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# 1 Abstract

## 1 Abstract

A complex quantum system with energy dissipation is considered. The quantum Hamiltonians $`H`$ belong the complex Ginibre ensemble. The complex-valued eigenenergies $`Z_i`$ are random variables. The second differences $`\mathrm{\Delta }^1Z_i`$ are also complex-valued random variables. The second differences have their real and imaginary parts and also radii (moduli) and main arguments (angles). For $`N`$=3 dimensional Ginibre ensemble the distributions of above random variables are provided whereas for generic $`N`$\- dimensional Ginibre ensemble second difference distribution is analytically calculated. The law of homogenization of eigenergies is formulated. The analogy of Wigner and Dyson of Coulomb gas of electric charges is studied.

## 2 Introduction

We study generic quantum statistical systems with energy dissipation. The quantum Hamiltonian operator $`H`$ is in given basis of Hilbert’s space a matrix with random elements $`H_{ij}`$ . The Hamiltonian $`H`$ is not hermitean operator, thus its eigenenergies $`Z_i`$ are complex-valued random variables. We assume that distribution of $`H_{ij}`$ is governed by Ginibre ensemble . $`H`$ belongs to general linear Lie group GL($`N`$, C), where $`N`$ is dimension and C is complex numbers field. Since $`H`$ is not hermitean, therefore quantum system is dissipative system. Ginibre ensemble of random matrices is one of many Gaussian Random Matrix ensembles GRME. The above approach is an example of Random Matrix theory RMT . The other RMT ensembles are for example Gaussian orthogonal ensemble GOE, unitary GUE, symplectic GSE, as well as circular ensembles: orthogonal COE, unitary CUE, and symplectic CSE. The distributions of the eigenenergies $`Z_1,\mathrm{},Z_N`$ for $`N\times N`$ Hamiltonian matrices is given by Jean Ginibre’s formula :

$`P(z_1,\mathrm{},z_N)=`$ (1)
$`={\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi j!}}{\displaystyle \underset{i<j}{\overset{N}{}}}|z_iz_j|^2\mathrm{exp}({\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}|z_j|^2),`$
where $`z_i`$ are complex-valued sample points ($`z_i𝐂`$). For Ginibre ensemble we define complex-valued spacings $`\mathrm{\Delta }^1Z_i`$ and second differences $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i`$:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }^1Z_i=Z_{i+1}Z_i,i=1,\mathrm{},(N1),$$
(2)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i=Z_{i+2}2Z_{i+1}+Z_i,i=1,\mathrm{},(N2).$$
(3)
The $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i`$ are extensions of real-valued second differences

$$\mathrm{\Delta }^2E_i=E_{i+2}2E_{i+1}+E_i,i=1,\mathrm{},(N2),$$
(4)
of adjacent ordered increasingly real-valued energies $`E_i`$ defined for GOE, GUE, GSE, and Poisson ensemble PE (where Poisson ensemble is composed of uncorrelated randomly distributed eigenenergies) .

There is an analogy of Coulomb gas of unit electric charges pointed out by Eugene Wigner and Freeman Dyson. A Coulomb gas of $`N`$ unit charges moving on complex plane (Gauss’s plane) C is considered. The vectors of positions of charges are $`z_i`$ and potential energy of the system is:

$$U(z_1,\mathrm{},z_N)=\underset{i<j}{}\mathrm{ln}|z_iz_j|+\frac{1}{2}\underset{i}{}|z_i^2|.$$
(5)
If gas is in thermodynamical equilibrium at temperature $`T=\frac{1}{2k_B}`$ ($`\beta =\frac{1}{k_BT}=2`$, $`k_B`$ is Boltzmann’s constant), then probability density function of vectors of positions is $`P(z_1,\mathrm{},z_N)`$ Eq. (1). Complex eigenenergies $`Z_i`$ of quantum system are analogous to vectors of positions of charges of Coulomb gas. Moreover, complex-valued spacings $`\mathrm{\Delta }^1Z_i`$ are analogous to vectors of relative positions of electric charges. Finally, complex-valued second differences $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i`$ are analogous to vectors of relative positions of vectors of relative positions of electric charges.

The $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i`$ have their real parts $`\mathrm{Re}\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i`$, and imaginary parts $`\mathrm{Im}\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i`$, as well as radii (moduli) $`|\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i|`$, and main arguments (angles) $`\mathrm{Arg}\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i`$.

## 3 Second Difference Distributions

We define following random variables for $`N`$=3 dimensional Ginibre ensemble:

$$Y_1=\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_1,A_1=\mathrm{Re}Y_1,B_1=\mathrm{Im}Y_1,$$
(6)
$$R_1=|Y_1|,\mathrm{\Phi }_1=\mathrm{Arg}Y_1,$$
(7)
and for the generic $`N`$-dimensional Ginibre ensemble : $`W_1=\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_1`$.

Their distributions for are given by following formulae :

$`f_{Y_1}(y_1)=f_{(A_1,B_1)}(a_1,b_1)=`$ (8)
$`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{576\pi }}[(a_1^2+b_1^2)^2+24]\mathrm{exp}({\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}(a_1^2+a_2^2)).`$
$$f_{A_1}(a_1)=\frac{\sqrt{6}}{576\sqrt{\pi }}(a_1^4+6a_1^2+51)\mathrm{exp}(\frac{1}{6}a_1^2),$$
(9)
$$f_{B_1}(b_1)=\frac{\sqrt{6}}{576\sqrt{\pi }}(b_1^4+6b_1^2+51)\mathrm{exp}(\frac{1}{6}b_1^2),$$
(10)
$`f_{R_1}(r_1)=`$ (11)
$`\mathrm{\Theta }(r_1){\displaystyle \frac{1}{288}}r_1(r_1^4+24)\mathrm{exp}({\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}r_1^2),`$
$`f_{\mathrm{\Phi }_1}(\varphi _1)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi }},\varphi _1[0,2\pi ].`$
$`P_3(w_1)=`$ (12)
$`=\pi ^3{\displaystyle \underset{j_1=0}{\overset{N1}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{j_2=0}{\overset{N1}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{j_3=0}{\overset{N1}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{j_1!j_2!j_3!}}I_{j_1j_2j_3}(w_1),`$
$`I_{j_1j_2j_3}(w_1)=`$ (13)
$`=2^{2j_2}{\displaystyle \frac{^{j_1+j_2+j_3}}{^{j_1}\lambda _1^{j_2}\lambda _2^{j_3}\lambda _3}}F(w_1,\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\lambda _3)|_{\lambda _i=0},`$
$`F(w_1,\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\lambda _3)=`$ (14)
$`=A(\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\lambda _3)\mathrm{exp}[B(\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\lambda _3)|w_1|^2],`$
$`A(\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\lambda _3)=`$ (15)
$`={\displaystyle \frac{(2\pi )^2}{(\lambda _1+\lambda _2\frac{5}{4})(\lambda _1+\lambda _3\frac{5}{4})(\lambda _11)^2}},`$
$`B(\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\lambda _3)=`$ (16)
$`=(\lambda _11){\displaystyle \frac{2\lambda _1\lambda _2\lambda _3+\frac{1}{2}}{2\lambda _1+\lambda _2+\lambda _3\frac{9}{2}}}.`$
## 4 Conclusions

We compare second difference distributions for different ensembles by defining following dimensionless second differences:

$$C_\beta =\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }^2E_1}{<S_\beta >},$$
(17)
$$X_1=\frac{A_1}{<R_1>},$$
(18)
where $`<S_\beta >`$ are the mean values of spacings for GOE(3) ($`\beta =1`$), for GUE(3) ($`\beta =2`$), for GSE(3) ($`\beta =4`$), for PE ($`\beta =0`$) , and $`<R_1>`$ is mean value of radius $`R_1`$ for $`N`$=3 dimensional Ginibre ensemble .

