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# High-𝑝_⟂ charged particle azimuthal correlations at RHIC

## 1 Introduction

With the beginning of RHIC operation heavy-ion physics entered a new regime, where pQCD phenomena can be fully explored. High-energy partons materializing into hadronic jets can be used as sensitive probes of the early stage of heavy ion collisions. Measurements carried out during the first two years of RHIC operation at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$=130 and 200 GeV exhibit many surprising features. The high-$`p_{}`$ particle yield was found to be strongly suppressed in $`Au+Au`$ central collisions , and the particle distribution in azimuthal space reveals large asymmetries attributed to sizable elliptic flow . Furthermore, the azimuthal anisotropy in the region of $`p_{}`$$`>`$2.5-3 GeV/$`c`$, where the contribution from hydrodynamics is expected to be negligible, is found to be significant and $`p_{}`$ independent . Another unique feature, found in RHIC data, is the observation of back-to-back jet correlation disappearance in central $`Au+Au`$ collisions . Although tremendous progress in the understanding of these phenomena has been made, an unambiguous picture merging all observables in a consistent way still has to be developed.

The QCD medium effect on high-$`p_{}`$ particle production in heavy ion collisions is quantified with the nuclear modification factor $`R_{AA}(p_{})`$ given by the ratio of the measured $`AA`$ invariant yields to the $`NN`$ collision scaled $`p+p`$ invariant yields (eq. (1) in ). With no nuclear modification of particle yield, $`R_{AA}(p_{})=1`$. The large decrease of $`R_{AA}(p_{})`$ observed in central $`Au+Au`$ collisions is commonly attributed to the multiple interactions of highly energetic quarks with excited nuclear medium. Induced soft-gluon radiation carries off a significant fraction of each parton’s energy, which leads to the depletion of the high-$`p_{}`$ particle yield .

It is expected that the same mechanism of parton energy loss in the nuclear medium should also generate azimuthal anisotropies observed in the high-$`p_{}`$ region. However, as it was first pointed out by E.Shuryak  and B. Muller , the influence of the nuclear medium on parton trajectory, although sufficient for excessive yield suppression, is not capable to generate azimuthal anisotropies larger than 10%.

It has been suggested that the partonic “collective” hadronization might amplify the hadronic flow to the values of $`v_2`$, as seen in experiment, if one assumes some sort of partonic coalescence . The $`v_2`$ values of identified $`\pi ^\pm `$, $`K^\pm `$ and $`p\overline{p}`$ , and $`K_S^0`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$  scaled by its quark content are apparently suggesting some kind of partonic collectivity. However, more data, especially identified particles at high-$`p_{}`$, are needed.

Relatively good quantitative description of the high-$`p_{}`$ $`v_2(p_{})`$ data was achieved in the model  based on extension of the original “Color Glass Condensate” ($`CGC`$) model . The mono-jet (one gluon) radiation in classical $`CGC`$ has been extended by including two-gluon production amplitude. This two-gluon radiation term generates two-particle azimuthal correlations, which are evidently strong enough to account for the measured strength of $`v_2(p_{})`$. The elliptic flow in this model does not respect the reaction plane, and the azimuthal anisotropy is solely of the two-particle correlations nature. However, the absence of the correlation between spatial distribution of particle emission and the orientation of the reaction plane in this model seems to contradict some of the other observation, e.g. reaction plane dependent HBT . Moreover, the recent results from $`d+Au`$ analysis  leave only small room for initial state phenomena required by $`CGC`$ model.

In the next section we will present the analysis of the two-particle correlation function in $`p+p`$ collisions, where the elliptic flow correlation is not present and the jet properties can be studied in a “clean” environment.

## 2 Jet fragmentation in $`p+p`$ collisions
at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$=200 GeV

Jets are produced in the hard scattering of two partons. The schematic view of such an event in the plane perpendicular to the beam axis is shown on Fig. 1. Two scattered partons propagate back-to-back from the collision point and fragment into the jet-like spray of final state particles (only one fragment of each parton is shown). These particles have a transverse momentum $`\stackrel{}{ȷ}_{}`$ with respect to the partonic transverse momentum. The magnitude of $`\stackrel{}{ȷ}_{}`$ has been observed to be $`p_{}`$ independent (see ).

In the case of collinear partonic collisions the two emerging partons would have the same magnitude of transverse momenta pointing to the opposite directions. However, the partons are carrying initial intrinsic momenta $`\stackrel{}{k}_{}`$ before the collision happens. This affects the outgoing direction and magnitude of partonic $`p_{}`$. It results in a momentum imbalance (the partons’ $`p_{}`$ are not equal) and an acoplanarity (transverse momentum of one jet does not lie in the plane determined by the transverse momentum of the second jet and the beam axes). The jets are not collinear and have a net transverse momentum $`\sqrt{p_{}^2}_{pair}=\sqrt{2}\sqrt{k_{}^2}`$ of magnitude .

If the jet axes were known, then the average projection of $`\stackrel{}{ȷ}_{}`$ into the plane perpendicular to the beam axes can be determined in the following way

$$|j_y|=p_{}\mathrm{sin}|\varphi _i\varphi _{jet}|$$
(1)
where $`p_{}`$ is the average $`p_{}`$ of the particles produced in the fragmentation process. Here $`\varphi _{jet}`$ and $`\varphi _i`$ are azimuthal angles of the parton and $`i`$-th fragment respectively. However, we can only measure the relative angular dispersion between two jet fragments $`i`$ and $`j`$ which is $`\sigma _N\sqrt{(\varphi _i\varphi _j)^2}=\sqrt{2}\sqrt{(\varphi _i\varphi _{jet})^2}=\sqrt{\pi }|\varphi _i\varphi _{jet}|`$. The final formula for $`|j_y|`$ is

$$|j_y|=p_{}\mathrm{sin}\frac{\sigma _N}{\sqrt{\pi }}$$
(2)
In order to extract $`\sqrt{k_{}^2}`$ from measured width of away side correlation peak, $`\sigma _F`$, we used the equation for the average transverse momentum $`|p_{out}|`$ out of the plane defined by $`\stackrel{}{p}_{Trigger}`$ and the beam axis (see ).

$$|p_{out}|^2=|j_y|^2+x_E^2(|j_y|^2+2|k_y|^2)$$
(3)
where

$$x_E\frac{\stackrel{}{p}_{}\stackrel{}{p}_{Trigger}}{|\stackrel{}{p}_{Trigger}|^2}$$
(4)
with $`\stackrel{}{p}_{}`$ being the momentum of the particles produced in the opposite direction to the $`\stackrel{}{p}_{Trigger}`$. For the case where the magnitudes of $`\stackrel{}{p}_{Trigger}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{p}_{}`$ are similar, then

$$x_E\mathrm{cos}(|\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi |)=\mathrm{cos}(\sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi }}\sigma _F)$$
(5)
The magnitude of $`|p_{out}|`$ is expressed as

$$|p_{out}|=p_{}\mathrm{sin}(|\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi |)=p_{}\mathrm{sin}(\sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi }}\sigma _F)$$
(6)
From (3) and using (2) one can derive the relation

$$|k_y|=p_{}\mathrm{cos}\frac{\sigma _N}{\sqrt{\pi }}\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{tan}^2\left(\sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi }}\sigma _F\right)\mathrm{tan}^2\left(\sqrt{\frac{1}{\pi }}\sigma _N\right)}$$
(7)
In the limit of small angles, $`\sigma _N0`$, $`\sigma _F0`$ and equations (2) and (7) simplify to

$`\sqrt{j_{}^2}`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{\pi }|j_y|p_{}\sigma _N`$
$`\sqrt{k_{}^2}`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{\pi }|k_y|p_{}\sqrt{\sigma _F^2\sigma _N^2}`$ (8)
An example of the two-particle correlation function ($`CF`$), defined as a ratio of “real” and “mixed” particle pairs distributions $`C(\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi )=\frac{dN_{real}}{d\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi }/\frac{dN_{mixed}}{d\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi }`$, in $`p+p`$ collisions is shown in Fig. 2 for $`p_{}`$ = 1.2 GeV/$`c`$ (left panel) and $`p_{}`$ = 3.1 GeV/$`c`$ (right panel).

The correlation functions are area-normalized ($`_\pi ^\pi C(\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi )=2\pi `$). A significant excess of small angle ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi `$=0, intra-jet correlations) and large angle ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi =\pm \pi `$, inter-jet correlations) is evident. The data were fitted by

$$Fit(C,Y_N,\sigma _N,Y_F,\sigma _F)=C+Y_NGauss(\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi =0,\sigma _N)+Y_FGauss(\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi =\pm \pi ,\sigma _F)$$
(9)
function, where $`C`$ is the constant, $`Y_N`$, $`\sigma _N`$, $`Y_F`$ and $`\sigma _F`$ are the yields and peak widths of near and far angle peaks respectively.

The analysis of the correlation functions for various $`p_{}`$-bins were performed. Extracted values of $`\sigma _N`$ and $`\sigma _F`$ are shown on Fig. 3. The angular width of the near and far angle peak is decreasing with $`p_{}`$ as expected in case of jet fragmentation. The values of $`|j_y|`$ and $`|k_y|`$ were extracted. In case of $`|j_y|`$ (upper right panel of Fig. 3) one can observe the reduction of $`|j_y|`$ extracted for lowest $`p_{}`$-bins. This is caused by $`p_{}`$ truncation, sometimes referred as “Seagull effect”  (the $`j_{}`$ at given $`p_{}`$ cannot be larger then $`p_{}`$ itself, and thus the measured $`\sigma _N`$ and $`j_{}`$ at $`p_{}j_{}`$ is accordingly reduced.) One can easily account for such truncation and the result of the fit procedure is shown as a dashed line on upper right panel of Fig. 3.

The average value is

$`|j_y|`$ = 373 $`\pm `$ 16MeV/c.

