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# Unconventional Charge Ordering in Na0.70CoO2 below 300 K

## Abstract

We present the results of measurements of the dc-magnetic susceptibility $`\chi (T)`$ and the 23Na-NMR response of Na0.70CoO2 at temperatures between 50 and 340 K. The $`\chi (T)`$ data suggest that for $`T>75`$ K, the Co ions adopt an effective configuration of Co3.4+. The 23Na-NMR response reveals pronounced anomalies near 250 and 295 K, but no evidence for magnetic phase transitions is found in $`\chi (T)`$. Our data suggest the onset of a dramatic change in the Co 3d-electron spin dynamics at 295 K. This process is completed at 230 K. Our results maybe interpreted as evidence for either a tendency to electron localization or an unconventional charge-density wave phenomenon within the Co 3d electron system near room temperature.

The discovery of high-$`T_c`$ superconducting cuprates has initiated an enhanced interest in transition-metal oxides with layered structures, among them layered alkali-metal cobalt oxides. In analogy with the high-$`T_c`$ cuprates it was argued that cobalt-oxide layers may result in unusual physical properties of these compounds, including unconventional superconductivityTanaka1994 . Indeed, recent experimentsTakada2003  suggest that the hydration of nominal Na0.70CoO2 induces superconductivity below a critical temperature $`T_c5`$ K. Other recent investigations confirm that the physical properties of NaxCoO2 are quite puzzlingFujimoto2003 ; Kobayashi2003 ; Waki2003 ; Wang2003 ; Wang2003a ; Motohashi2003 ; Sugiyama2003 ; Singh2003 .

NaxCoO2, with $`x<1`$, crystallizes in a hexagonal structure with $`P6_3/mmc`$ space group symmetryBalsys1996 ; jorgensen2003 , a structure consisting of Na layers, intercalated between sheets formed by triangular arrangements of CoO6 octahedra. Tunnels with an effective radius of 0.81 Å connect the Na positions and allow the Na ions (ionic radius 0.97 Å) to move, providing some degree of ionic conductance above room temperatureDelmas1981 .

We report on measurements of the dc-magnetic susceptibility and 23Na-NMR on polycrystalline samples of Na0.70CoO2 at temperatures between 50 and 300 K and in external magnetic fields of 2.815 and 7.049 T. Above 295 K the Co ions are intermediate valent with an average configuration Co3.4+. Drastic changes in the Co 3d electron system occur below 295 K. This may be interpreted as either an enhanced tendency to electron localization with decreasing $`T`$ or the formation of an unconventional charge-density-wave state.

Our sample consisted of randomly oriented powder of nominal Na0.70CoO2, which was obtained by heating a stoichiometric mixture of Co3O4 (Aldrich, 99.995$`\%`$) and Na2Co3 (Aldrich, 99.995$`\%`$) in air for 15 h at 850 $`^\text{o}`$C. To ensure the oxygen content the powder was annealed for 2 h at an oxygen pressure of 500 bar at 500 $`^\text{o}`$C. X-ray powder diffraction showed that the resulting material was of single phase with lattice parameters $`a`$ = 2.826(1) and $`c`$ = 10.897(4) Å. Neutron powder diffraction experiments performed on samples prepared in a similar way yielded a composition of NaxCoO2 with x = 0.7 $`\pm `$ 0.04Kazakov2003 . The dc-magnetic susceptibility was measured using the moving-sample technique with a commercial SQUID magnetometer and for the NMR measurements we used standard spin-echo techniques.

In Fig. 1 we display the temperature dependence of the inverse magnetic susceptibility $`(\chi \chi _0)^1`$, whereby $`\chi _0=1.2510^4`$ emu/mol, obtained by fitting the experimental data by a curve which includes a Curie-Weiss law and a temperature-independent contribution ($`\chi _0`$), at temperatures above 100 K. Between 75 and 340 K, the Curie-Weiss type behavior is emphasized by the solid line. The inset of Fig. 1 shows the magnetization $`M`$ as a function of the applied field $`H`$ at 100 K. It reflects the paramagnetic response of the magnetic moments that are responsible for the behavior of $`\chi (T)`$. The solid straight line in Fig. 1 is compatible with an effective paramagnetic moment $`p_{eff}`$ = 1.1 $`\mu _B`$ per Co ion, and a paramagnetic Curie temperature $`\theta _\mathrm{p}`$ of -103 K, in fair agreement with previous results for Na0.75CoO2 (see Ref. 8). The value of $`p_{eff}`$ can be interpreted as evidence for i) all the Co ions are in an intermediate valent Co3.4+ state, or ii) their configurations are Co4+ (S = 1/2) and Co3+ (S = 0) with an approximate ratio of 2:3, if it is assumed that $`g=2`$ and the orbital moments are quenched. Considering the Na content, this ratio is reasonable.

The 23Na-NMR spectra were measured in fixed external magnetic fields of 2.815 and 7.049 T. In the inset of Fig. 2 we display an example of a signal measured in a field of 7.049 T and at $`T=`$ 305 K, which is attributed to the 23Na nuclear-Zeeman central transition $`1/21/2`$. The shape of this line (see also Fig. 4) is as expected for a randomly oriented powder, broadened by second-order quadrupolar effectsCarter1977 . This is corroborated by the fact that at high temperatures the NMR linewidth scales linearly with the inverse of the applied magnetic field. Analyzing the 23Na NMR lineshape of the central line at temperatures above 295 K yields a quadrupolar frequency $`\nu _Q=e^2qQ/(2h)`$ of 1.65 $`\pm `$ 0.2 MHz. Here $`eq`$ is the largest component of the electric field gradient EFG at the Na nuclear site and $`eQ`$ is the quadrupolar moment of the Na nucleus. Note that above room temperature the EFG’s are the same at all Na sites.

In the main frame of Fig. 2 we display the variation of the 23Na-NMR linewidth (FWHM) with temperature. Below 200 K it reflects, analogous to $`\chi (T)`$, the increase of the magnetization due to the Co4+ ions with decreasing temperature. A prominent anomaly is observed in FWHM($`T`$) near 250 K. Since we find no corresponding anomaly in $`\chi (T)`$, this feature cannot involve magnetic degrees of freedom and, as we argue below, it most probably is related to structural aspects.

In Fig. 3 we present the temperature dependence of the spin-lattice relaxation rate $`T_1^1(T)`$, measured in fields of 2.815 and 7.049 T. The values of $`T_1^1`$ were extracted from standard fitsSimmons62  to the nuclear magnetization recovery curves of the 23Na central nuclear Zeeman transition, after the application of a long comb of $`rf`$ pulses. Below 230 K, $`T_1^1`$ is approximately $`T`$independent, as in the case of spin-lattice relaxation driven by flips of paramagnetic momentsNarath73 . With increasing temperature we observe, near 230 K, the onset of an increase of the relaxation rate $`T_1^1`$. This onset is accompanied by a significant anomaly in the $`T`$-dependence of the spin-spin relaxation rate $`T_2^1`$, which is shown in the inset of Fig. 3. Together, these two relaxation-rate features provide evidence for a crossover phenomenon or a phase transition. Close to 250 K, the value of $`T_2^1`$ is of the order of the NMR linewidth (Fig. 2) which, therefore, is dominated by $`T_2`$ effects.

With increasing $`T`$, the slope $`\text{d}T_1^1/\text{d}T`$ increases and an almost discontinuous enhancement of $`T_1^1`$, by a factor of 20, occurs at 295 K. In view of the smooth evolution of $`\chi (T)`$, this rapid change in $`T_1^1(T)`$ manifests a phase transition which obviously does not involve magnetic degrees of freedom. No anomaly in the spin-spin relaxation rate is observed at 295 K. The order of magnitude difference of $`T_1^1`$ below and above 295 K seems too large to be caused by a structural phase transition. In an effort to interpret the observed relaxation features, we focus on possible changes within the Na and Co subsystems, respectively.

First we consider the $`T`$induced changes of the quadrupolar features of the 23Na-NMR line (see Fig. 4). The lineshape exhibits clear $`T`$induced changes, but no evidence for “motional narrowing”, which is expected if an order-disorder transition occurred at 295 K, such as, $`e.g.`$, in Ba2In2O5 at 1075 $`^\text{o}`$CAdler1994 . Thus, a Na order-disorder transition seems unlikely to be the reason for the observed changes of the NMR spectrum at and below 295 K. Recent experiments on Na0.7CoO2 searched for, but did not find, temperature-induced changes in the occupation of the 2 Na sites below room temperatureGavilano2003 . Likewise, no appreciable changes in the occupation of the 2 Na sites below 300 K for Na0.61CoO2 were reported in ref. 12. Hence the transition at 295 K is most likely due to a $`T`$induced variation in the Co subsystem.

Considering the results for $`\chi (T)`$, the homogeneity of the EFG and the very high and temperature independent spin-lattice relaxation rate above room temperature, we conclude that the Co ions are in an intermediate valent state of 3.4+ above 295 K. The electron transitions from the Co 3d orbitals to conduction band states is, compared to the NMR frequencies, very fast. The rapid decrease of the spin-lattice relaxation rate observed below 295 K and the corresponding changes in the NMR spectrum may be interpreted as evidence for a partial electron localization, $`i.e.`$, the characteristic frequency $`\tau _c^1`$ (with $`\tau _c`$ the correlation time) of the valence fluctuations decreases to values well below the NMR Larmor frequencies as the temperature is reduced. At lower temperatures a “quasi” mixed-valent phase with Co4+ (S = 1/2), and Co3+ (S = 0) ions in a ratio of 2 to 3 is adopted. The peak in $`T_2^1(T)`$ seems to indicate that $`\tau _c`$ reaches a value of the order of 10-4 s, $`i.e.`$, of the order of $`T_2`$, near 250 KdeSoto96 . A complete and static charge localization cannot occur in Na0.7CoO2 because this would imply an insulating phase, contrary to the experimental observationsBatlogg2003 . This partial localization should be distinguished from case of a “slowing down” of the spin flips of localized moments, which is unlikely to occur. If below 200 K, $`\tau _c^1`$ is well below the NMR frequencies (“slow-motion regime”) and if we assume that the spin-lattice relaxation is driven by the independent flips of “slow” and localized spins then, neglecting spin diffusionBenoit63 ,

$$T_1^1=A\tau _c/(1+\omega ^2\tau _c^2)A/(\omega ^2\tau _c),$$
(1)
where $`A`$ is a constant. Since, as seen in Fig. 3, $`T_1^1(T)`$ is field and frequency independent it would follow that $`\tau _cH^2`$, whereas for these high temperatures ($`\mu _BHk_BT`$) a field-independent $`\tau _c`$ is expected. More likely is the scenario described above, where the ionic moments form and decay by the motion of electrons, and these changes drive the nuclear relaxation.

