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# The far-IR/radio correlation in the ISO eraBased on observations with the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA member states (especially the PI countries: France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom) and with the participation of ISAS and NASA.

## 1 Introduction

One of the most surprising discoveries of the IRAS all-sky survey was the very tight and universal correlation between the spatially integrated far-infrared (FIR) and radio continuum emissions of late-type galaxies (de Jong et al. 1985; Helou, Soifer & Rowan-Robinson 1985; Wunderlich, Wielebinski & Klein 1987). The standard interpretation of the so-called FIR/radio correlation is in terms of massive star formation activity (see Condon 1992 and Völk & Xu 1994 for reviews). This picture assumes that the FIR emission is due to dust heated by the massive stars which are also responsible for the radio emission: the ionising radiation from the massive stars powers the thermal radio emission, and the remnants of supernova explosions which occur at the end of their lives presumably accelerate the cosmic ray electrons. The link between the radio synchrotron and dust emissions was quantified by the calorimeter theory of Völk (1989) (see also Lisenfeld, Völk & Xu 1996a). Specific aspects of the FIR/radio correlation have been addressed by many authors (e.g. Gavazzi, Cocito & Vettolani 1986; Cox et al. 1988; Devereux & Eales 1989; Chi & Wolfendale 1990; Condon, Anderson & Helou 1991; Price & Duric 1992; Xu et al. 1994; Xu, Lisenfeld & Völk 1994; Niklas, Klein & Wielebinski 1995; Lisenfeld, Völk & Xu 1996b; Bressan, Silva & Granato 2002; Bell 2003; Groves et al. 2003).

All these studies of the FIR/radio correlation were based on IRAS measurements and FIR luminosities obtained by using the IRAS flux densities at 60 and 100 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$. However the FIR spectral energy distribution (SED) of normal111By “normal” we loosely refer to galaxies which are not dominated by an active nucleus and whose current star formation rates would be sustainable for a substantial fraction of a Hubble time. galaxies typically peaks longwards of 100 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$, beyond the spectral grasp of IRAS, as predicted from submillimeter (submm) observations by Chini et al. (1986). With the advent of the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) (Kessler et al. 1996), in particular of the ISOPHOT instrument (Lemke et al. 1996) on board ISO, it became routinely possible to measure the peak of the FIR emission, also for fainter objects not detected by IRAS. It was found that, especially for quiescent galaxies, most of the FIR luminosity is carried by a cold dust component (Popescu et al. 2002) whose luminosity is not well predicted by the IRAS measurements. In fact the luminosity correction factors222These correction factors are the multiplicative factors by which the total FIR luminosity (40-1000 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$), as derived from ISO measurements, differs from the IRAS FIR luminosity, derived from the formula (Helou et al. 1988): $`f_{40120}[\mathrm{Wm}^2]=1.26\times 10^{14}(2.58f_{60\mu \mathrm{m}}+f_{100\mu \mathrm{m}})`$, with $`f_{60\mu \mathrm{m}}`$ and $`f_{100\mu \mathrm{m}}`$ expressed in Jy. for cold dust do not correlate with Hubble type and exhibit a huge scatter, with mean values ranging from 1 to 3 (Popescu & Tuffs 2002b). In view of this, there is a clear need to redefine the FIR/radio correlation in terms of the total FIR–submm luminosity, as derived from ISO measurements.

Another result to emerge from ISO is the confirmation that the FIR SEDs of normal galaxies require a warm and a cold dust emission component to be fitted (for a review see Tuffs & Popescu 2002). Although the concept of warm and cold emission components is as old as IRAS (de Jong et al. 1984), it only became possible to directly measure and separate these components with ISO, due to its spectral grasp and multi filter coverage of the FIR regime. The warm component can be identified with locally heated dust in HII regions333In the context of dust emission we use the term HII regions to denote not only the optical emitting HII regions within the star forming complexes, but also their immediate vicinity where grains can also be strongly heated by the massive stars. and the cold component with dust distributed in the general diffuse interstellar medium and heated by a combination of non-ionising ultraviolet (UV) and optical/near-IR photons. This interpretation is consistent with what has been seen in the ISOPHOT maps of nearby galaxies (e.g. Haas et al 1998; Hippelein et al. 2003). It is also consistent with models of the UV/optical/FIR/submm SEDs in normal galaxies, which self-consistently calculate a continuous distribution of dust temperatures based on radiative-transfer calculations (Silva et al. 1998; Popescu et al. 2000; Misiriotis et al. 2001). Thus ISO measurements give us the first direct opportunity of defining the FIR/radio correlation separately for the warm and cold dust components. In the past this could only be indirectly attempted by constraining the warm dust component to be proportional to the H$`\alpha `$ emission, as done by Xu, Lisenfeld & Völk (1994). These authors established separate relations for the warm FIR/radio correlation and the cold FIR/radio correlation. However, the cold FIR luminosity derived in this study was based on IRAS data, and misses the bulk of the true cold dust luminosity. Other authors have used different operational recipes with different physical interpretations to derive warm and cold FIR emission components from IRAS data for comparison with radio data (e.g. Fitt, Alexander & Cox 1988; Wunderlich & Klein 1991; Condon et al. 1991; Beck & Golla 1988; Hoernes, Berkhuijsen & Xu 1998), but again these studies missed the bulk of the cold dust emission.

In this paper we redefine the FIR/radio correlation using for the first time the total FIR luminosity (as measured with ISO) for a statistical sample. Plots of the FIR/radio correlation using the new ISO measurements were also given in Popescu et al. (2002), but only for a very small sample, and therefore no attempt was made to quantify the linearity of the correlation there. The goal of this paper is to provide a statistical analysis of the correlation and also to derive the slope of the correlation separately for the warm and cold dust components. Finally the new results are discussed in the context of predictions of theoretical models on photon heating of dust in normal star-forming galaxies.

The paper is organised as follows. In Sect. 2 we describe the sample selection and the analysis of the radio data. In Sect. 3 we present the results for the total FIR/radio correlation, as well as for the warm and cold FIR/radio correlations. Each of these correlations is qualitatively analysed in terms of its dependence on the star formation rate in Sect. 4. In Sect. 5 we discuss scenarios which can simultaneously account for both the warm and cold FIR/radio correlations. A summary is given in Sect. 6.

## 2 The ISO sample: selection and data analysis

The sample used in this study is a combination of a very deep, optically selected sample of normal, relatively quiescent galaxies together with a shallow, FIR selected sample of relatively bright galaxies. This provides us with a high dynamic range in FIR luminosities as well as good statistics. For this purpose we used the ISOPHOT Virgo Cluster Deep Survey (Tuffs et al. 2002a,b), which is the deepest survey (both in luminosity and surface brightness terms) of normal galaxies performed by ISOPHOT, and the ISOPHOT 170 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ Serendipity Survey (Stickel et al. 2000). All galaxies in the combined sample have had their integrated flux densities measured by ISOPHOT at 170 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ (the Virgo galaxies also in the ISOPHOT bands centered at 60 and 100 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$). Most galaxies from the Virgo sample are freshly falling in from the field (Tully & Shaya 1984; Tuffs et al. 2002a,b) and therefore we consider it legitimate to combine it with the ISOPHOT 170 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ Serendipity Survey sample. Furthermore there is no evidence for an effect of the cluster environment on the FIR properties of the galaxies from the ISOPHOT Virgo Cluster Deep Sample (Popescu et al. 2002; Popescu & Tuffs 2002b). This is to be expected since the bulk of the FIR emission arises primarily from the inner regions of the galactic disks. The radio emission may be more prone to alterations due to environmental effects, as we will discuss in Sect. 3. However we will show there that, in the case of our sample, these effects are only of second order. Thus, in this paper we regard the main distinction between Virgo and Serendipity Survey galaxies to be the quiescent nature of the former, rather than their association with the cluster environment. So, put together, the combined sample will provide us with larger statistics and a good dynamic range in star formation activity.

In total 72 galaxies were selected, as described below. Of these, 20 galaxies show some evidence for LINER/Seyfert activity or are pair/multiple/merger systems.

### 2.1 The VIRGO subsample

The ISOPHOT Virgo Cluster Deep Sample consists of 63 galaxies later than S0 and brighter than $`B_\mathrm{T}=16.8`$, selected from the Virgo Cluster Catalogue (VCC) of Binggeli, Sandage & Tammann (1985). Tuffs et al. (2002a,b) have presented deep diffraction-limited FIR strip maps of this sample, obtained with ISOPHOT at the central wavelengths 60, 100 and 170 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$444A subsample of the ISOPHOT Virgo Cluster Deep Sample has been also observed with the Long Wavelength Spectrometer at the 158 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ \[CII\] fine-structure gas cooling line (Leech et al. 1999) and analysed by Pierini and collaborators (1999, 2001, 2003).. Details of observations, data reduction, estimate of the calibration uncertainty and procedure of extraction of photometry are given in Tuffs et al. (2002a,b). As discussed by these authors, the 63 galaxies represent a sample of nearby normal (i.e. non-AGN dominated and non-starburst) late-type galaxies. Nevertheless a few objects have also some mild LINER/Seyfert activity.

