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# Parametric beating of a quantum probe field with a prepared Raman coherence in a far-off-resonance medium

## Abstract

We investigate the parametric beating of a quantum probe field with a prepared Raman coherence in a far-off-resonance medium, and describe the resulting multiplexing processes. We show that the normalized autocorrelation functions of the probe field are exactly reproduced in the Stokes and anti-Stokes sideband fields. We find that an initial coherent state of the probe field can be replicated to the Raman sidebands, and an initial squeezing of the probe field can be partially transferred to the sidebands. We show that a necessary condition for the output fields to be in an entangled state or, more generally, in a nonclassical state is that the input field state is a nonclassical state.

Recently, considerable attention has been drawn to the parametric beating of a weak probe field with a prepared Raman coherence in a far-off-resonance medium Nazarkin99 ; beating ; Liang ; Katsuragawa . It has been shown that coherently excited molecular oscillations can produce ultrabroad Raman spectra Nazarkin99 ; Liang ; Katsuragawa ; Modulation  that may synthesize to subfemtosecond some theory ; Sokolov01 ; korn02  and subcycle HarrisSeries  pulses. It has been demonstrated that a multimode laser radiation Liang  and even an incoherent fluorescent light Katsuragawa  can be replicated into Raman sidebands. Due to a substantial molecular coherence produced by the two-color adiabatic Raman pumping method Liang ; Katsuragawa ; Modulation ; some theory , the quantum conversion efficiency of the parametric beating technique can be maintained high even for weak lights with less than one photon per wave packet Katsuragawa . To describe the evolution of the statistical characteristics of such weak fields, quantum treatments for the fields are required. In related problems, the possibility of transferring a quantum state of light with one carrier frequency to another carrier frequency (multiplexing) has been discussed for resonant systems Scully , and the generation of correlated photons using the $`\chi ^{(2)}`$ and $`\chi ^{(3)}`$ parametric processes has been intensively studied Mandel and Scully book ; Wang . However, to our knowledge, the quantum properties of the fields in the parametric beating with a prepared Raman coherence have not been examined.

In this paper, we investigate the parametric beating of a quantum probe field with a prepared Raman coherence in a far-off-resonance medium, and describe the resulting multiplexing processes. We show that the normalized autocorrelation functions of the probe field are exactly reproduced in the Stokes and anti-Stokes sideband fields (autocorrelation multiplexing). We find that an initial coherent state of the probe field can be replicated to the Raman sidebands (coherent-state multiplexing), and an initial squeezing of the probe field can be partially transferred to the sidebands. We show that a necessary condition for the output fields to be in an entangled state or, more generally, in a nonclassical state is that the input field state is a nonclassical state.

We consider a far-off-resonance Raman medium, see Fig. 1. We send a pair of long, strong, classical laser fields, with carrier frequencies $`\omega _1^{(d)}`$ and $`\omega _0^{(d)}`$, and a short, weak, quantum probe field $`\widehat{E}_0`$, with carrier frequency $`\omega _0`$, through the Raman medium, along the $`z`$ direction. The timing and alignment of these fields are such that they substantially overlap with each other during the interaction process. The driving laser fields are tuned close to the Raman transition $`|a|b`$, with a small finite two-photon detuning $`\delta `$, but are far detuned from the upper electronic states of the molecules. These driving fields adiabatically produce a Raman coherence $`\rho _{ab}`$ some theory . When the probe field propagates through the medium, it beats with the Raman coherence prepared by the driving fields. Since the probe field is weak, the medium state does not change substantially during this step. The beating of the probe field with the prepared Raman coherence results in two new quantum fields $`\widehat{E}_1`$ and $`\widehat{E}_1`$, at the Stokes and anti-Stokes frequencies $`\omega _1`$ and $`\omega _1`$, respectively. We assume that the prepared Raman coherence $`\rho _{ab}`$ is substantial so that the spontaneous Raman processes are negligible compared to the stimulated processes. We also assume that the product of the coherence $`\rho _{ab}`$ and the medium length $`L`$ is not too large so that the generation of high-order sidebands of the probe field can be neglected. When we take the classical propagation equations for the Raman sidebands some theory  and replace the field amplitudes by the quantum operators, we obtain

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{E}_0}{z}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{E}_0}{ct}}`$ $`=`$ $`i\beta _0(a_0\widehat{E}_0+d_1\rho _{ba}\widehat{E}_1+d_0\rho _{ab}\widehat{E}_1),`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{E}_1}{z}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{E}_1}{ct}}`$ $`=`$ $`i\beta _1(a_1\widehat{E}_1+d_0\rho _{ba}\widehat{E}_0),`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{E}_1}{z}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{E}_1}{ct}}`$ $`=`$ $`i\beta _1(a_1\widehat{E}_1+d_1\rho _{ab}\widehat{E}_0).`$ (1)
Here, $`a_q`$ and $`d_q`$ with $`q=0,\pm 1`$ are the dispersion and coupling constants, respectively. We have denoted $`\beta _q=𝒩\mathrm{}\omega _q/ϵ_0c`$, where $`𝒩`$ is the molecular number density.

We introduce the propagation constants $`\kappa _q=\beta _qa_q`$, and define the phase mismatch $`\mathrm{\Delta }k=2\kappa _0\kappa _1\kappa _1`$. We write $`\rho _{ab}=\rho _0\mathrm{exp}[i(\kappa _1\kappa _1)z/2+i\varphi _0]`$, where $`\rho _0|\rho _{ab}|`$, and assume that $`\rho _0`$ and $`\varphi _0`$ are constant in time and space. We change the variables by $`\widehat{E}_0=\widehat{}_0\mathrm{exp}[i(\kappa _0\mathrm{\Delta }k/4)z]`$ and $`\widehat{E}_{\pm 1}=\widehat{}_{\pm 1}\mathrm{exp}[i(\kappa _{\pm 1}+\mathrm{\Delta }k/4)zi\varphi _0]`$. In terms of photon operators, we write $`\widehat{}_q(z,t)=(2\mathrm{}\omega _q/ϵ_0LA)^{1/2}_K\widehat{b}_q(K,t)e^{iK(zct)}`$. Here, $`L`$ is the quantization length, which is taken to be equal to the medium length, $`A`$ is the quantization transverse area, which is taken to be equal to the beam area, $`K`$ is a Bloch wave vector, and $`\widehat{b}_q`$ and $`\widehat{b}_q^{}`$ are annihilation and creation operators for the $`q`$th mode. Then, we obtain

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{b}_0}{t}}`$ $`=`$ $`i\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{b}_0+i(g_1\widehat{b}_1+g_1\widehat{b}_1),`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{b}_{\pm 1}}{t}}`$ $`=`$ $`i\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{b}_{\pm 1}+ig_{\pm 1}\widehat{b}_0,`$ (2)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }=c\mathrm{\Delta }k/4`$, $`g_1=(𝒩\mathrm{}/ϵ_0)\sqrt{\omega _1\omega _0}d_0\rho _0`$, and $`g_1=(𝒩\mathrm{}/ϵ_0)\sqrt{\omega _1\omega _0}d_1\rho _0`$. It follows from Eqs. (2) that the boson operator commutation relations $`[\widehat{b}_q,\widehat{b}_q^{}^{}]=\delta _{q,q^{}}`$ and $`[\widehat{b}_q,\widehat{b}_q^{}]=[\widehat{b}_q^{},\widehat{b}_q^{}^{}]=0`$ are conserved in time. We also find that $`\widehat{b}_0^{}\widehat{b}_0+\widehat{b}_1^{}\widehat{b}_1+\widehat{b}_1^{}\widehat{b}_1=\text{const}`$, that is, the total photon number is conserved. Note that Eqs. (2) are the Heisenberg equations for the fields that are coupled to each other by the effective interaction Hamiltonian

$`\widehat{H}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Delta }(\widehat{b}_1^{}\widehat{b}_1+\widehat{b}_1^{}\widehat{b}_1\widehat{b}_0^{}\widehat{b}_0)`$ (3)
$`\mathrm{}[g_1(\widehat{b}_0\widehat{b}_1^{}+\widehat{b}_1\widehat{b}_0^{})+g_1(\widehat{b}_0\widehat{b}_1^{}+\widehat{b}_1\widehat{b}_0^{})].`$
For simplicity, we restrict our discussion to the case where only a single mode of the probe field (with, e.g., $`K=0`$) is initially excited. Solving Eqs. (2), we find

$$\widehat{b}_q(t)=\underset{q^{}}{}u_{qq^{}}(t)\widehat{b}_q^{}(0),$$
(4)
where

$`u_{0,0}(t)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{cos}(gt)+i(\mathrm{\Delta }/g)\mathrm{sin}(gt),`$
$`u_{1,1}(t)`$ $`=`$ $`(g_1/g_c)^2u_{0,0}^{}(t)+(g_1/g_c)^2e^{i\mathrm{\Delta }t},`$
$`u_{1,1}(t)`$ $`=`$ $`(g_1/g_c)^2u_{0,0}^{}(t)+(g_1/g_c)^2e^{i\mathrm{\Delta }t},`$
$`u_{1,1}(t)`$ $`=`$ $`u_{1,1}(t)=(g_1g_1/g_c^2)\left[u_{0,0}^{}(t)e^{i\mathrm{\Delta }t}\right],`$
$`u_{0,\pm 1}(t)`$ $`=`$ $`u_{\pm 1,0}(t)=i(g_{\pm 1}/g)\mathrm{sin}(gt).`$ (5)
Here, we have denoted $`g_c=\sqrt{g_1^2+g_1^2}`$ and $`g=\sqrt{g_c^2+\mathrm{\Delta }^2}`$. When we introduce the boson operators $`\widehat{b}_c=(g_1\widehat{b}_1+g_1\widehat{b}_1)/g_c`$ and $`\widehat{b}_u=(g_1\widehat{b}_1g_1\widehat{b}_1)/g_c`$, we can rewrite the solution (4) as

$$\widehat{b}_0(t)=\mathrm{cos}(gt)\widehat{b}_0(0)+i\mathrm{sin}(gt)[(\mathrm{\Delta }/g)\widehat{b}_0(0)+(g_c/g)\widehat{b}_c(0)]$$
(6)
and

