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# HebbNets: Dynamic network with Hebbian learning rule

## 1 Introduction

In the last few years research on complex interactive systems (CISs) has become one of the most fascinating areas. One generally applied way to describe such systems is based on graphs with nodes (vertices) and (directed) edges, representing constituents of the system and their interactions. Classification of CISs is grounded on their structural and dynamic network properties. Similar network structures may be found in many different fields spanning from social connection systems to biochemical processes . Due to the recognition of many common characteristics in both natural and human (artificial) CISs, several general models have been designed to describe the emergence of such structures, e.g., by random restructuring of the links among a finite number of ‘nodes’  or by ’preferential attachment’ , or by optimizing the link structure of finite systems .

Probably the most complex network is inside us: the most exciting properties of our brain have a lot to do with the special connection system among its units. It is widely accepted that activity correlation between the computing units (i.e. different forms of the so called Hebbian learning mechanism) plays a fundamental role in forming the complex neural structures and maintaining its intrinsic plasticity. Its essence is that the connection strength between the communicating units is modified according to the simultaneous activity correlation of the signal sender and receiver.

It is worth noting that the concept of Hebbian learning has undergone revolutionary changes in the last few years. The original suggestion of Hebb  has been modified by recent findings . For a review, see, e.g., . A unifying description is called spike-time dependent synaptic plasticity (STDP) and it allows different time shift patterns between the units’ activities.

## 2 Description of HebbNet

In this letter we examine what network structures may emerge in a simplistic neural system by applying pure Hebbian dynamics without any special additional constraints. This neuronal network model will be referred as to HebbNet. We assume that the network is sustained by inputs with no spatio-temporal structure; the input is random noise. Our models consist of $`N`$ number of simplified integrate-and-fire like ‘neurons’ or nodes. The dynamics of the internal activity is written as

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }a_i}{\mathrm{\Delta }t}=\underset{j}{}w_{ij}a_j^s+x_i^{(ext)},$$
(1)
for $`i=1,2,\mathrm{},N`$. (N was 200 in our simulations.) Variable $`x^{(ext)}(0,1)^N`$ denotes the randomly generated input from the environment, $`a_i`$ is the internal activity of neuron $`i`$, $`w_{ij}`$ is $`ij^{th}`$ element of matrix $`𝐖`$, i.e., the connection strength from neuron $`j`$ to neuron $`i`$. If $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=1`$ then we have a discrete-time network and each parameter has a time index, or if $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ is infinitesimally small then Eq. 1 becomes a set of coupled differential equations. The neuron $`j`$ outputs a spike (neuron $`j`$ fires) when $`a_j`$ exceeds a certain level, the threshold parameter $`\theta `$. Spiking means that the output of the neuron $`a_j^s`$ (superscript $`s`$ stands for ’spiking’) is set to 1. Otherwise, $`a_j^s=0`$. Amount of excitation received by neuron $`i`$ from neuron $`j`$ is $`w_{ij}a_j^s`$ when neuron $`j`$ fires. After firing, $`a_j`$ is set to zero at the next time step. For continuous case $`a_j`$ is set to zero after a very small time interval. Equation 1 describes the simplest form of ‘integrate–and–fire’ network models which is still plausible from a neurobiological point of view. No temporal integration occurs for the discrete case provided that the left hand side of Eq. 1 is replaced by $`a_i^+`$ where superscript $`+`$ denotes time shifting. In this limiting case, and if the threshold is high enough, ‘binary neurons’ emerge. This model resembles the original model of McCullough and Pitts .

We examined the effect of local activity threshold and global activity constraint (selection of a given percent of nodes with the highest activity). The former one is more realistic biologically, while the latter one is more convenient: in this way the ratio of active units is always known and fixed. For these two cases, computer simulations showed negligible differences. Synaptic strengths were modified as follows:

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }w_{ij}}{\mathrm{\Delta }t}=\underset{(t_i,t_j)}{}K(t_jt_i)a_i^{t_i,s}a_j^{t_j,s},$$
(2)
where $`K`$ is a kernel function which defines the influence of the temporal activity correlation on synaptic efficacy and $`\mathrm{\Delta }w_{ij}/\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ may be taken over discrete or over infinitesimally small time intervals. Possible examples are depicted in Fig. 1. The kernel is a function of the time differences. When the input is made of noise, as in our studies, only the ratio of the positive (strengthening) and the negative (weakening) parts of the kernel function should count. This is the result of the lack of temporal correlations in the input. Temporal grouping and reshaping of the kernel would not modify our results as long as the said ratio is kept constant. In turn, our results concern both types of kernels depicted in Fig. 1.

In the first place, we have been interested in the emerging local and global connectivity structure of $`𝐖`$. Instead of using global structural property ($`L`$, characteristic path length which is the average number of edges on the shortest paths) and the clustering coefficient ($`C`$) proposed by Watts and Strogatz  we applied the so called connectivity length measure based on the concept of network efficiency . This single measure is more appropriate for weighted networks , equally well applicable for describing global and local properties and offers a unified theoretical background to characterize our system. According to the definition , local efficiency between nodes $`i`$ and $`j`$ in a weighted network with connectivity matrix $`𝐖`$ is $`ϵ_{ij}=1/d_{ij}`$, where $`d_{ij}=\mathrm{min}_{n,k_1,\mathrm{}k_n}(1/w_{ij},1/w_{ik_1}+\mathrm{}+1/w_{k_{n1}k_n}+1/w_{k_nj})`$ ($`k_m(1,2,\mathrm{}N)`$ for every $`1m<N1`$ and $`1<nN`$). For graphs with connection strengths of values 0 or 1, $`d_{ij}`$ corresponds to the shortest distance between nodes $`i`$ and $`j`$. The average of these values ($`E[d_{ij}]=\frac{1}{N(N1)}_{ij}ϵ_{ij}`$) characterizes the efficiency of the whole network. The local harmonic mean distance for node $`i`$ is defined as

$$D_h(i)=\frac{n^{(i)}}{_{j:w_{ij}>0}ϵ_{ij}},$$
(3)
where $`n^{(i)}`$ is the number of neurons around neuron $`i`$ with $`w_{ij}>0`$. In terms of efficiency, this inverse of this value describes how good the local communication is amongst the first neighbors of node $`i`$ with node $`i`$ removed. It is a measure of the fault tolerance of the system. The mean global distance in the network is defined by the following quantity:

$$D_h=\frac{N(N1)}{_{i,j}ϵ_{ij}}.$$
(4)
Global distance provides a measure for the size (or the diameter) of the network, which influences the average time of information transfer. According to  local harmonic mean distance measure behaves like $`1/C`$ (inverse of the clustering coefficient), whereas the global value corresponds to $`L`$. It can be shown that L is a good approximation of $`D_h`$ (or $`1/L`$ for the global efficiency) under certain conditions .

## 3 Results and Discussion

These connectivity length measures allowed us to study the emerging network structures as the function of the following parameters: (i) the magnitude of the external excitation (defined by the average percentage of neurons receiving excitation from the environment and (ii) the strengthening–weakening area ratio of the kernel, $`K`$. The binary neuron model was also investigated. Figures 2 and 3 summarize our findings in different parameter regions. The figure displays the appearance of scale free nets as a function of the excitation level and $`r_{A^+/A^{}}`$. The length of the scale-free regions was determined by first plotting the distribution of the sum of the weights of outgoing connections (averaged over 10000 samples taken from 20 networks) for every parameter set studied. Results were depicted on loglog plot. Supposing a power-law distribution ($`P(k^{})k^\gamma e^{k^{}/\xi }`$, where $`k^{}`$ denotes the discretized values of the connection strength), a linear fitting was made to approximate $`\gamma `$. The width of the scale-free region was estimated by the length of the region with power-law distribution relative to the full length covered on the log scale. Maximum error of the linear fit was set to $`10^3`$ STD. That is, for 100 discretization points, the width of a region spreading an order of magnitude on the loglog plot is equal to 0.5.

Fig. 4 displays the emerging connections of a HebbNet for two different parameter sets. We compared the resulting HebbNet structures with a random net, in which the same weights of the dynamic network have been randomly assigned to different node pairs. The two inlets show the HebbNet connection matrices. While inlet (c) belonging to case (c) in Fig. 2 resembles a random connection matrix, inlet (d) belonging to case (d) in Fig. 2 represents a sparse structure. (Note that most elements are not zero, but very small.)

Fig. 4 highlights clearly the emerging small-world properties, i.e., small local connectivity values (high clustering coefficients) for case (d). Although the global connectivity length was almost the same for all HebbNets and their corresponding random nets, local distances are much smaller in case (d). That is, connectivity structure is sparse but information flow is still fault tolerant and efficient.

The robustness of the network to the external excitation is illustrated on the next figure.

By increasing the excitation level, the average local connectivity length of the random net is drastically increasing, whereas the efficiency of the small-world network does not change too much in the same region. For the network with parameters $`r_{A^+/A^{}}=0.1`$ (Fig. 5(A)), there is a sharp cut-off around excittion level 0.55, where local distances suddenly drop, due to the high ratio of excitation. Qualitatively similar behavior can be seen for $`r_{A^+/A^{}}=0.6`$ (Fig. 5(B)), but the cut-off is around $`r_{ex}=0.9`$.

For networks with significant interaction we have experienced a convergence of the exponent of the power-law distribution to -1. The width of the scale-free region was relatively broad (see, Fig. 6).

## 4 Summary

In summary, we have demonstrated that small-world architectures with scale-free domains may emerge in sustained networks under STDP Hebbian learning rule without any other specific constraints on the evolution of the net. Although one always has to remember that results from simplified models may not carry over to biophysically realistic networks, we feel that some intriguing conjectures can be made based on our findings. The role of noise in the central nervous system  is unclear. The existence of such ‘HebbNets’ may support the speculative view of Kandel et al.  that structural development and learning plasticity in CNS may have a common basis. According to our results, evolution and plasticity of the networks may be maintained by noise randomly generated within the CNS. We conjecture that the sustained nature of noise and the competition imposed by small $`r_{A^+/A^{}}`$ values are the two relevant components of plasticity and learning. It might be equally important that exponents of HebbNets with significant interaction amongst neurons are similar in a broad range of parameters.

As far as other evolving networks are considered, the profound implication of our result is that local (Hebbian) learning rules may be sufficient to form and maintain an efficient network in terms of information flow. This feature differs from existing models, such as the model on preferential attachment , the global optimization scheme , and also from the original Watts and Strogatz model .

## 5 Acknowledgements

This work was partially supported by the Hungarian National Science Foundation, under Grant No. OTKA 32487.


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# Parity-Violating Interactions and Currents in the Deuteron

## I Introduction

Two-nucleon experiments are the clearest probes of hadronic parity violation. A recent experiment has measured the longitudinal asymmetry in $`\stackrel{}{p}p`$ elastic scattering Berdoz01 , while another one is underway to measure the photon asymmetry in low-energy $`\stackrel{}{n}p`$ radiative capture npexpt . This experiment has been designed to provide a definitive measurement of the weak $`\pi `$$`N`$$`N`$ coupling constant, which determines the longest-range part of the parity-violating nucleon-nucleon interaction.

We investigate this process using the Desplanques, Donoghue, and Holstein (DDH) meson-exchange model of the parity-violating $`N`$$`N`$ interaction ddhpv . We separately evaluate the contributions from the hadronic weak interaction and the associated two-body currents. These currents play an important role, reducing dramatically the measured asymmetry. We also consider the model-dependence of the full result by using different modern models of the strong interaction. Even though there are significant cancellations between the two terms above, the final model dependence is quite small, and in fact similar in size to the estimated contribution of short-range mechanisms.

It has been speculated that these interactions and currents could potentially also play a role in the parity-violating quasi-elastic electro-disintegration of the deuteron, recently measured in the SAMPLE experiments at the MIT-Bates facility Hasty00 ; samplereview . Indeed, their contributions could cloud the interpretation of the experimental asymmetry in terms of single-nucleon properties. However, we find that these two-nucleon mechanisms lead, for any reasonable value of the $`\pi `$$`N`$$`N`$ coupling constant, to very small asymmetries when compared to those originating from $`\gamma `$-$`Z`$ interference. Therefore, these electron scattering results can be reliably used to extract single-nucleon properties.

