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# Are there brown dwarfs in globular clusters?

## 1 Introduction

Brown dwarfs have recently been shown to exist in significant numbers in the nearby galactic field (Nakajima et al. 1995; Rebolo, Zapatero-Osorio, & Martin 1995; Reid et al. 1999), young open clusters such as the Pleiades, M 35, and $`\alpha `$ Per (Bouvier et al. 1998; Barrado y Navascues et al. 2001, 2002) and star-forming regions including the Orion Trapezium Cluster, Taurus-Auriga, $`\rho `$ Ophiuchi (McCaughrean et al. 1995; Hillenbrand & Carpenter 2000; Luhman et al. 2000; Muench et al. 2002; Briceño et al. 2002; Luhman & Rieke 1999; Muench et al. 2003; Preibisch, Stanke, & Zinnecker 2003). Analyses show that brown dwarfs may well be as frequent as stars (Chabrier 2002), and thus although they are insignificant in terms of their mass contribution, their existence and numbers pose significant constraints on theories for the origin of the Initial Mass Function (IMF).

One standard theory for the origin of the IMF is that the masses are determined by the local thermal Jeans mass, such that brown dwarfs form from very dense and cool regions of giant molecular clouds (see, e.g., Padoan et al. 2001). Another possibility is that stellar masses are determined through a combination of the local thermal Jeans mass coupled with dynamical processes during the star formation process (e.g. Bonnell et al. 1997; Klessen, Burkert & Bate 1998; Bonnell et al. 2001; Larson 2002; Bate, Bonnell & Bromm 2003). In this scenario, the low-mass end of the IMF arises due to dynamical interactions that eject forming stars from their natal environments, thus truncating their accretion and limiting their mass (Reipurth & Clarke 2001). A recent numerical simulation has shown that this process can occur in dense stellar environments, such that objects that would otherwise accrete sufficiently to become stars are reduced to being brown dwarfs (Bate, Bonnell, & Bromm 2002). Establishing the low-mass end of the IMF in differing environments is therefore important, in order to establish whether or not the IMF is universal, and if not, which physical parameters play the dominant role in defining its form. In particular, globular clusters may yield important clues, as their low-metallicity environment should result in lower cooling rates and thus larger Jeans masses (e.g. Larson 1998). In fact, observations of the low-mass stellar component in globular clusters yields IMFs similar to young stellar clusters and the Galactic field (Paresce & De Marchi 2000). This would imply that globulars should have similar numbers of brown dwarfs as have been found in nearby regions.

In this letter, we discuss an analytical method for constraining the brown dwarf population of a globular cluster, based on observations of transits. In Section 2, we show that if significant numbers of brown dwarfs are present in a globular cluster, tidal capture would lead to a population of close binary systems comprising a normal main sequence star and a brown dwarf, and that some fraction of these systems should then exhibit transits. In Section 3, we examine how the frequency of transit events in a given cluster can be used to quantify the imposed constraint on the substellar mass function in the cluster. In Section 4, we look at the results of a recent HST monitoring study of 47 Tuc searching for planetary transits (Gilliland et al. 2000), and argue that the complete lack of transits in their data implies a dearth of brown dwarfs as close companions.

## 2 Tidal capture

Tidal capture occurs when two objects pass close enough together to raise tides with energy equivalent to the excess kinetic energy of their mutual orbits. In order for the capture mechanism to operate, the gravitational perturbation from this passage should be large, implying in turn that the mass ratio of the two stars should not be too small: very low-mass perturbers do not raise large tides. An additional requirement is that both objects should be single, as hard binaries would repel any perturbers. Finally, to be efficient in a statistical sense, the frequency of close interactions should be significant, as is easily satisfied in a globular cluster.

Tidal capture was initially conjectured as the source of low-mass X-ray binary systems found in globular clusters (Fabian, Pringle & Rees 1975). The energy raised in a tide (Press & Teukolsky 1977; Lee & Ostriker 1986; Fabian et al. 1975) by an object of mass $`M_p`$ passing within a distance $`R`$ of a star of mass $`M_{}`$ and radius $`R_{}`$ is

$$E_{\mathrm{tide}}\frac{GM_{}^2}{R_{}}\left(\frac{M_p}{M_{}}\right)^2\left(\frac{R_{}}{R}\right)^6,$$
(1)
where $`G`$ is the gravitational constant. The detailed mode analysis of Lee & Ostriker (1986) showed that, for $`n=3/2`$ polytropes appropriate for low-mass main-sequence stars, including the roughly equal contributions from the quadrupole and octopole terms results in a similar expression for the tidal energy. Here we consider only the tides raised on the primary by a low-mass perturber, as the smaller radius of the secondary would necessitate a direct collision before sufficient energy was raised in its tides.

Comparing this tidal energy to the excess kinetic energy over that of a bound orbit at a separation of $`R`$, Fabian et al. (1975) showed that in order for the star to capture the perturber, it must pass within a periastron distance $`R=a_\mathrm{c}`$ of the star,

$$\frac{a_\mathrm{c}}{R_{}}=\left(\frac{GM_{}}{R_{}v_\mathrm{d}^2}q(1+q)\right)^{\frac{1}{6}},$$
(2)
where $`v_\mathrm{d}`$ is the velocity dispersion of the system and $`q=M_p/M_{}`$ is the mass ratio (see also Lee & Ostriker 1986). It is evident from these equations that if the mass ratio of the encounter is too extreme, the tidal energy is very low and the capture radius $`a_\mathrm{c}`$ becomes comparable to or smaller than the stellar radius $`R_{}`$. This effect is illustrated in Figure 1, which plots the capture radius as a function of the mass ratio, assuming a fixed primary star with mass $`M_{}=0.5M_{}`$ and radius $`R_{}=0.57R_{}`$ (i.e. assuming $`RM^{0.8}`$ for main sequence stars), and a cluster velocity dispersion of $`v_\mathrm{d}`$=10 km s-1. We see that as the mass ratio of the encounter decreases, the capture radius decreases dramatically until, for $`q10^3`$, the capture radius becomes smaller than the stellar radius. For example, the capture radius of a mass ratio of $`q=0.1`$ is $`a_c2.4R_{}`$ while for a mass ratio of $`q=0.02`$, the capture radius decreases to $`a_c1.8R_{}`$.

In more detail, the capture radius in fact needs to exceed the sum of the radii of the two interacting objects, i.e. the distance at which the two sources would collide. For our fiducial $`0.5M_{}`$ primary, perturbers with $`q0.16`$ will be stellar (i.e. $`0.08M_{}`$), and we use

$$R_pq^{0.9}R_{},$$
(3)
while for lower-mass, brown dwarf perturbers, we use

$$R_p0.1R_{},$$
(4)
as the radius is roughly independent of mass for these low-mass objects supported by electron degeneracy pressure. Figure 1 then also plots the collisional radius

$$R_\mathrm{c}=R_{}+R_p.$$
(5)
The cross section for tidal capture (excluding collisions) is, in the gravitationally focused regime, simply proportional to the difference between $`a_\mathrm{c}`$ and $`R_\mathrm{c}`$ (see Section 3). The essential result from Figure 1 is that perturbers with mass ratios of $`q\mathrm{¿}\mathrm{}10^2`$ have a non-negligible chance of being tidally captured if they undergo a close encounter with a low-mass main sequence star in a globular cluster environment.

As a check, we can compare this capture radius to that found in numerical simulations of encounters between objects with unequal masses. Encounters in a globular cluster with $`v_\mathrm{d}10`$ km s-1 are well approximated as having a low relative velocity at infinity. In this situation, Benz & Hills (1992) (for $`q=0.2`$) and Lai, Rasio, & Shapiro (1993) ($`q=0.1`$) found that capture occurred when the two stars pass within twice the sum of their radii. This is in good agreement with Figure 1 where, for mass ratios of $`q0.1`$, $`a_\mathrm{c}2R_{}`$.

In the following analysis, we assume that the typical star in a globular cluster has a mass and radius of $`0.5M_{}`$ and $`0.57R_{}`$, respectively, while any brown dwarfs present have fiducial masses and radii of $`0.05M_{}`$ and $`0.1R_{}`$, respectively. Once a brown dwarf is captured to form a binary, the system will circularise on a relatively short timescale (Mardling 1996). In the case of a high eccentricity binary circularising at constant angular momentum, the resultant binary separation is then $`2a_\mathrm{c}`$ (Mardling 1996). Thus we take the mean binary parameters to be a separation of $`2a_\mathrm{c}4R_{}2R_{}`$, and an orbital period of $`14`$ hours.

In our approach, we are implicitly assuming that the deposition of the tidal energy has little effect on the primary’s structure. This is justified in that the total energy dumped into tides is but a small (2.5 %) fraction of the binding energy of the star and that most of this is in the form of bulk motion of the star’s spin. The deposition of this energy is sufficiently deep in a $`n=3/2`$ polytope and the damping sufficiently long such as to have minimal effect on our result (Ray, Kembhavi & Antia 1987; Kochanek 1992).

## 3 Close binaries with brown dwarf secondaries

Next, we need to calculate the expected number of tidally-captured close binary systems containing brown dwarfs from the total population of brown dwarfs present in the globular cluster. Including gravitational focussing the timescale, $`\tau _\mathrm{c}`$, for a star of mass $`M_{}`$ to pass within a distance $`R`$ of another star is found from (Binney & Tremaine 1987)

$$\frac{1}{\tau }=16\sqrt{\pi }n(r)v_{\mathrm{disp}}R^2\left(1+\frac{GM_{}}{2v_\mathrm{d}^2R}\right),$$
(6)
where $`n(r)`$ is the density of stars in the cluster as a function of the distance $`r`$ from the cluster centre. For a globular cluster with a velocity dispersion of $`v_\mathrm{d}10`$ km s-1 (e.g. 47 Tuc; Gebhardt et al. 1995), the second (gravitationally focussed) term of the parentheses is much larger than unity and thus dominates, and the rate is then proportional to $`R`$ rather than $`R^2`$. Thus, the rate of encounters that result in capture (but not in collisions) is proportional to $`a_\mathrm{c}R_\mathrm{c}`$, which we henceforth define as $`R_\mathrm{t}`$. We can then write Equation (6) as

$$\tau _\mathrm{c}7\times 10^{10}\frac{10^5\mathrm{pc}^3}{n(r)}\frac{v_\mathrm{d}}{10\mathrm{k}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{s}^1}\frac{R_{}}{R_\mathrm{t}}\frac{M_{}}{M_{}}\mathrm{years}.$$
(7)
Finally, if we assume the age of the cluster, $`t_{\mathrm{age}}`$, to be $`10^{10}`$ years, then $`\tau _\mathrm{c}t_{\mathrm{age}}`$, and we can then estimate the probability of capture as

$$P_{\mathrm{capt}}=\frac{t_{\mathrm{age}}}{\tau _\mathrm{c}}.$$
(8)
A difficulty arises in that, in addition to the actual numbers of brown dwarfs, we do not know their spatial distribution $`n(r)`$. At one extreme, there is the possibility that the brown dwarfs simply follow the stellar distribution. However, it is much more likely that the cluster is relaxed and that there is mass segregation, with the other extreme scenario being that the brown dwarfs are in a state of energy equipartition with the stars.

