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# Dust emission in the far-IR as a star formation tracer at z=0: systematic trends with luminosityBased on observations with the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA member states (especially the PI countries: France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom) and with the participation of ISAS and NASA.

## 1 Introduction

The star formation rate ($`SFR`$) is a fundamental property of any galaxy at any epoch. Star formation is a process intimately connected to the dusty interstellar medium (ISM) of a galaxy, at any epoch following the formation of its first-generation stars. Attenuation of stellar radiation at different wavelengths by internal dust is an extremely complex topic heavily discussed in the literature (see Calzetti 2001 for a review) but its full understanding is still far from being at reach. Hence astronomers have tried to limit, if not overcome, this serious problem by devising various methods for the determination of $`SFR`$s, in starbursts as well as in normal (i.e., non-starburst and non-AGN dominated) late-type galaxies (see Kennicutt 1998 for a review). These methods, based on different astrophysical phenomena, reach different quantitative conclusions in general (see Charlot et al. 2002 for a discussion). Even when the astrophysical mechanisms at the basis of these methods produce radiation at wavelengths where dust attenuation is less effective or not effective at all (e.g. the thermal emission from dust at IR–mm wavelengths or the non-thermal, synchrotron emission at radio wavelengths), there is no easy link between these radiation processes and $`SFR`$ for normal late-type galaxies (e.g. Popescu et al. 2000; Bell 2002; Pierini et al. 2003b).

The relation between dust emission in the far-IR and $`SFR`$ in nearby (i.e., at redshift $`z=0`$) starbursts (Kennicutt 1998) has recently been subject of particular interest, owing to the discovery of a relevant dust-enshrouded phase of the cosmological star formation history (see Hauser & Dwek 2001 for a review). The existence of an analogous relation for nearby, normal late-type galaxies is still unclear, for the following reasons.

First, the origin of dust heating is still under debate (see Bell 2003 for a discussion). The pioneering work of Buat & Xu (1996) pointed to non-ionizing, far-UV photons as the main source of dust heating in nearby, normal late-type galaxies. This has been confirmed by modeling of the optical to far-IR–submm spectral energy distributions (SEDs) available for a few such objects (Popescu et al. 2000; Misiriotis et al. 2001). Nevertheless the latter studies show that the contribution to dust heating of optical and near-IR photons is not negligible, consistent with interpretations of the mass-normalized far-IR/radio correlation (Xu et al. 1994), and of the behaviour of the \[CII\](158 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$) line-to-far-IR continuum emission ratio as a function of the H$`\alpha `$(0.656 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$) equivalent width (Pierini, Leech & Völk 2003a).

Second, the standard estimate of dust emission in the far-IR, i.e., the IRAS 40–120 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ flux “$`FIR`$” (Helou et al. 1988), may underestimate the total dust emission at far-IR–mm wavelengths by a factor up to 3 (Popescu & Tuffs 2002). This is due to the fact that the IRAS spectral bands could not probe the relevant contribution to the far-IR–mm continuum of the emission from “cold” (i.e., with a median temperature of 18 $`\mathrm{K}`$) dust (Popescu et al. 2002), rather smoothly distributed over the disk (Haas et al. 1998; Hippelein et al. 2003). Popescu & Tuffs (2002) find that the mean fraction of stellar light re-radiated by dust at 40–1000 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ is about 30 per cent among the normal Virgo Cluster late-type galaxies observed by Tuffs et al. (2002a,b) with ISOPHOT (Lemke et al. 1996). They also find that this fraction is about 15 per cent for early-type spirals and up to about 50 per cent in some late-type disk-galaxies.

Third, dust attenuation depends on the dust/stars configuration (i.e., geometry), structure of the dusty ISM, dust amount and absorption/scattering properties of the mix of dust grains (e.g. Bianchi, Ferrara & Giovanardi 1996; Kuchinski et al. 1998; Silva et al. 1998; Ferrara et al. 1999; Xilouris et al. 1999; Charlot & Fall 2000; Popescu et al. 2000; Witt & Gordon 2000). The grain properties may depend significantly on UV field (Gordon, Calzetti & Witt 1997).

Fourth, dust attenuation in the optical and near-IR seems to increase with luminosity for nearby, normal late-type galaxies (Giovanelli et al. 1995; Tully et al. 1998; Masters, Giovanelli & Haynes 2003). This is not at odds with the result of Popescu & Tuffs (2002). Late-type spirals and irregulars have bluer optical-to-near-IR colours than early-type spirals (e.g. Boselli et al. 1997), which may indicate that the former galaxies reach their maximum star formation activity more recently than the latter ones (e.g. Kennicutt 1998; Gavazzi, Pierini & Boselli 1996). Thus they are expected to produce relatively more far-UV photons than optical and, especially, near-IR ones. However the far-UV photons are the most affected by dust attenuation (e.g. Calzetti 2001).

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relation between far-IR luminosity and far-UV luminosity (produced by stars formed in recent episodes of star formation) for nearby, normal late-type galaxies, taking into account the observational result that dust attenuation depends on luminosity. We investigate how the 40–1000 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$-to-0.165 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ luminosity ratio behaves as a function of the near-IR luminosity (or dynamical mass – e.g. Gavazzi et al. 1996). This study is complementary to those of Buat & Xu (1996), Buat et al. (1999), Gavazzi et al. (2002) and Boselli, Gavazzi & Sanvito (2003), who focussed on the value of the attenuation at 0.2 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ as a function of the IRAS 40–120 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$-to-0.2 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ luminosity ratio and/or on the attenuation function111The extinction curve describes the absorption and scattering properties of a mix of dust grains of given size distribution and chemical composition as a function of wavelength ($`\lambda `$); the attenuation function is the convolution of the extinction curve with the geometry of the dusty stellar system. Attenuation depends on structure of the dusty ISM and dust amount. ($`\tau _\lambda `$) for normal late-type galaxies at $`z=0`$.

## 2 The sample

We select a sample of 30 nearby, normal spiral and irregular galaxies on the basis of available total photometry in the far-IR – at 60, 100 and 170 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ – (Tuffs et al. 2002a,b; Stickel et al. 2000) and in the far-UV – 0.165 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ – (Brosch et al. 1997; Rifatto, Longo & Capaccioli 1995). In particular, 60, 100 and 170 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ fluxes from Tuffs et al. were all measured with ISOPHOT; conversely only the 170 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ fluxes from Stickel et al. were measured with this instrument, the 60 and 100 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ fluxes listed by these authors coming from the previous IRAS space mission. All the 0.165 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ measurements were taken with FAUST (Lampton et al. 1993).

Furthermore, 28 galaxies out of these 30 have total photometry in the near-IR – $`\mathrm{K}^{}`$ band (2.1 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$) or $`\mathrm{K}_\mathrm{s}`$ band (2.2 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$) – (Boselli et al. 1997 and Jarrett et al. 2003, respectively). We also determine the inclination ($`i`$) of each galaxy from its axial ratio, listed in the RC3 (de Vaucouleurs et al. 1991), as in Bottinelli et al. (1983).

The sample under investigation contains 24 Virgo Cluster member galaxies (Binggeli, Sandage & Tammann 1985 – VCC), assumed to lie at the common distance222The Virgo Cluster is probably elongated in the direction of the line-of-sight (e.g. Yasuda, Fukugita & Okamura 1997). Nevertheless, when the Tully-Fisher distances of the latter authors are used, for 17 of the 24 VCC galaxies of this sample, the magnitude dependence in Eq. 2 of Sect. 3 does not change. of 11.5$`h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ (as in Tuffs et al. 2002a,b), where $`h`$ is the Hubble constant in units of 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$. For the remaining 6 non-VCC galaxies of the sample, we determine kinematical distances from the recession velocities (lower than 1000 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) listed in Stickel et al. (2000), after correction to the Galactic Standard of Rest with the NED Velocity Correction Calculator. These 6 galaxies are not used in the determination of Eq. 2 in Sect. 3, since their kinematical distances may be severely affected by motions different from the Hubble free-flow.

For individual objects, the continuum emission from dust in the 40–1000 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ range comes either from Popescu et al. (2002) or from Pierini et al. (2003b). It is calculated through far-IR SED fitting, where each SED is fitted with two modified-blackbody functions by constraining one parameter of the fit, i.e., the temperature (47 $`\mathrm{K}`$) of the “warm” dust emission component (see Popescu et al. for a discussion of this method). We assume a conservative uncertainty of 30 per cent for these far-IR–mm fluxes. Here we determine $`L_{\mathrm{dust}}/L_{\mathrm{FUV}}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$, i.e., the ratio of the 40–1000 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ luminosity ($`L_{\mathrm{dust}}`$) to the observed (i.e., not corrected for internal dust attenuation but corrected for Galactic extinction as in Burstein & Heiles 1982) stellar luminosity at 0.165 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ ($`L_{\mathrm{FUV}}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$). Errors in the observed 0.165 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ fluxes are listed in the data sources.

Furthermore, we assume that $`\mathrm{K}^{}\mathrm{K}=0`$ or $`\mathrm{K}_\mathrm{s}\mathrm{K}=0`$ for all the sample galaxies. Thus we will speak of K-band magnitudes (or luminosities) hereafter. We assume an error of 0.45 mag for the observed (i.e, not corrected for internal dust attenuation but corrected for the negligible Galactic extinction in K) K-band absolute magnitude ($`M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$) of each galaxy, which is comprised of an error of 0.1 mag in the photometry and an error of 20 per cent in the distance.

Tab. 1 lists the galaxy parameters relevant to this study.

## 3 Results

Fig. 1 reproduces the 40–1000 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$-to-observed 0.165 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ luminosity ratio $`L_{\mathrm{dust}}/L_{\mathrm{FUV}}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$ as a function of galaxy inclination $`i`$. Galaxies are grouped in 5 classes: S0/a–Sab, Sb–Sbc, Sc–Scd, Sd–Im, and amorphous or peculiar spirals. From the visual inspection of Fig. 1, we conclude that:

1. $`L_{\mathrm{dust}}/L_{\mathrm{FUV}}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$ tends to increase with increasing galaxy inclination, whatever the galaxy morphology;
2. early-type spirals tend to have larger values of $`L_{\mathrm{dust}}/L_{\mathrm{FUV}}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$ than later ones333The only exception to this picture is NGC 3077. We have no obvious explanation for that..