A more complete account of the calculations carried out so far will be published elsewhere Carlson02 . In the present letter, we only report the main results.

## II Asymmetry in $`\stackrel{}{n}p`$ radiative capture

The parity-violating (PV) observable in the $`\stackrel{}{n}p`$ radiative capture–the asymmetry in the angular distribution of the outgoing photon with respect to the direction of the initial neutron polarization–is very sensitive to the weak parity-violating $`\pi `$$`N`$$`N`$ coupling npdgtheory1 ; npdgtheory2 . Since this coupling contributes to the longest-range part of the interaction, it provides a window into the hadronic weak interaction in a manner similar to the role the standard $`\pi `$$`N`$$`N`$ coupling provides in strong-interaction physics. Its experimental determination, however, has proven to be very difficult. Measurements of the circular polarization of gamma-ray decays in 18flourine  have been interpreted to indicate a very small $`\pi `$$`N`$$`N`$ coupling as compared to theoretical expectations based upon hadronic models ddhpv , while measurements in atomic 133Cs seem to favor a much larger value cesium . The analysis of both these experiments is complicated by the difficulty of handling reliably, from a theoretical stand-point, the many-body aspects of the problem in these complex systems. These issues have been addressed in Refs. haxtonreview  and Haxton02 . More recently, PV asymmetry measurements of neutron resonances in compound nuclei seem to require even larger values of the weak $`\pi `$$`N`$$`N`$ coupling constant bowmanprivate .

For these reasons, an experiment measuring the photon asymmetry in $`\stackrel{}{n}p`$ capture has been undertaken at the LANSCE facility npexpt . As mentioned above, previous studies of this process npdgtheory1 ; npdgtheory2  have shown that this asymmetry is very sensitive to the weak $`\pi `$$`N`$$`N`$ coupling constant, while essentially unaffected by short-range contributions. Here we investigate the model dependence of this result by considering several different high-quality interactions fit to the strong-interaction data. In addition, we consider the individual contributions to the final result, including processes where the photon couples at all points to the exchanged (virtual) pion.

We employ the standard DDH meson-exchange model of the (PV) $`N`$$`N`$ interaction, solving the full Schrödinger equation for the scattering state as well as the deuteron bound state. The equations and relevant mixing parameters in the $`S`$-matrix have been discussed in considerable detail in Ref. pppvcalc  for the case of $`\stackrel{}{p}p`$ elastic scattering. While the short-range contributions to the PV interaction should not be viewed as resulting only from the exchange of single mesons, the seven parameters of the DDH model can still be employed to characterize all the low-energy PV mixings. For example, two-pion exchange could play a role Pirner73 , however we assume that its effects can be included, at least at low energy, through the present combination of pion- and short-range terms. The complete expressions for the $`S`$-matrix and contributions of the various terms will be presented in Ref. Carlson02 .

We calculate the asymmetry for the AV18 av18 , Bonn-CD bonncd  and Nijmegen-I (NIJM-I) nijm1  interactions. Each strong interaction model has associated exchange currents. For the AV18 we include currents from the momentum-independent terms ($`\pi `$\- and $`\rho `$-currents) as well as terms from the momentum-dependent terms in the interaction. Further discussion of the AV18 currents is given below, for a review see Ref. pccurrents . For the Bonn-CD and NIJM-I interactions, we include $`\pi `$\- and $`\rho `$-currents with the cutoffs from the Bonn-CD model ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\pi `$=1.72 GeV and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\rho `$=1.31 GeV). Contributions from other meson exchanges in the Bonn and Nijmegen models have been neglected. In all calculations, the currents associated with $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ excitation and $`\omega \pi \gamma `$ transition have been included pccurrents .

The total cross section at thermal neutron energies is due to the well-known $`M_1`$ transition connecting the parity-conserving (PC) 1S0 $`n`$$`p`$ state to the PC deuteron state. The calculated values for each model are given in Table I, both for one-body (impulse) currents alone and for the one- and two-body currents. In each case the largest two-body contribution, approximately two-thirds of the total, comes from the currents associated with pion exchange. The total cross section is in good agreement with experimental results, which are variously quoted as 334.2(0.5) mb npxsec1  or 332.6(0.7) mb npxsec2 . It would be possible to adjust, for example, the transition magnetic moment $`\mu _{\gamma N\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-excitation current to precisely fit one of these values, here we simply choose a $`\mu _{\gamma N\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ of 3 n.m., which is consistent with an analysis of $`\gamma `$-$`N`$ data at resonance.

The PV asymmetry arises from an interference between the $`M_1`$ term above and the $`E_1`$ transition, connecting the 3P1 PV $`n`$$`p`$ state to the PC deuteron state and the 3S1 PC $`n`$$`p`$ state to the 3P1 PV deuteron state. The PV components of the wave functions are generated by the DDH potential, including $`\pi `$-, $`\rho `$-, and $`\omega `$-exchange mechanisms. In this work we have taken the linear combination of $`\rho `$\- and $`\omega `$-weak coupling constants corresponding to $`p`$$`p`$ scattering from an earlier analysis pppvcalc  of these experiments. The remaining couplings have been taken from the DDH “best guess”estimates. Finally, as in the earlier analysis of $`\stackrel{}{p}p`$ scattering, the cutoff values in the meson-exchange interaction are taken from the Bonn-CD potential ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\pi `$=1.72 GeV, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\rho `$=1.31 GeV, and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\omega `$=1.50 GeV).

With these couplings, we obtain the asymmetries also listed in Table I. The results are consistent with earlier npdgtheory1  and more recent Desplanques01  estimates, and all agree within a few per cent, which is also the magnitude of the contributions from the short-range terms. The $`E_1`$ transition has been calculated in the long-wavelength approximation (LWA) with the Siegert form of the $`E_1`$ operator, thus eliminating many of the model dependencies and leaving only simple (long-range) matrix elements. We have explicitly calculated corrections beyond the LWA $`E_1`$ terms, and found them to be quite small.

We have also calculated the $`E_1`$ contributions with the same current operator used to calculate the $`M_1`$ matrix element. To the extent that retardation corrections beyond the LWA of the $`E_1`$ operator are negligible Viviani00 , this should produce identical results provided the current is exactly conserved. In order to satisfy current conservation, currents from both the strong (PC) and weak (PV) interactions are required. In the following we keep only the $`\pi `$-exchange term in the DDH interaction with their “best guess” for the weak $`\pi `$-$`N`$ coupling constant, and use the AV18 strong-interaction model.

The PC $`\pi `$\- and $`\rho `$-currents are derived from the $`v_6`$ part of the AV18 interaction and by construction exactly satisfy current conservation with it Schiavilla89 . The same prescription is used to generate conserved PV $`\pi `$-currents from the DDH interaction in the presence of a short-range cutoff (as is the case here). However, the PC currents originating from the momentum-dependent terms of the AV18 are strictly not conserved. For example, the currents from the $`𝐋^2`$ and $`(𝐋𝐒)^2`$ components of the AV18 are constructed by minimal substitution Schiavilla89 . While this procedure leads to conserved currents for the isospin-independent $`𝐋^2`$ and $`(𝐋𝐒)^2`$ terms, it is not adequate for their isospin-dependent counter-parts, as one can easily surmise by considering their commutator with the charge density operator. This commutator requires the presence of terms with the isospin structure $`(\tau _i\times \tau _j)_z`$, which cannot be generated by minimal substitution (so-called internal radiation contributions Tsushima93 ). This issue will be discussed more thoroughly in Ref. Carlson02 .

The currents associated with the momentum-dependent terms, however, while small, play here a crucial role, because of the large cancellation between the (PC) $`\pi `$\- and $`\rho `$-currents from the AV18 and the (PV) $`\pi `$-currents from the DDH. This point is illustrated in Table II. Note that the PC currents from $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-excitation and $`\omega \pi \gamma `$ transition mechanisms are transverse and therefore do not affect the $`E_1`$ matrix element. However, they slightly reduce the PV asymmetry since their contributions increase the $`M_1`$ matrix element by $`1`$%. They are not listed in Table II.

The asymmetry is given by the sum of the two columns in Table II, namely $`+0.17\times 10^8`$ (last row). This value should be compared to $`5.02\times 10^8`$, obtained with the Siegert form of the $`E_1`$ operator for the same interactions (and currents for the $`M_1`$ matrix element). As already mentioned, we have explicitly verified that retardation corrections in the $`E_1`$ operator are too small to account for the difference. Thus this difference is to be ascribed to the lack of current conservation, originating from the isospin- and momentum-dependent terms of the AV18.

To substantiate this claim, we have carried out a calculation based on a $`v_6`$ reduction Wiringa02  of the AV18, constrained to reproduce the binding energy of the deuteron and some of the $`N`$$`N`$ phase shifts. In this case, the resulting PC currents (only the $`\pi `$\- and $`\rho `$-exchange terms are present) are exactly conserved. The results are listed in Table III. The remaning $`2.7`$% difference between the Siegert result and the full calculation is presumably due to numerical inaccuracies as well as additional corrections from retardation corrections and higher order multipoles. Both of these effects are included in the full calculation.

## III Asymmetry in $`d(\stackrel{}{e},e^{})pn`$ electro-disintegration

The SAMPLE experimentHasty00 ; samplereview  has measured the parity-violating asymmetry in polarized electron quasi-elastic scattering on the deuteron. This asymmetry has two distinct contributions: one associated with interference of the $`\gamma `$\- and $`Z`$-exchange amplitudes, and the other induced by PV $`N`$$`N`$ interactions. The first contribution was recently studied in Ref. Diaconescu01 , where it was shown that two-body terms in the nuclear electromagnetic and weak neutral currents only produce 1–2% corrections to the asymmetry due to the corresponding single-nucleon currents.

In the present study, we investigate the asymmetry originating from hadronic weak interactions. We update and sharpen earlier predictions obtained in Refs. Hwang80 ; Hwang81 –these studies did not include the effects of PV currents.

The expression for the asymmetry from gamma-Z interference is given in Ref. Diaconescu01 , while that due to the hadronic weak interaction reads Carlson02

$$A(q,\omega ,\theta _e)=\frac{v_T^{}R_T^{}(q,\omega )}{v_LR_L(q,\omega )+v_TR_T(q,\omega )},$$
(1)
where $`v_L`$, $`v_T`$, and $`v_T^{}`$ denote electron kinematical factors, $`R_L`$ and $`R_T`$ are the standard longitudinal and transverse response functions (explicit expressions for these and the $`v`$ factors are given in Ref. Diaconescu01 ), and $`R_T^{}`$ is the PV response function, defined as (again, in the notation of Ref. Diaconescu01 )

$$R_T^{}(q,\omega )=\overline{\underset{i}{}}\underset{f}{}\delta (\omega +m_iE_f)\mathrm{Im}\left[𝐣_{fi}(𝐪)\times 𝐣_{fi}^{}(𝐪)\right]_z.$$
(2)
Here the three-momentum transfer $`𝐪`$ has been taken to define the spin-quantization axis (the $`z`$-axis), and $`𝐣_{fi}(𝐪)f|𝐣(𝐪)|i`$ are the matrix elements of the electromagnetic current. In terms of electric and magnetic multipole operators, the cross product above is expressed as

$$\mathrm{Im}\left[𝐣_{fi}(𝐪)\times 𝐣_{fi}^{}(𝐪)\right]_z\underset{l1}{}\mathrm{Re}\left[J_fM_l(q)J_iJ_fE_l(q)J_i^{}\right],$$
(3)
and therefore vanishes unless (i) the initial and/or final states do not have definite parity (as is the case here because of the presence of PV $`N`$$`N`$ interactions) and/or (ii) the electric and magnetic multipole operators have unnatural parities $`()^{l+1}`$ and $`()^l`$, respectively, because of PV electromagnetic currents, such as the one-body anapole current anapole  and the two-body currents due to PV $`N`$$`N`$ interactions Carlson02 .

