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# The BTeV Software Tutorial Suite

## I INTRODUCTION

The BTeV experiment is designed to make comprehensive and precise studies of CP violation, flavor mixing and rare decays in the fields of beauty and charm physics, both important components in the study of flavor physics. This broader field includes the integration of beauty and charm physics with kaon and neutrino physics and with some cosmological physics. A related physics goal is to perform an extensive search for physics beyond the standard model, both by searches for rare or forbidden processes and by precision self consistency tests of a large body of measurements. The proposed detector is a forward spectrometer which will be built at the CZero interaction region of the Tevatron $`p\overline{p}`$ collider at Fermilab. The Fermilab directorate has given stage I approval to BTeV and final decisions on the funding profile and the construction timetable are anticipated soon. Current planning is for construction to begin in late 2004, with physics running to begin in late 2008. The collaboration is planning a staged installation of the detector over a period of several years and one can imagine that the first engineering runs on a partly installed subsystem might take place as early as 2006.

A discussion of BTeV’s physics reach and details about the design of the spectrometer may be found on the BTeV web site BTeV:web , in particular on the page which links to the Proposal, the preliminary Technical Design Report (TDR) and related documents BTeV:docs . An excellent review of heavy flavor physics at hadron colliders BRunII  is also available.

The sorts of physics analyses to be performed will be similar to the beauty and charm physics studies performed at the $`e^+e^{}`$ B-factories and to the charm physics studies performed at the last generation of fixed target detectors. That is, the two main types of analyses will be full reconstruction of exclusive final states and partial reconstruction of exclusive final states using the line of flight as a constraint. Unlike the $`e^+e^{}`$ B-factories, however, BTeV’s data rates and data volumes will challenge the state of the art in data acquisition (DAQ), triggering and computing. In this way BTeV will be more like the current and next generations of hadron colliders.

## II OVERVIEW OF THE BTEV SOFTWARE

This section will discuss some unique aspects of the BTeV software, overview its history and discuss the present status and future plans. This will set the stage for a discussion of the tutorial suite.

### II.1 Offline vs Online

Over the past few decades an important trend in High Energy Physics (HEP) has been that software has moved to ever lower levels of the trigger system. Moreover the previous distinctions between online trigger software and offline reconstruction software are increasingly blurred.

BTeV will take the next step in this evolution by performing, for every beam crossing, track and vertex reconstruction at the lowest level of the trigger system, Level 1. The Level 1 trigger decision will be based on evidence for tracks which are detached from a primary interaction vertex. The Level 1 trigger algorithm uses only hits from the pixel vertex detector and it must perform robustly even when each beam crossing contains several background interactions. One key to making this work is the extremely low occupancy of the pixel detector system, which reduces the combinatorics to a level that it can be managed with very simple, fast executing algorithms. A second key is the ever increasing power of available computing. It is anticipated that the front end of Level 1 will be implemented using Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA), while its back end will be a farm of Digital Signal Processors (DSP). An option exists to use a farm of general purpose processors for the back end.

Events which pass Level 1 will be sent to two more levels of triggering, Levels 2 and 3. Level 2 will use more refined algorithms to perform essentially the same computation as Level 1, while Level 3 will incorporate information from additional detector subsystems. As for Level 1, the Level 2 and Level 3 algorithms will make a decision based on evidence for a detached vertex, a strategy which will give a high efficiency both for final states now known to be important and for many final states whose importance is not yet appreciated. Both the Level 2 and 3 algorithms will be executed on a large farm of general purposes processors, of order 2500 computing nodes. These algorithms will be coded using the standard offline software environment, with all of its available tools and infrastructure.

This picture places an important constraint on the BTeV software: while the infrastructure must be powerful enough to meet the complexity demands of offline work it must also meet the speed demands of an online system. Both of these uses require a high level of reliability and robustness.

### II.2 History of the BTEV Software

Design studies for BTeV date back to the mid 1990’s and were originally performed using MCFast MCFast , a fast, parameterized detector simulation package. After a few years, a Geant 3 based package, BTeVGeant, was developed for detailed simulations, in particular for those studies in which it is important to simulate the production of new particles produced by the interaction of their parent particle with the detector and support materials.

A suite of trigger, reconstruction and analysis algorithms was developed to operate on the hits generated by these packages. Many of these algorithms are quite sophisticated; for example the track fitting is done using a Kalman filter and the reconstruction codes for the Electromagnetic Calorimeter (ECal) are derived from the algorithms used by the Crystal Ball and CLEO collaborations. The mass and vertex constrained fitting package is based on KWFITkwfit . The most mature of these codes are the prototype codes for the Level 1 and Level 2 trigger algorithms.

These trigger, reconstruction and analysis codes were developed very quickly and were available early in the design process. This permitted BTeV to use high level physics metrics to evaluate design changes. For example, when the amount of material in the pixel detector support structure was increased, it was straight forward to evaluate, for many final states, the degradation in vertex resolution, mass resolution and efficiency due to scattering, interactions and pair conversions in the additional material. The numbers presented in the BTeV proposal and related documents were obtained using this software.

With the exception of the prototype Level 1 trigger codes, none of these codes were designed to be used in the long term. They were designed to give detailed and precise but fast estimates of the physics reach of detector variations. To achieve these goals with the few people and short time available, many assumptions and idealizations were hard coded. Most detector components, for example, are presumed to be perfectly aligned and no provision is made to correct for misalignment; this turns many 3D problems into 1D or 2D problems, greatly simplifying the algebra and coding times. The facilities for handling of data and meta-data are primitive and will not scale to the anticipated data volumes. Finally, use of these codes requires fluency with many magic words and phrases, documented only by oral tradition.

These codes, written in a mixture of Fortran, C and C++, have served BTeV well but a well planned and well executed successor is needed take the next steps toward the physics goals of the experiment.

### II.3 Moving Toward the Future

BTeV is now working to design and implement a modern software infrastructure, written in C++, in which the next generation of physics software will live. It is expected that the first new physics codes will be written starting about a year or two from now. By that time we will have defined the major components of the system and defined how they interact with each other. We will also have implemented enough of the core infrastructure to allow quasi-independent development of the physics codes and of the utilities and services which they require.

The new software is not required to reuse any existing data structures or code, although it may if that turns out to be the best design decision. While it is required to read files written in the existing formats, it will, internally, construct new style events before presenting the event data to the users.

One can think of BTeV as part of the second generation of experiments using modern software, the first being those experiments which use predominantly use C++ and which are running now. As part of the design process, BTeV is studying the many successes and the few failures of the first generation experiments.

### II.4 Understanding the User Community

One of the lessons learned from previous experiments is that it is important to understand that the software will be used by many people with a broad spectrum of skills. By far the largest part of the user community comprises experienced physicists with little or no C++ experience and little or no formal computer science training. In previous generations of experiments, usually with FORTRAN based software, such physicists wrote the vast majority of the physics code and performed most of the analyses. It is critical to the success of BTeV that these physicists be able to get up to speed quickly and that they not be marginalized by long learning curves.

A second, and rapidly growing, class of users are those experienced physicists with a small amount of C++ training and practice. One of the challenges of dealing with this community is to convince them of the need for ongoing education. In particular they have a continuing needs to see illustrations of good programming practice and to be educated to avoid bad practices which have infiltrated the communal bag of tricks. Among these bad practices are a reliance on variables with global scope, inattention to const correctness, inappropriate use of inheritance, unnecessary copies of large objects hidden behind an opaque syntax, and the use of casts, particularly (void \*), to defeat the type safety mechanisms, rather than designing to avoid the need for casts. A particularly pernicious problem is to is a tendency to overuse newly learned skills and tricks, forcing them on problems for which there are more natural solutions.

We anticipate only a small handful of users who are both experienced physicists and well trained, accomplished C++ programmers. These people need concise, well indexed and well cross-referenced, documents which describe the BTeV specific software.

Another important class of users are new physicists, inexperienced but energetic and enthusiastic, who have the same broad spectrum of programming backgrounds as do their experienced counterparts. For all users, but for these users in particular, there needs to be cross-referencing from the code documentation to the corresponding physics documentation.

One of the lessons reported by other experiments is that most users start a new coding project by finding related code and modifying it to suit the new task. ( In the source for this report, the author has included some fragments which he copied from someone in the mid-1980’s! ) Indeed, this is how most people learn both the experiment specific software tools and how to use a new computer language. Therefore early code fragments are extensively copied and any poor design choices found in them will be widely propagated; even outright errors will be widely propagated.

Therefore it is critical for the BTeV software team to provide these early code fragments and to make people aware that they exist. This is a natural mission for a suite of tutorial examples. In order to be widely accepted the tutorials must implement solutions to real world problems which are encountered in the day to day life of a working high energy physicist. A corollary of this discussion is that the interfaces seen in these tutorials must be among the first designed. A second corollary is that the tutorials must be available very early and must be maintained throughout the development process.

### II.5 Outline of the Software Model

An early prototype of a new software suite for BTeV is now available. The design of this prototype has four components, the framework, an event data model (EDM), modules and services. The physics codes will live in the modules, which can respond to such occurrences as start of job, start of run, new event, end of run, end of job and others which are yet to be defined. The job of the framework is to learn that some thing such as start of a new run or a new event in memory has occured and to then call the appropriate method of each module. The order in which the modules are called is specified by the user. Modules may communicate with each other only via the EDM and they may influence flow control by sending messages back to the framework. The so called services are present to provide information and services to the modules and to the framework. Examples of services include a message logger, a geometry manager, a calibration manager, memory use monitors, event timers and so on. In the present design, input and output (IO) is done by a specialized set of modules.

The existing prototype has a framework, a module base class, some module concrete classes, a few prototype services, a run time configuration facility based on the Run Control Parameter (RCP) system from the DZero experiment and the rudiments of an EDM, including data provenance. The prototype also has track, shower and vertex classes, collections of which live in the EDM. The prototype IO module reads events created by BTeVGeant and reformats them into a new style event. It does not yet write events in the new style but it can write out selected events in the old style.