In trying to interpret the features at 250 K, we first focus on the NMR spectrum at 210 K, whose lineshape is not drastically different from the one at 250 K, but exhibits some distinct shoulders. Although these features are not very prominent, they are perfectly reproducible and their relative positions scale with $`1/H`$ (data not shown) as expected for quadrupolar features of the 23Na-NMR central line. We identify four contributions, represented by the gray rectangles in Fig. 4, which we attribute to four inequivalent Na sites in the Co-ion environment. The quadrupolar frequencies of the four Na sites are of the order of 2.6, 2, 1.5 and less than 0.7 Mhz, respectively. These subtle changes of the NMR spectrum may be due to either a slight re-arrangement of the static or, on the time scale of the NMR experiments, very slowly varying positions of the Na ions. Alternatively, very slow Co charge fluctuations cannot be excluded. Temporally varying Na environments are mainly determined by the actual configuration of nearest neighbor Co4+ ions. At low temperatures, this configuration is stable over a sufficiently long time period, such that they appear as static in the NMR measurements and provide the shoulders in the line at 210 K. At higher temperatures, however, this feature may be lost.

Since the changes of the 23Na-NMR spectrum between 210 and 250 K, discussed above, are rather subtle, we performed 2D exchange 23Na-NMR experimentsErnst1987 ; Dolinsek1998 . The results of these experiments will be discussed in detail elsewhereGavilano2003 , but we mention here that our experiments detected (data not shown) small changes of the Larmor frequencies of Na nuclei, in the temperature range between 240 - 260 K and on a time scale $`\tau _{mix}`$, typically smaller than 10-4 s, but $`\tau _{mix}^1\nu _L`$, the NMR Larmor frequency. At first sight, this observation maybe interpreted as evidence for a restricted and slow motion of Na ions near 240 K, which decreases again at higher temperatures. This seems rather counter-intuitive and therefore probably indicates that the frequency changes are due to changes in the Na environments, $`i.e.`$, in the Co-oxide layer. Our 2D NMR experiments cannot distinguish between genuine Na ionic motion and temporal changes of the Na environments.

Another scenario consistent with our experimental results is the formation of an unconventional charge density wave in the Co subsystem at 295 K. The system remains metallic at low temperaturesMaki2002 , but part of the Fermi surface is lost. In the density-wave state, the Co 3d-electron spin dynamics may change and account for the rapid decrease of the spin-lattice relaxation, that we observe below 295 K. The charge density wave may also lead to a slight rearrangement of the Na ions around 250 K.

Support for our claims are obtained from the results of a structural investigationGavilano2003  of a single crystalline sample of Na0.7CoO2 by $`X`$ray diffraction. The comparison of diffraction patterns taken at 220 and 300 K show the presence of an additional structural feature at 220 K. Recent density functional calculations suggestedSingh2000  that charge as well as spin ordering is nearly degenerate with the paramagnetic state in Na0.5CoO2.

In conclusion, from the results of our dc-susceptibility and NMR measurements, we infer that below 295 K the Co $`3d`$electron system within the CoO layers is affected by at least one phase transition. Two scenarios seem possible: (a) a partial charge ordering phenomenon involving Co3+ and Co4+ upon decreasing temperature, completed only near 230 K; and (b) an unconventional charge density wave within the Co subsystem develops. The system remains metallic at all temperatures.

This work was financially supported by the Schweizerische Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung.


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# Exclusive electromagnetic production of strangeness on the nucleon : review of recent data in a Regge approach.

## Abstract

In view of the numerous experimental results recently released, we provide in this letter an update on the performance of our simple Regge model for strangeness electroproduction on the nucleon. Without refitting any parameters, a decent description of all measured observables and channels is achieved. We also give predictions for spin transfer observables, recently measured at Jefferson Lab which have high sensitivity to discriminate between different theoretical approaches.

Regge theory provides a simple and elegant framework to describe exclusive hadronic reactions above the resonance region . We have presented in references ) a Regge model for meson photo- and electroproduction reactions which is based on the exchange of one or two meson Regge trajectories in the $`t`$-channel. The very few free parameters in this approach are the coupling constants of the first particle materialization of the Regge trajectory at the hadronic vertices along with the mass scales of monopole form factors at the electromagnetic vertices in the case of electroproduction. Basically, all available observables are decently and “economically” described by this approach for a plethora of elementary channels : photo- and electroproduction on the nucleon of $`\pi ^{0,\pm }`$ and $`K^+`$ as well as $`\rho ^0,\omega ,\varphi ,\gamma `$  and $`\eta ,\eta ^{}`$ . Surprisingly, in some cases, data down to W$`<2`$ GeV center of mass energies, therefore supposedly in the resonance region, can be succesfully described : this could be interpreted as a manifestation of the reggeon-resonance duality hypothesis . Why this duality seems to work for some channels and not for some others still remains an open question.

Recently, numerous experimental data have been released by the Jefferson Lab, ELSA, GRAAL and SPRING8 facilities in the kaon production sector. This motivates this study which compares the Regge model to these new observables and channels, without any change of the parameters. Our model is fully described in Refs. . In those works, we found that, for strangeness electromagnetic production, it allows to describe the $`\gamma ^{()}+pK^++\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\gamma ^{()}+pK^++\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ reactions through the exchange of only two trajectories in the $`t`$-channel : $`K`$ and $`K^{}`$. The coupling constants at the ($`K,(\mathrm{\Lambda },\mathrm{\Sigma }),N`$) and ($`K^{},(\mathrm{\Lambda },\mathrm{\Sigma }),N`$) vertices were derived and fitted from the photoproduction study  where all existing high energy data could be satisfactorily described :

$`g_{K\mathrm{\Lambda }N}=11.54,g_{K^{}\mathrm{\Lambda }N}=23.0,\kappa _{K^{}\mathrm{\Lambda }N}=2.5,`$ (1)
$`g_{K\mathrm{\Sigma }N}=4.48,g_{K^{}\mathrm{\Sigma }N}=25.0,\kappa _{K^{}\mathrm{\Sigma }N}=1.0`$ (2)
In the electroproduction case, the other parameters of the model are the two (squared) mass scales of the monopole form factors at the $`\gamma ,K,(K,K^{})`$ vertices, which were taken both equal to 1.5 GeV2  in order to fit the high $`Q^2`$ behavior of the data.

Finally, let’s recall that one essential feature of the model is the way gauge invariance is restored for the $`t`$-channel $`K`$ exchange by proper “reggeization” of the $`s`$-channel nucleon pole contribution. As detailed further below, this is the key element to describe the slow decrease with $`Q^2`$ of the $`R=\sigma _L/\sigma _T`$ ratio for the $`K^+\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ channel, a feature which was found to be difficult to accomodate in all other approaches.

These data, first published in , have actually been recently re-analysed  by the JLab collaboration E93018. We compare on Fig. 1 the Regge model predictions  with these new $`Q^2`$ dependence for the experimental transverse ($`\sigma _T`$) and longitudinal ($`\sigma _L`$) cross sections, along with their ratio ($`R`$), for both the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ channels. The corrections due to the new analysis are non-negligible for the absolute values of the longitudinal and transverse cross sections and affect significantly the slopes of the $`Q^2`$ dependences. Our (unchanged) model gives now a much better description of $`\sigma _L`$ but it significantly underestimates $`\sigma _T`$ at large $`Q^2`$, for both channels. However, the ratio $`R`$ is still very well reproduced and displays a slow decrease as $`Q^2`$ increases.

The curves of the lower panels of Fig. 1 illustrate that the origin of the decrease with $`Q^2`$ of the ratio $`R`$ is actually not so much the result of the Regge treatment of the $`K`$ and $`K^{}`$ $`t`$-channel propagators but, rather, as mentionned before, of the particular way gauge invariance is restored (i.e. by reggeizing the nucleon $`s`$-channel and kaon $`t`$-channel diagrams and assigning to them the same electromagnetic form factor). The reggeization is nevertheless necessary to ensure a correct normalization of ($`\sigma _T`$) and ($`\sigma _L`$) as standard Feynman propagators would produce cross sections higher by factors of 2 to 5 at these energies.

A better agreement with these new data could certainly be achieved by changing the values of the $`K`$ and $`K^{}`$ form factor mass scales but this would destroy the nice agreement with the other kaon electroproduction data , for which $`W>`$ 2.1 GeV and which were presented in Ref. . We prefer to interpret this discrepancy as room for potential additionnal processes at these lower energies (W=1.84 GeV), such as $`s`$-channel resonances. It has indeed already been observed that the well known nucleon resonances have larger transverse photo-couplings than longitudinal ones .

Fig. 2 shows the $`Q^2`$ dependence of the $`\frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ ratio for both transverse and longitudinal cross sections. Again, a good agreement with the data is found without any additional refitting of the parameters of the model. In our $`t`$-channel approach, only the kaon exchange contributes to $`\sigma _L`$ (like for the pion form factor in pion electroproduction, the best way to access the kaon form factor at intermediate and large $`Q^2`$ is to isolate $`\sigma _L`$, as it is mostly insensitive to $`K^{}`$ exchange). This is why the $`\frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ ratio for $`\sigma _L`$ is basically constant in our model. However, for the transverse part of the cross section, the $`K`$ and $`K^{}`$ contribute with different weights for the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ channels and therefore, the $`\frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ ratio is no longer constant for $`\sigma _T`$.