These two extremes are illustrated in Figure 2. The solid line represents the W=9 King profile (or concentration level of $`c=log(R_{\mathrm{tide}}/R_{\mathrm{core}})2`$; Binney & Tremaine 1987), appropriate for 47 Tuc (Trager, King, & Djorgovski 1995), assuming an equal number of brown dwarfs and stars in the cluster, and normalising to a central stellar number density of $`10^5`$ pc-3 (Webbink 1985). For the first of our extremes, the brown dwarf distribution would follow this curve too.

The dashed line is then the brown dwarf distribution under the assumption of equipartition of energy, computed from a multi-mass King model (da Costa & Freeman 1976). We have simplified the construction of this model by considering just two mass bins (‘stars’ and ‘brown dwarfs’), and by neglecting the contribution of the latter population to the cluster potential. Since the brown dwarfs are on average about an order of magnitude less massive than the stars, we assign a $`\sigma `$ (the 1D velocity dispersion) in the King distribution function for the brown dwarfs that is three times the corresponding $`\sigma `$ for the stars. Again, we normalise the resulting brown dwarf profile in Figure 2 such that the total number of brown dwarfs is equal to the total number of stars. As expected, the equipartition model is significantly depleted in brown dwarfs in its inner regions.

Pending N-body models of globular clusters that include a realistic number of stars and binaries, it is unclear which of the profiles shown in Figure 2 is more appropriate over the balance of the cluster lifetime. To date, Monte Carlo simulations (which omit binaries; Fregeau et al. 2002) and N-body simulations of less populous clusters (Hurley & Shara 2002) show a marked decrease in the number of low-mass objects in the cores of clusters. The segregation occurs over a number of relaxation times, but does not appear to reach the level of equipartition. Our two extreme scenarios are therefore likely to bracket the actual brown dwarf density profile. What remains undetermined is the total number of brown dwarfs in globular clusters, i.e., the normalisation of the distribution.

Proceeding, we next estimate the capture rate using the stellar distribution plotted in Figure 2, sampling stars that appear (in projection) to be located between the centre of the cluster and the half-mass radius, as was the case for the HST observations of 47 Tuc (Gilliland et al. 2000).

For each of the stars in the sample, we select orbital parameters from the King distribution function and follow their orbits in the fixed King potential. At each instantaneous location of each sampled star, we compute a capture rate based on Equation (8) and an assumed brown dwarf profile, whose shape is given by either of the extremes shown in Figure 2, and whose normalisation is adjustable. In this way, we accumulate a probability that the star has captured a brown dwarf, for both assumptions about the (time invariant) brown dwarf distribution.

Figure 3 then shows the resulting fraction of stars with a tidally-captured brown dwarf companion, as a function of the ratio of the total number of brown dwarfs to stars in the cluster. The open squares correspond to the assumption that the brown dwarf density distribution follows that of the stars over the entire lifetime of the cluster, while the filled triangles illustrate the case where the brown dwarfs follow an equipartition distribution over the entire lifetime. Predictably, the capture rates are much lower in the latter case. Lastly, the filled pentagons correspond to the case where the brown dwarf distribution follows the stars for the first relaxation time of the cluster ($`3\times 10^9`$ years; Harris 1996), and that the capture rate is negligible thereafter, as justified by the lower capture probabilities seen once equipartition is achieved.

For example, assuming that the stars and brown dwarfs follow the same distribution and are equal in number, then 1% of the stars should have brown dwarf companions after $`10^{10}`$ yrs. Conversely, for equal numbers of brown dwarfs and stars in a fully segregated distribution, roughly only 0.05% of the stars should have brown dwarf companions. Finally, for the scenario with a cluster equal in number of stars and brown dwarfs, unsegregated for an initial relaxation time of $`t_{\mathrm{rh}}3\times 10^9`$ yrs, and segregated thereafter, $`0.3`$% the stars end up with brown dwarf companions.

The above estimates neglect the possibility that the cluster is undergoing core collapse. In such a scenario, the core density would have increased in the recent past and thus the core number densities throughout much of the lifetime of the cluster would have been smaller. This scenario appears unlikely considering the relatively low concentration level of the density profile and the size of the core (Howell, Guhathakurta & Gilliland 2000). We can make a crude estimate of such a scenario by taking the segregated distribution of the brown dwarfs as being the initial distribution for both stars and brown dwarfs. This results, as above, in only 0.05% of the stars having brown dwarf companions.

## 4 The case of 47 Tuc

Gilliland et al. (2000) used the Hubble Space Telescope to monitor the globular cluster 47 Tuc continuously over 8.3 days, obtaining imaging photometry every few minutes, searching for transits. The HST WFPC2 field-of-view spanned a region from the core out to the half-mass radius of the cluster and contained $`34000`$ stars. No transit events were detected during the monitoring campaign.

The goal of the campaign was to detect hot Jupiters (i.e. in close orbits, cf. 51 Pegasi et al.) in orbits of 2–4 days around main sequence stars in the cluster. However, if present as close companions, brown dwarfs would also have been readily detectable via transits. The radius of a brown dwarf is essentially the same as that of Jupiter, so the fraction of the primary stellar surface covered would be similar. Also, at ages of $`10^{10}`$ years, even the most massive brown dwarfs should have cooled to temperatures of less than 1000 K (Burrows et al. 1997), rendering them effectively black when viewed against a stellar disk.

The probability of a transit in a given system depends on $`\mathrm{sin}(i)`$, the orbital inclination with respect to the line-of-sight, and the orbital separation, with a transit requiring $`\mathrm{sin}(i)<(R_{}+R_{\mathrm{BD}})/a`$. For the hot Jupiters hoped for by Gilliland et al. (2000), typical orbital parameters would have predicted a 10% probability that any given system would be inclined such that the planet would transit the stellar disk, leading Gilliland et al. (2000) to conclude that $`\mathrm{¡}\mathrm{}10^3`$ of the stars in 47 Tuc have hot Jupiters. This fraction is significantly lower than seen for nearby galactic field stars, and one plausible explanation is that the low metallicity in globular clusters makes planet formation there a very inefficient process.

For tidally-captured brown dwarfs, however, the orbital separation would be just $`4R_{}`$ orbit, and thus the chance of a transit in a given system rises to 25%. Thus, the same null result can be used to infer that $`\mathrm{¡}\mathrm{}4\times 10^4`$ of the stars in 47 Tuc have close brown dwarf companions today. Therefore, in the unlikely case where the stars and brown dwarfs are in equipartition for the full lifetime of the cluster, Figure 3 shows that the total number of brown dwarfs in 47 Tuc must be less than the number of stars. For the more probable scenario, where the cluster is initially unsegregated for the first relaxation time, Figure 3 implies that the number of brown dwarfs is $`\mathrm{¡}\mathrm{}15`$% of the number of stars.

Our fiducial calculations presented above assumed $`0.5M_{}`$ stars with $`0.57R_{}`$ radii, while in their analysis of 47 Tuc, Gilliland et al. (2000) assumed typical parameters of $`0.81M_{}`$ and $`0.92R_{}`$ for the stars in their 47 Tuc sample. For the sake of consistency, it is thus worth estimating the difference their assumptions would have on our calculations. The higher-mass and larger-radius stars have higher rates of tidal capture, and working through our analysis again, we find the expected fraction of stars with tidally-captured brown dwarf secondaries to be a factor 2 higher than estimated for our fiducial case. This translates into an increase by a factor 2 for the predicted fraction of systems with close brown dwarf companions: in the scenario where the cluster contains equal numbers of brown dwarfs and stars, and where captures occur only during an initial relaxation time when the brown dwarfs follow the stellar distribution, the expected fraction of stars with brown dwarf companions would increase from $`0.3`$% to $`0.6`$%, and the expected number of transits would double. Thus, the absence of transits in 47 Tuc would imply a factor of 2 lower brown dwarf frequency, i.e. $`\mathrm{¡}\mathrm{}`$7.5% of the stellar frequency.

It is also worth considering what would happen if the typical brown dwarf mass was decreased from $`0.05`$M to 0.01M, with a constant radius of $`0.1R_{}`$. The cross section for capture reduces to $`60`$% of its former value and thus the fraction of stars with brown dwarf companions then decreases from $`0.3`$% to $`0.18`$%. The number of expected transits would decrease by 60%, and thus the lack of transits would imply a 60% higher upper limit on the number of brown dwarfs than in our fiducial case, i.e. the total brown dwarf population is constrained to be $`\mathrm{¡}\mathrm{}`$25% of the stellar population. However, even though the total number of brown dwarfs has gone up, their contribution to the total cluster mass remains negligible.

In conclusion, taking the most plausible model for the dynamical evolution of 47 Tuc and thus of the brown dwarf capture rates, the lack of any detected transits in the cluster implies a significantly lower ratio of brown dwarfs to stars ($`\mathrm{¡}\mathrm{}15`$%) than has been found in nearby clusters and the solar neighbourhood ($``$ unity). This in turn implies that the initial mass function is not in fact universally constant below the hydrogen burning limit.

## Acknowledgments

We thank the Institute of Astronomy for being our host, and Steinn Sigurdsson for useful discussions. This work was partly funded by the European Commission Research Training Network “The Formation and Evolution of Young Stellar Clusters” (HPRN-CT-2000-00155).


