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# Lorentz and CPT Tests in Matter and Antimatter

## 1 Introduction

All physical interactions appear to be invariant under both Lorentz and CPT transformations. These symmetries are linked by the CPT theorem , which in essence states that local relativistic field theories of point particles are symmetric under CPT. A related theorem has also recently been proved . It states that that when a field theory violates CPT it also violates Lorentz symmetry. Numerous experiments confirm Lorentz and CPT symmetry to extremely high precision. For example, Hughes-Drever type experiments are generally considered the best tests of Lorentz symmetry. These experiments place very tight bounds on spatially anisotropic interactions .

Despite the strong theoretical and experimental support for these symmetries, there has been a growing interest in testing Lorentz and CPT symmetry in recent years . This is motivated by both theoretical developments and improved experimental capabilities. For example, it has been shown that string theory can lead to violations of Lorentz and CPT symmetry . This is because strings are nonpointlike and have nonlocal interactions and can therefore evade the CPT theorem. In particular, there are mechanisms in string theory that can induce spontaneous breaking of Lorentz and CPT symmetry. It has also been shown that noncommutative geometries can arise naturally in string theory and that Lorentz violation is intrinsic to noncommutative field theories . Lorentz violation has also been proposed as a breakdown of quantum mechanics in gravity , or as a feature of certain non-string approaches to quantum gravity .

Experimental signals due to effects in these kinds of theories are expected at the Planck scale, $`M_{\mathrm{Pl}}=\sqrt{\mathrm{}c/G}10^{19}`$ GeV. One approach to probing the Planck scale is to adopt Lorentz and CPT violation as a candidate signal of new physics originating from the Planck scale. In this approach, experiments search for effects that are heavily suppressed at ordinary energies, e.g., with suppression factors proportional to the ratio of a low-energy scale to the Planck scale. Normally, such heavily suppressed signals would be unobservable. However, with a unique signal such as Lorentz or CPT violation (which cannot be mimicked in conventional physics) it becomes possible to search for effects originating from the Planck scale. This approach to testing Planck-scale physics has been greatly aided by the development the standard-model extension (SME) . In the context of the SME, it is possible to look for new signatures of Lorentz and CPT violation in atomic and particle systems that might otherwise be overlooked.

Experiments in atomic systems are very well suited to this approach because they can be sensitive to extremely low energies. Sensitivity to frequency shifts at the level of 1 mHz or less are routinely attained. Expressing this as an energy shift in GeV corresponds to a sensitivity of roughly $`4\times 10^{27}`$ GeV. This sensitivity is well within the range of energy one would associate with suppression factors originating from the Planck scale. For example, the ratio $`m_e/M_{\mathrm{Pl}}`$ multiplying the electron mass yields an energy of approximately $`2.5\times 10^{26}`$ GeV.

Some specific examples of experiments that are highly sensitive to Lorentz and CPT violation include experiments with electrons , muons , protons , neutrons , mesons , and photons . These include several classic tests of Lorentz and CPT symmetry, such as $`g2`$ experiments in Penning traps  and atomic-clock comparisons – the so-called Hughes-Drever experiments .

## 2 Standard-Model Extension

At low energies relative to the Planck scale, observable effects of Lorentz and CPT violation are described by the Standard-Model Extension (SME) . In full generality, the SME allows for all coordinate-independent violations of Lorentz symmetry in a quantum field theory and provides a connection to the Planck scale through operators of nonrenormalizable dimension . To consider experiments in atomic physics it suffices to restrict the SME to its QED sector and to include only terms that are power-counting renormalizable. The resulting QED extension has energy-momentum conservation, the usual spin-statistics connection, and observer Lorentz covariance.

The modified Dirac equation in the QED extension describing a four-component spinor field $`\psi `$ of mass $`m`$ and charge $`q=|e|`$ in an electric potential $`A^\mu `$ is

$$(i\mathrm{\Gamma }^\mu D_\mu M)\psi =0,$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\nu =\gamma _\nu +c_{\mu \nu }\gamma ^\mu +d_{\mu \nu }\gamma _5\gamma ^\mu `$ and $`M=m+a_\mu \gamma ^\mu +b_\mu \gamma _5\gamma ^\mu +\frac{1}{2}H_{\mu \nu }\sigma ^{\mu \nu }`$. Here, natural units with $`\mathrm{}=c=1`$ are used, and $`iD_\mu i_\mu qA_\mu `$. The two terms involving the effective coupling constants $`a_\mu `$ and $`b_\mu `$ violate CPT, while the three terms involving $`H_{\mu \nu }`$, $`c_{\mu \nu }`$, and $`d_{\mu \nu }`$ preserve CPT. All five terms break Lorentz symmetry.

