theory without any adjustable parameters.

The mean flow generated by these vorticity distributions is determined by solving Eq. (10) with the boundary condition $`\zeta (r_1)=0`$. The vorticity potential is related to the mean flow in polar coordinates by $`(U_r,U_\theta )=(r^1_\theta \zeta ,_r\zeta )`$. The vorticity potential is expanded radially in second order Bessel functions while maintaining the $`\mathrm{sin}2\theta `$ angular dependence. Of particular interest is the mean flow perpendicular to the convection rolls, $`U_r(\theta =0)`$ or equivalently $`U_x(y=0)`$, which is shown in Fig. 8c. Again the simulation results compare well with theory even in the absence of adjustable parameters.

To make the connection between mean flow and wavenumber quantitative it is noted that the wavenumber variation resulting from a mean flow across a field of x-rolls can be determined from the one-dimensional phase equation,

$$U_x\varphi =D_{}_{xx}\varphi $$
(14)
where the wavenumber is the gradient of the phase, $`k=_x\varphi `$, $`D_{}=\xi _o^2\tau _o^1`$, and $`\tau _o^1=19.65\sigma (\sigma +0.5117)^1`$ Cross and Hohenberg (1993). Figure 9a illustrates the wavenumber variation for a large-aspect-ratio simulation, $`k(r)`$ for $`rr_0`$, and makes evident the roll compression, $`k(r=0)>k(r_0)`$. Figure 9b compares the mean flow calculated from simulation to the predicted value of the mean flow required to produce the wavenumber variation shown in Fig. 9a. The agreement is good and the discrepancy near $`r_0`$, which is contained within one roll wavelength from where the ramp begins, is expected because the influence of the ramp was not included in Eq. (14). This illustrates quantitatively that is in indeed the mean flow that compresses the rolls in the bulk of the domain.

Finally, to better understand the connection between mean flow and pattern dynamics, especially that of spatiotemporal chaotic states exhibiting both temporal chaos as well as spatial disorder, we apply a novel numerical procedure to eliminate mean flow from the fluid equation, Eq. (1), thereby evolving the dynamics of an artificial fluid with no explicit contributions from mean flow. In this way, we can then obtain quantitative comparisons between the patterns generated by this artificial fluid with mean flow quenched and by the original fluid equation.

We have applied this procedure to study spiral defect chaos (see bottom of Fig. 2) Morris et al. (1993). Numerous attempts have been made to understand how a spiral defect chaos state is formed and how it is sustained. For example, experiments Assenheimer and Steinberg (1993); Assenheimer and Steinberg (1994) have found that spirals transition to targets when the Prandtl number is increased. Owing to the fact that the magnitude of mean flow is inversely proportional to the Prandtl number, c.f. Eq. (9), it was believed that spiral defect chaos is a low Prandtl number phenomenon for which mean flow is essential to their dynamics. This is supported by studies of convection models based on the generalized Swift-Hohenberg equation Xi et al. (1993a, b); Xi and Gunton (1995), where spiral defect chaos is not observed unless a term corresponding to mean flow is explicitly coupled to the equation. However, these observations are by themselves insufficient. For example, there are many other effects in the fluid equations that grow towards low Prandtl numbers, and there could be limitations in the Swift-Hohenberg modelling. We have applied our numerical procedure to this case to explicitly confirm the role of mean flow in the dynamics of spiral defect chaos.

Recalling that we can approximate mean flow to be the depth-averaged horizontal velocity, c.f. Eq. (6), we can first depth-average the horizontal components of the fluid equation, Eq. (1), to obtain a dynamical equation for the mean flow $`\stackrel{}{U}_s`$:

$`\sigma ^1_t\stackrel{}{U}_s+\sigma ^1{\displaystyle _0^1}𝑑z(\stackrel{}{u}\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{})\stackrel{}{u}_{}=`$ (15)
$`\stackrel{}{}_{}{\displaystyle _0^1}𝑑zp+_{}^2\stackrel{}{U}_s+{\displaystyle _0^1}𝑑z_{zz}\stackrel{}{u}_{}.`$
In this equation, the term $`_{}_0^1𝑑zp`$ can be absorbed into the nonlinear Reynolds stress term via Eq. (5) and so will be ignored henceforth. The resulting equation is then a diffusion equation in $`\stackrel{}{U}_s`$ with a source term $`\stackrel{}{F}_s_0^1𝑑z(\stackrel{}{u}\stackrel{}{})\stackrel{}{u}_{}\sigma _0^1𝑑z_{zz}\stackrel{}{u}_{}`$. If this source term were not present, then $`\stackrel{}{U}_s`$, being the solution to a diffusion equation, evolves to zero with an effective diffusivity $`\sigma `$, the Prandtl number. Thus, the role of $`\stackrel{}{F}_s`$ is to act as a generating source for the mean flow $`\stackrel{}{U}_s`$. Subtracting it from the fluid equation, Eq. (1), then results in the mean flow being eliminated.

In practice, we found that it is necessary to actually subtract $`\stackrel{}{F}_s`$ multiplied by a constant to ensure that the magnitude of mean flow becomes zero. This can be understood in terms of the necessity to correct for the fact that Eq. (6) is only an approximation to the flow field that advects the rolls given by

$$\stackrel{}{U}=_0^1𝑑zg(z)\stackrel{}{u}_{}$$
(16)
where $`g(z)`$ is a weighting function depending on the full nonlinear structure of the rolls. This is discussed further elsewhere Chiam et al. (2002).

We have carried out this procedure by introducing the term $`\stackrel{}{F}_s`$ to the right-hand-side of the fluid equation after a spiral defect chaotic state becomes fully developed, typically after about one horizontal diffusion time starting from random thermal perturbations as initial condition. We see that the spirals immediately, on the order of a vertical diffusion time, “straighten out” to form angular chevron-like textures; see Fig. 10. Unlike spiral defect chaos, these angular textures are stationary (with the exception of the slow motion of defects such as the gliding of dislocation pairs). Thus, we have shown that when mean flow is quenched via the subtraction of the term $`\stackrel{}{F}_s`$ from the fluid equation, spiral defect chaos ceases to exist.

We have further quantified the differences between spiral defect chaos and the angular textures. We mention here briefly one of the results: by comparing the wavenumber distribution for both sets of states, we have observed that the mean wavenumber approaches the unique wavenumber possessed by axisymmetric patterns asymptotically far away from the center Buell and Catton (1986). (The axisymmetric pattern, by symmetry, does not have mean flow components.) We discuss this as well as other results in a separate article Chiam et al. (2002).

## IV Conclusion

Full numerical simulations of Rayleigh-Bénard convection in cylindrical and rectangular shaped domains for a range of aspect ratios, $`5\mathrm{\Gamma }60`$, with experimentally realistic boundary conditions, including rigid, finned and spatially ramped sidewalls, have been performed. These simulations provide us with a complete knowledge of the flow field allowing us to quantitatively address some interesting open questions.

In this paper we have emphasized the exploration of the mean flow. The mean flow is important in a theoretical understanding of the pattern dynamics, yet is very difficult to measure in experiment, making numerical simulations attractive to close this gap.

The mean flow is found to be important in small cylindrical domains by investigating the result of imposing different sidewall boundary conditions. Analytical results are developed for a large-aspect-ratio cylinder with a radial ramp in plate separation. Numerical results of the vertical vorticity and the mean flow agree with these predictions. Furthermore, the wavenumber behavior predicted using the mean flow in a one-dimensional phase equation also agrees with the results of simulation. This allows extrapolation of the analysis to larger aspect ratios.

Lastly we utilize the control and flexibility offered by numerical simulation to investigate a novel method of quenching numerically the mean flow. We apply this to a spiral defect chaos state and find that the time dependent pattern becomes time independent, angular in nature, and that the pattern wavenumber becomes larger.

These quantitative comparisons illustrate the benefit of performing numerical simulations for realistic geometries and boundary conditions as a means to create quantitative links between experiment and theory.