Two of the software engineers working part time on BTeV spend the majority of their time supporting the CDF and DZero Run II software effort. So the existing prototype code borrows ideas, and some code fragments, the CDF and DZero Run II software. Their code was not reused outright because it contains compromises needed to deal with their legacy software and legacy use patterns.

Most of the effort to date has gone into understanding the interfaces among the major components. Particular attention has been paid to interfaces which will be seen frequently by inexperienced C++ programmers, especially those interfaces which will be used heavily during data analysis. Asking a question as simple as “how do I make a histogram of the momentum of all tracks” touches on many interfaces. For these interfaces the overriding design principle was to make the interface as simple as possible. Often this meant introducing complexity at a lower level, an acceptable trade-off because experienced C++ designers are available to design and write the lower layers. In some cases the team could not produce a design with both the required capabilities and a a truly simple interface. In these cases there are two design principles: the interfaces must conform to a small number of patterns and the use of these patterns must be easy to teach to inexperienced users, even if they do not fully appreciate all of the details. The hope is that, if the complex interfaces conform to a small number of patterns, new users can learn a difficult lesson once and apply it many times.

This plan, of concentrating first on the analysis interfaces was adopted during 2002. It arose from the observation, discussed in section II.4, that a small number of early code fragments will be heavily copied and will set the overall tone and quality of physics analysis software throughout the experiment. The design team was encouraged to hear several reports at this CHEP in which the speakers said that their design effort should have paid more attention to the analysis phase of the experiment.

So far the prototype code is rigorous about type safety, exception safety and const correctness. The design team is evaluating the SIUnitssiunits  package and will soon make a recommendation about its use. The prototype code is also being reviewed to ensure that it is thread safe; it is anticipated, based on the experience of CDF and DZero in Run II, that the code needed to access the calibration database may well use threads.

The final piece in the existing prototype is a tutorial suite.

## III THE TUTORIAL SUITE

### III.1 The Mandate

The mandate for the tutorial suite is to allow all physicists, but particularly those with little or no C++ experience, to do useful work as quickly as possible. And there are many related goals. The tutorial suite must sell the new software infrastructure to the collaboration, which means selling both the choice of C++ and our design in particular. It must teach good C++ practice, both in general and in situations which are peculiar to the BTeV software. It should give an overview of all of the software tools supported by or recommended by BTeV. This overview should form an index into the detailed documentation, including the documentation for the C++ language, for third party products, such as ROOT, and for BTeV specific tools.

### III.2 How to Achieve these Goals

To meet the mandate, tutorial examples must be chosen from real world problems in the day to day life of a working high energy physicist. Such problems range from occupancy maps of a subdetector, to the inclusive momentum distribution of all tracks, to complete simulated analyses. When data is available the examples should include real analyses. Each of the examples must always “just work” and each must produce something concrete, such as a histogram or a formatted printout which can be compared to a reference. That reference must be distributed along with with the example code. Ideally the instructions should be no more complex than: check out the tutorial from CVS; gmake; look at the histograms.

Each of the tutorial examples is accompanied by narrative documentation because a reference manual alone would be far from adequate. Narrative documentation is particularly important for the first few examples in which many new ideas must be introduced. As much as possible the narrative should start from familiar ideas and proceed comfortably from there to the unfamiliar. The narrative should spiral in toward the details of the problem, making a short first pass which gives an overview, adding details on successive passes.

Consider for example, the existing first example. This loops over all of the reconstructed charged tracks in an event to make two histograms and one ntuple. The overview immediately answers four questions,

1. Where do I specify the run time configuration information such as the number of events to read, the name of the input file and the name of the histogram file?
2. Where do I find the code which is called once at the start of the job, such as booking histograms?
3. Where do I find the code which is called once per event, such as filling histograms?
4. Where do I find the code which is called once at the end of the job?

The narrative gives brief answers to these questions. It then says to look at the code which is called called once at the start of the job and identify the lines which book the histograms. The narrative then mentions that the histogram package is root and includes a link to the root documentation. Next it says to find the code which is called once per event and find the code fragment, inside the track loop, which deals with the properties of one track. The narrative gives a few sentences about what information is available about reconstructed charged tracks, followed by a link to the detailed documentation about these tracks. The first pass concludes by pointing out that the histograms are automatically written out at the end of job.

Until this point, the narrative documentation has not mentioned any of the words framework, module, EDM, C++, class, object, const\_iterator, template, handle, STL, vector and so on. The subsequent passes of the narrative documentation briefly introduce these ideas and include links to their detailed documentation. Usually this detailed documentation does not refer to a immediately to reference manual. Instead it a refers to a narrative description which, in turn, has links to the reference manuals. As each code fragment is discussed in detail, the documentation mentions both the big ideas from the point of view of the design of the BTeV software and comments on any new C++ language or syntax elements which are encountered for the first time. In the future these parts of the narrative will also include links to an online C++ language reference.

Writing the narrative documentation was an iterative process. There were several reorganizations of the detailed documentation so that it would be more natural to link it from the narrative documentation of the tutorial. There were also several reorganizations after receiving feedback from BTeV physicists who had started to use the new software.

The second of the existing tutorial examples loops over all reconstructed ECal showers in an event and makes some histograms of their properties. The narrative documentation for this example is much shorter since it can refer back to the narrative documentation for example 1 to discuss the big picture issues of frameworks and modules and so on. Whenever possible the narrative emphasizes the similarities between looking at tracks and looking at showers. As this documentation was written it required reorganization of some of the material in the detailed documentation and some of the narrative for the first example.

A few paragraphs earlier it was pointed out that a reference manual alone is not sufficient. But it is most certainly necessary. The Milano group within BTeV has developed software for control of the DAQ system and monitoring of data quality in the next test-beam run for the BTeV pixel detector. They have used DoxyGendoxygen  to produce an online reference manual for their system. Based on this experience the offline software team anticipates using DoxyGen, or a similar product, to provide online reference manuals. The narrative documentation will then be updated with links into the reference manuals.

At present each of the tutorial examples provides a set of reference histograms and users are instructed to compare the histograms from their test run against the reference. This step is intended to give the users confidence that they have correctly compiled, linked and executed the software. It has the unfortunate side effect that the least experienced users are the first to discover many small bugs. In the future each tutorial will be compiled, linked and run as part of a nightly validation suite. At that time the output histograms will be compared programatically to the reference and, if they are not identical, a message will be sent to the software czar. In this way it is hoped that new users will be better shielded from undiscovered bugs. At the presentation of this talk at CHEP, several people from the audience encouraged BTeV to do this as soon as possible as they found it invaluable for their own experiments.

Part of the mandate is to sell C++ to the collaboration. While most of the collaboration is accepting of C++, and many are even enthusiastic, there remains a small but vocal group of skeptics. Their skepticism derives from bad experiences, either their own or their colleagues’, with C++ based software on other experiments. After talking with several of these people the design team concluded and that a well crafted set of tutorials would go a long way toward alleviating most of their concerns.

### III.3 A www Wish List

An issue for which BTeV has a partly satisfactory solution is how to synchronize code documentation with code versions. This is particularly important for the new software which is changing rapidly. At present all documentation, including the web pages, are stored within the code repository in which the code is stored. This documentation is tagged with the same version stamps as is the code and both are served to the web from the main BTeV web site. When one asks to see the documentation for the tutorials, the reader is told about available code versions and asked to pick one. The documentation for that version will then be shown. In this way one, may change the documentation at the head of the repository to match code changes and not worry too much that it will confuse someone who is still working with an earlier version of the code.

While this system can be used to ensure that documentation within the tutorials is internally consistent, it does not stop someone who is maintaining an unversioned web page, or a web page with an independent version sequence, from linking to one of the web pages inside of the tutorials. As the code evolves there is no reliable mechanism to ensure that the link is updated to point to the new version of the documentation. BTeV is interested in learning about more robust solutions to this problem.

In the narrative documentation within the tutorials, short code fragments from the example code are copied into the narrative documentation and are discussed in the following paragraphs. At present these code fragments are copied by hand from the source code file into the .shtml file which holds the narrative documentation. BTeV would like to have a tool which can extract appropriately marked lines from the source file and drop it into the narrative documentation. This would help to keep the code and documentation synchronized.

### III.4 Looking Ahead

As BTeV continues to develop the new software, the tutorials will be updated to match. As the tutorials are updated, and as people use them and give feedback, the design team will learn which features people find easy to use and which they find hard, which features are missing and needed immediately, which information lives in the wrong place or is otherwise hard to find, and which features are simply undocumentable or unteachable to new users. These lessons will be fed back into the design of the new code and into the design of the tutorials.

The long term goal is to have a complete offline software suite, both the infrastructure and the physics code, available well before data taking starts in 2008. Moreover the major components need to be functioning well by 2006 in order to support engineering runs on partially installed subsystems. The short term goals are more modest: to prepare the ground for the long term. In the next six to 12 months the design team expects to complete the design of the major interfaces and to continue the work on the infrastructure code. An important part of the work in this time will be to maintain and extend the tutorial suite, so that it can be used to train the physicists and computer scientists who will meet the long term goals.

## IV SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

BTeV has begun the long process of designing and implementing a modern offline software suite which will be used both in the Level 2/3 trigger and for offline data processing. In the initial stages the design team has focused on the interfaces which will be seen frequently by inexperienced C++ programmers, particularly during data analysis. As soon as prototype code was available the design team produced a suite of tutorials to teach the new software to other the full spectrum of BTeV physicists. These tutorials are an integral part of the BTeV software suite and they will evolve along with the project. The tutorials will serve as a test bed for new ideas and will be integrated into a nightly validation suite. They will also serve as an index to and overview of the detailed documentation for all of the collaboration’s software.

###### Acknowledgements.

The author would like to thank the conference organizers for a well run and informative conference held in most pleasant surroundings. This work was supported in part by Fermilab, which is operated by the Universities Research Association, Inc. under Contract No. De-AC02-76H03000 with the United States Department of Energy.