The first trend is easy to interpret:

$$L_{\mathrm{FUV}}^{\mathrm{obs}}=L_{\mathrm{FUV}}e^{\tau _{\mathrm{FUV}}},$$
(1)
where $`\tau _{\mathrm{FUV}}`$ and $`L_{\mathrm{FUV}}`$ are the attenuation optical depth and the unattenuated luminosity at 0.165 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$, respectively. Light in the far-UV is produced by young stars associated with the galaxy disk. Dust is observed to be distributed only in the disk of a late-type galaxy, whatever the Hubble type. Thus $`\tau _{\mathrm{FUV}}`$ increases with $`i`$ owing to the increasing disk-averaged dust column density along the line-of-sight, for fixed structure of the ISM, dust amount and extinction curve.

The second trend in Fig. 1 is new and more interesting. It suggests that $`L_{\mathrm{dust}}/L_{\mathrm{FUV}}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$ depends not only on dust properties (geometry, distribution, clumpiness, total amount and grain type) but also on stellar properties.

Both stellar properties and dust attenuation seem to be related to near-IR luminosity (cf. Introduction). For this reason, in Fig. 2, we plot $`L_{\mathrm{dust}}/L_{\mathrm{FUV}}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$ vs. $`M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$, the absolute K-band magnitude not corrected for internal dust attenuation. Fig. 2 shows that $`L_{\mathrm{dust}}/L_{\mathrm{FUV}}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$ is larger for more luminous galaxies, whatever their morphology.

A least-squares linear fit to the data of the 19 VCC galaxies of Tab. 1 with K-band data and detected at 0.165 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ gives:

$$log(L_{\mathrm{dust}}/L_{\mathrm{FUV}}^{\mathrm{obs}})=0.25(\pm 0.03)M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}4.84(\pm 0.55)$$
(2)
with a reduced $`\chi ^2`$ equal to 2.3. This fit well describes the behaviour of all galaxies in Fig. 2. It is to zeroth order independent of $`i`$ and Hubble type. Eq. 2 means that

$$L_{\mathrm{dust}}/L_{\mathrm{FUV}}e^{\tau _\mathrm{K}(\alpha +0.62)}L_\mathrm{K}^{0.62},$$
(3)
where $`\tau _\mathrm{K}`$ and $`L_\mathrm{K}`$ are the K-band attenuation optical depth and unattenuated luminosity, respectively, while $`\alpha `$ represents the far-UV–K slope of the attenuation curve, being

$$\alpha =\tau _{\mathrm{FUV}}/\tau _\mathrm{K}.$$
(4)
Both $`\tau _\mathrm{K}`$ and $`\alpha `$ are expected to depend on $`L_\mathrm{K}`$ in a non-straightforward way, as we will discuss in Sect. 4. However observations show that the inclination-averaged attenuation optical depth (e.g. $`\tau _\mathrm{K}`$) increases with luminosity (cf. Introduction). Conversely, neither the behaviour of $`\alpha `$ with luminosity has been established observationally, nor the dependence of $`\alpha `$ on dust attenuation has been thoroughly investigated through models of radiative transfer yet. In Sect. 4, we will explore how the solid-angle averaged $`\alpha `$ depends on the solid-angle averaged attenuation optical depth in K band, whatever the galaxy morphology, through two different models of attenuation of stellar light by internal dust. Here we determine the dependence of $`\tau _\mathrm{K}`$ on $`L_\mathrm{K}`$, averaged over $`i`$ and Hubble type.

We extract this information from the sample of Masters et al. (2003), since large statistics are needed for a robust conclusion. By doing so, we may introduce a systematic bias in the following analysis, which arises from the different selection criteria of the Masters et al. sample and the subsample of 19 VCC galaxies used in the determination of Eq. 2. We will discuss this issue in Sect. 4.

For a sample of 15,224 nearby spiral galaxies of different morphology, with known $`z`$, and photometry from the 2 Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS) Extended Source Catalog (Jarrett et al. 2003), Masters et al. (2003) find that the correction to face on of $`M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$ can not be described by a simple linear dependence on the decimal logarithm of the major-to-minor axis ratio ($`log(a/b)`$). Furthermore, they find a bi-linear dependence of the correction to face on of $`M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$ on $`M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$ itself, when they bin their sample in luminosity and, thus, take an average over inclination and Hubble type in each bin (their Fig. 13)444This result is obtained under the assumption that all disk-galaxies are transparent at the 21 K-mag arcsec-2 isophotal radius (see Masters et al. 2003 for a discussion).. In particular, Masters et al. conclude that the average K-band attenuation is null for galaxies with $`M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$ fainter than -20.9, it increases with increasing luminosity for galaxies with $`22.2<M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}20.9`$, it is constant for galaxies with $`M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}22.2`$. However, Masters et al. note that a linear fit to their data is not inconsistent with the data errors. A linear trend is consistent with the results obtained by Giovanelli et al. (1995), in a way analogous to Masters et al. but for a sample of 2816 Sb–Sd (mostly Sc) galaxies observed in I band (0.81 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$), and, independently, by Tully et al. (1998), for a sample of 87 spiral galaxies observed in the optical and near-IR.

Hence we assume that the inclination-averaged K-band attenuation changes smoothly with $`L_\mathrm{K}`$, whatever the galaxy morphology, and, in particular, that

$$e^{\tau _\mathrm{K}}L_\mathrm{K}^\beta ,$$
(5)
where $`\beta >0`$. We determine $`\beta `$ from Fig. 13 of Masters et al. (2003) as follows:

$$M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}M_{\mathrm{K},0}=(0.04M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}0.75)log(a/b),$$
(6)
where $`M_{\mathrm{K},0}`$ is the absolute K-band magnitude corrected for attenuation to face on, and $`log(a/b)`$ is the decimal logarithm of the major-to-minor axis ratio, averaged over $`i`$ and Hubble type. Eq. 6 can be re-expressed as:

$$e^{\tau _\mathrm{K}}e^{\tau _{\mathrm{K},0}}(L_\mathrm{K}e^{\tau _\mathrm{K}})^{0.04log(a/b)},$$
(7)
where $`\tau _{\mathrm{K},0}`$ is the attenuation optical depth in K band for a face-on disk galaxy. $`\tau _{\mathrm{K},0}`$ depends on $`L_\mathrm{K}`$, of course, but is reasonably expected to be very close to 0 for all luminosities, from the results of Masters et al., so that it introduces a second order effect in Eq. 7. Thus we substitute $`e^{\tau _{\mathrm{K},0}}`$ with 1 in Eq. 7. In addition, we determine an inclination-averaged value for $`log(a/b)=0.48`$, considering that the intrinsic spatial thickness of the stellar disk is a function of the Hubble type of its parent galaxy (Bottinelli et al. 1983). After substitution of the latter value in Eq. 7, we obtain a relation between the inclination-averaged K-band attenuation and $`L_\mathrm{K}`$, where $`\beta 0.02`$. Hence Eq. 3 becomes:

$$L_{\mathrm{dust}}/L_{\mathrm{FUV}}L_\mathrm{K}^\delta ,$$
(8)
where $`\delta =0.610.02\alpha `$. This is our main observational result.

## 4 Discussion and conclusions

Eq. 8 derives from our data (Eq. 3) under the assumption that the inclination-averaged K-band attenuation changes smoothly with $`L_\mathrm{K}`$ (Eq. 5), whatever the galaxy morphology. We calibrate the latter behaviour with the data of Masters et al. (2003) (Eq. 6). We adopt linear fits to our data (Fig. 2) and to those of Masters et al. (their Fig. 13) for the only reason that a linear dependence is the simplest way to interpret the behaviour of the quantities in each of these two figures. With this caveat in mind, we recall that $`\tau _\mathrm{K}`$ and $`\alpha `$ in Eq. 3 are expected to depend on $`L_\mathrm{K}`$ for at least two reasons.

First, the disk-averaged dust column density may be expressed as the disk-averaged product of metal abundance (relative to H), hydrogen-column density and depletion factor of metals onto dust grains. Disk metallicity increases with luminosity (Zaritsky, Kennicutt & Huchra 1994) but the mass-fractions of atomic, molecular and total (i.e., atomic$`+`$molecular) hydrogen seem to decrease with luminosity (Gavazzi et al. 1996).

Second, in opposition to the far-UV luminosity, the K-band luminosity is produced also by old stars, part of them residing also in the central, ellipsoidal bulge, if any. Intuitively, the difference in dust/stars distribution between bulge and disk components of a bulge$`+`$disk system is expected to produce different attenuation curves for these two components, for fixed properties of the dusty ISM and galaxy inclination. Everything else being fixed, the attenuation curve of a bulge$`+`$disk system will depend on the $`\lambda `$-dependent bulge-to-disk luminosity ratio. Thus, $`\tau _\mathrm{K}`$ and $`\alpha `$ will depend on the bulge-to-disk K-band luminosity ratio and, thus, on K-band luminosity, since this ratio increases with K-band luminosity (e.g. Graham 2001).

Observations show that dust attenuation in the optical and near-IR increases with increasing luminosity for nearby normal late-type galaxies, whatever the Hubble type (Giovanelli et al. 1995; Tully et al. 1998; Masters et al. 2003).