Out of this sample, 38 galaxies (i.e. 63.5 per cent of the total) were detected at all three wavelengths. Most of them were discovered to contain a cold dust emission component which could not have been recognised by IRAS, irrespective of the morphological classification of individual objects (Popescu et al. 2002). The ISOPHOT FIR SEDs of these galaxies were fitted with a combination of two modified blackbody functions, physically identified with the emissions from a localised warm dust component, with a fixed temperature of 47 $`\mathrm{K}`$, and a diffuse cold dust component (see Popescu et al.). The cold dust temperatures were found to span a broad range, with a median of 18 $`\mathrm{K}`$. The physical justification for fixing the temperature of the warm component is based on the modelling work of Popescu et al. (2000) and Misiriotis et al. (2001). The latter papers showed that $`20\%`$ of the integrated FIR emission at 60 $`\mu `$m comes from stochastically heated grains in the diffuse interstellar medium (ISM), $`20\%`$ from optically heated grains in the diffuse ISM, and $`60\%`$ from HII regions. So it is a good physical approximation to consider that most of the emission at $`60\mu `$m comes from grains within the HII regions (which do not emit stochastically). Although there is a variation in grain temperature between HII regions in any given galaxy (Peeters et al. 2002) (due to changes in size, geometry and exciting stars), these are quite moderate (in comparison to the systematic difference in temperature between grains in HII regions and grains in the diffuse ISM). Thus, if we average over the ensemble of HII regions in each galaxy we would expect the ensemble of HII regions to have virtually identical SEDs from one galaxy to the next.

Fourteen of the 38 galaxies with both warm and cold dust emission components have also been detected in the radio continuum at 1.4 GHz, thanks to the recent NRAO/VLA Sky Survey (NVSS) (Condon et al. 1998). For these objects we performed aperture photometry to extract integrated flux densities from the NVSS maps (see Appendix A). The 14 VCC galaxies with FIR and radio counterparts are considered in the present study. They constitute the so-called “VIRGO” subsample.

Table 1 reproduces the parameters relevant to this investigation for the individual VIRGO objects as follows:
Col. 1: VCC denomination;
Col. 2: morphological type (from the VCC, as in Tuffs et al. 2002a,b);
Col. 3: total radio continuum luminosity at 1.4 GHz ($`L_{1.4\mathrm{GHz}}`$) with its error (see Appendix A), in decimal logarithmic units;
Col. 4: total FIR continuum luminosity ($`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}`$), in decimal logarithmic units. The uncertainty in this luminosity is $`15`$ per cent (random) for all the sample objects.
Col. 5,6: FIR continuum luminosities from the warm and cold dust emission components ($`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{warm}}`$ and $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{cold}}`$), respectively (from Popescu et al. 2002), in decimal logarithmic units. We adopt a conservative value of 20 per cent (random) for the uncertainty of each of these luminosities for all the sample objects.
Col. 7: $`L_{40120}`$, i.e., the FIR luminosity that IRAS would have derived based on the Helou et al. (1988) formula: $`f_{40120}[\mathrm{W}\mathrm{m}^2]=1.26\times 10^{14}(2.58f_{60\mu \mathrm{m}}+f_{100\mu \mathrm{m}})`$, where $`f_{60\mu \mathrm{m}}`$ and $`f_{100\mu \mathrm{m}}`$ are expressed in Jy. The luminosity is given in decimal logarithmic units. We adopt a conservative value of 30 per cent for the uncertainty of this luminosity for all sample objects.
Col. 8: individual notes.

Luminosities are determined by assuming that all the galaxies have the same distance of $`11.5h^1`$ Mpc (Binggeli, Popescu & Tammann 1993), where $`h`$ is the Hubble constant in units of $`100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$.

### 2.2 The ISOPHOT Serendipity Survey subsample

A sample of 115 nearby galaxies was presented by Stickel et al. (2000) as a first result of the “ISOPHOT 170 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ Serendipity Survey” (ISS). We refer the reader to these authors for details about observations, data reduction, estimate of the calibration uncertainty, procedure of extraction of photometry and optical/FIR identification.

As recognised by Stickel et al., several of their objects have Seyfert/LINER activity and/or are pair/multiple/merging systems.

Not all galaxies from the ISS catalogue could be used in the present study. Out of the 115 ISS galaxies we first rejected 3 not having IRAS detections at both 60 and 100 $`\mu `$m and 13 galaxies which either have no morphological information or are classified as S0, elliptical or peculiar. Of the remaining 99 galaxies we omitted 3 already included in the VIRGO subsample. Furthermore, 26 galaxies of the remaining 96 did not have a radio counterpart or were confused in the NVSS survey at 1.4 GHz. Radio counterparts are associated with optically catalogued galaxies when the distance of the peak radio surface brightness of the potential radio identification from the optical position of the target galaxy is within the NVSS resolution. Furthermore, one galaxy was dropped because it has an inclination greater than $`70^\mathrm{o}`$ and an apparent major axis longer than $`4^{}`$. As discussed in Appendix B, such galaxies may have flux densities overestimated by a factor of 2. Finally, only galaxies with heliocentric velocities higher than 1500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ are selected. The reason is as follows. For most of the galaxies in the ISS catalogue only kinematical distances are available from individual redshifts, as listed by Stickel et al. (2000). The assumption of a free Hubble Flow does not apply to the relatively nearby galaxies. Hence 11 galaxies which are not members of the Virgo Cluster and have heliocentric velocities lower than 1500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ were dropped from the sample.

Hereafter we refer to the final 58 galaxies selected from the ISS catalogue as the ISS subsample. For all galaxies in the ISS subsample we determined new warm and cold dust temperatures from the composite IRAS and ISOPHOT data listed by Stickel et al. using the method described in Popescu et al. (2002). For this purpose we first applied ISO/IRAS corrections for the original IRAS flux densities at 60 and 100 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and ISO/DIRBE corrections for the ISOPHOT flux densities at 170 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$, both corrections being taken from Tuffs et al. (2002a,b). The SEDs of all these objects required both warm and cold dust emission components to be fitted.

We assigned distances to the members of the ISS subsample as follows: We identify 3 galaxies from the ISS subsample as members of the Virgo cluster (and not in the ISOPHOT Virgo Cluster Deep sample) and, thus, we assign them to be at the common distance of $`11.5\mathrm{h}^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ adopted for the VIRGO subsample (cf. Sect. 2.1). For the other galaxies of the ISS subsample we have no clue whether they belong to the field or to a group/cluster, though we know if they are mergers or not. We determine kinematical distances, corrected to the Galactic Standard of Rest with the NED Velocity Correction Calculator, independent of whether they are isolated or not and whether they are mergers or not.

Table 2 reproduces the parameters relevant to this investigation for the individual ISS objects as follows:
Col. 1: galaxy denomination (from Stickel et al. 2000);
Col. 2: morphological type (from NED);
Col. 3: total radio continuum luminosity at 1.4 GHz ($`L_{1.4\mathrm{GHz}}`$) with its error (see Appendix A), in decimal logarithmic units;
Col. 4: total FIR continuum luminosity ($`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}`$), in decimal logarithmic units. The uncertainty in this luminosity is $`15`$ per cent (random) for all the sample objects.
Col. 5,6: FIR continuum luminosities from the warm and cold dust emission components ($`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{warm}}`$ and $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{cold}}`$), respectively (this work), in decimal logarithmic units. We adopt a conservative value of 20 per cent (random) for the uncertainty of each of these luminosities for all the sample objects.
Col. 7: the IRAS FIR luminosity $`L_{40120}`$ (calculated as in Table 1), in decimal logarithmic units. We adopt a conservative value of 30 per cent for the uncertainty of this luminosity for all the sample objects.
Col. 8: galaxy distance;
Col. 9: individual notes.

## 3 Results

### 3.1 The total FIR/radio correlation

The relationship between the total (warm $`+`$ cold) FIR emission, $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}`$, and the radio continuum emission at 1.4 GHz for the 72 sample galaxies is reproduced in Fig. 1. Here the solid line reproduces the linear fit to the data (in log–log) of equation:

$$\mathrm{log}L_{1.4\mathrm{GHz}}=m(\pm ϵ(m))\mathrm{log}L_{\mathrm{FIR}}+c(\pm ϵ(c))\mathrm{W}\mathrm{Hz}^1\mathrm{h}^2,$$

where the parameters of this fit are given in Table 3, together with its reduced $`\chi ^2`$ and the dispersion around the fitted relation. In obtaining the fits we adopted the algorithm executing a bivariate least-squares fit, taking into account the uncertainties in both the x- and y-variables at the same time, as implemented in the task “FITEXY” of the Numerical Recipes (Press et al. 1992).

Fig. 1 confirms that there is a tight correlation between dust and radio continuum emission, extending over three orders of magnitude in both luminosities. The total FIR/radio correlation is only slightly non-linear, with a slope $`m=1.10\pm 0.03`$. We note that a luminosity-luminosity correlation analysis will be biased towards linearity, because it includes also the scaling effect due to galaxy size (or mass). Therefore, it is to be expected that the derived slope is only a lower limit to the slope that would be obtained from an analysis of normalised luminosities (see Xu et al. 1994).

As a comparison, in Fig. 1 we also plot the fit to the $`L_{1.4\mathrm{GHz}}`$ vs. $`L_{40120}`$ correlation, which is the equivalent of what would have been derived from IRAS. The statistics for this fit are also given in Table 3. There is an obvious shift of up to 0.4 in $`\mathrm{log}L_{\mathrm{FIR}}`$, which is produced by the inclusion of the cold dust component, mainly not seen by IRAS. This shift is more pronounced at the faint end of the correlation, where the cold dust component is more dominant. This also leads to a slight increase in non-linearity when the total FIR luminosity is taken into account instead of $`L_{40120}`$.

The fact that some galaxies show evidence for mild LINER/Seyfert activity or are in pair/multiple/merging systems does not seem to affect the shape of the correlation (not shown). In fact, we obtain $`m=1.09\pm 0.07`$ for the subsample of 20 galaxies with some activity (Table 3) and $`m=1.10\pm 0.04`$ for the remainder. Since accretion powered systems are known not to lie on the FIR/radio correlation (Sopp & Alexander 1991), this implies that even for the objects in our sample with some evidence for AGN activity, the FIR emission is powered by star formation activity and not by accretion (cf. Rodriguez Espinosa, Rudy & Jones 1987).