The one-body anapole current is taken as anapole

$$𝐣_{PV}^{(1)}(𝐪)=\frac{Q^2}{2m^2}\underset{i}{}\left[a_S(Q^2)+a_V(Q^2)\tau _{i,z}\right]𝝈_i\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}𝐪𝐫_i},$$
(4)
where $`Q^2`$ is the squared four-momentum transfer ($`Q^2`$=$`q^2\omega ^2`$), and the isoscalar and isovector anapole form factors are normalized as

$$a_{S,V}(0)=\frac{h_\pi g_\pi }{4\sqrt{2}\pi ^2}\alpha _{S,V},$$
(5)
with $`\alpha _S`$=1.6 and $`\alpha _V`$=0.4 from a calculation of pion-loop contributions anapole . Here $`h_\pi `$ and $`g_\pi `$ are weak and strong $`\pi `$$`N`$$`N`$ coupling constants, respectively. More recent estimates of the nucleon anapole form factors give somewhat smaller values for $`\alpha _{S,V}`$ Musolf95 ; Riska00 ; vanKolck00 . A complete treatment would require estimates of short-distance contributions Zhu00  and electroweak radiative corrections, we postpone that discussion to a later paper.Carlson02

Only the PV two-body current associated with the $`\pi `$-exchange term in the DDH interaction is included in the present calculations (in addition, of course, to the PC two-body currents discussed in the previous section). The PV currents from $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ exchanges have not yet been considered Carlson02 ; Haxton02 , but are not expected to play a significant role. One should note that at the higher momentum transfers of interest here, 100–300 MeV/c, relevant for the SAMPLE experiments, it is not possible to include the currents through the Siegert theorem, they must be calculated explicitly.

The calculation proceeds as discussed in Ref. Diaconescu01 . We have used the AV18 or Bonn-CD models (and associated currents) in combination with the full DDH interaction (with coupling and cutoff values as given in the previous section). The final state, labeled by the relative momentum$`𝐩`$, pair spin and $`z`$-projection $`SM_S`$, and pair isospin $`T`$ ($`M_T`$=0), is expanded in partial waves; PC and PV interaction effects are retained in all partial waves with $`J5`$, while spherical Bessel functions are employed for $`J>5`$. In the quasi-elastic regime of interest here, it has been found that interaction effects are negligible for $`J>5`$.

In Fig. 1 we show the asymmetry for one of the SAMPLE kinematics for the AV18 plus full DDH interaction. The total asymmetry is given by the sum of the three contributions shown. The contribution labeled “DDH interaction” is that originating directly from the DDH interaction, while that labeled “PV $`\gamma `$-couplings” is from the (one-body) anapole term and the two-body pion current. Results at lower $`Q^2`$ are similar. The Bonn-CD model leads to predictions, for both the asymmetry and inclusive cross section, which are very close to those obtained with the AV18 Carlson02 .

In Fig. 2 we plot the asymmetry at the top of the quasi-elastic peak as a function of the four-momentum transfer. SAMPLE kinematics have $`Q^2`$ equal to 0.1 (GeV/c)2 and 0.043 (GeV/c)2, respectively. The leading $`\gamma `$-$`Z`$ term decreases in magnitude with $`Q^2`$, as expected. This term does not contribute, of course, for the real photons produced in the $`\stackrel{}{n}p`$ radiative capture. Also shown in the plot is the asymmetry obtained by retaining only the pion term in the DDH interaction, with a coupling given by the “best guess”.

These results demonstrate that, in the kinematics of the SAMPLE experiments, the asymmetry from the $`\gamma `$-$`Z`$ coupling is two-orders of magnitude larger than that associated with the PV hadronic weak interaction. Hence even the largest estimates of the weak $`\pi `$$`N`$$`N`$ coupling constant will not affect extractions of nucleon matrix elements.

## IV Conclusion

Parity-violating asymmetries in $`np`$ radiative capture and deuteron electro-disintegration have been investigated within the framework of the DDH model of the parity-violating hadronic weak interaction. We find that the model-dependence of the $`n`$$`p`$-capture asymmetry is quite small, at a level similar to the expected contributions of the short-range parts of the interaction. This process is in fact dominated by the longer-range pieces of the interaction associated with pion-exchange, and hence this experiment is a clean probe of that physics.

Similarly, we find that the SAMPLE experiment measuring the asymmetry in electron scattering on the deuteron is a very clean probe of nucleon properties. The processes associated with two-nucleons, including parity violation in the deuteron and scattering wave functions, and the currents associated with these interactions, play a very small role at reasonable values of the momentum transfer. These two experiments, then, probe distinct aspects of weak-interaction physics.

We like to thank C.-P. Liu, G. Prézeau, and M.J. Ramsey-Musolf for making available to us the results of their calculation of the asymmetry in quasi-elastic deuteron electro-disintegration prior to publication. The work of J.C. and M.P. was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy under contract W-7405-ENG-36, while that of R.S. was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy contract DE-AC05-84ER40150 under which the Southeastern Universities Research Association (SURA) operates the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility.


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# The physics of jets in FR I radio galaxies

## 1 Introduction

This paper is a progress report on a project whose aim is to derive quantitative estimates for the physical parameters of jets. We have developed techniques to derive the three-dimensional distributions of velocity, rest-frame emissivity and magnetic-field structure and hence to deduce the jet dynamics via a conservation-law approach. Our fundamental assumption is that jets may be approximated as intrinsically symmetrical, time-stationary, axisymmetric relativistic flows. We model their observed radio synchrotron emission in total intensity and linear polarization, using the observed differences between approaching and receding jets to constrain velocity, emissivity and field. We then combine this model of jet kinematics with a description of the surrounding IGM and use conservation of energy, momentum and particles to estimate the internal pressure and density. For this technique to work, we need sources with two-sided but asymmetrical and straight radio jets. We then make deep observations with many resolution elements to derive total intensity and linear polarization, corrected for any Faraday rotation. We also require X-ray observations of the hot gas surrounding the radio source from which the external pressure and temperature may be derived. At present, these requirements are met only by VLA and Chandra observations of nearby FR I radio galaxies.

## 2 3C 31

The first source to which we have applied these techniques in full is 3C 31: the kinematic model, X-ray observations and conservation-law analysis are described by Laing & Bridle (2002a), Hardcastle et al. (2002) and Laing & Bridle (2002b), respectively. The kinematic model requires the jets to be at $`\theta `$ 52 to the line of sight. The jets may be divided into three distinct sections by geometry, velocity and emissivity variation: a well-collimated inner region, a flaring region in which the jets widen rapidly and then recollimate and a conical outer region. Both deceleration (from $`\beta =v/c0.8`$ where the jet flares to $`\beta 0.25`$ at the end of the modelled region) and transverse velocity gradients are inferred. The toroidal magnetic field component is larger than the longitudinal component almost everywhere and the radial component is small except at the edge of the jet in the flaring region, where the field is roughly isotropic, perhaps as a result of turbulent entrainment. The beginning of the flaring region marks a discontinuity in emissivity and, probably, velocity.

The conservation-law analysis shows that the jets must be extremely light ($`\rho 10^{27}`$ kg m<sup>-3</sup>). The entrainment rate has a local maximum where the expansion is fastest; thereafter, it increases smoothly and monotonically. The required entrainment could be provided by stellar mass loss close to the nucleus, but interaction with the external medium is required at larger distances. The jet is overpressured with respect to the surrounding medium where it flares, but the outer region is likely to be in pressure equilibrium. The composition of the jet is not determined uniquely by this analysis, but an electron-positron jet with entrained thermal matter would be consistent with all of the available evidence.

## 3 New results

We have applied simplified kinematic models to describe less detailed observations of a complete sample of FR I radio galaxies from the B2 sample (Laing et al., 1999). Two of these, 0326+39 and 1553+24, have been reobserved with the VLA at 8.4 GHz and modelled in detail (Canvin & Laing, in preparation). Good fits were again obtained: we show a comparison between model and data for 0326+39 in Fig. 1. The basic picture of jet deceleration with tranverse velocity gradients holds for both sources, but there are interesting differences in the field structures: 1553+24 (like 3C 31) has a dominant toroidal component but the outer part of 0326+29 (Fig. 1) has roughly equal radial and toroidal components, but no longitudinal field (cf. Laing, 1980).

Thus far, we have assumed that emissivity and field structure are independent of the velocity field. This is appropriate if we aim to deduce the internal parameters without imposing preconceptions about the underlying physics, but to make further progress, we need to make additional assumptions. The simplest approximation is that the jets are “adiabatic” in the sense defined by Burch (1979): the relativistic particles lose energy only by the adiabatic process and the magnetic field is convected passively with the flow. Baum et al. (1997) derived analytical relations for the surface-brightness of a relativistic jet with no transverse velocity gradient and either a transverse or longitudinal magnetic field. We have generalized their approach to include shear and arbitrary initial field geometry, using a formalism based on that of Matthews & Scheuer (1990).

In Fig. 2, we show the results of fitting adiabatic models to the outer regions of the jets in 3C 31, with initial conditions set as profiles of emissivity and field-ordering across the jet at the start of the region. The models fit reasonably well, but cannot accurately describe the observed polarization at the jet edges. A likely possibility is that the velocity field is more complicated than the simple laminar flow we assume, and that some turbulent component is present, leading to changes in field ordering and strength which are not described by our model. In contrast, adiabatic models fail completely in the inner and flaring regions. This should not come as a surprise: the X-ray emission detected in these regions by Hardcastle et al. (2002) is most likely to be synchrotron radiation, requiring significant particle acceleration.


text:
# ⟨𝜑²⟩ for a scalar field in 2D black holes: a new uniform approximation

## I Introduction

Calculation of local observables which characterize vacuum polarization in the gravitational field of a black hole is an old problem. Main motivation is connected with study of back reaction effects and constructing a self-consistent model of an evaporating black hole. A lot of information was obtained concerning properties of fluctuations $`\phi ^2^{\text{ren}}`$ and vacuum stress-energy tensor $`T_{\mu \nu }^{\text{ren}}`$ in Schwarzschild and Reissner-Nordstrom geometries. A superscript ren indicates that we are dealing with physical finite quantities after a renormalization has been done. Combination of numerical calculations  and different analytical approximations  usually gives quite good results. Nevertheless, there still remains one problem. Analytical ‘approximation’ does not work in the vicinity of a black hole horizon if the spacetime is not Ricci flat and the quantum field is not conformally invariant. It gives logarithmically divergent result near the horizon in the Hartle-Hawking state, where one expects finite and smooth behavior. In four dimensions the general structure of this divergence reads (see e.g. )

$$\phi ^2^{\text{ren}}a_1\mathrm{ln}(|g_{tt}|),T_{\mu \nu }^{\text{ren}}\frac{\delta d^4va_2}{\delta g^{\mu \nu }}\mathrm{ln}(|g_{tt}|).$$
(1)
Analogously, in two dimensions it is

$$\phi ^2^{\text{ren}}\mathrm{ln}(|g_{tt}|),T_{\mu \nu }^{\text{ren}}\frac{\delta d^4va_1}{\delta g^{\mu \nu }}\mathrm{ln}(|g_{tt}|).$$
(2)
Here $`a_1`$ and $`a_2`$ are Schwinger-DeWitt coefficients. For massive scalar fields

$`a_1`$ $`=`$ $`[({\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}\xi )\mu ^2],`$ (3)
$`a_2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{180}}\left(_{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }_{\mu \nu }^{\mu \nu }+\mathrm{}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[({\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}\xi )\mu ^2\right]^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}({\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}\xi )\mathrm{},`$ (4)
where $`\mu `$ is the mass of the field and $`\xi `$ is a parameter of non-minimal coupling with the curvature $``$.

