text:
# 1 (a) Calculated (curves) and measured (symbols) FWHM vs temperature at 𝜈=116.9 GHz for Fe8. Here the standard deviation of 𝐷, 𝜎_𝐷∼0.0064𝐷, the exchange constant 𝐽=-7 G, Γ=∑_{𝑖𝑗}'{𝐴_{𝑖𝑗}²/𝑁}=86 G2, and Λ=∑_{𝑖𝑗}'{𝐽_{𝑖𝑗}𝐴_{𝑖𝑗}/𝑁}=-156 G2. The solid curves, from bottom to top, correspond to 𝑀_𝑠={3,4,…,9,10}. (b) Calculated FWHM caused by the exchange and dipolar interactions only, shown vs temperature at 𝜈=116 GHz for Fe8. Here 𝐽=-7 G, Γ=86 G2, and Λ=-156 G2. Cited from Ref. [].

Defects, Tunneling, and EPR Spectra of Single-Molecule Magnets

Kyungwha Park1,2,3, M. A. Novotny4, N. S. Dalal3, S. Hill5, P. A. Rikvold1,6, S. Bhaduri7, G. Christou7, and D. N. Hendrickson8
1School of Computational Science and Information Technology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306
2Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306
3 Center for Computational Materials Science, Code 6390, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington DC 20375
4Department of Physics and Astronomy and the Engineering Research Center, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762
5Department of Physics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
6Center for Materials Research and Technology and Department of Physics,
Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306
7Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
8Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California at San Diego,
La Jolla, California 92093

ABSTRACT

We examine theoretically electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) lineshapes as functions of resonance frequency, energy level, and temperature for single crystals of three different kinds of single-molecule nanomagnets (SMMs): Mn12 acetate, Fe8Br, and the $`S=9/2`$ Mn4 compound. We use a density-matrix equation and consider distributions in the uniaxial (second-order) anisotropy parameter $`D`$ and the $`g`$ factor, caused by possible defects in the samples. Additionally, weak intermolecular exchange and electronic dipole interactions are included in a mean-field approximation. Our calculated linewidths are in good agreement with experiments. We find that the distribution in $`D`$ is common to the three examined single-molecule magnets. This could provide a basis for a proposed tunneling mechanism due to lattice defects or imperfections. We also find that weak intermolecular exchange and dipolar interactions are mainly responsible for the temperature dependence of the lineshapes for all three SMMs, and that the intermolecular exchange interaction is more significant for Mn4 than for the other two SMMs. This finding is consistent with earlier experiments and suggests the role of spin-spin relaxation processes in the mechanism of magnetization tunneling.

INTRODUCTION

Single-molecule magnets (SMMs) have recently been the focus of much attention because of the possibility of macroscopic quantum tunneling of their magnetizations  and possible applications in magnetic storage devices and quantum computers . SMMs are composed of identical single-domain nanoscale molecules, comprised of a core of several transition-metal ions surrounded by many different species of atoms, and they have a large effective spin. The characteristics of SMMs are relatively weak exchange and dipolar interactions between molecules, a large zero-field energy barrier against magnetization reversal, and magnetization steps in their hysteresis loops, which indicate quantum tunneling despite the large spin values .

In this paper, we examine three different molecular magnets, which are briefly described in the following. The most extensively studied single-molecule magnet is \[Mn12O12(CH3COO)16(H2O4)\]$``$2CH3COOH$``$4H2O (abbreviated hereafter as Mn12), which was first synthesized by Lis . Each molecule in Mn12 has an effective spin of $`S=10`$. It is a uniaxial system with a zero-field energy barrier against magnetization reversal of 65 K . Another well-studied magnet is \[Fe8O2(OH)12(tacn)6\]Br8$``$9H2O (abbreviated as Fe8) . Each molecule in Fe8 also has a spin of $`S=10`$ with a magnetization-reversal barrier of 30 K . This is a biaxial system so exhibits oscillations in tunneling rates with transverse magnetic field . Recently synthesized is \[Mn4O3(OSiMe)3(O2CEt)3(dbm)3\] (abbreviated as Mn4). Each molecule in Mn4 consists of two kinds of Mn ions with mixed valence: three Mn3+ ($`S=2`$) and one Mn4+ ($`S=3/2`$) are located in a distorted cubane structure and antiferromagnetically coupled to give a ground-state spin of $`S=9/2`$. The approximate magnetization-reversal energy barrier is 13 K in zero field . All three of these SMMs show clear magnetization steps in hysteresis loops below their blocking temperatures.

Recently, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) experiments  on single crystals of these SMMs showed interesting results for the lineshapes as a function of EPR resonance frequency, energy levels involved in the EPR transitions, and temperature. The temperatures employed are in the 2$``$50 K range, and the frequencies are in the 40$``$190 GHz range. We focus on the case when the magnetic field is applied along the easy axis at fixed frequency. In this case, the measured linewidths are much broader than the homogeneous line broadening caused by the lifetimes of the energy levels, and the linewidths increase as lower energy levels are involved with the EPR transitions. Additionally, some interesting features have been observed in the temperature dependence of the linewidths and lineshapes of the EPR spectra . These temperature dependences were different for different molecular magnets. In this paper, we summarize our theoretical understanding of the linewidths’ dependence on frequency, energy level, and temperature for the three molecular magnets, Mn12, Fe8, and Mn4. We also provide quantitative comparison of our calculated results with experimental data. The theoretical results on Mn4 are preliminary and work on this system is still in progress.

MODEL

We start with a single-spin effective Hamiltonian considering embedded symmetry in each molecule and calculate the resonance linewidths using a density-matrix equation . We find that an entirely single-spin picture cannot explain even qualitative trends in the experimental data. Thus, it is inevitable to include many-body effects. As a simple start, we assume that the second-order uniaxial anisotropy parameter, $`D`$, and the $`g`$ factor may not be the same for all molecules. The microscopic origin of the distribution in $`D`$ has not yet been fully understood . In addition, each molecule may interact with the rest of the molecules through exchange and/or dipolar interactions. Details of the model and the technique are discussed in Refs. . This section is based in part on our earlier work .

Since each molecule in Mn12 has approximate S4 symmetry, the dominant single-spin Hamiltonian reads, with applied magnetic field along the easy magnetization axis ($`z`$ axis),

$`_0`$ $`=`$ $`DS_z^2CS_z^4g\mu _BHS_z,`$ (1)
where $`D=0.55`$ K, $`C=1.17\times 10^3`$ K, and $`g=1.94`$ . The SMM Fe8 has approximate D2 symmetry, so the Hamiltonian reads

$`_0`$ $`=`$ $`DS_z^2E(S_x^2S_y^2)g\mu _BHS_z,`$ (2)
where $`D=0.288`$ K, $`E=0.043`$ K, and $`g=2.0`$ . In our calculations for Fe8, we neglect the small $`E`$ term because we are interested in the case with the applied field along the easy axis. The SMM Mn4 has C3 symmetry, so the Hamiltonian reads

$`_0`$ $`=`$ $`DS_z^2CS_z^4g\mu _BHS_z,`$ (3)
where $`D=0.632`$ K, $`C=3.12\times 10^3`$ K, and $`g=2.0`$ .

We now introduce an interaction $`V(t)`$ between the spin system and an oscillating transverse magnetic field $`H_x`$ with angular frequency $`\omega 2\pi \nu `$. The interaction of the spin system with the environment is governed by a time dependent density-matrix equation . The power absorption between the energy levels $`M_s`$ and $`M_s1`$ from the oscillating field, up to first order in $`V_0`$ and near resonance (with a fixed value of $`D`$), is written as

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}t}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(_{M_s1}_{M_s})}{\mathrm{}^2}}|M_s|V_0|M_s1|^2\mathrm{\Delta }(H)(\rho _{M_s}\rho _{M_s1}),`$ (4)
$`\mathrm{\Delta }(H)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2\gamma _{M_s1,M_s}}{(g\mu _B)^2(HH_{\mathrm{res}})^2+(\mathrm{}\gamma _{M_s1,M_s})^2}},`$ (5)
$`H_{\mathrm{res}}`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}\omega D(2M_s1)C(4M_s^36M_s^2+4M_s1)}{g\mu _B}},`$ (6)
where $`V_0`$ is the strength of the interaction $`V(t)`$, $`_{M_s}`$ is the energy of the level $`M_s`$, $`\rho _{M_s}`$ is the population of the level $`M_s`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }(H)`$ is a Lorentzian lineshape function, and $`H_{\mathrm{res}}`$ is the resonance field for Mn12 and Mn4. (For Fe8 there is no $`C`$ term.) The ratio $`\mathrm{}\gamma _{M_s1,M_s}/g\mu _B`$ gives a linewidth due to the finite lifetime of any excited state. The linewidths determined by $`\gamma _{M_s1,M_s}`$ are on the order of several to several tens of gauss at the measured temperature (10 K for Fe8 and Mn4 and 25 K for Mn12), and they decrease with increasing $`M_s`$. (In our convention, $`M_s=+10`$ is the ground state with $`H>0`$.) However, the measured linewidths increase with increasing $`M_s`$, and the order of magnitude of the widths is a couple of hundred to a thousand gauss. Additionally, the dramatic temperature dependence of the linewidths cannot be explained by homogeneous broadening alone.

To resolve this discrepancy, we include distributions in $`D`$ and $`g`$, (called $`D`$-strain and $`g`$-strain effects, respectively) and intermolecular exchange and dipolar interactions. With Gaussian distributions in $`D`$ and $`g`$, centered at the experimentally determined values and with small standard deviations $`\sigma _D`$ and $`\sigma _g`$, we can average the power absorption (equation 4) over the distributions. To calculate the effect on the linewidths of the intermolecular exchange and dipolar interactions with fixed $`D`$ and $`g`$, we use a multispin Hamiltonian :

$`^{\mathrm{t}ot}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}[_{0i}+V_i(t)]+^{(1)},^{(1)}^{\mathrm{d}ipole}+^{\mathrm{e}xch},`$ (7)
$`^{\mathrm{d}ipole}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{jk}{\overset{}{}}}A_{jk}(\stackrel{}{S}_j\stackrel{}{S}_k3S_j^zS_k^z),`$ (8)
$`A_{jk}`$ $``$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mu _0}{4\pi }}\right){\displaystyle \frac{(g\mu _B)^2}{2r_{jk}^3}}(3\zeta _{jk}^21),`$ (9)
$`^{\mathrm{e}xch}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{jk}{\overset{}{}}}J_{jk}\stackrel{}{S}_j\stackrel{}{S}_k,`$ (10)
where $`_{0i}`$ is the single-spin Hamiltonian for the $`i`$th molecule, the sum $`_i`$ runs over all molecules, and $`V_i(t)`$ is the interaction between the $`i`$th molecule and the oscillating transverse field. Here $`^{\mathrm{d}ipole}`$ is the dipolar interaction between the molecules, and $`\zeta _{jk}`$ are the direction cosines of the vector between molecules $`j`$ and $`k`$ ($`\stackrel{}{r}_{jk}`$) relative to the easy axis ($`z`$ axis). The sum $`_{jk}^{}`$ runs over all molecules, so that any two indices are not the same. $`^{\mathrm{e}xch}`$ is the isotropic exchange interaction between the spins of nearest-neighbor molecules, where the exchange coupling constant $`J_{ij}`$ is $`J`$ if the $`i`$th and $`j`$th spins are nearest neighbors and zero otherwise. Assuming that $`_iV_i(t)`$ is much smaller than $`^{(1)}`$, which again is much smaller than $`_i_{0i}`$, we neglect $`_iV_i(t)`$ and treat $`^{(1)}`$ perturbatively. In a mean-field approximation, the sums of $`A_{jk}`$ and $`J_{jk}`$ (equations 9 and 10) can be separated from the spin operators.