On the basis of comparison of results for Gaussian ensembles, Poisson ensemble, and Ginibre ensemble we formulate homogenization law : Eigenenergies for Gaussian ensembles, for Poisson ensemble, and for Ginibre ensemble tend to be homogeneously distributed. The second differences’ distributions assume global maxima at origin for above ensembles. For Coulomb gas the vectors of relative positions of vectors of relative positions of charges statistically vanish. It can be called stabilisation of structure of system of electric charges.

## 5 Acknowledgements

It is my pleasure to most deeply thank Professor Jakub Zakrzewski for formulating the problem.


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# Fine Structure of Dark Matter Halos and its Effect on Terrestrial Detection Experiments

## Abstract

Terrestrial dark matter detection experiments probe the velocity-space distribution of dark matter particles in the vicinity of the Earth. We present a novel method, to be used in conjunction with standard cosmological simulations of hierarchical clustering, that allows one to extract a truly local velocity-space distribution in exquisite detail. Preliminary results suggest a new picture for this distribution which is decidedly non-Maxwellian but instead is characterized by randomly positioned peaks in velocity space. We discuss the implications of these results for both WIMP and axion detection experiments.

According to the cold dark matter (CDM) model of structure formation galaxies possess extended massive halos of non-baryonic particles. But while the CDM scenario can account for the rotation curves of spiral galaxies and the morphology of structure on sub and super-galactic scales it sheds little light on the fundamental nature of dark matter. For this, we must turn to dark matter detection experiments.

WIMPs (weakly interacting massive particles) and axions are two dark matter candidates for which direct detection in a terrestrial apparatus is a distinct possibility. Terrestrial detectors probe the distribution function (DF) of dark matter particles in the lab. The standard WIMP detection experiment attempts to measure the energy deposited when a WIMP scatters off a nucleus in the detector goodman . By contrast the direct detection scheme for axions relies on their coupling to photons: In a magnetic field, an axion can convert into a photon whose energy will be equal to the total (rest mass plus kinetic) energy of the axion sikivie .

The phase space DF, $`f(𝐱,𝐯)`$ provides a complete description of a collisionless system such as a dark matter halo. Formally $`f(𝐱,𝐯)d^3xd^3v`$ is the number of particles in the six-dimensional phase space element $`d^3xd^3v`$ centered on the phase space point $`(𝐱,𝐯)`$. A detector of volume $`𝒱`$ at position $`𝐱_0`$ probes the velocity space DF $`g_{𝐱_0}\left(𝐯\right)𝒱^1_𝒱d^3xf(𝐱,𝐯)`$. Since detectors are very small, $`g_{𝐱_0}\left(𝐯\right)=f(𝐱_\mathrm{𝟎},𝐯)`$ to extremely high accuracy.

The standard assumption for direct detection experiments is that $`g`$ can be approximated by a Maxwellian with a cut-off at the escape speed of the Galaxy. Our aim is to explore the extent to which this assumption breaks down within the CDM scenario for structure formation. In the CDM model, dark halos are assembled through hierarchical clustering wherein small-scale objects collapse first and merge to yield systems of increasing size. Originally, it was believed that the substructure one might have expected from hierarchical clustering was erased by physical processes such as violent relaxation and tidal stripping white . However, recent high resolution simulations indicate that dark halos are in fact clumpy with a significant fraction of the mass bound in undigested lumps and tidal debris klypin ; moore .

The question is whether substructure in the density field of the halo translates into structure in the local velocity-space DF $`g`$. If so, there may be important implications for terrestrial detection experiments. (The implications of triaxiality, rotation, and a radial profile that differs from that of an isothermal sphere have been considered by various authors kamion2 ; ullio ; green ; copi .) In the CDM scenario, the dark matter in the vicinity of the Earth is a superposition of bound clumps and tidal streams that were accreted by the Galaxy over its entire formation history. From the standpoint of direct detection experiments, particles from recent accretion events are the most interesting since they will have a bulk galactocentric velocity at the position of the Earth of order the escape speed of the Galaxy ($`500\mathrm{kms}^1`$) or roughly twice the mean speed of the widely used Maxwellian model. Moreover, even if most of the particles in these clumps have been stripped by the tidal field of the Galaxy, the tidal debris will have little time to phase mix and therefore be relatively coherent. Coherent streams of high velocity particles may produce significant features in detection spectra even if they constitute a small fraction of the total local dark matter density stiff ; freese . (See, however, helmi  where the authors reach a different conclusion.)

The Maxwellian model may also be challenged by the following line of reasoning. The intrinsic velocity dispersion of CDM is negligible and the distribution function $`f(𝐱,𝐯)`$ is most appropriately thought of as a three-dimensional sheet in six-dimensional phase space. Prior to the epoch of structure formation, this sheet is nearly perfectly flat: the velocities of particles at a particular point in space are given by the Hubble flow plus small perturbations. As structure formation proceeds, $`f`$ retains its three-dimensional character but is “curled up” through the process of gravitational collapse. $`g\left(𝐯\right)`$ is the value of $`f`$ on a three-dimensional surface that defines the detector, i.e., a surface that spans the three velocity-space directions at the position of the detector. Since the intersection of two three-dimensional surfaces (one flat and the other highly contorted) is a collection of points, $`g`$ will be a collection of discrete peaks in velocity space. These peaks will be randomly distributed though will likely exhibit clustering on different (velocity-space) scales. (For a general discussion of the dimensionality of phase-space structures as it relates to astronomical observations, see Ref.tremaine ).

Fine structure of this type has been studied within the context of self-similar spherical infall models sikivie2 . These models assume that the initial density perturbation and angular momentum distribution are scale free and spherically symmetric. Given these assumptions, one can solve semi-analytically for the entire formation history of a halo and predict the positions of the velocity-space peaks which, in turn, may lead to a distinctive pattern of features in energy spectra obtained by axion and WIMP detectors sikivie2 ; copi .

Velocity-space structures in hierarchically formed halos can be studied using numerical simulations as follows: Consider a Milky Way-size simulated halo with $`N`$ particles and select a location that has the characteristics of the solar system (for example, a point $`8.5\mathrm{kpc}`$ from the center of mass of the halo). Choose a volume $`𝒱`$ centered on this point. The $`N^{}`$ particles inside this volume provide a monte carlo realization of $`g(𝐯)`$. This procedure has been employed by various groups with some success moore2 ; helmi . However, even the largest simulations are unable to resolve velocity space structures deep inside highly evolved halos. The limit on the velocity space resolution due to the finite number of particles in $`𝒱`$ is $`\mathrm{\Delta }v/\sigma N^{1/3}`$. Velocity space resolution is also limited by the finite size of $`𝒱`$. Let $`L`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ be respectively the size of the halo and depth of its gravitational potential, $`L^{}`$ be the size of $`𝒱`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }`$ be the variation in $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ across $`𝒱`$. The limit to the resolution in velocity space due to the finite size of $`𝒱`$ is $`\mathrm{\Delta }v/\sigma \mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }/\mathrm{\Phi }L^{}/L\left(N^{}/N\right)^{1/3}`$. We minimize $`\mathrm{\Delta }v/\sigma `$ by balancing the two effects (large $`𝒱`$ for particle number, small $`𝒱`$ for locality) to find the optimal choice $`N^{}N^{1/2}`$. The implication is that for a simulation of $`N`$ particles, only $`O\left(N^{1/2}\right)`$ are available to map the local velocity space distribution function.

