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# Gyromagnetic ratio of rapidly rotating compact stars in general relativity

## 1 Introduction

For steadily rotating, charged massive bodies, the gyromagnetic factor $`g`$ is defined as the ratio

$$g=\frac{2M}{QJ};$$
(1)
where $`M`$ is the mass, $`Q`$ the total charge and $`J`$ the angular momentum of the system. $``$ is the magnetic moment of the system, linked with the motion of the charges that are accounting for $`Q`$. With such a definition, in classical electrodynamics a rotating charged particle has a gyromagnetic factor equal to 1. The same is thus true for any system in classical electrodynamics, with a constant ratio of charge and mass density. On the other hand, within general relativity, the gyromagnetic ratio for all charged and rotating black holes is $`g=2`$. Many points concerning the gyromagnetic ratio for isolated systems within classical electrodynamics, quantum theory and general relativity have been studied by Pfister and King . The question we try to address here is the following one. How does the gyromagnetic factor behave for “intermediate” objects in general relativity, that possess a gravitational field weaker than that of black holes, but in which strong field effects are not negligible?

The aim of this paper is to try to answer this question by numerically studying the $`g`$-factor of rotating and charged relativistic compact stars, within the framework of general relativity. We use a self-consistent physical model, in which matter is supposed to be a charged (insulator type) perfect fluid; axisymmetric and in stationary rotation. As it will be shown later, the only limitation shall be on neglecting the electromagnetic forces acting on hydrodynamic equilibrium, making our study a “low charge” approximate one; but we take into account the electromagnetic field contribution to the total energy-momentum tensor. The variation of the gyromagnetic ratio as a function of the number of particles in the system, or as a function of the rotation frequency will also be discussed. Details of the physical model are presented in section 2, section 3 is then giving results of the numerical study for two equations of state, which determine local properties of matter, and making comparison with previous works. Finally, section 4 summarises results and gives some concluding remarks.

## 2 Model and assumptions

We here give the most important assumptions made in our study; complete details of the formalism and the way numerical stars are computed can be found in Bonazzola et al.  and in Bocquet et al.  for the magnetised configurations.

### 2.1 Stationary and axisymmetric spacetime

We want to solve the coupled Einstein-Maxwell equations to get general relativistic magnetised models of stationary rotating bodies. We make the assumption that the spacetime is also stationary (asymptotically timelike Killing vector field), axisymmetric (spacelike Killing vector field which vanishes on a timelike 2-surface, axis of symmetry and whose orbits are closed curves) and asymptotically flat. In addition, we suppose that the source of the gravitational field satisfies the circularity condition, equivalent to the absence of meridional convective currents and only poloidal magnetic field is allowed. We then use MSQI (Maximal Slicing - Quasi Isotropic, see ) coordinates $`(t,r,\theta ,\phi )`$, in which the metric tensor takes the form

$$s^2=g_{\mu \nu }x^\mu x^\nu =N^2t^2+B^2r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta (\phi \beta ^\phi t)^2+A^2(r^2+r^2\theta ^2),$$
(2)
where $`N,\beta ^\phi ,A`$ and $`B`$ are four functions of $`(r,\theta )`$.

With our hypothesis, the electromagnetic field tensor $`F_{\alpha \beta }`$ must be derived from a potential 1-form with the following components

$$A_\alpha =(A_t,0,0,A_\phi ).$$
(3)
The Einstein-Maxwell equations result in a set of six coupled non-linear elliptic equations for the four metric and the two electromagnetic potentials (see  and ). The right-hand side of this system also involves matter terms (density and charge currents), which will be discussed in next section.

### 2.2 Fluid properties

The matter is supposed to consist of a perfect fluid, so there exists a privileged vector field: the 4-velocity $`u^\alpha `$. The energy-momentum tensor takes its usual form

$$T^{\mu \nu }=(e+p)u^\mu u^\nu +pg^{\mu \nu }+T_{\mathrm{EM}}^{\mu \nu },$$
(4)
where $`p`$ is the fluid pressure and $`e`$ the energy density measured in the fluid frame. $`T_{\mathrm{EM}}^{\mu \nu }=1/(4\pi )\left(F^{\mu \alpha }F_\alpha ^\nu 1/4F_{\alpha \beta }F^{\alpha \beta }g^{\mu \nu }\right)`$ is the electromagnetic contribution to the energy-momentum tensor. Following , we note $`\mathrm{\Omega }=u^\phi /u^t`$ and define $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ as the Lorentz factor linking the fluid comoving observer and the locally non-rotating one. We make the assumption that the matter is rigidly rotating ($`\mathrm{\Omega }=`$constant) and that the equation of state (EOS) is a one parameter EOS (ignoring the influence of temperature): $`e=e(n_\mathrm{B})`$ and $`p=p(n_\mathrm{B})`$, with $`n_\mathrm{B}`$ being the proper baryon density.

The momentum-energy conservation gives an equation of stationary motion for the fluid, which can be written as a first integral of motion (the electromagnetic contribution to the energy-momentum tensor is not considered yet), see

$$\mathrm{ln}\frac{e+p}{n_\mathrm{B}}+\mathrm{ln}N\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{constant}.$$
(5)
We turn now to the electromagnetic part; in order to have a complete charged body, with a constant ratio of charge and mass density (see ), we suppose, contrary to  or , that our system consists of an insulator, so that currents originate only from macroscopic charge movement. The 4-current is thus proportional to $`j^\mu u^\mu /\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ implying that $`j^\phi =\mathrm{\Omega }j^t`$. Taking then electromagnetic force term $`f_i=F_{i\sigma }j^\sigma /(e+p)`$ into account, the momentum-energy conservation reads

$$_i\left(\mathrm{ln}\frac{e+p}{n_\mathrm{B}}+\mathrm{ln}N\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Gamma }\right)+\frac{1}{e+p}j^t_i\left(\mathrm{\Omega }A_\phi A_t\right)=0.$$
(6)
The integrability condition of this equation is that the last term is a gradient, so that there exists a function $`M(r,\theta )`$ such that $`j^t_i\left(\mathrm{\Omega }A_\phi A_t\right)=(e+p)_iM`$. Following the same arguments as in , there must exist a regular function $`m`$, such that

$$j^t=(e+p)m\left(\mathrm{\Omega }A_\phi A_t\right),\mathrm{with}M(r,\theta )=_0^{\mathrm{\Omega }A_\phi (r,\theta )A_t(r,\theta )}m(x)x.$$
(7)
But, this gives too large a freedom for the distribution of charged particles inside the star. In particular, the charge density $`j^t`$ is independent of the baryon density $`n_\mathrm{B}`$, and the $`g`$-factor can, in principle, take any value. It is also irrelevant to compare the $`g`$-factor obtained in this way, with its value 1 in classical electrodynamics, where it is supposed that charge currents are directly proportional to mass currents and charge density to mass density . So we replace (7) by

$$j^t=\chi n_\mathrm{B},\mathrm{and}M=0,$$
(8)
$`\chi `$ being the constant ratio between the charge and particle densities, it is an input parameter (together with the central density and the angular velocity) that controls the total charge of the system. It means that we do not integrate exactly momentum-energy conservation equation (6), since we neglect the electromagnetic forces. It will be shown in section 3 that this assumption is valid for low total charges, where the electromagnetic forces are indeed negligible, when compared to pressure, gravitational and centrifugal forces.

### 2.3 Accuracy indicators

To solve the six elliptical Poisson-like equations described in section 2.1, we use spectral methods as described by Grandclément et al. . The complete numerical procedure is presented in  as well as many tests of the numerical code. Let us here emphasise that for our computations of spacetimes, we have very reliable and independent tests through the virial identities GRV2 (Bonazzola , Bonazzola and Gourgoulhon ) and GRV3 (Gourgoulhon and Bonazzola ), this latter being a relativistic generalisation of the classical virial theorem. GRV2 and GRV3 are integral identities which must be satisfied by any solution of the Einstein-Maxwell equations we solve here, and are not imposed during the numerical procedure. They are very sensitive to any physical inaccuracy in the model, including eventual problems in the equation of state. In the following, when presenting accuracy of numerical results, we will refer to the accuracy by which the numerical solution satisfies these virial identities. With the exception of results shown in figure 1, where error bars are displayed, we only show results with better relative accuracy than $`10^5`$.

As presented by Bonazzola et al. , a key point of the numerical method is to be able to integrate Einstein-Maxwell equations up to spatial infinity, using a change of variable of the type $`u=1/r`$ outside the star. This allows us to impose exact boundary conditions at $`r\mathrm{}`$, and to compute global quantities from asymptotic behaviour of the fields or integrals over the whole space. We can therefore compute values of the total gravitational mass $`M`$ and the total angular momentum $`J`$, from the gravitational field $`g_{\mu \nu }`$; the total charge $`Q`$ and the magnetic moment $``$ from the electromagnetic potential $`A_\mu `$. Another global quantity characterising the star is the circumferential radius $`R_{\mathrm{circ}}`$, defined as star’s equatorial circumference (measured by the metric (2)) divided by $`2\pi `$

$$R_{\mathrm{circ}}=B(R,\frac{\pi }{2})R,$$
(9)
where $`R`$ is the coordinate equatorial radius. Finally, we shall use the total baryon number of the star and its baryon mass $`M_\mathrm{B}`$.

## 3 Numerical studies

To calculate the $`g`$-factor of a given model, in addition to the choice of a particular equation of state, one has to set the three following parameters: the central density $`n_\mathrm{B}(r=0)`$ (or, equivalently, the central log-enthalpy $`\mathrm{ln}(e+p)/n_\mathrm{B}|_{r=0}`$), the angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and the ratio between mass and charge densities $`\chi `$ (8).