### 3.2 The warm FIR/radio correlation

Fig. 2 reproduces the relationship between the warm FIR luminosity and $`L_{1.4\mathrm{GHz}}`$ for the 72 sample galaxies. The slope of the correlation is $`m=1.03\pm 0.03`$ (see Table 3), which indicates that the correlation is linear.

This result differs from the previous one of Xu et al. (1994), who derived the warm FIR/radio correlation based on the proportionality between the IRAS FIR and H$`\alpha `$ emissions. These authors obtained a non-linear correlation, with the radio-to-FIR luminosity ratio increasing with luminosity. One possible explanation for the non-linearity of the correlation obtained by Xu et al. (1994) is that the H$`\alpha `$ emission was corrected for extinction using the same value for all galaxies. However, if more luminous galaxies suffer from larger amounts of extinction, then the intrinsic H$`\alpha `$ emission at the bright end of the correlation was underestimated by Xu et al., and thus the warm FIR emission was also underestimated, producing the non-linearity of the warm FIR/radio correlation found by these authors.

As for the total FIR/radio correlation, the fact that some galaxies show evidence for mild LINER/Seyfert activity or are in pair/multiple/merging systems does not seem to affect the shape of the correlation (not shown). The slope of the correlation for the 20 galaxies with some activity is $`m=0.96\pm 0.06`$ (Table 3). For the remainder we obtain $`m=1.06\pm 0.04`$.

The comparison between the warm FIR/radio correlation and the equivalent of the IRAS FIR/radio correlation (plotted with the dashed line in Fig. 2) shows that the shift between the two correlations is much smaller than in the case of the total FIR luminosity. In addition, this shift is constant along the luminosity range spanned by the data. This is to be expected, as the IRAS $`L_{40120}`$ luminosity is dominated by the contribution of the warm dust component, and contains only a small contribution from the cold dust component.

### 3.3 The cold FIR/radio correlation

Fig. 3 reproduces the cold FIR/radio correlation as obtained for the whole sample of 72 objects. We find that the cold FIR/radio correlation is only slightly non-linear ($`m=1.13\pm 0.04`$, see Table 3), similar with what we found for the correlation between $`L_{1.4\mathrm{GHz}}`$ and the total FIR luminosity $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}`$ (Fig. 1). This is no surprise since the cold dust component dominates the total FIR continuum emission of normal late-type galaxies.

We obtained $`m=1.17\pm 0.08`$ (Table 3) for the subsample of 20 galaxies with some activity (LINER/Seyfert or pair/multiple/merging systems) and $`m=1.12\pm 0.05`$ for the remainder. Thus, the different mix of galaxies does not seem to play any significant role, as for all correlations presented in this study.

### 3.4 The FIR/radio correlation for the Virgo and non-Virgo galaxies

In their study of cold dust in Virgo Cluster galaxies, Popescu et al. (2002) plotted warm and cold FIR/radio correlations based on the ISO measurements for the 13 galaxies in their sample which had corresponding radio data. Although the statistics were poor, there was an indication that the warm FIR/radio correlation might be non-linear, whereas in this paper we obtain a linear slope for our sample of 72 objects. Since the sample presented in this work includes the Virgo galaxies from Popescu et al. (2002), we expect to reproduce the same trend when the fit is only applied to the Virgo galaxies. For this we fitted once again the FIR/radio correlations (for the total FIR emission, as well as for the warm and cold FIR emissions), this time separately for the Virgo and non-Virgo galaxies. In total there are 17 Virgo cluster galaxies, comprising the 14 from the VIRGO subsample and 3 Virgo cluster galaxies detected by ISS but not observed by Tuffs et al. (2002a,b). Correspondingly, there are 55 non-Virgo galaxies.

The statistics of the fits are given in Table 3. Indeed, in the case of the warm FIR/radio correlation, there is some indication for a non-linear correlation, while the fit to the non-Virgo sample is linear. Overall, there is a tendency for all correlations to be more non-linear for the Virgo sample than for the non-Virgo sample.

In this context it is appropriate to examine the question of environmental effects. Such influence on the FIR emission was not found for the Virgo galaxies (Popescu et al. 2002; Popescu & Tuffs 2002b). However, the radio emission may be more susceptible to environmental effects, as the radio emitting medium is less tightly bound to the disk than the FIR emitting medium. One could imagine a scenario in which synchrotron halo electrons are swept away by the ram pressure induced by the relative motion of the galaxies through the intracluster medium. Preferentially, such a removal may be more severe for more quiescent galaxies which have less strongly magnetised halos. This could induce a non-linearity in the FIR/radio correlation. However this should only be applicable to galaxies which are entering the intracluster medium now and therefore we expect only sporadic examples of this phenomenon. We conclude that environmental effects play only a secondary role in shaping the FIR/radio correlation. The main distinction between Virgo and non-Virgo galaxies is rather that the former populate the faint end of the correlation, and are more quiescent.

## 4 Interpretation of the warm and cold FIR/radio correlations

In the previous section we have, for the first time, quantitatively established the correlation between the FIR and radio emission by including the bulk of the FIR luminosity carried by the cold dust component. Furthermore our measurements at three FIR wavelengths allowed a direct determination of the warm and cold FIR emissions. Consequently, separate relations have been derived for the warm and cold FIR/radio relations. In this section we will discuss each of the correlations in terms of the dependence on the star formation rate (SFR).

Detailed mapping observations in the 40-200 $`\mu `$m range of nearby galaxies (e.g. Haas et al. 1998; Hippelein et al. 2002) as well as self consistent models of the UV/submm SEDs in spiral galaxies (Popescu et al. 2000) are both consistent with the presence of locally heated dust in star-forming complexes and of diffuse dust (Tuffs & Popescu 2002). The diffuse dust is heated both by non-ionising UV photons and optical photons (Xu 1990). Then, the relation between SFR and the total FIR energy output can be derived from the following equation:

$`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{tot}}=L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{HII}}+L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{UV}}+L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{opt}}`$ (1)
where $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{tot}}`$ is the total FIR luminosity emitted by the galaxy, $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{HII}}`$ is the FIR luminosity emitted by the HII regions, $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{UV}}`$ is the component of the diffuse FIR luminosity powered by the non-ionising UV photons and $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{opt}}`$ is the component of the diffuse FIR luminosity powered by the optical photons. The equation can be further expressed555The formulation in Eq. (2) is applicable for the case that the diffuse component is illuminated by a continuous stellar emissivity, and neglects the discrete character of stars. in terms of SFR:

$`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{tot}}=SFR\times (L_0\times F+L_x\times X)+SFR\times L_0\times (1F)\times G_{uv}+L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{opt}}`$ (2)
where the first term corresponds to $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{HII}}`$ and the second term to $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{UV}}`$. SFR - the variable of Eq. 2 - is the present-day star formation rate in $`\mathrm{M}_{\mathrm{}}/\mathrm{yr}`$, $`L_0`$ and $`L_x`$ are the non-ionising and the ionising UV bolometric luminosities of a young stellar population corresponding to $`SFR=1\mathrm{M}_{\mathrm{}}`$/yr (which can be derived from population synthesis models), F and X are the fractions of non-ionising and ionising UV emission that are absorbed by dust locally within star forming complexes, and the factor $`G_{uv}`$ is the probability that a non-ionising UV photon escaping from the star formation complexes will be absorbed by dust in the diffuse interstellar medium.

In the way it is defined (see also Popescu et al. 2000), the $`F`$ factor accounts for the inhomogeneities in the distributions of dust and stars. It determines the additional likelyhood of absorption of non-ionising UV photons due to correlations between an inhomogeneous distribution of young stars and (opaque) parent molecular clouds. In this sense the $`F`$ factor represents a clumpiness factor in galaxies.

The value of $`G_{uv}`$ depends on both the overall amount of diffuse dust and its geometrical distribution relative to the distribution of the young stellar population. The relative distribution of stellar emissivity and dust as a function of SFR is not known. But broadly speaking one would expect SFR to increase with the gas surface density in galaxy disks (Schmidt 1959; Kennicutt 1998). If the dust content is proportional to the gas content666Broadly speaking, the dust content is proportional to the metal abundance (e.g., \[O/H\]) times the average gas column density of the disk. \[O/H\] is known to increase with the optical luminosity of the galaxy (Zaritsky, Kennicutt & Huchra 1994), enforcing the idea that the metal content of a galaxy like our own is mostly the result of the past star formation activity (e.g. Dwek 1998). In absence of an observationally established relation between metallicity of the disk and SFR, we expect this metallicity to contribute only to the scatter of the relation between dust content and SFR., the dust opacity would also increase with SFR (for a fixed geometry). $`G_{uv}`$ would then increase with SFR for the optically thin case and would tend asymptotically towards the fixed value of unity for the optically thick case. From this definition it is obvious that the $`G_{uv}`$ is a measure of opacity in galaxies.

The fraction X of ionising UV photons that are absorbed by dust in HII regions exhibits a broad range of values, varying from $`0.30.7`$ (Inoue et al. 2001, Inoue 2001). However, even if X approaches unity, the intrinsic luminosity $`L_\mathrm{X}`$ is so much smaller than the intrinsic non-ionising UV luminosity $`L_0`$ (Bruzual & Charlot 1993), that its contribution to $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{HII}}`$ can still be neglected.

### 4.1 The warm FIR/radio correlation

To interpret the warm FIR/radio correlation, we identify the warm dust component from our fitting procedure with dust locally heated within the HII regions, such that $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{warm}}L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{HII}}`$. In this case $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{warm}}`$ can be written as:

$`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{warm}}SFR\times L_0\times F`$ (3)
In principle Eq. 3 can be used to constrain the dependence of the radio luminosity on SFR. In Sect. 3.2 we found a linear correlation between the warm FIR and radio luminosities for the sample as a whole. Under the assumption that the clumpiness factor $`F`$ does not vary with SFR, this would imply a linear relation between radio luminosity and SFR. This is in accordance with the prediction of the calorimeter theory (Völk 1989).