We are grateful to G. Ahlers for helpful discussions. This research was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Grant DE-FT02-98ER14892, and the Mathematical, Information, and Computational Sciences Division subprogram of the Office of Advanced Scientific Computing Research, U.S. Department of Energy, under Contract W-31-109-Eng-38. We also acknowledge the Caltech Center for Advanced Computing Research and the North Carolina Supercomputing Center.


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# Fixed point theorem for simple quantum strategies in quantum market games

## 1 Projective geometry approach to profits

Half thousand years ago Fra Luca Pacioli, a teacher of Leonardo da Vinci set standards of Venice accounting (i.e. the double accounting) and for the theory of perspective. In the author opinion this is not accidental because projective geometry approach forms a natural language of description of the market reality. Let us consider the simplest possible market event of exchanging two goods which we would call the asset and the money and denote them by $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ and $`\$`$, respectively. Let $`V_\mathrm{\Theta }`$ and $`V_\$`$ denote some given amounts of the asset and the money, respectively. If the assets are exchanged in the proportion $`V_\$:V_\mathrm{\Theta }`$ then in the context of selling processes we call the logarithmic quotation for the asset $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$

$$p:=\mathrm{ln}\left(V_\$\right)\mathrm{ln}\left(V_\mathrm{\Theta }\right)$$
(1)
the demand profit. Respectively, in context of buying, we call the number

$$q:=\mathrm{ln}\left(V_\mathrm{\Theta }\right)\mathrm{ln}\left(V_\$\right)$$
(2)
the supply profit. From projective geometry point of view any market can be represented in the $`N`$-dimensional real projective space, $`\mathrm{}P^N`$ that is $`(N+1)`$-dimensional vector space $`\mathrm{}^{N+1}`$ (one real coordinate for each asset) subject to the equivalence relation $`v\lambda v`$ for $`v\mathrm{}^{N+1}`$ and $`\lambda 0`$. For example we identify all portfolios having assets in the same proportions. In this context separate profits $`p`$ or $`q`$, gained by selling or buying respectively, are not invariant (coordinate free). The profit $`p+q`$ gained during the whole buying-selling cycle is given by the logarithm of an appropriate anharmonic (cross) ratio , and is an invariant (e.g. its numerical value does not depend on units chosen to measure the assets). The anharmonic ratio for four points lying on a given line, $`A,B,C,D`$ is the double ratio of lengths of segments $`\frac{AC}{AB}:\frac{DC}{DB}`$ and is denoted by $`[A,B,C,D]`$. In our case the anharmonic ratio in question, $`[\mathrm{\Theta },U_q,U_p,\$]`$, concerns the pair of points:

$$U_q:=(\upsilon \mathrm{e}^q,\upsilon ,\mathrm{}),U_p:=(w,w\mathrm{e}^p,\mathrm{})$$
(3)
and the pair $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$, $`\$`$. The last pair results from the crossing of the hypersurfaces $`\overline{\mathrm{\Theta }}`$ and $`\overline{\$}`$ corresponding to the portfolios consisting of only one asset $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ or $`\$`$, respectively and the line $`U_qU_p`$. The dots represent other coordinates (not necessary equal for both points). The line connecting $`U_q`$ and $`U_p`$ may be represented by one-parameter family of vectors $`u(\lambda )`$ with $`\mu `$-coordinates given as:

$$u_\mu \left(\lambda \right):=\lambda \left(U_q\right)_\mu +\left(1\lambda \right)\left(U_p\right)_\mu .$$
(4)
This implies that the values of $`\lambda `$ corresponding to the points $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ and $`\$`$ are given by the conditions: $`u_0\left(\lambda _\$\right)=\lambda _\$\left(U_q\right)_0+\left(1\lambda _\$\right)\left(U_p\right)_0=0`$, $`u_1\left(\lambda _\mathrm{\Theta }\right)=\lambda _\mathrm{\Theta }\left(U_q\right)_1+\left(1\lambda _\mathrm{\Theta }\right)\left(U_p\right)_1=0`$. Substitution of Equation $`(\text{3})`$ leads to