In Sect. 3, we determine this dependence from the data of Masters et al., whose sample comprises 15,244 nearby, normal spiral galaxies with $`cz>3000\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (the redshift $`z`$ is determined from the Doppler effect in the HI line), selected from the Arecibo General Catalog (a private compilation by these authors known as the AGC), and with available near-IR photometry (Jarrett et al. 2003). The luminosity distribution of the Masters et al. sample peaks at $`M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}23`$, most of the galaxies of their sample being within one magnitude of this (see Fig. 11 in Masters et al.). Conversely, the subsample of 19 VCC galaxies used to determine Eq. 2 represents equally well late-type galaxies with $`M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}18`$ (cf. Tab. 1 and Fig. 2). The overlap in K-band luminosity of these two samples is far from being slim: the Masters et al. sample extends to K-band magnitudes as faint as ours (their Fig. 11). The fraction of their galaxies fainter than -20.6 in K is a few per cent of those at the peak of the K-band luminosity distribution, but it still corresponds to several hundreds of galaxies. Nevertheless, the faintest-luminosity bin in Fig. 13 of Masters et al. is dominated by objects with $`21.2M_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{obs}}20`$. Hence, the adoption of Eq. 6 for the subsample of 19 VCC galaxies used to determine Eq. 2 is an extrapolation of the Masters et al. results to K-band magnitudes as faint as -18.

The incompleteness of the Masters et al. sample at K-band magnitudes fainter than -23 may be related primarily to the sensitivity limit of radio telescopes in the HI line and, secondarily, to the limiting K-band magnitude (13.4 mag) of the 2MASS (Jarrett et al. 2000). Detection in the HI line surely depends on amount and distribution of HI gas and, thus, may be expected to bias the resultant sample against “HI anaemic” or, in general, HI-poor spirals, whatever the galaxy luminosity and morphology. On the other hand, selection in K band bias the resultant sample against late-type, gas-rich galaxies, since the K-band surface brightness decreases towards later-type galaxies (e.g. Jarrett et al. 2003). Conversely, Eq. 2 derives from 19 galaxies mostly selected from the optically complete sample observed by Tuffs et al. (2002a,b) with ISOPHOT, according to the availability of detections in the far-IR and far-UV (cf. Sect. 2). Given the complex relations between metal abundance, HI-gas content and luminosity, it is difficult to establish whether the Masters et al. (2003) sample is indeed biased towards higher or lower internal extinction with respect to the subsample of Eq. 2. Thus we acknowledge the uncertain derivation of the relation between dust attenuation and luminosity (Eq. 6) (see also discussion in Masters et al.) and its extension to the subsample of Eq. 2. However, we anticipate that the value of $`\delta `$ (Eq. 8) at the high-luminosity end of the galaxy K-band luminosity function is robust against an error in $`\beta `$ (Eq. 5) of a factor of 2 or so.

At this point, we note that the interpretation of our main observational result (Eq. 8) depends critically on the value of the parameter $`\delta `$, i.e. on the far-UV–K slope of the attenuation function (Eq. 4), averaged over galaxy inclination and Hubble type. We take this information from existing models of attenuation of stellar light by internal dust. In particular, we consider those of Witt & Gordon (2000) and Charlot & Fall (2000), because these two investigations focus on different aspects of internal-dust attenuation in galaxies.

The Monte Carlo simulations of multiple-scattering radiative transfer by Witt & Gordon discuss in detail the dependence of $`\tau _\lambda `$ on geometry, structure of the dusty ISM (homogeneous vs. two-phase clumpy), dust column density (parameterized by $`N_{\mathrm{dust}}`$555$`N_{\mathrm{dust}}`$ is the value of the radial attenuation optical depth at V band (0.55 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$), from the center to the edge of the dust environment, where dust has a constant density, homogeneous distribution. It gives the amount of dust of each Witt & Gordon model.), and grain properties (Milky Way-type dust vs. Small Magellanic Cloud-type dust). Witt & Gordon assume three different, spherical dust/stars configurations, ranging from a geometry (DUSTY) where dust and stars are intermixed, to a geometry (SHELL) where dust and stars are separated. We calculate values of $`\alpha `$ from the attenuation functions listed by Witt & Gordon, for the range 0.25–8 in $`N_{\mathrm{dust}}`$. This range provides values of $`\tau _\mathrm{K}`$ between 0 and 0.11 (or larger), where 0.11 is the range in $`\tau _\mathrm{K}`$ expected from Eq. 5, for the range of 2.4 orders of magnitude in $`L_\mathrm{K}`$ (Fig. 2). Apart from the homogeneous SHELL models, which are anyway very far from describing a real dusty galaxy (e.g. Calzetti 2001), for all other models $`\alpha `$ ranges between 2.8 and 40.7, $`\alpha `$ increasing by almost a factor of 5, on average, when $`N_{\mathrm{dust}}`$ decreases by a factor of 32. This increase in $`\alpha `$ depends not only on geometry but also on dust-type, since the SMC extinction curve has a larger (smaller) value at 0.165 (2.2) $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ than the MW extinction curve, and on structure of the ISM, since a clumpy medium is more transparent than a homogeneous one. From the previous models we conclude that the parameter $`\delta `$ (Eq. 8) is positive, in general, and decreases towards 0 when going from the more luminous (i.e., the more attenuated – cf. Eq. 5) galaxies of our sample to the less luminous (i.e., the less attenuated) ones. Slightly negative values of $`\delta `$ may be reached, if SMC-type dust is present.

We note that, in the Witt & Gordon models, the dust/stars distribution is independent of the characteristic age of the stellar population. However, younger stellar populations are associated with dustier regions, and vice versa for the older ones (e.g. Kuchinski et al. 1998; Silva et al. 1998; Xilouris et al. 1999; Charlot & Fall 2000; Popescu et al. 2000). For this reason the previous estimates of $`\alpha `$ and $`\delta `$ must be considered “cum grano salis”. In particular, they constitute lower and upper limits, respectively.

The results of Fig. 2 can also be interpreted in the framework of the Charlot & Fall (2000) models, which describe the effects of dust on the integrated spectral properties of galaxies, based on an idealized description of the ISM. One of the key features of these models is the accounting of the different attenuations affecting young and old stars in galaxies, as manifested through the different attenuation of line and continuum photons (Calzetti 2001). Charlot & Fall show that the observed ultraviolet, infrared, H$`\alpha `$ and H$`\beta `$(0.486 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$) luminosities of nearby starburst galaxies constrain the wavelength dependence of primarily the attenuation affecting old stars in galaxies, as young stars are typically embedded in optically thick, giant molecular clouds. The stellar population-averaged attenuation curve depends on the relative ratio of young and old stars in a galaxy, and hence on the star formation history (see their Fig. 5). For the purpose of this study, we compute Charlot & Fall models with an exponentially declining star formation history of characteristic timescale 6 Gyr (typical of a spiral galaxy). For the standard case in which the attenuation optical depth affecting stars older than $`10^7`$ yr is one third of the attenuation optical depth at V band $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ seen by young stars, we find that, for $`\tau _\mathrm{V}=0.3`$ (8.0), $`\alpha `$ ranges from 10.6 to 12.9 (6.3 to 6.9) at ages between 0.3 and 6.0 Gyr. If the ratio of the attenuation optical depths affecting old and young stars is lowered from 0.3 to 0.1, $`\alpha `$ is found to range from 16.6 to 29.5 (6.4 to 8.5). Overall, this implies $`\delta 0.02`$–0.48, with $`\delta `$ increasing with decreasing $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ at fixed age.

At this point the reader may wonder how a change of the bulge-to-disk luminosity ratio affects the solid-angle averaged values of $`\alpha `$ and $`\delta `$. Honestly, it is hard to predict the results of radiative transfer models for a bulge$`+`$disk geometry. Intuitively, however, we may expect that the inclination-averaged attenuation optical depth at optical/near-IR wavelengths is larger for the bulge than for the disk, since, for most of the possible values of $`i`$, roughly half of the bulge light will be affected by the dustiest, central region of the dusty double-exponential disk, while the disk light is affected by the whole, extended dust distribution. We may use the Charlot & Fall models to describe this effect. An increasing bulge-to-disk luminosity ratio would imply that the attenuation optical depth of the old stars increases with respect to the attenuation optical depth of the stars younger than $`10^7`$ years. As shown before, an increase of this ratio (e.g. from 0.1 to 0.3) would decrease $`\alpha `$. As a consequence, $`\delta `$ is positive over a wide range of luminosities and Hubble types and increases with increasing K-band luminosity666In the Charlot & Fall models, the attenuation function may be constrained from observations (or even determined in a probabilistic way), without specifying the spatial distribution and optical properties of the dust. Other models of attenuation of stellar light by internal dust include the 3D distribution of the stars, in bulge (if any) and disk, and of the dust, in the disk (e.g. Xilouris et al. 1999; Popescu et al. 2000). It is beyond the goals of this paper to compare values of the solid-angle averaged $`\alpha `$ obtained from different models. Anyway, we do not expect eventual differences to erase our conclusion on the parameter $`\delta `$, since all the models of dust attenuation predict that $`\tau _\lambda `$ becomes “greyer” (i.e., that $`\alpha `$ decreases) when the dust amount increases..

The main uncertainty in Eq. 8 is the sign of the parameter $`\delta `$ at the very-faint end of the galaxy K-band luminosity function. In fact, both the Witt & Gordon (2000) and the Charlot & Fall (2000) models predict large values of $`\alpha `$ for very low attenuations (i.e., very low luminosities). Hence the precise value of $`\delta `$ for the least luminous galaxies depends critically on the statistical behaviours determined from Fig. 2 of this work (Eq. 2), and from Fig. 13 of Masters et al. (2003) (Eq. 6).

To summarise, $`L_{\mathrm{dust}}/L_{\mathrm{FUV}}`$ and $`L_\mathrm{K}`$ seem to increase together for a wide range in dust and stellar population parameters. Thus our analysis points toward the absence of a universal ratio of far-IR luminosity to unattenuated far-UV luminosity for normal late-type galaxies at $`z=0`$.

The relative contribution of the emission in the far-UV to the bolometric stellar luminosity of a galaxy is expected to decrease with increasing K-band luminosity (or dynamical mass – Gavazzi et al. 1996) or towards earlier spirals (Kennicutt 1998). In this case, the larger fraction of optical/near-IR photons produced by the stellar populations and the larger attenuation at these wavelengths positively couple together so that the relative contribution of the far-UV photons to dust heating decreases.

