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# Chapter 1 VHE 𝛾-rays From Extragalactic Large Scale Jets

## Chapter 1 VHE $`\gamma `$-rays From Extragalactic Large Scale Jets

### Abstract

We discuss production of very high energy (VHE) $`\gamma `$-rays in large scale extragalactic jets of FR I sources. Based on recent optical and X-ray observations of these objects we evaluate their VHE emission in a framework of one electron population model. We consider possibility for detection of the predicted radiation, which could provide important constraints on the jet structure and some hardly known large scale jet parameters.

### 1. Introduction

Among several discovered sources of VHE $`\gamma `$-ray emission (photon energies $`\epsilon _\gamma >100`$ GeV), the most numerous group consists of low-luminosity blazars (BL Lacs). Up to now, there are four confirmed objects of this kind, including the well known Mrk 421 and Mrk 501, while three others are classified as probable or possible ones (e.g., ). A widely accepted model explaining production of the TeV emission in blazars is a synchrotron self-Compton (SSC) process, in which energetic electrons flowing within a relativistic jet at sub-parsec distances from the active galactic nucleus (AGN) inverse-Compton upscatter their own synchrotron photons (e.g., ). Although limited to a few cases, TeV blazars attract a great attention due to at least three reasons. Firstly, by studying $`\gamma `$-ray emission of these objects one gets insight into physical conditions in the closest vicinity of AGN and its nuclear jet. Secondly, TeV blazars are crucial in understanding acceleration processes acting within the relativistic outflows, most likely connected with ultrarelativistic shock waves. And finally, detection of the VHE radiation from extragalactic sources has important cosmological consequences, because of the photon-photon interaction expected to occur during propagation of $`\gamma `$-rays on cosmological distances (e.g., ). Due to importance of the considered studies, a lot of both theoretical and observational efforts are directed to identify new BL Lacs radiating in the VHE range (e.g., ).

In the present paper we propose, that an another class of the VHE objects can be formed by kpc-scale jets of FR I radio galaxies. In particular, we suggest that TeV signal detected 30 years ago from the Centaurus A system, as well as the most recent VHE detection from M 87 radio galaxy, can result from the large-scale jet inverse-Compton (IC) emission.

### 2. Methods and Results

Several jets in FR I radio galaxies are now being observed not only at radio frequencies, but also at higher (up to X-rays) photon energies. Synchrotron nature of their radio-to-X-ray radiation seems to be already established, implying presence of extremely energetic electrons, with energies $`E_e10`$ TeV for the standard equipartition magnetic field $`10^4`$ G. Spectral character of the optical and X-ray emission, as well as its spatial distribution, suggests necessity and complexity of the particle acceleration processes involved, which in addition seem to be closely related to the jet internal structure . However, as a rough simplification one can generalize that in the brightest knots of the discussed objects the synchrotron continuum is a broken power-law, with a spectral break – where most of the synchrotron power is emitted – placed usually around $`10^{14}`$ Hz, or, like in the case of M 87, even at higher frequencies. The isotropic luminosity of the FR I optical/X-ray jets is usually in the range $`10^{39}10^{42}`$ erg/s.

In addition to the synchrotron radio-to-X-ray emission, the FR I jets have also to produce high energy $`\gamma `$-rays by IC scattering of ambient photon fields, including the CMB radiation or the synchrotron emission produced by the jet itself. At the kpc distances from the galactic center, additional sources of ambient photons are the AGN and the host galaxy. The AGN radiation consists of isotropically emitted component connected with thermal gas and/or dust heated by the central source (narrow line region, dusty nuclear torus), plus an anisotropic blazar-like emission due to highly relativistic nuclear jet. A dominating component of the host galaxy radiative output originates from the stellar and circumstellar dust emission. The considered seed photon fields differ in intensity, in characteristic photon energies, and in spatial distribution with respect to the large scale jet. Unfortunately, parameters which are crucial in determining their relative importance in the jet comoving frame – like the jet bulk Lorentz factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and its inclination to the line of sight $`\theta `$ – are only poorly constrained, or even unknown. For example, radio observations of FR I sources indicate presence of only moderate or weak relativistic beaming effects. However, one cannot exclude possibility that in the cases of the optical/X-ray FR I jets the bulk Lorentz factors are of order of a few. This idea is supported by Hubble observations of superluminal motions at large scales in the jet of M87 .

For the given break frequency of the jet synchrotron continuum, its luminosity and, finally, the seed photon fields contributing to the IC scattering, one can estimate the expected fluxes and photon break energies of the respective $`\gamma `$-ray emissions. We provide such estimates in  for selected jet models, including possible relativistic jet bulk velocities. Because of a relatively wide physical range available for the mentioned parameters of the models, it is difficult to discuss $`\gamma `$-ray radiation of the considered objects in general. Instead, a more detailed analysis can be performed for chosen individual sources. One of our general findings is, however, that comptonization of the narrow line and the nuclear tours emissions (which are typically weak or even absent in FR I radio galaxies) in the kpc-scale jets is always negligible as compared to comptonization of the blazar photons. On the other hand, the latter process can be significantly suppressed by the Klein-Nishina (KN) effects, if only a critical frequency of the blazar synchrotron emission is in the optical range, or higher. In the considered sources we also find that at the kpc distances from the galactic center the energy density of the stellar emission can be quite large, exceeding the CMB energy density even by three orders of magnitude. The resulting IC emission is expected to dominate the jet VHE radiative output for small or moderate jet inclinations and relativistic bulk velocities, limited only by the KN effects. The SSC process can play more significant role for larger jet inclinations.

### 3. Discussion: Centaurus A and M 87

In  we discuss $`\gamma `$-ray emission of Centaurus A and M 87 large scale jets. Both sources are relatively nearby, what allowed in the past to study their jets at different frequencies and scales, with high spatial and spectral resolutions. During the last decades, M 87 and Centaurus A were also frequently observed at $`\gamma `$-rays, from sub-MeV to TeV photon energies, what resulted in positive detections or constraints on the flux upper limit.

CANGAROO observations of the extended ($`14`$ kpc) region around the Centaurus A nucleus put the upper limit on the emission at the VHE range, $`S(\epsilon _\gamma 1.5\mathrm{TeV})<1.2810^{11}\mathrm{ph}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ . However, the discussed object was detected in the past at TeV energies, with the observed flux $`S(\epsilon _\gamma 0.3\mathrm{TeV})4.410^{11}\mathrm{ph}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ , what made Centaurus A the very first extragalactic source of the detected VHE radiation. In a framework of our model, for the parameters usually considered for the large scale jet in this source – i.e. equipartition magnetic field, large jet viewing angle $`\theta 70^0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }2`$ – the SSC radiation seems to be able to overproduce (comparing to the present upper limits) the VHE photons. This suggest presence of the KN effects decreasing the SSC emission, what in turn indirectly suggests relativistic jet velocities and/or subequipartition magnetic field. We also find, that for the moderate and large jet inclinations, comptonization of the nuclear blazar-like emission of Centaurus A (see, e.g., ) is expected to be very strong, with the observed flux $`S(\epsilon _\gamma 10\mathrm{GeV})10^{11}10^{10}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ (for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=110`$). This emission could be therefore easily observed in the future by GLAST.

Recent HEGRA observations resulted in a positive detection of the VHE emission from the M 87 radio galaxy, at the level $`S(\epsilon _\gamma 0.73\mathrm{TeV})0.9210^{12}\mathrm{ph}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ . Our analysis suggests, that if this TeV flux is in fact due to the IC large scale jet emission, its most likely origin is comptonization of the galactic stellar and circumstellar dust radiation, consistently with moderate jet inclinations $`\theta 20^030^0`$ and relativistic jet velocities $`\mathrm{\Gamma }>2`$ inferred from the Hubble observations. However, because of the expected KN effects, a detailed numerical analysis is required in order to provide constraints on the jet bulk Lorentz factor and its magnetic field.

### 4. Conclusions

Detection of the VHE $`\gamma `$-ray emission from, at least, some of the FR I optical/X-ray jets is possible. Future observations (or, alternatively, non detections) by ground-base imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes and GLAST will therefore provide important constraints on the unknown jet parameters, like the magnetic fields intensity and the jet kinematic factors. Our analysis enables to evaluate high energy $`\gamma `$-ray emissions of the nearby FR I sources Centaurus A and M 87 . For Centaurus A we predict measurable – by future $`\gamma `$-ray missions – fluxes at $`\epsilon _\gamma 10`$ GeV and at $`\epsilon _\gamma 0.11`$ TeV photon energies due to comptonization of the blazar radiation and the SSC process, respectively. In the case of M 87 we proposed, that recently detected VHE emission resulted form the IC scattering of the stellar and circumstellar infrared photons of the host galaxy.

### 5. Acknowledgments

The present work was supported by KBN through the grant PBZ-KBN-054/P03/2001, by the Department of Energy contract to SLAC no. DE-AC3-76SF00515, and by NASA Chandra grants via SAO grant no. GO1-2113X.

### 6. References

1. Aharonian F. 2001, in Proc. of the 27th ICRC (astro-ph/0112314)

2. Aharonian F. et al. 2003, A&A, 403, 1

3. Biretta J.A., Sparks W.B., Macchetto F. 1999, ApJ, 520, 621

4. Chiaberge M., Capetti A., Celotti A. 2001, MNRAS 324, 33

5. Costamante L., Ghisellini G. 2002, A&A 384, 56

6. Grindlay J.E. et al. 1975, ApJ 197, 9

7. Kino M., Takahara F., Kusunose M. 2002, ApJ 564, 97

8. Ong R.A. 2003, ‘The Status of VHE Astronomy’ (astro-ph/0304336)

9. Rowell G.P. et al. 1999, APh 11, 217

10. Stawarz Ł., Ostrowski M. 2002, ApJ 578, 763

11. Stawarz Ł., Sikora M., Ostrowski M. 2003, ApJ, submitted (astro-ph/0306251)


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# Nature and Environment of Very Luminous Galaxies

## 1 Introduction

From the analysis of the Southern Sky Redshift Survey 2 (SSRS2, da Costa et al. 1994), we have found that the amplitude of galaxy clustering increases significantly as a function of galaxy luminosity, but only when $`L>L^{}`$ (Benoist et al. 1996; see also Willmer et al. 1998); moreover, the analysis of high–order moments shows that the bias is not linear, without a significant dependence on scale (Benoist et al. 1999), analogously to the bias between clusters and galaxies (Cappi & Maurogordato 1995). We have also found that the clustering amplitude of the most luminous galaxies in the sample, having absolute magnitude $`M_B21`$ (i.e. $`L4L^{}`$), which we defined as Very Luminous Galaxies (VLGs), is similar to that of clusters, with a correlation length $`r_016`$ $`h^1`$ Mpc. From the analysis of the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey (2dFGRS) Norberg et al. (2001) have confirmed the reality of luminosity segregation for galaxies more luminous than $`L^{}`$, even if their most luminous galaxies show a correlation amplitude not so high as the SSRS2 VLGs.

