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# Combined first–principles calculation and neural–network correction approach as a powerful tool in computational physics and chemistry

(; submitted to Phys. Rev. Lett.)

## Abstract

Despite of their success, the results of first-principles quantum mechanical calculations contain inherent numerical errors caused by various approximations. We propose here a neural-network algorithm to greatly reduce these inherent errors. As a demonstration, this combined quantum mechanical calculation and neural-network correction approach is applied to the evaluation of standard heat of formation $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and standard Gibbs energy of formation $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ for 180 organic molecules at 298 K. A dramatic reduction of numerical errors is clearly shown with systematic deviations being eliminated. For examples, the root–mean–square deviation of the calculated $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$) for the 180 molecules is reduced from 21.4 (22.3) kcal$``$mol-1 to 3.1 (3.3) kcal$``$mol-1 for B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) and from 12.0 (12.9) kcal$``$mol-1 to 3.3 (3.4) kcal$``$mol-1 for B3LYP/6-311+G(3df,2p) before and after the neural-network correction.

One of the Holy Grails of computational science is to quantitatively predict properties of matters prior to experiments. Despite the facts that the first-principles quantum mechanical calculation wtyang ; schaefer  has become an indispensable research tool and experimentalists have been increasingly relying on computational results to interpret their experimental findings, the practically used numerical methods by far are often not accurate enough, in particular, for complex systems. This limitation is caused by the inherent approximations adopted in the first-principles methods. Because of computational cost, electron correlation has always been a difficult obstacle for first-principles calculations. Finite basis sets chosen in practical computations are not able to cover entire physical space and this inadequacy introduces further inherent computational errors. Effective core potential is frequently used to approximate the relativistic effects, resulting inevitably in errors for systems that contain heavy atoms. The accuracy of a density-functional theory (DFT) calculation is mainly determined by the exchange-correlation (XC) functional being employed wtyang , whose exact form is however unknown. Nevertheless, the results of first-principles quantum mechanical calculation can capture the essence of physics. For instance, the calculated results, despite that their absolute values may poorly agree with measurements, are usually of the same tendency among different molecules as their experimental counterpart. The quantitative discrepancy between the calculated and experimental results depends predominantly on the property of primary interest and, to a less extent, also on other related properties, of the material. There exists thus a sort of quantitative relation between the calculated and experimental results, as the aforementioned approximations, to a large extent, contribute to the systematic errors of specified first-principles methods. Can we develop general ways to eliminate the systematic computational errors and further to quantify the accuracies of numerical methods used? It has been proven an extremely difficult task to determine the calculation errors from the first-principles. Alternatives must be sought.

We propose here a neural–network algorithm to determine the quantitative relationship between the experimental data and the first-principles calculation results. The determined relation will subsequently be used to eliminate the systematic deviations of the calculated results, and thus, reduce the numerical uncertainties. Since its beginning in the late fifties, Neural Networks has been applied to various engineering problems, such as robotics, pattern recognition, speech, and etc. PRNN ; nature533  As the first application of Neural Networks to quantum mechanical calculations of molecules, we choose the standard heat of formation $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and standard Gibbs energy of formation $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ at 298.15 K as the properties of interest.

A total of 180 small- or medium-sized organic molecules, whose $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ values are well documented in Refs. McGraw, ; crchandbook, ; thermodata, , are selected to test our proposed approach. The tabulated values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ in the three references differ less than 1.0 kcal$``$mol-1 for same molecule. The uncertainties of all $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ values are less than 1.0 kcal$``$mol-1, while those of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$s are not reported in Refs. McGraw, ; crchandbook, ; thermodata, . These selected molecules contain elements such as H, C, N, O, F, Si, S, Cl and Br. The heaviest molecule contains 14 heavy atoms, and the largest has 32 atoms. We divide these molecules randomly into the training set (150 molecules) and the testing set (30 molecules). The geometries of 180 molecules are optimized via B3LYP/6-311+G(d,pg98  calculations and the zero point energies (ZPEs) are calculated at the same level. The enthalpy and Gibbs energy of each molecule are calculated at both B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) and B3LYP/6-311+G(3df,2p). g98  B3LYP/6-311+G(3df,2p) employs a larger basis set than B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p). The unscaled B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) ZPE is employed in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ calculations. The strategies in reference jcp97g2,  are adopted to calculate $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$. The calculated $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ for B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) and B3LYP/6-311+G(3df,2p) are compared to their experimental counterparts in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. The horizontal coordinates are the raw calculated data, and the vertical coordinates are the experimental values. The dashed lines are where the vertical and horizontal coordinates are equal, i.e., where the B3LYP calculations and experiments would have the perfect match. The raw calculation values are mostly below the dashed line, i.e., most raw $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ are larger than the experimental data. In another word, there are systematic deviations for both B3LYP $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$. Compared to the experimental measurements, the root–mean–square (RMS) deviations for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$) are 21.4 (22.3) and 12.0 (12.9) kcal$``$mol-1 for B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) and B3LYP/6-311+G(3df,2p) calculations, respectively. In Table 1 we compare the B3LYP and experimental $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$s for 10 of 180 molecules. Overall, B3LYP/6-311+G(3df,2p) calculations yield better agreements with the experiments than B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p). In particular, for small molecules with few heavy elements B3LYP/6-311+G(3df,2p) calculations result in very small deviations from the experiments. For instance, the $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ deviations for CH4 and CS2 are only -0.5 and 0.6 kcal$``$mol-1, respectively. Our B3LYP/6-311+G(3df,2p) calculation results are also in good agreements with those of reference jcp97g2,  which employed a similar calculation strategy except that their ZPEs were scaled by a factor of 0.98 or 0.96 and their geometries were optimized at B3LYP/6-31+G(d). For large molecules, both B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) and B3LYP/6-311+G(3df,2p) calculations yield quite large deviations from their experimental counterparts.

Our neural network adopts a three-layer architecture which has an input layer consisted of input from the physical descriptors and a bias, a hidden layer containing a number of hidden neurons, and an output layer that outputs the corrected values for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ or $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ (see Fig. 3). The number of hidden neurons is to be determined. The most important issue is to select the proper physical descriptors of our molecules, which are to be used as the input for our neural network. The calculated $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ contain the essence of exact $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$, respectively, and are thus obvious choices of the primary descriptor for correcting $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$, respectively. We observe that the size of a molecule affects the accuracies of calculations. The more atoms a molecule has, the worse the calculated $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ are. This is consistent with the general observations in the field. jcp97g2  The total number of atoms $`N_t`$ in a molecule is thus chosen as the second descriptor for the molecule. ZPE is an important parameter in calculating $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$. Its calculated value is often scaled in evaluating $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$jcp97g2  and it is thus taken as the third physical descriptor. Finally, the number of double bonds, $`N_{db}`$, is selected as the fourth and last descriptor to reflect the chemical structure of the molecule.

To ensure the quality of our neural network, a cross-validation procedure is employed to determine our neural network. rbfnn  We divide further randomly 150 training molecules into five subsets of equal size. Four of them are used to train the neural network, and the fifth to validate its predictions. This procedure is repeated 5 times in rotation. The number of neurons in the hidden layer is varied from 2 to 10 to decide the optimal structure of our neural network. We find that the hidden layer containing two neurons yields best overall results. Therefore, the 5-2-1 structure is adopted for our neural network as depicted in Fig. 3. The input values at the input layer, $`x_1`$, $`x_2`$, $`x_3`$, $`x_4`$ and $`x_5`$, are scaled $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ (or $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$), $`N_t`$, ZPE, $`N_{db}`$ and bias, respectively. The bias $`x_5`$ is set to 1. The weights $`\{Wx_{ij}\}`$s connect the input layer $`\{x_i\}`$ and the hidden neurons $`y_1`$ and $`y_2`$, and $`\{Wy_j\}`$s connect the hidden neurons and the output Z which is the scaled $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ or $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ upon neural-network correction. The output Z is related to the input $`\{x_i\}`$ as

