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# Jet-dominated states: an alternative to advection across black hole event horizons in ‘quiescent’ X-ray binaries

## 1 Introduction

Proving the existence of black holes remains a key goal of observational high energy astrophysics. While dynamical evidence (e.g. Charles 1998) convincingly demonstrates the existence of compact accreting objects in binary systems which have masses in excess of the highest theoretical limit for a neutron star ($`3M_{}`$), and are therefore strong black hole candidates (BHCs), we cannot rule out the possibility that some as-yet-unconsidered state of matter may provide an alternative explanation.

As an alternative approach, in recent years much attention has been focussed on finding evidence for black hole event horizons. One promising and actively pursued route has been a comparison of the X-ray luminosities of BHC and neutron star (NS) X-ray binaries (XRBs) in ‘quiescence’. In such states, black hole accretion could be advection dominated and considerably fainter than neutron stars. This is indeed what has been found observationally, with ‘quiescent’ BHCs being typically two to three orders of magnitude (in Eddington units) less luminous than their NS XRB equivalents. This has been claimed to represent some of the strongest evidence to date for the existence of black hole event horizons (Narayan, Garcia & McClintock 1997; Menou et al. 1999; Garcia et al. 2001). However, alternatives to this interpretation have also been discussed (Campana & Stella 2000; Bildsten & Rutledge 2000; Abramowicz, Kluzniak & Lasota 2002). Abramowicz et al. (2002), in particular, stress that ‘absence of evidence is not evidence of absence’, and draw attention to alternatives to black holes. Even if BHCs do contain black hole with event horizons, it is important to establish how much, if any, of the potential accretion energy may be being advected across their horizons.

In a series of important and related observations, in recent years it has been established that jets are an integral and relatively ubiquitous component of the process of accretion in both black hole and neutron star X-ray binaries (e.g. Mirabel & Rodriguez 1999; Fender 2002). We are now beginning to understand just how powerful these jets may be. Corbel et al. (2003) discovered that, over four orders of magnitude in X-ray luminosity, the relation between radio and X-ray luminosity for the BHC X-ray binary GX 339-4 has the form $`L_{\mathrm{radio}}L_\mathrm{X}^b`$, where $`b=0.706\pm 0.011`$ for $`L_\mathrm{X}`$ in the 3–9 keV range ($`b`$ increases slightly with the increasing energy of the X-ray band used for comparison). Gallo, Fender & Pooley (2003) demonstrated that the same relation holds over a comparable range in X-ray luminosity for the transient V404 Cyg (GS 2023+338), and furthermore that the data for all measured low/hard state sources is consistent with a such a Universal relation holding for all of them. This power law relation between radio and X-ray luminosity is a key observational discovery providing clues to the underlying physics of the disc–jet coupling.

Are there differences in jet power between the BHCs and NS XRBs ? Fender & Kuulkers (2001) found that BHC XRBs were, in general between 10–100 times more ‘radio loud’ (in the sense of the radio to soft X-ray ratio) than neutron star binaries. Migliari et al. (2003) compared the radio strength of the atoll-type neutron star binary 4U 1728-34 with the comparable state and X-ray luminosity of BHCs, and found a ratio of radio loudness $`R_{\mathrm{radio}}=(L_{\mathrm{radio}}/L_\mathrm{X})_{\mathrm{BH}}/(L_{\mathrm{radio}}/L_\mathrm{X})_{\mathrm{ns}}30`$. The origin of this difference in radio loudness is not clear (see Fender & Kuulkers 2001 for a discussion).

## 2 Jet-dominated states in black hole candidates

In the following all luminosities and accretion rates are in Eddington units, where the Eddington luminosity is $`1.3\times 10^{38}(M/M_{})`$ erg s-1, where $`M`$ is the mass of the accreting compact star. The Eddington accretion rate, defined as that accretion rate at which the Eddington luminosity is achieved, is, for an accretion efficiency of $`10`$% (ie. $`0.1\dot{m}c^2`$ is liberated during the accretion process) approximately $`1.4\times 10^{18}(M/M_{})`$ g s-1.

We assume that the total power output $`L_{\mathrm{total}}`$ from an X-ray binary in a ‘low/hard’ or analogous state is a combination of the radiative luminosity of the flow ($`L_\mathrm{X}`$, directly observed as X-rays) and jet power ($`L_\mathrm{J}`$ indirectly traced by e.g. radio flux density):

$$L_{\mathrm{total}}=L_\mathrm{X}+L_\mathrm{J}$$
(1)
Now we already know (Corbel et al. 2002; Gallo et al. 2003) the relation between radio ($`L_{\mathrm{radio}}`$) and X-ray luminosity:

$$L_{\mathrm{radio}}L_\mathrm{X}^{0.7}$$
(2)
How does observed radio flux relate to jet power; i.e. what is the relation between $`L_{\mathrm{radio}}`$ and $`L_\mathrm{J}`$ ? In models of optically thick jets (e.g. Blandford & Königl 1979; Falcke & Biermann 1996; Markoff, Falcke & Fender 2001; Heinz & Sunyaev 2003), the following scaling applies:

$$L_{\mathrm{radio}}L_\mathrm{J}^{1.4}$$
(3)
Combining equations (2) and (3):

$$L_\mathrm{J}L_\mathrm{X}^{0.5}$$
(4)
therefore

$$L_{\mathrm{total}}=L_\mathrm{X}+AL_\mathrm{X}^{0.5}$$
(5)
which provides the relation between total power and X-ray luminosity. The normalisation $`A`$ between can be estimated. Fender (2001) and Corbel & Fender (2002) conservatively estimate $`L_\mathrm{J}/L_\mathrm{X}0.05`$ for Cyg X-1 and GX 339-4 at an accretion luminosity of $`L_\mathrm{X}10^2`$. Fender et al. (2001) estimated that, at an accretion luminosity of $`L_\mathrm{X}10^3`$, the black hole transient XTE J1118+480 had $`L_\mathrm{J}/L_\mathrm{X}0.2`$ (see also Corbel & Fender 2002 for an estimate for GX 339-4). Conservatively adopting the equality for XTE J1118+480 corresponds to $`A_{\mathrm{BH}}6\times 10^3`$ in Eddington units. Equivalently the relation between total power and jet power is given by:

$$L_{\mathrm{total}}=A^2L_\mathrm{J}^2+L_\mathrm{J}$$
(6)
In the following we shall assume that $`L_{\mathrm{total}}`$ is proportional to the mass accretion rate $`\dot{m}`$ (i.e. all the available accretion power goes either into the X-rays or the jet). In Eddington units this corresponds to

$$L_{\mathrm{tot}}=\dot{m}$$
(7)
which is the condition of no advection of accretion energy across the event horizon.

We can then plot the variation of $`L_\mathrm{X}`$ and $`L_\mathrm{J}`$ as a function of mass accretion rate. These are plotted for black holes in the top panel of Fig 1.

We note that there are two regimes, ‘X-ray dominated’ at higher mass accretion rates, and ‘jet dominated’ at lower accretion rates. In the X-ray dominated regime, $`L_\mathrm{X}\dot{m}`$ and $`L_\mathrm{J}\dot{m}^{0.5}`$. However in the jet dominated regime $`L_\mathrm{X}\dot{m}^2`$ and $`L_\mathrm{J}\dot{m}`$. The transition between the two regimes occurs at $`L_\mathrm{X}=A^24\times 10^5`$ or, equivalently, $`\dot{m}=2A^27\times 10^5`$. The shaded region in the top panel of Fig 1 indicates the observed range of X-ray luminosities of black hole X-ray binaries in ‘quiescence’ – if our model is correct then all of these systems are in the jet-dominated regime, with accretion rates $`10^6\dot{m}10^5`$, and with jet powers one to two orders of magnitude greater than the observed X-ray luminosity.

## 3 Jet-dominated states in neutron stars ?

A major uncertainty in knowing if the arguments outlined above apply to neutron stars is that the relation $`L_{\mathrm{radio}}L_\mathrm{X}^b`$ has not yet been measured. Migliari et al. (2003) note that the relation seems steeper ($`b>1`$) for the atoll-type X-ray binary 4U 1728-34, but this is over a small range in X-ray flux compared to that measured for black holes. At present we must consider that this relation remains unmeasured, due primarily to the relative faintness of atoll-type sources in the radio band compared to black holes (Fender & Hendry 2000), which results from the greater ‘radio loudness’ of black holes (Fender & Kuulkers 2001; Migliari et al. 2003). However, we will make the assumption in what follows that the same relation does indeed apply for atoll-type NS XRBs.

As already noted, the ratio of ‘radio loudness’ between BHC and NS XRBs is $`R_{\mathrm{radio}}30`$. Using equation (3), this translates into a difference in jet power of a factor 10, i.e. $`A_{\mathrm{NS}}6\times 10^4`$. The X-ray luminosity below which neutron star systems would be jet-dominated is therefore $`L_\mathrm{X}3\times 10^7`$. This is comparable to the lowest X-ray luminosity measured from a neutron star in quiescence (Garcia et al. 2001) implying that, quite unlike black holes, we may have never observed a neutron star in a jet-dominated state. In the lower panel of Fig 1 we plot the variation of $`L_\mathrm{X}`$ and $`L_\mathrm{J}`$ as a function of mass accretion rate for neutron star binaries. As for the BHCs, the shaded region indicates the observed range of ‘quiescent’ X-ray luminosities.

In the absence of core/crustal emission (see below) which is decoupled from the accretion flow on all but the longest timescales, the observed X-ray luminosities of ‘quiescent’ NS XRBs correspond to a range in accretion rate of $`10^6\dot{m}10^4`$, overlapping with the range in $`\dot{m}`$ for ‘quiescent’ black holes. Therefore, in at least this respect, in the model presented here the data are consistent with both NS and BHC XRBs in ‘quiescence’ accreting at the same rate.

### 3.1 Core / crustal emission?

Brown, Bildsten & Rutledge (1998) have argued that, once accretion has halted, neutron stars will have a luminosity in the range $`5\times 10^{32}`$$`5\times 10^{33}`$ erg s-1 from crustal emission. This model seems to be supported by observations of transient neutron star binaries in quiescence (e.g. Rutledge et al. 2001a; Rutledge et al. 2001b; Rutledge et al. 2002; see also Wijnands et al. 2001), although Garcia et al. (2001) argue that even at ‘quiescent’ levels the X-ray luminosity is dominated by accretion. Indeed, the quiescent emission of SAX J1808.4–3658 is uncomfortably low (5$`\times 10^{31}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$) and hard (power law index 1.5 with a blackbody contribution of less than 10 per cent) for the neutron star crustal emission model unless the neutron star is more massive than 1.7 M (Campana et al. 2002).