Fig. 3 displays the photoproduction data with, in particular, the latest results from the JLab/CLAS collaboration  which are about 20-25% above the previous Bonn/Saphir data . For the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ channel, there are structures in the experimental data (“bumps” around W$``$ 1.75 GeV and 1.95 GeV) which hint to $`s`$-channel resonances excitations and which our model can obviously not reproduce as it is purely a $`t`$-channel model ; however, the JLab experimental data (for the forward angles) lies now, in average, very close to the Regge model, unchanged from Ref. . This supports, at the 10-15% level and for this channel, the concept of a global duality between the sum of all $`t`$-channel exchanges and all $`s`$-channels excitations.

As to the $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ channel, the Bonn/Saphir data  largely exceeds the calculation of our model. The data point to a prominent $`s`$-channel resonance structure around W $``$ 1.9 GeV. It would be interesting to explore the kinematical region $`W>`$ 2.1 GeV to see if our model overestimates the experimental data which would therefore make up for the underestimation of our model in the $`W<`$ 2.1 GeV and which would restore, in average, the duality idea. This high energy domain can be explored by the JLab CLAS collaboration up to $`E_\gamma `$ 6 GeV (W$``$ 3.5 GeV).

The $`K^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^+`$ channel can be calculated in a straightforward way, without any additional parameter by taking into account only the $`K^0`$ $`t`$-channel exchange (as a real photon cannot elastically couple to the neutral spinless $`K^0`$) and using $`g_{\gamma K^0K^0}^2=g_{\gamma K^+K^+}^2\mathrm{\Gamma }_{K^0\gamma K^0}/\mathrm{\Gamma }_{K^+\gamma K^+}`$ 2.3 $`g_{\gamma K^+K^+}^2`$ with the radiative widths taken from Ref. . Figure 3 shows a very nice agreement between our calculation and the Bonn/Saphir data of Ref.  which can be interpreted as an absence of $`s`$-channel excitation in this channel (which brings constraint on the isospin of the hinted resonance around W$``$1.9 GeV decaying into the $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ channel). If the $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^+`$ channel is indeed produced by pure $`t`$-channel exchange, these data provide us with a strong constraint (and in our case, a nice confirmation) of the strength of the $`K^{}`$ exchange, which is the only allowed leading Regge trajectory and whose coupling constants have been derived independently .

Turning now to polarization observables, Fig. 4 shows the photon asymmetry recently measured by the Spring-8 collaboration at the LEPS facility  in photoproduction for both the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ channels. The general trend of the data is reproduced by the model, in particular the sharp rise of the beam asymmetry at very forward angles (indication of the dominance of the natural parity K\* exchange). At smaller center of mass energies and larger angles, the discrepancies between theory and data become more pronounced. This should not come as a surprise as Regge theory is essentially valid at high energies and forward angles. It is nevertheless certainly of great interest to probe the limits of this model through such data. Let’s also remind that the Regge model describes well at forward angles the magnitude and the sign of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ recoil polarizations .

An electroproduction experiment at JLab  has measured for the first time, the transfered polarisation from a longitudinally polarized beam to the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ recoil hyperon in the exclusive reaction $`e+pe^{}+K^++\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. We show on Fig. 5 the only two transferred polarization components $`P_x^{}^{}`$ and $`P_z^{}^{}`$***where $`x^{}`$ and $`y^{}`$ refer to the cartesian coordinates in the $`\gamma ^{}p`$ center of mass frame with the $`z`$-axis along the direction of the produced kaon which are non-zero when integrated over $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, the azimuthal angle between the leptonic and the hadronic planes. The longitudinal spin transfer component ($`P_z^{}^{}`$) is well reproduced at the very forward angles. The sideways component spin transfer component ($`P_x^{}^{}`$) is well reproduced over the full angular range.

We have plotted, along with the standard $`K`$+$`K^{}`$ reggeized exchanges which constitutes our full model, the individual contributions of the reggeized $`K`$ and $`K^{}`$ exchanges. We also show the calculation carried out with standard Feynman propagators of the type $`1/(tm_{(K,K^{})}^2)`$, instead of Regge propagators of the type $`s^{\alpha _{(K,K^{})}(t)}`$. It can be seen that these observables are actually barely sensitive to these variations and that basically any model based on $`K`$ and/or $`K^{}`$ $`t`$-channel exchange, whatever is the chosen prescription (Feynman or Regge type pole), gives a decent description of the data. However, it should be noted that, when introducing $`s`$-channel resonances processes (see, for instance the isobaric models cited in Ref. ), such double polarization observables are very sensitive to resonance properties and allow to discriminate rather precisely between various sets of nucleon resonances participating in the reaction.

In summary, the latest experimental results released in the domain of open strangeness electromagnetic production on the nucleon confirm that our “simple” Regge model surprisingly reproduces the gross features of the data, even for $`W<`$ 2 GeV. It thus provides an economical description and a simple explanation of the data, hinting that a sort of reggeon-resonance duality is at work here. Where it fails, it gives a useful hint that other mechanisms than simple $`t`$-channel mechanisms are necessary. In the difficult task of putting into evidence new nucleon resonances in the strangeness channel which are overlapping or hidden into large backgrounds, this sort of clue, i.e. the contribution of non-resonant $`t`$-channel and Born mechanisms, is certainly much needed.

This work was supported in part by the French CNRS/IN2P3, the French Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB443) and the European Commission IHP program (contract HPRN-CT-2000-00130).


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# Future Astrometry with ALMA to characterise extra-solar planet orbits

## 1. Introduction

Discovery of Jupiter-mass planets around other stars by the radial velocity technique (Doppler) since 1995 has been one of the highlights of the last decade in astronomy. Astrometry, similarly to the radial velocity technique, is an indirect method that detects the reflex motion (wobble) of the central star caused by the gravitational pull of the orbiting planet(s). Even when direct imaging of extra-solar planets is routine in the future, high-precision Doppler and astrometry will still be used to measure key parameters, e.g. masses, mutual inclinations and node of orbits to characterise planetary systems. These last two parameters yield importantly the degree of coplanarity of orbits in multiple planet systems.

ALMA is an interferometric array of 64 antennas operating at radio millimeter wavelengths that is planned for construction at Chajnantor (altitude = 5000 m) in Chili. This ground-based facility will be completed in 2010.

We searched the stars that can be detected by ALMA at millimeter wavelengths in the most complete catalogue of Nearby Stars (CNS3 3rd Edition) by Gliese and Jarheiss (1991). We assess the astrometric potential of ALMA for indirect detection of extra-solar planets possibly orbiting these stars.

## 2.  The catalogue CNS3 of Nearby Stars

There are 3461 stars in the CNS3 that are mostly at $`25`$ pc and have spectral type and magnitude V measured. There are 341 additional stars lacking either spectral type or magnitude V. The CNS3 is more complete than Hipparcos for nearby stars but is thought still uncomplete even within 10 parsecs.

| Spectral | Nber of stars | Nber of stars | Nber of stars | Fraction |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Type | in the whole CNS3 | in the CNS3 | detectable | of the |
|  | (mostly d $`25`$ pc) | at d $`10`$ pc | by ALMA | CNS3 |
| O | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 % |
| B | 3 | 1 | 2 | 66 % |
| A | 69 | 5 | 54 | 78 % |
| F | 266 | 11 | 158 | 59 % |
| G | 495 | 30 | 125 | 35 % |
| K | 824 | 57 | 71 | 9 % |
| M | 1804 | 291 | 36 | 2 % |
| Total | 3461 | 395 | 446 | 13 % |

Table 1 : Distribution of spectral type in the catalogue CNS3. Distribution of stars detectable by ALMA above 0.1 milliJansky at 345 GHz. For some stars, the catalogue provides only approximate spectral types that have been interpretated in our analysis as the following : a-f=F0, f=F5, f-g=G0, g=G5, g-k=K0, k=K5, k-m=M0, m=M2, m+=M6.

## 3. Thermal emission of stars detectable by ALMA and astrometric precision

ALMA can detect the thermal emission from the photospheres of some stars at radio millimeter wavelengths. This provides a well-defined surface whose radio centroid position can accurately track the reflex motion of an unseen companion. Is a spotted photosphere a limiting factor ?. If star spots were present there would be an additional position modulation with the known rotation period of the star. If a G dwarf were covered by spots over 0.2 % of its surface and the differential temperature photosphere$``$spot be $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ T=1000 K, typical of the Sun, the astrometric modulation amplitude $`\xi `$ would be $`0.1\mu `$arcsec at 10 pc, i.e. negligeable. For an M dwarf covered over 70 % and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ T=1000 K, the amplitude $`\xi `$ would be $`35\mu `$arcsec at 10 pc.

We have computed the thermal flux densities at 345 GHz for the photospheres of all the stars of the CNS3. The frequency 345 GHz is the optimum sensitivity of ALMA for this project. This calculation is based on the Planck radiation law; the brightness is $`\mathrm{B}(\nu ,T)=\frac{2h\nu ^3}{c^2}\frac{1}{e^{h\nu /kT}1}`$; the unit of $`\mathrm{B}(\nu ,T)`$ is W m-2 Hz-1 Rd-2 with the proper constants. The spectral types from the catalogue were used to derive the effective temperatures $`T`$ and the linear diameters of the stars. The distance was taken also from the catalogue to compute the photospheric surface $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ in Rd2 and the flux density $`\mathrm{F}_\nu =\mathrm{B}(\nu ,T)\times \mathrm{\Omega }`$.

The sensitivity of ALMA yields a signal-to-noise SNR of 30 for the observation of a solar type star (Teff=6500 K and diameter = 2R) at 10 pc in one-hour of integration at 345 GHz ($`\lambda =0.87`$ mm).

The theoretical astrometric precision of ALMA is :

$$\sigma _{\alpha ,\delta }=\frac{1}{2\pi }\frac{1}{SNR}\frac{\lambda }{B}=0.1\mathrm{milliarcsecond}$$

for baseline length $`B=10`$ km, $`\lambda =0.87`$ mm and SNR=30. This is 10 times better than the astrometric precision of Hipparcos.