$`\widehat{b}_{\pm 1}(t)`$ $`=`$ $`\pm (g_1/g_c)e^{i\mathrm{\Delta }t}\widehat{b}_u(0)+(g_{\pm 1}/g_c)\mathrm{cos}(gt)\widehat{b}_c(0)`$ (7)
$`+i{\displaystyle \frac{g_{\pm 1}}{g}}\mathrm{sin}(gt)[\widehat{b}_0(0)(\mathrm{\Delta }/g_c)\widehat{b}_c(0)].`$
The boson operators $`\widehat{b}_c`$ and $`\widehat{b}_u`$ describe two orthogonal modes that are mixtures of the sideband fields. In terms of these operators, the effective Hamiltonian (3) has the form $`\widehat{H}=\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Delta }(\widehat{b}_u^{}\widehat{b}_u+\widehat{b}_c^{}\widehat{b}_c\widehat{b}_0^{}\widehat{b}_0)\mathrm{}g_c(\widehat{b}_0\widehat{b}_c^{}+\widehat{b}_c\widehat{b}_0^{})`$. Unlike $`\widehat{b}_c`$ and $`\widehat{b}_c^{}`$, the operators $`\widehat{b}_u`$ and $`\widehat{b}_u^{}`$ are not coupled to the probe field operators $`\widehat{b}_0`$ and $`\widehat{b}_0^{}`$. Therefore, the modes described by $`\widehat{b}_c`$ and $`\widehat{b}_u`$ are called coupled and uncoupled modes, respectively. The uncoupled mode evolves in time as a harmonic oscillator with the frequency $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, that is, $`\widehat{b}_u(t)=\widehat{b}_u(0)e^{i\mathrm{\Delta }t}`$. Meanwhile, the coupled mode evolves in time as $`\widehat{b}_c(t)=\mathrm{cos}(gt)\widehat{b}_c(0)+i\mathrm{sin}(gt)[(g_c/g)\widehat{b}_0(0)(\mathrm{\Delta }/g)\widehat{b}_c(0)]`$. In terms of the coupled and uncoupled mode operators $`\widehat{b}_c`$ and $`\widehat{b}_u`$, the expressions of the sideband operators $`\widehat{b}_1`$ and $`\widehat{b}_1`$ are given by $`\widehat{b}_1=(g_1\widehat{b}_c+g_1\widehat{b}_u)/g_c`$ and $`\widehat{b}_1=(g_1\widehat{b}_cg_1\widehat{b}_u)/g_c`$. In addition to the uncoupled mode described by $`\widehat{b}_u`$, there are two other normal modes described by $`\widehat{b}_+=(\sqrt{g_{}}\widehat{b}_0\sqrt{g_+}\widehat{b}_c)/\sqrt{2g}`$ and $`\widehat{b}_{}=(\sqrt{g_+}\widehat{b}_0+\sqrt{g_{}}\widehat{b}_c)/\sqrt{2g}`$, where $`g_\pm =g\pm \mathrm{\Delta }`$. They evolve in time as $`\widehat{b}_+(t)=\widehat{b}_+(0)e^{igt}`$ and $`\widehat{b}_{}(t)=\widehat{b}_{}(0)e^{igt}`$, with the frequencies $`g`$ and $`g`$, respectively. The inverse transformation yields $`\widehat{b}_0=(\sqrt{g_{}}\widehat{b}_++\sqrt{g_+}\widehat{b}_{})/\sqrt{2g}`$ and $`\widehat{b}_c=(\sqrt{g_{}}\widehat{b}_{}\sqrt{g_+}\widehat{b}_+)/\sqrt{2g}`$. In terms of the normal mode operators, the effective Hamiltonian (3) has the diagonal form $`\widehat{H}=\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{b}_u^{}\widehat{b}_u+\mathrm{}g(\widehat{b}_+^{}\widehat{b}_+\widehat{b}_{}^{}\widehat{b}_{})`$.

We note that the interaction between the probe field and the coupled mode field via the prepared Raman coherence is analogous to the interaction between the transmitted and reflected fields from a beam splitter Mandel and Scully book . However, the two mechanisms are very different in physical nature. The most important difference between them is that the two fields from the beam splitter have the same frequency while the coupled mode in the pump-probe Raman scheme is a superposition of the two sidebands with different Stokes and anti-Stokes frequencies.

For a Raman medium of the length $`L`$, the evolution time is $`t=L/c`$. The condition that $`gL/c`$ is small compared to unity is required for the negligibility of the generation of second- and higher-order sidebands some theory . In what follows we use the explicit expressions of the output operators $`\widehat{b}_{0,\pm 1}(L/c)`$ to calculate various quantum statistical characteristics of the fields. We mostly restrict our discussion to the case where the Stokes and anti-Stokes sideband fields are initially in the vacuum state.

First, we calculate the correlation functions of the fields. We assume that the probe field is initially in an arbitrary state while the two sideband fields are initially in the vacuum state. Using Eqs. (6) and (7), we can easily calculate the normally ordered photon-number moments

$`\widehat{b}_0^n\widehat{b}_0^n`$ $`=`$ $`\left[1(g_c/g)^2\mathrm{sin}^2(gL/c)\right]^n\widehat{b}_0^n(0)\widehat{b}_0^n(0),`$
$`\widehat{b}_{\pm 1}^n\widehat{b}_{\pm 1}^n`$ $`=`$ $`(g_{\pm 1}/g)^{2n}\mathrm{sin}^{2n}(gL/c)\widehat{b}_0^n(0)\widehat{b}_0^n(0).`$ (8)
Hence, the normalized $`n`$th-order autocorrelation functions $`g_q^{(n)}=\widehat{b}_q^n\widehat{b}_q^n/\widehat{b}_q^{}\widehat{b}_q^n`$ are found to be

$$g_1^{(n)}=g_1^{(n)}=g_0^{(n)}=\frac{\widehat{b}_0^n(0)\widehat{b}_0^n(0)}{\widehat{b}_0^{}(0)\widehat{b}_0(0)^n}.$$
(9)
In particular, the normalized second-order autocorrelation functions are obtained as $`g_1^{(2)}=g_1^{(2)}=g_0^{(2)}=\widehat{n}_0^{\text{(in)}}(\widehat{n}_0^{\text{(in)}}1)/\widehat{n}_0^{\text{(in)}}^2`$. Here, $`\widehat{n}_0^{\text{(in)}}\widehat{b}_0^{}(0)\widehat{b}_0(0)`$ is the photon-number operator for the probe field at the input. Thus, the generated sideband fields and the probe field have the same normalized autocorrelation functions, which are independent of the evolution time and are solely determined by the statistical properties of the input probe field. In other words, the normalized autocorrelation functions of the probe field do not change during the beating process and are precisely replicated to the generated sideband fields. In particular, if the photon statistics of the input probe field is sub-Poissonian, Poissonian, or super-Poissonian, the photon statistics of the sideband fields will also be sub-Poissonian, Poissonian, or super-Poissonian, respectively. Such a replication of the normalized autocorrelation characteristics is called autocorrelation multiplexing. This result is in agreement with the conclusions of the experiments on replication of multimode laser radiation Liang  and broadband incoherent light Katsuragawa . The ability of the Raman medium to multiplex the autocorrelation characteristics is similar to but, because of the change in carrier frequency, somewhat different from the property of a beam splitter Mandel and Scully book .

The normalized two-mode cross-correlation functions are defined by $`g_{kl}^{(2)}=\widehat{n}_k\widehat{n}_l/(\widehat{n}_k\widehat{n}_l)`$, where $`kl`$ and $`\widehat{n}_q=\widehat{b}_q^{}\widehat{b}_q`$. Using Eqs. (6) and (7), we find

$$g_{0,1}^{(2)}=g_{0,1}^{(2)}=g_{1,1}^{(2)}=\frac{\widehat{n}_0^{\text{(in)}}(\widehat{n}_0^{\text{(in)}}1)}{\widehat{n}_0^{\text{(in)}}^2}.$$
(10)
Thus, the normalized two-mode cross-correlation functions are equal to each other and to the normalized second-order autocorrelation functions of the fields. Note that the correlations between the modes are nonzero, that is, $`g_{kl}^{(2)}1`$ ($`kl`$), only if the photon statistics of the input probe field is not Poissonian. With respect to these properties, the Raman scheme is also similar to a beam splitter Mandel and Scully book  except for the fact that the modes in the Raman medium have different frequencies.

Second, we examine the squeezing of the field quadratures in the case where the two sideband fields are initially in the vacuum state. A field quadrature of the $`q`$th mode is defined by $`\widehat{X}_q=\widehat{b}_q^{}e^{i\phi }+\widehat{b}_qe^{i\phi }`$. We say that the $`q`$th mode is in a squeezed state if there exists such a phase $`\phi `$ that $`(\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{X}_q)^2<1`$ or, equivalently, $`S_q<0`$, where $`S_q=(\mathrm{\Delta }\widehat{X}_q)^21=2[\widehat{b}_q^{}\widehat{b}_q\widehat{b}_q^{}\widehat{b}_q]+[(\widehat{b}_q^2\widehat{b}_q^2)e^{2i\phi }+\text{c.c.}]`$. The squeezing degree is measured by the quantity $`S_q`$. Using Eqs. (6) and (7), we find

$`S_0(\phi )`$ $`=`$ $`[1(g_c/g)^2\mathrm{sin}^2(gL/c)]S_0^{\text{(in)}}(\phi \phi _L),`$
$`S_{\pm 1}(\phi )`$ $`=`$ $`(g_{\pm 1}/g)^2\mathrm{sin}^2(gL/c)S_0^{\text{(in)}}(\phi \pi /2).`$ (11)
Here, $`\phi _L=\mathrm{arctan}[(\mathrm{\Delta }/g)\mathrm{tan}(gL/c)]`$ is an angle, and $`S_0^{\text{(in)}}(\phi )`$ is the squeezing factor for the $`\phi `$-quadrature of the input probe field. We find from Eqs. (11) that, if $`S_0^{\text{(in)}}(\phi )<0`$, then $`S_{\pm 1}(\phi +\pi /2)<0`$. Thus, if the input probe field is in a squeezed state, then the generated sideband fields are also in squeezed states. In other words, the squeezing of the input probe field is transfered to the sideband fields during the beating process. The squeezing factors $`S_{\pm 1}(\phi +\pi /2)`$ of the sideband fields are reduced from the squeezing factor $`S_0(\phi )`$ of the input probe field by the factors $`(g_{\pm 1}/g)^2\mathrm{sin}^2(gL/c)`$, and the phases of the squeezed quadratures change by $`\pi /2`$. This result can be used to convert (partially) squeezing to a new frequency, i.e., to perform partial squeezing multiplexing. We note that the normalized squeezing factors $`s_qS_q/\widehat{n}_q`$ satisfy the relations $`s_1(\phi +\pi /2)=s_1(\phi +\pi /2)=s_0(\phi +\phi _L)=s_0^{\text{(in)}}(\phi )`$. Consequently, these normalized factors have the same maximal and minimal values for all the three fields. We also note that, when the input probe field is in a coherent state, the sideband fields have no squeezing. This property is similar to the case of four-wave mixing but is unlike the case of degenerate parametric down-conversion, where perfect squeezing can in principle be obtained.

Next, we calculate the state of the fields in a special case where the input probe field is in a coherent state $`|\alpha _0`$ and the two sideband fields are initially in the vacuum state. The state of the fields at the input is

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }_{\text{in}}=|0_1|\alpha _0|0_1=e^{|\alpha |^2/2}e^{\alpha \widehat{b}_0^{}(0)}|0.$$
(12)
The state of the fields at the output is given by $`|\mathrm{\Psi }_{\text{out}}=\widehat{U}(L/c)|\mathrm{\Psi }_{\text{in}}`$, where $`\widehat{U}(L/c)=\mathrm{exp}(i\widehat{H}L/\mathrm{}c)`$. Since $`\widehat{U}(L/c)|0=|0`$, we have $`|\mathrm{\Psi }_{\text{out}}=e^{|\alpha |^2/2}e^{\alpha \widehat{b}_0^{}(L/c)}|0`$. Using Eq. (6), we find

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }_{\text{out}}=|\alpha _1(L/c)_1|\alpha _0(L/c)_0|\alpha _1(L/c)_1.$$
(13)
Here, $`|\alpha _q(L/c)_q`$ is a coherent state of the $`q`$th mode, with the amplitude $`\alpha _q(L/c)=\alpha u_{0q}(L/c)`$. Thus, a probe field in a coherent state can produce two sideband fields that are also in coherent states. Such a process is called coherent-state multiplexing. This property of the Raman medium is also similar to that of a beam splitter Mandel and Scully book  except for the fact that there is a change of the carrier frequency in the Raman scattering process.