### 3.1 Polytropes

In this part we choose the EOS to be a polytropic one, of the form (6.40) of reference : $`p=\kappa n_\mathrm{B}^\gamma `$. We took $`\gamma =2`$ and $`\kappa =0.07\rho _{\mathrm{nuc}}c^2/n_{\mathrm{nuc}}^2`$, where nuclear density $`\rho _{\mathrm{nuc}}=1.66\times 10^{17}\mathrm{kg}/\mathrm{m}^3`$ and $`n_{\mathrm{nuc}}=0.1\mathrm{fm}^3`$. We first want to test the validity of our assumption neglecting electromagnetic forces in the equilibrium of the fluid. We computed a sequence of configurations increasing the total charge, at fixed angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }=200`$ Hz and fixed number of baryons (equivalent to 1.6 solar mass). Results for the $`g`$-factor (1) as a function of the dimensionless ratio $`Q/M`$ are displayed in figure 1, together with the errors given by the virial identities (see section 2.3). For $`Q/M0.01`$, $`g`$ is constant at $`10^5`$ accuracy. For $`Q/M0.01`$, $`g`$ starts to vary, but this variation remains within error bars, that become very important as $`Q/M1`$. This indicates that the fact that we are neglecting electromagnetic forces in the equilibrium of the star induces an error that is lower than the numerical one, as long as $`Q/M0.01`$. It may be seen as a “low charge” approximation for our model and, within this approximation, we have checked with different equations of state (other polytropes, incompressible fluid EOS, strange matter EOS) that the $`g`$-factor would not depend on the charge. Let us say here that, although we are neglecting electromagnetic forces in the fluid equilibrium, we are taking the electromagnetic field into account in the sources of Einstein equations.

The regime for which $`Q/M>1`$ does not seem realistic for a perfect fluid. Indeed, the repulsive Coulomb force acting on charged particles becomes comparable to the gravitational force and pressure. Therefore, there may not exist any stationary configuration for $`Q/M`$ too larger than 1: the electrostatic force would overcome the gravitational one and disperse particles. Moreover, Mustafa et al.  have shown that, in the case of a slowly rotating charged shell, when $`Q/M>1`$ there is no upper or lower bound on the value of the $`g`$-factor. Finally, in order to find an acceptable stationary solution for $`0.01Q/M<1`$, one would have to satisfy both equations (7) and $`j^t=\chi n_\mathrm{B}`$. These are, in general, incompatible for a constant angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and one would have to allow for differential rotation of the fluid. This has not been done in our study and it would certainly be an improvement of our work. In the following, we will stay at $`Q/M=10^3`$ an will consider that $`g`$ is independent of the total charge, in the low charge regime.

Now, we look at the variation of $`g`$, when the number of particles (the baryon mass $`M_\mathrm{B}`$) of the rotating polytrope is changed. Results for the $`g`$-factor are displayed in figure 2 (solid line), together with the value of the lapse $`N`$ at the centre of the star (dashed line). The parameter varying along both curves is the central density and we retrieve the well-known result of the existence of a maximal mass for those stars. Thus, the higher branch of each curve corresponds to unstable configurations. The Newtonian limit $`g=1`$ is recovered at low baryon masses, corresponding to weak gravitational field ($`N_c1`$). In more relativistic regime, the $`g`$-factor follows roughly the variation of the central lapse, never reaching the value of 2 (corresponding to $`N_c=0`$), which corresponds to a charged black hole. The maximal value that could be reached (for an unstable configuration) was $`g=1.8`$, if only stable solutions are considered, then one has $`g1.6`$.

The third parameter whose influence we want to study is the angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. Therefore, at fixed number of particles in the star, and fixed total charge, we varied $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ from (almost) 0 to the maximal value, called Keplerian frequency ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{K}`$), where the centrifugal force at the equator compensate the gravitational attraction (shedding limit). The variation of the $`g`$-factor as a function of $`\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{K}`$, as well as that of a linear combination of the central lapse $`2N_c`$ are displayed in figure 3. Both quantities show the same type of behaviour: they are decreasing functions, mainly near $`\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{K}`$, but the overall change is relatively small, when compared to that of figure 2. We have explored here high angular velocities, without any “slow-rotation” assumption, but the influence of these high velocities seems rather small. We have checked at different masses, always obtaining the same kind of result. Here again, we see that $`2N_c`$ and $`g`$ follow the same type of evolution, when varying $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. We therefore have plotted the $`g`$-factor, as a function of $`2N_c`$ as shown in figure 4, when varying the central value of the density $`n_\mathrm{B}(r=0)`$, like in figure 2. Contrary to that figure, there is no sign of the maximal mass point, the $`g`$-factor being directly dependent on the strength of the gravitational field at the centre of the star. It seems that the gyromagnetic factor (1) might be another indicator of the strength of the gravitational field in self-gravitating objects: when gravity is weak (well described by Newtonian theory), we have $`g1`$; when the star is very compact (even unstable) $`g`$ takes its highest values. Finally, for a black hole, where gravity dominates over other forces, we have $`g=2`$.

### 3.2 Constant density models

In order to study the dependence of the results of the previous section on the particular EOS, we first changed the values of $`\gamma `$ and $`\kappa `$. The results obtained were qualitatively the same as in previous section. Quantitatively, the trend described at the end of previous section (figure 4 and the following discussion), indicating that the $`g`$-factor be linked with the strength of the gravitational field in the star was retrieved. We found that the more compact the star, the higher the gyromagnetic factor. We checked this result with several other equations of state, described in Salgado et al. , as well as with the “strange quark matter” model (see Gourgoulhon et al. ), which is giving very compact objects. Still, none of these EOS allowed for a stable configuration with $`g1.8`$.

Finally, we present here the limiting case of an incompressible fluid: the EOS is such that $`n_\mathrm{B}`$ and $`e`$ are constant throughout the star. Using this EOS in spherical symmetry, it can be shown (see, ) that it gives an upper limit on the gravitational redshift at the surface of the star, when comparing with other EOS. We here introduce a new dimensionless quantity called compaction parameter

$$𝒞=\frac{M}{R_{\mathrm{circ}}},$$
(10)
with $`R_{\mathrm{circ}}`$ being defined by formula (9). In Newtonian theory, this is the gravitational potential at the surface of the star and $`𝒞1`$. On the other hand, for a Schwarzschild black hole $`𝒞=0.5`$ and, for relativistic stars $`0𝒞4/9`$ (as derived by Buchdahl ). When considering charged objects the maximal value is slightly increased, as shown in Mak et al. . In figure 5, we display the dependence of the gyromagnetic factor on this compaction parameter. As expected from previous results, we find that $`g`$ goes to 1, when $`𝒞`$ becomes very small (Newtonian limit). We could not reach the maximal theoretical value of the compaction parameter for spherical stars (4/9), due to the rotation and, perhaps, to the numerical algorithm (we look for a solution by iteration, starting with a flat metric). Nevertheless, we were able to get rather close to this limiting value, reaching the highest gyromagnetic factors for self-gravitating fluids, with $`g1.86`$. The striking feature is that the $`g`$-factor seems to be directly proportional to the compaction parameter $`𝒞`$ and, if one extrapolates the line to the maximal value of $`𝒞`$, one finds that the maximal value for the $`g`$-factor would be about 1.9, and certainly well below 2. Using only low charge objects, this value of 2 is linked with the collapse limit that cannot be reached with our stationary models.

It is now worth returning to the dependence of $`g`$ on the angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. If we fix the value of $`𝒞`$ for the star, how does then gyromagnetic factor vary as a function of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ ? The answer is displayed in figure 6, still in the case of an incompressible fluid. We see that the dependence is very small, only about one percent of variation between the non-rotating limit and the shedding one. Results shown in figure 3 can have a new interpretation: when $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is increased, $`𝒞`$ decreases because of centrifugal forces that go against gravity and therefore make $`R_{\mathrm{circ}}`$ increase. Gravitational potential at the surface of the star decreases because of the rotation, the same being true for the gravitational field $`N`$ at the centre. The gyromagnetic factor indicates that, at high angular velocities, the star is less gravitationally bound. Comparing different models, equally bound, but with different rotation rates (figure 6), we see that the effect of rotation is small, and must act on the increase of $`g`$ through the addition of kinetic energy that contributes to the source terms of Einstein equations.

### 3.3 Comparison with previous works

There have been some studies of the gyromagnetic factor in general relativity, but none of them has considered physically consistent matter models. Much of interesting work has been done for slowly rotating charged shells, starting with that of Cohen et al. . The study that may be most closely related to ours is that by Pfister and King , where the authors calculate explicitly the gyromagnetic factor of a charged mass shell in slow rotation approximation. The shell is infinitely thin and the authors match two exact solutions of the Einstein equations in vacuum across it. The properties of the energy-momentum tensor are then deduced from the matching of both metrics. The advantage of their solutions is that they were able to explore regimes with a very high charge and compaction parameter. Unfortunately, it is difficult to compare quantitatively their results with ours since one knows very little about the properties of shell matter which, apart from energy conditions, are not constrained. One might suppose that, in general, these shells are not behaving like perfect fluids. Qualitatively, both studies agree: for $`Q/M1`$ and taking into account energy conditions, Pfister and King find that $`g`$ varies between $`1`$, for a low compaction parameter, and 2 in the collapse limit. With a similar kind of problem, Mustafa et al.  found that $`g`$ could reach values very close to 2, for the charge-to-mass ratio less than unity and for the shell radius approaching the event horizon value.