Proper calibration scheme should be developped to monitor the atmospheric phase fluctuation in order to reach this theoretical precision. This is a challenging issue.

## 4. RESULTS

### 4.1. 446 nearby stars observabe astrometricly by ALMA

We have found that 446 nearby stars of the CNS3 have a flux density $``$ 0.1 mJy at 345 GHz and, hence, are detectable by ALMA. The signal-to-noise ratio SNR 30, required for the astrometric precision of 0.1 milliarcsecond, can be reached with an integration time of a few hours for these stars by using the full bandwidth (16 GHz) of the array and both polarizations. The declination cutoff $`\delta <+35^{}`$ was also used in this study because ALMA is located at Chajnantor in Chili. The last 2 columns in Table 1 show the spectral types of these ALMA stars and their fractions of the whole CNS3. The histogramme of all the integration times (for an SNR=30) of this sample of stars is in Figure 1.

### 4.2. Minimum masses for unseen planets detectable astrometricly by ALMA

The amplitude of the wobble of the central star due to the gravitational pull of the planet in a circular orbit is :

$$\theta =\frac{m}{M}\frac{a}{d}=\frac{m}{d}\left(\frac{P}{M}\right)^{2/3}$$

where $`\theta `$ is in arcsecond, $`a`$ in AU, $`P`$ in years, $`d`$ in pc, $`m`$ and $`M`$, the masses of the unseen companion and of the central star, in M.

We have computed the mass $`m`$ of the companion with the following assumptions :

1) astrometric precision of the individual ALMA observation $`\sigma =0.1`$ milliarcsecond.

2) the wobble $`\theta `$ detectable by several observations over at least an orbital period is $`\theta =1\sigma `$.

3) Obital period $`P`$ = 10 years

4) Observation program at least as long as $`P`$ = 10 years.

The histogramme below summarises the range of minimum masses that can be probed by ALMA.

## 5.  Conclusion

We found that 446 nearby stars of the Gliese & Jarheiss catalogue can be observed astrometricly by ALMA at radio millimeter wavelengths. The theoretical astrometric precision of 0.1 milliarcsecond can be reached in a reasonable integration time ($``$ a few hours) for these stars. The challenge to reach this precision is the monitoring of the rapid phase fluctuations caused by the atmosphere even at an altitude of 5000 m. Strategies of observation, e.g. Fast-Switched Phase referenced observations, or real-time measurements of these fluctuations are being tested. This astrometric potential has the power of measuring orbital parameters and masses of unseen companions as small as 0.1 Jupiter for the closest stars with an observation program of 10 years. The ALMA array should start operation in 2006 with 8 antennas and gradually increases to 64 antenna by 2010.

ALMA will also be a powerful instrument to image protoplanetary disk, circumstellar debris disk and exozodiacal light (see Wootten in these Proceedings).

Acknowledgements : I am grateful to Dr F. Crifo for clarifications on the spectral type nomenclature in the catalogue CNS3.

Bibliographical references :

Gliese, W., Jarheiss, H., 1991, http://www.ari.uni-heidelberg.de/aricns/files/cns3type.htm


text:
# NUCLEAR STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS AT SMALL 𝑥 FROM INELASTIC SHADOWING AND DIFFRACTION

## Conclusions

A simple model for nuclear shadowing based in the relation between multiple scattering and diffraction provided by AGK rules has been presented. In this way the study of Low $`x`$ Physics at HERA gets linked with that of nuclear structure functions at future lepton-ion colliders and with Heavy Ion Physics at RHIC and LHC.

## References


text:
# Rethinking OpenPGP PKI and OpenPGP Public Keyserver

## 1 Introduction

Authentication is an essential factor of information security in network society. The difficulty of building a Public-Key Infrastructure (PKI) is a major impediment to strong authentication. Without PKI, we cannot trust neither digital signature nor certification based on the public key cryptosystem via wide-area network.

In following section 2 and 3, we overview the PKI architecture comparing several models. In section 4, we examine a PKI without authorities which is presented by the OpenPGP technology and compare it with the other models. Then we point out the role of the PGP keyserver in section 6 and introduce the next generation OpenPGP public keyserver project in section 7. Finally we give some conclusions.

## 2 PKI architectures

PKI has three core functions as follows to manage the users’ certification and trust relations \[25, s.v. “public-key infrastructure”\]:

1. to register users and issue their public-key certificates
2. to revoke certificates when required
3. to archive data needed to validate certificates at a much later time

To operate these three functions with many users on a large-scale network, many PKI have a hierarchical structure for CAs and are built using a centralized architecture. However there are alternatives.

PKI is categorized by the architecture types as follows: 1) hierarchical PKI, 2) mesh PKI, and 3) trust-file PKI \[25, s.v. “trusted certificate”\]. The difference is the way how they rely on CA (Certification Authority). A hierarchical PKI has the most significant CA in terms of trust at the root of the hierarchy tree. A mesh PKI has CAs issue cross-certificates to each other. A trust-file PKI has a local file of public-key certificates that the user trusts as starting points for certification chain.

For example, popular browsers are distributed with an initial file of trusted certificates, the starting points for certification paths. The initial file is different between among the each PKI architecture. In a hierarchical PKI, the initial file is the root certificate in a hierarchical PKI. It is usually “baked into” the browsers with no decisions by the users to trust them. In a mesh PKI, it is the certificate of the CA that issued the user’s own certificate. And in a trust-file PKI, any certificates including self-signed certificates accepted by the user can be the first public key in a certification path.

## 3 PKI standards

To build PKIs, different standards are developed. They are based on their own framework and architecture and they are never the same. This section compares different PKI architectures: 1) X.509 standard from ITU, 2) OpenPGP, an IETF Proposed standard based on PGP® application, and 3) SPKI, another standards based on the theoretical research.

X.509 is the earliest framework to provide and support authentication including formats for X.509 public-key certificates, X.509 attribute certificates, and X.509 CRLs. X.509 is the hierarchical PKI that a CA, central digital certificates issuer, is responsible for managing the certificates.

Historically, X.509 was standardized by ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication sector, formerly CCITT) and turned to be ISO standard. X.509 follows the X.500 directory service and provides an example of reliable authentication and certification. In practice, developers relax the strict X.500 service scheme. For example, X.509v3 (Version 3) certificate has “extensions” field for flexible operation.

IETF had discussed about the design based on X.509 framework from each applications to general PKI. Internet standards for X.509 PKI framework is developed at IETF Public-Key Infrastructure (X.509) Working Group. PKIX not only profiles X.509 standards, but also develops new standards apropos to the use of X.509-based PKIs in the Internet.

One of the most popular implementations of X.509-based PKI is OpenSSL (http://www.openssl.org/, formerly SSLeay). OpenSSL is a set of Open Source cryptography libtaries including X.509 CA operation scripts and distributed freely, such as a part of PKI package for either commercial or non-commercial purpose.

OpenPGP is the standard based on Pretty Good Privacy® (PGP®) application which is developed by Philip Zimmermann . PGP® is provided as commercial version and ‘freeware’ version for non-commercial/non-governmental purposes only.

The specification of PGP is standardized as OpenPGP by IETF OpenPGP Working Group. Today “OpenPGP Message Format” is defined in RFC2440  and to be updated . The most popular OpenPGP implemenation is GnuPG (GNU Privacy Guard), developed by Free Software Foundation and maintained by Werner Koch of GUUG (German Unix Users Group). Either PGP or GnuPG has been known as email cryptography software firstly, however they has become the general purpose data encryption tool, including key exchange over Internet, trust computation, etc. In the following sections, we examine the only PKI part of OpenPGP.

It is worth to point out another possible architecture, as we sometimes take an closed binary question such as “X.509 or OpenPGP, which is better?”, not as “Which PKI will be the appropriate solution for different usage-scenarios?”. There exists another PKI standardized by IETF — SPKI (Simple Public Key Infrastructure). IETF SPKI Working Group finished its initial standardization process and bring into the inter-operation stage . It is also called SPKI/SDSI as it is a joint force with SDSI (Simple Distributed Security Infrastructure) research. SPKI is designed with distributed and scalable architecture in many aspects, i.e., no single root CA, no globally distinguished name, and flexible validity periods .

Table 2 shows the technical comparison of X.509, OpenPGP, and SPKI/SDSI based on the analysis by Clarke .

## 4 Certification without Authority

### 4.1 From Face-to-Face to Web of Trust

Without a certification authority, the problem of trusting keys arise to assess applicants before giving out certificates. In OpenPGP, there are no official mechanism for creating certificates, no officail channel for acquiring and distributing. It makes the process of certification into the face-to-face, ad hoc situation. Each end user is respobsible to decide which certificate (public key of an user) is trusted and accepted to be added into their local trust-file (denoted “keyring” in PGP).

This certification process does not require a trusted, monitored registration authority or certification authority, however, it lacks scalability. So since PGP® 2.0 \[15, pp. 201–203\], “web of trust” model that PGP signer acts as an introducer between people had been supported.

Figure 1 illustrates the model of hierarchical PKI and web of trust.

### 4.2 Internet Usage Scenarios

OpenPGP has its own market which is different with X.509, and OpenPGP community has grown in a global Internet.

The most famous and critical use might be security alerts. FIRST (Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams) and its members including CERT(Computer Emergency ResponseTeam)/CC(Coordination Center) have their official PGP/GnuPG public keys publicly available , and have signed their alerts with their own PGP/GnuPG key.

Usenet, operated by volunteer NetNews managers, is another example of the distributed network with OpenPGP PKI. The digital signature for Usenet control commands should be signed with PGP keys of represented voluntary managers since 1990s .

### 4.3 What is the Web of Trust?

OpenPGP provides key management and certificate services using local trust-file PKI. The more signature is accepted, the more trust-file generated. Figure 2 is an example of a trust-file visualized the relashonship of OpenPGP signature. This graph illustrates who introduce the other or who meets with face-to-face, in other words, whose key signed the others’ public key. There are no central authorities but multiplexed indivisual relationships in a community.