If this crustal emission does exist then it adds a new term to the total observed X-ray emission:

$$L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{observed}}=L_\mathrm{X}+L_{\mathrm{crustal}}$$
(8)
In Fig 1 (lower panel) we also indicate the solutions with the addition of persistent ‘crustal’ emission to the observed X-ray flux from a neutron star, at a level of $`10^{32}`$ erg s-1, approximately the lowest luminosity observed from a quiescent neutron star. This has a significant effect, since this crustal luminosity, at $`10^6L_{\mathrm{Edd}}`$ is above that at which neutron stars would enter the jet-dominated regime. Whereas in the case of accretion-only luminosity, while we had not observed neutron stars in jet-dominated regimes they were still possible, if such crustal luminosities are ubiquitous then neutron stars will not enter the jet-dominated regime, unless their time-averaged mass accretion rates are very low ($`\dot{m}10^{12}M_{}`$ $`yr^1`$). However, note that at the lowest accretion rates neutron stars will make just as powerful jets as BHCs (see next section).

## 4 Discussion

This work leads naturally to some interesting consequences if correct. We outline these below.

### 4.1 X-ray luminosity as a function of mass accretion rate

We have seen in the above that below a certain mass accretion rate BHC X-ray binaries probably enter a jet-dominated state. Because of their higher ‘radio loudness’, black holes make the transition to this jet-dominated state at a higher mass accretion rate than neutron stars (by a factor $`(A_{\mathrm{BH}}/A_{\mathrm{NS}})^2`$). Consequently, if there are no other effects, once both NS and BH are in the jet-dominated regime, the NS systems will be a factor $`(A_{\mathrm{BH}}/A_{\mathrm{NS}})^2`$ brighter in X-rays than the BH systems. Since $`(A_{\mathrm{BH}}/A_{\mathrm{NS}})10`$ then we expect a ratio of $`100`$ between quiescent X-ray luminosities at the same accretion rate. In fact, while the expressions and plots given so far are specifically for the condition in equation (3) and the estimated values of $`A_{\mathrm{BH}}`$, $`A_{\mathrm{NS}}`$, there is a more general expression for the ratio of X-ray luminosities when both classes of object are in the jet-dominated regime:

$$Q_\mathrm{X}=(L_\mathrm{X})_{NS}/(L_\mathrm{X})_{\mathrm{BH}}=R_{\mathrm{radio}}^{1/b}$$
(9)
Since $`R_{\mathrm{radio}}30`$ and $`\beta 0.7`$, we expect a ratio of X-ray luminosities in quiescence of $`130`$, when both BHCs and NS XRBs are in the jet-dominated regime, and at the same mass accretion rate. This is consistent with what is observed.

The X-ray luminosities as a function of $`\dot{m}`$ are illustrated in Fig 2 (top panel). As already noted, the quiescent NS XRBs may not be quite in the jet-dominated regime; however, the BHC XRBs are clearly in this regime, and the difference in X-ray luminosities at the same accretion rate is already one order of magnitude at $`\dot{m}10^5`$, increasing to $`Q_\mathrm{X}`$ at $`\dot{m}10^6`$ (Fig 2, top panel). We therefore find that the observed $`L_{\mathrm{radio}}L_X^{0.7}`$ scaling, combined with the order of magnitude greater radio loudness of BHC XRBs, naturally results in a signficant difference in the quiescent luminosities of NS and BHC XRBs, as observed.

More precisely, we expect there to be three regimes in which the ratio of X-ray luminosities, $`R_\mathrm{X}=(L_\mathrm{X})_{\mathrm{BH}}/(L_\mathrm{X})_{\mathrm{NS}}`$ has different values:

| (a) $`(L_\mathrm{X})_{\mathrm{BH}}A_{\mathrm{BH}}^2`$ | $`(L_\mathrm{X})_{\mathrm{NS}}A_{\mathrm{NS}}^2`$ | $`R_\mathrm{X}=1`$ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| (b) $`(L_\mathrm{X})_{\mathrm{BH}}A_{\mathrm{BH}}^2`$ | $`(L_\mathrm{X})_{\mathrm{NS}}A_{\mathrm{NS}}^2`$ | $`1R_\mathrm{X}Q_\mathrm{X}`$ |
| (c) $`(L_\mathrm{X})_{\mathrm{BH}}A_{\mathrm{BH}}^2`$ | $`(L_\mathrm{X})_{\mathrm{NS}}A_{\mathrm{NS}}^2`$ | $`R_\mathrm{X}=Q_\mathrm{X}`$ |

where (a) corresponds to both classes of objects being ‘X-ray dominated’, (b) corresponds to BHCs being jet-dominated and NS not, (c) corresponds to both classes being jet-dominated. From this study it appears that $`Q130`$, and that observed ‘quiescence’ corresponds to regimes (a) or (b), which consistent with the observations without requiring any accretion energy to be advected across an event horizon.

It is interesting to note that in the jet-dominated regime, the scaling of X-ray luminosity with mass accretion rate, $`L_\mathrm{X}\dot{m}^2`$ is exactly the same as that predicted theoretically by ADAF models (e.g. Narayan et al. 1997; Mahadevan 1997).

### 4.2 Jets at the lowest accretion rates

It would be a mistake to assume that the persistent difference in X-ray luminosity will result in a difference in jet powers between NS and BHC systems at the lowest luminosities. In fact, below an accretion rate of $`\dot{m}10^{6.5}`$ both NS and BHC systems are putting the same amount of power into the jet (Fig 2, lower panel), which dominates the power output of the system. The tiny fraction of the total power released as X-rays is insignificant whether its a BHC or a NS XRB one hundred times brighter.

It is also interesting to note that the ratio in radio loudness, $`R_{\mathrm{radio}}`$ is maintained throughout this scenario, but for somewhat different reasons in the two regimes. When ‘X-ray dominated’, BHCs are more ‘radio loud’ because they match the NS XRBs in X-rays but put out more radio power. However, at the lowest accretion rates the radio power is the same but the X-ray luminosity of the BHCs is lower, maintaining the ratio.

### 4.3 X-ray jets: what if ‘hard’ X-ray binaries are already jet-dominated ?

It has been suggested that the hard X-ray spectra observed from low/hard state BHCs may be in some, maybe all, cases optically thin synchrotron emission directly from the jet (Markoff, Falcke & Fender 2001; Markoff et al. 2003). This is at odds with the more standard view of the hard X-ray spectrum as being dominated by thermal Comptonisation from electrons with a temperature of $`100`$ keV (e.g. Sunyaev & Titarchuk 1980; Poutanen 1998, Zdziarski et al. 2003). If it is the correct interpretation, how does it affect the analysis performed here ?

Since in those models the BHCs are already completely jet dominated at $`\dot{m}=0.01`$, then $`L_\mathrm{X}\dot{m}^2`$ (as $`L_\mathrm{X}L_\mathrm{J}^2`$ \[equation (4)\] and $`L_\mathrm{J}\dot{m}`$ this is always the case for jet-dominated emission). In fact it can be shown that the same ratio of ‘quiescent’ luminosities is achieved as in the previous analysis, as long as the NS XRBs are not already jet-dominated at $`\dot{m}0.01`$ (otherwise $`L_\mathrm{X}`$ in both classes of objects would track each other). However, the transition to the jet-dominated regime would occur at a higher $`\dot{m}`$ (by approximately two orders of magnitude), meaning the observed ‘quiescent’ mass accretion rates would be considerably higher than those indicated in Fig 1.

## 5 Conclusions

The results presented in this Letter are necessarily a subset of the possible consequences of the empirical relations and model upon which they are based. Of the more general results, to be expanded upon in a further work, only one is given, namely that once both BHC and NS XRB are in jet dominated states the ratio of X-ray luminosities depends only upon two quantities which have already been measured, i.e. $`b`$ and $`R_{\mathrm{radio}}`$:

$$Q_\mathrm{X}=R_{\mathrm{radio}}^{1/b}(30)^{1/0.7}130$$
(9)
We suggest that based upon existing observational data, ‘quiescent’ BHCs are in the ‘jet-dominated’ regime and that NS XRBs are, if not jet-dominated, close to the transition to this regime. Specifically, if a similar value of $`b`$ holds for NS XRBs as for BHCs (and this is the key observational uncertainty) then quiescent NS XRBs are, in the most conservative case, putting $`10`$% of their power into jets. Thus the observed ratio of X-ray luminosities should be close to $`Q_\mathrm{X}`$, consistent with what is observed. An additional core / crustal contribution to the X-ray emission from NS XRBs will only widen the discrepancy. Essentially, we find that the difference in quiescent X-ray luminosities between NS and BHC XRBs can be mostly, if not entirely, explained by a difference in the efficiency of jet production between the two types of sources (the origin of which remains unclear).

Therefore we find that the observed difference in quiescent luminosities of neutron star and black hole candidate XRBs does not require the presence of black hole event horizons. This should not be taken as a statement to the effect that we do not believe that black hole candidates contain black holes (see related discussion in Abramowicz et al. 2003). Certainly there are differences between the neutron star and black hole candidate XRBs, which may be naturally explained by the fact that black hole candidates do in fact contain black holes. However, since there is no requirement for significant energy to be advected into the black hole in order to explain the ratio of quiescent X-ray luminosities, these luminosities cannot in turn be taken as ‘proof’ of the existence of event horizons.

Furthermore, even if, as seems probable, the BHCs do contain black holes with event horizons, this work shows that there is no requirement for the advection of any significant quantity of accretion energy across the horizon. Rather, the relative radiative inefficiency of BHCs compared to NS XRBs at low $`\dot{m}`$ is due to the low radiative efficiency of the jets they are powering, not the accretion flow itself.

## Acknowledgements

RPF would like to thank Sera Markoff, Sebastian Heinz and Lars Bildsten for useful discussions. PGJ would like to thank Gordon Ogilvie for useful discussions.


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# The ELODIE survey for northern extra-solar planets II: A Jovian planet on a long-period orbit around GJ 777 A Based on observations made with the ELODIE echelle spectrograph mounted on the 1.93–m Telescope at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence (CNRS) and with the AFOE spectrograph mounted on the 1.5–m Telescope at the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory (SAO). The ELODIE and AFOE measurements discussed in this paper are only available in electronic form at the CDS via anonymous ftp to cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr (130.79.125.5) or via http://cdsweb.u-strasbg.fr/Abstract.html

## 1 Introduction

The ELODIE survey for northern extra-solar planets is a programme aiming at detecting planetary companions around Solar-type stars with the ELODIE echelle spectrograph (Baranne et al. 1996) mounted on the 193–cm Telescope of the Observatoire de Haute-Provence. Details about the programme and the surveyed sample have already been presented (Mayor & Queloz 1996; Perrier et al. 2003). Several planets have been detected by this survey (see Perrier et al. 2003, and references therein).

Four extra-solar planets have been discovered or codiscovered by the the Advanced Fiber-Optic Echelle spectrometer (AFOE, Brown et al. 1994) planet search team (Korzennik et al. 1998): $ρ$ CrB b (Noyes et al. 1997); Ups And c and d (Butler et al. 1999) and HD 89744 b (Korzennik et al. 2000).

In 1997, our two teams decided to start a collaboration on a sample of about 20 stars present in both observing lists and having a similar radial-velocity precision of the order of 10 m s-1. The detection of the low-amplitude radial-velocity variability of GJ 777 A and the characterisation of the planetary companion responsible for these variations are the first results of our common effort.

