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# Magnetic resonance as a channel of directed transmission of electromagnetic energy in animate nature.

## 1 Introduction

### 1.1 Zeeman splitting of the levels. Magnetic resonance

In the simplest case the eigenstates of either a nucleus or electron, corresponding to the different alignments of magnetic moment, are degenerated. Magnetic field causes splitting of these levels. Similar electron levels, the set of magnetic (Zeeman) those allows population inversion, amplification and generation.

Let us consider an object placed to a magnetostatic field $`H`$ and irradiated by an electromagnetic field with the frequency $`\nu `$. (Here $`\nu `$ corresponds to the condition

$$h\nu =g\beta H,$$
(1)
where $`g`$ and $`\beta `$ are the constants, describing the object.) In these conditions the atomic system (containing either electrons or nuclei, which possess magnetic moment) resonantly absorbs the energy of electromagnetic field. The above phenomenon is called magnetic resonance, there are nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and electron spin resonance.

The magnetic resonance is used as a fine technique for study of matter structure, diagnostics and so on .

Modern NMR-imagers let one to observe resonant absorption of electromagnetic energy by every part of human body.

### 1.2 Magnetic resonance from the other point of view

Let us consider the magnetic resonance from the other point of view. The objects we are using to observe either nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) or electron spin resonance phenomenon possess natural permanent channel for electromagnetic energy absorption (radiation). We observe it without considering it’s destination, purpose and manifestation in different phenomena and processes, first of all, in biological systems. To realize such a channel the following conditions are necessary:

1. Biosystem (or it’s part) contains nuclei or electrons, possessing magnetic moment due to unpaired or free electrons, radicals, paramagnetic or ferromagnetic substances

2. External magnetic field, splitting energy levels.

3. Electromagnetic radiation with the frequency corresponding to resonant condition (1).

Our environment possesses al the necessary conditions for operation of such energy channel:

1. A human body includes 70$`\%`$ of water. Concentration of nuclear spins (protons) in water is about $`5.1022^3`$. Nuclei 19F, 13C, 31P, 11 , 17 , 15N, 59 also possess magnetic moment. They are contained in a human body in different amounts. Besides, electron and proton transfer supports all vital biochemical reactions, namely: redox reactions, free radical reactions, catalysis and so on.

2. Constant geomagnetic field of the Earth (0.7 gauss $`\pm `$ fluctuations caused by internal and external sources).

3. Natural electromagnetic background (lightnings, synchrotron radiation, electromagnetic waves radiated by cells of living organisms and so on) and artificial electromagnetic background (tele and radio communication, power engineering etc.)

Thus, conclusion issues: biosystem ”HUMAN BEING” can not avoid immediate energy exchange with environment. The frequency of such exchange is determined by the magnetic resonance frequency.

### 1.3 Principal concept

A person can measure out the radiation effect upon organism or it’s parts and systems and utilize it in medical practice. Practically, the full range of electromagnetic waves is used: radio-frequency, visible, X-ray and $`\gamma `$ radiation. Usually, it means the integral action upon either organism as a whole or it’s part by heating. Conventional methods and facilities do not allow selective controlling of biochemical processes in human body by the direct action on the definite molecules and nuclei, which are responsible for pathologic processes.

In certain conditions, one can consider electrons and nuclei, possessing magnetic moment, as ”magnetic phased receiving arrays” in ”HUMAN”-biosystem. Such arrays can receive (radiate) electromagnetic energy selectively in coordinates $`H,\nu ,\gamma `$ (where $`\gamma `$ is the gyromagnetic ratio). Tuning of such an array mirrors the state of the atomic system and its environment.

Ocean of electromagnetic waves surrounds and permeates a person. It includes frequencies from 0.001 to 1000 MHz, which meet the condition of magnetic resonance in the magnetic field of the Earth for several nuclei and electrons, participating in all vital biochemical reactions and processes. The principal concept is: both nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR) for protons (and other nuclei) and electron spin resonance (ESR) for free electrons provide physically true correlation between a human being and environment. It is power, aura with high selectivity. It is true channel of energy interaction, which controls biochemical processes: speed and direction of response, which can be measured and checked by physical means.

## 2 Value of resonance parameters for natural conditions.

### 2.1 Resonance frequency.

Frequencies corresponding the transitions between magnetic levels are in a wide range from audio frequencies to long-wave microwaves:

$$\nu =\frac{E_1E_2}{h}=\frac{\gamma }{2\pi }H$$

where $`\frac{\gamma }{2\pi }`$ is the proportionality factor. For H nucleus $`\frac{\gamma }{2\pi }=4.26kHzpergauss`$ and for electron spin $`\frac{\gamma }{2\pi }=2.8kHzpergauss`$

Nuclear magnetic resonance between Zeeman levels can be easily observed in the range 1-100 MHz. Intense NMR signals (as well as spin echo signals) can be obtained for hydrogen nuclei in ordinary water. In the magnetic field of the Earth (0.5 gauss) the NMR frequency for protons is

$$\nu _{NMR}=4.26kHz/gauss\dot{0}.5gauss=2.13kHz$$

The ESR frequency in the magnetic field of the Earth for free electrons is

$$\nu _{ESR}=2.8MHz/gauss\dot{0}.5gauss=1.4MHz$$

In an actual case nuclei and electrons are contained in atoms and molecules, thus the interaction picture is more complicated . The spin of a nucleus can undergo the action of internal local fields, which are produced by the spins of either neighbor atoms or unpaired electrons. In turn, these fields can be modulated by the rotation of molecules and so on. If taking into consideration both the internal magnetic fields and phenomena of chemical insulation, one can obtain very complicated spectrum for both NMR and ESR. Nuclei possessing quadrupole moment are aligned by the electrical fields, produced by the valence electrons in a molecule. This also causes variations in magnetic resonance spectrum and demonstrates the possibility of interaction with external magnetic fields over this channel. Though, very weak magneto-optical interactions are possible over either direct or inverse Faraday effect.

Life-time for the certain state of the system and the amount of the accepted energy are determined by its environment. The observed phenomena of cross-relaxation, dynamical polarization of nuclei and others demonstrate complexity of interaction of magnetic spin states. Saturation of electron spin resonance of proper paramagnetic material at high frequency increases the intensity of low frequency NMR signal several hundred times. And in some cases it can even change the sign of absorption i.e. radio-frequency radiation appears.

Water with paramagnetic additions can be used as an actuating fluid for paramagnetic amplification and generation of electromagnetic waves. For example, as far as 1960 it was developed the maser with the actuating fluid, including water and paramagnetic salt $`(SO_3)_2NOK_2`$ The maser is easily self-excited at room temperature in the magnetic field of the Earth and radiates with the frequency 2000 Hz at pumping frequency 55MHz .

In the absence of magnetic field the contact interaction (isotropic hyperfine interaction of electron and proton) mostly contributes to the energy of a hydrogen atom. The energy of a nuclear moment in the magnetic field, produced by the electron spin, corresponds this type of interaction. ESR spectra includes only one spectral line(1420 MHz).This frequency slightly differs from that for free electron. NMR of the hydrogen atom become complicated by the influence of electron spin. It is caused by the fact that the time of spin relaxation of electron in some cases is small. Hyperfine interaction yields anomalous shift of NMR frequency and also can cause NMR line spreading. The transition probability for NMR is 10 times less, than the transition probability for ESR. The magnetic field of nuclear spins can strongly affect valence electron. As a result the barrier of chemical reaction decreases. All the above indicates that this phenomenon could be used to control the speed of radical processes.

It should be particularly emphasized, that magnetic resonance as a natural phenomenon can not be identified with the spectrometer output, because every spectrometer has sensitivity and resolution limits.

A lot of resonance lines can not be observed due to either considerable spread of electrophysical properties of the samples or high speed of resonance processes. Actual spectra is much more rich in the absorption lines and dynamics, it also includes emission lines.

It should be supposed the presence of local magnetic resonance phenomena on the boundary of biomolecules, cells and membranes, which act as regulators or codes (key + lock) due to the coherent action of wave functions of protons, electrons,… Picture of resonance phenomena (spectra) for any biological object can be extremely complicated and dynamic. Using the cybernetics language, this picture is data-capacious and can be used as a code system for communication, control, action and so on.

### 2.2 Energy of resonant interaction

Orbital energy levels differ by tens of eV, while for Zeeman those the interlevel distance is about 5-10 eV. The energy of magnetic resonance for $`H=3000gauss`$ is: $`E=4\dot{1}0^3`$ kJ/gram-molecule For comparison, the energy of covalent bonds is 170-630 kJ/gram-molecule, the energy of hydrogen bonds is 12.6-33.6 kJ/gram-molecule, the energy of Van der Waals interaction is 4-13 kJ/gram-molecule and the thermal energy of a molecule (kT) at 300$``$K is 2.52 kJ/gram-molecule. It means that the energy of resonance interaction is negligibly small for the energy scale of chemical reactions. The latter fact is, apparently, the main reason why magnetic resonance is not considered as an active agent for biochemical reactions.

Electrical forces between neighbor atoms are usually exceed magnetic those, because charges inside an atom move with the speed, which is significantly less than the speed of light. Presence of either ion or asymmetric charge distribution inside a molecule yield the electric field, which is mainly responsible for attractive forces in many materials. This field is more intensive then the external field usually feasible in the laboratory. While the internal magnetic fields, caused by the motion of charges inside the matter, are usually weaker in comparison with the external those. The action of internal and external fields can be compared only in ferromagnetics. The higher the external field is, the more the magnetic levels are splitted and, therefore, the more energy the sample absorbs from the outside. The question arises whether it is to good of living organism or to it’s detriment. Transitions between the levels occur at simultaneous action of a uniform magnetic field and the magnetic component of an oscillating electromagnetic field on atoms. Interaction of an atom with the oscillating electromagnetic field is realized through oscillation of mean magnetic moment of atoms (nuclei) rather than electric dipole moment. Such magnetic interaction is less intensive than electric that, but for microwave or less frequencies, the more intensive (several oders higher) oscillating fields can be applied, then for visible range frequencies. Moreover, frequencies in radio- and microwave ranges can be tuned with high accuracy.