This paper introduces a new technique, to be used in conjunction with standard cosmological simulations, which allows one to map $`g(𝐯)`$ at a single point within a dark halo. The method relies on test particles which, by design, reach the desired point (the position of the would-be detector) in the final timestep of the simulation. Through an iterative process, these test particles allow one to locate the points where the phase space sheet describing the dark matter distribution intersects the phase space sheet describing the detector. Our method has a resolution in velocity space of $`\mathrm{\Delta }v/\sigma N^{1/3}`$ as compared with $`\mathrm{\Delta }v/\sigma N^{1/6}`$ for the standard approach. Thus, with $`N=10^6`$, we can achieve a resolution that would have previously required $`10^{12}`$ particles.

The starting point for our algorithm is a simulation of the formation of a dark matter halo from standard CDM initial conditions. In the final frame of the simulation, we identify an appropriate location for a detector and lay down a uniform grid (i.e., three-dimensional phase-space sheet) of massless test particles which spans velocity-space at that location. We next evolve both the test particles and original simulation particles backward in time to the initial frame of the simulation. The backward evolution is accomplished by simply reversing the timestep. During this “reverse run” the phase-space sheet defined by the test particles will fold and curl. At the initial time, we locate the intersection points of the test-particle phase-space sheet and the phase-space sheet that defines the initial dark matter DF. These intersection points map directly into points in velocity space at the position of the detector (ie. the initial velocity-space distribution of the test particles). The value of the DF is calculated at each crossing point, and by Liouville’s theorem, the DF of the test particles at the location of the detector can be determined.

One may think of the test particles as providing the means to interpolate the DF in the region of the detector. For the interpolation to make sense, the system must reverse properly, i.e., the positions of the simulation particles at the end of the backward integration should be within some small distance of their actual initial positions. In essence, reversibility is equivalent to the condition that the dark matter DF, as described by the simulation particles, maintains its character as a three-dimensional structure in phase space. Chaos, which is almost certainly present in the orbits of the simulation particles, combined with round-off errors, has the potential to spoil the reversibility of the time integration and destroy the integrity of the phase-space sheet. To apply our technique to a simulation, it must be verified that it does reverse properly. We have found that the simplest means of suppressing chaotic behavior and achieving reversibility is to increase the softening length above what is normally used in cosmological simulations.

At this point, the reader may suspect a swindle. If our method requires a larger softening length than is normally used, how can we claim a substantial improvement over the standard N-body approach. Of course, chaos also affects the results of the standard method. We suspect that the approximately Maxwellian DFs found in previous studies helmi ; moore2  arise in part from the use of a finite volume to measure the velocity-space DF at a single point together with the fact that the dark matter phase-space sheet is not adequately modelled. Our interpolation scheme overcomes the finite volume problem and makes explicit the requirement that the phase space sheet be properly modelled.

Typically we begin with the same number of test particles as simulation particles so that the additional computation time is increased by a factor of less than 2. Higher resolution is achieved by an iterative procedure – regions surrounding intersection points are resampled by a finer grid of test particles and the reverse-run algorithm is repeated. Our simulations use an implementation of Dehnen’s $`O(N)`$ algorithm dehnen  modified to efficiently incorporate test particles. Our technique however, is independent of the code used as long as it is time-reversible and allows test particles. The softening kernel is chosen such that the gravitational force goes to zero at zero separation but joins smoothly with Newtonian gravity at the softening length. In this manner, a test particle and a real massive particle with exactly the same phase-space coordinates will follow the same trajectory.

As a demonstration of the power of our algorithm, we first examine the collapse of a spherically symmetric density perturbation reminiscent of the self-similar collapse considered in sikivie2  and references therein. The perturbation is a monotonically decreasing function of radius so that the inner parts of the system collapse first. The simulation is run from $`t=0`$ to $`t=12`$ (in units with $`M_{\mathrm{total}}=100`$ and $`G=1`$) with approximately $`33,000`$ particles and uses the same N-body code that will be used in subsequent, more realistic simulations. As the simulation is done in physical coordinates, all particles have an initial Hubble velocity and comoving softening length of 1.7 (Plummer equivalent) was used.

The top panel of Figure 1 shows the final DF (radius $`r`$ vs. radial velocity $`v_r`$). The fine structure (thin streams of particles) should be viewed as phase space sheets where we have projected out the $`\theta `$ and $`\varphi `$ directions. In the absence of spherical symmetry, the three-dimensional nature of the DF would still be present but not readily apparent in an $`rv_r`$ plot. Indeed, toward the center of the halo, where two-body scattering has destroyed spherical symmetry, the structures appear to dissolve.

A detector at $`x_0=(2,0,0)`$ (horizontal line in the top panel of Figure 1) should measure $`11`$ distinct velocity-space peaks. The middle panel of Figure 1 shows the results for the velocity space distribution function obtained using the standard N-body method. Two different volumes, one of radius $`\mathrm{\Delta }r=0.89`$ and containing 182 particles (approximately $`N^{1/2}`$) and the other of radius $`\mathrm{\Delta }r=45`$ and containing 18 particles were used to generate these results. With a large volume, one obtains a broad distribution and sees little evidence for discrete structures. A smaller volume picks out only a few of the peaks, and with very poor resolution.

The bottom panel shows the results of the reverse-run method. All 11 peaks are detected. The plot is an actual histogram: the thickness of the peaks reflects the actual velocity-space resolution obtained by our method. Along the top of the plot are the positions of the peaks as measured using the N-body approach but exploiting spherical symmetry, i.e., taking all particles close to $`r=2`$. We see that the peaks from the reverse run method are precisely where they should be.

The formation of a dark halo in the hierarchical clustering scenario is modelled by augmenting the spherically symmetric simulation considered above with a power-law spectrum ($`n=2`$) of density and velocity perturbations (see, for example, reference katz ). The particle number was increased to $`5\times 10^5`$ and the softening set to 20 kpc Plummer equivalent. The simulation started at $`z=44`$ and evolved to the present in 1000 timesteps. The total system mass was $`10^{13}M_{}`$. It should be noted that this simulation is only designed to qualitatively model the formation of the Milky Way so rigorous normalization of the power spectrum was not performed. Nonetheless, the resulting system consists of a massive central galaxy ($`M10^{12}M_{}`$) which partly formed through the merger of smaller objects and several dwarf satellites galaxies surrounding it. One can view the particle distribution and evolution of the simulation elsewhere stiffwebsite . Figure 2 shows the speed distribution and a scatter plot in the two-dimensional phase space of speed and angle where the angle is measured with respect to some arbitrary direction in the halo. The latter may be of interest to detectors with directional sensitivity such as the DRIFT detector drift .