Finally, we calculate the state of the output field for the case where the input state of the probe field is a Fock state $`|n_0`$ and the input state of the sideband fields is the vacuum state. The state of the fields at the input is

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }_{\text{in}}=|0_1|n_0|0_1=\frac{\widehat{b}_0^n(0)}{\sqrt{n!}}|0.$$
(14)
The state of the fields at the output is given by $`|\mathrm{\Psi }_{\text{out}}=[\widehat{b}_0^n(L/c)/\sqrt{n!}]|0`$. With the help of Eq. (6), the state of the fields at the output is found to be

$`|\mathrm{\Psi }_{\text{out}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{l=0}{\overset{n}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{l}{}}}\left(\begin{array}{c}n\\ l\end{array}\right)^{1/2}\left(\begin{array}{c}l\\ m\end{array}\right)^{1/2}`$ (20)
$`\times u_{0,1}^{lm}(L/c)u_{0,0}^{nl}(L/c)u_{0,1}^m(L/c)`$
$`\times |lm_1|nl_0|m_1.`$
In general, expression (20) stands for a tripartite entangled state. Tripartite entangled states can find various applications in quantum information Zeilinger ; Chuan .

More generally, we can show that an arbitrary coherent state $`|\alpha _1(0),\alpha _0(0),\alpha _1(0)`$ of the input fields produces a coherent state $`|\alpha _1(L/c),\alpha _0(L/c),\alpha _1(L/c)`$ of the output fields, where $`\alpha _q(L/c)=_q^{}u_{qq^{}}(L/c)\alpha _q^{}(0)`$. Consequently, the diagonal coherent-state representation $`P_{\text{in}}(\{\alpha _q\})`$ of an arbitrary state $`\widehat{\rho }_{\text{in}}`$ of the input fields determines the representation $`P_{\text{out}}(\{\alpha _q\})`$ of the state $`\widehat{\rho }_{\text{out}}`$ the output fields via the equation

$$P_{\text{out}}(\{\alpha _q\})=P_{\text{in}}(\{\underset{q^{}}{}u_{qq^{}}^{}(L/c)\alpha _q^{}\}).$$
(21)
If the input state $`\widehat{\rho }_{\text{in}}`$ is a classical state Mandel and Scully book , $`P_{\text{in}}(\{\alpha _q\})`$ must be non-negative and less singular than a delta function, and consequently so must $`P_{\text{out}}(\{\alpha _q\})`$. In this case, the output state $`\widehat{\rho }_{\text{out}}`$ is also a classical state. Moreover, since the coherent state $`|\alpha _1,\alpha _0,\alpha _1`$ is separable and the weight factor $`P_{\text{out}}(\{\alpha _q\})`$ is non-negative, the output state $`\widehat{\rho }_{\text{out}}`$ is, by definition, separable Chuan ; Zeilinger . Therefore, a necessary condition for the output fields to be in an entangled state or, more generally, in a nonclassical state is that the input field state is a nonclassical state. A similar condition has been derived for the beam splitter entangler Knight . Note that, in the case where the two sideband fields are initially in the vacuum state, Eq. (21) reduces to $`P_{\text{out}}(\{\alpha _q\})=P_{\text{in}}^{(0)}(_qu_{0q}^{}\alpha _q)\delta (_qu_{1q}^{}\alpha _q)\delta (_qu_{1q}^{}\alpha _q)`$, where $`P_{\text{in}}^{(0)}(\alpha )`$ is the coherent-state representation of an arbitrary state of the input probe field.

In conclusions, we have shown that the parametric beating of a quantum probe field with a prepared Raman coherence can replicate the normalized autocorrelation functions into the Stokes and anti-Stokes sidebands. We have found that an initial coherent state of the probe field can be replicated to the Raman sidebands, and an initial squeezing of the probe field can be partially transferred to the sidebands. We have shown that a necessary condition for the fields at the output of the Raman medium to be in an entangled state or, more generally, in a nonclassical state is that the input field state is a nonclassical state. We emphasize that, for the validity of our model, the prepared Raman coherence should be substantial (so that the effect of the probe on the coherence is negligible), but the product of the coherence and the medium length should not be too large (because otherwise high-order sidebands would be involved). Such Raman excitation level can be produced by applying the two-color adiabatic Raman pumping technique for far-off-resonance Raman media, such as solid hydrogen, molecular hydrogen gas, and deuterium gas Liang ; Katsuragawa ; Modulation ; some theory . The pump-probe Raman scheme is characterized by high conversion efficiency and therefore can provide a good tool to replicate quantum statistical characteristics from one mode to another.

Useful discussions with S. Dutta-Gupta and A. K. Patnaik are gratefully acknowledged.


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# Superconductivity in Compressed Potassium and Rubidium

## Abstract

Calculations of the electron-phonon interaction in the alkali metals, Potassium and Rubidium, using the results of band theory and BCS theory-based techniques suggest that at high pressures K and Rb would be superconductors with transition temperatures approaching $`10K`$.

journal: Solid State Communications

,

In a recent paper Shimizu et al. reported the discovery of superconductivity in compressed Lithium with a transition temperature $`T_c=20K`$. This report is a confirmation of previous theoretical work of Neaton and Ashcroft, who predicted that at high pressures Lithium forms a paired ground state, and of Christensen and Novikov, who suggested that fcc Lithium under increased pressure may reach $`T_c=50`$-$`70K`$.

In this work we applied a methodology similar to that of Ref. to the alkali metals K and Rb. The procedure goes as follows: we first performed Augmented Plane Wave (APW) calculations of the band structure and total energy of the above alkali metals in both the bcc and fcc structures over a wide range of volumes reaching high pressures. From these calculations we obtained the Fermi level, $`\epsilon _F`$, values of the density of states, $`N_t`$, and its angular momentum decomposition, $`N_l`$, as a function of volume. We also used the APW results to determine the volume variation of the bulk modulus B. We then used the self-consistent APW potentials to determine the scattering phase shifts $`\delta _l`$ again as a function of volume. The quantities $`N_l`$ and $`\delta _l`$ were then used in the “rigid muffin-tin” approximation to determine the Hopfield parameter $`\eta `$. The next step was to calculate the electron-phonon interaction parameter,

$$\lambda =\frac{\eta }{M<\omega ^2>}.$$
(1)
We accomplished this by assuming that

$$<\omega ^2>=CBV^{1/3},$$
(2)
where the constant of proportionality C was determined from from the experimental values of B, V and the Debye temperature $`\theta _D`$.

In Fig. 1 we show the ratios $`N_l(\epsilon _F)/N_t(\epsilon _F)`$ at the Fermi level $`\epsilon _F`$ as a function of volume. These ratios are crucial in the determination of $`\eta `$. It is important to note that the ratio $`N_d(\epsilon _F)/N_t(\epsilon _F)`$ increases rapidly as we go to smaller volumes. This build up of the d-like DOS under pressure causes the large values of $`\eta `$ at small volumes shown in Fig. 2.

In this theory there are three contributions to $`\eta `$ coming from the channels s-p, p-d and d-f. The d-f contribution is negligible but the p-d contribution is comparable to the s-p at large volumes and becomes larger at small volumes where superconductivity occurs. Also in Fig. 2, we show the variation with volume of the denominator of (1), $`M<\omega ^2>`$,which we have extracted from the variation of the bulk modulus.

In Fig. 3, we show the electron-phonon coupling $`\lambda `$ as a function of volume determined from (1). It is evident that at small volumes $`\lambda `$ reaches large values suggesting that these metals can display superconductivity under pressure. To quantify our prediction for superconductivity on the basis of strong electron-phonon coupling, we have calculated $`T_c`$ using the McMillan equation with a Coulomb pseudopotential value $`\mu ^{}=0.13`$. These results are also shown in Fig. 3.

It is clear that transition temperatures in a range of 5-10 K are reachable for both the fcc and bcc lattices at volumes in the neighborhood of $`V/V_00.4`$. We have calculated that such volumes correspond to pressures of 13.5 GPa for K and 8 GPa for Rb, respectively.

The similarity of our fcc and bcc results suggests that our prediction of superconductivity in K and Rb is independent of crystal structure. We believe that our prediction is still valid even if, experimentally, these materials under high pressure transform to other structures such as *hR*1 or *cI*16. We propose that the mechanism of superconductivity in these metals is due to the increased d-like character of the wave-functions at $`\epsilon _F`$ at high pressures, which validates our use of the “Rigid Muffin-tin” approximation that is successful in transition metals.


text:
# References

The quasi-periodic stability condition (the KAM theorem) for partially-integrable systems

G.SARDANASHVILY

Department of Theoretical Physics, Physics Faculty, Moscow State University, 117234 Moscow, Russia.

E-mail: sard@grav.phys.msu.su

URL: http://webcenter.ru/$``$sardan/

Abstract. Written with respect to an appropriate Poisson structure, a partially integrable Hamiltonian system is viewed as a completely integrable system with parameters. Then, the theorem on quasi-periodic stability in Ref.  (the KAM theorem) can be applied to this system.

A Hamiltonian system on a $`2n`$-dimensional symplectic manifold $`(Z,\mathrm{\Omega })`$ is said to be a partially integrable system (henceforth PIS) if it admits $`1kn`$ integrals of motion $`H_i`$, including a Hamiltonian, which are in involution and independent almost everywhere on $`Z`$. Let $`M`$ be its regular connected compact invariant manifold. Under the conditions of Nekhoroshev’s theorem , there exists an open neighbourhood of $`M`$ which is a trivial composite bundle

$$\pi :U=V\times W\times T^kV\times WV$$
(1)
over domains $`WR^{2(nk)}`$ and $`VR^k`$. It is provided with the partial action-angle coordinates $`(I_i,z^A,\varphi ^i)`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},k`$, $`A=1,\mathrm{},2(nk)`$, such that the symplectic form $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ on $`U`$ reads

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=dI_id\varphi ^i+\mathrm{\Omega }_{AB}(I_j,z^C)dz^Adz^B+\mathrm{\Omega }_A^i(I_j,z^C)dI_idz^A,$$
(2)
and integrals of motion $`H_i`$ depend only on the action coordinates $`I_j`$.

Note that one can always restrict $`U`$ to a Darboux coordinate chart provided with coordinates $`(I_i,p_s,q^s;\phi ^i)`$ such that the symplectic form $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ (2) takes the canonical form

$`\mathrm{\Omega }=dI_id\phi ^i+dp_sdq^s`$
. Then, the PIS $`\{H_i\}`$ on this chart can be extended to a completely integrable system, e.g., $`\{H_i,p_s\}`$, but its invariant manifolds fail to be compact. Therefore, this is not the case of the KAM theorem.

Let $`(I_j)`$ be a Hamiltonian of a PIS in question on $`U`$ (1). Its Hamiltonian vector field

$`\xi _{}=^i(I_j)_i`$
with respect to the symplectic form $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ (2) yields the Hamilton equation

$$\dot{I}_i=0,\dot{z}^A=0,\dot{\varphi }^i=^i(I_j)$$
(3)
on $`U`$. Let us consider a perturbation

$$^{}=+_1(I_j,z^A,\varphi ^j)$$
(4)
(see  for the case of $`_1`$ independent of $`z^A`$). A problem is that the Hamiltonian vector field of the perturbed Hamiltonian (4) with respect to the symplectic form $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ (2) leads to the Hamilton equation $`\dot{z}^A0`$ and, therefore, no torus (3) persists.