## 3 Electromagnetic compatibility as a feature of environment

Human being is the child of the Earth. Environment accompanies his existence from birthday to death. The energy of space is his food, obtained indirectly from the organic food and directly as electromagnetic energy through heat and light.

Every physical object (including biological ones) continuously radiates and absorbs the energy of electromagnetic waves in wide frequency range in the form of rigorously dosated quanta with definite (resonance) frequencies for radiating and absorbing atomic (molecular) system. Any violation in the transmitter-receiver system yields consequences for organism. Let us consider two physical realities characterizing environment of human being, they are: quasistationary geomagnetic field and endogenous and man-caused electromagnetic background. A lot of natural phenomena in biosphere with parameters of our interest are not explained yet, besides they are supposed to be caused by the presence of magnetic fields and electromagnetic radiation in environment.

The magnetic field of the Earth. It’s magnitude is small (0.7 gauss) and it does not give apparent concern for inhabitants. What is it’s role in the planet life? A beam of charged particles coming from the space is deflected and braked by the Earth field. Synchrotron radiation, which appears here, reaches the Earth surface and brings some changes in the life of biosphere. Magnetic field of the Earth undergoes perturbations about 0.01 gauss, also there are day-to-day variations of magnetizing force of the Earth due to lunar (10-4 gauss) and solar (2.10-3 gauss) fluxes. The response of all alive to these perturbations is also well known: oscillations of birth and death rates, mental disorders, changes of crop capacity and so on . Geomagnetic field influences the symmetry of biological objects and their functional properties. Change of geomagnetic field (GMF) changes rhythm of different variations in biological objects: day-to-day variations, seasonal behavior, annual oscillations. Universality of GMF action on living organisms with different levels of arrangement has been noted by many authors . There are some proofs that orientation of a body with respect to magnetic poles of the Earth can influence the behavior and physiology of people, animals and bacteria. On the one hand, the GMF protect all the living from the baneful space radiation, but, on the other hand experimental data shows that full shielding from the magnetic field yields degeneracy of some kinds of animals as early as in the fourth generation. The long-term stay in hypo-magnetic conditions arouses delay in cell differentiation and appearance of mutant cells. Magnetic field changes the speed of chemical reactions in systems with free radicals, for example, in liquid crystals (the basis of intracellular structure). Therefore, it influences on the biologic permeability of membranes.

There is paradoxical situation: human senses do not respond to constant field of the Earth, while it’s absence yields degeneracy and death. ”The life itself comes into an organism and evolves over geomagnetic field.” Common sense suggests that weak magnetic field can not change something in bioprocesses essentially. It provides something similar action of ”inner grid of triode”, when small change of voltage drive causes big effect, multiply amplified through resonance (!) … or sets the direction of a process (rotation) as a whole i.e. symmetry. Constant magnetic fields penetrate organism structures ”dissembling” them. There are no losses in constant magnetic field. Energy dissipation appears only at presence of variable (changing with time) magnetic fields. From this is often erroneously conclude that permanent magnet does not provide ill effect, because it produces stationary, static magnetic fields, which have not electric component. Actually, considering the fact, that in constant magnetic field there are no losses, logical reasoning does not allow one to suppose direct action of the field on an object. The magnetic field bring the system out of a ”neutral” state, removes degeneration and splits levels. Being coupled with an electromagnetic wave of certain frequency it can act on the object through resonance absorption. This action is, probably, essential for living matter, may be even global. ”The geomagnetic field, just as gravitational that, is all-penetrating and in-depth fact, which, owing to its properties, inevitably ought to influence on processes on the Earth and its environment.” One can suppose that just the small addition to the magnetic field of the Earth, provided by the Moon (Sun), sets (disrupts) the rhythm of biological clocks. Sun bursts are the main source of interplanetary disturbances and intense beams of charged particles, principally, electrons with the energy 10-100 keV and protons with the energy higher than hundreds of MeV. In 40 or 50 minutes after the Sun burst the horizontal component the magnetic field of the Earth $`\mathrm{\Delta }B`$ increases tens and hundreds of $`\gamma `$ ($`1\gamma =1nanotesla`$). Ionospheric violations and breaking of radio communication occur. After 0.5-5 hours $`\mathrm{\Delta }B`$ decreases sharply by 40-400$`\gamma `$. It continues from several hours to two or three days. Dimensions and shape of magnetosphere of the Earth occur essentially changed. How many biological triggers became turned on after such burst? Unicellular organism possesses biological clock with endogenous rhythm. It is supposed that self-sustained oscillation system of biochemical reactions inside the cell can produces such a clock. Change of any parameter of environment can indirectly manage the process due to feedback ( without direct action on processes in organism). For example, the sex of a chrysalis of the silkworm can be determined by proper temperature. In this case the change of a parameter is important rather than its absolute value. The sensitivity of living organisms to the external excitation is very high. This fact is experimentally ascertained. Electrophysical processes in human nervous system occur at signal amplitude 10 V, eye responds single light quantum and limit of acoustic perception is comparable with thermal noise. But there no experiments considering influence of the Earth field on living organisms. All the theories of magneto-biological effects, based on the processes of paramagnetic and diamagnetic magnetization are useless in principle. The orienting possibility of magnetic atoms of the living organism in the magnetic field with the field strength 10 oersted (by Dorfman estimation) is two orders less then thermal action, i.e. negligible . Therefore, to summarize, the experiments studying influence of magnetic field action on living organisms and plants requires strong theoretical ideas and scientific suppositions.

Electromagnetic background. The Sun and the Galaxy are the sources of electromagnetic radiation of wide spectra incident the Earth. It includes radiation of different types: synchrotron and relic radiation (Fig.1). Cosmic rays (protons, nuclei of heavy atoms, electrons) are the source of synchrotron radiation. Electrons of initial cosmic rays moving in interstellar magnetic fields radiate radio-waves. Synchrotron radio-wave radiation of metagalaxy sources is linearly polarized and polarization level usually does not exceed several percents.

In interstellar conditions the neutral hydrogen atoms radiate spectral line with the wavelength 21 cm, hydroxyl, water vapor and oxide of carbon radiate 21 cm, 1.35 cm and 2.64 cm, respectively. Process of intense radiation in spectral lines of hydroxyl and water vapor is similar to operation of powerful natural maser.

Relic radiation was discovered in 1965. It is isotropic with spectrum, corresponding the radiation of the blackbody heated to 3 K. Density of radiation is 10 erg per cm. This is the highest energy density in Galaxy.

A lot of Earth phenomena displays connection with solar activity.

Lightnings, being the sources of wide spectra of electromagnetic waves, played an important part in transformation of life on the Earth.

The web of powerful transmission systems, operating in wide frequency range, winds around the globe. This is one more source of man-caused radio-wave radiation background. Every pocket radio-receiver can find out and detect the huge discrete set of radio-waves.

Human activity changes parameters of the Earth on the space scale. I.S. Shklovsky evaluated that brightness temperature of the Earth as a planet was increased during last 2 or 3 tens of years millions times more due to operation of television, radars, broadcasting in metric wave-length range. Now it is about several hundreds of million degrees, which exceeds brightness temperature of the Sun for this frequency range in the periods of the absence of sun-spots .

This fact should put us on guard. What is the reaction of living? What have changed around us due to this?

It is very difficult to discover influence of electromagnetic field with small density on biological processes in the cells ”in vivo”, particularly considering changes in ecological conditions. Extensive and long-term observations are necessary. Let us start from the simplest and consider electric processes in living organisms, which are described by the perceptible and well-detected parameters: currents, potentials and so on.

Here there is a curious observation. Such prolate disease as arrhythmia (fibrillation) was a rare event as recently as 70 years ago . Scientists are speaking about epidemic. Sharp growth of the density of electromagnetic energy in the environment causes the reaction of conductive system of the heart. It seems there are no other explanations. But what is the action mechanism? From this point of view one should draw attention to the neural and cerebrum diseases, because nerve cells are most sensitive to the action of electromagnetic fields in radio-frequency range. A cell phone radiates high density of electromagnetic radiation in radio-frequency range (some systems use frequency less than 900 MHz) in the immediate vicinity of brain. What safety is expected? It is curious (at least I am curious) in what generation of people the hereditary moronity or something similar become apparent? Cell potential, conductivity of membranes and metabolism as a whole become strained. Space flights make studies of the influence of the above factors on a human being more active. Huge amount of experimental facts, which describe this action on biological objects depending on radiation frequency and intensity, is stored . However, there is no agreement in explanations of a diversity of the observed phenomena. Attempts to explain injurious effect of electromagnetic fields on the vital functions of a human being yield to the necessity of consideration of electromagnetic compatibility for biosystems and environment

Actual environment is the net of cross-cut signals, where synergetic effects and new interference low-frequency ”constructions” can appear from two signals with higher frequencies .

The influence of electromagnetic waves with mains frequencies (50, 60) Hz has been studied. Prof. Volfgang Ludwig considers that fields oscillating with frequencies 3, 7.8 and 20 Hz resound with organism structures and can activate them. We have already known that weak electromagnetic fields can strongly affect cell’s growth and performance that, however, can not be caused by some thermal exchange, because elsewise thermodynamics laws are violated. Dr. Ross Edie shown in his investigations that physiological reaction can be provided only at certain parameters of electromagnetic field, such as: amplitude, frequency modulation and so on. Here there are recent results of Dr. Fabien Mamone: the impact by tone of the certain frequency during 15-20 minutes could activate healthy cells, while cancer cells are extended and breaked .