In order to obtain the analytical approximation Anderson, Hiscock, and Samuel  used WKB approximation for solutions of radial equations. Recently it was demonstrated that the breakdown of the analytical approximation (see discussion in Appendix A) is directly related to the breakdown of WKB approximation for so called zero modes, that is zero-frequency solutions . By using improved approximation for zero modes it is possible to correct the analytical approximation near the horizon and to make all calculated quantities finite. The concrete methods proposed in  are based on the approximations to zero modes valid only in the vicinity of the horizon.

The aim of this paper is to develop a new uniform approximation scheme for calculations of zero-modes contribution to $`\phi ^2^{\text{ren}}`$ and $`T_{\mu \nu }^{\text{ren}}`$. Although the method is applicable in arbitrary dimensions, here, for simplicity, we restrict ourselves by studying $`\phi ^2^{\text{ren}}`$ near two-dimensional black holes. We consider different interesting examples of 2D black hole metrics, and keep the mass of a scalar field $`m`$ and the parameter of non-minimal coupling $`\xi `$ arbitrary.

## II Green’s function

Consider a massive quantum scalar field with an arbitrary curvature coupling in a spacetime of the 2-dimensional black hole. The metric of the static 2-dimensional black hole can be written in the form

$$dS^2=Fdt^2+\frac{dr^2}{F},$$
(5)
where the function $`F(r)`$ should possess the following properties: (i) $`F(r)`$ vanishes at the horizon $`r=r_0`$ and (ii) $`F(r)`$ tends to $`1`$ at $`r\mathrm{}`$. It is convenient to rewrite the metric (5) in the dimensionless form as follows

$$ds^2=r_0^2dS^2=fd\stackrel{~}{t}^2+\frac{dx^2}{f},f(x)=F(r),$$
(6)
where $`\stackrel{~}{t}=t/r_0`$ and $`x=(rr_0)/r_0`$, so that the horizon is located at $`x=0`$. We shall also use the dimensionless mass $`m=\mu r_0`$ and curvature $`R=r_0^2`$. By making Wick’s rotation $`\stackrel{~}{t}i\tau `$ in the metric (6) one gets the Euclidean metric of the form

$$ds_E^2=fd\tau ^2+\frac{dx^2}{f}.$$
(7)
It is well known that the property of periodicity of Green functions in the Euclidean time coordinate $`\tau `$ with the period $`\beta =T^1`$, corresponds to quantum systems at finite temperature $`T`$. We consider the case of nonzero temperature $`T`$ and nonzero surface gravity $`\kappa =f_x^{}/2|_{x=0}`$.

The Euclidean Green function $`G_E(X,X^{})`$ is a solution of the equation

$$\left[\mathrm{}_Em^2\xi R\right]G_E(x,\tau ;x^{},\tau ^{})=\delta (x,\tau ;x^{},\tau ^{})$$
(8)
which in the metric (7) has the following form

$$\left[f^1\frac{^2}{\tau ^2}+\frac{}{x}\left(f\frac{}{x}\right)m^2\xi R\right]G_E(x,\tau ;x^{},\tau ^{})=\delta (\tau \tau ^{})\delta (xx^{}).$$
(9)
This equation allows a separation of variables, so that we can write

$$G_E(X,X^{})=T𝒢_0(x,x^{})+2T\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{cos}\left(\omega _n(\tau \tau ^{})\right)𝒢_n(x,x^{}),$$
(10)
where $`\omega _n=2\pi nT`$ and $`𝒢_n`$ are “radial” Green functions which are the solutions of the 1-dimensional problem

$$\left[\frac{d}{dx}\left(f\frac{d}{dx}\right)\left(\frac{\omega _n^2}{f}+m^2+\xi R\right)\right]𝒢_n(x,x^{})=\delta (xx^{}).$$
(11)
The Green functions $`𝒢_n`$ can be written in the form

$$𝒢_n(x,x^{})=s_n^{(2)}(x^<)s_n^{(1)}(x^>),$$
(12)
where $`x^>=\mathrm{max}(x,x^{})`$ and $`x^<=\mathrm{min}(x,x^{})`$. Here the radial modes $`s_n^{(1)}`$ and $`s_n^{(2)}`$ are two linear independent solutions of the homogeneous equation of motion

$$\left[\frac{d}{dx}\left(f\frac{d}{dx}\right)\left(\frac{\omega _n^2}{f}+m^2+\xi R\right)\right]s(x)=0.$$
(13)
We choose $`s_n^{(1)}`$ to be regular at infinity and $`s_n^{(2)}`$ to be regular at the horizon. The solutions $`s_n^{(1)}`$ and $`s_n^{(2)}`$ are normalized by the condition

$$s_n^{(1)}\frac{ds_n^{(2)}}{dx}s_n^{(2)}\frac{ds_n^{(1)}}{dx}=\frac{1}{f}.$$
(14)
The coincidence limit of the Euclidean Green function gives the unrenormalized expression for $`\phi ^2`$, which is ultraviolet divergent,

$$\phi ^2(x)_{\mathrm{unren}}=G_E(x,\tau ;x,\tau ^{})=T𝒢_0(x,x)+2T\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{cos}(\omega _n(\tau \tau ^{}))𝒢_n(x,x).$$
(15)
(For convenience the points are split in time direction only, so $`x^{}=x`$.) Subtraction of ultraviolet divergencies gives the renormalized $`\phi ^2`$

$$\phi ^2_{\mathrm{ren}}=\underset{\tau ^{}\tau }{lim}\left(\phi ^2_{\mathrm{unren}}\phi ^2_{\mathrm{DS}}\right),$$
(16)
where $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{DS}}`$ is the DeWitt-Schwinger counterterm which in two dimensions has the following form

$$\phi ^2_{\mathrm{DS}}=\frac{1}{4\pi }(\mathrm{ln}\frac{\mu ^2\sigma }{2}+2C).$$
(17)
Here $`\sigma `$ is equal to one half the square of the distance between the points $`x`$ and $`x^{}`$ along the shortest geodesic connecting them, $`C`$ is the Euler’s constant. For a massive fields the constant $`\mu `$ is equal to its mass. For a massless field it is an arbitrary mass scale parameter. A particular choice of the value of $`\mu `$ corresponds to a finite renormalization of the coefficients of terms in the gravitational Lagrangian.

The stress-energy tensor can be obtained by applying a certain differential operator to the Green function:

$$T_{\mu \nu }=\underset{X^{}X}{lim}D_{\mu \nu }G_E(X,X^{}).$$
(18)
In order to calculate $`\phi ^2`$ and $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ one needs to solve the radial equation of motion (13) and to find the radial Green functions $`𝒢_n(x,x)`$. In a general case it is impossible to find exact solutions of this equation, and so one oftes uses various approximate methods. In case the scalar field has a nonzero mass,***Generally speaking, the mass should be large enough. If the mass is small or vanishes the WKB approximation cannot be applied for modes with small numbers $`n`$, including the zero mode, $`n=0`$. one of the standard approaches is the WKB approximation. For example, recently Anderson, Hiscock and Samuel have derived the analytic approximation for $`\phi ^2`$ and $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ for a scalar field in the general static spherically symmetric spacetime using the WKB expansion for radial modes . However, the serious obstacle for applying this method in black hole spacetimes is that the WKB approximation even in case $`m>0`$ breaks down at the horizon for low-frequency modes.

In the section IV we discuss this problem in more detail.

## III Exactly solvable models

Let us consider the radial equation of motion (13). Let us introduce new variables

$$\frac{dx}{f(x)}=\frac{dy}{y},s(x)=\frac{u(y)}{y^{1/2}},$$
(19)
and rewrite this equation in the form

$$\left[\frac{d^2}{dy^2}\left(\frac{\omega _n^2\frac{1}{4}}{y^2}+\frac{(m^2+\xi R)}{y^2}\right)\right]u(y)=0.$$
(20)
Here $`(y)=f(x)`$ and

$$R=\frac{y^2^{\prime \prime }}{^2}\frac{y^{}}{^2}+\frac{y^2^2}{^3}.$$
(21)
The prime means the derivative with respect to $`y`$.

First of all, let us discuss cases when the equation (20) can be solved exactly.

### A Conformally invariant scalar field

Consider the 2d conformally invariant scalar field, i.e., assume $`m=0`$ and $`\xi =0`$. In this case the equation (20) takes the form

$$\left[\frac{d^2}{dy^2}\frac{\omega _n^2\frac{1}{4}}{y^2}\right]u=0.$$
(22)
Two independent solutions of this equation are

$`u_{n=0}^{(1)}=y^{1/2},u_{n=0}^{(2)}=y^{1/2}\mathrm{ln}y,`$ (23)
$`u_{n>0}^{(1)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\omega _n}}}y^{\omega _n+1/2},u_{n>0}^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\omega _n}}}y^{\omega _n+1/2}.`$ (24)
### B 2D dilatonic black hole

Consider a scalar field in the 2D dilatonic black hole spacetime with (see )

$$f(x)=1e^x.$$
(25)
Using the coordinate $`y`$ we find

$$(y)=\frac{y}{1+y},$$
(26)
and

$$R=\frac{1}{1+y}.$$
(27)
The equation (20) now reads

$$\frac{d^2u}{dy^2}\left(\frac{\omega _n^2\frac{1}{4}}{y^2}+\frac{m^2}{y(1+y)}+\frac{\xi }{y(1+y)^2}\right)u=0.$$
(28)
This equation can be solved in terms of hypergeometric functions . Its two independent solutions are

$`u_n^{(1)}`$ $`=`$ $`y^{1/2\mathrm{\Omega }_n}\left({\displaystyle \frac{y}{1+y}}\right)^{\omega _n+\mathrm{\Omega }_n}F(a,b;2\omega _n+1;{\displaystyle \frac{y}{1+y}}),`$ (29)
$`u_n^{(2)}`$ $`=`$ $`y^{1/2\mathrm{\Omega }_n}\left({\displaystyle \frac{y}{1+y}}\right)^{\omega _n+\mathrm{\Omega }_n}F(a,b;2\mathrm{\Omega }_n+1;{\displaystyle \frac{1}{1+y}}),`$ (30)
The Wronskian of these solutions is

$`W[u_n^{(1)},u_n^{(2)}]W_n`$ $`=`$ $`u_n^{(1)}{\displaystyle \frac{du_n^{(2)}}{dy}}{\displaystyle \frac{du_n^{(2)}}{dy}}u_n^{(1)}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(2\omega _n+1)\mathrm{\Gamma }(2\mathrm{\Omega }_n+1)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(a)\mathrm{\Gamma }(b)}},`$ (31)
where

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_n=\sqrt{\omega _n^2+m^2},$$

and

$$a=\frac{1}{2}+\omega _n+\mathrm{\Omega }_n+\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{14\xi },b=\frac{1}{2}+\omega _n+\mathrm{\Omega }_n\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{14\xi }.$$

## IV The WKB approximation for radial modes

In the cases when the analytical solution is not known WKB approximation is often used. Let us write the radial modes $`s_n^{(1)}`$ and $`s_n^{(2)}`$ in the WKB form

$$s_n^{(1)}(x)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\mathrm{\Omega }(x)}}\mathrm{exp}\left(^x\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }(x^{})}{f(x^{})}𝑑x^{}\right),$$
(32)
$$s_n^{(2)}(x)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\mathrm{\Omega }(x)}}\mathrm{exp}\left(^x\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }(x^{})}{f(x^{})}𝑑x^{}\right),$$
(33)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }(x)`$ is a new unknown function. Note that these solutions are properly normalized to satisfy the condition (14). Substituting (32), (33) into (13) gives the equation for $`\mathrm{\Omega }(x)`$:

$$\mathrm{\Omega }^2=\omega _n^2+m^2f+\xi Rf+\frac{1}{2}\frac{f^2\mathrm{\Omega }^{\prime \prime }}{\mathrm{\Omega }}+\frac{1}{2}\frac{ff^{}\mathrm{\Omega }^{}}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\frac{3}{4}\frac{f^2\mathrm{\Omega }^2}{\mathrm{\Omega }^2}.$$
(34)
This equation can be solved iteratively with the zeroth-order solution chosen as

$$\mathrm{\Omega }^{(0)}=\mathrm{\Omega }_0=\left[\omega _n^2+m^2f\right]^{1/2}.$$
(35)
The first-order solution is

$$\mathrm{\Omega }^{(1)}=\mathrm{\Omega }_0+\mathrm{\Omega }_1=\mathrm{\Omega }_0+\frac{\xi Rf}{2\mathrm{\Omega }_0}+\frac{1}{4}\frac{f^2\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{\prime \prime }}{\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2}+\frac{1}{4}\frac{ff^{}\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2}\frac{3}{8}\frac{f^2\mathrm{\Omega }_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_0^3}.$$
(36)
Analogously, the $`k`$’th-order solution can be found

$$\mathrm{\Omega }^{(k)}=\mathrm{\Omega }_0+\mathrm{\Omega }_1+\mathrm{}+\mathrm{\Omega }_k,$$
(37)
The WKB approximation is based on an assumption that