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# Neutron and proton drip lines using the modified Bethe-Weizsäcker mass formula

## I Introduction

Recent improvements of radioactive ion beam (RIB) technology allow measurements of the masses, half-lives, radii and other properties of unstable nuclei. Nuclear reactions using RI beams have also been studied extensively. Based on these results, some interesting characteristics of unstable nuclei, such as a halo and a skin , have been revealed. The disappearance of some traditional magic numbers and extra stability for some neutron numbers  have also been observed. The Bethe-Weizsäcker (BW) mass formula  designed to reproduce the gross features of nuclear binding energies for medium and heavy nuclei fails for light nuclei, specially away from the line of stability. The unusual stability of nuclei with preferred nucleon numbers commonly referred to as magic numbers and have been explained to be due to nuclear shell structure can be clearly delineated by the Bethe-Weizsäcker mass formula. But the newly observed features like the disappearance of some traditional magic numbers and extra stability for some neutron numbers can not be identified.

In the present work the one neutron and one proton separation energies have been calculated using the newly extented Bethe-Weizsäcker (BW) mass formula  which delineates the positions of all old and the new magic numbers. This modified BW mass formula also explains the shapes of the binding energy versus neutron number curves of all the elements from $`Li`$ to $`Bi`$. For heavier nuclei this modified BW mass formula approaches the old BW  mass formula. The nucleus from which removal of a single neutron (and any more) makes the one proton separation energy negative defines a proton drip line nucleus and the nucleus to which addition of a single neutron (and any more) makes the one neuton separation energy negative defines a neutron drip line nucleus. Proton and neutron drip line nuclei, thus obtained, over the entire (N,Z) region, where N and Z are the neutron and atomic numbers, respectively, of nuclei, define the predicted neutron and proton drip lines. Since the new mass formula has been capable of identifying all the new magicities or its loss, calculations according to this mass formula are expected to provide better limits to the neutron and proton drip lines.

Investigations near N=Z reveals the role of the neutron-proton interaction and its consequences for p-n pairing. Steep decrease in the isoscalar p-n pairing energy has been suggested with increasing $`NZ`$ . Moreover, the light neutron rich nuclei away from the region of $`\beta `$-stability have been found to be more bound than the old BW mass formula predictions indicating the existence of a more complicated dependence of the nuclear binding energy on the neutron-proton asymmetry. The symmetry energy coefficient which has been found to decrease with decreasing density for the asymmetric nuclear matter  suggests that for light nuclei with relatively large low density region near the surface, the effective symmetry energy coefficient should be smaller compared to heavier nuclei. These observations warrant the need for modifications of the old BW mass formula encompassing the domain of light nuclei that can help to identify the new magicity or, its loss and, give a better limit to the neutron drip line.

## II The modified Bethe-Weizsäcker mass formula

The binding energy of any nucleus of mass number A and atomic number Z obtained from a phenomenological search can be given by a more genaralized BW formula

$$B(A,Z)=a_vAa_sA^{2/3}a_cZ(Z1)/A^{1/3}a_{sym}(A2Z)^2/[(1+e^{A/k})A]+\delta _{new},$$
(1)
where the asymmetry term and the pairing term have been modified to obtain great improvements to the fits of the binding enegy versus neutron number curves of the light nuclei. Fitted value of the asymmetry term modifying constant $`k=17`$, while the modified pairing term $`\delta _{new}`$ can be expresssed as

$$\delta _{new}=(1e^{A/c})\delta wherec=30,$$
(2)
and $`\delta `$ being the old pairing term is given by

$`\delta =`$ $`a_pA^{1/2}forevenNevenZ,`$ (3)
$`=`$ $`a_pA^{1/2}foroddNoddZ,`$ (4)
$`=`$ $`0foroddA,`$ (5)
while the other constants

$$a_v=15.79MeV,a_s=18.34MeV,a_c=0.71MeV,a_{sym}=23.21MeVanda_p=12MeV,$$
(7)
remaining the same as the corresponding values of the constants for the old BW formula. Such modifications, however, do not alter significantly the results for heavier nuclei.

This modified BW formula suggests additional stabilities for few light nuclei at neutron numbers N=16 (Z=7,8), N=14 (Z=7-10), Z=14 (N=13-19), N=6 (Z=3-8) and loss of magicity for nuclei with neutron numbers N=8 (Z=4) and N=20 (Z=12-17), most of which were suggested earlier from the systematics. The magicity at neutron number N=6 (Z=3-8) suggested by the new formula is also supported by the experimental r.m.s. radii values that show a quenching at N=6 (Z=3-8). The new formula supports already known $`{}_{}{}^{32}Ne`$ , $`{}_{}{}^{35}Na`$ , $`{}_{}{}^{38}Mg`$ , $`{}_{}{}^{41}Al`$ , as the last bound isotopes of neon, sodium, magnesium and aluminium, respectively. Wherever there is a signature of shell closure in experimental data, the BW as well as the new modified BW formula both show marked deviations delineating clearly the positions of old magic numbers at 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126.

## III The neutron and proton separation energies and the drip lines

The one proton separation energy $`S_p`$, which is the energy required to remove one proton from a nucleus is given by

$$S_p=B(A,Z)B(A1,Z1),$$
(8)
while the one neutron separation energy $`S_n`$, which is the energy required to remove one neutron from a nucleus is given by

$$S_n=B(A,Z)B(A1,Z),$$
(9)
where B(A,Z), B(A-1,Z) and B(A-1,Z-1) are the binding energies of nuclei having mass number and atomic number A,Z, A-1,Z and A-1,Z-1 respectively.

The one proton and one neutron separation energies have been calculated according to Eq.(5) and Eq.(6), respectively, using the new modified BW mass formula given by Eq.(1) with the $`\delta _{new}`$ quantity described by Eq.(2). The best fit values used for the new constants are $`k=17`$ and $`c=30`$ while the values of the older constants used for calculating the binding energies are given in Eq.(4). Then for a fixed value of the atomic number Z, starting from a very low value of neutron number N, which has been increased in steps of one till the one proton separation energy $`S_p`$ becomes positive for the first time and the proton drip line nucleus is reached. Similarly, again for a fixed value of the atomic number Z, starting from a very high value of neutron number N, which has been decreased in steps of one till the one neutron separation energy $`S_n`$ becomes positive for the first time and the neutron drip line nucleus is reached.

In Fig. 1, using the new modified BW mass formula, the atomic number Z has been plotted against the neutron number N for the proton and neutron dripline nuclei. The lines joining the proton dripline nuclei and the neutron dripline nuclei have been shown as the p-dripline and the n-dripline respectively in the figure. The nuclei stable against decay via $`\beta ^\pm `$, $`\alpha `$ or heavy particle emissions or electron capture or spontaneous fission  have been shown with small hollow squares. There is no nucleus beyond the atomic number Z=83 which is stable against the decays via $`\beta ^\pm `$, $`\alpha `$, heavy particle emissions and electron capture and spontaneous fission. In the Table-1 below, using the new modified BW mass formula, the atomic number Z and the neutron number N of the neutron and proton drip line nuclei have been tabulated along with the corresponding values of their one proton and one neutron separation energies. The formula wrongly predicts $`{}_{}{}^{5}Li`$, $`{}_{}{}^{6}Be`$, $`{}_{}{}^{15}F`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{16}Ne`$ as stable, and puts the neutron drip line at $`{}_{}{}^{17}B`$, $`{}_{}{}^{20}C`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{26}O`$, while $`{}_{}{}^{19}B`$, $`{}_{}{}^{22}C`$ are in fact also stable, but $`{}_{}{}^{25,26}O`$ are not. Except for these few exceptions where the Bethe-Weizsäcker mass formula could not be as well tuned as predicting such fine details, the values given in Table-1 could be useful for planning experiments on mass measurements. In order to demonstrate the change of sign of the one proton and one neutron separation energies, the atomic number Z and the neutron number N of nuclei with one neutron less than the proton drip line nuclei and nuclei with one neutron beyond the neutron drip line nuclei have also been listed along with the corresponding values of their one proton and one neutron separation energies. In the seventh column of Table-1, the predicted values of the atomic and the neutron numbers (Z,N) for the last bound isotopes of neutron rich nuclei have been listed. In Fig. 2, using the old BW mass formula which can be obtained by putting $`k=0`$ and $`c=0`$ in Eq.(1) and Eq.(2) respectively, the atomic number Z and the neutron number N of the neutron and proton drip line nuclei along with proton and neutron driplines using the new modified BW mass formula have been plotted. The modified BW mass formula alters significantly the results of the low mass region only. The nuclei beyond $`Z=47`$ the proton drip line using the old BW and modified BW are identical while for nuclei beyond $`Z=30`$ the neutron drip line using the old BW and modified BW are identical. However, the proton and the neutron separation energies still differ and gradually becomes identical for heavier nuclei.

As can be seen from stellar evolution, nuclear fusion powers stars. The conversion of hydrogen into helium involves a chain of reactions, called the PPI chain, which have that conversion as their net product. The reactions involved are $`H^1+H^1=D^2+\beta ^++\nu `$, $`D^2+H^1=He^3+\gamma `$ and $`He^3+He^3=He^4+2H^1`$. H and He have always been present with the ratio of H:He of roughly 9:1 because of the PPI chain. The rest of the elements, including C, N, O, Mg, Si and Fe are all made in the stars by the nuclear fusion process. In this process, most of the lighter new elements have been made. However, fusion can only produce elements up to mass number of 56 and atomic number of 26. Heavier nuclides being less stable than nuclides with mass number of 56, cannot be spontaneously produced by fusion. Therefore, the heavier nuclides are produced by neutron capture and proton capture processes during the regular evolution of stars or during the supernova explosion. One aspect of changing magic numbers is its influence on the rapid neutron capture process or the r-process path of nucleosynthesis where the neutron capture proceeds on a rapid time scale as compared to the $`\beta `$-decay lifetimes. The r-process follows a path at the extreme neutron rich side of the valley of stability with neutron separation energies close to 1.2-2.0 $`MeV`$ (close to the neutron drip line). One of the characteristics of the path is that the r-process goes through neutron magic numbers. Thus, if new magic numbers appear in the neutron-rich region, the r-process path may be modified. Such modification might solve inconsistencies between calculations and observations for the r-process abundances. For the unstable nuclei, when the time between successive neutron captures is much larger than the $`\beta `$-decay lifetimes, the network of processes involved is called the slow neutron capture process or the s-process and closely follows the valley of $`\beta `$-stability. Because proton capture requires overcoming an energy barrier, it is not an efficient process. Therefore, the p-process nuclides have low abundances compared to those of the s and r nuclei. But some proton rich nuclei can not be synthesized by either the s-process chains or the decay of neutron rich matter and are synthesized by the astrophysical proton capture (p) process nucleosynthesis responsible for few proton rich stable nuclei and via the rapid-proton capture (rp) process which follows a path close to the proton drip line highlighting its astrophysical importance.