$$\lambda _\$=\frac{w}{w\upsilon }\text{and}\lambda _\mathrm{\Theta }=\frac{w}{w\upsilon \mathrm{e}^{(p+q)}}.$$
(5)
The calculation of the logarithm of the cross ratio $`[\mathrm{\Theta },U_q,U_p,\$]`$ on the line $`U_qU_p`$ gives

$$\mathrm{ln}[\mathrm{\Theta },U_q,U_p,\$]=\mathrm{ln}[\frac{w}{w\upsilon \mathrm{e}^{(p+q)}},1,0,\frac{w}{w\upsilon }]=\mathrm{ln}\frac{\upsilon w\mathrm{e}^{p+q}}{\upsilon w}=p+q.$$
(6)
This quantity for successive transactions is the unique (up to some factor) additive invariant of projective transformations.

## 2 Quantum market games

Traders usually employ intuitive strategies that if perceived as objective ”being” are not easily describable in a quantitative way. But these relations form natural objects of interests of accountants and econometricians that deal with market reality. This situation has an analog in physical phenomena. In the Ithaca interpretation of quantum mechanics ”correlations have physical reality; that which they correlate does not” . Besides, only quantum theory allows to consider self-conscious entities . In the series of articles posed by the author with Jan Sładkowski111full texts of these papers are available at the web site http://alpha.uwb.edu.pl/ep/sj  the quantum theory of games  is generalized on the infinite-dimensional Hilbert space and used to description of some fundamental market phenomena. These models give many interesting results, unattainable in the framework of classical theories. For example, quantum theory predicts the property of undividity of attention of traders (no cloning theorem), the sudden and violent changes of prices can be explained by the quantum Zeno phenomenon. The theory unifies also the English auction with the Vickrey’s one attenuating the motivation properties of the latter. There are apparent analogies with quantum thermodynamics that allow to interpret market equilibrium as a state with vanishing financial risk flow. In this article the author present another amazing property of quantum market games222see also J. Sładkowski, ”Giffen paradoxes in quantum market games”, in the current issue. In this formalism, each player modify his strategy $`\psi H`$ by acting on the Hilbert space $`H`$ with tactics $`𝒰:HH`$. The strategies can be interpreted as superpositions of trading decisions. For a trader they form the ”quantum board”. The tactics $`𝒰`$ are linear, usually unitary operators, and the strategy functions $`\psi (p)L^2`$ have integrable square modulus. The French method of presenting demans/supply curves is based on the assumption that the demand is a function of prices and is usually referred to as the Cournot convention. In this way Born interpretation of the product $`\overline{\psi (p)}\psi (p)`$ lead us to define supply curve as the cumulative distribution function $`_{\mathrm{}}^p\overline{\psi (p^{})}\psi (p^{})𝑑p^{}`$. The player buying quantum tactics $`\psi (q)`$ are Fourier transforms of his tactics $`\psi (p)`$ in selling processes and, consequently, the appropriate observables $`𝒬`$ and $`𝒫`$ are canonical ones, $`[𝒫,𝒬]=i\mathrm{}_E`$, where the economic dimensionless constant $`\mathrm{}_E`$ describes the minimal inclination of the player to risk (by analogy with quantum harmonic oscillator, see below). One strategy works in two different occasions. This is a property that does not occur in any classical theory.