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{\Omega }_1\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Omega }_k.$$
(38)
This ensures the convergence of series $`_{k=0}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{\Omega }_k`$ and allows one to break the series in order to construct an approximate solution for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ of the form (37). Substituting $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{(k)}`$ into (32), (33) gives the WKB approximation of $`k`$’th order for the radial modes $`s_n^{(1,2)}`$. By and substituting $`s_n^{(1,2)\mathrm{WKB}}`$ into (40) and then into (15) one obtains the WKB approximation for $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{unren}}`$:

$$\phi ^2(x)_{\mathrm{unren},\mathrm{WKB}}=T𝒢_0^{\mathrm{WKB}}(x,x)+2T\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{cos}(\omega _n(\tau \tau ^{}))𝒢_n^{\mathrm{WKB}}(x,x),$$
(39)
with

$$𝒢_n^{\mathrm{WKB}}(x,x)=s_n^{(1)\mathrm{WKB}}(x)s_n^{(2)\mathrm{WKB}}(x).$$
(40)
Let us discuss the validity of this approximation for zero-modes. i.e., when $`n=0`$. For $`n=0`$ one has $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=mf^{1/2}`$, i.e., $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0f^{1/2}`$. Then $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1f_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}f^{1/2}`$ (see Eq. (36)). Note that at the horizon the function $`f`$ vanishes while $`f^{}`$ and $`\kappa `$ remain finite. Thus in the vicinity of the horizon $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{\Omega }_1`$. Moreover, one can show that near the horizon inequalities $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{\Omega }_1\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Omega }_k`$ are fulfilled instead of (38). This means that the series $`_{k=0}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{\Omega }_k`$ diverges, and the WKB expansion breaks down. Thus, the WKB method can not be used for constructing $`𝒢_{n=0}`$ near the horizon.

## V New uniform approximation for the radial modes

### A General discussion

In this section we propose a new approximation which can be used instead of the WKB approximation.

We choose the time $`T`$ normalization so that the function $`(y)`$ tends to $`1`$ at $`y\mathrm{}`$. We assume also that the surface gravity does not vanish, so that $`(y)y`$ at $`y0`$. Let us write $`(y)`$ in the form

$$(y)=\frac{y\mathrm{h}(y)}{c+y}.$$
(41)
Here $`c>0`$ is a positive constant, and $`\mathrm{h}(y)`$ is a positive function depending on $`c`$ and having the asymptotics

$`\mathrm{h}(y)|_{y0}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{h}_0+𝒪(y),\mathrm{h}_0>0`$ (42)
$`\mathrm{h}(y)|_y\mathrm{}`$ $`=`$ $`1+𝒪(y^1).`$ (43)
Note that such the representation explicitly reflects the asymptotical properties of $`(y)`$:

$`(y)|_{y0}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{h}_0c^1y+𝒪(y^2),`$ (44)
$`(y)|_y\mathrm{}`$ $`=`$ $`1+𝒪(y^1).`$ (45)
The expression (21) for the scalar curvature now reads

$$R=\frac{c}{(c+y)\mathrm{h}}(c+y)\frac{\mathrm{h}^{}}{\mathrm{h}^2}y(c+y)\frac{\mathrm{h}^{\prime \prime }}{\mathrm{h}^2}+y(c+y)\frac{\mathrm{h}_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{\mathrm{h}^3}.$$
(46)
The equation (20) takes the form

$$\frac{d^2u}{dy^2}\left(\frac{\omega _n^2\frac{1}{4}}{y^2}+\frac{m^2\mathrm{h}}{y(c+y)}+\frac{c\xi }{y(c+y)^2}+\xi V\right)u=0,$$
(47)
where

$$V(y)=\frac{\mathrm{h}^{\prime \prime }}{\mathrm{h}}\frac{\mathrm{h}^{}}{y\mathrm{h}}+\frac{\mathrm{h}^2}{\mathrm{h}^2}.$$
(48)
In the special case $`c=1`$ and $`\mathrm{h}(y)1`$ we obtain the 2D dilatonic black hole with $`(y)=y/(1+y)`$ and $`V=0`$ (see Eqs. (26), (28)).

In a general case we will fix the constant $`c`$ by the algebraic condition

$$\mathrm{h}^{}(0)=0,$$
(49)
in order that to guarantee the regular behavior of $`V(y)`$ near the horizon $`y=0`$. This condition shows that the function $`\mathrm{h}(y)`$ near $`y=0`$ has the form:

$$\mathrm{h}(y)|_{y0}=\mathrm{h}_0+𝒪(y^2).$$
(50)
We rewrite the equation (47) as

$$\frac{d^2u}{dy^2}(U_n+\xi V)u=0,$$
(51)
where we denote

$$U_n(y)=\frac{\omega _n^2\frac{1}{4}}{y^2}+\frac{m^2\mathrm{h}}{y(c+y)}+\frac{c\xi }{y(c+y)^2}.$$
(52)
Let us compare two terms $`U_n`$ and $`\xi V`$. In case $`\xi =0`$ the term $`\xi V`$ disappears and the equation (51) takes the form

$$\frac{d^2u}{dy^2}U_nu=0.$$
(53)
Now assume that $`\xi `$ does not vanish. Let us consider separately asymptotical regions near the horizon ($`y0`$) and far from it ($`y\mathrm{}`$). Using the asymptotical form (50) for $`\mathrm{h}(y)`$ we can find that near the horizon $`V(y)=𝒪(y^0)`$ and $`U_n(y)=𝒪(y^2)`$, and hence in the limit $`y0`$ the absolute value of the term $`\xi V`$ is much less than the one of $`U_n`$. Far from the horizon $`\mathrm{h}(y)=1+𝒪(y^1)`$, then $`V(y)=𝒪(y^3)`$ and $`U_n(y)=𝒪(y^2)`$, and so we can again conclude that $`|\xi V||U_n|`$ in the limit $`y\mathrm{}`$.

In order to estimate values of the terms $`\xi V`$ and $`U_n`$ in the intermediate region $`0<y<\mathrm{}`$ we consider the particular configuration: two dimensional “Schwarzschild” black hole with

$$f(x)=\frac{x}{x+1}.$$
(54)
By using the relation $`dx/f(x)=dy/y`$ we find

$$y=xe^x.$$
(55)
$`\mathrm{h}`$ as a function of $`x`$ can be obtained by comparing two representations, (41) and (54), for $`f`$:

$$(y)=\frac{y\mathrm{h}}{c+y},$$

so that

$$\mathrm{h}\left(y(x)\right)=\frac{c+xe^x}{(x+1)e^x}.$$
(56)
The constant $`c`$ can be fixed by the condition (49), which gives $`c=1/2`$. $`V`$ and $`U_n`$ calculated for this metric are shown in the figures 1 and 2. In the figure 1 graphs for $`y^2U_{n=0}`$ are given for various values of $`m`$ and $`\xi `$. Note that in case $`m<0.5`$ the function $`y^2U_{n=0}(y)`$ is strictly negative, while for larger masses $`m>0.5`$ it can change sign, so that there is a point $`y_{}>0`$ where $`y_{}^2U_{n=0}(y_{})=0`$. Hereafter we will assume that $`m<0.5`$. As for the $`n>0`$ modes one can easily see from Eq. (52) that the function $`y^2U_{n>0}(y)`$ is positive for arbitrary $`m0`$ and $`\xi 0`$.

The graph of $`y^2V(y)`$ is given in the figure 2(a). Note that the function $`V(y)`$ is completely determined by $`\mathrm{h}(y)`$ and does not depend on the parameters $`m`$ and $`\xi `$. In the figure 2(b) the ratio $`\xi V/U_n`$ is shown for $`n=0`$, $`1`$, $`2`$, $`m=0.1`$, and $`\xi =1/6`$.

One has $`|\xi V/U_n|1`$. For example, $`\mathrm{max}(|\xi V/U_n|)0.032`$, $`0.009`$, $`0.0002`$ for $`n=0`$, $`1`$, $`2`$ respectively, so that the higher the number of mode the less the ratio $`|\xi V/U_n|`$.

Thus we may conclude that at least for 2D Schwarzschild metric the term $`\xi V(y)`$ is much less than $`U_n(y)`$ in the whole range of $`y`$. Using the smallness of $`\xi V`$ in comparison with $`U_n`$ we can neglect this term in the equation (47).

### B The uniform approximation for the massless field modes

Consider the massless case, $`m=0`$, with arbitrary coupling $`\xi `$. Neglecting the term $`\xi V`$ in the equation (47) we obtain

$$\frac{d^2u}{dy^2}\left(\frac{\omega _n^2\frac{1}{4}}{y^2}+\frac{c\xi }{y(c+y)^2}\right)u=0,$$
(57)
or, after rescaling $`y=c\stackrel{~}{y}`$,

$$\frac{d^2u}{d\stackrel{~}{y}^2}\left(\frac{\omega _n^2\frac{1}{4}}{\stackrel{~}{y}^2}+\frac{\xi }{\stackrel{~}{y}(1+\stackrel{~}{y})^2}\right)u=0.$$
(58)
Comparing with Eqs. (28), (30) we find two independent solutions of the equation (57):

$`u_n^{(1)}`$ $`=`$ $`y^{1/2+\omega _n}(c+y)^{2\omega _n}F(a,b;2\omega _n+1;{\displaystyle \frac{y}{c+y}}),`$ (59)
$`u_n^{(2)}`$ $`=`$ $`y^{1/2+\omega _n}(c+y)^{2\omega _n}F(a,b;2\omega _n+1;{\displaystyle \frac{c}{c+y}}),`$ (60)
with

$$a=\frac{1}{2}+2\omega _n+\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{14\xi },b=\frac{1}{2}+2\omega _n\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{14\xi }.$$

These functions represent an approximate solution of the equation (47) in case $`m=0`$.

### C The uniform approximation for the massive field modes

Consider the massive case. Neglecting the term $`\xi V`$ in the equation (47) gives

$$\frac{d^2u}{dy^2}\left(\frac{\omega _n^2\frac{1}{4}}{y^2}+\frac{m^2\mathrm{h}(y)}{y(c+y)}+\frac{c\xi }{y(c+y)^2}\right)u=0.$$
(61)
Generally this equation cannot be solved exactly, and so let us construct an approximate solution. For this aim we study asymptotical properties of the equation (61). First consider the region far from the horizon, $`y\mathrm{}`$. Neglecting terms of order $`y^3`$ and smaller in the equation (61) we get

$$\left[\frac{d^2}{dy^2}\frac{\omega _n^2\frac{1}{4}+m^2\mathrm{h}}{y^2}\right]u=0.$$
(62)
Introducing in the equation (62) a new variableThe variable $`x_{}`$ is known as a tortoise coordinate, $`dx/f(x)=dy/y=dx_{}`$. by $`dx_{}=dy/y`$ and using the relation $`s(x_{})=y^{1/2}u(y)`$ we obtain

$$\frac{d^2s}{dx_{}^2}\mathrm{\Omega }_n^2(x_{})s=0,$$
(63)
where

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_n(x_{})=\sqrt{\omega _n^2+m^2\mathrm{h}}.$$
(64)
An approximate solution of the equation (63) can be written in the well-known WKB form:

$$s_n^{(1)}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\mathrm{\Omega }_n}}\mathrm{exp}\left[\mathrm{\Omega }_n𝑑x_{}\right],s_n^{(2)}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\mathrm{\Omega }_n}}\mathrm{exp}\left[\mathrm{\Omega }_n𝑑x_{}\right].$$
(65)
Returning to the variables $`y`$ and $`u_n`$ we obtain the WKB solution of the equation (62):

$$u_n^{(1)}=\frac{y^{1/2}}{\sqrt{2\mathrm{\Omega }_n}}\mathrm{exp}\left[\mathrm{\Omega }_n\frac{dy}{y}\right],u_n^{(2)}=\frac{y^{1/2}}{\sqrt{2\mathrm{\Omega }_n}}\mathrm{exp}\left[\mathrm{\Omega }_n\frac{dy}{y}\right].$$
(66)
These functions give an approximate solution of the equation (61) in the region $`y\mathrm{}`$.