The large value of the VLG correlation function could be explained if VLGs were in clusters, as originally suggested by Hamilton (1984): in this case, most of them should be luminous ellipticals. However, in our statistical analysis of the SSRS2 VLGs (Cappi et al. 1998, Paper I) we have shown that the fractions of the different morphological types are comparable to lower luminosity samples, and that most of the VLGs are not in rich clusters. Only a minority of VLGs were found in known groups, but in most cases our visual inspection of the Digitized Sky Survey images revealed the presence of fainter companions, often with signs of interaction.

In fact, if VLGs are neither in clusters nor in rich groups, they can nevertheless be associated to poorer systems. In biased galaxy formation (Kaiser 1984; Bardeen et al. 1986) more massive halos, which represent rare fluctuations of the matter density field, have a larger correlation amplitude. This suggests an association of VLGs to high density peaks; the fact that they are dominant galaxies in poor systems with much fainter galaxies can have interesting implications, concerning for example the efficiency of galaxy formation or the overabundance of predicted subhalos relative to the observed dwarf satellites of the Milky Way and M31 (see e.g. Moore et al. 1999): for this reason, it would be useful to have a statistical sample of galaxy systems similar to our own Local Group.

Unfortunately the properties of poor galaxy systems, especially those comparable to the Local Group, are not well known. Zabludoff & Mulchaey (2000) have studied a sample of six nearby poor groups, finding evidence for a different luminosity function, with an increasing dwarf to giant galaxy ratio with the mass density of the system. More generally, Zabludoff & Mulchaey (1998, 2000) have examined the properties of 12 poor groups of galaxies with PSPC images: 9 of them have diffuse X–ray emission and a bright, central elliptical galaxy.

Our approach is complementary, as it selects another class of poor systems. In fact, a main problem is the bias on the properties of the selected galaxy groups due to the adopted selection criteria. A selection algorithm defines a priori the properties of the systems: well known examples are Abell clusters (Abell 1958) and Hickson compact groups (Hickson 1982). The introduction of automated methods can give a more objective selection, but it is obviously impossible to recover a system if only its most luminous member is present in the original photometric catalogue. Moreover, the typical friends–of–friends algorithms used to select “galaxy groups” require the detection of at least three neighbouring galaxies above the limiting magnitude of the catalogue (see e.g. White et al. 1999): this means that many groups are classified as “binaries”. It is clear that the problem becomes critical when going towards poorer and more distant systems, with increasing contamination and spurious detections.

Let us take the best example of VLG system, i.e. our Local Group, which contains two VLGs: M31 and our Milky Way (with respectively $`M_V=21.2`$ and $`M_V=20.9`$, see van den Bergh 1999 and references therein), and is usually considered as a “typical group”. If this is true, it is surely not reflected in group catalogs, for a simple reason: VLGs are rare galaxies. For example, the third brightest galaxy of the Local Group M33 (with an absolute magnitude $`M_V=18.9`$) would become fainter than $`m_V=15.5`$ (i.e. fainter than the limit of the SSRS2) already at $`z0.025`$. Therefore we do not know if the properties of our Local Group are really “typical”, and only looking deeper at VLG fields we can expect to find other groups similar to our own.

In order to construct a statistical sample including, among others, also systems comparable to our Local Group, we have decided to investigate the environment of the VLGs listed in our catalogue defined in paper I, which represent a volume–limited sample. The first step is to measure redshifts of fainter galaxies in the field of VLGs and determine the membership and velocity dispersion of the systems: in this paper we discuss data concerning the fields of 19 VLGs. In section 2 we define our sample, with the VLG fields we observed at the Observatoire de Haute Provence and the selection of galaxies around VLGs extracted from the 2dFGRS; section 3 presents the individual properties of the systems, while in section 4 we discuss the relation between the VLGs and their environment. Our conclusions are in section 5. In appendix A we also discuss Arp 127, a pair identified in our preliminary selection as possibly including a VLG, and in appendix B we give positions, magnitudes and redshifts of 2dFGRS galaxies in our VLG systems.

## 2 Definition of the sample

Three VLGs were selected from our catalogue of VLGs (see table 1 in paper I), while a fourth galaxy satisfying the VLG definition was selected from the CfA catalogue (see Geller & Huchra 1989); the 4 VLG fields were observed at OHP. Other 15 VLG fields were extracted from the 2dFGRS public catalogue, which has an overlap with the SSRS2. While partially imposed by observational constraints (see below), our selection is random with respect to the VLG properties, and should be representative of the whole sample. In fact, one third of the selected VLGs are early–type galaxies, a fraction consistent with that of the total sample published in paper I.

### 2.1 Systems observed at OHP

At the Observatoire de Haute–Provence we could observe only galaxies at $`\delta >10^o`$, while SSRS2 galaxies are south of $`\delta =2.5^o`$. Among the 12 VLGs in our catalogue which satisfied this declination constraint, we chose three VLGs around which an inspection of DSS images had revealed the presence of galaxies fainter than the VLG but still bright enough to get a useful spectrum at the 1.93m telescope. The selected VLGs are VLG061, VLG068 and VLG074. In order to cover the whole night, we included also a VLG galaxy selected from the CfA catalogue (VLG 0716+5323), and Arp 127, a galaxy we had included in a preliminary version of the VLG catalogue but finally excluded for its discrepant redshift and the consequent uncertainty on its absolute magnitude. This system is presented in appendix A.

Our observations were carried out in 1997 at the 1.93m telescope with the Carelec spectrograph in long slit mode at the Cassegrain focus. The grating dispersion was 260Å/mm, corresponding to $`7`$ Åwith the 512$`\times `$512 pixels of the Tektronix CCD. Data reduction was performed with IRAF; calibrations were done using the OHP He–Ar lamps. Redshifts were measured with xcsao in the rvsao package, using 5 star templates and attributing to each galaxy the redshift given by the best–fitting template (i.e. the one with the highest $`R`$ parameter, see Tonry & Davis 1979). One velocity standard star and one galaxy with velocity measured from HI observations were also observed and used as a check of the zero–point calibration, cross–correlating them with a subset of our spectra and with our templates: in both cases, the redshifts were consistent within 10 km/s.

Positions and redshifts of the observed galaxies are listed in table 1.

### 2.2 2dFGRS data

Part of the SSRS2 region is covered by the 2dFRS (see Colless et al. 2001), and we searched for galaxies around VLG positions in the presently available public catalogue (the “100k” catalogue111electronically available at the address http://msowww.anu.edu.au/2dFGRS/Public/main.html, including more than 102,000 redshifts).

The limiting magnitude of the 2dFGRS is $`b_J=19.45`$; within the maximum distance defined by the SSRS2 VLG volume–limited sample ($`0.065`$), the 2dFGRS is volume–limited at $`M=17`$ (of course the field incompleteness has to be taken into account).

We selected all galaxies in the 2dFGRS within a projected separation less than 1.5$`h^1`$ Mpc and a velocity difference less than 1500 km/s with respect to the SSRS2 VLGs. The velocity cut was chosen to limit foreground and background contamination, but large enough to include also marginal members. We also applied a 3–$`\sigma `$ clipping (see e.g. Yahil & Vidal 1977) to the velocity distribution. The chosen value of the projected radius corresponds to one Abell radius and it is also used as a criterion for determining the Local Group membership (van den Bergh 1999). We found data for 19 VLG fields: in 4 cases (VLG003, VLG008, VLG054, VLG075) we could retrieve only one redshift (in addition to the VLG) with our selection limits. Such cases deserve a more careful study and we will not include them in the present work. We simply note here that VLG075 is in a group identified in the Las Campanas Redshift Survey (Tucker et al. 2000). In the other 15 fields we could obtain at least 5 redshifts (reduced to 3 by the 3$`\sigma `$ clipping in the case of VLG022).

The images of the fields centered on the selected VLGs (30 arcmin size in $`\delta `$) were retrieved from the Digitized Sky Survey and are shown in figures 1 and 2. In appendix B and in tables available in electronic form we give positions and redshifts of the 2dFGRS galaxies selected according to the criteria defined above.

## 3 Properties of the VLG systems

We have calculated the mean redshift and the velocity dispersion for each VLG system; the main properties are shown in table 2, where we list in column (1) the VLG number, in column (2) the VLG morphological type, in column (3) the total number of galaxies after applying the 3–$`\sigma `$ clipping and used for measuring the mean redshift and velocity dispersion, in column (4) the mean heliocentric redshift with its error, in column (5) the velocity dispersion, in column (6) the system type, when available from the literature.

With respect to the known systems listed in table 2 of our paper I, we could associate other 8 VLGs to galaxy systems, and increase the number of measured velocity dispersions: in fact only VLG086 (in an Hickson compact group) and VLG108 (in the ACO cluster A4038) had already an estimate of the velocity dispersion.

In figure 3 we show the velocity histograms of the systems with at least 10 measured redshifts. The redshift of the VLG is indicated by a dashed line.

From table 2, and also taking into account the 4 VLGs not included in this selection, it appears that all VLGs have companions. This is not so surprising, given the known correlation between galaxies, and confirms the idea that there are no truly “isolated” galaxies. Moreover, it is quite striking that in the literature 6 out of the 18 SSRS2 VLGs were not associated to any system, while other 3 were classified simply as binaries: for example, VLG048 belongs to a system for which we could collect 15 new redshifts from the 2dFGRS. Such a high number of nearby galaxy systems which were not previously identified neither in the optical nor in the X–ray reminds us how poorly known the low–mass end of galaxy systems is. Therefore it is interesting to examine in more detail the nature and environment in which VLGs are found. In the following, we briefly describe the main properties of the selected VLGs and their systems.