However, this graph is not a “web of trust” but just a “web of certificates”. OpenPGP separate the trustworthy from validity of cerfiticate. For example, the amount of trust of the introducer and unknown newcomer is different for an OpenPGP user. Even if their certification is valid, the issuer of the key is not an authority but the users own. So OpenPGP users should be responsible on “Whose keys should be taken as valid but untrusted?” \[26, p. 81\].

In OpenPGP, users issue their signature to the other’s public key with their degree of trust. This is denoted “trust signature” and represented as (trust level, trust amount) with OpenPGP key management and certificate service. An ordinary valid signed key is trust level 0, and The signed key is asserted to be a valid trusted introducer is level 1. Level 2 means “meta introducer” or “introducer-of-introducer” that its signed key is asserted to be trusted to issue level 1 trust signatures. (Generally, as the introducer is more trustworthy, a level $`n`$ trust signature asserts that a key is trusted to issue level $`n1`$ trust signatures.) The trust amount is in a range from 0–255, and appointed 60 for partial trust and 120 for complete trust \[3, s.v. “Trust Signature”\]. As OpenPGP distinguished the trust from validity, “web of trust” is also distinguished from “web of certificates”.

### 4.4 PGP Revocation Problem

The weakest link of OpenPGP PKI is the revocation of public key \[22, pp. 585–586\] \[9, p. 309\]. As there is no official channel for acquiring and distributing OpenPGP public keys, there are no guarantee about how to tell everyone that your key is no longer valid.

The typical answer to this revocation problem of PGP is to use PGP public keyserver for distributing certification. “Typically, to communicate that a certificate has been revoked, a signed note, called a key revocation certificate, is posted on PGP certificate servers, and widely distributed to people who have the key on their public keyrings. People wishing to communicate with the affected user, or use the affected key to authenticate other keys, are warned about the hazards of using that public key” \[7, pp. 56–57\]. However, there are few research on the PGP public keyserver and usually the keyserver is not considered as the part of OpenPGP PKI. In the following, this paper examines PGP keyserver as the part of OpenPGP PKI.

## 5 Related Works

There are several research fields related to OpenPGP public keyserver. The first is the study on the traditional PGP public keyservers, the second is the integrated channel for OpenPGP key distribution, and the third is the combined “web of trust” with other PKI.

A “web of trust” used in PGP is referred in several researches including the peer-to-peer authentication , trust computation , and privacy enhanced technology . However, there are few description on PGP keyserver. It might be because PGP keyserver mechanism is too simple. It is not a CA but just a pool of public keys. From users’ viewpoint, PGP keyserver has a large amount of OpenPGP public keys that provide the interesting material for social analysis of network community. For example, OpenPGP keyserver developer Jonathan McDowell also developed “Experimental PGP key path finder”  that searches and displays the chain of certification between the users.

As OpenPGP’s initial trust file is blank, the users have to start with a face-to-face certificate to exchange public keys. Though another initial file is provided via high integrity channel. Global Internet Trust Register  is a printed book that contains “fingerprints” (hash values of certificate) of the most important public keys (mainly cryptography experts who are likely to have signed many other keys in their respectice communities) \[26, pp. 80–81\].

OpenPGP PKI itself can be described as the superset of PKI , however, combining OpenPGP PKI with other authentication system is challenging work in both theoretical and operational field. Formal study of trust relationship of PKI started in the late 1990s  and GnuPG development version in December 2002 started to support its trust calculation with GnuPGP’s trust signature.

The implementation of trust calculation is ongoing and using large-scale “web of trust” (not “web of certificates”) is not so popular outside of computer experts. On the other hands, using different types of PKI has become more popular.

In the early work at MIT, PGP-signing service had been combined with Kerberos CA system that does not have public key cryptography . Today, the hybrid system of OpenPGP and X.509 is both developed into some OpenPGP implementations. In 2001, German authorities BSI (Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik, Germany’s agency for information technology security) accept the Ägypten project for Open Source implementation of governmental mail user agents Sphinx which supports X.509v3, PKCS, LDAP, and OpenPGP . The results of the open development are begun to imported to other commercial products in 2002–2003 . In a same way, PGP Corporation also released PGP® version 8.0 as X.509-enabled application that can interoperate X.509 certificates and CAs .

## 6 OpenPGP Public Keyserver

Before describing our research, this section describes OpenPGP keyserver generally. Keyserver is not a CA. It only pool anyone’s public keys. Keyserver never issue any certificate for someone’s public key but only provide it.

### 6.1 Current Status

The first keyserver is developed at MIT in 1994 by Brian A. LaMacchia. It exchange public keys with email and keys are managemented with PGP command. For users, keyserver acts as an easy email agent who receives any valid but untrusted keys, then searches and provides the key to everyone. In 1997, PGP Public KeyServer (pksd, http://www.mit.edu/people/marc/pks/) started by MIT student Marc Horowitz. Pksd uses a database management system and has been working fine. The database system is operated via email, CGI-interface from http server, and HKP — pksd’s own communication protocol over Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). In 2003, David Shaw of GnuPG team proposed the OpenPGP HTTP Keyserver Protocol  based on traditional HKP as the draft for Internet Standard.

Today pksd has been working fine even if in global distributed network. There are 10 or more syncronized public keyservers in the world and the most of them are running with patched pksd. These public keyservers are operated by voluntary managers belong to organizations including MIT and Georgia Tech in United States, SURFnet in Netherlands, DFN-CERT in Germany, RedIRIS (IRIS-CERT) in Spain, JPNIC in Japan. Today they have more than 1,400,000 public keys entries and 3,000/day or more transactions between each sync sites. In 2000, SURFnet held the first PGP keyserver manager symposium  and the managers keep in touch with each other.

### 6.2 Revocation process and Keyserver

As public keyservers provides semi-official key distribution channel, keyserver adds powerful feature to OpenPGP PKI. Public keyservers can handle the PGP revocation problem that we described in section 4.4. Using keyserver provides an answer to the question “How do you tell everyone that your key is no longer valid?”. User may issue a suicide note (denoted as “revocation signature” in OpenPGP ) and post it to keyservers. Receiving a valid revocation signature, keyserver updates the key to be revoked. The update key with revocation signature is redistributed to the synchronized keyservers in the world, and finally PGP user updates their keyrings with the nearest keyserver. The updated key with valid revoked signature makes users’s older key not to be used.

### 6.3 Current Keyserver Problem

Today’s sisutation around PGP keyserver is beyond the original developers’ idea, and current pksd also has some limitations.

Firstly, the implementations of pksd are not OpenPGP-compliant. OpenPGP  published in 1998 defines two versions of signature formats. (Version 3 provides basic OpenPGP signature information, while version 4 provides an expandable format with subpackets.) These changes made traditional PGP applications not-OpenPGP-compliant — not only PGP® \[3, s.v. “Implementation Nits”\] but also pksd. Today pksd does not fully support OpenPGP format.

Seconary, the pksd does not scalability for global use. Though pksd has simple but strong dabatabase management system, it is neither soshisticated nor scalable compared with today’s Internet server. For the matter, pksd cannot handle 1 billion keys and cannot accept such many transactions as Yahoo! or eBay site. New design of OpenPGP public keyserver is required.

## 7 OpenPKSD: Next Generation OpenPGP Public Keyserver

We introduce our next generation OpenPGP Public Keyserver project with a new architecture. We call it OpenPKSD ( OpenPGP Public KeyServer Daemon). It is developed by one of the authors and funded by Japanese Information-technology Promotion Agency (IPA) in 2001–2002.

### 7.1 Server Design and Implementation

OpenPKSD supports OpenPGP subpacket format and works as high-performance server with SQL backend. The design of OpenPKSD oriented to not only high-performance, but also flexible extension capability and easy operation. We implemented OpenPKSD with Ruby and PostgreSQL backend .

### 7.2 User Interface and Security

As “Web of trust” depends on users’ decision, user interface is also important factor on security. For example, Whitten and Tygar  had ever pointed out some dangerous errors occured with past PGP clients’ interface.

Users can connect to OpenPKSD with two kind of interfaces, OpenPGP client or CGI on WWW. Providing WWW interface, OpenPKSD must help users’ recognization, judgement, and handling on OpenPGP public keys.

OpenPKSD displays only 64bit KeyID to identify someone’s public keys. Though some other servers calculate and display “fingerprint” of public keys before download it, it does not help users arare of risk using keyserver. As keyserver is just a pool and not CA, users should check the public key with their own. Moreover, it is easy to make some faked keyserver by Man-in-the-Middle Attack, TCP hijacking, etc. It means that the fingerprint must be calculated under user’s (safe) machine and that is the reason why OpenPKSD does not display fingerprint.

OpenPKSD WWW interface provides additional feature to visualize subpackets of PGP keys. As OpenPKSD has an expandable format with subpackets, it is very hard to understand the data structure inside this. Using pgpdump program, key packet visualizer that displays the packet format of OpenPGP and PGP® version 2.

Many PGP users are familiar with this verification on added keys, as in 2000, PGP® version 5.5.x to 6.5.3 had a serious security hole that cannot detected with fingerprint verification. Then CERT/CC had alarted “Check certificates for ADKs \[Additional Decryption Keys\] before adding them to a keyring.”  Pgpdump exactly visualizes these additional keys. With pgpdump, OpenPKSD helps users to recognize the information of public key and any other added keys before downloading.

### 7.3 Performance and Future work

OpenPKSD is implemented with Ruby language and PostgreSQL DBMS. Ruby is so-called “scripting language” and seemed not suitable for a quick response or large program development. However, OpenPKSD succeeds not only the more compact code size but also quick response compared with pksd, by loading bit calculation modules such as CRC24 checksum written by C language . Table 1 shows the performance of OpenPKSD version 0.2.8, non-cluster version, installed on PC.

OpenPKSD version 0.2.8 is also working well at handling usual transaction between other PGP public keyserver described in section 6 since 2002.

