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# LEP1 HEAVY FLAVOUR ELECTROWEAK PHYSICS AND 2-FERMION PROCESSES AT LEP2

## 1 Overview

Although the LEP experiments finished data taking in 2000, the analysis efforts are still strong in all four collaborations. In this article I will give an overview of the status of two rather distinct experimental areas, namely the heavy flavour electroweak measurements at LEP1 and 2-fermion processes at LEP2. Whereas the former class of analyses basically serve as a test of the electroweak Standard Model, with the main interest on the extraction of the weak mixing angle $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{e}ff}`$, the LEP2 2-fermion measurements can be used for generating limits on models for new physics beyond the Standard Model.

This article is structured as follows: Section 2 is devoted to the LEP1 heavy flavour measurements. After a short overview of general issues and experimental techniques the results of the partial decay width and forward-backward asymmetry measurements for heavy quarks are shown. At the end of the section, an interpretation of these results in terms of the Standard Model, namely the electroweak mixing angle $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{e}ff}`$, is given. Section 3 reviews measurements of 2-fermion processes at LEP2. A large part of the section is devoted to the interpretation of the measurements in terms of new physics models, such as contact interactions, $`\mathrm{Z}^{}`$ bosons or low scale gravity in large extra dimensions. Section 4 concludes the paper and gives an outlook.

## 2 LEP1 Heavy Flavour Electroweak Physics

### 2.1 Introduction

Measurements of $`\mathrm{b}`$ and $`\mathrm{c}`$ quark final states at LEP allow detailed insights into the properties of the electroweak Standard Model. The measurements considered here are a) the heavy flavour partial decay widths of the $`\mathrm{Z}^0`$, $`R_\mathrm{b}`$ and $`R_\mathrm{c}`$, and b) the heavy quark forward-backward asymmetries, $`A_{\mathrm{F}B}^\mathrm{b}`$ and $`A_{\mathrm{F}B}^\mathrm{c}`$.

$`R_\mathrm{q}`$ is defined as the decay width of the $`\mathrm{Z}^0`$ to quarks of flavour $`\mathrm{q}`$, normalized to the total hadronic decay width, and is proportional to the sum of the squared vector and axial vector couplings of the $`\mathrm{Z}^0`$:

$$R_\mathrm{q}:=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }^\mathrm{q}}{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{had}}g_{V\mathrm{q}}^2+g_{A\mathrm{q}}^2,$$
(1)
$`R_\mathrm{q}`$ is therefore sensitive to vertex corrections to the $`\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}\mathrm{Z}^0`$ vertex and might thus serve to detect signs of new physics modifying these vertices. Conceptually the measurement of $`R_{\mathrm{b},c}`$ is simple: One has to count the number of events with $`\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}`$ or $`\mathrm{c}\overline{\mathrm{c}}`$ final states and normalize to the number of all hadronic final state events. So the largest challenge, besides understanding the rather involved systematic uncertainties, is providing an efficient, clean and well-understood $`\mathrm{b}`$ or $`\mathrm{c}`$ flavour tag.

The forward-backward asymmetry measurements are more complicated. The asymmetry for flavour $`\mathrm{q}`$ is defined as

$$A_{\mathrm{F}B}^\mathrm{q}:=\frac{N_\mathrm{F}^\mathrm{q}N_\mathrm{B}^\mathrm{q}}{N_\mathrm{F}^\mathrm{q}+N_\mathrm{B}^\mathrm{q}}$$
(2)
where $`N_\mathrm{F}^\mathrm{q}`$ ($`N_\mathrm{B}^\mathrm{q}`$) is the number of events of flavour $`\mathrm{q}`$ in which the initial quark goes into the forward (backward) hemisphere. The forward hemisphere is defined by the electron beam direction. Since at the $`\mathrm{Z}^0`$ pole

$$A_{\mathrm{F}B}^{\mathrm{q},0}=\frac{3}{4}𝒜_\mathrm{e}𝒜_\mathrm{b}$$
(3)
with

$$𝒜_\mathrm{f}=2\frac{g_{V\mathrm{f}}g_{A\mathrm{f}}}{g_{V\mathrm{f}}^2+g_{A\mathrm{f}}^2}$$
(4)
the asymmetries provide direct access to the electroweak mixing angle $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{e}ff}`$ via the relation $`g_V/g_A=14Q\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{e}ff}`$. Due to the charge factor $`Q`$ in the former relation, the sensitivity of the asymmetries to the heavy quark couplings $`𝒜_\mathrm{q}`$ is much reduced with respect to the electron coupling $`𝒜_\mathrm{e}`$ (even more for $`\mathrm{b}`$ than for $`\mathrm{c}`$ quarks). So the measurements serve in fact as a determination of the mixing angle for electrons (or leptons, assuming lepton universality), $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{e}ff}^{\mathrm{l}ept}`$.