Using the multispin Hamiltonian, we construct a probability density function for the resonance field. To compare with the measured linewidths, we calculate the second central moment of the resonance field, $`(HH)^2`$, to zero order in $`^{(1)}/k_BT`$. To explain the experimental data, we need to vary two parameters for the $`D`$-strain and $`g`$-strain effects, and to vary three parameters  for the contribution of the spin-spin interactions: $`_{ij}^{}J_{ij}^2`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{ij}^{}A_{ij}^2`$, and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{ij}^{}J_{ij}A_{ij}`$.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

We find that the uniaxial anisotropy parameter $`D`$ is randomly distributed in all three of the molecular magnets. This may be due to possible defects or imperfections in the the samples. For Mn12 and Mn4, the distribution in the $`g`$ factor is also important, although this effect is not significant for Fe8. The spreads in $`D`$ and $`g`$ vary from sample to sample by 30$``$40%. The effect of the distribution in $`D`$ on inhomogeneous broadening was observed in terahertz spectroscopy for Mn12 . The temperature dependence of the linewidths is mainly caused by the spin-spin interactions. The dipolar field was measured in a millimeter-wave study of Fe8 . For Mn4, the intermolecular exchange interaction is stronger than the dipolar interaction, which is consistent with experiments on Mn4 dimers  and monomers . For clarity, we discuss each SMM separately.

Fe8

We find that for Fe8 the distribution in $`D`$ and the intermolecular exchange and dipolar interactions contribute to the linewidths. The distribution in $`D`$ makes the linewidth increase with increasing energy level $`M_s`$, which can be seen from the resonance-field expression (equation 6). The intermolecular exchange and dipolar interactions make the linewidths increase with increasing $`M_s`$ and with decreasing the resonance frequency $`\nu `$. The reason is that the resonance field decreases with increasing $`M_s`$ and with decreasing $`\nu `$, which can be understood by equation 6. Combining the effect of the distribution in $`D`$ with the exchange and dipolar interactions explains well the trend and the magnitude of the measured linewidths as functions of frequency and energy level .

Next we discuss the temperature dependence of the linewdiths. The distribution in $`D`$ alone cannot explain the interesting measured temperature dependence of the linewidths shown as symbols in figure 1 (a). The reason is that the linewidths caused by the distribution in $`D`$ are only slightly temperature dependent due to the temperature dependence of the natural linewidths $`\mathrm{}\gamma _{M_s1,M_s}/g\mu _B`$ in equation 5. So this weak temperature dependence is monotonic and noticeable only for the small $`M_s`$ (at most about 100 G at 30 K for $`M_s=3`$) . However, the linewidths caused solely by the exchange and dipolar interactions at fixed $`D`$ and $`g`$ vary significantly with temperature, as shown in figure 1 (b). For the ground state $`M_s=10`$, the linewidths decrease with increasing temperature in the whole temperature range. For $`M_s=9`$, 8, and 7, the widths first increase sharply with temperature at low temperatures, and then decrease slowly with temperature at high temperatures. For $`M_s=6`$, 5, 4, and 3, the widths increase with increasing temperature in the whole range. This trend was also seen in the experimental linewidths, confirming that the exchange and dipolar interactions are crucial to understanding the temperature dependence of the linewidths. The calculated linewidths including the distribution in $`D`$ and the spin-spin interactions are shown as curves in figure 1 (a). Here we use $`\sigma _D0.0064D`$, $`J=7`$ G, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=86`$ G2, and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=156`$ G2. The calculated linewidths agree with the measured linewidths except in the low-temperature range for large $`M_s`$ transitions ($`M_s=10`$, 9, 8). At present, we do not fully understand this discrepancy.

We note that the quality of the fit that includes a small ferromagnetic exchange interaction is comparable with that without exchange interaction, because the exchange coupling constant is small compared with the linewidths.

Mn12

We find that the inhomogeneous line broadening for Mn12 is due to the distributions in $`D`$ and $`g`$, and to the dipolar interactions. The distribution in $`D`$ contributes to the variation of the linewidth as a function of $`M_s`$ and $`\nu `$ in the same way as for Fe8. The distribution in $`g`$ makes the linewidths decrease with increasing $`M_s`$ and decreasing $`\nu `$, which is opposite to the effect of the distribution in $`D`$. The reason is that the resonance field decreases with increasing $`M_s`$ and decreasing $`\nu `$. The temperature dependence of the linewidths caused by only the distributions in $`D`$ and $`g`$ is very weak, so that it cannot explain the measured linewidths shown as symbols in figure 2 (a), which is similar to those for Fe8. The contribution of the dipolar interactions to the linewidths is shown as a function of temperature in figure 2 (b). Unlike for Fe8, the $`M_s`$ dependence of the dipolar broadening does not decrease with increasing temperature (the curves are almost parallel as the temperature increases). Combining the three effects (distributions in $`D`$ and $`g`$, and dipolar interactions), we find that the calculated linewidths agree well with the experimental data with $`\sigma _D0.018D`$, $`\sigma _g0.002g`$, and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=203`$ G2, as shown in figure 2 (a). Compared to the linewidths for Fe8, the relatively weak temperature dependence for Mn12 indicates that for Mn12 the dipolar broadening is overshadowed by the effect of the distribution in $`D`$, which is three times as wide as for Fe8.

With the same parameter values, we also check that the $`M_s`$ and frequency dependence of the measured linewidths can be explained.

Mn4

We find that for Mn4 all of our considerations of the many-body effects \- the distributions in $`D`$ and $`g`$, and the intermolecular exchange and dipolar interactions - substantially affect the inhomogeneous broadening. One minor difference of this SMM from the other two SMMs is that the effect of the distribution in $`D`$ disappears in the transition $`M_s=1/21/2`$ because the resonance field (equation 6) does not depend on $`D`$ at this transition. To examine the temperature dependence of the linewidths caused solely by $`D`$-strain and $`g`$-strain, we used the same spin-phonon coupling parameters as for Mn12 to obtain the order of magnitude of the lifetimes of the energy levels. As expected from the analysis of the two other SMMs, we also find that for Mn4 the distributions in $`D`$ and $`g`$ do not significantly change the dependence of the linewidths on temperature.

Figure 3 (a) shows the calculated linewidths caused by the exchange and dipolar interactions only at fixed $`D`$ and $`g`$ versus temperature at $`\nu =138`$ GHz. Here we use the exchange coupling constant $`J=40`$ G, two nearest neighbors along the easy axis (because the nearest-neighbor distance along this direction is half of the nearest-neighbor distance perpendicular to this direction), $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=_{ij}^{}J_{ij}A_{ij}/N=1854.8`$ G2, and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=_{ij}^{}A_{ij}^2/N=344`$ G2. The negative sign in $`J`$ means ferromagnetically coupled spins. If we assume the approximate lattice geometry as a tetragonal lattice and take the easy axis as the crystal $`c`$ axis, then we know that the sign of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ should be the same as that of $`J`$. We explore some other possibilities of combining the exchange with the dipolar interaction. For example, figure 3 (b) shows the linewidths due to positive $`J`$ (antiferromagnetically coupled) and the dipolar interaction. With positive $`J`$, the linewidth for $`M_s=9/2`$ is greatly reduced and the linewidth for $`M_s=1/2`$ is appreciably enhanced. This feature is quite different from the broadening with negative $`J`$.

Figure 4 shows the calculated linewidths versus temperature at $`\nu =138`$ GHz. Here we use $`\sigma _D=0.01D`$, $`\sigma _g=0.004g`$, $`J=40`$ G, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=1854.8`$ G2, and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=344`$ G2. The calculated linewidths agree reasonably with the experimental data except for the transition $`M_s=1/21/2`$. Notice that the magnitudes of the values of $`J`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ are greatly enhanced compared to those for Fe8. This suggests that Mn4 has a stronger exchange interaction between molecules than Fe8. Our value for $`J`$ is different by a factor of 2 from the experimentally extracted value, $`J=74`$ G . Therefore, our finding may support the proposed mechanism of spin-spin cross relaxation in Mn4 .

With the same parameter values, we can explain the frequency dependence of the linewidths at $`T=10`$ K shown in figure 5. Although there are substantial distributions in $`D`$ and $`g`$, the widths are somewhat dependent on the frequency, which indicates that the spin-spin interactions are not completely overshadowed by the $`D`$-strain and $`g`$-strain effects as in Mn12. But definitely the frequency dependence is stronger than for Mn12 but weaker than for Fe8.

CONCLUSIONS

We investigated the EPR lineshapes as functions of resonance frequency $`\nu `$, energy level $`M_s`$, and temperature $`T`$ for the three different molecular magnets, Mn12, Fe8, and Mn4, when the magnetic field is applied along the easy axis and the frequency is kept fixed. In our calculations, intermolecular exchange and dipolar interactions were included, as well as distributions in the uniaxial anisotropy parameter $`D`$ and the $`g`$ factor. We find that the distribution in $`D`$ is present in all three SMMs but that the effect is strongest in Mn12, and that the distribution in $`g`$ contributes to the linewidths for Mn12 and Mn4. The spin-spin interactions are responsible for the interesting trend of the temperature dependent lineshapes for all three magnets. For Mn4, the exchange interaction is stronger than the dipolar interaction, which supports the conclusions derived from the earlier measurements. The linewidths for the three magnets reveal different $`M_s`$, $`\nu `$, and $`T`$ dependences because of different contributions from the effects we are considering. Observation of EPR lineshapes could indicate which effects are dominant in a particular SMM, so that we may identify which mechanism leads to quantum tunneling.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was funded by NSF Grant Nos. DMR-9871455, DMR-0120310, DMR-0103290, and DMR-0196430, Research Corporation (S.H.), and by Florida State University through the School of Computational Science and Information Technology and the Center for Materials Research and Technology.


format: text

text:
# Koszulity for nonquadratic algebras II

## Abstract

It has been shown recently, in a joint work with Michel Dubois-Violette and Marc Wambst  (see also math.QA/0203035), that Koszul property of $`N`$-homogeneous algebras (as defined in ) becomes natural in a $`N`$-complex setting. A basic question is to define the differential of the bimodule Koszul complex of an $`N`$-homogeneous algebra, e.g., for computing its Hochschild homology. The differential defined here uses $`N`$-complexes. That puts right the wrong differential presented in  in a 2-complex setting. Actually, as we shall see it below, it is impossible to avoid $`N`$-complexes in defining the differential, whereas the bimodule Koszul complex is a 2-complex. Note that we shall keep the notation $`s`$ (instead of $`N`$) of .