* VLG014 is an Sbc spiral in a known triplet, which appears to be in a larger system: including the information from the 2dFGRS, we have a total of 14 galaxies with redshift. The 3–$`\sigma `$ clipping algorithm does not exclude any of these galaxies, but 5 of them are apparently in foreground and background, contributing to the formally large velocity dispersion of the system, $`750`$ km/s; when considering only the central 9 galaxies (which include the VLG) concentrated at $`z0.04`$, the velocity dispersion is only $`120`$ km/s.
* VLG022 is an S0 in a known compact group, SCG55, identified with an automated algorithm by Prandoni et al. (1997). Five galaxies are within 1.5 $`h^1`$ Mpc in projected distance and 1500 km/s in velocity from the VLG, but two are excluded by the 3$`\sigma `$ clipping.
* VLG031, a D galaxy, is the dominant galaxy of A151. In our selection there is only another VLG (VLG108) associated to a rich Abell cluster. The VLG redshift is at the center of the velocity distribution, which is regular and consistent with a Gaussian. For this system we measure a velocity dispersion $`\sigma 720`$ km/s.
* VLG040 is a spiral in a system with a relatively large velocity dispersion (more than $`700`$ km/s); however, the velocity histogram shows that this value is probably affected by foreground galaxies. The VLG is in the concentration at $`z0.043`$.
* VLG043 is an Sb galaxy previously not associated to a known system; now we have identified a group with 15 galaxies having measured redshifts, and a velocity dispersion of $`470`$ km/s. The velocity histogram is not symmetric, with two galaxies which could be in the foreground, having a velocity difference of about 1100 km/s with respect to the cluster mean.
* VLG045 is a spiral classified in our original catalog as an “isolated” galaxy, as no known system was found in the literature. Within the search radius we have found other 20 2dFGRS galaxies, and only one of them was rejected by the 3-$`\sigma `$ clipping algorithm. The velocity histogram presents a well defined peak, with 4 galaxies in the background. The velocity dispersion of the system is $`460`$ km/s. All these galaxies are much fainter than the VLG, which has an apparent magnitude of $`14.96`$: the second brightest galaxy has $`b_J=16.66`$, while the others are fainter than $`b_J=17`$. Notice however that these fainter galaxies have still a significant intrinsic luminosity: the second member has an absolute magnitude brighter than $`M^{}`$.
* VLG048 is an Sbc galaxy member of a known binary system: however, with the 2dFGRS data we have 20 galaxy redshifts for this system. The velocity histogram shows a main peak including the VLG, and a secondary peak in the background.
* VLG053 is an S0 galaxy previously not associated to a known system, but looking at the Digital Sky Survey image we had identified a few other bright galaxies. We can now confirm the reality of a group, with other 32 2dFGRS galaxies: its velocity histogram is consistent with a Gaussian distribution, with a velocity dispersion of $`360`$ km/s.
* VLG061 is a large spiral galaxy, and also in this case, while it was not associated to any known group or cluster, we had identified many fainter galaxies in the field; 6 of them were selected and observed at OHP, and their redshifts were found to be comparable to that of the VLG. The velocity dispersion of the system is $`300`$ km/s. Galaxy $`1`$ (see table 1) has a bright HII region outside the nucleus; in its spectrum we have detected $`H_\beta `$ in emission, the two \[OIII\] lines at 4959 and 5007 Å, $`H_\alpha `$ and \[NII\] lines (while \[OII\]3727 is outside our spectral range).
* VLG068 was already known to be in a group: we could only measure the redshifts of the three main components. However, we show this system as a further example of how different can be the environment of a VLG from that of a typical cluster. The main companions of the VLG are two Markarian galaxies, already known in the literature. MRK609 is a Seyfert 1.8, with prominent emission lines ($`H_\beta `$, \[OIII\] and $`H_\alpha `$).
* VLG069 is a peculiar spiral galaxy in interaction in a binary system. Its redshift is quite precise, having been measured also in $`H_\alpha `$. From the 2dFGRS we have obtained a few other redshifts, but there is some problem with the identification of the binary. At the position of the VLG, the 2dFGRS gives a galaxy with a redshift consistent with the SSRS2, but the magnitude is significantly underestimated. We have kept the SSRS2 measure in the table. The 2dFGRS gives also the redshift of a second nearby galaxy, with coordinate approximately corresponding to the center of the binary system and a bright magnitude (14.09). It could correspond to the companion of the VLG, and we have included it in our table. In conclusion, 8 galaxies are now included as members of the group after the 3–$`\sigma `$ clipping. This system has a relatively low velocity dispersion (160 km/s).
* VLG074 is in fact a pair of interacting galaxies (NGC1516 A & B), also detected by IRAS. The redshift was measured by Strauss et al. (1992), attributing the coordinates to the center of the pair. These coordinates and redshifts were included in the SSRS2 and in our VLG catalog. It is possible that the magnitude of the brightest member was not correctly estimated, given the proximity of the two galaxies. We have measured the redshifts of both, which differ by less than 100 km/s (see table 1). A third galaxy among those we have observed belongs to the system, while the other, fainter galaxies in the field are in the background, with a concentration at $`z0.121`$.
* VLG083 is an elliptical galaxy within 0.5 arcmin from the center of the poor Abell cluster S0983. In this field we have found other 30 2dFGRS galaxies: the velocity dispersion of the system is $`320`$ km/s.
* VLG086 is a Seyfert galaxy in a Hickson Compact Group (HCG91). The VLG is in interaction with a nearby SB0. This group is quite rich: 37 galaxies have measured redshifts and none of them is rejected by the 3–$`\sigma `$ clipping algorithm, giving a quite large velocity dispersion of $`670`$ km/s. However, there is a well defined central peak at $`z0.023`$, which corresponds to the mean redshift of the system and also to the redshift of the VLG. This should probably be considered as the main group. Note that we have excluded from our analysis a 2dFGRS galaxy, identified in the NASA Extragalactic Database as 2dFGRS S175Z138, with coordinates ($`\alpha =22^h09^m07.45^s`$, $`\delta =27^o48^{}22.8^{^{\prime \prime }}`$) , near to –but not coincident with– the VLG center. It might be identified with the VLG or alternatively with the SB0 interacting with the VLG.
* VLG093 is an Sb in a field for which we have now 15 redshifts. The 3–$`\sigma `$ clipping does not exclude any of these galaxies; however, the histogram is asymmetric, and the VLG, not present in the 2dFGRS catalogue, is in the first velocity bin, while the peak is in the last bin (the velocity difference is $`1500`$ km/s). Therefore we can conclude that there is a group in the field, but it is not clear if it is really associated to the VLG.
* VLG094 is a peculiar spiral in a poor cluster listed in the Edinburgh/Durham Cluster Catalog (EDCC155; Lumsden et al. 1992). The redshift of the VLG is comparable to the average redshift and is near the velocity peak. The velocity dispersion, $`\sigma 410`$ km/s, is quite typical of a rich group.
* VLG108 is the cD galaxy in the Abell cluster A4038. The usually quoted velocity dispersion of this cluster is larger ($`882`$ km/s in Struble & Rood 1999) than our estimate of $`660`$ km/s. However, as shown by Fadda et al. (1996), this apparently regular cluster has two different peaks in velocity (the two peaks can also be seen in our velocity histogram, see figure 3). Our velocity dispersion is in excellent agreement with the X–ray temperature, $`kT=3.31`$ keV (Finoguenov et al. 2001); for example, using the Lubin & Bahcall empirical relation (1993), $`\sigma =10^{2.52}(kT)^{0.6}`$, we would expect $`\sigma 679`$ km/s.
* VLG109 is an elliptical VLG in the poor cluster S1155, which has a velocity dispersion comparable to S0983 (see VLG083), $`300`$ km/s.
* VLG 0716+5323, which we selected from the CfA catalog, is another example of an early–type VLG. It is in a Zwicky cluster (Z1261), with an extended X–ray emission centered at 0.5 arcmin from the VLG. This cluster, detected by the Einstein satellite, is also included in the ROSAT Brightest Cluster Sample (Ebeling et al. 1998), with a luminosity $`L_X=0.81\times 10^{44}`$ erg/s. For this cluster there was no previous measured redshift except for the VLG (Gregory & Burns 1982). At OHP we could measure the redshifts of 9 galaxies, VLG included. The resulting velocity dispersion of the system, $`\sigma =609`$ km/s, is typical of a poor cluster. The agreement of the velocity dispersion with the cluster temperature, $`kT=2.8`$ keV (Ebeling et al. 1998), is excellent: from the Lubin & Bahcall (1993) fit we would expect $`\sigma =614`$ km/s.

## 4 The relation between VLGs and their environment

In paper I we have shown that the correlation function of VLGs approaches that of clusters. Various galaxies discussed above (VLG045, VLG048, VLG053) are within the Pisces–Cetus Supercluster, which appears as a prominent feature near the limiting depth of the SSRS2 volume–limited sample of VLGs (the presence of this structure might explain the excess of the VLG correlation amplitude measured in the SSRS2 with respect to the 2dFGRS). The Pisces–Cetus supercluster is well traced by Abell and ACO clusters (Tully 1986), but none of our VLGs is a member of those clusters. The VLG correlation function is large because VLGs trace large–scale fluctuations just as clusters do, not because they are in rich clusters.

Another interesting issue is the luminosity function of the VLG systems. In principle, merging should have played a major role in the formation of the elliptical VLGs, and the luminosity function of the associated system might be different from those dominated by a spiral VLG. As a preliminary test, we have estimated the composite luminosity functions of early and late VLG dominated systems, excluding both rich clusters and systems with probable field contamination. In this rough comparison, we assume that selection effects are the same for the two types of systems. We have normalized numbers to the total number of galaxies in the two samples (66 for spiral VLG and 71 for elliptical VLG systems). In deriving absolute magnitudes, we applied the mean K + e correction formula $`K=0.03z/(0.01+z^4)`$ adopted by Norberg et al. (2001); at the distances of SSRS2 VLGs ($`0.05`$), it is consistent with the correction adopted for the SSRS2 (da Costa et al. 1994; $`K=3z`$). As apparent from figure 4, taking into account the small number of objects in our samples we cannot find significant differences between the two luminosity functions to $`M=17`$, the absolute limiting magnitude at which galaxies around SSRS2 VLGs could still be detected in the 2dFGRS.

There is however a difference when looking at the morphology of the central VLG and the velocity dispersion of the associated system. It is not surprising that the VLGs which are at the center of clusters are giant ellipticals; these clusters have $`\sigma 600`$ km/s and an associated X–ray emission at a temperature consistent with their velocity dispersion. Other 3 systems including an early type VLG (one S0 and two ellipticals) have velocity dispersions in the range 300–350 km/s, and might be considered the low–mass end of galaxy clusters. The remaining S0 in the sample is in a compact group with a small velocity dispersion ($`140`$ km/s).

The systems dominated by a spiral VLG have a large spread in velocity dispersion: but as we have seen from the velocity histograms, those with the largest velocity dispersions ($`700`$ km/s), VLG014, VLG040 and VLG086, are probably affected by field contamination. Moreover, for these systems no extended X–ray emission is reported in the on–line databases.

Within the limits of the small statistics and lack of completeness, we can conclude that VLGs are in a qualitative agreement with the morphology–density relation: in clusters and rich groups we find only early type VLGs, while among systems originally classified as binaries or triplets, and those with the lowest velocity dispersions (with the exception of the S0 VLG022) the VLG is a late–type.