The SLD $`\mathrm{e}^+e^{}`$ collider, in contrast to LEP, has the possibility to polarize the electron beam so that additional measurements become available. One can for example, from a measurement of the left-right forward-backward asymmetry, $`A_{\mathrm{L}RFB}`$, directly extract the heavy flavour couplings $`𝒜_{\mathrm{b},c}`$ which are not accessible at LEP. SLD measurements are also used in the heavy flavour fits that will be covered in the next sections.

The measurements of the partial decay widths are final. The latest contributions to the forward-backward asymmetry measurements were presented at the 2002 summer conferences: OPAL prepared a new measurement of the $`\mathrm{b}`$ quark asymmetry using an inclusive charge tag which superseeded their old result and substantially reduced the statistical and systematic uncertainties. DELPHI presented new preliminary measurements of the lepton-tagged $`\mathrm{b}`$ and $`\mathrm{c}`$ asymmetries which included new systematic studies. It is therefore fair to say that the LEP1 heavy flavour electroweak measurements are slowly coming to an end. The only missing pieces are a lepton-tag asymmetry measurement from OPAL and the inclusive $`\mathrm{b}`$ asymmetry measurement from DELPHI. In addition, some SLD measurements are also only preliminary ($`A_{\mathrm{L}RFB}`$, $`R_\mathrm{c}`$).

### 2.2 Tools: Flavour and Charge Tags

As became apparent in the previous section, the heavy flavour measurements rely on flavour tagging, and, in case of the asymmetry measurements, also on tagging the charges of the outgoing quarks. The determination of these quantities is facilitated by the usually clear 2-jet structure of hadronic events at or around the $`\mathrm{Z}^0`$ which allows the events to be divided in two hemispheres along the plane perpendicular to the thrust axis. The flavour and charge tagging tools can then be applied in the two hemispheres independently. Due to this basic structure nearly all information needed for the extraction of the partial decay widths and asymmetry values can be taken from the data without relying too much on Monte Carlo input.

Heavy flavour events can be tagged using heavy quark secondary decay vertices or high $`p_T`$ leptons from semileptonic decays $`\mathrm{b},c\mathrm{l}`$. The variables describing the decay vertices or the decay leptons are usually combined using likelihoods or artificial neural networks to result in one flavour tagging variable with high separation power between $`\mathrm{b}`$ or $`\mathrm{c}`$ quark hemispheres and the light flavour background, respectively. Purities of 95 $`\%`$ with efficiencies of 20 to 30 $`\%`$ can be reached. Another possibility is to tag $`\mathrm{c}`$ hemispheres using $`\mathrm{D}^{}`$ mesons.

The charge of hemispheres which is needed for the forward-backward asymmetry analyses can be determined from a variety of observables. The OPAL analysis mentioned above uses the jet charge of the highest energy jet in the hemisphere, the weighted charge sum of all tracks connected to the secondary vertex in the hemisphere and, in addition, the charge of kaons originating from cascade decays $`\mathrm{b}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{s}`$ measured using the d$`E`$/d$`x`$ information from the OPAL central jet chamber. These variables are again combined in an artificial neural network. Charge tags like the one just described are self-calibrating in the sense that their efficiency and purity can be determined from the data themselves, thus reducing the dependence on external inputs from Monte Carlo simulations. It turns out that the correlation between the charge tags in the two event hemispheres is one of the dominant sources of systematic uncertainty.

In case of lepton-tagged asymmetry measurements, basically the same variables as for the flavour tag can be used: lepton momentum and transverse momentum, vertex fit probability, to mention a few, together with some charge information from the hemisphere opposite to the one with the identified lepton.

### 2.3 Results on Heavy Quark Decay Widths and Asymmetries

In order to get a more precise picture of heavy flavour electroweak physics, the various measurements of the partial decay widths and asymmetries are combined in a $`\chi ^2`$ minimisation procedure. In this fit, the correlations between various measurements due to mutual dependencies and to common external inputs are taken into account. Together with the LEP measurements of $`R_{\mathrm{b},c}`$ and $`A_{\mathrm{F}B}^{\mathrm{b},c}`$ the SLD measurements of $`𝒜_\mathrm{b}`$ and $`𝒜_\mathrm{e}`$ are used in this fit. Some additional auxiliary parameters (charm hadron production fractions, $`\mathrm{b}`$ semileptonic branching ratios) are also determined.

Figure 1 shows a compilation of measurements of $`R_\mathrm{b}`$ together with the $`R_\mathrm{b}`$ result of the heavy flavour fit. The measurements of the four LEP experiments and of SLD are in good overall agreement. The fit results in a value $`R_\mathrm{b}=0.21644\pm 0.00065`$. This value, indicated by the solid vertical line, is well compatible with the Standard Model prediction based on the best electroweak knowledge and the Tevatron top mass measurement (left vertical line). The various measurements of $`R_\mathrm{c}`$ are also averaged and result in a value of $`R_\mathrm{c}=0.1717\pm 0.0031`$, again in good agreement with the theoretical expectation.