Presence of biorhythms is proven for many biosystems. They are explained by the self-oscillating processes (hysteresis in cell structures), but no one has been realized how these processes are coupled with external factors and what could synchronize them. There is no scientific explanation for unique abilities of extrasensory and telepathic individuals. At the same time the existing scientific and experimental basis provides to simulate human organism as a whole (or in part) as either generator (wave source) or receiver with tunable frequency and high selectivity. Tuning could be realized by volitional action, for example. On the one hand it can explain distant information exchange. Such exchange can be easily realized between twins or close relatives, because their individual oscillations are close by their parameters. It often can be observed in life. On the other hand this exchange supposes the existence of biological field or aura as a shield of a biological object produced by evolution. Why a lot of human diseases become more intense at night? What is the mysterious influence of moon-light? Here one should draw attention to the difference in day and night radio-spectra. It is well-known that magnetic fields of the Earth on the day and night sides differ by the flux density (action of the solar wind). The frequency of the light incident on the Moon determines Moon transparency as a body, which possesses finite electroconductivity. At fast change of interplanetary magnetic field it appears a delay of reflected wave phase in ”magnetic shadow” of the Moon. It is possible that after reflection by the Moon the part of polarized radio-radiation grows and it’s resonance actions increases. Or, may be, the interference of forward and backward (reflected by the Moon) waves excites holographic pictures and hallucinations in the brain of sleeping person. Simultaneous consideration (comparison) of several factors, joined by the resonance condition can appear the key for understanding of many questions. Analysis of spectra of magnetic resonance frequencies for the molecules and compound, which frequently occur in biological objects, and it’s comparison with the background spectra including lines of space radiation of , , and relic radiation can help to answer these questions. The presence of polarized synchrotron radio-radiation and magnetic resonance in geomagnetic field requires particular attention.

Interaction is provided by coherent, phased and directed action of particle ensemble, first of all interaction of protons by hydrogen bonds and interaction of electrons by free radical reactions. These fine effects are much more important in consideration of interaction mechanism than the quantity of activating energy. One should look for contribution of magnetic resonance processes in self-oscillation processes in biosystems as well as in trigger and tunneling effects. I am speaking about motion (transfer) of electrons and protons, but one should also consider currents, which are produced by this motion, and, therefore, other velocities and collective effect. I am speaking about activating energy, whereas one should consider resonance, phased phenomena, for which small action causes effect (1/0), tunneling effect, amplification and generation. For biological system the possibility of existence of a phenomenon similar to superconductivity at room temperature can not be excluded.

## 4 Connection of the observed phenomena with the magnetic resonance

Let us consider several biophysical phenomena from this point of view. There are some of them, which can not be explained by modern theories and which can indicate (either directly or indirectly) connection with magnetic resonance for radio-frequencies.

And everywhere there are protons, paramagnetic atoms, free electrons and radicals i.e. systems, which possess magnetic moment.

The magnetic field of the Earth is highly uniform and universal it determines the direction of magnetic biasing for all biochemical processes in living matter on the Earth. Magnetic moments of electrons and nuclei sensitively respond the slightest fluctuations of this field (similar compass needle).

Electromagnetic radiation, which participates in magnetic resonance interactions, propagates and scatters in the Earth conditions well, it also provides minimal losses in biological structures.

Almost all radiation sources near the Earth surface (both natural and artificial) operates in the above range.

Probability of spontaneous transitions is this range is small, therefore, only induced absorption and radiation are significant; Einstein coefficients are about 4 orders less then those for electric dipole transitions.

The magnetic interaction is less intensive then electric that, but for low frequencies much more intensive oscillating magnetic fields can be used than for visible range.

The natural linewidth for magnetic resonance is very small and can be measured with high accuracy, just as the phase. Electromagnetic field is considered in classical representation that allows to speak about exact phasing (tuning) of large ensemble of particles.

A lot of processes in living matter (and abiocoen), being the processes in condensed nonequilibrium systems, for example, enzymic catalysis, can not be explained by the well-known kinetic and static laws, based on the primitive heating and compression of material, disordered thermal collisions i.e. statistic disorder. To all appearance, both the cooperative action of particles with fine adjustment of phases of wave functions and long range ordering are necessary for such phenomena. This results in condition AND-AND rather than OR-OR, i.e. product rather than sum. Cold nuclear fusion, which caused a sensation ten years ago, is also pertinent to the above, in my opinion. Nature is rich in unique solutions, passing obstacles around by elegant methods with the smallest energy consumption and entropy decreasing. There are some samples: covalent bonds in animate nature, quantum-mechanical tunneling and so on.

In many cases the activating energy is not the main factor in chemical transformations and the explicable energy balance is absent. Quantum-mechanical tunneling is the principal theoretical explanation. The presence and influence of low-frequency modes of oscillations, which cause smearing and swinging of electron levels can contribute the above.

Findings of influence of electromagnetic radiation on a human being (it is discussed above) force to conclude the necessity of consideration of electromagnetic compatibility of the human being and its environment. The lack of electromagnetic energy in an organism is a sign of homeostasis violation.

Physical processes in microcosm are the objects for directed physiological and biochemical control, in other words they depend on conditions of their passing in organism and environment. Biological mechanisms of development become apparent even for the lowest levels of life organization.

Magneto-optical effects and so on.

## 5 Possible implementation mechanisms

### 5.1 About water and hydrogen bonds

Different types of forces participate in molecules interaction with each other. The particular type of intermolecular interaction, being of our interest, is the hydrogen bond (H-bond). It is weak, the energy, which releases at H-bond forming is about 0.1 eV. For example, the change of strong covalent bond requires the energy higher by a factor of 20. It means that sufficient energy should be directed to the molecule for its activation. The living organism can not solve this problem by the increase of temperature, because the disordered thermal motion could change something unrequired. The chemical reactions, either producing or destroying the covalent bonds in a cell, occur due to participation of the specific catalyst, which are called enzymes.

In particular, the H-bond plays the key role in biochemistry due to its weakness. Suffice it to say that the bond between two links in a DNA molecule and a secondary structure (conformation) of proteins are formed by the H-bond. Since NMR directly acts on a proton, so the chemical processes using H-bonds should be considered.

Speaking about the global synchronizing action of the geomagnetic field on biological and physical-chemical reactions, one should put a question about the reason of such versatile action. The change of water properties under the action of the geomagnetic field can be the reason. Because water, which is the common component in the reactions in living and abiocoen systems, is the only substance, which can determine the versatility of the geomagnetic field action on the living organisms.

At the room temperature water should become gas, but the presence of hydrogen bonds displaces the boiling-point of water to the anomalously high value 373.15 at the atmosphere pressure. The activation energy (for H-bond break) is about 20 kJ per gram-molecule at the temperature 298K. Molecules of water undergo oscillatory motion near the equilibrium position with the typical oscillation period about $`2.710^{12}s`$. The major properties of water are not quite clear .

Water directly participates in forming of structure of the most important biomolecules, as well as in processes of self-assembly of complicated permolecular structures. Small changes in quantity and state of relatively small fraction of water molecules, which form hydrated layer of macromolecule, yield sharp changes in thermodynamic and relaxation parameters of the liquor as a whole. Fast process involves all fractions of water, including molecules lying in the internal layers of protein. The above makes the system ”biopolymer-water” a uniform cooperative system, in which all changes in the state of either solvent or macromolecule are interconnected and correlated. The huge and irreplaceable role of water in animate nature suggests that the main destination of water is more important. It is informational basis of biological life in the Universe.

H-bonds stabilize the secondary structure of polypeptide chains. Bond is realized between hydrogen atom, which is connected to one molecule by chemical bond, and electronegative atoms O, N, F, Cl, which are usually pertinent to the other molecule. The nature of hydrogen bond is very complicated and can not be explained by the electrostatic attraction only, while it contributes the most in the bonding energy. Studies showed that potential function of H-bond can be represented by a curve with two minima localized near electronegative atoms. Proton tunneling is possible between them.

### 5.2 Biophysics and cybernetics

Biosystems can operate in several stable stationary states. The main peculiarity of biosystems is their ability to switch between operation regimes. The ability of biosystems to switching (trigger effect) becomes a precondition to the tissue differentiation (genetic trigger). Trigger switching is possible by two ways:

1. the specific manner - by the sharp change of the variable quantity itself

or

2. the nonspecific (parametric) manner - the parameters of a system (for example, change of T, pH and so on) are affected instead of variables.

Transition from one stable state to another can be realized by different ways according to the direction of parameter change. Here we can see nothing else than hysteresis, which, in its part, can explain the presence of dynamic store inherent in all biological objects.

The geomagnetic field influences on the rhythm of all the processes in the living organism and biosphere as a whole. Daily rhythm of radiation sensitivity (i.e. change of efficiency of radiating by ionizing radiation within a day) is marked by radio-biologists. It is not clear yet, what is the timing element (the trigger)

The trigger properties of enzymatic systems play the key role in control of intracellular processes of metabolism. The trigger properties of transport systems (for example, transport of liquor trough the porous membrane) are well known. The conformational state of an enzyme changes (switches over) at some critical concentration of a substrate (or reaction product). This yields the sharp reduction of enzyme activity and, therefore, slows down of the chemical process.

Nonlinear kinetics of the most important biochemical processes causes the presence of continuous periodic oscillations (self-oscillations) in biosystems along with trigger regimes and hysteresis. The amplitude of the above oscillations is determined by the properties of the system itself rather than the initial conditions. An illustrative example of such reaction is the reaction of Belousov-Zhabotinsky.

Real biosystems are exposed to the infinite number of the accidental external and internal impacts, but in the stable operation range the dynamic character of the system is retained.

