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# Cataclysmic Variables from SDSS II. The Second Year 1footnote 11footnote 1Based on observations obtained with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and with the Apache Point Observatory (APO) 3.5m telescope, which are owned and operated by the Astrophysical Research Consortium (ARC)

## 1 Introduction

The commissioning year of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS; York et al. 2000), which was released as the Early Data Release (EDR; Stoughton et al. 2002), showed the potential for scientific discoveries across a variety of disciplines. For the field of cataclysmic variables (CVs), SDSS is able to find many new CVs, especially those with faint magnitudes that were missed in previous surveys with brighter limits (Szkody et al. 2002; Paper I). This provides a more accurate picture of the true population of CVs, without the bias of a sample based on high accretion luminosity, and enables the study of the systems which have evolved to the shortest orbital periods and thereby have the lowest mass transfer rates (Howell, Rappaport & Politano 1997). The SDSS photometry provides accurate magnitudes, colors and positions, and the spectroscopy usually allows unambiguous identification from the strong hydrogen Balmer and helium emission lines that are the typical signatures of mass transfer in a close binary. Paper I reported 19 new discoveries from the spectra obtained through December 31, 2000, including high inclination systems, novalikes and those suspected of harboring magnetic white dwarfs (see Warner 1995 for a complete description of all types of CVs). This paper provides information on an additional 42 CVs found from SDSS spectra obtained through 2001 December 31. Of these 42, seven are previously known CVs from prior X-ray, optical, and radio surveys, 3 were previously known objects but not classified as CVs, and 32 are new discoveries. Followup observations on a number of these systems include photometric light curves, time-resolved spectroscopy and polarimetry. The resulting analysis allows us to provide a determination of the orbital period, inclination, and magnetic field for several of the CVs.

## 2 Observations and Reductions

The SDSS imaging and spectroscopic instrumentation and reductions are explained in detail in Paper I and in the papers by Fukugita et al. (1996), Gunn et al. (1998), Lupton, Gunn, & Szalay (1999), Hogg et al. (2001), Lupton et al. (2001), Smith et al. (2002) and Pier et al. (2003). As a brief summary, SDSS photometry in 5 filters ($`u,g,r,i,z`$) is used to select objects by color for later spectroscopy in the range of 3900-6200Å (blue beam) and 5800-9200Å (red beam) at a resolving power of $``$1800. The spectra are wavelength and flux-calibrated and corrected for absorption bands, then classified as stars, galaxies and quasars. The resulting spectra can then be searched by category, redshift or spectral characteristics.

As explained in Paper I, the selection criteria by color ($`ug<0.45,gr<0.7,ri>0.30`$ and $`iz>0.4`$) for the CV category primarily provide spectra of WD+M binaries, some of which are low mass transfer CVs where the underlying stars dominate the light. In addition, the color selection for quasars and very blue objects provide spectra of the blue CVs that are disk or white dwarf dominated. A manual search of all the spectra for emission line objects at zero redshift resulted in the identification of the 42 CVs listed in Table 1. This list includes the objects that will be in Data Release 1 (DR1) as well as several others that were found on additional plates taken in 2001. The magnitudes and colors are from the psf photometry and have not been corrected for reddening. Figure 1 shows the locations of the 42 CVs in SDSS color-color plots along with the stellar locus.

During 2001, we also conducted follow-up observations to refine the nature of the CVs that were being discovered. Photometry was accomplished using the University of Washington 0.76m telescope at Manastash Ridge Observatory (MRO), using a 1024$`\times `$1024 CCD and a Harris V filter and also with the U.S. Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station (NOFS) 1m R/C telescope, using a 2048$`\times `$2048 SITe/Tektronix CCD. The magnitudes were measured using the IRAF 222IRAF (Image Reduction and Analysis Facility) is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories, which are operated by AURA, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. task $`\mathrm{𝑞𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡}`$ and a light curve was constructed from differential magnitudes with respect to comparison stars on each frame. In order to obtain the highest time resolution with the NOFS, no filter was used. The NOFS CCD has a wide-band response that falls between Johnson V and Cousins R, but is somewhat closer to a V response. From separate nights of calibrated all-sky photometry using Landolt standards, the Johnson B and V magnitudes of the comparison stars were calibrated and used to place the photometry of the SDSS sources onto the Johnson V magnitude system.

Time-resolved spectroscopy was done at the 3.5m telescope at Apache Point Observatory (APO) with the Double Imaging Spectrograph in high resolution mode (resolution about 3Å) and a 1.5 arcsec slit. Blue and red spectra were obtained on all nights except for 2002 May 9, when only the red spectrograph was available. The reductions were identical to those of Paper I and details are provided in that reference. For the objects with sufficient time coverage to determine a radial velocity curve, velocities were measured with either the “e” or “k” routines in the IRAF $`\mathrm{𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡}`$ package (for simple or narrow line structure) or with the double-Gaussian method (Shafter 1983). Sinusoidal fits to these velocities were then used to determine $`\gamma `$ (systemic velocity), K (semi-amplitude), P (orbital period) and $`\varphi _0`$ (phase of crossing from red to blue).

Additionally, the spectropolarimeter SPOL was used on the 2.2m telescope at Steward Observatory (SO) to measure the circular polarization of a few sources to determine if they were magnetic CVs. The dates and type of followup observations are summarized in Table 2.

## 3 Results

For convenience, throughout the rest of this paper, we will abbreviate the names to SDSShhmm (except for the 2 sources which have identical first 4 coordinates of 1258 so we add the degrees of declination to the name to differentiate the two). The coordinates are accurate enough to identify the objects easily on the Digitized Sky Survey. The few objects that have close companions on the sky are identified as notes to the Table. The last column of Table 1 gives a brief comment on any notable properties of the system.

Figure 2 shows the SDSS spectra for all systems. Table 3 lists the equivalent widths and fluxes of the prominent hydrogen Balmer and helium lines, as well as the plate and fiber number of each spectrum. The large strength of He II in some systems allows an automatic separation into those with possible magnetic white dwarfs (see section 3.4). Followup observations were targeted first for those systems with prominent He II or with prominent central absorption lines that would signify an eclipsing system. The results for those systems with sufficient data to accomplish a detailed classification are presented below.

### 3.1 Previously Known Systems

Spectra of the dwarf novae CT Hya (SDSS0851), RZ Leo (SDSS1137), T Leo (SDSS1138) and BZ UMa (SDSS0853), which are all catalogued in the Downes et al. (2001) catalog (D01), were obtained as a result of the color selection algorithms. The spectra of CT Hya, T Leo and BZ UMa show the typical characteristics of quiescent dwarf novae that are dominated by their accretion disks (i.e. prominent Balmer and He I emission lines and Ca emission in the near IR). RZ Leo, on the other hand, shows strongly doubled lines and broad absorption surrounding the emission lines, which indicates the white dwarf, rather than an accretion disk, is contributing much of the blue light. Mennickent & Tappert (2001; MT01) have recently identified a spectroscopic orbital period of 1.84 hrs and comment on the large V/R variations throughout the orbit. They measured the velocities using a single Gaussian fit to the entire line that resulted in a noisy radial velocity curve. As the lines are clearly not Gaussian (Figure 3), we attempted a better solution by using the double-Gaussian method on the line wings, using the MT01 period. With a Gaussian width of 100 km s-1 and a separation of 2000 km s-1, our solution results in a larger K amplitude (Table 4) and a smoother radial velocity curve (Figure 4).

SDSS0944: The ROSAT identified CV RXJ0944.5+0357 (Jiang et al. 2000; J00) which is SDSS0944 was also in the Sloan spectroscopic coverage. However, the SDSS spectrum (Figure 2) taken in 2001 December shows that the flux at 5500Å is 2.5 times lower (one magnitude) than in the J00 observations (1999 January). This is consistent with the magnitude differences in the two data sets (J00 give a B magnitude of 16.1 whereas the SDSS photometry is 17.0 in g). The lower flux results in changes in the line emission and the domination of the secondary over the accretion disk in the red (see section 3.5). Since both the Hamburg survey and the USNO-A2.0 magnitudes are consistent with the brighter fluxes, while the SDSS and APO spectra are consistent with the fainter magnitudes, this system either has large variations of mass transfer on long timescales or a large orbital flux variation. The followup APO time-resolved spectra over 2.3 hrs show a one magnitude change in the continuum over this interval (Figure 5), which argues for an orbital variation. The radial velocity curve curves of both H$`\beta `$ and H$`\alpha `$ (Figure 6, Table 4) indicate an orbital period near 3.25 hrs, but a longer data set will be needed to pin this down precisely. It is unusual to have an object in the 3-4 hr period range that has a low enough $`\dot{M}`$ to show the underlying stars, as most systems in this period range are high mass transfer objects with prominent accretion disks (Warner 1995). In addition, the shape and phasing of the continuum light curve (Figure 5) is inconsistent with either an eclipse (which would have minimum light near phase 0) or a hot spot coming into view (which would have maximum light near phase 0.8). Clearly, further data on this system are needed.

SDSS1023: The recently identified FIRST source J102347.6+003841 (Bond et al. 2002) is also among the SDSS spectra of 2001 (SDSS1023). Since only magnetic CVs have shown radio emission, this is an excellent candidate for a Polar (a spin-orbit synchronized AM Her system with magnetic field over 10 MG) or an Intermediate Polar (IP) system with a field near 1 MG and a spin period for the white dwarf much less than the orbital period. Our 10 APO spectra obtained over 1.7 hrs show the double-peaked profile mentioned by Bond and a changing intensity of He II. The velocity curve (Figure 7 and Table 4) indicates the orbital period is about 3 hrs, and the high semi-amplitude for H$`\beta `$ is typical of a Polar. While the period is consistent with either an IP or a Polar, the emission lines are more compatible with an IP interpretation, as they do not show the large equivalent widths nor the narrow components that are typically seen in Polars, especially the component from the irradiated secondary which usually is strongest near phase 0.5. Although Bond et al. (2002) could not identify the spin period of the white dwarf from their photometry, it could be shorter than their time resolution. Further spectroscopy throughout the entire orbit as well as spectropolarimetry should resolve the issue.

SDSS2238: The source listed as Aqr1 in D01 and labelled as a CV based on its identification from the Berg et al. (1992) quasar survey also was color-selected (SDSS2238). This object shows He II in both the SDSS and Berg et al. (1992) spectra and could be a magnetic CV candidate. APO spectra show an orbital period of 2.0 hr from the velocities (Figure 8 and Table 4) but the 3.75 hrs of MRO photometry (Table 2) shows only random variability at the 0.2 mag level, with no large periodic variability as is typical for Polars. Polarimetry will be needed to check the magnetic nature.