Thus the far-IR luminosity systematically overestimates $`SFR`$ in more luminous, earlier spiral galaxies, where a larger fraction of the dust heating is due to optical/near-IR photons, emitted by intermediate/low-mass stars formed mostly in relatively old episodes of star formation. Conversely, it systematically underestimates $`SFR`$ in less luminous, later spiral/irregular galaxies, where the maximum star formation activity is more recent but the far-UV attenuation optical depth is lower.

The limited statistics and the uncertainty affecting the scaling relations that we determine (Eq. 2 and 6) do not allow us to establish quantitative conclusions, but an analogous analysis making use of larger data-sets, available in the near future (e.g. from GALEX, ASTRO-F and SIRTF), and of more advanced models will allow a quantitative test of our conclusions.

## Acknowledgments

We are grateful to S. Charlot for useful discussions and his comments on this manuscript. D.P. also acknowledges useful discussions with A.N. Witt. We thank the referee, C.C. Popescu, for her detailed, insightful comments and suggestions. C.M. thanks the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, and the Programme for Investment in the Future (ZIP) of the German Government for their support. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


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# Logarithmic correction to the Cardy-Verlinde formula in Topological Reissner-Nordström de Sitter Space

## 1 Introduction

It is commonly believed that any valid theory of quantum gravity must necessary incorporate the Bekenestein-Hawking definition of black hole entropy  into its conceptual framework. However, the microscopic origin of this entropy remains an enigma for two reasons. First of all although the various counting methods have pointed to the expected semi-classical result, there is still a lack of recognition as to what degrees of freedom are truly being counted. This ambiguity can be attributed to most of these methods being based on dualities with simpler theories, thus obscuring the physical interpretation from the perspective of the black hole in question. Secondly, the vast and varied number of successful counting techniques only serve to cloud up an already fuzzy picture.
de Sitter/Conformal Field Theory correspondence (dS/CFT) may hold the key to its microscopical interpretation. Naively, we would expect dS/CFT correspondence to proceed along the lines of Anti-de Sitter /Conformal Field Theory (AdS/CFT) correspondence because de Sitter spacetime can be obtained from anti-de Sitter spacetime by analytically continuing the cosmological constant to imaginary values. However, local and global properties of dS spacetime lead to unexpected obstructions. Unlike AdS, the boundary of dS spacetime is spacelike and its dual CFT is Euclidean. Moreover, dS spacetime does not admit a global timelike Kiling vector. The time dependence of the spacetime metric precludes a consistent definition of energy and the use of Cardy formula to compute dS entropy. Finally dS/CFT duality leads to boundary operators with complex conformal weights, i.e. to a non-unitary CFT. In spite of these difficulties, some progress towards a consistent definition of dS/CFT correspondence has been achieved -
There has been much recent interest in calculating the quantum corrections to $`S_{BH}`$ (the Bekenestein-Hawking entropy) -. The leading-order correction is proportional to $`\mathrm{ln}S_{BH}`$. There are, two distinct and separable sources for this logarithmic correction  (see also recent paper by Gour and Medved ). Firstly, there should be a correction to the number of microstates that is a quantum correction to the microcanonical entropy, secondly, as any black hole will typically exchange heat or matter with its surrounding, there should also be a correction due to thermal fluctuations in the horizon area. In this paper we consider Topological Reissner-Nordstrom black hole in de Sitter space in arbitrary dimension. In section $`2`$ we calculate the corresponding thermodynamical quantities for both cosmological and black hole horizon. In section $`3`$ at first we review the calculation of the logarithmic correction due to the thermal fluctuation to the entropy, then we obtain the corresponding correction to the Cardy-Verlind formula. Last section contain a summary of paper.

## 2 Thermodynamical quantities of TRNdS black hole

The topological Reissner-Nordström dS black hole solution in $`(n+2)`$-dimensions has the following form

$`ds^2=f(r)dt^2+f(r)^1dr^2+r^2\gamma _{ij}dx^idx^j,`$
$`f(r)=k{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _nM}{r^{n1}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{n\omega _n^2Q^2}{8(n1)r^{2n2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{r^2}{l^2}},`$ (1)
where

$$\omega _n=\frac{16\pi G}{n\text{Vol}(\mathrm{\Sigma })},\varphi =\frac{n}{4(n1)}\frac{\omega _nQ}{r^{n1}},$$
(2)
where $`Q`$ is the electric/magnetic charge of Maxwell field, $`M`$ is assumed to be a positive constant, $`l`$ is the curvature radius of de Sitter space, $`\gamma _{ij}dx^idx^j`$ denotes the line element of an $`n`$-dimensional hypersurface $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_k`$ with the constant curvature $`n(n1)k`$ and its volume $`V(\mathrm{\Sigma }_k)`$. $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_k`$ is given by spherical ($`k=1`$), flat ($`k=0`$), hyperbolic $`(k=1)`$, $`\varphi `$ is the elctrostatic potential related to the charge $`Q`$. When $`k=1`$, the metric Eq.(1) is just the Reissner-Nordström-de Sitter solution. For general $`M`$ and $`Q`$, the equation $`f(r)=0`$ may have four real roots. Three of them are real, the largest on is the cosmological horizon $`r_c`$, the smallest is the inner (Cauchy) horizon of black hole, the middle one is the outer horizon $`r_+`$ of the black hole. And the fourth is negative and has no physical meaning. The case $`M=Q=0`$ reduces to the de Sitter space with a cosmological horizon $`r_c=l`$.
When $`k=0`$ or $`k=1`$, there is only one positive real root of $`f(r)`$, and this locates the position of cosmological horizon $`r_c`$.
In the case of $`k=0`$, $`\gamma _{ij}dx^idx^j`$ is an $`n`$dimensional Ricci flat hypersurface, when $`M=Q=0`$ the solution Eq.(1) goes to pure de Sitter space

$$ds^2=\frac{r^2}{l^2}dt^2\frac{l^2}{r^2}dr^2+r^2dx_n^2,$$
(3)
in which $`r`$ becomes a timelike coordinate.
When $`Q=0`$, and $`MM`$ the metric Eq.(1)is the TdS (Topological de Sitter) solution , which have a cosmological horizon and a naked singularity.
In the BBM prescription , the gravitational mass, subtracted the anomalous Casimir energy, of the TRNdS solution is

$$E^c=M=\frac{r_c^{n1}}{\omega _n}\left(k\frac{r_c^2}{l^2}+\frac{n\omega _n^2Q^2}{8(n1)r_c^{2n2}}\right).$$
(4)
The Hawking temperature $`T_{TRNdS}^c`$ and entropy $`S_{TRNdS}^c`$ associated with the cosmological horizon are

$`T_{TRNdS}^c={\displaystyle \frac{f^{}(r_c)}{4\pi }}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi r_c}}\left((n1)k+(n+1){\displaystyle \frac{r_c^2}{l^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{n\omega _n^2Q^2}{8r_c^{2n2}}}\right),`$
$`S_{TRNdS}^c={\displaystyle \frac{r_c^n\text{Vol}(\mathrm{\Sigma })}{4G}},`$ (5)
where $`V_c=r_c^nVol(\mathrm{\Sigma })`$ is area of the cosmological horizon. The AD mass of TRNdS solution can be expressed in terms of black hole horizon radius $`r_+`$ and charge $`Q`$,

$$E^b=M=\frac{r_+^{n1}}{\omega _n}\left(1\frac{r_+^2}{l^2}+\frac{n\omega _n^2Q^2}{8(n1)r_+^{2n2}}\right).$$
(6)
The black hole horizon Hawking temperature $`T_{TRNdS}^b`$ and entropy $`S_{TRNdS}^b`$ are given by

$`T_{TRNdS}^b={\displaystyle \frac{f^{}(r_+)}{4\pi }}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi r_+}}\left((n1)(n+1){\displaystyle \frac{r_+^2}{l^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{n\omega _n^2Q^2}{8r_+^{2n2}}}\right),`$
$`S_{TRNdS}^b={\displaystyle \frac{r_+^n\text{Vol}(\mathrm{\Sigma })}{4G}},`$ (7)
where $`r=r_+`$ is black hole horizon and $`V_+=r_+^nVol(\mathrm{\Sigma })`$ is area of it in $`(n+2)`$dimensional asymptotically dS space. Therefore, there are two kinds of temperatures corresponding to two horizon, the system is not thermodynamically stable. However, the system should be adiabatic since one can define the temperature in the vicinity of each horizon.
Making use of the fact that the metric for the boundary CFT can be determined only up to a conformal factor, we rescale the boundary metric for the CFT to be of the following form

$$ds_{CFT}^2=\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim}\left[\frac{l^2}{r^2}ds_{n+2}^2\right]=dt^2+l^2\gamma _{ij}dx^idx^j.$$
(8)
Then the thermodynamic relations between the boundary CFT and the bulk TRNdS are given by

$`E_{CFT}`$ $`=`$ $`M{\displaystyle \frac{l}{r}},\mathrm{\Phi }_{CFT}=\mathrm{\Phi }{\displaystyle \frac{l}{r}},`$ (9)
$`T_{CFT}`$ $`=`$ $`T_{TRNdS}{\displaystyle \frac{l}{r}},S_{CFT}=S_{TRNdS},`$ (10)
The specific heat of the black hole is given by

$$C^{c,b}=\frac{dE^{c,b}}{dT}=\frac{4\pi r_{c,+}^2(8k(1n)l^2r_{c,+}^{n2}+8(n+1)r_{c,+}^n+n\omega _n^2l^2r_{c,+}^nQ^2)}{\omega _n(8l^2(n1)k+8r_{c,+}^2(n+1)+(12n)l^2\omega _n^2r_{c,+}^{22n}Q^2)}.$$
(11)
As one can see the above specific heat is positive in the case $`k=1,k=0`$, for $`k=1`$, $`C^{c,b}`$ is positive only with following condition

$$8(n+1)r_{c,+}^n+n\omega _n^2l^2r_{c,+}^nQ^2>8k(1n)l^2r_{c,+}^{n2}$$
(12)
## 3 Logarithmic correction to the entropy and Cardy-Verlinde formula