To overcome this difficulty, let us provide the toroidal domain $`U`$ (1) with the Poisson structure of rank $`2k`$ given by the Poisson bivector field

$$w=^i_i.$$
(5)
It is readily observed that, relative to $`w`$, all integrals of motion of the original PIS $`(\mathrm{\Omega },\{H_i\})`$ remain in involution and, moreover, they possess the same Hamiltonian vector fields. In particular, a Hamiltonian $``$ with respect to the Poisson structure (5) also leads to the Hamilton equation (3). Thus, we can think of the pair $`(w,\{H_i\})`$ as being a PIS on the Poisson manifold $`(U,w)`$. The key point is that, with respect to the Poisson bivector field $`w`$ (5), the Hamiltonian vector field of the perturbed Hamiltonian $`^{}`$ (4) is

$$\xi ^{}=^i^{}_i_i^{}^i,$$
(6)
and the corresponding first order dynamic equation on $`U`$ reads

$$\dot{I}_i=_i^{}(I_j,z^B,\varphi ^j),\dot{z}^A=0,\dot{\varphi }^i=^i^{}(I_j,z^B,\varphi ^j).$$
(7)
This is a Hamilton equation with respect to the Poisson structure $`w`$ (5), but is not so relative to the original symplectic form $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. Since $`\dot{z}^A=0`$ and the toroidal domain $`U`$ (1) is a trivial bundle over $`W`$, one can think of the dynamic equation (7) as being a perturbation of the dynamic equation (3) depending on parameters $`z^A`$. Furthermore, the Poisson manifold $`(U,w)`$ is the product of the symplectic manifold

$$(V\times T^k,\mathrm{\Omega }_w),\mathrm{\Omega }_w=dI_id\varphi ^i$$
(8)
and the Poisson manifold $`(W,w=0)`$ with the zero Poisson structure. Therefore, the equation (7) can be seen as a Hamilton equation on the symplectic manifold $`(V\times T^k,\mathrm{\Omega }_w)`$ depending on parameters. Then, one can apply the conditions of quasi-periodic stability of symplectic Hamiltonian systems depending on parameters  to the perturbation (7).

In a more general setting, these conditions can be formulated as follows. Let $`(w,\{H_i\})`$, $`i=2,\mathrm{},k`$, be a PIS on a regular Poisson manifold $`(Z,w)`$ of rank $`2k`$. Let $`M`$ be its regular connected compact invariant manifold. Under certain conditions , there exists a toroidal neighbourhood $`U`$ (1) of $`M`$ provided with the partial action-angle coordinates $`(I_i,z^A,\varphi ^i)`$ such that the Poisson bivector $`w`$ on $`U`$ takes the canonical form (5) and the integrals of motion are independent of the angle coordinates $`\varphi ^i`$.

We restrict our consideration to the case when all functions are real analytic, and they are provided with the real analytic topology, i.e., the topology of compact convergence on the complex analytic extensions of these functions.

We say that a (real analytic) Hamiltonian $`(I_j,z^A)`$ of a PIS is non-degenerate at a point $`(\stackrel{~}{I},\stackrel{~}{z})V\times W`$ if the frequency map

$`\omega :V\times W(I_j,z^A)\xi ^i(I_j,z^A)R^k`$
is of maximal rank at this point. Note that $`\omega (V\times W)R^k`$ is open and bounded. Given $`\gamma >0`$, let

$`N_\gamma =\{\omega R^k:|\omega ^ia_i|\gamma ({\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{k}{}}}|a_j|)^{k1},aZ^k0\}`$
denote the Cantor set of non-resonant frequencies. The complement of $`N_\gamma \omega (V\times W)`$ in $`\omega (V\times W)`$ is dense and open, but its relative Lebesgue measure tends to zero with $`\gamma 0`$.

The following result is a reformulation of that in Ref.  (Section 5c), where $`P=W`$ is a parameter space and $`\sigma `$ is the symplectic form (8) on $`V\times T^k`$.

Theorem. Let the Hamiltonian $`(I_j,z^A)`$ of a PIS in question is non-degenerate at a point $`(\stackrel{~}{I},\stackrel{~}{z})V\times W`$, and let

$$\xi _{}=^i(I_j,z^A)_i$$
(9)
be its Hamiltonian vector field. Then, there exists a neighbourhood $`𝒪V\times W`$ of $`(\stackrel{~}{I},\stackrel{~}{z})`$ such that, for any real analytic locally Hamiltonian vector field

$`\xi =\xi _i(I_j,z^A,\varphi ^j)^i+\xi ^i(I_j,z^A,\varphi ^j)_i`$
sufficiently near $`\xi _{}`$ (9) in the real analytic topology (see , pp.59-60), the following holds. Given the Cantor set $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\gamma =\omega ^1(N_\gamma \omega (𝒪))`$, there exists a $`\xi `$-invariant subset of $`𝒪\times T^k`$ which is a $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$-near-identity diffeomorphic (see , p.60) to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\gamma \times T^k`$ and, and on each tori, this diffeomorphism is an analytic conjugacy from $`\xi _{}`$ to $`\xi `$.

This is an extension of the KAM theorem to PISs.


text:
# Mixing in the 𝐷⁰ System Results from Collider Experiments

## 1 Introduction

Mixing phenomena, i.e. the oscillation of a neutral meson into its corresponding anti-meson as a function of time, have been observed in the $`K^0`$ and $`B^0`$ systems . Up to now, oscillations in the $`D^0`$ system have eluded experimental detection.

This is in keeping with the Standard Model (SM) prediction that mixing in the $`D^0`$ system should be substantially smaller than for the $`K^0`$ and $`B^0`$ . The SM prediction, as discussed below, is a consequence of $`D^0`$ \- $`\overline{D^0}`$ mixing being dominated by intermediate states with light $`d`$ and $`s`$ quarks, a feature unique to the $`D^0`$ system among the neutral mesons.

Mixing phenomena are characterized by two dimensionless parameters $`x`$, $`y`$. When charge-parity ($`CP`$) symmetry holds, they correspond to the difference in mass ($`x=\mathrm{\Delta }m/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) and lifetime ($`y=\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }/2\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) of the $`CP`$ eigenstates in the neutral meson system. Calculations within the SM typically predict that $`|x|,|y|<10^3`$ for the $`D^0`$ . Due to the smallness of the SM prediction, mixing in the $`D^0`$ system may provide a sensitive probe for physics beyond the SM.

Independent of their discovery potential, precise measurements of $`x`$ and $`y`$ in the $`D^0`$ system are desirable because even SM predictions for $`x`$, $`y`$ span several orders of magnitude . The main challenge in SM calculations of $`D^0`$ \- $`\overline{D^0}`$ mixing is estimating the size of SU(3) flavor-symmetry breaking effects (see below) .

In this article, measurements of the mixing parameters $`x`$, $`y`$ in the $`D^0`$ system are reviewed. Results on $`CP`$ violation are only discussed when they arise as integral part of the $`x`$, $`y`$ measurements.

The most recent results come from the asymmetric $`B`$-factory experiments BABAR and Belle, in operation since 1999. BABAR, at the storage ring PEP-II of the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), USA, and Belle, at the KEK $`B`$-factory in Tsukuba, Japan, have accumulated the largest currently available charm samples (integrated luminosity $`100\mathrm{fb}^1`$ by the end of 2002) and can be expected to continue data taking till the end of the decade. Hence, BABAR and Belle open up the opportunity of studying charm decays with unprecedented statistical precision.

The first collider experiment to employ the methods for measuring $`x`$, $`y`$ now in use at BABAR and Belle was the CLEO experiment at the Cornell Electron Storage Ring (CESR), USA, in operation until 1999. This review describes these methods and the results obtained by CLEO, BABAR and Belle. Wherever appropriate, comparisons are made with results from fixed-target experiments, notably from E791 and FOCUS, that were dedicated to charm studies during the 1991/1992 (E791) and 1996/1997 (FOCUS) fixed-target runs at Fermilab.

## 2 Mixing formalism

Mesons are produced in strong and electromagnetic interactions as flavor eigenstates with a well-defined quark content. The production Hamiltonian is of the form $`_0=_{strong}+_{em}`$. Its eigenstates are the flavor or interaction eigenstates $`M^0`$, $`\overline{M^0}`$. The $`CPT`$ theorem requires that particle and anti-particle have the same mass and lifetime. Thus $`M^0`$ and $`\overline{M^0}`$ correspond to identical eigenvalues $`m_0`$, $`\gamma _0`$ of $`_0`$.

Mesons are observed by way of their decays which are governed by the weak force. The eigenstates of the evolution Hamiltonian that is responsible for their decay, $`=_0+_{weak}`$, are the mass or decay eigenstates $`M_{1,2}`$ with the corresponding eigenvalues $`m_{1,2}`$ and $`\gamma _{1,2}`$. They are the physically observable states that obey an exponential decay law with a slope given by the respective lifetime $`\gamma _{1,2}`$:

$$|M_{1,2}(t)=|M_{1,2}(0)e^{im_{1,2}t}e^{(\gamma _{1,2}/2)t}.$$
(1)
As a consequence of the difference between production and evolution Hamiltonian, a sample of neutral mesons, produced, e.g., as a pure $`M^0`$ sample, evolves in time as a superposition of $`M^0`$ and $`\overline{M^0}`$ states with time-dependent coefficients:

$$|M(t)=c_{M^0}(t)|M^0+c_{\overline{M^0}}(t)|\overline{M^0}.$$
(2)
The time evolution obeys Schrödinger’s equation:

$$\frac{}{t}\left(\begin{array}{c}c_{M^0}(t)\\ c_{\overline{M^0}}(t)\end{array}\right)=i\left(\begin{array}{c}c_{M^0}(t)\\ c_{\overline{M^0}}(t)\end{array}\right)\mathrm{with}=\left[\begin{array}{cc}m_0i\frac{\gamma _0}{2}& m_{12}i\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_{12}}{2}\\ m_{12}^{}i\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_{12}^{}}{2}& m_0i\frac{\gamma _0}{2}\end{array}\right].$$
(3)
This equation represents two coupled differential equations. Its eigenstates are the physically observable eigenstates $`M_{1,2}`$. As a consequence of the non-zero off-diagonal elements in the Hamiltonian $``$, the mass eigenstates $`M_{1,2}`$ are obtained as linear superpositions of the flavor eigenstates:

$$|M_{1,2}=p|M^0\pm q|\overline{M^0}.$$
(4)
In the absence of $`CP`$ violation, i.e. for $`|q/p|=1`$, $`M_{1,2}`$ are $`CP`$ eigenstates.

For a more detailed discussion, see Ref. .

### 2.1 The mixing parameters $`x`$, $`y`$

Mixing phenomena can be characterized by two dimensionless parameters:

$$y=(\gamma _1\gamma _2)/(\gamma _1+\gamma _2)=\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }/2\mathrm{\Gamma },x=(m_1m_2)/\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Delta }m/\mathrm{\Gamma }.$$
(5)
Mixing in a neutral meson system occurs when at least one of the two following possibilities applies: Between the decay eigenstates of the system there is a non-zero lifetime difference ($`y0`$), or there is a non-zero mass difference ($`x0`$). In the first case, flavor mixing is a consequence of the shorter-living decay eigenstate dying out. The remaining longer-living one is a linear combination of a $`M^0`$ and a $`\overline{M^0}`$ component, so that even an initially pure $`M^0`$ sample shows some fraction of $`\overline{M^0}`$ after some time. In the second case, flavor mixing is a consequence of a pure transition from $`M^0`$ to $`\overline{M^0}`$ and vice versa.

In the $`D^0`$ system, according to the SM, $`CP`$ violation is a negligible effect (see below); the decay eigenstates are, to a good approximation, also $`CP`$ eigenstates. In the following, the eigenstate $`D_1`$ ($`D_2`$) with mass $`m_1`$ ($`m_2`$) and width $`\gamma _1`$ ($`\gamma _2`$) is chosen as $`CP`$-even ($`CP`$-odd).aaaThis convention follows the one used by the CLEO collaboration . In the $`K^0`$ and $`B^0`$ systems, where $`CP`$ violation is experimentally observable , the conventional choice for $`K_1`$ and $`B_1`$ ($`K_2`$ and $`B_2`$) is the heavier (lighter) eigenstate.