## IV Summary and conclusion

Neutron and proton separation energies have been calculated using the newly modified Bethe-Weizsäcker mass formula which delineates the positions of all new and old magic numbers. The last bound isotopes of neutron rich nuclei have been identified using this new BW mass formula and the new neutron and proton drip lines have been provided. The drip line nuclei listed and the values of the separation energies provided in the table could be useful for planning experiments on mass measurements. The even-odd staggering has been found to be quite prominent for the proton dripline showing that the proton dripline for even Z nuclei is further away from the region of $`\beta `$-stability than that for odd Z nuclei. However, the even-odd staggering has not been found to be strong for the neutron dripline. Since the new mass formula identifies all the new magicities or its loss, calculations according to this mass formula provide better limits to the neutron and proton drip lines.


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# Turbulence control by developing a spiral wave with a periodic signal injection in the complex Ginzburg-Landau equation

## Figure Captions

Fig. 1 $`C_1=1.4`$ for all figures in this paper. (a)-(d) The asymptotic spiral wave and turbulence solution of Eq. (1) by slowly increasing $`C_2`$ from $`0.77`$ to $`0.80`$. The spatial patterns are grey scale plot of $`Re(A)`$. (a) $`C_2=0.77`$; (b) $`C_2=0.78`$; (c) $`C_2=0.79`$; (d) $`C_2=0.80`$. (e) The distribution of stabilities of the spiral wave of Eq. (1). The corresponding wave is stable for $`C_2<C_2(C)0.37`$ ; convectively unstable in the region $`C_2(C)<`$ $`C_2<C_2(A)0.79`$ which is obtained from our numerical results of Fig. 1(a)-(d); and absolutely unstable in the region $`C_2>C_2(A)`$. The local feedback approach of Ref.  can control turbulence in the region $`C_2<C_2(A)`$, our nonfeedback method can extend the effective control to $`C_2>C_2(A)`$. In all simulations we discretize the space variables to $`256\times 256`$ sites.

Fig. 2 (a) The spiral wave seed initiation for the control preparation. The state (a) will be used as the initial state for all the following figures. $`C_2=0.80`$, $`n=3`$, $`ϵ=0.5`$, $`\omega =1.2\omega _0`$, (b) $`t=150`$ t.u., (c) $`t=450`$ t.u., (d) $`t=750`$ t.u.

Fig. 3 The asymptotic states ($`t=1350`$ t.u.) of Eq. (2) for different control strengths. $`C_2=0.80`$, $`n=2`$, $`\omega =0.8\omega _0`$. (a) $`ϵ=0.5`$, (b) $`ϵ=1.5`$, (c) $`ϵ=2.5`$, (d) $`ϵ=3.5`$.

Fig. 4 The same as Fig. 3 with parameters changed to $`C_2=0.80`$, $`n=5`$, $`ϵ=0.5`$, and (a) $`\omega =0.6\omega _0`$, (b) $`\omega =0.8\omega _0`$, (c) $`\omega =1.0\omega _0`$, (d) $`\omega =1.2\omega _0`$.

Fig. 5 The distributions of full control regions in the $`nϵ`$ plane with $`\omega `$ taken as the optimal frequency for each pair of $`n`$ and $`ϵ`$. By full control we mean that turbulence can be completely replaced by a perfect spiral wave in the asymptotic states ($`t=1350`$ t.u.), like Fig. 2(d).

Fig. 6 The same as Fig. 2 with parameters changed to $`C_2=0.95`$, $`n=3`$, $`ϵ=1.18`$, $`\omega =2.3\omega _0`$. (a) $`t=800`$ t.u., (b) $`t=1200`$ t.u., (c) $`t=1600`$ t.u., (d) $`t=3000`$ t.u.

Fig. 7 The wave numbers of the spiral waves of the uncontrolled \[circles, numerical results of Eq. (1)\] and controlled \[squares, numerical results of Eq. (2)\] CGLE systems vs $`C_2`$. The solid line is the approximation of the separatrix between the absolutely unstable region and the convectively unstable region in $`kC_2`$ plane with $`C_1=1.4`$ . From the results of the uncontrolled spiral waves, one can see that the wave numbers of spiral waves are in the absolutely unstable regime when $`C_2>C_2(A)`$. The local periodic driving shifts the spiral wave number from absolutely unstable regime to convectively unstable regime (the corresponding squares). The control parameters of Eq. (2) are: for $`C_2=0.80`$, $`n=1`$, $`ϵ=6.0`$, $`\omega =1.0\omega _0`$; for $`C_2=0.85`$, $`n=4`$, $`ϵ=0.5`$, $`\omega =0.8\omega _0`$; for $`C_2=0.90`$, $`n=5`$, $`ϵ=0.6`$, $`\omega =0.8\omega _0`$; for $`C_2=0.95`$, $`n=3`$, $`ϵ=1.18`$, $`\omega =2.3\omega _0`$.


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# Reduced micro-deformation attenuation in large-mode area photonic crystal fibers for visible applications

## Abstract

We consider large-mode area photonic crystal fibers for visible applications where micro-deformation induced attenuation becomes a potential problem when the effective area $`A_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ is sufficiently large compared to $`\lambda ^2`$. We argue how a slight increase in fiber diameter $`D`$ can be used in screening the high-frequency components of the micro-deformation spectrum mechanically and we confirm this experimentally for both $`15\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and $`20\mu \mathrm{m}`$ core fibers. For typical bending-radii ($`R16\mathrm{cm}`$) the operating band-width increases by $`3400\mathrm{nm}`$ to the low-wavelength side.

In all-silica photonic crystal fibers (PCFs) guidance of light is provided by an arrangement of air-holes running along the full length of the fiber. Typically, the air-holes of diameter $`d`$ are arranged in a triangular lattice with a pitch $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ of the same length scale as the free-space wavelength $`\lambda `$. The core can either be a solid silica-core (see Fig. 1) with total-internal reflection guidanceknight1996  or an air-core with photonic-bandgap guidance.cregan1999  For recent reviews we refer to Ref. russell2003,  and references therein.

Though the air-core PCFs probably have the most extraordinary guidance mechanism, the silica-core PCFs also have remarkable properties such as their endlessly single-mode naturebirks1997  leading to in principle unlimited large effective areas.knight1998el  These properties are often greatly desired for high-power delivery and this makes PCFs obvious candidates for many of these applications. For the single-mode PCFs there is of course a tail of the coin common to the physics in standard-fiber technology; as the effective area $`A_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ is increased the mode becomes increasingly susceptible to longitudinal fiber variations, micro-deformations, and macro-bending.mortensen2003b  However, despite this the PCF technology has a clear advantage because of the endlessly single-mode properties and the relative ease by which small effective core-cladding index steps $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ can be realized through control of $`d`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. In standard fibers the latter is difficult since extremely small well-controlled doping-levels are required to achieve $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{eff}}10^3`$.

Even though the general physics is that $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ decreases if $`A_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ is increased there is still room for improvement by optimal choice of the micro-structured cladding and the core-shape and size. Recently we demonstrated an improved large-mode area (LMA) design with a three-rod coremortensen2003a  instead of the usual one-rod core.knight1996  Compared to the one-rod design this new LMA-PCF offers a larger $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ for the same $`A_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ or vice versa in the $`\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }`$ limit.

The general view has been that the operation of LMA-PCFs is limited by macro-bending loss,knight1998el ; baggett2001 ; sorensen2001  but pushing the technology to still larger effective areas limitations can be set by e.g micro-bending deformations as well.mortensen2003b  Micro-bending deformations may be caused by external perturbations as studied recently,nielsen2003  but even when there is no external perturbations there may still be residual micro-deformations caused by frozen-in mechanical stress in e.g. the coating material. In the situation where performance is not limited by macro-bending it is obvious to look into properties of the screening of micro-bending deformations. Recently, results for the attenuation of a PCF with a $`15\mu \mathrm{m}`$ core diameter and an outer diameter of $`D=125\mu \mathrm{m}`$ were reported.mortensen2003b  In the visible regime the performance of this PCF was clearly found to suffer from micro-deformation induced attenuation. In this Letter we suggest a simple way of screening the effect of micro-deformations and demonstrate a considerable reduction of the loss-level in LMA PCFs for visible applications. We emphasize that the actual loss-level arises from competing effectsmortensen2003b  and once the effect of micro-bending has been suppressed below the macro-bending induced attenuation-level the operation of the fiber may of course still be limited by macro-bending attenuation.

The Fourier spectrum of naturally occurring micro-bending deformations will typically be quite broad-band although sharp distinct features may also be realized e.g. for periodic deformations.nielsen2003  In either case the high-frequency components of the externally applied deformation spectrum do not affect the optical waveguide, because of the stiffness of the fiber. In other words it is practically impossible to deform the fiber on a length scale comparable to or shorter than the fiber diameter. In terms of the effective index step micro-deformations will be screened if $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{eff}}>\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{micro}}`$. For a simple fiber-model it can be shown that bjarklev1989

$$\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{micro}}=(\lambda /\pi D)(E_c/\pi E_f)^{1/4}$$
(1)
where $`D`$ is the fiber diameter, $`E_c`$ is the Young’s modulus of the coating, and $`E_f`$ is the effective Young’s modulus of the air-silica composite material. In this work we focus on the $`D`$-dependence, but changing the screening by use of coating with more advanced mechanical properties is an alternative direction.

From Eq. (1) it is obvious that the $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{micro}}1/D`$ property can be used as a simple way to screen micro-deformations. In the optical fiber-community it is a long-standing tradition and standard to use $`D125\mu \mathrm{m}`$, but as we will demonstrate there is a clear advantage of increasing the diameter of LMA-PCFs (for e.g. visible applications) similarly to what is often done for standard technology specialty fibers, see e.g. Ref. fermann1998, .

Using numbers for silica and typical polymer coatings Eq. (1) suggest that $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{micro}}0.1\times \lambda /D`$. For typical fiber diameters and wavelengths this gives numbers which in order of magnitude only differ slightly from typical mode-spacings.nielsen2003  For the PCFs we are going to compare we have two versions with $`D=125\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and $`175\mu \mathrm{m}`$, respectively, but with otherwise similar dielectric cross-sections in terms of core-size, pitch, and air-hole diameter. Though the change in diameter may seem like a modest change it has an important effect on $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{micro}}`$ which is lowered by $`30\%`$ and for the PCFs studied in this work we shall see that this change is enough to bring the PCF from the $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{eff}}<\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{micro}}`$ regime to the $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{eff}}>\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{micro}}`$ regime. For PCFs $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ decreases when the wavelength decreases (the opposite to the case in standard fibers) and thus micro-bending loss will increase with decreasing wavelength.