There are also 3 sources that appear in past surveys but which were not previously identified as CVs.

SDSS0131: SDSS0131 was identified as a blue object (PHL3388, PB8928) in the survey of Berger & Fringant (1984;BF84). Its SDSS spectrum shows strong emission lines surrounded by broad absorption so that it is likely a system with a low disk contribution (see section 3.5 below). The 2 hrs of followup spectra with APO indicate an orbital period of 1.6 hrs (Table 4; Figure 9), which is consistent with a low mass transfer rate.

SDSS0802: The coordinates of SDSS0802 match those of KUV 07589+4019, which was identified as an sdB star by Wegner & Boley (1993). However, the spectrum previously obtained lacked the S/N and resolution to detect the Balmer and HeI emission lines evident in the SDSS spectrum (Figure 2). Thus, this object is likely to be a low inclination, high mass transfer rate novalike system with a bright accretion disk.

SDSS2258: SDSS2258 was also previously identified as a blue star (PB 7412) in the BF84 survey and then classified as an emission line object in the HK survey of Beers et al. (1996). Its coordinates are close (within an arcmin) to the X-ray source RX J225834.4-094945, although this does not guarantee they are the same object. The SDSS spectrum shows a strong, narrow emission line source that is typical of a low inclination CV.

### 3.2 High Inclination Systems

The systems with high inclination usually show very prominent central absorption in the Balmer lines with increasing absorption up the Balmer series. The CVs in Figure 2 which show this effect are SDSS0407, SDSS0901, SDSS1137, SDSS1238, SDSS1250 and SDSS1327. Photometry of SDSS1137 (RZ Leo) by Howell & Szkody (1988) and MT01 has shown a large orbital modulation but no eclipses. Followup photometry on SDSS0407, SDSS0920 and SDSS1327 reveals eclipses in these 3 systems while time-resolved spectroscopy provides the radial velocities as well as the periods (Tables 2 and 4). The most extensive observations exist for SDSS1327 (which are described in a separate paper; Wolfe et al. 2003) and SDSS0407.

SDSS0407: MRO photometry first revealed a deeply eclipsing (2 mag) system, but clouds prevented the acquisition of further data. NOFS observations later obtained 2 eclipses (Figure 10) that revealed an orbital period of 3.96 hrs and a strong orbital hump modulation due to a prominent hot spot. APO spectra were obtained for 3.5 hrs, covering an eclipse. Figure 11 shows the typical double-peaked profile at phase 0.5, the strong blue peak during the hump phases and the remaining Balmer emission during the eclipse itself. Using the photometric eclipse period, the double-Gauusian fitting applied to the Balmer lines gave a good fit for H$`\beta `$, but large errors for H$`\alpha `$. The resulting parameters from the sine fit to the velocities are given in Table 4 and the velocity curve for H$`\beta `$ is shown in Figure 12.

SDSS0920: NOFS photometry revealed eclipses for this system even though the lines do not show the usual deep doubling. Figure 13 shows the 2 mag deep eclipses recurring on an orbital period of 3.6 hrs. Unlike SDSS0407, there is no strong modulation hump from a hot spot. Since the APO spectra cover less than half an orbit, a reliable radial velocity solution could not be determined.

SDSS1238: The double-Gaussian fitting to the complex line profiles of this source enabled a period determination of 1.27 hrs from both the H$`\alpha `$ and H$`\beta `$ lines (Figure 14). The very short period and the appearance of the spectra are very similar low mass transfer systems such as WZ Sge and RZ Leo.

SDSS1250: The 2.3 hrs of APO time-resolved spectra indicate an orbital period near 5.6 hr but further data are needed to confirm this result. There was no noticeable eclipse within our spectral coverage, but the long (15 min) integration times and incomplete coverage of the orbit do not allow us to eliminate their existence. Photometry with better time resolution is needed to search for possible eclipses.

### 3.3 Dwarf Novae

As mentioned in Paper I, there are 3 epochs of observation for all SDSS spectral sources to determine if there are large magnitude changes related to a dwarf nova outburst or to changes from low to high mass transfer states in novalikes. These include the SDSS photometric epoch, the SDSS spectral epoch and the Digitized Sky Survey (DSS) epoch. A dwarf nova outburst can be distinguished from the high state of a novalike by the spectral appearance, as a dwarf nova at outburst shows broad absorption lines (from the thick disk), while a novalike at a high state usually shows an enhancement of all emission, especially the high excitation lines of He II (Warner 1995).

SDSS0310: Of the objects in Table 1, we can identify SDSS0310 as a bona-fide dwarf nova, as the SDSS photometry and the APO followup spectra caught it at outburst (Figure 15), while the SDSS spectrum (Figure 2) was at quiescence. Photometry by A. Henden (private communication) has determined a quiescent magnitude of V=20.7. Unfortunately, followup APO spectra at quiescence were too noisy to allow a good radial velocity solution and we could not obtain a good solution from the broad absorption lines at outburst either, so we have no estimate of the orbital period.

Three additional systems (SDSS1146, SDSS1636 and SDSS2234) show typical spectra of dwarf novae, although photometry/spectroscopy during an outburst is needed to confirm the spacing and amplitude of outbursts.

SDSS1146: The fit to the velocities derived from APO spectra (Table 4) reveal an orbital period near 1.6 hrs (Figure 16). The short orbital period and large H$`\beta `$ equivalent width are indicative of a low mass transfer system (Patterson 1984).

SDSS1636: The lack of any orbital variation during 4 hours of photometry on SDSS1636 (Table 2) indicates this is likely a low inclination system. Time-resolved spectra should be able to reveal the orbital period.

SDSS2234: The APO spectra reveal an orbital period of 2.0 hrs (Table 4 and Figure 17) for this system, which places it right at the lower edge of the period gap. The strong blue continuum and emission lines are typical of accretion disk systems.

Two other systems show evidence of low states (SDSS2050 was observed to be much fainter than its SDSS photometry during MRO observations in July 2002 and SDSS2101 is fainter on the DSS than during SDSS observations). The presence of low states together with strong He II emission makes both of these likely candidates for magnetic CVs (see next section). However, sufficient followup data are not yet available to confirm the nature of these sources.

### 3.4 Nova-likes with Strong He II

The presence of strong He II emission lines often signifies a magnetic white dwarf, as they arise from the ionization of the accretion column(s) by the EUV continuum of a radial accretion shock. If an object shows a large circular polarization and strong modulation of the lines and continuum at the orbital period, it can be be classified as a Polar. If it shows little or no polarization, generally single-peaked lines, and periodicity at plausible spin timescales of the white dwarf (minutes), it is considered an IP or SW Sex star (some SW Sex stars have recently been proposed as IPs; Rodriguez-Gil et al. 2000).

Figure 2 and Table 3 contain 9 systems that clearly have stronger He II lines than are expected for a non-magnetic disk system. These, which we identify as the best candidates for magnetic systems, include SDSS0752, 0809, 1023, 1327, 1446, 1553, 1700, 2050, and 2101. SDSS0932 and 2238 may also qualify. Of this group, SDSS1553 has been identified as an extremely low mass-accretion rate Polar (Szkody et al. 2003), and as mentioned above, Bond et al. (2002) have identified SDSS1023 as a FIRST radio source, with high probability of being a magnetic IP system. SDSS1327 is classified as a likely SW Sex star through the work of Wolfe et al. (2003). Our followup observations with APO, MRO, and spectropolarimetry at Steward Observatory have helped to pin down the nature of a few others. These characteristics are summarized below.

SDSS1700: Photometry of SDSS1700 from MRO (Figure 18) reveals a strongly modulated light curve with a period of 115 min., suggestive of a Polar. APO spectra over half the orbit give a radial velocity solution (Table 4) with a relatively low K of 90 km s-1 (Figure 19). Spectropolarimetry at the 2.3m Bok telescope (Figure 20) confirms the Polar nature, with the broadband circular polarization varying between +2% and +28% over the 2 hr period of the observations. The constant sign of circular polarization indicates that we see only one accretion pole through the orbit, while the rather weakly modulated H$`\alpha `$ flux and modest radial velocity amplitude suggest a rather low inclination. In Figure 20 it is clear that the light curve variation is due to a changing continuum shape, from rising slightly to the blue in the first spectrum, to being strongly convex upward for the next few observations, and returning to the initial shape by the end of the sequence. Because these variations correlate with the changing circular polarization, both are taken to arise from the beaming pattern of cyclotron emission. In the coadded polarization spectrum (Figure 21), diffuse absorption features can be recognized near 6100Å and between H$`\beta `$ and He II $`\lambda `$4686. Interpreting these as Zeeman features of H$`\alpha `$ and H$`\beta `$, respectively, the field strength near the accretion shock is $`30`$ MG, so the optical spectrum is sampling cyclotron harmonics $``$$`59`$. These characteristics are rather typical for Polars.

SDSS0752: Photometry obtained at NOFS coincident with our recent XMM observation of this source revealed an orbital period of 2.7 hr (Henden, 2003, private communication). The 1.9 hrs of APO time-resolved spectra show velocity variations on this period (Figure 22). The spectra show the usual narrow and broad components associated with a Polar system, so it is very likely that this object will show some polarization. Further discussion on this source will be deferred until the analysis of the XMM results are completed.

SDSS0809: The time-resolved spectra over almost 3 hrs clearly identify an orbital period of 2.4$`\pm `$0.1 hr in this system (Figure 23). Although this is slightly shorter than the nominal 3-4 hr range typical of SW Sex stars, the spectra show the strong modulation and usual signature of deep absorption (especially in the He I and Balmer lines near phase 0.5 (Figure 24). As there is no apparent eclipse, this system may be one of the lower inclination SW Sex systems.

SDSS1446: Spectropolarimetry at SO established a polarization limit of +0.38$`\pm `$0.27% for SDSS1446, indicating that this system cannot be a Polar. The APO coverage was limited by weather to only slightly more than an hour, so further data are needed to establish the exact nature of this system.

SDSS2050: While the 1.8 hrs of APO spectra on 27 Sept 2002 indicate an orbital period near 2 hrs, MRO photometry on 7 Sept only shows an overall declining brightness with some superposed variability during a 2.3 hr observation interval. As noted in the previous section, SDSS2050 was observed to be in a much fainter state (too faint for data acquisition) in 2002 July so the September variability may be related to a transition state between high and low mass transfer, or to orbital variability. Further photometric, spectroscopic, and polarimetric data will be needed to sort out the nature of this object.

SDSS2101: While the Balmer lines are very strong in this system and velocities could be easily measured, there was no obvious variation (within 30 km s-1 during the 1.3 hrs of APO spectra. Further data will be needed to determine the orbital period, but it is apparently not a short period system.