The average $`|k_y|`$ was extracted by fitting a constant to the data above 1.5 GeV/$`c`$. The average value found is

$`|k_y|`$ = 725 $`\pm `$ 34 MeV/c.

The comparison of $`|j_y|`$ with results of CCOR collaboration  (left panel on Fig. 4) shows a good agreement. The $`|k_y|`$ parameter could be compared to average RMS of the pair’s momentum $`\sqrt{p_{}^2}_{pair}`$, which has been studied on $`p+\overline{p}`$ Tevatron collider at Fermilab . The pair’s $`p_{}`$ is related to the individual parton $`|k_y|`$ by the expression

$$\sqrt{p_{}^2}_{pair}=\sqrt{2}\sqrt{k_{}^2}=\sqrt{2\pi }|k_y|$$
(10)
Extracted value of $`\sqrt{p_{}^2}_{pair}`$=1.82$`\pm `$0.85 GeV/$`c`$ is in good agreement with $`p+\overline{p}`$ data. This value could be also compared to $`p_{}`$=1.80 $`\pm `$ 0.23 (stat) $`\pm `$ 0.16 (sys) GeV/$`c`$ of PHENIX $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$ measurement .

## 3 Two-particle correlation in $`AA`$

Since the colliding heavy nuclei have a finite radius, the collision zone, except in very central collisions, has typical “almond” like shape with transverse dimensions of order of few fm. This geometrical azimuthal asymmetry is usually characterized by eccentricity

$$ϵ(b)=\frac{<y^2x^2>}{<y^2+x^2>}$$
(11)
where $`x`$ and $`y`$ are the coordinates of colliding nuclear constituents in transverse plane and $`b`$ is the magnitude of the impact parameter. In the hydrodynamical approach , the original geometrical asymmetry is transformed into momentum space by means of multiple interactions between particles. The anisotropy in the momentum space is parametrized in the same way as spatial anisotropy

$$v_2(p_{},b)=\frac{<p_x^2p_y^2>}{<p_x^2+p_y^2>}$$
(12)
where $`v_2(p_{},b)`$ corresponds to the second harmonic coefficient of Fourier expansion of the particles azimuthal distribution

$$\frac{dN_f}{d\varphi }\left[1+2v_2\mathrm{cos}(2(\varphi \mathrm{\Psi }))\right]$$
(13)
Here $`\varphi `$ is the relative azimuthal angle of the particle emission with respect to the reaction plane $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$. In the case of “pure” flow, when the particles’ correlation is completely generated by (13), the correlation function has a form

$$\frac{dN_f}{d\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi }=_\pi ^\pi 𝑑\varphi \frac{dN_f}{d\varphi }\frac{dN_f}{d(\varphi +\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi )}(1+2v_2^2\mathrm{cos}(2\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi ))$$
(14)
It is obvious that the azimuthal anisotropy $`v_2`$ generated by nuclear geometry cannot exceed the magnitude of eccentricity $`ϵ`$ at given impact parameter.

In the “sharp sphere” approach, where the nuclear density is assumed to be constant inside and zero outside sphere of radius $`R`$, the eccentricity of a collision at impact parameter $`b=|\stackrel{}{b}|`$ is $`ϵ=b/2R`$, and the geometrical $`v_2`$ could be as large as 1; but this approach is too idealized. When the more realistic nuclear density distribution of “Saxon-Woods” type is taken into account , the maximum value of $`ϵ`$ barely reaches 50% (see Fig.5).

However, the momentum anisotropy generated by collision geometry, irrespective of details of collision dynamics, can be only smaller. Since the anisotropy in the high-$`p_{}`$ region cannot be generated by hydrodynamic flow (we will ignore the initial state effects described in ), the expected source of observed anisotropy is the process of energy loss of high energy partons in excited nuclear medium. The upper limit on $`v_2`$ generated by jet-quenching mechanism can be computed in a similar way described in .

The parton born in hard scattering events inside the collision almond has to travel the distance $`L`$ in the medium before it reaches the outer space. The “primordial” azimuthal asymmetry of the medium, where the hard scattering event happened, gradually vanishes as the medium expands. Since we are searching for an upper limit on $`v_2`$ generated by jet-quenching mechanism we can neglect any dynamic and expansion of the collision zone.

The energy loss of the parton propagating through the medium could be characterized by absorption coefficient $`\kappa `$ (dimension fm-3). The probability of escaping the medium for parton born at the space point $`\stackrel{}{x}_0`$, which propagates along the direction $`\stackrel{}{n}`$, could be expressed as

$$f(\stackrel{}{x}_0,\stackrel{}{n})=exp[\kappa _0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑sL_{}(\stackrel{}{x}_0+s\stackrel{}{n})L_+(\stackrel{}{x}_0+s\stackrel{}{n})].$$
(15)
(see Fig. 7). Here $`L_\pm (x,y)=2[R^2y^2(x\pm b/2)^2]^{1/2}`$, nuclear thicknesses along the beam axis in case of sharp sphere approach, characterizes the nuclear density at space point $`(x,y)`$ and it is proportional to the probability of hard scattering .

In more realistic Glauber model one has to replace $`L_{}L_+`$ by $`N_{part}(\stackrel{}{x})`$ distribution, which characterizes the density of excited nuclear medium. The probability distribution of hard scattering is approximated with the product of two thickness functions $`T_A(x,y)T_B(x,y)`$ (see ). As it was mentioned, this approach provides only an upper limit of $`v_2`$ from the jet quenching mechanism. Any more realistic scenario with a detailed calculation of partonic interactions with expanding QCD medium could lead only to reduction of the resulting $`v_2`$.

The $`\kappa `$ parameter is the only unknown parameter in this calculation and could be estimated from the comparison of the absorption rate dependency on collision centrality expressed in terms of $`N_{part}`$ (see Fig. 6). Adjusting the absorption coefficient $`\kappa `$ comparing to PHENIX $`\pi ^0`$ $`R_{AA}`$ for $`p_{}>`$4 GeV/$`c`$, we found the $`\kappa `$=0.1 fm-3 provides the best agreement with the data. But the maximum $`v_2`$ in this case is 6%. For less realistic values of $`\kappa `$ the maximum value of $`v_2`$ reaches 10%. However, the values of $`v_2(p_{})`$ measured by the PHENIX collaboration using two-particle correlation techniques exceeds this maximum “jet-quenching” $`v_2(p_{})`$ by a factor of 3.

The solid line on the right panel of Fig. 6 represents an idealized limit in sharp sphere approach, when $`\kappa \mathrm{}`$, and only radiation emitted from the surface is not absorbed . The escape probability $`\mathrm{P}_{esc}`$ is in the $`\sigma \mathrm{}`$ limit

$$\mathrm{P}_{esc}=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑hexp(\rho \sigma h/\mathrm{cos}\theta )\mathrm{cos}\theta |_\sigma \mathrm{}.$$
(16)
where $`\rho `$ stands for nuclear density, $`\sigma `$ for absorption cross section and the product $`\rho \sigma `$ has similar meaning as $`\kappa `$ parameter. The $`v_2`$ can be obtained from integration

$$v_2=cos(2\varphi )=𝑑\varphi \mathrm{P}_{esc}cos(2\varphi )=_{\alpha _m}^{\alpha _m}𝑑\alpha _{\pi /2}^{\pi /2}𝑑\theta \mathrm{cos}\theta \frac{\mathrm{cos}2(\theta +\alpha )}{22\alpha }=\frac{\mathrm{sin}2\alpha _m}{6\alpha _m}$$
(17)
where $`\alpha _m=\sqrt{R^2(b/2)^2}`$.

As one can see on Fig. 6, even the unphysical model of black body radiation providing the upper “geometrical” limit on $`v_2`$ , still does not generate enough azimuthal anisotropy as observed in data. It is evident, that in order to to explain measured azimuthal anisotropies, some new underlying mechanism, other than just the “jet-quenching”, has to be invoked.

## 4 Summary

We have presented the detailed shape analysis of the two-hadron correlation function in $`p+p`$ collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$=200 GeV. The average jet-transverse momentum $`|j_y|`$ = 373 $`\pm `$ 16MeV/c was measured. The average partons transverse momentum $`|k_y|`$ was extracted by fitting the constant to the data above 1.5 GeV/$`c`$, and the average value of $`|k_y|`$ = 725 $`\pm `$ 34 MeV/c was found. The comparison of $`|j_y|`$ with measurement done by CCOR experiment  shows good agreement and no significant trend with increasing $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$. The value of $`|k_y|`$ was compared to the values extracted from data take at Tevatron collider, and no significant deviation from the overall trend was found. The indirect measure of partonic primordial transverse momentum is the average $`p_{}`$ of $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$ mesons. Such a measurement has been done by PHENIX collaboration as well, and the value of $`p_{}`$=1.80 $`\pm `$ 0.23 (stat) $`\pm `$ 0.16 (sys) GeV/$`c`$ has been found to be in good agreement with the $`\sqrt{p_{}^2}_{pair}`$ = 1.82 $`\pm `$ 0.09 GeV/$`c`$ (see eq. 10).

The analysis of two-particle correlation in $`Au+Au`$ at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$= 200 GeV is also presented. Using the simple Glauber model we have demonstrated that the elliptic flow parameter $`v_2`$ cannot be generated solely by jet-quenching mechanism. The upper limit for $`v_2`$ from jet-quenching has been found to be less than 10%. It is evident that the large values of $`v_2`$ observed by all RHIC experiments have to be generated by other mechanisms. There is at least one model, inspired by “Color Glass Condensate” , which suggests the two-gluon correlations as a source of large azimuthal anisotropies. However; the elliptic anisotropy, in this model, does not respect the reaction plane. This seems to be in contradiction with observed correlation between the reaction plane and spatial distribution of particle emission after freeze-out observed by STAR collaboration . An interesting alternative provides the “coalescence” model, where the partonic flow is “amplified” by means of parton recombinations . This scenario is very exciting since it requires some kind of partonic collectivity in the initial state of the collision, which is anticipated if the quark-gluon plasma is created.