Garfinkle and Traschen  have calculated the $`g`$-factor of a rotating massive loop of charged matter in the presence of a static charged black hole. They have found that, for large radii of the loop, $`g`$ tended to 1, whereas they found $`g2`$ for the radius approaching the horizon. We retrieve (again qualitatively) the same results for our self-gravitating and three-dimensional objects: a loop at spatial infinity might be seen as undergoing a weak gravitational field, just like self-gravitating body with a low compaction parameter. Let us also mention here the very interesting work by Katz et al., who calculated the gyromagnetic ratio<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1there is a factor 2 difference between their definition of $`g`$ and our (1) in a conformastationary metric . These axially symmetric metrics can be seen as the external metrics for disc sources, made of charged dust. They show that in those discs, hoop tensions are always necessary to balance the centrifugal forces induced by the motion of the rotating dust. The model therefore correspond to non-perfect fluid, and they find $`g=2`$ (with our definition) for these metrics.

## 4 Conclusions

We have studied the dependence of the gyromagnetic ratio (1) of self-gravitating rotating fluids on their mass (number of particles), angular velocity and equation of state. We have used a physical model in which we make the assumption that the fluid is an insulator in uniform rotation, and we have neglected the electromagnetic forces acting on the equilibrium of the fluid (low charge approximation). These models have been solved numerically, with a code giving the solution in all space, which enabled us to get the value of $`g`$ with a high accuracy (better than $`10^5`$) given by independent tests. We find that, with such “stars”, $`g`$ can never reach the value 2, characteristic of a charged rotating black hole. The maximal value that can be achieved in our study is lower than 1.9. This gap may be linked with the fact that we have neglected electromagnetic forces on hydrodynamic equilibrium and our study has therefore been restricted to low charge-to-mass ratios. But it might also be a result of that stationary relativistic stars, made of perfect fluid, cannot reach values of the compaction parameter $`M/R`$ close to 1/2. In that sense, the $`g`$-factor is a good indicator of the strength of the gravitational field in an insulating perfect fluid, but is little dependent on the angular velocity of the star. In our study, the value $`g=2`$ seems linked only with the black hole solution but, from other works, ,  and , one can see that this may depend on the total charge of the system. An important improvement of our work would be to allow for any charge of the system, that is compatible with the stationarity assumption and therefore allow for differential rotation, which may open new possibilities.

We are grateful to H Pfister for suggesting this study and stimulating discussions. We also thank J Bičák and P Peter who gave us very helpful comments on the gyromagnetic ratio in relativity.

## References


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# A Role of the Boundary Shear Layer in Modeling of Large Scale Jets

## 1 Introduction: the aim of the study

Large scale extragalactic jets, extending from a few to a few hundreds of kiloparsecs from active galactic nuclei (AGNs), were frequently studied at radio frequencies. Recently, Hubble and Chandra telescopes gathered new detailed information about optical and X-ray emission of some of these objects. For a few hundreds of radio jets we know, only $``$ 20 are observed at optical frequencies. Most of them are short and faint, with only a few exceptions allowing for detailed spectroscopic and morphological studies, like e.g. 3C 273 (Jester et al., 2001). Surprisingly, the large scale jets can be very prominent at X-rays in many different types of radio-loud AGNs. Up to now, more than 30 jets were detected by Chandra at $`110`$ keV energy range, although a nature of this emission is still under debate.

The Hubble observations indicate with no doubt a synchrotron nature of the optical emission. The first conclusion from the optical maps is a requirement of electron reacceleration within the whole jet volume, as their radiative lifetimes are usually much shorter than the time required for light to travel between the successive shocks. Sub-equipartition magnetic field and highly relativistic bulk velocities alone cannot remove this problem (Jester et al., 2001). Also, a spectral character of the radio-to-optical continuum, if carefully analyzed, is not consistent with simple versions of the shock-in-a-knot models. The X-ray observations are even more puzzling, because in many cases it is not clear if the detected keV photons – probably non-thermal in nature – result from synchrotron or inverse-Compton emission. In any case, in order to explain the observed high luminosities and spectra of the Chandra jets, one has to invoke more or less extreme conditions, like large beaming factors or presence of very high energy electrons (Harris & Krawczynski, 2001). Once again, details of the electron acceleration processes responsible for the observed X-ray emission are not clear.
On the other hand, radio and optical observations reveal also a complex jet spatial structure indicating a spine - boundary shear layer morphology. As emphasized below, such boundary shear layers are prevailed sites of particle acceleration, especially in cases of relativistic flows, and therefore should be seriously considered as an option/addition to the shock-in-a-knot models in studying the jet multiwavelength emission. In fact, contribution of the shear layer to the jet radiative output results not only from the involved electron acceleration, but also from kinematic effects influencing the composed relativistic jet spectrum. Recent optical and X-ray observations give us an important insight into the mentioned processes and effects.

## 2 Sheared jets: electron acceleration

As pointed by de Young (1986), interaction between the jet matter and the surrounding medium result in formation of the shear layer at the jet boundary. Such boundary regions are likely to be highly turbulent because of their very high Reynold numbers. Therefore, stochastic particle acceleration acting thereby seems to be also inevitable. Numerical simulations confirm presence of the turbulent layer with a velocity shear surrounding fast central spine of the jet (Aloy et al., 1999), although the exact nature of the shear regions is still hardly known. With no doubt, they play an important role in stabilizing the flow with respect to the Kelvin-Helmholtz (KH) instabilities (Birkinshaw, 1991). They are the places where the large-scale KH instabilities form and cascade to shorter wavelengths, which dissipate turbulence energy by resonant interactions with thermal and relativistic particles (Eilek, 1982). Such stochastic interactions can be additionaly influenced by weak oblique shocks developed within the boundary shear regions, as suggested once again by numerical simulations. In addition, a presence of the velocity gradient can also modify the particle energy distribution due to effects of a ‘cosmic ray viscosity’, discussed e.g. by Ostrowski (2000). Thus, modeling of the electron acceleration processes acting within the boundary shear layers of large scale jets is difficult and requires several assumptions about the boundary layer internal structure. One of these assumptions refers to the magnetic field configuration and intensity. Both observations and theoretical considerations suggest that the magnetic field in the boundary regions is parallel on average to the jet axis due to shearing effects. One should expect that a strong velocity shear may influence not only the magnetic field configuration, but also its intensity by a dynamo process (Urpin, 2002).

An order-of-magnitude analysis of time scales connected with electron momentum and spatial diffusion in a boundary layer medium shows, that for typical parameters of the large scale relativistic jets in powerful radio sources the boundary layer electrons undergo mainly second-order Fermi acceleration, and that the time scale for electron escape from the acceleration region is extremely long as compared to the radiative losses time scale (Stawarz & Ostrowski, 2002a). As a result, electrons form a flat power-law energy distribution with a harder high energy component modelled by us as a pile-up bump at the maximum energy (Ostrowski, 2000). Under the condition of continuous and efficient electron acceleration acting within the whole highly turbulent boundary layer volume, involving large amplitude MHD turbulence leading to the scattering mean free path comparable to the electron gyroradius, a balance between acceleration and radiative losses allow for electron maximum energy, typically, $`E_{eq}10^8m_ec^2`$. One should note, however, that formation of the terminal hard component in the electron energy spectrum can be a non-stationary process (Stawarz & Ostrowski, 2002b). In principle, its normalization grows with time for the considered continuous particle injection, while its spectral width increases over larger and larger energy range due to momentum diffusion. In Stawarz & Ostrowski (2002a) we modeled the pile-up bump as a monoenergetic peak with total energy density limited by the equipartition with the magnetic field. This requires further studies of the electron energy evolution (Stawarz & Ostrowski, 2003). However, we would like to stress out, that the pile-up effects forming a final stationary hard spectral component at the highest electron energies seem to be inevitable in the considered case of the boundary layer acceleration.

## 3 Conclusions: boundary shear layer emission

It is known, that emission from the shear boundary layer can decrease jet-counterjet radio brightness asymmetry, influencing estimations of the jet bulk Lorentz factors (Komissarov, 1990). Also, because of the kinematic effects, different radiation fields can dominate the inverse-Compton emission of the boundary layer electrons as compared to the spine electrons, affecting the observed jet high energy radiation (Celotti et al., 2001). However, an important effect of the boundary shear layer on the jet radiative output is due to stochastic and continuous electron acceleration acting within the whole boundary layer volume, most likely resulting in effective accumulation of the radiating electrons around the maximum energy $`E_{eq}`$. For typical large scale jet parameters, synchrotron radiation of the electrons with $`EE_{eq}`$ can account for almost constant along the jet radio-to-optical continuum, while the electrons with $`EE_{eq}`$ can be responsible – at least for some sources – for the relatively strong X-ray emission detected by Chandra (Stawarz & Ostrowski, 2002a). Combination of the effects connected with spectral pile-ups and relativistic beaming in a medium with velocity shear, as well as an interplay between the stochastic and the shock acceleration, can possibly explain spectral variety and complexity of the Chandra jets.
In our simple model we in fact consider two distinct relativistic electron populations, which differ because of the spatial location (knots – jet edges), nature of the acceleration (regular – stochastic) and kinematic effects involved (fast central spine – shear boundary layer). However, additional processes can also lead to several complications of such simple two-population model, like for instance formation of oblique shocks within the boundary region (Bicknell & Melrose, 1982) or a turbulent mixing of the spine and the boundary layer medium. Whatever the case is, the efficient particle acceleration taking place at the jet boundary can influence the observed jet radiative properties. By its nature, it is also connected with the issue of jet internal structure and jet stability in relates to the MHD instabilities excited at the jet surface. Thus, to understand multiwavelength emission of the jets it is important to study a role of its boundary shear layer, and the acceleration processes acting thereby.


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# Relational databases for data management in PHENIX

## I Introduction

PHENIX began data taking in 2000 and has accumulated more than 400,000 data files. In addition to data produced by the detector itself, significant amounts of reconstructed and simulated data are produced at PHENIX computing centers in the US, Japan and France. These data are then transferred to the central repository at BNL and from BNL to off-site institutions for analysis. Fig. 1 shows a subset of PHENIX data transfers.