$`Z={\displaystyle \underset{j=1,2}{}}Wy_jSig({\displaystyle \underset{i=1,5}{}}Wx_{ij}x_i),`$ (1)
where $`Sig(v)=\frac{1}{1+exp(\alpha v)}`$ and $`\alpha `$ is a parameter that controls the switch steepness of Sigmoidal function $`Sig(v)`$. An error back-propagation learning procedure nature533  is used to optimize the values of $`Wx_{ij}`$ and $`Wy_j`$($`i=1,2,3,4,5`$ and $`j=1,2`$). In Figs. 1c, 1d, 2c and 2d, the triangles belong to the training set and the crosses to the testing set. Compared to the raw calculated results, the neural-network corrected values are much closer to the experimental values for both training and testing sets. More importantly, the systematic deviations for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ in Figs. 1a, 1b, 2a and 2b are eliminated, and the resulting numerical deviations are reduced substantially. This can be further demonstrated by the error analysis performed for the raw and neural-network corrected $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$s and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$s of all 180 molecules. In the inserts of Figs. 1 and 2, we plot the histograms for the deviations (from the experiments) of the raw B3LYP $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$s and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$s and their neural–network corrected values. Obviously, the raw calculated $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$s and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$s have large systematic deviations while the neural–network corrected $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$s and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$s have virtually no systematic deviations. Moreover, the remaining numerical deviations are much smaller. Upon the neural-network corrections, the RMS deviations of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$s ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$s) are reduced from 21.4 (22.3) kcal$``$mol-1 to 3.1 (3.3) kcal$``$mol-1 and 12.0 (12.9) kcal$``$mol-1 to 3.3 (3.4) kcal$``$mol-1 for B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) and B3LYP/6-311+G(3df,2p), respectively. Note that the error distributions after the neural–network correction are of approximate Gaussian distributions (see Figs. 2c and 2d). Although the raw B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) results have much larger deviations than those of B3LYP/6-311+G(3df, 2p), the neural–network corrected values of both calculations have deviations of the same magnitude. This implies that it is sufficient to employ the smaller basis set 6-311+G(d,p) in our combined DFT calculation and neural–network correction (or DFT-NEURON) approach. The neural–network algorithm can correct easily the deficiency of a small basis set. Therefore, the DFT-NEURON approach can potentially be applied to much larger systems. In Table 1 we also list the neural–network corrected $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$s of the 10 molecules. The deviations of large molecules are of the same magnitude as those of small molecules. Unlike other quantum mechanical calculations that usually yield worse results for larger molecules than for small ones, the DFT-NEURON approach does not discriminate against the large molecules.

Analysis of our neural network reveals that the weights connecting the input for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ or $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ have the dominant contribution in all cases. This confirms our fundamental assumption that the calculated $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$) captures the essential values of exact $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$). The input for the second physical descriptor, $`N_t`$, has quite large weights in all cases. In particular, when the smaller basis set 6-311+G(d,p) is adopted in the B3LYP calculations, $`N_t`$ has the second largest weights. It is found that the raw $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$ deviations are roughly proportional to $`N_t`$, which confirms the importance of $`N_t`$ as a significant descriptor of our neural network. The bias contributes to the correction of systematic deviations in the raw calculated data, and has thus significant weights. When the larger basis set 6-311+G(3df,2p) is used, the bias has the second largest weights for all cases. ZPE has been often scaled to account for the discrepancies of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$s or $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$s between calculations and experiments, jcp97g2  and it is thus expected to have large weights. This is indeed the case, especially when the smaller basis set 6-311+G(d,p) is adopted in calculations. In all cases the number of double bonds, $`N_{db}`$, has the smallest but non-negligible weights. In Table 2 we list the values of $`\{Wx_{ij}\}`$ and $`\{Wy_j\}`$ of the two neural networks for correcting $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$s of B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) and B3LYP/6-311+G(3df,2p) calculations.

Our DFT-NEURON approach has a RMS deviation of $``$3 kcal$``$mol-1 for the 180 small- to medium-sized organic molecules. This is slightly larger than their experimental uncertainties. McGraw ; crchandbook ; thermodata  The physical descriptors adopted in our neural network, the raw calculated $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ or $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$, the number of atoms $`N_t`$, the number of double bonds $`N_{db}`$ and the ZPE are quite general, and are not limited to special properties of organic molecules. The DFT-NEURON approach developed here is expected to yield a RMS deviation of $``$3 kcal$``$mol-1 for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$s and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$s of any small- to medium-sized organic molecules. G2 method jcp97g2  results are more accurate for small molecules. However, our approach is much more efficient and can be applied to much larger systems. To improve the accuracy of the DFT-NEURON approach, we need more and better experimental data, and possibly, more and better physical descriptors for the molecules. Besides $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}H^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{f}G^{}`$, the DFT-NEURON approach can be generalized to calculate other properties such as ionization energy, dissociation energy, absorption frequency, band gap and etc. The raw first-principles calculation property of interest contains its essential value, and is thus always the primary descriptor. Since the raw calculation error accumulates as the molecular size increases, the number of atoms $`N_t`$ should thus be selected as a descriptor for any DFT-NEURON calculations. Additional physical descriptors should be chosen according to their relations to the property of interest and to the physical and chemical structures of the compounds. Others have used Neural Networks to determine the quantitative relationship between the experimental thermodynamic properties and the structure parameters of the molecules. rbfnn  We distinct our work from others by utilizing specifically the first-principles methods and with the objective to improve quantum mechanical results. Since the first-principles calculations capture readily the essences of the properties of interest, our approach is more reliable and covers much a wider range of molecules or compounds.

To summarize, we have developed a promising new approach to improve the results of first-principles quantum mechanical calculations and to calibrate their uncertainties. The accuracy of DFT-NEURON approach can be systematically improved as more and better experimental data are available. As the systematic deviations caused by small basis sets and less sophisticated methods adopted in the calculations can be easily corrected by Neural Networks, the requirements on first-principles calculations are modest. Our approach is thus highly efficient compared to much more sophisticated first-principles methods of similar accuracy, and more importantly, is expected to be applied to much larger systems. The combined first-principles calculation and neural-network correction approach developed in this work is potentially a powerful tool in computational physics and chemistry, and may open the possibility for first-principles methods to be employed practically as predictive tools in materials research and design.

We thank Prof. YiJing Yan for extensive discussion on the subject and generous help in manuscript preparation. Support from the Hong Kong Research Grant Council (RGC) and the Committee for Research and Conference Grants (CRCG) of the University of Hong Kong is gratefully acknowledged.


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# Dwarf Nova Oscillations and Quasi-Periodic Oscillations in Cataclysmic Variables: III. A New Kind of Dwarf Nova Oscillation, and Further Examples of the Similarities to X-Ray Binaries.

## 1 Introduction

Dwarf nova oscillations (DNOs) and quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) in cataclysmic variables (CVs) have been observed for thirty years – the DNOs were discovered in 1972 (Warner & Robinson 1972), the QPOs were first recognised in 1977 (Patterson, Robinson & Nather 1977) and were found to be clearly discernable in some earlier light curves.

The accumulated observations of DNOs and QPOs have been listed in Warner (1995a) and discussed there and in the first two papers of this series (Woudt & Warner 2002: Paper I; Warner & Woudt 2002a: Paper II; see also Warner & Woudt 2002b, 2003). The observations of VW Hyi presented and analysed in Paper I, and the discussion given in Paper II, led to the realization that in that star the period ratio $`R`$ = $`P_{QPO}`$/$`P_{DNO}`$ remains approximately constant at a value $``$ 15 during the rapid increases in these periods seen near the end of VW Hyi outbursts. We pointed out that not only is $`R`$ similar to that found for the high and low frequency QPOs observed in X-Ray binaries (Psaltis, Belloni & van der Klis 1999), the VW Hyi relationship in fact appears to be an extension of the X-Ray binary correlation to frequencies two orders of magnitude lower.

Subsequently, Mauche (2002) discovered that DNOs and QPOs observed in the EUV and soft X-Ray regions during an outburst of the dwarf nova SS Cyg have $`R`$ $``$ 12, and the DNO periods ($``$ 8 s) place them between VW Hyi and the X-Ray binaries in the two-QPO correlation diagram. This greatly strengthened the evidence for the existence of a general relation between high and low frequency QPOs in all of these interacting binaries, irrespective of whether the primary is a black hole, neutron star or white dwarf. In CVs the DNOs are the analogues of the high frequency X-Ray binary QPOs, and the CV’s QPOs are the analogues of the low frequency X-Ray QPOs.

In this paper we will be largely interested in presenting new observations of DNOs and QPOs in CVs, and in reinterpreting previously published observations. A complication that arises is that both DNOs and QPOs can show frequency doubling, and these can happen independently of each other (Warner & Woudt, in preparation). This may change the measured value of $`R`$ by a factor of 2 in some cases. QPOs are far less coherent and persistent than DNOs. It is commonly observed that a train of 5 to 10 moderately coherent QPO cycles is clearly visible, before changing in phase or disappearing altogether.

We first indicate some of the theoretical work that appears relevant to understanding the nature of the rapid oscillations in interacting binaries.