The nearby systems we have observed at OHP have lower velocity dispersions, and have probably also a lower richness but the limiting apparent magnitude is also brighter for these systems. The system more similar to our own Local Group is the one associated to VLG069. It has 10 galaxies with measured redshifts and $`M_B15.5`$: even if this is still not a complete sample, the number is comparable to the Local Group, where we find 10 galaxies with $`M_V15.5`$. VLG069 is the main member of a binary system, as Andromeda and the Milky Way; moreover, the VLG069 system has also a relatively low velocity dispersion, $`\sigma 160`$ km/s, still somewhat higher than the velocity dispersion of the Local Group, $`\sigma =61\pm 8`$ km/s (van den Bergh 1999, 2000), which is indeed lower than the observed range of our VLG systems. However, our observational errors would not allow us to measure accurately such a low velocity dispersion.

Our optical classification of VLG systems can be compared to the X–ray based classification of galaxy groups by Zabludoff & Mulchaey (1998), who distinguish groups with a bright, central elliptical galaxy and smooth X–ray emission from the hot IGM, and groups without X–ray emission, a few bright late–type galaxies with fainter members, like our Local Group. Our systems with an early–type VLG have generally velocity dispersion and richness comparable to the values found by ZM98 for their 9 poor groups with diffuse X–ray emission. They also find that the 3 groups without X–ray emission have a lower number of members, which seems also consistent with what we find. Zabludoff (1999) has suggested the possibile existence of a third class of groups in a transition phase, but it has still to be demonstrated that the differences between the two classes might be due to evolution instead of their different formation processes.

## 5 Discussion and conclusions

The number density of galaxies is dominated by faint, small systems. As an example, let us assume a Schechter luminosity function with $`M_{b_J}^{}=19.6`$, $`\alpha =1.22`$ and $`\varphi ^{}=0.02`$ (Zucca et al. 1997). The fraction of galaxies brighter than $`L^{}`$ is in fact less than 2% of all galaxies with $`M_{b_J}12.5`$. The brightest galaxies with $`M_{b_J}21`$ are only 3 out of 10000. Among these galaxies, we find M31 and probably the Milky Way (see e.g. van den Berg 1999), which are therefore not typical galaxies, but very special systems. Nevertheless, when looking at the luminosity (mass) density, the contribution of Very Luminous Galaxies (VLGs) with $`M_B21`$ to the luminosity density increases to 1.6% and that of $`M_{}`$ galaxies to nearly 30%. VLGs are extremely interesting from the point of view of galaxy formation and large–scale structure. They are visible at large distances ($`D_{max}170`$$`h^1`$ Mpc at the limiting magnitude of the SSRS2 $`m_B=15.5`$) and their distribution is biased with respect to galaxies of lower luminosity.

There is a common misconception, according to which optically very luminous galaxies selected with a large correlation amplitude are early–type galaxies in clusters. In this work we have shown that, at least choosing galaxies in the blue passband, this is not the case. We have presented our observations and 2dFGRS data concerning fields centered on SSRS2 VLGs: we have found clear evidence that VLGs are the brightest members of galaxy systems which can escape standard group finding methods, except of course for the minority of early–type VLGs in rich groups or clusters. VLGs have clustering properties similar to clusters, but most of them are in systems with a galaxy population comparable to loose groups, and some of them are probably comparable to our Local Group. The large correlation amplitude suggests that VLGs are in high density regions; most of them, being spirals, cannot have accreted more than a few percent of their mass through major merging episodes (Tóth & Ostriker 1992), so we have to suppose that these systems already formed with a large, central massive galaxy and low mass companions. On the other hand, the merging of two late–type VLGs could evolve into an early type system, analogously to what was suggested for poor groups by Zabludoff & Mulchaey (1999).

Other recent works appear to confirm the general properties of VLGs which we have found from the analysis of the SSRS2. Giuricin et al. (2001) have analysed the Nearby Optical Galaxy sample, finding a similar trend for the luminosity segregation, and that only 10% of their VLGs reside in clusters; they also find that, while the fraction of very luminous early–type galaxies is larger than the corresponding fraction for the total sample, it is still only $`29`$%, less than than the fraction of Scd galaxies (39%). Moreover, from the analysis of the 2dFGRS Norberg et al. (2002) confirm that “luminosity, and not type, is the dominant factor in determining how the clustering strength of the whole galaxy population varies with luminosity”.

The amount of mass associated to VLG systems is still an open question. For example, the lower correlation amplitude for VLGs found in the 2dFGRS would indicate that VLGs are associated to dark halos less massive than typical halo clusters. The increase in local overdensity of galaxies around VLGs should also be better determined. In a recent paper Hogg et al. (2003) analyse the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and find the intriguing results that blue luminous galaxies with $`L<3L^{}`$ are not apparently found in overdensities, but VLGs have even larger luminosities.

Therefore only further and deeper observations devoted to the detailed study of VLGs, determining the luminosity function of these systems and the dynamics of satellites around the VLGs, together with observations in redder passbands (more representative of the mass of the systems) will shed more light on the properties of VLGs and their environment, and their implications for galaxy formation and evolution.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work has been partially supported by the Italian Space Agency grants ASI-I-R-105-00 and ASI-I-R-037-01, and by the Italian Ministery (MIUR) grant COFIN2001 “Clusters and groups of galaxies: the interplay between dark and baryonic matter”. We thank the referee, Florence Durret, for her careful reading of the manuscript and useful comments.

## Appendix A The discrepant redshift of Arp 127

The Arp 127 pair (Arp 1966) is made by NGC0191, a spiral classified as SAB(rs)c: pec, and IC1563, an S0 pec sp. A third, more compact object is seen among the two galaxies (see 5). According to the literature, the redshifts of NGC0191 and IC1563 are respectively $`v=5065\pm 141`$ km/s and $`v=13652\pm 141`$ km/s (Huchra et al. 1993), a surprising difference given the apparent signs of interactions; for this reason IC1563 was not included in our final catalogue, even if according to the quoted redshift and the apparent magnitude ($`m=14.74`$) it should be considered a VLG.

Our measurements for NGC0191 and IC1563 are reported in table A.1, and show that there is no discrepancy: the binary system Arp 127 is at $`z6150`$ km/s, and the two galaxies have a velocity difference of only $`60`$ km/s –, i.e. they have the same velocity taking into account the errors. These two galaxies are clearly interacting, as shown by the tidal distortion in NGC0191.

We suggest that the redshift of $`13652`$ km/s should be attributed to the round object between the two galaxies. In fact Beers et al. (1991) report that value for the redshift giving the coordinates of the round object, but identify it as IC1563, while Huchra et al. (1993) give the approximate coordinates of the Arp 127 system for both NGC0191 and IC1563. The velocity of the round object is in the lower part of the velocity range of the A85 galaxy cluster (see Durret et al. 1998) and at an angular distance of 44 arcmin from its center, and it might be a galaxy member of the cluster.

The new redshift for IC1563 means that this galaxy has $`M=19.2`$, i.e. it is a typical $`M^{}`$ galaxy and not a VLG. In table 3 we report also the photometric observations of Reshetnikov & Combes (1996).

## Appendix B 2dFGRS data

In the following tables we list the 2dFGRS galaxies which we have selected as members of VLG systems. We give in column (1) our identification number, in columns (2) and (3) respectively right ascension and declination, in column (4) the $`b_J`$ magnitude, and in column (5) the redshift.

We have listed the 2dFGRS data on the VLG when available, otherwise we have reported the SSRS2 data.

We could compare magnitudes and redshifts of the 2dFGRS and SSRS2 for 5 VLGs with 2dFGRS data (VLG014, VLG022, VLG043, VLG045, VLG048, VLG109): we find an average velocity difference $`<V(2dF)V(SSRS2)>=118`$ km/s with an rms of $`155`$ km/s and an average magnitude difference $`<b_J(2dF)m_B(SSRS2)>=0.20`$, with an rms of 0.46. The magnitude difference is consistent with the $`0.2`$ zero–point shift expected between the blue magnitudes of the SSRS2 (Alonso et al. 1993, 1994; da Costa et al. 1994) and the APM $`b_J`$ magnitudes on which the 2dFGRS is based (Maddox et al. 1990a, 1990b, 1996). Note that for bright galaxies, magnitudes are not very precise: the APM $`b_J`$ magnitudes have a precision of 0.2 in the range $`1719.5`$ but are significantly affected by saturation at magnitudes brighter than $`b_J=16`$ (Norberg et al. 2002).

Tables available at http://www.bo.astro.it/$``$cappi/preprints.html


text:
# The CDF Data Handling System

## I INTRODUCTION

The Collider Detector at Fermilab (CDF) is a general purpose detector at the Fermilab Tevatron cdf-detector . The Tevatron, the world largest $`\mathrm{p}\overline{\mathrm{p}}`$ collider with the c.m.s. energy of about 2 TeV, has undergone a major upgrade for Run II that started April 2001. The CDF detector has been equipped with a new tracking system, a TOF system, a new plug calorimeter and luminosity counters. The muon system coverage has been extended. The CDF trigger and DAQ systems have been upgraded to accommodate 10$`\times `$ increase in luminosity.

The experimental program at CDF includes search for Higgs boson, precision measurements of electroweak parameters, study of t-quark properties, QCD at large $`\mathrm{Q}^2`$, heavy flavor physics and search for phenomena beyond Standard Model.

During the first years of Run II the CDF collaboration plans to record about 1 PB of data. This volume is more than 20 times the volume of the previous data recording, Run I. The sheer volume of data and increased analysis activity due to collaboration growth and extended physics potential constitute serious challenges for a data handling system. All data is accessed multiple times during several years of active analysis. Direct access storage devices (DASD) are not affordable for this data volume. Instead the data is archived to sequential media. Any of the data can be retrieved onto DASD into available space on a modified least recently used (LRU) basis. Users access the data only from disk.

The purpose of the DH system is to collect, organize, archive and then make available the data to user analysis job.

## II THE DATA ACCESS ORGANIZATION

The CDF Run II data handling strategy is essentially an evolution of the Run I approach of successive filtering of events of interest from huge primary datasets produced at CDF production farm into smaller sub-samples relevant for individual analyses. The process of filtering of events and information stored per each event continues until the samples used to produce final physics results are obtained. These final samples could be small enough to be held on disk.

CDF has adopted a hierarchical data organization with the dataset at the highest level and runsection at the lowest level of the structure. The dataset is the collection of events passing pre-defined set of Level-3 paths (primary and secondary datasets) or other selection criteria relevant for particular physics analysis (tertiary or derived datasets). Level-3 path is defined as AND of Level-1, Level-2 and Level-3 triggers.

There are 50 pre-defined primary datasets at CDF. During the data taking events that belong to similar datasets are grouped into 8 streams. Grouping of datasets into the streams is done in such a way that event overlap between the streams is minimized and the fraction of the stream in any dataset is not small.

Runsections are the time intervals of data taking for which integrated luminosity is calculated. Typically, a runsection is defined every 30 seconds of data taking and contains on average 3,000 events. Events are written to files of about 1 GB in size. No runsection is split between two files. Groups of 10 GB or more worth of files form filesets to optimize tape I/O.