There is a cybernetics approach to the life problem (Lyapunov’s theory). Lyapunov describes the life as ”the highly stable state of a matter”, which uses the information coded by the state of single molecules for the development of ”the retaining reactions”. To change the state of such a molecule the energy of the disordered thermal motion of a biosystem is insufficient. The theory supposes the presence of a channel for communication with the outer world. Information about external action is perceived by matter as coded signals. A physical process can be the substantial realization of this signal. But nobody have disclosed this process except for hard radiation, which is suspect of all the faults of mutations and natural selection.

Finally, it should be mentioned that one of four conditions necessary for appearance of the processes of spatially-temporal self-organization is the cooperativity of microscopical processes in the system. The thermodynamically opened medium, nonlinear system and minimal amplitude of interaction are also required. Modern thermodynamic theories describing active molecule-carriers (”molecular cars”) state that the speed of transport processes and energy transformation in the system depends on the particular molecular-kinetic mechanisms of cooperative interactions.

### 5.3 Quantum-mechanical tunneling

In a number of cases the biochemical reactions go even when the necessary content of activation energy is absent. Electron can be transported at relatively large distances independently of translational motion of molecules of electron donor and acceptor. This distinguishes the above processes from oxidation-reduction reactions in liquor. It is supposed that quantum-mechanical tunneling (QMT) takes place here.

The idea of tunneling transport of electron between single protein molecule-carriers separated by the energy barrier can be applied to explain a lot of important phenomena in chemistry and biology.

As far back as in 1965 Levdin  suggested that genetic defects, ageing and tumor growth can appear due to QMT. Genetic information is coded in molecules, which have hydrogen bonds between bases in the specific pairs of nucleotides. The normal pairs of bases can undergo tautomeric transformations by tunneling of proton from one base to another in the replication process, which results in the appearance of faults in genetic code. The detailed calculations show that the potential barrier between two minima in the system founded by the pair of bases is not too high and wide to make tunneling the rare event. To argue for electron tunneling is the fact, that tunneling can occur even at low temperature (77K and lower). In these conditions the translational motion of large protein molecules is slowed down and, therefore, conventional physical and mechanical mechanism of reaction (colliding particles with the excess of kinetic energy) can not be realized with high speed. In a number of cases the activationless tunneling prevails at $`T<100K`$ and the temperature dependences of such reactions displays the pronounced biphase character. Electron transition includes either transport of electron or migration of the energy of electron excitation between two states in the system of two discrete levels; it can be realized only in the presence of dissipative processes in acceptor. The implication is as follows: the energy of electron excitation (its part) should be scattered by the acceptor during the time of electron being there. This yields to the ”detuning” of levels resonance in acceptor and donor during the defined time (very short time) and back transition from acceptor to donor becomes impossible. The states D (donor) and A (acceptor) are separated by the potential barrier and in the absence of dissipation the quantum-mechanical oscillations between the above states happen. If the final state (A) is quasi-stationary (the level is metastable) due to certain dissipative processes and is described by the complex energy, then the process of transition from the initial to the final state is one-way i.e. tunneling takes place. Dissipation of a part of the energy can occur either due to further tunneling of electron through the barrier walls to the acceptor neighborhood or under the action of the environment, which interacts with electrons. These yield the ”bouncing” of the energy level and loss of coherence of wavefunction states due to the shift of the oscillation phase. And the most interesting is that spreading of electron levels in complex molecules can be reached due to the motion of nuclei and vibronic interactions, which result in the loss of electron energy through the oscillatory degrees of freedom.

Then the summary is as follows: consideration of electron tunneling in real molecules requires to take into account the state of nuclei, which motion changes the energy levels of electrons. Quantum character of nucleus motion causes the uneven change of oscillation energy of a molecule. Oscillatory quanta correspond the oscillatory sublevels. There are some indications that electron transport in proteins in real processes is described both by the quantum accepting modes and the set of low-frequency modes inherent in protein molecule. Coupling of the low-frequency modes can influence the forming of the accepted mode and the complex A-D as a whole. Just the case, which, in particular, demonstrates the active role of protein environment, explains the great difference in temperature dependence for electron transport to different objects in photosynthesis reaction centers .

Quantum-chemical investigations let us to display some new peculiarities in the motion of nuclei of particles containing in a molecule. Thus, a lot of minima were discovered on the potential surfaces, which are separated by the relatively low potential barriers. Moreover, very high sensitivity of electron structure of molecules in excited state to the change of nucleus configuration and small external excitations was discovered two. To investigate the intermolecular interactions, quantum chemistry should consider the potential of interaction and develop the models, which can let us to take the influence of environment into account by studying the properties of a molecule and mechanisms of elementary processes.

### 5.4 Enzymatic catalysis

Chemical catalysts and enzymes directly concerns the considered question. The transport of electrons and protons is a basis of activity of many of catalyst systems. In the first case the typical catalysts are transition metals and their compounds. A free radical is formed at single-electron transition. In the second case the substances, which can accept and deliver a proton are used as catalysts. Amasing reactivity of the enzymes has no convincing theoretical explanation. There is lack of some ties, coordination, speed and energy balance and so on.

In biochemistry there are known such models as Fisher’s ”key-lock”, Kochland’s ”hand-glove”, ”protein-machine” and so on. The thermodynamic essence of the above models is as follows: the free potential energy of binding of a substratum (sorbtion) by an enzyme should be used for lowering of a barrier of free activation energy in the following chemical reaction. But it is not clear yet, in what forms and by what mechanism the sorption energy can be stored in protein globule and concentrated to attack the bond. To explain catalysis mechanism it is supposed that enzyme’s structure provides coherent propagation of fluctuating changes of conformation from the protein surface to its active center. This provides free energy change between macromolecule and its environment. The multi-step transformation of a substratum in enzymatic catalysis is provided by the synchronous and cooperative transformations in a uniform polyfunctional system. Assumption of the appearance of a coherent state with a single mode of oscillation and dissipativeless energy transport over the certain degrees of freedom of a protein globule to the active center is a base for all dynamic models. But no one of the mentioned models can be considered as standard. The question about energy transport concentration and balance remains pressing. Proton (proton pump)is mentioned in increasing frequency. Proton is the strongest catalyst. Moderate excess of protons in blood plasma (pH parameter) signifies a lot in pathophysiology and clinical practice. The ability of protonated hydrogen to come close to electronegative atoms is its advantage.

Hydrogen atom lacking in electron environment does not meet electromagnetic resistance during approach to other atoms, which have an electronegative cloud. It transports the excitation energy or angular momentum to molecule. It remains only to phase-in the system of enzyme-substratum (to set the key into the lock) at minimal action energy. In NMR conditions all the wave-functions of protons can be phased-in, but this implies the other features and other speed.

## 6 Symmetry in nature

Let us consider one more interesting fact. Some media possess an amazing property: while a light beam with plane polarization passes through it, the plane of light polarization rotates. Such media are called optically active (or gyrotropic). There are media providing right (clockwise) and left (counterclockwise) rotation (for an observer located near the light source). Optical activity is explicated by both the medium and molecule structure. From this appears ”right” and ”left” molecules. Spatial structure of such molecules has no mirror symmetry. They are enantiomers. The absence of mirror symmetry is also called chirality. In abiocoen ”left” and ”right” molecules are found with equal frequency, whereas the molecules without mirror symmetry are usually present in living organisms in only one enantiomer type. Pasteur supposed that this is the boundary between abiocoen and animate nature.

Alpha-spiral, which determines the structure of protein molecules, is usually the right screw, while the aminoacid molecules forming a protein are usually left ones. The DNA duplex is also right molecule. All the DNA turns are right, similar ordinary corkscrew. In nature there are no mirror reflections with gene spirals counter swirling. Due to the absolute symmetry and absence of mirror reflections the whole information contained in genes can not be confused. Viruses are the protein compounds. They also rotate to the right. Exclusions are antibiotics - they rotate to the left. Maybe this causes their action. Different molecules devoided of mirror symmetry are usually presented only by either right or left stereoisomers. All the above testifies that a living organism is described by full-blown left-right asymmetry. Plants, like other organisms, are separated to ”left” and ”right” and symmetrical ( D-, L-,S- ) enantiomorphs. Nature (plants and animals) produces and assimilates the aminoacides of only one isomer and can not assimilate the synthesized imitations. A human being feeds on the stereomers, which correspond his asymmetry. Pasteur mentioned that ”asymmetric synthesis can occur in the presence of some natural asymmetric factor”. In laboratory conditions depending on the direction of rotation of light polarization vector mainly either ”left” or ”right” form of some synthesizing organic compound appears under the action of light with the circular polarization. As Sun radiation has no appreciable circular polarized component, then such explanation for the asymmetry of ”living” molecules is considered improper. 16 types of aminoacides, which was discovered in the Australian meteorite (1969) equally had ”left” and ”right” asymmetry. equally. It is evident that space aminoacides have nonbiological (or rather unearthly) origin. This signify that the solution of the above phenomena should be find on the Earth. The reasons of the asymmetry in nature are not clear yet. It is still a question, why some of symmetries are violated, while others are not. It is not even clear what of two questions is more important: why some of symmetries are violated or why certain of them are ideal? There are assumptions that the latter is only a chance during life incipience. However, one should always remember that any symmetry is a property of certain laws of motion, rather than abstract space.

Discovery of parity violation in elementary particle physics exhibited that nature distinguishes ”left” and ”right” and the choice between them is not accidental. B.Ya. Zeldovich et al. paid their attention that parity violation should cause the difference in internal energies for a pair of optical isomers. In 1983 S. Mazon and J. Trenter demonstrated that weak interactions, which violate parity, stabilize L-isomer in comparison with D-isomer. It is important that stabilization energy is negligibly small and depends on the angles of internal rotation. But in normal conditions it can provide about 10 additional L-macromolecules per 1 gram-molecule of racemate. It has not been clear yet, whether such weak effect could lead to wide-ranging results or not.