The recent atomic experiments that test Lorentz and CPT symmetry express the bounds they obtain in terms of these parameters $`a_\mu `$, $`b_\mu `$, $`c_{\mu \nu }`$, $`d_{\mu \nu }`$, and $`H_{\mu \nu }`$. This provides a straightforward way of making comparisons across different types of experiments and avoids problems that can arise when different physical quantities ($`g`$ factors, charge-to-mass ratios, masses, frequencies, etc.) are used in different experiments. Each different particle sector in the QED extension has a set of Lorentz-violating parameters that are independent. The parameters of the different sectors are distinguished using superscript labels.

## 3 Tests in Atomic Systems

Before discussing recent experiments individually, it is useful to examine some of the more general results that have emerged from these investigations. One general feature that has emerged is that the sensitivity to Lorentz and CPT violation in these experiments stems primarily from their ability to detect very small anomalous energy shifts. While many of the experiments were originally designed to measure specific quantities, such as differences in $`g`$ factors or charge-to-mass ratios of particles and antiparticles, it is now recognized that they are most effective as Lorentz and CPT tests when all of the energy levels in the system are investigated for possible anomalous shifts. Because of this, several new signatures of Lorentz and CPT violation have been discovered in recent years that were overlooked previously. A second general feature is that these atomic experiments can be divided into two groups. The first (traditional Lorentz tests) looks for sidereal time variations in the energy levels of a particle or atom. The second (traditional CPT test) looks for a difference in the energy levels between a particle (or atom) and its antiparticle (or antiatom). The sensitivity to Lorentz and CPT violation in these two classes of experiments, however, are not distinct. Experiments traditionally viewed as CPT tests are also sensitive to Lorentz symmetry and vice versa. Nonetheless, it is important to keep in mind that CPT experiments comparing matter and antimatter are directly sensitive to CPT-violating parameters, such as $`b_\mu `$, whereas Lorentz tests are sensitive to combinations of CPT-preserving and CPT-violating parameters, which we denote below using a tilde. In this respect, both clases of experiments should be viewed as complementary.

Penning-Trap Experiments: The aim of the original experiments with Penning traps was to make high-precision comparisons of the $`g`$ factors and charge-to-mass ratios of particles and antiparticles confined within the trap . This was obtained through measurements of the anomaly frequency $`\omega _a`$ and the cyclotron frequency $`\omega _c`$. For example, $`g2=2\omega _a/\omega _c`$. The frequencies were typically measured to $`10^9`$ for the electron, which determines $`g`$ to $`10^{12}`$. In computing these ratios it was not necessary to keep track of the times when $`\omega _a`$ and $`\omega _c`$ were measured. More recently, however, additional signals of possible Lorentz and CPT violation in this system have been found, which has led to two new tests being performed.

The first was a Lorentz test involving data only for the electron . It involved looking for small sidereal time variations in the electron anomaly frequency as the Earth turns about its axis. The bounds in this case are given with respect to a nonrotating coordinate system such as celestial equatorial coordinates. The interactions involve a combination of laboratory-frame components that couple to the electron spin. The combination is denoted as $`\stackrel{~}{b}_3^eb_3^emd_{30}^eH_{12}^e`$. The bound can be expressed in terms of components $`X`$, $`Y`$, $`Z`$ in the nonrotating frame. It is given as $`|\stackrel{~}{b}_J^e|\text{ }<5\times 10^{25}\mathrm{GeV}`$ for $`J=X,Y`$.

The second was a CPT test comparing particles and antiparticles. It was a reanalysis performed by Dehmelt’s group of existing data for electrons and positrons in a Penning trap . The idea was to search for an instantaneous difference in the anomaly frequencies of electrons and positrons. The original measurements of $`g2`$ did not involve looking for possible instantaneous variations in $`\omega _a`$. Instead, the ratio $`\omega _a/\omega _c`$ was obtained using averaged values. The new analysis is especially relevant because it can be shown that the CPT-violating corrections to the anomaly frequency $`\omega _a`$ can occur even though the $`g`$ factor remains unchanged. The new bound found by Dehmelt’s group can be expressed in terms of the parameter $`b_3^e`$, which is the component of $`b_\mu ^e`$ along the quantization axis in the laboratory frame. They obtained $`|b_3^e|\text{ }<3\times 10^{25}`$ GeV.