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# Chapter 1 Expected Sensitivity of ARGO-YBJ to Detect Point Gamma-Ray Sources

## Chapter 1 Expected Sensitivity of ARGO-YBJ to Detect Point Gamma-Ray Sources

### Abstract

ARGO-YBJ is a “full coverage” air shower detector currently under construction at the Yangbajing Laboratory (4300 m a.s.l., Tibet, China). First data obtained with a subset of the apparatus will be available in summer 2003 while the full detector operation is expected in 2005. One of the main aims of ARGO-YBJ is the observation of gamma-ray sources, at an energy threshold of a few hundreds GeV. In this paper we present the expected sensitivity to detect point gamma ray sources, with particular attention to the Crab Nebula. According to our simulations a Crab-like signal could be detected in one year of operation with a statistical significance of $``$10 standard deviations, without any gamma/hadron discrimination.

### 1. The ARGO-YBJ experiment

The ARGO-YBJ experiment is a “full coverage” air shower detector, optimized to work at a primary energy threshold of a few hundreds GeV.

It consists of a 74 $`\times `$ 78 m2 “carpet” realized with a single layer of Resistive Plate Counters (RPCs), surrounded by a partially instrumented “ guard ring”, for a total active area of 6400 m2. The detector is divided into 18480 basic elements, the “pads”, of dimensions 56 $`\times `$ 62 cm2, providing the space-time pattern of the shower front. The detector is covered by a 0.5 cm thick layer of lead, in order to convert a fraction of the secondary gamma rays in charged particles, and to reduce the time spread of the shower particles. A detailed description of the experiment is given in .

ARGO-YBJ is presently under construction at the Yangbajing High Altitude Cosmic Ray Laboratory, in Tibet (China) at 4300 m above the sea level. The full apparatus will be ready in 2005. Presently (spring 2003) a subset of the detector (about 1650 m2 of RPCs, corresponding to 28$`\%`$ of the central carpet) has been already installed and it is ready to take the first data.

One of the main goals of the experiment is the detection of gamma rays from galactic and extragalactic sources. The extreme altitude of the detector and the use of a large full coverage layer of counters, allow the operation at energies that are typical of the Cerenkov technique. However, unlike Cerenkov telescopes, ARGO-YBJ has a large field of view ($``$ 2 sr) and a duty cycle $``$100$`\%`$, allowing the simultaneous observation of a large fraction of the sky and making easier the detection of previously unknown gamma ray emitters.

In this paper we evaluate the sensitivity of ARGO-YBJ to detect point gamma ray sources, in particular the Crab Nebula, considered the “standard candle” for gamma ray astronomy.

### 2. Crab Nebula and background event rates

The daily rate of events from the source has been evaluated by simulating a gamma ray flux on the top of the atmosphere according to the Crab Nebula spectrum dN/dE = 3.2 10-7 E-2.49 $`\gamma `$ m-2 s-1 TeV-1, measured by the Whipple collaboration . The gamma rays have been simulated at different zenith angles, following the daily path of the source in the sky. At the Yangbajing site (latitude = 30 N) the Crab Nebula culminates at zenith angle $`\theta `$ = 8.1. We “followed” the source when it was at $`\theta 30^{}`$, for a total observation time of 4.3 hours per day.

To evaluate the background rate due to cosmic rays we have taken into account the proton and Helium fluxes on the top of the atmosphere, according to the spectra dN/dE = 8.98 10-2 E-2.74 protons m-2 s-1 sr-1 TeV-1 and dN/dE = 7.01 10-2 E-2.64 Helium nuclei m-2 s-1 sr-1 TeV-1 . In a first approximation the contribution of heavier nuclei can be neglected.

The showers development in the atmosphere has been simulated by means of the Corsika code . The response of the detector has been studied by using a GEANT3-based code, that gives position and time of all the fired pads for every shower hitting the detector.

If a shower gives a number of fired pads $`N_{pad}`$50, the position of the core is reconstructed and the arrival direction is evaluated by a space-time conical fit of the shower front. Only the events whose reconstructed core falls inside a “fiducial area” $`A_{fid}`$ = 80 $`\times `$ 80 m2 (centered on the detector) are considered in the analysis, since the determination of the arrival direction is less accurate increasing the distance of the shower core from the center of the apparatus.

For the events with a number of fired pads $`30N_{pad}<`$ 50 the core reconstruction is less reliable, hence a simple planar fit of the shower front is performed and no selection with the fiducial area is done.

Concerning the determination of the arrival direction of gamma ray showers, we found that the angular resolution of the detector strongly depends on the number of fired pads $`N_{pad}`$, while it is almost independent of the energy and zenith angle of the primary gamma ray, at least in the range of energies and angles considered here. For this reason the events have been divided into “classes” defined by ranges of multiplicity $`N_{pad}`$, and for each class a different angular resolution has been adopted. In any class with $`N_{pad}`$150 the distribution of the angle $`\alpha `$ between the true direction (given by the simulation program) and the reconstructed one, is well described by a gaussian distribution dN/d$`\alpha `$ $``$ e$`{}_{}{}^{0.5\alpha ^2/\sigma ^2}sin\alpha `$, where the parameter $`\sigma `$ is defined as the angular resolution. In this case for our “observations” we used the classical circular window of semi-aperture $`\psi `$ = 1.58 $`\sigma `$, that contains 71.5$`\%`$ of the source events and maximizes the signal to noise ratio. For $`N_{pad}<150`$, the angle $`\alpha `$ distribution is not perfectly gaussian and the opening angle that maximizes the signal to noise ratio has been separately evaluated for each class. Fig.1 shows the values obtained for the opening angle $`\psi `$, in different $`N_{pad}`$ ranges.

### 3. Results and discussion

Table 1 reports the number of events expected in one observation day respectively from the Crab Nebula and from the cosmic rays background (protons and Helium nuclei) for different $`N_{pad}`$ intervals, using the corresponding observational windows discussed in the previous section. The median energy $`E_{med}`$ of gamma rays in each multiplicity range is also reported.

Adding the contributions of different intervals one obtains the daily rate of events with $`N_{pad}`$ larger than a given threshold $`N_{min}`$. Fig. 2 gives the number of standard deviations (s.d.) of the Crab signal expected after one year of observation, as a function of $`N_{min}`$. According to our calculations, the signal significance is equal to 6 s.d. for $`N_{min}30`$ (corresponding to a primary energy about E $`>`$ 500 GeV) then it rapidly increases with $`N_{min}`$, reaching $``$10 s.d. for $`N_{min}100`$ (about E $`>`$ 1 TeV) and finally slowly decreases for $`N_{min}300`$.

In other words, ARGO-YBJ can observe in one year a source (with a Crab-like energy spectrum) of intensity equal to 0.7 (0.4) Crab units, at energies about $`E>`$ 0.5 (1.0) TeV, with a significance of 4 standard deviations.

We expect a certain improvement in the sensitivity, particularly in the low energy region, by adopting special reconstruction techniques and selection criteria for low multiplicity events, now under investigation.

It should be noted that these results have been obtained without any gamma/hadron discrimination. A further increase of the sensitivity could occur performing a rejection of a large fraction of background events, thanks to the different pattern of the shower front particles in hadronic and gamma ray induced showers. Preliminary results on the possibility to separate background from gamma ray showers are very promising and detailed studies are in progress.

### 4. References

1. Di Sciascio G. et al. 2003, Proc XXVIII ICRC

2. Gaisser T.K. et al. 2001, Proc XXVII ICRC, 1643

3. Heck D. et al. 1998, Report FZKA 6019 Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe

4. Hillas A.M. et al. 1998, ApJ 503, 744

5. Martello D. et al. 2003, Proc XXVIII ICRC

6. Surdo A. 2003, Proc XXVIII ICRC


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# Efficiency and Current in a correlated ratchet

## 1 Introduction

Much of the interest in non-equilibrium-induced transport processes is concentrated on stochastically driven ratchets 1 2 3 . This subject was motivated by the challenge to explain the origin of directional transport in biological systems. The rectification of noise leading to unidirectional motion in ratchet systems has been an active field of research over the last decade. In these systems the directed Brownian motion of particles is induced by nonequilibrium noise in the absence of any net macroscopic forces and potential gradients. Several physical models have been proposed: rocking ratchets 4 5 6 , flashing ratchets 7 , diffusion ratchets 8 , correlation ratchets 9  and deterministic ratchets 10 11 . In all these studies the potential is taken to be asymmetric in space. It has also been shown that one can obtain a unidirectional current in the presence of spatially asymmetric potentials. For these nonequilibrium systems an external force should be asymmetric or the presence of space dependent mobility is required.

Molecular motors are known to have the high efficiency of energy transformation in the presence of thermal fluctuation 1 . Recently, motivated by the surprising fact, the efficiency with which the ratchet converts fluctuation to useful work is a much interest subject. New questions regarding the nature of heat engines at molecular scales are being investigated 12 .

In most of previous investigations, various noises are assumed to have different origins and are treated as independent random variables 13 . However, in certain situations these noises may have a common origin and thus may be correlated with each other 14 15 16 . The correlations between the noises can change the properties of stochastic systems. In this paper, a novel condition of the correlated ratchet operation is investigated where the potential is spatially symmetric, namely neither spatially asymmetry in the potential nor temporal asymmetry in the driving force is required, the correlation between the two noises can induce transport. The efficiency of the ratchet is also presented in a periodic potential in the presence of an adiabatic external period force. The organization of the paper is as follows: In Sec. 2 we introduce the model and the basic quantities, namely, the average probability current and the efficiency of the ratchet. In Sec. 3 we discuss the current of the ratchet with the symmetric potential for the case of no external load. Sec. 4 is devoted to the exploration of the efficiency of the system. The summary and discussion of our findings is presented in Sec. 5.