## 3 Risk profile of player strategies

We can describe player strategy independently of representation of this strategy because the Fourier transformation commutes with the risk operator $`\frac{1}{2m}𝒫^2+\frac{m}{2}𝒬^2`$. The parameter $`m>0`$ measures the risk asymmetry between buying and selling positions. The pure strategies that are consistent with the low of supply (or low of demand) are represented, following Hudson theorem , by gaussian functions. Besides the Gibbs mixed strategies represent equilibrium markets leads to the same results as some gaussian strategies with the modified value of the constant $`\mathrm{}_E`$. For this reason in typical market games the considerations of models with gaussian strategies $`\psi _{a,m}(p):=\frac{1}{\sqrt[4]{2\pi m}}\mathrm{e}^{\frac{(pa)^2}{4m}}`$ will be good enough. When the dispersion $`m`$ of the demand profit tends to $`0`$ the distribution function $`\overline{\psi _{a,m}(p)}\psi _{a,m}(p)`$ tends to Dirac strategy $`\delta (pa)`$. It means that the player fixed withdrawal price $`\mathrm{e}^a`$ below which she or he gives the selling up.

## 4 The simplest quantum market game

The consequences of games between two Dirac strategies are trivial and they are a special limit case of the class of games analyzed below. Therefore we consider the games of Alice Dirac strategy $`\delta (p_{Alice}a_{Alice})`$ versus the gaussian strategy of Rest of World (RW). Let us suppose that the RW player proposes price of the asset $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ and Alice accepts or rejects the proposal because this is the most attractive position for Alice. We have the following rules of this game:

* RW proposes with probability $`f(q_{RW})dq_{RW}:=\sqrt{\frac{m}{2\pi }}\mathrm{e}^{\frac{mq_{RW}^2}{2}}dq_{RW}`$ the price $`\mathrm{e}^{q_{RW}}`$, and
* Alice:

+ sells the asset if $`a_{Alice}+q_{RW}>0`$, or
    + gives up if $`a_{Alice}+q_{RW}0`$.

Alice always buys the asset in this game because the uncertainty (dispersion) of stochastic variable $`q_{Alice}`$ for Dirac strategy $`\delta (p_{Alice}a_{Alice})`$ is infinite. We assume rational behavior of Alice and therefore we search for her strategy (i.e. value $`a_{max}`$ of variable $`a_{Alice}`$) which maximize the intensity of her profit :

$$\rho (a_{Alice}):=\frac{E(p_{RW}+q_{RW})}{E(\tau )}=\frac{\underset{a_{Alice}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}q_{RW}f(q_{RW})𝑑q_{RW}}{1+\underset{a_{Alice}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f(q_{RW})𝑑q_{RW}},$$
(7)
where $`E(p_{RW}+q_{RW})`$ is the average Alice profit in one selling-buying cycle and $`E(\tau )`$ is the expected duration of the whole selling-buying cycle in this game. The profit intensity function $`\rho (x)`$ in the vicinity of extremum is drown in Figure 1.

## 5 The fixed point theorem

The maximal value of the function $`\rho `$, $`a_{max}`$, lies at a fixed point of $`\rho `$, that is it fulfills the condition $`\rho \left(a_{max}\right)=a_{max}`$. Such a fixed point $`a_{max}`$ exists, attracts on all domain and $`a_{max}=0.27603m^1`$. When Rest of World play the market game with strategy that has unknown dispersion $`m^1`$ the above theorem proved in  implies natural Alice tactics for maximization her intensity of profit. In $`n+1`$-st step of the game Alice shift her strategy to the point

$$a_{n+1}=\frac{\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}(p_{RW}+q_{RW})_k}{\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}\tau _k}.$$
(8)
One can easily reverse the buying and selling strategies .

When we modify rules of the game, and now Alice will be playing with two entangled quantum strategies (one for buying and one for selling), she will have another benefit of quanta. For the expected intensity of Alice profit from one of her strategy we obtain the equivalent of the above presented theorem again, but with greater value of maximum equal $`0.30211m^1`$ in this case. The details will be presented elsewhere. In context of this result it is natural to put forward the hypothesis that trading with bigger number of entangled quantum strategies give us opportunities of obtaining greater intensities of profits. Then in the future we will meet the inevitable complication of quantum connections on real markets.


text:
# Zn-induced wipeout effect on Cu NQR spectra in La2-xSrxCu1-yZnyO4

## Abstract

We report a systematic study of Zn-substitution effect on Cu NQR spectrum for high $`T_c`$ superconductors La2-xSrxCu1-yZnyO4 from carrier-underdoped to -overdoped regimes (polycrystalline samples, $`x`$ =0.10, 0.15, and 0.20). We observed no appreciable wipeout effect for the overdoped samples, a gradual and partial wipeout effect below about 80 K for the optimally doped ones, and very abrupt and full wipeout effect below about 40 K for the underdoped ones. The wipeout effect indicates a highly enhanced spectral weight of Cu spin fluctuations at a low frequency. We associate the wipeout effect with a Zn-induced local magnetism far above 40 K and with a localization effect below 40 K.