That DNOs are signatures of magnetically controlled accretion onto the equatorial belt of the white dwarf primaries of CVs was proposed by Paczynski (1978), made more quantitative by Warner (1995b) and elaborated in Paper II as the Low Inertia Magnetic Accretor (LIMA) model. The last also develops the idea that QPOs may be caused by prograde travelling waves near the inner edge of the magnetically truncated accretion discs. A simple excitation mechanism, involving magnetic reconnection, leads to the expectation that $`R\mathrm{\Omega }_k/\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }(1\omega _s)^1`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_k`$ is the Keplerian frequency in the disc near the corotation radius $`r_{co}`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }=\mathrm{\Omega }_k\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{max}}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{max}}`$ is the maximum angular frequency in the transition zone between $`r_{co}`$ and the inner edge of the disc, and $`\omega _s`$ is the ‘fastness parameter’ defined by Ghosh & Lamb (1979).

A somewhat different physical interpretation is that QPOs are modulations in the rate of mass transfer onto the primary. This concept is used in QPOs of the luminosities of young stars, where the QPOs are envisaged as magnetospheric radial oscillations, caused by field winding and reconnecting, as in the above proposed model for CVs. The radial oscillations produce quasi-periodic modulation of the mass transfer rate, and a typical model has $`R100/2\pi `$ (Goodson & Winglee 1999).

Returning to interacting binaries, in a study of field winding, inflation and reconnection in the region connecting the inner disc to the primary, Uzdensky (2002) concludes that quasi-periodic oscillations should occur. Such QPOs could cause mass transfer modulation and/or travelling waves. Titarchuk & Wood (2002) interpret the whole range of the two-QPO correlation as evidence for magnetoacoustic oscillations in the transition zone, driven by the adjustment to sub-Keplerian flow.

The next two sections of this paper are devoted to accumulating values of $`P_{DNO}`$ and $`P_{QPO}`$ and the resulting estimates of $`R`$: In Section 2 we examine published papers in order to extract values of $`R`$; in Section 3 we describe new photometric observations of CVs that lead to further determinations of $`R`$. In Section 4 we draw attention to a new type of DNO that is occasionally seen, which could be confused with the standard DNOs, and in Section 5 we compare the DNOs and QPOs in CVs with the two-QPO correlation and other properties of X-Ray binaries. Section 6 contains a final discussion and assessment.

## 2 Published observations of DNOs and QPOs

The values of $`R`$, their possible variation for any given star, and their range from star to star, have not previously been given much attention, but in the light of the newly discovered possible connection between CV and X-Ray QPOs these ratios are of great interest. In this Section we examine the published studies of CVs with this in mind. Ideally, we would prefer light curves where both DNOs and QPOs are present simultaneously. However, largely through the lower interest in QPOs in the past, DNO periods are often the only ones quoted. We can expand the list of useful results by including observations of ‘double’ DNOs, making use of the conclusion (Papers I and II) that in at least some CVs (VW Hyi, WZ Sge) the QPO frequency is the difference (i.e. beat) frequency of the two DNOs. The true DNO is the shorter of the two periods; the longer period is the result of reprocessing of the DNO by the travelling wave that is thought to produce the QPO (Paper II). By using the beat frequency we in effect generate a ‘pseudo’ QPO; this may not be visible directly in the light curve because the travelling wave may happen not to intercept our line of sight, but its presence is indirectly observed by the shielding and reprocessing effects it has on the disc, which generate the double DNO.

### 2.1 RU Peg

The CV in which QPOs were first noticed was the dwarf nova RU Peg. Patterson et al. (1977) found $``$ 50 s oscillations clearly discernable in the light curve which, because of their low coherence, were transformed into a barely significant broad and noisy band of power in the Fourier transform (FT). The QPOs were present during all five nights of the November 1975 outburst. In addition, on four of the nights more stable oscillations, characteristic of DNOs, were seen in the FTs at periods near 11.6 s but with unusually small amplitudes $``$ 0.6 mmag (millimagnitudes).

The value of $`R`$ for RU Peg, using the above numbers, is $``$ 4.5. This is so far removed from the value $``$ 15 that we see in VW Hyi and the X-Ray binaries that it would seem that the QPO ‘type star’ itself is highly anomalous. However, the following reasoning leads to a different conclusion. The QPOs at $``$ 50 s are clearly present; taking these as the starting point we could look for DNOs at a period $``$ 50/15 $``$ 3.3 s. The integration time used by Patterson et al. was 4 s, so the ‘predicted’ DNOs are above their Nyquist frequency. However, if a $``$ 3.3 s signal were actually present in the RU Peg light curve, it could show up at the beat frequency between $``$ 3.3 s and 4 s. This is of the order of the period of the DNOs actually observed in RU Peg. The relatively long integration time resulted in a reduction of amplitude by a factor of $`\mathrm{sin}x/x`$, where $`x=\pi \delta t/P_{DNO}`$ and $`\delta t`$ is the integration time. Thus the true DNO amplitude in RU Peg would be a factor 4.7 larger, or 2.8 mmag, which is more in line with what is commonly observed in dwarf novae near maximum of outburst.

The value of the ratio $`R`$ for RU Peg, deduced from the posited DNO period (at 2.97 s – the alias of 11.6 s) and the QPO period, is 16.8.

A few years ago DNOs at $``$ 3 s would have seemed unlikely or impossible. But the observation of $``$ 3 s DNOs in the EUV and X-Ray regions of SS Cyg during outburst (Mauche 1998; van Teeseling 1997) should remove that prejudice. In SS Cyg the DNOs had undergone a sudden frequency doubling, and it is possible that the same happened in RU Peg. We note that DNOs are associated with the Keplerian period close to the primary, and that it requires large masses to produce these short periods. The mass of the white dwarf in SS Cyg is indeed quite large – 1.20 M according to Robinson, Zhang & Stover (1986) – and the mass of the primary in RU Peg is 1.38 M (Friend et al. 1990).

It is possible that the 11.6 s oscillation is an example of the lpDNOs discussed in Section 4 of this paper. But the implication would be that any true DNO would appear at $``$ 3 s, which does not change the implied value of $`R`$.

### 2.2 V3885 Sgr

Hesser, Lasker & Osmer (1974) observed 29.08 s and 30.15 s DNOs in the nova-like V3885 Sgr. No QPOs were commented on, so we use the estimate $`P_{QPO}`$ = 819 s from the beat period, to deduce $`R`$ = 28.2.

### 2.3 WZ Sge

The 27.87 s and 28.95 s DNOs and the 742 s QPO seen in the light curve of WZ Sge (they are intermittently present outside of outburst: these are described in Paper II), lead to $`R`$ = 26.6.

### 2.4 SS Cyg

The EUVE observations of SS Cyg in outburst by Mauche (2002) give a DNO period of 7.7 s and a QPO period of 83 s; his soft X-Ray (Chandra) observations give DNOs at 9.1 s and a QPO at 111 s. From his analysis, Mauche finds $`R`$ = 10.4 and $`R`$ = 11.4 respectively.

### 2.5 V436 Cen

The outburst light curve in which DNOs were detected with an average period of 19.6 s (Warner 1975) has been further analysed and we find strong QPOs with $`P_{QPO}`$ $``$ 475 s. This gives $`R`$ $``$ 24. Also, in one section of the light curve obtained on 11 June 1975 there is a double DNO with periods 19.45 s and 20.20 s (and a QPO at $``$ 500 s was visible at this time). Using the double DNO we get $`R`$ = 26.

### 2.6 V2051 Oph

DNOs at 56.12 s, 28.06 s and 29.77 s during the late decline phase of a dwarf nova outburst were found in V2051 Oph by Steeghs et al. (2001), and they observed the beat at 486 s. This gives $`R`$ = 17.3.

### 2.7 UX UMa

Warner & Nather (1972) and Nather & Robinson (1974) found DNOs in the nova-like UX UMa, with periods near 29 s. As pointed out in Paper II, the O – C diagram shown by Nather & Robinson contains $``$ 650 s QPOs in it. These give $`R22`$.

### 2.8 IX Vel

The bright nova-like IX Vel frequently has DNOs over the range 24.6 – 29.1 s (Warner, O’Donoghue & Allen 1985). Williams & Hiltner (1984) made an autocorrelation analysis of extensive high speed photometry and found evidence for the presence of a persistent $``$ 500 s time scale. The latter is probably caused by QPOs, which give $`R18`$.