## 2 The Forced Thermal Ratchet with Correlated Noises

We consider a forced ratchet system subject to an external load and the equation of motion of the ratchet reads

$$m\frac{d^2x}{dt^2}=\beta \frac{dx}{dt}\frac{dV_0(x)}{dx}+a_0F(t)+\xi _2(t)F(t)+\xi _1(t)\frac{dV_L(x)}{dx},$$
(1)
where $`x`$ represents the position of Brownian particle, $`m`$ denotes the mass of the particle, $`\beta `$ is the viscous friction drag coefficient, $`F(t)`$ is an external periodic force, $`F(t+\tau )=F(t)`$, $`_0^\tau F(t)𝑑t=0`$ and $`F_0`$ is amplitude of $`F(t)`$, see Fig.1 . $`V_0(x+2n\pi )=V_0(x)=\mathrm{sin}(x)`$, $`n`$ is any natural integer and $`V_L(x)`$ is a potential against which the work is done and $`\frac{dV_L(x)}{dx}=L>0`$. $`\xi _1(t)`$, $`\xi _2(t)`$ are white noises with zero mean.

Because the motion of the ratchet is highly overdamped, the inertia term can be neglected. Hence, thereafter in the place of Eq. (1) we shall make use of the following equation in the case of $`\beta =1`$ and $`a_0=1`$

$$\frac{dx}{dt}=\frac{dV_0(x)}{dx}+F(t)+\xi _2(t)F(t)+\xi _1(t)\frac{dV_L(x)}{dx}.$$
(2)
In some situations various noise sources must be considered. For example, Millonas 13 investigated a ratchet system including a subsystem, a thermal bath and a nonequilibrium bath that contains two parts: one is the nonthermal part which can be view as a source, the other is thermal part. Here it is easy to see that the two noises are treated as independent random variables. However, in some situations these noises may have a common origin and thus may be correlated with each other. In the present work, we assume that the two noises $`\xi _1(t)`$, $`\xi _2(t)`$ are correlated with each other and the correlations between the noises have the following form 16 17

$$<\xi _i(t)\xi _j(t^{^{}})>=2C_{i,j}\sqrt{D_iD_j}\delta (tt^{^{}}),$$
(3)
where $`C_{i,j}=\lambda `$ for $`ij`$ and $`C_{i,j}=1`$ for $`i=j`$, $`\lambda `$ denotes the cross-correlation degree between $`\xi _1(t)`$ and $`\xi _2(t)`$, and $`1\lambda 1`$.
When $`F(t)`$ changes slowly enough, the system could be treated as quasistatic, the evolution of probability density $`P(x,t)`$ described by Eq. (2) is then given by the corresponding Fokker-Planck equation,

$$\frac{P(x,t)}{t}=\frac{}{x}[U^{^{}}(x,F_0)+G(F_0,\lambda )\frac{}{x}]P(x,t)=\frac{j(x,t)}{x},$$
(4)
where the probability current density $`j(x,t)`$ is given by

$$j(x,t)=U^{^{}}(x)P(x,t)G(F_0,\lambda )\frac{P(x,t)}{x},$$
(5)
where $`U^{^{}}`$ denotes the first derivative of $`U(x)`$, and

$$U(x)=V_0(x)+V_L(x)F_0x=\mathrm{sin}(x)+LxF_0x,$$
(6)
$$G(F_0,\lambda )=D_2F_0^2+2\lambda F_0\sqrt{D_1D_2}+D_1.$$
(7)
In a quasi stationary state, the steady current of the particle can be solved by evaluating the constants of integration under the normalization condition and the periodicity condition of $`P(x)`$, the current can be obtained and expressed as 16

$$j=\frac{G(F_0,\lambda )[1\mathrm{exp}(2\pi (F_0L)/G(F_0,\lambda ))]}{_0^{2\pi }\mathrm{exp}[\varphi (x)]𝑑x_x^{x+2\pi }\mathrm{exp}[\varphi (y)]𝑑y},$$
(8)
where the generalized potential is given by

$$\varphi (x)=\frac{U(x)}{G(F_0,\lambda )}=\frac{\mathrm{sin}(x)+(F_0L)x}{D_2F_0^2+2\lambda F_0\sqrt{D_1D_2}+D_1}.$$
(9)
The average probability current over the time interval of a period can be expressed,

$$<j>=\frac{1}{2}[j(F_0)+j(F_0)].$$
(10)
The input energy $`R`$ per unit time from an external force to the ratchet and the work $`W`$ per unit time that the ratchet system extracts from the fluctuation into the work are given, respectively 18 ,

$$R=\frac{1}{t_jt_i}_{x(t_i)}^{x(t_j)}F(t)𝑑x(t),$$
(11)
$$W=\frac{1}{t_jt_i}_{x(t_i)}^{x(t_j)}𝑑V(x(t)),$$
(12)
where $`V(x(t))=V_0(x(t))+V_L(x(t))`$.

For a quasi-static force, they yield

$$<R>=\frac{1}{2}F_0[(j(F_0)j(F_0))],$$
(13)
$$<W>=\frac{1}{2}L[j(F_0)+j(F_0)].$$
(14)
Thus the efficiency $`\eta `$ of the system to transform the external energy to useful work is given by

$$\eta =\frac{<W>}{<R>}=\frac{L[j(F_0)+j(F_0)]}{F_0[j(F_0)j(F_0)]}.$$
(15)
## 3 Current in the system for the case $`L=0`$

From Eq. (8) it may be noted that even for $`L=0`$, $`j(F_0)`$ may not be equal to $`j(F_0)`$ for $`\lambda 0`$, so the average current $`<j>0`$. The fact leads to the rectification of current in the presence of an applied force $`F(t)`$. Based on Eq. (10), the results are given by Fig. 2-Fig. 5.

In Fig. 2 we plot the curve of the current which is a function of the intensity $`\lambda `$ of correlations between the two noises. It is found that the critical value $`\lambda _c=0`$ for current $`<j>=0`$, the current is positive for $`\lambda >0`$ and negative for $`\lambda <0`$. The current increases with $`\lambda `$. We can see that the current reversal can occur at the case of no correlation and the ratchet can exhibit a current in either direction. The correlation intensity in a symmetric potential case play a important role in the fluctuation-induced transport.

In Fig. 3, we plot the curve of the current versus the amplitude of the adiabatic forcing $`F_0`$. It can be seen from the figure that the current $`<j>`$ gives a maximum and saturates to the zero value in the large amplitude limit.

Fig. 4 shows that the current is a peaked function of $`D_2`$ and the current goes to zero for a large noise case. Similarly, the current is a peaked function of $`D_1`$ as shown in Fig. 5. The results shows that an optimal transport occurs at some noise cases and there is no net current for a large noise case.

In our ratchet the potential of the ratchet is completely symmetric in space and the external driving force $`F(t)`$ is completely symmetric in time. In a period of external force $`F(t)`$, the effective generalized potential $`\varphi _{eff}(x)=1/\tau _0^\tau \varphi (x,F(t))𝑑t=[\varphi (x,F_0)+\varphi (x,F_0)]/2`$, so

$$\varphi _{eff}(x,\lambda )=\frac{1}{2}[\frac{\mathrm{sin}(x)+F_0x}{D_2F_0^2+2\lambda F_0\sqrt{D_1D_2}+D_1}+\frac{\mathrm{sin}(x)F_0x}{D_2F_0^22\lambda F_0\sqrt{D_1D_2}+D_1}].$$
(16)
Let us introduce $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi _{eff}(\lambda )`$to measure the slope of $`\varphi _{eff}(x,\lambda )`$ over a period

$`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi _{eff}(\lambda )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\varphi _{eff}(x+2\pi ,\lambda )\varphi _{eff}(x,\lambda )}{2\pi }}`$ (17)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4\lambda F_0^2\sqrt{D_1D_2}}{(D_2F_0^2+D_1)^24\lambda ^2F_0^2D_1D_2}}.`$
It is easy to obtain $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi _{eff}(\lambda )=\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi _{eff}(\lambda )`$, which shows that $`<j(\lambda )>=<j(\lambda )>`$(see Fig.2 ). When there is no correlations ($`\lambda =0`$)between noises, the effective spatially generalized potential $`\varphi _{eff}(x)=\frac{\mathrm{sin}(x)}{D_2F_0^2+D_1}`$ is symmetric and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi _{eff}(\lambda )=0`$ (see Eq. (16) and Eq. (17)), so no currents occur. However, From the Eq. (16), if $`\lambda 0`$, the effective potential is not the same as the symmetric potential $`V(x)`$, since the two effects of external driving force in its period can not be cancelled because of $`\lambda 0`$, so the symmetry of the effective generalized potential is broken by the correlation between noises. It is known that the state-dependent diffusion can induce transport in case of the symmetry of generalized potential being broken. Therefore, correlations between the two noises can induce transport. Some previous works also involved a symmetry breaking. Reimann 19  introduced a model of interacting Brownian particles in a symmetric, periodic potential that undergoes non-equilibrium phase transition. The associated spontaneous symmetry breaking entails a ratchet-like transport mechanism. The ratchet-like transport mechanism arise through a symmetry breaking was also investigated by Mangioni 20  under a system of periodically coupled nonlinear phase oscillators submitted to multiplicative white noises. In Buceta’s study 21  the combination with local potential and external fluctuations causes a symmetry breaking.

## 4 Efficiency in Correlated Ratchet

In this section we discuss the efficiency and the corresponding current of the ratchet in the presence of an external load based on Eq. (13)-Eq. (15). Because $`\frac{j(F_0)}{j(F_0)}<0`$, Eq. (15) can be rewritten as follow

$$\eta =\frac{L}{F_0}\{1\frac{2|\frac{j(F_0)}{j(F_0)}|}{1+|\frac{j(F_0)}{j(F_0)}|}\}.$$
(18)
In the limit $`|\frac{j(F_0)}{j(F_0)}|0`$, the maximum efficiency of the energy transformation for given load $`L`$ and force amplitude $`F_0`$ is given: $`\eta _{max}=\frac{L}{F_0}`$. The results are represented by Fig. 6-Fig. 9.