Clock-Comparison Experiments: The Hughes-Drever experiments are classic tests of Lorentz invariance . These experiments look for relative changes between two atomic “clock” frequencies as the Earth rotates. The “clock” frequencies are typically atomic hyperfine or Zeeman transitions. Recently, several new clock-comparison tests have been performed or are in the planning stages. For example, Bear et al. have used a two-species noble-gas maser to test for Lorentz and CPT violation in the neutron sector . They obtained a bound $`|\stackrel{~}{b}_J^n|\text{ }<10^{31}\mathrm{GeV}`$ for $`J=X,Y`$. It should be kept in mind that certain assumptions about the nuclear configurations must be made to obtain these bounds. For this reason, they should be viewed as accurate to within one or two orders of magnitude. To obtain cleaner bounds it is necessary to consider simpler atoms or to perform more precise nuclear modeling.

Hydrogen/Antihydrogen Experiments: A recent Lorentz and CPT test in hydrogen has been performed, and two experiments are underway at CERN to perform high-precision tests in antihydrogen.

The experiment in hydrogen looked for sidereal time variations in ground-state Zeeman hyperfine transitions using a hydrogen maser and a double-resonance technique . It yielded sharp new bounds for the electron and proton. The bound obtained for the proton was $`|\stackrel{~}{b}_J^p|\text{ }<10^{27}`$ GeV. Due to the simplicity of the hydrogen nucleus, this is an extremely clean bound.

Two experiments at CERN aim to make high-precision spectroscopic measurements of the 1S-2S transitions in hydrogen and antihydrogen. These are forbidden two-photon transitions with a relative linewidth of approximately $`10^{15}`$. The magnetic field plays an important role in the sensitivity of these transitions to Lorentz and CPT breaking. For example, in free hydrogen in the absence of a magnetic field, the 1S and 2S levels shift by the same amount at leading order, and there are no leading-order corrections to the 1S-2S transition. However, in a magnetic trap there are fields that mix the different spin states in the four hyperfine levels. Since the Lorentz-violating couplings are spin-dependent, there will be sensitivity at leading order to Lorentz and CPT violation in comparisons of 1S-2S transitions. An alternative to 1S-2S transitions is to consider measurements of ground-state Zeeman hyperfine transitions. These measurments should be able to provide a clean measurement of the CPT-violating parameter $`b_\mu ^p`$ for the proton. For example, comparing Zeeman transitions in hydrogen and antihydrogen at a field-independent point with $`B0.65`$ T with a resolution of 1 mHz would give rise to a bound on $`b_3^p`$ at the level of $`10^{27}`$ GeV.

Muon Experiments There are two recent experiments with muons that have sharp sensitivity to Lorentz and CPT violation. The first is in muonium. It looks for sidereal time variations in the frequencies of ground-state Zeeman hyperfine transitions in a strong magnetic field. A bound at a level of $`|\stackrel{~}{b}_J^\mu |2\times 10^{23}`$ GeV has been obtained from these measurements . The second experiment is the Brookhaven $`g2`$ experiments with positive muons . It uses relativistic muons with a “magic” boost parameter $`\delta =29.3`$. Bounds on Lorentz-violation parameters should be attainable in this case at a level of $`10^{25}`$ GeV. However, the analysis is still underway.

Meson Experiments: In addition to these atomic experiments, high-precision Lorentz and CPT tests have also been performed for mesons in K, B, and D systems . In these systems the only relevant SME parameters are $`a_\mu `$. Bounds on the order of $`10^{21}`$ GeV have been obtained.

Spin-Polarized Torsion Pendulum: A recent experiment at the University of Washington used a spin-polarized torsion pendulum to achieve high sensitivity to Lorentz violation in the electron sector . Its sensitivity stems from the combined effect of a large number of aligned electron spins. The experiment uses stacked toroidal magnets that have a net electron spin $`S8\times 10^{22}`$, but which have a negligible magnetic field. The pendulum is suspended on a turntable and a time-varying harmonic signal is sought. An analysis of this system reveals that in addition to a signal with the period of the rotating turntable, the effects of Lorentz and CPT violation induce additional time variations with a sidereal period caused by Earth’s rotation. The group at the University of Washington has analyzed their data and has obtained a bound on the electron parameters equal to $`|\stackrel{~}{b}_J^e|\text{ }<10^{29}`$ GeV for $`J=X,Y`$ and $`|\stackrel{~}{b}_Z^e|\text{ }<10^{28}`$ GeV .