Now consider the region near the horizon, $`y0`$. Taking into account Eq.(50) and neglecting in the equation (61) terms of order $`y^1`$ and smaller we get

$$\left[\frac{d^2}{dy^2}\frac{\omega _n^2\frac{1}{4}}{y^2}\right]u=0.$$
(67)
It is worth noting that the last equation does not contain the parameters $`m`$ and $`\xi `$. This means that any scalar field with arbitrary mass $`m`$ and coupling $`\xi `$ near a horizon behaves effectively like the conformal scalar field with $`m=0`$ and $`\xi =0`$. Two independent solutions of the equation (67) are

$`u_{n=0}^{(1)}`$ $`=`$ $`y^{1/2},u_{n=0}^{(2)}=y^{1/2}\mathrm{ln}y`$ (68)
$`u_{n>0}^{(1)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\omega _n}}}y^{\omega _n+1/2},u_{n>0}^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\omega _n}}}y^{\omega _n+1/2}.`$ (69)
Respectively, for the radial modes $`s_n^{(1,2)}=y^{1/2}u_n^{(1,2)}`$ expressed in the coordinate $`y`$ \[see Eq. (19)\] we obtain

$`s_{n=0}^{(1)}`$ $`=`$ $`1,s_{n=0}^{(2)}=\mathrm{ln}y`$ (70)
$`s_{n>0}^{(1)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\omega _n}}}y^{\omega _n},s_{n>0}^{(2)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\omega _n}}}y^{\omega _n}.`$ (71)
Note that the modes $`s_n^{(1,2)}`$ are normalized by the condition (14) which for the coordinate $`y`$ reads

$$s_n^{(1)}\frac{ds_n^{(2)}}{dy}s_n^{(2)}\frac{ds_n^{(1)}}{dy}=\frac{1}{y}.$$
(72)
Thus, we may summarize that a solution of the equation (61) should possess the asymptotical properties (66) and (70). We also assumed that terms containing derivatives of $`\mathrm{h}`$ are small and can be neglected. At last, it should be taken into account that in case $`\mathrm{h}\mathrm{const}`$ the equation (61) could be solved analytically with the solutions given by (30).More exactly speaking, in order to obtain the solution of the equation (61) in the form (30) in case $`\mathrm{h}\mathrm{const}`$ one has to make rescaling $`\stackrel{~}{m}^2=m^2\mathrm{h}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{y}=c^1y`$. Now combining these results we choose approximate solutions of the equation (61) as follows:

$`u_n^{(1)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{y^{1/2}}{\sqrt{2\mathrm{\Omega }_n}}}\mathrm{exp}\left[{\displaystyle \mathrm{\Omega }_n\frac{dy}{y}}\right]\mathrm{\Psi }_n^{(1)},`$ (73)
$`u_n^{(2)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{y^{1/2}}{\sqrt{2\mathrm{\Omega }_n}}}\mathrm{exp}\left[{\displaystyle \mathrm{\Omega }_n\frac{dy}{y}}\right]\mathrm{\Psi }_n^{(2)},`$ (74)
with

$`\mathrm{\Psi }_n^{(1)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\mathrm{\Omega }_n}{W_n}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{y}{c+y}}\right)^{\omega _n+\mathrm{\Omega }_n}y^{2\mathrm{\Omega }_n}F(a,b;2\omega _n+1;{\displaystyle \frac{y}{c+y}}),`$ (75)
$`\mathrm{\Psi }_n^{(2)}`$ $`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{y}{c+y}}\right)^{\omega _n+\mathrm{\Omega }_n}F(a,b;2\mathrm{\Omega }_n+1;{\displaystyle \frac{c}{c+y}}).`$ (76)
It can be shown that the given functions $`u_n^{(1,2)}`$ possess all necessary properties. First, substituting the solutions (73) into the equation (61) one may see that they obey the equation up to terms containing derivatives of $`\mathrm{h}`$. Second, using properties of the hypergeometric functions (see Ref. ) one can verify that the solutions (73) have the asymptotical form (70) and (66) at $`y0`$ and $`y\mathrm{}`$, respectively. Moreover, note that the functions (73) reproduce the exact solution (30) in case $`\mathrm{h}\mathrm{const}`$ or/and $`m=0`$.

Finally, using the relation $`s(x)=y^{1/2}u(y)`$ and the formulas (73) gives an approximation for the radial modes $`s_n^{(1,2)}.`$ It is worth noting that this approximation has been derived for arbitrary mass $`m`$ of the scalar field (including $`m=0`$) and arbitrary coupling $`\xi `$. It is also important that the approximation works correctly both far from and near the horizon. For this reason we will call it as a uniform approximation.

## VI Evaluating of $`\phi ^2`$ in the uniform approximation

Using the uniform approximation, we may obtain the radial Green functions $`𝒢_n=s_n^{(1)}s_n^{(2)}`$ and construct the approximate expression for $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{unren}}`$:

$$\phi ^2_{\mathrm{unren}}=T𝒢_0^{\mathrm{ua}}(x,x)+2T\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{cos}(2\pi nTϵ)𝒢_n^{\mathrm{ua}}(x,x),$$
(77)
where the superscript ‘ua’ is used to denote the uniform approximation.

We may simplify the resulting approximate expression for $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{unren}}`$ if we take into account that the $`n>0`$ modes are satisfactory described by the WKB approximation. In this case we will use the uniform approximation in order to compute $`𝒢_{n=0}`$ only, and use the WKB approximation in order to compute the other radial Green functions $`𝒢_{n>0}`$, so that

$$\phi ^2_{\mathrm{unren}}=T𝒢_0^{\mathrm{ua}}(x,x)+2T\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{cos}(2\pi nTϵ)𝒢_n^{\mathrm{WKB}}(x,x).$$
(78)
The corresponding calculations for $`T_\nu ^\mu `$ would require to use the uniform approximation for $`n=1`$ as well. Subtracting $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{DS}}`$ from $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{unren}}`$ and taking the limit $`ϵ0`$ gives the renormalized expression for $`\phi ^2`$:

$$\phi ^2_{\mathrm{ren}}=\phi ^2_0+\phi ^2_1,$$
(79)
where we denote

$$\phi ^2_0=T𝒢_0^{\mathrm{ua}}(x,x),$$
(80)
and

$$\phi ^2_1=\underset{ϵ0}{lim}\left[2T\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{cos}(2\pi nTϵ)𝒢_n^{\mathrm{WKB}}(x,x)\phi ^2_{\mathrm{DS}}\right].$$
(81)
Using the uniform approximation (73) for the radial modes $`s=y^{1/2}u`$ and taking into account that

$$\omega _0=0,\mathrm{\Omega }_0=m\sqrt{\mathrm{h}},W_0=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(2m\sqrt{\mathrm{h}}+1)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(a)\mathrm{\Gamma }(b)},$$

$$a=\frac{1}{2}+m\sqrt{\mathrm{h}}+\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{14\xi },b=\frac{1}{2}+m\sqrt{\mathrm{h}}\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{14\xi },$$

we can write $`\phi ^2_0=T𝒢_0^{\mathrm{ua}}=Ts_0^{(1)}s_0^{(2)}`$ as follows:

$`\phi ^2_0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\mathrm{\Omega }_0}}\mathrm{\Psi }_0^{(1)}\mathrm{\Psi }_0^{(2)}`$ (82)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{T\mathrm{\Gamma }(a)\mathrm{\Gamma }(b)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(2m\sqrt{\mathrm{h}(y)}+1)}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{c+y}}\right)^{2m\sqrt{\mathrm{h}(y)}}F(a,b;1;{\displaystyle \frac{y}{c+y}})F(a,b;2m\sqrt{\mathrm{h}(y)}+1;{\displaystyle \frac{c}{c+y}}).`$ (83)
For a given spacetime the function $`\mathrm{h}`$ and the parameter $`c`$ are known. Hence the expression (82) represents an analytical formula describing an approximation for $`\phi ^2_0`$.

To evaluate $`\phi ^2_1`$ one may use the well-elaborated summation procedure dealing with the WKB approximation (see, e.g., , and also ). Combining Eqs.(34,40,81,A4), we obtain

$`\phi ^2_1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi }}\left[\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mu ^2f}{2(2\pi T)^2}}\right)+2C\right]+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi }}S_0`$ (85)
$`+T\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\xi RfS_1{\displaystyle \frac{1}{8}}m^2(f^2f^{\prime \prime }+ff_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2})S_2+{\displaystyle \frac{5}{32}}m^4f^2f_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}S_3\right]`$
where

$$S_0=\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left[\frac{1}{\sqrt{n^2+\frac{m^2f}{(2\pi T)^2}}}\frac{1}{n}\right],$$
(86)
and

$$S_k=\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{\left[(2\pi Tn)^2+m^2f\right]^{k+1/2}},k=1,2,3,\mathrm{}.$$
(87)
All the sums $`S_j`$ in this formula converge everywhere and $`S_0`$ tends to zero at the horizon ($`f0`$). The logarithmic term combined with $`\phi ^2_0`$, which also logarithmically diverges at the horizon, leads to $`(T1/4\pi )\mathrm{ln}(f)`$ term (see Appendix). In the Hartle-Hawking state $`T=1/4\pi `$ and, hence, total $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{ren}}`$ is finite, as it should be.

Thus the uniform approximation solves the problem of finiteness of $`\phi ^2`$ at the horizon by accurately taking into account of the zero mode contribution. Nevertheless finiteness itself on the horizon does not guarantee the correct value. So, we should compare our approximation with numerical calculations to get an idea how precise it is. The most important contribution comes from zero modes, this is why we present here plots for comparison of only their contribution. For higher modes the WKB approximation works very well (see, e.g.,

One can see that the larger mass the more accurate becomes the uniform approximation. For $`m1`$ and $`\xi 1/6`$ the uniform approximation gives practically exact value on the horizon and at infinity and the maximum deviation from exact function is less than 0.25%. For other parameters it is still very precise. This you can see in Fig.(3).

Let us summarize the obtained results. We demonstrated that the WKB approximation traditionally used for obtaining different analytical approximations for local observables breaks down for low frequency modes. In the general case this results in the logarithmic divergences of these observables at the black hole horizon. The adopted approximations can be improved if one uses a more accurate expression for the low frequency modes. We propose a method, which we call a uniform approximation, which not only automatically gives a finite value for local observables, but also provides a good approximation of the observables uniformly in the interval from the horizon to infinity. Our concrete calculations were done for $`\phi ^2`$ in 2D black hole spacetime, but the proposed method can be used for other local observables and for higher dimensional black holes.

## Acknowledgment

We would like to thank the Killam Trust for its support. S.S. was also supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research grant No 02-02-17177. S.S. is grateful to Valery Frolov and Andrei Zelnikov for hospitality.