In Fig. 6 we plot the efficiency $`\eta `$, input energy $`<R>`$ and work done $`<W>`$ (scaled up by a factor 30 for convenience of comparison) as a function of $`D_2`$ for the parameter values, $`F_0=0`$, $`D_1=0.5`$, $`\lambda =0.5`$, $`L=0.04`$. The figure shows that the efficiency exhibits a maximum as a function of $`D_2`$ which indicates that the thermal fluctuation facilitates energy conversion. The input energy $`<R>`$ increases with $`D_2`$ monotonically and saturates to a certain value in a large noise intensity limit. The work $`<W>`$ exhibits a maximum as a function of $`D_2`$.

Fig. 7 shows the efficiency $`\eta `$ as a function of $`D_1`$ for different value of $`\lambda `$. The efficiency is a peaked function of $`D_1`$ and increases with the parameter $`\lambda `$. Similarly, the current is a peaked function of $`D_1`$ for the corresponding parameters as shown in the inset. From the inset we can notice that the current reverses its direction for the case $`\lambda 0`$. It is noted that noise intensity $`D_1`$ corresponding to maximum efficiency is not the same as the noise intensity at which the current $`<j>`$ (see the inset of Fig. 7) is maximum. The difference is attributed to the observation that the efficiency is ratio of the extracted $`<W>`$ to the consumed energy $`<R>`$. The work $`<W>`$ is purely proportional to the current $`<j>`$. However, the consumed energy is not a constant but varies sensitively according to the condition. Therefore the efficiency $`\eta `$ is not simply proportional to the current $`<j>`$.

In Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 we obtained the resonance curve which is the same as the previous results 22 . When $`D_1,D_20`$, thermal diffusion over the potential barriers vanishes, no net currents occur, so $`\eta 0`$. On the other hand, when $`D_1,D_2\mathrm{}`$, diffusion becomes insensitive to the ratchet amplitude and its modulation, no net currents occur, too, so $`\eta 0`$. The resonance occurs at a finite noise intensity.

In Fig. 8, we plot the efficiency $`\eta `$ (the inset for current $`<j>`$) versus load $`L`$ for different values of $`\lambda `$. It is expected that the efficiency also exhibits a maximum as a function of the load. It is obvious that the efficiency is zero when load is zero. At the critical value $`L_c`$ (beyond which current flows in the direction of the load (see the inset of Fig.8)) the current is zero and hence the efficiency vanishes again. Between the two extreme values of the load the efficiency exhibits a maximum. Beyond $`L=L_c`$ the current flows down the load, and therefore, the definition of efficiency becomes invalid.

The efficiency $`\eta `$ versus the amplitude of the adiabatic forcing $`F_0`$ for different values of $`\lambda `$ is shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen from the figure that efficiency exhibits a maximum and saturates to the same value (zero) in large amplitude limit. Beyond the large amplitude limit the efficiency increases with $`\lambda `$, which indicates that the correlation between the two noises plays a important role for energy transformation.

## 5 Summary and Conclusion

In the present paper, we study the current and the efficiency of a forced thermal ratchet with correlated noises. For the case of no external load, no net current occurs when there is no correlation ($`\lambda =0`$) between the thermal noises, while the net current occurs for the case of $`\lambda 0`$. It is obvious that the symmetry of effective generalized potential is broken by the correlation between the noises. Therefore, neither spatially asymmetry nor temporal asymmetry is required, the correlation can induce a net transport. The current is a peaked function of $`D_2`$, $`D_1`$ and $`F_0`$ and goes to zero for the case of large $`D_2`$, $`D_1`$ and $`F_0`$ limit.

For the case of $`L0`$, the efficiency of the ratchet is investigated. The efficiency shows a maximum as a function of noise intensity as does the net current, though they do not occur at the same noise intensity. It is obvious that the thermal fluctuation is not harmful for fluctuation-induced work even facilitates its efficiency. The current reversal occurs at $`\lambda 0`$ which is different from the case of $`L=0`$.

Based on energetic analysis of the ratchet model Kamegawa et al. 18  made an important conclusion that the efficiency of energy transformation cannot be optimized at finite temperature. However, the discussion in that paper was only on the quasistatic limit where the change of the external of force is slow enough. Takagi and Hondou23  found that thermal noise may facilitate the energy conversion in the forced thermal ratchet when the ratchet is not quasistatic. Recently, investigation of Dan et al. 24  showed that the efficiency can be optimized at finite temperatures in inhomogeneous systems with spatially varying friction coefficient in an adiabatically rocked ratchet. Efficiency optimization in homogeneous non-adiabatic ratchet systems was observed by Sumithra et al.25 . Sokolov and Blumen 26  found that the maximal efficiency is obtained at a finite temperature in a ratchet which consists of an array of three-level systems placed sequentially. In our system the thermal fluctuations actually facilitate the energy transformation under the homogeneous adiabatic condition which is not the same as the previous works.

Acknowledgements
The work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. of 10275099) and GuangDong Provincial Natural Science Foundation (Grant No. of 021707 and 001182).


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Nowadays the cosmological constant plays an important role in several fields: cosmology, astronomy, particle physics and string theory. The reason is twofold. One is that the inflation turned out to be a successful tool to resolve the problems of the hot big bang model . Thanks to the recent observations of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies and large scale structure galaxy surveys, it has become widely accepted by the cosmology community . The idea of primordial inflation is based on the very early universe dominance of vacuum energy density of a hypothetical scalar field, the inflaton. This produces the quasi-de Sitter spacetime  and during the slow-roll period, the equation of state can be approximated by the vacuum state as $`p\rho `$ like $`p_\mathrm{\Lambda }=\omega \rho _\mathrm{\Lambda },\omega =1`$ for the cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ . The other is that an accelerating universe (with positive cosmological constant) has recently proposed to interpret the astronomical data of supernova. In this case, the cosmological constant has been identified with a dark exotic form of energy that is smoothly distributed and which contributes 2/3 to the critical density of the present universe111Recently, the dark form of energy is classified according to the equation of state : quintessence with $`1<\omega <1/3`$, cosmological constant with $`\omega =1`$, and phantom energy with $`\omega <1`$ ..

On the other hand we have to build cosmology from the quantum gravity for completeness, but now we are far from it. Although we are lacking for a complete understanding of the quantum gravity, there exists the holographic principle. This principle is mainly based on the idea that for a given volume $`V`$, the state of maximal entropy is given by the largest black hole that fits inside $`V`$. ’t Hooft and Susskind  argued that the microscopic entropy $`S`$ associated with the volume $`V`$ should be less than the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy: $`SA/4G`$ in the units of $`c=\mathrm{}=1`$ . Here the horizon area $`A`$ of a black hole equals the surface area of the boundary of $`V`$. That is, if one reconciles quantum mechanics and gravity, the observable degrees of freedom of our three-dimensional universe comes from a two-dimensional surface. Actually holographic area bounds limit the number of physical degrees of freedom in the bulk spacetime.

The implications of the holographic principle for the early universe have been investigated in the literature. Following an earlier work by Fischler and Susskind  and works in , it was argued that the maximal entropy inside the universe is given by the Hubble entropy. This geometric entropy plays an important role in establishing the cosmological holographic principle in the early universe. Roughly speaking, the total matter entropy should be less than or equal the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy of the Hubble-size black hole ($`HV_\mathrm{H}/4G_{n+1}`$) times the number ($`N_\mathrm{H}V/V_\mathrm{H}`$) of Hubble regions in the early universe. That is, the Hubble entropy as an upper bound on the total matter entropy is proportional to $`HV/4G_{n+1}`$. Furthermore, Verlinde fixed the prefactor as $`(n1)`$ and proposed the new holographic bounds Eq.(4.5) in a radiation-dominated phase by introducing three entropies : Bekenstein-Verlinde entropy ($`S_{\mathrm{BV}}`$), Bekenstein-Hawking entropy ($`S_{\mathrm{BH}}`$), and Hubble entropy ($`S_\mathrm{H}`$). As an example, such a radiation-dominated phase is provided by a conformal field theory (CFT) with a large central charge which is dual to the AdS-black hole . In this case it appeared an interesting relationship between the Friedmann equation governing the cosmological evolution and the square root form of entropy-energy relation, called Cardy-Verlinde formula . Although the Friedmann equation has a geometric origin and the Cardy-Verlinde formula is designed only for the matter content, it suggested that both may arise from a single fundamental theory. However, this approach remains obscure for a radiation-dominated universe with a positive cosmological constant . This is mainly due to the unclear role of the cosmological constant in the holographic description of the early universe.

In this work we will clarify the role of the cosmological term in the early universe. For this purpose we introduce the newtonian cosmology and the parametric solution to the Friedmann equation. We will show that the geometric entropy interpretation of the cosmological term plays an important role in establishing the holographic entropy bound for a radiation-dominated universe with a positive cosmological constant. Finally we wish to point out the different roles of the cosmological constant in the early universe and in the present universe.

The relevant equation is an $`(n+1)`$-dimensional Friedmann-Robertson-Walker (FRW) metric with $`k=1`$

$$ds^2=dt^2+R(t)^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_n^2,$$
(1.1)
where $`R`$ is the scale factor of the universe and $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_n^2`$ denotes the line element of an $`n`$-dimensional unit sphere. A cosmological evolution is determined by the two Friedmann equations

$`H^2={\displaystyle \frac{16\pi G_{n+1}}{n(n1)}}{\displaystyle \frac{E}{V}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{R^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{l_{n+1}^2}},`$ (1.2)
$`\dot{H}={\displaystyle \frac{8\pi G_{n+1}}{n1}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{E}{V}}+p\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{R^2}},`$ (1.3)
where $`H`$ represents the Hubble parameter with the definition $`H=\dot{R}/R`$ and the overdot stands for derivative with respect to the cosmic time $`t`$, $`E`$ is the total energy of matter filling the universe, and $`p`$ is its pressure. $`V`$ is the volume of the universe, $`V=R^n\mathrm{\Omega }_n`$ with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n`$ being the volume of an $`n`$-dimensional unit sphere, and $`G_{n+1}`$ is the newtonian constant in ($`n+1`$) dimensions. Here we assume the equation of state for any matter: $`p=\omega \rho ,\rho =E/V`$. For our purpose, we include the curvature radius of de Sitter space $`l_{n+1}`$ which relates to the cosmological constant via $`1/l_{n+1}^2=2\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}/n(n1)`$. For $`n=3`$ case, we use the notation of $`G,\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ instead of $`G_4,\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$.