### 4.2 The cold FIR/radio correlation

If the cold dust component is identified with diffuse dust heated by the interstellar radiation field, then:

$`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{cold}}SFR\times L_0\times (1F)\times G_{uv}+L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{opt}}`$ (4)
To interpret Eq. (4) we have to take into account that the opacity ($`G_{uv}`$ factor) could vary systematically with SFR (see also Bell 2003). As argued above, $`G_{uv}`$ should increase with SFR for the optically thin case and should approach unity for the optically thick case. This means that $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{cold}}`$ would increase more than linearly with increasing SFR for the optically thin case and would tend towards linearity for the extreme optically thick case. In Sect. 3.3 we found a slightly non-linear cold FIR/radio correlation ($`m=1.13`$ with a $`3\sigma `$ lower limit on the slope of 1.01) for the sample as a whole, in the sense that the ratio radio-to-FIR increases more than linearly with increasing luminosity, the opposite trend than that predicted by opacity. Could this observed trend be explained at low luminosities by considering an increased contribution of the heating of dust by optical photons? Xu et al. (1994) studied the effect of the optical heating on the FIR/radio correlation and found that this would indeed introduce a non-linearity at low luminosities. However they assumed that $`G_{\mathrm{uv}}`$ was the same for all galaxies, irrespective of SFR. In fact the opacity should have its strongest dependence on SFR at low luminosities. As argued by Bell (2003), the effect of optical heating is negligible compared with the effect of opacity. Thus, most probably, the optical heating is not enough to explain the observed slope at low luminosities. One possibility to explain the observed slope of the cold FIR/radio correlation is that the radio emission increases more than linearly with increasing SFR for the optically thin case ($`G_{uv}<1`$) and has a marginal deviation from linearity for the optically thick case ($`G_{uv}`$ approaches 1). But this is in contradiction with our inference from the warm FIR/radio correlation that the radio luminosity has a linear dependence on SFR.

## 5 Discussion

We have seen in the previous section that it is not easy to identify a scenario which can simultaneously account for both the warm and cold FIR/radio correlations. Whereas the warm FIR/radio correlation was consistent with a linear dependence of the radio on SFR, the cold FIR/radio correlation was more readily interpreted in terms of a non-linear dependence of the radio emission on SFR. To reconcile these seemingly conflicting results we need to re-examine the underlying assumptions on which the results were based.

In drawing the conclusion from the warm FIR/radio correlation we assumed that the clumpiness factor ($`F`$) is a constant. However, if an increased SFR is accompanyed not only by an increase in the number of independent HII regions, but also by a higher probability for further star formation to happen preferentially near already existing HII regions, then the $`F`$ factor would also increase, as a consequence of the increased blocking capability of the optically thick molecular clouds in the star-forming complex (e.g. Witt & Gordon 1996). This would be expected to occur if star formation is a self propagating phenomenon, in which preceding generations of stars can trigger the formation of new generations.

Referring again to Eq. 3, we see that, if the clumpiness factor $`F`$ increases with SFR, then the $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{warm}}`$ increases more rapidly than linearly with SFR. In turn, the radio luminosity, which empirically was found to be proportional to $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{warm}}`$, will also increase more rapidly than linearly. Qualitatively this is what is needed to bring the warm FIR/radio correlation into consistency with the cold FIR/radio correlation. In Eq. 4 the effect of increasing the clumpiness factor $`F`$ with SFR would depress $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}^{\mathrm{cold}}`$. This, together with the non-linear dependence of the radio on the SFR, would mitigate the trends introduced by opacity, leading to an increased ratio radio/cold FIR with increasing SFR.

From this discussion we conclude that one possibility to bring into consistency the warm and cold FIR/radio correlations would be to invoke a non-linear dependence of the radio emission on SFR. Such a non-linear dependence could be understood in terms of an increase in the residence time of the synchrotron-emitting electrons with increasing galaxy size, as postulated by Chi & Wolfendale (1990). However, the same trend can also be obtained within the framework of the calorimeter theory, if the radio emission is identified with the sum of diffuse and localised source components. The localised source component is comprised of synchrotron emission from supernova remnants (which account for about $`10\%`$ of the total radio flux density of galaxies at 1.4 GHz, Lisenfeld & Völk 2000) plus thermal emission from star forming regions. The diffuse component consists of a pure synchrotron emission component, as given by Völk (1989), plus an additional diffuse free-free component. The free-free component arises from the warm ionised medium, as defined by McKee & Ostriker (1977), and its emission is in general much smaller than the synchrotron emission. Nevertheless we expect that the relative contribution of the synchrotron and free-free components to vary with SFR, such that at high SFR the free-free component becomes non-negligible. This is because the filling factor of the warm ionised medium increases with increasing SFR. Since the non-thermal diffuse radio emission is still proportional with SFR (Völk 1989), then the increased fraction of free-free emission with increasing SFR will introduce the non-linearity in the radio emission.

In this paper we have used a physical though qualitative description of the warm and cold FIR/radio correlations. To quantitatively model these correlations we need to derive the dependence on SFR of both the FIR and the radio emissions. From the point of view of the FIR emission, we need to self consistently analyse the UV to submm SED of each individual galaxy (Popescu et al. 2000; Popescu & Tuffs 2002). In this way the variation of the terms in Eqns. 3 & 4 - clumpiness (the F factor) and opacity (G factor) - with SFR can be derived. From the point of view of the radio emission we need to determine the relative contribution of its components and express them in terms of the SFR. Such a quantitative treatment would throw insights into the physical processes that make normal galaxies the “machines” they are, ranging from particle accelerators and magnetic field dynamos, to radiative coolants.

## 6 Summary

In this paper we present the first analysis of the FIR/radio correlation which incorporates the bulk of the FIR luminosity radiating longwards of the spectral coverage of IRAS. For this we constructed a composite sample of normal galaxies measured with the ISOPHOT instrument on board ISO. The sample was a combination of the ISOPHOT Virgo Cluster Deep Sample (Tuffs et al. 2002a,b) and of the ISOPHOT Serendipity Sample (Stickel et al. 2000). This provided us with a high dynamic range in star formation activity as well as good statistics. All galaxies in the composite sample have had their integrated flux densities measured by ISOPHOT at 170 $`\mu `$m and by ISOPHOT (Virgo sample) or IRAS (Serendipity sample) at 60 and 100 $`\mu `$m. The luminosities of the warm and cold dust emission components were extracted from the available measurements at the three FIR wavelengths. This allowed us to define the FIR/radio correlation separately for the warm and cold dust components.

The inclusion of the cold dust component produces a tendency for the total FIR/radio correlation to become non-linear. We found that the cold FIR/radio correlation is slightly non-linear, whereas the warm FIR/radio correlation is linear. In order to interpret the individual warm and cold correlations in terms of SFR, we identified the warm emission component with dust locally heated within the HII regions, whereas the cold emission component was identified with diffuse dust heated by the interstellar radiation field. Because the effect of opacity in galaxies would introduce a non-linearity in the cold-FIR/radio correlation, in the opposite sense to that observed, both the radio and the FIR emissions are likely to have a non-linear dependence on SFR (for the range of luminosities covered by our sample, which lies below the luminosity range if starburst galaxies). The behaviour of the radio emission can be accounted for by considering the radio emission to be a superposition of a diffuse synchrotron component, a diffuse free-free component and a localised source component.

###### Acknowledgements.

This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

## Appendix A The extraction of the radio flux densities from the NVSS maps

The NVSS used the NRAO Very Large Array telescope and covers the sky north of a declination of -40 degrees at a frequency of 1.4 GHz, a resolution of $`45^{\prime \prime }`$ and a limiting peak source brightness of about 2.5 $`\mathrm{mJy}\mathrm{beam}^1`$ (Condon et al. 1998). Radio counterparts are associated with optically catalogued galaxies when the distance of the peak radio surface brightness of the potential radio identification from the optical position of the target galaxy is within the NVSS resolution. The probability of finding an NVSS source within $`45^{\prime \prime }`$ of an arbitrary position is 0.02.

As a result of this survey a source catalogue has been produced, which consists of Gaussian model components fitted to the survey images. If the source is significantly larger than the resolution of the survey then it may be represented by several of these components. The fitted parameters are deconvolved from the instrumental resolution producing source sizes (or upper limits with 99 per cent confidence) and the integrated flux density of the model. Error estimates for each of the source parameters are also given.

In addition to the catalogue, a postage stamp server which returns FITS files of limited regions from the NVSS calibrated images is available electronically. The noise level in these images is about 0.5 $`\mathrm{mJy}\mathrm{beam}^1`$. We have decided to extract our own aperture photometry from these calibrated maps under the consideration that some of our sample galaxies might have failed the classification criteria of the NVSS catalogue and/or not be represented by Gaussian model components at best and/or have unaccounted faint extended emission. This question is crucial, since the $`45^{\prime \prime }`$ beam of the NVSS has a much smaller aperture than the ISOPHOT beam at $`170\mu \mathrm{m}`$ ($`92^{\prime \prime }`$). Aperture photometry was extracted with the task QPHOT in IRAF777IRAF is the Image Analysis and Reduction Facility made available to the astronomical community by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories, which are operated by AURA, Inc., under contract with the U.S. National Science Foundation..

We plot the comparison between our photometry (y axis) and the NVSS catalogue one (x axis) in Fig. A.1. Here the solid and long-dashed lines represent the 1:1 and 1.25:1 ratios, respectively, while the box delimited by a short-dashed line corresponds to the region zoomed in the enclosed box. As expected, we find that the agreement is excellent for those radio sources which appear unresolved with the NVSS beam but it becomes worse in case of very extended/complex sources. On average, our fluxes are 25 per cent larger than the NVSS catalogue one.