In oscillation plots that show the fraction of $`\overline{M^0}`$ flavor states in an initially pure sample of $`M^0`$ as a function of time, the parameter $`x`$ is related to the frequency of the oscillation, while $`y`$ is related to the damping of its amplitude.

The two parameters $`x`$, $`y`$ reflect different mechanisms through which mixing can proceed in lowest order in the SM . A $`M^0`$ can oscillate into its anti-particle by way of on-shell intermediate states that are accessible to both particle and anti-particle. These are long-range processes with amplitudes $`iy`$. On the other hand, a $`M^0`$ can also oscillate by way of off-shell intermediate states that can be represented by box-diagram loops (see Fig. 1). These are short-range processes with amplitudes $`x`$. Additional contributions to the box diagrams in Fig. 1(right) from as-of-yet unobserved non-SM particles could result in a deviation of the measured value of $`x`$ from the SM prediction.

The time-integrated probability of a neutral meson to oscillate first and then decay compared to decaying directly is described by the mixing rate $`R_{mix}`$. In the absence of $`CP`$ violation in mixing, $`R_{mix}`$ is identical for $`M^0`$ and $`\overline{M^0}`$. The following expression then holds for the decay of a $`M^0`$ into a final state $`f`$ :

$$R_{mix}=(M^0\overline{M^0}\overline{f})/(M^0f)=(x^2+y^2)/(2+x^2y^2).$$
(6)
In the $`D^0`$ system, the SM expectations for $`|x|`$ and $`|y|`$ are typically below $`10^3`$, which results in $`R_{mix}(D^0)<10^6`$. This explains why up to now no direct observation of flavor mixing in the $`D^0`$ system has been achieved and why such an observation is likely to be unaccessible also in the future if no non-SM effects come into play.

The situation is much more favorable in the $`K^0`$ and $`B^0`$ systems. Experimentally , $`x`$ and $`y`$ are known to be of the order unity for the $`K^0`$ system, which implies $`R_{mix}(K^0)1`$. In the $`B^0`$ system, $`x0.7`$ experimentally , while $`y/x1/500`$ is expected , resulting in $`R_{mix}(B^0)0.2`$.bbbFor the $`B_s^0`$ system, only upper limits have been determined experimentally : $`x>19.0`$ at 95% CL, while again $`y/x1/500`$ is expected , so that $`R_{mix}(B_s^0)1`$. Direct experimental observation of mixing in the $`B_s^0`$ system is complicated by the very high oscillation frequency $`x`$.

### 2.2 Predictions for mixing in the $`D^0`$ system

Predictions for $`x`$ and $`y`$ both within and beyond the SM span several orders of magnitude. For a compilation of predicted values, see Ref. . SM predictions give typically $`|x|,|y|<10^3`$ and can be as low as $`10^8`$. Contributions of physics beyond the SM may enhance $`|x|`$ to values of up to $`10^2`$, while $`|y|`$ is assumed to be dominated by SM effects.

At the source of the large uncertainties in the theoretical description, even within the SM, is the charm mass being intermediate between heavy and light. The charm quark is too light for perturbative treatments to work well but, on the other hand, it is too heavy for its decays to be dominated by a small number of final states. For a detailed discussion, see Ref. .

In the SM, the $`D^0`$ has the unique feature that its mixing proceeds via intermediate states of down-type quarks in the box diagrams of Fig. 1. The contribution of the bottom quark to the loops can be neglected because of the smallness of  $`V_{ub}\times [(m_b^2m_d^2)^2/m_W^2m_c^2]`$. The first factor, $`V_{ub}`$, is the coupling between quarks of the first and third generation as described by the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM) matrix. The second factor corresponds to GIM-type suppressions in the loop (see below). Consequently, the $`D^0`$ system can be treated to a good approximation as a mere two-generation problem that the SM describes with the help of a $`2\times 2`$ rotation matrix. There, the rotation angle is the Cabibbo angle $`\theta _C`$, and no $`CP`$ violating parameters are foreseen.

In that framework, the $`D^0`$ decay is Cabibbo-favored, while the box diagrams of Fig. 1(right) are doubly Cabibbo-suppressed. Thus in the $`D^0`$ system, the SM disfavors mixing as expressed by $`x`$ at least to the level $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _{C}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}0.05`$. In the SU(3) flavor limit, where for the quark masses holds: $`m_u=m_d=m_s`$, the sum over the box diagrams in Fig. 1(right) is zero (GIM-type cancellationcccGIM cancellation led Glashow, Illiopoulos and Maiani to infer from the measured small size of the ratio $`BR(K_L^0\mu ^+\mu ^{})/BR(K_L^0\mathrm{all}\mathrm{modes})`$ the existence of a fourth quark, the charm quark.) and $`x`$ would be zero accordingly. In the SM, where $`SU(3)`$ flavor symmetry is broken, GIM-type cancellations result in suppression factors that depend on the mass of the heaviest quark in the loop relative to the $`W`$ boson mass: $`(m_s^2m_d^2)^2/m_W^2m_c^2m_s^2/m_W^2`$ for the $`D^0`$, as compared to $`m_t^2/m_W^2`$ ($`m_c^2/m_W^2`$) for the $`B^0`$ ($`K^0`$).

For the on-shell intermediate states of Fig. 1(left), which correspond to mixing in the $`D^0`$ system as expressed by $`y`$, light quark states are favored by phase space. While the limited available phase space for decays results in a large lifetime difference in the $`K^0`$ system ($`y1`$), such constraints for decays in the $`D^0`$ or $`B^0`$ system are much weaker. The measured branching ratios for $`D^0`$ decays, e.g. into $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$, $`K^+K^{}`$ or $`K_s^0\pi ^0`$ are small and not comparable to the ones in the $`K^0`$ system. Based on the same GIM-type suppression arguments as for $`x`$, SM predictions typically arrive at $`|y|<10^3`$. However, as for $`|x|`$, the precise size of these GIM-type suppressions is a major source of uncertainty. Recent theoretical work  points out the possibility that SU(3) flavor breaking may result in $`|y|0.01`$ being natural in the SM. Such a large value of $`|y|`$ would lower the sensitivity of experimental measurements of $`D^0`$ mixing to potential non-SM physics effects in $`|x|`$.

## 3 Methods for determining $`x`$, $`y`$ in the $`D^0`$ system

Given the smallness of the expected mixing rate, $`R_{mix}`$, in the $`D^0`$ system, the extraction of the mixing parameters from a direct observation of flavor oscillations as a function of time is not feasible. Instead, three complementary methods have been applied by experiments:dddThe charge conjugate modes are always implied unless stated otherwise. The experiments treat $`D^0`$ and $`\overline{D^0}`$ separately only when investigating the possibility of $`CP`$ violating effects.

* By comparing the lifetimes measured in hadronic $`D^0`$ decays of specific $`CP`$ symmetry, $`y`$ can be determined.
* Measurements using the wrong-sign $`D^0`$ decays:

+ From the time evolution of wrong-sign hadronic decays, e.g. $`D^0K^+\pi ^{}`$, $`x^2`$ and $`y^{}`$ can be determined independently. $`x^{}`$, $`y^{}`$ are related to $`x`$, $`y`$ by a rotation.
    + From wrong-sign semileptonic decays, e.g. $`D^0K^+ł^{}\overline{\nu _l}`$, the linear combination $`x^2+y^2`$ can be determined.

In order to compare directly the results of method 2(a) to those of methods 1, 2(b), an assumption is necessary for the size of the rotation angle (see below) between $`x`$, $`y`$ and $`x^{}`$, $`y^{}`$.

The results of BABAR, Belle and CLEO were obtained with the first two methods. They are discussed in detail in the following. Comparisons to earlier results by FOCUS (methods 1, 2(a)) and E791 (all three methods) are given where appropriate.

BABAR, Belle and CLEO use for their measurements the following hadronic two-prong decays of the $`D^0`$:

* The Cabibbo-favored (CF), so-called right-sign (RS) decay $`D^0K^{}\pi ^+`$.
* The $`CP`$-even decays $`D^0K^{}K^+`$ and $`D^0\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ which are singly Cabibbo-suppressed. The former (latter) occurs $`1/9`$ ($`1/25`$) times less frequently than the RS decay.eeeIn the limit of SU(3) flavor symmetry, the branching ratios for the $`D^0`$ decays into $`K^{}K^+`$ and $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ are identical. The experimentally observed substantial difference is an example of large SU(3) flavor breaking effects in the $`D^0`$ system .
* The so-called wrong-sign (WS) decay $`D^0K^+\pi ^{}`$ which, in the absence of mixing, is doubly Cabibbo-suppressed (DCS) and occurs $`1/300`$ times less frequently than the RS decay.

### 3.1 Measurement of $`y`$ from a $`D^0`$ lifetime ratio

In the absence of $`CP`$ violation, the final state of the RS $`D^0`$ decay is an equal mixture of $`CP`$-even and $`CP`$-odd states. Under the assumption that $`x`$ and $`y`$ are small, the decay-time distribution is approximately exponential  with a slope $`\tau _{RS}=2/(\gamma _1+\gamma _2)`$, where $`\gamma _1`$ ($`\gamma _2`$) is the width of the $`CP`$-even ($`CP`$-odd) decay eigenstate $`D_1`$ ($`D_2`$) defined in Sec. 2. The decay-time distributions for the $`D^0`$ decays into the $`CP`$-even final states $`K^{}K^+`$ and $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ are exponential with slope $`\tau _{KK}=\tau _{\pi \pi }=1/\gamma _1`$.

Then, in the absence of $`CP`$ violation, $`y=\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }/2\mathrm{\Gamma }=y_{CP}`$ with:

$$y_{CP}=\frac{\tau _{RS}}{\tau _{KK}}1\mathrm{or}y_{CP}=\frac{\tau _{RS}}{\tau _{\pi \pi }}1.$$
(7)
In the available measurements $`y=y_{CP}`$ is assumed.fff If $`CP`$ violation is present, then $`yy_{CP}`$ and $`y_{CP}=y\mathrm{cos}\varphi 0.5xA_M\mathrm{sin}\varphi `$, where $`A_M,\varphi `$ are $`CP`$ violating parameters related to $`CP`$ violation in mixing ($`A_M`$) and in the interference of decays with (CF) and without (DCS) mixing ($`\varphi `$) .

### 3.2 Measurement of the time evolution of hadronic WS $`D^0`$ decays

The $`D^0`$ can arrive at a WS hadronic final state in two ways, either by undergoing directly the DCS decay or by first oscillating into a $`\overline{D^0}`$ that then undergoes a CF decay. This gives rise to three different components in the WS decay: from the DCS decay, from mixing and from the interference of the decays with (CF) and without (DCS) mixing.

Assuming $`CP`$ conservation and expanding the decay rate up to $`𝒪(x^2)`$, $`𝒪(y^2)`$ results in the following approximation  for the time evolutiongggThis formula is valid for $`t\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. of the hadronichhhSemileptonic WS $`D^0`$ decays can only arise via mixing, so that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{WS}^{sl}(t)\mathrm{exp}(t)(x^2+y^2)t^2`$. WS decay rate:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{WS}(t)\mathrm{exp}(t)[R_D+\sqrt{R_D}y^{}t+1/4(x^2+y^2)t^2],$$
(8)
while for the RS decays: $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{RS}(t)\mathrm{exp}(t)`$. Here, $`t`$ is given in units of the lifetime of the $`D^0`$. In this approximation, the time-independent coefficient $`R_D`$ corresponds to the DCS component. Even if the mixing contribution, quadratic in $`t`$, is very small, the interference term, linear in $`t`$, may result in a discernible deviation from the exponential time evolution characterizing a pure decay.