The information about files and their multiple replicas are kept in the file catalog. During the first year of data taking when most of the data processing was done at the BNL RHIC Computing Facility (RCF), a master copy of the file catalog was updated at BNL and replicated in master-slave mode to remote sites. This replication mode provided remote sites with read-only copy of the file catalog.

When several PHENIX sites started large-scale production, this read-only access proved–not surprisingly–to be unworkable. Updating the central catalog over the wide-area network was prohibitively slow and the catalog was updated offline after the production. This required a lot of manual work and file catalog updates tended to lag unacceptably far behind the production curve.

One solution to the problem would be to provide remote sites with write access to a local file catalog database. We started to look for technology supporting peer-to-peer (also known as “update anywhere” or “multimaster”) database updates.

## II Objectivity peer-to-peer replication

PHENIX has an existing Objectivity-based file catalog, and although Objectivity supports peer-to-peer replication, it requires that all database clients have access to all servers that are involved in the replication. When one of the servers has a surrounding firewall (the case of the file catalog at BNL), opening the requisite firewall conduits for all outside clients raises security issues and exacts a high maintenance price. Fig. 2 illustrates the topology in the case of two servers. Black circles represent database servers and white circles - database clients. A dashed circle around one server represents a firewall. We realized that to provide production sites with the ability to write to the local database another database technology was needed.

## III Database technology choice

An obvious candidate for a database with support for peer-to-peer replication was Oracle, but cost and licensing concerns led us to focus instead on freely available solutions. We considered three open-source databases: SAP DB sapdb , MySQL mysql  and PostgreSQL (also known as Postgres) pg . At the time we evaluated our technical options, neither SAP DB nor MySQL supported peer-to-peer replication. And although Postgres does not currently have built-in support for replication, we found two active, third-party projects providing Postgres peer-to-peer replication: PostgreSQL Replicator pgreplicator  and Postgres-R pgR .

Among the attractive Postgres DBMS features were the following:

* Postgres is ACID compliant, meaning that it is guaranteed to be in a consistent state at all times.
* It has “Multi Version Concurrency Control” which enables it to scale well with a large number of concurrent applications
* It adheres closely to the SQL’92 standard and has extensive documentaion, making it particularly easy to use
* It has a sophisticated implementation of triggers, which allow particular actions to be initiated by activity involving the database
* It has LISTEN and NOTIFY support message passing and client notification of an event in the database. This can be used to automate data replication.

## IV PostgreSQL Replicator

To build a distributed Postgres database with peer-to-peer updates we used PostgreSQL Replicator (PR) software Cavalleri  which implements asynchronous (store and forward) Postgres replication. PR stores operations performed on a database in a local queue for later distribution by a database synchronization process.

PR has a table level data ownership model which include Master/Slave, Update Anywhere and Workload Partitioning table ownerships. PR also has a convenient table level replication that enables one to replicate specific parts of a database.

## V Distributed PHENIX file catalog

We have implemented a distributed file catalog that currently includes three sites: BNL, Stony Brook University (SBU) and Vanderbilt University (VU). Each site runs a local copy of Postgres-based file Catalog that has information about files on all three sites.

### V.1 Content of the file catalog

All officially produced PHENIX files have a master copy in HPSS at RCF and possibly one or more replicas on disk at various PHENIX institutions. The file catalog contains the following information:

* Logical file names: each officially produced file has a unique name - logical file name, which serves as a file identifier and provides for easy file relocation.
* Hosts: physical machines with local data storage. A host can be a computer with local disks or HPSS with tape storage.
* Clusters: a cluster is a set of NFS-interconnected hosts.
* Sites: PHENIX institutions that have one or more clusters.
* Storage: disk or tape.
* Link cost: a relative cost to transfer the file from site A to site B. Depends on the distance between A and B, network connectivity and possibly on some policies.

More detailed metadata about the physics content of each file is maintained in a central Objectivity Run/File database. To find a set of files suitable for a particular physics analysis, users would consult the Objectivity once and then use the file catalog database to find the frequently changing information about physical locations of those interesting files.

The file catalog can satisfy the queries like

* find all replicas of the file
* find all disk replicas of the file
* find a local disk replica of the file
* list all files at site A
* show all machines in cluster B
* list all the files from a particular production
* find ’closest’ replica of the file

where ’closest’ means the smallest link cost.

### V.2 File catalog replication

Database tables that store the information about files and their locations are replicated among all sites. The replicated tables have Workload Partitioning data ownership which means each site has read-only access to the replicated partition of a table that comes from another site and read-write access to local entries of the table. In this data ownership model no conflicts can arise - each site manages their own entries but is able to read the entries made by other sites.

Each site that runs a local file catalog copy is responsible for cataloging local files. For example, at BNL the file catalog is kept current by production jobs, by jobs that stage files from Mass Storage System (HPSS) to disk and cron jobs that delete entries for the files that have been deleted from disk.

Updates to local instances of the file catalog are propagated periodically by database synchronization processes that restore the data integrity of local catalogs. This is shown schematically in fig 3. Each replicated database table consists of three partitions (which is equal to the number of sites) and only local partitions accepts updates. Although the replication knows about data partitioning, the data is still in one database table, which makes querying the Catalog extremely easy. For example to find all replicas of a file ’XYZ’, one issues a query “SELECT * FROM files WHERE lfn=’XYZ’“.

If the synchronization processes fails because one of the servers is down or unreachable, it is repeated by a cron job until it succeeds. In the meantime all the sites that have their local databases up and running, can continue to update their file catalogs. That eliminates a potential single point of failure of the central file catalog.

### V.3 Scalability issues

An important feature of PR is that replication is incremental and only updates that were committed to the database since last synchronization are transferred over the network. This replication feature provides an excellent scalability with database size and allows to maintain a very high-level of synchronization between sites involved in the replication. The replication of 20,000 new updates between 3 sites takes about 1 minute. It depends on network “weather” and the number of sites.

After synchronization, each local databases contains a view of the entire data set. Therefore, the local clients do not need to access the remote database server. That not allows us to limit the number of firewall conduits to just server-server connections.

## VI Modifications to improve database replication scalability

Although PR replication is incremental, when a new site is added to the distribution, the entire database must be replicated to upload all the existing data to the new site. Since the replicated database tables remain unwritable during the synchronization process (to guarantee data consistency) adding a new site can cost several hours of interrupted production. To make the production able to update the file catalog database independent of database replication, we have added small modifications to the replication schema.

The new schema is depicted in Fig. 4. The main idea is to use deferred database updates. All database operations are applied to a buffer and then propagated to the replicated table. Database triggers capture the operations applied to the buffer table and write them to the Last\_operations table. After a cron job applies the operations from the Last\_operations table to the Data table, the Buffer and the Data tables becomes identical and the Last\_operations table is cleared. The Data table is replicated periodically to remote sites and during the replication the file catalog database accepts new updates to the Buffer.

Our modification introduces a small (few minutes at most), acceptable delay in seeing new files after they were put into the database, but solves the problem of the write locks during adding a new site to the distributed file catalog.

## VII File catalog API

Although we need the file catalog to address the challenge of not having enough resources to keep an entire data set on disk at all participating institutions, we are trying to shield the users doing physics analysis from the need to know where the files interesting for their analysis are.

A file catalog C++ API provides a DBMS-independent layer that shields the users from the file catalog implementation and performs a logical-to-physical file name translation. The users ask for the files by logical file names and the analysis code need not be changed when the files are relocated. The file search is controlled by an environment variable that can contain a colon separeted list of local directories and/or reserved words for the database search.

In addition to C++ API, both perl and Web interfaces have been created to update and query the file catalog.

## VIII Summary

Using Postgres DBMS and Postgres Replicator we have built a distributed file catalog with multimaster updates that satisfies all the initial requiremnts:

* Contain up-to-date data
* Provide fast and reliable access to the data
* Have write permissions for the sites that store portions of data

We introduced deferred database updates to the Postgres Replicator schema to overcome the problem of database write locks during addition of new sites to the production file catalog database. We plan to add three new production sites to the distibution.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors wish to thank A. Shevel, I. Ojha and E. Vaandering for their work on distributing PHENIX file catalog database. Partial support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation grant PHY-0219210.


text:
# Nucleosynthesis of Light and Heavy Elements in Baryon-Rich Outflows Associated with Gamma-Ray Bursts

## 1. Introduction

Successful generation of GRBs requires the formation of an ultrarelativistic outflow with bulk Lorentz factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }>`$ 100, implying very low baryon-loading (e.g. Mészáros 2002). Since the temperature at the base of the outflow should be of order MeV and the baryons are likely to contain a high fraction of neutrons (Pruet, Woosley & Hoffman 2003, Beloborodov 2003), some production of nuclei starting from free protons and neutrons is expected to occur in the expanding flow. However, as shown in several recent papers (Lemoine 2002, Pruet, Guiles & Fuller 2002, Beloborodov 2003), in the very high entropy and extremely rapid expansion characteristic of GRB outflows, nucleosynthesis is limited to only small production of D and 4He, which are difficult to observe.