### 3.5 Systems Showing the Underlying Stars

Six systems (SDSS0131, SDSS0137, SDSS1137, SDSS1238, SDSS2048 and SDSS2205) show broad absorption surrounding the emission lines of H$`\beta `$ and higher members of the Balmer series. Of these, two (SDSS0137 and SDSS1137) also show the TiO bandheads of an M dwarf secondary. These are indicative of the lowest mass transfer systems where the disk is so tenuous that the underlying stars provide most of the luminosity. Two of the 6 (SDSS1137 and SDSS1238) are also high inclination candidates from their deeply doubled lines (see above). In these cases, the lower disk luminosity may be partly due to the inclination effect, since a disk seen edge on contributes less light than when the entire disk is visible.

Since it is also possible for a dwarf nova on the decline from outburst to show similar absorption features, we checked the spectral fluxes against the SDSS photometry. There is no large difference for any of these systems so we think the spectra are the normal quiescent states of these systems.

SDSS0137: Our two hours of spectral coverage of this source shows an ultrashort orbital period of 1.4 hrs and a high amplitude velocity curve (Figure 25 and Table 4). This is consistent with a very low mass transfer rate system at relatively high inclination.

There are 3 other systems which show evidence of the secondary star from an upturn in the red portion of the spectrum and the presence of the TiO bandhead at 7100Å, but no evidence of the white dwarf. These are SDSS0844, SDSS0944 (RXJ0944.5+0357), and SDSS1553. The weakness of the features in SDSS0844 and the strong blue continuum indicates that the disk is still dominant in this system. SDSS1553 is the very low accretion rate Polar mentioned above.

The contrast of the SDSS spectrum of SDSS0944 with that shown by Jiang et al. (2000) reveals that the Balmer lines are less optically thick (the Balmer decrement is closer to the recombination values) and the accretion disk has a lower density (the M star is dominating redward of 5000Å) at the time of the APO observations. However, as noted above, this system has a large amplitude orbital modulation so the appearance of the secondary star is more noticeable at some phases than others.

### 3.6 ROSAT Correlations

The cross-identification of the new CVs with the X-ray ROSAT All Sky Survey (RASS; Voges et al. 1999, 2000) reveals that 11 are X-ray sources or have X-ray detections close to their positions. Of these, the 3 known dwarf novae (BZ UMa, RZ Leo, T Leo) all have X-ray emission, as well as the ROSAT identified CV RX J094432.1+035738, and our newly confirmed polar SDSS1700. Table 5 lists the objects and their RASS count rates. Since SDSS1446 has no polarization, yet is an X-ray source with strong He II emission, it may be an IP.

## 4 Conclusions

The 42 objects here combined with the 22 in Paper I give a total of 64 CVs from 325 plates or an areal density of about 0.03 deg-2. This represents a lower limit to the density of CVs, as not all possible CV candidates (by color) are targetted for spectra. In the future, we hope to use the plate overlap sections to accomplish identifications by a combination of variability and color that will provide us with a measure of completeness. However, even with the selection obtained, SDSS is picking up a wide variety of new CV systems, including those with high mass transfer rates (SW Sex stars) as well as the faintest systems with the lowest mass transfer rates and coolest white dwarfs yet found among CVs (Szkody et al. 2003). Of the 35 new discoveries reported here, about a third show characteristics that indicate they are likely candidates for having a magnetic white dwarf. Another third indicate very low mass transfer rates (from visibility of the underlying stars or from very large emission line fluxes and low continuum). From the followup data available for 26 of the systems, three have shown eclipses. The majority of the orbital periods determined so far are under the period gap, indicating that SDSS is predominantly finding the lowest mass transfer, shortest orbital period systems that brighter surveys have missed e.g. the PG survey (Green et al. 1982) and the Hamburg survey (Hagen et al. 1995). With an aperture of 3.5m, we are currently limited in followup work to systems brighter than 19th magnitude. It will take larger telescopes to determine the nature of the faintest CVs being found. However, by the end of the SDSS survey, we should have a clearer picture of the range of parameters and the distribution of types of CVs in the galaxy, including both high and low accretion rate systems.

We gratefully acknowledge Michael Strauss and Patrick Hall for pointing out some of the CV candidates and Don Schneider for useful comments on the manuscript. Funding for the creation and distribution of the SDSS Archive has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, and the Max Planck Society. The SDSS Web site is http://www.sdss.org/. Studies of magnetic stars and stellar systems at Steward Observatory is supported by the NSF through AST 97-30792. The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium (ARC) for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are The University of Chicago, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, The Johns Hopkins University, Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, University of Pittsburgh, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington. PS and SLH also acknowledge support from NSF grant AST-0205875 and an RRF grant from the UW.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The research of the physical phenomenon usually pursues two purposes. The first purpose is to explain qualitatively a nature of the phenomenon and the second one is to describe it quantitatively with the help of suitable mathematical model. These tasks frequently have a different degree of complexity and its not always can be executed simultaneously. It happens, that the explanation of physical effect is rather simple, and its quantitative description is very difficult. It is a case with a prediction of weather.

There are cases when the phenomenon appears easier to describe quantitatively, than to understand its physical nature. The periodic law is such vivid example. It is the main law of chemistry. The periodic table was created by Mendeleyev on the base of atomic weights. It gives excellent description of elements and their compounds properties. But this law for very long period had not a physical explanation. Only there are a lot of years later, after discovery of electrons, protons, neutrons and creation of the quantum mechanics, the physical essence of the law has become clear.

The situation, similar to this case, probably, has a place now in optics. Many years the mathematical description of dynamics of optical transitions exists. It is based on the Bloch equations, which was offered in 1946 for the description of a nuclear magnetic resonance . Now Maxwell-Bloch equations are used for the description practically all nonlinear effects in optics. Such model gives really good description of the optical phenomena . However the Bloch equations have not clear physical interpretation. Therefore there are large difficulties at attempts to understand physical sense of such descriptions. For this purpose such concepts, as coherence, interference and a superposition of states are usually used. But its nothing explain. Its look like as attempt of physical interpretation of the mathematical description, when to operations of addition and subtraction of the members in the equations there correspond principles of interference and states mixing.

In present article the physical explanation of set of the phenomena in optics is discussed. It is based on a principle of inequality of forward and reversed optical transitions. However, for a long time and strongly settled opinion exists that such optical transitions are equivalent, and electromagnetic interactions as a whole in nature are time invariant . It is difficult to understand what is the base of this opinion. Usually it is referred to Einstein’s opinion ”that physics could be restricted to the time-symmetric case for which retarded and advanced fields are equivalent” .

The basis of this opinion can not be the equality of Einstein coefficients for absorption and stimulated emission of photons. Einstein coefficients characterize the integrated cross-section of optical transition. The preservation of time invariance demands not only equality of integrated cross-sections, but also equality of spectral width of direct and reversed optical transitions. Thus, the Einstein coefficients have not the direct relation to invariance of process of photon absorption.

The experiments on study of differential cross-section of reaction $`Al^{27}+p=\alpha +Mg^{24}`$ also can not be considered as the proof of time invariance preservation . These experiments show equality of differential cross-sections of forward and backward processes. But we are interested more in comparison of cross-sections forward and reversed processes. It is a case, when the backward process follows directly after the forward one and the system can have memory about the forward process. So, the experimental proofs of time invariance preservation in electromagnetic interactions are absent.

From other side the opinion exists, that (except for the case of $`K^0`$-meson decay) there are absent also the experimental proofs of time invariance violation . This is error. In optics there is a set of the experimental proofs of time invariance violation in electromagnetic interactions. But usually there are the indirect experimental proofs, which essence is not realized to the present time.

The problem is that we are not able to measure separately the parameters of forward and reversed processes. Under action of radiation both forward and reversed processes proceed simultaneously. A width of optical transition is usually connected with lifetime of the exited state. Therefore, when wide optical transitions are used, some temporary difficulties appear. If the lifetime of exited state is big, the line of optical transition is very narrow and difficulties with inhomogeneity of a spectrum exist. As a result the information on parameters of the reversed optical process has mainly indirect character. For example, the Autler-Townes effect  and the numerous examples of amplification without inversion  are the indirect proofs of inequality of forward and reversed processes.

However the brightest indirect proof of this inequality in our opinion is the effect of adiabatic population transfer in two-level system due to sweeping of resonant conditions . When the resonance radiation interacts with the two-level system, the so-called periodical Rabi oscillations of the level population takes place. But if the sweeping of resonance conditions appears (for example, the frequency of radiation is changed), the full population transfer from the initial level to the opposite one takes place. And this result does not depend on intensity of radiation (if it is rather strong). This surprising result is well described in Bloch model. It is said, that the physical nature of this effect can hardly be explained verbally in simple terms, but one should carefully follow the behavior of the vectors in the model of the rotating wave . This situation resembles very much an appeal of the prestidigitator asking the spectators to watch his hands carefully while he is making the manipulations. And the result seems to be the same. An explanation is given, but its physical essence is absolutely unclear.

Here it is important that the physical explanation of this effect is impossible, if we assume equality forward and reversed processes. Its should be something different, that the atom could know, what level is initial, and what level is final. It is natural to expect, that the difference can consist in different width and cross-section of forward and reversed transitions. The rapid adiabatic passage effect is the most convincing indirect proof of inequality forward and reversed processes.

However for the decision of a problem only indirect proofs are insufficient. The direct proofs are necessary. And such direct proof exists. It is connected to physical object, which has an unusual combination of properties: extremely large homogeneous width of optical transition is combined with the big lifetime of the exited state toward to spontaneous emission. In this case it appears very easily experimentally to find out the large difference between parameters of forward and reversed processes. This unusual object is the so-called wide component of line in absorption spectrum of polyatomic molecules. The following section is devoted to discussion of experiments with this object.

## 2  Infrared laser multiple photon excitation of polyatomic molecules.

The phenomenon of the infrared multiple–photon excitation (IR MPE) and collisionless dissociation of polyatomic molecules was discovered in works . It was founded, that polyatomic molecules can absorb tens photons of laser radiation and dissociate without collisions. Numerous works were carried out later aimed to clarify the mechanism of this process. This interest was stimulated by the fact, that the widths both of laser radiation and molecule absorption lines are substantially lower, than the anharmonicity of molecular vibrations. It means, that the absorption of second quantum of laser radiation should not occur.

For an explanation of the mechanism of process in the former work the hypothesis about existence of so-called ”quasicontinuum” of vibrational states was proposed. Despite of the argued criticism  such idea has received the broadest distribution. In the recent years, however, the views on the nature of ”quasicontinuum” have changed dramatically. Earlier, it was accepted, that ”quasicontinuum” consists of a huge number of narrow lines arising as a result of coupling different vibrational states.