## A Remarks on the $`\mathrm{log}`$-divergence of $`\phi ^2`$ and $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ near the horizon

In this appendix we discuss the problem which accompanies many of approximate methods \[see, for example \] derived for calculating expectation values, such as $`\phi ^2`$ and $`T_{\mu \nu }`$, on the black hole background. The essence of the problem is that the approximate expressions for these values turn out to be proportional to $`\mathrm{ln}f`$ and hence diverge logarithmically near the horizon where $`f0`$. It is important to stress that such the log-divergence takes place for both vacuum and thermal expectation values with any temperature, including the Hartle-Hawking state with the Hawking temperature. We will call this problem as the problem of $`\mathrm{log}`$-divergence.

As we will see the problem of $`\mathrm{log}`$-divergence is tightly connected with accurate consideration and taking into account a contribution of zero modes into expectation values near the horizon. Really, as has been shown above the radial modes of a scalar field with arbitrary mass and coupling near the horizon have the asymptotical form (50). Then, the radial Green functions $`𝒢_n=s_n^{(1)}s_n^{(2)}`$ near the horizon are

$$𝒢_{n=0}=\mathrm{ln}y,$$
(A1)
$$𝒢_{n>0}=\frac{1}{2\omega _n}=\frac{1}{4\pi nT},$$
(A2)
and the unrenormalized expression for $`\phi ^2`$ reads

$$\phi ^2_{\mathrm{unren}}=T\mathrm{ln}y+\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{\mathrm{cos}(2\pi nTϵ)}{n},$$
(A3)
where $`ϵ=\tau \tau ^{}`$. Using the formula

$$\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{\mathrm{cos}(n\kappa ϵ)}{n}=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{1}{2\left(1\mathrm{cos}(\kappa ϵ)\right)}\right]=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}\kappa ^2ϵ^2+𝒪(ϵ^2),$$
(A4)
we obtain the asymptotical form for $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{unren}}`$ near the horizon:

$$\phi ^2_{\mathrm{unren}}=T\mathrm{ln}y\frac{1}{4\pi }\mathrm{ln}\kappa ^2ϵ^2+𝒪(ϵ^2),$$
(A5)
where $`\kappa =2\pi T`$. To calculate a renormalized expression for $`\phi ^2`$ one should subtract from $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{unren}}`$ the DeWitt-Schwinger counerterms (17) and go to the limit $`ϵ0`$: $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{ren}}=lim_{ϵ0}\left(\phi ^2_{\mathrm{unren}}\phi ^2_{\mathrm{DS}}\right)`$. Note that $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{DS}}(4\pi )^1\mathrm{ln}\sigma `$, and $`\sigma fϵ^2`$ in the limit $`ϵ0`$. Hence

$$\phi ^2_{\mathrm{ren}}T\mathrm{ln}y+(4\pi )^1\mathrm{ln}f+𝒪(y^0).$$

Taking into account that $`fy`$ at $`y0`$ we rediscover the known result that $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{ren}}`$ is regular near the horizon provided the temperature has the Hawking value, $`T=(4\pi )^1`$, otherwise $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{ren}}`$ diverges as $`\mathrm{ln}y`$.

It is worth noting that the term $`(4\pi )^1\mathrm{ln}f`$ coming from the DeWitt-Schwinger counterterms $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{DS}}`$ is compensated by the term $`T\mathrm{ln}y`$ coming from the expression for the $`n=0`$ radial Green function $`𝒢_0`$. Thus we see that the zero modes play an important role in the problem of $`\mathrm{log}`$-divergence.

To illustrate this statement we consider the approximation derived by Anderson, Hiscock and Samuel . They obtained the approximate expressions for $`\phi ^2`$ and $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ \[see Eqs. (4.2), (4.3), (4.4)\] which are proportional to $`\mathrm{ln}f`$ and hence diverge logarithmically near the horizon where $`f0`$. The cause of this divergence can be easily explained now. Examining the procedure derived by Anderson, Hiscock and Samuel for computing $`\phi ^2`$ and $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ for the nonzero temperature case one faces with a necessity to calculate the mode sums over $`n`$. Since the authors use for this aim an expansion in inverse powers of $`n`$, they encounter the problem of including into the calculation scheme a contribution of the $`n=0`$ modes. To resolve this problem the authors impose a lower limit cutoff in the mode sums, which for the nonzero temperature case means merely discarding the $`n=0`$ contribution from the summation procedure (see a discussion in the section IV and the appendix E). But as was shown above, taking into account the $`n=0`$ modes is necessary for a compensation of the $`\mathrm{log}`$-contribution coming from the counterterms $`\phi ^2_{\mathrm{DS}}`$ and $`T_{\mu \nu }_{\mathrm{DS}}`$; otherwise, one gets the problem of log-divergence.


text:
# Chaos around charged black hole with dipoles

## I Introduction

Chaotic behaviors were considered as a interesting phenomena by many physicists since Lorenz found the deterministic non-periodic flowlorenz . In the last decades, chaos is one of the most important idea used to explain various nonlinear phenomena in nature. After the research on the three-body problem by Poincaré, many studies about chaos in celestial mechanics and astrophysics have been done and also have found the important role of chaos in the universeMoser wisdom . There are two main lines of research in general relativity, on deals with chaoticity associated with inhomogeneous cosmological models, for example, Oliveira et aloliveira Monerat Tonini Ozorio  have studied the chaotic behavior in Bianchi IX model. The other assumes a given metric and looks for chaotic behavior of geodesic motion in this background. Although we know many features of chaos in Newtonian dynamics, we don’t know, so far, so much about those in general relativity. Because the gravitational field around a black hole is very strong and nonlinear, we expect to find a new type of chaotic behavior in such strong gravitational field which does not appear in Newtonian dynamics Misner Belinskii Barrow . Some authors Soota Contopoulos Dettmann Yustsever Karas  Varvoglis  Bombelli Moeckel Letelier  found chaotic behavior of a test particle in relativistic system. Letelier et al Gueron Vieira Letelie  investigated the chaos in black hole with halos. J.H. Chen and Y.J.Wang Chen  investigated the dynamics of a extreme charged black hole; A. Saa Saa1 Saa2  extended investigation on the integrability of oblique orbits of test particle under the gravitational field corresponding to the superposition of an infinitesimally thin disk and a monopole to the more realistic case, for astrophysical purpose, of a thick disk. And there are many examples in the literature of chaotic motion involving black holes, in the fixed two centers problem Contopoulos Contopoulos1 Cornish , in a black hole surround by gravitational wavesBombelli1 , Leteli , and in several core-shell models with relevance to the description of galaxiesVieira1 . As to Newtonian case, the recent works of C. Chicone et al Chicone  on the chaotic behavior of the Hill system. In order to investigate the chaotic behavior of the dynamics system, Many researchers concentrated on the study of chaotic dynamics in general relativity with the Poincaré-Melnikov method Melnikov Wiggins .The Melnikov method is an analytical criterion to determine the occurrence of chaos in integrable systems in which homoclinic (or heteroclinic) manifolds biasymptotic to unstable critical points or to periodic orbits (more generally to invariant tori) are subjected to small perturbations.
It’s well known that the charge non-spheral-symmetry distribution of the charged black hole is a popular phenomena. so it is interested to investigate the motion of the test particle in the space-time of the charged black hole with dipoles. In this paper, by performing the numeral simulations, we figured out orbital evolution in phase space and Poincaré sections for different initial conditions. we confirm that there are regular and chaotic motion of the test particle in the gravitational field of the charged black hole with dipoles. The others organize as follows: In the next section we investigate the Hamiltonian of the charged black hole with dipoles, In section III, we perform the numerical stimulations to study the potential and the evolution of the orbits of the test particle, at the same time we present Poinccaré sections for different parameters. In the last section, a brief conclusion is given.

## II Hamiltonian of the charged black hole with dipoles

Wang et alwang1 wang2 wang3 gave out the metric of the charged black hole with dipoles. because the space-time of our system is static axial-symmetry, by using cylindrical $`(r,\theta ,z)`$ to describe the space-time, we obtain the potential which describe the gravitational field of charged black hole with dipoles

$`V={\displaystyle \frac{M}{\sqrt{r^2+z^2}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{Q^2}{2(r^2+z^2)}}+{\displaystyle \frac{P^2z^2}{2(r^2+z^2)^3}},`$ (1)
where $`M,Q,P`$ are mass, charges and dipoles of the black hole, respectively, and $`r^2+z^2=x^2+y^2+z^2`$, where $`x,y,z`$ are the usual Cartesian coordinates.
we know that the angular momentum $`L`$ in $`z`$ direction is conserved and we can also easily reduce the three-dimensional original problem to a two-dimensional one in the coordinates $`(r,z)`$. Now we consider the bounded orbit for the test particle under the potential (1), so the Hamiltonian is

$`H={\displaystyle \frac{\dot{r}^2+\dot{z}^2}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{L^2}{2r^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{M}{\sqrt{r^2+z^2}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{Q^2}{2(r^2+z^2)}}+{\displaystyle \frac{P^2z^2}{2(r^2+z^2)^3}}.`$ (2)
The Hamiltonian (2) is smooth everywhere, the corresponding Hamiltonian-Jacobi equations can be properly separated in parabolic coordinates Dorizzi Grammaticos , leading to the second constant of the motion

$`C=R_z\alpha {\displaystyle \frac{r^2}{2}},`$ (3)
where $`R_z`$ is the $`z`$ component of the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector

$`R={\displaystyle \frac{M}{\sqrt{r^2+z^2}}}(r\widehat{r}+z\widehat{z})+V\times L,`$ (4)
where $`L`$ stands for the total angular momentum. In this case, with two constants of motion $`H`$ and $`C`$, the equations for the trajectories of the test particle can be reduced to quadrature in parabolic coordinates Dorizzi Grammaticos  and we notice that the equation of motion are invariant under the following rescaling:

$`r\lambda r,z\lambda z,t\lambda t,M\lambda M,`$
$`Q\lambda Q,P\lambda P,H\lambda H.`$ (5)
## III Numerical simulations

The gravitational potential (1) changes from one well to three wells when we change one parameter while fixed the other parameters. Fig.1 shows the potential for different values of $`P`$ ($`P^2=7(dashed)`$ and $`P^2=2`$)(real) with fixed other parameters ($`M=1,Q^2=0.2,r=1`$,). From Fig.1 we can see that the motion in one well is oscillation, however in the three wells potential, the motion is very different from the case of one well case, there are three stable critical points (A) and two unstable critical points (B), when the kinetic energy of the test particle is much higher than the gravitational potential, the motion is similar to the one well case, but when the kinetic energy of the test particle is closed to the gravitational potential, the motion oscillate randomly in one of the three wells, particularly near the two unstable critical points, so the motion of the test particle in this case sensitively depending on the initial conditions and the parameters so that it becomes chaotic. The Melnikov method is useful to find the regions of chaotic oscillation. In this paper, we will not use the analytical method,we will figure out the evolution of the test particle in phase space and its Poinccaré section method to investigate the properties of the dynamics of the test particle in the gravitational field of charged black hole with dipoles. Abdullaev1 Abdullaev2 .
In order to investigate the evolutions of the test particle in the gravitational field of the charged black hole with dipoles and its chaotic behavior, we use variables $`(\dot{r},\dot{z},r,z)`$ and the package POINCARÉCeb-Terrab  to perform following numerical experiments. Figs.2-5 show the evolution of the particle in the compact phase space. We can see that the particle oscillates randomly in the phase space with no periodic and sensitively depends on the initial conditions and the parameters of the system, that’s to say, the properties of the motion is chaotic if we choose properly parameters, which is expected by studying the dynamics of the particle in the gravitational potential of the charged black hole with dipoles.
To determine the chaotic behavior of a dynamical system, we can further perform the Poincaré section in the phase space. If the motion is not chaotic, the plotted points form a closed curve in the two-dimensional $`(\dot{r},r)`$ plane, because a regular orbit will move on a torus in the phase space and the curve is a cross section of the torus; If the orbit is chaotic, some of those tori will be broken and the Poincaré section does not consist of a set of closed curves, but the points will be distributed randomly in the allowed region to form a chaotic sea. From the distribution of the points in Poincaré section, we can judge whether or not the motion is chaotic. Figs. 6-11 show the typical Poincaré sections across the plane $`z=0`$ for different initial conditions. In Fig.6, we present the Poincaré section for $`M=1,L^2=0.4,P^2=12`$, $`Q^2=2`$ and $`H=0.18800554`$, the section consists of KAM tori structure which characterizes a quasi-integrable Hamilton system with quasi-periodic orbits. Under these values of the parameters, there is no chaotic behavior. Then in Fig.7, we plot the Poincaré sections for $`M=1,L^2=0.4,P^2=1.2`$, $`Q^2=0.2`$ and $`H=0.28340554`$, we can see that some points have distributed randomly in a finite region to form a chaotic sea and there two islands which are surrounded by the chaotic sea. If we go on changing the parameters and the initial conditions to draw Fig.8 for $`M=1,L^2=0.4,P^2=12`$, $`Q^2=0.2`$, $`H=0.27800554`$ and $`M=1,L^2=0.2,P^2=12`$, $`Q^2=0.2`$, $`H=0.28911665`$, further larger chaotic sea will obtain in an allowed region and the islands will almost submerge by the chaotic sea, this means that the quasi-periodic orbits change into chaos. By comparing the parameters of Figs.6-9, we can find that chaotic behavior mainly origins from the dipoles of the black hole i.e.the non-sphere-symmetry of the charge distribution in the black hole.
Performing further investigation, we will figure out the two following extreme cases, Fig.10 present Poincaré section for $`M=1,L^2=0.4,P^2=1.2`$, $`Q^2=0`$ and $`H=0.29340554`$. In this case the black hole is neutron, due to the un-sphere-symmetry of the charge distribution, there are dipoles $`P`$ in the black hole. From Fig.10, we can find that there are two islands surround by a large chaotic sea, that’s to say, under above parameters our system is chaotic. However if the charges distribute spheral-symmetry in the black hole, there is no dipole , so we figure out Poincaré section for $`M=1,L^2=0.4,P^2=0`$, $`Q^2=0.2`$ and $`H=0.28400554`$. From Fig.11, we obviously see that there is KAM tori structure in the section, this case corresponds to an integrable motion.