At the beginning of the Run II the CDF was writing data to partitioned AIT-2 tapes, one fileset per partition. The individual data unit existing in the Data Handling system was therefore a fileset and not a file.

Users access data by datasets following the datasets $``$ filesets $``$ files $``$ runsections hierarchy. At the same time data handling access to data followed tape$``$filesets$``$files hierarchy. These two interlacing access patterns are shown in Figure 1.

### II.1 Data Flow

During data taking, the Consumer-Server/Logger (CSL) csl  receives events from the Level-3 PC farm at 20 MB/sec (75 Hz$`\times `$250 kB/event) and logs files to dual ported SCSI RAID array disks at 20 MB/sec. These functions are performed on b0dau32, an SGI 2200 server dedicated to the CSL and located in CDF assembly building. A fileset-tape daemon running on another identical SGI 2200, fcdfsgi1, located in Feynman Computer Center, forms files into filesets and logs them to Mass Storage System (MSS) using the Enstore enstore  interface layer that provides access to network-attached tape drives in the STK robotic tape library.

Once the data are on tape and the calibrations are defined, the raw data are fed to the CDF Production Farm farm  where they are reconstructed. After production, the data are split into the 50 primary datasets. These datasets are written to tapes. The average Production Farm I/O throughput is about 30 MB/sec.

The primary datasets are split into secondary datasets of interest for the physics analysis groups. Users create tertiary datasets or n-tuples using secondary datasets as inputs. Figure 2 shows the amount of raw and produced data logged to tape at CDF since the beginning of Run II. Some tapes containing older produced data were recycled to free up media.

### II.2 Data and Software Characteristics

Some characteristics of the CDF data and analysis software:

* ROOT I/O as persistency mechanism
* Typical raw event size is 250 kB
* Typical produced event size is 350 kB, in DST format (raw banks are kept)
* PAD format or mini-DST format, ultimate event size 50-100 kB
* N-tuple format 10-30 kB/event
* Typical dataset size is $`10^7`$ events
* Typical analysis job runs at 5 Hz on a 1 GHz PIII corresponding to few MB/sec input rate
* Analysis jobs are CPU rather than network or I/O bound over Fast Ethernet

## III CDF DATA HANDLING INFRASTRUCTURE

The DH system at CDF has several distinct components (Figure 3) each of which has a well-defined interface.

User specifies a request for data by dataset or other selection criteria based on meta-data information associated with the dataset, fileset or file via talk-to to a special DHInput module. The DHInput module translates the request into a list of filesets using information available in the Data File Catalog via DB access layer provided by DataFileDB package. The list of filesets is passed to a client API of the disk cache manager. The client software contacts the disk cache manager server process to query the status of filesets in the list. The filesets available in the disk cache are processed while separate staging jobs are launched to copy missing filesets from MSS to disk.

Raw and produced data are put to tape by data logging daemons that currently write directly into MSS using Enstore interface.

### III.1 DH I/O modules

An object oriented analysis framework, AC++ acpp  jointly developed by BaBar and CDF provides hooks to plug in high-level user interfaces to Data Handling system – DHInput/DHOutput modules. The low-level API, the means to open, read and define internal structure of the data files is provided by the Event Data Model edm . The DHInput provides fast navigation through input data made possible by the direct access ROOT format of the CDF data.

The DHOutput module writes out ANSI named files furnished with begin run record, empty runsections records, necessary for luminosity calculations, and makes entries in the Data File Catalog.

### III.2 Data File Catalog

The Data File Catalog is a relational database that contains information about CDF datasets dfc . It also contains physics-related bookkeeping information such as data quality, triggers and filters used, average and integrated luminosity, dynamic pre-scales values, etc. The data access granularity of the DFC is a runsection, i.e. a group of events rather than individual events. The DFC table structure reflects CDF data hierarchy depicted in Figure 1.

The DFC tables store information about physical entities existing in the Data Handling system. Such entities are Dataset, Tape, Fileset, File and Runsection. Each entity has a corresponding primary table. The primary DFC tables are shown in Table I

Besides these primary tables there are secondary tables. These tables either keep certain relation between units, like for example parentage of the datasets or they keep history of changes, so called history tables, or they keep auxiliary entities like ranges or statuses or descriptions. There are 10 such tables (See Table II)

Data File Catalog defines the following primary relationships among the entities:

* a dataset has zero or more parent datasets
* a dataset contains zero or more filesets
* a dataset is contained on one or more tapes
* tape pool may have zero or more tapes
* a tape has one parent tape pool
* a fileset has one parent dataset
* a fileset contains one or more files
* a file has one parent fileset
* a file has one parent dataset
* a file contains one or more runsection range
* a file contains zero or more average prescales
* a runsection contains zero or more dynamic prescales (livetimes)

There exists an Oracle implementation of the DFC tables used at Fermilab to keep track of centrally produced as well as secondary user data. There is also mSQL implementation of the DFC that can be set up and run at remote institutions if for some reasons either use of DFC located at Fermilab via network or installation and maintenance of Oracle DFC replica are not possible. Oracle and mSQL implementations are identical with the exception of latter not having integrity constraints and database triggers. Integrity constraints and the functionality of triggers are embedded in the DataFileDB library, a C++ DB access API. Recently the support for mySQL implementation of the DFC has been added.

### III.3 DataFileDB API

The information stored in the DFC is presented to the data processing algorithms as transient objects which are retrieved using compound keys. The management of mapping of persistent data to transient objects is provided by the common database interface manager layerchep2000\_jbk . This layer exists between the algorithm code and the code which reads directly from database tables. At the persistent storage end, it allows multiple back-end mapping classes to be plugged in and identified as data sources by character string at the run time. At the user end, it provides a put/get/update/delete interface on top of a transient class for storage/retrieval/change/removal of objects of this class using a key.

The mapping object creates a transient object from the data stored in the DFC using the key. Objects are cached by keys to prevent multiple database accesses from different algorithms for the same data.

The DBManagerchep2000\_jbk  has two APIs. The back-end persistent-to-transient mapping API, IOPackage, is an abstract base class. In order to create new persistent-to-transient mapping class, or Mapper class, one has to derive this class from IOPackage. The user code sees the front-end API as template based. Transient classes are used as the template instantiation parameters of the `Manager<object,key>` class. The `Manager<object,key>` class has methods such as put, get, update and remove to manipulate transient objects.

The DataFileDB dfc  package is built on the top of DBManager and provides all the code needed to manipulate the DFC from a C++ program. It contains an implementation of the transient object classes, their associated keys and Mapper classes. There are three Mapper classes for each transient class corresponding to the three supported underlying relational database implementations – Oracle (using OCI and OTL libraries), mSQL and mySQL. Information from any supported database implementation can be manipulated without code changes, the source database can be selected at the run time.

There are six classes representing rows of the DFC tables. Each of these classes, so called row-classes, has an interface that allows users to view the information held inside an object of the class. Many of these objects contain the data collected from the secondary DFC tables like parent datasets or runsection ranges. Each transient object class has an associated key object class. The key object defines the WHERE clause of the SQL statement emitted by the Mapper back-end implementation for the corresponding transient object.

Some of the row-objects have hierarchical views associated with them. The hierarchical views make calls down to DBManager classes which perform connections to the database to do put, get, update or remove queries. E.g., the code to retrieve all the files belonging to the dataset, identified by dataset name identifier aphysr looks like this:

```
// make connection to database identified
// by key "prd_dfc"
        DFCFileCatalogNode fc("dfc_prd");
// key class associated with file
        DFCFileKey key;
        key.setDatasetNameID("aphysr");
// typedef std::vector<DFCFile> DFCFiles;
// typedef Handle<DFCFiles> DFCFiles_var;
        DFCFiles_var files;Ψ
        fc.findFiles(key,files);

```

The `findFiles` method of hierarchical view `DFCFileCatalogNode` instantiates Manager provided by DBManager API with appropriate template parameters and arguments:

```
        DFCFiles_mgr m("dfc_prd","DFCFiles");
        m.get(key,files);

```

The front-end API is in `DFCFiles_mgr` class which is `typedef Manager< DFCFiles,DFCFileKey >`. The argument ”dfc\_prd” identifies the entire set of classes such as OTL or mSQL or mySQL Mappers to be used to perform data base operation. An ASCII text configuration file associates this string with the real database instance by including user, password, node name and class set name. The second argument instructs IOPackage factory which particular Mapper sub-class to instantiate. The object returned from the API is managed by a smart pointer (Handle\<DFCFiles\>).

### III.4 Disk Cache Management

One of the central components of the CDF DH system is the Disk Inventory Manager (DIM) dim . It acts as read/write cache in front of the MSS. The primary function of the DIM is to cache data from the tape library onto a large collection of shared disks, secondary functions include automating the writing of new filesets onto tape, handling quotas for space and reservation management.

The unit of space management is a fileset. DIM keeps track of fileset status and has no knowledge of datasets as such. This serves to decouple the manager from database system. The DIM is a client-server application with the communication between client and server via TCP/IP sockets.

The server daemon is a multi-threaded program written to the POSIX C API using the worker pool model. For better scalability it uses a dynamic threading system , starting more threads under load and eliminating them when the load is reduced. The caching mechanism scores each fileset thet is not being reserved by users, just arrived or marked static based on reservations, time on disk and time since last usage. It deletes the fileset with the lowest score to make room for newly requested fileset, an LRU algorithm.

The initial design of the central analysis system was based on the idea of tight storage and CPU connection. The large computing machine, a SGI Origin 2000 with 128 300 Mhz MIPS R12000 CPUs, fcdfsgi2, has been purchased and commissioned at the end of 1999. A 12 TB disk cache pool of Fiber Channel SCSI disk RAID arrays is managed by the DIM.

The DIM has originally been designed to work with attached disks on a large SMP. The SMP-centric model was first envisioned for Run II in 1998. In later revisions the model’s inflexibility, cost/performance considerations and single source upgrades were acknowledged and an extension towards incorporating commodity PCs and network distributed IDE RAID based disk storage was adopted

While network nature of DIM allows it to handle network-attached storage, it has never been developed to fully support distributed caching.

The CDF DH group evaluated an effort required to support DIM in distributed environment and decided in favor of adopting different cache layer – dCache dcache .

dCache is a front-end disk cache for the large MSS. Originally conceived at DESY, dCache has been jointly developed by DESY and Fermilab Computing Division (CD) for several years now. dCache uses network mounted disks to implement distributed data caches with user authentication. dCache provides file-based staging, making concept of fileset obsolete.

A client, requesting a file, contacts a dCache admin node and is authenticated. If the file is in any of the cache pools managed by the dCache admin server, the client is redirected to the pool containing the file. If the file is not on any of the pools is is staged from tape to pool with available disk space and client is redirected to that pool.