The top-left panel of Figure 3 gives an example of a recoil spectra that would be obtained by our fictitious detector. Since terrestrial detection experiments operate in the rest frame of the Earth we first shift the velocity distribution by $`220\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. (We have not attempted to model the Galactic disk and therefore the direction of this shift is arbitrary.) In addition, we include the small velocity-space shift due to the Earth’s motion around the Sun. It is this shift that gives rise to the famous seasonal modulation effect considered to be so important to terrestrial detectors freese2 . The seasonal modulation factor, $`S(E)`$ \[Rate(June) - Rate(December)\]/\[Rate(June) + Rate(December)\], (see Ref. stiff ) is shown in the lower-left panel of the Figure.

The recoil spectrum is characterized by a sequence of steps as one goes up in energy. As noted in Refs. copi ; stiff ; freese  peaks in the speed distribution translate to step functions in a recoil spectrum.

Our ability to identify velocity space structure may be considerably better if dark matter is composed of axions. The standard axion detector measures the energy of the axion (kinetic plus rest mass) and therefore peaks in velocity space translate into peaks in the energy spectrum. In addition, since these experiments rely on the orientation of the magnetic field, one will have directional sensitivity and therefore be able to map out the full $`g(𝐯)`$. Figure 3 provides an example of an axion spectrum obtained by again shifting the velocity distribution to a terrestrial frame.

The reverse-run algorithm provides the means to probe the local velocity-space structure of a simulated halo with a resolution far greater than is permitted through traditional methods. In short, our method allows us to obtain the velocity-space distribution at a given point without having to average over the surrounding region.

Our results must be viewed as preliminary since our simulations focus a small region of the Universe and therefore do not take into account cosmological tidal fields. Moreover, no attempt is made to model disk formation. However, our method is completely general and may be applied to more realistic simulations of the Local Group or Local Supercluster.

The preliminary results do suggest a new picture for the local velocity-space distribution function, one which is characterized by discrete peaks. This result is potentially of great importance to terrestrial detection experiments which rely on models of this distribution function to develop search strategies and interpret experimental results. For WIMP searches, the deviations from Maxwellian and clumpy distributions are likely not significant for the current generation of detectors. However, current axion detectors have exceptional energy resolution on the order of $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/(m_ac^2)10^{11}`$ asztalos . This resolution is sufficient to be sensitive to seasonal and even diurnal variations in the spectrum which can be used to fully resolve the velocity-space distribution of axions. Future generations of WIMP detectors with directional sensitivity, or accurate seasonal spectra may also yield detailed features of the dark matter distribution.

We are in fact led to the tantalizing conclusion that if terrestrial experiments are able to detect dark matter, then the results will provide a wealth of information on the structure and formation history of the dark halo.

We thank R. Henriksen and T. Merrall for useful conversations and J. Frieman and T. Noble for comments on an early version of the manuscript. This work was supported, in part, by the National Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada.


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# Why the high lying glueball does not mix with the neighbouring 𝑓₀.

## I Introduction

The puzzle of the $`0^{++}`$ $`f_0`$ resonances has attracted a significant attention for the last decade (for recent reviews and references see ). The reason is that there have been discovered more $`f_0`$ mesons than can be accomodated by the quark model. This also fits with the expectations that there should be a glueball state with the same quantum numbers around the 1.5 GeV region . And indeed, an analysis of numerous available experimental data suggests that $`f_0(1370)`$ is mostly a $`n\overline{n}=\frac{u\overline{u}+d\overline{d}}{\sqrt{2}}`$ state, $`f_0(1710)`$ is mostly a $`s\overline{s}`$ state and $`f_0(1500)`$ is dominantly a glueball . Other alternatives have also been discussed . The decay modes of these mesons suggest that the physical mesons above are some mixtures of the pure quark-antiquark and glueball states.

Recently there have appeared results of the partial wave analysis of the mesonic resonances obtained in the $`p\overline{p}`$ annihilation at LEAR in the region 1.8 - 2.4 GeV . In particular, four high-lying $`f_0`$ have been reported:

$$f_0(1770\pm 12),f_0(2040\pm 38),f_0(2102\pm 13),f_0(2337\pm 14).$$

It has been suggested that $`f_0(2102\pm 13)`$ should be a glueball, while $`f_0(1770\pm 12)`$, $`f_0(2040\pm 38)`$ and $`f_0(2337\pm 14)`$ are $`n\overline{n}`$ states. Motivation for such an interpretation was the following: (i) all these states are observed in $`p\overline{p}`$, hence according to OZI rule they cannot be $`s\overline{s}`$ states; (ii) $`f_0(2102\pm 13)`$ decays more strongly to $`\eta \eta `$ than to $`\pi \pi `$. It requires a large mixing angle, in contrast to the other three $`f_0`$ states. It can be interpreted naturally only if $`f_0(2102\pm 13)`$ is not a $`n\overline{n}`$ state, but a glueball.

If $`f_0(2102\pm 13)`$ is a glueball, a question then arises as why it does not mix with the neighbouring broad $`f_0(2040\pm 38)`$, which is supposed to be a $`n\overline{n}`$ state? ”When a particle is observed experimentally it does not come labeled ”quark-antiquark” or ”glueball”, nor is there any strict objective criterion to distinguish them. The whole distinction is tied up with the naive quark model, which has no firm basis in quantum field theory, and ignores the inevitability of mixing.” .

The aim of the present short note is to offer a natural explanation of absence of a strong mixing. It has been argued recently that high in the hadron spectrum the spontaneously broken chiral symmetry of QCD is effectively restored This phenomenon has been refered to as chiral symmetry restoration of the second kind in order to distinguish it from the familiar phenomenon of chiral symmetry restoration in the QCD vacuum at high temperature and/or density.. A possible fundamental physical ground is that, in hadrons with large $`n`$ (radial quantum number) or large $`L`$ the semiclassical approximation must be valid and hence the effects of quantum fluctuations of the quark and gluon fields must be suppressed . If chiral symmetry is approximately restored, then the index of the representation of the chiral group, to which the given hadron belongs, becomes a good quantum number. Hence a mixing of hadrons that belong to different representations is forbidden, even though all other quantum numbers are the same and hadrons are close in energy. This then explains the absence of a strong mixing between $`f_0(2040\pm 38)`$ state, which is a member of the (1/2, 1/2) representation of the chiral group , with a glueball, which belongs to a scalar representation (0,0).

## II  The evidence and theoretical justification of chiral symmetry restoration in high-lying hadrons

We overview first a QCD-based justification of chiral symmetry restoration in high-lying spectra . Consider two local currents (interpolating fields) $`J_1(x)`$ and $`J_2(x)`$ which are connected by chiral transformation, $`J_1(x)=UJ_2(x)U^{}`$, where $`USU(2)_L\times SU(2)_R`$. These currents, when act on the QCD vacuum $`|0`$, create hadron states with quantum numbers ”1” and ”2”, respectively. All these hadrons are the intermediate states in the two-point correlators

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_{J_\alpha }(q)=id^4xe^{iqx}0|T\left\{J_\alpha (x)J_\alpha (0)\right\}|0,$$
(1)
where all possible Lorentz indices (which are specific for a given interpolating field) have been omitted, for simplicity. At large space-like momenta $`Q^2=q^2>0`$ the correlator can be adequately represented by the operator product expansion, where all nonperturbative effects reside in different condensates . The only effect that spontaneous breaking of chiral symmetry can have on the correlator is via the quark condensate of the vacuum, $`q\overline{q}`$, and higher dimensional condensates that are not invariant under chiral transformation $`U`$. However, the contributions of all these condensates are suppressed by inverse powers of momenta $`Q^2`$. This shows that at large space-like momenta the correlation function becomes chirally symmetric. In other words