The parameters $`x^{}`$ and $`y^{}`$ are related to the mixing parameters $`x`$, $`y`$ by a rotation:

$$x^{}=x\mathrm{cos}\delta _{K\pi }+y\mathrm{sin}\delta _{K\pi },y^{}=y\mathrm{cos}\delta _{K\pi }x\mathrm{sin}\delta _{K\pi }.$$
(9)
The phase, $`\delta _{K\pi }`$, is a strong phase between the DCS contribution and the CF one and does not violate $`CP`$ symmetry.

In a measurement based on the time-evolution of the WS rate alone, it is not possible to determine the phase, $`\delta _{K\pi }`$. Furthermore, since only the square of $`x^{}`$ enters into $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{WS}(t)`$, the sign of $`x^{}`$ cannot be determined, either.

If there is $`CP`$ violation in the $`D^0`$ system, then the parameters $`R_D`$, $`x^{}`$, $`y^{}`$ in Eq. 8 have to be substituted by: $`R_D^\pm =\sqrt{(1\pm A_D)/(1A_D)}R_D`$, $`x^\pm =\sqrt[4]{K^\pm }(x^{}\mathrm{cos}\varphi \pm y^{}\mathrm{sin}\varphi )`$, $`y^\pm =\sqrt[4]{K^\pm }(y^{}\mathrm{cos}\varphi x^{}\mathrm{sin}\varphi )`$, where $`K^\pm =(1\pm A_M)/(1A_M)`$. The plus (minus) sign pertains to the decay of a $`D^0`$ ($`\overline{D^0}`$). The three additional parameters are related to $`CP`$ violation in the DCS decay ($`A_D`$), in the mixing term ($`A_M`$) and in their interference (phase $`\varphi `$) .

CLEO  in its analysis uses a somewhat different approximation which is valid for $`A_D,A_M1`$: $`R_D^\pm =(1\pm A_D)R_D`$, $`x^\pm =\sqrt{1\pm A_M}(x^{}\mathrm{cos}\varphi \pm y^{}\mathrm{sin}\varphi )`$, $`y^\pm =\sqrt{1\pm A_M}(y^{}\mathrm{cos}\varphi x^{}\mathrm{sin}\varphi )`$.

The total time-integrated hadronic WS rate, assuming $`CP`$ conservation, is:iiiIn this approximation, the mixing rate (see Eq. 6) appears as $`R_{mix}=1/2(x^2+y^2)=1/2(x^2+y^2)`$.

$$R_{WS}=\mathrm{\Gamma }_{WS}(t)/\mathrm{\Gamma }_{RS}(t)=R_D+\sqrt{R_D}y^{}+1/2(x^2+y^2).$$
(10)
If there is no mixing in the $`D^0`$ system, then $`R_{WS}`$ reflects only the rate of the DCS decay: $`R_{WS}=R_D`$. The SM predicts in the limit of SU(3) flavor symmetry: $`R_D\mathrm{tan}^4\theta _C0.0025.`$ SU(3) symmetry breaking effects may increase this value .

### 3.3 Measurement of the strong phase $`\delta _{K\pi }`$

No experimental determination of the strong phase, $`\delta _{K\pi }`$, is yet available.

Reference  outlines a method to extract $`\delta _{K\pi }`$ from a measurement of the rates of the DCS and CF decays of the type $`DK\pi `$. This method requires the determination of rate asymmetries in $`D`$ meson decays to $`K_L\pi `$ and $`K_S\pi `$. In Ref.  Belle finds that the relevant measurements of $`K_L`$ and $`K_S`$ mesons are possible with a statistical precision sufficient to constrain $`\delta _{K\pi }`$ .

## 4 The experiments

The experiments BABAR and Belle at the asymmetric B-factories PEP-II and KEK-B and CLEO at the storage ring CESR operate near the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(4S)`$ resonance at a center-of-mass energy of 10.6 GeV. PEP-II and KEK-B were designed with the primary goal of serving as asymmetric B-factories for the study of $`CP`$ violation in the $`B^0`$ system. In the production cross section, $`\sigma (e^+e^{}q\overline{q})4.45`$ nb at $`\sqrt{s}10.6`$ GeV, $`b\overline{b}`$ final states account for  $``$ 1.05 nb and $`c\overline{c}`$ final states for $``$ 1.30 nb. In terms of production cross sections, the B-factories therefore serve equally well as charm-factories.

Between October 1999 and October 2002, BABAR recorded 94 $`\mathrm{fb}^1`$ of data, while Belle recorded 98 $`\mathrm{fb}^1`$. The data set analyzed by CLEO, recorded between February 1996 and February 1999, corresponds to an integrated luminosity of 9.0 $`\mathrm{fb}^1`$. The largest available charm data sets obtained in fixed-target experiments were collected at Fermilab by the heavy-flavor photoproduction experiment FOCUS and the heavy-flavor hadroproduction experiment E791. These data sets contain $`120,000`$ (FOCUS)  and $`35,000`$ (E791)  identified $`D^0K^{}\pi ^+`$ candidate events, compared to, for example, $`260,000`$ events  in the BABAR data set.

Detailed descriptions of the BABAR and Belle detectors can be found elsewhere . CLEO carried out its measurement with the CLEO II.V detector . Of primary importance for the reconstruction and identification of $`D^0`$ decays are the vertex and particle-identification detectors. All three experiments are equipped with double-sided silicon vertex detectors. At BABAR, the Silicon Vertex Tracker (SVT) (five layers, innermost radius $`r_{\mathrm{min}}=3.2`$ cm) is also capable of stand-alone track reconstruction down to particle momenta of $`60`$ MeV. Mounted just outside of the BABAR drift chamber (DCH) volume is the ring-imaging detector of internally reflected Cherenkov light (DIRC). At Belle, the Silicon Vertex Detector (SVD) (three layers, $`r_{\mathrm{min}}=3.0`$ cm) and the central drift chamber are surrounded by an array of aerogel Cherenkov and time-of-flight scintillation counters (TOF). The CLEO II.V Silicon Vertex Detector (SVX) had three layers, with $`r_{\mathrm{min}}=2.35`$ cm.

Differentiating kaons from pions is crucial for distinguishing with high purity between the different two-prong $`D^0`$ decays listed in Sec. 3. CLEO relies primarily on kinematic selection cuts based on the measured momenta and the assigned mass to distinguish between the different $`D^0`$ decay modes . BABAR and Belle enhance their particle-identification capabilities considerably with the help of likelihoods determined from a combination of the energy-loss (dE/dx) in the tracking devices and Cherenkov detector information. Based on the ratio of the likelihoods for the two particle hypotheses, BABAR reaches an average $`K^\pm `$ identification efficiency (mis-identification probability) of $`>75\%`$ ($`<8\%`$) for momenta up to 4 GeV . Belle includes also the TOF information in the likelihood calculation and reports an efficiency of $`85`$% and a mis-identification probability of $`10`$% for momenta up to 3.5 GeV .

## 5 Measurement of $`y`$

Following Eq. 7, the mixing parameter $`y`$ is determined by measuring the slope of the decay-time distributions in independent candidate samples of $`D^0K^{}\pi ^+`$ and the singly-Cabibbo suppressed channels $`D^0K^{}K^+`$ and $`D^0\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$.

The selection of a $`D^0`$ candidate, the determination of its proper decay-time and the general structure of the fit to obtain the $`D^0`$ lifetime from the proper decay-time distribution are discussed in some detail in the following. They are of importance also for the measurements with WS events described in Sec. 6.

### 5.1 Method of measurement

$`D^0`$ candidates are selected by searching for pairs of tracks with opposite charge and combined invariant mass near the expected $`D^0`$ mass. The common vertex of the track pair determines the $`D^0`$ candidate decay vertex, $`\stackrel{}{v}_{dec}`$, with typical resolutions as listed in Tab. 1. The interception point of the $`D^0`$ momentum vector, $`\stackrel{}{p}_D`$, with the envelope of the interaction point (IP) provides the production vertex, $`\stackrel{}{v}_{prod}`$, of the $`D^0`$ candidate .

The proper decay-time of a $`D^0`$ candidate is derived from its mass ($`m_D(PDG)=1.864`$ GeV)  and its flight length. In order to take resolution effects properly into account, that can, e.g., result in reconstructing a negative value of $`t`$, the flight length is calculated from the projection of $`\stackrel{}{v}_{dec}\stackrel{}{v}_{prod}`$ onto $`\stackrel{}{p}_D`$:

$$ct=m_D[(\stackrel{}{v}_{dec}\stackrel{}{v}_{prod})\stackrel{}{p}_D/|\stackrel{}{p}_D|^2].$$
(11)
The size of the IP envelope enters into the error on the proper decay-time, $`\sigma _t`$, through the uncertainty on the production vertex. The IP envelope is smallest in the plane transverse to the beam, as shown in Tab. 1. The flight length of a $`D^0`$ candidate is typically $`200\mu `$m in BABAR and Belle. The higher $`D^0`$ decay vertex resolution achieved by CLEO reflects the absence of boost-related uncertainties since at CESR, the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(4S)`$ is produced at rest, different from PEP-II and KEK-B, where $`\beta \gamma =0.56`$ and $`\beta \gamma =0.425`$, respectively, along the beam direction.

### 5.2 Event selection

The three experiments use a similar set of quantities to reduce backgrounds . The main differences lie in whether a $`D^{}`$ tag is required and which requirements are imposed for particle identification.

BABAR and CLEO select events likely to contain a $`D^0`$ with the help of the decay $`D^\pm D^0\pi ^\pm `$, where the $`\pi ^\pm `$ has very low momentum (“slow pion”, $`\pi _s`$). Each $`\pi _s`$ candidate track is refitted with the constraint to coincide with the $`D^0`$ candidate production vertex, determined as described in Sec. 5.1. This reduces substantially the mismeasurement of the $`\pi _s`$ momentum caused by multiple scattering. Then the difference in the invariant mass of the $`D^{}`$ and the $`D^0`$ candidate, $`\delta m`$, is required not to deviate from the nominal one by more than a certain margin. In BABAR, this margin is 2 or 3 MeV, depending on whether the $`\pi _s`$ reached the DCH; in CLEO the margin is 1 MeV. Belle does not use a $`D^{}`$ tag and requires solely that the $`D^0`$ candidate flight path be consistent with originating at the IP.

All three experiments reject events with secondary charm production from $`B`$ meson decays by requiring a minimum center-of-mass momentum of the $`D^{}`$ or $`D^0`$ candidates (2.5 GeV for BABAR and Belle, 2.3 GeV for CLEO).

All three experiments reduce background from random combinations of two tracks forming a $`D^0`$ candidate with the help of the angle $`\theta ^{}`$, measured in the $`D^0`$ candidate center-of-mass system, between the direction of the $`D^0`$ ($`\overline{D^0}`$) candidate boost and its positive (negative) daughter. BABAR requires $`\mathrm{cos}\theta ^{}>0.75`$ for pion daughters; Belle requires $`\mathrm{cos}\theta ^{}>0.85`$ for pion and, in the $`K^{}K^+`$ channel, $`|\mathrm{cos}\theta ^{}|<0.9`$ for kaon daughters; CLEO requires $`|\mathrm{cos}\theta ^{}|<0.8`$ in all cases. BABAR and Belle apply in addition their particle-identification algorithms to the daughters of the $`D^0`$ candidate. CLEO requires in addition that the invariant mass obtained with the other possible particle-type assignments for the two daughters should be more than four standard deviations away from the nominal $`D^0`$ mass.