A preliminary ELODIE orbital solution was presented in Udry et al. (2003b). In Sect. 3, we present our combined radial-velocity data and the updated orbital solution. We also examine and rule out alternative explanations for the origin of the observed radial-velocity variation.

## 2 Stellar properties

The main stellar properties of GJ 777 A are listed in Table 1. Spectral Type, $`m_\mathrm{V}`$, $`BV`$, $`\pi `$, $`\mu _\alpha \mathrm{cos}(\delta )`$ and $`\mu _\delta `$ are from the HIPPARCOS Catalogue (ESA 1997). The effective temperature $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, the surface gravity $`\mathrm{log}g`$, the metallicity $`[`$Fe/H$`]`$ and the microturbulence velocity $`\xi _\mathrm{t}`$ are taken from Santos et al. (2003). $`M_{}`$ is the stellar mass derived from these atmospheric parameters using the Geneva evolutionary models (Schaerer et al. 1993). The bolometric correction $`B.C.`$ is computed from the effective temperature with the calibration in Flower (1996).

The star does not appear to be active. We do not see any trace of emission in the core of the $`\lambda `$ 3968.5 Å Ca ii H line on our ELODIE coadded spectra. A $`\mathrm{log}R_{\mathrm{HK}}^{^{}}`$ = $``$5.05 chromospheric activity indicator is computed from the $`S`$ chromospheric flux indexes in Duncan et al. (1991). The rotation period $`P_{\mathrm{rot}}`$ and $`age(\mathrm{HK})`$ are derived from the activity indicator using the calibrations in Noyes et al. (1984) and Donahue (1993)111also quoted in Henry et al. (1996), respectively. The rotational broadening measured for GJ 777 A from ELODIE cross-correlation function widths is very small. It only allows us to derive an upper limit for the projected rotational velocity: $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$$`<`$ 1 km s-1. The radius $`R_{}`$ is computed from $`L`$ and $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$. With a measured HIPPARCOS photometric scatter of 7 mmag, GJ 777 A is flagged as a constant star.

GJ 777 B, a 14.4–mag M4.5 companion about 3′ away, is mentioned in the Catalogue of Nearby Stars (Gliese 1969). Recent proper motions determinations by Bakos et al. (2002) give $`\mu _\alpha \mathrm{cos}(\delta )`$ = 737 mas yr-1 and $`\mu _\delta `$ = $``$551 mas yr-1 for this object. These values are close to the proper motions quoted in Table 1 for GJ 777 A, thus these two stars probably form a physical pair. The separation between A and B computed from the revised coordinates in Bakos et al. (2002) is $`\rho `$ = 177″. The minimum semi-major axis, $`a_{\mathrm{min}}=0.5\rho /\pi `$, is 1266 AU for the GJ 777 AB binary. This leads to a minimum period of the order of 40 000 yr (assuming $`M_\mathrm{A}`$ = 0.96 M and $`M_\mathrm{B}`$ = 0.3 M).

## 3 Radial-velocity data and orbital solution

Between JD = 2 449 611 (September 1994) and JD = 2 452 598 (November 2002), 56 ELODIE and 13 AFOE radial-velocity measurements have been gathered. The method used for extracting precise velocities from the observed spectra is described in Baranne et al. (1996) and Perrier et al. (2003) for ELODIE and in Noyes et al. (1997) for AFOE. The mean radial-velocity uncertainty achieved for GJ 777 A is $`ϵ_{\mathrm{RV}}`$ = 7.5 m s-1 with ELODIE and $`ϵ_{\mathrm{RV}}`$ = 9.7 m s-1 with AFOE. The $`rms`$ of the radial velocities is 15.2 m s-1 (18.2 m s-1) for ELODIE (AFOE). The $`\chi ^2`$ probability for hypothesis of constant velocities is less than 5$``$10-4 for both instruments so GJ 777 A is clearly a radial-velocity variable.

GJ 777 A is a slowly rotating chromospherically quiescent star. The expected stellar-activity induced radial-velocity signal is therefore very low. Even so, we checked the stability of the line bisectors using the method presented in Queloz et al. (2001). Our ELODIE bisectors were found to be constant without any trace of correlation with the radial velocities. The effect of long-period magnetic activity cycles on radial-velocity measurements is still not well known. The possibility that this kind of phenomenon is responsible for the observed long-period signal cannot be rejected for the moment. Accurate studies of this problem will be soon performed with the new HARPS spectrograph on the 3.6–m Telescope at ESO–La Silla Observatory, especially designed for high-precision radial-velocity measurements (Pepe et al. 2002).

We also checked the radial-velocity signal against instrumental effects. Figure 1 shows a comparison between the observed GJ 777 A signal and the residuals for HD 71148, a G5V non-variable star. The $`rms`$ of the 98 HD 71148 residuals is 7.8 m s-1 and their fitted slope is compatible with zero. The detected signal for GJ 777 A is not seen for this comparison star.

The fitted orbital elements to the combined ELODIE and AFOE radial velocities are presented in Table 2. The AFOE velocity zero-point is arbitrary so we also adjust the radial-velocity offset between the two instruments: $`\mathrm{\Delta }RV`$ = $`RV_{\mathrm{ELODIE}}RV_{\mathrm{AFOE}}`$. Some of the parameters are weakly constrained. This is specially the case for the period and the eccentricity. The time span of the ELODIE measurements is 2987 d, a value smaller than the derived period. This causes a significant uncertainty in $`P`$. We can see in Fig. 2 that the radial-velocity maximum is not perfectly covered. This probably increases the derived eccentricity. With these orbital elements and assuming 0.96 M for the primary star mass, we compute a minimum mass of 1.32 MJup for GJ 777 Ab and an orbital semi-major axis of 4.8 AU. As GJ 777 A is close to the Sun ($`d`$ = 15.9 pc), its projected orbital semi-major axis is relatively large: $`a_1\mathrm{sin}i`$$``$ 0.4 mas on the sky. This system is thus an easy target for the future interferometric astrometric facilities (VLTI, SIM).

We also computed the orbital solution using the ORBIT software described in Forveille et al. (1999). The resulting orbital elements were in full agreement with the values in Table 2. This software also allowed us to check the fit errors by performing Monte–Carlo simulations. The output of these simulations are 68% confidence level (i.e. 1 $`\sigma `$) intervals for each parameter. As expected, the error in $`P`$ is largely asymmetric: $`+`$4700/$``$965 d. This is also the case for the error in $`e`$: $`+`$0.23/$``$0.14. The Monte–Carlo errors in the other parameters are rather symmetric but sometimes slightly larger than the errors obtained from the fit. This is particularly the case for $`T`$ where the Monte–Carlo error is $`\pm `$ 118 d.

We see from the Monte–Carlo simulations that a zero eccentricity is more than 3 $`\sigma `$ away from the fitted value. We nevertheless tried to fit a circular orbital solution to the data. The residuals value obtained for this latter solution is 10.2 m s-1 a value that is not much larger than the eccentric orbit value. From these facts, we conclude that a circular orbit cannot be excluded with the available data but it is rather unlikely.

## 4 Concluding remarks

The number of detected extra-solar planets resembling Jupiter slowly increases with the duration of the different radial-velocity planet searches. What would be in our sense a real Jupiter analog? It would be a planet with a period not too different from $`P_{\mathrm{Jup}}`$ (say for example: $`P_{\mathrm{Jup}}`$$`\pm `$ 25%), a moderate eccentricity ($`e<`$0.2), a mass close to one Jupiter mass ($`\pm `$ 50% for example). Moreover, this planet would have to be innermost gas giant in the system. Table 3 lists the characteristics of the 4 best Jupiter-analog candidates (planets with $`P`$$`>`$2500 d and $`m_2\mathrm{sin}i`$$`<`$ 5 MJup): $ϵ$ Eri b (Hatzes et al. 2000); 47 UMa c (Fischer et al. 2002); GJ 777 Ab (this paper) and 55 Cnc d (Marcy et al. 2002). None of them matches all the criteria mentioned above.

The distributions of the orbital elements as well as the planet-mass distribution seem to be continuous so we do not see any reason why real Jupiter analogs would not eventually be detected.

GJ 777 Ab is a planet in a stellar binary system. The number of extra-solar planets detected in multiple systems now approaches 20 (Eggenberger et al., in prep.). Although the sample of such planets is not large, some properties are now emerging. Significant differences between planets in multiple systems and planets orbiting single stars are found (Zucker & Mazeh 2002; Udry et al. 2003a). The study of planets in multiple systems is potentially very rich in information on formation scenarios and migration processes (Eggenberger et al., in prep.).

###### Acknowledgements.

We acknowledge support from the Swiss National Research Found (FNRS), the Geneva University and the French CNRS. We are grateful to the Observatoire de Haute-Provence for the generous time allocation. The AFOE research was funded in part by NASA grants NAG 5–7505 and NAG 5–10854. We are grateful to the staff of the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory for help with the AFOE observations. This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France.


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# References

Radially Interrupted Viscous Fingers in a Lifting Hele-Shaw Cell
Suparna Sinha1, Subrata Kumar Kabiraj1, Tapati Dutta2 and Sujata Tarafdar1

1 Condensed Matter Physics Research Centre,

Physics Department, Jadavpur University,

Kolkata 700032, India.

Corresponding author: S Tarafdar (email : sujata@juphys.ernet.in)

2 Physics Department, St. Xavier’s College,

Kolkata 700016, India

Abstract
Viscous fingers have been produced in the lifting Hele-Shaw cell, with concentric circular grooves etched onto the lower plate. The invading fluid (air) enters the defending newtonian fluid - olive oil as fingers proceeding radially inwards towards the centre. The fingers are interrupted at the circular groove, and reform as secondary fingers. The effect of the grooves is to speed up the fingering process considerably and the fingers now reach the centre much faster. We explain this by comparing the variation in velocity of the fingers in the normal HS cell and the grooved cells with time. In the normal HS cell the fingers move fastest on initial formation and slow down later. Since in case of the grooved plate, the fingers reform and receive a boost in their speed each time they encounter a groove, the fingers proceed to the centre faster.
PACS nos. 47.20.Gv, 47.54.+r, 68.03.-g

Viscous fingers (VF) are formed when a fluid of lower viscosity is forced into a fluid of higher viscosity . The interface between the two fluids, develops finger-like intrusions which sometimes branch repeatedly into fractal patterns. Viscous fingering belongs to the well-known family of Laplacian growth phenomena which include for example - diffusion limited aggregation, dendritic growth and dielectric breakdown .

The process is studied conveniently in the Hele-shaw (HS) cell, where the more viscous defending fluid is confined in a narrow gap between two glass plates. Characteristics of the pattern depend on viscosities of the fluids, interface tension between them and also details of the experimental arrangement and forcing pressure. In the conventional HS cell, the invading fluid enters the gap through a hole in the centre of the upper plate. In the Lifting Hele-Shaw cell (LHSC), the upper plate is slowly lifted, either from one end , or keeping it parallel to the lower plate, in this case the invading fluid enters from the sides forming a radial pattern . The LHSC has not been studied as extensively as the conventional HS cell. It is useful for investigation of adhesion and is receiving a lot of attention at present .