Nevertheless, most GRB progenitors should also give rise to associated outflows with higher baryon-loads and lower velocities (baryon-rich outflows, or BROs). It is highly probable that different types of “circum-jet winds” of baryon-loaded material surround and coexist with the narrowly collimated GRB jet. The GRB jet production mechanism is likely to act not only on the baryon-poor zones near the jet axis, but also on the more baryon-contaminated, peripheral regions, leading to BROs as a natural byproduct. Models involving core collapse and jet penetration in massive stars (MacFadyen and Woosley 1999, Wheeler et al. 2002) can also induce BROs through entrainment and mixing with the stellar material. In black hole accretion disk models, baryon-rich winds may arise from the outer disk by mechanisms distinct from the GRB jet (Janka & Ruffert 2001, Narayan, Piran & Kumar 2001, MacFadyen 2003). Some observational evidence support the existence of such circum-jet BROs (e.g. Woosley, Zhang & Heger 2002). Alternatively, BROs may occur without concomitant GRBs as “failed GRBs”, potentially with event rates higher than successful GRBs, if the baryon-loading process acts more thoroughly or the the GRB jet-driving mechanism operates less efficiently in the central engine. These may possibly be identified with observed “hypernovae” (Nomoto et al. 2002), X-ray flashes (Kippen et al. 2002), or with some hitherto unrecognized type of transient. Either way, the lower entropy, slower expansion and higher ejecta mass of BROs compared to GRB jets make them much more interesting from a nucleosynthesis viewpoint. As a first study of nucleosynthesis in BROs associated with GRBs, we investigate this problem utilizing the simplified dynamical framework of the basic fireball model, but incorporating detailed nuclear reaction networks including both light and heavy elements. More details can be found in Inoue et al. (2003).

## 2. Nucleosynthesis in GRB-BROs

We consider a wind fireball, i.e. an adiabatic, thermally-driven and freely-expanding outflow (Paczyński 1990). The key parameters are the luminosity $`L=10^{52}L_{52}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$, the initial radius $`r_0=10^7r_{0,7}\mathrm{cm}`$, and the dimensionless entropy $`\eta =L/\dot{M}c^2`$. The fireball first undergoes an acceleration phase, where the comoving temperature and density decrease exponentially on the initial dynamical timescale $`t_{d0}0.33\mathrm{msec}r_{0,7}`$. After the internal energy is converted to bulk kinetic energy, there follows a coasting phase where $`T`$ and $`\rho _b`$ decrease as power-laws, asymptotically becoming $`T=T_0\eta ^1(t/t_{d0})^{2/3}`$ and $`\rho _b=\rho _{b,0}\eta ^3(t/t_{d0})^2`$. These formulae are valid for $`\eta >1`$. Although $`\eta <1`$ (nonrelativistic expansion) may be realized in some progenitor models, here we assume $`\eta 2`$, corresponding to baryon load mass $`M_b2.8\times 10^2\mathrm{M}_{}E_{53}`$ for total energy $`E=10^{53}\mathrm{erg}E_{53}`$, which may be a reasonable upper limit for relatively baryon-free progenitors such as neutron star mergers (Janka & Ruffert 2001) or supranovae (Vietri & Stella 1998). The initial electron fraction $`Y_e`$ is taken to be an additional parameter, in view of the uncertainties in its expected value (Pruet et al. 2003). We implement nuclear reaction network codes including a large number of light, very neutron-rich nuclei (Terasawa et al. 2001).

Taking fiducial values of $`L_{52}=1`$ and $`r_{0,7}=1`$, we concentrate on the effect of variations in $`\eta `$ and $`Y_e`$. Although 4He is the dominant final species besides remaining free nucleons for all cases, interesting amounts of other light elements can also result, particularly deuterium, whose final mass fraction can reach $`X_D0.02`$. (Fig.1). For $`\eta >20`$, the reactions mainly occur during the exponential expansion (acceleration) phase, similar to the case of big bang nucleosynthesis. Contrastingly, for $`\eta <10`$, nucleosynthesis proceeds mainly during the power-law expansion (coasting) phase. When $`Y_e<0.5`$, free neutrons remain abundant in the outflow until they start decaying into protons, so that D production can proceed by subsequent p(n,$`\gamma `$)d reactions at very late times. Other elements such as 7Li, 9Be and 11B can be generated at levels of $`X10^810^7`$.

The synthesis of heavy elements through neutron capture is even more intriguing. The fiducial $`\eta =2`$ outflow is characterized by very high entropy ($`s/k_B2500`$), low density ($`\rho _{b,0}1.5\times 10^5\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$) and short initial expansion timescale ($`t_{d0}0.33`$ ms), leading to nucleosynthesis which is markedly different from the better-studied $`r`$-process in supernova (SN) neutrino-driven winds (e.g. Qian 2003). The final abundances are shown in Fig. 2. When $`Y_e<`$ 0.4, considerable reaction flows can occur to high mass numbers, although the peak abundances are at levels of $`Y10^6`$. (Note that the apparent peak at $`A`$ 250 is an artifact of our neglect of fission.) The abundance patterns do not match the solar distribution and possess peaks in between the solar $`s`$\- and $`r`$-process peaks. This reflects the occurrence of reaction flow paths intermediate between those of the $`s`$\- and $`r`$-processes, resulting from the balance of neutron captures and $`\beta `$-decays rather than (n,$`\gamma `$)-($`\gamma `$,n) equilibrium. Such processes have been discussed in previous contexts and called the “$`n`$-process” (Blake & Schramm 1976). We also note that the neutrons remain abundant after the reactions freeze out until they freely decay, instead of being exhausted by neutron captures.

## 3. Observational Implications

The present results of nucleosynthesis in GRB-BROs have interesting observational implications. For our case of $`\eta =2`$ and $`Y_e0.10.4`$, the ejected mass in heavy elements per single GRB-BRO event should be $`M_{h,BRO}10^7`$-$`10^6\mathrm{M}_{}`$ for $`A>100`$, comparable to or somewhat less than that expected in $`r`$-process elements from a normal core collapse SN (Qian 2003). Considering the fact that the abundance patterns are different from solar, and that the intrinsic event rates of (either successful or failed) GRBs are estimated to be less than that for SNe, the contribution of GRB-BROs to the solar/Galactic abundances are unlikely to be large, at least for the conditions treated here.

However, some observable environments may manifest the local abundance pattern of the BRO ejecta. Many facts suggest that chemical evolution in the early Galaxy proceeded inhomogeneously, and also that GRBs are associated with the most massive progenitor stars. If so, these explosions may have dominated at the earliest epochs, so that the BRO nucleosynthetic signature are visible in the most metal-poor stars. Alternatively, both light and heavy element products may be clearly discernible in the companion star of a black hole binary system, where the event that formed the black hole may have left traces of the explosion ejecta on its surface (Israelian et al. 1999). High resolution spectroscopic observations of such stars are warranted for detailed studies of their elemental abundance patterns. Such studies should yield important constraints on the value of $`Y_e`$, providing us with valuable insight into the innermost regions of GRB sources which are otherwise very difficult to probe.

## 4. Conclusions and Outlook

In this exploratory study, we have shown that BROs associated with GRBs can be interesting sites for nucleosynthesis of both light and heavy elements, with important observational consequences. We have neglected here various realistic effects that can be potentially important, including fission and proton-rich nuclei, collimation and higher baryon loading, neutrino irradiation, nonthermal spallation, neutron captures on external matter, etc., all of which can be significant, e.g. in the widely discussed collapsar scenario. Until we arrive at a definitive understanding of the physics of the GRB central engine, construction step by step of increasingly realistic models incorporating these effects and comparison with various observations may help us constrain the unknown properties of the GRB source, as well as to clarify the role of GRB-BROs in the chemical evolution of the Galaxy. It is certain that much interesting work lies ahead.

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text:
# Electroweak radiative corrections to 𝑒⁺𝑒⁻→𝑡𝑡̄ℎ at linear colliders 11footnote 1Supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China.

## I Introduction

The main goal of the most experimental programs at present and future high-energy colliders is to search for Higgs boson, which is believed to be responsible for the breaking of the electroweak symmetry and the generation of masses for the fundamental particles in the standard model (SM) . The fundamental particles acquire masses via the interactions with the ground state Higgs field in the SM Higgs mechanism. However, until now the Higgs boson hasn’t yet been directly explored experimentally, except that LEP2 experiments provided a lower bound of 114.4 GeV for the SM Higgs boson mass at the $`95\%`$ confidence level .

As we know that the Higgs search strategies depend largely on the suspected value of Higgs mass. Actually, it is most difficult to probe Higgs boson experimentally in the intermediate mass region ($`m_h100200\mathrm{GeV}`$). In this mass region, the production mechanism with Higgs boson radiated from either a gauge boson or a fermion, is an important Higgs boson discovery channel. At $`e^+e^{}`$ linear colliders and hadron colliders, the Higgs boson is searched via Bjorken process $`e^+e^{}(p\overline{p},pp)f\overline{f}h`$, an intermediate Higgs boson is produced associated with a $`f\overline{f}`$ pair. The coupling strength of the fermion-Higgs Yukawa coupling $`f\overline{f}h`$ is proportional to the fermion mass, i.e., $`g_{f\overline{f}h}=m_f/v`$, where $`v=(\sqrt{2}G_F)^{1/2}246\mathrm{GeV}`$ is the vacuum expectation value of the Higgs boson. Then we can see that the top quark Yukawa coupling $`g_{t\overline{t}h}`$ is the largest one among all the fermion-Higgs couplings, e.g., $`g_{t\overline{t}h}^20.5`$ to be compared for example with $`g_{b\overline{b}h}^24\times 10^4`$. Therefore, the Higgs boson production via the process $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ is strongly enhanced by the top quark Yukawa coupling, and it can also be a basic mechanism for measuring the top quark Yukawa coupling.

Recently, a lot of efforts have been invested in improving the precise QCD theoretical corrections to the processes $`p\overline{p}/ppt\overline{t}h+X`$ . At a LC the cross section for $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ is small, about $`1\mathrm{fb}`$ for $`\sqrt{s}=500\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`m_h=100\mathrm{GeV}`$ . But it has a distinctive experimental signature and can potentially be used to measure the top quark Yukawa coupling in the intermediate Higgs mass region at a LC with very high luminosity. In Ref. , S. Dawson and L. Reina found that the NLO QCD corrections increase the Born cross section by a factor of roughly 1.5 for $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ at $`\sqrt{s}=500\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`m_h=100\mathrm{GeV}`$. But at $`\sqrt{s}=1\mathrm{TeV}`$, the corrections decrease the Born cross section and are relative small. These works show that the evaluation of radiative corrections is a crucial task for all accurate measurements of this process.