The organization of this paper is as follows. In section 2, we study the newtonian cosmology. Section 3 is devoted to solving the Friedmann equation in a parametrical way to find out the role of the cosmological term. The cosmological holographic bounds for a radiation-dominated universe without/with a positive cosmological constant are discussed in section 4. Finally we discuss our results in section 5.

## 2 Newtonian cosmology

In order to understand the cosmological term $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ in the Friedmann equation, let us study the newtonian cosmology in (3+1)dimensions. Even though the newtonian cosmology is valid for the matter-dominated universe (that is, it is non-relativistic), this approach is useful for understanding the origin of the cosmological term. We propose that the universe consists of a number of galaxies with their mass $`m_i`$ and position $`𝐫_i(t)=r_i(t)\widehat{𝐫}`$ as measured from a fixed origin $`O`$. Then the kinetic energy of the system $`T`$ is given by

$$T=\frac{1}{2}\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}m_i\dot{r}_i^2.$$
(2.1)
The total gravitational potential energy $`V`$ is

$$V_g=G\underset{i<j}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{m_im_j}{|𝐫_i𝐫_j|}.$$
(2.2)
Assuming that there exists a cosmological force acting on the $`i`$-th galaxy of the form $`𝐅_i=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}m_i𝐫_i`$ with a constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ leads to the cosmological potential energy

$$V_c=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{6}\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}m_ir_i^2.$$
(2.3)
Then the total energy $`E`$ of this system is given by

$$E=\frac{1}{2}\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}m_i\dot{r}_i^2G\underset{i<j}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{m_im_j}{|𝐫_i𝐫_j|}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{6}\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}m_ir_i^2.$$
(2.4)
Suppose that the distribution and motion of the system is known at some fixed epoch $`t=t_0`$. By the cosmological principle of homogeneity and isotropy, the radial motion at any time $`t`$ is then given by $`r_i(t)=S(t)r_i(t_0)`$ where $`S(t)`$ is a universal function of time which is the same for all galaxies and is called the scale factor. Substituting this into Eq.(2.4) leads to

$$E=A\dot{S}(t)^2\frac{B}{S(t)}DS(t)^2,$$
(2.5)
where the coefficients are positive constants given by

$$A=\frac{1}{2}\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}m_i[r_i(t_0)]^2,B=G\underset{i<j}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{m_im_j}{|𝐫_i(t_0)𝐫_j(t_0)|},D=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{6}\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}m_i[r_i(t_0)]^2=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}A.$$
(2.6)
This is one form of the cosmological differential equation for the scale factor $`S(t)`$. If the universe with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ is expanding, $`A`$-term decreases since the total energy remains constant as $`B`$-term decreases. Therefore the expansion must slow down. If $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is positive, all galaxies experience a cosmic repulsion, pushing them away form the origin out to infinity. If $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is negative, all galaxies experience a cosmic attraction towards the origin. Introducing a new scale factor with $`R(t)=\mu S(t)`$, Eq.(2.5) takes the form222Similarly, assuming the five-dimensional newton potential $`V_{5g}=G_5_{i<j}^n\frac{m_im_j}{|𝐫_i𝐫_j|^2}`$, one can find the equation for a radiation-dominated universe in four-dimensional spacetime as $`\dot{R}^2=\frac{C_2}{R^2}+\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^2k`$. Even though it is a non-relativistic approach to obtain a relativistic matter of radiation, this may provide us a hint for interpreting the cosmological term in the Friedmann equation.

$$\dot{R}^2=\frac{C_1}{R}+\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^2k,$$
(2.7)
where the constants $`C_1`$ and $`k`$ are defined by $`C_1=B\mu ^3/A`$ and $`k=\mu ^2E/A`$. When $`E=0`$, $`\mu `$ is arbitrary. However, if $`E0`$, one may choose $`\mu ^2=A/|E|`$ so that $`k=1,0,1`$. This equation is exactly the same form of the Friedmann equation of relativistic cosmology. Although there exist ambiguities in determining the cosmological parameters $`C_1`$ and $`k`$, one finds that the cosmological term has a slightly different origin from others. The term in the left-hand side of Eq.(2.7) originates from the kinetic energy, the first term (last term) in the right-hand side come from the potential energy (total energy) whereas the second term from the constant cosmological repulsion or attraction. We are interested in the role of the cosmological term in the holographic description of cosmology. As are shown in Eqs.(2.5) and (2.6), a shape of the cosmological term is similar to the kinetic term which can be expressed as the Hubble entropy. On the other hand its nature belongs to the $`B`$-potential term that can be transformed into the energy term. These two pictures will be used for confirming the cosmological holographic bounds for a radiation-dominated universe with a cosmological constant.

## 3 Parametric cosmological solutions

There exists another approach to establishing the cosmological holographic principle. In this case, it seems that the cosmological constant plays a role of a parameter in deriving a Cardy formula on torus. In this section, we study this approach to investigate a role of the cosmological term explicitly.

### 3.1 Case without a cosmological constant

In general we have three cosmological parameters $`C,\mathrm{\Lambda },k`$. Let us first consider the matter-dominated Friedmann equation with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0,k=1`$

$$\dot{R}^2=\frac{C_1}{R}1$$
(3.1)
with $`C_1=8\pi G\rho _{m0}/3`$. Here the energy density for a matter-dominated universe is given by $`\rho _m=E_m/V=\rho _{m0}/R^3`$. Introducing an arc parameter $`\eta `$ (radians of arc distance on $`S^3`$), one finds the solution

$$R(\eta )=\frac{C_1}{2}(1\mathrm{cos}\eta ),t(\eta )=\frac{C_1}{2}(\eta \mathrm{sin}\eta ).$$
(3.2)
The range of $`\eta `$ from start of expansion to end of recontraction is $`2\pi `$ and the curve of $`R(t)`$ is cycloid. The limiting form of law of expansion at the early times is given by

$$R\frac{C_1}{4}\eta ^2,t\frac{C_1}{12}\eta ^3R(9C_1/4)^{1/3}t^{\frac{2}{3}}$$
(3.3)
which is consistent with the solution to the matter-dominated universe.

Now we consider the radiation-dominated Friedmann equation

$$\dot{R}^2=\frac{C_2}{R^2}1$$
(3.4)
with $`C_2=8\pi G\rho _{r0}/3`$. The energy density for a radiation-dominated universe is given by $`\rho _r=E_r/V=\rho _{r0}/R^4`$. Introducing the same arc parameter $`\eta `$, one finds the solution333This is the same form of the entropy solution $`S_H(\eta )=S_{BV}\mathrm{sin}\eta ,S_{BH}(\eta )=S_{BV}(1\mathrm{cos}\eta )`$ to the circular relation of the holographic entropies with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$: $`S_H^2+(S_{BV}S_{BH})^2=S_{BV}^2`$ . Here $`\eta `$ corresponds to the conformal time coordinate via $`Rd\eta =(n1)dt`$. $`S_{\mathrm{BV}}`$ is constant, $`S_\mathrm{H}`$ and $`S_{\mathrm{BH}}`$ change with time.

$$R(\eta )=\sqrt{C_2}\mathrm{sin}\eta ,t(\eta )=\sqrt{C_2}(1\mathrm{cos}\eta ).$$
(3.5)
The range of $`\eta `$ from start of expansion to end of recontraction is $`\pi `$ and the curve of $`R(t)`$ is semicircle. The limiting form of law of expansion at the early times are given by

$$R\sqrt{C_2}\eta ,t\frac{\sqrt{C_2}}{2}\eta ^2R2^{1/2}C_2^{1/4}t^{\frac{1}{2}}$$
(3.6)
which leads to the well-known solution for the radiation-dominated universe. The parametric solutions to the Friedmann equation with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ are determined by the elementary trigonometric functions. But their nature is different: one is cycloid and the other is semicircle.

### 3.2 Case with a cosmological constant

We start with the matter-dominated Friedmann equation with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }0,k=1`$

$$\dot{R}^2=\frac{C_1}{R}+\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^21.$$
(3.7)
Introducing an idea of elliptic curves on torus $`T^2`$, one finds the solution expressed in terms of the Weierstrass function as

$$R(u,\tau )=\frac{3C_1}{12\mathrm{}(u+ϵ,\tau )+1},t(u,\tau )=\sqrt{\frac{3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\left[\mathrm{log}\left(\frac{\sigma (u+ϵv_0)}{\sigma (u+ϵ+v_0)}\right)+2u\zeta (v_0)\right],$$
(3.8)
where $`\mathrm{}(z|\tau ),\sigma (z|\tau ),\zeta (z|\tau )`$ are the Weierstrass’ family of functions: Weierstrass, Weierstrass sigma, Weierstrass zeta functions, respectively. $`u(C_1,\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ is the complex coordinate and $`\tau (C_1,\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ is a modular parameter. These two describing a torus are actually functions of both $`C_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. $`ϵ`$ is a constant of integration. The Weierstrass function $`\mathrm{}`$ satisfies the equation of an elliptic curve, a Riemann surface of genus 1 (torus)

$$(\mathrm{}^{})^2=4\mathrm{}^3g_2\mathrm{}g_3$$
(3.9)
where the cubic invariants are given by

$$g_2=\frac{1}{12},g_3=\frac{1}{216}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }C_1^2}{48}.$$
(3.10)
Also it is a meromorphic modular form of weight 2 under $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐋}(2,Z)`$ transformation,