The Hele-shaw cell can be modified in a number of ways to produce interesting variation in the patterns . One way is to etch grooves onto the lower plate, this introduces an anisotropy which affects the patterns , or stretch a piece of cloth across the lower plate . It has also been shown that besides the symmetry of the superposed pattern the local geometry also plays a crucial role . So far there has however, been no report of study of patterns in the LHSC with any such perturbations.

In the present communication we report a study of LHSC patterns with concentric circular grooved etched on the lower plate. The etched pattern is radially symmetric conforming to the LHSC arrangement and the fingers entering the cell from the sides are interrupted normally. This causes the fingering pattern to be disrupted and reformed each time it meets a groove. The appearance and width of the fingers change and the most surprising result is that the entire fingering pattern proceeds much faster and the fingers now reach the centre in a fraction of the time it takes without the grooves.

Our lifting Hele-Shaw cell consists of two thick $`(0.5cm)`$ glass plates. The lower one is fixed to a rigid frame, and the upper one can be lifted using a pneumatical cylinder arrangement. The lifting force can be adjusted. In the standard LHSC for studying adhesion the velocity of plate separation is constant, whereas in our apparatus the lifting force is controlled and kept constant during the experiment, allowing the velocity to vary. The process of pattern formation is recorded by a CCD camera (at the rate of 25 frames per second) and analysed using image-pro plus software. The defending fluid is placed on the lower plate, and the upper plate pressed down on it. This makes the fluid form a circular blob with diameter of several cm., the upper plate is then lifted slowly.

In the present modification we use two different lower plates, one has a single circular groove (diameter 19 mm) etched on it, and the other has three concentric grooves (diameter 9 mm, 17.5 mm and 24.5 mm). The width of the grooves is about 0.1 cm, and depth $`0.05cm`$. The patterns are compared with normal LHSC with a plane lower plate. The defending fluid used here is olive oil (coloured slightly with a dye), this is a newtonian fluid and the invading fluid is air (assumed to have zero viscosity).

Figure 1(a-b) shows two successive stages in pattern formation, when the lower plate has no grooves. Figure 2(a-b) and figure 3(a-b) show respectively the patterns with one and three grooves. Table I shows the results of measurements - we take a measured volume of olive-oil using a micro-pipette. Different sets are taken with different force of separation, in the present arrangement though the force can be varied, we cnnot measure it precisely. The diameter of the initial circular pattern before fingering starts is given, $`t_c`$ is the time required for the fingers to reach the centre of the pattern and $`t_s`$, is the time required for complete separation of the plates. The results show that for the 3-grooved plate, the time for fingers to reach the centre is always much smaller than for the plane plate. for the single grooved plate, the effect is not for noticable. The time required for the plates to separate completely is however, more or less independent of the presence of grooves. This is expected, since the total energy required to separate the plates should depend on the radius of the iniital blob and its thickness only.

Each result shown in the table is an average over 4-7 patterns. The fingering is a stochastic process and the patterns are not perfectly symmetric, so the fingering times reported are not exact quantities, but the gross characteristics can be identified in spite of a certain amount of uncertainty.

To explain the difference in $`t_c`$ between patterns with and without grooves, we look at the finger velocities in the two cases . Figure 2 shows how the velocity of the fastest finger varies with time. In figure 2a we show velocity vs. time for a typical pattern without grooves. The velocity is seen to be highest at the outset, it later undergoes some fluctuations but on the whole decreases, ultimately going to zero. In the grooved plate patterns we observe that as soon as one or two of the competing fingers reach the largest groove the air spreads very rapidly around the groove, and then start forming secondary fingers from the groove, which look exactly like the initial fingers. the secondary fingers again start with the very high initial velocity of the primary fingers. this process is repeated at the next groove. So on the whole the fingers proceed towards the centre with a much higher average velocity compared to the plane plate, making $`t_c`$ much smaller. For the single-grooved plate, the lifting force in set-II is much smaller, so the fingers do not get time to speed up within the groove. we are at present, studying the effect of different lifting forces more thoroughly.

In the grooved plates there is a strong tendency towards cavitation. It is quite difficult to eliminate air-bubbles completely and it is possible that minute quantities of air remain trapped in the grooves or in irregularities in the plates, these are initially too small to be seen by the naked eye, but start expanding as the upper late is lifted. Cavitation and its role in adhesion has been discussed previously by Gay et al . The initial width and velocity of fingers has been studied theoretically by linear stability analysis , but the development of finger velocities upto breakthrough or upto complete separation of the plates in LHSC has not been studied in detail. Shelley et al  have studied the full formation of the LHSC pattern numerically, their results indicate that in a newtonian fluid the finger velocity first increases, but then drops off as the fingers approach the centre of the plate. This is similar to what we observe with the newtonian fluid. However, earlier work with a non-newtonian fluid showed that the 5-6 fingers which reach the centre, speed up at the end .

We are continuing the study of VF patterns with circular grooves - we plan to use different fluids, newtonian and non-newtonian and vary the number and spacing of the grooves. we hope to report more detailed results in the near future.

Acknowledgement: This work is supported by the ”Indo-French Centre for the Promotion of Advanced Research/ Centre Franco-Indien Pour le Promotion de la Rechereche Advancee” through a joint project in collaboration with M Ben Amar and Y Couder, Laboratoire de Physique Statistique, ENS Paris. Authors thank Minakshi Maitra for helping with the experiments.

Table I Fingering in LHSC with the lower plate having no groove (plane), one groove (1-grv) and three grooves (3-grv). Lifting force is different in the different sets. The initial diameter of the fluid blob (diam), the time for fingers to reach the centre ($`t_c`$), and the time of separation ($`t_s`$) are shown.

| set | type | vol ($`\mu `$l) | diam. (cm) | $`t_c`$ (sec) | $`t_s`$ (sec) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| I | plane | 150 | 5.2 | 4.6 | 7.9 |
|  | 3-grv | 150 | 4.5 | 1.3 | 8.0 |
| II | plane | 150 | 5.7 | 28.5 | 34.5 |
|  | 1-grv | 150 | 5.7 | 28.1 | 34.7 |
|  | 3-grv | 150 | 5.5 | 0.9 | 32.9 |

Figure captions

Figure 1. (a) and (b) showan early and final stage of pattens with the plane lower plate, (c) and (d) are for the single-grooved plate and (e) and (f) for the three-grooved plate.

Figure 2. (a) and (b) show velocity of the fastest finger vs. time for the plane and three-grooved plate respectively. In (b) $`v_1`$ is before reaching the largest groove, $`v_2`$ between largest and middle groove, $`v_3`$ between middle and smallest groove and $`v_4`$ from smallest groove to centre.


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# The spectrum of the cosmic X-ray background observed by RTXE/PCA

## 1 Introduction

Many efforts over the last few decades have contributed to an understanding of the origin of the cosmic X-ray background (CXB) in the 2-10 keV band (e.g. Boldt (1987), Hasinger et al. (1991), Fabian & Barcons (1992), Mushotzky et al. (2000), Giacconi et al. (2002), Brandt et al. (2003)). Most, if not all, of the CXB emission is explained by the superposition of point sources (AGNs) distributed over the Universe (see e.g. Rees (1980), Giacconi & Zamorani (1987), Setti & Woltjer (1989), Giacconi et al. (2002), Moretti et al. (2003)).

Accurate measurements of the X-ray spectrum of the CXB were obtained from large solid angle measurements with collimated spectrometers aboard the HEAO-1 observatory. The HEAO-1 A2 experiment was designed specifically for this problem, with special care being taken to separate the signal from cosmic and instrumental backgrounds. The A2 proportional counter measurements from $`360`$ keV (Marshall et al. (1980)) are extended to 1 MeV with the scintillators of the A4 experiment (Gruber (1992)). Numerous other measurements have been made with imaging telescopes - EINSTEIN, ROSAT, ASCA, BeppoSAX, CHANDRA, and XMM (e.g. Wu et al. (1991), Gendreau et al. (1995), Chen et al. (1996), Miyaji et al. (1998), Vecchi et al. (1999), Mushotzky et al. (2000), Lumb et al. (2002)). The HEAO-1 A2 measurements were made over a large solid angle with an instrument designed to ensure a precise instrumental background subtraction. The imaging experiments measured the CXB over a much smaller solid angle and could be subject to cosmic variance (see e.g. Barcons (1992), Barcons et al. (2000)). The measurements made by X-ray telescopes all yield an absolute normalization significantly larger than that of HEAO-1 A2, a result difficult to explain by cosmic variance alone (e.g. Barcons et al. (2000))

The Proportional Counter Array (PCA) aboard Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) provides an opportunity to perform a new and independent measurement of the CXB spectrum based on nearly all sky data – the first such measurement since the HEAO-1 observations.

## 2 Data analysis and results

### 2.1 Data and software

The Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (Bradt et al. (1993)) carries three instruments including the X-ray spectrometer: the Proportional Counter Array (PCA). It consists of 5 independent Proportional Counter Units (PCUs) which are sensitive to photons in 2-60 keV energy range. For Crab-like spectra, 88% of the detected counts are below 10 keV. Due to its high effective area ($``$6400 cm2 at 6-7 keV), relatively precise modeling of the instrumental background, and low deadtime, the PCA can reliably measure spectra for sources with flux greater than 1 mCrab, which is about the flux of the CXB integrated over the 1 degree beam of the PCA.

The RXTE is capable of fast slews (6 deg/min); typical operations include 1-2 slews per orbit. Although operations are planned to slew during the South Atlantic Anomaly or periods when targets are occulted to the greatest extent possible, a substantial amount of blank sky and dark earth occulted data is obtained. In addition, several Guest observer programs requested scanning observations over moderate areas of the sky. The slewing and scanning data can be used to construct maps of the sky with the $`1\mathrm{deg}`$ resolution of the PCA collimator. (e.g. Revnivtsev & Sunyaev (2002)). Scanning RXTE/PCA observations are very useful for the localization of newly discovered sources (Markwardt et al. (2000)) and the study of extended structures on the X-ray sky, especially at relatively high energies (10-20 keV), where only limited amount of data exists (see e.g. Valinia & Marshall (1998), Revnivtsev (2003)).

In our study we used RXTE/PCA data taken during reorientations (slews or scans) from April 16, 1996 through March 22, 1999. This time period was chosen to stay within a single high voltage epoch of PCA. The total number of observations is approximately 17,600 with $``$8.5 Msec of exposure. These data contain both clean-sky observations and Earth occulted observations. Clean-sky data provide the cosmic X-ray background signal, while Earth-occulted data provide information about the PCA instrument background.