### III.5 Mass Storage System

CDF has started Run II with a MSS based on an AML-2 robotic tape library with cheap commodity AIT-2 tape drives, SONY-CDX500C, directly attached to main CDF data logger and central analysis SMP, fcdfsgi2. Interface to MSS was written using CDF-specific software. The choice of tape technology turned out to be more difficult than anticipated.

In May 2002, this tape system has been replaced with a Enstore Mass Storage System with dual STK Powderhorn 9310 robotic libraries equipped with 10 network-attached data center quality tape drives STK T9940A, 10 MB/sec read/write rate each enstore . CDF Enstore MSS is called CDFEN.

All existing data were copied from AIT-2 tapes to STK cartridges using the DH system running on the central analysis SMP.

This year, STK T9940A are being replaced with STK T9940B tape drives. The total I/O rate of CDF tape system system becomes 10x30 MB/sec=300 MB/sec. This bandwidth is shared between raw data logging, Production Farms and a 600 CPU Central Analysis Farm (CAF) caf  for user analysis and legacy SMP system. Total data capacity is about 2 PB with 200 GB/tape cartridges. The tape system I/O rate and volume capacity are sufficient for the Run IIa luminosity goals.

Data delivery became stable and reliable. Figure 4 illustrates increased read rate from Enstore on legacy DH system.

## IV CURRENT DEVELOPMENT

Having achieved operational stability and reliable data delivery at Fermilab, the CDF Data Handling group is looking forward to further development of the Data Handling system towards providing data flow to world-wide distributed computing resources.

The CDF has evaluated the D0 Data Handling system based on Sequential Access through Meta Data (SAM) system sam . SAM is a complete Data Handling system that provides:

* Meta-data file catalog,
* Clustering the data onto tertiary storage in the manner corresponding to access pattern
* Caching frequently accessed data on disk or tape,
* Organization of data request to minimize tape mounts
* A resource manager that estimates resources required for the file requests before they are submitted and, with this information, makes administrative decisions concerning data delivery priorities

The SAM infrastructure consists of a central data repository and a number of SAM-stations. A station consists of one or more computer nodes that share a data cache managed by one or more station master nodes and accessible to consumer/producer nodes. Users submit jobs to computer in a stations specifying the project their job will access. Using the file catalog meta-data, SAM translates the request into the list of files. If the requested files are available in the station cache they are sent to the requesting job. If some files are missing in the local cache, a station, following a set of rules will request the data from central repository or from neighboring stations.

By design, the SAM is inherently a scalable, flexible Data Handling solution specifically tailored to accommodate distributed computing resources. This realization and the initial success of integrating SAM into CDF software chep2003\_sam  resulted in creation of CDF SAM project in the framework of joint D0/CDF/CD project.

The outcome of this project was a modified file catalog SAM schema that would allow to absorb the CDF Data File Catalog into SAM and interfacing of SAM data access layer with dCache for reading and writing data.

## V CONCLUSION

The CDF Collaboration has changed significantly its computing analysis system towards using globally distributed commodity CPU resources and network accessible IDE RAID arrays for disk caching.

The choice of associated software and hardware components seems to be paying off remarkably well:

* The Enstore generic interface to tape system that utilizes data center quality drives allowed to achieve stable and robust operations in a very short period of time
* The network disk caching management layer, dCache, runs successfully on commodity Linux file servers managing about 100 TB of distributed cache pools achieving unprecedented TB/hour data delivery rate to analysis jobs running on CAF.
* An adaptation of the SAM as the first step towards GRID for CDF that ultimately allows off-site users to fully utilize their computing resources

Most importantly CDF has a Data Handling strategy that allows scaling with accumulated luminosity and increasing number CPUs and disks resources.

The CDF Detector has achieved stable data taking. Stable detector operation complemented by a reliable Data Handling system will result in high quality and timely physics results. The first CDF Run II paper is in print, CDF is back in business.

###### Acknowledgements.

In conclusion the author wishes to thank members of CDF Data Handling group and Fermilab Computing Division for their significant contribution to design, implementation and operational support of the CDF Data Handling system.


text:
# Topological phase transitions of random networks

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## Abstract

To provide a phenomenological theory for the various interesting transitions in restructuring networks we employ a statistical mechanical approach with detailed balance satisfied for the transitions between topological states. This enables us to establish an equivalence between the equilibrium rewiring problem we consider and the dynamics of a lattice gas on the edge-dual graph of a fully connected network. By assigning energies to the different network topologies and defining the appropriate order parameters, we find a rich variety of topological phase transitions, defined as singular changes in the essential feature(s) of the global connectivity as a function of a parameter playing the role of the temperature. In the “critical point” scale-free networks can be recovered.

One of the most fruitful recent approaches to the description of complex systems consisting of many similar units has been the analysis of the underlying network of interactions. It has turned out that seemingly very different systems can be characterized by a few major classes of stochastic graphs representing the overall features of the structure of connections among the units b-a-revmod ; dorog-mendes-book . These developments have greatly advanced our potential to interpret the fundamental common features of diverse systems including social groups, technological, biological and other networks. The effects of both the restructuring watts2  and the growth b-a-science  of the associated graphs have been considered leading to a number of exciting discoveries about the laws concerning their diameter, clustering and degree distribution.

Although the conceptual basis of most of the related works has largely relied on analogies (scaling, percolation, etc.) with statistical mechanics, only very few recent works burda ; berg ; burda2  have been devoted to the problem of directly connecting the graph theoretical aspects of networks to statistical mechanics or thermodynamics. On the other hand, using a thermodynamic formalism for the changes in graphs being in an equilibrium-like state is expected to provide a significantly deeper insight into the processes taking place in systems being in a saturated state and, as such, dominated by the fluctuating rearrangements of links between their units.

As an example, let us take a given number of units interacting in a “noisy” environment. These units can be people, firms, genes, etc. The probability for establishing a new or ceasing an existing interaction/connection between two units depends on both the noise and the advantage/disadvantage gained/lost when adopting the new configuration. In this picture, a global transition in the connectivity properties can occur as a function of the level of perturbations. For instance, if the conditions are such that the interactions between the partners become more “conservative” (a relative, short term gain is more highly valued), as we show later, a transition from a less ordered to a more ordered network configuration can take place. In particular, it has been argued stark-vedres  that depending on the level of given types of uncertainties (expected fluctuations) business networks reorganize from a star-like topology to a system of more cohesive, highly clustered ties.

In this paper we use temperature to represent noise and differences in an energy (potential) type quantity to account for advantage or loss during the rearrangement of a network. This enables us to treat the associated microscopic dynamics within the framework of canonical ensembles and map the problem onto a lattice gas model. After defining an order parameter and a variety of possible potentials, interesting topological phase transitions (first and second order) are found both analytically and by numerical simulations. Scale-free networks are recovered at the transition point between a system consisting of many nodes with few links to a system dominated by a single large hub.

We define the partition function

$$Z(T)=\underset{\{g_a\}}{}\mathrm{e}^{E_a/T}$$
(1)
for an ensemble $`\{g_a\}`$ of undirected graphs containing $`N`$ nodes and $`M`$ links, where $`E_a`$ denotes the energy of the graph $`g_a`$. Our choice for $`Z`$ is in analogy with that proposed by Berg and Lässig berg  and is motivated by the following physical picture behind the graph restructuring process: The basic event of the rearrangement is the relocation of a randomly selected edge (link) to a new position either by “diffusion” (keeping one end of the edge fixed and connecting the other one with a new node) or by removing the given edge and connecting two randomly selected nodes. Then, the energy difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }E_{ab}=E_bE_a`$ between the original $`g_a`$ and the new $`g_b`$ configurations is calculated and the relocation is carried out following the Metropolis algorithm. The resulting dynamics, by construction, satisfies the detailed balance condition.

This network rearrangement is formally equivalent to a Kawasaki type lattice gas dynamics with conserved number of particles moving on a special lattice, which is the edge-dual graph of the fully connected network bollobas ; ramezanpour . The sites of this lattice are the possible $`N(N1)/2`$ connections between the vertices, and the particles wandering on the sites are the $`M`$ edges.

To be able to monitor topological phase transitions a suitable order parameter $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ has to be introduced. As we are primarily interested in the transitions between dispersed and compact states, a natural choice can be either $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }_s=s_{\mathrm{max}}/M`$, the number of edges of the largest connected component of the graph $`s_{\mathrm{max}}`$ normalized by the total number of edges $`M`$, or $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }_k=k_{\mathrm{max}}/M`$, the highest degree in the graph $`k_{\mathrm{max}}`$ divided by $`M`$. We also introduce the corresponding conditional free energy $`F(\mathrm{\Phi },T)`$ via

$$\mathrm{e}^{F(\mathrm{\Phi },T)/T}=Z(\mathrm{\Phi },T)=\underset{\{g_a\}_\mathrm{\Phi }}{}\mathrm{e}^{E_a/T},$$
(2)
where $`\{g_a\}_\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is a subset of $`\{g_a\}`$ and contains the graphs with the same order parameter $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$.

In the $`T\mathrm{}`$ limit the dynamics converges to a totally random rewiring process, and thus, the classical Erdős-Rényi (ER) ErdosRenyi  random graphs are recovered. On the other hand, at low temperatures the topologies with lowest energy occur with enhanced probability. If the energy function is chosen such that compact configurations (which occur exceptionally rarely in the ER graphs) have low energies, then in an intermediate temperature range we expect to see a competition between the entropically favorable dispersed configurations and the energetically favorable compact ones. This is manifested in the shift of the minimum of the conditional free energy $`F(\mathrm{\Phi },T)`$ from $`\mathrm{\Phi }=0`$ towards higher values of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ as the temperature $`T`$ is decreased from infinity to zero. A sudden change in the position of the global minimum signals a discontinuous (first order) phase transition, whereas a gradual shift indicates either a cross-over or a continuous (second order) phase transition.

In the classical random graph model bollobas  (corresponding to $`T\mathrm{}`$) by varying the average degree of the vertices $`k=2M/N`$, a percolation phase transition occurs at $`k=1`$. For $`k<1`$ the graphs falls apart into small pieces, while for $`k1`$ a giant connected component emerges. Near the critical point the size of this giant component scales as $`(k1)M`$.

Based on the lattice gas analogy we expect that if $`k<1`$, then for a suitable choice of the energy (one that rewards clustering) a similar dispersed-compact phase transition occurs at a finite temperature $`T(k)`$. Such a transition can be best monitored by the order parameter $`\mathrm{\Phi }_s=s_{\mathrm{max}}/M`$ dorog-mendes-book ; ErdosRenyi .