## 4 Conclusions

Several new tests of Lorentz and CPT symmetry have been performed in recent years in a variety of particle systems. As sharp as the bounds from these experiments are, there is still room for improvement, and it is likely that the next few years will continue to provide increasingly sharp new tests of Lorentz and CPT symmetry in atomic systems. In particular, it should be possible to obtain bounds on many of the parameters that current experiments have not probed. One promising approach is to conduct atomic clock-comparison tests in a space satellite . These will have several advantages over traditional ground-based experiments, which are typically insensitive to the direction $`Z`$ of Earth’s axis and ignore boost effects associated with timelike directions. For example, a clock-comparison experiment conducted aboard the International Space Station (ISS) would be in a laboratory frame that is both rotating and boosted. It would therefore immediately gain sensitivity to both the $`Z`$ and timelike directions. This would more than triple the number of Lorentz-violation parameters that are accessible in a clock-comparison experiment. Since there are several missions already planned for the ISS which will compare Cs and Rb atomic clocks and H masers, the opportunity to perform these new Lorentz and CPT tests is quite real.

In summary, by using the general framework of the SME we are able to analyze Lorentz and CPT tests in a variety of atomic and particle experiments. Many of the bounds that have been obtained are well within the range of suppression factors associated with the Planck scale.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to acknowledge my collaborators Alan Kostelecký, Charles Lane, and Neil Russell. This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under grant number PHY-0097982.


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# HEAVY QUARKONIUM HYPERFINE STRUCTURE AND LEPTONIC DECAYS

## Abstract

The relation between the hyperfine structure and leptonic decay rates of heavy quarkonia is considered with the account of relativistic and radiative corrections. The calculated decay rates agree well with the available experimental data, while the predicted $`\eta _c(2S)`$ mass is significantly smaller than the value measured recently by the Belle and BaBar Collaborations.

Recent observation of the charmonium $`2^1S_0`$ state $`\eta _c(2S)`$ by the Belle and BaBar Collaborations yielded the following values for its mass:

$$M(\eta _c(2S))=\{\begin{array}{c}3.654(14)\text{GeV (see Ref. }\text{[1]}\text{)}\hfill \\ 3.622(12)\text{GeV (see Ref. }\text{[2]}\text{)}\hfill \\ 3.632(6)\text{GeV (see Ref. }\text{[3]}\text{)}\hfill \end{array}.$$
(1)
These values are significantly larger than most predictions of the constituent quark models  and the previous (unconfirmed) experimental value  $`M[\eta _c(2S)]=3.594(5)`$ GeV. The resulting $`2S`$ hyperfine splitting (HFS) would be about 2–4 times smaller than the $`1S`$ HFS in charmonium which is quite unexpected . The HFS is closely connected with leptonic decay rates and vector decay constants of heavy quarkonia. This connection for charmonium was discussed at length in the recent paper . Here we extend this discussion in order to include the relativistic corrections for the vector constants. We considered these corrections for heavy-light ($`B`$ and $`D`$) mesons in our recent paper . The vector decay constant $`f_V`$ is defined by $`0|\overline{Q}\gamma ^\mu Q|V(𝐊,\epsilon )=f_VM\epsilon ^\mu ,`$ where $`𝐊`$ is the quarkonium momentum, $`\epsilon `$ and $`M`$ are the polarization vector and mass of the quarkonium. The relativistic expression for $`f_V`$ can be obtained from Eq. (3) of Ref.  by putting $`m_q=m_Q=m`$

$$f_V=\sqrt{\frac{12}{M}}\frac{d^3p}{(2\pi )^3}\left\{1\frac{ϵ(p)m}{3ϵ(p)}\right\}\mathrm{\Phi }_V(p),$$
(2)
where $`ϵ(p)=\sqrt{𝐩^2+m^2}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }_V(p)`$ is the vector quarkonium wave function in the momentum space. In the nonrelativistic limit $`p^2/m^20`$ this expression reduces to the well-known formula $`f_V^{\mathrm{NR}}=\sqrt{12/M}\left|\mathrm{\Psi }_V(0)\right|`$, where $`\mathrm{\Psi }_V(0)`$ is the wave function at the origin $`r=0`$. The leptonic decay rate for zero lepton mass is given by

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_0(Ve^+e^{})=\frac{4\pi \alpha ^2e_Q^2}{3M}f_V^2,$$
(3)
where $`\alpha `$ is the QED fine structure constant and $`e_Q`$ is the quark charge in units of the elementary electric charge. In the nonrelativistic limit we obtain the widely-used relation $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0^{\mathrm{NR}}=(16\pi \alpha ^2e_Q^2/M^2)\left|\mathrm{\Psi }_V(0)\right|^2.`$ The one-loop QCD corrections modify Eq. (3) in the following way  $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }_0\left(1\frac{16}{3\pi }\alpha _s\right),`$ where we take the QCD coupling constant $`\alpha _s`$ according to PDG  equal to $`\alpha _s(m_c)=0.26`$, $`\alpha _s(m_b)=0.18.`$