The first attempts to model the PCA background used earth looking data as an estimate of the instrument background. No separation between dark and sunlit earth was made. The estimated CXB spectrum, using this background estimator, deviated from a power law with index $`1.4`$ at $`15keV`$, and also some soft component appeared, an effects that were attributed to reflection from the bright earth. Experience with BBXRT and ASCA (albeit at lower energies) suggests that the sunlit earth is more than an order of magnitude brighter than the dark earth. As we have taken care to include only dark earth data, and the statistically significant signal extends only to 15-20 keV, we are confident that the earth albedo is effectively zero for this experiment. At these low energies the Earth atmosphere, consisting of nitrogen and oxygen, is a very effective absorber, however at energies higher than 10-15 keV effect of reflection from the atmosphere plays an important role (see e.g. Pendleton et al. (1992)) and should be taken into account.

Our analysis assumes that the dark Earth emits essentially zero flux in X-rays. In reality the emission of the dark Earth at higher photon energies is modified by the reflection of cosmic X-ray background and radiation from brightest X-ray sources. However below we would assume that the influence of this effect is small in the spectral band of our interest.

Data reduction was done using standard tools of LHEASOFT 5.2 package. We analyzed data from PCA detectors PCU 0, 1 and 2, which have largest exposure times. Noisy parts of data were filtered out by applying the selection criteria $`ELECTRON\mathrm{\_}0,1,2<0.1`$. All results were corrected for the deadtime (http://legacy.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/xte/recipes/ pca\_deadtime.html).

The effective field of view of the PCA is $`\mathrm{\Omega }=2.9710^4`$ sr. This value is derived by fitting scans over the Crab nebula to a model which convolves the response of a perfect hexagonal collimator (8 inches high with a 1/8 inch flat to flat opening) with a Gaussian (FWHM 6 arcmin, Jahoda et al. (1996)). This model is appropriate for many independent and nearly co-aligned hexagonal collimators; the width of the Gaussian characterizes the average misalignment. While construction of the PCA collimators from corrugated sheets soldered together causes strong correlations between nearby collimator cells, the model works adequately to describe the ensemble of $`20,000`$ collimator cells per PCU.

To check the overall normalization (i.e. net area) of the PCA we analyzed the Crab monitoring observations obtained approximately every two weeks over the entire period during which CXB data was collected. We selected data from the same anodes as described above (layer 1, PCUs 0,1 and 2). With standard response matrix, produced by FTOOLS 5.2 package the photon index of the Crab spectrum in the 3-20 keV energy band was measured to be $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2.09\pm 0.01`$ with a normalization of $`N=11.6\pm 0.4`$ phot/s/cm2/keV (the value of neutral absorption column was fixed at $`N_H=210^{21}`$ cm-2; the results in the PCA band are insensitive to this).

This fit predicts a Crab nebula flux of $`2.6610^8`$ erg/s/cm2 (2-10 keV) which is high compared to the ”conventional” value. Zombeck (1990) reports the Crab spectrum as presented by Seward (1978) to be $`dN/dE=10E^{2.05}`$ phot/s/cm2/keV, which gives a 2-10 keV flux of $`2.3910^8`$ erg/s/cm2. To our knowledge, more recent X-ray experiments have not measured this normalization directly, using instead this value as a standard candle. To put our measurements on this scale, we correct our measured fluxes downward by a factor of $`1.11`$; this is equivalent to increasing the estimated geometric area of the PCA. 111We (the GSFC co-authors) expect that the FTOOLS 5.3 package, anticipated for fall 2003 release, will increase the geometric area parameterization in the xpcaarf tool, which will effectively reduce derived fluxes by this factor; given the good agreement in the spectral index between PCA and the other measurements, this boot-strap approach represents the best available calibration of the total area. A multi-mission attempt to use type I X-ray bursts as standard candles reached a similar conclusion (Kuulkers et al. (2003)) using an earlier version of the PCA response matrix.

Deviations between the modeled and measured Crab spectrum do not exceed $``$1%. In all subsequent analysis we cite only statistical uncertainties unless otherwise noted. The quoted uncertainties are consistent with the statistical distributions of measured quantities.

We used the faint source (”L7\_240”) CM background model (http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/xte/ recipes/pcabackest.html). The background model includes by design both the cosmic and instrumental background, so the background subtracted rate for ”blank sky” observations should be approximately zero. The background model is constructed from observations of six different blank sky points; the net background rate is slightly different for the six points due to spatial fluctuations of the CXB.

Combination of Earth-occulted observations with sky observations provides the spectrum of the CXB. The Earth is treated as a shutter in the front of the PCA. Fig. 1 illustrates this point. The “sky” rate is approximately zero; the decrement between sky and occulted data is just the CXB flux.

### 2.2 Map of the sky

In order to obtain the spectrum of the CXB, we need to avoid the contamination from bright galactic and extragalactic sources present in the data. For this purpose we have constructed the map of the sky using the same Standard2 data mode from which we collect the CXB spectrum.

The Standard2 data mode of the PCA is present in all observations, maintains the maximum useful energy resolution, separates data by anode, and provides 16 second time resolution. The background subtracted flux, measured by each PCU in 3-20 keV energy band during each 16 second time bin was ascribed to the point of the sky where the optical axis of the RXTE/PCA was pointed at the middle of the time bin. Angular resolution is limited by the size of the PCA beam ($`1^{}`$ FWHM) and the movement of the optical axis during each 16 sec interval. The typical velocity of the RXTE optical axis on the sky – $``$0.1 deg/sec – limits the spatial resolution along the slew direction $`11.5^{}`$. The RXTE/PCA collimator field of view is $`1^{}`$ (FWHM). Therefore the Standard2 data provides a skymap with $`11.5^{}`$ resolution. The map is presented in Fig.2.

Dark $`1^{}`$ circles represent point sources, and the dark bar along the Galactic plane is caused by the Galactic ridge diffuse emission. Sco X-1 is not seen on the picture, because its strong X-ray flux leads to violation of our criteria of filtering the “bad” data.

The $`3\sigma `$ sensitivity of the obtained map to the point sources is approximately at the level of $`10^{11}`$ erg/s/cm2. At the present time this all sky map is most sensitive in the energy band 3-20 keV. In addition to that data of RXTE observations in the period 1999-2002 can provide us approximately 2 times more effective exposure of the sky resulting in the all-sky map limiting sensitivity $`0.510^{11}`$ erg/s/cm2. Analysis of the point sources is beyond the scope of this paper. We plan to present such analysis as a separate work.

Data within 1.5 of all detected sources was masked. We have excluded the data obtained at low Galactic latitudes ($`|b|<20^{}`$) in order to avoid the influence of the Galactic ridge diffuse emission and weak Galactic X-ray sources. Regions of $`10^{}`$ around LMC and SMC were also excluded.

Analysis of the latitude profiles of the Galactic ridge emission (Iwan et al. (1982), Valinia & Marshall (1998), Revnivtsev et al. 2003) shows that its contribution to the detected X-ray flux at latitudes $`|b|>20^{}`$ is less than approximately $`10^2`$ cnts/s/PCU, and therefore negligible for our study (CXB has $``$2 cnts/s/PCU).

After exclusion of all mentioned regions we have approximately 1.7 Msec of data, covering $``$55% of the sky ($`22.610^3`$ deg2) with non-zero exposure. Our sensitivity at higher energies is limited by the statistics of the background removal; our dark earth spectrum contains only 25 ksec of data.

### 2.3 Spectrum of CXB

The unfolded spectrum of CXB is presented in Fig.3. The spectrum is well approximated by a single power law with a photon index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.42\pm 0.02`$ and normalization $`N=9.8\pm 0.3`$ phot/s/cm2/keV/sr. If the slope is fixed at $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.4`$, the normalization is $`N=9.5\pm 0.3`$ phot/s/cm2/keV/sr. The observed flux of CXB in 3-10 keV energy band is $`F_{310\mathrm{k}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}=(5.17\pm 0.05)10^8`$ erg/s/cm2/sr. The normalizations and flux are reported after the downward correction of 1.11 described above.

The study of CXB emission with PCA is limited by the accuracy of the instrumental background subtraction above 10 keV. Unmodelled variation in the PCA background averages 0.027 ct/s/PCU in the 2-10 keV band and 0.013 ct/s/PCU in the 10-20 keV band (these figures are layer 1 only Markwardt et al. (2002) and thus relevant to the data discussed here).

These errors were added in quadrature to the statistical errors of the measured count rates. The net statistical and systematic uncertainties of measured CXB spectrum are shown by shaded area in Fig.3.

### 2.4 Cosmic variance

Measurements of the CXB are also affected by spatial fluctuations, or cosmic variance, over the sky (see e.g. Barcons et al. (2000)). Our CXB spectrum, which averages over a huge solid angle, is expected to represent a well defined average, although the background model, which is based on observations of only 6 distinct deep exposure points, may be affected. Other instruments that measure the CXB spectrum over smaller solid angles may be directly affected by this variance.

The data used to create the background model also allows a limited measurement of the fluctuations on the scale of the PCA beam of $`1^{}`$. We analyzed data from the 6 “background” points (marked with open circles in Fig.2). After subtraction of the PCA instrument plus average sky background, the spectra of these sky areas are significantly different. The individual spectra can be described with a common power-law index but differing normalization. The fractional root-mean-square amplitude of this variation in normalization is $`7\pm 1`$%. The dashed lines in Fig. 3 show the $`\pm 1\sigma `$ range of normalizations that would be measured over 1 square degree solid angles given this variation.

Field to field variation of the CXB is due to a combination of Poisson noise associated with different populations of sources drawn from the log N-log S distribution and to large scale structure. For the 1 degree field of view of the PCA, the Poisson variance is expected to be $`4\%`$ (Barcons & Fabian (1998); Barcons et al. (1998)).

This suggests that the PCA background fields have measured large scale structure in the CXB, an interpretation consistent with Chandra measurements of the CXB fluctuations of $`2530\%`$ on scales of $`0.07`$ sq.deg (Yang et al. (2003)), after scaling by the square root of the solid angle.

## 3 Conclusion

The large amount of slew data from the RXTE/PCA instrument allows us to study the spectrum and intensity of cosmic X-ray background averaged over a large solid angle.

After excluding areas around bright sources, Galactic plane region ($`|b|<20^{}`$) and regions of Large and Small Magellanic Clouds our data covers approximately $`22.610^3`$ deg2 of the sky. This data set measures, by definition, the average properties of the CXB.

The spectrum of the CXB in the 3-20 keV energy band obtained from RXTE/PCA slew data is well approximated by a power law in the form $`dN(E)/dE=NE^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ with photon index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.42\pm 0.02`$ and normalization $`N=9.8\pm 0.3`$ phot/s/cm2/keV/sr. Relatively large systematic uncertainties of the PCA instrumental background at E$`>`$15-20 keV, and the decreasing ratio of CXB to instrument background did not allow us to study the spectrum above $``$20 keV, and the high energy cut-off detected by HEAO-1 A2.