Turning to the asymmetry measurements, first all asymmetry measurements are corrected to three distinct energies (the $`\mathrm{Z}^0`$ pole and $`\pm `$2 GeV away from it), and the averaged asymmetry is extracted for these three energies separately. The result is shown in figure 2. Since the variation of the asymmetry with the center-of-mass energy is consistent with the Standard Model expectation, all asymmetry measurements are corrected to the $`\mathrm{Z}^0`$ pole, corrected for photon radiation and quark mass effects, and combined. The contributing $`A_{\mathrm{F}B}^\mathrm{b}`$ measurements and the derived global value of $`A_{\mathrm{F}B}^{\mathrm{b},0}=0.0995\pm 0.0015\pm 0.0007`$ are shown in figure 3. The average is dominated by the inclusive jet charge analyses from ALEPH, DELPHI and OPAL. For the $`\mathrm{c}`$ asymmetry we find $`A_{\mathrm{F}B}^{\mathrm{c},0}=0.0713\pm 0.0031\pm 0.0018`$. In both cases the first error is statistical, and the second systematic. The common systematic uncertainty is 0.0004 (0.0009) for the $`\mathrm{b}`$ ($`\mathrm{c}`$) asymmetry, resulting mainly from corrections due to gluon radiation.

### 2.4 Standard Model Interpretation

One can go one step further using some results of the heavy flavour electroweak fit described above ($`A_{\mathrm{F}B}^\mathrm{b}`$ and $`A_{\mathrm{F}B}^\mathrm{c}`$), LEP combined measurements of the leptonic forward-backward asymmetry ($`A_{\mathrm{F}B}^\mathrm{l}`$ and $`𝒜_\mathrm{l}(P_\tau )`$) and the SLD $`𝒜_\mathrm{l}`$. Expressing all these quantities in terms of the vector and axial vector couplings of the $`\mathrm{Z}^0`$, $`g_V`$ and $`g_A`$, one can extract the effective electroweak mixing angle for leptons, $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{e}ff}^{\mathrm{l}ept}`$.

As can be seen from figure 4, the resulting single values for this quantity fall roughly in two classes: the leptonic measurements ($`A_{\mathrm{F}B}^\mathrm{l}`$, $`𝒜_\mathrm{l}(P_\tau )`$, $`𝒜_\mathrm{l}(\mathrm{S}LD)`$), which are dominated by the SLD number, tend to be slightly low, whereas the hadronic or inclusive results, in particular for $`A_{\mathrm{F}B}^\mathrm{b}`$, are rather high. The observed discrepancy of 2.9$`\sigma `$ results in a $`\chi ^2`$ of 10.2/5, corresponding to a 7 $`\%`$ probability.

The final $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{e}ff}^{\mathrm{l}ept}`$ value is 0.23148$`\pm `$0.00017, where the uncertainty is dominated by statistics. This combined value of the mixing angle, interpreted in the framework of the Standard Model, prefers a Higgs mass slightly above 100 GeV, whilst the $`A_{\mathrm{F}B}^\mathrm{b}`$ measurements alone suggest a heavier Higgs of about 400 GeV.

## 3 2-Fermion Processes at LEP2

### 3.1 Introduction

The emphasis in measurements of 2-fermion processes at LEP2 is on searching for signs of new physics in the interference of new processes with the off-resonance $`\mathrm{Z}^0/\gamma `$ exchange. There are, however, a few general issues that have to be considered before deriving general results for 2-fermion processes. The most prominent problem is initial state radiation. Electron-positron annihilation events at center-of-mass energies above the $`\mathrm{Z}^0`$ pole tend to radiate an energetic photon in the initial state, forcing the propagator back to the $`\mathrm{Z}^0`$ mass. There is therefore a large contribution to the overall event sample at an effective center-of-mass energy corresponding to the $`\mathrm{Z}^0`$. These events, which do not contain any information not known from LEP1 physics, are rejected using a cut on the effective center-of-mass energy $`\sqrt{s^{}}`$ of the order of 0.85-0.9$`\sqrt{s}`$. In addition to this complication, corrections have to be applied in order to compensate for different signal definitions and different treatments of ISR-FSR interference before the data of different experiments can be combined.

### 3.2 Measurements

The conceptually simplest measurement of 2-fermion processes is clearly that of the total cross-section as a function of the center-of-mass energy $`\sqrt{s}`$. After the above mentioned corrections have been applied, all measurements for quark, $`\mu `$ and $`\tau `$ final states from the four LEP collaborations are combined in a single $`\chi ^2`$ fit to give the average cross-sections (see and the LEP EW 2f subgroup web page for an overview on all measurements used). The results are shown as a function of $`\sqrt{s}`$ in the left part of figure 5. The bottom part of the figure also shows the ratio of the data to the Standard Model expectation, indicating an overall good agreement for the leptonic channels. The hadronic measurements are slightly low (1.7$`\sigma `$). The overall $`\chi ^2`$ is 160/180. The same data are also used for the extraction of the forward-backward asymmetry; the result, again as a function of $`\sqrt{s}`$, is shown in the right half of figure 5. Here, the overall description of all data is satisfactory.