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_{J_1}(Q)\mathrm{\Pi }_{J_2}(Q)atQ^2\mathrm{}.$$
(2)
The dispersion relation provides a connection between the space-like and time-like domains for the Lorentz scalar (or pseudoscalar) parts of the correlator. In particular, the large $`Q^2`$ correlator is completely dominated by the large $`s`$ spectral density $`\rho (s)`$, which is an observable. Hence the large $`s`$ spectral density should be insensitive to the chiral symmetry breaking in the vacuum and must satisfy

$$\rho _1(s)\rho _2(s)ats\mathrm{}.$$
(3)
This is in contrast to the low $`s`$ spectral densities $`\rho _1(s)`$ and $`\rho _2(s)`$, which are very different because of the chiral symmetry breaking in the vacuum. This manifests a smooth chiral symmetry restoration from the low-lying spectrum to the high-lying spectrum (chiral symmetry restoration of the second kind). A theoretical expectation that chiral symmetry must be restored high in the spectra is supported by the recent data on the difference between the vector and axial vector spectral densities. This difference has been extracted from the weak decays of the $`\tau `$-lepton by the ALEPH and OPAL collaborations . The nonzero difference is entirely from the spontaneous breaking of chiral symmetry. It is well seen from the results that while the difference is large at the masses of $`\rho (770)`$ and $`a_1(1260)`$, it becomes very strongly reduced towards $`m=\sqrt{s}1.7`$ GeV. This is also seen from $`e^+e^{}hadrons`$, where starting approximately from the same energy the spectral density oscillates around perturbative QCD prediction . Similarly, recent data of JLAB on inclusive electroproduction of baryonic resonances in the mass region $`3.1M^23.9`$ GeV2 are perfectly dual to deep inelastic data .

Since the inclusive data indicate that the quark-hadron duality picture starts to work in the resonance region, we have to anticipate in this region a nontrivial implication of chiral symmetry. Indeed, if chiral symmetry restoration happens in the regime where the spectrum is still quasidiscrete (i.e. it is dominated by resonances and the successive resonances with the given spin are well separated), then these resonances must fill out representations of the parity-chiral group. There are evidences both in baryon  and in meson spectra  that light hadrons above $`m1.7`$ GeV fill out representations of the parity-chiral group, which are manifest as parity doublets or higher chiral representations. Nevertheless, a systematic experimental exploration of the high-lying hadrons is required in order to make definitive statements.

While the asymptotic prediction (3) is rather robust (it is based only on the asymptotic freedom of QCD in the deep space-like domain and on the analyticity of the two-point correlator; earliest application of asymptotic freedom to $`e^+e^{}hadrons`$ is ref. ), it does not tell us which physics could be associated with the chiral symmetry restoration in the isolated hadron. This question has been addressed in ref. . One of the possibilities is that the chiral symmetry breaking (i.e. dynamical quark mass generation) is due to quantum fluctuations of the quark and gluon fields. This can be seen from the fact that the chiral symmetry breaking can be formulated via the Schwinger-Dyson equation. For the present context it is not important at all which specific gluonic interactions are the most important ones in the kernel of the Schwinger-Dyson equation, instantons, gluon exchanges or anything else. If the effects of quantum fluctuations of the quark and gluon fields are suppressed, then the dynamical mass of quarks must vanish. At large $`n`$ (radial quantum number) or at large angular momentum $`L`$ we know that in quantum systems the effects of quantum fluctuations become indeed suppressed and the semiclassical approximation (WKB) must work.§§§For example, the Lamb shift in the hydrogen atom is entirely due to the quantum fluctuations of the electromagnetic and electron fields, which are the vertex correction, electron self-energy and the vacuum polarization diagrams. The Lamb shift vanishes very fast with $`n`$, $`1/n^3`$, and also very fast with $`L`$. Physically, this approximation applies in these cases because the de Broglie wavelength of the valence quarks in the hadron is small in comparison with the size of the hadron. If so the chiral symmetry must be effectively restored in high-lying hadrons. So a very natural picture for highly excited hadrons is a string with bare quarks of definite chirality at the end-points .

## III Chiral quantum number as a good quantum number

In the low-lying hadrons, where the effects of chiral symmetry breaking in the vacuum $`SU(2)_L\times SU(2)_RSU(2)_I`$ are strong, only isospin is a good quantum number among those that are potentially supplied by the chiral group. In the regime where chiral symmetry is (approximately) restored a new good quantum number appears, that characterizes a parity-chiral multiplet. This quantum number is an index of the irreducible representation of the parity-chiral groupThe irreducible representations of $`SU(2)_L\times SU(2)_R`$ can be labeled as $`(I_L,I_R)`$ with $`I_L`$ and $`I_R`$ being the isospins of the left and right subgroups. However, generally the states that belong to the given irreducible representation of the chiral group cannot be ascribed a definite parity because under parity transformation the left-handed quarks transform into the right-handed ones (and vice versa). Therefore under a parity operation the irreducible representation $`(I_L,I_R)`$ transforms into $`(I_R,I_L)`$. Hence, in general, the state (or current) of definite parity can be constructed as a direct sum of two irreducible representations $`(I_L,I_R)(I_R,I_L)`$, which is an irreducible representation of the parity-chiral group .. For example, the vector ($`\rho `$) and axial vector ($`a_1`$) mesons, in the chirally restored regime become chiral partners and fill out in pairs $`(0,1)(1,0)`$ irreducible representations of the parity-chiral group. Their valence content is given as

$$\rho :\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(\overline{R}\stackrel{}{\tau }\gamma ^\mu R+\overline{L}\stackrel{}{\tau }\gamma ^\mu L\right);$$
(4)
$$a_1:\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(\overline{R}\stackrel{}{\tau }\gamma ^\mu R\overline{L}\stackrel{}{\tau }\gamma ^\mu L\right).$$
(5)
The valence composition of $`n\overline{n}`$ $`f_0`$ and $`\pi `$ mesons in the chirally restored regime is

$$f_0:\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(\overline{R}L+\overline{L}R\right);$$
(6)
$$\pi :\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(\overline{R}\stackrel{}{\tau }L\overline{L}\stackrel{}{\tau }R\right).$$
(7)
Both these mesons fill out in pairs the (1/2,1/2) representations of the parity-chiral group . The experimental data in the range 1.8 - 2.4 GeV are summarized in the Table.

| Meson | I | $`J^P`$ | Mass (MeV) | Width (MeV) | Reference |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`f_0`$ | 0 | $`0^+`$ | $`1770\pm 12`$ | $`220\pm 40`$ |  |
| $`f_0`$ | 0 | $`0^+`$ | $`2040\pm 38`$ | $`405\pm 40`$ |  |
| $`f_0`$ | 0 | $`0^+`$ | $`2102\pm 13`$ | $`211\pm 29`$ |  |
| $`f_0`$ | 0 | $`0^+`$ | $`2337\pm 14`$ | $`217\pm 33`$ |  |
| $`\pi `$ | 1 | $`0^{}`$ | $`1801\pm 13`$ | $`210\pm 15`$ |  |
| $`\pi `$ | 1 | $`0^{}`$ | $`2070\pm 35`$ | $`310_{50}^{+100}`$ |  |
| $`\pi `$ | 1 | $`0^{}`$ | $`2360\pm 25`$ | $`300_{50}^{+100}`$ |  |

It is well seen that while the chiral symmetry is strongly broken low in the spectrum, the high-lying $`n\overline{n}`$ $`f_0`$ and $`\pi `$ mesons indeed form chiral pairs (see also Fig. 1):

$$\pi (1300\pm 100)f_0(1370_{170}^{+130}),$$
(8)
$$\pi (1801\pm 13)f_0(1770\pm 12),$$
(9)
$$\pi (2070\pm 35)f_0(2040\pm 38),$$
(10)
$$\pi (2360\pm 25)f_0(2337\pm 14).$$
(11)
A true glueball (G) has no valence quark content and hence must belong to the scalar representation of the parity-chiral group, $`G(0,0)`$.