Now it is widely believed , that the absorption line is unique, but it becomes very wide. The origin of the ”quasicontinuum” now is bounded up with intramolecular vibrational relaxation (IVR) process. This is a reasonable idea. The IVR process can be very fast (picoseconds timescale). The corresponding Lorentzian width of the absorption line can be in this case comparable with anharmonicity of the molecular vibrations. The main disadvantage of this model is that it does not explain how the molecules can be excited in the region of low vibrational levels, where the IVR is absent and the absorption lines remain narrow. Experiments show, that excitation of molecules in this area occurs without essential difficulties, but the theory gives no satisfactory explanation of this fact.

In works  an idea was proposed, that the IR MPE process is a trivial result of absorption in the area of line wings, but antiviral is the nature of these wings. Practically, the possible role of line wings was not discussed in the literature earlier. It is, apparently, due to the fact, that appropriate estimations can easily be made. The lifetime of excited states of molecules due to spontaneous emission in the infrared region lays in the millisecond timescale. The natural width of line must to be smaller than $`100Hz`$. Even for the strongest molecular transitions, at the distance from the line center equal to the value of molecular anharmonicity, the Lorentzian contour of the natural width would have an absorption cross–section smaller then $`10^{25}cm^2`$. This cross–section cannot play any appreciable role in overcoming the anharmonicity of molecular vibrations.

However, such estimation has not been tested in experiment earlier. It is possible to assume, that for some unknown reasons, intensity of real line wings is much higher, than the theory predicts. How high the intensity of line wings should be to explain the observable effect of laser excitation of molecules? Rather correctly such information can be derived from the experimental results of works \[18-20\], where the depletion of rotational states of $`SF_6`$ molecules by TEA $`CO_2`$–laser radiation was studied in the conditions of molecular jet. The results of such processing are presented in Fig.1. Except for the usual narrow component of the line with a Doppler width $`30MHz`$, the wings, or more precisely speaking, a wide component of the line should exist with a cross–section $`\sigma 610^{20}cm^2`$ and with a Lorentzian full width at half medium $`4.5cm^1`$. The relative integral intensity of this component is rather small, $`0.2\%`$, but it is high enough for efficient excitation of molecules from all rotational states.

For experimental test of existence the wide components of a line the form of line should be studied on the large depth. This strongly prevents by inhomogeneous broadening, which connected with distribution of molecules on different rotational states. At room temperature the dense spectrum of transitions from different rotational states is observed. But here it is important to pay attention that Lorentzian contour is rather flat and wide component of lines can manifest itself as far natural wings of absorption bands. There are many publications about study of far wings of absorption bands of small and light molecules . These wings are the result of collisional broadening of absorption lines. For heavy polyatomic molecules in a gas phase the far wings of absorption bands of other nature were discovered . The experiments have shown, that the cross-section of absorption in the region of these wings does not depend on pressure of gas. So, its have a natural nature.

In Fig.2, the spectral dependence of the absorption cross-section of $`SiF_4`$ molecules around the $`\nu _3`$ absorption bands is presented. The edges of the absorption band have approximately an exponential form, the slope being greater for the blue side, than for the red one. At the distance more, than 25—40 $`cm^1`$ from the band center, much more flat wings are observed. The curve (2) is a Lorentzian profile with FWHM $`=4.5cm^1`$, which passes through the point with minimal absorption cross-section in the given spectral range. So, we can see, that the far band wings have a Lorentzian behavior.

In Fig.3 a spectral dependence of the absorption cross-section of $`SF_6`$ molecules is shown. In this rather typical case the far band wings are masked by intense combination bands.

The measurement of intensity of far absorption band wings allows to estimate integrated intensity of wide components of lines. The same value can also be experimentally estimated by other method: on the data about saturation of absorption spectrum of polyatomic molecules by radiation of pulse $`CO_2`$\- laser at low gas pressure . The experiments show, that the relative intensity of wide component quickly grows with increasing of number of atoms in a molecule and branching degree of the molecules. Thus the estimated average relative integral intensity of the line wings at room temperature varied from $`0.6\%`$ for $`SF_6`$ and $`SiF_4`$ to $`90\%`$ for $`(CF_3)_2O`$ and $`(CF_3)_2CO`$.

The nature of wide components of lines is unknown. As a hypothesis the following explanation is offered. A certain mechanism of averaging of the rotational moment of molecule inertia works during the vibrational motion of atoms. In the large molecules this mechanism undergoes periodic and convertible breaking. As a result the absorption line splits on a clump of narrow lines, and the short-lived moments of breaking correspond to a wide component of a line .

The wide component of line is unique physical object, which has the long lifetime of the excited states toward to spontaneous emission and large homogeneous spectral width of optical transition. This combination of properties is very convenient for study the reversed optical transition in conditions of a molecular beam.

A wide component of lines was easily observed in work  at study the absorption of radiation of continuous $`CO_2`$\- laser in a molecular beam with cryogenic bolometer. Rotational temperature in a molecular beam is very low ( $`5^0K`$ ). It radically changes character of a molecule absorption spectrum. The absorption lines become very rare and the $`CO_2`$\- laser radiation interacts practically only with the wide component of lines. Unfortunately, the authors had not understood with what thing they deal with and later the work with this object was closed.

In present case we are not interested in a line wings itself, but in the results of double optical resonance experiments in a molecular beam . For the first laser beam the absorption spectrum represents wide continuum. For the second laser beam, which cross the molecular beam later, besides this wide continuum a sharp dip with a width $`450kHz`$ is observed. It characterizes a spectrum of the reversed optical transition. The ratio of forward and reversed optical transitions widths exceeds $`10^5`$ times for the given case.

Besides this, the amplification of probe laser radiation was observed. Taking into account, that in some of these experiments the number of the molecules, exited by the first laser, did not exceed $`0,1\%`$, it is a typical case of amplification without inversion. Thus the cross-section of the reversed optical transition should be at least on three orders of magnitude more, than of forward one. Because of the Einstein coefficients for forward and reversed transitions should be equal, the present estimation for cross-section of the reversed transition is, obviously, underestimated.

Now these experiments are the unique direct and complete experimental proof of inequality of forward and reversed optical transitions. However, the given physical object, probably, is not so unique. The rather similar experimental results were received earlier in a solid state. In homogeneously broadened absorption line of a ruby the dip with width only 37 Hz was observed . And in this case the huge homogeneous width of optical transition is combined with the big lifetime of the exited state toward to spontaneous emission ($`3,4ms`$). The measurement of width of the dip was carried out by amplitude modulation of laser radiation. Unfortunately usual pump-probe experiments with using two pulse lasers were not carried out. Such experiments have not so high spectral resolution. But such results can have more evident, convincing and direct physical interpretation.

## 3  Nonlinear optical effects.

The traditional explanation of a nature of nonlinear optical processes has descriptive character. Their existence are connected with so-called nonlinear susceptibility of atoms and molecules . If appropriate factor of a nonlinear susceptibility is great enough, the process, for example, of a wave mixing can occur. If this factor is equal to zero, the wave mixing is absent. Also, a restriction on the lowest order wave mixing process exists, that is connected with the symmetry of the process. Namely, the factor of nonlinear susceptibility $`\chi ^\mathrm{𝟐}`$ is nonzero only in a medium without center of inversion.

Within the framework of discussed representations the main reason of nonlinear optical processes is the inequality of forward and reversed optical transitions. As the result the atoms and molecules have some ”memory” about their initial state and aspiration to return back. A basis of this aspiration is the high cross-section of optical transition into the initial state. And it is necessary to understand that the concept of initial state should include not only concrete quantum energy level, but also the orientation of atom in space toward the laser beam and even a phase of vibrational motion of atoms in a molecule.

In this case it becomes clear why in gas and liquid phases there are no effective processes of three and five photon mixing. Every photon has spin. Therefore, using odd number of photons it is impossible to return to an initial state. At the same time in crystal lattice, where the rotation can be suppressed, such processes are possible.

But in gas and liquid phases there are a huge amount of four photon mixing processes. The set of nonlinear optical effects are possible and necessary to consider as result of four photon mixing process .

Here we shall discuss in detail only one such effect. It is one of the most complex effect. Despite of old history and constant interest to it, it is insufficiently well experimentally investigated till now. The main problem here is that the existing theoretical representations about its nature strongly prevents experimenters. There is a photon echo effect.

The atoms and molecules, exited by laser radiation, are capable to radiate coherently this energy. When it occurs at once after laser pulse, such radiation calls as a nutation effect. The complete radiation of the reserved energy does not occur. The dephasing processes are one of the reasons. Some of the dephasing processes can be reversed in time, then a pulse of a photon echo superradiation can appear .

Usual two-pulse photon echo arises when environment is influenced by two pulses of laser radiation (P1 and P2) with a delay $`t_{21}`$ between them. Then at time $`t_{e2}=t_{21}`$ after the second laser pulse there is a pulse of photon echo. There is also variant of stimulated photon echo, when on environment work with three laser pulses (P1, P2, P3). Then the pulse of photon echo occurs after a pulse P3 with a delay equal delay between pulses P1 and P2 ($`t_{e3}=t_{21}`$). The time of a delay $`t_{32}`$ in this case can be very large.

The Bloch equations well describe dynamics of photon echo, but nothing says about a physical nature of this process. The concepts of optical, Zeeman coherences and superposition of states are used for explanation a photon echo effect . However, such approach contradicts some experimental facts. So the study of stimulated photon echo in a case, when the delay time $`t_{32}`$ between the second and third pulses considerably exceeds the lifetime of the excited state of atoms, clearly specifies that the information about the photon echo in this period of time contains only in a unique ground state . In this case such result is a natural consequence of small lifetime of the excited state. But such data can be received also in other way. Using an additional laser pulse of other frequency , it is possible to remove population of the ground or excited states to any other far level and, thus, to determine in what state (excited or ground) is concentrated the information about photon echo in each period of time. Such experiments were not carried out yet.

Within the framework of concept about inequality of forward and reversed transitions in optics for an explanation of a nature of the photon echo it is not necessary to attract representations about a superposition of states. In each period of time the information about a photon echo is stored at one concrete level (ground or excited). Discussed in  illustration of a photon echo as an example of sports competition of runner actually is, obviously, absolutely exact physical analog of a photon echo process. The run on a circle corresponds to rotation or precession of atoms and molecules. The role of ”Maxwell’s demon” can and should carry out the spin of photon. The absorption or emission of photon is accompanied by change of a rotational state of atom or molecule.