## Appendix B Photometric comparison between the ISOPHOT Serendipity Survey and the ISOPHOT Deep Virgo Cluster Survey at 170 $`\mu m`$

Four galaxies from the ISOPHOT Deep Virgo Cluster Survey (Tuffs et al. 2002) were also detected by the ISOPHOT $`170\mu \mathrm{m}`$ Serendipity Survey (Stickel et al. 2000). These galaxies are: VCC 66, 460, 836 and 873, alias NGC 4178, 4293, 4388 and 4402, respectively. From the comparison of the $`170\mu \mathrm{m}`$ flux densities of these 4 galaxies it emerges that the values of Stickel et al. are systematically higher than those of Tuffs et al., the difference being significant (a factor of 2) for VCC 836 and 873.

The absolute calibration is not a reason for this, since background measurements averaged over the 4 common objects are the same to within a few per cent. However the different techniques used to derived photometry may give rise to differences. Even for extended sources, the Serendipity Survey photometry is extracted by fitting circular gaussians to the strip maps, whereas the Virgo sample photometry is performed by fitting elliptical gaussians. Thus, one may expect the Serendipity Survey $`170\mu \mathrm{m}`$ fluxes to be overestimated as inclination gets larger, as indeed it is the case for the previous 4 galaxies. In addition, in the Serendipity Survey photometry there is a spread of 30 per cent for bright sources, due to systematic effects like offset of source from scan line. To this must be added random errors for faint sources (10 Jy or less). The combined uncertainties can be 50 per cent for faint sources (see Fig. 2 of Stickel et al. 2000). Finally, compared with Tuffs et al. (2002), Stickel et al. made larger corrections for the loss of signal incurred by the transient response of the detector to illumination steps – the so-called “transient correction”. The multiplicative corrections of Stickel et al. range from 1.1 for a faint source to a factor of 2 for sources of 60 Jy. By comparison the transient corrections of Tuffs et al. are 10 to 20 per cent only for the C200 detector.

From this discussion we conclude that the Serendipity Survey photometry may be overestimated by a factor of 2 for large (i.e., with apparent major axis longer than $`4^{}`$) galaxies with inclinations higher than $`70^\mathrm{o}`$.


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# On the structure of the scalar and 𝐷 mesons

## I Introduction

The continuously increasing huge amount of data and its simplicity have converted meson spectroscopy in an ideal system to learn about the properties of QCD. Since Gell-Man conjecture, most of the meson experimental data were classified as $`q\overline{q}`$ states according to $`SU(N)`$ irreducible representations. Nevertheless a number of interesting issues remains still open as for example the understanding of some data recently obtained on the B factories or the structure of the scalar mesons. The recently measured $`D_s`$ states are hardly accommodated in a pure $`q\overline{q}`$ description. They present a mass much lower than the naive prediction of constituent quark models. Besides, the underlying structure of the scalar mesons is still not well established theoretically. In a pure $`q\overline{q}`$ scheme the light scalars could be identified with the isoscalars $`f_0(600)`$ and $`f_0(980)`$, the isodoublet $`\kappa (900)`$, and the isovector $`a_0(980)`$, constituting a $`SU(3)`$ flavor nonet. However such identification immediately faces difficulties to explain for example (i) the $`f_0(980)`$ and $`a_0(980)`$ mass degeneracy, (ii) why $`a_0(980)`$ and $`f_0(600)`$ have so a different mass?, (iii) the similar branching ratios of the $`J/\psi f_0(980)\varphi `$ and $`J/\psi f_0(980)\omega `$ decays which clearly indicates the existence of strange and nonstrange content in the $`f_0(980)`$.

The theoretical tools to determine the properties of mesons are based to a large extent on phenomenological models. The study of charmonium and bottomonium made clear that heavy-quark systems are properly described by nonrelativistic potential models reflecting the dynamics expected from QCD . For heavy quarks to leading order in $`v^2`$ it has been demonstrated that the interaction can be derived from the theory . The light meson sector has been studied by means of constituent quark models, where quarks are dressed with a phenomenological mass and bound in a nonrelativistic potential, usually a harmonic oscillator . Quite surprisingly a large number of properties of hadrons could be reproduced in this way . In this talk we present the meson spectra obtained by means of a chiral constituent quark model in a trial to interpret some of the still unclear experimental data in the light scalar and $`D`$ meson sectors.

## II SU(3) chiral constituent quark model

Since the origin of the quark model hadrons have been considered to be built by constituent (massive) quarks. Nowadays it is widely recognized that the constituent quark mass appears because of the spontaneous breaking of the original $`SU(3)_LSU(3)_R`$ chiral symmetry at some momentum scale. In this domain a simple Lagrangian invariant under the chiral transformation can be derived as

$$L=\overline{\psi }(i\gamma ^\mu _\mu MU^{\gamma _5})\psi $$
(1)
where $`U^{\gamma _5}=\mathrm{exp}(i\pi ^a\lambda ^a\gamma _5/f_\pi )`$. $`\pi ^a`$ denotes the pseudoscalar fields $`(\stackrel{}{\pi },K_i,\eta _8)`$ with i=1,…,4, and $`M`$ is the constituent quark mass. An expression of the constituent quark mass can be obtained from the theory, but it also can be parametrized as $`M(q^2)=m_qF(q^2)`$ with

$$F(q^2)=\left[\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2+q^2}\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ determines the scale at which chiral symmetry is broken. Once a constituent quark mass is generated such particles have to interact through Goldstone modes. Whereas the Lagrangian $`\overline{\psi }(i\gamma ^\mu _\mu M)\psi `$ is not invariant under chiral rotations, the one of Eq. (1) is invariant since the rotation of the quark fields can be compensated renaming the bosons fields. $`U^{\gamma _5}`$ can be expanded in terms of boson fields as,

$$U^{\gamma _5}=1+\frac{i}{f_\pi }\gamma ^5\lambda ^a\pi ^a\frac{1}{2f_\pi ^2}\pi ^a\pi ^a+\mathrm{}$$
(3)
The first term generates the constituent quark mass and the second one gives rise to a one-boson exchange interaction between quarks. The main contribution of the third term comes from the two-pion exchange which will be simulated by means of the one-sigma exchange potential. Based on the nonrelativistic reduction of the former Lagrangian, one obtains an interaction between quarks mediated by the exchange of different Goldstone bosons. Among them, the one-pion, one-kaon and one-eta exchanges contribute with a central and a tensor interaction, while the one-sigma exchange gives a central and a spin-orbit term. Explicit expressions of these potentials can be found elsewhere . The parameters of the Goldstone boson exchange interaction are fixed assuming that $`SU(3)`$ flavor-symmetry is exact, only broken by the different mass of the strange quark. In the heavy quark sector, chiral symmetry is explicitly broken and therefore these interactions will not appear.

For higher momentum transfer quarks still interact through gluon exchanges. Following de Rújula et al.  the one-gluon-exchange (OGE) interaction is taken as a standard color Fermi-Breit potential. In order to obtain a unified description of light, strange and heavy mesons a running strong coupling constant has to be used . The perturbative expression for $`\alpha _s(Q^2)`$ diverges when $`Q\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}`$ and therefore the coupling constant has to be frozen at low energies. We parametrize this behavior by means of an effective scale dependent strong coupling constant

$$\alpha _s(\mu )=\frac{\alpha _0}{ln\left(\frac{\mu ^2+\mu _0^2}{\mathrm{\Lambda }_0^2}\right)},$$
(4)
where $`\mu `$ is the reduced mass of the $`q\overline{q}`$ system and $`\alpha _0`$, $`\mu _0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_0`$ are fitted parameters . This equation gives rise to $`\alpha _s0.54`$ for the light quark sector, a value consistent with the one used in the study of the nonstrange hadron phenomenology , and it also has an appropriate high $`Q^2`$ behavior, $`\alpha _s0.127`$ at the $`Z_0`$ mass . The $`\delta `$ function appearing in the OGE has to be regularized in order to avoid an unbound spectrum from below. Taken into account that for a coulombic system the typical size scales with the reduced mass, we use a flavor-dependent regularization $`r_0(\mu )=\widehat{r}_0/\mu `$ . Moreover the Schrödinger equation cannot be solved numerically for potentials containing $`1/r^3`$ terms. This is why we regularize the noncentral terms of the OGE with a monopole form factor with parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_g(\mu )=\mu /\mathrm{\Lambda }_g^0`$ .

The other nonperturbative property of QCD is confinement. Lattice QCD studies show that $`q\overline{q}`$ systems are well reproduced at short distances by a linear potential that it is screened at large distances due to pair creation . One important question which has not been properly answered is the covariance property of confinement. While the spin-orbit splittings in heavy quark systems suggest a scalar confining potential , in Ref.  showed that the Dirac structure of confinement is of vector nature in the heavy quark limit of QCD. On the other hand, a significant mixture of vector confinement has been used to explain the decay widths of $`P`$-wave $`D`$ mesons . Such property being irrelevant for the central part of the interaction, determines the sign and strength of the spin-orbit Thomas precession term. Therefore, we write the spin-orbit contribution of the confining interaction as an arbitrary combination of scalar and vector terms $`V_{CON}^{SO}(\stackrel{}{r}_{ij})=(1a_s)V_V^{SO}(\stackrel{}{r}_{ij})+a_sV_S^{SO}(\stackrel{}{r}_{ij})`$ where $`V_V^{SO}(\stackrel{}{r})[V_S^{SO}(\stackrel{}{r})]`$ is the vector (scalar) spin-orbit contribution.