The most obvious energy satisfying the above requirement is a monotonically decreasing function $`E=f(s_{\mathrm{max}})`$. It can be shown (by counting the number of configurations) that the conditional free energy up to second order in $`\mathrm{\Phi }_s`$ (and after omitting the $`\mathrm{\Phi }_s`$ independent terms) can be approximated by

$`{\displaystyle \frac{F(\mathrm{\Phi }_s,T)}{MT}}`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{f(\mathrm{\Phi }_sM)}{MT}}+\left[k1\mathrm{ln}(k)\right]\mathrm{\Phi }_s`$ (3)
$`+\left[k^23k+2\right]{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_s^2}{4}}`$
in the $`N,M\mathrm{}`$ limit for fixed $`k=2M/N`$.

The simplest choice for the energy function is $`f(s_{\mathrm{max}})=s_{\mathrm{max}}`$. In this case it can be clearly seen from Eq. (3) that as long as $`1/T<1/T_\mathrm{c}(k)=k1\mathrm{ln}(k)`$, the free energy has a minimum at $`\mathrm{\Phi }_s=\mathrm{\Phi }_s^{}(T)=0`$, i.e., the configuration is dispersed (see main panel of Fig. 1). When the temperature drops below $`T_\mathrm{c}(k)`$, the minimum moves away from $`\mathrm{\Phi }_s=0`$ and a giant component appears. Near the critical temperature $`T_\mathrm{c}(k)`$ the order parameter at the minimum of the free energy can be estimated from Eq. (3) as $`\mathrm{\Phi }_s^{}(T)=2[1/T1/T_\mathrm{c}(k)]/[k^23k+2]`$, indicating that we are dealing with a second order topological phase transition (see inset of Fig. 1).

For other forms of $`f(s_{\mathrm{max}})`$, such as $`s_{\mathrm{max}}^2`$ or $`s_{\mathrm{max}}\mathrm{ln}(s_{\mathrm{max}})`$, first order topological phase transitions are also expected to occur. We have found such transitions numerically (not shown). In addition, similar results are expected for any (non-global) energy $`E=_jf(s_j)`$, where the summation goes over each connected component and $`s_j`$ denotes the number of edges in the $`j`$th one. However, because the total number of edges, $`M=_js_j`$, is conserved by the dynamics, $`f(s_j)`$ must decrease faster than $`s_j`$ in this case.

Next we turn to another important class of the energy functions, where the energies are assigned to the vertices rather than to the connected components of the graph: $`E=_{i=1}^Nf(k_i)`$, where $`k_i`$ denotes the degree (number of neighbors) of vertex $`i`$. This energy is consistent with a dynamics, in which the change of the degree of a vertex depends only on the structure of the graph in its vicinity. The fitness of an individual vertex depends on its connectivity. The most suitable order parameter for this class of graph energy is $`\mathrm{\Phi }_k=k_{\mathrm{max}}/M`$. Again, due to the conservation of the number of edges, $`M=_ik_i`$, the single vertex energy $`f(k_i)`$ should decrease faster than $`k_i`$, if aggregation is to be favored.

If we express the single vertex energy in the form $`f(k_i)=k_ig(k_i)`$, then the total energy of the graph can also be written as $`E=_{i=1}^Nf(k_i)=_{i=1}^N_i^{}g(k_i^{})`$, where $`i^{}`$ runs over all vertices that are neighbors of vertex $`i`$. Therefore, the graph energy can also be interpreted in such a way, that every vertex $`i`$ collects an energy $`g(k_i^{})`$ from each of its neighbors. In this interpretation, the fitness of an individual vertex depends on the connectivities of its neighbors.

A relevant case is when $`f(k_i)=(J/2)k_i^2`$, or equivalently, $`g(k_i)=(J/2)k_i`$, corresponding to a linear preference of the number of pairs that can be chosen from the edges of a vertex, or the number of edges owned by the neighbors of a vertex. Furthermore, this form is in full analogy with the usual definition of the energy $`E=J_{<i,j>}n_in_j`$ of a lattice gas on the edge-dual graph of the fully connected network with nearest neighbor attraction. The summation here runs over all adjacent pairs of lattice sites, and $`n_i=1`$ if site $`i`$ is occupied and $`0`$ otherwise. When this energy is applied to normal cubic lattices, we recover the standard lattice gas model of nucleation of vapors. The negative energy unit $`J`$ associated with a pair of edges sharing a vertex in the original graph is equivalent to the binding energy between the corresponding occupied nearest neighbor sites on the edge-dual graph. By measuring the energies (and temperature) in units of $`J`$ we can set $`J=1`$, without loosing generality. Thus, from now on $`J`$ will be omitted.

For $`f(k_i)=k_i^2/2`$, the topology with the lowest overall energy is a “star”, where all the $`M`$ edges are connected to a single node. Both Monte-Carlo (MC) simulations (see Fig. 2) and a simple theoretical approximation indicate that a first order phase transition occurs between a dispersed configuration and a star as the temperature is varied. For large enough systems, a sudden change of the order parameter between zero and one can be observed. The hysteresis appearing between cooling and heating is consistent with a first order transition.

The numerical results are supported by a simple theoretical analysis of the free energy. The idea is to focus on the regime, where the most highly connected vertex has already accumulated the majority of the edges ($`\mathrm{\Phi }_k>1/2`$) and, thus, the energy of the entire graph can be approximated by $`f(k_{\mathrm{max}})=k_{\mathrm{max}}^2/2`$. Then, in the thermodynamic limit, the free energy to leading order can be written as

$$\frac{F(\mathrm{\Phi }_k,T)}{MT}\frac{f(\mathrm{\Phi }_kM)}{MT}+\mathrm{\Phi }_k\mathrm{ln}(N),$$
(4)
where the $`\mathrm{\Phi }_k`$ independent terms have been dropped. Note that this approximation would be valid even for $`\mathrm{\Phi }_k<1/2`$, if the energy of the graph was simply defined as $`E=f(k_{\mathrm{max}})`$.

For $`f(\mathrm{\Phi }_kM)=(\mathrm{\Phi }_kM)^2/2`$ the parabola given by Eq. (4) has a maximum at $`\mathrm{\Phi }_k=T/M\mathrm{ln}(N)`$. When $`T0`$, this maximum also shifts towards zero and $`F(\mathrm{\Phi }_k,T)`$ becomes a descending parabola on the $`[0,1]`$ interval. This means that the minimum of the free energy is at $`\mathrm{\Phi }_k=1`$, the star configuration. In contrast, when the temperature goes above the $`T_1=M/\mathrm{ln}(N)`$ spinodal point (thick solid line in Fig. 2), the maximum leaves the $`[0,1]`$ interval and the free energy becomes an ascending parabola, resulting in a minimum at a low value of $`\mathrm{\Phi }_k`$ (corresponding to an ER random graph). However, this value cannot be deduced from Eq. (4), because it is a valid approximation only for $`\mathrm{\Phi }_k>1/2`$. For intermediate temperatures the maximum of the parabola separates the two extreme topologies (the dispersed random graph and the star), among which one is a metastable configuration and the other one is absolutely stable.

Another application-motivated choice for the single vertex energy is $`f(k_i)=k_i\mathrm{ln}(k_i)`$, or equivalently, $`g(k_i)=\mathrm{ln}(k_i)`$, inspired, in part, by the logarithmic law of sensation. It is the logarithm of the degree of a vertex that its neighbors can sense and benefit from. For this energy the configuration of lowest energy is a fully connected subgraph \[or almost fully connected if $`M`$ cannot be expressed as $`n(n1)/2`$\]. However, the star configuration is also quite favorable. The order parameter $`\mathrm{\Phi }_k=k_{\mathrm{max}}/M`$ can easily distinguish between these two configurations, because $`k_{\mathrm{max}}\sqrt{2M}`$ for a fully connected subgraph and $`k_{\mathrm{max}}M`$ for a star. Our MC simulations demonstrate (Fig. 3) that as we cool down the system, the dispersed random graph first assembles to a configuration with a few large stars (sharing most of their neighbors), and then at lower temperatures it reorganizes into an almost fully connected subgraph. The hysteresis near this latter transition suggests that it is a first order phase transition. On the other hand, the former transition is accompanied by a singularity in the heat capacity and no hysteresis is observed, indicating that it is a second order phase transition.

For $`\mathrm{\Phi }_k>1/2`$ Eq. (4) can be used again as a good approximation for the free energy of the graph. By plugging $`f(\mathrm{\Phi }_kM)=(\mathrm{\Phi }_kM)\mathrm{ln}(\mathrm{\Phi }_kM)`$ into that expression, we get $`F(\mathrm{\Phi }_k,T)/(MT)(11/T)\mathrm{ln}(N)\mathrm{\Phi }_k`$ to leading order, which is linear in $`\mathrm{\Phi }_k`$. In agreement with our observations above, this formula predicts that for $`T<1`$ the star is a stable configuration ($`\mathrm{\Phi }_k`$=1 is a minimum of the free energy), and for $`T>1`$ it becomes unstable. The transition at $`T=T_\mathrm{c}=1`$ is thus step-like with no hysteresis, indicating a second order phase transition with an infinitely large critical exponent. The observed deviation of $`T_\mathrm{c}`$ from 1 is a finite size effect.

A remarkable feature of the MC dynamics is that by crossing $`T_\mathrm{c}`$ from above, a scale-free graph (with a degree distribution $`k^\gamma `$ with $`\gamma 3`$) appears at some point of the evolution of the graph form the random configuration towards the star. This supports the notion that scale-free graphs are typically non-equilibrium (dynamical) configurations. The MC dynamics is governed by the change of the energy associated with the relocation of an edge. Estimating the energy change of a vertex by the derivative of the single vertex energy $`f(k_i)=k_i\mathrm{ln}(k_i)`$, we get $`\mathrm{\Delta }E=1\mathrm{ln}(k_i)`$. Plugging this into the Boltzmann factor, $`\mathrm{exp}[\mathrm{\Delta }E/T]`$, at $`T=T_\mathrm{c}=1`$ we get a quantity proportional to $`k_i`$ for the acception/rejection ratio of a randomly selected move. Since the preferential attachment in the Barabási-Albert model b-a-science  is proportional to $`k_i`$, it is natural that our dynamics also produces scale-free graphs.

Due to the macroscopic number of edges of the most highly connected vertices in the compact configurations, the graph energy is a non-extensive quantity. More precisely, the energy in different topological states scales differently with the size of the system. For instance, when $`f(k_i)=k_i\mathrm{ln}(k_i)`$, the energy of the star and the fully connected subgraph scales as $`N\mathrm{ln}(N)`$, whereas that of the dispersed state scales as $`N`$. Thus (unlike in the mean-field Ising model), there is no way to choose an appropriate coupling constant that could render the energy extensive in all topological states simultaneously.