### 2.9 TY PsA

Light curves of TY PsA during outburst have shown strong DNOs near 27 s (Warner, O’Donoghue & Wargau 1989). During one run late on the descending branch of the outburst QPOs at 245 s were also present. Formally this gives $`R9`$, but it is possible that frequency doubling of the QPO had taken place.

### 2.10 GK Per

GK Per is a particularly interesting object as it is an old nova that now shows dwarf nova outbursts. Furthermore, it has a clear 351 s primary spin period, $`P_{spin}`$, detected in X-Rays (Watson, King & Osborne 1985), which shows up as $``$ 380 – 440 s QPOs (which, for sake of consistency, we here call DNOs) after optical processing from some part of the accretion disc (Patterson 1981; Nogami, Kato & Baba 2002). It also has longer period QPOs, around 5000 s, seen in X-Rays (Watson et al. 1985) and in the optical – both in the continuum (Nogami et al. 2002) and in emission lines (Morales-Rueda, Still & Roche 1996, 1999; hereafter MSR).

Two very important conclusions are arrived at by MSR: first, that the optical modulation can be interpreted as variable radiation of the entire disc, from the ‘QPO radius’ outwards, caused by the obscuration of the X-Ray illuminating source by a blob at the QPO radius in the inner disc; and second, that the QPOs arise from beating between more typical DNOs and the magnetic accretion curtain spinning with the white dwarf (as proposed by Watson et al. 1985). Both of these proposed structures are very similar to the LIMA model presented for DNOs and QPOs in Paper II, but with the difference that in GK Per the field of the white dwarf is high enough to prevent slippage of the accreting equatorial belt relative to the interior. That is, GK Per is a standard intermediate polar (IP), with the high inertia of the entire primary receiving the accretion torque. Nogami et al. (2002) conclude that the unstable optical DNOs are probably the 351 s (constant period) rotating beam being reprocessed off the (varying period) QPO source, which in the LIMA model is a slow travelling wave moving progradely near the inner edge of the truncated disc.

We feel it is appropriate, therefore, to include GK Per in the inventory of CVs possessing both DNOs and QPOs, and deduce that $`R5000/380=13.2`$.

As pointed out in Paper II, in general it will be difficult to detect QPOs in the common IPs (with spin periods $``$ 1000 s), because 1000 s $`\times `$ $`R`$ $``$ 4 h is comparable to their orbital periods ($`P_{orb}`$)111More generally, as pointed out by Barrett, O’Donoghue & Warner (1988), the most frequent kind of IP has $`P_{orb}14P_{spin}`$, which we see results in $`P_{QPO}P_{orb}`$. There is no obvious physical reason for this coincidence., and a QPO signal would then need very long observational runs to distinguish it from orbital modulation. In GK Per, which has $`P_{orb}`$ = 2 d, no such confusion arises.

### 2.11 RX And

Szkody (1976) found 35.7 s DNOs about 1 mag down from the peak of an outburst. In the light curve there is some weak evidence for QPOs with a period $``$ 17 min (see Figure 2 of Szkody (1976)), which gives $`R28`$.

### 2.12 SW UMa

Robinson et al (1987) found DNOs with periods near 22.3 s on several nights during the middle and late phases of the superoutburst of SW UMa in March 1986. In addition they found QPOs with periods near 300 s. In the March 1992 superoutburst, a few days after maximum, Kato, Hirata & Mineshige (1992) found large amplitude QPOs with a period of 366 s, but their photometric repetition time was too long (28 s) to be able to detect DNOs. We have $`R=13.5`$ from the Robinson et al. observations.

### 2.13 U Gem

Soft X-Ray modulations have been observed during outbursts of U Gem. Those at a typical DNO period, namely 21.1 s, and amplitude of 12%, were found by Cordova et al. (1980, 1984) in one out of three outbursts observed, and a QPO, also of 12% amplitude, at 585 s in a different outburst (Cordova & Mason 1984. These give $`R=27.8`$, but may refer to very different stages in the evolution of the outbursts. DNOs with periods $``$ 25 s have also been observed with EXOSAT (Mason et al. 1988) and with EUVE during outburst (Long et al. 1996).

### 2.14 V533 Her and BT Mon

Rodriguez-Gil & Martinez-Pais (2002) have found 23.33 min quasi- periodic flaring in the emission lines of the old nova V533 Her. They propose that V533 Her could therefore be a candidate intermediate polar, as has been suggested also for another old nova, BT Mon, which shows $``$ 30 min quasi-periodic flaring (Smith, Dhillon & Marsh 1998). However, for several years V533 Her had a 63.63 s coherent luminosity variation (Patterson 1979) that put it clearly in the DQ Herculis class of rapid rotation intermediate polars222The disappearance was at one time thought to be uncharacteristic of a rotational modulation and could imply non-radial oscillation of the primary (Robinson & Nather 1983), but time moves on and (a) no mono-periodic white dwarf pulsator has ever been found, (b) no pulsating white dwarf has ceased pulsating, (c) the only CV with an oscillating primary is GW Lib (Warner & van Zyl 1998) in which the mass accretion rate is so low that the primary is cool enough to sit in the DA instability strip, and (d) the high mass accretion rate in an old nova such as V533 Her produces an accretion disc luminosity that prevents detection of flux direct from the primary (but, as in DQ Her and some nova-like variables, does allow the reprocessed radiation from the magnetically-channelled accretion to be detected).. It is more probable, therefore, that the QPO flares in V533 Her and BT Mon are connected with the same physical phenomenon that causes the brightness QPOs. For V533 Her, $`R=23.33/1.060`$ = 22.0.

## 3 New observations

We have used the University of Cape Town CCD Photometer (O’Donoghue 1995) on the 30-in, 40-in and 74-in telescopes of the South African Astronomical Observatory at Sutherland to observe the CVs listed in this section. A log of these observations is given in Table 1. Many runs that do not contain oscillations have been omitted from this list.

### 3.1 VZ Pyx

VZ Pyx is the optical equivalent of the X-Ray source 1H 0857-242, identified by Remillard et al. (1994) as a CV with dwarf nova outbursts. These authors found photometric modulations with periods near 49 mins during the decay phases of three outbursts and suggested that this could be the signature of an IP. They found no periodic modulation in the X-Ray observations (but a possible X-Ray period is quoted by Patterson (1994), the evidence for which has not been published) and reported no optical modulations at typical DNO periods. Barwig, Wimmer & Hughes (1993) found no periodic modulations at quiescence. VZ Pyx is listed as a probable IP in the review by Patterson (1994). On the other hand, Kato & Nogami (1997) point out that its outburst and superoutburst behaviours are like those of normal non-magnetic SU UMa stars and not those of outbursting IPs, and Szkody & Silber (1996) find that IUE spectra obtained in quiescence show the low excitation emission lines typical of a dwarf nova with a disc and that “there is no compelling argument for magnetic accretion from the UV data”.

We have observed VZ Pyx near maximum of outburst, as reported in Table 1, and find both QPOs and DNOs present in run S6569. The FT of S6569 is shown in Fig. 1, where a QPO with period 390.5 s and amplitude 5 mmag, and a DNO with mean period 23.86 s (the period increased slightly during the run) and mean amplitude 2.5 mmag are evident. The ratio $`R=16.4`$.

The QPO is at a much shorter period than the $``$ 3000 s modulation seen previously near the ends of outbursts. The latter is very long for a QPO in a short period ($`P_{orb}`$ = 1.78 h) system, and is possibly associated with inhomogeneities rotating at the outer edge of the disc. In the LIMA model of DNOs (Paper II) it is not possible for DNOs of variable period seen directly from the primary to exist in an IP (if the magnetic field is strong enough to produce an IP it will prevent free circulation of an equatorial belt) and to date none have been observed in any certified IP333Reprocessed DNOs, in which the variable period of the travelling wave is involved, may be variable, as in GK Per.. We conclude that VZ Pyx is not an IP. More photometric studies of VZ Pyx late in outburst are required to see if the $``$ 3000 s modulation is a regular feature and whether there is any evidence that it is coherent – and also to follow the period increase in the DNOs.

### 3.2 EC 21178-5417

EC 2117-54 is a V $``$ 13.7, UV-rich star discovered in the ongoing Edinburgh-Cape Survey (Stobie et al. 1997). We have found it to be an eclipsing nova-like CV with $`P_{orb}`$ = 3.708 h; details of its position, finding chart, orbital light curve and spectra will be reported elsewhere – here we describe the results of high speed photometry. Our photometric runs on EC 2117-54 are listed in Table 1.