Ultra slow spin fluctuation causes pair breaking effect and suppresses the superconducting transition temperature $`T_c`$ of high-$`T_c`$ cuprate superconductors . The wipeout effect on Cu nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) spectrum, which suggests the existence of such a slow fluctuation, is observed in the deeply underdoped La2-xSrxCuO4  and in the nonmagnetic impurity Zn-doped YBa2Cu3O7 . Thus, the wipeout effect on Cu NQR spectrum may play a key role in understanding the mechanism of suppression of $`T_c`$.

Here, we report Zn-substitution effect on Cu NQR spectrum in La2-xSrxCu1-yZnyO4 from carrier-underdoped to -overdoped regimes. For Sr $`x`$=0.1, $`T_c`$ is $``$30, 13, $`<`$4.2 K for Zn $`y`$=0, 0.01, 0.02, respectively. For Sr $`x`$=0.15, $`T_c`$ is $``$38, 13 K for Zn $`x`$=0, 0.02, respectively. For Sr $`x`$=0.2, $`T_c`$ is $``$30, 13, $`<`$4.2 K for $`y`$=0, 0.03, 0.06, respectively. We observed no appreciable wipeout effect for Sr-overdoped samples, a partial wipeout effect below about 80 K for the optimally doped ones, and full wipeout effect below about 40 K for Sr-underdoped ones.

Zero field Cu NQR measurements with a pulsed spin-echo technique have been carried out for powder samples, which were synthesized by a solid state reaction method. The transverse relaxation curve of the spin-echo was measured as a function of time $`\tau `$ between the first and the refocusing pulses and was analyzed by a function of $`E(\tau )=E(0)`$exp$`[2\tau /T_{2L}0.5(2\tau /T_{2G})^2]`$ with fitting parameters $`E(0)`$, $`T_{2L}`$ and $`T_{2G}`$. The frequency integrated $`E(0)`$ is the observed intensity of NQR spectrum $`I(x,y)`$ (after $`T_2`$ correction). The details will be published elsewhere

Figure 1 shows the $`T`$ dependence of Cu NQR spectrum of Zn-free and of Zn-doped samples with Sr-underdoped $`x`$=0.10 (left) and -overdoped $`x`$=0.20 (right). Obviously, the NQR signal diminishes at 4.2 K for Sr-underdoped samples with Zn doping, whereas it is still observable for Sr-overdoped ones with Zn doping.

Figure 2(a) shows the $`T`$ dependence of the relaxation rate 1/$`T_{2L}`$($`1/T_{2G}`$ below about 100 K). No precursory effect, e.g. divergence of 1/$`T_{2L}`$, is observed near the onset temperature of the wipeout effect in the Zn-doped, Sr-underdoped sample ($`x`$, $`y`$)=(0.1, 0.02). Thus, the observed signal does not indicate any slowing down effect of the observed spin fluctuation. A toy model of dynamical spin susceptibility is shown in Fig. 2(b) to account for such a sudden wipeout effect .