The analyses by BABAR and Belle reported here refer only to a sub-sample of their full data sets. The sub-sample sizes and the number of events after the full event selection are listed in Tab. 2. The purities quoted there refer to a window around the mean $`D^0`$ mass. The window size is $`\pm 20`$ MeV in BABAR, $`\pm 3\sigma `$ in Belle ($`\sigma (K^{}\pi ^+)=6.5`$ MeV, $`\sigma (K^{}K^+)=5.4`$ MeV) and $`\pm 40`$ MeV in CLEO. Although BABAR’s data sample corresponds to twice the integrated luminosity of Belle’s, Belle’s $`D^0`$ candidate event samples are larger than BABAR’s and have lower purities because Belle does not require a $`D^{}`$ tag in its event selection. CLEO arrives at lower efficiencies and, for the $`CP`$-even channels, lower purities because CLEO, lacking dedicated particle-identification detectors, relies primarily on kinematic selection cuts to distinguish between the different $`D^0`$ decay modes.

### 5.3 Lifetime fit

The three experiments determine $`y`$ from unbinned maximum-likelihood fits to the distribution of the reconstructed proper decay-time, $`t`$, (see Eq. 11) of the $`D^0`$ candidates . No background subtraction is performed before carrying out the fits; rather, it is left to the fit to describe both signal and background.

The three experiments proceed in a comparable way to define the full fit function: For each of the $`D^0`$ decay channels, they define a likelihood function as the sum of a signal and a background part. Both parts consist of a decay-time distribution convolved with a resolution function. The signal decay-time distribution is exponential with a slope that corresponds to an inverse lifetime. The background decay-time distribution consists of two components, an exponential and a delta function, that model background events with non-zero and with zero lifetime, respectively. The former can, for example, arise from only partially reconstructed three-prong $`D^0`$ decays; the latter corresponds to combinations of particles into a $`D^0`$ candidate that in fact originate at the IP.

The resolution functions need to accommodate correctly reconstructed events and also events with misreconstructed parameters. This need is typically met by adding one or more Gaussians to accommodate events that are misreconstructed to varying degree. The width of the Gaussian(s) modeling the resolution of well reconstructed events is typically given by the per-event error on the reconstructed proper time $`t`$, $`\sigma _t`$, multiplied with a proportionality factor. The use of $`\sigma _t`$ allows to take into account the uncertainty from the highly elliptical shape of the IP envelope (see Sec. 5.1) in the fit.

All three experiments determine the parameters of the background part of the likelihood fit function independently of those in the signal part. Also, all three experiments enhance the ability of their fits to differentiate signal from background events by multiplying the likelihood function with a per-event probability to be a signal event. The further away its reconstructed mass, $`m_D`$, is from the $`D^0`$ mass peak, the less likely is the $`D^0`$ candidate to belong to the signal. The probability is derived from an independent fit to the $`m_D`$ distribution in each $`D^0`$ decay channel.

The window in $`m_D`$ used in the fit must be chosen such that, in addition to the $`D^0`$ signal peak, sufficiently wide sidebands are included so that the fit can extract information on shape and size of the background. BABAR uses mass windows of 140 MeV width, defined such that reflection peaks, e.g., from mis-identified $`K^{}\pi ^+`$ events in the $`K^{}K^+`$ and $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ candidate samples, are excluded. Belle uses a mass window of $`\pm 40`$ MeV around the mean and CLEO uses the window \[1.825, 1.905 GeV\]. The fit results for BABAR and Belle are shown in Fig. 2. The tail at negative values in the $`t`$ distribution reflects the effect of the resolution. Comparing data and fit result in the unphysical region $`t<0`$ provides information about how well the resolution in the data is modeled by the fit function. The distribution for $`t>0`$ reflects the resolution function convolved with the decay-time function.

### 5.4 Discussion of systematic uncertainties and results

Belle  determines $`y`$ from the lifetimes measured in $`D^0`$ decays into $`K^{}K^+`$ and $`K^{}\pi ^+`$ ($`y_{KK}`$). BABAR  and CLEO  use in addition the $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ channel ($`y_{\pi \pi }`$).

Belle and CLEO correct the lifetimes measured in the individual decay channels for small biases found with the help of Monte Carlo (MC) studies. Belle reports that the proper decay-time tends to be reconstructed slightly too small by a decay-channel dependent value. The resulting correction to $`y`$ is $`(0.3\pm 0.3)`$%. The error on this correction, due to the limited MC statistics, enters in the final systematic error on the measurement. CLEO finds bias values in the individual lifetimes that are compatible, within the statistical uncertainty on the MC bias estimate, with zero, chooses to apply corrections nonetheless and includes their statistical uncertainty in the final systematic error ($`\pm 1.0`$% for $`y_{KK}`$, $`\pm 1.4`$% for $`y_{\pi \pi }`$). BABAR also finds bias values compatible with zero and does not apply any corrections to the lifetimes but includes in the systematic error on $`y`$ the statistical uncertainty on the MC bias estimate ($`{}_{0.6}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+0.4}`$% for $`y_{KK}`$, $`{}_{0.9}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+0.4}`$% for $`y_{\pi \pi }`$).

Since $`y`$ is measured from the ratio of lifetimes, many systematic effects that affect the individual lifetimes do not affect $`y`$. Both Belle and CLEO find that the dominant remaining systematic error source is their understanding of the background contribution to the signals. In BABAR, the dominating source of systematic error is the above quoted uncertainty on the MC bias estimate.

All three experiments arrive at their final systematic error estimate by summing in quadrature the contributions of the individual sources. BABAR and CLEO each determine $`y`$ as weighted mean of their measured $`y_{KK}`$ and $`y_{\pi \pi }`$ values.

The results are listed in Fig. 3. Also shown are results from the fixed-target experimentsjjj The fixed-target experiment results are obtained by means of a fit to the reduced proper time. This quantity includes a cut on a minimum distance between primary and secondary vertex as a principal tool to reduce non-charm background and is measured with a resolution of less than 1/10 of the $`D^0`$ lifetime. The FOCUS (E791) result on $`y`$ is derived from $`120,000`$ ($`35,400`$) events in the $`K^{}\pi ^+`$ channel and $`10,300`$ ($`3,200`$) events in the $`K^{}K^+`$ channel. FOCUS  and E791 . Within their errors, the results are compatible with each other and with the SM expectation of a value of $`|y|`$ close to zero.

## 6 Measurements with the WS decays $`D^0K^+\pi ^{}`$, $`\overline{D^0}K^{}\pi ^+`$

As discussed in Sec. 3.2, the time evolution of the WS decay rate provides a means of measuring simultaneously $`x^2`$ and $`y^{}`$. CLEO has published a result  obtained with $`9.0\mathrm{fb}^1`$ of data. BABAR has presented a preliminary analysis  based on a data sample of $`57.1\mathrm{fb}^1`$. At Belle, work to extract the time evolution of WS events is on-going ; results concerning the background in the WS sample have already been presented , but none yet on $`x^2`$, $`y^{}`$. All three experiments have results for the time-integrated WS decay rate $`R_{WS}`$ .

### 6.1 Extraction of $`x^{}`$, $`y^{}`$ from the time evolution of the WS decay rate

Wrong-sign candidate events of the type $`D^0K^+\pi ^{}`$ and $`\overline{D^0}K^{}\pi ^+`$ are selected by requiring the $`\pi _s`$ from the $`D^{}`$ decay and the daughter $`K`$ of the $`D^0`$ to have identical charge (WS tag). In addition, CLEO, BABAR and Belle apply event selection criteria similar to those described in Sec. 5.2, and the proper decay-time is reconstructed as discussed in Sec. 5.1 .

The measurement aims at detecting a deviation from a purely exponential decay law in WS events (see Sec. 3.2) by means of a likelihood fit to the distribution of the reconstructed proper decay-time, $`t`$. The likelihood functions used by the experiments have the same principal structure as the ones used in the measurement of $`y`$ (see Sec. 5.3). They differentiate between a signal and a background component and model each as the convolution of a decay-time distribution and a resolution function. For WS events, the decay-time distribution follows Eq. 8, i.e. includes the three parts discussed earlier: DCS decay, mixing and interference between the decays with (CF) and without (DCS) mixing.

The WS sample has only $`1/300`$ times the number of events of a RS sample selected with the same criteria as the WS sample except for the WS tag. This RS sample is used wherever possible to constrain aspects in the fit that are common to the two samples. CLEO and BABAR determine, e.g., the resolution functions of WS and RS signals and of the common background types with the RS sample.

In the WS sample, a significant additional complication arises from the much lower achievable puritykkkA rough estimate can be obtained by assuming that in a given random sample of events, the probability for a non-signal event to be mis-identified as a signal event is the same for WS and RS signal. Then, a purity of 99% in the RS candidate sample translates into a purity of 25% in the WS candidate sample because WS events are 300 times less frequent than RS events. This simplified example does not include background from random $`\pi _s`$ that together with a CF $`D^0`$ decay mimic a WS event., e.g. $`50\%`$ in the CLEO analysis. The fit needs to accord each background type its specific lifetime evolution, distinct from the ones of the other background types and from those of the signal events. The reconstructed $`m_D`$ and $`\delta m`$ distributions provide a means of differentiating between the different background types and between background and signal.

#### 6.1.1 Fitting procedure

CLEO performs a two-step fitting procedure. First, the levels of the different background types in the selected candidate sample are estimated by performing a fit to the two-dimensional region $`1.76<m_D<1.97`$ GeV and $`0<Q<10`$ MeV, where $`Q=\delta mm_\pi `$ and $`m_\pi `$ is the pion mass. CLEO differentiates three types of backgrounds: A) from the CF decay that together with a random $`\pi _s^+`$ mimics a WS event (“$`\overline{D^0}K^+\pi ^{}`$”), B) with non-zero lifetime (“charm”) and C) with zero lifetime (“uds”). The background shapes in the $`m_D\delta m`$ plane are estimated with the help of a Monte Carlo sample that corresponds to $`=90\mathrm{fb}^1`$. The signal shape is constrained with the help of the RS sample. The fit yields $`45`$ WS signal events in the total of 82 selected candidate events, measured within a 2$`\sigma `$ window around the central values of the $`m_D`$ and $`Q`$ distributions. ($`\sigma (m_D)=6.4\pm 0.1`$ MeV and $`\sigma (Q)=190\pm 2`$ keV). Figure 4 shows the observed signal as function of $`Q`$ and $`M=m_D`$ together with the projected background estimates from the fit. In the second step, CLEO performs a binned maximum-likelihood fit (bin size 1/20 of the $`D^0`$ lifetime) to the distribution of the proper decay-time, $`t`$. In this fit, the background levels from the first fit in the $`m_D\delta m`$ plane are used.

BABAR performs an unbinned maximum-likelihood fit in several steps. First, the number of signal and background events is determined in a fit to the $`m_D\delta m`$ plane. In the WS sample, BABAR models separately the background from A) the CF decay that together with a random $`\pi _s`$ mimics a WS event, B) RS events where the $`K`$ and $`\pi `$ hypotheses are swapped, C) purely combinatorial background. In the RS sample, BABAR considers in addition background from D) partially reconstructed $`D^0`$ mesons, typically from 3-prong $`D^0`$ decays. The $`\delta m`$ distributions for background types A) and C) are obtained directly from the data by means of mixing a $`\pi _s`$ from a $`D^{}`$ decay of one event with the $`D^0`$ candidate of another event. The fit yields $`440`$ signal WS events in the region $`1.804<m_D<1.924`$ GeV, $`\delta m<m_\pi +25`$ MeV. Figure 5(a) shows the reconstructed proper decay-time distribution for the WS signal and the three background types A)–C). In a second step, a fit to the RS and WS proper decay-time distributions is performed simultaneously to determine the resolution functions.