The heavy quarkonium mass spectra including all relativistic $`v^2/c^2`$ and one-loop radiative corrections were calculated in Ref. . The masses $`M`$ and HFS $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_{nS}^{\mathrm{HFS}}M(n^3S_1)M(n^1S_0)`$ of $`nS`$ states ($`n=1,2`$) are presented in Table 1. Inserting into Eq. (2) the same wave functions as used in Ref.  we can calculate the leptonic decay rates of vector quarkonia. The results of these calculations in comparison with experimental data are shown in Table 2. Relativistic corrections considerably reduce the calculated decay rates and bring them in good agreement with experimental values. Thus we observe the overall selfconsistency between predictions for HFS and leptonic decay rates of heavy quarkonia. It means that the new Belle and BaBar data  for the $`\eta _c(2S)`$ mass cannot be easily explained in the framework of relativistic constituent quark models and, if confirmed, require some novel ideas and approaches (scale choice  for $`\alpha _s`$, state mixing , etc.). This work was supported in part by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft under contract Eb 139/2-2.


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# MEASUREMENT OF CKM ELEMENTS AND THE UNITARITY TRIANGLE

## 1 Introduction

The general form of the Cabbibo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM)  matrix can be described using the generalized Wolfenstein parametrization111$`\overline{\rho }=\rho (1\lambda ^2/2),\overline{\eta }=\eta (1\lambda ^2/2)`$  as

$$V=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}V_{ud}& V_{us}& V_{ub}\\ V_{cd}& V_{cs}& V_{cb}\\ V_{td}& V_{ts}& V_{tb}\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1\frac{1}{2}\lambda ^2& \lambda & A\lambda ^3(\rho i\eta )\\ \lambda & 1\frac{1}{2}\lambda ^2& A\lambda ^2\\ A\lambda ^3(1\overline{\rho }i\overline{\eta })& A\lambda ^2& 1\end{array}\right)+O(\lambda ^4).$$
(1)
Product of the first and the last column of the CKM matrix under the unitarity requirement yields the standard form of the unitarity triangle (UT), presented in the complex $`(\overline{\rho },\overline{\eta })`$ plane in Fig. 1 (left)222Angles $`\varphi _1,\varphi _2,\varphi _3`$ are frequently denoted as $`\beta ,\alpha `$ and $`\gamma `$, respectively..

Measurements of various observables, from which individual CKM elements can be determined, impose constraints on the sides and angles of the UT, shown in Fig. 1 (right). The overlap area determines an allowed region for the position of the UT apex. Comparison of individual measurements, described below, enable a consistency check of the CKM description of quark mixing and can give hints of yet unobserved phenomena.

## 2 $`|V_{us}|`$, $`|V_{ud}|`$

The $`|V_{us}|`$ element of the CKM matrix has traditionally been obtained from the measured branching fractions of $`\mathrm{K}_\mathrm{}3`$ decays, the semileptonic decays of charged and neutral kaons $`K\pi \mathrm{}\nu `$. Recently, a new measurement of the $`K^+`$ branching fraction in the electron decay mode was presented by the Brookhaven E865 experiment . The result $`Br(K^+\pi ^0e^+\nu )=(5.13\pm 0.02_{\mathrm{stat}.}\pm 0.09_{\mathrm{syst}.}\pm 0.04_{\mathrm{norm}.})\%`$ is about 2.3 standard deviations higher than the world average of previous measurements of this quantity . The measured branching ratio, where the last error comes from the uncertainty in the normalization decay modes used in the experiment, can be converted into the value of $`|V_{us}|=0.2272\pm 0.0020_{\mathrm{exp}.}\pm 0.0018_{\mathrm{th}.}`$. The error on this value receives a significant contribution from the theoretical estimate of the $`K^\pm `$ decay form factor . Using the value of $`|V_{ud}|=0.9740\pm 0.0005`$, evaluated most precisely from the super-allowed nuclear Fermi beta decays , and the above result for $`|V_{us}|`$, the unitarity requirement in the first row of the CKM matrix is perfectly satisfied333The value of $`|V_{ub}|`$ can be safely neglected.. A possible disagreement between the world averages of $`Br(K^+\pi ^0e^+\nu )`$ and $`Br(K^0\pi ^{}e^+\nu )`$444In the following the notations include the charge conjugate modes, unless explicitly stated otherwise. will be addressed by the forthcoming precision results from KLOE and NA48 experiments.