In a next step, differential cross-sections as a function of the scattering angle $`\mathrm{cos}\theta `$ are extracted for all three lepton generations in seven regions of the center-of-mass energy between 189 and 207 GeV. For the $`\mathrm{e}^+e^{}`$ final states, the additional $`t`$ channel contribution which is not present for the other lepton generations leads to a divergence of the cross-section towards $`\mathrm{cos}\theta =1`$. The description of the data is satisfactory, except for the lowest bins for $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ and $`\tau ^+\tau ^{}`$ final states at $`\sqrt{s}=`$ 202 GeV. However, in these bins there are only low statistics, and for all other (lower and higher) energies this feature is not present, see figure 6.

For heavy flavour quarks, the partial decays widths $`R_\mathrm{q}`$=$`\sigma _{\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}}`$/$`\sigma _{\mathrm{h}adrons}`$ and the forward-backward asymmetries are measured separately. For $`R_\mathrm{c}`$, the only measurement is provided by ALEPH. The agreement between data and the ZFITTER Standard Model expectation is acceptable, except perhaps for $`R_\mathrm{b}`$ which tends to be low by about 2$`\sigma `$ over all energies.

### 3.3 Interpretation in Non-standard Models

The data described above are interpreted in several physics models: electron-lepton and lepton-quark contact interactions, $`\mathrm{Z}^{}`$ bosons, and low scale gravity in large extra dimensions.

In the framework of contact interactions it is assumed that LEP2 has sensitivity to additional contributions to the Langragian which are parametrized in the form

$$_{\mathrm{e}ff}=\frac{g^2}{(1+\delta )\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}\underset{i,j=L,R}{}\eta _{ij}\overline{\mathrm{e}}_i\gamma _\mu \mathrm{e}_i\overline{\mathrm{f}}_j\gamma ^\mu \mathrm{f}_j$$
(5)
with a coupling strength $`g`$ for which usually $`g^2/4\pi =1`$ is assumed, with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ as the mass scale of the interaction, and with $`\delta =`$ 1 (0) for $`\mathrm{f}=e`$ ($`\mathrm{f}e`$). Also contained in the formula are the possibilities to define the helicity of the currents ($`L`$, $`R`$) and the sign of the interference of the new physics contributions with the Standard Model processes, $`\eta _{ij}=\pm `$1. For the various models that can be built from this Langrangian, the predictions are fitted to the measured total and/or differential cross-sections and asymmmetries; the fitting parameter is defined as $`ϵ:=1/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2`$. The fitted $`ϵ`$ values are converted into 95$`\%`$ confidence level limits on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ which for all models are larger than 2.1 to 21.7 TeV, depending on the model. It is therefore fair to say that no signs for contact interactions have been found at LEP2. The left part of figure 7 shows an example for the limits in the $`\mu `$ plus $`\tau `$ channel for various models.

$`\mathrm{Z}^{}`$ bosons are an ingredient of several new physics models: In the E6 Grand Unified Theory, the group structure breaks down to the known Standard Model $`SU(3)_c\times SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$, but additional U(1) subgroups are also present which lead to $`\mathrm{Z}^{}`$ bosons. The Sequential Standard Model postulates the existence of a $`\mathrm{Z}^{}`$ boson with the same couplings as the standard $`\mathrm{Z}`$ boson111The mixing between the $`\mathrm{Z}`$ and the $`\mathrm{Z}^{}`$ is found to be consistent with 0, as is expected from LEP1 where no sign of $`\mathrm{Z}^{}`$ was found in the precision measurements of the $`\mathrm{Z}`$.. And in the so-called Left-Right Model, the existence of an additional $`SU(2)_R`$ subgroup would lead to $`\mathrm{Z}^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{W}^\pm `$ bosons. The effect of the $`\mathrm{Z}^{}`$ can be parametrised as a contact term in the cross-section, so that the modified cross-section prediction can be fitted to the data, aiming for the extraction of the mass $`M_\mathrm{Z}^{}`$ of the new boson. Depending on the model considered the derived limit for $`\mathrm{Z}^{}`$ bosons is found to be between 434 and 1787 GeV and therefore beyond the reach of LEP2.

Quantum gravity is a candidate for solving the hierarchy problem, i.e. for providing the missing link between the electroweak scale of order $`𝒪`$(1 TeV) and the Planck scale $`M_{Pl}=10^{16}`$ TeV. Assuming that quantum gravity lives in 4+n dimensions, whereas our Standard Model phenomenology is confined to the usual 3+1 dimensions, it is possible that the 4+n quantum gravity pendant to the Planck scale is of the order of the electroweak scale. This new ‘Planck scale’ $`M_D`$ would be related to the usual Planck scale $`M_{Pl}`$ via

$$M_{Pl}^2=M_D^{2+n}R^n$$
(6)
with $`R`$ the size of the new additional dimensions. The effect of quantum gravity would be the exchange of virtual gravitons, a process which would interfere with the Standard Model $`\mathrm{Z}^0`$ exchange and would thus modify the cross-sections measured at LEP2. The cross-section including the effect of graviton exchange is of the form