EC 2117-54 turns out to be a rich source of DNOs and QPOs, and as a bright CV with a similarly bright reference star nearby it provides a system that is easily studied even in quite poor observing conditions. Its eclipses will be particularly useful for investigating phase shifts and physical locations of the oscillating sources within the system. In this paper we will discuss only the presence and periods of the DNOs and QPOs, and in particular in this section we consider only the normal DNOs and QPOs that lead to estimates of the ratio $`R`$. As with other nova-likes (e.g. UX UMa: Warner & Nather 1972; Knigge et al. 1998) the DNOs are not always visible in the FTs – our success rate (at least once in a run) for detecting them in EC 2117-54 is 83%.

Table 2 contains the list of detected oscillations (the meaning of lpDNOs is given in Section 4). In some cases the variations within a run are described in more detail in Section 4.2.2. The DNO periods cluster around 23 s but the differences are much greater than the errors (derived from least squares fits of sinusoids to the DNOs), which provides the first indication that these are indeed DNOs and not produced by stable rotation of the primary (as, e.g., in DQ Her). The periodicities are not always present at full strength throughout the individual runs.

In run S6544 part (I) there is a double DNO with periods 22.10 s and 23.27 s – see Fig. 2. These beat together at a period of 440 s; there is a broad low amplitude signal in the FT near 470 s (which we would not have thought significant without the DNO evidence, but it should be remembered that the unstable nature of QPOs spreads and lowers their amplitude in an FT). By analogy with VW Hyi and other CVs with double DNOs, the shorter of the two periods is the true DNO, the longer period is a sideband formed by reprocessing of the revolving DNO beam off the QPO travelling wave (Paper II). We therefore have $`R=440/22.1=19.9`$.

In part (III) of run S6551 there is a double DNO at 10.82 s and 11.40 s. These are the harmonics of fundamentals of which only one is seen in the FTs of another portion of the run. The periods 2 x 10.82 s and 22.69 s beat to give a pseudo QPO period of 468 s, but in this case a genuine QPO is seen in the FT of that part of the run, centred on 500 s and with amplitude 6.3 mmag. This run gives $`R`$ = 21.6.

In run S6599 part (II) there are two DNOs in the FT – at 23.41 s and 11.01 s. The latter is a first harmonic, though again there is no signal at the fundamental. The fundamental beats with 23.41 s at a period of 368 s. There is no signal at this, putative, QPO period in the FT, but we note that 368/22.04 gives $`R`$ = 16.7.

Run S6660 has a double DNO that has a beat at 281 s; the observed QPO is near 214 s. The observed $`R`$ = 13.1. Runs S6570 and S6580 give observed values of $`R`$ = 14.6 and $`R`$ = 16.2 respectively.

Runs S6555 and S6634 contained apparent harmonics that are probably beats with the integration lengths. The true periods are given in footnotes to Table 2.

### 3.3 CN Ori

CN Ori was observed on 2002 December 29 during outburst. A double DNO was visible in the first $``$ 1 hr of the light curve with peaks at 12.10 s and 11.23 s. The beat period between these two periodicities is 156.6 s; there is no sign in the FT of a peak at this period. This run gives $`R`$ = 13.9.

### 3.4 WX Hyi

We observed WX Hyi following an outburst in September 2001, when it had almost returned to quiescence. In this run (S6248) strong QPOs at 185 s are visible (see Fig. 3). These QPOs remained coherent for $``$ 10 cycles. At the same time, DNOs are apparent in the FT at 19.4 s (amplitude 3.8 mmag). This gives $`R`$ = 9.5. QPOs at 191 s were also observed during another run of WX Hyi in July 2002 (run S6463), but will be reported in detail elsewhere.

### 3.5 OY Car

Optical DNOs with periods from 19.4 s to 28.0 s have been seen in OY Car at the end of superoutburst (Schoembs 1986), and 18 s DNOs have been observed with the HST, also at the end of superoutburst (Marsh & Horne 1998). No simultaneous DNOs and QPOs have hitherto been detected.

We have extensive coverage of the February 2003 superoutburst of OY Car, but list in Table 1 only the runs that are relevant to the current discussion, which are near maximum light and obtained on the same night with an interruption between them.

Run S6722 shows a DNO at 17.62 s and QPOs at 281 s; later that night run S6724 shows a DNO at 17.79 s and a QPO initially at 338 s which later changed to 297 s. The phase diagrams shown in Fig. 4 show a correlation between the behaviour of the DNOs and QPOs. Values of $`R`$ = 15.9 and 19.0 are given by these data.

### 3.6 Z Cha

Z Cha was observed during the February 2000 outburst (run S6061, see Table 1) and a distinct DNO at 25.15 s was seen in the FT. The FT of the prewhitened light curve (of the first 1.5 hr of run S6061) is shown in Fig. 5. In this section a distinct QPO signal at 585 s is present. This gives $`R`$ 23.3.

### 3.7 AQ Eri

AQ Eri is an SU UMa type dwarf nova with an orbital period of 1.46 h and a magnitude range V = 12.5 – 17.5. It was reported at V = 12.9 on 27 August 2002; we observed it on its decline from maximum. The observations are listed in Table 1. DNOs and QPOs were detected for the first time in this star. In addition we have one earlier light curve obtained in quiescence.

The FT of the first light curve (run S6510), with the lowest frequencies (partly caused by a superhump) filtered out, is shown in Fig. 6. There is a very prominent single DNO at 21.0 s and a broad QPO feature centred on $``$ 296 s. These give $`R`$ 15.0. There are other spikes in the FT, which will be discussed in Sect. 4.7.

Two nights later (run S6516) the filtered FT again shows a QPO centred on $``$ 270 s and the DNO has lengthened to 23.5 s and now shows considerable structure. The latter is caused by lower coherence, as illustrated in the O–C diagram (Fig. 7). For this night $`R`$ = 12.8.

One night later there is no evidence for a QPO or a DNO. The latter probably had become too incoherent to be detected in an FT.

### 3.8 V893 Sco

V893 Sco is an eclipsing dwarf nova with an orbital period of 1.82 h. We have observed it extensively and find that it frequently has large amplitude QPOs with periods $``$ 350 s, as first detected (at 343 s) in one light curve by Bruch, Steiner & Gneiding (2000). Only part of one of our runs (S6095) has a DNO in it. This is listed in Table 1 and was obtained during an outburst. The FT is shown in Fig. 8; the large amount of ‘red noise’ is largely due to QPO and flickering activity. We removed the eclipses in the light curve before this analysis. The QPO period is 375 s and the DNO period is 25.2 s, which gives $`R`$ = 14.9.

### 3.9 TU Men

TU Men is an SU UMa type dwarf nova with an orbital period above the period gap of 2.813 h. We observed TU Men on decline from outburst (approximately mid way down) on 2002 December 26 (run S6695, see Table 1), and detected simultaneous DNOs and QPOs in the first hour of the light curve. The FT of the first hour of run S6695 is shown in Fig. 9. The DNO period is 20.6 s and the QPO period is 313 s, which gives $`R`$ = 15.2.

## 4 Other DNOs/QPOs: A new type of DNO

In a few CVs more than one set of DNOs or QPOs has been observed. This raises the possibility that if only one modulation is seen it may be difficult to know to which group it belongs (see, e.g., Sect. 4.10). We therefore examine what is known about oscillations other than those that have the relationship $`P_{QPO}15P_{DNO}`$. We start by discussing observations of VW Hyi.

### 4.1 VW Hyi

During seven of nine nights (22 – 30 December) of the superoutburst of VW Hyi in December 1975, Haefner, Schoembs & Vogt (1977, 1979; see also Schoembs 1977) saw a persistent sinusoidal modulation with amplitudes from 0.5 to 11 mmag, and an apparently erratically changing period in the range 86.0 – 92.8 s (averaging $``$ 88.1 s) but unchanging in mean period as VW Hyi decreased in brightness from 10.6 to 13.7 mag. This contrasts with the rapidly increasing periods of the normal DNOs and QPOs over this magnitude range (Paper I). Schoembs & Vogt (1980) detected a 74 s QPO near the end of the October 1978 VW Hyi superoutburst.