Forthcoming developers’ version of OpenPKSD will support some clustering based on the reserch on the performance of cluster technology . It will be published in 2003 and support the experimental HKP(keyserver protocol over http) balancer, keyserver cluster, and clustered database.

## 8 Summary

In this paper, we overlooked some PKI architectures. Using “Web of Trust,” OpenPGP PKI can help users to manage certification without CAs. However, there are the problem on public key management, i.e., how to get the receivers’ public key, or, how to tell everyone that the public key is no longer valid. PGP keyserver is the solution to the problem.

Though some PGP public keyservers have built a global PKI, traditional PGP keservers have some limitations. We introduced OpenPKSD, newly-designed and OpenPGP-supported public keyserver project. OpenPKSD took its first step, works well in practice, and examining the cluster technology.

## Availability

OpenPKSD source code and documents are available under GNU General Public License (GPL) at http://www.openpksd.org/.


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# Interaction between soft magnetic and superconducting films

## I Introduction

For centuries humans have tried to visualize magnetic fields using a variety of different devices. Iron particles, magnetic bacterias, Hall probes, ferrofluids, inductive coils, Lorentz microscopy and electron holography are just a few of these approaches. The last decades this research has been highly motivated by the need to visualize magnetic fields from superconductors. To this end, magneto-optic methods have proven particularly useful. In 1957 P.B. Alers visualized for the first time the magnetic field distribution from a superconductor using cerous nitrate glycerolAlers . A successful development followed in 1968, when Kirchner noted that chalcogenide films can be used to visualize these fields with improved sensitivityKirchner . The next two decades magneto-optic imaging studies were published periodically, mostly concentrating on large scale flux penetrationHabermeier . A major discovery was done in the beginning of the 1990’s, when it was found that bismuth-substituted ferrite garnet films with in-plane magnetization are excellent indicators with very little domain activity (see e.g. Ref. Dorosinskii ). This discovery triggered a large number of quantitative investigations of the flux behavior in high temperature superconductors, magnetic defects and phase transitions, microelectronic circuits and magnetic storage mediaJooss1 ; Koblischka ; Koblischka1 ; Johansen ; Polyanskii ; Helseth1 ; Helseth2 ; Shamonin ; Jooss . Recently the long standing goal of imaging single vortices was achievedGoa1 ; Goa2 . This achievment opens a new dimension in the study of interactions between superconductors and soft magnetic films, and the first experimental results have already been obtainedGoa3 . However, to date no theory exists which can explain future experimental results in this field. A key question here is how the vortices interact with the soft magnetic films, in particular with micromagnetic elements such as Bloch walls. To this end, it should be pointed out that several theoretical studies have been concerned with the interaction between vortices and magnetic nanostructures (see e.g. Ref. Helseth4 ; Erdin ; Milosevic  and references therein). However, the fact that the vortex may induce a magnetization distribution in the magnetic film has so far been neglected, and these theories are therefore not applicable to soft magnetic films. The aim of the current paper is to take the first step towards a theory which can explain the interactions between superconducting and soft magnetic films.

The thickness of available bismuth-substituted ferrite garnet films is today typically $`>500`$ $`nm`$. Here we will only analyze the case of magnetic films much thinner than the superconducting penetration depth. This is clearly not justified for current garnet films, but should be of interest in order to gain some basic understanding of the system. Moreover, in a previous paper it was proposed theoretically that reducing the thickness of the magneto-optic films is of importance when optimizing the magneto-optic imageHelseth3 . Therefore, we argue that our theory applies to thin films utilizing the Kerr effect, where all the polarization rotation takes place within the first few nanometers of the film. Kerr films may very well be a key element in future magneto-optic imaging, in particular if suitable films with high magneto-optic sensitivity and low domain activity can be found.

## II The thin film system

Consider a thin superconducting film of infinite extent, located at z=0 with thickness $`d`$ much smaller than the penetration depth of the superconductor. The surface is covered by an uniaxial soft magnetic film with thickness comparable to or smaller than that of the superconducting film. That is, we assume that the magnetic film consists of surface charges separated from the superconductor by a very thin oxide layer (of thickness t) to avoid spin diffusion and proximity effects. In general, the current density is a sum of the supercurrents and magnetically induced currents, which can be expressed through the generalized London equation asHelseth4

$$\mathbf{}\mathbf{\times }𝑱=\frac{1}{\lambda ^2}𝑯+\frac{1}{\lambda ^2}V(𝝆)\delta (z)\widehat{𝒆}_z+\mathbf{}\mathbf{\times }\mathbf{}\mathbf{\times }𝑴_V,$$
(1)
where $`𝑱`$ is the current density, $`\lambda `$ is the penetration depth, $`𝑯`$ is the magnetic field and $`\mathbf{}\times 𝑴_V`$ is the magnetically induced current. Note that the magnetically induced currents are included as the last term on the right-hand side of Eq. 1, and are therefore generated in the same plane as the vortex. This is justified since we assume that the thicknesses of both the superconducting and magnetic films are smaller than the penetration depth, and the magnetic film is located very close to the superconductor. The vortex is aligned in the z direction, and its source function $`V(𝝆)`$ is assumed to be rotationally symmetric. In the case of a Pearl vortex we may set $`V(\rho )=(\mathrm{\Phi }_0/\mu _0)\delta (\rho )`$, where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ is the flux quantum and $`\mu _0`$ the permeability of vacuum.

The magnetization $`𝑴_V`$ is the sum of two different contributions, $`𝑴_I`$ and $`𝑴_B`$. First, the vortex induces a magnetization $`𝑴_I`$ in the magnetic film, which again gives rise to opposing currents in the superconductor. Second, there may be ’hard’ micromagnetic elements, e.g. prepatterned magnetization distributions or Bloch walls, that do not experience a significant change in their magnetization distribution $`𝑴_B`$ upon interaction with the vortex. The vortex-induced magnetization can be found by assuming that the magnetooptic film is a soft magnet consisting of a single domain with in-plane magnetization in absence of external magnetic fields. Moreover, we assume that the free energy of this domain can be expressed as a sum of the uniaxial anisotropy and the demagnetizing energy. The magnetic field from a vortex tilts the magnetization vector out of the plane, and it can be shown that for small tilt angles one has Helseth3

$$𝑴_I=(M_{I\rho },M_{Iz})(M_s,\frac{M_sH_{vz}}{H_a+H_{v\rho }}),$$
(2)
where $`M_{I\rho }=\sqrt{M_{Ix}^2+M_{Iy}^2}`$ and $`M_{Iz}`$ are the in-plane and perpendicular components of the magnetization, $`H_{v\rho }=\sqrt{H_{vx}^2+H_{vy}^2}`$ and $`H_{vz}`$ are the in-plane and perpendicular components of the vortex field, and $`M_s`$ is the saturation magnetization of the magnetic film. $`H_a=M_s2K_u/\mu _0M_s`$ is the socalled anisotropy field, where $`K_u`$ is the anisotropy constant of the magnetic film. Here the easy axis is normal to the film surface, and we neglect the cubic anisotropy of the system, which means that the in-plane magnetization direction must be the same as that induced by the vortex field. In the current work we will also assume that the anisotropy field is much larger than the in-plane vortex field, thus allowing us to write

$$𝑴_IM_s(1,\frac{H_{vz}}{H_a}).$$
(3)
Upon using Eq. 3, we neglect the contribution from the exchange energy, which is justifiable for sufficiently large $`K_u`$ or small spatial field gradients.

In order to solve the generalized London equation, we follow the method of Ref. Helseth4  and obtain

$$H_z2\lambda _e\frac{H_z}{z}=V(\rho )+d\lambda _e\left(\mathbf{}\mathbf{\times }\mathbf{}\mathbf{\times }𝑴_I\right)_z+d\lambda _e\left(\mathbf{}\mathbf{\times }\mathbf{}\mathbf{\times }𝑴_B\right)_z.$$
(4)
We now apply the superposition principle to separate the contributions from the vortex and the ’hard’ magnetic elements. It is important to note that our magnetization distributions have no volume charges. Using Eq. 3, the vortex part of Eq. 4 can be written as

$$H_{vz}2\lambda _e\frac{H_{vz}}{z}=V(\rho )\alpha \left(\frac{^2H_{vz}}{x^2}+\frac{^2H_{vz}}{y^2}\right),\alpha =\frac{d\lambda _eM_s}{H_a},$$
(5)
whereas the magnetic part is

$$H_{mz}2\lambda _e\frac{H_{mz}}{z}=d\lambda _e\left(\mathbf{}\mathbf{\times }\mathbf{}\mathbf{\times }𝑴_B\right)_z.$$
(6)
Here we define $`H_{m\rho }=\sqrt{H_{mx}^2+H_{my}^2}`$ and $`H_{mz}`$ to be the radial and perpendicular components of the magnetic field induced by the ’hard’ micromagnetic elements.

### II.1 Vortex solution

In order to solve Eq. (5), we use the method of Ref. Helseth4 , and find the following $`z`$ and radial components of the magnetic field:

$$H_{vz}(\rho ,z)=\frac{1}{2\pi }_0^{\mathrm{}}kV(k)\frac{J_0(k\rho )}{1+2\lambda _ek\alpha k^2}\mathrm{exp}(k|z|)𝑑k,$$
(7)
$$H_{v\rho }(\rho ,z)=\frac{1}{2\pi }_0^{\mathrm{}}kV(k)\frac{J_1(k\rho )}{1+2\lambda _ek\alpha k^2}\mathrm{exp}(k|z|)𝑑k.$$
(8)
In the case $`\alpha =0`$ and $`V(k)=\mathrm{\Phi }_0/\mu _0`$, the field is reduced to that of the standard Pearl solutionHelseth4 ; Pearl . We also notice that there is a divergency in k-space when $`1+2\lambda _ek\alpha k^2=0`$. This is due to the fact that we assumed a very thin superconductor ($`d\lambda `$). The divergency will therefore smooth out upon solving the London equation for arbitrary thicknesses $`d`$, but this task is outside the scope of the current work. Nonetheless, it is seen that at small distances (large $`k`$) the magnetic field may change sign as compared to the standard Pearl solution, and this is attributed to the magnetically induced currents. On the other hand, at large distances (small $`k`$) the field is basically not influenced by the soft magnetic film. A typical scale for the crossover is $`kH_a/M_sd`$. One can therefore not expect to reveal this phenomenon by magneto-optic imaging, since the length scales are typically much smaller than the wavelength of light.