At first we review the calculation of the logarithmic correction to the entropy (see the paper by Das et al. ), the partition function in the canonical ensemble is given by

$$Z(\beta )=_0^{\mathrm{}}\rho (E)e^{\beta E}𝑑E,$$
(13)
where $`T=1/\beta `$ is the temperature in units of the Boltzmann constant $`k_B`$. The density of states can be obtained from (13) by doing an inverse Laplace transform (keeping $`E`$ fixed)

$$\rho (E)=\frac{1}{2\pi i}_{ci\mathrm{}}^{c+i\mathrm{}}Z(\beta )e^{\beta E}𝑑\beta =\frac{1}{2\pi i}_{ci\mathrm{}}^{c+i\mathrm{}}e^{S(\beta )}𝑑\beta ,$$
(14)
where

$$S(\beta )=\mathrm{ln}Z(\beta )+\beta E$$
(15)
is the exact entropy as a function of temperature, not just its value at equilibrium. The complex integral can be performed by the method of steepest descent around the saddle point $`\beta _0(=1/T_0)`$, such that $`S_0^{}:=(S(\beta )/\beta )_{\beta =\beta _0}=0`$. $`T_0`$ is the equilibrium temperature, such that the usual equilibrium relation $`E=(\mathrm{ln}Z(\beta )/\beta )_{\beta =\beta _0}`$ is obeyed. Expanding $`S(\beta )`$ around $`\beta =\beta _0`$, we get

$$S=S_0+\frac{1}{2}(\beta \beta _0)^2S_0^{\prime \prime }+\mathrm{},$$
(16)
Substituting (16) in (14) :

$$\rho (E)=\frac{e^{S_0}}{\sqrt{2\pi S_0^{\prime \prime }}}.$$
(17)
Note that the density of states $`\rho (E)`$ and $`S_0^{\prime \prime }`$ have dimensions of inverse energy and energy squared respectively. Henceforth, we set the Boltzmann constant $`k_B`$ to unity. The logarithm of the density of states $`\rho (E)`$ is then the microcanonical entropy

$$𝒮=\mathrm{ln}\rho (E)=S_0\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}S_0^{\prime \prime }+\text{(higher order terms)}.$$
(18)
Now, we will estimate $`S_0^{\prime \prime }`$, without assuming any specific form of $`S(\beta )`$. From Eq.(15), it follows that

$$S^{\prime \prime }(\beta )=\frac{1}{Z}(\frac{^2Z(\beta )}{\beta ^2})\frac{1}{Z^2}(\frac{Z}{\beta })^2.$$
(19)
This means that $`S_0^{\prime \prime }`$ is nothing but the fluctuation squared of energy from the equilibrium, i.e.,

$$S_0^{\prime \prime }=<E^2><E>^2,$$
(20)
where, by the definition of $`\beta _0`$, $`E=<E>=(\mathrm{ln}Z/\beta )_{\beta =\beta _0}`$. It immediately follows that

$$S_0^{\prime \prime }=T^2C$$
(21)
where $`C(E/T)_{T_0}`$ is the dimensionless specific heat. Substituting for $`S_0^{\prime \prime }`$ from (21) in (18), we get:

$$𝒮=\mathrm{ln}\rho =S_0\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}\left(CT^2\right)+\mathrm{}$$
(22)
This equation can only be directly applied if the specific heat is non negative. Therefore the entropy always has the logarithmic correction due to thermal fluctuation. To get entropy as a logarithm of dimensionless quantity, we can multiply the density of state with $``$ which has the dimension of energy , then the correction to the entropy becomes

$$𝒮=S_0+\mathrm{ln}\frac{}{\sqrt{CT^2}}+\mathrm{}$$
(23)
we can set the scale $``$ to be the temperature $`T`$ of the system, this is because we have temperature as the only available scale in canonical ensamble. Therefore we have

$$𝒮=S_0\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}C+\mathrm{}$$
(24)
When $`r_{c,+}^2l^2`$, $`CnS_0`$, in this case we have

$$𝒮=S_0\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}S_0+\mathrm{}$$
(25)
It is now possible to drive the corresponding correction to Cardy-Verlinde formula. The Casimir energy $`E_c`$, defined as

$$E_C^{c,b}=(n+1)E^{c,b}nT^{c,b}S^{c,b}n\varphi ^{c,b}Q,$$
(26)
in this case, is found to be

$$E_C^{c,b}=\frac{2nkr_{c,+}^{n1}Vol(\mathrm{\Sigma })}{16\pi G},$$
(27)
which is valid for both cosmological and black hole horizon. One can see that the entropy Eqs. (5,7) of the cosmological and black hole horizon can be written as

$$S^{c,b}=\frac{2\pi l}{n}\sqrt{|\frac{E_C^{c,b}}{k}|(2(E^{c,b}E_q^{c,b})E_C^{c,b})},$$
(28)
where

$$E_q^{c,b}=\frac{1}{2}\varphi ^{c,b}Q=\frac{n}{8(n1)}\frac{\omega _nQ^2}{r_{c,+}^{n1}}.$$
(29)
For the present discussion, the total entropy is assumed to be of the form Eq.(25), where the uncorrected entropy, $`S_0`$ correspondence to that associated in Eqs. (5,7). It then follows by employing Eqs.(4, 5,6,7) that the Casimir energy Eq.(26) can be expressed in term of the uncorrected entropy. (Following expressions are valid for both cosmological and black hole horizon, then for simplicity we omit the subscript $`c`$ and $`b`$ )

$$E_C=\frac{2nr_{c,+}^{n1}\text{Vol}(\mathrm{\Sigma })}{16\pi G}+\frac{nT}{2}LnS_0,$$
(30)
Then we obtain

$$\frac{2\pi l}{n}\sqrt{|\frac{E_C}{k}|(2(EE_q)E_C)}S_0(\frac{r_{c,+}^2}{kl^2+1})\frac{\pi l^2T}{2r_{c,+}}LnS_0$$
(31)
In the limit where the correction is small, the coefficient of the logarithmic term on the right-hand side of Eq.(31) can be expressed in terms of the energy and Casimir energies

$$\frac{EE_qE_c/2}{E_c/2}=\frac{r_{c,+}^2}{kl^2}$$
(32)
Using the following equation

$$(\frac{r_{c,+}^2}{kl^2}+1)\frac{\pi l^2}{2r_{c,+}}\frac{((n+1)EE_c2nE_q)\omega _n}{4\pi r_{c,+}^n}=(1\frac{E_c/2}{EE_qE_c/2})\frac{2nE_q+E_c(n+1)E}{4E_c},$$
(33)
we may conclude, therefore that in the limit where the logarithmic corrections are sub-dominant, Eq.(31) can be rewritten to express the entropy in terms of the energy, energy of electromagnetic and Casimir energy.

$`S_0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi l}{n}}\sqrt{|{\displaystyle \frac{E_c}{k}}|(2(EE_q)E_c)}`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{(2nE_q+E_c(n+1)E)}{4E_c}}{\displaystyle \frac{(EE_qE_c)}{EE_qE_c/2}}Ln({\displaystyle \frac{2\pi l}{n}}\sqrt{|{\displaystyle \frac{E_c}{k}}|(2(EE_q)E_c)})`$
and consequently, the total entropy Eq.(25) to first order in the logarithmic term, is given by

$`S`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi l}{n}}\sqrt{|{\displaystyle \frac{E_c}{k}}|(2(EE_q)E_c)}+{\displaystyle \frac{E_q[(3n+1)E2nE_q+(12n)E_c]+E[nE_c(n+1)E]}{4E_c(EE_qE_c/2)}}`$ (35)
$`Ln\left({\displaystyle \frac{2\pi l}{n}}\sqrt{|{\displaystyle \frac{E_c}{k}}|(2(EE_q)E_c)}\right)`$
Therefore taking into account thermal fluctuations defines yhe logarithmic corrections to both cosmological and black hole entropies. As a result the Cardy-Verlinde formula receive logarithmic corrections in our interest TRNdS black hole background in any dimension, in the way similar to the Cardy-Verlinde formula for the SAdS and SdS black holes in 5-dimension

## 4 Conclusion

For a large class of black hole, the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy formula receives additive logarithmic corrections due to thermal fluctuations. On the basis of general thermodynamic arguments, Das et al  deduced that the black hole entropy can be expressed as the Eq.(22). In this paper we have analyzed this correction of the entropy of TRNdS black hole in any dimension in the light of dS/CFT. We have obtain the logarithmic correction to both cosmological and black hole entropies. Then using the form of the logarithmic correction Eq.(25) we have drived the corresponding correction to the Cardy-Verlinde formula which relates the entropy of a certain CFT to its total energy and Casimir energy in arbitrary dimension.

## Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Saurya Das for useful discussions and suggestions.


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# Excited 𝐿=1 baryons in large 𝑁_𝑐 QCD

## Abstract

The physics of the orbitally excited baryons simplifies drastically in the large $`N_c`$ limit. The states are arranged into irreducible representations of the contracted $`SU(4)_c`$ symmetry, with mixing angles determined exactly. The ratios of the strong couplings $`N^{}[N\pi ]_{S,D}`$ are predicted in this limit, with results in agreement with those following from the quark model (with the large $`N_c`$ mixing angles). We present a phenomenological analysis of the observed nonstrange baryons from the perspective of the $`1/N_c`$ expansion, including constraints from their masses and strong decays.