Nowadays, it is stated that the trend of physical-chemical reactions in protein molecules depends on its orientation and this effect, by some way, is determined by the object asymmetry (either left or right), the phase of Sun cycle in the moment of study and the geomagnetic field. The influence of the geomagnetic field is clearly recognized and not impeachable. It is supposed that variability in bi-symmetrical forms of plants is also caused by the geomagnetic field and through it by the Sun activity in the Earth conditions. In the place, where pigmies live, there are many nanoid animals and plants. The Japanese, who grow up in USA (especially in the west part), differ drastically by their height, ratio of both face and body from the parents in Asia. Two twins were in the navy in different places: the first was in Baltic region and the second was in the Far East. As a result they have got the height difference about 4 cm. And famous acceleration … Maybe there is a prompt in the fact that prolate allergy for exotic fruits, is caused by the conditions of their growth (different geographic latitude and climatic zone) characterized by other ratio in asymmetry molecules.

Symmetry problems play determinative role in modern physics and can be a guiding thread to unknowable.

The extremely mysterious fact is the gyrotropy of the most important tissues of living organisms. Namely, they are formed by the chiral molecules, which predominantly are in one of two mirror forms. The numbers of the right and left molecules in nature are usually equal on average (racemate). On my view the magnetic resonance concerns with the question of asymmetry in nature. Physicists know the effect of magnetic circular dichroism (the Faraday effect). The right and left components of light with plane polarization interact with matter in different ways in the presence of magnetic field, which direction coincides with the direction of light propagation. All the substances are active in terms of magnetic circular dichroism. This testifies that magnetic fields significantly change the structure of electron transitions and cause asymmetry. The energy of a particle does not depend on its orientation in space. Invariance with respect to spatial rotations is determined by the conserved quantity the angular momentum.

Appearance of the preferential direction (along the magnetic field) violates the initial symmetry with respect to arbitrary rotations around any direction in space. Thus, the angular momentum $`J`$ can no longer be conserved. Before the field appearance the energy levels of a system are $`(2j+1)`$-fold degenerated. The field turning removes this degeneration (Zeeman splitting). The constant field of the Earth determines such direction in space, so nobody can expect to find pure symmetry in ”sublunary world”. Therefore, all the biochemical processes and life in the Earth pass in asymmetry conditions caused by the magnetic field from their beginning to the end. And only fluctuations (fluctuations over value and directions) of the geomagnetic field periodically violate the normal practice.

Let us consider the classical model of the magnetic resonance. The imposed magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{H}`$ induces the angular momentum $`\stackrel{}{\tau }`$, which acts on the magnetic moment of either a nucleus or an electron $`\stackrel{}{\mu }`$. This angular momentum can be expressed by the crossproduct

$$\stackrel{}{\tau }=\stackrel{}{\mu }\times \stackrel{}{H}.$$

The magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{H}`$ makes the magnetic moment $`\stackrel{}{\mu }`$ to rotate (precess) around the direction $`\stackrel{}{H}`$ with the frequency $`\omega `$

$$\omega =\left|\gamma \right|H.$$

Direction of rotation is determined by the sign of $`\gamma `$; $`\gamma =\mu /\tau =g\beta /h`$ is the ratio, which is fixed for certain nucleus or atomic system. In contrast to the most of nuclei, $`\gamma `$ for electrons is negative and their spins precess counterclockwise around the field $`\stackrel{}{H}`$.

It should be especially emphasized that transitions for NMR and ESR are induced by the magnetic component of circularly polarized radiofrequency radiation and the direction of precession coincides with the direction of polarization rotation.

As one can see, the resonance binds rigidly both the frequency and direction of rotation. Maybe the tie of these phenomena hides here? There are common ”characters in the play”. It could be supposed that just the magnetic resonance determines the direction of biochemical reactions depending on orientation with respect to geomagnetic field, its value and stereoisomerism (either left or right).

## 7 Conclusion

During a century scientists have been considered chemical model of organization and operation of molecules, tissues and organs of a body. This biochemical model should be expanded. Both electromagnetic and quantum processes should be included in it as they play a very important role in nature self-organization.

Investigation of magnetic resonance participation in these processes could help to answer many of the above questions. Even if magnetic resonance is not a reason of a lot of phenomena, it is an intermediary. Just this side of the magnetic resonance effect I’d like to underline.

Study and application of the magnetic resonance as a channel for electromagnetic energy transport allow to do the following:

1. To compare the spectra of magnetic resonance of the Earth for the most important (from the biological point of view) molecules and compounds with the spectrum of electromagnetic background of biosphere. To calculate the spectral picture of interaction of a human organism with the environment in the radio frequency range. First of all, to check whether there is anomalous effect of frequencies 3Hz; 7.8Hz; 20 Hz, 3kHz, 2MHz, 1420MHz, 1700MHz, 22000 MHz;

2. To control the biochemical reactions in a human organism at atomic-molecular level selectively in coordinates $`H`$, $`\nu `$, $`g`$. To rehabilitate (to correct) homeostasis violation in the exchange of electromagnetic energy with the environment by the pumping of the magnetic resonance energy to the required place, organ or system for medical treatment; to activate healthy cells and inhibit ill those. Localization of the resonance conditions can be provided by several methods. The internal localization can be done by g-factor, by application of spin sones or contrasting substances. The external one can be provided by hardware (for example, the NMR-T code, which allows to distinguish T1 and T2 for healthy and ill cells).

3. To simulate and test biological possibility of a human organism (organs) as a generator of electromagnetic radiation (maser); to find possible antennas (points, chakras) in the body to explain mechanism of telepathic connections, telekinesis, aura and so on.

4. Considering NMR ability to phase the wavefunctions of particle ensemble, to find out its role in enzymatic catalysis, tunneling, molecule’s asymmetry and mutations of DNA with H-bonds during the replications and reparations in the operation of ”proton pump” (as well as other reactions and compounds with H-bonds);

5. To explain the influence of fluctuations of the geomagnetic field and Sun activity on the phenomena in biosphere (including biorhythms) in terms of magnetic resonance (MR);

6. To indicate the day and night difference in MR conditions for the Earth inhabitants due to the changes in the geomagnetic field value, radio-background and its polarization as a possible reason of worsening of the state of health of the most sensitive people. Magnetic resonance possibly could be a transfer chain to realize the influence of the radiowaves reflected from the Moon on a human being by creating holographic pictures in the brain of a sleeping person;

7. To prove the connection between the epidemic of heart arrhythmia in recent 50 years with the significant growth of radio brightness of the Earth in this period;

8. To find out the mechanism of influence of static electricity, which is accumulated on a body due to synthetic clothes, cell phones and so on, on human organism;

9. To apply spine sones for ”repairing” or destruction of cells (peculiar pole-hole digger) in ESR regime;

10. To examine the experiments and to develop a procedure for treatment of oncological deceases with electromagnetic radiation by the reversed NMR-T (NMR imagers can be used for treatment: to localize the pathology in conventional regime and then to radiate localized parts (nuclei));

11. To activate an organism by either application of the water ”magnetized by NMR” or hemosorption (NMR for water-containing systems and ESR for paramagnetic those).


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Viscous fingering (VF) patterns  belong to the class of instabilities which are easily produced experimentally but quite complex to study analytically. Existing work mostly focusses on the single Saffman-Taylor finger in a rectangular Hele-Shaw (HS) cell and details of its stability and shape . The circular pattern in a lifting Hele-Shaw cell, formed by competition and interaction between a large number of fingers is however a fascinating problem  but much less studied.

When a less viscous fluid is forced into a more viscous fluid under pressure, the interface between the two becomes unstable and the less viscous ‘invading’ fluid (fluid 1) enters the more viscous ‘defending’ fluid (fluid 2) in the form of irregular finger like protrusions which may repeatedly branch and sometimes form a fractal pattern. The Hele-Shaw cell, consisting of two parallal glass plates, with a very small gap in between, is the most popular model for study of VF patterns. The more viscous fluid 2, is kept sandwiched between the two plates, and the less viscous fluid 1 is forced in the gap, through a small hole at the centre of the upper glass plate. Fluid 1 forms complex patterns, depending on the characteristic properties of the two fluids. The viscosities of the fluids, their interface tension, the rate of flow of the invading fluid are some of the properties affecting the pattern. Many modifications of this simple HS cell have been developed.

One such apparatus is the ‘lifting Hele-Shaw cell’ (LHSC). In this modification of the conventional Hele-Shaw cell, the gap between the two plates increases with time. The upper plate is lifted slowly keeping it parallel to the lower one. This causes a sucking effect drawing in the lower viscosity fluid, which surrounds the high viscosity fluid sandwiched between the plates. Quite a large number of papers have been published on the LHSC , some theoretical and numerical studies have also been done . If the defending fluid in the LHSC is a visco-plastic paste, the pattern on the two plates after seperation, is a permanent three-dimensional pattern, it is actually the complement of the fingers, where the displaced fluid has accumulated. The ridges between two adjacent fingers show a variation in height, and there are peaks at the forks where two ridges join. The height of the ridges is less at the edges and increases towards the centre of the circular plate. This interesting pattern has been studied experimentally  but we do not know of any attempt at simulating it.

In the present paper we report a Monte-Carlo simulation of VF patterns in a Hele-Shaw cell with a visco-plastic material such as oil-paint, displaced by a less viscous fluid which may be air or a newtonian liquid. We study characteristics of the pattern, such as survival exponent of the fingers growing upto different lengths, rate of increase in coverage of the displacing fluid with time, and the time required for breakthrough as well as the morphology of the patterns of both the displacing and the displaced fluid. The displaced fluid being visco-plastic piles up when displaced adding an extra dimension (both metaphorically and physically) to the problem. All these features change with parameters representing viscosity contrast, interface tension and density of the fluids. We compare our results with experiments on a lifting Hele-Shaw cell (LHSC) using different fluids.