In this paper we present the calculations of the full $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ electroweak corrections to $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ in the SM. In section 2, we present our calculations of the full $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ electroweak radiative corrections. The numerical results and discussions are presented in section 3. Finally, a short summary is given.

## II Calculations

In this paper we use the t’Hooft-Feynman gauge. In the calculations of loop diagrams we adopt the definitions of one-loop integral functions of Ref. . The Feynman diagrams and the relevant amplitudes are created by FeynArts 3  automatically, and the Feynman amplitudes are subsequently reduced by FORM . The numerical calculations of integral functions are implemented by using Fortran programs, in which the 5-point loop integrals are evaluated by using the approach presented in Ref. .

The process $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ at the lowest level occurs through the Feynman diagrams of Fig.1. There are two kinds of Feynman diagrams to the $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ process at the tree-level. The first kind includes diagrams with Higgsstrahlungs from top or anti-top final states and the top Yukawa coupling is thus involved. The second kind consists of the diagrams with a Higgs boson radiated from a $`Z^0`$-exchange s-channel or via $`Z^0G^0h`$-interaction, and is independent of the top Yukawa coupling. We have checked that our numerical Born cross section is in good agreement with that in Ref. .

The $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ (one-loop level) virtual corrections to the process

$`e^+(p_1)+e^{}(p_2)t(k_1)+\overline{t}(k_2)+h(k_3)`$ (2.1)
can be expressed as

$`\sigma _{\mathrm{virtual}}=\sigma _0\delta _{\mathrm{virtual}}={\displaystyle \frac{N_c}{2|\stackrel{}{k}_1|\sqrt{s}}}{\displaystyle d\mathrm{\Phi }_3\overline{\underset{\mathrm{spin}}{}}\mathrm{Re}\left(_0_{\mathrm{virtual}}^{}\right)},`$ (2.2)
where $`\sigma _0`$ and $`_0`$ are the Born cross section and amplitude for $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$, respectively, $`\mathrm{d}\mathrm{\Phi }_3`$ is the three-body phase space element, the bar over summation recalls averaging over initial spins, and $`_{\mathrm{virtual}}`$ is the amplitude of one-loop Feynman diagrams and the corresponding counter-terms. Due to the fact that the electron-Higgs(Goldstone) Yukawa coupling is proportional to the electron mass, we do not consider the contributions of the one-loop diagrams which involve $`\overline{e}eh(G^0)`$ vertex to the amplitude $`_{\mathrm{virtual}}`$. Therefore, the $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ virtual corrections involve 975 loop diagrams which can be classified into self-energy (376), vertex (425), box (145) and pentagon (29) diagrams. As a representative selection, the pentagon diagrams are given in Fig.2.

The self-energy and vertex one-loop diagrams contain both ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) divergences, while all the box and pentagon diagrams are ultraviolet finite and only contain IR divergences. To regularize the UV divergences in loop integrals, we adopt the dimensional regularization scheme  in which the dimensions of spinor and spacetime manifolds are extended to $`D=42ϵ`$. In this paper, we adopt the complete on-mass-shell (COMS) renormalization scheme , in which the electric charge of electron $`e`$ and the physical masses $`m_W`$, $`m_Z`$, $`m_h`$, $`m_t`$, $`m_e`$ are chosen to be the renormalized parameters. The definitions and the explicit expressions of these renormalization constants can be found in Ref. . As we expect, the UV divergence contributed by the one-loop diagrams can be cancelled by that contributed by the counterterms exactly. Therefore, we get a UV finite cross section including $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ virtual radiative corrections.

The IR divergence in the process $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ is originated from virtual photonic corrections. It can be exactly cancelled by including the real photonic bremsstrahlung corrections to this process in the soft photon limit. The real photon emission process

$`e^+(p_1)+e^{}(p_2)t(k_1)+\overline{t}(k_2)+h(k_3)+\gamma (k),`$ (2.3)
where the real photon radiates from the initial electron(positron) and the final top(anti-top) quark, can have either soft or collinear nature. The collinear singularity is regularized by keeping electron mass. In order to isolate the soft photon emission singularity in the real photon emission process, we use the general phase-space-slicing method . The bremsstrahlung phase space is divided into singular and non-singular regions, and the cross section of the real photon emission process (2.3) is decomposed into soft and hard terms

$$\sigma _{\mathrm{real}}=\sigma _{\mathrm{soft}}+\sigma _{\mathrm{hard}}=\sigma _0(\delta _{\mathrm{soft}}+\delta _{\mathrm{hard}}).$$
(2.4)
For soft photons, $`k_0<\mathrm{\Delta }E`$, we neglect the momenta of the radiated photons everywhere but in the singular propagators. By using the soft photon approximation, we find the contribution of the soft photon emission process is

$`\mathrm{d}\sigma _{\mathrm{soft}}=\mathrm{d}\sigma _0{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}}}{2\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _{|\stackrel{}{k}|\mathrm{\Delta }E}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{d}^3k}{2k_0}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{Q_ep_1}{p_1k}}{\displaystyle \frac{Q_ep_2}{p_2k}}{\displaystyle \frac{Q_tk_1}{k_1k}}+{\displaystyle \frac{Q_tk_2}{k_2k}}\right]^2,`$ (2.5)
in which $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ is the energy cutoff of the soft photon and $`k_0\mathrm{\Delta }E\sqrt{s}`$, $`Q_e=1`$ and $`Q_t=2/3`$ are the electric charges of the positron and top quark. $`k_0=\sqrt{|\stackrel{}{k}|^2+\mu ^2}`$ is the photon energy. The integral over the soft photon phase space have been implemented, therefore, we obtain the analytical result of the soft corrections to $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ which can be found in Refs.  and . We checked numerically the cancellation of IR divergencies and verified the contribution of these soft photonic bremsstrahlung corrections leads to a IR finite cross section which is independent of the infinitesimal photon mass $`\mu `$. The hard photon emission cross section $`\sigma _{\mathrm{hard}}`$, with the radiated photon energy being larger than $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$, is calculated by using Monte Carlo method.

Finally the UV and IR finite total cross section including the full $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ electroweak corrections reads

$$\sigma =\sigma _0+\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma =\sigma _0+\sigma _{\mathrm{virtual}}+\sigma _{\mathrm{real}}=\sigma _0(1+\delta ),$$
(2.6)
where $`\delta =\delta _{\mathrm{virtual}}+\delta _{\mathrm{soft}}+\delta _{\mathrm{hard}}`$ is the full electroweak relative correction of the order $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$.

## III Numerical results and discussions

In our numerical calculations, we set : $`\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}}(0)^1=137.0359895`$, $`m_W=80.423\mathrm{GeV}`$, $`m_Z=91.188\mathrm{GeV}`$, $`m_e=0.511\mathrm{MeV}`$, $`m_\mu =105.7\mathrm{MeV}`$, $`m_\tau =1.777\mathrm{GeV}`$, $`m_u=66\mathrm{MeV}`$, $`m_c=1.35\mathrm{GeV}`$, $`m_t=174.3\mathrm{GeV}`$, $`m_d=66\mathrm{MeV}`$, $`m_s=150\mathrm{MeV}`$, and $`m_b=4.3\mathrm{GeV}`$. The renormalization scale is taken to be $`Q=2m_t+m_h`$. Here we use the effective values of the light quark masses ($`m_u`$ and $`m_d`$) which can reproduce the hadron contribution to the shift in the fine structure constant $`\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}}(m_Z)`$ .

In Fig.3 we show the dependence of the $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ relative correction to $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ on the soft cutoff $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E_b`$, assuming $`m_h=115\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`\sqrt{s}=500\mathrm{GeV}`$. As shown in this figure, both $`\delta _{\mathrm{virtual}+\mathrm{soft}}(=\delta _{\mathrm{virtual}}+\delta _{\mathrm{soft}})`$ and $`\delta _{\mathrm{hard}}`$ depend on the soft cutoff $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E_b`$, but the full $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ electroweak relative correction $`\delta `$ is cutoff independent within the range of statistical errors as expected. In the following calculations, the soft cutoff $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E_b`$ is fixed to be $`10^3`$.

In Fig.4 we present the Born cross section $`\sigma _0`$ and the one-loop level cross section $`\sigma `$ which include the full $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ electroweak corrections, as functions of the $`e^+e^{}`$ colliding energy $`\sqrt{s}`$ for the Higgs boson mass $`m_h=115\mathrm{GeV}`$, 150 GeV and 200 GeV, respectively. The colliding energy range ($`500\mathrm{GeV}2\mathrm{TeV}`$) in the figure is accessible at future linear colliders, such as, TESLA  ($`\sqrt{s}=500\mathrm{GeV}`$), NLC  ($`\sqrt{s}=500\mathrm{GeV}`$), JLC  ($`\sqrt{s}=500\mathrm{GeV}`$,) and CERN CLIC  ($`1\mathrm{TeV}<\sqrt{s}<5\mathrm{TeV}`$). From this figure we can see that both curves of $`\sigma _0`$ and $`\sigma `$ for $`m_h=115\mathrm{GeV}`$ reach maximal values at the position of $`\sqrt{s}750\mathrm{GeV}`$, where the correction $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma `$ can reach $`0.09\mathrm{fb}`$. For $`m_h=150\mathrm{GeV}`$ and 200 GeV, both $`\sigma _0`$ and $`\sigma `$ have their maximal values at $`\sqrt{s}850\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`\sqrt{s}950\mathrm{GeV}`$, respectively. The correction $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma `$ decreases as the increment of the Higgs boson mass $`m_h`$.