In Fig. 2 we show the experimentally observed spectral attenuation for two endlessly single-mode PCFs with a core diameter $`2\mathrm{\Lambda }d`$ of $`15\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and with an air-hole diameter $`d/\mathrm{\Lambda }0.44`$, i.e. close to the theoretical endlessly single-mode limit.kuhlmey2002  The fibers are drawn from similar preforms fabricated by the stack-and-pull method,knight1996  but different thicknesses of the over-cladding were used for the two drawings. This results in two fibers with similar micro-structures, but with the different values of $`D`$ as mentioned above. The fibers have 5 and 7 rings of air holes, respectively, but since $`\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }`$ this has no importance in terms of leakage losswhite2001  and thus the different thicknesses of over-cladding does not influence the optical properties of guided modes. The two fibers were both found to be single-mode (in both the visible and the near-infrared regimes) and they have similar mode-field diameters ($`12\mu \mathrm{m}`$) and otherwise only differ in their mechanical properties. For each of the fibers the attenuation was characterized with the cut-back technique using a fiber length of $`>100m`$ on a spool of radius $`8\mathrm{cm}`$, a white-light source, and an optical spectrum analyzer. Comparing the two curves in Fig. 2 the effect of a larger outer diameter $`D`$ is seen to be quite dramatic and for the PCF with the largest diameter the spectral dependence has a typical Rayleigh dependence though there is a wavelength independent offset compared to the ultimate Rayleigh limit which is indicated by the dashed line. This indicates the absence of both macro-bending and micro-deformation induced attenuation. The slightly higher loss of the $`D=175\mu \mathrm{m}`$ for $`\lambda 1100\mathrm{nm}`$ originates in contamination.

In Fig. 3 we consider two PCFs with a $`20\mu \mathrm{m}`$ core diameter and $`d/\mathrm{\Lambda }0.44`$ and compare two versions; one with $`D=125\mu \mathrm{m}`$ where the effect of micro-deformations is pronounced and one with $`230\mu \mathrm{m}`$ where the effect of the deformation is screened. The fibers have 3 and 7 rings of air-holes, respectively, but we emphasize that this difference has no importance in terms of leakage loss since $`\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }`$.white2001  Again the version with a larger outer diameter has a significant lower attenuation-level (compare panels A and B). By changing the macro-bending radius (see panel B) we actually find evidence that the effect of micro-deformations is fully screened even $`200\mathrm{nm}`$ below the O-H attenuation peak at $`\lambda 1.24\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and that macro-bending limitations become more apparent. For the PCF with the smallest outer diameter the attenuation-level caused by micro-deformations is too high to make macro-bending a limiting effect (see panel A) whereas we for the large-diameter version observe a clear bend-edge which as expected shifts toward longer wavelengths when decreasing the bend-radius. In panel A the attenuation is actually seen to be higher on the $`16\mathrm{cm}`$ spool further indicating that micro-deformation is the limiting factor. The difference is caused by different spooling-conditions, e.g. the tension or the physical surface-topography of the spool.

In conclusion we have shown how micro-deformation induced loss in LMA-PCFs may be suppressed by a slight increase in fiber diameter $`D`$ compared to the standard of $`D125\mu \mathrm{m}`$. The suppression can be understood as a simple mechanical screening of the high-frequency components of the micro-deformation spectrum. For a PCF with a $`20\mu \mathrm{m}`$ core we have demonstrated a significant reduction of the loss-level by going from $`D125\mu \mathrm{m}`$ to $`D230\mu \mathrm{m}`$. For a bend-radius $`R16\mathrm{cm}`$ this improved PCF guides light with a loss-level not exceeding $`20\mathrm{dB}/\mathrm{km}`$ down to $`\lambda 650\mathrm{nm}`$ where macro-bending attenuations sets in. We believe the present findings have important implications for the perspectives of utilizing LMA-PCFs for high-power delivery in the visible regime and for use of the PCF technology in fiber-laser applications.

M. D. Nielsen acknowledges financial support by the Danish Academy of Technical Sciences. M. D. Nielsen’s e-mail address is mdn@crystal-fibre.com.


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# The WMAPWMAP is the result of a partnership between Princeton University and NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. Scientific guidance is provided by the WMAP Science Team. Data and Results

## 1 INTRODUCTION

The cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation was discovered by Penzias & Wilson (1965). After its discovery, a small number of experimentalists worked for years to better characterize the spectrum of the CMB and to search for anisotropy in the CMB temperature. A leader of this effort, and of the WMAP effort, was our recently deceased colleague, Professor David T. Wilkinson of Princeton University. He was the supervisor of the doctoral theses that led to the second (Henry, 1971) and third (Corey & Wilkinson, 1976) measurements of the dipole anisotropy of the CMB caused by the Solar System’s motion relative to the Universe. He was also a leading member of the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) mission team, which accurately characterized the spectrum of the CMB (Mather et al., 1990, 1999) and first discovered the intrinsic (non-dipole) anisotropy (Smoot et al., 1992; Bennett et al., 1992; Kogut et al., 1992; Wright et al., 1992) of the CMB. The WMAP science working group, led by Principal Investigator Charles L. Bennett of Goddard Space Flight Center, was happy to have the opportunity to honor David T. Wilkinson by renaming the Microwave Anisotropy Probe as the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe.

Bennett et al. (2003a) gives a description of the WMAP mission. Bennett et al. (2003b) summarizes the results from first year of WMAP observations. Bennett et al. (2003c) describes the observations of galactic and extragalactic foreground sources. Hinshaw et al. (2003b) gives the angular power spectrum derived from the the WMAP maps. Hinshaw et al. (2003a) describes the WMAP data processing and systematic error limits. Page et al. (2003a) discusses the beam sizes and window functions for the WMAP experiment. Page et al. (2003b) discusses results that can be derived simply from the positions and heights of the peaks and valleys in the angular power spectrum. Spergel et al. (2003) describes the cosmological parameters derived by fitting the WMAP data and other datasets. Verde et al. (2003) describes the fitting methods used. Peiris et al. (2003) describes the consequences of the WMAP results for inflationary models. Jarosik et al. (2003) describes the on-orbit performance of the WMAP radiometers. Kogut et al. (2003) describes the WMAP observations of polarization in the CMB. Barnes et al. (2003) describes the large angle sidelobes of the WMAP telescopes. Komatsu et al. (2003) addresses the limits on non-Gaussianity that can be derived from the WMAP data.

## 2 OBSERVATIONS

WMAP Observatory was launched on 30 June 2001 at 19:46:46.183 UTC from Cape Canaveral by a Delta expendable launch vehicle. After three phasing loops in the Earth-Moon system WMAP executed a lunar-gravity-assist swingby one month after launch which catapulted WMAP to an orbit about the second Lagrange point of the Sun-Earth system, L2. L2 is only metastable so about 4 station-keeping maneuvers per year are required to keep WMAP on station. The spacecraft is actually in a “halo” orbit around L2 and thus avoids the deep partial eclipse of the Sun that exists at L2.

WMAP observes at 5 different frequencies and can thus yield internal linear combination “no galaxy maps”. Figure 1 shows such a map in the “polar eyeball” projection. This equal-area projection maps the North and South galactic hemispheres into circles with the Galactic center in the middle, the North Galactic Pole (NGP) in the center of the left circle, and the SGP in the center of the right circle. Figure 2 shows the 41, 61 & 94 GHz maps as red, green & blue on the same temperature scale in the same projection as Figure 1.

## 3 Analysis

Given the extensive analysis of the WMAP data already posted on the astro-ph preprint server, or at the Legacy Archive for Microwave Background Data Analysis (LAMBDA at http://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov), I see little point in repeating this lengthy discussion here. I have instead included Figure 3 which shows a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model with a power law primordial power spectrum and zero spatial curvature. This particular model was the best fit found in a fairly small Monte Carlo Markov Chain computation that I did as an independent check of the main WMAP analysis papers. One easily sees that the WMAP data are quite consistent with the previous experiments \[ARCHEOPS (Benoit et al., 2003), BOOMERanG (de Bernardis et al., 2000), DASI (Halverson et al., 2002), MAXIMA (Hanany et al., 2000), VSA (Grainge et al., 2003) & CBI (Padin et al., 2001)\], some of which overlap with WMAP in $`\mathrm{}`$-space, and that the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model is consistent with both the WMAP data and the higher angular resolution interferometric data from CBI.

The largest discrepancies among various CMB anisotropy experiments are due to systematic calibration uncertainties. Therefore, in doing these fits, a calibration correction for each experiment other than WMAP has been introduced as a new parameter in the fits, and the sum of the squares of calibration corrections divided by their stated uncertainties has been added to the $`\chi ^2`$ of the model fit. None of the calibration corrections is inconsistent with its stated uncertainty. The data are plotted with the calibration corrections applied, which emphasizes the concordance between recent measurments of $`C_{\mathrm{}}`$.

This plot is a good way to verify that WMAP is consistent with earlier experiments, but when setting limits on cosmological parameters one should not combine WMAP with experiments like ARCHEOPS that cover the same $`\mathrm{}`$ range since the cosmic variance is correlated between the two datasets. Combining WMAP only with high angular resolution datasets like ACBAR (Kuo et al., 2002) and CBI is the correct procedure.

I then used the MCMC code to optimize the parameters for two alternative cosmological models that have published claimed fits to the CMB angular power spectrum. The “no CDM” model is an update of the McGaugh (2000) fit to the BOOMERanG data using CMBfast (Seljak & Zaldarriaga, 1996) with a zero CDM density. It is clear that this model is a terrible fit, and it was a terrible fit to the combined CMB dataset including COBE which existed in 2000. If CMBfast with no CDM were a good predictor of the anisotropy expected from the Modification Of Newtonian Dynamics then MOND would be killed by this bad fit. But CMBfast assumes that general relativity is a good description of gravity and thus McGaugh (2000) is not a definitive prediction of the $`C_{\mathrm{}}`$ expected under MOND. Thus the failure of the McGaugh (2000) model to fit the data only rules out this specific attempt to extend MOND to the early Universe.