### II.2 Interactions

It is of considerable interest to find the interaction between a micromagnetic element with perpendicular magnetization $`M_B\widehat{𝒆}_z\delta (z)`$ and a vortex. To this end, it should be noted that the magnetic induction in the magnetic film is given by $`𝑩_I=\mu _0(𝑯_v+𝑴_I)`$. Here the interaction energy between the vortex and the magnetization is given by

$$E_{vm}=_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑴_B\mathbf{}𝑩_𝑰d^2\rho =\mu _0_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}M_B\widehat{𝒆}_z\mathbf{}\left(𝑯_𝒗+𝑴_𝑰\right)d^2\rho ,$$
(9)
where the vortex is assumed to be displaced a distance $`\rho _0`$ from the origin. It is clear that the radial component of the vortex-induced magnetization does not interact with $`𝑴_B`$, since the two vectors are perpendicular to each other. However, $`𝑴_B`$ does interact with the $`z`$-component of the vortex induced field, and we find

$$E_{vm}=\mu _0\left(1+\frac{M_s}{H_a}\right)_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}M_BH_{vz}d^2\rho .$$
(10)
Equation 10 can be transformed by using the following formula:

$$_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}A(\rho )B(\rho )d^2\rho =\frac{1}{(2\pi )^2}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}A(k)B(k)d^2k.$$
(11)
Then, in the cylindrically symmetric situation one finds

$$E_{vm}=\frac{\mu _0}{2\pi }\left(1+\frac{M_s}{H_a}\right)_0^{\mathrm{}}kV(k)\frac{M_B(k)J_0(k\rho _0)}{1+2\lambda _ek\alpha k^2}𝑑k.$$
(12)
The associated force can be found by taking the derivative with respect to $`\rho _0`$, resulting in

$$F_{vm}=\frac{\mu _0}{2\pi }\left(1+\frac{M_s}{H_a}\right)_0^{\mathrm{}}k^2V(k)\frac{M_B(k)J_1(k\rho _0)}{1+2\lambda _ek\alpha k^2}𝑑k.$$
(13)
At small distances (large $`k`$) the force may change sign due to the magnetically induced currents. Let us now assume that $`M_B(k)=M_0`$, i.e. that the magnetization distribution can be represented by a delta function, in order to gain some insight into this phenomenom. Then, for a Pearl vortex, the force becomes

$$F_{vm}=\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_0M_0}{2\pi }\left(1+\frac{M_s}{H_a}\right)_0^{\mathrm{}}k^2\frac{J_1(k\rho _0)}{1+2\lambda _ek\alpha k^2}𝑑k.$$
(14)
When the distance is small (still larger than the coherence length $`\xi `$), we may approximate the force by

$$F_{vm}=\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_0M_0}{2\pi \alpha \rho _0}\left(1+\frac{M_s}{H_a}\right),\xi <\rho \frac{M_s}{H_a}d.$$
(15)
Surprisingly, we see that the force is repulsive, which can be explained by the magnetically induced currents, which generate a magnetic field that opposes that produced by the vortex. For comparison, we note that in the case of an infinitely thin superconductor ($`\alpha =0`$) the force between a magnetic element and the vortex is at small distances approximated by

$$F_{vm}=\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_0M_0}{4\pi \lambda _e\rho _0^2}\left(1+\frac{M_s}{H_a}\right),\xi <\rho \lambda _e,$$
(16)
which is attractive. Attractive behavior also takes place at larger distances $`\rho _0\lambda _e`$. Then the term containing $`\alpha `$ becomes unimportant, and the force is therefore always attractive. It is interesting to note that the force is enhanced by a factor $`1+M_s/H_a`$ due to the vortex-induced magnetization distribution. Therefore it should be possible to tune the interaction by changing the uniaxial anisotropy of the magneto-optic film.

In a previous work we showed that the interaction between Bloch walls and vortices in bulk superconductors are enhanced due to the image charges generated in the superconducting substrateHelseth1 . The enhancement proposed in the current work has clearly a different origin.

## III Interaction with Bloch walls

Magneto-optic films usually contain up to several nearly one dimensional domain walls (in the sense that the magnetization within the wall only varies with the $`x`$-coordinate), and these can interact with the superconductor. The $`180^{}`$ Bloch wall is quite common in garnet films, and also in very thin Kerr films studied here, although Neel walls may also occur in thin films if the demagnetization energy is significant. Neglecting the demagnetization energy, the magnetization vector distribution within a Bloch wall is given byCraik

$$𝑴^{Bloch}=M_s(cos\theta ,sin\theta ),\theta =2tan^1\left[exp\left(\sqrt{\frac{K_u}{A}}x\right)\right],$$
(17)
where $`A`$ is the exchange parameter. In addition to naturally occuring domain walls, it is also possible to pattern the magneto-optic film by depositing thin nanomagnets on its surface. Here we will model a Bloch wall using the following two different simple models with only a $`z`$ component:

$$𝑴^G=M_s\mathrm{exp}(\beta x^2)\delta (z)\widehat{𝒆}_z,$$
(18)
$$𝑴^S=\{\begin{array}{cc}M_s\delta (z)\widehat{𝒆}_z\hfill & \text{if }WxW\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{if }|x|W\hfill \end{array},$$

where we assume that $`W=\sqrt{2/\beta }`$. Using the method of Ref. Helseth4 , we find that the Gaussian magnetization distribution results in the following field components:

$$H_z^G(x,z)=\frac{\lambda _edM_s}{\sqrt{\pi \beta }}_0^{\mathrm{}}k_x^2\frac{\mathrm{exp}\left(k_x^2/4\beta \right)cos(k_xx)}{1+2\lambda _ek_x}\mathrm{exp}(k_x|z|)𝑑k_x,$$
(19)
$$H_x^G(x,z)=\frac{\lambda _edM_s}{\sqrt{\pi \beta }}_0^{\mathrm{}}k_x^2\frac{\mathrm{exp}\left(k_x^2/4\beta \right)sin(k_xx)}{1+2\lambda _ek_x}\mathrm{exp}(k_x|z|)𝑑k_x.$$
(20)
On the other hand, the step magnetization distribution gives

$$H_z^S(x,z)=\frac{2\lambda _edM_s}{\pi }_0^{\mathrm{}}k_x\frac{sin(k_xW)cos(k_xx)}{1+2\lambda _ek_x}\mathrm{exp}(k_x|z|)𝑑k_x,$$
(21)
$$H_x^S(x,z)=\frac{2\lambda _edM_s}{\pi }_0^{\mathrm{}}k_x\frac{sin(k_xW)sin(k_xx)}{1+2\lambda _ek_x}\mathrm{exp}(k_x|z|)𝑑k_x.$$
(22)
Figure 1 shows $`H_z^G`$ (solid line) and $`H_x^G`$ (dash-dotted line) for $`\lambda _e=40W`$ and $`z=0`$. As expected, the $`H_z^G`$ is symmetric about the origin and has its maximum field here, whereas $`H_x^G`$ is zero at $`x=0`$. Note also that $`H_x^G`$ changes sign at $`x=0`$, and has peaks at $`x/\lambda _e\pm 0.02`$. Figure 2 shows $`H_z^G`$ (solid line) and $`H_z^S`$ (dash-dotted line) for $`\lambda _e=40W`$ and $`z=\lambda _e/200`$. Note that in contrast to $`H_z^G`$, $`H_z^S`$ has two peaks at the edges of the magnetization distribution. Thus, it is seen that these two magnetization distributions give rise to different characteristic features which may be resolved by magneto-optic imaging.

The force between the one dimensional magnetization distribution and a Pearl vortex is found to be

$$F(x)=\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_0}{\pi }\left(1+\frac{M_s}{H_a}\right)_0^{\mathrm{}}k_x\frac{M(k_x)sin(k_xx)}{1+2\lambda _ek_x\alpha k_x^2}𝑑k_x.$$
(23)
If the Bloch wall is represented by a Gaussian magnetization distribution, the interaction force is found from Eq. 23 to be

$$F(x)=\frac{M_s\mathrm{\Phi }_0}{\sqrt{\pi \beta }}\left(1+\frac{M_s}{H_a}\right)_0^{\mathrm{}}k_x\frac{\mathrm{exp}(k_x^2/4\beta )sin(k_xx)}{1+2\lambda _ek_x\alpha k_x^2}𝑑k_x.$$
(24)
Fig. 3 shows the interaction force in the limit $`d0`$. The solid line corresponds to $`H_a=0.2M_s`$ and the dash-dotted line to $`H_a=0.5M_s`$. It is seen that the force is always attractive.

## IV Magneto-optic imaging of Bloch walls

A powerful property of magneto-optic films is that they can visualize the vortices and and Bloch walls simultaneously, thus allowing us to study the dynamics of these elements. However, it is difficult to draw conclusions about the field from the Bloch wall based on a single magneto-optic film, unless the width of the wall is altered by the superconductorHelseth1 . On the other hand, it is of considerable interest to study the structure of the Bloch wall in presence of the superconducting film in order to gain additional information about the interaction between such systems. This can be done by placing a second magneto-optic indicator above our thin films system (composed of a thin superconducting and magneto-optic film). However, care must be taken, since the signal detected by the polarization microscope depends on the gap $`l`$ between the thin film system and the second indicator. Moreover, let us assume that the second indicator has thickness $`D`$, and does not interact with the thin film system. A model for magneto-optic imaging was introduced in Ref. Helseth3 , and this will be used here (neglecting absorbtion). Figures 4 and 5 show the signal modulation for Gaussian and step-like magnetization distributions using two different indicators. In Fig. 4 a very thin indicator (D=W/2, $`\lambda _e=40W`$) positioned close to the thin film structure (l=W/10) is used. We see that the characteristic magnetic field profiles can be revealed. However, in Fig. 5 a thicker indicator (D=2W, $`\lambda _e=40W`$) and a larger gap $`l`$ ($`l`$=W/5) is assumed. Although the signal profile generated by the Gaussian distribution does not change much, it is seen that the characteristic peaks from the step like distribution are lost. Thus, we conclude that a small gap and a thin indicator is necessary to reveal the characteristic magnetic field profiles discussed above. It should be pointed out that vortices may also be present, thus changing the detected signal. However, a study of this effect is outside the scope of the current work.