It has been known for some time that the large $`N_c`$ limit of QCD ’t Hooft (1974); Witten (1979) can give a useful qualitative description of low energy hadronic physics. In the baryon sector this limit turns out to be considerably more predictive Dashen and Manohar (1993a, b); Jenkins (1993), and the $`1/N_c`$ expansion can be formulated in a systematic way allowing the treatment of power corrections and SU(3) breaking effects R. F. Dashen and Manohar (1994); Luty and March-Russell (1994); R. F. Dashen and Manohar (1995) (for a recent review see Jenkins (2001)).

The crucial point is the emergence of a new symmetry of QCD in the large $`N_c`$ limit of the baryon sector - the contracted $`SU(2n_f)_c`$ symmetry (with $`n_f`$ the number of light flavors) R. F. Dashen and Manohar (1994). The physical states arrange themselves in irreducible representations of this symmetry group, which for $`n_f=2`$ are labeled by $`K=0,\frac{1}{2},1,\mathrm{}`$ and contain all states satisfying $`|IJ|K`$. The leading order predictions for masses and strong couplings recover the quark model with $`SU(2n_f)`$ spin-flavor symmetry. Using this approach, many applications have been discussed for the ground state baryons Jenkins (2001); E. Jenkins and Manohar (2002); Jenkins and Lebed (2000).

The large $`N_c`$ expansion has been applied also to excited baryons, using different implementations of the idea C. D. Carone and Morin (1994); Goity (1997); Pirjol and Yan (1998a, b); C. E. Carlson and Lebed (1998, 1999); Carlson and Carone (1998a, b); C. Schat and Scoccola (2002); J. L. Goity and Scoccola (2002, 2003). In Refs. Pirjol and Yan (1998a, b) the contracted $`SU(4)_c`$ symmetry was found to extend also to these states, using consistency conditions for $`N^{()}\pi N^{()}\pi `$ scattering. However, because of the more complex mass spectrum of the excited states, the implications of this symmetry are more rich than in the ground state sector. In particular, the nonstrange negative parity $`L=1`$ baryons fall into three irreducible representations of the $`SU(4)_c`$ symmetry

$`K=0:`$ $`N_{1/2},\mathrm{\Delta }_{3/2},\mathrm{}`$ (1)
$`K=1:`$ $`N_{1/2},N_{3/2},\mathrm{\Delta }_{1/2},\mathrm{\Delta }_{3/2},\mathrm{\Delta }_{5/2},\mathrm{}`$
$`K=2:`$ $`N_{3/2},N_{5/2},\mathrm{\Delta }_{1/2},\mathrm{\Delta }_{3/2},\mathrm{\Delta }_{5/2},\mathrm{\Delta }_{7/2},\mathrm{}.`$
This can be contrasted with the case of the corresponding ground state baryons, which include only one representation $`K=0:N_{1/2},\mathrm{\Delta }_{3/2},\mathrm{}`$. Thus, the large $`N_c`$ limit implies a mass pattern for the excited baryons Eq. (1) which is very different from the quark model prediction of complete degeneracy into the 70 of $`SU(6)`$ Faiman and Plane (1972); A. J. Hey and Cashmore (1975). Still, the large $`N_c`$ predictions for $`N^{}N\pi `$ amplitude ratios are found to be again in agreement with those of the quark model with SU(4) spin-flavor symmetry Pirjol and Yan (1998a). \[We note that very similar predictions are obtained for hybrid baryons in the large $`N_c`$ limit C. K. Chow and Yan (1999).\]

In a recent paper Pirjol and Schat (2003), the status of the $`1/N_c`$ expansion for the nonstrange $`L=1`$ baryons was reexamined, working consistently at leading and subleading order in $`1/N_c`$. This was done using the operator approach proposed in Luty and March-Russell (1994); R. F. Dashen and Manohar (1994), and first applied to the excited states in Goity (1997); C. E. Carlson and Lebed (1998, 1999). The mass matrix of the $`L=1`$ baryons can be written as a sum of operators acting on the quark basis as

$`\widehat{M}={\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{N_c}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_c^{k1}}}C_k𝒪_k`$ (2)
with $`𝒪_k`$ a $`k`$-body operator. Both the coefficients $`C_k`$ and the matrix elements of the operators on baryon states $`𝒪_k`$ have power expansions in $`1/N_c`$ with coefficients determined by nonperturbative dynamics

$`C_k={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_c^n}}C_k^{(n)},𝒪_k={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_c^n}}𝒪_k^{(n)}.`$ (3)
The natural size for the coefficients $`C_k^{(n)}`$ is $`\mathrm{\Lambda }500`$ MeV. A complete basis for the operators $`𝒪_k^{(1,2)}`$ has been constructed in C. E. Carlson and Lebed (1999), to which we refer for further details. At leading order in $`N_c`$ only three operators contribute to the mass matrix, given by

$`O_1=N_c\mathrm{𝟏},O_2=l^is^i,O_3={\displaystyle \frac{3}{N_c}}l^{(2)ij}g^{ia}G_c^{ja}.`$ (4)
At subleading order $`O(N_c^1)`$ five additional operators start contributing

$`O_4=ls+{\displaystyle \frac{4}{N_c+1}}ltG_c,O_5={\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_c}}lS_c,O_6={\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_c}}S_cS_c,O_7={\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_c}}sS_c,O_8={\displaystyle \frac{1}{N_c}}l^{(2)}sS_c.`$ (5)
Their matrix elements on the excited baryon states can be found in the Appendix of C. E. Carlson and Lebed (1999). These operators have a direct physical interpretation in the quark model in terms of one- and two-body quark-quark couplings.

Keeping only the operators $`O_{1,2,3}`$ contributing at $`O(N_c^0)`$, one finds by direct diagonalization of the mass matrix the mass eigenstates in the large $`N_c`$ limit as linear combinations of the quark model $`N_{1/2},N_{1/2}^{}`$ states

$`\begin{array}{c}|K=0,J=\frac{1}{2}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}N_{1/2}+\sqrt{\frac{2}{3}}N_{1/2}^{}\hfill \\ |K=1,J=\frac{1}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{2}{3}}N_{1/2}+\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}N_{1/2}^{}\hfill \end{array}\{\begin{array}{c}M_0^{(0)}=N_cC_1^{(0)}C_2^{(0)}\frac{5}{8}C_3^{(0)}\hfill \\ M_1^{(0)}=N_cC_1^{(0)}\frac{1}{2}C_2^{(0)}+\frac{5}{16}C_3^{(0)}\hfill \end{array}`$ (10)
A similar diagonalization of the mass matrix for the $`J=\frac{3}{2}`$ $`N^{}`$ states gives the eigenstates

$`\begin{array}{c}|K=1,J=\frac{3}{2}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}N_{3/2}+\sqrt{\frac{5}{6}}N_{3/2}^{}\hfill \\ |K=2,J=\frac{3}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{5}{6}}N_{3/2}+\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}N_{3/2}^{}\hfill \end{array}\{\begin{array}{c}M_1^{(0)}=N_cC_1^{(0)}\frac{1}{2}C_2^{(0)}+\frac{5}{16}C_3^{(0)}\\ M_2^{(0)}=N_cC_1^{(0)}+\frac{1}{2}C_2^{(0)}\frac{1}{16}C_3^{(0)}\end{array}`$ (15)
The $`N_{5/2}`$ state does not mix and has the mass $`M_2^{(0)}`$. These results make the tower structure in Eq. (1) explicit.

There is a discrete ambiguity in the assignment of the five observed $`N^{}`$ excited nucleons into the large $`N_c`$ irreducible reps of $`SU(4)_c`$. The four possible ways of grouping them into multiplets are shown in Table 1. This implies a four-fold ambiguity in the coefficients of the mass operator $`C_i^{(0)}`$. In the following we extract these coefficients and attempt to resolve the discrete ambiguity by using experimental information on masses and strong decays of these states.

We start by determining the values of the coefficients $`C_{1,2,3}^{(0)}`$ in the large $`N_c`$ limit, using the mass eigenvalues given in Eqs. (10) and (15). For each assignment, we fitted the coefficients $`C_{1,2,3}^{(0)}`$ to the observed $`N^{}`$ masses Pirjol and Schat (2003). The results for $`C_{2,3}^{(0)}`$ are shown graphically in Figure 1 for each of the four possible assignments. The mixing angles $`\theta _{N1},\theta _{N3}`$ are fixed by Eqs. (10) and (15).

These results must satisfy an additional constraint, following from the no-crossing property of the eigenstates with the same quantum numbers. Consider the masses of the two $`J=1/2`$ states as functions of $`1/N_c`$. They can not cross when $`N_c`$ is taken from 3 to infinity. This means that the correspondence of the physical $`N_{1/2}`$ states with the large $`N_c`$ towers is fixed by the relative ordering of the $`K=0,1`$ towers. This leads to a connection between the ordering of the tower masses and each of the 4 assignments, shown in the last column of Table 1. This constraint is also shown graphically in Fig. 1; it rules out the assignment No.4 and further restricts the solution for the assignment No.2.

We consider next also information from the strong decays $`N^{}[N\pi ]_{S,D}`$. The large $`N_c`$ predictions for these decays were given in Pirjol and Yan (1998a), where the consistency conditions for $`N^{()}\pi N^{()}\pi `$ scattering were solved exactly. Referring to Ref. Pirjol and Yan (1998a, b) for the full solution, we list in Eqs. (24) the results for the S- and D-wave reduced amplitudes $`A_{\mathrm{red}}`$ \[defined up to spin and isospin CG coefficients as $`A(N^{}N\pi )=A_{\mathrm{red}}CG_ICG_J`$\]. The $`0`$’s in these relations denote $`1/N_c`$ suppressed amplitudes. Including spin and isospin factors, these relations predict the large $`N_c`$ partial width ratios shown in Eq. (25). In addition to constraining the masses of the tower states, the contracted $`SU(4)_c`$ symmetry relates also their strong decay widths which are predicted to be equal. This equality holds also for individual channels, which implies sum rules such as (for the $`K=2`$ states)

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{3/2}[N\pi ]_D)+\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{3/2}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_D)=\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{5/2}[N\pi ]_D)+\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{5/2}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_D).$$
(16)
These relations are broken by $`1/N_c`$ terms in the expansion of the $`N^{}N`$ axial current, and by kinematical phase space effects.