The photon echo can be considered as multiple stage process of four photon mixing, which includes stages of dephasing and rephasing of rotational motion. The corresponding scheme of energy levels is given on Fig.4. Here we shall consider common variant, when the longitudinal magnetic field is applied and the magnetic levels are not degenerated. Under action of radiation of the first laser pulse (P1) the absorption of photon and forward transition in the excited state takes place. The dephasing process, which is connected with inhomogeneity of rotational motion , here begins. Under action of the second laser pulse (P2) of the same frequency and polarization the stimulated emission of photon occurs and the atom comes back in the ground state. For a part of atoms, which had the appropriate orientation in space, this optical transition will be reversed. Its will return to an initial state and their ”memory” will be ”deleted”. For other part of atoms such transition will be a forward one and the ”memory” about the initial state will be kept. The rotation in the ground state for discussed case is absent and the dephasing process stops. Under action of radiation of the third laser pulse (P3) of other frequency and helicity a photon absorption and excitation of atoms in other excited state takes place, where the rotation occurs in the opposite side. The same heterogeneity of rotational motion results that the rephasing process begins. At time equal $`t_{21}`$ the rephasing process is finished and due to high cross-section of the reversed optical transition into the initial state the superradiation of a photon echo appears.

According to the given physical explanation the information about the photon echo after the first pulse is stored in the first excited state. After the second laser pulse (for a case of stimulated photon echo) it is only in the ground state. At last after the third pulse this information is concentrated in the other excited state. For usual two-pulse photon echo, when the stage between the second and third pulses is absent, the information about the photon echo during all period of its formation is stored only in the excited states. In this case under action of the second laser pulse two consistently optical transitions take place.

The scheme of Fig.4 was realized in work , where the shape of a stimulated photon echo in ytterbium vapor was experimentally studied. However later this scheme was reconsidered. In work  for an explanation of the same experimental results other experimental scheme was proposed. In this case the second pulse P2 has frequency different from frequency of the first pulse P1, and the frequency of the third pulse P3, on the contrary, coincides with frequency of the first laser pulse. The latter scheme, certainly, better corresponds to the concepts of coherency and superposition of states, but in this case the four-photon mixing is impossible. Therefore we believe, that the experimental scheme described in , is correct in contrast to the scheme, described in .

These interesting experiments in any case require continuation. From the text of  it is not clear, why the authors used this complicated scheme of photon echo. What will happen, if the frequency and helicity of the third laser pulse will be the same, as for the first two pulses:

1) the signal of photon echo will be the same,

2) it will be weak,

3) it will be absent?

The phenomenon of a photon echo is one of many nonlinear optical effects, where the principle of inequality of optical transitions allows to understand physical sense of proceeding processes and to plan ways of their further experimental study.

## 4 Conclusion.

Thus, we have quite sufficient experimental proofs of inequality of forward and reversed transitions in optics. The major task here for the experimenters is to learn to measure the parameters of the reversed optical transitions. Before the theorists there is a problem of creation the mathematical model (alternative to the Bloch equations) for description the dynamics of optical transitions. Such model should include a principle of inequality of optical transitions . The possible base of such model may be the Dirac equation, which in usual variant assumes time invariance violation in electromagnetic interactions . The description of the physical phenomena with such model will have much more direct and clear physical sense, than the existing description.

Fig.1 Profile of absorption line of $`SF_6`$ molecules for the $`\nu _3`$ band $`10`$ transition.

Fig.2 Spectral dependence of the room temperature absorption cross-section of $`SiF_4`$ molecules. 1- spectrophotometer result. 2- Lorentzian profile with FWHM = $`4.5cm^1`$.

Fig.3 Spectral dependence of the room temperature absorption cross–section of $`SF_6`$ molecules. 1- spectrophotometer result. 2- Lorentzian profile with FWHM = $`4.5cm^1`$.

Fig.4 The basic scheme of a photon echo process.


text:
# Enhanced electrical resistivity before Néel order in the metals, RCuAs2 (R= Sm, Gd, Tb and Dy)

## Abstract

We report an unusual temperature (T) dependent electrical resistivity($`\rho `$) behavior in a class of ternary intermetallic compounds of the type RCuAs2 (R= Rare-earths). For some rare-earths (Sm, Gd, Tb and Dy) with negligible 4f-hybridization, there is a pronounced minimum in $`\rho `$(T) far above respective Néel temperatures (TN). However, for the rare-earths which are more prone to exhibit such a $`\rho `$(T) minimum due to 4f-covalent mixing and the Kondo effect, this minimum is depressed. These findings, difficult to explain within the hither-to-known concepts, present an interesting scenario in magnetism.

PACS Nos. 72.15-V, 72.15.Qm, 75.20. Hr, 75.30.Et \*E-mail address: sampath@tifr.res.in

It is a fundamental fact in condensed matter physics that, in metals containing magnetic moments, the spin-disorder contribution to electrical resistivity ($`\rho `$) in the paramagnetic state is a constant adding to the lattice contribution, which decreases with decreasing temperature (T). Naturally, $`\rho `$ usually exhibits a positive T-coefficient down to the magnetic ordering temperature (To), except perhaps a weak critical point effect restricted to a narrow T-range (less than few percent of Curie temperature). However, in the event that the sign of the exchange interaction between the local magnetic moment and the conduction electrons is negative (the phenomenon called ”the Kondo effect”) due to covalent mixing of the relevant orbital, $`\rho `$ can show a low T-upturn increasing logarithmically below a characteristic temperature leading to a minimum in $`\rho `$(T) well above To. This aspect has been very well known for Ce and Yb alloys. Here, we report that, in a class of ternary intermetallic compounds of the type RCuAs2 (R= rare-earths), the rare-earths with strictly localized 4f character (in which case one does not anticipate the Kondo effect, e.g., Sm, Gd, Tb and Dy) exhibit a pronounced minimum in $`\rho `$(T) above respective Néel temperatures (TN). However, for R= Pr, Nd and even Yb, no such minimum is observed in $`\rho `$(T). These findings present an unusual and interesting scenario as far as electronic transport in magnetic metals is concerned.

The series of compounds under investigation, RCuAs2 (R= Pr, Nd, Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Yb, and Y) crystallize in the HfCuSi2-type layered tetragonal form (space group, P4/nmm) and the polycrystalline materials in the single phase form were synthesized as described in Ref. 3. The $`\rho `$ measurements (1.8 - 300 K) in zero magnetic field (H) as well as in the presence of a H of 50 kOe were performed on rectangular-shaped specimens (9mm X 2mm X 2mm) by a four-probe method employing spring-loaded pressure contacts with a typical spacing of 2mm between voltage leads. The sharp tip (diameter $`<`$0.2mm) attached to the springs enables us to minimise the errors in $`\rho `$ arising due to uncertainties in the measurement of spacing between voltage leads. In order to arrive at the TN values, we have also carried out dc magnetization (M) (employing a commercial magnetometer) and heat-capacity (C) measurements.

Figure 1 shows $`\rho `$(T) behavior for all the compounds below 70 K. Let us first look at the data for R= Sm, Gd, Tb and Dy, in which the 4f orbitals are known to be so deeply localized that the covalent mixing effects can be ignored. The value of $`\rho `$ falls in the milli-ohms range around 300 K in all cases. However, since the samples are found to be porous, the measured absolute values of $`\rho `$ are overestimated and hence should not be taken too seriously. What is important to note is that $`\rho `$ decreases monotonically with T without any other feature down to 70 K (and hence not shown here). This establishes that all these compounds behave like metals. As the T is lowered, one finds that, in these compounds, $`\rho `$ attains surprisingly a prominent minimum at a temperature, Tmin (= about 35 K for Sm, Gd and Tb; about 20 K for Dy), below which it rises again. It should be noted that this feature is not observed for the Y compound (as well as for R= Lu, not shown here), in which case $`\rho `$(T) exhibits normally expected metallic behaviour down to the measured lowest temperature (apart from a weak drop at about 7 K, which is presumably due to traces of a parasitic superconducting phase). This observation indicates that the minimum in other cases is magnetic in origin.

In order to rule out the origin of this upturn from magnetic superzone formation due to possible antiferromagnetic ordering at Tmin, it is important to make sure from independent measurements that TN falls well below Tmin. In this respect, the dc magnetic susceptibility ($`\chi `$) and C data shown in Figs. 2 and 3 are quite conclusive. The $`\chi `$ above about 100 K is found to follow Curie-Weiss behavior (not shown here) and the effective moments ($`\mu `$eff) obtained from this temperature range

are in full agreement with that expected for respective trivalent R ions ($`\mu `$eff) = 0.7, 7.9, 9.7, and 10.63 $`\mu `$B) for R= Sm, Gd, Tb and Dy respectively). The features due to magnetic ordering appear as a well-defined peak in $`\chi `$ and C and/or as a sudden change in the slope of inverse $`\chi `$ versus T well below Tmin as one lowers the T. The TN thus obtained are close to 12.5, 9, 9 and 8 K for Sm, Gd, Tb and Dy cases respectively. (There are additional features at further lower temperatures, which could be due to spin-reorientation effects. As this is not pertinent to the main conclusion of this article, we will not discuss this aspect further). There could be a small ambiguity in precisely locating TN from the C data, as the peak-positions can be shifted to a lower T or the C-tail may continue to a higher T, depending on the complexities of the magnetic structure. But the fact remains that the features due to the onset of magnetic transition appear well below Tmin in all cases. Therefore, the minimum in $`\rho `$(T) well above 12 K can not be attributed to magnetic superzone gap formation. ($`\rho `$ increases further below TN in some cases, rather than exhibiting a drop due to the loss of spin-disorder contribution, which may be attributed to this gap effect). It may be stated that $`\chi `$ for both the field-cooled and the zero-cooled conditions of the specimens are essentially the same, which establishes that there is no spin-glass freezing in the T range of investigation. Isothermal M in the magnetically ordered state, measured till H = 120 kOe (see Fig. 2, bottom, for instance for the data at 1.6 K), varies sluggishly with H without any hysteresis; in fact for R= Sm and Gd, M varies linearly with H, whereas Tb and Dy exhibit metamagnetic-like features. These establish that the magnetic ordering is indeed of an antiferromagnetic-type and not of a ferromagnetic-type.