This short communication is a corrigendum to my article “Koszulity for nonquadratic algebras” . In Section 5 of , just below Lemma 5.5, it is not true that the differentials $`d_L^{}`$ and $`d_R^{}`$ over $`K_{LR}`$ commute if $`s3`$. The differential $`d^{}`$ has to be changed in the following manner. The new (true) differential uses $`s`$-complexes. For $`s`$-complexes, see  and references therein.

Introduce $`(\overline{K}_L,\delta _L)`$ by $`\overline{K}_{L,n}=AJ_n`$, $`n0`$, and the $`A`$-linear map $`\delta _L:\overline{K}_{L,n}\overline{K}_{L,n1}`$ is defined by the natural inclusion $`J_nAJ_{n1}`$. We have $`(\delta _L)^s=0`$, so $`(\overline{K}_L,\delta _L)`$ is a $`s`$-complex. Define analogously the $`s`$-complex $`(\overline{K}_R,\delta _R)`$. Then $`\overline{K}_{LR}=\overline{K}_LA=A\overline{K}_R`$ is a bimodule $`s`$-complex for $`\delta _L^{}=\delta _L1_A`$ (respectively, for $`\delta _R^{}=1_A\delta _R`$). But now $`\delta _L^{}`$ and $`\delta _R^{}`$ commute. The new differential $`d^{}`$ over $`K_{LR}`$ is defined by

$$d_i^{}=\delta _L^{}\delta _R^{},$$

if $`i`$ is odd, and

$$d_i^{}=\delta _L^{{}_{}{}^{}s1}+\delta _L^{{}_{}{}^{}s2}\delta _R^{}+\mathrm{}+\delta _L^{}\delta _R^{{}_{}{}^{}s2}+\delta _R^{{}_{}{}^{}s1},$$

if $`i`$ is even. So we obtain a pure projective complex in the category $`𝒞`$, called the *bimodule Koszul complex* of $`A`$. The exact sequence (5.6) still holds, as well Theorem 5.6 with the same proof.

Formulas (5.12) and (5.13) have to be replaced accordingly. Assuming $`i`$ odd $`3`$, we have

$$\stackrel{~}{d}_i(avwv^{})=avwv^{}v^{}avw,$$

where $`v`$ and $`v^{}`$ are in $`V`$, and $`w`$ is in $`V^{(js1)}`$. Assuming $`i`$ even, we have

$$\stackrel{~}{d}_i(av_1\mathrm{}v_{js})=av_1\mathrm{}v_{s1}v_s\mathrm{}v_{js}+v_{js}av_1\mathrm{}v_{s2}v_{s1}\mathrm{}v_{js1}$$

$$+\mathrm{}+v_{jss+2}\mathrm{}v_{js}av_1\mathrm{}v_{jss+1},$$

where $`v_1,\mathrm{},v_{js}`$ are in $`V`$.

While (5.16) still holds, (5.15) is replaced by a sum of $`s`$ appropriate sums, each of those is indexed by $`QP,|Q|=s1`$. In particular, $`s[P]`$ takes place of $`2[P]`$ in (5.23). All the remainder is unchanged.


text:
# Thermal conductivity of lightly Sr- and Zn-doped La2CuO4 single crystals

## I Introduction

It has recently been discussed that the holes in the high-$`T_c`$ cuprates self-organize into quasi-one-dimensional stripes.Tranquada ; Yamada ; Mook1 ; Mook2 ; Wakimoto ; Matsuda1 ; Matsuda2 ; Fujita ; Hunt ; Ando1 ; Noda ; Zhou ; Emery ; Kivelson1 ; Carlson ; Zaanen ; Ando2  The stripe phase is a periodic distribution of antiferromagnetically-ordered spin regions separated by quasi-one-dimensional charged domain walls which act as magnetic antiphase boundaries. Although the relation between the stripe correlations and the mechanism of high-$`T_c`$ superconductivity is not fully understood yet, it has become clear Ando1 ; Ando2  that the charge stripes determine the charge transport behavior, at least in the lightly hole doped region: charges can move more easily along the stripes than across the stripes.Ando2  Given that the stripes indeed affect the basic physical properties such as charge transport, it is desirable to build a comprehensive picture of the roles of stripes in the cuprates. Since the nonuniform charge distribution is expected to induce variations of the local crystal structure,Tranquada ; Mook2  which disturb phonons, the phonon heat transport is expected to be a good tool capable of detecting the influence of stripes even in the charge-localized region.

Thermal conductivity is one of the basic transport properties that provides a wealth of useful information on the charge carriers and phonons, as well as their scattering processes. It is known that the antiferromagnetic (AF) insulating compound La2CuO4 shows predominant phonon transport at low temperatures, which is manifested in a large phonon peak at 20 – 25 K in the temperature dependence of both $`ab`$-plane and $`c`$-axis thermal conductivities ($`\kappa _{ab}`$ and $`\kappa _c`$);Nakamura  such phonon peak disappears in Sr-doped La2-xSrxCuO4 (LSCO) with $`x`$ = 0.10 – 0.20.Nakamura  The suppression of the phonon peak is normally caused by the defect scattering and the electron scattering of phonons in doped single crystals; however, it is also known that the phonon peak re-appears in both $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$ and $`\kappa _c(T)`$ of overdoped La1.7Sr0.3CuO4,Nakamura  which cannot be explained in this scenario. Furthermore, it was found that in rare earth (RE) and Sr co-doped La2CuO4, such as La1.28Nd0.6Sr0.12CuO4, the phonon thermal conductivity is much more enhanced in the non-superconducting LTT (low-temperature tetragonal) phase, compared to that in LSCO with the same Sr content.Baberski  This cannot happen if the defect scattering and electron scattering of phonons are the only source of the peak suppression. Based on the fact that in RE- and Sr-doped La2CuO4 systems the phononic thermal conductivity is always strongly suppressed in superconducting samples,Baberski  it was proposed that dynamical stripes cause a pronounced damping of phonon heat transport, while static stripes do not suppress the phonon transport so significantly.Baberski  It is indeed possible that the static stripes are not effective in scattering phonons, if they only induce periodic local distortions in the crystal structure. Since the spin stripes in lightly doped LSCO ($`x`$ = 0.01 – 0.05) are reported to be static,Wakimoto ; Matsuda1 ; Matsuda2 ; Fujita  one may naively expect that the phonon heat transport is not strongly suppressed in such lightly doped LSCO. However, there has been no measurement of the thermal conductivity of lightly doped LSCO single crystals.

In this paper, we report our study of the thermal conductivity of lightly doped La2-xSrxCuO4 ($`x`$ = 0 – 0.04) single crystals. Such low doping levels are intentionally selected for the reasons of both tracing the evolution of the phonon peak and avoiding significant modifications of the crystal structure and phonon mode, which may complicate interpretations of the data. It is found that the phonon peak is suppressed significantly even with very small doping concentration, especially for the $`c`$-axis heat transport. Since this result is contrary to the naive expectation mentioned in the previous paragraph, we also study the thermal conductivity of La2Cu1-yZnyO4 (LCZO) ($`y`$ = 0 – 0.04) single crystals, which have similar amount of dopants as LSCO. The important difference between these two systems is that there cannot be stripes in LCZO (since there is no carrier), while there are static spin stripes in LSCO at low temperatures. By comparing the thermal conductivity behaviors in these two systems, we can elucidate whether the static stripes are responsible for strong scattering of phonons. The comparison indicate that the stripes, though they are static, indeed damp the $`c`$-axis phonon transport significantly, while their role is minor in the in-plane phonon transport.

## II Experiments

The single crystals of LSCO and LCZO are grown by the traveling-solvent floating-zone (TSFZ) technique and carefully annealed in flowing pure He gas to remove the excess oxygen.Komiya  After the crystallographic axes are determined by using the X-ray Laue analysis, the crystals are cut into rectangular thin platelets with the typical sizes of $`2.5\times 0.5\times 0.15`$ mm3, where the $`c`$ axis is perpendicular or parallel to the platelet with an accuracy of 1. The thermal conductivity $`\kappa `$ is measured in the temperature range of 2 – 300 K using a steady-state technique;AndoCuGeO ; Ando3 ; Takeya  above 150 K, a double thermal shielding is employed to minimize the heat loss due to radiation, and the residual radiation loss is corrected for by using an elaborate measurement configuration. The temperature difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`T`$ in the sample is measured by a differential Chromel-Constantan thermocouple, which is glued to the sample using GE vanish. The $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`T`$ varies between 0.5% and 2% of the sample temperature. To improve the accuracy of the measurement at low temperatures, $`\kappa `$ is also measured with “one heater, two thermometer” method from 2 to 20 K by using a chip heater and two Cernox chip sensors.AndoCuGeO  The errors in the thermal conductivity data are smaller than 10%, which is mainly caused by the uncertainties in the geometrical factors. Magnetization measurements are carried out using a Quantum Design SQUID magnetometer.

## III Results

### III.1 Anisotropic Heat transport in La2CuO4

It is useful to first establish an understanding of the anisotropic heat transport in undoped crystals. The temperature dependences of the thermal conductivity measured along the $`ab`$ plane and the $`c`$ axis in pure La2CuO4 are shown in Fig. 1, which also contains data for LSCO and LCZO single crystals. For undoped La2CuO4 sample, a sharp peak appears at low temperature, at $``$25 K in $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$ and at $``$20 K in $`\kappa _c(T)`$, respectively. In the $`c`$ direction, above the peak temperature, $`\kappa _c`$ decreases with increasing $`T`$ approximately following $`1/T`$ dependence, which is typical for phonon heat transport.Berman  This phonon peak originates from the competition between the increase in the population of phonons and the decrease in their mean free path (due to the phonon-phonon umklapp scattering) with increasing temperature. In contrast to the mainly phononic heat transport in the $`c`$ direction, in the $`ab`$ plane another large and broad peak develops at higher temperature ($``$270 K), which has been attributed Nakamura  to the magnon transport in a long-range-ordered AF state. The heat conduction due to magnetic excitations has been observed in many low-dimensional quantum antiferromagnets, such as one-dimensional spin systems CuGeO3,Takeya ; AndoCuGeO ; Vasilev  Sr2CuO3,Sologubenko1  SrCuO2,Sologubenko2  and (Sr,Ca)14Cu24O41,Sologubenko3  and also two-dimensional antiferromagnet K2V3O8.Sales  The absence of this high-$`T`$ peak in $`\kappa _c(T)`$ is obviously due to the much weaker magnetic correlations in the $`c`$ direction compared to that in the CuO2 plane. All these behaviors in undoped La2CuO4 are consistent with the previously reported data.Nakamura  It is worthwhile to note that the phononic peak value of $`\kappa _c`$ (27 W/Km) is considerably larger than that of $`\kappa _{ab}`$ (16 W/Km). One possible reason for this difference is that the phonon heat transport is intrinsically easier along the $`c`$ axis, which is not so easy to conceive in view of the layered crystal structure of La2CuO4. Another, more likely possibility is that there exists phonon-magnon scattering in the $`ab`$ plane that causes additional damping of the phonon peak. Such scattering may also happen in the $`c`$ axis, however, it should be much weaker than in the $`ab`$ plane because it is well known that the magnons are good excitations only for the in-plane physics in the La2CuO4 system.