## 3 $`|V_{cb}|`$, $`|V_{ub}|`$

Due to a reasonably good theoretical understanding and a satisfactory statistical power of the sample, the determination of $`|V_{cb}|`$ and $`|V_{ub}|`$ elements relies on the measurements of semileptonic $`B`$ meson decays, using either exclusive or inclusive methods. Within the exclusive methods, the $`BD^{}\mathrm{}\nu `$ decay channel is the most prominent one for the $`bc`$ transitions. Decays into $`\pi ,\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ mesons and a lepton pair were used to probe the $`bu`$ transitions. Inclusive methods comprise a determination of the total B meson semileptonic width combined with measurements of various moments of distributions that reduce the theoretical uncertainties entering the CKM element extraction.

The differential decay rate for the $`BD^{}\mathrm{}\nu `$ can be expressed in terms of a four-velocity transfer $`w=v_Bv_D^{}`$ using a single $`B`$ meson decay form factor $`F(w)`$, which coincides with the Isgur-Wise function up to the heavy quark symmetry breaking terms . Experimentally, the efficiency corrected differential decay rate $`d\mathrm{\Gamma }/dw`$ is measured and extrapolated to the maximum momentum transfer ($`w=1`$). Measurement uncertainties are dominated by the systematic errors as seen in Fig. 2 (left) .

At the $`Z^0`$ energies, the $`w`$ resolution is influenced by a spread of $`B`$ meson momenta. Another important source of the systematic error is the modeling of the $`D^{}`$ background. At the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(4S)`$ energies the kinematic constraints enable a better $`w`$ resolution and an effective $`D^{}`$ rejection, but the efficiency for the reconstruction of low momentum pions from $`D^+D^0\pi ^+`$ falls rapidly at low values of $`w`$. Using the interval of values $`F(1)=0.91\pm 0.04`$  and the average value of $`F(1)|V_{cb}|`$ one obtains

$$|V_{cb}|=(41.9\pm 1.1_{exp.}\pm 1.8_{F(1)})\times 10^3,$$
(2)
where the first error represents the experimental and the second the theoretical uncertainty.

The relation between the semileptonic decay width of $`B`$ mesons and the $`|V_{cb}|`$ can be written as $`Br(bc\mathrm{}\nu )/\tau _B=K_{th}|V_{cb}|^2`$. While the average of measurements of the left hand side of equation contributes about 1% to the relative error on the $`|V_{cb}|`$, the theoretical factor $`K_{th}`$ introduces an error of about 5% . The solution is provided in the framework of operator product expansion, where the semileptonic width is expressed to order $`O(1/m_b^2)`$ using two parameters and heavy quark masses. The same parameters enter the expressions for differential distributions of several observables like the energy of the lepton in semileptonic decays, the invariant mass of the produced hadronic system or the energy of the photon in radiative B meson decays . Measurements of moments of those distributions enable the relevant parameters determination and hence help reducing the theoretical uncertainty in the extraction of $`|V_{cb}|`$ from the measured semileptonic width. A summary of $`Br(Bc\mathrm{}\nu )`$ measurements at $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(4S)`$ energies is shown in Fig. 2 (right) . The precision is almost identical to the measurements performed by the LEP experiments, which benefit from the fact that the total lepton energy spectrum can be used in analyzes. Combination of results together with the measured $`B`$ meson lifetime yields a value of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(bc\mathrm{}\nu )=(0.43\pm 0.01)\times 10^{10}`$ MeV .

Cleo and Delphi experiments measured the moments (up to the third) of distributions mentioned above . Taking as an input the value of the semileptonic width, $`|V_{cb}|`$ evaluations  can be summarized as

$$|V_{cb}|=(41.2\pm 0.7_{exp.}\pm 0.6_{th.})\times 10^3.$$
(3)
The experimental error includes contributions from moments and semileptonic width measurements, while the theoretical error reflects the uncertainties due to the perturbative QCD and $`1/m_b`$ series truncation.

The exclusive methods of $`|V_{ub}|`$ determination consist of $`Br(B\pi (\rho ,\omega )\mathrm{}\nu )`$ measurements over a limited interval of lepton pair invariant mass ($`q^2`$), lepton momentum or lepton energy, in order to suppress the dominant $`bc`$ background. One or more dimensional fits to distributions of kinematical variables, separating the $`bu`$ transitions from the background, make use of isospin relations between the charged and neutral $`\pi `$ and $`\rho `$ decay modes. In order to obtain the full $`Br(BX_u\mathrm{}\nu )`$, where $`X_u`$ represents a light meson, an extrapolation to the full range of fitted observables is necessary, introducing a model dependence. The results are shown in Fig. 3 (left).