The slope of CXB spectrum obtained by RXTE/PCA agrees well with that obtained by other observatories. The normalization value is slightly higher, but marginally compatible with, HEAO-1 A2 (Marshall et al. (1980)), obtained over a similarly large solid angle of the sky. The measurements of CXB normalization by different X-ray instruments give different variable values (Fig. 4, 5), however, the weighted average of the imaging measurements gives a value that is inconsistent with HEAO-1 A2 (Barcons et al. (2000)) and consistent with ours.

Our measurement relies on a scaling of the absolute area of the PCA to match the canonical value of the flux from the Crab nebula; as many experiments have used the Crab as a standard candle and as our measurement of the spectral shape is in good agreement, this should add no more than a few per cent uncertainty. Our result is marginally compatible both with the result from the Xenon-filled, collimated proportional counters of HEAO-1 A2 and with the results from imaging instruments. However, observed subtle discrepancies between these measurements suggest that there are remaining systematic issues in the calibration of the effective area and/or solid angle in either the collimated or imaging experiments.

###### Acknowledgements.

Authors are grateful to R. Mushotzky for valuable comments and suggestions. This research has made use of data obtained through the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center Online Service, provided by the NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center.


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# Performance Limitations of Flat Histogram Methods and Optimality of Wang-Landau Sampling

## Abstract

We determine the optimal scaling of local-update flat-histogram methods with system size by using a perfect flat-histogram scheme based on the exact density of states of 2D Ising models. The typical tunneling time needed to sample the entire bandwidth does not scale with the number of spins $`N`$ as the minimal $`N^2`$ of an unbiased random walk in energy space. While the scaling is power law for the ferromagnetic and fully frustrated Ising model, for the $`\pm J`$ nearest-neighbor spin glass the distribution of tunneling times is governed by a fat-tailed Fréchet extremal value distribution that obeys exponential scaling. We find that the Wang-Landau algorithm shows the same scaling as the perfect scheme and is thus optimal.

Monte Carlo methods are well-suited for the simulation of large many body problems, since the complexity for a single Monte Carlo update step scales only polynomially and often linearly in the system size, while the configuration space grows exponentially with the system size. The performance of a Monte Carlo method is then determined by how many update steps are needed to efficiently sample the configuration space. For second order phase transitions in unfrustrated systems the problem of “critical slowing down” – a rapid divergence of the number of Monte Carlo steps needed to obtain a subsequent uncorrelated configuration – was solved more than a decade ago by cluster update algorithms SwendsenWangWolf . At first order phase transitions and in systems with many local minima of the free energy such as frustrated magnets or spin glasses, there is the similar problem of long tunneling times between local minima. With energy barriers $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ scaling linearly with the linear system size $`L`$, the tunneling times $`\tau `$ at an inverse temperature $`\beta =1/k_BT`$ scale exponentially with the system size, $`\tau \mathrm{exp}(\beta \mathrm{\Delta }E)\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{const}\times L)`$. Several methods were developed to overcome this tunneling problem, such as the multicanonical method Multicanonical , broad histograms de Oliveira et al. (1996), simulated and parallel tempering Tempering , and Wang-Landau sampling WangLandau . The common aim of all these methods is to broaden the range of energies sampled within Monte Carlo simulations from the sharply peaked distribution of canonical sampling at fixed temperature in order to ease the tunneling through barriers.

Ideally, all relevant energy levels are sampled equally often during a simulation, thus producing a “flat histogram” in energy space. Some methods approach this goal by variations and generalizations of canonical distributions Multicanonical ; Tempering , while others de Oliveira et al. (1996); WangLandau  discard the notion of temperature completely and instead are formulated in terms of the density of states. With a probability $`p(E)`$ for a single configuration with energy $`E`$, the probability of sampling an arbitrary configuration with energy $`E`$ is given as $`P_E=\rho (E)p(E)`$, where the density of states $`\rho (E)`$ counts the number of states with energy $`E`$. Upon choosing $`p(E)1/\rho (E)`$ instead of $`p(E)\mathrm{exp}(\beta E)`$ one obtains a constant probability $`P_E`$ for visiting each energy level $`E`$, and hence a flat histogram. Wang and Landau WangLandau  proposed a simple and elegant flat histogram algorithm that iteratively improves approximations to the initially unknown density of states $`\rho (E)`$. Once $`\rho (E)`$ is determined with sufficient accuracy, the Monte Carlo algorithm just performs a random walk in energy space. Within two years of publication this algorithm has been applied to a large number of problems Applications ; Schulz:02 ; Yamaguchi:02  and extended to quantum systems Troyer:03 .

In this Letter we investigate the performance of flat histogram algorithms in general, and the Wang-Landau algorithm in particular, for three systems for which the density of states $`\rho (E)`$ is known exactly on finite two-dimensional (2D) lattices: the Ising ferromagnet as the simplest example, the fully frustrated Ising model as a prototype for frustrated systems, and the $`\pm J`$ Ising spin glass. For each of these models we construct a perfect flat histogram method by simulating a random walk in configuration space where we employ the known density of states for these models to set $`p(E)1/\rho (E)`$.

As a measure of performance we use the average tunneling time $`\tau `$ to get from a ground state (lowest energy configuration) to an anti-ground state (configuration of highest energy), which is the relevant time scale for sampling the whole phase space footnote . Since the number of energy levels in a $`d`$-dimensional system with linear size $`L`$ scales with the number of spins $`N=L^d`$, the tunneling time for a pure random walk in energy space is

$$\tau N^2=L^{2d}.$$
(1)
This scaling was in fact found for first order phase transitions Multicanonical ; WangLandau . However, none of the systems we study exhibit this scaling. While the ferromagnetic and fully-frustrated models exhibit power law scaling, for the spin glass the distribution of characteristic tunneling times is extremely broad and appears to diverge exponentially with system size. For all three models the scaling of the performance of the Wang-Landau algorithm is the same as that of the perfect flat histogram method.

We first look at homogeneous systems, with both ferromagnetic and fully frustrated couplings (see inset of Fig. 1). Exact densities of states $`\rho (E)`$ were calculated using the program of Beale Beale (1995) for the ferromagnet and the algorithm of Saul and Kardar Saul and Kardar (1994) for the fully frustrated Ising model. In Fig. 1 the measured tunneling times are plotted versus system size $`L`$ for the perfect flat histogram method using both local and $`N`$-fold way updates. Instead of the expected scaling Eq. (1), we find a more rapid increase following $`\tau L^{2d+z}`$ with $`z_{\mathrm{local}}^{\mathrm{FM}}=0.743\pm 0.007`$ for the ferromagnetic (FM) model and $`z_{\mathrm{local}}^{\mathrm{FF}}=1.727\pm 0.004`$ for the fully frustrated (FF) model. Frustration significantly increases the scaling exponent but still conserves power law scaling.

A previous study Schulz:02  suggests that $`N`$-fold way updates NFoldWay  speed up Wang-Landau sampling. We find identical scaling exponents for $`N`$-fold way and local updates within our error bars, see Fig. 1, implying that any performance improvement remains constant with system size. As can be seen from Fig. 2, $`N`$-fold way updates reduce the tunneling time by roughly a factor of 2, independent of system size. In practice, the reduction of tunneling times is offset by the added expense of $`N`$-fold way updates. The slight decrease of tunneling ratios in the fully frustrated model compared to the ferromagnetic model can be explained by the increasing degeneracy of ground states in the fully frustrated model, which decreases the ground state lifetime and makes $`N`$-fold way updates less effective.

To determine the performance in more complex energy landscapes, we study the 2D $`\pm J`$ Ising spin glass, where we find exponential scaling. We measured tunneling times of the perfect flat histogram method for 1000 realizations for the system sizes $`L=6,8,10,12,14,16,18`$, and 350 realizations for $`L=20`$ using the exact density of states obtained by the algorithm of Saul and Kardar Saul and Kardar (1994). For fixed system size the tunneling times are scattered over several orders of magnitude for the various realizations, as shown in Figs. 3 a) and 3 b). To analyze the underlying distributions we use extremal value theory Embrechts et al. (1997). The central limit theorem for extremal values Fisher and Tippett (1928) states that the extrema of large samples are distributed according to one of only three distributions, depending on whether the tails of the original distribution are fat-tailed (algebraic), exponential or thin-tailed (decaying faster than exponential). This theorem is successfully applied in the analysis of tails in diverse fields such as hydrology, insurance and finance Reiss and Thomas (1997). Surprisingly, here we find that not only the extrema, but all of the measured tunneling times \[see Figs. 3 a) and 3 b)\] are distributed according to the Fréchet extremal value distribution for fat-tailed distributions:

$$H_{\xi ;\mu ;\beta }(\tau )=\mathrm{exp}\left[\left(1\xi \frac{\tau \mu }{\beta }\right)^{1/\xi }\right],$$
(2)
with $`\xi <0`$. The parameters of the distribution are determined by a maximum likelihood estimator. Fig. 4 shows that the location parameter $`\mu `$ specifying the maximum of the distribution and the scale parameter $`\beta `$ determining the width of the distribution scale exponentially with linear system size $`L`$:

$`\mu `$ $``$ $`\mathrm{exp}(L/(4.21\pm 0.04)),`$ (3)
$`\beta `$ $``$ $`\mathrm{exp}(L/(3.37\pm 0.05)).`$ (4)
The shape parameter $`\xi `$, shown in the inset of Fig. 4, determines the power law decay of the fat tails of the distribution

$$\frac{dH_{\xi ;\mu ;\beta }}{d\tau }\stackrel{\tau \mathrm{}}{}\tau ^{(11/\xi )}.$$
(5)
From this asymptotic behavior one can see that the $`m`$-th moment of a fat tailed Fréchet distribution (with $`\xi <0`$) is well defined only if $`|\xi |<1/m`$. We find that $`|\xi |>1/2`$ for $`L10`$, which implies that the variance ($`m=2`$) does not exist and the central limit theorem for mean values does not apply. Any direct estimate of the mean tunneling time – as opposed to the most likely time given by the Fréchet location parameter – then has an infinite error. This breadth may explain differences in our conclusion from those in Refs. Berg:92, ; Zhan:00, . It also looks plausible, although we cannot go to large enough systems, that $`|\xi |`$ increases monotonically with system size and could become larger than $`1`$, in which case even the mean tunneling time ($`m=1`$) becomes ill-defined. The most likely tunneling time, given by the location parameter $`\mu `$, would still remain well defined and finite.

Since the tunneling time is to a large extent dominated by the energy landscape at low energies, we study, as a qualitative measure for the complexity of the energy landscape, the distribution of $`\rho (E_1)/\rho (E_0)`$ where $`\rho (E_1)`$ is the number of first excited states and $`\rho (E_0)`$ the number of ground states. Again we find fat tailed Fréchet distributions, as shown in Figs. 3 c) and 3 d), suggesting that intrinsic properties of the 2D $`\pm J`$ spin glass account for the observed distribution of the measured tunneling times. In Fig. 5 we show the measured tunneling times versus the ratio $`\rho (E_1)/\rho (E_0)`$. A strong correlation over five orders of magnitude is found, supporting the argument.