More recently Narlikar et al. (2003) claim to have calculated the CMB anisotropy expected in the Quasi-Steady-State Cosmology (QSSC), and also claim that the QSSC gives a better fit to the binned data than $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM. This model is an ad hoc superposition of two populations of Gaussian blobs with two different sizes and a population of hard-edged circular spots all of a single size. These hard-edged circular disks have an oscillatory Fourier transform which gives a series of peaks in the angular power spectrum. But the low-$`\mathrm{}`$ behavior of this model is $`C_{\mathrm{}}=`$ const, which corresponds to a primordial power spectrum $`P(k)k^n`$ with a power law index of $`n=3`$ which is $`6\sigma `$ away from the COBE value of $`n=1.2\pm 0.3`$ (Bennett et al., 1996). Narlikar et al. (2003) hide this failing of their model by using a binning which puts all the COBE data into one bin. I have re-optimized the six arbitrary parameters in the Narlikar et al. (2003) model to give the best possible fit to the data in Figure 3, but even the best fit is totally unacceptable. As with MOND, if Narlikar et al. (2003) had presented a valid theory for the anisotropy predicted by the QSSC, then this bad fit would have killed the QSSC. But unfortunately neither the theory nor the fit is acceptable.

## 4 Summary and Conclusions

WMAP has presented the results from its first year of observation at L2, and these data agree with the concordance $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model and yield dramatic improvements in the accuracy of the cosmological parameters. WMAP is funded for 3 more years of operation, and the results from a 4 year dataset will have a much improved signal-to-noise ratio for $`\mathrm{}>400`$ in the temperature anisotropy angular power spectrum, and a much improved SNR for all $`\mathrm{}`$’s in the polarization measurements.

The WMAP mission is made possible by the support of the Office of Space Sciences at NASA Headquarters and by the hard and capable work of scores of scientists, engineers, technicians, machinists, data analysts, budget analysts, managers, administrative staff, and reviewers.


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# The Ionized Gas and Nuclear Environment in NGC 3783 III. Detection of a Decreasing Radial Velocity in an Intrinsic UV AbsorberBased on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract NAS 5-26555.

## 1 Introduction

Recent surveys with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE) have shown intrinsic UV absorption is common in Seyfert 1 galaxies, appearing in over half of the objects observed to date (Crenshaw et al., 1999; Kriss, 2002). In most cases, the absorption is blueshifted with respect to the systemic velocity of the host galaxy, indicating radial outflow from the active galactic nucleus (AGN). There is a one-to-one correspondence between the detection of intrinsic UV absorption and X-ray “warm absorption” in Seyfert galaxies, indicating they are closely connected (Crenshaw et al., 1999). The mass outflow revealed by the blueshifted absorption may be a major component of the energetics and circumnuclear environment in AGN (e.g., Mathur et al., 1995; Reynolds, 1997). Currently, the mechanism driving this mass outflow in AGN is not well understood.

Variability of the intrinsic UV absorption appears to be common in Seyferts. In the few objects that have multiple UV spectra at sufficiently high spectral resolution for the accurate comparison of column densities, significant variations are detected in all cases (Maran et al., 1996; Crenshaw et al., 2000a; Kraemer et al., 2002; Crenshaw et al., 2003). In some extreme examples, entire kinematic components have appeared and disappeared on roughly yearly timescales. Strong evidence for column density variations ascribable both to ionization changes in response to the AGN continuum (Kraemer et al., 2001a, 2002) and to changes in total absorption columns in our line of sight to the AGN, i.e., due to transverse motion (Kraemer et al., 2001b; Crenshaw et al., 2003), have been found.

One somewhat surprising finding has been the lack of variability in the absorption kinematics. Although multi-epoch data are sparse, no detections of radial velocity variations have been reported for any intrinsic absorbers in Seyfert galaxies, revealing stability on timescales of at least several years in some cases (e.g., Weymann et al., 1997; Kraemer et al., 2001b). Many of the extreme counterparts to Seyfert absorbers, the broad absorption line (BAL) systems seen in more luminous AGN, have also shown this long-term stability (e.g., Barlow, 1993; Weymann, 2002). Limits on radial acceleration in BALs have been used to assess models of the dynamical forces associated with their mass outflow (Foltz et al., 1987; Weymann et al., 1997). Rare exceptions to this stability have been reported by Hamann et al. (1997) and Vilkoviskij & Irwin (2001), in which centroid radial velocity shifts were detected in relatively narrow absorption line systems in QSOs.

The bright Seyfert 1 galaxy NGC 3783 has exhibited dramatic variability in its UV absorption spectrum. In only four observations with the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS) and the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) obtained approximately 1 – 5 years apart, new kinematic components appeared in three separate cases (Maran et al., 1996; Kraemer et al., 2001b). No correlation was found between the column densities and continuum flux, indicating these large-scale changes were primarily due to transverse motion of the absorbers (Kraemer et al., 2001b). In part because of this extreme variability, NGC 3783 was selected for an intensive multiwavelength monitoring campaign with HST, FUSE, and Chandra. In this study, we concentrate on variability of the absorption kinematics based on analysis of the STIS spectra obtained during our monitoring campaign. Analyses of the averaged X-ray and UV (STIS and FUSE) spectra are presented in Kaspi et al. (2002, hereafter Paper I) and Gabel et al. (2003, hereafter Paper II), respectively. Full treatment of the variability of the UV and X-ray absorption will be given in subsequent papers.

## 2 Observations and Results

A total of 18 HST/STIS observations of the nucleus of NGC 3783 were obtained between 2000 February 27 and 2002 January 6 using the E140M medium resolution echelle grating. This grating spans 1150 – 1730 Å with a spectral resolving power of $`R`$ 40,000, sampling the Ly$`\alpha `$, N V $`\lambda \lambda `$1238.8,1242.8, C IV $`\lambda \lambda `$1548.2,1550.8, and Si IV $`\lambda \lambda `$1393.8,1402.8 resonance lines at a resolution of $``$8 km s-1. Each visit consisted of two orbits and $``$4.9 ks of exposure time. A log of the observations and full description of the data reduction are given in Paper II.

A detailed discussion of the UV absorption spectrum is presented in Kraemer et al. (2001b) and Paper II. Here we review some features that are important for the subsequent analysis. During our monitoring campaign, strong absorption was present in Ly$`\alpha `$, N V, and C IV in three kinematic components, at centroid radial velocities of $`v_r`$1350, $``$725, and $``$550 km s-1 relative to the systemic redshift of NGC 3783 ($`z=`$ 0.00976; de Vaucouleurs et al., 1991). For historical reasons, we refer to these as components 1, 3, and 2, respectively. Weak absorption was tentatively detected in a fourth component at $``$1050 km s-1. The Si IV doublet only appears in component 1. Metastable C III was detected in component 1 in the averaged spectrum, indicating a high density in this absorber ($`n_e`$ 109 cm-3; Paper II). Absorption in these components first appeared in the following epochs: component 2 in a 1994 January 16 GHRS spectrum of C IV, component 1 in a 1995 April 11 GHRS spectrum of C IV, and components 3 and 4 in the first STIS spectrum (2000 February 27).

We fit the intrinsic (i.e., unabsorbed) continuum plus emission-line fluxes in each STIS spectrum following the procedure described in Paper II. Each spectrum was normalized by dividing by its fit. We compared the interstellar absorption lines in each spectrum to ensure that there were no wavelength offsets. Specifically, we measured the centroid wavelengths of the Galactic Si IV $`\lambda `$1393.8, C IV $`\lambda `$1548.2, and Fe II $`\lambda `$1608.5 lines in all spectra. For each interstellar line, the standard deviation of the centroids ($``$ 2 – 4 km s-1) is less than a resolution element, indicating accurate relative wavelength solutions for these observations. Centroid radial velocities were then measured for each intrinsic absorption line.

In Figure 1a, the N V, C IV, and Si IV component 1 centroid velocities measured in all STIS spectra are plotted, clearly showing the radial velocity has decreased during the monitoring campaign. We identify three epochs exhibiting marked velocity variations: the first observation obtained 2000 February 27, the intensive phase of the campaign consisting of 13 observations obtained between 2001 February 25 – April 23, and the final observation obtained 2002 January 6. Figure 1b show only the intensive monitoring observations (epoch 2). Careful inspection of Figure 1b reveals no correlations in the centroids measured for the three ions; the fluctuations are likely due to the measurement uncertainties (see discussion below).

Table 1 lists the component 1 velocity measurements for each of the three epochs identified above. Centroids and uncertainties quoted for epoch 2 are the means and standard deviations of the 13 observations obtained during the intensive phase of the campaign. These observations also represent a good statistical sample for determining the random uncertainties associated with measurements in the individual spectra. Thus, we adopted the standard deviations for the 1 $`\sigma `$ errors in epochs 1 and 3 as well, with the caveats that (1) if there are real variations in the centroid velocity during the intensive phase of the campaign these are upper limits on the random uncertainties and (2) this does not account for any systematic errors that may be associated with the measurements. The radial decelerations listed in Table 1, $`a_r`$, assume a constant decrease in velocity between epochs. Uncertainties in these values were derived by propagating the errors associated with the radial velocities. The average deceleration between epochs 2 and 3 was 2.2 $`\pm `$ 0.6 times greater than in the interval between epochs 1 and 2. N V shows some evidence for smaller velocity shifts than the other lines; however, formally, the decelerations are equal within the 1 $`\sigma `$ uncertainties. No radial velocity variations were detected in kinematic components 2 – 4 within the uncertainties in the measurements ($`\mathrm{\Delta }v_r`$ 10–20 km s-1). Interestingly, only the component with the highest outflow velocity is observed to be decelerating.