### III.2 Doping dependence of magnon peak and Néel transition

Upon Sr or Zn doping, there are strong doping dependences in both $`\kappa _{ab}`$ and $`\kappa _c`$. Let us first discuss the change of the high-$`T`$ magnon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$ for different dopants. This peak is suppressed very quickly upon Sr-doping and in fact completely disappears at only 1% doping concentration. On the other hand, the suppression of this peak is much slower in the Zn-doped case, where the peak, though gradually suppressed, survives to $`y`$ = 0.04. To clarify the relation between the high-$`T`$ peak and the Néel order, the magnetic susceptibility of LSCO and LCZO is measured from 5 to 350 K in the magnetic field of 0.5 T applied along the $`c`$ axis. Figure 2 shows the temperature dependences of the magnetic susceptibility, where the peak corresponds to the Néel transition (no transition is observed in LSCO with $`x`$ 0.02). It is clear (as has been already reported Chou ; Keimer ) that Sr doping is much stronger than Zn doping in destroying the AF long-range order, where the former decreases the Néel temperature $`T_N`$ much more quickly. The reason is related to the fact that holes introduced by Sr are mobile and have 1/2 spin, while Zn (zero spin) brings static spin vacancy in CuO2 plane. Figure 3 summarizes the doping dependences of the size of the high-$`T`$ peak in $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$ \[defined by the difference between the peak value and $`\kappa _{ab}`$(100 K)\], as well as those of the Néel temperature $`T_N`$, for the two systems. This result confirms that the magnon peak is quickly diminished as $`T_N`$ is reduced. It is useful to note that the disorder in the Néel state induced by Sr doping appears to be detrimental to the magnon heat transport, because the magnon peak completely disappears at $`x`$ = 0.01 even though the Néel order is still established at 240 K for this Sr doping.

### III.3 Doping dependence of phonon peak

More interesting changes happen in the suppression of the phonon peak at low temperatures. One can see in Fig. 1 that in $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$ the peak magnitude decreases more quickly with Zn doping than with Sr doping; on the contrary, the peak value in $`\kappa _c`$ decreases much more quickly with Sr doping than with Zn doping. It should be noted that those peculiar differences between Sr doping and Zn doping cannot be due to the additional electronic thermal conductivity in the Sr-doped samples: The electronic thermal conductivity $`\kappa _e`$ can roughly be estimated by the Wiedemann-Franz law, $`\kappa _e=L_0T/\rho `$, where $`\rho `$ is the electrical resistivity and $`L_0`$ is the Lorenz number (which can be approximated by the Sommerfeld value, $`2.44\times 10^8`$ W$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$/K2). Using the resistivity data for our crystals,Ando5  the contribution $`\kappa _{e,ab}`$ for La1.96Sr0.04CuO4 can be estimated to be smaller than 0.25 W/Km in the whole temperature region \[dashed line in Fig. 1(a)\], and samples with lower Sr doping should have smaller $`\kappa _{e,ab}`$ than this estimate for $`x`$ = 0.04; clearly, the electronic contribution can be safely neglected in the lightly Sr doped region in the discussion of the $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$ behavior, not to mention the $`\kappa _c(T)`$ behavior. Thus, the changes in the low-temperature peak upon doping must be due to the changes in the phonon transport properties, that is, the scattering process that determines the phonon mean free path.

### III.4 Re-appearance of the phonon peak in RE-doped LSCO

Although both the phonon-impurity scattering and the phonon-carrier scattering can contribute to the suppression of the phonon peak, these scattering processes cannot be the only mechanisms to determine the Sr-doping dependence of the phonon heat transport, because the phonon peak re-appears in overdoped LSCO and in RE-doped LSCO.Nakamura ; Baberski  Figure 4 shows our data for the re-appearance of the phonon peak in RE-doped samples (both Nd and Eu doped cases) for $`x`$ = 0.12; these data are taken on single crystals, and essentially confirms the polycrystalline data reported by Baberski et al. Baberski  The single crystal data of Fig. 4 allow us to compare the absolute values of $`\kappa _{ab}`$ and $`\kappa _c`$ of the RE-doped samples to those of the RE-free LSCO; such comparison tells us that the low-$`T`$ peak values of $`\kappa _{ab}`$ and $`\kappa _c`$ of the RE-doped crystals at $`x`$ = 0.12 are similar to those of the RE-free LSCO crystals at $`x`$ = 0.04, despite the factor of three difference in the Sr concentrations. This result clearly indicates that the phonon-impurity scattering and the phonon-carrier scattering are not the only scattering mechanisms to determine the phonon mean free path.

## IV Discussion

### IV.1 Magnetic scattering of phonons in the $`ab`$ plane of LCZO

Based on the apparent similarity of the doping dependence of the phonon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}`$, shown in Figs. 1(a) and 1(b), one might naively conclude that the lattice disorders induced by Zn and Sr in the $`ab`$ plane are very similar and that the $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$ behavior is essentially explained only by the lattice disorder; however, this is not likely to be the case, which can be understood by considering the nature of the impurity scattering and the additional charge carriers introduced in LSCO. First, it is important to notice that the low-$`T`$ phonon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}`$ is suppressed slightly more quickly by Zn doping than by Sr doping. In the impurity-scattering scenario,Berman  it is difficult to conceive that the phonons are scattered more strongly in LCZO than in LSCO, because the atomic mass difference between Cu and Zn is much smaller than that between La and Sr. In addition, the contribution of the phonon-carrier scattering, which exists only in LSCO, would cause the phonon peak in LSCO to be suppressed more quickly than in LCZO. Thus, the difference between the Sr-doping dependence and the Zn-doping dependence in $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$ at low temperature, which is opposite to the naturally expected trend, suggests that there are additional scatterers of phonons in the Zn doped samples. It is most likely that the additional scatterers in LCZO are of magnetic origin; magnons, which cause the high-temperature peak in LCZO, are an obvious candidate, and the magnetic disordering around Zn atoms may also cause some scattering of phonons through magnetoelastic coupling.Cordero  It is useful to note that, as we mentioned in section III A, magnons are likely to be already responsible for the relatively small phonon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}`$ (compared to that in $`\kappa _c`$) in pure La2CuO4.

### IV.2 Scattering of phonons by static spin stripes in LSCO

Contrary to the relatively small difference in the phonon peak of $`\kappa _{ab}`$ between LSCO and LCZO, the suppression of the phonon peak of $`\kappa _c`$ is much quicker in LSCO than in LCZO; especially, the sharp suppression of the phonon peak from $`x`$ = 0 to 0.01 is quite surprising and is the most striking observation of this work. Apart from the impurity scattering, two different scattering processes of phonons are possibly responsible for the suppression of the $`c`$-axis phonon heat transport. The first possibility is the magnon-phonon scattering. This may partly play a role (particularly in samples where the long-range Néel order is established) in the $`c`$-axis phonon heat transport, although their role is expected to be minor because of the essentially two-dimensional nature of the magnons in the LCO system, which means that the magnons cannot effectively change the wave vector of the $`c`$-axis phonons. The second possibility is the scattering of phonons caused by the static stripes that exist only in LSCO. In the following, we elaborate on this possibility.

It is known that static spin stripes are formed at low temperatures in lightly doped LSCO.Wakimoto ; Matsuda1 ; Matsuda2 ; Fujita  If the charges also form static stripes together with the spins, they certainly cause local lattice distortions. Even if the charges do not conform to the static stripe potentials set by the spins, the spin stripes themselves may well cause local lattice distortions due to the magnetoelastic coupling;Cordero  this direct coupling between the spin stripes and the local lattice distortions is in fact very likely, because recently Lavrov et al. found that the spin-lattice coupling is very strong in lightly doped LSCO.Lavrov  It should be noted that the local lattice distortions due to static stripes are not expected to scatter phonons when the stripes induce only static and periodic modulation of the lattice (which is in fact a kind of superlattice); however, possible disordering of stripes in the $`c`$ direction can introduce rather strong scattering of phonons in this direction. In fact, because of the weak magnetic correlations along the $`c`$ axis, the stripes in neighboring CuO2 planes are only weakly correlated or even uncorrelated, which is best evidenced by the very short magnetic correlation length $`\xi _c`$ in the stripe phase (usually smaller than the distance between neighboring CuO2 planes) in the lightly doped LSCO.Matsuda1 ; Matsuda2

We can further discuss the possible role of static stripes in the suppression of the phonon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}`$ of lightly doped LSCO. Although the stripes are much better ordered in the $`ab`$ plane than in the $`c`$ direction,Matsuda1 ; Matsuda2  there are two reasons that phonons in the $`ab`$ plane are possibly scattered by the stripes. First, the static spin stripes were reported to be established at about 30 K to 17 K for $`x`$ = 0.01 to 0.04 by the neutron measurements.Wakimoto ; Matsuda2  These temperatures are very close to the position of the phonon peak (20 – 25 K). Near the stripe freezing temperature, local lattice distortions are expected to be well developed and yet are slowly fluctuating (or disordered), which would tend to scatter phonons. Second, there is no evidence until today that well periodically-ordered static charge stripes are formed in lightly doped LSCO; instead, our charge transport data strongly suggest Ando2 ; Ando5 ; Kivelson2  that the charge stripes exist in a liquid (or nematic) state.Kivelson1  Such disordered state of charge stripes would tend to scatter phonons. Thus, it is possible that the static stripes also contribute to the scattering of phonons in the in-plane heat transport in LSCO, although their effect appears to be much weaker than that in the $`c`$ direction.

## V Summary

We have measured the $`ab`$-plane and the $`c`$-axis thermal conductivities of lightly doped LSCO and LCZO single crystals. It is found that the low-temperature phonon peak is significantly suppressed upon Sr or Zn doping even at very low doping levels, and that the doping dependence show clear differences between the Sr and Zn dopants, and between $`\kappa _{ab}`$ and $`\kappa _c`$. The experimental observations can be summarized as follows: (i) The phonon peak in $`\kappa _c`$ decreases much more quickly with Sr doping than with Zn doping. (ii) On the other hand, the phonon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}`$ is suppressed slightly more quickly with Zn doping than with Sr doping. (iii) At high temperature, the magnon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$ decreases much more quickly with Sr doping than with Zn doping; in fact, the magnon peak completely disappears in LSCO with $`x`$ = 0.01, while it is still observable in LCZO with $`y`$ = 0.04. (iv) Rare-earth (Nd or Eu) doping for LSCO ($`x`$ = 0.12) enhances the phonon heat transport in both $`\kappa _{ab}`$ and $`\kappa _c`$, and this is manifested in the re-appearance of the low temperature phonon peak, whose height is similar to that of rare-earth-free LSCO with $`x=0.04`$.