The question arises why the scaling behaviors of the fully frustrated model and the spin glass are different. Both models have an exponentially large number of ground states and an extensive ground state entropy, but the tunneling time scaling is algebraic for the fully frustrated model and exponential for the spin glass. We believe that the reason is the difference in complexity of the energy landscapes in the two models. While the energy landscape above the large number of ground states of a frustrated model can be simple, the energy landscape of the spin glass is more complex with an extremely large number of local minima: The number of first excited states $`\rho (E_1)`$ that can be reached from the $`\rho (E_0)`$ ground states by one single spin flip is at most $`L^d\rho (E_0)`$. The number of local minima that are not connected to the ground state by a single spin flip can thus be estimated as $`\rho (E_1)L^d\rho (E_0)`$. For the 2D ferromagnetic model the ratio $`\rho (E_1)/\rho (E_0)`$ is exactly $`L^2`$, and $`\rho (E_1)/\rho (E_0)`$ is of order $`L^2`$ for the fully frustrated model. In contrast, in the 2D spin glass the ratio $`\rho (E_1)/\rho (E_0)`$ exceeds $`L^2`$ by several orders of magnitude for some realizations, as can be seen from Figs. 3 c), 3 d) and 5.

Finally we compare the tunneling times measured in the Wang-Landau algorithm to the perfect flat histogram method. The Wang-Landau algorithm approaches the exact density of states $`\rho (E)`$ by multiplying the current estimate at each visited level by a factor $`f`$ that is reduced towards 1 over time as the algorithm converges. In Fig. 6 we show tunneling times for Wang-Landau sampling as a function of this correction factor $`f`$ for the Ising ferromagnet (main panel) and for the spin glass (inset). Results for the fully frustrated model (not shown) are qualitatively similar. In the initial stages of the simulation ($`\mathrm{ln}f10^6`$) the tunneling times are shorter than for exact sampling, since the random walk is biased — it is always driven away from the last region visited (due to the increased $`\rho (E)`$ there). Eventually the tunneling times converge to exactly the same times as for the perfect flat histogram method, indicating convergence of the Wang-Landau algorithm. The Wang-Landau algorithm is thus optimal in the sense that it performs identically to a perfect flat histogram method. Unlike in recent applications to continuum systems Yan and de Pablo (2003) no convergence problems are observed for these lattice models.

Our benchmarks of a perfect flat histogram method provide a lower bound for the tunneling times of other ”flat histogram” methods such as multicanonical Multicanonical , tempering Tempering , broad histograms de Oliveira et al. (1996) or Wang-Landau sampling WangLandau . From our analysis of tunneling times we find that the Wang Landau algorithm scales identically as the perfect flat histogram method and is thus optimal. We expect that the other methods will perform similarly when well-tuned. However, whether one uses local or $`N`$-fold way updates, the scaling is not the $`N^2`$ scaling of a random walk in a system with $`N`$ energy levels, but slower, namely $`N^2L^z`$ for both the ferromagnetic ($`z=0.743\pm 0.007`$) and the fully frustrated Ising model ($`z=1.727\pm 0.004`$). The power law scaling for the frustrated model is very encouraging and demonstrates, for the first time, that the Wang-Landau algorithm is well suited for frustrated models. A combination with alternative sampling schemes, such as in Ref. Yamaguchi:02 , can further improve the performance. The observation of a power law with an exponent larger than 2 is not trivially explained in the context of a random walk in energy space and the subject of further investigations.

The exponential scaling for the $`\pm J`$ spin glass even for the perfect method shows a limitation for any flat histogram method. Here the distribution of tunneling times follows a fat tailed Fréchet extremal value distribution. The origin of this extremal character of the 2D $`\pm J`$ Ising spin glass remains an interesting open question. Further studies are in progress to investigate this issue as well as three-dimensional classical spin and quantum spin glasses.

We thank F. Alet, N. Kawashima, W. Krauth, M. Pelikan, A. Sandvik, and B. J. Schulz for helpful discussions and acknowledge the support of the Aspen Center for Physics where this project was started. PD, ST, and SW acknowledge support by the Swiss National Science Foundation, and SC and SS acknowledge support from the Petroleum Research Fund of the American Chemical Society and by NSF-DMR.


text:
# Constraints on the origin of Manganese from the composition of the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy and the Galactic Bulge1footnote 11footnote 1This paper was accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal Letters in June, 2003.

## 1 Introduction

In this Letter, we consider the abundance trend of Mn in three contrasting stellar populations: a sample of Galactic bulge K giants, giants from the Sgr dwarf spheroidal galaxy, and stars from the solar neighborhood.

The bulge population formed rapidly (Ortolani et al. 1995), on a timescale less than a few Gyr, as evident in the trends of alpha-element (e.g. O, Mg, Si, Ca, Ti) to iron ratios (McWilliam & Rich 1994; Rich & McWilliam 2000). Chemical evolution models of these abundance trends support an even more rapid enrichment timescale for the bulge, $``$1 Gyr (e.g. Matteucci et al. 1999).

Most dwarf spheroidal galaxies have extended star formation histories, lasting many Gyr (e.g. Mateo 1998, Grebel 2000), as reflected by their sub-solar trends of $`\alpha `$/Fe and metallicity spread (Shetrone et al. 2001, Bonifacio et al. 2000 and Smecker-Hane & McWilliam 2003, hereafter SM03). The range of iron abundance for stars in the Sgr dSph exceeds a factor of ten, $`1.5`$ \[Fe/H\] $`0`$ dex (e.g. SM03). Thus, the Sgr dSph and Galactic bulge iron abundance ranges are nearly the same, which makes these systems ideal to compare and contrast.

Arnett(1971) predicted that Mn yields from type II SNe depend on the neutron excess, and so should be metallicity dependent. Woosley & Weaver (1995) computed yields for type II SNe, covering a range of masses and metallicity; their Mn/Fe yield ratios decreased by a factor of 3 from solar to one tenth solar metallicity, but below Z=0.1Z the predicted yield ratio was constant.

Deficiencies of Mn, relative to Fe, in metal-poor stars were first noted by Wallerstein (1962), consistent with the odd-even effect for iron-peak elements suggested by Helfer et al (1959). G89 measured Mn in a sample of disk and halo stars, and found a roughly constant \[Mn/Fe\]$``$$``$0.4 dex for \[Fe/H\]$`<`$$``$1, with the \[Mn/Fe\] ratio increasing linearly for \[Fe/H\]$`>`$$``$1, up to the solar \[Mn/Fe\] value.

Gratton noted that this behavior is opposite to the trend of alpha elements with \[Fe/H\]. In that case, the \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] ratio increases with decreasing \[Fe/H\], and reaches a constant value of \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\]$``$+0.4 dex below \[Fe/H\]=$``$1. Tinsley (1979) explained this as due to the change in the ratio of type II to type Ia material, incorporated into stars at a given metallicity. Type II SNe arise from massive stars of initial mass M$`\stackrel{>}{}`$10M, whose main-sequence lifetimes are a $`\stackrel{<}{}`$$`10^8`$ years. A type Ia SN arises in a binary system from mass transfer onto a white dwarf star (e.g. Iben & Tutukov 1987, Tornambè & Matteucci 1986), which explodes when the Chandrasekhar limit is exceeded; explosion times vary from $``$108 yr to $``$ 10 Gyr after the stars were formed (e.g. Smecker-Hane & Wyse 1992).

In Tinsley’s model, at low metallicity and early times stars were made from ejecta of type II SNe, rich in oxygen and other alpha elements. Type Ia SNe did not become significant sources of nucleosynthesis products until after $``$1 Gyr when the metallicity had reached \[Fe/H\]$``$$``$1; at this point the low \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] ratios from type Ia SNe progressively reduced the ambient value until the solar composition was reached $``$ 4.5 Gyr ago.

G89 suggested that over-production of manganese in type Ia SNe could account for the observed \[Mn/Fe\] trend using Tinsley’s paradigm; indeed a bi-valued Mn/Fe yield ratio is perhaps the simplest assumption to make, based on the early observations.

Figure 1 summarizes the \[Mn/Fe\] values from recent studies of Galactic stars for \[Fe/H\]$`\stackrel{>}{}`$$``$2.5; it shows a $``$0.5 dex increase in \[Mn/Fe\] from \[Fe/H\]=$``$1.3 to $`+`$0.4, roughly linear with metallicity. The Feltzing & Gustafsson (1998, hereafter FG98), Prochaska & McWilliam (2000, hereafter PM00222The PM00 data are the Nissen et al. (2000) results with improved $`hfs`$ corrections applied.) and Reddy et al. (2003, hereafter R03) data have been put onto the same scale by applying corrections to ensure solar \[Mn/Fe\] in the interval $``$0.10$``$\[Fe/H\]$``$$`+`$0.10. This normalization is not possible for the remaining studies shown in Figure 1; for those data we expect zero-point uncertainties near $``$0.10 dex.

The FG98 results for metal-rich stars show \[Mn/Fe\] increasing at higher \[Fe/H\], whereas the \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] ratios remain constant; this suggests a metallicity-dependent yield for Mn produced by type Ia SNe, not Mn over-production by type Ia SNe.

Nissen & Schuster (1997) showed that thick disk stars possess $`\alpha `$-element enhancements independent of \[Fe/H\], yet the thick-disk stars in Figure 1 show a clear trend of increasing \[Mn/Fe\] with \[Fe/H\]; this can be understood with a metallicity-dependent Mn yield from type II SNe.

The PM00/N00 data display a step in \[Mn/Fe\], near \[Fe/H\]=$``$0.7, which may be associated with the transition from thin to thick disk populations, apparently confirmed by the slope of the R03 data. If real, the putative plateau might reasonably be explained by Mn over-production in type Ia SNe, or by a metallicity-dependent yield combined with the large metallicity dispersion in the Galactic disk age-metallicity relation. However, possible systematic errors that we suspected in PM00, and the lack of evidence for the step in the data of P00 and G89, cast doubt on the reality of this feature.

## 2 Observations, Reductions and Analysis

High resolution (R=34,000–50,000) spectra of individual stars in both the Galactic bulge, through Baade’s Window, and the Sgr dSph were obtained using the Keck I333The W.M. Keck Observatory, is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation. We extend special thanks to the people of Hawaiian ancestry on whose sacred mountain we were privileged to be guests. telescope and echelle spectrograph (HIRES, Vogt et al. 1994); the typical S/N ratios were 50 per extracted pixel. Complete details of these two investigations can be found in SM03 and McWilliam & Rich (2003, in preparation). The Sgr dSph spectra were extracted using the IRAF suite of routines, whereas the bulge star spectra were extracted with MAKEE, written by T. Barlow. Line equivalent widths were measured using a semi-automated routine GETJOB (McWilliam et al 1995). From 1 to 4 Mn I lines were measured for each of the Galactic bulge giants, typically 3 lines. For the Sgr dSph from 4 to 10 Mn I lines were measured per star, most often 9 lines. Abundances were computed from the equivalent widths using the spectrum synthesis program MOOG (Sneden 1973) and the 64-layer Kurucz (1993) model atmospheres. The model atmosphere parameters were chosen, using photometric and spectroscopic methods, detailed in McWilliam & Rich (2003) and SM03. Since Mn I lines are strongly affected by hyperfine splitting, we employed line lists generated from published $`hfs`$ constants or taken from Kurucz (1997) for the hyperfine components of each line, and then performed the appropriate synthesis to derive Mn abundances.