$`\begin{array}{ccc}K=0\hfill & K=1\hfill & K=2\hfill \\ & & \\ (N_{\frac{1}{2}}[N\pi ]_S)=0\hfill & (N_{\frac{1}{2}}[N\pi ]_S)=\sqrt{2}c_S\hfill & (N_{\frac{3}{2}}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_S)=0\hfill \\ & (N_{\frac{3}{2}}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_S)=c_S\hfill & \\ & & \\ (N_{\frac{1}{2}}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_D)=0\hfill & (N_{\frac{1}{2}}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_D)=c_{D1}\hfill & (N_{\frac{3}{2}}[N\pi ]_D)=c_{D2}\hfill \\ & (N_{\frac{3}{2}}[N\pi ]_D)=2c_{D1}\hfill & (N_{\frac{3}{2}}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_D)=\frac{1}{2}c_{D2}\hfill \\ & (N_{\frac{3}{2}}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_D)=c_{D1}\hfill & (N_{\frac{5}{2}}[N\pi ]_D)=\sqrt{\frac{2}{3}}c_{D2}\hfill \\ & & (N_{\frac{5}{2}}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_D)=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{7}{3}}c_{D2}\hfill \end{array}`$ (24)
Note that these predictions depend crucially on the $`K`$ assignment of the excited baryons. In particular, the strong couplings of the $`K=0`$ states are suppressed by $`1/N_c`$. Also, the $`J=3/2`$ $`K=2`$ state is predicted to decay in a pure $`D`$wave. Therefore one expects these predictions to be useful for distinguishing among the possible assignments.

$`K=1:\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{\frac{1}{2}}[N\pi ]_S):\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{\frac{3}{2}}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_S)=1:1`$ (25)
$`K=1:\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{\frac{1}{2}}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_D):\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{\frac{3}{2}}[N\pi ]_D):\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{\frac{3}{2}}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_D)=2:1:1`$
$`K=2:\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{\frac{3}{2}}[N\pi ]_D):\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{\frac{3}{2}}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_D):\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{\frac{5}{2}}[N\pi ]_D):\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{\frac{5}{2}}[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_D)`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}:{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}:{\displaystyle \frac{2}{9}}:{\displaystyle \frac{7}{9}}.`$
For this purpose, we consider the ratios of $`S`$wave partial widths $`R_1=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{1/2}(1535)N\pi )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{3/2}(1520)[\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ]_S)}`$ and $`R_2=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{1/2}(1650)N\pi )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{1/2}(1535)N\pi )}`$. We present in Table 2 the large $`N_c`$ predicted values for $`R_{1,2}`$ (including phase space factors), together with their experimental values.

Despite the large experimental errors, the combined constraints from masses and strong decays ($`R_{1,2}`$) appear to favor the assignment No.1 Pirjol and Yan (1998a); Pirjol and Schat (2003). In Ref. Pirjol and Schat (2003) the mass analysis presented here was extended to $`O(1/N_c)`$. The most important new point of this analysis is the appearance of a continuous set of solutions for the mass operator. Including also data from excited $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ states, it was found that the assignment No.3 is favored, in agreement with the analysis in C. E. Carlson and Lebed (1999), although No. 1 is still marginally allowed. More conclusive results will be possible once better data on the masses and decay widths of these states will become available.

Finally, we note that similar conclusions on the mass spectrum of these states (1) were also reached in Cohen and Lebed (2003a, b, c) from a study of $`N\pi `$ scattering amplitudes in the Skyrme model.

This work was supported by the DOE and NSF under Grants No. DOE-FG03-97ER40546 (D.P.), NSF PHY-9733343, DOE DE-AC05-84ER40150 and DOE-FG02-96ER40945 (C.S.).


text:
# Correlations and Fluctuations, A Summary of Quark Matter 2002

## 1 Introduction

A phenomenal number of new results have been presented at this meeting regarding fluctuations and correlations. With the analysis of SPS results for $`\pi \pi `$ Hanbury-Brown Twiss (HBT) correlations as a function of energy, and with the maturing of the RHIC results, a consistent picture has developed of the evolving dynamics from AGS energies to RHIC. Additionally, several new probes have been analyzed and have been presented at this meeting, including $`\gamma \gamma `$ correlations. Fluctuations in $`p_t`$, multiplicity and isospin, derived from both the SPS and RHIC, hint at novel behaviors. Finally, charge correlations measured at RHIC suggest a delayed production of charge, and therefore a delayed hadronization. After being taken by surprise, the theory community has made significant progress toward understanding these measurements and reducing the list of possible interpretations.

Results on small relative momentum correlations are reviewed in the next section, with an emphasis on describing the HBT puzzle. The subsequent section reviews $`p_t`$ and multiplicity fluctuations, while isospin fluctuations, charge fluctuations and charge balance functions are reviewed in Sec. 4.

## 2 Two-Particle Correlations at Small Relative Momentum

A principal motivation for HBT analyses was the hope to view a long-lived source resulting from the low pressure associated with a first-order phase transition to the the quark-gluon plasma (QGP) . The CERES collaboration presented results, shown in Fig. 1, of both their results at the SPS along with AGS and RHIC results . A long-lived source would have emitted pions continuously over a time of the order of 10-20 fm/c, which would result in the outward size $`R_{\mathrm{out}}`$ being larger than $`R_{\mathrm{side}}`$ by an amount of the order of 10 fm. Figure 1 shows that such a long-lived source was not produced at any energy. In fact, the outward and sidewards dimensions show little dependence with beam energy. Consistent measurements of the three source dimensions at RHIC were reported in this meeting by STAR, PHENIX and PHOBOS, with the ratio of $`R_{\mathrm{out}}/R_{\mathrm{side}}`$ varying from $`0.85`$ for PHENIX  to $`1.15`$ for PHOBOS . Because of the inherent ambiguity between the temporal and spatial dimensions in $`R_{\mathrm{out}}`$, one can only place an upper limit on the duration of the emission of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau <10`$ fm/c. Given the large transverse size, it appears that the breakup hypersurface is extremely space-like, i.e. emissions from the edge and the center occur within a few fm/c of one another.

The values reported for $`R_{\mathrm{long}}`$ are as remarkable as the $`R_{\mathrm{out}}/R_{\mathrm{side}}`$ measurements. Whereas $`R_{\mathrm{out}}/R_{\mathrm{side}}`$ provides insight into the duration of emission, $`R_{\mathrm{long}}`$ gives a measure of the emission time. HBT measures the spatial extent from which pions of a given rapidity might be emitted. Assuming that the emitting sources are well spread out in rapidity, the size is determined by the temperature and the velocity gradient, $`R_{\mathrm{long}}v_{\mathrm{th}}/(dv/dz)`$, where $`v_{\mathrm{th}}`$ is the thermal velocity and $`dv/dz`$ is the velocity gradient. In a Bjorken expansion, the matter does not accelerate along the $`z`$ axis which means that the velocity gradient is determined by $`\tau `$, $`dv/dz=1/\tau `$. Although the values for $`R_{\mathrm{long}}`$ reported by STAR, PHENIX and PHOBOS are very large compared to hadronic length scales, they still fall short of expectations, and suggest emission times of 10 fm/c, rather than the expected 15-20 fm/c. Unless the breakup temperatures are anomalously cold, or unless the matter accelerated in the longitudinal direction, explaining this result requires an extremely rapid transverse acceleration. Blast wave analyses  of $`\pi \pi `$ HBT reveal sources which have expanded to an outer radius of 13 fm within this 10 fm/c, and with an outer velocity of $`0.7c`$ as determined by comparing pion and proton spectra. Given that the original radius is near 6 fm, this implies an extremely rapid acceleration.

The inability of numerical models of the dynamics to account for both the small values of the mean emission time, $`\tau `$, and the duration of the emission, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau `$, is referred to as the HBT puzzle. Several attempts have been made at reproducing the RHIC results using a variety of hydrodynamic, Boltzmann and hybrid treatments. All consistently overestimate $`R_{\mathrm{long}}`$ and $`R_{\mathrm{out}}/R_{\mathrm{side}}`$ . Figure 2 displays results from Kolb which come somewhat closer to the result than the other reference work cited above. It should be emphasized that the HBT puzzle is not particularly new to RHIC. As HBT statistics have increased form the SPS, it is clear that the emission duration was moderately over-predicted by RQMD at SPS energies, with measurements of $`R_{\mathrm{out}}/R_{\mathrm{side}}`$ varying from near unity for CERES  to $`1.15`$ for NA49 .

Two-kaon correlations from PHENIX and from NA49 were also reported at this meeting . It appears that the source size for kaons is somewhat larger than predicted by extrapolating from the pion source sizes assuming blast wave kinematics. However, it should be pointed out that the NA49 measurement is somewhat larger than that previously reported by NA44 , and that the PHENIX measurement is preliminary.

Aside from the kaon measurements, the overall behavior of HBT measurements appears to follow the systematics of a blast wave, i.e. a sudden dissolution at a low temperature, $`110MeV`$, after a rapid expansion to a high velocity, $`0.7c`$. In addition to the $`R_{\mathrm{out}}/R_{\mathrm{side}}`$ ratio and the small value of $`R_{\mathrm{long}}`$, the blast wave picture of sudden explosion and emission explains the $`p_t`$ dependence of the source sizes , and may also explain the results of STAR where two-pion HBT was performed relative to the reaction plane . There, the source appears to be out-of-plane extended, i.e. the source appears to retain the shape of the original almond resulting from overlapping spheres at non-zero impact parameter. If the emission were long-lived, the differential expansion would have overcompensated for the initial deformation and resulted in an in-plane-extended shape.