If chiral symmetry is a good symmetry then the index of the corresponding irreducible representation of the parity-chiral group becomes a good quantum number. Hence quantum mechanics forbids a mixing of the states that belong to different representations, even though all other quantum numbers coincide and states are close in energy. Since the true glueball by definition belongs to the $`(0,0)`$ representation and the approximately degenerate $`f_0`$ and $`\pi `$ mesons form the $`(1/2,1/2)`$ representation, they cannot be mixed. This explains why $`f_0(2102)`$, which is presumably a glueball and has no partner in the pion spectrum, and which is very close to $`f_0(2040)`$, that is a $`n\overline{n}`$ state, does not mix with the latter. If confirmed by a detailed study of decay modes, it would be better to rename $`f_0(2102)`$ as $`G(2102)`$.

Clearly, the chiral restoration is not exact at masses of 2 GeV, so a small amount of mixing is still possible. Hence, it is a very important experimental task to study in detail decay modes and mixings of these high-lying states. The prize for these efforts would be that we identify and study a ”true” glueball.

We can also look at the same problem from the other perspective. If a detailed study of decay modes confirmes that $`f_0(2102)`$ is a glueball and that $`f_0(2040)`$ is a $`n\overline{n}`$ state, then it would be an independent confirmation of chiral symmetry restoration.

As a conclusion, chiral symmetry restoration high in the hadron spectra provides a natural basis for the absence of a strong mixing between those scalar mesons that are chiral partners of pions, and those scalar mesons, that represent a glueball. Then we have an opportunity to study a ”true” glueball of QCD.

Acknowledgements

The work was supported by the FWF project P14806-TPH of the Austrian Science Fund.


text:
# On the irreversibility of entanglement distillation

## I Introduction

One of the paradigmatic innovations of quantum information theory is to consider entanglement not only as an apparently paradoxical feature of distributed quantum systems, but rather as a physical resource for quantum information processing tasks. This resource point of view naturally raises the question, how to quantify the entanglement.

For pure bipartite quantum states there exists, under reasonable assumptions, a unique measure of entanglement (cf. dhr02 ), which can in addition easily be calculated. For mixed states, however, there is a large variety of inequivalent entanglement measures, which are either extremely hard to calculate, or do not satisfy some of the “reasonable assumptions”. Two of these measures, however, stand out due to there physical meaning: the entanglement cost $`E_c`$, and the distillable entanglement $`E_D`$. $`E_c`$ is the amount of pure state entanglement asymptotically needed in order to prepare a given mixed state, whereas the distillable entanglement is the amount of pure state entanglement that can asymptotically be extracted from it (cf. spaeter ). Both, preparation and distillation process, are assumed to use only local operations and classical communication (LOCC).

The present paper is devoted to the question to what extent entanglement distillation is an (ir-)reversible operation. We will give a complete characterization of the reversibility properties of the entire set of non-trivial distillable mixed states for which the (entanglement assisted) distillable entanglement is known so far.

It was recently proven that there are indeed examples, for which $`E_D`$ is strictly smaller than $`E_c`$, hence entanglement distillation is not reversible in general Cirac ; VC01 ; VC02 ; HSS0 . However, it is yet unclear, whether this is an exceptional feature of specific quantum states, or a generic property of all mixed states. The particular variational and asymptotic nature of $`E_c`$ and $`E_D`$ makes this an intrinsically hard problem, even if we have not to calculate both measures explicitly. Although a general answer to this question seems to be out of reach at the moment, we are able to completely classify a $`(d1)`$ parameter family of non-trivial mixed states in arbitrary Hilbert space dimensions $`d\times d`$ with respect to their reversibility properties.

For the considered class of states, irreversibility turns out to be generic. This remains true even if the distillation process is catalytically assisted by pure state entanglement and the class of allowed distillation operations is considerably enlarged. Moreover, all the reversible cases correspond to pure states which are hidden in a mixture, that can, however, be broken up by means of local operations. Surprisingly, the equality $`E_cE_D`$ is for the states under consideration essentially equivalent to a discrete entropic uncertainty relation, such that the cases of reversibility are completely characterized by vectors of minimal uncertainty. The Appendix shows how to explicitly calculate the amount of undistillable entanglement $`(E_cE_D)`$ for some examples.

Before specifying and proving these results, we will begin with providing some prerequisites and recalling recent results.

## II Preliminaries

### II.1 States under consideration

Let $`\{\mathrm{\Psi }_{kl}\}`$ with $`k,l=0,\mathrm{},d1`$ be an orthonormal basis of maximally entangled states in $`_{AB}=^d^d`$, given by

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }_{kl}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{d}}\underset{j=0}{\overset{d1}{}}|jU_{kl}|j,U_{kl}=\underset{r=0}{\overset{d1}{}}\eta ^{rl}|k+rr|,$$
(1)
where addition inside the ket is modulo $`d`$ and $`\eta =e^{\frac{2\pi i}{d}}`$.

We will in the following consider states of the form

$$\rho _\lambda =\underset{l=0}{\overset{d1}{}}\lambda _l|\mathrm{\Psi }_l\mathrm{\Psi }_l|,\mathrm{\Psi }_l=\mathrm{\Psi }_{0l},$$
(2)
which form a $`(d1)`$ parameter family of rank deficient states, characterized by the probability vector $`\lambda ^d`$. Note that we could equivalently choose $`\mathrm{\Psi }_l=\mathrm{\Psi }_{g+fl,l}`$ with arbitrary integers $`g,f`$, or any other set of states, which differs from $`\{\mathrm{\Psi }_l\}`$ only by the choice of local bases. It is readily verified that $`\rho _\lambda `$ is entangled unless $`\lambda _l\frac{1}{d}`$ (cf.VWhash ). Like all states, which are diagonal with respect to the basis $`\{\mathrm{\Psi }_{kl}\}`$, every state $`\rho _\lambda `$ commutes with any element of the abelian symmetry group $`G=\{U_{k,l}U_{k,l}\}`$ VWhash . In particular, $`\rho _\lambda `$ is invariant under the LOCC twirl operation $`𝒯(\rho )=d^2_{gG}g^{}\rho g`$, which maps any state $`\rho `$ onto a symmetric state $`𝒯(\rho )`$, which is diagonal with respect to $`\{\mathrm{\Psi }_{kl}\}`$. We will in the following make extensive use of the symmetry properties of $`\rho _\lambda `$ and the particular form of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_l`$.

### II.2 Entanglement measures and state transformations

For pure bipartite states there exists, under reasonable assumptions, a unique measure of entanglement: the von Neumann entropy of the reduced state $`E(\phi )=S\left(\mathrm{tr}_A(|\phi \phi |)\right)`$, where $`S(\rho )=_ip_i\mathrm{log}p_i`$ is the Shannon entropy of the spectrum $`\{p_i\}`$ of $`\rho `$. For simplicity we will use the same notation for the Shannon and von Neumann entropy, i.e., $`S(\rho )=S(\{p_i\})`$.