Belle has reported results on the first part of the fitting procedure, the two-dimensional fit in the $`m_D\delta m`$ plane. Belle considers background types similar to BABAR’s. Specifically to suppress background type B), Belle requires that the invariant mass of the $`D^0`$ candidate calculated with swapped particle hypotheses for the daughters differs from the nominal mass by more than 28 MeV ($`4\sigma `$). The remaining background types are modeled in the $`m_D\delta m`$ plane fit function. The fit arrives at $`450`$ WS signal events in the region $`1.81<m_D<1.91`$ GeV, $`0<Q<20`$ MeV. Belle has not yet released any results from the fit to the distribution of the proper decay-time, $`t`$.

For the WS decay-time function, CLEO and BABAR both follow Eq. 8 and consider the case with and without $`CP`$ violation. Input to all fits is $`m_D`$, $`\delta m`$, $`t`$, $`\sigma _t`$.

#### 6.1.2 Discussion of results

The results of both CLEO  and BABAR  are consistent with the absence of mixing and of $`CP`$ violation.

CLEO constructs contours in the $`x^{}y^{}`$ plane that contain the true value of $`x^{}`$, $`y^{}`$ with 95% confidence. Following a Bayesian  approach, the 95% confidence region includes all points in the plane for which the negative log likelihood, $`\mathrm{ln}L`$, differs from the best fit value by more than 3.0. All fit variables other than $`x^{}`$, $`y^{}`$ are allowed to vary to give the best fit value at each point on the contour. The 95% confidence region, when not and when allowing for $`CP`$ violation, is shown in Fig. 6(a). There, the assumption $`\delta _{K\pi }=0^{}`$ is made for the strong phase (see Eq. 9), so that $`x^{}=x`$ and $`y^{}=y`$. The contours do not include any estimate of systematic errors. CLEO also quotes one-dimensional limits at the 95% C.L. for the mixing parameters, $`(1/2)x^2<0.041`$% and $`5.8\%<y^{}<1.0\%`$, without assumptions on $`CP`$ violation. CLEO identifies as its dominant source of systematic error the potential misunderstanding of the background shapes and acceptances and assigns a total systematic error of $`\pm 0.2\%`$ ($`\pm 0.3\%`$) for $`x^{}`$ ($`y^{}`$).

Figure 6(a) also shows a preliminary contour from FOCUS , derived from an analysis of WS hadronic decays of the type $`D^0K^+\pi ^{}`$, a 95% C.L. contour from E791 , derived from the 90% C.L. limit $`R_{mix}<0.50\%`$lll$`R_{mix}1/2(x^2+y^2)=1/2(x^2+y^2)`$. in WS semileptonic decays of the type $`D^0K^+l^{}\nu _l`$, and the band corresponding to the average on $`y`$ from the lifetime difference analyses (see Fig. 3). Not shown is the contour from E791  derived from the weaker 90% C.L. limit $`R_{mix}<0.85\%`$ in WS hadronic decays of the type $`D^0K^+\pi ^{}`$ and $`D^0K^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$.

BABAR uses a method different from CLEO’s to arrive at a 95% C.L. contour. BABAR argues that due to allowing $`x^2`$ in its fit to take unphysical negative values, it is not clear how to apply a Bayesian ansatz to derive an error estimate from the two-dimensional likelihood distribution. In addition, BABAR finds that the likelihood distribution depends strongly on the most likely fitted values of $`x^2`$ and $`y^{}`$. To define 95% C.L. contours, BABAR applies a frequentist approach based on toy Monte Carlo (MC) experiments. Any point $`\stackrel{}{\alpha _c}=(x_c^2,y_c^{})`$ on the 95% C.L. contour has to meet the requirement: If a toy MC experiment is generated at that point, there is a 95% probability that the ratio $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{ln}L(\stackrel{}{\alpha _c})=\mathrm{ln}L(\stackrel{}{\alpha _c})\mathrm{ln}L_{max}`$ is greater than $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{ln}L_{data}(\stackrel{}{\alpha _c})`$ calculated for the data. There, $`L_{max}`$ is the maximum likelihood obtained in the fit either to data or to a toy MC sample. BABAR constructs 95% C.L. contours also for the systematic effects considered in the analysis, among them uncertainties in the form of the fit functions, detector effects and effects of the selection criteria. Figure 5(b) shows the resulting 95% C.L. contours that include the statistical as well as the systematic uncertainty estimate. A strong correlation between $`x^2`$ and $`y^{}`$ is apparent. The most likely fit point in the case of no $`CP`$ violation has a negative coordinate in $`x^2`$.

A direct comparison of the CLEO and BABAR results is not possible for the case when $`CP`$ violation is allowed in the fit. CLEO uses as fit output parameters $`x^{}`$, $`y^{}`$, $`R_D`$ and $`A_D`$, $`A_M`$, $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi `$, while BABAR uses $`x^{+2}`$, $`y^+`$, $`R^+`$ ($`x^2`$, $`y^{}`$, $`R^{}`$) for the $`D^0`$ ($`\overline{D^0}`$) case (see Sec. 3.2).

The results when assuming $`CP`$ conservation in the fit are in principle comparable between CLEO and BABAR, see Tab. 3. BABAR includes systematic uncertainties in its 95% C.L. contour and obtains its limits on $`x^2`$ and $`y^{}`$ by projecting this contour onto the corresponding axis. The CLEO limits in Tab. 3, instead, correspond to one-dimensional 95% C.L. intervals, determined by an increase in $`\mathrm{ln}L`$ of 1.92 compared to the best fit value, and do not include systematic uncertainties.

BABAR’s upper limit on $`x^2`$ is almost three times bigger than CLEO’s, in spite of being based on a six times larger data sample. A possibly overly conservative estimate of the systematic error cannot account for a difference of this size, as illustrated by Fig. 6(b). There, the CLEO 95% C.L. contour (no systematic errors) is overlaid with the two BABAR contours that are obtained before and after adding the systematic uncertainty. Two possible reasons for so pronounced a difference between CLEO and BABAR are the different techniques for obtaining the 95% C.L. limits and the treatment of the fit output parameter $`x^{}`$. BABAR allows $`x^2`$ to take unphysical negative values in its fit, while CLEO excludes this possibility by choosing $`x^{}`$ instead of $`x^2`$ as fit parameter. Another possible reason is the sign of the fit result on $`y^{}`$. Toy Monte Carlo studies indicate that the 95% C.L. contour differs in size and shape depending on the sign . For positive $`y^{}`$ (the BABAR case), the contour tends to be larger than for negative $`y^{}`$ (the CLEO case). Albeit its precise origin is not yet understood, this behavior may point to a qualitative difference between the two regimes, with destructive (constructive) interference between the decays with (CF) and without (DCS) mixing for $`y<0`$ ($`y>0`$).

### 6.2 Extraction of the time-integrated WS decay rate $`R_{WS}`$

CLEO and BABAR arrive at a measurement of $`R_{WS}`$ by repeating the fits described above with the assumption of no mixing in the $`D^0`$ system, i.e. $`x=y=0`$ .

Belle uses its fit in the $`m_D\delta m`$ plane, described above, to determine the time-integrated number of signal events in the candidate samples . The ratio of the number of signal events in the WS and RS candidate samples yields $`R_{WS}`$. The systematic error on $`R_{WS}`$ is dominated by the uncertainty on the background shapes used in the fit.

Figure 7 compares the results from CLEO , based on $`=9.0\mathrm{fb}^1`$, BABAR  ($`57.1\mathrm{fb}^1`$) and Belle  ($`46.2\mathrm{fb}^1`$) to earlier measurements by E791 , ALEPH  and FOCUS  in WS decays of the type $`D^0K^+\pi ^{}`$.

In the absence of mixing, $`R_{WS}`$ corresponds to the the doubly Cabibbo-suppressed decay rate $`R_D`$ (see Sec. 3.2). The discrepancy between the SM expectation in the absence of mixing, $`R_D0.25`$%, and the values of $`R_{WS}`$ measured by CLEO, BABAR and Belle may be attributable to the effect of SU(3) symmetry breaking .

## 7 Summary and Outlook

The asymmetric B-factories PEP-II and KEK-B with the experiments BABAR and Belle, operational since 1999, have rendered possible studies of mixing in the $`D^0`$ system with unprecedented statistical precision and sample purities. First results for the mixing parameters $`x`$ and $`y`$ are compatible with an absence of mixing and of $`CP`$ violation.

BABAR and Belle both expect to reach $`=500\mathrm{fb}^1`$ by 2006. In data sets of this size, the statistical errors in the measurements reviewed in this article can be reduced by a factor of three. For $`y`$, a statistical precision of $`0.2\%`$ would be within reach and could be further improved by, e.g., employing additional $`D^0`$ decay channels of well-defined $`CP`$ symmetry and, for BABAR, by investigating the possibility of dropping the $`D^{}`$ tag requirement in its event selection.

BABAR’s preliminary result for $`x^2`$, $`y^{}`$, determined from the time evolution of WS decays of the type $`D^0K^+\pi ^{}`$, is the second such result from a collider experiment after CLEO’s. Already with its present data sample, BABAR should be able to improve its systematic error estimate substantially. Future results from Belle should help shedding light on the differences between the CLEO and the BABAR result. Additional information may be gained from other WS $`D^0`$ decay channels, hadronic and semileptonic ones, which have already been observed in other experiments (see e.g. Ref. ).

Given the huge uncertainties in Standard Model (SM) predictions for $`D^0`$ mixing, it might prove difficult to establish physics beyond the SM from the size of the measured $`x`$ and $`y`$ parameters alone. A more robust potential signal for new physics may well be $`CP`$ violation in the $`D^0`$ system . Efforts to establish $`CP`$ violation in the $`D^0`$ system are already part of the WS time evolution analyses discussed in this review and are likely to intensify in the future.

Methods for investigating mixing in the $`D^0`$ system complementary to those at the B-factories would be available at CLEO-c. CLEO-c at CESR-c, currently under discussion as successor to CESR at Cornell, may operate at the $`D^0\overline{D^0}`$ threshold. There, the quantum-mechanical coherence of the produced $`D^0`$, $`\overline{D^0}`$ pair can be exploited to study mixing in the $`D^0`$ system in ways not availablemmmThe coherent state of the $`D^0`$, $`\overline{D^0}`$ pair renders possible, for example, a direct measurement of the strong phase $`\delta _{K\pi }`$ (see Eq. 9) between the DCS and CF decays . to any already existing experiment .

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Ulrik Egede and Bruce Yabsley for enlightening discussions, helpful suggestions and feedback on this review. The help of the BABAR, Belle, CLEO and FOCUS collaborations by making available several figures for inclusion in this review is gratefully acknowledged, as is the help of Harry Cheung in preparing Fig. 6(a). I would also like to thank Tom Browder, Pat Burchat, Nick Ellis, Brian Meadows, Yossi Nir, Abe Seiden and David Williams for their comments on the manuscript.


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# A Remarkable Relation in the Gauge Sector of Electroweakdynamics

## Conclusions.

From our ansatz given in Eqs (3) or (4d), we get Eq.(6) from Eq.(5). This is the main result of our paper. Assuming Eq.(15), we obtain Eq.(16) and (17). Agreement with experimental data (Eqs (5) and (7)) is remarkable. It is perhaps fortuitous. If not, the question is: why ?

## Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the organizers of this meeting for the invitation and hospitality. I thank Gabriel López Castro for years of long exchanges of view on the subject.