$$\frac{d\sigma }{d\mathrm{cos}\theta }=SM+A\frac{\lambda }{M_H^4}+B(\frac{\lambda }{M_H^4})^2$$
(7)
with a Standard Model term, an interference term and a pure new physics term with an amplitude proportional to $`\lambda /M_H^4`$ (for contact interactions the new physics amplitude is proportional to the inverse of the mass scale squared). The parameter $`\lambda `$, which cannot be known without the knowledge of the full quantum gravity theory, is usually set to $`\pm `$1. Then a fit depending on the parameter $`ϵ=\lambda /M_H^4`$ is performed, and a limit on the mass scale $`M_H`$, which is related to the new Planck scale $`M_D`$, can be derived. At the 95$`\%`$ confidence level, $`M_H>`$ 1.20 TeV (1.09 TeV) for $`\lambda =`$ +1 (-1). So also signs of quantum gravity cannot be seen at LEP2. Figure 7, right, shows the ratio of the measured differential $`\mathrm{e}^+e^{}\mathrm{e}^+e^{}`$ cross-section at 207 GeV together with the Standard Model expectation. The data are well compatible with 1. The two model predictions for the virtual graviton exchange with a graviton mass of 1 TeV and $`\lambda =\pm `$1, however, clearly fail to describe the data.

## 4 Conclusions and Outlook

The LEP and SLD heavy flavour electroweak measurements have become very stable over the past few years and are almost all finalized. The interpretation in the electroweak Standard Model leads to an interesting discrepancy of 2.9$`\sigma `$ between hadronic and leptonic measurements of the effective electroweak mixing angle for leptons, $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{e}ff}^{\mathrm{l}ept}`$, which is basically due to a discrepancy between the SLD $`𝒜_\mathrm{l}`$ and the LEP $`A_{\mathrm{F}B}^\mathrm{b}`$ contributions to the average. To discover the origin of this discrepancy will be a task for future colliders.

The measurements of 2-fermion processes at LEP2 energies are in a good overall agreement with the Standard Model expectation. The cross-sections and asymmetries measured by the LEP collaborations are nevertheless used to extract limits on new physics beyond the Standard Model. Models considered include contact interactions, $`\mathrm{Z}^{}`$ bosons, and low scale gravity. No signs of new physics at LEP are observed. The limits for new physics are mostly well above 1 TeV.

## 5 Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the LEP/SLD heavy flavour and 2-fermion electroweak working groups for the results presented in this review. In addition, I would like to thank P. Wells, K. Sachs, R. Hawkings and M. Elsing for their critical reading of this text, and the La Thuile conference organizers for their hospitality.


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# Scaling of the turbulence transition threshold in a pipe

## Abstract

We report the results of an experimental investigation of the transition to turbulence in a pipe over approximately an order of magnitude range in $`Re`$. A novel scaling law is uncovered using a systematic experimental procedure which permits contact to be made with modern theoretical thinking. The principal result we uncover is a scaling law which indicates that the amplitude of perturbation required to cause transition scales as $`O(Re^1)`$.

Pipe flow, stability, transition, turbulence.

The puzzle of why the flow of a fluid along a pipe is typically observed to change from laminar to turbulent as the flow rate is increased has been the outstanding challenge of hydrodynamic stability for more than a century. The issue is both of deep scientific and engineering interest since most pipe flows are turbulent in practice even at modest flow rates. All theoretical work indicates that the flow is linearly stable drazin , i.e infinitessimal disturbances added to the field will decay and disappear as they travel along the pipe and the flow will remain laminar. It is natural to assume that finite amplitude perturbations are therefore responsible for triggering turbulence and these become more important as the non-dimensionalized flow rate, the Reynolds number, $`Re`$, increases kelvin . A question which may be asked is, if $`ϵ=ϵ(Re)`$ denotes the minimal amplitude of all finite perturbations that can trigger transition, and if $`ϵ`$ scales with $`Re`$ according to

$$ϵ=O(Re^\gamma )$$
$`(1)`$
as $`Re\mathrm{}`$, then what is the exponent $`\gamma `$ trefethen ? A negative value of $`\gamma `$ is anticipated and one substantially less than zero would indicate that the sensitivity of the laminar flow increases rapidly with $`Re`$, i.e. the basin of attraction of the laminar fixed point diminishes rapidly as $`Re`$ increases. Current estimates for $`\gamma `$ suggest that for shear flows it lies within the range $`1\gamma 7/4`$ from various model studies eckhardt ; meseguer  and numerical simulations shan  where and exponent strictly less than $`1`$ is required for transient growthwaleffe1 . A significant challenge is to relate this theoretical concept to observation in a quantitative manner although some limited data is available draad . In this Letter we provide evidence from a novel experiment which suggests a way forward and provides striking evidence for an exponent of $`1`$ which points to a generic transition waleffe1 .

The stability of Hagen–Poiseuille flow in a long circular pipe has intrigued scientists for more than a century since Reynolds’ reynolds  experimental investigations. Reynolds showed that when the parameter we now call the Reynolds number $`Re`$ was greater than approximately 2,000 then turbulent flow became the norm in practice. $`Re`$ is usually defined as $`Re=Ud/\nu `$ where $`U`$ is the mean speed of the flow, $`d`$ is the diameter of the pipe and $`\nu `$ is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid. Importantly, he also showed that if the inlet disturbances to the pipe are minimized then laminar flow can be maintained to higher flow rates than if they are not. This finding has been extended in modern times to Reynolds numbers of $`100,000`$ pfenniger  in transient flows by taking extraordinary care.