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# Constraints on Cold Dark Matter in the Gamma-ray Halo of NGC 253

## 1 Introduction

Recently, the gamma-ray halo in the nearby starburst galaxy NGC 253 was detected by CANGAROO-II (Itoh et al., 2002, 2003a). Although it seems to be successful to interpret it as a high-energy cosmic-ray halo (Itoh et al., 2003b), we assumed that this radiation is due to cold dark matter (CDM) annihilation, and obtained the upper limits of the CDM density in a wide mass range around TeV,

The motivation of this study is the morphology obtained in a TeV gamma-ray observation (Itoh et al., 2002, 2003a). It marginally differed from a disk shape. Considering the existence of this halo (Ostriker & Peebles, 1973), it would be worth obtaining the constraint of CDM by using the observed TeV emissions.

In this paper we assumed two processes: inclusive gamma-ray production via the annihilation of weakly interacting massive particles to quark anti-quark pairs (Rudaz & Stecker, 1988), and monochromatic gamma-rays from the annihilation to two gamma state (Bergström & Snellman, 1988). The former final states produce highly multiple gamma-rays and gave better upper limits than the latter method. The final-state gamma-rays would show an exponential energy spectrum which differs from the usually known cosmic-ray spectrum, i.e., a power law.

## 2 Property of NGC 253

The nearby starburst galaxy NGC 253 is located inside the Sculptor group, and can be clearly seen from the southern hemisphere. The distance was estimated to be 2.5 Mpc (de Vaucouleurs, 1978). It was classified as SABc (Hubble classification), and is one of the closest examples of “our Galaxy-like object”. It is “edge-on”, i.e., suitable to distinguish its halo from the disk. The optical (Beck et al., 1982) and radio halos (Hummel et al, 1984; Carilli et al., 1992) were previously observed in this galaxy, the sizes of which ($``$ 10 kpc) approximately agreed with a TeV-gamma-ray observation (13 - 26 kpc) (Itoh et al., 2003a).

HI studies on the Sculptor group galaxies were carried out (Puche & Carignan, 1991). Calculating the rotation curves, they concluded that many galaxies in this group have massive halos. Especially, that of NGC 253 was estimated to have a density of 0.015 Mpc-3 with a radius of 26.9 kpc, which is also within the size estimation of the TeV-gamma-ray halo (Itoh et al., 2003a).

## 3 Energy spectrum and mass of CDM

The spectral energy distribution (SED) of GeV-TeV gamma rays is plotted in Fig. 1. The points with error bars were obtained by CANGAROO-II (Table 6 of Itoh et al. (2003a)). The arrows are upper limits obtained by EGRET (Streekmar et al., 1994; Blom et al., 1999). According to a theoretical estimation motivated by the cosmic-ray radiation (Itoh et al., 2003b), neither a simple power-law spectrum ($`E^\gamma `$) of cosmic-rays (curve-A) nor that with a high energy cutoff ($`E^2e^{E/E_{max}}`$) (curve-B: due to $`\pi ^0\gamma \gamma `$ decays or bremsstrahlung) could simultaneously explain both data. These curves can be well fitted to the TeV data, however, they are inconsistent with the GeV upper limits. The only choice to satisfy both data was inverse Compton scattering oriented by very hard incident electrons ($`E^{1.5}e^{\sqrt{E}/b}`$) (curve-C), which may require another mechanism of re-acceleration in the galactic halo.

Fig. 2 shows a semi-log plot of the differential flux of TeV gamma-rays. The line-E is the best-fitted exponential function ($`e^{aE}`$), and shows an agreement. The extrapolation to GeV region is well below the EGRET upper limits.

The exponential function has a physical scale (in this case energy scale) and its contribution in the GeV region is negligibly small in SED. The well-known physical process to obtain an energy scale is a fragmentation function ($`\frac{1}{\sigma _h}\frac{d\sigma }{dx}`$, where $`x`$ is a Feynman $`x`$) for such an inclusive particle spectrum as $`e^+e^{}q\overline{q}\gamma X`$. It is typically to be fitted with the sum of the exponential functions. The fragmentation function of LEP data ($`e^+e^{}`$ collider experiment at the center of mass energy of $``$90 GeV) (Ackerstaff et al., 1998) was well-fitted with the sum of three exponential functions:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sigma _h}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma }{dx}}`$ $`=`$ $`e^{5.560534.482x}+e^{3.177710.551x}`$
$`+e^{7.2391123.29x}.`$
Introducing the energy scale $`M_\chi `$, the relationship between $`x`$ and the energy of gamma-ray becomes $`x=E/M_\chi `$. The annihilation rate ($`F`$ \[cm-2s-1\]) and the energy scale were obtained by fitting the TeV-gamma-ray’s spectrum with $`\frac{F}{\sigma _h}\frac{d\sigma }{M_\chi dx}`$ to be

$`F`$ $`=`$ $`(1.8\pm 1.1)\times 10^{11}[\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1],`$
$`M_\chi `$ $`=`$ $`(3.0\pm 0.6)[\mathrm{TeV}],`$
where we used the TeV gamma-ray fluxes from Table 6 in Ref. (Itoh et al., 2003a). Note that these two parameters are highly anti-correlated, which will be reflected in further analysis, i.e., described later. Here, $`F`$ is the observed annihilation rate per unit area and time at Earth. The result is shown by line-D in Fig. 1. The $`\chi ^2`$ obtained in this fitting was 1.0/D.O.F=4. The EGRET upper limits are also cleared.

For the reaction of CDM to $`\gamma \gamma `$ (i.e., $`\chi \chi \gamma \gamma `$), the monochromatic gamma-rays were suggested to be searched (Bergström & Snellman, 1988; Bouquet et al., 1989; Jungman & Kamionkowski, 1995). The energy resolution of TeV gamma-rays is approximately 35% (Table 5 of Itoh et al. (2003a)). The curve-F in Fig. 2 is an example of a Gaussian ($`e^{\frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{EM_\chi }{\sigma _E}\right)^2}`$) with that resolution and a center value of 0.7 TeV.

## 4 Upper limit for the number density of CDM

The annihilation in the volume of the halo should be detected at a rate of

$$F=<\sigma v>B_{q\overline{q}}n^2[V/(4\pi d^2)],$$

where $`\sigma `$ is the annihilation cross section, $`v`$ the relative velocity of CDMs, $`B_{q\overline{q}}`$ the branching fraction of $`\chi \chi q\overline{q}`$, $`n`$ the number density of CDM, $`V`$ the total volume of the halo, and $`d`$ the distance from Earth.

Here, we consider the last volume-distance factor. The dark halo size of NGC 253 obtained by an HI measurement is 26.9 kpc (Puche & Carignan, 1991), which corresponds to a solid angle of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\theta =0.62^o`$. Thus the volume factor becomes $`\frac{d}{3}(\mathrm{\Delta }\theta )^3`$, proportional to the distance. When we see the same-angular-sized diffuse image, it suggests that distant objects have advantages. For example, comparing the Galactic Center (distance of 8.5 kpc) and NGC 253, this factor becomes 300. Although the Galactic Center may have a CDM concentration factor of, say, 1000 (Navarro et al., 1996), it is highly model dependent. On the other hand, the total volume average of the squared density is less model dependent (only a factor changes under the assumption of $`r^n`$, n=0,1,..).

The annihilation cross section is another source of model dependences. For example, whether CDM is Dirac or Majorana fermion. Also, it depends on the details of particle physics, i.e., the details of SUSY breaking (Jungman et al., 1996). A much larger dependence is expected to the $`\chi \chi \gamma \gamma `$ process. In order to avoid it, we carried out the following. According to the Lee-Weinberg equation of the CDM density evolution (Lee & Weinberg, 1977; Jungman et al., 1996), the annihilation cross section is directly related to the cosmological abundance of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{CDM}`$,

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{CDM}=7\times 10^{27}[\mathrm{cm}^3\mathrm{s}^1]/<\sigma v>,$$

which is mass independent. Recently, WMAP determined $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{CDM}=0.23`$ (Bennett et al., 2003). With this, we normalized $`<\sigma vB_{q\overline{q}}>`$ to an order of $`10^{26}[\mathrm{cm}^3\mathrm{s}^1]`$.

Now that all of unknown factors have been filled, by fitting the TeV gamma-rays spectrum with the described function, we can derive the best-fitted density for CDM,

$`n=(2.4\pm 0.6)\times 10^2\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{10^{26}\mathrm{cm}^3\mathrm{s}^1}{<\sigma vB_{q\overline{q}}>}}}[\mathrm{cm}^3],`$
where $`n`$ is still highly correlated with the $`M_\chi `$ value. Changing $`n`$ to the energy density of the CDM,

$`\rho _{CDM}=(70.8\pm 7.4)\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{10^{26}\mathrm{cm}^3\mathrm{s}^1}{<\sigma vB_{q\overline{q}}>}}}[\mathrm{GeVcm}^3]`$
is obtained, where the correlation between $`M_\chi `$ and $`\rho _{CDM}`$ is shown in Fig. 3. Note that $`n`$ and $`\rho _{CDM}`$ are the root-mean-squared volume average of those densities. The lines are 1- and 2-$`\sigma `$ contours. The reasons why the errors became smaller compared to the value of $`F`$ are because $`\rho _{CDM}`$ is proportional to $`\sqrt{F}`$ and there is a strong anti-correlation between $`F`$ and $`M_\chi `$.