Every pure state $`\phi `$ can by means of LOCC operations be transformed into maximally entangled states $`\psi `$ in an asymptotically reversible manner, such that the number of maximally entangled states per copy of $`\phi `$ is given by $`E(\phi )`$. That is, we can locally transform $`\psi ^{nE(\phi )}\phi ^n\psi ^{nE(\phi )}`$ for $`n\mathrm{}`$, where $`\psi `$ is any maximally entangled two qubit state.

For a mixed state $`\rho `$ the amount of pure state entanglement which is asymptotically required for the preparation of $`\rho `$ and the amount that can be extracted from it, need not be the same. However, it is from a physical point of view obvious, that the entanglement cost $`E_c`$ is in general larger than or equal to the distillable entanglement $`E_D`$, where $`E_D`$ and $`E_c`$ are the asymptotically optimal rates in

$$\psi ^{nE_c}\rho ^n\psi ^{nE_D},\text{for}n\mathrm{}.$$
(3)
In fact, it was proven in Cirac ; VC01 ; VC02 , that there are undistillable ($`E_D=0`$) as well as distillable $`(E_D>0)`$ cases, for which $`E_c>E_D`$, such that there is some undistillable entanglement contained in the state, which makes the distillation process irreversible. One of these examples investigated in Cirac  is in fact $`\rho _\lambda `$ for the case $`d=2`$.

It is well known terhal  that $`E_c(\rho )=lim_n\mathrm{}E_f(\rho ^n)/n`$ is the asymptotic entanglement of formation $`E_f(\rho )=inf_iq_iE(\phi _i)`$, where the infimum is taken over all pure state decompositions $`\rho =_iq_i|\phi _i\phi _i|`$. For symmetric states like $`\rho _\lambda `$ this computation can be simplified VWsym , such that $`E_f=\text{co}ϵ(\rho )`$ is the convex hull of the function

$$ϵ(\rho )=inf\left\{E(\phi )\right|\rho =𝒯(|\phi \phi |)\}.$$
(4)
Moreover, it was shown in VWhash ; Rains2  that the distillable entanglement for states of the form $`\rho _\lambda `$ is bounded from above by $`E_D(\rho _\lambda )\mathrm{log}dS(\{\lambda _i\})=E_D^+(\rho _\lambda )`$ distent . Here $`E_D^+`$ is the PPT entanglement assisted distillable entanglement. That is, the class of allowed operations leading to the optimal rate $`E_D^+`$ is enlarged from LOCC to maps preserving the positivity of the partial transpose (PPT) PPT , and the process is in addition assisted by loaned pure-state entanglement.

### II.3 Discrete uncertainty relations

The well known Heisenberg uncertainty relation states that a function and its Fourier transform cannot both be highly concentrated. Analogous relations can also be formulated for the case of a finite dimensional vector $`c^d`$ ($`c0`$) and its discrete Fourier transform $`\widehat{c}`$, $`\widehat{c}_k=\frac{1}{\sqrt{d}}_l\eta ^{kl}c_l`$. It is known, for instance from classical signal recovery CRS  that

$$|\text{supp}(c)||\text{supp}(\widehat{c})|d,$$
(5)
where $`|\text{supp}(c)|`$ is the number of non-zero components of $`c`$. Equality in Eq.(5) is attained iff CRS

$$c_l=\alpha \eta ^{\beta l}\delta _{0,(l+\gamma )\text{mod}d_1},$$
(6)
where $`\beta ,\gamma `$ are arbitrary integers, $`\alpha `$ is any proportionality constant and $`d_1`$ is a factor of $`d`$, such that $`d_1d_2=d`$.

Instead of quantifying the “concentration” of $`c`$ and $`\widehat{c}`$ by their supports, we could as well use the entropy, and it was proven in Maavier , that if $`c`$ is normalized, then

$$S\left(\{|c_l|^2\}\right)+S\left(\{|\widehat{c}_k|^2\}\right)\mathrm{log}d.$$
(7)
The case of equality in Eq.(7) was discussed in iff , where it was shown that in this case all non-zero $`c_l`$ as well as all $`\widehat{c}_k0`$ have to have the same moduli, such that Eq.(7) reduces to Eq.(5) and the complete set of minimal uncertainty vectors is again given by Eq.(6).

We will discuss in the following section, how the entropic uncertainty inequality is for the set of states $`\rho _\lambda `$ related to the irreversibility of entanglement distillation.

## III Generic irreversibility

Our aim is to give a complete characterization of the cases of equality in $`E_c(\rho _\lambda )E_D(\rho _\lambda )`$ and $`E_c(\rho _\lambda )E_D^+(\rho _\lambda )`$. We have therefore to find a sufficiently close estimate for the entanglement cost, which is considerably simplified by the symmetry properties of $`\rho _\lambda `$.

First, we can utilize a result of Cirac  in order to show that $`E_c=E_f`$: if there is an isometry $`V:_A_A_B`$, which is such that $`(X)=\mathrm{tr}_B(VXV^{})`$ is an entanglement breaking map, then $`E_c(\rho )=E_f(\rho )`$ holds for every $`\rho `$ with support in $`VV^{}`$. The general form shor  of an entanglement breaking map, which is such that $`\text{id}`$ “breaks” the entanglement of every input state, is given by

$$(X)=\underset{j}{}\sigma _j\mathrm{tr}(F_jX),$$
(8)
where $`\{F_j\}`$ is a POVM ($`F_j0,_jF_j=\mathrm{𝟏}`$) and $`\{\sigma _j\}`$ is a set of density operators.

Let us choose $`V:|l|\mathrm{\Psi }_l`$, such that $`\rho _\lambda `$ is clearly in the support of $`VV^{}`$. Then $`(X)=_l\varphi _l|X|\varphi _l|ll|`$, with $`|\varphi _l=\frac{1}{\sqrt{d}}_j\eta ^{lj}|j`$ has the required property, and hence, the entanglement cost is indeed equal to the entanglement of formation HSS .

Utilizing that $`\rho _\lambda `$ has a symmetry group $`G`$ of local unitaries, we can furthermore simplify the calculation of $`E_f`$, such that we have the chain of (in-)equalities:

$$E_DE_D^+E_c=E_f=\text{co}ϵϵ.$$
(9)
Now note that $`\text{co}ϵ`$ is strictly smaller than $`ϵ`$ only on affine pieces. Since $`E_D^+(\rho _\lambda )=\mathrm{log}dS(\{\lambda _l\})`$ is, however, strictly convex, i.e., nowhere affine, $`E_D^+(\rho _\lambda )=\text{co}ϵ(\rho _\lambda )`$ implies that also $`E_D^+(\rho _\lambda )=ϵ(\rho _\lambda )`$. We can therefore disregard taking the convex hull, since it does not alter the set of states for which equality is obtained.