$$\mathrm{}(\frac{z}{c\tau +d},\frac{a\tau +b}{c\tau +d})=(c\tau +d)^2\mathrm{}(z,\tau ).$$
(3.11)
Differentiating Eq.(3.9) twice leads to the KdV nonlinear differential equation of soliton physics in a time-independent way

$$\mathrm{}(z)^{\prime \prime \prime }=12\mathrm{}(z)\mathrm{}(z)^{}.$$
(3.12)
Now we consider the radiation-dominated Friedmann equation

$$\dot{R}^2=\frac{C_2}{R^2}+\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}R^21.$$
(3.13)
In this case the solution is given by

$$R(v,\stackrel{~}{\tau })=\sqrt{\frac{3C_2}{12\mathrm{}(v+ϵ,\stackrel{~}{\tau })+1}},t(v,\stackrel{~}{\tau })=\frac{1}{2}R(v,\stackrel{~}{\tau })𝑑v$$
(3.14)
where $`v(C_2,\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ is the complex coordinate and $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }(C_2,\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ is a modular parameter. These two describing a new torus are functions of both $`C_2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. Here the cubic invariants are given by

$$g_2=\frac{1}{12}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }C_2}{12},g_3=\frac{1}{216}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }C_2}{144}.$$
(3.15)
From Eqs.(3.10) and (3.15), if $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, one finds that discriminant is zero $`(\mathrm{\Delta }=0)`$. The solutions to this case are no longer given by the elliptic functions and do not have modular properties. These were previously discussed in Sec.3.1. Assuming a CFT with $`(L_0,c)`$ on a torus, a partition function with modular parameter $`\tau `$ can be introduced as

$$Z(\tau (C_1,\mathrm{\Lambda }))=\mathrm{Tr}q^{L_0c/24},q=e^{2\pi i\tau },$$
(3.16)
where we suppress the $`\overline{\tau }`$-part for simplicity. Making use of the modular properties of this partition function, we may find the density of states and a two-dimensional Cardy formula for a matter-dominated universe

$$S_{matter}=2\pi \sqrt{\frac{c}{6}\left(L_0\frac{c}{24}\right)}.$$
(3.17)
Similarly, by assuming a CFT with $`(\stackrel{~}{L}_0,\stackrel{~}{c})`$, we expect to have $`S_{radiation}=2\pi \sqrt{\frac{\stackrel{~}{c}}{6}\left(\stackrel{~}{L}_0\frac{\stackrel{~}{c}}{24}\right)}`$ for a radiation-dominated universe, which is the same form as in Eq.(3.17). These may lead to the chain connections: Friedmann equation $``$ Weierstrass equation ($`\mathrm{}`$) $``$ torus with $`\tau `$ $``$ CFT partition function($`Z(\tau (C_1,\mathrm{\Lambda }))`$) $``$ Cardy formula. However, we don’t know exactly what kind of a CFT is suitable for our purpose. Further, the cosmological parameters of $`\mathrm{\Lambda },C_1,C_2`$ are used only for determining the geometry of a torus itself. This presumed mapping from the Friedmann equation on $`R^1\times S^3`$ into the Cardy formula on torus ($`T^2`$) is not clearly justified. Actually we do not obtain a direct definition of the quantities of $`L_0(\stackrel{~}{L}_0),c(\stackrel{~}{c})`$ appearing in the Cardy formula as a function of $`\mathrm{\Lambda },C_1,C_2`$.

Consequently the existence of a Cardy formula from the solution to the Friedmann equation is not clear and even if it is found, the role of the cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ always remains as a modular parameter of torus. Also we note that the Verlinde’s map from the Friedmann equation to the Cardy-Verlinde formula is based on a CFT with a large central charge on 3-sphere of radius $`R`$ ($`S^3`$) not torus ($`T^2`$).

## 4 Cosmological holographic bounds

In this section we study two aspects of the cosmological term in the holographic description of the universe : a look of entropy ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }S_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$) and a look of energy ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }E_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$). In order to study the first aspect, we introduce four holographic entropies which are necessary for making the holographic description of a radiation-dominated universe with a positive cosmological constant  444Although Bousso argued that a cosmological constant did not carry a genuine matter entropy , there is no contradiction to introducing the geometric entropy. $`S_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ was constructed by analogy of the Hubble entropy $`S_\mathrm{H}`$. But $`S_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is closely related to the maximal de Sitter entropy of $`S_{\mathrm{dS}}`$. Explicitly this is given by the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy of the de Sitter cosmological horizon ($`(n1)V_{\mathrm{dS}}/4G_{n+1}l_{n+1}S_{\mathrm{dS}}=A/4G_{n+1}`$) times the number ($`N_{\mathrm{dS}}=V/V_{\mathrm{dS}}`$) of de Sitter regions in the early universe. :

$`\mathrm{Bekenstein}\mathrm{Verlinde}\mathrm{entropy}:`$ $`S_{\mathrm{BV}}={\displaystyle \frac{2\pi }{n}}ER,`$
$`\mathrm{Bekenstein}\mathrm{Hawking}\mathrm{entropy}:`$ $`S_{\mathrm{BH}}=(n1){\displaystyle \frac{V}{4G_{n+1}R}},`$
$`\mathrm{Hubble}\mathrm{entropy}:`$ $`S_\mathrm{H}=(n1){\displaystyle \frac{HV}{4G_{n+1}}},`$
$`\mathrm{Cosmological}\mathrm{entropy}:`$ $`S_\mathrm{\Lambda }=(n1){\displaystyle \frac{V}{4G_{n+1}l_{n+1}}}.`$ (4.1)
$`S_{\mathrm{BV}}S_{\mathrm{BH}}`$ is supposed to hold for a weakly self-gravitating universe ($`HR1`$), while $`S_{\mathrm{BV}}S_{\mathrm{BH}}`$ works when the universe is in the strongly self-gravitating phase ($`HR1`$). It is interesting to note that for $`HR=Hl_{n+1}=1`$, one finds that four entropies are identical: $`S_{\mathrm{BV}}=S_{\mathrm{BH}}=S_\mathrm{H}=S_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. In the holographic approach, it is useful to consider $`S_{\mathrm{BV}}`$ not really as an entropy but rather as the energy. And the remaining three belong to the geometric entropy. Then the first Friedmann equation (1.2) can be expressed in terms of the above four entropies as

$$S_\mathrm{H}^2+(S_{\mathrm{BV}}S_{\mathrm{BH}})^2=S_{\mathrm{BV}}^2+S_\mathrm{\Lambda }^2.$$
(4.2)
In this section we no longer consider the matter-dominated case because one cannot transform the first Friedmann equation into the cosmological Cardy-Verlinde formula to find the cosmological holographic bounds. This is mainly because its energy-density is given by $`\rho _m=\rho _{m0}/R^3`$ and the solution $`R(t)`$ is expressed as a cycloid. In this case, the above entropies are not suitable for representing the cosmological holographic bounds. On the other hand, for a radiation-dominated case, there does not exist any difficulty in representing the Friedmann equation in terms of the above four entropies. In this case we have $`\rho _r=\rho _{r0}/R^4`$ and $`R(t)`$ is expressed as the semicircle. As is shown in the footnote 3, the same nature of entropy solution can be obtained by substitution : $`R(\eta )S_\mathrm{H}(\eta ),t(\eta )S_{\mathrm{BH}}(\eta ),\sqrt{C_2}S_{\mathrm{BV}}`$. This is why we will study a radiation-dominated universe without/with the cosmological constant.

### 4.1 Radiation-dominated universe without a cosmological constant

We start with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}=0`$ case because this case gives us a concrete relation. We define a quantity $`E_{\mathrm{BH}}`$ which corresponds to energy needed to form a universe-size black hole : $`S_{\mathrm{BH}}=(n1)V/4G_{n+1}R2\pi E_{\mathrm{BH}}R/n`$. With this quantity, the Friedmann equations (1.2) and (1.3) can be further cast to the cosmological entropy-energy relation (cosmological Cardy-Verlinde formula) and the cosmological Smarr formula respectively

$`S_\mathrm{H}={\displaystyle \frac{2\pi R}{n}}\sqrt{E_{\mathrm{BH}}(2EE_{\mathrm{BH}})},`$ (4.3)
$`E_{\mathrm{BH}}=n(E+pVT_\mathrm{H}S_\mathrm{H}),`$
where the Hubble temperature ($`T_\mathrm{H}`$) as the minimum temperature during the strongly gravitating phase is given by $`T_\mathrm{H}=\frac{\dot{H}}{2\pi H}`$. These are another representation of the two Friedmann equations expressed in terms of holographic quantities. On the other hand, we propose that the entropy of a radiation-matter and its Casimir energy can be described by the Cardy-Verlinde formula and the Smarr formula respectively

$`S={\displaystyle \frac{2\pi R}{n}}\sqrt{E_c(2EE_c)},`$
$`E_c=n(E+pVTS).`$ (4.4)
The first denotes the entropy-energy relation, where $`S`$ is the entropy of a CFT-like radiation living on an $`n`$-dimensional sphere with radius $`R`$ ($`S^n`$) and $`E`$ is the total energy of the CFT. Further the second represents the relation between a non-extensive part of the total energy (Casimir energy) and thermodynamic quantities. Here $`E_c`$ and $`T`$ stand for the Casimir energy of the system and the temperature of radiation with $`\omega =1/3`$. Actually the above equations correspond to thermodynamic relations for the CFT-radiation which are originally independent of the geometric Friedmann equations. Suppose that the entropy of radiation in the FRW universe can be described by the Cardy-Verlinde formula. Then comparing (4.3) with (4.1), one finds that if $`E_{\mathrm{BH}}=E_c`$, then $`S_\mathrm{H}=S`$ and $`T_\mathrm{H}=T`$. At this stage we introduce the Hubble bound for entropy, temperature and Casimir energy

$$SS_\mathrm{H},TT_\mathrm{H},E_cE_{\mathrm{BH}},\mathrm{for}HR1$$
(4.5)
which shows inequalities between geometric quantities and matter contents. The Hubble entropy bound can be saturated by the entropy of a radiation-matter filling the universe when its Casimir energy $`E_c`$ is enough to form a universe-size black hole. If this happens, equations (4.3) and (4.1) coincide exactly. This implies that the first Friedmann equation somehow knows the entropy formula of a square-root form for a radiation-matter filling the universe. As an example, one considers a moving brane universe in the background of the five-dimensional Schwarzschild-AdS black hole. Savonije and Verlinde  found that when this brane crosses the black hole horizon, the Hubble entropy bound is saturated by the entropy of black hole(=the entropy of the CFT-radiation). At this moment the Hubble temperature and energy ($`T_\mathrm{H},E_{\mathrm{BH}}`$) equal to the temperature and Casimir energy ($`T,E_c`$) of the CFT-radiation dual to the AdS black hole respectively.