To summarize, the final fitting data and functions are as follows:

$`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{dF}{dE}}\right]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{F}{M_\chi }}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sigma _h}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma }{d(E/M_\chi )}}\right]`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{<\sigma vB_{q\overline{q}}>n^2[V/(4\pi d^2)]}{M_\chi }}`$
$`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sigma _h}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma }{d(E/M_\chi )}}\right]`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{<\sigma vB_{q\overline{q}}>\rho _{CDM}^2[V/(4\pi d^2)]}{M_\chi ^3}}`$
$`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sigma _h}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma }{d(E/M_\chi )}}\right],`$
where $`[\frac{1}{\sigma _h}\frac{d\sigma }{d(E/M_\chi )}]`$ should be replaced with the linear combination of three exponential functions described so far and $`[\frac{dF}{dE}]`$ are Table 6 of Itoh et al. (2003a) and Fig. 1 of Blom et al. (1999), respectively.

Although, these values are the best-fitted ones, there are not enough reasons to insist that this is evidence for CDM other than that the energy spectrum was fitted well with the exponential function. This value should be considered to be an upper limit. We, therefore, carried out a scan for various $`M_\chi `$ assumptions, and obtained upper limits versus $`M_\chi `$. The results are shown in Fig. 4. Considering the dynamic range of the fragmentation function measurements, the searched range was selected to be from 0.5 to 50 TeV. In the figure, the 2$`\sigma `$-upper limits are shown. The improvement bellow 0.65 GeV was due to the EGRET upper limits.

In addition, we carried out a search for monochromatic gamma-rays in the energy region between 0.5 and 3 TeV. The TeV gamma-ray energy spectrum was fitted with Gaussians under various peak-energy assumptions. A uniform energy resolution of 35% was assumed. A typical line is shown in Fig. 2 (line-B). The 2$`\sigma `$-upper limits for the mass densities of CDM , $`\rho _{CDM}\sqrt{\frac{10^{29}\mathrm{cm}^3\mathrm{s}^1}{<\sigma _{\gamma \gamma }v>}}`$, were obtained ( Fig. 5 ). Here we used a smaller normalization factor for $`<\sigma _{\gamma \gamma }v>`$ as was expected from the particle theory (Bergström & Snellman, 1988). These upper limits are higher than these in Fig. 4.

## 5 Discussion

The halo density estimated by the HI studies is 0.015 Mpc-3 (0.57 $`[\mathrm{GeVcm}^3]`$) (Puche & Carignan, 1991), which is two orders lower than our upper limits. The gamma-ray flux from NGC 253 should be explained by the standard cosmic-ray theory. Due to the starburst phenomena, we could not throw away a cosmic-ray interpretation (Völk et al., 1996). If the cosmic-ray emission is accurately determined from the study of multi-wavelength spectrum, this upper limit will be greatly reduced to the error-bar level.

A scan of the nearby galaxies that are not starburst will be promising in the search for CDM. Especially, the Sculptor group is an interesting target, which is also suggested by an HI measurement (Puche & Carignan, 1991).

The search for gamma-rays from massive galaxies is considered to reduce the upper limit for the galactic density of CDM. Ten-times-heavier astronomical objects that are nearby, would give a sensible result. For example, M 87 is considered to be more than ten-times heavier than our Galaxy (Baltz et al., 2000). The distance is several-times farther than NGC 253. The volume-distance factor, $`\frac{d}{3}(\mathrm{\Delta }\theta )^3`$, is, therefore, an order lower than our case (reported $`\mathrm{\Delta }\theta <0.127^o`$ (Aharonian et al., 2003a)). On the other hand, the recent observation by HEGRA reported about a ten-times fainter gamma-ray intensity (Aharonian et al., 2003a). These values should result in the same order of CDM density, while M87’s density is considered to be larger than that of NGC 253. Publication of the differential flux of the TeV gamma-ray from M87 is awaited.

Although M 31 is also massive, the visible size is larger than the field of view of IACTs, which requires special treatments for background subtractions (Aharonian et al., 2003b).

Considering a figure of merit ($`FOM`$) for the CDM search, we had better consider total mass of galaxy, volume of halo, distance, and visible size simultaneously. The CDM density may be proportional to the total mass ($`M_G`$) divided by the volume. Thus, the expected gamma-ray’s flux should be proportional to the following: $`FOM=M_G^2d^5(\mathrm{\Delta }\theta )^3`$. Selecting those nearby galaxies that have a visible size of between $`3\times 10^3`$ and $`10^2`$ radian (favorable size for the IACT measurements), NGC 5128 (Cen-A) and NGC 5236 (M 83) were calculated to have a bigger $`FOM`$ than that of NGC 253. Especially for Cen-A, hundred-times larger flux is expected.

We also applied the same discussion to $`\omega `$-Centauri (Guy et al., 2002). The dark matter origin of globular clusters was proposed by Peebles (1984). The distance is close and lower cosmic-ray level is expected. The $`FOM`$ was calculated to be 10000 times higher than that of NGC 253. An upper limit which is the same order with the baryonic density could be obtained.

Also, a high-sensitivity search in the Galactic Center is awaited (Tsuchiya et al., 2003). However, to remove the model dependence and to estimate the cosmic-ray there are keys for this case.

Compared to the accelerator experiment, only IACT measurements are sensitive to CDM with a mass heavier than TeV. They are complementary important to each other.

## 6 Conclusion

A constraint on the cold dark matter (CDM) was obtained using the data of the gamma-ray halo around the nearby starburst galaxy NGC 253. According to this study, upper limits for the CDM density were obtained in the mass range between 0.5 and 50 TeV. Although these limit is higher than the expected value, this is one of first trials from the IACT observational side. The IACTs have been proven to have abilities to detect it. The presently existing IACTs are competitive devices compared with high-energy particle accelerators. The nearby galaxies such as NGC 5128 (Cen-A) and NGC 5236 (M 83) and / or globular cluster $`\omega `$-Centauri will be next interesting targets. Observational efforts for probable candidates should be systematically continued.

We thank Prof. J. Hisano and Prof. M. Fukugita of ICRR for various discussions.


text:
# Completeness and Orthonormality in 𝒫𝒯-symmetric Quantum Systems

(June 2003)

## Abstract

Some $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetric non-hermitean Hamiltonians have only real eigenvalues. There is numerical evidence that the associated $`𝒫𝒯`$-invariant energy eigenstates satisfy an unconventional completeness relation. An ad hoc scalar product among the states is positive definite only if a recently introduced ‘charge operator’ is included in its definition. A simple derivation of the conjectured completeness and orthonormality relations is given. It exploits the fact that $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetry provides an additional link between the eigenstates of the Hamiltonian and those of its adjoint, which form a dual pair of bases. The ‘charge operator’ emerges naturally upon expressing the properties of the dual bases in terms of one basis only.

Hermitean operators have real eigenvalues while non-hermitean ones may have complex eigenvalues. Numerical and analytical results indicated the possibility to compensate the non-hermiticity of a Hamiltonian by the presence of an additional symmetry . The spectra of many non-hermiteans Hamiltonians $`\widehat{H}`$ are indeed real  if they are invariant under the combined action of self-adjoint parity $`𝒫`$ and time reversal $`𝒯`$,

$$[\widehat{H},𝒫𝒯]=0,$$
(1)
and if the energy eigenstates are invariant under the operator $`𝒫𝒯`$. Pairs of complex conjugate eigenvalues are compatible with $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetry as well but the eigenstates of $`\widehat{H}`$ are no longer invariant under $`𝒫𝒯`$. It is possible to explain these observations by the concept of pseudo-hermitean operators  which satisfy

$$\eta \widehat{H}\eta ^1=\widehat{H}^{},$$
(2)
following from Eq. (1) with $`\eta =𝒫`$. Wigner’s representation theory of anti-linear operators  provides an alternative explanation if applied to the operator $`𝒫𝒯`$ . What is more, the group theoretical approach explains the fate of energy eigenstates if they are not invariant under the action of $`𝒫𝒯`$, and a complete classification of $`𝒫𝒯`$-invariant subspaces emerges.

$`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetric systems possess at least two other intriguing features. First, the eigenstates of $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetric non-hermitean Hamiltonians (with real eigenvalues only) do not satisfy the standard completeness relations. Numerical evidence  suggests that one has instead

$$\underset{n}{}(1)^n\varphi _n(x)\varphi _n(y)=\delta (xy),$$
(3)
the functions $`\varphi _n(x)x|E_n`$ being energy eigenstates of a particle on the real line subjected to a $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetric potential such as $`V(x)=x^2(ix)^\nu ,\nu 0`$ . Whether the completeness (3) relation is valid has been called a ‘major open mathematical question for $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetric Hamiltonians’ . Second, a ‘natural inner product’ of functions $`f(x)`$ and $`g(x)`$ associated with $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetric systems has been proposed ,

$$(f,g)=𝑑x[𝒫𝒯f(x)]g(x),$$
(4)
where the integration is along an appropriate path, possibly in the complex-$`x`$ plane . This scalar product implies that energy eigenstates can have a negative norm,

$$(\varphi _m,\varphi _n)=(1)^n\delta _{mn}.$$
(5)
which makes it difficult to maintain the familiar probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory  and gave rise to discussions about the state space of $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetric systems .

In an attempt to base an extension of quantum mechanics  on systems with $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetry a remedy against the indefinite metric in Hilbert space has been proposed in the form of a linear ‘charge operator’ $`𝒞`$. Its position representation is given by

$$𝒞(x,y)=\underset{n}{}\varphi _n(x)\varphi _n(y).$$
(6)
Then, the redefined inner product

$$f|g=_C𝑑x[𝒞𝒫𝒯f(x)]g(x),$$
(7)
is positive definite, and the completeness relation (3) turns into

$$\underset{n}{}[𝒞𝒫𝒯\varphi _n(x)]\varphi _n(y)=\delta (xy).$$
(8)
These relations are also consistent with results obtained for pseudo-hermitean operators .