#### 4.1.1 New observations and possible interpretation

We have observed similar ‘longer period’ dwarf nova oscillations (lpDNOs) in VW Hyi, but only on rare occasions. Of the 51 runs on VW Hyi listed in Table 1 of Paper I, lpDNOs are definitely present in only five (S0018: 75.6 s; S0129: 93.1 s; the first half of S1594: 71.2 s; S2243: 75.9 s; and S6184: 83.0 s), and a run accidentally omitted from Paper I (S6133: see Table 1, made near the end of a normal outburst) which contains two oscillations, near 85 s and 94 s. These lpDNO detections are distributed from maximum light almost to quiescence, and include normal and superoutbursts. The oscillation in S2243 is relatively strong (amplitude 1.3 mmag) and is from early in the same December 1975 superoutburst that Haefner et al. saw the $``$ 88 s modulations. The amplitudes of the oscillations in S6184 are 1.3 mmag, made when VW Hyi was a factor of ten less luminous than in S2243. There is a tendency for the periods in our runs to increase through the outburst (from 75.9 s at maximum to 93.1 s at the end of outburst), but this may be small number statistics (the Haefner et al observations do not show this) and in any case the oscillations come from six different outbursts.

We get a clue to what the $``$ 70 – 93 s periodicities in VW Hyi may be by noting that Sion et al. (2001) have measured $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ = 500 km s-1 and $`\mathrm{log}g`$ = 8.0 for the primary of VW Hyi, and that Sion et al. (1996) found $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ = 300 km s-1 from a different set of spectra. With an inclination $`i=65^{}`$ and the standard white dwarf mass/radius relationship these give $`M(1)`$ = 0.6 M and a rotation period $`P_{rot}120165`$ s for the primary. The observed periods may therefore be associated with the bulk rotation of the white dwarf – which is certainly a short period clock available in the system. This suggests that some mass accretion onto two magnetic poles on the primary is at times taking place (as well as onto the belt). Unlike an IP, in a low field CV the angular momentum accreting at the equator will be distributed in latitude as well as radially; the outer layers of the primary will therefore rotate differentially and it follows that the accretion regions may not always have exactly the same angular velocity.

#### 4.1.2 Phase and amplitude diagrams

To investigate these lpDNOs more thoroughly we have computed FTs for subsets of the data and have also produced phase/amplitude diagrams. In such diagrams the formal errors, derived from least squares fits, are sometimes very large. This is particularly the case where there are large amplitude QPOs or flickering which has not been filtered out. We start by describing the behaviour of VW Hyi in run S6133. The FT in the vicinity of 100 s for the entire run, shown in Fig. 10, has three strong periodicities. Using prewhitening and multiple sinusoidal non-linear least squares fitting we find these are best represented by oscillations at 84.44 s and 85.70 s, with an amplitude of 1.7 mmag and 1.5 mmag, respectively, and 94.13 s with amplitude 1.6 mmag. The doublet at 85 s is strong only in the first half of the run, which is not long enough to resolve it fully; in the second half of the run it appears as a single peak at 85.3 s. The separation of the doublet is therefore not well determined; although formally it corresponds to a beat period of 5740 s, we found periods up to 6200 s while analysing the data in various ways. The orbital period of VW Hyi is 6173 s, so we suggest, in analogy with IPs, that the 85 s doublet consists of a rotating beam with a period of 84.4 s and an orbital sideband produced by reprocessing by the secondary or by the vertical thickening of the disc where the stream impacts.

If the 94 s modulation is also a reprocessed signal then, by analogy with the model for double DNOs, it implies a prograde travelling wave with a period of 820 s. There is no peak in the FT at this period, but shadowing of the disc and shadowing in our direction can be very different for a system that is not of high inclination.

Of the other runs with lpDNOs in them all but one have narrow spikes in their FTs. The 93 s peak in the FT of run S0129 is too broad to be a single period, and its phase/amplitude diagram shows a sinusoidal modulation suggesting the presence of two unresolved periodicities beating together – see Fig. 11. The sine wave fitted to the amplitude modulation has a period $``$ 5100 s, but is uncertain because only one cycle is observed. This is of a similar time scale to the doublet separation in run S6133.

The occasional presence of unresolved doublets in the FT could account for some of the spread in the lpDNO periods seen in VW Hyi by Haefner et al.

### 4.2 EC 2117-54

#### 4.2.1 DNOs

In Section 3.2 we gave the first evidence that the $``$ 23 s oscillations are DNOs. To study this further we have computed amplitude/phase diagrams for all of the runs, some of which are shown in Fig. 12. The variations seen (for example the change of slope in the O–C diagram from negative to positive in run S6551 at HJD 2452552.335 (bottom left panel of Fig. 12), which is caused by a change in period from 22.66 s to 22.74 s) are characteristic of DNOs (see Paper I). There is no systematic variation of DNO phase with orbital phase of the kind seen in DQ Her (O’Donoghue 1985). Phase changes in the DNO (as illustrated in Fig. 12) occur at different times as phase changes in the lpDNO, and the two oscillations appear to be independent.

The interpretation of the 11.02 s period in run S6599 given in Section 3.2 above enables us to explain the existence of the 12.78 s period in run S6555. The integration time for this run was 6s, so an 11 s periodicity would lie above the Nyquist frequency. If 12.78 s is the beat frequency with the integration length (see RU Peg, Section 2.1) then we are detecting a first harmonic modulation at 11.31 s, implying a fundamental at 22.62 s, which is within the range of $`P_{DNO}`$ seen in other runs. In the FT there is no sign of the fundamental.

The same explanation holds in run S6634, where the observed 13.2 s modulation of very small amplitude is really an 11.0 s periodicity, implying a fundamental at 22.0 s and a pseudo QPO period $``$ 400 s. There is nothing significant in the FT at this latter period.

#### 4.2.2 lpDNOs and QPOs

It can be seen in Table 2 that, in addition to the regular DNO and QPO modulations, a period around 94 s frequently appears in the light curve. For example, in addition to its double DNO, run S6544 has a sinusoidal modulation at a period near 94 seen in Fig. 2 (Note that the mean amplitude, derived from fitting to a sinusoid, especially one that is not quite constant in period (see below), is much smaller than the range of the largest cycles, which are the ones most readily seen in the light curve.)

The lpDNO oscillations are also easily visible in the light curve of run S6551, but this run has the added interest that in one section the period doubles (Fig. 13), which could signify a temporary change from two-pole to single-pole accretion.

In addition, in EC 2117-54 there are regular QPOs with periods $``$ 500 s that are easily seen in some sections of the light curves.

The suite of periods in EC 2117-54 is remarkably similar to that seen in VW Hyi late in its decline from outburst. In the latter, QPOs with $`P_{QPO}400`$ s and DNOs with $`P_{DNO}22`$ s occur when the system is about 1 mag above its quiescent brightness (Paper I). Furthermore, the $``$ 94 s periodicities that we have seen in EC 2117-54 are similar to those in VW Hyi at $``$ 88 s (see Section 4.1.1).

#### 4.2.3 Some detailed examples

The richness of the observational material for EC 2117-54 enables us to make a detailed analysis of the behaviour of the lpDNOs and compare them with the DNOs. As these are a newly recognised class of oscillation we present more detail than might otherwise be justified. We will start by featuring two light curves where the lpDNOs are particularly prominent.

Fig. 14 shows the first 45 mins of the light curve obtained in run S6544. The FT of this section of S6544 has already appeared in Fig. 2 and was discussed above. A phase shift around HJD $``$ 2452525.297 is present, illustrated by the two sets of vertical bars marking the lpDNO minima in Fig. 14; the dotted bars fit the first part of the light curve well, the solid bars fit the minima after the phase shift. This illustrates the lack of complete stability in lpDNOs.

Another example of the independent behaviour of the DNOs and lpDNOs is given in Fig. 15, where the amplitude and phase of the DNO and lpDNO in run S6544 (Sections I – III) is plotted.

#### 4.2.4 Discussion

EC 2117-54 has an orbital period that places it in the 3 – 4 h range where most, perhaps all, nova-like variables experience states of low $`\dot{M}`$ and are known as VY Scl stars. DNOs have not been observed in any recognised VY Scl stars but they have in two nova-likes that will probably show low states if observed sufficiently (HL Aql: $`P_{DNO}`$ = 19.6 s, V = 13.5 (Haefner & Schoembs 1987); BP Lyn: $`P_{DNO}`$ = 25.5 s, V = 14.2 (Ringwald 1992)). Thus the DNOs and QPOs have yet to be followed into and out of low states – it will be very instructive to observe the evolution of the oscillations during these transitions; all three of the above mentioned objects should be bright enough in their low states for such observations to be made.

Some of the nova-likes in this same period range are classified as eclipsing SW Sex stars, two of which have been shown to have periodically modulated circular polarization – LS Peg at 29.6 min (Rodriguez-Gil et al. 2001) and V795 Her at 19.54 min (Rodriguez-Gil et al 2002) and are IPs. If our interpretation of EC 2117-54 is correct, it is a similar system, probably with a weaker magnetic field, and with a rotation period (deduced from the lpDNOs) of $``$ 3.2 min.