It may be recalled that we have earlier reported a similar $`\rho `$ behavior for some Gd systems, e.g., Gd2PdSi3, crystallizing in a AlB2-derived ternary hexagonal structure, but other rare-earth members of those series do not exhibit such a minimum in $`\rho `$(T). The present series of compounds is thus unique in the sense that the observation of $`\rho `$min spans over the entire rare-earth series (but not restricted to Gd alone). It is this finding that provides compelling evidence for a more-common hither-to-unrecognised magnetism-related electron scattering effects in the paramagnetic state. There is also another noteworthy difference between these two classes of compounds: The minimum is very sensitive to the presence of an external H in the case of Gd2PdSi3, whereas the application of a H of 50 kOe does not depress this minima in the present compounds, most notably for R= Gd and Sm (see Fig. 1). In other words, the magnetoresistance (MR= \[$`\rho `$(H)- $`\rho `$(0)\]/ $`\rho `$(0)) is quite small varying sluggishly with H; this also rules out any explanation in terms of possible grain boundary effects at least for R= Sm and Gd, as any extra scattering from the magnetic ions at the grain boundaries have been in general known to be strongly suppressed by small applications of H. Thus, for H = 50 kOe, the magnitude of MR in the T-region of interest is much less than or close to 2$`\%`$, which could be compared with the net increase (about 14$`\%`$, 6$`\%`$, 4$`\%`$ and 4$`\%`$ for R= Sm, Gd, Tb and Dy respectively) of zero-field $`\rho `$ as measured at TN relative to that at Tmin. Though smaller in magnitude, there is a noticeable influence of H for R= Tb and Dy. Possibly, there is a subtle difference in the origin of $`\rho `$(T) minimum between the present Gd and Sm compounds on the one hand and Gd2PdSi3 on the other with Tb and Dy compounds lying somewhere between these two limits.

In order to explore whether the upturn in $`\rho `$ below Tmin in the paramagnetic state could be understood in terms of hither-to-known concepts, we plot the data in the range 12.5 to 31 K (region of interest) in various ways in Fig. 4, for instance, for SmCuAs2. Clearly, the upturn cannot be attributed to the Kondo effect due to deeply localized nature of the 4f orbital. Though, occasionally, Sm compounds show the Kondo effect, this phenomenon can not be expected for Gd, Tb and Dy. The absence of the Kondo effect even in this Sm compound is further supported by the non-logarithmic variation of $`\rho `$ (Fig. 4d). To substantiate this further, we have obtained the 4f contribution ($`\rho `$4f) to $`\rho `$ by subtracting the lattice part from the knowledge of $`\rho `$(T) of the Y analogue. We would like to emphasize that the slopes of $`\rho `$(T) plots for these two compounds are found to be the same at room temperature, which implies that no further correction as described by Cattaneo and Wohlleben needs to be carried out to obtain precise lattice contribution. The $`\rho `$4f thus obtained is nearly constant (see Fig. 4) at temperatures above 100 K (consistent with the constancy of spin-disorder contribution), however raising gradually with decreasing T in a non-logarithmic way. Since all the samples were synthesized under identical conditions and the pressure employed to obtain the compacted and sinteted pellets for $`\rho `$ studies in all samples are the same, we believe that possible errors in the $`\rho `$4f(T) due to differences in porosity and consequent grain boundary effects among these samples are rather negligible. In addition, we arrive at a similar conclusion even when we employ the data of Lu sample for lattice contribution. The plot of ln($`\rho `$) versus 1/T is not linear (Fig. 4c) and the absence of activated behavior rules out the formation of any type of gap as a possible cause of this upturn. The plots of ln($`\rho `$) versus T-1/4 and T-1/2 are also not linear (Figs. 4a and b), thereby ruling out an explanation in terms of variable range hopping and Coulomb gap formation mechanisms. Apparently, there is no T1/2 dependence of $`\rho `$ as well (Fig. 4e), which implies that presently known weak-disorder-induced electron localization ideas discussed by Lee and Ramakrishnan are not adequate to describe the anomalies. Another mechanism that could be advanced is in terms of the formation of magnetic polarons, as proposed for EuSe (Ref. 11), EuB6 (Ref. 12) and Tl2Mn2O7 (Refs. 13-15), but the application of a H is expected to have a pronounced depressing effect on the $`\rho `$-upturn resulting in a large negative MR, in contrast to the observation. For the same reason, the s-f exchange model (considering a strong scattering of 5d conduction electrons by the localized 4f electrons) proposed to explain the large MR behavior of GdI2 may not be applicable; additionally, this model assumes ferromagnetic ordering at low temperatures, whereas the present compounds are antiferromagnets; it is not clear whether this model can be modified to explain the features. The fact that $`\rho `$ behavior in Y and Lu analogues is normal in this regard establishes that the origin of the above $`\rho `$ anomaly does not lie in the band structure. Thus, there is no straightforward explanation for the above-mentioned enhanced scattering, though it is clear that magnetism plays a role.

We now inspect the $`\rho `$ behaviour of Pr, Nd and Yb compounds (Fig. 1) along with the $`\chi `$ and C behavior (Figs. 2 and 3). PrCuAs2 exhibits a distinct feature due to antiferromagnetic ordering at about 4 K, as evidenced by the feature in $`\chi `$ (though the corresponding anomaly in C is not sharp presumably due to low entropy of the crystal-field-split ground state). Nd and Yb compounds are found to order magnetically close to 2.5 and 4.0 K respectively as marked by the features in C and $`\rho `$ data. It is worth mentioning that, though the TN values in this series are in general larger than that expected on the basis of de Gennes scaling, this Yb compound turns out to be one of the few Yb compounds exhibiting a high magnetic ordering temperature. This makes this Yb compound interesting in its own right. Following the behaviour in other members of this series described above, one would naively expect that there should be a minimum in the plot of $`\rho `$(T) above TN. However, it is striking to note that no such minimum could be observed for Pr and Yb compounds and the MR is also negligible; in other words, these compounds behave in a normal way in this respect. For the Nd compound, there is a weak upturn below 15 K to the tune of 1$`\%`$ only. We speculate that, at least for these cases, the origin of this suppression of $`\rho `$min may lie in non-negligible degree of 4f-mixing, characteristic not only of Yb, but also of Pr and Nd under favorable circumstances, though there could be other controlling factors. In the case of Yb compound, this covalent mixing manifests itself usually as the Kondo effect; the observed behavior of $`\rho `$(T) plot above TN is typical of Yb-based Kondo lattices and the temperature (around 130 K) at which $`\rho `$ starts falling as T is lowered represents the onset of coherent scattering among the Kondo centres. The positive sign of MR (see Fig. 1) arising out of destruction of Kondo-coherence by the application of H is consistent with this explanation. Therefore, we tend to believe that the Kondo-coherence somehow suppresses the upturn in $`\rho `$ as TN is approached. In the case of Pr and Nd compounds, the spatial mixing of 4f (see Cooper and Ref. 19), though does not result in the Kondo effect, is apparently effective in depressing $`\rho `$min. It is quite well-known that the strength of 4f-hybridization decreases progressively as one moves from Ce to Sm and the observation of a similar trend in $`\rho `$min supports this interpretation, atleast for these cases.

To conclude, we report a new class of rare-earth based intermetallic compounds, RCuAs2 (R= Sm, Gd, Tb and Dy), with a novel electrical transport behaviour before antiferromagnetic order. The findings imply that the understanding of the electronic transport in the paramagnetic state of relatively simple magnetic metals is far from complete. We propose that the ideas based on weak localisation may have to be extended incorporating strongly enhanced magnetic critical scattering effects extending over a wide temperature range above To.


text: # Degree 1 elements of the Selberg class


text:
# 1. Introduction

## 1. Introduction

Permutation generation has a history which dates back to the 1650s. After the electronic computer was invented dozens of algorithms have been published which generates all the permutations of $`S_n`$ by a computer. In 1977 Robert Sedgewick  wrote a survey of this problem and compared nearly all permutation generation methods at that time. As a basic problem of computer science, it is still an interesting problem to be studied.

Sedgewick  concluded in his survey that his implementation of Heap’s method was the fastest permutation generation algorithm for most computers, and it can be coded that most permutations are generated using only two store instructions. This is a lower bound of permutation algorithms. Of course it can not be exceeded but algorithms which run as fast as it may be written.

Two completely new algorithms for generating permutations, shift- cursor algorithm and level algorithm, are presented in this paper and we give some implementations of them. Like Sedgewick’s implementation of Heap’s method, one of the implementations of our first algorithm comes infinitely close to the theoretically optimal solution of the problem, that is, $`2n!`$ store instructions. Also one implementation of the other algorithm can be used to generate random permutations.

## 2. The Algorithms

Our two algorithms are strongly related. Specifically, each number in a ”level” permutation gives the level of the shift cursor in the corresponding permutation.

First, we discuss the shift cursor algorithm which generates the permutations in $`S_n`$ beginning with the identity permutation $`123\mathrm{}n`$. The algorithm uses the first number 1 in 123…n to partition the n! permutation in n blocks of $`(n1)!`$ permutations as follows. The algorithm first generates $`(n1)!`$ permutations with cursor 1 in $`1^{\text{st}}`$ position, the next $`(n1)!`$ permutations with cursor 1 in the $`2^{\text{nd}}`$ position, and so on, until the cursor 1 is in the $`n^{\text{th}}`$ position. In other words, the cursor partitions the $`n!`$ permutations into $`n`$ blocks, and in each block the cursor is in a fixed position. We define the level of the cursor to be the number of blocks determine by the cursor. Thus the level of cursor 1 is $`n`$.

The algorithm, while generating the permutations with the cursor 1 in a fixed position, uses a new cursor to partition each block of $`(n1)!`$ permutations into $`n1`$ smaller blocks and in each smaller block the new cursor is in a fixed position. To find the cursor of a smaller block, we first ignore the cursors of the larger blocks from the permutations, and then use the first number of the first permutation in the block as the cursor of the smaller block. For example, all the level $`n1`$ cursors are the first numbers other than cursor 1 in the first permutation of each smaller block. This method can be used until the new blocks contain only one permutation and then all $`n!`$ permutations are generated.

Consider, for example, the case n = 4 whose permutation sequence appears in Figure 1. The sequence begins with the permutation 1234. The algorithm first uses 1 as the cursor of all $`4!`$ permutations, and we get the following 4 blocks (where * stands for an unknown number):

A new cursor is then used in each block to partition the 3! = 6 permutations into 3 smaller blocks. For example, in the first larger block the first permutation is $`1234`$, so we use 2 as the cursor of the first block to get the following 3 smaller blocks:

In the first block above, where the first permutation is 1234, the first number, other than 1 and 2, is 3, so we use 3 as the cursor of the block. Then we get 2 smaller blocks: 123\* and 12\*3. Both of the blocks contains only one permutation and we put the last number 4 in the permutations to get 1234 and 1243. We continue in this way to obtain the other permutation in the first block ending with the permutation 1432.

In the second block, the first permutation will be 4132. This comes from the previous permutation 1432 (the last permutation in the first block) by interchanging the cursor 1 with the next number in the permutation. Since 4132 is the first permutation in the second block, we use the first number 4 as the cursor of the second block to obtain the following 3 smaller blocks:

Continuing as above, we get all the permutations in the second block. We then get all $`n!=4!=24`$ permutations which appear in Figure 1.