However, the dispersed state (having an extensive graph energy) can equally be studied in the grand canonical ensemble. There, the degree distribution can be expressed as berg  $`P_k=C\mathrm{exp}[f(k)/T\mu k]/k!`$, where C is a normalization factor and the chemical potential $`\mu `$ is adjusted to give the correct $`k`$. For $`f(k)=k\mathrm{ln}(k)`$, using Stirling’s formula, the distribution takes the form $`P_k=C\mathrm{exp}[(\mu 1)k]k^{(1/T1)k}/\sqrt{2\pi k}`$. When $`T>1`$, this has a tail, which decays faster than exponential, consequently, each vertex has a small degree. For $`T<1`$, on the other hand, the tail becomes divergent, signaling a phase transition at $`T=T_\mathrm{c}=1`$. Note however, that in the $`T<1`$ temperature range, due to the non-extensive contribution of the diverging degrees, the ensembles are not equivalent, and the grand canonical description looses its validity.

At the critical temperature, the grand canonical description might still be valid. There, by choosing a more general single vertex energy $`f(k_i)=(k_i\alpha )\mathrm{ln}(k_i)`$ and setting $`k`$ such that $`\mu =1`$, the degree distribution acquires a power law tail ($`P_kk^{(\alpha +1/2)}`$) and the network becomes scale-free. We have to stress though that the scale-free network at $`T_\mathrm{c}`$ is not general: for $`\mu >1`$ the tail decays exponentially, and for $`\mu <1`$ the tail diverges.

Although in this paper we assumed that $`k1`$, this is not a necessary requirement, when the energy is assigned to single vertices. For large average degree ($`k>2`$) the only difference is that one vertex cannot collect all the edges, and thus, several stars appear in the “star” configuration. Finally, further interesting directions in the context of the above study include the investigation of additional relevant forms for the energy \[e.g., $`E=(kn)^2`$ with $`n>1.5`$\] and the joint effects of restructuring and growth.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors are grateful to Gábor Tusnády for many valuable discussions. This research has been supported by Hungarian National Science Fundation, grant No: OTKA 034995.


text:
# Development of the Gaseous Antiparticle Spectrometer for Space-based Antimatter Detection

## 1 Introduction

A major goal of 21st century physics is to identify particle dark matter. The leading candidate for this dark matter is the neutralino, a weakly interacting massive particle arising from supersymmetric extensions of the standard model (Jungman et al., 1996). The neutralino is the lightest supersymmetric partner and is stable under R-conservation.

There are a number of experiments underway around the world to detect the neutralino through the nuclear recoils produced through its scalar and vector coupling to matter. These experiments are done deep underground. Only upper limits on the neutralino mass and couplings have been obtained. Third generation experiments are planned which would have target masses of  $`>`$$``$  1 metric ton (Aprile et al, 2002).

An alternative approach is indirect detection of the neutralino. The neutralino is a Majorana particle and therefore its own antiparticle. When neutralinos annihilate in the galactic halo they produce hadronic showers. These showers contain antibaryons, most notably antiprotons. These primary antiprotons have been the subject of intensive searches by the cosmic-ray community. However the difficulty of detecting them is well-known (Simon et al., 1998; Bergström et al., 1998). Secondary antiprotons produced in cosmic-ray collisions with hydrogen and helium in the interstellar medium swamp the neutralino-produced primary antiproton signal. The problem is exacerbated by solar modulation effects. The primary antiproton signal can only be detected at  $`<`$$``$  0.1 GeV. Such antiproton energies are only accessible outside the heliosphere, and deep space probes carrying antiproton detectors have been proposed (Wells et al., 1999).

The promise of indirect detection has changed radically in the last couple of years. Theoretical calculations predict a measurable flux of primary antideuterons formed in neutralino annihilation (Donato et al., 2000, 2001). A primary antideuteron search is vastly superior to an antiproton search for the neutralino. The primary antideuteron flux increases markedly at lower energies. And the secondary antideuteron flux, produced in cosmic-ray hydrogen collisions, has a much higher kinematic threshold for production. This combined with the steep falloff of cosmic-ray protons with increasing energy leads to a sharply falling secondary antideuteron flux at low energies. This is illustrated in fig. 1. Therefore a search for primary antideuterons is feasible in low earth orbit.

We are developing a novel detector concept called the gaseous antiparticle spectrometer (GAPS) which has been specifically invented for antideuteron searches. A description of how GAPS would be employed in a space-based antideuteron search, as well as detailed physics motivation for such an indirect search are presented in Mori et al. 2002.

## 2 Principle of GAPS operation

A simplified schematic of the GAPS detector is shown in fig 2. The antiparticle passes through the time of flight (TOF) system (which measures its velocity) and is slowed down by $`dE/dx`$ losses in a degrader. The thickness of the degrader is tuned to ensure the antiparticle beam is slowed down and stopped in the gas chamber. An exotic atom is formed with probability of order unity. The exotic atom is in a high excitation state, and deexcites through a process involving both autoionizing transitions and radiation producing transitions. Through proper selection of gas and gas pressure the absorption of the antiparticle can be tailored to produce 3-4 well-defined X-ray transitions in the exotic atom decay chain. The X-rays have energies in the $`25`$–250 keV range so that the gas and the surrounding gas chamber support structure are optically thin to them. These X-rays are absorbed in an NaI(Tl) X-ray spectrometer (but a solid state detector like CZT is equally feasible) which surrounds the gas cell. Promptly after the release of these X-rays the antiparticle annihilates with the nucleus producing a shower of pions. The coincident signal between the TOF system, the characteristic decay X-rays and the energy deposition of the pions is an extremely clean criterion for the presence of an antiparticle. The energies of the 3 or 4 X-rays uniquely define the type of antiparticle through the Bohr transition energies. This approach also allows us to suppress background with rejection factors $`>\mathrm{\hspace{0.25em}10}^{12}`$ since the typical space-based particle and gamma-ray background produces uncorrelated energy depositions.

## 3 Crucial Technical Issues to be addressed in a GAPS prototype

Most of the atomic physics issues of relevance to GAPS have been elucidated both theoretically and experimentally by a variety of groups. However assembling this work into a coherent picture of how GAPS might operate is challenging and leaves enough questions to warrant laboratory investigations. Accelerator testing will be crucial for detector optimization and simulations of ultimate performance. The atomic physics issues have been comprehensively addressed elsewhere (Mori et al., 2002). All the atomic physics considerations addressed below are equally applicable to either antiproton or antideuteron detection in GAPS. Simple atomic physics scaling laws allow one to relate either theoretical or experimental results to another type of antiparticle.

The most important issue to be addressed in accelerator testing is the yield of X-ray ladder transitions. This yield can be quenched by Stark mixing. Shortly after the capture of the antiparticle, the bound electrons in the exotic atom are completely ionized through autoionization. The electric field from adjacent atoms distorts the different angular momentum quantum states, inducing $`\mathrm{\Delta }n=0`$ transitions. These transitions lead the exotic atom to an $`S`$-state followed by a nuclear annihilation or to an $`nS1S`$ radiative transition. The photon energy from the $`nS1S`$ radiative transition in appropriate GAPS gases is too high to be measured by thin NaI(Tl) or CZT detectors as would be employed in a real space detector. Therefore it is crucial to ensure that the Stark effect is minimized in a GAPS detector. The detailed theory has been worked out (Mori et al., 2002) so that the yield of X-rays as a function of gas type and pressure is predicted. Laboratory tests at the appropriate gas pressure and gas composition must be done to confirm predictions. The Stark effect is the main factor providing constraints on GAPS operating pressure. This is crucial since the gas pressure is a design driver; the gas pressure defines the thickness of the degrader which affects both the efficiency for detecting antiparticles (through absorption losses) and the time resolution of the detector (through the finite travel time effects in the degrader). Other yield effects include Coulomb deexcitation, by which transition energy is transferred to kinetic energy of the exotic atom and abrupt ladder terminations, due to annihilation of the antiparticle in the nucleus. This effect should be small (Reifenrother et al., 2002) but this needs to be confirmed. Similarly yield calculations may assume the probability of antiparticle capture into angular momentum states is statistically distributed, or may invoke more sophisticated distributions (Yamazaki et al., 2002). The effects of such assumptions can be tested in laboratory experiments. More detailed considerations can be found in Mori et al. (2002).

Currently we are developing a GAPS prototype that will be tested at the KEK accelerator facility in Japan in spring 2004. The prototype will be exposed to an antiproton beam. A layout of the experiment is shown in fig. 3. The plastic scintillators provide timing to distinguish antiprotons from pions and kaons, which are also present in the beam. The plastic in front and back of the gas cell allow us to identify antiprotons which are not absorbed in the gas cell. These antiprotons are both moving slowly and produce a large energy deposit in the back plastic. The gas cell is 20 cm in length and about 5 cm in radius. This provides adequate stopping power for the antiprotons and allows us to capture $`>`$ 90% of the antiprotons emerging from the degrader.The GAPS gas cell consists of a reinforced carbon composite which holds 1-20 atmospheres of gas. The walls are thin enough to offer high transmission to the lowest X-ray energies of interest, $``$20 KeV. There are 8 hexagonal panels surrounding the gas cell to provide good solid angle coverage. Each panel has a $`2\times 4`$ array of 25 mm diameter, 5 mm thick NaI(Tl) scintillator crystals which are optically isolated from each other and which detect the X-rays. The number of crystal cells was designed to ensure that the pions produced in the ground state annihilation of the exotic atom do not have a large probability of being absorbed in a crystal cell in which an X-ray is absorbed. Each crystal is coupled to a Hamamatsu RM1924 photomultiplier tube. The crystals can resolve the 3–4 X-ray transitions of interest. We will test Nitrogen, Oxygen, Neon and Argon gas in our experiment. For instance, typical transitions of interest in Neon gas are 4 to 3 (115.8 keV), 5 to 4 (53.6 keV) and 6 to 5 (29.1 keV) transition. Results on X-ray yield and overall antiproton loss in the degrader and detector material will be compared with our Monte-Carlo predictions.

Antiproton testing can serve as an excellent surrogate for antideuteron performance with regards atomic physics effects. There is only one area where the antiproton tests do not provide information of direct utility. This concerns antiparticle losses before the formation of the exotic atom. The dominant loss mechanism for antiprotons is the well-known direct annihilation channel. However antideuterons have additional loss channels which are familiar from their deuteron analogs (Peaslee, 1948). These include Coulomb disintegration (Gold & Wong, 1963) and the Oppenheimer-Phillips (Oppenheimer & Phillips, 1935) process. In the O-P process the deuteron is torn apart as the antineutron is attracted and the antiproton repelled from the nucleus. This effect is negligible in the antideuteron because of the attractive Coulomb force. The Coulomb disintegration occurs due to photodissociation of the antideuteron in the virtual photon field it encounters as it passes through matter. We have calculated this effect by integrating the experimentally known cross-section for this process along the antideuteron path for all the materials the antideuteron would encounter in a GAPS detector. The losses due to all of these nuclear processes are  $`<`$$``$  5–10%.

This work was performed with support from the NASA SR&T program under grant NAG5-5393.