## 2 The simulation algorithm

Growth of viscous fingers and diffusion limited aggregates (DLA) generated by random walks are both examples of Laplacian growth . So random walk algorithms have been used to simulate viscous fingers. However, this has problems because such models produce highly branched and irregular fingers similar to surface deposition models . Different methods are used for smoothening the structures to account for the effect of interface tension . Another problem is that there is no provision in such models for taking into account the physical properties of the two fluids and observing the changes in morphology when these properties change. In our model, we calculate the pressure gradient assuming a linear variation from a constant low pressure isobar, and assign growth probability in proportion to the pressure gradient, according to Darcy’s law . The proportionality constant involves a parameter representing the viscosity contrast between the two fluids. We assign another parameter which depends on the viscoplastic nature of the defending fluid, making the probability of displacement smaller, when a large amount of it has piled up at a site. In addition there is a parameter representing surface tension which smooths out indentations in a finger during growth. We find that the different morphological features observed in the LHSC experiment can be reproduced by controlling these three parameters. We further quantify our results by recording the exponents governing power-laws connecting certain features of growth, these are compared with experimental results where possible.

Our pattern is simulated on a rectangular two-dimensional lattice of size $`(L_x\times L_y)`$. We start with an initial uniform ‘mass’ distribution of the defending fluid (fluid 2) over the whole system, assigning one unit of fluid 2 to each site. This is represented by

$$m(x,y,t_{=0})=1$$

for all (x,y). An initial random disturbance is created along one edge at $`y=0`$ by introducing a column of fluid 1 with lengths varying randomly between 1 to 5 units at alternate sites. Now the fluid 1 columns grow both forward in the y direction and sideways in the x direction , with growth probability determined as follows

$$P_f=1/D\mu p(x,y,t)m(x,y,t)$$
(1)
and

$$P_s=1/Dm(x,y,t)$$
(2)
here $`P_f`$ and $`P_s`$ denote respectively the probabilities for forward and lateral growth. $`p(x,y,t)`$ is the pressure gradient at $`(x,y)`$ at x,y at time t, calculated assuming a linear variation from a constant lower pressure at the far end $`y=L_y`$. $`\mu `$ represents the viscosity contrast between the two media and $`D`$ the resistance of fluid 2 to pushing by fluid 1 (this maybe related to the yield stress). The growth processes are carried out sequentially, the probability determined using two random number generators.

When fluid 1 proceeds by one site in the forward or lateral direction, the ‘mass’ of fluid 2 previously occupying that site is pushed to the next site. So as the fingers of fluid 1 grow, the fluid 2 accumulates forming ridges with peaks at the forks. this mimics the visco-plastic nature of fluid 2 and the increasing separation between the plates in the LHSC. After completing one sequence of forward and lateral growth, the indentations formed in the fingers are smoothed out with a certain probability determined by the surface tension parameter $`T`$. Growth processes are repeated until the breakthrough point, when one of the fingers reaches the other end at $`y=L_y`$. It may be noted that though we use the term ‘breakthrough’ as in the normal HS cell, in the LHSC, this is actually the time when the fingers reach the centre and the plates separate from each other.

We record the lengths of all the fingers as they grow, the total coverage by fluid 1 (i.e. the number of sites occupied by fluid 1 as function of time) and the time for breakthrough $`t_{br}`$. We also record the final distribution of fluid 2, which is three-dimensional since the visco-plastic displaced fluid is allowed to accumulate vertically. So we have a relief map of $`m(x,y,t_{br})`$. The maximum height $`h_{max}`$ attained at time $`t_{br}`$ represents twice the separation of the plates at that time. The factor 2 is due to the fact that the same pattern is formed on the upper plate also. In contrast to the conventional Hele -Shaw cell the total amount of fluid 2 in the cell is conserved.

As we want to study the morphology of a particular pattern, each pattern is generated separately, without any averaging. But we generate several (about 10) patterns with the same set of parameters changing the random number sequence in order to get repeated observations of the exponents and other quantities studied, we report average values of these.

## 3 Results of computer simulations

Some typical fingering patterns generated are shown in figs 1(a)-(d). The different fingers are shown in different colours for clarity. The hierarchical character of the pattern formed by termination of smaller fingers due to the viscous instability is quite clearly seen. There is a strong similarity to the inverted deterministic binary tree. This is observed in many other natural systems, for example river basin boundaries ,and crystal growth in rock cavities .

There is a noticable change in morphology on varying the parameters $`\mu ,D`$ and $`T`$. Decreasing $`\mu `$ decreases the viscosity contrast and enhances forward growth compared to lateral growth. This makes longer and narrower fingers which grow parallelly with much less competition and hence a slower reduction in number of surviving fingers.

$`T`$ the surface tension parameter controls the branching of the fingers, when it is zero, fingers have very little branching and look wide and compact, see fig.1(a). Higher $`T`$ (here the highest possible value is $`T=1`$), makes the fingers highly ramified as shown in fig. 1(b).

Table I gives the numerical values characterising the pattern morphology for different values of the parameters. We calculate the survival exponent $`f_{surv}`$, the breakthrough time $`t_{br}`$ and the maximum height reached $`h_{max}`$.

The height distribution is controlled by $`T`$ and $`D`$. $`T`$ affects the height distribution very strongly. For $`T=0`$ the highly ramified fingers do not allow the fluid 2 to pile up much and the height distribution is more or less uniform. this can be seen from the values of $`h_{max}`$ in Table I, for $`T=0`$ $`h_{max}`$ is quite small, except when $`\mu `$ is very low. For very low $`\mu `$ the straight and parallel fingers reach the end in the shortest time possible on the lattice, i. e. in $`L_y`$ units of time, and fluid 2 is also pushed straight along to its maximum possible height, for $`T=1`$. For $`T=0`$ $`h_{max}`$ is somewhat lower. This can be seen from figures 1(a-d) and 2(a,b).

The effect of $`D`$ is as follows - for large $`D`$ it is more difficult for fluid 1 to displace fluid 2, after some accumulation, this causes more branching of the fluid 1 fingers and a more uniform distribution of fluid 2. If $`D`$ is small there are higher ridges and peaks of fluid 1 towards the far end of the pattern, while fluid 2 fingers look more compact and rounded. These features are exhibited in experimental patterns as we discuss in a later section.

To quantify the overall characteristics of our patterns we note the following. The number of fingers surviving upto a certain length as the fingers grow. The cumulative length distribution shows a linear behaviour in a log-log plot. $`logN(l)`$ vs. $`log(l)`$ plot is shown in fig. 3 where $`N(l)`$ is the number of fingers with length greater than$`l`$. The slope of this plot $`f_{surv}`$ is a measure of the competition in finger growth. The values of $`f_{surv}`$ are plotted in table I for different values of the parameters.

$$N(l)l^{f_{surv}}$$
(3)
The graph shows a stepped behaviour for higher values of$`l`$, this is connected with the discrete scale invariance observed in LHSC patterns . The stepped region does not always follow the linear fit for Log N(l) vs. log(l) very well, in such cases we report the slope of the initial linear region.

Another feature we study is the increase in total air coverage with time. The coverage $`C(t)`$, defined as the total area occupied by fluid 1 at time $`t`$ grows linearly with t upto some time but shows an upward trend later, this is shown in fig.4. However a log-log plot does not show linear behaviour for the whole time upto breakthrough $`t_{br}`$. The values of $`t_{br}`$ for different parameters are shown in Table I in units of $`L_y`$. Also shown is $`h_{max}`$, the maximum height upto which the fluid 2 accumulates at breakthrough, this is also in units of $`L_y`$.

## 4 Comparison with Experiments on LHSC

We have conducted experiments on the LHSC using different fluid combinations. The experimental setup is described elsewhere in detail , we give a brief description here. Our lifting Hele-Shaw cell consists of two thick $`(0.5cm)`$ glass plates. The lower one is fixed to a rigid frame, and the upper one can be lifted using a pneumatic cylinder arrangement. The lifting force can be adjusted. In the standard LHSC for studying adhesion the velocity of plate separation is constant, whereas in our apparatus the lifting force is controlled and kept constant during the experiment, allowing the velocity to vary. The process of pattern formation is recorded by a CCD camera and analysed using image-pro plus software.

The defending fluid 2 is placed on the lower plate, and the upper plate pressed down on it. This makes the fluid 2 form a circular blob of 2-3 cm. diameter. Then the upper plate is slowly lifted, allowing air to enter from the sides, while recording the pattern formation from below the lower plate. If the invading fluid is not air, the appropriate fluid is placed surrounding the defending fluid, taking care that no air bubbles are left in the gap. Formation of the final pattern with the two plates no longer touching takes typically 20-50 seconds. An identical replica of the pattern is formed on the upper plate as well, due to the symmetry of the arrangement, as the effect of gravity is negligible here. The height of the highest peak on the pattern is therefore, half of the separation between the plates at breakthrough.

In the experiments we find the behaviour of the fingering pattern is qualitatively similar and the range of the characteristic exponents from experiment and computer simulation match quite well. The survival of fingers shows a power law behaviour on the average with a linear log-log plot on which oscillations or steps are superposed, (see fig. 5a-b). For the high viscosity contrast case (fig.5a) where fluid 1 is air and fluid 2 oil-paint, the slope $`f_{surv}(exp)`$ of the log-log plot of $`N(l)`$ vs.$`l`$ is very close to 1, whereas for water-paint combination (fig. 5b) where viscosity contrast is lower the slope is less than 1. Appearance of the patterns is also well reproduced. Experiments with other fluids are in progress. Further details of these experiments will be reprted elsewhere. .