## III Results

With the quark-quark interaction described above we have solved the Schrödinger equation for the different $`q\overline{q}`$ systems. Let us briefly discuss the parameters of our model. Most of the parameters of the Goldstone boson fields are taken from the $`NN`$ sector. The eta and kaon cutoff masses are related with the sigma and pion one as explained in Ref. : $`\mathrm{\Lambda }[u(d)s]\mathrm{\Lambda }(ud)+m_s`$ where $`m_s`$ is the strange quark current mass. The confinement parameters $`a_c`$ and $`\mu _c`$ are fitted to reproduce the energy difference between the $`\rho `$ meson and its first radial excitation and the $`J/\psi `$ and the $`\psi (2S)`$. The parameters involved in the OGE are obtained from a global fit to the hyperfine splittings well established in the Particle Data Group (PDG) . Finally, one has to fix the relative strength of the scalar and vector confinement. Using a pure scalar confining potential one obtains 1363 MeV and 1142 MeV for the $`a_1(1260)`$ and $`a_2(1320)`$, respectively, in complete disagreement with the order and magnitude of the experimental data. Introducing a small mixture of vector confinement, $`a_s`$=0.777, the experimental order is recovered, being now the masses 1198 MeV and 1322 MeV, respectively, both within the experimental error bars. This value also allows to obtain a good agreement with the experimental data in the $`c\overline{c}`$ and $`b\overline{b}`$ systems.

In Fig. 1 we show results for the light pseudoscalar and vector mesons and for heavy mesons. The agreement with experimental data is remarkable. Let us emphasize that with only 11 parameters we are able to describe more than 110 states .

### A The $`\eta _c(2S)`$ and $`D_{s_J}`$ states

Recently Belle and BaBar collaborations have reported new experimental measurements that immediately prompted different interpretations. The Belle collaboration has reported the following values for the mass of the $`\eta _c(2S)`$

$`M[\eta _c(2S)]=\{\begin{array}{c}3654\pm 6\pm 8\text{ MeV Ref. }\text{[17]}\\ 3622\pm 6\pm 6\text{ MeV Ref. }\text{[18]}\\ 3630\pm 8\text{ MeV Ref. }\text{[19]}\end{array}`$

that are significantly larger than most predictions of constituent quark models and the previous experimental value of the PDG: $`M[\eta _c(2S)]=3594\pm 5`$ MeV. It has been pointed out that these values cannot be easily explained in the framework of constituent quark models because the resulting $`2S`$ hyperfine splitting (HFS) would be smaller than the predicted for the $`1S`$ ones. In fact the predicted ratio of the $`2S`$ to $`1S`$ HFS in charmonium is

$`R={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }M_{2S}^{HFS}}{\mathrm{\Delta }M_{1S}^{HFS}}}=\{\begin{array}{c}0.84\text{ Ref. }\text{[20]}\\ 0.67\text{ Ref. }\text{[21]}\\ 0.60\text{ Ref. }\text{[22]}\end{array}`$

whereas the experimental one is R=0.273 if $`M[\eta _c(2S)]=`$ 3654 MeV, R=0.547 for 3622 MeV, and R=0.479 for 3630 MeV. In view of these differences some authors have claimed for an $`\alpha _s`$ coupling constant depending on the radial excitation.

Our result is $`M[\eta _c(2S)]=`$ 3627 MeV, within the error bar of the last two Belle measurements, the ones obtained with higher statistics. Moreover the ratio 2S to 1S HFS is found to be 0.537, in perfect agreement with the experimental data. The reason for this agreement can be found in the shape of the confining potential that also influences the HFS, the linear confinement being not enough flexible to accommodate both excitations .

The experimental measurement reported by BaBar is a narrow state near 2317 MeV known as $`D_{S_J}^{}(2317)`$ . This state has been confirmed by CLEO  together with another possible resonance around 2460 MeV. Both experiments interpret these resonances as $`J^P=0^+`$ and $`1^+`$ states. This discovery has triggered a series of articles  either supporting this interpretation or presenting alternative hypothesis.

The most striking aspect of these two resonances is that their masses are much lower than expected. The mass difference between the PDG mass value $`D_1(2420)`$ and the lowest value of $`D_0^{}`$ reported by the Belle collaboration is about 135 MeV. Using these data and the PDG mass value for the $`D_{S_1}(2536)`$ one would expect the $`D_{S_0}^{}`$ mass to be around 2400 MeV, almost 100 MeV greater than the measured values. Our results are shown in Table I. They agree reasonably well with the values of the PDG for both for the $`D`$’s and $`D_s`$’s states, but fail to reproduce the two $`D_s`$ states reported by Belle and CLEO. We also agree with the results by FOCUS  for the $`D_0`$ state but we are far from the result of Belle for the same state.

## IV The scalar sector: $`q\overline{q}`$ study

It is still not clear which are the members of the $`0^{++}`$ nonet corresponding to $`L=S=1`$ $`q\overline{q}`$ multiplets. There are too many 0<sup>++</sup> mesons observed in the region below 2 GeV to be explained as $`q\overline{q}`$ states. There have been reported in the PDG two isovectors $`IJ^{PC}=10^{++}`$: $`a_0(980)`$ and $`a_0(1450)`$; five isoscalars $`IJ^{PC}=00^{++}`$: $`f_0(600),f_0(980),f_0(1370),f_0(1500)`$ and $`f_0(1710)`$; and three $`IJ^{PC}=\frac{1}{2}0^{++}`$: $`K_0^{}(1430)`$, $`K_0^{}(1940)`$ and recently $`\kappa (900)`$. The naive quark model predicts the existence of one isovector, two isoscalars and two $`I=1/2`$ states.

Our results are shown in Table II. Using this table one can try to assign physical states to $`0^{++}`$ nonet members. We observe that there are no nonstrange states with $`I=0`$ and mass close to 1 either 1.5 GeV, which would correspond to the $`f_0(980)`$ and the $`f_0(1500)`$. The same occurs in the strange sector around 0.8 GeV, we do not find a $`q\overline{q}`$ partner for the $`\kappa (900)`$.

Let us discuss each state separately. With respect to the isovector states, there appears a candidate for the $`a_0(980)`$, the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ member of the lowest $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{J}^{}`$ isovector multiplet. The other candidate, the $`a_0(1450)`$, is predicted to be the scalar member of a $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{J}^{}`$ excited isovector multiplet. This reinforces the predictions of the naive quark model, where the $`LS`$ force makes lighter the $`J=0`$ states with respect to the $`J=2`$. The assignment of the $`a_0(1450)`$ as the scalar member of the lowest $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{J}^{}`$ multiplet would contradict this idea, because the $`a_2(1312)`$ is well established as a $`q\overline{q}`$ pair. The same behavior is evident in the $`c\overline{c}`$ and the $`b\overline{b}`$ spectra, making impossible to describe the $`a_0(1450)`$ as a member of the lowest $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{J}^{}`$ isovector multiplet without spoiling the description of heavy-quark multiplets. However, in spite of the correct description of the mass of the $`a_0(980)`$, the model predicts a pure light-quark content, what seems to contradict some experimental evidences. The $`a_0(1450)`$ is predicted to be also a pure light quark structure obtaining a mass somewhat higher than the experiment.

In the case of the isoscalar states, one finds a candidate for the $`f_0(600)`$ with a mass of 402 MeV, in the lower limit of the experimental error bar and with a strangeness content around $`8\%`$. The $`f_0(980)`$ and $`f_0(1500)`$ cannot be found for any combination of the parameters of the model. It seems that a different structure rather than a naive $`q\overline{q}`$ pair is needed to describe these states. The $`f_0(1500)`$ is a clear candidate for the lightest glueball  and our results support this assumption. Concerning the $`f_0(1370)`$ (which may actually correspond to two different states ) we obtain two almost degenerate states around this energy, the lower one with a predominantly nonstrange content, and the other with a high $`s\overline{s}`$ content. Finally a state corresponding to the $`f_0(1710)`$ is obtained.

Concerning the $`I=1/2`$ sector, as a consequence of the larger mass of the strange quark as compared to the light ones, our model always predicts a mass for the lowest $`0^{++}`$ state 200 MeV greater than the $`a_0(980)`$ mass. Therefore, being the $`a_0(980)`$ the member of the lowest isovector scalar multiplet, the $`\kappa (900)`$ cannot be explained as a $`q\overline{q}`$ pair. We find a candidate for the $`K_0^{}(1430)`$ although with a smaller mass.

In conclusion our results indicate that the light scalar sector cannot be described in a pure $`q\overline{q}`$ scheme and more complicated structures or mixing with multiquark states seems to be needed. Our conclusion concerning the $`f_0(980)`$ and the $`\kappa (900)`$ are very similar to the ones obtained by Umekawa  using the extended Nambu-Jona-Lasinio model in an improved ladder approximation of the Bethe-Salpeter equation. This fact seems to indicate that relativistic corrections would not improve the situation and the conclusions remain model independent.

## V The scalar sector: tetraquark study

In the naive quark model, to construct a positive parity state requires a unit of angular momentum in a $`q\overline{q}`$ pair. Apparently, this takes an energy around 1 GeV since similar meson states ($`1^{++}`$ and $`2^{++}`$) lie above 1.2 GeV. However a more complicated structure, like $`q^2\overline{q}^2`$, suggested twenty years ago by Jaffe  can couple to $`0^{++}`$ without orbital excitation and therefore could be a serious candidate to explain the structure of some light scalar mesons.

In this section we study tetraquark bound states, focusing our attention in those states with the quantum numbers of the scalar mesons. We solve the Schrödinger equation using a variational method where the spatial trial wave function is a linear combination of gaussians The technical details are given in Ref. . Let us only mention that neglecting the exchange terms in the variational wave function is fully justified for the heavy-light tetraquarks but it may induce some corrections in the present study. Due to the presence of the kaon-exchange there is a mixture among different configurations with the same isospin. In particular, in the isoscalar sector the configurations: $`[(qq)(\overline{q}\overline{q})]`$, $`[(qs)(\overline{q}\overline{s})]`$, and $`[(ss)(\overline{s}\overline{s})]`$ are mixed. The same happens in the isovector case for the configurations: $`[(qq)(\overline{q}\overline{q})]`$, and $`[(qs)(\overline{q}\overline{s})]`$, and in the $`I=1/2`$ case for the configurations: $`[(qq)(\overline{q}\overline{s})]`$, and $`[(qs)(\overline{s}\overline{s})]`$. In all cases $`q`$ stands for a $`u`$ or $`d`$ quark.