Observe that, in each permutation, each number in the permutation is a cursor of a certain block, and in a given permutation the levels of the cursors are different from each other. Thus the cursor levels form a permutation. Our level sequence is obtained from the sequence of cursor level permutations by interchanging 1 and $`n`$, 2 and $`n1`$, and so on.

Figure 1 shows, for $`n=4`$, the shift cursor sequence, the levels of the cursors, and the level sequence. We also include the well-known Johnson-Trotter sequence   for reference. ($`n=4`$). See Figure 1.

| shift cursor | levels | level | Johnson-Trotter |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| sequence | of the cursors | sequence | sequence |
| 1234 | 4321 | 1234 | 1234 |
| 1243 | 4312 | 1243 | 1243 |
| 1423 | 4231 | 1324 | 1423 |
| 1324 | 4132 | 1423 | 4123 |
| 1342 | 4213 | 1342 | 4132 |
| 1432 | 4123 | 1432 | 1432 |
|  |  |  |  |
| 4132 | 3421 | 2134 | 1342 |
| 4123 | 3412 | 2143 | 1324 |
| 2143 | 2431 | 3124 | 3124 |
| 3142 | 1432 | 4123 | 3142 |
| 3124 | 2413 | 3142 | 3412 |
| 2134 | 1423 | 4132 | 4312 |
|  |  |  |  |
| 2314 | 3241 | 2314 | 4321 |
| 2413 | 3142 | 2413 | 3421 |
| 4213 | 2341 | 3214 | 3241 |
| 3214 | 1342 | 4213 | 3214 |
| 3412 | 2143 | 3412 | 2314 |
| 4312 | 1243 | 4312 | 2341 |
|  |  |  |  |
| 4321 | 3214 | 2341 | 2431 |
| 4231 | 3124 | 2431 | 4231 |
| 2431 | 2314 | 3241 | 4213 |
| 3421 | 1324 | 4231 | 2413 |
| 3241 | 2134 | 3421 | 2143 |
| 2341 | 1234 | 4321 | 2134 |
|  |  |  |  |

Figure 1.

## 3. Implementation of the Level Algorithm - Also can be Used to Generate Random Permutations

If N is so large that we could never hope to generate all permutations of N elements, it is of interest to study methods for generating ”random” permutations of N elements. The following algorithm implements level algorithm by using a number between 1 to $`N!`$ to generate a permutation of level algorithm. Since we can generate a ”random” number between 1 to $`N!`$ first and use the following algorithm to generate a permutation of level algorithm, the following algorithm can also be used to generate ”random” permutations.

Suppose the function divide(int $`a`$, int $`b`$) executes $`a/b`$ and put the quotient to $`b`$, and the remainder to $`a`$ and $`0!=1`$. We can write implementation of level sequence using the following algorithm:

for i=1 to n! step 1 do

begin

for j=1 to n step 1 do

begin

int m=(n-j)!

divide(i, m)

if i$``$0 then

put j to the (m+1)$`^{\text{th}}`$ empty position

else

put j to the m$`^{\text{th}}`$ empty position

end

output one permutation

end

For example, suppose $`n=4`$, to generate the 15$`^{\text{th}}`$ permutation we first calculate $`15/3!=15/6=2\mathrm{}3`$, the quotient is 2 the remainder is 3, then we put number 1 in the 3$`^{\text{rd}}`$ position, we get \**1\*. Secondly we calculate $`3/2!=3/2=1\mathrm{}1`$, the quotient is 1 the remainder is 1, then we put number 2 in the 2$`^{\text{nd}}`$ empty position, we get \*21\*. Third we calculate $`1/1!=1\mathrm{}0`$, the quotient is 1 the remainder is 0, then the number 3 is in the 1$`^{\text{st}}`$ empty position, we get 321\*. Finally we calculate 0/0!=0/1=0…0, the quotient is 0 the remainder is 0, then the number 4 is in the 1$`^{\text{st}}`$ empty position, we get the permutation 3214 at last.

## 4. Implementation of Shift Cursor Algorithm - an Optimal Solution of Permutation Generation Problem

It is can be noticed that shift cursor sequence can generate next permutation by transposition. And the sequence has the following properties:

Property 1. A level $`j`$ cursor remains the same position in continuous $`(j1)!`$ permutations.

Property 2. If ignore the cursors which level $`>j`$ from a sequence of $`n!`$ permutations then the sequence turns to $`n!/j!`$ blocks with length $`j`$, and the rule of change of each blocks is the same.

We call Property 1 as the local stability of the sequence, and call Property 2 as the rule stability of the sequence.

Property 1 ensures that when generating permutations using shift cursor algorithm, cursors with higher levels can be placed in fixed positions for a certain part of the sequence.

Property 2 ensures that for the certain part of the sequence, if higher level cursors have already been placed in their positions, a predetermined rule can be used to place other cursors in their right positions.

Clearly , there are two types of operations needed for generating a new permutation from the previous permutation:

1. Operations needed for actually executing changes from the previous permutation.
2. Operations needed for reaching decisions about which type 1 operations are required.

In theory, any permutation generating algorithm should contain the two types of operations and only the two types of operations, and a theoretically optimal algorithm for the problem should has the following factors:

1. All type 1 operations should be change only two numbers of the permutation.
2. The number of type 2 operations should be limited to reach zero, or much smaller than type 1 operations.

By using the two properties of shift cursor sequence, algorithms which have the above two factors can be written.

Suppose we have already written an algorithm for generating permutations of shift cursor algorithm. For a certain part of the sequence, such as a sequence of continuous $`j!`$ permutations, we can place the cursors which level $`>j`$ in their places first, and these cursors remain the fixed positions in the $`j!`$ permutations (property 1). Then by using a given rule, we can place other cursors directly (property 2), without any type 2 operations.

For example, suppose we are using the algorithm to generate 5! permutations $`(n=5)`$, and suppose $`j=3`$. Starting from 12345, the level of number 1 is 5, the level of number 2 is 4. Then we fix number 1 in the 1$`^{\text{st}}`$ position, fix number 2 in the 2$`^{\text{nd}}`$ position. Afterwards, by using a given rule, we can place the numbers 3, 4, 5 directly in their positions to generate permutations. The rule to place the three numbers is the same as the rule to generate 3! permutations $`(n=3)`$ using shift cursor algorithm. When we using the algorithm to generate $`3!`$ permutations ($`n=3`$), the sequence is as the following: 123, 132, 312, 213, 231, 321. In this case we name 3 the No.1 element, name 4 the No.2 element, name 5 the No.3 element. In the above sequence, No.2 element and No.3 element be changed firstly, so we change 4, 5 first, then the next permutation to 12345 is 12354. And No.1 element and No.3 element changed afterwards, so we change 3, 5 secondly, then the next permutation to 12354 is 12534, and so on. And finally we get the 6$`^{\text{th}}`$ permutation 12543. Some type 2 operations is needed now to determine which cursor’s level $`>j`$ and where should we place these cursors. After that, we can generate next $`3!1=5`$ permutations by directly change two numbers. This algorithm can be described as following:

Algorithm 1:

1.Starting from 1, 2, 3, ... , n.

2.If the level order of the cursors is 1, 2, 3, ... , n, stop.

3.Determine cursors which level\>j and their positions.

4.Output.

5.Generate and output next j!-1 permutations directly.

6.Go to step 2.

When generating permutations using algorithm 1, there are $`(j!1)/j!`$ permutations are generated by directly change two numbers without any type 2 operations. And other $`1/j!`$ permutations are generated using additional type 2 operations.

Suppose when using algorithm 1, the average execution time of type 1 operation is t and the average execution time of type 2 operation is T, then the overall execution time of algorithm 1 (T1) is $`n!t+n!/j!T`$. Since every type 1 operation of algorithm 1 is change two numbers, the overall execution time of theoretically optimal algorithm of permutation generation (T0) is $`n!t`$, and T1/T0$`=1+T/(j!t)>1`$. So with $`j`$ grows larger T1/T0 could infinitely close to 1, which means algorithm 1 could infinitely close to the theoretically optimal solution of the problem.

Robert Sedgewick’s implementation of Heap’s method is very similar to algorithm 1, the only difference between them is the termination condition (step 2) of the algorithms, and they both have the property 1 and property 2. And it is the two properties make the two algorithms both can infinitely close to the theoretically optimal solution of the problem.

## 5. Summary and Conclusions

Although there are few applications need to generate all n! permutations, permutation generation is still an interesting problem to be studied. Further studies are needed on this problem, and these studies may change our understanding of permutations in the future.

Comparing with permutation generation, random permutation generation has more practical meanings. The implementation of level algorithm gives a new method to generate random permutation. And it can be used to generate the permutation which in a given position of the level sequence.

Because of the two important properties, the shift cursor algorithm has an efficient implementation, and in theory both the implementation and Sedgewick’s implementation of Heap’s method could infinitely close to the theoretically optimal solution of the problem, which is $`2n!`$ store instructions. Comparing with Heap’s algorithm and another famous algorithm – Johnson-Trotter algorithm, the shift cursor algorithm is easier to understand than Heap’s algorithm and has a more efficient implementation than Johnson-Trotter algorithm. And it’s more suitable to be written in textbooks.

Acknowledgement. Appreciation must be expressed to Professor Seymour Lipschutz for his valuable comments and suggestions for improving the readability of the manuscript.

Jie Gao (gj02@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn) is a MSE student of School of Software, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.

Dianjun Wang (djwang@math.tsinghua.edu.cn) is an associate professor of Department of Mathematical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.


text:
# Comment on: “Mode repulsion and mode coupling in random lasers”

## Abstract

In recent paper Cao et al. \[Phys. Rev. B 67, 161101 (R) (2003)\] reported an observation of what is the first genuine multi-mode behavior in random lasers. They observed a splitting of a single lasing line into two lines with close frequencies when pumping is increased beyond a certain threshold. Here we are pointing out that the qualitative interpretation of these experiments given in that paper is misleading.

In the recent paper Cao, Jiang, Ling, Xu, and Soukoulis (CJLXS) presented the results of experimental and theoretical studies of multi-mode behavior in random lasers.Cao et al. (2003) The key experimental result of that paper was the observation of the splitting of a single lasing mode into two lines. A frequency spacing between the new lines was smaller than the homogeneous line width of the respective optical transitions. Besides it was found that the temporal behavior of the split-off modes was synchronized. These experimental findings are the first demonstration of a true multi-mode behavior in random lasers, and are, therefore, of great interest. However, it seems to us that the theoretical part of Ref.Cao et al., 2003 does not give a correct physical understanding of these results. The qualitative interpretation of the experimental results, and subsequent numerical simulations is given by CJLXS in terms of the mode coupling. The CJLXS state that the gain competition, which would not allow several modes to lase simultaneously, can be overcome by a coupling between the modes. The nature of this coupling was not explicitly specified; it was described in rather vague and non-specific terms of photon hopping and re-emission. If, however, the term coupling refers to the well-known, in laser physics, non-linear coupling due to cross-saturation, we would like to point out that this interpretation is in contradiction with well established properties of laser oscillations.