### 4.3 SS Cyg

Another star for which longer period DNOs have been seen is SS Cyg. Patterson (1981; see also Robinson & Nather 1979) observed what he described as QPOs in the range 32 – 36 s in two different outbursts of SS Cyg, occurring on three nights in the September 1978 outburst when there were also $``$ 10 s normal DNOs present. There have been no other reports of modulations near this period. Sion (1999) finds $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ = 300 km s-1 for SS Cyg; with a mass of 1.20 M and a (rather uncertain) inclination of 50 this gives a rotational period $``$ 63 s which again could give the observed modulation if there is two-pole accretion.

### 4.4 HT Cas

Patterson (1981) reported $``$ 100 s QPOs in outbursts of HT Cas, which has typically $``$ 20 s normal DNOs during outbursts. The QPOs are said to be often seen also during quiescence, and therefore represent an invariant period in the system, unlike the DNOs. We classify them as lpDNOs.

### 4.5 AH Her

Patterson (1981) also found $``$ 100 s QPOs in AH Her, whose normal DNOs range from 24 to 39 s.

The HT Cas and AH Her periodicities may be further examples of lpDNOs, and therefore possibly associated with the rotation of the primary (rotational velocities are not available for these two stars).

### 4.6 OY Car

One section of run S6724 shows a quite coherent modulation with a mean amplitude of 9.5 mmag and a period of 116 s. The FT is shown in Fig. 16 and represents ten cycles of this lpDNO. No other long-lived lpDNOs appear in our light curves.

OY Car has $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ 200 km s-1 (Sion 1999), a mass of 0.68 M and $`i=83^{}`$ (Wood et al. 1989), which leads to $`P_{rot}260`$ s. An lpDNO at 116 s is therefore just compatible with a two-pole accretor.

We have one run (among many others obtained over past years) of OY Car in quiescence (S6488) which shows a coherent signal. The light curve is given in Fig. 17 and shows a period of 47.9 s. This unusual period is perhaps an evolution from the DNOs seen during outbursts.

### 4.7 AQ Eri

In addition to the QPOs and DNOs described in Sect. 3.7 we observe lpDNOs in AQ Eri. In Fig. 6 there are two spikes near 100 s which are at 75.7 ($`\pm `$0.3) s and 106.3 ($`\pm `$0.5) s with mean amplitudes of 2.5 and 2.6 mmag, respectively (derived from non-linear least-squares fits). The frequency difference between these corresponds to a QPO period of $``$ 265 s, which is similar to the observed period (Sect. 3.7). These appear to be direct and reprocessed lpDNOs as in VW Hyi (Sect. 4.1.2).

In run S6516 a single strong lpDNO at 73.6 ($`\pm `$0.1) s and mean amplitude of 2.0 mmag is present. The amplitude/phase plot for this lpDNO is shown in Fig. 18, which may be compared with that for the DNO that is present simultaneously (Fig. 7). The lpDNO has greater coherence than the DNO.

The next night, despite the absence of DNOs or QPOs, there is a prominent lpDNO in the last half of the light curve, being most prominent in the final section as shown in Fig. 19. The period is 108.6 ($`\pm `$0.8) s and the mean amplitude is 5.2 mmag, and corresponds to the reprocessed lpDNO that appears in Fig. 6 as discussed above.

Our quiescent light curve (S6159) shows large scale flickering but there is a possible lpDNO of high coherence at 87.0 ($`\pm `$0.2) s and mean amplitude 7.7 mmag.

### 4.8 U Gem

The soft X-Ray observations by Cordova, Mason et al., referred to in Section 2.13 above, revealed a suite of modulations. In addition to the 21 s DNO and 585 s QPO there were observed periodicities at $``$ 121 s and $``$ 135 s in quiescence and possibly $``$ 152 s in outburst. Robinson & Nather (1979) observed low coherence optical modulations near 146 s and its first harmonic during an outburst. These oscillations appear to have the properties of lpDNOs, in which case U Gem is the first CV to show all three types of oscillation in the X-Ray region.

Sion et al. (1998) find $`v\mathrm{sin}i100`$ km s-1 for the primary and a mass of 1.1 M, which with $`i`$ = 67 give $`P_{rot}275`$ s, and we again find that two pole accretion onto the primary will provide the observed lpDNO periods.

### 4.9 VZ Pyx

In the FT of the last half of the run S6066 (see Fig. 20), a coherent signal is present at 112.4 ($`\pm `$0.6) s, with a mean amplitude 6.2 mmag. No DNOs or QPOs are seen during this run. Given the suite of DNO and QPO frequencies already identified in Sect. 3.1, we associate the coherent 112.4-s signal with an lpDNO.

### 4.10 HX Peg

HX Peg is a dwarf nova with an orbital period of 4.82 h and frequent outbursts (recurrence time $``$ 30 d) taking it from a minimum V $``$ 16.5 to maximum at V $``$ 12.9. We have observed parts of three outbursts (Table 1).

Late in the July 2002 outburst there is a clear signal (run S6475) with a period of 112.3 ($`\pm `$ 1.1) s and mean amplitude 2.6 mmag, illustrated in Fig. 21. On the late rise of the October 2002 outburst (run S6584) a similar signal is seen in the first half of the run: 114.8 ($`\pm `$ 0.7) s with an amplitude of 3.1 mmag. Just after maximum of the November 2002 outburst (run S6656) there is an obvious modulation in the light curve (Fig. 22) which the FT shows is the result of two oscillations, with periods 83.4 ($`\pm `$ 0.5) s and 111.1 ($`\pm `$ 1.0) s with amplitudes of 4.8 and 4.2 mmag, respectively. The beat period between these oscillations is 335 s and there is a peak in the FT near this period.

The above properties, especially the similarity of the periods near 112 s despite a brightness range of $``$ 2.7 mag (Table 1) suggests an lpDNO, in which the true period is $``$ 83 s, and the $``$ 112 s is a reprocessed signal. In none of the runs discussed so far is there any sign of a normal DNO. However, runs S6646 and S6650, made at the maximum of the November 2002 outburst, have distinct signals at 16.22 s and 16.39 s, with mean amplitudes of 1.7 mmag and 1.6 mmag, respectively – seen in the FTs in Fig. 23. Combined with the QPO observed a few days later in the same outburst (see above) we have $`R`$ = 20.6.

In addition to the suite of periodicities described above, HX Peg frequently shows very large QPOs with periods over the range of 1400 – 1900 s. It was our early observations of these, combined with the $``$ 112 s oscillations that we now recognise to be lpDNOs, that led us to combine these into the $`R`$ value $``$ 16 announced earlier (Warner & Woudt 2003). We now consider that the $``$ 1800 s QPOs arise from a different physical mechanism, perhaps connected to the rotation period of the outer edge of the accretion disc (see Section 8.7 of Warner 1995a).

### 4.11 AM CVn stars

AM CVn stars are very short orbital period, helium-transferring double degenerate CVs. DNOs at 19 – 22 s and 26.2 s respectively have been observed in the high state of CR Boo (Patterson, private communication) and in AM CVn (Patterson et al. 1979, Patterson et al. 1992). In most of the AM CVn stars the dominant modulation is a non-sinusoidal superhump that has strong harmonics to 5th order or higher; this makes the detection of QPOs very difficult. Nevertheless, Patterson et al. (2002) have observed $``$ 5 min QPOs in HP Lib, which is an AM CVn star in the high state.

#### 4.11.1 V803 Cen

V803 Cen is an AM CVn star with high and low states of mass transfer. O’Donoghue, Menzies & Hill (1987) observed brightness modulations with a mean period near 175.8 s during the high state of 2 – 5 July 1986; the period changed only slightly (to 178.8 s) on 7 July when the star had faded by two magnitudes. The 176 s modulation was seen again in a high state in 1987 (O’Donoghue & Kilkenny 1989), and we have detected it, as described below, but it has not been seen in the very low state (O’Donoghue et al. 1990). From these observations alone we can already say that the range of the oscillations and their insensitivity to luminosity are characteristic of lpDNOs.

An alternative interpretation, as a DB pulsator, does not seem viable for V803 Cen. Although there is one DB pulsator, PG1351+489 that has most of its power in one oscillation mode (at a period of 490 s) and appears almost mono-periodic (Winget, Nather & Hill 1987), it and all other members of the class are in fact multi-periodic. The range of brightness of V803 Cen is over 4 mag, showing that accretion luminosity dominates in the high state. That implies that any pulsations of the primary would be most visible in the low state; but the reverse is the case. Furthermore, the modulation is not always present at high state, which is a characteristic of DNOs, but not of pulsations of a degenerate star.