The results are shown in Fig. 2. We present the lowest states for the three isospin sectors. The $`\times `$’s show the results obtained within the model described in Sect. II. As one can see, there appear two states, in the isoscalar and isovector sectors, with almost the same mass, although too high to be identified with the $`f_0(980)`$ and $`a_0(980)`$. In the $`I=1/2`$ sector, there appears a candidate to be identified with the $`\kappa (900)`$. It has been recently argued the possible importance of three-body forces arising from the confining interaction for those systems containing at least three quarks . We have performed a calculation including a three-body confining term as the one reported in Ref. . The strength of this interaction has been chosen to reproduce the mass of the $`f_0(980)`$. The results are plotted in Fig. 2 by $``$’s. As one can see the degeneracy between the isoscalar and isovector states remains, while the lowest state of the isoscalar and $`I=1/2`$ sectors are almost not affected. From these results one could inferred that the scalar sector needs the presence of tetraquark structures to be understood.

As a summary, we have obtained candidates for all the light scalar mesons reported in the literature. Our results suggest that there would be some states, as it is the case of the $`a_0(980)`$ and $`f_0(600)`$ that would be a mixture of a $`q\overline{q}`$ and tetraquark structure, but it definitively assigns a tetraquark structure to the $`f_0(980)`$ and the $`\kappa (900)`$.

## VI  acknowledgments

This work has been partially funded by Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología under Contract No. BFM2001-3563 and by Junta de Castilla y León under Contract No. SA-109/01.


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# Chapter 1 The Anisotropy Search Program For the Pierre Auger Observatory

## Chapter 1 The Anisotropy Search Program For the Pierre Auger Observatory

### Abstract

The Pierre Auger Southern Observatory in Argentina has begun taking data as it is being developed up to a final enclosed area of 3000 square kilometres. A key aspect of the project is to provide information on the origin of the highest energy cosmic rays through understanding the arrival directions of those particles. To avoid claims of a spurious anisotropy detection because trials have not been properly accounted, the Auger Collaboration has agreed ’a priori’ to the analysis prescription presented here. It specifies the following:

1. The accumulation time for the (future) data set to be analyzed.

2. The anisotropy ’targets’, each assigned a chance probability level.

3. The analysis procedure for each trial.

A positive result will be claimed for any target search only if its chance probability is less than its assigned level. The levels are chosen so that the total chance probability for one or more positive results is 0.001.

Exploratory searches beyond this prescription will be encouraged, but the Auger Collaboration will not assign any confidence level to anisotropies that may be discovered that way. Any such discovery would identify a good target for a prescription to be used with a subsequent Auger data set.

### 1. Introduction: The Need for a Prescription

A major aim of the Pierre Auger Collaboration is the identification of deviations from isotropy (the anisotropy) in the flux of cosmic rays. This aim is based on the expectation that rigidity dependent propagation will begin to allow a form of directional astronomy with cosmic rays at the highest energies. In past studies, the inevitable statistical noise in the data, and subtle time variations in the array stability, have caused some claims to be made for observed anisotropies which have not been confirmed. This has partially resulted from an inadequate knowledge of the number of trials involved in the analysis. The Auger project aims to avoid the latter uncertainties by an a priori definition of the analysis process so that the chance probability of any positive detection can be rigorously evaluated. We will refer to this as an a priori analysis prescription.

A prescription for an anisotropy search specifies the search procedure a priori so that a positive effect can be published with confidence in its statistical significance. It protects the limited number of important searches by documenting ahead of time the search that will be performed on a specified dataset.

This does not preclude a thorough exploration of the data for expected or unexpected anisotropies but such an exploration would not have immediate discovery potential. It would, however, make a case for the result of that exploration to be included in considering a prescription for a future dataset. We thus envisage that new Auger datasets will regularly become available as the array continues to operate and a specific and unique prescription will be determined a priori for each of those datasets.

### 2. The Prescription

#### 2.1. Data Set Characterization

The Auger array is currently under development and is progressively increasing in collecting area. The early anisotropy data will be more complicated to analyse than those from a later period in which the array is more stable. However, we wish to test the prescription technique and its asociated discipline as early as possible. We propose defining the start of our first dataset for analysis on 8 August 2003, the end of the ICRC, and the end when the array on 16 May 2004, ensuring that the second dataset is timed to fit with a much more stable period. The event directions and energies used will be those produced by the official Auger reconstruction program in use at the time of the end of the dataset. We anticipate that this first dataset will contain about 104 events with energies above 1 EeV and about 300 events above 10 EeV. In the analysis of this first anisotropy data, we will use events with energies greater than 1 EeV.

#### 2.2. The Targets

We propose that a publishable positive anisotropy result requires a chance probability (after accounting for statistical trials) that is less than 0.001. We thus propose to prioritize search targets by partitioning that overall 0.001 probability.

With our defined dataset, this prescription covers searches either over an area specified by a radial distance around a potential source direction, or in a specific (point source) direction. Our prescription is:

Our anisotropy search has a positive publishable result if one or more of the following is true:

* An excess from the galactic center (RA 17h 42m, dec -29.0) has a chance probability less than .00035 using all data. (15 radius)

* An excess from the galactic center has a point source chance probability less than .00025 using data with LogE $`<`$ 18.5.

* An excess from the AGASA/SUGAR location (b=$`0^{}`$,l=$`7^{}`$) has a point source chance probability less than .00025 using data with LogE $`<`$ 18.5.

* An excess from NGC0253 (RA 00h 46m, dec -25.3) has a chance probability less than .00005 using data with LogE $`>`$ 19.5. ($`5^{}`$ radius)

* An excess from NGC3256 (RA 10h 28m, dec -44.2) has a chance probability less than .00005 using data with LogE $`>`$ 19.5. ($`5^{}`$ radius)

* An excess from the center of Cen A (RA 13h 25m, dec -43.0) has a chance probability less than .00005 using data with LogE $`>`$ 19.5. ($`5^{}`$ radius) The AGASA experiment (Hayashida et al. 1999), with support from SUGAR data (Bellido et al. 2001), has identified a possible excess from either the galactic centre direction or a close by direction within a limited energy range. That direction has always been an a priori key source for the Auger Observatory and the first prescription point reflects this. The angular range specified covers the ’SUGAR direction’ and also is intended to cover the expected source extension following propagation in the galactic magnetic field at characteristic Auger energies (Clay 2001). The second and third points relate to those observations. NGC253 is a nearby (distance estimate 2.5Mpc) starburst galaxy which has been shown to emit a substantial flux of VHE gamma-ray photons (Itoh et al. 2002), NGC3256 is a nearby (33Mpc, Moran et al. 1999) merging multiple galaxy system experiencing highly luminous starburst, and Cen A is our nearest active galaxy at a distance estimated as 3.4Mpc (Bird and Clay 1990). The latter sources are outside the galactic plane and the angular range is intended to approximate to a point spread function for the (largely unknown) halo and intergalactic magnetic fields.

#### 2.3. Evaluation Method

The final part of the analysis prescription is to specify how each of the above probabilities is to be evaluated. This initial data set will be small compared to data sets that will accumulate with the full Auger Observatory, so we cannot expect to have sensitivity to the small anisotropies that will eventually be measurable. Also, this first data set will be taken while the array is growing and changing shape. The analysis techniques prescribed here may be inappropriate for the better data sets of the future.

An ensemble of simulation data sets will be used to evaluate the probability that the number of arrival directions in a target solid angle would be as great or greater than the observed number. The simulation data sets are constructed from the actual data set by a 2-dimensional scrambling method. The method is therefore testing the null hypothesis that an excess from a certain region occurred as a statistical fluctuation of isotropy.

The scrambling method is not perfect. A large excess from one part of the sky will distort the sidereal time distribution that would pertain for isotropic cosmic rays. The method is conservative, however, in the sense that the chance probabilities may be slightly overestimated, making the results appear less significant than they might actually be.

The method prescribed here is meant to be explicit. There is not space to justify each part of it. More complicated procedures might yield more reliable probability evaluations, but simplicity has been a goal. Here are the explicit rules:

* Use zenith angles in the range 0-70 degrees.

* Computing on-source number of arrival directions: (1) For the simple solid angle targets, an arrival direction is in the target if it differs from the target’s central direction by less than the specified radius. (2) For a point source, use a 3-degree Gaussian.

* Make 5 bins of zenith angles uniformly in cos(theta) between cos(theta)=1.0 and cos(theta)=0.5.

* To produce a simulation data set of N directions, sample N arrival directions from the real data set. For each one, keep the zenith angle, but sample a new sidereal time from events in the same zenith angle bin, and sample a new azimuth also from events in that zenith angle bin.

* If the assigned significance probability is P, do n=1000/P simulations in determining the chance probability of the observed excess. This gives an expected number of simulation data sets showing a greater positive effect than the real data (at the assigned probability) as nP=1000. The statistical uncertainty in the obtained probability would then be roughly 3%, i.e. sqrt(1000)/1000.

* These rules can be coded into evaluation programs of different languages and in different ways. Alternative analysis programs will be checked against each other using artificial data sets.

We have defined here a specific prescription for the directional analysis of the first pre-defined Auger data set. When that analysis is complete, a new prescription will be defined for the next data set and so on as the experiment continues to collect new data.