### 4.2 Radiation-dominated universe with a positive cosmological constant: a look of entropy

For a radiation-dominated universe with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}0`$, we have to introduce the cosmological D-entropy $`S_\mathrm{D}`$ and D-temperature $`T_\mathrm{D}`$ as

$$S_\mathrm{D}=\sqrt{|S_\mathrm{H}^2S_\mathrm{\Lambda }^2|},T_\mathrm{D}=\frac{\dot{H}}{2\pi \sqrt{|H^21/l_{n+1}^2|}}.$$
(4.6)
We note that the cosmological D-entropy $`S_\mathrm{D}`$ is constructed by analogy of the static D-bound555Suppose M is asymptotically de Sitter space. Then the entropy of matter in M is bounded by the difference (D) between the entropy of exact de Sitter space and the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy of the apparent cosmological horizon in M of asymptotically de Sitter space.. $`T_D`$ is the lower bound of the temperature during the strongly gravitating phase with a positive cosmological constant. Here we insist that the first three entropies appeared in Eq.(4) are still applicable for describing the radiation-dominated universe with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}0`$ without any modification. As a check point, one can recover the radiation-dominated universe without a cosmological constant, as $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}0`$ :

$$S_\mathrm{\Lambda }0,S_\mathrm{D}S_\mathrm{H},T_\mathrm{D}T_\mathrm{H}.$$
(4.7)
Using $`S_\mathrm{D}`$, one finds from Eq.(4.2) the entropy relation

$$S_\mathrm{D}^2+(S_{\mathrm{BV}}S_{\mathrm{BH}})^2=S_{\mathrm{BV}}^2.$$
(4.8)
which is the same relation for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}=0`$ case in the footnote 3. Hence $`S_{\mathrm{BV}}`$ is constant, $`S_\mathrm{D}=S_{\mathrm{BV}}\mathrm{sin}\eta `$ and $`S_{\mathrm{BH}}=S_{\mathrm{BV}}(1\mathrm{cos}\eta )`$ change with time. Then Eqs.(4.8) and (1.3) can be rewritten as the cosmological Cardy-Verlinde and cosmological Smarr formulas

$`S_\mathrm{D}={\displaystyle \frac{2\pi R}{n}}\sqrt{E_{\mathrm{BH}}(2EE_{\mathrm{BH}})},`$
$`E_{\mathrm{BH}}=n(E+pVT_\mathrm{D}S_\mathrm{D}),`$ (4.9)
while the entropy and Casimir energy of the CFT-radiation can be expressed as

$`S={\displaystyle \frac{2\pi R}{n}}\sqrt{E_c(2EE_c)},`$
$`E_c=n(E+pVTS).`$ (4.10)
As is shown in Eq.(4.7), the cosmological D-entropy plays the same role as the Hubble entropy does in the case without a positive cosmological constant. That is, it is also a geometric entropy during the strongly gravitating phase with a positive cosmological constant.

Now we are in a position to see how the entropy bounds are changed here. The first Friedmann equation in Eq.(1.2) can be rewritten as

$$(HR)^2\frac{R^2}{l_{n+1}^2}=2\frac{S_{\mathrm{BV}}}{S_{\mathrm{BH}}}1.$$
(4.11)
Using this relation, in case of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}=0`$, one finds that $`HR1S_{\mathrm{BV}}S_{\mathrm{BH}}`$, while $`HR1S_{\mathrm{BV}}S_{\mathrm{BH}}`$. Hence this leads to the Hubble entropy bound of $`SS_\mathrm{H}`$ for $`HR1`$, whereas the Bekenstein-Verlinde entropy bound of $`SS_{\mathrm{BV}}`$ for $`HR1`$. For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}0`$, it is shown that $`(HR)^2\frac{R^2}{l_{n+1}^2}1S_{\mathrm{BV}}S_{\mathrm{BH}}`$, while $`(HR)^2\frac{R^2}{l_{n+1}^2}1S_{\mathrm{BV}}S_{\mathrm{BH}}`$. Thus this leads to the cosmological D-bound for entropy, temperature, and Casimir energy for the strongly gravitating phase:

$$SS_\mathrm{D},TT_\mathrm{D},E_cE_{\mathrm{BH}},\mathrm{for},HR\sqrt{1+\frac{R^2}{l_{n+1}^2}},$$
(4.12)
whereas the Bekenstein-Verlinde entropy bound is found for the weakly gravitating phase:

$$SS_{\mathrm{BV}},\mathrm{for}HR\sqrt{1+\frac{R^2}{l_{n+1}^2}}.$$
(4.13)
When the cosmological D-entropy bound is saturated by the entropy $`S`$ of a CFT-radiation, equations (4.2) and (4.2) coincide, just like the case without the cosmological constant. We note that one cannot find the relation of $`S_\mathrm{D}=S_{\mathrm{BV}}=S_{\mathrm{BH}}`$ for $`HR=1`$, unless $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}=0`$.

### 4.3 Radiation-dominated universe with a positive cosmological constant : a look of energy

If the cosmological term in Eq.(1.2) takes a closer look of the potential energy term, then we can incorporate this into the Bekenstein-Verlinde entropy. Noting that the Bekenstein-Verlinde entropy $`S_{\mathrm{BV}}`$ is really considered as an energy, the cosmological term appears in an additive form of energy in the cosmological Cardy-Verlinde formula Eq.(4.3) without introducing $`S_\mathrm{D}`$. Introducing the corresponding energy $`E_\mathrm{\Lambda }=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}V}{8\pi G_{n+1}}`$ (equivalently, the last term in Eq.(1.2) is given by $`\frac{1}{l_{n+1}^2}=\frac{16\pi G_{n+1}}{n(n1)}\frac{E_\mathrm{\Lambda }}{V}`$), the Friedmann equations take the form instead of Eq.(4.8

$`S_\mathrm{H}={\displaystyle \frac{2\pi R}{n}}\sqrt{E_{\mathrm{BH}}\left[2(E+E_\mathrm{\Lambda })E_{\mathrm{BH}}\right]},`$
$`E_{\mathrm{BH}}=n(E+pVT_\mathrm{H}S_\mathrm{H}).`$ (4.14)
On the other hand, the entropy and Casimir energy of the CFT-radiation remains unchanged as

$`S={\displaystyle \frac{2\pi R}{n}}\sqrt{E_c(2EE_c)},`$
$`E_c=n(E+pVTS).`$ (4.15)
The above two forms do not resemble each other, because on the CFT side, it is hard to incorporate the bulk cosmological term into the Cardy-Verlinde formula. In terms of naive power counting, the vacuum energy (cosmological term) corresponds to a relevant operator in CFT. And this leads to power divergences. In this case it is not easy to obtain the cosmological holographic bounds like Eqs. (4.5) and (4.12). Furthermore, introducing a related entropy $`\stackrel{~}{S}_\mathrm{\Lambda }=\frac{2\pi R}{n}E_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ like $`S_{\mathrm{BH}}=\frac{2\pi R}{n}E_{\mathrm{BH}}`$, the entropy relation in Eq.(4.2) is changed into an ugly form as

$$S_\mathrm{H}^2+(S_{\mathrm{BV}}+\stackrel{~}{S}_\mathrm{\Lambda }S_{\mathrm{BH}})^2=(S_{\mathrm{BV}}+\stackrel{~}{S}_\mathrm{\Lambda })^2.$$
(4.16)
Here $`S_{\mathrm{BV}}+\stackrel{~}{S}_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ does not remain constant during the cosmological evolution unlike $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}=0`$ case shown in the footnote 3 and Eq.(4.8) for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}0`$ case.

## 5 Discussion

In this work we discuss the role of the cosmological constant in the early universe. Especially for the a radiation-dominated universe $`\rho _r=\rho _{r0}/R^4`$ with a positive cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, we confirm the cosmological holographic bounds Eq.(4.12) if the cosmological constant is considered as an entropy ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }S_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$). Here the entropy concept originates from the Hubble entropy $`S_\mathrm{H}`$ which plays a crucial role in establishing the cosmological holographic principle in the radiation-dominated universe. We note here that the two entropies $`S_\mathrm{H}`$ and $`S_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ are regarded as the geometric entropy but not the genuine matter entropy like $`S`$ for a CFT-radiation matter.

Taking a genuine view of energy ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }E_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$), one cannot establish the cosmological holographic bounds in the early universe. For the matter-dominated universe without/with a positive cosmological constant, we cannot achieve the cosmological holographic bounds because of its energy density nature with $`\rho _m=\rho _{m0}/R^3`$. Further, for the pure de Sitter case without any radiation, one cannot derive the cosmological holographic bounds .

Finally, considering the cosmological constant term as a candidate of dark energy in the present universe, its role of the geometric entropy in the holographic description of the early universe emerges as an opposite one. If this view is correct, our work implies a duality of the cosmological constant : (geometric) entropy in the early universe and (dark) energy in the present universe.

## Acknowledgment

We thank C.-R.Cai for helpful discussions. This work was supported in part by KOSEF, Project Number: R02-2002-000-00028-0.