Based on the peculiar doping dependences of the low-temperature phonon peak, we can deduce the following conclusions for the phonon heat transport at low temperatures: (i) In the in-plane direction, disordered static stripes are probably working as scatterers of phonon (in addition to the Sr impurities and the holes) in LSCO, while in LCZO magnetic scatterings cause strong damping of the phonon transport, which overcompensates the absence of the stripe scattering. (ii) In the $`c`$-axis heat transport, besides the possible contribution of the magnon-phonon scattering, strong disorder of the stripe arrangement along the $`c`$-axis is mainly responsible for the scattering of phonons. The latter scattering mechanism naturally explains the strong damping of the phonon peak in LSCO, while allowing much slower suppression of the phonon peak in LCZO where there is no stripe. Therefore, the effect of static spin stripes, which are formed in the lightly doped LSCO, appears to be most dramatically observed in the $`c`$-axis phonon heat transport.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank A. N. Lavrov and I. Tsukada for helpful discussions. X.F.S. acknowledges support from JISTEC.


text:
# Accelerating Universe and Dynamical Compactification of Extra Dimensions

## 1 Introduction

The study of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-decaying cosmological models has recently been the subject of particular interest both from classical and quantum aspects. A dynamical characteristic for the cosmological term was already attributed by quantum field theorists since the developments in particle physics and inflationary scenarios. According to modern quantum field theory, the structure of a vacuum turns out to be interrelated with some spontaneous symmetry-breaking effects through the condensation of quantum (scalar) fields. This phenomenon gives rise to a non-vanishing vacuum energy density of the scale $`M_p^4`$ ($`M_p`$ is the plank mass). Therefore, the bare cosmological constant may receive potential contributions from this mass scale resulting in a large effective cosmological constant which is too far from its present upper band. This is known as the cosmological constant problem. The $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ decaying models may serve as potential candidates to solve this problem by decaying the large value of the cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ to its present observed value.

Also, there are strong (astronomical) observational motivations for considering cosmological models in which $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is dynamically decreasing as $`\mathrm{\Lambda }R^m`$. Some models assume a priori a fixed value for the parameter $`m`$. The case $`m=2`$, corresponding to the cosmic string matter, has mostly been taken based on dimensional considerations by some authors . The case $`m4`$ which resembles the ordinary radiation has also been considered by some other authors . A third group of authors have also studied the case $`m=3`$ corresponding to the ordinary matter . There are also some other models in which the value of $`m`$ is not fixed a priori and the numerical bounds on the value of $`m`$ is estimated by observational data or obtained by calculation of the quantum tunnelling rate . Other aspects of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-decaying models have also been discussed with no specific numerical bounds on $`m`$ .

On the other hand, the idea that our 4-dimensional universe might have emerged from a higher dimensional space-time is now receiving much attention  where the compactification of higher dimensions plays a key role. Meanwhile, the recent distance measurements of type Ia supernova suggest strongly an accelerating universe . This accelerating expansion is generally believed to be driven by an energy source called dark energy which provides negative pressure, such as a positive cosmological constant , or a slowly evolving real scalar field called quintessence . Moreover, the basic conclusion from all previous observations that $``$ 70 percent of the energy density of the universe is in a dark energy sector, has been confirmed after the recent WMAP .

To model a universe based on these considerations one may start from a fundamental theory including both gravity and standard model of particle physics. In this regards, it is interesting to begin with ten or eleven-dimensional space-time of superstring/M-theory, in which case one needs a compactification of ten or eleven-dimensional supergravity theory where an effective 4-dimensional cosmology undergoes acceleration. However, it has been known for some time that it is difficult to derive such a cosmology and has been considered that there is a no-go theorem that excludes such a possibility, if one takes the internal space to be time-independent and compact without boundary . However, it has recently been shown that one may avoid this no-go theorem by giving up the condition of time-independence of the internal space; and a solution of the vacuum Einstein equations with compact hyperbolic internal space has been proposed based on this model. Similar accelerating cosmologies can also be obtained for SM2 and SD2 branes , not only for hyperbolic but also for flat internal space.

On the other hand, from cosmological point of view, it is not so difficult to find cosmological models in which the 4-dimensional universe undergoes an accelerating expansion and the internal space contracts with time, exhibiting the dynamical compactification , , .

In , for instance, it is shown that using a more general metric, as compared to ref , and introducing matter without specifying its nature, the size of compact space evolves as an inverse power of the radius of the universe. The Friedmann-Robertson-Walker equations of the standard four-dimensional cosmology is obtained using an effective pressure expressed in terms of the components of the higher dimensional energy-momentum tensor, and the negative value of this pressure may explain the acceleration of our present universe.

To the author’s knowledge the question of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-decaying cosmological model has not received much attention in higher dimensional Kaluza-Klein cosmologies. Moreover, the exotic matter has not been considered as an alternative candidate to produce the acceleration of the universe. The purpose of the present paper is to study a $`(4+D)`$-dimensional Kaluza-Klein cosmology ,with an extended Robertson-Walker type metric, in this context. As we are concerned with cosmological solutions, which are intrinsically time dependent, we may suppose that the internal space is also time dependent. It is shown that by taking this higher dimensional metric and introducing a 4-dimensional exotic matter, a decaying cosmological term $`\mathrm{\Lambda }R^2`$ is appeared as a type of dark energy and the resulting field equations yield the exponential solutions for the scale factors of the four-dimensional universe and the internal space. These solutions may account for the accelerating universe and dynamical compactification of extra dimensions, driven by the negative pressure of the exotic matter 111A similar work  has already been done in which the same extended FRW metric was chosen with a radiation fluid occupying all the extended space-time. They found an inflation for 3-dimensions and a contraction for the $`D`$ remaining spatial dimensions. . It should be noted, however, that the solutions in principle describe typical inflation rather than the recently observed acceleration of the universe which is known to take place in an ordinary matter dominated universe. Nevertheless, regarding the fact that about 70 percent of the total energy density of the universe is of dark energy type with negative pressure, we may approximate the matter content of the universe with almost dark energy and consider the present model as a too simplified model of a real accelerating universe.

The quantum cosmology of this model is also studied by obtaining the Wheeler-DeWitt equation and finding its solutions. It is then shown that a good correspondence exists between the classical and quantum cosmological solutions.

The paper is organized as follows: In section 2, we introduce the model by taking a higher dimensional Robertson-Walker type metric and a higher dimensional matter whose non-zero part is a four-dimensional exotic matter. In section 3, we obtain the Einstein equations for the two scale factors. In section 4, we solve the Einstein equations and obtain the solutions. In section 5, we derive the Wheeler-DeWitt equation, and in section 6, the exact solutions of the Wheeler-DeWitt equation is obtained. Finally, in section 7, we show a good correspondence between the classical and quantum cosmology. The paper is ended with a conclusion.

## 2 The model

We start with the metric considered in , in which the space-time is assumed to be of Robertson-Walker type having an internal space with dimension $`D`$. We adopt a real chart $`\{t,r^i,\rho ^a\}`$ with $`t`$, $`r^i`$, and $`\rho ^a`$ denoting the time, space coordinates and internal space dimensions, respectively. We, therefore, take222There is a little difference between this metric and that of , in that here the lapse function is generally considered as $`N(t)`$ instead of taking $`N=1`$.

$$ds^2=N^2(t)dt^2+R^2(t)\frac{dr^idr^i}{(1+\frac{kr^2}{4})^2}+a^2(t)\frac{d\rho ^ad\rho ^a}{(1+k^{}\rho ^2)},$$
(1)
where $`N(t)`$ is the lapse function, $`R(t)`$ and $`a(t)`$ are the scale factor of the universe and the radius of internal space, respectively; $`r^2r^ir^i(i=1,2,3),\rho ^2\rho ^a\rho ^a(a=1,\mathrm{}D)`$, and $`k,k^{}=0,\pm 1`$. We assume the internal space to be flat with compact topology $`S^D`$, which means $`k^{}=0`$. This assumption is motivated by the possibility of the compact spaces to be flat or hyperbolic in “accelerating cosmologies from compactification” scenarios, as discussed above.

The form of energy-momentum tensor is dictated by Einstein’s equations and by the symmetries of the metric (1). Therefore, we may assume

$$T_{AB}=diag(\rho ,p,p,p,p__D,p__D,\mathrm{},p__D),$$
(2)
where $`A`$ and $`B`$ run over both the space-time coordinates and the internal space dimensions. Now, we examine the case for which the pressure along all the extra dimensions vanishes, $`p__D=0`$. In so doing, we are motivated by the brane world scenarios where the matter is to be confined to the 4-dimensional universe, so that all components of $`T_{AB}`$ is set to zero but the space-time components  and it means no matter escapes through the extra dimensions.

We assume the energy-momentum tensor $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ of space-time to be an exotic $`\chi `$ fluid with the equation of state

$$p_\chi =(\frac{m}{3}1)\rho _\chi ,$$
(3)
where $`p_\chi `$ and $`\rho _\chi `$ are the pressure and density of the fluid, respectively and the parameter $`m`$ is restricted to the range $`0m2`$ . It is worth noting that the equation of state (3) with $`0m2`$ resembles a universe with negative pressure matter, violating the strong energy condition  and this violation is required for a universe to be accelerated .

Using standard techniques we obtain the scalar curvature corresponding to the metric (1) and then substitute the result into the dimensionally extended Einstein-Hilbert action ( without higher dimensional cosmological term) plus a matter term indicating the above mentioned exotic fluid. This leads to the effective Lagrangian 333We take the Planck units, $`G=c=\mathrm{}=1`$

$$L=\frac{1}{2N}Ra^D\dot{R}^2+\frac{D(D1)}{12N}R^3a^{D2}\dot{a}^2+\frac{D}{2N}R^2a^{D1}\dot{R}\dot{a}\frac{1}{2}kNRa^D+\frac{1}{6}N\rho _\chi R^3a^D,$$
(4)
where a dot represents differentiation w.r.t $`t`$. We now take a closed $`(k=1)`$ universe. It is easily shown that substituting the equation of state (3) into the continuity equation 444To obtain this equation we may use the contracted Bianchi identity in (4+D) dimensions, namely $`_MG^{MN}=_MT^{MN}=0`$ together with $`T_{ab}=T_{\mu a}=0`$ which gives rise to $`_\mu T^{\mu \nu }=0.`$

$$\dot{\rho }_\chi R+3(p_\chi +\rho _\chi )\dot{R}=0,$$
(5)
leads to the following behavior of the energy density in a closed ($`k=1`$) Friedmann-Robertson-Walker universe

$$\rho _\chi (R)=\rho _\chi (R_0)\left(\frac{R_0}{R}\right)_,^m$$
(6)
where $`R_0`$ is the value of the scale factor at an arbitrary reference time $`t_0`$.

Now, we may define the cosmological term

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }\rho _\chi (R),$$
(7)
which leads to

$$L=\frac{1}{2N}Ra^D\dot{R}^2+\frac{D(D1)}{12N}R^3a^{D2}\dot{a}^2+\frac{D}{2N}R^2a^{D1}\dot{R}\dot{a}\frac{1}{2}NRa^D+\frac{1}{6}N\mathrm{\Lambda }R^3a^D,$$
(8)
where the cosmological term is now decaying with the scale factor$`R`$ as

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }(R)=\mathrm{\Lambda }(R_0)\left(\frac{R_0}{R}\right)_.^m$$
(9)
Note that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is now playing the role of an evolving dark energy  in 4-dimensions, because we did not consider explicitly a $`(4+D)`$ dimensional cosmological term in the action, and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ appears merely due to the specific choice of the equation of state (3) for the exotic matter. The decaying $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ term may also explain the smallness of the present value of the cosmological constant since as the universe evolves from its small to large sizes the large initial value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ decays to small values.