The dependence of the $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ relative correction to $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ on the colliding energy $`\sqrt{s}`$ of a LC is displayed in Fig.5. For $`m_h=115\mathrm{GeV}`$, the $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ corrections suppress the Born cross section in the energy region of $`\sqrt{s}<600\mathrm{GeV}`$, while enhance the Born cross section in the region of $`\sqrt{s}>600\mathrm{GeV}`$. The relative corrections can reach about $`5.8\%`$, $`31.3\%`$ and $`8.3\%`$ at $`\sqrt{s}=500`$, 500 and 600 GeV for $`m_h=115`$, 150 and 200 GeV, respectively. For $`m_h=150\mathrm{GeV}`$, the relative correction ranges from $`31.3\%`$ to $`2.3\%`$ as $`\sqrt{s}`$ running from $`500\mathrm{GeV}`$ to $`2\mathrm{TeV}`$. The large correction for $`\sqrt{s}=500GeV`$ and $`m_h150GeV`$ shown in this figure comes from a threshold effect which diverges at the threshold.

In Fig.6 we depict the Born cross section $`\sigma _0`$ and the one-loop level cross section $`\sigma `$ as functions of the Higgs boson mass $`m_h`$. As shown in this figure, Both the cross sections $`\sigma _0`$ and $`\sigma `$ decrease with the increment of the Higgs boson mass, and the cross sections $`\sigma _0`$, $`\sigma `$ and the one-loop level correction $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma =\sigma \sigma _0`$ at $`\sqrt{s}=800\mathrm{GeV}`$ are larger than those at $`\sqrt{s}=500\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`\sqrt{s}=2\mathrm{TeV}`$.

In Fig.7 we plot the $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ relative correction $`\delta `$ to $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ as a function of $`m_h`$. For $`\sqrt{s}=500\mathrm{GeV}`$, the relative correction decreases from $`5.8\%`$ at $`m_h=115\mathrm{GeV}`$ to $`31.3\%`$ at $`m_h=150\mathrm{GeV}`$. For $`\sqrt{s}=800\mathrm{GeV}`$ and 2 TeV, the relative corrections decrease from $`4.4\%`$ and $`1.5\%`$ to $`0.8\%`$ and $`4.7\%`$ as the increment of $`m_h`$ from 115 GeV to 200 GeV, respectively. The $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ electroweak relative corrections are not very sensitive to the Higgs boson mass in the range of $`115\mathrm{GeV}<m_h<200\mathrm{GeV}`$ when $`\sqrt{s}=800\mathrm{GeV}`$ and 2 TeV, but strongly depend on the Higgs boson mass when $`\sqrt{s}=500\mathrm{GeV}`$. In both Fig.6 and Fig.7, we can see that each of the two curves of the total cross sections including the $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ corrections at $`\sqrt{s}=800\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`2\mathrm{TeV}`$, has two spikes at the vicinities of $`m_h=2m_W`$ and $`m_h=2m_Z`$, due to the threshold effects.

After submitting this manuscript, we acknowledged another two papers appeared on this subject . The representative comparison with the calculation of Ref. is shown in Table 2 of (There we use the current mass values for $`m_u`$ and $`m_d`$.). It shows that most of our numerical results of one-loop electroweak corrected cross sections agree with theirs within estimated error, but there are some discrepancies at the energy $`\sqrt{s}=2TeV`$.

## IV  Summary

In this paper we calculate the full electroweak one-loop level radiative corrections to the process $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ at a electron-positron LC in the standard model. We analyze the dependence of the electroweak radiative corrections on the Higgs boson mass $`m_h`$ and colliding energy $`\sqrt{s}`$, and find that the corrections increase or decrease the Born cross section in the Higgs boson mass range $`115\mathrm{GeV}<m_h<200\mathrm{GeV}`$, depending on the colliding energy. The numerical results show that the $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ electroweak relative corrections can reach $`31.3\%`$, $`4.4\%`$ and $`4.7\%`$ at $`\sqrt{s}=500\mathrm{GeV}`$, 800 GeV and 2 TeV, respectively. We also find that the full electroweak relative correction of the order $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ is strongly related to the Higgs boson mass when $`\sqrt{s}=500\mathrm{GeV}`$, and for $`m_h=150\mathrm{GeV}`$ the relative correction ranges from $`31.3\%`$ to $`2.3\%`$ as the colliding energy increasing from 500 GeV to 2 TeV.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China and a grant from the University of Science and Technology of China.

Figure Captions

Figure 1 The tree-level Feynman diagrams for the $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ process.

Figure 2 The pentagon diagrams for the $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ process.

Figure 3 The relative corrections of the $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ order contributions to the $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ cross section. The relative corrections of $`\delta _{virtual+soft}`$ and $`\delta _{hard}`$, and their sum are shown as a function of the soft photon energy cutoff $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E_b`$.

Figure 4 The Born and one-loop level cross sections for the process $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ as functions of the $`e^+e^{}`$ colliding energy $`\sqrt{s}`$.

Figure 5 The dependence of the $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ relative correction to $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ on the $`e^+e^{}`$ colliding energy $`\sqrt{s}`$.

Figure 6 The Born and one-loop level cross sections for the process $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ as functions of the Higgs boson mass $`m_h`$.

Figure 7 The $`𝒪(\alpha _{\mathrm{ew}})`$ relative correction to the process $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}h`$ as a function of the Higgs boson mass $`m_h`$.


text:
# Universal conductance fluctuations in non-integer dimensions

## Abstract

We propose an Ansatz for universal conductance fluctuations in continuous dimensions from 0 up to 4. The Ansatz agrees with known formulas for integer dimensions 1, 2 and 3, both for hard wall and periodic boundary conditions. The method is based solely on the knowledge of energy spectrum and standard assumptions. We also study numerically the conductance fluctuations in 4D Anderson model, depending on system size $`L`$ and disorder $`W`$. We find a small plateau with a value diverging logarithmically with increasing $`L`$. Universality gets lost just in 4D.

PACS numbers: 71.30.+h, 71.23.An, 72.15.Rn

Disordered systems usually possess the metallic regime, where Ohm’s law for mean conductance $`g`$ works well at least for cubic samples and the distribution of $`g`$ for various realizations of the same disorder is Gaussian with constant (disorder, mean free path $`l_e`$ and $`g`$ independent) width, called universal conductance fluctuations (UCF). Higher cummulants of $`g`$ should disappear as some power of $`1/g`$ , though recent experiment on gold wire did not confirm this in quasi-1D . Recently  we analysed the statistical properties of conductance on bifractal lattices . It became clear, that $`g`$ and $`varg`$ depend (besides the spectral dimension $`d_s`$) on lattice topology. Simply speaking, bifractals are no hypercubes. But we hope that by changing other parameters, say anisotropy, we can tune the systems to cubic-like. If the UCF of anisotropic bifractals become those of non-integer dimensional hypercubes, other parameters of these systems may be comparable. The main goal of this work is to find a way to calculate the UCF also for non-integer dimensions. Rewriting (2) as a simple integral, we will propose its analytical continuation to real dimensions.

Two (on first sight) different expressions were given for UCF in literature  and . Let us comment this seeming ambiguity. In classical papers of Lee, Stone and Fukuyama  \- Appendix, formulas forUCF in 3D (2D, 1D) were given as a sum of three diagrammatic terms $`F_a,F_b`$ and $`F_c`$. They can be written in terms of convolutions, e. g. (the simple one-loop ”Meeron” diagram):

$$F_a=\frac{2}{L^4}\mathrm{\Pi }(𝐫,𝐫^{})\mathrm{\Pi }(𝐫^{},𝐫)𝑑𝐫𝑑𝐫^{}$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{\Pi }(𝐫,𝐫^{})`$ is standard propagator in a box, $`F_b`$ and $`F_c`$ contain 3 and 4 propagators (cyclically in one loop), respectively. In 1D it is possible to show analytically, that $`F_b=F_a`$ and $`F_c=3/4F_a`$, with some tricky cancelling of divergences, Ref. . Numerical calculations show, that the same holds for 2D and 3D. Thus we arrive at the formula, given in Ref.  and representing $`3/4F_a`$ from Ref. :

$$g^2_c=\frac{12}{\pi ^4}\underset{i_z=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\underset{i_x=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\underset{i_y=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(i_z^2+i_x^2+i_y^2)^2$$
(2)
where the number of sums defines the dimensionality, hard wall boundary conditions are applied and we limit ourselves to cubes ($`L_x=L_y=L_z`$). This relation was derived using the technique of Hikami boxes. It gives in one dimension

$$g^2_c^{1D}=\frac{12}{\pi ^4}\zeta (4)=\frac{2}{15}$$
(3)
$`\zeta (x)`$ is Rieman’s function. No such simple formulas were given for higher dimensions yet. It is also clear, that a four-fold sum, i. e. 4D case of Eq. (2) diverges and $`d=4`$ plays a role of some kind ”critical dimension”. According to the remark 6 of Ref. , it is possible that also ergodicity gets lost at that point.