The process whereby turbulence arises is not understood either in outline or in detail and this problem is an unresolved scientific challenge. Any advance towards an understanding of the fundamentals involved will have widespread impact on flows of practical interest. For example, the flows in oil and gas pipelines are often run inefficiently turbulent to avoid the large pressure fluctuations of the transitional regime. Moreover, the control of turbulence is a dream of many practitioners, just as an understanding of turbulence is the desire of many scientists.

In general terms, pipe flow may be considered as a nonlinear dynamical system $`d𝐮/dt=f(𝐮,Re)`$ which represent the Navier Stokes equations subject to appropriate forcing and boundary conditions. The single parameter $`Re`$, determines the dynamical state of the system such that there is one linearly stable fixed point for all $`Re`$ and another possible attractor, turbulence, when $`Re>Re_c`$. Hence when $`Re<Re_c`$ all initial conditions are attracted to the laminar state which is the global attractor for the system. When $`Re>>Re_c`$ nearly all initial conditions give rise to turbulence so that the laminar state is now a local attractor. In practice, $`Re_c2000`$ so that all disturbances will decay as $`t\mathrm{}`$ for values of $`Re`$ smaller than this.

These arguments are consistent both with Reynolds‘ original observations and modern experimental results wygnanski ; draad ; han ; darbyshire . Almost all experimental studies of the problem have been concerned with pressure gradient driven flows so that large fluctuations in flow rate and hence $`Re`$ can, in principle, occur upon transition. In one exception to this darbyshire  a constant mass flux system is used where the flow is pulled by a piston and this accurately fixes $`Re`$. Impulsive perturbations are used to produce a finite amplitude stability curve such that disturbances with amplitudes greater than a threshold produce turbulence while smaller ones decay downstream. The results are consistent with those obtained with pressure driven systems wygnanski ; draad ; han  so that localized ‘puffs’ and ‘slugs’ are found at low $`Re`$ and fully developed turbulence at larger flow rates.

Modern theoretical research may be broadly split into two approaches. In one, initially small disturbances on the laminar state grow in a transient phase trefethen ; grossman  until they reach a sufficiently large amplitude that nonlinear effects become important. These ideas have been explored for various low–dimensional models bagget  and applied to plane Poiseuille flow chapman  and scaling laws for the amplitude of the perturbation as a function of $`Re`$ have been provided. An alternative point of view waleffe2  is that the turbulent state originates from instabilities of a finite amplitude solution which is disconnected from the base state. The basin of attraction of the turbulent state grows with $`Re`$ so that any small perturbation will kick the laminar solution towards it. Such solutions of the Navier Stokes equations are known to exist in other flows barnes ; dauchot ; anson  but their existence has not yet been shown in pipe flows.

In drawing a connection between experimental observations and predictions from models the concept of a perturbation needs to be defined. In models, the temporal and spatial form of the perturbation can be accurately specified. On the other hand, experimentalists rely on injecting and/or subtracting fluid through slits or holes in an attempt to mimic the mathematical process. The perturbation can be either periodic draad ; han  or impulsive darbyshire  but specifying an essential measure such as the scale of the amplitude is difficult. Indeed, resolving the pertinent part of the physical perturbation which gives rise to transition is in itself a difficult exercise although progress is being made in that direction han . In an attempt to address this issue we have devised a novel type of perturbation which permits a scaling analysis and thereby allows a closer connection to be made with theory.

The experimental system can be regarded as a large computer controlled syringe which has the capability of pulling water at a fixed mass flux along a precision bore tube. We have two such experimental facilities in our laboratory and we will only outline details of the new rig as the first system has been described previouslydarbyshire . The pipe consisted of a 20 mm diameter Perspex tube which was 15.7 m in length and constructed from 105 machined sections each of which was 150mm long. The sections were fitted together and aligned with a laser on a steel base. Still water was drawn from a tank through a trumpet shaped inlet into the tube and a similar expansion connected the 260 mm diameter piston to the tube. The flow state was monitored using flow visualization and recorded at various spatial locations using video cameras whose images were stored for further processing. Laminar flow was achieved for $`Re24,000`$ verifying the quality of the construction. We will only report results for $`Re18,000`$ and the flow was fully developed at the disturbance injection point up to $`Re=16,000`$. A schematic diagram showing the experimental arrangement for the ‘long pipe’ is given in Fig. 1 and the shorter pipe was constructed in a very similar way but was 150 diameters long.