While a full treatment of the other absorption properties, i.e., absorption strengths, widths, and covering factors, will be given in a later study (Gabel et al., in preparation), we briefly describe results here that have implications for the interpretation of the radial velocity shift. First, we note that although there were some variations in the absorption strengths and widths during the monitoring campaign, there were no large-scale changes in the three epochs that would indicate we are seeing different components appearing and disappearing to mimic a shift in velocity (although we may be seeing different regions of a continuous flow moving across our line of sight, as discussed in §3.3). This is evident from the overall similarity in the absorption spectra in Figure 2, which shows the profiles for each line in each of the three epochs. There were moderate variations in the component 1 line widths during the STIS observations, but these variations were complex; each line varied differently and there were no apparent correlations with radial velocity ($`FWHM`$ are listed in Table 1). For example, Figure 2 shows the mean C IV width in epoch 2 ($`FWHM=`$150 km s-1) is narrower than in epochs 1 and 3 ($`FWHM=`$203 and 194 $`\pm `$15 km s-1, respectively), however the width varied between 115 – 190 km s-1 during the epoch 2 observations, on much shorter timescales than the radial velocity shifts. Furthermore, Table 1 shows the N V widths were not correlated with C IV. On the other hand, the C IV profile in the 1995 GHRS spectrum is much broader ($`FHWM=`$500 $`\pm `$50 km s-1) than during the STIS observations, as seen in Figure 1 in Kraemer et al. (2001b). Given the five year separation between the GHRS and STIS observations and the dramatic difference in the profiles, we cannot rule out that the absorption in the GHRS spectrum is unrelated to that observed with STIS; however, if it is, it indicates a significant evolution of the absorber’s structure over this interval. There were no detectable changes in the line-of-sight covering factors in the component 1 absorption lines. This provides constraints on the evolution of the absorption/emission geometry between the three epochs. Finally, we note there is evidence that the UV absorption in component 1 is comprised of at least two subcomponents with different ionization structures. This was initially suggested by Kraemer et al. (2001b) from photoionization modeling of the first STIS spectrum. Also, the Si IV covering factor in component 1 was found to be smaller than that of at least H I and N V (Paper II). Since all lines exhibit the velocity shift, this indicates both subcomponents are decreasing in outflow velocity.

## 3 Interpretation of Decreasing Radial Velocity

### 3.1 Deceleration of the Outflow?

One possible explanation for the observed decrease in radial velocity is that the absorber is undergoing a bulk radial deceleration. We first consider gravity as the source of the required inward radial force. The simplest case, gravitational deceleration of a ballistically ejected absorber, is excluded by the increased deceleration detected in the second interval (see Table 1), since the radial distance between the absorber and central mass has increased between epochs (by $``$3$`\times `$1015 cm). This requires the presence of an outward radial force that has decreased relative to gravity between the two intervals. Since the other kinematic components in NGC 3783 are not decelerating, this adds the further requirement that the nature of the radial forces for these components differs from those of component 1, e.g., they may have reached sufficient distances from the central mass that they are near terminal velocity. Using the average deceleration over the second interval listed in Table 1 and the black hole mass for NGC 3783 ($`M_{BH}=`$9$`\times `$106 M; Onken & Peterson, 2002), the absorber would be $``$ 9$`\times `$1016 cm from the central mass if gravity is the decelerating force (the upper limit is for a negligible outward force during this interval).

An alternate decelerating mechanism could be an interaction of the absorber with other gas in the vicinity of the AGN. This has been invoked to explain observations of deceleration in the narrow line region (NLR) gas in several Seyfert galaxies because the onset of deceleration in these objects is at distances well beyond the gravitational influence of the central mass (Crenshaw & Kraemer, 2000; Crenshaw et al., 2000a; Ruiz et al., 2001). In the context of intrinsic absorbers, this could be the signature of an interaction between different phases in the outflow, as predicted in many dynamical models (e.g., Begelman et al., 1991; Krolik & Kriss, 2001; Everett, 2003). The hydrodynamic drag force is proportional to $`\mathrm{\Delta }v^2n_i/N_a`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$ is the difference in velocity between the absorber and the ambient medium, $`n_i`$ is the density of the ambient medium, and $`N_a`$ is the column density of the absorber (Begelman et al., 1991). In this framework, a twofold increase in $`n_i/N_a`$ is required in the second interval to account for the observed increased deceleration. However, a potential problem for this model is the absence of any signatures of the interaction in the absorption spectrum. The deceleration of the NGC 3783 absorber is much greater than that observed in the NLR gas, requiring a drag force (per unit mass) that is four orders of magnitude greater ($`F_d/m`$ 0.05 cm s-2). Changes in the ionization structure appear in the decelerating region of the NLR gas, presumably due to shocks (Kraemer & Crenshaw, 2000; Cecil et al., 2002), whereas no such changes are detected in the absorption spectrum in NGC 3783, as discussed above.

A third possible mechanism is deceleration of the outflow due to mass loading. In this scenario, additional mass is swept up by a momentum conserving flow, resulting in a decreased outflow velocity. This is believed to be the dominant effect in the deceleration of supernova remnants (e.g., Dyson et al., 2002, and references therein). As an example of how an outflow’s mass could be increased, we note the dynamical models of Everett (2003) predict material from the accretion disk is continually lifted by a disk-driven wind and added to the flow. Since the deceleration will depend on the rate of increase in the flow’s mass, the increased deceleration observed in the second interval requires that mass was accumulated more rapidly than during the first interval.

### 3.2 Directional Shift in the Outflow?

Another interpretation of the observed decrease in blueshifted radial velocity is that, rather than a bulk radial deceleration as described above, we are seeing a change in the radial component of the velocity vector with respect to our line of sight to the AGN. Figure 3 illustrates this schematically, depicting the absorber as a cloud moving along a curved path across our sight line to the background emission source. In this simple model, the velocity of the cloud, represented with thick filled arrows in Figure 3, has a constant amplitude along the trajectory, but the component that is directed radially in our line of sight (open arrows in the $`x_r`$ direction) decreases due to the changing direction of the motion. The absorber occults $``$30% of the BLR (Paper II), which is demarcated with dashed lines in Figure 3.

The transverse component of motion of the absorber (i.e., along $`x_T`$ in Figure 3) is an integral part of this model, leading to the motion of the absorber into and eventually out of our view. A rough lower limit on the transverse velocity $`v_T`$ can be derived using the transverse size of the absorber (1$`\times `$1016 cm; Paper II) and an upper limit on the time required for the absorber to move into our line of sight. As a conservative estimate of the latter, we use the interval between the 1994 January GHRS observation and the first STIS observation, since it is uncertain whether the absorption in the 1995 April GHRS spectrum is from the same absorber as that in the STIS data (see discussion in §2). The result is $`v_T`$ 542 km s-1, which, in combination with the transverse size of the BLR (1.9$`\times `$1016 cm; Onken & Peterson, 2002), gives a rough upper limit on the total time that some portion of the absorber will occult the BLR, $`t`$ 17 yrs. This is strictly an upper limit since (a) we have only an upper limit on the interval over which the absorption appeared and (b) $`v_T`$ is increasing, as illustrated in Figure 3. Since the continuum source is certainly much smaller than the BLR, at some point in the absorber’s path it will no longer occult the continuum source but will still occult the same fraction of the BLR (see Paper II for a full discussion of the covering factors). Thus, this model predicts the covering factors, and therefore absorption depths, could change substantially at a later epoch, depending on the specific geometry of the BLR and continuum sources. Since the covering factor was not observed to change between the three epochs in our STIS campaign as described in §2, this implies the absorber has not yet moved out of our line of sight to the continuum source. We note that the rate of change in radial velocity will be determined by the curvature of the absorber’s trajectory and will not necessarily be constant. This may provide a natural explanation for the more rapid decrease in radial velocity observed in the second interval of the observations.

A number of mechanisms could produce the curved motion depicted in Figure 3. For example, models positing the absorber is driven off the accretion disk by radiation pressure from the central source (e.g., Murray et al., 1995; Proga et al., 2000) or by centrifugal forces along magnetic field lines in the disk (e.g., Blandford & Payne, 1982; Bottorff et al., 2000; Everett, 2003) all predict the outflow will follow a curved trajectory above the disk, exhibiting a changing angle $`\theta `$ with respect to the perpendicular to the disk. Additionally, these models predict the outflow’s path will be helical due to rotation about the central mass, and thus its motion will be curved in the plane parallel to the disk.

### 3.3 Evolution of a Continuous Flow?

If the component 1 absorber is a continuous outflow, the centroid velocity could vary due to the motion of different regions of the flow across our line of sight to the emission source. In this scenario, the absorber could be either a continuous stream of gas or a continuous “spray” of small clouds. An example is shown in Figure 4, in which a collimated flow, dileneated with thick solid lines, intersects our line of sight to the emission source obliquely. The mean angle of intersection in the flow, $`\theta `$, determines the centroid radial velocity. Due to its finite opening angle, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\theta `$, the flow spans a range of projected radial velocities, giving the observed width of the absorption feature, $`v\times (cos(\theta +\mathrm{\Delta }\theta /2)cos(\theta \mathrm{\Delta }\theta /2))`$. Two epochs are depicted in Figure 4, showing how changes in the flow geometry lead to variations in the absorption kinematics. Centroid velocity variations could be produced by either an overall change in the flow’s direction or inhomogeneities in the flow within a given opening angle that result in a change in $`\theta `$. In constrast to the models discussed in the previous sections, the observed velocity shift is due to the motion of different gas elements, with different projected radial velocities, into our line of sight rather than the change in speed or direction of motion of any given gas element.

## 4 Conclusions

STIS spectra obtained as part of our monitoring campaign of NGC 3783 reveal a decreasing blueshifted radial velocity in one of its intrinsic absorption components. This is the first detection of a variable radial velocity in an outflow associated with a Seyfert galaxy. In two intervals separated by $``$ 13 and 9 months, the absorption lines in the kinematic component with highest outflow velocity exhibited mean redward velocity shifts of $``$ 35 and 55 km s-1, respectively. The rate of decrease in the second interval was twice as large as in the first. The absorption widths in this component varied moderately during these observations. These variations were complex, fluctuating on short timescales compared to the velocity shifts and showing no apparent correlation with the variations in radial velocity. No variations in absorption velocities were detected in the other kinematic components.

We have explored various interpretations of the observed velocity shift. The similarity in spectra at all epochs indicates it is not due to changes in the relative strengths of multiple subcomponents, and it thus represents a bona fide decrease in radial velocity. If it represents bulk deceleration due to a decrease in radial speed, we consider gravity, interaction with an ambient medium, and mass loading as possible deceleration mechanisms and derive special requirements on the nature of the radial forces. Alternatively, it could be due to a directional shift in the motion of the absorber with respect to our line of sight to the background emission sources, or a result of different regions in a continuous flow crossing our sightline.