Of particular interest, to the present paper, among the different values of $`m`$ is $`m=2`$ which has some interesting implications in reconciling observations with inflationary models , and is consistent with quantum tunnelling .

## 3 Einstein equations

We take $`m=2`$ and set the initial values of $`R_0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(R_0)`$

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }(R_0)R_0^2=3,\mathrm{\Lambda }(R)=\frac{3}{R^2},$$
(10)
leading to a positive cosmological term which, according to (7), guarantees the weak energy condition $`\rho _\chi >0`$.

The lapse function $`N(t)`$, in principle, is also an arbitrary function of time due to the reparametrization invariance of the action. We, therefore, take the gauge

$$N(t)=R^3(t)a^D(t).$$
(11)
Now, the Lagrangian becomes

$$L=\frac{1}{2}\frac{\dot{R}^2}{R^2}+\frac{D(D1)}{12}\frac{\dot{a}^2}{a^2}+\frac{D}{2}\frac{\dot{R}\dot{a}}{Ra},$$
(12)
where Eq.(10) has been used. It is seen that the parameters $`k`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ are effectively removed from the Lagrangian and this implies that although $`k`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ are not zero in this model the corresponding 4-dimensional universe is equivalent to a flat universe with a zero cosmological term. In other words, we do not distinguish between our familiar 4-dimensional universe, which seems to be flat and without any exotic fluid, and a closed universe filled with an exotic fluid.
We now define the new variables

$$X=\mathrm{ln}R,Y=\mathrm{ln}a.$$
(13)
The lagrangian (12) is written as

$$L=\frac{1}{2}\dot{X}^2+\frac{D(D1)}{12}\dot{Y}^2+\frac{D}{2}\dot{X}\dot{Y}.$$
(14)
The equations of motion are obtained

$$\ddot{X}+\frac{D}{2}\ddot{Y}=0,$$
(15)
$$\ddot{X}+\frac{D1}{3}\ddot{Y}=0.$$
(16)
Combining the equations (15) and (16) we obtain

$$\ddot{X}=0,$$
(17)
$$\ddot{Y}=0.$$
(18)
## 4 Solutions

The solutions for $`R(t)`$ and $`a(t)`$ are as follows

$$R(t)=Ae^{\alpha t},$$
(19)
$$a(t)=Be^{\beta t},$$
(20)
where the constants $`A`$, $`B`$, $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ should be obtained, in principle, in terms of the initial conditions. It is a reasonable assumption that the size of all spatial dimensions be the same at $`t=0`$. Moreover, it may be assumed that this size would be the Planck size $`l_p`$ in accordance with quantum cosmological considerations. Therefore, we take $`R(0)=a(0)=l_P`$ so that $`A=B=l_p`$, and

$$R(t)=l_pe^{\alpha t},$$
(21)
$$a(t)=l_pe^{\beta t}.$$
(22)
It is important to note that the constants $`\alpha ,\beta `$ are not independent, and a relation may be obtained between them. This is done by imposing the zero energy condition $`H=0`$ which is the well-known result in cosmology as a time reparametrization invariant theory. The Hamiltonian constraint is obtained through the Legender transformation of the Lagrangian (14)

$$H=\frac{1}{2}\dot{X}^2+\frac{D(D1)}{12}\dot{Y}^2+\frac{D}{2}\dot{X}\dot{Y}=0,$$
(23)
which is written in terms of $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ as

$$H=\frac{1}{2}\alpha ^2+\frac{D(D1)}{12}\beta ^2+\frac{D}{2}\alpha \beta =0.$$
(24)
This constraint is satisfied only for $`\alpha 0,\beta 0`$ or $`\alpha 0,\beta 0`$.

For $`D1`$, the case $`\alpha =0`$ or $`\beta =0`$ gives rise to time independent scale factors, namely $`R=a=l_P`$, which is not physically viable. We, therefore, choose $`\alpha >0,\beta <0`$ so that the universe and the internal space would expand and contract, respectively, in accordance with the present observations.

For the case $`D=1`$, we find

$$\{\begin{array}{cc}\beta =\text{arbitrary}\hfill & \\ \alpha =0\hfill & \end{array}\text{or}\alpha =\beta .$$
(25)
The former is not physically viable, since it predicts no time evolution for the universe. The latter, however, may predict exponential expansion for $`R(t)`$, and exponential contraction for $`a(t)`$, both with the same exponent $`\alpha >0`$.

For the general case $`D>1`$, we find

$$\alpha _\pm =\frac{D\beta }{2}\left[1\pm \sqrt{1\frac{2}{3}(1\frac{1}{D})}\right],$$
(26)
which gives two positive values for $`\alpha `$ indicating two possible expanding universes provided $`\beta <0`$ which indicates the compactification of extra dimensions. Moreover, the values of $`\alpha _\pm `$, for a given negative value of $`\beta `$, become larger for higher dimensions. Therefore, the universe expands more rapidly in both possibilities. On the contrary, for a given positive value of $`\alpha `$, indicating an expanding universe, the parameter $`\beta `$ may take two negative values

$$\beta _\pm =\frac{2\alpha }{D}\left[1\pm \sqrt{1\frac{2}{3}(1\frac{1}{D})}\right]^1,$$
(27)
indicating two ways of compactification. Moreover, they become smaller for higher dimensions, exhibiting lower rates of compactification.

To find the constants $`\alpha ,\beta `$ we first obtain the Hubble parameter for $`R(t)`$

$$H=\frac{\dot{R}}{R}=\alpha ,$$
(28)
by which the constant $`\alpha `$ is fixed. The observed positive value of $`H`$ will then justify our previous assumption, $`\alpha >0`$. We may, therefore, write the solutions (21) and (22) in terms of the Hubble parameter $`H`$ as

$$R(t)=l_pe^{Ht},$$
(29)
$$a(t)=l_pe^{Ht},$$
(30)
for $`D=1`$, and

$$R(t)=l_pe^{Ht},$$
(31)
$$a(t)_\pm =l_pe^{\frac{2Ht}{D}\left[1\pm \sqrt{1\frac{2}{3}(1\frac{1}{D})}\right]^1},$$
(32)
and

$$R_\pm (t)=l_pe^{\frac{D\beta t}{2}\left[1\pm \sqrt{1\frac{2}{3}(1\frac{1}{D})}\right]},$$
(33)
$$a(t)=l_pe^{\beta t}.$$
(34)
for $`D>1`$.

For a given $`H>0`$, it is seen that the solution corresponding to $`D=1`$ may predict an accelerating (de Sitter) universe and a contracting internal space with exactly the same rates. For $`D>1`$, in Eqs.(31) and (32), for a given $`H>0`$ in the exponent of $`R(t)`$ the exponent in $`a(t)`$ takes two negative values and becomes smaller for higher dimensions. This means that while the 4-dimensional (de Sitter) universe is expanding by the rate $`H`$, the higher dimensions may be compactified in two possible ways with different rates of compactification as a function of dimension, $`D`$. In Eqs.(33) and (34), on the other hand, for a given $`\beta <0`$ the exponent in $`R(t)`$ takes two positive values which become larger for higher dimensions. This also means that while the extra dimensions contract by the rate $`\beta `$, the universe may be expanded in two possible ways with different expansion rates as a function of $`D`$.

It is easy to show that the Lagrangian (14) ( or the equations of motion ) is invariant under the simultaneous transformation

$$RR^1,aa^1,$$
(35)
which is consistent with the time reversal $`tt`$. Therefore, four different phases of “expansion-contraction” for $`R(t)`$ and $`a(t)`$ are distinguished, Eqs.(31) - (34). One may prefer the “expanding $`R(t)`$ \- contracting $`a(t)`$” phase to “expanding $`a(t)`$ \- contracting $`R(t)`$” one, considering the present status of the 4D universe 555For the special case $`D=3`$, both the Lagrangian (14) and the Hamiltonian constraint (23) are invariant under the transformation
$$aR,Ra.$$
Therefore, we have a dynamical symmetry between $`R`$ and $`a`$, namely
$$aR.$$
In this case there is no real line of demarcation between $`a`$ and $`R`$ to single out one of them as the real scale factor of the universe. This is because the internal space is flat $`k^{}=0`$ and according to (12) one may assume the 4D universe with $`k,\mathrm{\Lambda }0`$ to be equivalent to the one in which $`k=\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$. Therefore, both have the same topology $`S^3`$..

The deceleration parameter $`q`$ for the scale factor $`R`$ is obtained

$$q=\frac{\ddot{R}R}{\dot{R}^2}=1.$$
(36)
Observational evidences not only do not rule out the negative deceleration parameter but also puts the limits on the present value of $`q`$ as $`1q<0`$ . Therefore, this negative value seems to favor a cosmic acceleration in the expansion of the universe.

In the expansion phase of the closed ($`k=1`$) universe the cosmological term $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ decays exponentially with time $`t`$ as

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }(t)=3l_p^2e^{2Ht},$$
(37)
whereas in the contraction phase ($`tt`$) it grows exponentially to large values so that at $`t=0`$ it becomes extremely large, of the order of $`M_p^2`$. This huge value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ may be extinguished rapidly by assuming a sufficiently large Hubble parameter $`H`$, consistent with the present observations, to alleviate the cosmological constant problem.

## 5 Wheeler-DeWitt equation

To obtain the Wheeler-DeWitt equation we start with the Lagrangian (14). The conjugate momenta corresponding to $`X`$ and $`Y`$ are obtained

$$P_X=\frac{L}{\dot{X}}=\dot{X}+\frac{D}{2}\dot{Y},$$
(38)
$$P_Y=\frac{L}{\dot{Y}}=\frac{D}{2}\dot{X}+\frac{D(D1)}{6}\dot{Y},$$
(39)
from which we obtain

$$\dot{X}=\frac{6}{D+2}\left[P_X\left(\frac{1D}{3}\right)+P_Y\right],$$
(40)
$$\dot{Y}=\frac{6}{D(D1)}\left[P_Y\frac{2(1D)}{D+2}P_X\frac{D(1D)}{D+2}\right].$$
(41)
Substituting Eqs.(40), (41) into the Hamiltonian constraint (23), we obtain

$$H=(1D)P_X^2\frac{6}{D}P_Y^2+6P_XP_Y=0.$$
(42)
Now, we may use the following quantum mechanical replacements

$$P_Xi\frac{}{X},P_Yi\frac{}{Y},$$

by which the Wheeler-DeWitt equation is obtained

$$\left[(D1)\frac{^2}{X^2}+\frac{6}{D}\frac{^2}{Y^2}6\frac{}{X}\frac{}{Y}\right]\mathrm{\Psi }(X,Y)=0,$$
(43)
where $`\mathrm{\Psi }(X,Y)`$ is the wave function of the universe in the $`(X,Y)`$ mini-superspace.