## IV Conclusions and discussions

In this paper we investigated the gravitational potential (1), by the numerical stimulations, we find, for appropriate parameters of the our system, that there are two cases in the potential curves, one is a well case with a stable critical point, and the other is three wells case with three stable critical points and two unstable critical points. As consequence, the chaotic motion will rise. In order to verify the chaotic motion, we have performed the evolution of the orbits of the test particle in phase space, we can obviously see that the orbits randomly oscillate without any periods, even sensitively depend on the initial conditions and parameters. By the Poincaré section method, we have presented Poincaré sections for different values of the parameters and initial conditions. In these Poincaré sections we have found regular motion and chaotic motion. By comparing these Poincaré sections, we further conform that the chaotic motion of the test particle mainly origins from the dipoles of the black hole.

## V Acknowledgments

Authors are very grateful for the helps of Professor Alberto Saa (Departamento de Matem$`\stackrel{´}{a}`$tica Aplicada, IMECC-UNICANP Campinas. S.P. Brazil ), Professor H. P. de Oliveira (NASA/Fermilab Astrophysics Center, Fermi National Accelaratory Batavia, $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$linois) and Professor Wenhua Hai, Professor Jiliang Jing, Professor Hongwei Yu (Department of Physics, Hunan Normal University, People Republic of China).


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# Effect of annealing on carrier density and Curie temperature in epitaxial (Ga,Mn)As thin films

## Abstract

We report a clear correspondence between changes in the Curie temperature and carrier density upon annealing in epitaxially grown (Ga,Mn)As layers with thicknesses in the range between 5 nm and 20 nm. The changes are dependent on the layer thickness, indicating that the (Ga,Mn)As - GaAs interface has importance for the physical properties of the (Ga,Mn)As layer. The magnetoresistance shows additional features when compared to thick (Ga,Mn)As layers, that are at present of unknown origin.

The discovery of ferromagnetism in the dilute magnetic semiconductor (Ga,Mn)As ohno  initiated a rapid expansion in both the experimental and theoretical investigation of this material. Ferromagnetism in (Ga,Mn)As is commonly related to the magnetic exchange interaction between the conduction holes and the magnetic moment of the localized substitutional Mn+2 ions. dietl  In the Zener model, the ferromagnetic ordering temperature ($`T_c`$) is directly related to the content of Mn and the number of free charge carriers. dietl  The low temperature conditions necessary for epitaxial growth of (Ga,Mn)As, induces defects such as Mn-interstitials yu  and As-antisites korzhavyi  that act as compensating donors and hence suppress ferromagnetic ordering. Experimental work has shown that $`T_c`$, together with the electrical transport properties, can be changed by post-growth annealing, edmonds ; edmondsA ; ku ; potashnik ; kuryliszyn  and Curie temperatures up to 150 K have now been reported. ku  The main mechanism for this is believed to be a reduction of Mn interstitials which are highly mobile in the annealing temperature range commonly used. yu  So far single (Ga,Mn)As layers with thicknesses in the nm range have not been investigated in great detail. Matsukura *et al.* matsukuraA  reported a decrease in $`T_c`$ with increasing layer thickness, which is also observed by Ku *et al.*ku  who also investigated the effect of annealing.

We have previously found that the effect of post-growth annealing on the shape of the magnetization curve and Curie temperature, depends on the thickness of the (Ga,Mn)As layer. mathieu  In this paper we present results of the effect of post-growth annealing on the carrier density determined from Hall measurements in the same Ga0.95Mn0.05As films. We found that the carrier density follows the changes in $`T_c`$ upon annealing, in agreement with what is generally seen in (Ga,Mn)As. potashnik ; edmondsA ; ku  Ferromagnetism has been observed down to a thickness of 5 nm. sorensen  In this sample, an unexplained feature in the magnetoresistance appear at low temperatures. We show here that this feature is also present in thicker samples with thicknesses up to 20 nm.

The studied samples are epitaxially grown Ga0.95Mn0.05As layers with thicknesses in the range between 5 and 25 nm, embedded in low temperature (LT) GaAs. sorensen ; mathieu  For electrical transport measurements mesas are defined in a 100 $`\mu `$m wide Hallbar geometry by UV-lithography and wet chemical etching with Au/Zn/Au contacts. Annealing is performed at 240 C in a Nitrogen atmosphere. Two sets of samples were annealed for one and two hours respectively, except the 15 nm thick layer that was annealed an additional hour without any significant change in Curie temperature from that observed after two hours of annealing. mathieu  The Hall measurements are all standard 4-point dc-measurements performed at T=300 mK.

For (Ga,Mn)As a positive magnetoresistance in Hall measurements below $`T_c`$ at low fields, is evidence of in-plane magnetic anisotropy. matsukura  This is followed by a negative magnetoresistance that has been understood as a reduction of random spin-flip scattering with increasing magnetic field for metallic samples. matsukura ; iye

The Hall resistance contains two contributions: ordinary and anomalous Hall coefficients and is given by:

$$R_H=\frac{R_o}{d}B+\frac{R_S}{d}M$$
(1)
$`R_o=1/pe`$ is the ordinary Hall coefficient. $`R_S`$ is the anomalous Hall coefficient where Skew- and Side-jump scattering contribute with terms given by $`R_SR_{sheet}`$ and $`R_SR_{sheet}^2`$ respectively. $`M`$ is the magnetization of the sample and $`d`$ is the thickness of the (Ga,Mn)As film. Recently a quadratic dependence on the resistivity of the anomalous Hall effect consistent with a scattering independent anomalous Hall conductivity has been reported. edmonds

Below $`T_c`$, the anomalous Hall term leads to a rapid increase in Hall resistance with increasing magnetic field, often followed by a small decrease due to the negative magnetoresistance. Therefor it is often necessary to apply a high magnetic field in order to determine the carrier density from the ordinary Hall-term.

Figure 1 shows the Hall- and magnetoresistance of the 15 nm thick layer annealed for three hours. Beside the effects described above, there is an additional oscillating feature at around 3 T and 4.5 T. This feature, varying in magnitude, is seen in all the samples with thicknesses below 20 nm. Annealing has some effect on the magnitude and magnetic field dependence of this oscillation, but no direct connection could be found. For some samples the oscillation appears in the Hall resistance with the same magnetic field dependence as in the magnetoresistance, probably originating from the anomalous Hall term. The oscillating feature is seen to disappear at higher temperatures.

The carrier density (p) has been found by fitting the Hall data to eq. (1) for samples with (Ga,Mn)As layer thickness up to 20 nm assuming either Skew or Side-jump scattering. The results assuming only Skew scattering are shown in Fig. 2b. There is a small difference in the determined carrier density, which increases with increasing layer thickness, depending on the assumed scattering mechanism where Skew scattering gives the highest values. The negative magnetoresistance increases with increasing layer thickness, and the carrier density could not be determined in the 25 nm thick layer, in the available magnetic field range. The carrier density increases upon annealing except for the 5 nm layer, where it decreases. The increase upon annealing is consistent with the reported decrease in the amount of Mn interstitials. yu

The Curie temperatures, shown in Fig. 2a, are also seen to increase during annealing. The Curie temperatures have been determined by SQUID magnetometery mathieu  except for the 5 nm thick layer, which was determined from Hall measurements. sorensen  This observation is contrary to recently reported results, where the presence of a capping layer reduces Tc in 10-50 nm thick (Ga,Mn)As layers upon annealing. ku

The mean free path (*l*), calculated from the measured resistivity and carrier density at T=300 mK, is shown in Fig. 2d. The obtained *l* values are in the range between 0.4 nm and 0.65 nm, which is shorter than the average distance between Mn-ions in (Ga,Mn)As with 5 $`\%`$ of Mn ($``$1.1 nm). These low values for the mean free path is expected due to the high degree of disorder in low temperature grown (Ga,Mn)As. The increasing mean free path upon annealing is a consequence of reduced disorder.

The clear correspondence between the carrier density and Curie temperature seen in Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b, suggests that the Curie temperature is mainly governed by the number of carriers, and not directly related to the thickness of the layer. In Fig. 3 the Curie temperature is plotted as a function of carrier density for the two sets of samples, where the carrier density has been determined assuming either Skew- or Side-jump scattering. From a log-log plot the Curie temperature is seen to follow a $`p^{1/3}`$ dependence to a good degree, when the carrier density is determined by Skew scattering only. This dependence is less clear assuming only Side-jump scattering. Having data only in the range of half a decade makes a fit to the relation: $`T_cp^{1/3}`$, predicted by Dietl *et al.* dietl  within the Zener model, questionable. Using a Mn content of 5$`\%`$ the term of proportionality deviates by a factor of 2 from the value given by ref. dietl  when assuming Skew scattering. This is acceptable considering the uncertainty on the Mn content and material parameters.

Though it is difficult to speculate as to what mechanisms are important in (Ga,Mn)As thin films, ku  these findings suggest that the (Ga,Mn)As - LT GaAs interface plays an important role. Theoretical calculations show that Mn ions in substitutional and interstitial positions have different energies near the surface, erwin  and experiments have found segregation of Mn on the surface of (Ga,Mn)As. campion  This implies that annealing may have a larger impact on (Ga,Mn)As layers with thickness comparable to the interface regions and that the Curie temperature is mainly governed by the carrier density and hence the number of defects.

In summary, we have observed a clear correspondence between changes in Curie temperature and carrier density upon annealing, suggesting that the impact of defects on the carrier density is dependent on the (Ga,Mn)As layer thickness. A local maxima in the magnetoresistance at 3-4.5 T present only in layers with thickness below 20 nm is observed, indicating that this is a thin film property.

Acknowledgement: This work was supported by the Swedish Natural Science Research Council (NFR), the Swedish Research Council for Engineering Sciences (TFR), the Nanometer Structure Consortium in Lund, the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF), the Danish Research Council of Engineering Sciences (STVF framework programme ”Nanomagnetism”), and the Danish Science Research Council (SNF framework programme ”Mesoscopic Physics”). The samples are partly prepared at the III-V NANOLAB.