## 3 Results and Discussion

### 3.1 The Galactic Bulge

A plot of \[Mn/Fe\] versus \[Fe/H\] for the Galactic bulge stars is presented in Figure 2. The present data indicate that the bulge \[Mn/Fe\] trend is approximately the same as found fo solar neighborhood disk and halo stars, and even follows the local \[Mn/Fe\] trend for metal-rich stars.

We note that the bulge results are based on analysis of red giant stars, whereas the solar neighborhood points are almost exclusively from dwarf or turn-off stars; this may introduce zero-point abundance differences, expected to be less than 0.10 dex in \[Mn/Fe\]. To investigate zero-point abundance uncertainties for red giants we measured the \[Mn/Fe\] and \[Fe/H\] ratios for the thick-disk red giant Arcturus, using the Hinkle et al. (2000) spectrum. We found \[Mn/Fe\]=$``$0.23 and \[Fe/H\]=$``$0.56 for Arcturus, 0.075 dex below the mean \[Mn/Fe\] for the thick-disk dwarf stars of P00, in the range $``$0.63$``$\[Fe/H\]$``$$``$0.50. If the zero-point of the bulge \[Mn/Fe\] is increased by the 0.075 dex shift for Arcturus, agreement between bulge and solar neighborhood \[Mn/Fe\] is improved. We adopt the 0.075 dex zero-point shift as a measure of the systematic uncertainty of the red giant \[Mn/Fe\] abundance ratios in this letter; \[Fe/H\] for the red giants are accurate at the 0.10 dex level.

Figure 2 is inconsistent with the G89 scenario of Mn over-production by type Ia SNe. The high \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] and \[Eu/Fe\] ratios observed in bulge stars (McWilliam & Rich 1994, McWilliam & Rich 1999, Rich & McWilliam 2000) suggest nucleosynthesis in the bulge was dominated by type II SNe with a rapid formation time scale (e.g. Matteucci et al. 1999), with element ratios similar to the halo but at higher overall metallicity. Thus, if type Ia SNe over-produced Mn then bulge stars would show a deficiency in \[Mn/Fe\] ratios; but such a deficiency is not observed. The \[Mn/Fe\] trend seen in Figure 2 is entirely consistent with a metallicity-dependent yield for Mn in type II SNe.

If type II SNe produce a metallicity-dependent Mn yield above \[Fe/H\]=$``$1, then the linear trend of \[Mn/Fe\] with \[Fe/H\] for the Galactic bulge stars in Figure 2 is consistent with evolution characterized by rapid recycling of the gas, as in the Simple Model (Searle & Sargent 1972), which assumed a closed box and instantaneous chemical recycling. Rich (1990) first showed that the bulge iron abundance distribution can be fit by the Simple Model, and this is confirmed by Zoccali et al. (2003) using iron abundances inferred from $`VK`$ photometry. Thus, the bulge \[Mn/Fe\] trend with \[Fe/H\] supports the metallicity-dependent Mn yield for type II SNe (above \[Fe/H\]=$``$1), suggested by Arnett (1971) and Woosley & Weaver (1995). More data would be helpful for confirming these conclusions; in this regard it would be useful to measure the \[Mn/Fe\] trend in bulge stars well below \[Fe/H\]$``$$``$1.

### 3.2 The Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy

In Figure 3, we present the results for \[Mn/Fe\] in the Sgr dSph. The most obvious feature is that the metal-rich Sgr dSphs stars with \[Fe/H\] $`\stackrel{>}{}0.6`$ have \[Mn/Fe\] values that lie well below, by 0.2 dex, those of solar neighborhood stars.

The Sgr dSph and Galactic bulge abundances were computed with spectra of similar quality, with the same atomic parameters, model atmosphere grid, and temperature scale. Systematic zero-point differences and random errors are unable to explain the difference between our Sgr and bulge \[Mn/Fe\] ratios.

The unusually low \[Mn/Fe\] ratios in Sgr dSph are inconsistent with Mn over-production in type Ia SNe, suggested by G89. The low \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] ratios (see SM03) strongly suggest that type Ia SNe dominated the nucleosynthesis of iron-peak elements in this galaxy for \[Fe/H\]$`\stackrel{>}{}`$$``$0.6 dex. Given an increased nucleosynthetic contribution from type Ia SNe in the Sgr dSph, \[Mn/Fe\] ratios enhanced over the solar neighborhood ratios are expected if Gratton’s hypothesis is correct. Our observations of deficient \[Mn/Fe\] ratios in Sgr dSph stars are opposite of this expectation.

Observations of s-process neutron capture elements in the Sgr dSph show that ejecta from the old, metal-poor, AGB population dominated the chemical enrichment of the neutron-capture elements, in the epoch probed by stars with \[Fe/H\]$`\stackrel{>}{}`$$``$0.6 (SM03). In this paradigm for the Sgr dSph the old, metal-poor, AGB stars must have been accompanied by low-metallicity type Ia SNe, which we assume dominated iron production prior to the formation of the \[Fe/H\]$``$$``$0.6 population. This picture of the chemical evolution of the Sgr dSph provides a natural explanation for the observed low \[Mn/Fe\] values, if the Mn/Fe yield ratio increases with metallicity in type Ia SNe: the low \[Mn/Fe\] ratios reflect the fact that iron-peak nucleosynthesis was dominated by the metal-poor type Ia SNe population.

If all Sgr dSph stars with \[Fe/H\]$``$$``$0.6 possess the same \[Mn/Fe\] ratio, then it must be that element yields from low-metallicity SNe (\[Fe/H\]$``$$``$1) completely overwhelmed products from more metal-rich stars. On the other hand, an upward slope of \[Mn/Fe\] with \[Fe/H\] would indicate a detectable contribution from metal-rich type Ia and type II SNe, albeit dwarfed by the metal-poor type Ia component. More data is required to distinguish between these two possibilities. In either situation the current data argue that the old, metal-poor, population produced much more iron-peak enrichment through type Ia SNe than the younger, metal-rich, populations produced via type Ia and type II SNe.

Since the Mn/Fe ratios in Sgr are the consequence of slow star formation and significant mass loss, other dwarf spheroidal systems with extended star formation histories should exhibit similar abundance trends. In this regard it would be very useful to study the trend of \[Mn/Fe\] in the Magellanic Clouds and Local group dSph systems, such as the Fornax dSph. We note that sub-populations in the bright Galactic globular cluster $`\omega `$ Cen possess some chemical similarities to the Sgr dSph. Deficient \[Cu/Fe\] ratios in $`\omega `$ Cen (Cunha et al. 2002) may indicate a chemical enrichment history similar to Sgr dSph, but at lower overall \[Fe/H\]. We predict that the most metal-rich stars in $`\omega `$ Cen will show deficient \[Mn/Fe\] ratios, and stars in Sgr dSph possess low \[Cu/Fe\] ratios.

The chemical enrichment model proposed by SM03 for Sgr dSph involves delayed injection of nucleosynthesis products from an old, metal-poor, population and suggests a relatively high ratio of metal-poor to metal-rich stars. This condition is expected of galaxies which lose a significant fraction of gas over long timescales and galaxies which accrete pristine material sufficient to maintain a large metal-poor fraction. The model qualitatively explains the unusual chemical composition of the Sgr dSph stars, but no quantitative modeling has been undertaken; thus we cannot yet say what fraction of old, metal-poor, stars is required to produce the observed abundance ratios. To quantitatively constrain the models we must first obtain unbiased age and \[Fe/H\] distributions for Sgr dSph stars.

Even near solar metallicity stars in the Sgr dwarf have \[Mn/Fe\] significantly lower (by $``$0.2 dex) than stars in the disk/bulge. Thus, if Sgr-like systems fell into the bulge and were so thoroughly mixed that no trace of their distinct kinematics remained, it would still be possible to infer their presence through the depressed \[Mn/Fe\] and \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] ratios, and enhanced s-process abundances.

## 4 Summary

We report on the abundance trends of manganese in the Galactic bulge and the Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal galaxy. Both stellar populations show a general trend of \[Mn/Fe\] increasing with higher \[Fe/H\]; but while the bulge follows roughly the solar neighborhood \[Mn/Fe\] trend, the trend in Sgr is lower by $``$0.2 dex. We believe that this offset reflects the less rapid chemical evolution of the Sgr dwarf compared to the Galactic bulge and solar neighborhood. Similar trends should be present in all dwarf galaxies, where chemical enrichment over long time scales reached metallicities greater than \[Fe/H\]=$``$1. The low Mn abundance at a given \[Fe/H\] could be used to identify stars from accreted dwarf galaxies in large-scale surveys of the disk and bulge.

The \[Mn/Fe\] trend in the Galactic bulge suggests a metallicity-dependent yield of Mn in type II SNe, qualitatively consistent with the predictions of Arnett (1971) and Woosley & Weaver (1995). A metallicity-dependent Mn yield from type II SN is supported by the trend of \[Mn/Fe\] in local thick disk stars which are known to have constant, enhanced \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\]. Given the rapid bulge formation timescale (Matteucci et al. 1999), the metallicity dependence of the Mn/Fe yield ratio is likely very similar to the observed trend; in this regard it will be interesting to measure \[Mn/Fe\] in metal-poor Galactic bulge stars.

The deficient \[Mn/Fe\] ratios in the Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal galaxy implies a metallicity-dependent Mn yield for type Ia SNe; this is supported by the observations of FG98, which show increasing \[Mn/Fe\] in metal-rich disk stars, at constant \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\]. The idea that Mn is over-produced by type Ia SNe, as suggested by G89, is ruled-out by these observations.

One complication in our interpretation is the apparent offset in \[Mn/Fe\] between thin and thick disk stars, which appears consistent with Mn overproduction in type Ia SNe, but contrary to the \[Mn/Fe\] trend in the metal-rich disk stars of FG98 and the Sgr dSph. If this offset is real it might be understood as the consequence of a metallicity-dependent yield combined with a large metallicity-dispersion in the thin-disk age-metallicity relation.

We have insufficient information to state the form of the metallicity-dependent yield for type Ia SNe, other than it is lower at low \[Fe/H\]. Further understanding of Mn/Fe yields will be made with detailed chemical evolution models for Sgr dSph, but this will require measurement of the detailed age and \[Fe/H\] distribution functions for this galaxy.

AM gratefully acknowledges support from NSF grants AST-96-18623 and AST-00-98612, and would like to thank the referee, B. Carney and G. W. Preston. RMR acknowledges support from AST-00-98612. TSH acknowledges support from NSF grants AST-96-19460 and AST-00-70895, and a AAS Small Research Grant.