### 3. References

J.A. Bellido et al. Astroparticle Physics 15, 167 (2001)

Bird, D.J. and Clay, R.W., Proc. Astron. Soc. Aust. 8, 266, (1990)

G.L. Cassiday et al. Nucl. Phys. B (Proc. Suppl.) 14A, 291 (1990)

R.W. Clay, Pub. Astron. Soc. Aust. 18, No 2, 148, (2001)

N. Hayashida et al. Astroparticle Physics 10, 303 (1999)

C. Itoh et al. Astronomy and Astrophysics 396, L1 (2002)

E.C. Moran et al. Ap.J. 526, 649, (1999)


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# NON-THERMAL X-RAY AND RADIO EMISSION FROM THE SNR N 157B

## INTRODUCTION

N 157B (Henize, 1956) is a Crab-type supernova remnant (SNR) just 7 arcmin from the center of 30 Doradus (Bode, 1801) in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC). It contains a 16-ms X-ray pulsar undetected at any other wavelength (Marshall et al. 1998). There is bright non-thermal X-ray emission with structure on arcsec scales just around the pulsar with an extended feature off to the northwest (Wang and Gotthelf, 1998a, 1998b; Wang et al. 2001). There is bright non-thermal radio emission from the extended feature but not at the pulsar location (Lazendic et al. 2000). We shall call the extended emission region the pulsar wind nebula (PWN). The overall struture suggests that the pulsar is moving toward the southeast. There is also extended radio emission toward the south that gives a hint of a shell, suggesting that the remnant may be in transition to becoming a composite remnant with a shell and a pulsar wind nebula.

The differences in the radio and X-ray structures plus the apparent large motion of the pulsar make this SNR unusual. We shall describe its properties and then discuss the implications of the data.

## X-RAY – RADIO COMPARISONS

### 0.1 Morphology

Figures 1 and 2 show the simularities of the radio and X-ray emission of the PWN component of N 157B but a striking difference toward the pulsar. The radio emission in the pulsar wind component sits on a plateau of the rest of the remnant. Fine structure in the PWN appears very similar in both wavelength ranges although the radio emission extends further northwest. This structure probably represents clumpiness in the interstellar medium or in pre-explosion mass loss of the progenitor.

The peak in the X-ray emission in the compact source around the pulsar is 13 times the brightness of the peak in the PWN but in the radio there is nothing seen above the residual brightness of the PWN. The pulsar lies at $`05^h37^m47.2^s`$ and $`70^{}10^{}23^{\prime \prime }`$ (Wang and Gotthelf, 1988b) about 16′′ out from the center along the SE axis of the tail. The pulsar is about 1′′ closer to the center of the tail than the peak of the X-ray emission.

Further details of the emission are revealed by the slices presented in Figures 3 and 4. The emission from the PWN is clearly more extended in all directions at radio wavelengths than at X-ray ones. The overall symmetry is the same, however, with an approximately elliptical shape centered about a point at $`05^h37^m45.5^s`$ and $`69^{}10^{}09^{\prime \prime }`$. The radio emission falls off uniformly out to a semi-major axis extent of 20′′ in the SE-NW direction and 10′′ in the NE-SW direction.

There is no sign of the pulsar or any enhancement in the radio emission, $`<0.1`$ mJy beam-1, at the pulsar’s position of $`05^h37^m47.2^s`$ and $`70^{}10^{}23^{\prime \prime }`$ (Wang and Gotthelf, 1988b). The non-thermal X-rays around the pulsar position, on the other hand, show a strong approximately elliptical component, about 7′′ $`\times `$ 3′′ with its long axis perpendicular to the long axis of the PWN tail. Wang and Gotthelf (1998) suggested that this small source could be a bow-shock from the particles leaving the moving pulsar. We shall henceforth call that structure the shock region. From the inner (NW) edge of this shock, the X-ray emission first decreases somewhat and then increases gradually toward the radio center of the PWN but peaks 3′′ before the radio and then falls sharply toward the northwest.

### Spectra

To compare the actual brightnesses of the features, we show their spectra in Figure 5. The squares represent the integrated values for the radio emission of the entire SNR. They give a spectral index, $`\alpha `$, of $`0.19\pm 0.1`$, where the flux density $`S_\nu `$ $``$ $`\nu ^\alpha `$ (Lazendic et al. 2000). XMM-Newton spectra, that cannot resolve angular detail, show that most of the X-ray emission from the SNR has a steep power-law spectrum with $`\alpha =1.83\pm 0.03`$ although some thermal emission is present as well (Dennerl et al. 2001). They do not give a value for the actual X-ray flux.

For the PWN, the lower frequency radio data do not have sufficient resolution for a good separation of the components so we report only the 4.8- and 8.6-GHz results (Lazendic et al. 2001). The spectral index for the PWN is more uncertain because of the SNR background. The value of $`\alpha =0.1\pm 0.2`$ could easily be the same as that of the whole SNR. The error of the spectral index for this fit to only the two data points tries to take into account the uncertainty in evaluation of the background. We cannot determine the radio spectrum of the shock region because it is not detected. We do show the upper limits for its flux density at the two radio frequencies.

The x-ray spectra are from the paper by Wang and Gotthelf (1998b). Their formal fits give values of $`\alpha =1.5(+0.2,0.3)`$ for the PWN and $`\alpha =1.9\pm 0.2`$ for the bow-shock. Realizing that these errors are only for the formal fits to the data, we suggest that the slopes of both components could be the same but that of the PWN cannot be much steeper than that of the shock region.

## DISCUSSION

For analysis, we divide the SNR into three parts as outlined by Wang and Gotthelf (1998a) and discussed above: the elliptical pulsar wind nebula extending northwest from the pulsar with major and minor axes of $`10\times 5`$ pc; the brignt shock region ($`2\times 1/2`$ pc) centered just outside the pulsar; and the entire SNR, about $`30\times 18`$ pc across, which extends well beyond the images in Figures 1 and 2.

Assuming that the pulsar has been moving southeastward from an explosion site at the radio peak, we can estimate its speed using the characteristic spin-down age of 5000 years (Marshall et al. 1998; Wang and Gotthelf, 1998b). To have moved 4 pc, the pulsar has a speed of 800 km sec-1, large but not impossible for a pulsar (Arzoumanian et al. 2002)). Because the PWN emission falls off in all directions from its center, including toward the pulsar, we are led to the conclusion that there was a brief period of particle injection by the pulsar, lasting up to about 1000 years after the explosion occurred. That period would account for the $``$ 3/4 pc shift of the X-ray peak from the radio one and also allow for the apparent aging of the electrons on the outer edge of the PWN relative to the center. As higher energy electrons decay more rapidly from their synchrotron emission, those further from the pulsar should be the oldest and thus have reduced X-ray emission relative to the radio and steeper spectra (Pacini and Salvati, 1973; Reynolds and Chevalier, 1984). The particle injection and/or stimulation cannot have lasted much longer, however, or the emission in the PWN would still be bright toward the southeast between the PWN peak and the current location of the pulsar.

The emission from the shock region just around the pulsar appears to have arisen from a second injection of particles. The X-ray brightness rises so drastically just there and appears to sit on top of the decreasing PWN emission in that direction. The radio emission is below detection level. We also note that if the injection of particles has been continuous, the X-ray spectrum of the region closest to the pulsar should be flatter (harder) than that of the region further from the current pulsar position, but that is not the case. Thus the newer particles around the pulsar must have been injected with a different spectrum or be interacting with a very different medium that those injected earlier near the center of the overall PWN. Finally, the center of this shock source is slightly (about 1/4 pc) outside the pulsar position. These conditions lead us to believe that the object is indeed a shock region caused by the supersonic motion of the particles coming from the pulsar moving at about 800 km sec-1 plus their injection speed and perhaps interacting with a reverse shock from the intitial blast wave. Without a more accurate separation of the thermal component of the X-ray emission in that region to evaluate the temperature and density of the gas, we cannot determine the actual sound speed but the relative motion could be enough to generate a strong shock wave and compressed magnetic fields across which to accelerate particles to even greater energies than they get from the pulsar. The pulsar may have also encountered a density enhancement which will further increase the total emission to produce the high observed X-ray brightness. Indications of a clumpy medium around N 157B include many H$`\alpha `$ filaments and a very low polarization of the radio emission, presumably caused by significant Faraday rotation (Lazendic et al. 2000). The other lumps in the PWN may represent temporary increases due to previous brief episodes of acceleration near density enhancements.

We don’t know the radio spectral index of the shock region so we don’t know if the energy injection in that spectral range is the same for both episodes. To get an approximate ratio of radio to X-ray luminosities, we will assume that the radio spectrum of the shock region is the same as the rest of the SNR, $`0.2`$. Extrapolation of any value steeper than about $``$0.3 would require less X-ray emission than observed. With the adopted spectral index, we calculate an upper limit to the radio luminosity between 107 and 1011 Hz of $`4\times 10^{32}`$ erg sec-1 or about 1/2000 of the X-ray luminosity in the 0.2 – 4 keV band (Wang et al. 2001). This upper limit is a low ratio for either a pulsar wind alone, e.g. 0540-693 has a ratio of radio to X-ray luminosity of 1/120, or for an SNR with shock generated X-ray emission, e.g. AD1006 has a ratio of about 1/100 (taken from Allen et al. 2001). Perhaps the combined processes may create a harder spectrum at low energies but then a sharper break at the transition between the emission in the two frequency ranges.

While still qualitative, this description of multiple episodes of particle injection from the pulsar is the only one we can come up with to explain all the data. Better radio resolution and sensitivity plus improved spectra in all wavelength bands, including a detection of infrared and optical continuum emission, will be important for checking these ideas.

## ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Paul Plucinsky, Steve Reynolds, Brian Fields, You-Hua Chu, Douglas Bock, Martin Guerrero, and Pat Slane for help and ideas. This research is supported by NASA grant NAG 5-11159.

johnd@astro.uiuc.edu, swang9@astro.uiuc.edu