Figure 3 shows Zn-doping effect on the in-plane resistivity (upper panel)  and the relative intensity of the integrated Cu NQR spectrum $`I(x,y)/I(x,y=0)`$ (lower panel). Since the resistivity is metallic at 300 K, the high-$`T`$ wipeout effect, i.e. $`I(x,y)/I(x,y=0)<(1y)`$ at 300 K is associated with pure magnetic effect due to the local field fluctuation of Zn-induced local moments . At lower temperatures the resistivity of Sr-underdoped sample is semiconducting, so that the low-$`T`$ wipeout effect is associated with electron localization effect. Thus, we associate the wipeout effect with Zn-induced local magnetism far above 40 K and with localization effect below 40 K.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Rolling scalar fields are the leading actors of many cosmological phenomena. Their dynamics is governed by two main ingredients: the steepness of the potential $`V(\varphi )`$ and the equation of state of the background fluid $`\gamma 1+p_B/\rho _B`$ (e.g. $`\gamma =4/3`$ for radiation and $`\gamma =1`$ for matter). Cosmological attractor solutions have been found and studied by several authors for various classes of potentials. The aim of this work is to extend the results of  to a generic potential $`V(\varphi )`$, and give analytical support to some of the conclusions in . We make no assumption on the shape of the potential and allow the attractor scalar equation of state to slowly vary in time. The solutions found can be read as field-dependent corrections to the attractors studied in , where the exponential potential was discussed. Applications can span from quintessence to moduli stabilisation and inflation.

## 2 The framework

Taking $`8\pi G=\kappa ^2`$, the variables

$`x{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa \varphi ^{}}{\sqrt{6}}},y^2{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa ^2V}{3H^2}},`$ (1)
can be defined (a prime denotes a derivative with respect to the logarithm of the scale factor $`a`$, $`N\mathrm{ln}a`$, and $`H`$ is the Hubble parameter); then the effective equation of state for the scalar field at any point yields,

$$\gamma _\varphi \frac{\rho _\varphi +p_\varphi }{\rho _\varphi }=\frac{\dot{\varphi }^2}{\dot{\varphi }^2/2+V}=\frac{2x^2}{x^2+y^2},$$
(2)
(which is constrained between $`0\gamma _\varphi 2`$), and the contribution of the scalar field to the total energy density is given by

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi \kappa ^2\frac{\rho _\varphi }{3H^2}=x^2+y^2$$
(3)
(which is bounded between $`0\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi 1`$).

The relevant equations for a spatially–flat Friedmann–Robertson–Walker Universe read:

$`x^{}`$ $`=`$ $`3x+\lambda \sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}}y^2+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}x[2x^2+\gamma (1x^2y^2)],`$
$`y^{}`$ $`=`$ $`\lambda \sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}}xy+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}y[2x^2+\gamma (1x^2y^2)],`$ (4)
$`\lambda ^{}`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{6}\lambda ^2(\mathrm{\Gamma }1)x.`$
where we have introduced (see also  and ) the important parameters

$`\lambda {\displaystyle \frac{1}{\kappa V}}{\displaystyle \frac{dV}{d\varphi }},\mathrm{\Gamma }{\displaystyle \frac{V(d^2V/d\varphi ^2)}{(dV/d\varphi )^2}}.`$ (5)
which contain all the relevant information about the potential. Note that both $`\lambda `$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ are in general $`\varphi `$ (and, thus, time) dependent.

The exponential case, $`Ve^{\beta \kappa \varphi }`$, is characterised by constant parameters ($`\lambda =\beta `$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1`$); the inverse power law potential, $`V\varphi ^\alpha `$, has constant $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1+1/\alpha `$ and field–dependent $`\lambda =\alpha /\kappa \varphi `$. More general potentials can give more complicated answers. As an example, the sugra-inspired class of potentials  described by $`Ve^{\alpha (\kappa \varphi )^\beta }(\kappa \varphi )^\mu `$ gives

$`\lambda ={\displaystyle \frac{\alpha \beta (\kappa \varphi )^\beta +\mu }{\kappa \varphi }},\mathrm{\Gamma }1={\displaystyle \frac{\alpha \beta (\beta 1)(\kappa \varphi )^\beta \mu }{(\alpha \beta (\kappa \varphi )^\beta +\mu )^2}}.`$ (6)
## 3 The attractor solutions

As illustrated in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, for a generic scalar potential one can identify up to five regions in phase space. In these figures, region 1 represents a regime in which the potential energy rapidly converts into kinetic energy; in region 2, the kinetic energy is the dominant contribution to the total energy density of the scalar field (“kination”); in region 3, the field remains nearly constant until the attractor solution is reached (“frozen field”); in region 4 the field evolves along the attractor solution, where the ratio of the kinetic to potential energy is constant or slowly varying; and in region 5 the potential energy becomes important, the scalar field dominates and drives the dynamics of the Universe. In the following we will present the analytic solutions for regions 4 and 5.