The purpose of this contribution is, first, to prove that relations such as (3) exist for all $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetric system with real eigenvalues. Second, the origin of the operator $`𝒞`$ will be identified, which directly explains both why Eq. (7) defines indeed a positive inner product and why Eq. (8) is a valid completeness relation. To cut a long story short, the last two equations (as well as (3) and (4)) are nothing but bi-orthonormality and completeness for a pair of dual bases associated with $`\widehat{H}`$. It is due to the system’s $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetry and the occurrence of real eigenvalues only that these two relations acquire a special form which involves the elements $`\{\varphi _n(x)\}`$ of one basis only.

Consider a (diagonalizable) non-hermitean Hamiltonian $`\widehat{H}`$ with a discrete spectrum . The operators $`\widehat{H}`$ and and its adjoint $`\widehat{H}^{}`$ have complete sets of eigenstates:

$$\widehat{H}|E_n=E_n|E_n,\widehat{H}^{}|E^n=E^n|E^n,n=1,2,\mathrm{},$$
(9)
with, in general, complex conjugate eigenvalues, $`E^n=E_n^{}`$. The eigenstates constitute bi-orthonormal bases in $``$ with two resolutions of unity,

$$\underset{n}{}|E^nE_n|=\underset{n}{}|E_nE^n|=\widehat{I},$$
(10)
and as dual bases, they satisfy orthonormality relations,

$$E^n|E_m=E_m|E^n=\delta _{nm},m,n=1,2,\mathrm{}$$
(11)
A priori, nothing is known about scalar products such as $`E_n|E_m`$.

Consider now a $`𝒫𝒯`$-invariant Hamiltonian, i.e., Eq. (1) holds, and assume all eigenvalues to be real and non-degenerate. Multiply the first equation of (9) with the operator $`𝒫𝒯`$ so that

$$\widehat{H}\left(𝒫𝒯|E_n\right)=E_n\left(𝒫𝒯|E_n\right).$$
(12)
Consequently, the state $`𝒫𝒯|E_n`$ must equal $`|E_n`$ apart from a factor $`d_n`$. Since $`(𝒫𝒯)^2|E_n=|E_n=|d_n|^2|E_n`$, the numbers $`d_n`$ equal phase factors $`e^{i\phi _n}`$, say. Redefining $`|E_ne^{i\phi _n/2}|E_n`$ implies—as is well-known—that one can always write

$$𝒫𝒯|E_n=|E_n\text{ or }\varphi _n^{}(x)=\varphi _n(x).$$
(13)
$`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetry of a non-hermitean Hamiltonian $`\widehat{H}`$ leads to particular relation between the operator and its adjoint $`\widehat{H}^{}`$. As mentioned earlier, the adjoint of $`\widehat{H}`$ can be obtained from applying parity to it,

$$\widehat{H}^{}=𝒫\widehat{H}𝒫.$$
(14)
It will be shown now that a simple relation between the states $`|E_n`$ and $`|E^n`$ results, viz.,

$$|E^n=s_n𝒫|E_n,s_n=\pm 1.$$
(15)
This relation is crucial to derive the numerically observed completeness and orthogonality relations. To see that (15) holds, an argument similar to the derivation of Eq. (13) will be given. Write $`\widehat{H}^{}=𝒫\widehat{H}𝒫`$ in the second equation of (9), multiply it with $`𝒫`$, use $`𝒫^2=\widehat{I}`$ and recall that $`E^n=E_n^{}=E_n`$:

$$\widehat{H}\left(𝒫|E^n\right)=E_n\left(𝒫|E^n\right).$$
(16)
Comparison with the first equation of (9) shows that the states $`𝒫|E^n`$ and $`|E_n`$ are both eigenstates of $`\widehat{H}`$, with the same non-denerate eigenvalue $`E_n`$. Consequently, they must be proportional to each other,

$$|E^n=c_n𝒫|E_n,c_n𝖢.$$
(17)
The numbers $`c_n`$ must, in fact, be real since the states $`|E_n`$ and $`|E^n`$ are a normalized pair: using $`𝒫^2=\widehat{I}`$ and (15) implies

$$1=E^n|E_n=E^n|𝒫^2|E_n=c_n^{}c_n^1E_n|E^n=c_n^{}c_n^1,$$
(18)
that is, $`c_n=c_n^{}`$. Furthermore, the dual bases can always be chosen in such a way that the numbers $`c_n`$ will take the values $`\pm 1`$. To see this, multiply each side of (17) with its own adjoint, giving $`E^n|E^n=c_n^2E_n|E_n`$, or

$$c_n=s_n\left(\frac{E^n|E^n}{E_n|E_n}\right)^{1/2},s_n=\pm 1,$$
(19)
consistent with (18) because the scalar products are positive. The square root can always be given the value one by rescaling the eigenstates of $`\widehat{H}`$ and $`\widehat{H}^{}`$. For each dual pair, let

$$|E_n\lambda _n|E_n\text{ and }|E^n\lambda _n^1|E^n,0<\lambda _n<\mathrm{},$$
(20)
a transformation which does not change orthonormality of the bases since $`E_n|E^m`$ remains invariant. Eq. (19), however, turns into

$$c_n=s_n\left(\frac{1}{\lambda _n^4}\frac{E^n|E^n}{E_n|E_n}\right)^{1/2}s_n\text{ if }\lambda _n=\left(\frac{E^n|E^n}{E_n|E_n}\right)^{1/4}.$$
(21)
The signature $`s=(s_1,s_2,\mathrm{})`$ depends on the actual Hamiltonian as a discussion of finite-dimensional $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetric systems  shows. Here is a simple way to calculate the numbers $`s_n`$ once the eigenfunctions $`\varphi _n(x)=x|E_n`$ of a Hamiltonian with $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetry have been determined. Multiply Eq. (15) with $`E_n|`$ and solve for $`s_ns_n^1`$:

$$s_n=E_n|P|E_n.$$
(22)
Using (15), it is straightforward to derive completeness relations which involve the states of one basis only. Rewrite (10) by means of (15) as

$$\underset{n}{}|E_nE^n|=\underset{n}{}s_n|E_nE_n|𝒫=\widehat{I},$$
(23)
and take its matrix elements in the position representation

$$\underset{n}{}s_n\varphi _n(x)\varphi _n^{}(y)=\underset{n}{}s_n\varphi _n(x)\varphi _n(y)=\delta (xy),$$
(24)
where $`𝒫𝒯`$-invariance (13) has been used. The result agrees with the expression (3) if $`s_n=(1)^n`$. In a similar way, one can derive a completeness relation for the eigenstates of $`\widehat{H}^{}`$,

$$\underset{n}{}s_n\varphi ^n(x)\varphi ^n(y)=\delta (xy).$$
(25)
The orthonormality condition for dual states turns into a relation which has been interpreted as the existence of a non-positive scalar product among the eigenstates of $`\widehat{H}`$. Simply write the scalar product (11) in the position representation, using (15) and $`𝒫𝒯`$-invariance,

$`E^n|E_m`$ $`=`$ $`s_nE_n|𝒫|E_m=s_n{\displaystyle 𝑑x\varphi _n^{}(x)\varphi _m(x)}`$ (26)
$`=`$ $`s_n{\displaystyle 𝑑x\varphi _n(x)\varphi _m(x)}=\delta _{nm},`$
or, using the notation from (4),

$$(\varphi _n,\varphi _m)=s_n\delta _{nm},$$
(27)
which is again consistent with $`s_n=(1)^n`$.

Suppose we wanted to write an operator version of (15). Define an operator $`𝒞_s`$ by

$$𝒞_s=\underset{k}{}s_k|E_kE^k|.$$
(28)
Its eigenstates are $`|E_n`$ since

$$𝒞_s|E_n=\underset{k}{}s_k|E_kE^k|E_n=s_n|E_n,$$
(29)
and its eigenvalues $`s_n`$ coincide indeed with the signs of the ‘$`𝒫𝒯`$-norm,’ a property of the ‘charge operator’ $`𝒞`$ pointed out in . Writing

$$|E^n=s_n𝒫|E_n=𝒫𝒞_s|E_n,$$
(30)
one can transform the scalar product of dual states, using (13) twice,

$`E_m|E^n`$ $`=`$ $`E_m|𝒫𝒞_s|E_m=E_m|𝒫{\displaystyle 𝑑x}|xx|𝒞_s|E_m`$ (31)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle 𝑑x\varphi _m^{}(x)𝒞_s\varphi _n(x)}={\displaystyle 𝑑x\varphi _m(x)[𝒞_s𝒫𝒯\varphi _n(x)]}=\delta _{nm}.`$
Defining $`𝒞_s=𝒞`$ if $`s_n=(1)^n`$, this equation justifies (7) for energy eigenstates. Furthermore, the first completeness relation in (10) implies through (30) that

$`\delta (xy)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}x|𝒫|E^nE_n|𝒫|y`$ (32)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}𝒞_s\varphi _n(x)\varphi _n^{}(y)={\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}[𝒞_s𝒫𝒯\varphi _n(x)]\varphi _n(y),`$
which reproduces (8), identical to Eq. (13) of . By taking matrix elements of Eq. (28), the position representation of the operator $`𝒞_s(x,y)`$ is found to agree with (6).

In summary, it has been shown that the dual bases of $`𝒫𝒯`$-symmetric quantum systems with non-hermitean Hamiltonians enjoy a particularly simple relation (15). As a consequence, it is possible to formulate completeness and orthonormality relations which invoke the elements of one basis only. These relations are inherited from the dual pair of bases providing them thus with a sound mathematical footing. Structurally similar relations can be derived for any pseudo-hermitean Hamiltonian.