Error bars mark the statistical uncertainty, while the total line represents the quadratic sum of statistical and experimental systematic errors; for the latter the largest contributions arise from detector simulation used in neutrino reconstruction and $`bu\mathrm{}\nu `$ background modeling. Lines below the results show the theoretical uncertainties. They are obtained using various form factors, calculated from lattice QCD, light cone sum rules or quark models, with different methods and are thus not directly comparable. The Belle experiment made a first measurement of $`Br(B\omega \mathrm{}\nu )`$ , however the value of $`|V_{ub}|`$ is not quoted. In order to reduce the theoretical uncertainty, the Cleo experiment has performed a measurement of $`Br(B\pi (\rho )\mathrm{}\nu )`$ (last line of Fig. 3 (left)) in distinct $`q^2`$ bins . The advantage of such an approach is a lower systematic error arising from the $`q^2`$ dependence of the efficiency, and the discriminating power of the $`q^2`$ distribution for different form factor models. For the exclusive $`|V_{ub}|`$ determination no official average is provided by the Heavy Flavor Averaging Group  up to date. Using the first four results of Fig. 3 (left), and treating half of the systematic error as completely correlated (due to $`bu\mathrm{}\nu `$ background), one obtains the value

$$|V_{ub}|=(3.32\pm 0.22_{exp.}\pm 0.54_{th.})\times 10^3,$$
(4)
illustrating the uncertainty dominated by the theory.

The $`bu\mathrm{}\nu `$ semileptonic width is sensitive to $`|V_{ub}|`$ in an analog way as the $`bc\mathrm{}\nu `$ is sensitive to $`|V_{cb}|`$. However, in isolating the $`bu`$ transitions, one is restricted to a limited interval of kinematic variables, separating the signal from the major $`bc`$ background. While stringent requirements on the lepton energy, hadronic or lepton pair invariant mass in semileptonic decays lead to a better purity of the selected sample, the selection of events in a vicinity of the phase space boundaries introduces large non-perturbative corrections to theoretical predictions and hence a larger theoretical error . A number of measurements using individual or several of the above mentioned observables for $`bu\mathrm{}\nu `$ separation were reported. For the reconstruction of the invariant mass of the hadronic system ($`m_X`$), produced in a semileptonic $`B`$ meson decay at $`B`$ factories, one needs to separate the decay products of individual $`B`$ mesons. A large number of recorded $`B`$ decays enables the use of a sample, where one of the $`B`$ mesons is fully reconstructed through its $`bc`$ decay modes. Using this method, BaBar collaboration determines the yield of $`BX_u\mathrm{}\nu `$ events at low values of $`m_X`$ . The corresponding $`|V_{ub}|`$ value is shown in the last line of Fig. 3 (right). To separate decay products, Belle collaboration uses a ”simulated annealing” technique, based on maximization of a likelihood function for a correct and wrong assignment of particles, by iteratively exchanging particles between the two $`B`$ mesons . Selection based on the reconstructed value of $`m_X`$ and $`q^2`$ yields the result marked in Fig. 3 (right) as ”Belle ($`m_xQ^2`$)”. Similarly as in the case of the exclusive $`|V_{ub}|`$ determination, uncertainties of all results shown are dominated by the theoretical error introduced by the extrapolation of $`bu\mathrm{}\nu `$ yield to the full interval of kinematic observables. As an illustration, the average of BaBar, Belle and Cleo measurements  using the lepton energy for $`bu`$/$`bc`$ separation, yields

$$|V_{ub}|=(4.15\pm 0.18_{exp.}\pm 0.61_{th.})\times 10^3,$$
(5)
when the theoretical error is taken as completely correlated, while experimental systematic error is treated as uncorrelated.

## 4 $`|V_{td}|`$, $`|V_{ts}|`$

The $`|V_{td}/V_{ts}|`$ value is determined from the ratio of $`B_d`$ and $`B_s`$ meson oscillation frequencies, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_d`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_s`$. The use of the ratio instead of the individual measurements is motivated by a partial cancellation of the theoretical uncertainties. While the world average of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_d`$ has a relative error of 1.2%  and is completely dominated by the measurements performed at B factories , the $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_s`$ limits steam from LEP experiments and will until the LHC era remain in the domain of the Tevatron collider. The amplitude method for the $`B_s`$ oscillations measurements consists of fitting the observed decay time distribution with the amplitude of oscillations as a free parameter. The fitted amplitudes at given values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_s`$ are then converted into the lower limit on the oscillation frequency. The world average of these measurements is shown in Fig. 4 (left), yielding $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_s>14.4\mathrm{ps}^1`$ at 95% C.L. .