J. R. G., D. M. C., and S. B. K. acknowledge support from NASA grant HST-GO-08606.13-A. W.N.B acknowledges CXC grant GO1-2103 and NASA LTSA grant NAG5-13035. F.H. acknowledges NSF grant AST 99-84040. We thank the anonymous referee for very helpful comments.


text:
# 1 Abstract

## 1 Abstract

The random matrix ensembles (RME), especially Gaussian RME and Ginibre RME, are applied to nuclear systems, molecular systems, and two-dimensional electron systems (Wigner-Dyson electrostatic analogy). Measures of quantum chaos and quantum integrability with respect to eigenergies of quantum systems are defined and calculated.

## 2 Introduction

Random Matrix Theory RMT studies quantum Hamiltonian operators $`H`$ which are random matrix variables. Their matrix elements $`H_{ij}`$ are independent random scalar variables . There were studied among others the following Gaussian Random Matrix ensembles GRME: orthogonal GOE, unitary GUE, symplectic GSE, as well as circular ensembles: orthogonal COE, unitary CUE, and symplectic CSE. The choice of ensemble is based on quantum symmetries ascribed to the Hamiltonian $`H`$. The Hamiltonian $`H`$ acts on quantum space $`V`$ of eigenfunctions. It is assumed that $`V`$ is $`N`$-dimensional Hilbert space $`V=𝐅^N`$, where the real, complex, or quaternion field $`𝐅=𝐑,𝐂,𝐇`$, corresponds to GOE, GUE, or GSE, respectively. If the Hamiltonian matrix $`H`$ is hermitean $`H=H^{}`$, then the probability density function of $`H`$ reads:

$`f_{}\left(H\right)=𝒞_{H\beta }\mathrm{exp}\left[\beta {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{Tr}\left(H^2\right)\right],`$ (1)
$`𝒞_{H\beta }=\left({\displaystyle \frac{\beta }{2\pi }}\right)^{𝒩_{H\beta }/2},`$
$`𝒩_{H\beta }=N+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}N\left(N1\right)\beta ,`$
$`{\displaystyle f_{}\left(H\right)𝑑H}=1,`$
$`dH={\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{ji}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{\gamma =0}{\overset{D1}{}}}dH_{ij}^{\left(\gamma \right)},`$
$`H_{ij}=(H_{ij}^{\left(0\right)},\mathrm{},H_{ij}^{\left(D1\right)})𝐅,`$
where the parameter $`\beta `$ assume values $`\beta =1,2,4,`$ for GOE($`N`$), GUE($`N`$), GSE($`N`$), respectively, and $`𝒩_{H\beta }`$ is number of independent matrix elements of hermitean Hamiltonian $`H`$. The Hamiltonian $`H`$ belongs to Lie group of hermitean $`N\times N𝐅`$-matrices, and the matrix Haar’s measure $`dH`$ is invariant under transformations from the unitary group U($`N`$, F). The eigenenergies $`E_i,i=1,\mathrm{},N`$, of $`H`$, are real-valued random variables $`E_i=E_i^{}`$. It was Eugene Wigner who firstly dealt with eigenenergy level repulsion phenomenon studying nuclear spectra . RMT is applicable now in many branches of physics: nuclear physics (slow neutron resonances, highly excited complex nuclei), condensed phase physics (fine metallic particles, random Ising model \[spin glasses\]), quantum chaos (quantum billiards, quantum dots), disordered mesoscopic systems (transport phenomena), quantum chromodynamics, quantum gravity, field theory.

## 3 The Ginibre ensembles

Jean Ginibre considered another example of GRME dropping the assumption of hermiticity of Hamiltonians thus defining generic $`𝐅`$-valued Hamiltonian $`K`$ . Hence, $`K`$ belong to general linear Lie group GL($`N`$, F), and the matrix Haar’s measure $`dK`$ is invariant under transformations form that group. The distribution of $`K`$ is given by:

$`f_𝒦\left(K\right)=𝒞_{K\beta }\mathrm{exp}\left[\beta {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{Tr}\left(K^{}K\right)\right],`$ (2)
$`𝒞_{K\beta }=\left({\displaystyle \frac{\beta }{2\pi }}\right)^{𝒩_{K\beta }/2},`$
$`𝒩_{K\beta }=N^2\beta ,`$
$`{\displaystyle f_𝒦\left(K\right)𝑑K}=1,`$
$`dK={\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{\gamma =0}{\overset{D1}{}}}dK_{ij}^{\left(\gamma \right)},`$
$`K_{ij}=(K_{ij}^{\left(0\right)},\mathrm{},K_{ij}^{\left(D1\right)})𝐅,`$
where $`\beta =1,2,4`$, stands for real, complex, and quaternion Ginibre ensembles, respectively. Therefore, the eigenenergies $`Z_i`$ of quantum system ascribed to Ginibre ensemble are complex-valued random variables. The eigenenergies $`Z_i,i=1,\mathrm{},N`$, of nonhermitean Hamiltonian $`K`$ are not real-valued random variables $`Z_iZ_i^{}`$. Jean Ginibre postulated the following joint probability density function of random vector of complex eigenvalues $`Z_1,\mathrm{},Z_N`$ for $`N\times N`$ Hamiltonian matrices $`K`$ for $`\beta =2`$ :

$`P(z_1,\mathrm{},z_N)=`$ (3)
$`={\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi j!}}{\displaystyle \underset{i<j}{\overset{N}{}}}\left|z_iz_j\right|^2\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\left|z_j\right|^2\right),`$
where $`z_i`$ are complex-valued sample points ($`z_i𝐂`$).

We emphasize here Wigner and Dyson’s electrostatic analogy. A Coulomb gas of $`N`$ unit charges moving on complex plane (Gauss’s plane) C is considered. The vectors of positions of charges are $`z_i`$ and potential energy of the system is:

$$U(z_1,\mathrm{},z_N)=\underset{i<j}{}\mathrm{ln}\left|z_iz_j\right|+\frac{1}{2}\underset{i}{}\left|z_i^2\right|.$$
(4)
If gas is in thermodynamical equilibrium at temperature $`T=\frac{1}{2k_B}`$ ($`\beta =\frac{1}{k_BT}=2`$, $`k_B`$ is Boltzmann’s constant), then probability density function of vectors of positions is $`P(z_1,\mathrm{},z_N)`$ Eq. (3). Therefore, complex eigenenergies $`Z_i`$ of quantum system are analogous to vectors of positions of charges of Coulomb gas. Moreover, complex-valued spacings $`\mathrm{\Delta }^1Z_i`$ of complex eigenenergies of quantum system:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }^1Z_i=Z_{i+1}Z_i,i=1,\mathrm{},\left(N1\right),$$
(5)
are analogous to vectors of relative positions of electric charges. Finally, complex-valued second differences $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i`$ of complex eigenenergies:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i=Z_{i+2}2Z_{i+1}+Z_i,i=1,\mathrm{},\left(N2\right),$$
(6)
are analogous to vectors of relative positions of vectors of relative positions of electric charges.

The eigenenergies $`Z_i=Z\left(i\right)`$ can be treated as values of function $`Z`$ of discrete parameter $`i=1,\mathrm{},N`$. The ”Jacobian” of $`Z_i`$ reads:

$$\mathrm{Jac}Z_i=\frac{Z_i}{i}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }^1Z_i}{\mathrm{\Delta }^1i}=\mathrm{\Delta }^1Z_i.$$
(7)
We readily have, that the spacing is an discrete analog of Jacobian, since the indexing parameter $`i`$ belongs to discrete space of indices $`iI=\{1,\mathrm{},N\}`$. Therefore, the first derivative with respect to $`i`$ reduces to the first differential quotient. The Hessian is a Jacobian applied to Jacobian. We immediately have the formula for discrete ”Hessian” for the eigenenergies $`Z_i`$:

$$\mathrm{Hess}Z_i=\frac{^2Z_i}{i^2}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i}{\mathrm{\Delta }^1i^2}=\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i.$$
(8)
Thus, the second difference of $`Z`$ is discrete analog of Hessian of $`Z`$. One emphasizes that both ”Jacobian” and ”Hessian” work on discrete index space $`I`$ of indices $`i`$. The spacing is also a discrete analog of energy slope whereas the second difference corresponds to energy curvature with respect to external parameter $`\lambda `$ describing parametric “evolution” of energy levels . The finite differences of order higher than two are discrete analogs of compositions of ”Jacobians” with ”Hessians” of $`Z`$.

The eigenenergies $`E_i,iI`$, of the hermitean Hamiltonian $`H`$ are ordered increasingly real-valued random variables. They are values of discrete function $`E_i=E\left(i\right)`$. The first difference of adjacent eigenenergies is:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }^1E_i=E_{i+1}E_i,i=1,\mathrm{},\left(N1\right),$$
(9)
are analogous to vectors of relative positions of electric charges of one-dimensional Coulomb gas. It is simply the spacing of two adjacent energies. Real-valued second differences $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2E_i`$ of eigenenergies:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }^2E_i=E_{i+2}2E_{i+1}+E_i,i=1,\mathrm{},\left(N2\right),$$
(10)
are analogous to vectors of relative positions of vectors of relative positions of charges of one-dimensional Coulomb gas. The $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i`$ have their real parts $`\mathrm{Re}\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i`$, and imaginary parts $`\mathrm{Im}\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i`$, as well as radii (moduli) $`\left|\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i\right|`$, and main arguments (angles) $`\mathrm{Arg}\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i`$. $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2Z_i`$ are extensions of real-valued second differences:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }^2E_i=E_{i+2}2E_{i+1}+E_i,i=1,\mathrm{},\left(N2\right),$$
(11)
of adjacent ordered increasingly real-valued eigenenergies $`E_i`$ of Hamiltonian $`H`$ defined for GOE, GUE, GSE, and Poisson ensemble PE (where Poisson ensemble is composed of uncorrelated randomly distributed eigenenergies) . The Jacobian and Hessian operators of energy function $`E\left(i\right)=E_i`$ for these ensembles read:

$$\mathrm{Jac}E_i=\frac{E_i}{i}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }^1E_i}{\mathrm{\Delta }^1i}=\mathrm{\Delta }^1E_i,$$
(12)
and

$$\mathrm{Hess}E_i=\frac{^2E_i}{i^2}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }^2E_i}{\mathrm{\Delta }^1i^2}=\mathrm{\Delta }^2E_i.$$
(13)
The treatment of first and second differences of eigenenergies as discrete analogs of Jacobians and Hessians allows one to consider these eigenenergies as a magnitudes with statistical properties studied in discrete space of indices. The labelling index $`i`$ of the eigenenergies is an additional variable of ”motion”, hence the space of indices $`I`$ augments the space of dynamics of random magnitudes.