It is a different question whether this mathematical structure—call it ‘complex extension’ of quantum mechanics , for example—is realized in nature. To draw a positive conclusion, one would need to find a natural interpretation of the linear, idempotent ‘charge operator’ $`𝒞`$. This appears difficult in the framework of non-relativistic quantum mechanics: in spite of having real eigenvalues $`s_n`$ only, the operator $`𝒞`$ is neither self-adjoint nor unitary while the familiar operator of charge conjugation $`\widehat{C}`$ used in field theory is unitary.


text:
# The Virtual Monte Carlo

## I Introduction

The concept of Virtual Monte Carlo (VMC) has been gradually developed by the ALICE Software project alice-off . From the beginning, the ALICE collaboration has adopted a strategy for the development of the simulation framework that would allow a smooth transition from the currently used transport code, Geant3 g3 , to new ones Geant4 g4  and Fluka fluka . Instead of maintaining the Geant3 based code written in FORTRAN and developing in parallel a new framework, based on a new simulation program, the user code was gradually migrated from FORTRAN to C++ and a general C++ interface to a transport Monte Carlo (MC) was developed.

The VMC development went through the following phases:

1. The C++ class, TGeant3, providing access to Geant3 data structures (common blocks) and functions was introduced. This provided a starting point for a full migration of the user code from FORTRAN to C++.

2. The abstract C++ class, AliMC, was defined as a generalization of TGeant3. This gave the initial step for the development of the Geant4 interface and the explicit Geant3 dependencies in the user code were also taken away. However, the implementations of the AliMC interface for both Geant3 and Geant4 were dependent on the ALICE software.

3. The interfaces to the user Monte Carlo application were introduced. The dependence of the implementations of the AliMC interface on the ALICE software could then be removed and the VMC was also made available to non-ALICE users.

## II Architecture

### II.1 The VMC concept

With the VMC concept the user Monte Carlo application can be defined independently of a specific transport code (see Fig. 1). It can then be run with all supported Monte Carlos, without changing the user code, ie., the geometry definition, the detector response simulation and input or output formats. The selection of a concrete Monte Carlo (Geant3, Geant4 or Fluka) is made dynamically at run time.

The VMC is based on the ROOT system root , which is used mainly for scripting and dynamical loading of libraries. Once the VMC application has been defined, simulations can be run interactively from the Root UI or using Root macros.

### II.2 Design

In order to completely decouple the user code from the concrete Monte Carlo, the interfaces to both the Monte Carlo itself and to the user application code have been introduced as shown in Fig. 2. In the following subsections, all interfaces will be discussed in detail.

#### II.2.1 Virtual MC

The Virtual MC interface (class TVirtualMC) was the first interface written and it is the most robust one. It has been defined as a generalization of Geant3 functions for the definition of simulation tasks and it provides:

* Methods for building and accessing geometry
* Methods for building and accessing materials
* Methods for setting physics
* Methods for accessing transported particle properties during stepping
* Methods for run control

The implementations of the Virtual MC for concrete transport programs are part of the VMC distribution and are provided for the user. At the present time, the Geant3 VMC and the Geant4 VMC are in distribution, the Fluka VMC will be available soon.

#### II.2.2 Virtual MC Application

The Virtual MC Application interface (class TVirtualMCApplication) is the interface to a user application code. It defines user actions at each stage of a simulation run:

| Construct geometry |
| --- |
| Init geometry |
| Generate primaries |
| Begin event |
| Begin primary |
| Pre Track |
| Stepping |
| Post Track |
| Finish primary |
| Finish event |

The implementation of the Virtual MC Application completely defines the user application and has to be provided by the user.

#### II.2.3 Virtual MC Stack

The Virtual MC Stack interface (class TVirtualMCStack) defines the interface to a user defined particles stack. Users can choose one of the concrete stack classes provided in the VMC examples or can implement their own stack class.

#### II.2.4 Virtual MC Decayer

The last interface in the VMC, the Virtual MC Decayer (class TVirtualMCDecayer), defines the interface to the external decayer. The implementation of this interface by a user is optional.

## III Use of VMC

The user VMC application code is written by implementing the MC Application class. In the case of very simple applications the user can write everything in the one class. In more complex cases it can be convenient to define the user application class as a composition of more action classes, as is shown in the VMC examples described in section 5.1.

In this section, three examples of a user code based on the VMC will be given.

### III.1 Geometry construction

In Example 1, an example of a geometry definition is given. The geometry is defined by calls to the Virtual MC interface. In the first block, a volume named “TRTU” of the shape tube of an inner radius of 0 cm and outer radius of 60 cm, is created and associated with a material defined by the tracking medium identifier “idAl”. In the second block, this volume is placed at the position (-100 cm, 0 cm, 0 cm) in the mother volume named “EXPH”.

The functions for geometry building are compatible with Geant3 (both by name and in the list of parameters). The VMC also uses the Geant3 system of default physical units. In future, using the Root geometrical modeller directly will be possible as an alternative to this Geant3 style. (For more details, see section 6.)

### III.2 Primary particles

In Example 2, an example of how to define primary particles is given. This is done by calls to the Virtual MC Stack interface. The particle type (proton, electron, …) is defined using the PDG encoding and particle static properties (mass, charge, …) are taken from the particle database in ROOT (represented by the TDatabasePDG class).

### III.3 Detector response

In Example 3, an example of a user stepping function is shown. This function is called by MC at each step. In this example the properties of the particle transported are obtained via calls to the Virtual MC interface and then saved in the user own hits objects. For large detectors it is recommended to delegate this function to stepping functions defined in subdetector classes.

## IV Available MCs

In this section we will outline the present status and give a short description of the implementations of the Virtual MC for the three transport MCs: Geant3, Geant4 and Fluka.

### IV.1 Geant3 VMC

The Geant3 program g3  was written to describe the passage of elementary particles through matter. Originally designed for high energy physics experiments, it has also found applications outside this domain in the areas of medical and biological sciencies, radioprotection and astronautics. The first version was released in 1974 and the system was developed with some continuity over 20 years till the last release 3.21 in 1994. It has become a popular and widely used tool in the HEP community.

The Geant3 VMC, which implements the Virtual MC interface to the Geant3 program, is provided within a single package “geant3” together with Geant321 itself. This “geant3” package is available from the ROOT Web site root .

As the Virtual MC was largely inspired by Geant3, its implementation for Geant3 was straightforward and has no limitations.

Besides the implementation of the Virtual MC, the Geant3 VMC also includes the Geant3 Geometry Browser g3gui , a GUI which provides a variety of functions, namely:

* visualization of the geometry volumes tree
* drawing of volumes and interactive setting of drawing options
* browsing material and tracking medias parameters
* browsing applied cuts and activated physics processes
* plotting of dE/dx and cross-sections for a selected physical process

The implementation is based on the Root GUI classes.

### IV.2 Geant4 VMC

The Geant4 project g4  was started in 1994, the first production version was released in 1998 and the system is continuously under developement by the Geant4 Collaboration. Its areas of application include particle and nuclear physics experiments, medical, accelerator and space physics studies.

The Geant4 VMC, which implements the Virtual MC interface for the Geant4 program, is provided within the “geant4\_vmc” package and requires a prior Geant4 installation. This “geant4\_vmc” package is available from the ROOT Web site root .

The implementation of the interface to MC for Geant4 was presented at the CHEP 2001 conference chep2001 . The design, the implementation and also the problems arising from the G3toG4 approach and their foreseen solutions were discussed. Despite improvements and design changes, the structure and the components of the package presented there can be found in the current Geant4 VMC package. The major change applied since then was that the dependencies on the ALICE classes in AliGeant4 have been replaced by the dependencies on the interfaces to a user application. This meant that all classes from AliGeant4 could be moved to the experiment independent part, TGeant4, that has been then renamed Geant4 VMC.

The main improvement from that time was in minimizing the limitations of the G3toG4 tool in the Geant4 4.0 release. New classes to support the reflection symmetry and also a limited support for the “MANY” volumes positions have been introduced. The G3toG4 tool does not resolve positions with “MANY” automatically, however a user can specify the overlapping volumes using the G4gsbool() function and then the overlaps for these volumes and their daughters are automatically resolved using Boolean solids. The volume with a “MANY” position can only have this position. The corresponding function Gsbool() has been added to the Virtual MC interface.

The VMC interface provides a common denominator for all implemented MCs and cannot cover all commands available in a Geant4 user session through the Geant4 UI. Switching between the Root UI and the Geant4 UI gives the VMC user the possibility of working with the native Geant4 UI when needed or desired. It is also possible to process a foreign command or a foreign macro in both UIs, for example the Root commands and macros can be processed in the Geant4 UI and vice versa.

In a similar way as the Geant3 VMC, the Geant4 VMC also includes the Geant4 Geometry Browser. It was implemented in an analogous way. It provides the same functionality for browsing geometry. It does not include the panels that allow to browse the activated physical processes and their characteristics.

In addition, the Geant4 VMC also includes an XML convertor. With this convertor the Geant4 geometry can be exported to XML in the AGDD format agdd  and then browsed and visualized using the GraXML tool graxml . The XML convertor classes are independent of the Geant4 VMC, they can be compiled in a separate library and also used with a native Geant4 application.

### IV.3 Fluka VMC

The history of FLUKA fluka  goes back to 1962-1967. Over the years it went through three different generations, which can be roughly identified as the FLUKA of the ’70s, the FLUKA of the ’80s and today’s FLUKA as a fully integrated particle physics Monte Carlo simulation package. It has many applications in high energy experimental physics, engineering, shielding, detector and telescope design, cosmic ray studies, dosimetry, medical physics and radio-biology.

The Fluka VMC is now under development within the ALICE collaboration and the FLUKA team. The development version of the VMC implementation is in the TFluka package of AliRoot.