Taking the $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_d/\mathrm{\Delta }m_s`$ ratio and the lattice QCD results for $`\sqrt{B_{B_s}}f_{B_s}/\sqrt{B_{B_d}}f_{B_d}=1.18\pm 0.04\pm \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{0.12}{0.00}`$ , one arrives at the limit

$$|\frac{V_{td}}{V_{ts}}|<0.24\mathrm{at}95\%\mathrm{C}.\mathrm{L}.$$
(6)
## 5 Angles

A detailed overview of $`\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _1`$ measurements, most prominently in the $`B^0J/\mathrm{\Psi }K_s`$ decays, is given in . Averaging results of BaBar and Belle collaborations in all charmonium decay modes yields $`\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _1=0.736\pm 0.049`$ , a 7% relative precission result, where the error is still limited by statistics. An interesting feature evolves in the measurements of the CP violation using the $`B^0\varphi K_s`$ decay mode with only penguin processes contributing to the amplitude. These theoretically clean decays are expected to yield a value of $`\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _1`$ consistent with the above quoted result. However, the present situation reveals a discrepancy of the two values, the latter being $`\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _1=0.15\pm 0.33`$ . With an increased statistics one might expect these measurements to reveal new phenomena beyond the SM.

The angle $`\varphi _2`$ of the UT can be determined examining the $`B^0\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ decays . The amplitude for the process involves a tree digram as well as a significant contribution from the penguin processes, and hence the interpretation of the CP asymmetry measurements is complicated. While the Belle result  points to a direct CP violation in these processes (Fig. 4 (right)), the result of the BaBar collaboration  is consistent with no direct CP violation. Limits obtained on the angle $`\varphi _2`$ from the Belle measurement, taking into account a range of predictions for the ratio of penguin and tree amplitude contributions, are $`78^{}<\varphi _2<152^{}`$ at 95.5% C.L.

## 6 UT Constraints

The CKM Fitter group  provides a fit to the measured observables and range of theoretical parameters in order to constrain the region in the $`(\overline{\rho },\overline{\eta })`$ plane. In the so called Rfit approach one maximizes the $`(y_{th})=_{exp}(x_{exp}x_{th}(y_{th}))_{th}(y_{th})`$, where measurements $`x_{exp}`$ and theoretical predictions $`x_{th}`$, depending on parameters $`y_{th}`$, enter the experimental part $`_{exp}`$. Theoretical part $`_{th}`$ equals unity if the set of parameters is within an allowed range of predictions and vanishes otherwise. Using the set of inputs described at  one obtains a 90% C.L. region in $`(\overline{\rho },\overline{\eta })`$ plane shown in Fig. 5 (left). At the present, measurements of $`\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _1`$, $`|V_{ub}|`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_s`$ all impose severe constraints on the position of the UT apex.

Fig. 5 (right) includes results on $`\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _1`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _2`$ by the Belle experiment , showing a consistency of measurements.

## 7 Summary

* $`|V_{ud}|`$ is measured with a relative precision of $`5\times 10^4`$ in the nuclear super-allowed Fermi transitions. The measurement uncertainty is completely theoretically dominated.
* $`|V_{us}|`$: a new measurement of $`K_{e3}`$ branching fraction by E865 experiment resolves the question of the unitarity in the first row of CKM matrix. A possible disagreement between the charged and neutral $`K_{e3}`$ decay modes will be addressed in the future by KLOE and NA48 experiments.
* $`|V_{cb}|`$, determined from $`BD^{}\mathrm{}\nu `$ decays, is limited by the uncertainty in the decay form factor normalization. Inclusive determinations will be improved with new measurements of moments of $`E_{\mathrm{}}`$, $`q^2`$ and $`m_X`$ distributions.
* $`|V_{ub}|`$: the $`q^2`$ dependent measurements have started in exclusive decay channels. New inclusive measurements of $`Br(bu\mathrm{}\nu )`$ using $`m_X`$ and $`q^2`$ variables will be performed by BaBar and Belle experiments. Theoretical ambiguities are expected to be resolved through tests of different models (in exclusive channels) and determination of moments of differential distributions ($`bs\gamma `$ transitions).
* $`|V_{td}|`$$`|V_{ts}|`$: while results on $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_d`$ are already very precise, further important constraints on UT are hoped for from $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_s`$ measurements by D0 and CDF experiments.
* $`\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _1`$ has become a precision measurement, new phenomena might arise in the CP asymmetry measurements using the $`B^0\varphi K_s`$ decay channel.
* $`\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _2`$ determinations have just started and although complicated, these measurements will in the future provide an interesting constraint on the UT.