Dealing with diffusive part of conductivity itself, the following formula for diagonal part of the propagator in 3D was given  and :

$$\mathrm{\Pi }(𝐫,𝐫)=\frac{\delta g}{g}=\frac{2}{g\pi ^2}S(y)$$
(4)
where $`\delta g`$ is the diffusive part of conductivity and a function $`S(y)`$ was specified as follows:

$$S_{\mathrm{HW}}(y)=\underset{i_z=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\underset{i_x,i_y=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{\mathrm{exp}[\pi (i_x^2+i_y^2+i_z^2)y]}{i_x^2+i_y^2+i_z^2}$$
(5)
$$S_{\mathrm{PBC}}(y)=\underset{i_z=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\underset{i_x,i_y=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{\mathrm{exp}[\pi (4i_x^2+4i_y^2+i_z^2)y]}{4i_x^2+4i_y^2+i_z^2}.$$
(6)
Here $`y=\pi \varphi _d(l_e/L)^2`$, $`\varphi _d`$ is dimension specific, e. g. 1/3 in 3D, but for our purposes insignificant constant. HW stands for hard wall and PBC for periodic boundary conditions in directions perpendicular to the current, flowing in the $`z`$ direction. Later we will give an alternative meaning to the variable $`y`$. Contrary to Ref.  we include zero modes in our Eq. (6), $`i_x=0`$ and $`i_y=0`$, similarly to Ref. . Our normalization of $`y`$ differs slightly from that in Ref. . Instead of complete elliptic integrals, we will make use of $`\vartheta _3`$ from the family of Jacobi elliptic functions, defined as :

$$\vartheta _3(u,q)=1+2\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}q^{n^2}\mathrm{cos}(2nu)$$
(7)
where we set $`q=\mathrm{exp}(\pi y)`$ and $`u=0`$, making (7) related to modular elliptic functions. It is worth mention that all $`\vartheta `$ functions fulfil the 1D diffusion equation, $`\vartheta ^{\prime \prime }+c\dot{\vartheta }=0`$.

Let us recall the time $`t`$ dependent retarded Green’s function (propagator):

$$G(𝐫,t,𝐫^{},0)=\mathrm{\Theta }(t)\underset{n}{}\mathrm{exp}(iE_nt)\mathrm{\Psi }_n(𝐫)\mathrm{\Psi }_n^{}(𝐫^{})$$
(8)
where $`\mathrm{\Theta }(t)`$ is Heaviside step function, $`E_n`$ are eigenvalues and $`\mathrm{\Psi }_n`$ orthonormal complete eigenfunctions of the proper Hamiltonian and $`\mathrm{}=1`$. In our scaling, e. g. 3D HW box case, $`E_n=\pi (i_x^2+i_y^2+i_z^2)`$. One can go over to spectral representation performing a Fourier transformation

$`G(𝐫,𝐫^{},E)`$ $`=`$ $`i{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{exp}(iEt)G(𝐫,t,𝐫^{},0)𝑑t`$ (9)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Psi }_n(𝐫)\mathrm{\Psi }_n^{}(𝐫^{})}{EE_n}}`$
Inserting this into (1) and exploiting the orthonormality one gets the Meeron diagram value

$$F_a(E)=C\underset{n}{}\frac{1}{(EE_n)^2}$$
(10)
as it was done in  and  at $`E=0`$, see Eq. (2). The constant $`C`$, including appropriate combinatoric factor, will be specified later.

We have an alternative way. Let us integrate out the space variables in advance

$$Z(t)=𝑑𝐫𝑑𝐫^{}G(𝐫,0,𝐫^{},0)G(𝐫,t,𝐫^{},0)=\underset{n}{}\mathrm{exp}(iE_nt)$$
(11)
This simplifies the calculation, we will not have problems with the divergence of $`\mathrm{\Pi }(𝐫,𝐫)S(y)`$ in more than one dimension, or with non-uniformly convergent, $`𝐫`$-dependent series, Ref. . Now we either first perform the Fourier transformation to get $`Z(E)=(EE_n)^1`$ and then apply a partial derivation, or we take the derivative of the Fourier integral to get

$$F_a(0)=C\frac{Z(E)}{E}|_{E=0}=C_0^{\mathrm{}}yZ(y)𝑑y$$
(12)
where $`y`$ now means imaginary time $`y=it`$, thus going over from (zero potential within a box) Schrödinger equation to the diffusion equation, or from Fourier to Laplace transformation. The quantity $`Z(y)`$ strongly resembles a partition function, with $`y`$ playing the role of inverse temperature.

Imry  also stated that variance of $`g`$ over random matrix ensembles can be calculated by a similar integral formula. Our version of (1) and thus (2) with proper constant now reads:

$$g^2_c=\frac{3F_a(0)}{4}=\frac{12}{\pi ^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}yZ(y)𝑑y.$$
(13)
Noticing that $`Z(y)=\mathrm{exp}(E_ny)=S^{}(y)/\pi `$, after per parts we get an interesting, though for calculations not quite practical formula

$$g^2_c=\frac{12}{\pi ^3}_0^{\mathrm{}}S(y)𝑑y.$$
(14)
Specifying $`Z(y)`$ in (13) with help of $`\vartheta _3`$ function (7) we can rewrite (2) for small integer dimensions $`d`$ as follows:

$$g^2_c^{HW}=\frac{12}{2^d\pi ^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}y[\vartheta _3(0,q)1][\vartheta _3(0,q)+1]^{d1}𝑑y.$$
(15)
This is easy to verify: each term with $`\vartheta _3`$ creates one summation index in (5) for dimensions $`d=1,2`$ and 3. After per parts and integrating term by term we get (2).

In 1D case, one can make use of the formula

$$_0^{\mathrm{}}x^{s1}[\vartheta _3(0,e^{\pi x^2})1]𝑑x=\pi ^{s/2}\mathrm{\Gamma }(s/2)\zeta (s)$$
(16)
If we put $`y=x^2`$ in (15), specifying $`s=4`$ yields (3).

Similarly for PBC

$$g^2_c^{PBC}=\frac{6}{\pi ^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}y[\vartheta _3(0,q)1][\vartheta _3(0,q^4)]^{d1}𝑑y.$$
(17)
Note that $`q^4=\mathrm{exp}(4\pi y)`$. Now we can calculate the UCF with high numerical precision for small integer dimensions, see the Table 1. But the main generalization consists in regarding (15) and (17) as an analytical continuation in $`d`$, i. e. being valid also for non-integer dimensions  and even for those ones below 1D, where it is hard to imagine any ”perpendicular” direction.

The Equations (15) and (17) represent the completed Ansatz. It reproduces the UCF for any integer dimension, i. e. any number of sums in (2), which should make the continuation unambiguous. But this argument is rather naive, as the sums diverge for $`d4`$; some cut-off (e. g. as in ) would be necessary. Note that the integrals (15) and (17) also diverge for $`d4`$. The dependence of UCF on dimension is plotted in Fig. 1. The common statement, that this dependence is weak , is true in the region $`0d3`$.

We shall now comment the limiting cases. For $`d=0`$ one gets sound values (see Table 1) both slightly below the universal constant 1/8, which corresponds to ballistic transport in quantum dots . For $`d`$ approaching 4, $`d=4\epsilon `$ the leading contribution to integrals (15) and (17) comes from small $`y`$ values and we can make use of the known alternative expansion:

$$\vartheta _3(u,\mathrm{exp}(\pi x^2))=\frac{1}{x}\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{(un\pi )^2}{\pi x^2}\right]$$
(18)
For small $`x=\sqrt{y}`$ and $`u=0`$ only the $`n=0`$ term is important (see Ref. )

$$\vartheta _3(0,\mathrm{exp}(\pi x^2))\frac{1}{x}$$
(19)
and we get

$$g^2_c=\frac{3}{2\pi ^2}\frac{1}{\epsilon }+𝒪(1)$$
(20)
both for HW and PBC. These expansions remain valid even for anti-periodic BC, if one simply replaces the second $`\vartheta _3`$ function in (17) and that one in (19) by $`\vartheta _2`$. The independence of the leading divergent term on boundary conditions seems to support our Ansatz. Similar statement was made in 3D for small $`y`$ expansion of $`S_3(y)`$, whose leading divergence also proved BC independent, see .

Unfortunately we cannot use formulas (15) and (17) to get the exact $`L`$-dependence of 4D conductance fluctuations directly. Introducing $`1/L`$ cut-off, e. g. by changing the lower limit of integration to small non-zero value, corresponds to making upper limits for summation indices in (2) finite. This would influence the propagator used in one-loop diagrams so that the delta function on rhs of diffusion equation in spectral representation (Refs. , ) would become just a peak of finite, $`L`$ dependent width. Thus the summation of diagrams, mentioned in the beginning, would be no more simple. Anyway, the too simple cut-off would give logarithmic $`L`$ dependence in 4D.

In  numerical calculations of UCF for 2D and 3D Anderson model were compared to theoretical values, computed also numerically with cca 3 digit precision from more complicated version of (2), given in  and its PBC counterpart. A plateau of $`varg=g^2g^2=g^2_c`$ as a function of disorder $`W`$ was found with values reasonably close to theoretical predictions. The disorder had to be large enough to overcome the ballistic peak region, but not too close to the metal - insulator transition (if $`d>2`$). The plateau grew broader with increasing system size $`L`$.

We performed these calculations for 4D Anderson model with HW BC. Up to now only the region of metal - insulator transition was addressed in 4D, Refs. ,  and . In diffusive regime, Ohm’s law for cubic samples applies in the sense of leading contribution in $`L`$:

$$g=\sigma L^{d2}$$
(21)
This serves as a test of diffusive kind transport, we expect $`gL^2`$, see Fig. 2. Here we find, that this regime is well pronounced around $`W=11`$.

Results for $`varg`$ are shown in Fig. 3. A small plateau appears for larger $`L`$ and disorders cca within $`10<W<11`$. Typical statistical ensembles are $`N_{stat}=10^5`$ for $`L6`$, $`20000`$ for $`L=7`$ and $`3000`$ for $`L=8`$. The value of the plateau diverges logarithmically (Fig. 4).

We conclude that a simple conjecture enables a high precision calculation of UCF in any real dimension $`0d<4`$, with reasonable behavior in both limiting regions. Numerical calculations of 4D Anderson model show logarithmic divergence of CF with increasing system size.

Fruitful discussions with P. Markoš and Pavol Kalinay and carefull reading of the manuscript are greatly acknowledged. This work was supported by Slovak Grant Agency VEGA 2/3108/23 and computer facilities of Slovak Academy of Sciences.