Most of the functionality required by the VMC is already fully operational:

* Functions for building and accessing geometry (through Flugg)
* Functions for accessing transported particle properties during stepping
* Recording particles in the VMC stack
* Functions for run management

Under development are:

* Functions for selecting activated physics processes
* Interface to the external decayer

The geometry part of the Fluka VMC is implemented with the use of the Geant4 VMC and the Flugg tool flugg . Flugg was developed a few years ago so that the Geant4 geometry could be used directly in the Fluka particle transport. In the near future this part will be replaced by the Root geometrical modeller. (For more details, see section 6.)

## V Examples

### V.1 Examples provided with the VMC

To demonstrate the use of the VMC, Geant4 novice examples N01, N02 and N03 were rewritten in the VMC framework. The Geant4 novice examples were chosen in order to show the similarities and differences between the two frameworks. Having in parallel, both the Geant4 VMC and the Geant4 native application, allows to verify the consistence of the results and to compare performancies.

The VMC examples demonstrate the implementation of the user MC application and MC stack classes. While in the first example all functions of the MC application are implemented directly in the Ex01MCApplication class, in the other examples the MC application class is defined as being a composition of more action classes (e.g the detector construction class) and it delegates most of its functions to its components.

All examples are executed by processing the provided Root macros. The macros for running the example E01 with Geant3 and Geant4 (run\_g3.C and run\_g4.C) are shown in Example 4. In both macros, all necessary libraries are first dynamically loaded, then the user MC application is created and initialized with a MC specific configuration macro (g3Config.C or g4Config.C) shown in Example 5. After initialization, a simulation run with the chosen concrete MC is executed for the specified number of events.

### V.2 AliRoot

AliRoot is the ALICE off-line framework for simulation, reconstruction and analysis. The simulation in AliRoot is fully based on the VMC. Hence the AliRoot framework can be given as a complex example of a VMC application.

The AliRoot framework will not be discussed in more detail in this paper, but the reader is directed to the other CHEP03 conference papers related to this subject: “The AliRoot Framework, status and perspectives” aliroot-chep03 , “Simulation in ALICE” simulation-chep03 , “ALICE experience with Geant4” g4alice-chep03 .

In the following, a few figures demonstrating the use of AliRoot with two MCs, Geant3 and Geant4, will be given. In Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 the geometries for two ALICE detector subsystems (the ITS and the Dimuon arm) are shown - the first drawn with Geant3, the second drawn with Geant4 and GraXML. In Fig. 5, the x and z distributions of hits in the TPC subsystem are shown for two transport MCs: Geant3 and Geant4, giving qualitatively similar results.

## VI Future

Over the past two years the ALICE Offline project, in close collaboration with the ROOT team, has developed a new multi-purpose geometrical modeller for HEP. It is called TGeo and has been included in ROOT tgeo-chep03 . This new geometrical modeller is currently being integrated into the VMC.

The VMC user will then have also the possibility to define geometry directly using the new geometrical modeller. The current interface will be kept for backward compatibility. Apart from making a geometry construction via the VMC more user-friendly, this integration will also improve the performance of the MC simulation. The new modeller has been optimised for performance and runs faster than Geant3 for most geometries tested.

For Geant3 and Fluka, the integration of TGeo is being made by replacing the native geometry with the TGeo one. The new version of Geant3 with the new Root geometry package is close to completion and the work on the integration of TGeo into Fluka is already well advanced.

For Geant4, the object-oriented methodology can be exploited and TGeo can be integrated with Geant4 through an abstract interface to the Geant4 geometry. At present, the Geant4 geometry navigator class is not based on an abstract interface, its generalization will be required to allow an alternative implementation using TGeo. Discussions with the Geant4 team have started and the design and prototype implementation for the abstract navigator and transportation are now part of the Geant4 developments planned for the 6.0 release g4plans .

In the meantime, a convertor from Root geometry to Geant4 native geometry, RootToG4, has been developed. It is already operational and close to completion. It will allow the migration from the current VMC geometry definitions to TGeo, before the solution via the abstract navigator is available.

The new concept of the VMC including the Root geometrical modeller is shown in Fig. 6.

## VII Distribution

The VMC is distributed with the ROOT system root . It consists of the following packages:

* mc: the core package (interfaces)
* geant3: Geant321 + Geant3 VMC
* geant4\_vmc: Geant4 VMC
* examples

The “mc” package is directly included in ROOT, “geant3” and “geant4\_vmc” are available from the ROOT CVS server rootcvs  as independent modules and the package with the examples is provided within “geant4\_vmc”.

The tarballs with sources are also available from the VMC Web page vmc .

## VIII Conclusions

The Virtual Monte Carlo provides a simulation framework which is independent of any concrete MC and is based on the ROOT system. Geant3 and Geant4 have already been integrated and the same work with Fluka is in progress.

The main advantage with VMC is that the user can run the same simulation program with three different transport MCs. The obvious consequence is that the different models can be compared and better understood. VMC also facilitates the use of less user-friendly tools such as Geant3 and Fluka and - being inspired from Geant3 - it is also suitable for users starting with existing Geant3 applications.

The integration of the Root geometrical modeller will give the user a new means for geometry definition, browsing, visualization and also verification directly within the scope of the VMC.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors wish to thank the Geant4 and Fluka teams for the constructive collaboration and their help provided during this work.


text:
# Cabibbo-Suppressed Decays of 𝐷⁺→{𝜋⁺𝜋⁰,𝐾⁺𝐾̄⁰,𝐾⁺𝜋⁰}

thanks: Submitted to the International Europhysics Conference on High Energy Physics, July 2003, Aachen

CLEO Collaboration

## Abstract

Using a data sample corresponding to 13.7 $`fb^1`$ collected with the CLEO II and II.V detectors, we report new branching fraction measurements for two Cabibbo-suppressed decay modes of the $`D^+`$ meson: $`(D^+\pi ^+\pi ^0)=(1.31\pm 0.17\pm 0.09\pm 0.09)\times 10^3`$ and $`(D^+K^+K_S)=(5.24\pm 0.43\pm 0.20\pm 0.34)\times 10^3`$ which are significant improvements over past measurements. The errors include statistical and systematical uncertainties as well as the uncertainty in the absolute $`D^+`$ branching fraction scale. We also set the first 90% confidence level upper limit on the branching fraction of the doubly Cabibbo-suppressed decay mode $`(D^+K^+\pi ^0)<4.2\times 10^4`$.

preprint: CLEO CONF 03-02preprint: EPS-371

To lowest order, weak decays of mesons may be described by six quark-diagrams shown in Fig. 1: external W-emission, internal W-emission, W-exchange, W-annihilation, vertical W-loop, and horizontal W-loop quarkdiagrams . When using these diagrams to describe processes, dynamical assumptions are often made regarding the relative size of their amplitudes as well as the nature of interference terms between diagrams. Measurements of hadronic decays of $`D^+`$ mesons give insights into these assumptions as well as new information on flavor $`SU(3)`$ symmetry violation, isospin symmetry, and doubly Cabibbo-suppressed decays.

Flavor $`SU(3)`$ symmetry breaking is of current interest because of $`D^0\overline{D}^0`$ mixing studies; it has been shown that the mass and width differences ($`x,y`$) of the CP-eigenstates of neutral D mesons are generated by the second order $`SU(3)_F`$ symmetry breaking Falk:2001 . Understanding the size of these effects may be important to unravel any non-Standard Model contributions to $`D^0\overline{D}^0`$ mixing. Such understanding is only possible if $`SU(3)_F`$ violating effects are well-determined. We report new measurements of the decay modes $`D^+\pi ^+\pi ^0`$ and $`D^+K_SK^+`$, which are useful for the estimation of $`SU(3)_F`$ violating effects in the $`D`$ meson system.

Predictions based on isospin symmetry are generally considered to be more reliable than $`SU(3)_F`$ predictions because of the near degeneracy in mass of the u and d quarks. Using measurements from this analysis as well as data from the Particle Date Group pdg , we determine the isospin amplitudes and phases for the $`D\pi \pi `$ system.

Doubly Cabibbo-suppressed decays (DCSD) of charm mesons involve $`cd`$ and $`su`$ quark transitions. Currently, there are only four measured DCSD decay modes pdg . Measurements of such modes will lead to improved understanding of $`SU(3)_F`$ and other Standard Model predictions. Such modes are also important for neutral D-mixing measurements, where a significant background is from DCSD decays. In this paper we report the first upper limit on the branching fraction of the DCSD decay $`D^+K^+\pi ^0`$.

This analysis uses data collected with two configurations of the CLEO detector at the Cornell Electron Storage Ring (CESR): CLEO II cleo\_kubota  and CLEO II.V cleo\_hill . The total integrated luminosity of the data sample is 13.7 fb<sup>-1</sup>. The CLEO detector is a general purpose spectrometer with excellent charged particle and electromagnetic shower energy detection. In CLEO II the momenta of charged particles are measured with three concentric drift chambers between 5 and 90 cm from the $`e^+e^{}`$ interaction point. In the CLEO II.V configuration the innermost drift chamber was replaced by a 3 layer silicon vertex detector. Charged particles are identified by means of specific ionization measurements ($`dE/dx`$) in the main drift chamber. The tracking system is surrounded by a scintillation time-of-flight system and a CsI(Tl) electromagnetic calorimeter. These detectors are located inside a 1.5 T superconducting solenoid, surrounded by an iron return yoke instrumented with proportional tube chambers for muon identification.

Charged pion and kaon candidates were required to pass minimum track-quality criteria. Kaon (pion) candidates had to have a specific ionization within two (three) standard deviations ($`\sigma `$) of that expected for a true kaon (pion). We combined pairs of electromagnetic showers in the calorimeter to create $`\pi ^0`$ candidates. Candidates with a reconstructed mass within 2.5 $`\sigma `$ of the nominal $`\pi ^0`$ mass were kept for further studies. We obtain $`K_S`$ candidates by reconstructing the decay mode $`K_S\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$. We required daughter tracks to have an impact parameter in the plane transverse to the beam greater than three times the measurement uncertainty and that the probability of the $`\chi ^2`$ returned from the vertex fit for pairs of daughter tracks was required is than 0.001. $`K_S`$ candidates also had to have a reconstructed mass within 3.0 $`\sigma `$ of the nominal $`K_S`$ mass.