We introduce the following change of variables

$$x=X(1\frac{D}{D+3})+\frac{D}{D+3}Y,y=\frac{XY}{D+3},$$
(44)
by which the Wheeler-DeWitt equation takes a simple form

$$\left\{3\frac{^2}{x^2}+\frac{D+2}{D}\frac{^2}{y^2}\right\}\mathrm{\Psi }(x,y)=0.$$
(45)
Now, we can separate the variables as $`\mathrm{\Psi }(x,y)=\varphi (x)\psi (y)`$ to obtain the following equations

$$\frac{^2\varphi (x)}{x^2}=\frac{\gamma }{3}\varphi (x),$$
(46)
$$\frac{^2\psi (y)}{y^2}=\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}\psi (y),$$
(47)
where we assume $`\gamma >0`$.

## 6 Solutions

The solutions of Eqs.(46), (47) in terms of $`x,y`$ are as follows

$$\varphi (x)=e^{\pm \sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}x},$$
(48)
$$\psi (y)=e^{\pm \sqrt{\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}}y},$$
(49)
leading to the four possible solutions for $`\mathrm{\Psi }(x,y)`$ as

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_D^\pm (x,y)=A^\pm e^{\pm \sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}x\pm \sqrt{\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}}y},$$
(50)
$$\mathrm{\Psi }_D^\pm (x,y)=B^\pm e^{\pm \sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}x\sqrt{\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}}y},$$
(51)
or alternative solutions in terms of $`X,Y`$ as

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_D^\pm (X,Y)=A^\pm e^{\pm \sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}\left(\frac{3X+DY}{D+3}\right)\pm \sqrt{\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}}\left(\frac{XY}{D+3}\right)},$$
(52)
$$\mathrm{\Psi }_D^\pm (X,Y)=B^\pm e^{\pm \sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}\left(\frac{3X+DY}{D+3}\right)\sqrt{\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}}\left(\frac{XY}{D+3}\right)},$$
(53)
where $`A^\pm ,B^\pm `$ are the normalization constants. We may also write down the solutions in terms of $`R`$ and $`a`$ 666For $`D=3`$, there is a exchange symmetry $`\mathrm{\Psi }(R,a)\mathrm{\Psi }(a,R)`$ under the exchange $`aR`$.

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_D^\pm (R,a)=A^\pm R^{\pm \frac{1}{D+3}\left(\sqrt{3\gamma }+\sqrt{\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}}\right)}a^{\pm \frac{1}{D+3}\left(\sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}D\sqrt{\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}}\right)},$$
(54)
$$\mathrm{\Psi }_D^\pm (R,a)=B^\pm R^{\pm \frac{1}{D+3}\left(\sqrt{3\gamma }\sqrt{\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}}\right)}a^{\pm \frac{1}{D+3}\left(\sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}D+\sqrt{\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}}\right)}.$$
(55)
It is now important to impose the good boundary conditions on the above solutions to single out the physical ones. In so doing, we may impose the following condition

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_D(R\mathrm{},a\mathrm{})=0.$$
(56)
Then, one may take the following solutions

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_D^\pm (R,a)=C^\pm R^{\frac{1}{D+3}\left(\sqrt{3\gamma }\pm \sqrt{\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}}\right)}a^{\frac{1}{D+3}\left(\sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}D\sqrt{\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}}\right)},$$
(57)
where $`C^\pm `$ are the normalization constants and the exponents of $`R`$ and $`a`$ are negative for any value of $`D`$ 777For $`D=1`$, the exponent of “$`a`$” corresponding to $`\mathrm{\Psi }^+`$ becomes zero so that $`\mathrm{\Psi }^+`$ depends only on $`R`$ with the condition $`\mathrm{\Psi }^+(R\mathrm{})0`$..

One may obtain the solutions (57) in $`(X,Y)`$ mini-superspace as

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_D^\pm (X,Y)=C^\pm e^{\sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}\left(\frac{3X+DY}{D+3}\right)\sqrt{\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}}\left(\frac{XY}{D+3}\right)}.$$
(58)
## 7 Classical limits

One of the most interesting topics in the context of quantum cosmology is the mechanisms through which classical cosmology may emerge from quantum cosmology. When does a Wheeler-DeWitt wave function predict a classical space-time? Hartle has put forward a simple rule for applying quantum mechanics to a single system (universe): If the wave function is sufficiently peaked about some region in the configuration space we predict to observe a correlation between the observables which characterize this region.

In this regards, we first take $`D=1`$ and look for a correspondence between classical and quantum solutions. Using Eqs.(29) and (30) in the Planck units, the corresponding classical locus in $`(R,a)`$ configuration space, is

$$Ra=1,$$
(59)
whereas in $`(X,Y)`$ coordinates we have

$$X+Y=0.$$
(60)
We now consider the wave functions (58) in $`(X,Y)`$ mini-superspace for $`D=1`$

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_1^+(X,Y)=C^+e^{\sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}X},$$
(61)
$$\mathrm{\Psi }_1^{}(X,Y)=C^{}e^{\sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}\frac{X+Y}{2}}.$$
(62)
The above wave functions, in their present form, are not square integrable as is required for the wave functions to predict the classical limit. However, one may take the absolute value of the exponents to make the wave functions square integrable

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_1^+(X,Y)=C^+e^{|\sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}X|},$$
(63)
$$\mathrm{\Psi }_1^{}(X,Y)=C^{}e^{|\sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}\frac{X+Y}{2}|}.$$
(64)
We next consider the general case $`D>1`$. Eliminating the parameter $`t`$ in Eqs. (31) and (32) the classical loci in terms of $`R,a`$ are obtained

$$a_\pm =R^{\frac{2}{D}\left[1\pm \sqrt{1\frac{2}{3}(1\frac{1}{D})}\right]^1}.$$
(65)
The corresponding forms of these loci in terms of $`X,Y`$ are

$$Y_+=\frac{2}{D}X\left[1+\sqrt{1\frac{2}{3}(1\frac{1}{D})}\right]^1,$$
(66)
$$Y_{}=\frac{2}{D}X\left[1\sqrt{1\frac{2}{3}(1\frac{1}{D})}\right]^1.$$
(67)
The wave functions (58) also are not square integrable, so we may replace the exponents by their absolute values

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_D^\pm (X,Y)=C^\pm e^{\left|\sqrt{\frac{\gamma }{3}}\left(\frac{3X+DY}{D+3}\right)\sqrt{\frac{\gamma D}{D+2}}\left(\frac{XY}{D+3}\right)\right|},$$
(68)
to make them square integrable. Now, following Hartle’s point of view, we try to make correspondence between the classical loci and the wave functions.

Figures 1, 2, and 3 show respectively the 2D plots of the typical wave functions $`\mathrm{\Psi }_1^+`$, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_3^+`$ and $`\mathrm{\Psi }_9^+`$ in terms of $`(X,Y)`$ for $`\gamma =10^6`$; Figures 13, 14, and 15 show the corresponding 3D plots, respectively. On the other hand, Figures 7, 8, and 9 show the classical loci (60) for $`D=1`$, (66) for $`D=3`$ and $`D=9`$, respectively. It is seen that the 2D and 3D plots of the wave functions $`\mathrm{\Psi }_1^+`$, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_3^+`$ and $`\mathrm{\Psi }_9^+`$ are exactly peaked on the classical loci.

In the same way, Figures 4, 5, and 6 show respectively the 2D plots of the wave functions $`\mathrm{\Psi }_3^{}`$, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_6^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Psi }_9^{}`$. Figures 16, 17, and 18 show the corresponding 3D plots, respectively. Figures 10, 11, and 12 show the classical loci (67) for $`D=3`$, $`D=6`$ and $`D=9`$, respectively. It is seen again an exact correspondence between the 2D and 3D plots of the wave functions $`\mathrm{\Psi }_3^{}`$, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_6^{}`$, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_9^{}`$ and the classical loci. This procedure applies for all $`D`$.

## Conclusion

In this paper, we have studied a $`(4+D)`$-dimensional Kaluza-Klein cosmology with two scale factors, $`R`$ for the universe and $`a`$ for the higher dimensional space. By introducing a typical exotic matter in 4-dimensions, resulting in a decaying cosmological term, we obtain exponential solutions for $`R`$ and $`a`$ in terms of the Hubble parameter, indicating the accelerating expansion of the universe and dynamical compactification of extra dimensions, respectively. The rate of compactification is shown to be dependent on the number of extra dimensions, $`D`$. The more extra dimensions, the less rate of compactification. It is worth noting that the model is free of initial singularity problem because both $`R`$ and $`a`$ are non-zero at $`t=0`$, resulting in a finite Ricci scalar.

The model, although describes in principle a closed universe with non-vanishing cosmological constant, but is equivalent to a flat universe with zero cosmological constant. Therefore, one may assume that we are really living in a closed universe with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }0`$ , but it effectively appears as a flat universe with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$. Note that we have not considered ordinary matter sources in the model except an exotic matter source which is to be considered as a source of dark energy. Therefore, it seems the solutions to describe typical inflation rather than the recently observed acceleration of the universe which is known to take place in an ordinary matter dominated universe. However, if the large percent of the matter sources in the universe would be of dark energy type (as the present observations strongly recommend), then one may keep the results here even in the presence of other matter source, keeping in mind that the relevant contribution to the total matter source of the universe is the dark energy.

A question may arise on the fact that no physics is supposed to exist below the planck length whereas for the contracting solution, the scale factor $`a(t)`$ goes to zero starting from $`l_p`$. However, it is not a major problem because we have not considered elements of quantum gravity theory in this model and merely studied a model based on general relativity which is supposed to be valid in any scale without limitation. The scale $`l_p`$, in this paper, is not introduced within a quantum gravity model (action); it just appears as a typical initial condition, in the middle of a classical model, based on the quantum cosmological consideration. One may choose another scale based on some other physical considerations.

We have also studied the corresponding quantum cosmology and obtained the exact solutions. We have shown a good correspondence between the classical and quantum cosmological solutions for any $`D`$, provided that the wave functions vanish for the infinite scale factors. There is no such a correspondence if another boundary condition, other than stated, is taken.

## Acknowledgment

The author would like to thank A. Rezaei-Aghdam and referees for useful and constructive comments. This work has been supported by the Research office of Azarbaijan University of Tarbiat Moallem, Tabriz, Iran.