As we have used a rectangular lattice for simplicity, we cannot expect the pattern generated to match experiments completely. In the last stages of pattern formation close to breakthrough the converging circular geometry in the experiment will lead to results very different from what would be produced in a linear cell. But for a blob of fluid 2 with an initial radius large compared to the finger width initially the pattern of growth will be simiar to the linear case. Of course, linear geometry is not possible in a LHSC exeriment with parallel plate separation.

## 5 Conclusion

The present work is an attempt to generate by computer simulation the hierarchical pattern of viscous fingers observed in the lifting Hele-Shaw cell. Different characteristics and their variation with properties of the two fluids is presented, the three dimensional nature of the pattern in a viscoplastic defending fluid is taken into account. Predominance of power law behaviour in finger length distribution is oberved and the survival exponent $`f_{surv}`$ takes values ranging from $`0.5`$ to $`1.5`$ for increasing viscosity contrast. Variation in height of the pattern is controlled by another parameter $`D`$ characterising the visco-plastic behaviour of the defending fluid. $`D`$ also controls the ramification to some extent, large $`D`$ leads to some branching. However, branching is principally determined by the surface tension parameter $`T`$. Oscillations about the power law are indicative of discrete scale invariance  we propose to investigate this aspect in detail later. Our simulation results are compared with experiments on LHSC patterns generated in our laboratory and we find qualitative as well as quantitative agreement.

We have not yet systematically done an experimental investigation of LHSC patterns, varying the interface tension or yield stress of the fluids, but further work is in progress.

In the present work we have assumed Darcy’s law to be valid, not taking into account the non-Newtonian nature of visco-plastic paste like materials, neither do we consider explicitly the effect of changing plate separation. this should introduce a time-dependent parameter in Darcy’s law. We hope to develop a more realistic algorithm in future as the preliminary results are encouraging.

## 6 Acknowledgement

The authors thank Martine Ben Amar and Yves Couder for helpful discussion. Indo-French Centre for the Promotion of Advanced Research/ Centre Franco-Indien Pour le Promotion de la Recherche Advancee is gratefully acknowledged for grant of a research project. S N Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences is acknowledged for extending computer facilities.

Table I. Variation of characteristics of the VF patterns with fluid properties.

| $`\mu `$ | T | D | $`f_{surv}`$ | $`T_{br}/L_y`$ | $`h_{max}/L_y`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 0.1 | 1.0 | 1.0 | -1.466 | 1.785 | 0.51 |
| 0.1 | 1.0 | 20 | -1.380 | 34.56 | 0.96 |
| 0.1 | 0.0 | 1.0 | -1.086 | 1.93 | 0.16 |
| 0.02 | 1.0 | 1.0 | -1.20 | 1.04 | 0.77 |
| 0.02 | 1.0 | 5.0 | -1.09 | 2.78 | 0.56 |
| 0.02 | 0.0 | 5.0 | -1.05 | 3.42 | 0.14 |
| 0.002 | 1.0 | 1.0 | -0.652 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| 0.002 | 1.0 | 5.0 | -0.733 | 1.077 | 0.66 |
| 0.002 | 0.0 | 1.0 | -0.576 | 1.0 | 0.49 |
| 0.0002 | 1.0 | 5.0 | -0.484 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| 0.0002 | 0.5 | 5.0 | -0.502 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| 0.0002 | 0.0 | 5.0 | -0.499 | 1.0 | 0.66 |

Figure Captions

Figures 1-2 available on request. /vskip .25 cm Figure 1a. Finger patterns for high viscosity contrast, $`\mu =0.1`$ and large interface tension $`T=1`$. The fingers (of fluid 1) are shown in colour and accumulated fluid 2 in white.

Figure 1b. Finger patterns for high viscosity contrast, $`\mu =0.1`$ and small interface tension $`T=0`$. The fingers (of fluid 1) are shown in colour and accumulated fluid 2 in white.

Figure 1c. Finger patterns for low viscosity contrast, $`\mu =0.001`$ and large interface tension $`T=1`$. The value of $`D`$ is low here. The fingers (of fluid 1) are shown in colour and accumulated fluid 2 in white.

Figure 1d. Finger patterns for low viscosity contrast, $`\mu =0.001`$ and large interface tension $`T=1`$. The value of $`D`$ is high here. The fingers (of fluid 1) are shown in colour and accumulated fluid 2 in white.

Figure 2a. Three-dimensional representation of the fingering pattern showing accumlation of fluid 2 in ridges, for $`T=0`$. The height distribution of fluid 2 is more or less uniform.

Figure 2b. Three-dimensional representation of the fingering pattern showing accumlation of fluid 2 in ridges, for $`T=1`$. The height distribution of fluid 2 shows strong variation and fingers of fluid 1 are wide and compact.

Figure 3. Log-log plot of $`N(l)`$ \- the number of surviving fingers upto length $`l`$ versus l

Figure 4. The variation in coverage of fluid 1 versus time.

Figure 5a. Experimental results for number of surviving fingers $`logN(l)`$ vs $`logl`$, for high viscosity contrast with air as fluid 1 and oil-paint as fluid 2. Slope of the linear fit $`f_{surv}(exp)`$ is -0.99.

Figure 5b. Experimental results for number of surviving fingers $`logN(l)`$ vs $`logl`$, for low viscosity contrast with water as fluid 1 and oil-paint as fluid 2. Slope of the linear fit $`f_{surv}(exp)`$ is -0.77.


text:
# Power-Law Time Distribution of Large Earthquakes

## Abstract

We study the statistical properties of time distribution of seimicity in California by means of a new method of analysis, the Diffusion Entropy. We find that the distribution of time intervals between a large earthquake (the main shock of a given seismic sequence) and the next one does not obey Poisson statistics, as assumed by the current models. We prove that this distribution is an inverse power law with an exponent $`\mu =2.06\pm 0.01`$. We propose the Long-Range model, reproducing the main properties of the diffusion entropy and describing the seismic triggering mechanisms induced by large earthquakes.

The search for correlation in the space-time distribution of earthquakes is a major goal in geophysics. At the short-time and the short-space scale the existence of correlation is well established. Recent geophysical observations indicate that main fracture episodes can trigger long-range as well as short-range seismic effects kagan ; hill ; cresce ; parsons . However, a clear evidence in support of these geophysical indications has not yet been provided. This is probably the reason why one of the models adopted to describe the time distribution of earthquakes is still the Generalized Poisson (GP) model shlien ; gardner ; gasperini ; console ; godano . Basically the GP model assumes that the earthquakes are grouped into temporal clusters of events and these clusters are uncorrelated: in fact the clusters are distributed at random in time and therefore the time intervals between one cluster and the next one follow a Poisson distribution. On the other hand, the intra-cluster earthquakes are correlated in time as it is expressed by the Omori’s law omori ; utsu , an empirical law stating that the main shock, i.e. the highest magnitude earthquake of the cluster, occurring at time $`t_0`$ is followed by a swarm of correlated earthquakes (after shocks) whose number (or frequency) $`n(t)`$ decays in time as a power law, $`n(t)(tt_0)^p`$, with the exponent $`p`$ being very close to $`1`$. The Omori’s law implies bak  that the distribution of the time intervals between one earthquake and the next, denoted by $`\tau `$, is a power law $`\psi (\tau )\tau ^p`$. This property has been recently studied by the authors of Ref. bak  by means of a unified scaling law for $`\psi _{L,M}(\tau )`$, the probability of having a time interval $`\tau `$ between two seismic events with a magnitude larger than $`M`$ and occurring within a spatial distance $`L`$. This has the effect of taking into account also space and extending the correlation within a finite time range $`\tau ^{}`$, beyond which the authors of Ref. bak  recover Poisson statistics.

In this letter, we provide evidence of inter-clusters correlation by studing a catalog of seismic events in California with a new technique of analysis called Diffusion Entropy (DE) scafetta ; giacomo . This technique, scarcely sensitive to predictable events such as the Omori cascade of aftershocks, is instead very sensitive when the deviation from Poisson statistics generates Lévy diffusion giacomo ; memory . This deviation, on the other hand, implies that the geophysical process generating clusters has some memory. In Fig. 1 we report the sketch of the typical earthquakes frequency vs time in the catalog considered. By $`\tau _i=t_{i+1}t_i`$ we indicate the time interval between an earthquake and the next. Each peak of frequency (cluster) in figure includes the time location of a main shock. The time interval between one peak and the next is reported in figure and is denoted by the symbol $`\tau _i^{[m]}`$, where the superscript $`m`$ stands for main shock. We assume that two distinct times $`\tau ^{[m]}`$ are not correlated, i.e. $`\tau _i^{[m]}\tau _j^{[m]}=\left(\tau ^{[m]}\right)^2\delta _{i,j}`$. This assumption does not conflict with the departure of the distribution of the times $`\tau ^{[m]}`$ from Poisson. On the other hand the intercurrence times $`\tau _i`$’s are correlated. In fact, after a main shock the earthquake frequency is high. Consequently, the $`\tau `$’s are short and a short value of $`\tau `$ is followed with a large probability by another short value. For the same reason we expect that, far from a main shock, and prior to the next one, a long value of $`\tau `$ is followed by another long value of $`\tau `$. This implies that the correlation function $`\tau _i\tau _j`$ does not decay to zero after one step, and that it survives for the whole time interval between two consecutive main shocks. This means that the long-time relaxation of the correlation function $`\tau _i\tau _j`$ is determined by the $`\tau ^{[m]}`$-statistics memory , being faster or slower, according to whether $`\psi (\tau ^{[m]})`$ is Poisson or not. As we shall see, the non-Poissonian condition is straightforwardly assessed by the DE, if $`\psi (\tau ^{[m]})`$ has an infinite second moment. It is important to stress that the model of Fig. 1 will be used to support the results of the paper with the study of artificial sequences, but in no way it implies an *a priori* identification of the main shocks for the DE method to work.