The stability of the flow was probed using a perturbation which was applied a sufficient number of diameters from the inlet to ensure fully developed flow over the $`Re`$ ranges investigated in the two systems. This distance was 75 and 530 pipe diameters for the short and long pipes respectively. A single boxcar pulse of fluid was injected tangentially into the flow via a ring of six equally spaced 0.5 mm holes to provide the disturbance. The injection system contained two high speed solenoid valves with switching times of $`1m\mathrm{s}`$ and the rise and fall times of the perturbation were limited by the inertia of the piston. The quantities of fluid injected were in the range 0.01 to 0.1 % of the total volume flux where the larger values were required to cause transition at smaller $`Re`$. This novel injection system enabled us to vary the duration and amplitude of the perturbation independently. We show in Fig. 2 a typical pressure trace of a perturbation of magnitude $`\mathrm{\Delta }p`$ and width $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$. It can be seen that a reasonable approximation to a box-car function is achieved with relatively small amplitude ringing at the switching times. The pressure was measured at a single location to illustrate the form of the perturbation and measurement of pressure gradient in this format remains a technical challenge. Hence we use the displaced volume flux $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{inj}`$ from the injector in our definition of the amplitude of the perturbation since this sets the spatial extent of the disturbed flow and defining the amplitude in terms of relative volume fluxes enables a direct connection with theory. In principle, the perturbation will have a global effect on the flow field but checks using injection and suction darbyshire  show that it is localized in practice.

As discussed above, this means of injecting a disturbance permits the amplitude and duration of the perturbation to be varied independently. In Fig. 3 we show stability curves for two different values of $`Re`$ where the amplitude of perturbation required to cause transition is plotted as a function of the length of the perturbed flow in pipe diameters. This scale was set by injecting for a prescribed time and, since the disturbed flow was advected at the mean speed of the pipe flow, an estimate of the spatial extent of the perturbation immediately downstream of the injection point was made. This is denoted by length in Fig. 3 and use of this scaling collapses the two sets of data onto a single curve.

Perturbations with amplitudes such that they were below the curve did not cause transition and hence decayed as they propagated downstream. On the other hand, disturbances which had amplitudes above the curve gave rise to sustained disordered flow downstream which had the form of a localized ‘puff’ wygnanski  at $`Re=2170`$ or a patch of turbulence at $`Re=4000`$. As discussed elsewhere darbyshire , the threshold is probabilistic so that a mean value can be estimated with a narrow well-defined width. These are denoted by the error bars in Fig. 3 which indicate the width of the experimentally determined probability distribution of the transition obtained from forty rehearsals of the experiment.

The data in Fig. 3 also shows that the amplitude of perturbation required for transition is independent of its length when more than six pipe diameters are initially disturbed. Shorter length perturbations result in a nonlinear response and these results are in accord with previous work darbyshire  where a short triangular form perturbation was used.

We reinforce the above scaling argument with the results shown in Fig. 4 which contain data in the range $`2,000Re5,500`$ where $`95\%`$ fully developed flow was achieved with the shorter pipe. Three stability curves are presented and these will now be discussed in turn. In the first, a short, 0.2s., duration pulse was used and this corresponds to a disturbance length of one pipe diameter at $`Re=2,000`$. This exhibits nonlinear behavior such that a rapidly increasing perturbation amplitude is required to cause transition as $`Re=2,000`$ is approached. The data are in agreement with those obtained in previous experiments darbyshire . In the next, a long duration (1.8s.) pulse was used and this corresponds to perturbing nine pipe diameters at $`Re=2,000`$. Here, the independence of the amplitude of perturbation required to cause transition discussed in connection with Fig. 3 for lengths $`6D`$ is confirmed. In this case, independence has been uncovered over a range of $`Re`$. The final data set was obtained by varying duration of the pulse in proportion to the mean flow such that the length of the flow field which was initially disturbed was kept constant at $`2.25`$ pipe diameters. This corresponds to a perturbation of width 0.45s. at $`Re=2,000`$. The data reinforces that scaling of the perturbation by the mean flow is valid. An alternative way of viewing this data set is to consider it as a sampled set from a horizontal cut taken through a family of parallel stability curves, one for each value of the $`Re`$ set in the experiment.

It is clear that the two level thresholds cannot continue much below $`Re=2,000`$ since experimental evidence suggests that turbulent flow cannot be maintained below this value wygnanski ; darbyshire . It is equally unlikely that the locus will simply come to an end in parameter space. In this region, we observe the transient growth of puffs which can persist for many tens of pipe diameters. This interesting behavior will take considerable experimental effort to resolve and is the subject of an ongoing investigation.

An appropriate scaling of the amplitude of the perturbation is the relative mass flux of the perturbation to that in the pipe. Clearly, doing this for the two horizontal loci in Fig. 4 will produce a proportionality of the form $`O(Re^1)`$. We next present results from the long pipe in Fig. 5 where we were able to test this finding over an order of magnitude range of $`Re`$. Here we used a perturbation of $`1.8s`$ duration and find the same $`O(Re^1)`$ scaling.

Our investigation has shown that the amplitude required for transition in a pipe is constant for a sufficiently long perturbation. Shorter perturbations show nonlinear dependence but, these may be scaled with $`Re`$ so that the amplitude of perturbation required for transition has a $`Re^1`$ dependence. This is agreement with recent theoretical estimates for asymptotically large $`Re`$ jc  which indicates that the theory may apply over a surprisingly large range of $`Re`$. Hence we provide an advance towards forming a closer connection between modern theoretical approaches and experiment.