According to standard laser theorySargent et al. (1974), the mode competition arises because of the non-linear mode coupling. This coupling manifests itself through cross-saturation terms in the equations of the lasing dynamics. In the simplest case of a two-mode laser, neglecting fast oscillating terms, one can present these equations in the well-known formSargent et al. (1974)

$`\dot{I_1}`$ $`=`$ $`2I_1\left(\alpha _1\beta _1\theta _{12}I_2\right)`$
$`\dot{I_2}`$ $`=`$ $`2I_2\left(\alpha _2\beta _2\theta _{21}I_1\right),`$ (1)
where $`I_{1,2}`$ are dimensionless intensities of the respective modes, and $`\alpha _{1,2}`$,$`\beta _{1,2}`$,$`\theta _{1,2}`$ are linear net gain, self-saturation, and cross-saturation coefficients respectively. The latter is responsible for the mode competition *due to* mode coupling. The simple linear stability analysis presented in many textbooks on lasing dynamics, for instance, in Ref.Sargent et al., 1974, shows that the dynamics of the modes depends significantly on the quantity

$$C=\frac{\theta _{12}\theta _{21}}{\beta _1\beta _2}$$
(2)
called a coupling coefficient in Ref.Sargent et al., 1974. When the coupling is so strong that $`C>1`$, only single mode oscillations are stable, and one of the intensities $`I_{1,2}`$ is always equal to zero. In the case of weak coupling, $`C<1`$, on the contrary, two mode solutions are allowed to emerge, when the pumping exceeds certain threshold value. Thus, the non-linear coupling facilitates the mode competition rather than quenches it, contrary to what was assumed in Ref.Cao et al., 2003. In the light of this conclusion, the consecutive arguments of CJLXS explaining the temporal synchronization of the modes does not seem to be relevant as well.

The simplest, but not the only possible one, interpretation of the experimental results of Ref.Cao et al., 2003, is that while most of the spatially overlapping modes in random lasers are strongly coupled, and, therefore, the radiation from all but one mode is inhibited, the coupling between some modes is weakened through the mechanism of the spatial hole burning.Sargent et al. (1974) As a result, on some rare occasions, two mode oscillations become possible. In order to see how the spatial hole burning manifests itself in random lasers, we derived equations similar to Eq.(Comment on: “Mode repulsion and mode coupling in random lasers”) taking into account the inhomogeneous nature of the background dielectric function $`ϵ(\text{r})`$, and assuming that eigen modes, $`f_{1,2}(\text{r})`$, of the passive dielectric medium are known. The expression for the coupling coefficient, $`C`$, was found in this case to have the following form

$$C\frac{\left[ϵ(\text{r})f_1^2(\text{r})f_2^2(\text{r})𝑑\text{r}\right]^2}{ϵ(\text{r})f_1^4(\text{r})𝑑\text{r}ϵ(\text{r})f_2^4(\text{r})𝑑\text{r}}$$
(3)
The presence of $`ϵ(\text{r})`$ in these integrals reflects a significant difference between regular cavity lasers with a uniform background dielectric coefficient, and random lasers. If the modes are well separated spatially, the integral in the numerator of Eq.(3) is small and $`C<1`$. In this case we have the typical behavior most frequently observed in random lasers: many modes lase simultaneously at different parts of the sample (see Ref.Cao et al., 2003 and references therein). The case under discussion, however, corresponds to the situation when the overlap of the modes is rather strong, and the strength of the coupling depends upon the intricate details of the spatial distribution of the dielectric function and the eigen mode functions. Since the two-mode behavior is observed only in very few cases, the experimental results of Ref.Cao et al., 2003 indicate that it is much more likely that the modes, which overlap are coupled strongly, and only for a few rare configurations, the coupling coefficient drops below unity. In order to verify the correctness of this assumption careful analysis of statistical properties of parameter $`C`$, defined by Eq.(3) is required.

This work is partially supported by AFOSR grant F49620-02-1-0305.


text:
# Explicit effective Hamiltonians for general linear quantum-optical networks

## Acknowledgments

U.L. thanks John Cornwell for discussions and acknowledges the financial support of the Leverhulme Trust. Thanks to Mike Mowbray for comments that helped to improve the readability of the paper.

## Appendix A

In this appendix we prove that every $`𝐒𝔾_0`$ can be written in the form (21) with three factors of the form

$$𝐊_2=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& D\\ D& 0\end{array}\right),𝐊_j=\left(\begin{array}{cc}A_{j1}& 0\\ 0& A_{j2}\end{array}\right)\text{ for }j=1,3,$$
(44)
with antihermitian $`A_{jk}`$ and real nonnegative diagonal $`D`$. In case that $`𝐒𝔾`$, the construction can be modified such that (22) hold with antihermitian $`A_j`$ and real diagonal $`D`$.

The proof is constructive and begins by partitioning the matrix $`𝐒`$ into four $`n\times n`$ submatrices,

$$𝐒=\left(\begin{array}{cc}S_{11}& S_{12}\\ S_{21}& S_{22}\end{array}\right).$$
(45)
The condition (17) which expresses the fact that $`𝐒𝔾_0`$ implies the equations

$$S_{11}S_{11}^{}S_{12}S_{12}^{}=\mathrm{𝟏},$$
(46)
$$S_{11}S_{21}^{}=S_{12}S_{22}^{},$$
(47)
$$S_{21}S_{21}^{}S_{22}S_{22}^{}=\mathrm{𝟏}.$$
(48)
(46) implies that $`S_{11}^{}x^2=x^{}S_{11}S_{11}^{}x=x^{}S_{12}S_{12}^{}x+x^{}x=S_{12}^{}x^2+x^2>0`$ if $`x0`$, and therefore that $`S_{11}`$ is invertible. It is always possible to factor $`S_{12}`$ into a product $`S_{12}=U_1SV_2^{}`$ (singular value decomposition; see, e.g., ) consisting of unitary matrices $`U_1`$, $`V_2`$ and a nonnegative real diagonal matrix $`S`$. The matrix $`C:=(S^2+1)^{1/2}`$ is a real, nonnegative invertible diagonal matrix commuting with $`S`$ and satisfying

$$C^2S^2=1.$$
(49)
We now form the matrices

$$V_1:=S_{11}^1U_1C,U_2:=S_{22}V_2C^1.$$
(50)
This immediately gives $`S_{11}=U_1CV_1^{}`$ and $`S_{22}=U_2CV_2^{}`$; moreover (47) implies that $`S_{21}=U_2SV_1^{}`$. Inserting this into (46) and (48) shows that $`V_1`$ and $`U_2`$ must be unitary, and insertion into (45) gives

$$𝐒=\left(\begin{array}{cc}U_1CV_1^{}& U_1SV_2^{}\\ U_2SV_1^{}& U_2CV_2^{}\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}U_1& 0\\ 0& U_2\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}C& S\\ S& C\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}V_1^{}& 0\\ 0& V_2^{}\end{array}\right).$$
(51)
Using (17), it is easily seen that each factor in this factorization belongs to $`𝔾_0`$. Due to their special form, they can be easily be brought into exponential form. Indeed, since unitary matrices $`U`$ are normal and have eigenvalues of absolute value one only, they have a spectral factorization $`U=Q\mathrm{exp}(i\mathrm{\Phi })Q^{}`$ with unitary $`Q`$ and real diagonal $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, so that $`U=e^K`$ with antihermitian $`K=iQ\mathrm{\Phi }Q^{}`$. Therefore we can find antihermitian $`A_{jk}`$ such that $`U_k=e^{A_{1k}}`$ and $`V_k^{}=e^{A_{3k}}`$ for $`k=1,3`$. If we also define the real diagonal matrix $`D:=\mathrm{log}(C+S)`$ with componentwise logarithms (nonnegative since $`C1,S0`$) on the diagonal, it is easily seen that

$$S=\mathrm{exp}\left(\begin{array}{cc}A_{11}& 0\\ 0& A_{12}\end{array}\right)\mathrm{exp}\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& D\\ D^{}& 0\end{array}\right)\mathrm{exp}\left(\begin{array}{cc}A_{31}& 0\\ 0& A_{32}\end{array}\right),$$
(52)
with antihermitian $`A_{jk}`$, as asserted.

Now suppose that $`𝐒𝔾`$. Comparing (2) and (51), we find that we must have

$$\overline{U}_1C\overline{V}_1^{}=U_2CV_2^{},\overline{U}_1S\overline{V}_2^{}=U_2SV_1^{}.$$
(53)
If the diagonal entries of $`C`$ and $`S`$ are all distinct, the singular value decomposition is known to be unique up to a diagonal matrix of phases. Therefore, there are diagonal matrices $`Q_j`$ with $`Q_j^{}Q_j=1`$ such that

$$\overline{U}_1=U_2Q_1,Q_1\overline{V}_1^{}=V_2^{},\overline{U}_1=U_2Q_2,Q_2\overline{V}_2^{}=V_1^{}.$$
(54)
Clearly, this implies that $`Q:=Q_1=Q_2`$ is real diagonal with $`Q^2=1`$; in particular, $`Q`$ has diagonal entries $`\pm 1`$. Therefore

$$𝐒=\left(\begin{array}{cc}U_1CV_1^{}& U_1SQ\overline{V}_1^{}\\ \overline{U}_1QSV_1^{}& \overline{U}_1QCQ\overline{V}_1^{}\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}U_1& 0\\ 0& \overline{U}_1\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}C& QS\\ QS& C\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}V_1^{}& 0\\ 0& \overline{V}_1^{}\end{array}\right).$$
(55)
As before, we can find antihermitian $`A_j`$ such that $`U_1=e^{A_1}`$ and $`V_1^{}=e^{A_3}`$. If we also define the real diagonal matrix $`D:=\mathrm{log}(C+QS)`$ with componentwise logarithms on the diagonal, it is easily seen that (22) holds with antihermitian $`A_j`$ and real diagonal $`D`$.

Finally, if some diagonal entries of $`C`$ or $`S`$ coincide, we can perturb $`𝐒`$ slightly to remove the degeneracy, and obtain the same decomposition by a limiting argument.

Note added: An equivalent factorization  came to our attention after finishing the paper.