The DE method, as almost all the techniques used to detect correlation in a time series $`\xi (t)`$, is based on the diffusion process of the auxiliary $`x`$-space through the equation:

$$\frac{dx}{dt}=\xi (t).$$
(1)
In the case under study here, the stochastic variable $`\xi (t)`$ is constructed by setting $`\xi (t)=1`$ (or $`\xi (t)=M`$, with $`M`$ being the earthquake magnitude) if an earthquake occurs at time $`t`$, and setting $`\xi (t)=0`$ otherwise. In practice $`\xi (t)`$ is a string of long patches of $`0`$’s occasionally interrupted by $`1`$’s. With this prescription we build up a diffusion process in the $`x`$-space stanley . We construct many distinct trajectories, labeled by the integer index $`n=1,2,.`$, according to the prescription

$$x_n(t)=_{n\mathrm{\Delta }t}^{n\mathrm{\Delta }t+t}\xi (t^{})𝑑t^{},$$
(2)
where the generic walker $`x_n(t)`$ takes a step ahead, of either length $`1`$ or $`M`$, every time an earthquake occurs. Note that $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ is the resolution time, set in our case to be equal to $`1`$ min. All the trajectories $`x_n(t)`$ occupy at time $`t=0`$ the position $`x=0`$ and then spread up over the $`x`$-axis as a result of their partial or total random nature. We study the probability distribution $`p(x,t)dx`$ of finding the walker position at time $`t`$ in the interval $`[x,x+dx]`$. In the reference frame moving with velocity $`v=W`$, where $`W`$ is the average number of earthquakes in the time interval $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$, the diffusion process is expected to fulfill the scaling condition:

$$p(x,t)=\frac{1}{t^\delta }F\left(\frac{xWt}{t^\delta }\right),$$
(3)
where $`F(y)`$ is a function with a form dictated by the statistics of the process, and $`\delta `$ is the so-called scaling parameter. According to the results of Ref.scafetta ; note  the evaluation of the scaling parameter $`\delta `$ requires the use of $`S(t)=_{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}𝑑xp(x,t)\mathrm{ln}[p(x,t)]`$. In fact, using Eq. (3), we get after some simple algebra:

$$S(t)=A+\delta \mathrm{ln}(t).$$
(4)
This means that the entropy of the diffusion process is a linear function of $`\mathrm{ln}(t)`$ and a measure of the slope is equivalent to the determination of the scaling parameter $`\delta `$. It is now important to observe that the DE method has the interesting property of detecting the statistics of really random events, as recently discovered by the authors of Ref. memory ; lncs . We refer the reader to these papers for mathematical proofs. For the purposes of this letter, the following remarks should suffice. The time intervals $`\tau `$’s are correlated, as shown with the help of Fig. 1, while the DE method rests on the Shannon entropy and the Shannon entropy increases only as a consequence of the occurrence of really random events. For the time being we rule out the possibility that the Shannon entropy increase is determined by a deterministic bias massi , and so by a non-stationary condition. In the stationary condition, the only source of entropy increase is given by the occurrence of clusters of seismic events because the $`\tau ^{[m]}`$’s are not correlated. The deviation from the Poisson statistics are easily detected by the DE method if $`\psi (\tau ^{[m]})`$ produces anomalous diffusion. Let us consider the non-Poissonian waiting time distribution:

$$\psi (\tau ^{[m]})\frac{1}{(\tau ^{[m]})^\mu }.$$
(5)
The condition $`\mu >3`$ implies a finite second moment, and consequently ordinary diffusion with $`\delta =0.5`$. The condition $`2\mu <3`$, on the contrary, produces an infinite second moment, and, consequently, through the generalized central limit theorem giacomo , the anomalous scaling

$$\delta =\frac{1}{\mu 1}.$$
(6)
The condition $`1\mu 2`$ produces an anomalous scaling with

$$\delta =\mu 1$$
(7)
and would imply non-stationarity (as in the presence of a deterministic bias). As we shall see, the non-Poissonian statistics of the distance between two clusters (i.e. between large events) is detected by the DE method, yielding the anomalous scaling parameter $`\delta =0.94\pm 0.01`$.

The catalog we have studied covers the period 1976-2002 in the region of Southern California spanning $`20^0`$ N -$`45^0`$ N latitude and 1000 W 1250 W longitude scsn . This region is crossed by the most seismogenetic part of the San Andrea fault, which accommodates by displacement the primarily strike-slip motion between the North America and the Pacific plates, producing velocities up to $`47mm/yr`$ turcotte . The total number of recorded earthquakes in the catalog is $`383687`$ and includes the June 28 1992 Landers earthquakes (M = 7.3), the January 17 1994 Northrifge earhquake (M = 6.7), and the October 16 1999 Hector Mine earthquake (M = 7.1). Geophysical observations point out that these large earthquakes have triggered a widespread increase of seismic events at remote distances in space and in time hill ; parsons . The coupling of the sources of stress change (i.e. large earthquakes occurrence) and seismicity triggering mechanisms is a primary target of geophysical investigations, and, as shown below, is revealed by the DE analysis.

In Fig. 2 we report the results of the DE method. The analysis was performed by setting $`\xi (t)=1`$ when an earthquake occurs at time $`t`$ (independently whether it is a main or an after shock), and $`\xi (t)=0`$ if no earthquake happens. In full circles we plot the entropy $`S(t)`$ as a function of time when all the seismic events of the catalog are considered (independently of their magnitude $`M`$). After a short transient, the function $`S(t)`$ is characterized by a linear dependence on $`\mathrm{ln}t`$. A fit in the linear region gives a value of the scaling parameter $`\delta =0.94\pm 0.01`$ at $`95\%`$ of confidence level. We next consider (open symbols in Fig. 2) only the earthquakes with magnitude larger than a fixed value $`\overline{M}=2,3,4`$. We see that, regardless of the value of the threshold $`\overline{M}`$ adopted, the function $`S(t)`$ is characterized by the same long-time behavior with the same slope. This indicates that we are observing a property of the time location of large earthquakes. This leads us to conclude that the time intervals between two large events fit the distribution of Eq.(5), with the value of $`\mu `$ related to $`\delta `$ through Eq.(6), $`\mu =2.06\pm 0.01`$. In fact numerical checks on the time series under study have supported the stationary assumption and ruled out the alternative condition of Eq.(7) note2 . Our conclusion is also supported by the use of two different walking prescriptions. The former rests on assuming $`\xi (t)`$ equal to the magnitude $`M`$ of the earthquake, at each time when an earthquake occurs. The latter sets with equal probability either $`\xi (t)=1`$ or $`\xi (t)=1`$ when an earthquake occurs giacomo . Both methods yield the same exponent $`\mu =2.06\pm 0.01`$.

The results of our statistical analysis supports the geophysical arguments that earthquakes of large magnitude produce strain diffusion. Unlike co-seismic deformation, which is practically instantaneous, the strain diffusion ensuing an earthquake of large magnitude produces post-seismic stress changes, generating a remarkable increase of rate of seismicity at locations hundred of kilometers away and over time span up to several years. Consistently the distribution of the time intervals between two large earthquakes is not a Poisson function. Our conclusion is reached under the important assumption that the sequence $`\{\tau _i^{[m]}\}`$ is not affected by any deterministic bias, this being a possible source of ballistic scaling massi . If this condition applies clusters occurrence would show deterministic trends on the scale of the whole sequence. This is an attractive possibility that does not seem to be ruled out by the current literature on this subject sornette . However, here, we adopt the explanation that the waiting time distribution is given by Eq. (5) with $`\mu >2`$, this being the unique consequence of the stationary assumption.

We now illustrate how the DE method works on two artificial earthquakes time series: the first generated by means of the GP model, and the second generated by a new model, the Long-Range (LR) model, that we propose as a better model to reproduce the properties of the catolog considered. In the LR model the earthquakes are grouped into temporal clusters, and, as in the GP model the number of earthquakes in a cluster follows the Pareto law, i.e. a power law distribution with exponent equal to 2.5 shlien ; gasperini ; console . The events within the same cluster are distributed according to the Omori’s law: the interval $`\tau `$ follows a power law with exponent $`p=1`$. However, in the LR model the time distance $`\tau ^{[m]}`$ between one cluster and the next follows a power law with exponent $`\mu =2.06`$, rather than a Poisson prescription as in the GP. Notice that this value of $`\mu `$ is close to the border between stationary and non-stationary condition giacomo . The two sequences have the same time length. We choose the number of clusters in order to have the same total number of earthquakes as in the real data note1 . The result of the DE on the artificial sequences is reported in Fig. 3. The GP model is characterized by a long-time behavior that, as expected, fits very well the prescription of ordinary statistical mechanics, with $`\delta =0.5`$. The LR model yields the quite different scaling $`\delta =0.94`$. It is also clear that the LR model yields a behavior qualitatively similar to that produced by the real data of Fig. 2 as well as the same scaling parameter $`\delta =0.94`$, while the GP fail reproducing both properties.

In conclusion, this paper is the first application of the DE method to study the statistical properties of earthquakes time distribution. We have found that there exists a correlation mechanism beyond the Omori’s law. Both intra-cluster swarms and inter-cluster distances obey an inverse power law prescription, the former being $`\psi (\tau )\tau ^1`$ and the latter $`\psi (\tau ^{[m]})(\tau ^{[m]})^\mu `$ with $`\mu =2.06\pm 0.01`$. We have proposed a new model, the LR model, better than the GP model in reproducing real data. The method proposed is based on the fact that the asymptotic properties of diffusion process generated by the seismic events are scarsely sensitive to the memory stemming from the Omori’s law. They are, on the contrary, sensitive to the anomalous statistics generated by the non-Poissonian nature of the time distance between two consecutive large earthquakes.

PG acknowledges support from ARO, through Grant DAAD19-02-0037.