In order to specify the function $`ϵ(\rho _\lambda )`$ we need first a characterization of pure states $`\phi `$, which are mapped onto $`\rho _\lambda `$ by the twirl operation $`𝒯(|\phi \phi |)`$. Since $`𝒯`$ preserves every expectation value with respect to any element of $`\{\mathrm{\Psi }_{kl}\}`$, and the latter form an orthonormal basis in Hilbert space, we have that $`\phi `$ has to be of the form

$$|\phi =\underset{l=0}{\overset{d1}{}}c_l|\mathrm{\Psi }_l,\text{with}|c_l|^2=\lambda _l.$$
(10)
Straightforward calculation shows then, that the entanglement of $`\phi `$ is given by $`E(\phi )=S\left(\{|\widehat{c}_k|^2\}\right)`$, where $`\widehat{c}`$ is the discrete Fourier transform of $`c`$.

Combining all these observations we obtain that cases of equality in $`E_c(\rho _\lambda )E_D^+(\rho _\lambda )`$ are exactly given by the minimal uncertainty vectors for the discrete entropic uncertainty relation, i.e.,

$$S\left(\{|c_l|^2\}\right)+S\left(\{|\widehat{c}_k|^2\}\right)=\mathrm{log}dE_c(\rho _\lambda )=E_D^+(\rho _\lambda ),$$

where $`\lambda _l=|c_l|^2`$. Due to Eq.(6) the vectors of minimal uncertainty correspond to a discrete set of states $`\rho _\lambda `$. In other words, the irreversibility of the process of entanglement distillation is generic even in the case where the distillation process is catalytically assisted by pure entangled states and the allowed operations are PPT preserving rather than LOCC. Moreover, in prime dimensions Eq.(6) gives only rise to trivial solutions corresponding to pure states, so that in this case every mixed state $`\rho _\lambda `$ contains some undistillable entanglement.

We will in the following section have a closer look at the reversible cases appearing in non-prime dimensions.

## IV Quasi-pure states

It is not difficult to see, that there are entangled mixed states for which the distillation and preparation processes are asymptotically reversible. A simple example are pure states “hidden” in a mixture, which can, however, be broken up by means of LOCC operations without destroying entanglement. The simple idea is to add a Hilbert space $`_C`$, which contains a locally measurable tag $`t`$ for every entangled state $`\mathrm{\Phi }_t_A_B`$ appearing in the mixture:

$$\tau =\underset{t}{}p_t|\mathrm{\Phi }_t\mathrm{\Phi }_t||tt|.$$
(11)
The locally distinguishable states $`|t_C`$ may either correspond to one or to both parties. In the latter case they have to be products such that they do not contain any entanglement. It is then easy to see, that $`E_c(\tau )=E_D(\tau )=_tp_tE(\mathrm{\Phi }_t)`$, since the pure state $`\mathrm{\Phi }_t`$ can by construction be identified with unit efficiency by local measurements on $`_C`$. As states of the form $`\tau `$, which have already appeared in schummel , are in this sense essentially (hidden) pure states, we will call them quasi-pure.

Let us now turn to the case $`E_c(\rho _\lambda )=E_D^+(\rho _\lambda )`$ again. For simplicity we will change the local bases and choose $`\mathrm{\Psi }_l=\mathrm{\Psi }_{l0}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{d}}_j|j,j+l`$ now. Eq.(6) tells us that reversibility in dimension $`d=d_1d_2`$ occurs only if the state is up to local unitaries of the form $`\rho _\lambda `$ with $`\lambda _l=\frac{1}{d_2}\delta _{0,l\text{mod}d_1}`$. Writing down this state leads after some simple substitutions to

$$\rho _\lambda =|\mathrm{\Psi }_{00}^{(d_1)}\mathrm{\Psi }_{00}^{(d_1)}|\underset{k=0}{\overset{d_21}{}}\frac{1}{d_2}|\mathrm{\Psi }_{k0}^{(d_2)}\mathrm{\Psi }_{k0}^{(d_2)}|,$$
(12)
where the upper indices label the dimension of the respective states. The tensor product in Eq.(12) corresponds to a split of the form $`_{A_1B_1}_{A_2B_2}`$ rather than to an $`A|B`$ split. As pointed out in Sec.II.1 the second part in Eq.(12) is, however, a separable state, such that each reversible $`\rho _\lambda `$ corresponds to the trivial case of a quasi-pure state for which all $`\mathrm{\Phi }_t`$ are the same. It is evident that in these cases $`E_D=E_D^+`$, since the states are already distilled after discarding the separable part.

## V Conclusion

We have discussed the irreversibility of entanglement distillation for the entire set of non-trivial distillable mixed states for which the (entanglement assisted) distillable entanglement is known so far. The result is supporting evidence for the conjecture that irreversibility in the distillation process is a generic property of mixed states. As a byproduct we rederived the discrete entropic uncertainty relation (for complementary observables) from the simple statement that entanglement is non-increasing under LOCC operations. Within the considered set of states reversible cases are thus characterized by minimal uncertainty vectors, which in turn were shown to correspond to quasi-pure states.

## Acknowledgement

MMW is grateful to H. Maassen for valuable comments on entropic uncertainty relations. Funding by the European Union project EQUIP (contract IST-1999-11053) and financial support from the DFG (Bonn) is gratefully acknowledged.

## Appendix A

Here, we will show how to explicitly calculate the amount of undistillable entanglement for some states $`\rho _\lambda `$. We can in particular circumvent the calculation of the infimum in Eq.(4), if all the eigenvalues $`\lambda _l`$ except one are equal:

###### Proposition 1

The entanglement of formation of the state $`\rho _{\lambda (\nu )}`$ with $`\lambda (\nu )=\{\nu +\frac{1\nu }{d},\frac{1\nu }{d},\frac{1\nu }{d},\mathrm{}\}`$ is equal to the entanglement of formation of an isotropic state $`\sigma (f)=f|\mathrm{\Psi }_0\mathrm{\Psi }_0|+\frac{1f}{d^21}(\mathrm{𝟏}|\mathrm{\Psi }_0\mathrm{\Psi }_0|)`$ with $`f=\nu +\frac{1\nu }{d}`$. The entanglement of the latter was calculated in TV .

This result is implied by the general extension method for isotropic states discussed in VWsym . We will, however, give here a simpler proof, that is based on the fact that for states diagonal w.r.t. $`\{\mathrm{\Psi }_{kl}\}`$ as well as for isotropic states there exist a twirl operation $`𝒯`$ resp. $`𝒯^{U\overline{U}}`$, which is entanglement non-increasing as it is a LOCC operation.

Since $`𝒯^{U\overline{U}}(\rho _{\lambda (\nu )})=\sigma (f)`$ it follows that

$$E_f(\rho _{\lambda (\nu )})E_f(\sigma (f)).$$
(13)
Now, consider the pure states giving rise to the minimum in the optimization problem of $`ϵ`$ for isotropic states TV :

$$\varphi _\nu =\sqrt{\nu }\mathrm{\Psi }_0+\sqrt{1\nu }|00$$
(14)
By twirling over the discrete group G, i.e., $`𝒯(|\varphi _\nu \varphi _\nu |)=\rho _{\lambda (\nu )}`$ we get $`E_f(\rho _{\lambda (\nu )})ϵ(\sigma (f))`$, and thus

$$ϵ(\sigma (f))E_f(\rho _{\lambda (\nu )})E_f(\sigma (f))=\text{co}ϵ(\sigma (f)).$$
(15)
Since the convex hull of $`ϵ`$ is the largest convex function below $`ϵ`$ and $`E_f(\rho _{\lambda (\nu )})`$ is a convex function, we have indeed $`E_f(\rho _{\lambda (\nu )})=E_f(\sigma (f))`$.