We can demonstrate further aspects of the pulsations in V803 Cen that are in accord with DNO behaviour and not with DB pulsations. Table 1 lists observations that we have obtained in the high state; in addition to these we have drawn on archived observations published in O’Donoghue et al. (1987) and O’Donoghue & Kilkenny (1989). FTs and amplitude/O–C diagrams were computed for all of these runs. An example is given in Fig. 24 and shows the occasional short-term instability of the pulsation, which is uncharacteristic of oscillations in degenerate pulsators.

In Fig. 25 we illustrate a light curve (run S4035 of O’Donoghue & Kilkenny (1989)) of V803 Cen observed when the 176 s modulation was particularly prominent. In order to show this clearly we have prewhitened the light curve at the dominant 1611 s superhump modulation and its first three harmonics. The FT of the light curve shown in Fig. 25 is shown in Fig. 26. It shows how easy it is to detect the 176 s modulation when it is present at full amplitude. The first and second harmonics are very weakly present and appear in the mean profile of the modulation as a slight nonsinusoidality. Greater departure from sinusoidal shape is seen in some other runs, with higher harmonics present, but we have not found any light curves where the first harmonic alone is very prominent – as would be the case for dominant two-pole accretion. Nor have we seen a subharmonic at $``$ 352 s, so we infer that the rotation period of the primary is $``$ 176 s.

#### 4.11.2 CR Boo

The dominant modulation in CR Boo when in a high state is at 1490 s, with considerable power in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd harmonics (Patterson et al. 1997). We have two long runs on CR Boo (Table 1), the second (S6862) of which shows a light curve and FT similar to the common type, but the first (S6852) has both DNOs and QPOs, as seen in the light curve and FT (Figs. 27 and 28).

The QPO signal is near, but not at the 4th harmonic. The latter whould be at 298 s, but the peak in the FT is at 291 s, which is distinctly different. Furthermore, the apparent QPO has large amplitude in the first half of the run, but disappears in the latter half, which is unlike the behaviour of 4th harmonics seen in AM CVn stars (e.g., AM CVn itself: Skillman et al. 1999).

In the same run a DNO is present at 21.6 s, as seen in Fig. 28. This gives $`R`$ = 13.5. The DNO seen in run S6852 is an independent confirmation of DNOs observed on three consecutive nights at $``$ 22 s in CR Boo during the 1996 CBA campaign on CR Boo (Patterson, private communication).

In addition to the DNO and QPO observed in CR Boo (run S6852), there is an lpDNO at 61.9 s in the same run. Fig. 29 shows the phase/amplitude diagram for the 61.9 s periodicity over the first $``$ 2.3 hours of run S6852.

## 5 Further comparison between QPOs in CVs and X-Ray binaries

With our extended data set, obtained from observing the literature and the sky, we can generate a more detailed comparison between DNO and QPO periods in CVs. In Fig. 30 we show this on the same Two-QPO correlation diagram produced for X-Ray binaries (Belloni, Psaltis & van der Klis 2002); the latter distinguishes between neutron star and black hole candidates. Some of the scatter in the CV part of the correlation may arise through ambiguities of period – i.e. whether we are observing the primary periods or their first harmonics. Other scatter comes in a few cases from lack of simultaneity in observations of the DNOs and QPOs. However, the correlation is quite clear, and the whole relationship can be described by $`P_{QPO}15P_{DNO}`$ both for CVs and X-Ray binaries, over a range of nearly six orders of magnitude in period or frequency. This correlation is not yet understood; Mauche (2002) has shown that many popular models for QPOs in X-Ray binaries are excluded by this relationship.

We are conscious of the possibility of bias in our selection of DNOs and QPOs that have been ‘accepted’ into our list, but it was while attempting to avoid such a bias that we realised that there is strong evidence for an additional set of DNOs – the lpDNOs described above. We currently see no clear evidence for maverick DNOs that fit neither of these categories.

There is a possible additional similarity between CV and X-Ray binary oscillations. During X-Ray bursts in the latter, pulsations are seen which lie in the frequency range 300 – 600 Hz (see Table 1 of van der Klis 2000), which increase in frequency slightly during the burst, and which are attributed to hot spots on the neutron star where gas expands and slips relative to the rotation of the underlying atmospheric layers. It is argued (van der Klis 2000) that at least in some cases there are two hot spots. If that were generally the case, then the true rotation frequencies would actually lie in the range 150 – 300 Hz. The high frequency QPOs (plotted on the abscissa of Fig. 30) in these same stars (Table 3 of van der Klis 2000) lie in the range 500 – 1100 Hz and are thus $``$ 4 times the supposed star rotation frequencies. This is the same relationship as seen in CVs, where the lpDNOs (interpreted above as white dwarf body rotation) have approximately four times the periods of the DNOs. The additional factor $``$ 4 between the periods of lpDNOs and QPOs in CVs is matched by the ratio of frequencies of rotation to low frequency QPOs in the X-Ray binaries.

On the other hand, as can be seen in Table 2, there are examples in CVs where the first harmonic rather than the fundamental appears, and this can lead to $`P_{QPO}2P_{lpDNO}`$, as seen in many of the X-Ray binary equivalent oscillations described above.

The evolution of burst millisecond oscillations shows phase drifts and often sudden phase shifts that are similar to those of the lpDNOs (Muno, Chakrabaty & Galloway 2002).

## 6 Discussion and conclusion

In this paper we have extended the already rich phenomenology of CV DNOs and QPOs to include the recognition of a new type of DNO, the lpDNO. We have detected some double lpDNOs, whose splitting, as with the double DNOs, suggests reprocessing off a travelling wave moving with the QPO period. We have a possible first indication of such a sideband at the orbital frequency. As the lpDNOs are a newly identified phenomenon we have taken care to illustrate them extensively in this paper. It is probable that there are many more aspects still to be uncovered.

The differences in behaviour for outbursts of the same dwarf nova have yet to be understood. Why, during the December 1975 superoutburst of VW Hyi, the $``$ 88 s lpDNOs were so prominent for a week but only very occasionally and intermittently present in other outbursts, is a mystery. We note, however, that Hartmann et al. (1999) have found that the X-Ray properties of VW Hyi also differ greatly from outburst to outburst. Both the X-Rays and the DNOs are associated with the inner disc and boundary layer, and both will be affected by the structure and strength of magnetic field connections from the disc to the primary and its equatorial belt, so this is where the differences are probably generated.

Inter alia, we have shown that the helium-transferring systems in some cases have DNO and QPO properties similar to those of the hydrogen-rich CVs. This is first evidence, even if indirect, that the helium primaries of the AM CVn stars can be magnetic.

An advantage that CV observations have over those of X-Ray binaries is that in CVs we often easily see the trains of DNO and QPO modulations, and can study the properties of individual cycles, whereas in the X-Ray binaries the low fluxes require statistical analyses to extract average properties. If the phenomena really do have the same origin, then further observations of CVs even with small and modest size telescopes are likely to assist understanding of the higher energy analogues.

At present the interpretation of the CV rapid oscillations in terms of magnetic accretion is speculative – but we note that the behaviours are so complex that no simple explanations (e.g. white dwarf or accretion disc pulsations) are likely to be adequate. The existence of magnetically controlled accretion is in principle testable by the detection of polarisation modulated at the DNO period – this might be accomplished for VW Hyi during the large amplitude DNOs at the end of outburst, which occur at roughly monthly intervals, but will probably require the use of a large telescope observing in the near infrared. Currently the situation is similar to that of the early development of the intermediate polar model (Patterson & Price 1981; Warner, O’Donoghue & Fairall 1981), which for a few years gave satisfactory explanations of the observed multiple photometric modulations but the magnetic nature was only verified by the discovery of circularly polarised I band flux in 1986 (Penning, Schmidt & Liebert 1986).

Van der Klis (2000), in connection with the two-QPO correlation in X-Ray binaries and the concomitant variations of the frequencies, remarked that they “essentially imply that the phenomena are generated in the accretion disc around any low-magnetic field compact object”. Our observations of similar phenomena in (presumably) low-field CVs appear to make this conclusion even more widely applicable.

## Acknowledgments

The University of Cape Town funds BW’s research; PAW is supported by strategic funds made available to BW by the University and by research funds from the National Research Foundation. MLP acknowledges financial support from the Department of Labour’s National Skills Fund. We thank Dave Kilkenny for alerting us to the potential interest of EC 2117-54. T. Belloni kindly sent us the data on X-Ray binaries that appear in Fig. 30.