One consequence of the smaller-than-expected values of $`R_{\mathrm{long}}`$ and $`R_{\mathrm{out}}`$ is that the phase space density must have been rather high at breakup. In fact, by combining the spectra and HBT measurements, one can extract the phase space density in a model-independent way . This analysis was performed for STAR results , and the resulting phase space density suggests that pionic phase space is overpopulated by nearly a factor of two at low momentum as compared to a thermally equilibrated gas where the pion density is determined solely by the temperature. The phase space density increases markedly with centrality and is significantly higher than was extracted for central collisions at SPS energies . It should be emphasized that the reported phase space values are averaged over coordinate space,

$$\overline{f}(𝐩)\frac{d^3xf(𝐱,𝐩)f(𝐱,𝐩)}{d^3xf(𝐱,𝐩)},$$
(1)
For a Gaussian source the peak phase space density is larger by $`2\sqrt{2}`$ at $`x=0`$ than the average derived from the sum rule. This suggests that the break up density is a significant fraction of what is required for novel Bose coherence effects.

A high phase-space density necessitates a lower entropy. In a nearly model-independent fashion, the entropy carried by the pions was extracted from STAR results . The entropy per pion appears to be in the neighborhood of three units which is significantly lower than that expected for a Bose gas as can be seen in Fig. 3. As hydrodynamic treatments over-predict the source sizes, while fitting the spectra , they thus over-predict the entropy. Since hydrodynamic treatments produce minimal entropy in their evolution, one must conclude that the initial entropy of the system in the hydrodynamic treatments was overestimated. This suggests that the initial state was not that of an equilibrated quark-gluon plasma, but might have instead involved energy in coherent forms, e.g. classical gluon fields, or may have excited fewer degrees of freedom, e.g. under-populating quark degrees of freedom.

The correlation functions presented at this conference for non-identical particles were shockingly superior to what had been previously measured. Following the ideas of Lednicky , correlations were compared for $`p_{a,\mathrm{out}}p_{b,\mathrm{out}}>0`$ to those with $`p_{a,\mathrm{out}}p_{b,\mathrm{out}}<0`$. Whereas the two correlations must be identical when the particles are indistinguishable, the difference offers insight into the relative positions of the emitted particles when the two particles are different. STAR presented results for $`\pi K`$ and $`\pi p`$ pairs  which showed that the heavier particles were emitted ahead of the lighter particles consistent with a blast wave interpretation. Results from NA49 for $`\pi p`$ pairs demonstrated the same behavior .

In this meeting correlations were reported for several new pairs which had not previously been measured in heavy ion collisions. NA49 displayed results for both $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }p`$ correlations . The $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ results showed a flat correlation, which means that they are not useful for source-size determination, but can put limits on the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ scattering length. This is important as it sheds light on whether there is a low-energy resonance associated with the $`H_0`$ di-baryon. The $`\mathrm{\Lambda }p`$ correlation function exhibited a peak near zero momentum which was consistent with expectations for a three to four Fermi source, though the size was difficult to ascertain without knowing the $`\lambda `$ parameter which depends on the fraction of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$s from decays of heavier hyperons. With greater statistics, this measurement offers the possibility of determining whether $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$s are emitted ahead or behind the protons.

The Coulomb interaction between the residual source and the pairs used for HBT has always clouded the interpretation of experiments. However, $`K_sK_s`$ interferometry sidesteps the issue since the $`K_s`$ is neutral. A first measurement of the $`K_sK_s`$ correlation function was presented by STAR . Although the statistics were insufficient for a detailed analysis, this preliminary result was extremely encouraging.

The most surprising result of the conference was the presentation of two-photon HBT by WA98 . The height of the correlation function shown in Fig. 4 has a height which requires that 10% of the photons must be direct photons, i.e. not from $`\pi _0`$ decay or dalitz decays from long-lived particles such as the $`\eta `$. In fact, by measuring the inclusive photon spectrum, one can use the intercept of the correlation function, $`1+\lambda `$, to infer the direct photon spectrum,

$$\frac{dN_{\mathrm{direct}}}{d^3p}=\sqrt{\lambda ^{\gamma \gamma }(p_t)}\frac{dN_{\mathrm{inclusive}}}{d^3p}.$$
(2)
This result was surprising because the $`\lambda `$ parameter was expected to be much smaller. If the fraction of direct photons to inclusive photons were 1% rather than 10% the height of the correlation function would have been smaller by a factor of 100, and the statistical requirement for events would have increased by a factor of $`10^4`$.

I conclude this section with a brief summary of theoretical attempts at solving the HBT puzzle. Most importantly, it should be emphasized that there is consensus that hydrodynamics with a Boltzmann or cascade afterburner will over-predict source sizes . However, it is not yet clear that fitting the data would not be possible if an extreme equation of state were used, e.g. one with a speed of sound greater than $`1/\sqrt{3}`$. Several careful studies have been performed to ensure that experimental resolution and Coulomb corrections have been properly treated . The effects of viscosity have just begun to be included, and it seems that they will provide only a modest correction in order to be consistent with elliptic flow results which preclude large viscosities . The effect of modifying chemical rates and cross sections has also been investigated with only modest changes in HBT results . Finally, the efforts at comparing theory to experiment have become more meaningful as theoretical models have generated correlation functions which are then fit for Gaussian parameters, rather than comparing radii generated from looking at source functions. It appears that the HBT puzzle indeed derives from comparing “apples to apples”.

In addition to listing all the investigations presented in this conference, it is worthwhile to list the issues not yet addressed which might shed light on the HBT puzzle. First, it should be pointed out that the hydrodynamic treatments all assume a Bjorken space-time geometry, i.e. the matter coasts along the beam axis. If the matter accelerates significantly due to the finite size in the beam direction, the extrapolations for $`\tau `$ at breakup might be too small. This issue could be settled by three-dimensional hydrodynamic studies. Secondly, three-body interactions such as the residual Coulomb interaction have not been totally ruled out as being unimportant, although schematic calculations suggest they are indeed unimportant, and the equivalence of $`\pi ^+\pi ^+`$ and $`\pi ^{}\pi ^{}`$ results also points to their insignificance. The most interesting possible explanation of the $`R_{\mathrm{out}}/R_{\mathrm{side}}`$ puzzle might lay in a reduced emissivity of the surface, which would allow the matter to fall apart suddenly. The emissivity might be reduced in the case of a super-cooled phase. The problem of how quarks might escape microscopically from a QGP region and form mesons has been considered from the point of fissioning flux tubes . Effects of an increased emissivity were reported on at this conference . As a final possibility, it may be that the picture of the dynamics assumed in cascade or Boltzmann algorithms is fundamentally flawed due to the neglect of quantum effects. Again, this seems unlikely, but it should not be forgotten that the thermal wavelengths at breakup correspond to volumes with several particles. In order to explain the HBT puzzle, these issues must somehow account for corrections of the order of 30%.

## 3 Multiplicity correlations and $`p_t`$ fluctuations

Fluctuations in multiplicity or transverse momentum have been proposed as signatures for phase separation  or critical fluctuations . Of course, such fluctuations are also affected by jets and jet quenching. In this conference we have seen new results for $`p_t`$ fluctuations from NA49 , PHENIX  and STAR . The results from NA49, shown in Fig. 5, illustrate that the fluctuation is smaller for same-sign particles. This may be due to the positive correlation between opposite sign particles from resonance decays. HBT effects, jets and the distorted shapes of the nuclei are other potential correlations which would give $`p_t`$ fluctuations.

The value of $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{p_t}`$ increases if there is an increased correlation in $`p_t`$ between given particles or if the number of particles with which one is correlated increases. By measuring the kinematic range of the correlation, one should gain insight into the source of the non-zero $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{p_t}`$. The fluctuations measured by PHENIX were even smaller than those reported by NA49, while the fluctuations measured by STAR were significantly larger. There seems to be a trend that the fluctuations are larger for larger acceptances, which suggests that the correlation may span more than a unit of rapidity.

A wavelet analysis, which can measure the same class of correlations as $`p_t`$ fluctuations, was presented by the STAR collaboration in this meeting . For low multiplicities, the correlations were consistent with HIJING with jets, while at high multiplicities, the results were smaller and were consistent with HIJING without jets. This emphasizes the point that jet quenching should be manifest in low $`p_t`$ observables. Perhaps, experiment could decide not only the existence but the nature of jet quenching, i.e. determining whether the jet energy is transformed into more particles through radiation or whether it is shared among the collision partners.

## 4 Isospin fluctuations and correlations arising from charge conservation

Large fluctuations in the fraction of neutral pions to total pions has been suggested as a signal for coherent emission of pions which might result from a disoriented chiral condensate . Unfortunately, this is a tremendously difficult measurement due to the fact that neutral pions decay into two photons, making the exact counting of soft pions extremely difficult, especially in a central collision. WA98 presented an analysis showing no evidence for large fluctuations . However, one should not jump to the conclusion that the observations were entirely consistent with random emissions until a more detailed theoretical investigation is performed. In this conference, new ideas were also presented for investigating fluctuations of a different flavor, i.e. fluctuations in flavor  and baryon number .

Charge fluctuations, charge correlations and balance functions represent another class of observables, which are sensitive to the dynamics of separating conserved charges. Since charge conservation is local in space-time, each positive charge is accompanied by a negative charge. If these balancing charges remain close to one another in coordinate space at the time of their emission, they will be correlated in momentum space. This means that the net charge measured into a large volume of phase space, e.g. the STAR acceptance, would tend more toward zero since each charge would be canceled by a balancing partner. A delayed hadronization would lead to more highly correlated balancing charges since the charges would have less time to separate and would also be produced after the early stage of the collision where there is a high velocity gradient pulling particles apart. Since most charge is created at hadronization, a tighter correlation of balancing charges could serve as a signal of QGP formation .

Several analyses were presented at this meeting which measured this correlation. Charge fluctuations were measured by NA49 , and charge fluctuations and balance functions were presented by STAR . The balance functions from STAR are shown in Fig. 6. The balance function statistically measures the distribution of relative rapidities of balancing $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ pairs. The narrowing of the balance function as a function of centrality is highly suggestive of a delayed hadronization.