In order to reduce backgrounds, we reconstructed the decay process $`D^+D^+\pi ^0`$, requiring the mass difference ($`\mathrm{\Delta }M`$) of the reconstructed $`D^+`$ and $`D^+`$ to be within 2.5 $`\sigma `$ of the known value. We required all $`D^+`$ candidates to have a normalized momentum ($`x_D^{}=\frac{|p_D^{}|}{\sqrt{(s/2)^2m_D^{}^2}}`$) greater than 0.6 and all $`D^+`$ candidates to have a $`\mathrm{cos}\theta _{helicity}`$ value between $`\pm 0.8`$, where $`\theta _{helicity}`$ is the angle between the charged daughter track in the rest frame of the $`D^+`$ and the $`D^+`$ in the rest frame of the $`D^+`$ meson. To insure that we obtained only one $`D^+`$ candidate per event, we selected candidates with the lowest value for $`\chi ^2=\frac{(\mathrm{\Delta }M\mathrm{\Delta }M_{PDG})^2}{\sigma _{\mathrm{\Delta }M}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}+_i\frac{(m_{\pi ^0}m_{\gamma \gamma }^{}{}_{}{}^{i})^2}{\sigma _{\pi ^0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}`$, where $`i`$ indexes the $`\pi ^0`$s candidates in this decay. Given the large uncertainties in absolute $`D^+`$ branching fractions we present our results as ratios of the branching fraction of the decay mode under study to that of a normalization mode: $`D^+K^{}\pi ^+\pi ^+`$ for $`D^+\pi ^+\pi ^0,K^+\pi ^0`$ and $`D^+K_S\pi ^+`$ for $`D^+K_SK^+`$.

To extract the yield for each mode, we performed an unbinned maximum likelihood fit for two components (signal and background) using the following observables: $`m_D`$, the mass of the reconstructed $`D^+`$ meson, the normalized momentum of the $`D^+`$ meson, $`x_{p(D^{})}`$, and $`\mathrm{cos}\theta _{helicity}`$. Using a GEANT-based simulation geant  of the CLEO detector as well as sideband data we determined probability density functions (PDF) for each observable describing the shape of the data for signal and background events for each decay mode. The probability that a candidate is consistent with signal or background is given by the product of these PDFs. The likelihood is given as the product of these probabilities over all candidates; maximization of the log of the likelihood gives us the signal and background yields. Projections of the likelihood fit to the $`D^+`$ mass for our three decay modes are shown in Fig. 2. Using simulated signal and background events, we measure the efficiency of our analysis method for each mode, enabling us to determine the total number of signal events in our data sample for each decay mode. Table 1 lists raw yields and efficiencies for all decay modes.

We considered systematic uncertainties from experimental resolution, efficiency determination, and PDF parameterization. The first two contributions are small and the systematic errors are dominated by uncertainties in the PDF parameterization. We studied this systematic effect for each mode by simultaneously modifying every PDF parameter within its uncertainty. We extracted the yield from the data after each modification to produce a distribution of yields. We defined the systematic uncertainty due to PDF parameterization as the 68% limits for these distributions.

Combining the systematic error study with the yields and efficiencies given in Table 1 we obtain the following results:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{(D^+\pi ^+\pi ^0)}{(D^+K^{}\pi ^+\pi ^+)}}`$ $`=`$ $`0.0144\pm 0.0019\pm 0.0010`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{(D^+K^+K_S)}{(D^+\pi ^+K_S)}}`$ $`=`$ $`0.1892\pm 0.0155\pm 0.0073`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{(D^+K^+\pi ^0)}{(D^+K^{}\pi ^+\pi ^+)}}`$ $`=`$ $`0.0029\pm 0.0018\pm 0.0009`$
where the first error is statistical and the second error is systematic. The results supersede previous CLEO measurements Geiser:1993pt , Kim:1997km .

In order to determine the absolute branching fractions, we combine our results with the PDG values pdg  of $`(D^+K^{}\pi ^+\pi ^+)=(9.1\pm 0.6)\%`$ and $`(D^+\pi ^+\overline{K}^0)=(2.77\pm 0.18)\%`$ and find:

$`(D^+\pi ^+\pi ^0)`$ $`=`$ $`(1.31\pm 0.17\pm 0.09\pm 0.09)\times 10^3`$
$`(D^+K^+\overline{K}^0)`$ $`=`$ $`(5.24\pm 0.43\pm 0.20\pm 0.34)\times 10^3`$
$`(D^+K^+\pi ^0)`$ $`=`$ $`(2.64\pm 1.64\pm 0.82\pm 0.17)\times 10^4`$
where the third error in the measurements is due to the uncertainty in the normalization branching fractions.

With no significant signal being observed for the doubly Cabibbo-suppressed decay $`D^+K^+\pi ^0`$ we determined the 90% confidence level upper limit for this branching fraction. Our method for obtaining the upper limit involved creating 1000 new data sets with the same number of signal and background events as our data sample. In order to include systematic uncertainties in our upper limit, we also modified the PDF parameters in the manner described for our branching fraction calculation. Using this method, our upper limit is

$$(D^+K^+\pi ^0)<4.2\times 10^4\mathrm{at}\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}90}\%\mathrm{C}.\mathrm{L}.$$

In the limit of $`SU(3)_F`$, the following ratio is expected to be unity chau :

$$R_1=2\times \left|\frac{V_{cs}}{V_{cd}}\right|^2\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(D^+\pi ^+\pi ^0)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(D^+\overline{K}^0\pi ^+)}$$

where the $`V_{cs}`$ and $`V_{cd}`$ arise because of the different quark transitions in the two decays and the factor of 2 arises because of the $`\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}`$ term in the normaization of the $`\pi ^0`$ wavefunction. Using the yields and efficiencies (Table 1) obtained from our analysis and combining statistical and systematical uncertainties in quadrature, we find

$$R_1=1.84\pm 0.38$$

slightly inconsistent with theoretical expectations that $`SU(3)_F`$ symmetry breaking effects are about 30%.

It is believed that in the $`D`$ meson system the interference between external and internal spectator decay amplitudes is destructive. In order to test this assumption we calculate the ratio

$$R_2=\frac{1}{2}\times \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(D^+\overline{K}^0K^+)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(D^+\pi ^+\pi ^0)}=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(D^+K_SK^+)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(D^+\pi ^+\pi ^0)}.$$

which in case of destructive interference should be greater than 1. Besides a small contribution from the W-annihilation diagram chau  the decay in the numerator, $`D^+K_SK^+`$, can be described using an external W-emission diagram. Whereas both the external and the internal W-emission amplitudes contribute to the decay in the denominator, $`D^+\pi ^+\pi ^0`$. Experimentally, we find using our yields and efficiencies from Table 1

$$R_2=2.03\pm 0.32$$

indicating that the interference between external and internal W-emission is indeed destructive.

Final state interactions (FSI) are significant in charm decays. Using our measurement for $`D^+\pi ^+\pi ^0`$ and the PDG values for $`D^0\pi ^+\pi ^{},\pi ^0\pi ^0`$ pdg  we can gain some insights on these effects by determining isospin amplitudes and phases for the $`D\pi \pi `$ system. The $`\pi \pi `$ final state may have an isospin value of 0 or 2. Writing the amplitudes for the I = 0 state as $`A_0`$ and the I = 2 state as $`A_2`$, we obtain the following relation:

$$\left|\frac{A_2}{A_0}\right|^2=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{+0}}{\frac{3}{2}(\mathrm{\Gamma }^++\mathrm{\Gamma }^{00})\mathrm{\Gamma }^{+0}}$$

where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{ab}=\mathrm{\Gamma }(D^+\pi ^a\pi ^b)`$ and $`a,b`$ represent the charges of the $`\pi `$. Since isospin amplitudes are complex, measuring the phase between them is necessary to obtain full information about the amplitudes. The phase is written as

$$\mathrm{cos}\delta =\frac{3\mathrm{\Gamma }^+6\mathrm{\Gamma }^{00}+2\mathrm{\Gamma }^{+0}}{4\sqrt{2\mathrm{\Gamma }^{+0}}\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}(\mathrm{\Gamma }^++\mathrm{\Gamma }^{00})\mathrm{\Gamma }^{+0}}}.$$

We find $`|A_2/A_0|=0.421\pm 0.044`$ and $`\mathrm{cos}\delta =0.042\pm 0.195`$. These results supersede a previous CLEO measurement Geiser:1993pt . The large relative phase between the isospin amplitudes indicate that there are significant FSI effects in the $`D\pi \pi `$ system. A similar observation has been made by the FOCUS collaboration focus .

In summary, we have obtained measurements for two singly Cabibbo-suppresed $`D^+`$ decay modes: $`(D^+\pi ^+\pi ^0)=(1.31\pm 0.17\pm 0.09\pm 0.09)\times 10^3`$ and $`(D^+K^+K_S)=(5.24\pm 0.43\pm 0.20\pm 0.34)\times 10^3`$. We also present an upper limit on the DCSD mode $`(D^+K^+\pi ^0)<4.2\times 10^4`$ at the 90% C.L. Our experimental measurements confirm the destructive nature of the interference term between the external and internal W-emission diagrams and indicate significant $`SU(3)_F`$ symmetry breaking. An isospin analysis shows that FSI effects are important for hadronic decays of $`D`$ mesons.

We gratefully acknowledge the effort of the CESR staff in providing us with excellent luminosity and running conditions. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Research Corporation, and the Texas Advanced Research Program.