Figure captions
FIG. 1. 2D plot of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_1^+`$ in terms of $`(X,Y)`$ for $`\gamma =10^6`$
FIG. 2. 2D plot of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_3^+`$ in terms of $`(X,Y)`$ for $`\gamma =10^6`$
FIG. 3. 2D plot of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_9^+`$ in terms of $`(X,Y)`$ for $`\gamma =10^6`$
FIG. 4. 2D plot of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_3^{}`$ in terms of $`(X,Y)`$ for $`\gamma =10^6`$
FIG. 5. 2D plot of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_6^{}`$ in terms of $`(X,Y)`$ for $`\gamma =10^6`$
FIG. 6. 2D plot of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_9^{}`$ in terms of $`(X,Y)`$ for $`\gamma =10^6`$
FIG. 7. Classical locus $`X+Y=0`$ for $`D=1`$
FIG. 8. Classical locus $`Y_+=\frac{2}{D}X[1+\sqrt{1\frac{2}{3}(1\frac{1}{D})}]^1`$ for $`D=3`$
FIG. 9. Classical locus $`Y_+=\frac{2}{D}X[1+\sqrt{1\frac{2}{3}(1\frac{1}{D})}]^1`$ for $`D=9`$
FIG. 10. Classical locus $`Y_{}=\frac{2}{D}X[1\sqrt{1\frac{2}{3}(1\frac{1}{D})}]^1`$ for $`D=3`$
FIG. 11. Classical locus $`Y_{}=\frac{2}{D}X[1\sqrt{1\frac{2}{3}(1\frac{1}{D})}]^1`$ for $`D=6`$
FIG. 12. Classical locus $`Y_{}=\frac{2}{D}X[1\sqrt{1\frac{2}{3}(1\frac{1}{D})}]^1`$ for $`D=9`$
FIG. 13. 3D plot of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_1^+`$ in terms of $`(X,Y)`$ for $`\gamma =10^6`$
FIG. 14. 3D plot of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_3^+`$ in terms of $`(X,Y)`$ for $`\gamma =10^6`$
FIG. 15. 3D plot of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_9^+`$ in terms of $`(X,Y)`$ for $`\gamma =10^6`$
FIG. 16. 3D plot of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_3^{}`$ in terms of $`(X,Y)`$ for $`\gamma =10^6`$
FIG. 17. 3D plot of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_6^{}`$ in terms of $`(X,Y)`$ for $`\gamma =10^6`$
FIG. 18. 3D plot of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_9^{}`$ in terms of $`(X,Y)`$ for $`\gamma =10^6`$


text:
# Reply on the “Comment on “Investigating the phase diagram of finite extensive and nonextensive systems” by Al. H. Raduta and Ad. R. Raduta” by A. S. Botvina and I. N. Mishustin”

The Botvina and Mishustin’s comment addresses a detail (minor subject to the aim and topic of the paper, i.e. the Coulomb effects on the liquid-gas phase transition) of the recent paper prl , namely a free volume approach aimed to allow some qualitative estimation of the system’s critical point. In their view this distorts the behaviour of the pressure ($`P`$) versus volume ($`V`$) curves due to the “non-conservation of the center of mass (c.m.) of the system” implied by the employed parametrization.

While we agree with the evident idea that, apart from the case of the large systems, the center of mass of a small system should be conserved in thermodynamical calculations in order to obtain accurate results, one should remark that the Botvina and Mishustin’s argumentation is based on a specific view on freeze-out: non-overlapping spherical fragments placed in a spherical “recipient” of volume $`V`$. The shape of the fragments is therefore fixed for each fragmentation event. This is, indeed, a scenario widely used in statistical models from the beginning of the nuclear multifragmentation studies. Within such a scenario, the Botvina and Mishustin’s comments are surely correct and they apply to most of the statistical calculations performed so far (MMMC model mmmc , Koonin and Randrup model randrup , Das Gupta and Mekjian calculations dasgupta , and even recent calculations performed with the SMM model elliott , etc.). Following this hypothesis, at a given temperature, $`P`$ will converge to a finite value when $`V`$ will approach the volume of the source nucleus at normal density ($`V_0`$) (see e.g. botvina ).

However, dynamical calculations clearly show that fragments are not at all spherical at break-up but have various shapes variating from event to event (see e.g. dinamica ). It means that the spherical fragment hypothesis is actually away from reality and this has to be reflected in all thermodynamical observables. In this case, the system’s position coordinates (entering the integration which leads to the free volume term in the partition function) will be shared between the positions of each fragment’s c.m. and the additional coordinates corresponding to each fragment deformation. (In other words there are more than $`N1`$ contributing degrees of freedom.) Obviously, this detail will raise the power of $`V_f`$ to a value larger than the $`N1`$ responsible for the finite value of $`P`$ when $`VV_0`$, and therefore $`P`$ will diverge near this limit leading to the well known van der Waals behavior (see for example the nuclear phase diagrams from Ref. De ). This very simple reasoning shows that the conclusions of Botvina and Mishustin are actually in disagreement with what one would expect from a real nuclear system.

But let us now discuss the free volume approach we used Ref. prl . This approach was employed in Ref. prl  with the intention of reaching densities $`\rho \rho _0`$ unaffordable with a spherical fragment scenario. Within this scenario it is assumed that each fragment is blocking for itself and the rest of the fragments its own volume. Obviously, at $`\rho \rho _0`$ such a formula can only be justified by a deformed fragment scenario. And this differs a lot from what Botvina and Mishustin claim to understand from our paper: the removal of the physical assumption that fragments don’t overlap. The latter assumption is indeed unphysical while the deformed fragment scenario (actually used in our calculations) is not.

Of course, the deformed fragment scenario deserves a more refined treatment than our calculations from Ref. prl : a proper account for the fragments’ deformation degree of freedom, a sharp conservation of the center of mass, an accurate treatment of the binding energies, etc. Definitely, these aspects have to be addressed in the statistical models for a better description of the real multifragmentation.

Summarizing, the Botvina and Mishustin’s $`P(V)_T`$ curves correspond to a simplified scenario for the freeze-out: nonoverlapping spherical fragments inside a spherical freeze-out recipient, which, as explained before differs from the scenario corresponding to our free volume parametrization: non-overlapping fragments with various shapes at freeze-out. The latter scenario is the realistic one, being in agreement with the results of the various dynamical simulations of nuclear multifragmentation and, moreover, at $`\rho \rho _0`$ the fragments have to be deformed in order to fit the recipient. As explained before, within this scenario the pressure has to diverge while $`V`$ approaches $`V_0`$ (fact in agreement with our results and in disagreement with Botvina and Mishustin ones) since the power of $`V_f`$ will necessarily be greater than $`N1`$. More refined treatments than ours are surely necessary for obtaining very accurate results, but the qualitative character of our evaluation was already stated in Ref. prl . It results that, in spite of the roughness (commented above) of our approximation, the Botvina and Mishustin’s result \[on the $`P(V)_T`$ curves\] is in fact the “misleading” one since it differs essentially from what is expected from real systems.


text:
# The Extended Tidal Tails of Palomar 5: Tracers of the Galactic Potential

## 1. Palomar 5: A Globular Cluster Torn Apart by the Milky Way

Palomar 5 is an extraordinarily sparse globular cluster in the outer halo of the Milky Way, at a distance of 23 kpc from the Sun (Fig.1). Its peculiar properties (e.g., very low mass, large core, relatively flat luminosity function) fostered the idea that this cluster might be a likely victim of disruptive Galactic tides.

Using deep multi-color photometry from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS; York et al. 2000, Gunn et al. 1998) we found unambiguous, direct evidence for the suspected tidal disruption of Pal 5 (Odenkirchen et al. 2001; Rockosi et al. 2002): For the first time, two massive tails of stellar debris with well-defined S-shape geometry were detected, emanating in opposite directions from the cluster.

As the SDSS is scanning more and more of the sky we have now extended our search over an area of $``$87 deg2. Contaminating objects were removed by eliminating extended sources and by applying an optimized smooth color-magnitude-dependent weighting function. This optimized weighting enhances the density contrast between cluster and field stars by almost a factor of 20 and provides a least-squares solution for the spatial distribution of the cluster population. The resulting surface density map of Pal 5 stars is shown in Fig. 2.

## 2. A Narrow, Curved, 10 Degree Stream of Debris

We find that the tidal tails extend over an arc of at least 10 on the sky and form a narrow stream with a FWHM of only $`18^{}`$. This corresponds to a projected length of $``$ 4 kpc in space, and a projected FWHM of 120 pc. The northern tail is visible out to 6.5 from the cluster. The southern tail is traced over 3.5 but probably continues beyond the border of the currently available field (Fig. 2). The stellar mass in the tails adds up to 1.2 times the mass of stars in the cluster, i.e., the tails contain more mass than what is left in the cluster. Pal 5 thus presents a text-book example of a tidally disrupting globular cluster. It is so far the only known stellar system besides the Sagittarius dwarf galaxy that demonstrates the formation of a halo stream within the Milky Way.

The tails have a clumpy structure (Fig. 2). This implies that the mass loss has been episodic, and suggests that it was triggered by disk and/or bulge shocks. Indeed Pal 5 passes through the Galactic disks at intervals of a few 100 Myr (Fig. 1). In Fig. 3 we present the radial profile of the stellar surface density (i.e., the azimuthally averaged surface density as a function of distance from the cluster center) from the core of the cluster out to the current end points of the tails. The profile shows a characteristic break near the cluster’s tidal radius at about $`16^{}`$. Inside this radius, the profile decreases approximately like $`r^3`$. Beyond this limit the profile is flatter and approximately follows an $`r^{1.5}`$ power law. The overall decrease thus differs from a simple $`r^1`$ power law that would result from a constant linear density along the tails.

## 3. Clues on the Cluster’s Orbit and Mass Loss Rate

Location and curvature of the tails are direct tracers of the cluster’s Galactic motion and hence provide unique information about the orbit of Pal 5. The best-fit local orbit is shown as dashed line in Fig. 2. The direction of the cluster’s motion is determined by its orientation with respect to the Galactic center: The southern, leading tail and the northern, trailing tail indicate that Pal 5 is on a prograde orbit. Using a standard three-component model for the Galactic potential we infer that Pal 5 is observed close to the tails’ maximum distance from the Galactic disk and has recently passed through apogalacticon (implying that the tidal stream is currently relatively dense). In about 100 Myr the cluster will cross the disk at a distance of only 7 kpc from the Galactic center (see Fig. 1). This will produce a strong tidal shock that might lead to complete disruption.

The amount by which the tails are offset from the orbit of the cluster is directly related to the velocity at which the tidal debris drifts away from the cluster. The observed mean offset (about 75 pc in projection), the parameters of our model orbit, and the total amount of stellar mass seen in the tails lead to an estimate of the mean mass loss rate of about $`5M_{}`$ Myr-1. Assuming this rate to be more or less constant (as suggested by numerical simulations) we conclude that 10 Gyr ago Pal 5 may have had a mass of about $`510^4M_{}`$. This is about ten times as much as it has today, but still considerably less than the mass of an average present-day Galactic globular cluster.

The current data allow us to predict the tangential velocity of Pal 5 as a function of the parameters of the Galactic potential. GAIA and SIM will allow us to accurately measure the velocities and proper motions of stars in the cluster and in the extended tails, fully characterizing the kinematics of the stream independent of any galactic model. In return, these kinematics impose strong constraints on the Galactic potential at the location of the cluster.

### Acknowledgments.

Funding for the creation and distribution of the SDSS Archive has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, and the Max Planck Society. The SDSS website is http://www.sdss.org/.

## References

Gunn, J.E., et al. 1998, AJ, 116, 3040

Odenkirchen, M., et al. 2001, ApJ, 548, L165

Rockosi, C.M., et al. 2002, AJ, 124, 349

York, D.G., et al. 2000, AJ, 120, 1579