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# References

MASS OF THE NEUTRINO AND ITS CHARGE

Rasulkhozha S. Sharafiddinov

Institute of Nuclear Physics, Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences, Tashkent, 702132 Ulugbek, Uzbekistan

Both electron and its neutrino possess not only the anomalous magnetic moment but each of existing types of the electric charges and their dipole moments. Any of them can interact with field of emission leading to the elastic scattering on a spinless nucleus. We list some implications implied from the analysis of these phenomena in the case of one - photon exchange. The processes cross sections give the possibility to establish the individual as well as the united equation between the Dirac and the Pauli form factors of light leptons. They define the electronic neutrino electric charge as a consequence of the availability of a kind of mass.

In many works a question about the neutrino with a non - zero rest mass was investigated. Analysis of existing experiments assumed  that a massive Dirac neutrino must have not only the magnetic moment  but also the electric charge. Such a conclusion one can make by following the behavior of the neutrino in the nucleus field. From this point of view, the spin phenomena  may become highly useful.

In a given work the elastic scattering of electrons and their neutrinos on a spinless nucleus have been considered at the account of fermions charge and magnetic moment interactions with field of emission of virtual photons. Starting from the processes cross sections equality for longitudinal polarized and unpolarized particles, it is shown that if the neutrino corresponds to the electron $`(\nu =\nu _e),`$ between the Dirac and the Pauli form factors of the neutrino and electron there exists the individual as well as the united dependence. They state that the four - component neutrino possesses both normal and anomalous electric charges. Herewith its full electric charge has the size

$$e_\nu =\frac{3eG_Fm_\nu ^2}{4\pi ^2\sqrt{2}},e=\left|e\right|.$$
(1)
Such a regularity, however, meets with many problems which give the possibility to make the most diverse predictions. The treatment of any of them would bring us too far and all they therefore will require the more detailed description. But here we can add the following.

Using (1) for the neutrino  with mass $`m_\nu =10\mathrm{eV}`$ and taking into account  that $`G_F=1.1663710^5\mathrm{GeV}^2,`$ we find

$$e_\nu =6.26710^{25}\left(\frac{m_\nu }{1\mathrm{eV}}\right)^2\mathrm{e}=6.2710^{23}\mathrm{e}.$$
(2)
Earlier laboratory facts and conservation of charge in neutron decay define the upper limit  equal to $`e_\nu <410^{17}\mathrm{e}.`$ Refinement of each of the electric charges of the neutron, proton and electron allows to conclude  that $`e_\nu <10^{21}\mathrm{e}.`$ Analysis of elastic $`\overline{\nu _e}e`$ scattering experiment  assumed  that $`e_\nu <2.710^{10}\mathrm{e}.`$ Cosmological considerations for the neutrino charge lead to the estimate  of $`e_\nu <10^{17}\mathrm{e}.`$

We recognize that (2) violates the charge conservation law. There are many uncertainties both in the nature and in the size of the neutrino mass. Another reason of inconsistency is the absence of quality picture of $`\beta `$ decay processes. Nevertheless, if we suppose  that $`e_\nu <10^{21}\mathrm{e}`$ then taking (1), it is not difficult to establish the theoretical bound on the neutrino mass: $`m_\nu <40\mathrm{eV}.`$ It is compatible with that following from the experiment : $`14\mathrm{eV}<m_\nu <46\mathrm{eV}.`$

Basing on the analysis of evolution of the Universe, it was found  that $`m_\nu <0.3\mathrm{eV}.`$ Insertion of this value in (1) gives $`e_\nu <5.6410^{26}\mathrm{e}.`$

Having the formula (1) and by following the fact that the force of the Newton attraction between the two neutrinos is less than the force of their Coulomb repulsion, we get the following estimates of

$$m_\nu >\frac{4\pi ^2\sqrt{2}}{3G_F}\left(\frac{G_N}{\alpha }\right)^{1/2}=1.5310^3\mathrm{eV},$$
(3)
$$e_\nu >\frac{4\pi ^2\sqrt{2}}{3G_F}\left(\frac{G_N}{\alpha }\right)\mathrm{e}=1.4610^{30}\mathrm{e},$$
(4)
where $`G_N`$ is the constant of gravitational emission.

Of course, such a definition of values of (3) and (4) is not very standard. At the same time the existing laboratory bounds may serve as further confirmations of our earlier findings. Insofar as the discrepancy is concerned, it reflects just many properties of a certain latent regularity of general picture of massive neutrinos.

In the framework of the loop phenomena, the neutrino must be electrically neutral  at the condition of gauge invariance. It appears that here on the basis of (1) one can will decide a question about the equality of the neutrino physical mass to zero. But we can say that a non - zero interaction of Pauli arises at the expense of usual Dirac interaction. Thus, the neutrality of the neutrino in the loop approximation one must interpret as an indication to the new structure of electromagnetic gauge invariance.