The tracker solution. Consider the case in which the scalar field evolution is well approximated by a linear relation between $`x`$ and $`y`$ (region 4 in the figures). If we take the approximation of $`\lambda `$ large and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ nearly constant, then Eqs. (2) give the “instantaneous critical points”

$`x_c(\lambda )=\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\gamma _\varphi }{\lambda }},y_c^2(\lambda )={\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\gamma _\varphi }{\lambda ^2}}(2\gamma _\varphi ),`$ (7)
where the equation of state of the scalar field is

$$\gamma _\varphi =\frac{1}{2}[\gamma +(2\mathrm{\Gamma }1)\frac{\lambda ^2}{3}]\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\left[\gamma +(2\mathrm{\Gamma }1)\frac{\lambda ^2}{3}\right]^2+8\gamma (\mathrm{\Gamma }1)\frac{\lambda ^2}{3}}.$$
(8)
This solution exists for $`\lambda ^2>3\gamma _\varphi `$.

The scalar contribution to the total energy density is $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi =3\gamma _\varphi /\lambda ^2`$. Note that when $`\mathrm{\Gamma }10`$ one has

$$\gamma _\varphi =\gamma \left[1\frac{2(\mathrm{\Gamma }1)}{13\gamma /\lambda ^2}\right].$$
(9)
In other words, for potentials with small curvature, the equation of state of the scalar field is very close to the equation of state of the background fluid, and it is said that the field “tracks” the background. This expression can account for values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi >1/2`$.

From Eq. (8), it can also be shown that in the limit of $`\lambda \mathrm{}`$, when the background fluid is completely dominating, we recover the expression in ,

$$\gamma _\varphi =\frac{\gamma }{2\mathrm{\Gamma }1}.$$
(10)
The scalar field dominated solution. Consider now the case in which the evolution of the scalar field approaches the unit circle $`x^2+y^2=1`$ (region 5 in the figures). One can note that at late times $`y1`$ and $`x0`$. This means that the scalar potential is overtaking the energy density and the potential is very flat. In other words, $`\lambda `$ is getting closer to zero. Let us take then $`\lambda 0`$ and $`\lambda ^2(\mathrm{\Gamma }1)`$ nearly constant. With these assumptions, we find critical points in,

$`x_c(\lambda )={\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _\varphi }{\sqrt{6}}},y_c^2(\lambda )=1{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _\varphi ^2}{6}}.`$ (11)
Hence, the scalar field is dominant, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi =1`$ and $`\gamma _\varphi =\lambda _\varphi ^2/3`$, where we have defined

$$\lambda _\varphi =\frac{3}{2}\left[\frac{1\sqrt{14(\mathrm{\Gamma }1)\lambda ^2/3}}{(\mathrm{\Gamma }1)\lambda }\right],$$
(12)
for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1`$, and $`\lambda _\varphi =\lambda `$ otherwise. Expanding $`\lambda _\varphi `$ we can approximate the solution by

$$\lambda _\varphi =\lambda \left[1+\frac{1}{3}(\mathrm{\Gamma }1)\lambda ^2\right].$$
(13)
This solution exists for $`\lambda _\varphi ^2<6`$.

We would like to stress that all the results presented in this talk are completely general, since no assumption on the shape of the potential was made in the calculation. A detailed discussion of the existence conditions and stability of the two attractors can be found in , together with an illustration of possible cosmological applications.

Acknowledgements.  It is a pleasure to thank N. J. Nunes and S. C. C. Ng with whom the work presented here was done.