## V Conclusion

We have studied the interaction between magnetooptic and superconducting films. It was shown that the vortex induces a magnetization distribution in the magnetooptic film, thus modifying the magnetic field as well as the interaction Bloch walls. In particular, we show that by tuning the anisotropy field of the magnetooptic film, one may enhance this interaction. We also discussed some simple implications for magnetooptic imaging.

###### Acknowledgements.

The author is grateful to H. Hauglin, P.E. Goa, M. Baziljevich, T.H. Johansen and E.I. Il’yashenko for many interesting discussions on this topic, and also to T.M. Fischer for generous support.


text:
# Action principle for nonlinear parametric quantization of gravity

## Abstract

The derivation of the recently proposed nonlinear quantum evolution of gravity from an action principle is considered in this brief note. It is shown to be possible if a set of consistency conditions are satisfied that are analogous to the Dirac relations for the super-Hamiltonian and momenta in classical canonical gravity.

PACS numbers: 04.60.Ds, 04.20.Fy, 11.10.Lm

Recently the quantization of a parameterized theory in finite dimensions with canonical coordinates $`q^\mu (t),p_\mu (t)`$, ($`\mu =0,1,\mathrm{}n`$), lapse function $`N(t)`$ with a parameter time $`t`$ and Hamiltonian $`H(q^\mu ,p_\mu ,N)=N(q^\mu ,p_\mu )`$ for some $``$ was considered based on a nonlinear parametric approach . A new quantization scheme was set up by choosing one of the variables, say $`\tau :=q^0`$ and its conjugate momentum $`\varpi :=p_0`$, as classical variables that interact with the remaining quantized variables $`q^a,(a=1,2,\mathrm{},n)`$ “semi-classically”:

$$\mathrm{i}\frac{\psi }{t}=\widehat{H}\psi $$
(1)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{d}\tau }{\mathrm{d}t}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{H}}{\varpi }},{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{d}\varpi }{\mathrm{d}t}}={\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{H}}{\tau }}`$ (2)
$$\widehat{}=0$$
(3)
where $`\psi =\psi (q^a,t)`$ and $`\widehat{O}`$ denotes the expectation value of any operator $`\widehat{O}`$. 111Units in which $`c=\mathrm{}=16\pi G=1`$ are adopted. The operators $`\widehat{}`$ and $`\widehat{H}=N\widehat{}`$ are obtained by substituting $`p_a\widehat{p}_a:=\mathrm{i}\frac{}{q^a}`$ into $``$ respectively (followed by a suitable factor ordering.) The presence of (2) and (3) makes the quantum evolution nonlinear. Like many other nonlinear quantum theories previously considered in the literature (e.g. ), the system of evolution (1), (2) and (3) can be derived from an action principle where the quantum and classical variables involved are varied. To see this first note that (1) may be replaced by

$$\mathrm{i}\frac{\psi }{t}=\widehat{h}\psi $$
(4)
where

$$\widehat{h}:=\widehat{H}\varpi \dot{\tau }.$$
(5)
Since $`\widehat{h}`$ differs from $`\widehat{H}`$ only by a function of $`t`$ the resulting wavefunctions are related by a time-dependent phase. Clearly equations (4), (2) and (3) arise from extremizing the action

$$S[\psi (q^a,t),\tau (t),\varpi (t),N(t)]:=\mathrm{}\psi ,\left(\mathrm{i}_t\widehat{h}\right)\psi dt$$
(6)
with respect to $`\psi `$ and its conjugate, $`\tau `$, $`\varpi `$ and $`N`$.

This formulation suggests a parametric quantization of gravity whose formal treatment can be outlined as follows. Start from the Dirac-ADM Hamiltonian for canonical general relativity :

$$H[g_{ij},p^{ij},N_\mu ]:=N_\mu ^\mu (g_{ij},p^{ij})\mathrm{d}^3x$$
(7)
in terms of the 3-metric components $`g_{ij}(x)=g_{ij}(x^k,t)`$ and their conjugate momenta $`p^{ij}(x)`$, lapse function $`N_0(x)=N(x)`$, shift functions $`N_i(x)`$, super-Hamiltonian $`^0=`$ and super-momenta $`^i`$. ($`\mu =0,1,2,3;i,j,k=1,2,3`$.) A natural way of isolating the “true” gravitational degrees of freedom is to canonically transform from $`g_{ij}(x),p^{ij}(x)`$ to a set of four “embedding variables” $`\vartheta ^\mu (x)`$ with conjugate momenta $`\varpi _\mu (x)`$, ($`\mu =0,1,2,3`$) and a set of two unconstrained variables $`q^r(x)`$ with conjugate momenta $`p_r(x)`$, ($`r=1,2`$) . This allows us to re-express $`H`$ as $`H[q^r,p_r,\vartheta ^\mu ,\varpi _\mu ,N_\mu ]`$. The standard interpretation of the former set is that $`\vartheta ^0`$ specifies time slicing whereas $`\vartheta ^i`$ set a spatial coordinate condition. For our discussion, the key idea is to treat $`\vartheta ^\mu `$ as constrained classical variables coupled to the quantized true degrees of freedom carried by $`q^r`$ via the Hamiltonian operator $`\widehat{H}[q^r,\widehat{p}_r,\vartheta ^\mu ,\varpi _\mu ,N_\mu ]`$ obtained from $`H`$ using $`p_r\widehat{p}_r:=\mathrm{i}\frac{}{q^r}`$ with a suitable factor ordering.

Guided by the discussions above we now construct the action integral

$$S[\psi [q^r(x);t),\vartheta ^\mu (x),\varpi _\mu (x),N_\mu (x)]:=\mathrm{}\psi ,\left(\mathrm{i}_t\widehat{h}\right)\psi dt$$
(8)
where

$`\widehat{h}[q^r,\varpi _r,\vartheta ^\mu ,\dot{\vartheta }^\mu ,N_\mu ]`$ $`:=\widehat{H}{\displaystyle \dot{q}^rp_r\mathrm{d}^3x}.`$ (9)
The nonlinear quantum evolution of gravity is generated by varying (8) with respect to the state functional $`\psi [q^r(x);t)`$ and its conjugate, and the classical variables $`\vartheta ^\mu (x)`$, $`\varpi _\mu (x)`$ and $`N_\mu (x)`$. This yields

$$\mathrm{i}\frac{\psi }{t}=\widehat{h}\psi $$
(10)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\vartheta ^\mu }{t}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{H}}{\varpi _\mu }},{\displaystyle \frac{\varpi _\mu }{t}}={\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{H}}{\vartheta ^\mu }}`$ (11)
$$\widehat{}^\mu =0.$$
(12)
The structure of the above system is similar to that of (4), (2) and (3). However, it is necessary to establish the consistency condition of this system. It follows from (10) and (11) that

$$\frac{}{t}\widehat{}^\mu =\{\widehat{}^\mu ,\widehat{H}\}$$
(13)
where

$$\{\widehat{A},\widehat{B}\}:=\left(\frac{\delta \widehat{A}}{\delta \vartheta ^\mu (x)}\frac{\delta \widehat{B}}{\delta \varpi _\mu (x)}\frac{\delta \widehat{B}}{\delta \vartheta ^\mu (x)}\frac{\delta \widehat{A}}{\delta \varpi _\mu (x)}\right)\mathrm{d}^3x\mathrm{i}[\widehat{A},\widehat{B}]$$
(14)
for any operators $`\widehat{A}`$ and $`\widehat{B}`$. Provided that a set of embedding variables $`\varpi _\mu `$ and an operator ordering in defining $`\widehat{}^\mu `$ can be found so that

$$\{\widehat{}^\mu ,\widehat{H}\}=C_\nu ^\mu \widehat{}^\nu $$
(15)
for some coefficients $`C_\nu ^\mu `$ (as functions of spacetime points), the consistency of the evolution system (10), (11) and (12) will be satisfied. It is worth noting that the form of (15) is closely analogous to that derived from the “Dirac algebra” in classical canonical gravity. Further progress on the validity of this consistency condition will be reported elsewhere.


text:
# Magnetic field dependence of the penetration depth of d-wave superconductors with strong isolated impurities

## Abstract

A $`d`$-wave superconductor with isolated strong non-magnetic impurities should exhibit an upturn in the penetration depth at low temperatures . Here we calculate how an external magnetic field supresses this effect.

In a recent paper  we presented a calculation of current response of a $`d`$-wave superconductor containing a single impurity and showed that it is singular in the low-temperature limit, leading in the case of strong scattering to a $`1/T`$ term in the penetration depth. For a small number of such impurities, this low-$`T`$ upturn could be observable in cuprate superconductors. An estimate of the size of this effect and of the temperature range in which it should occur agrees with experiments reported by Bonn et al.  in which upturns correlated with disorder introduced by Zn atoms in YBCO have been observed. Here we consider the influence of a magnetic field on this effect.

Since the low-temperature upturn in the penetration depth is due to the large number of quasiparticle excitations near the nodal directions, as is the similar upturn in the case of Andreev surface states , we might expect any physical effect which smears the gap nodes to cut off the upturn. In particular, the orbital coupling to an applied magnetic field (nonlinear electrodynamics) will suppress the upturn as it does in the Andreev case. We need to add the Doppler shift of the quasiparticle energy $`i\omega i\omega +𝐯_s𝐤`$ and follow the same steps as in Ref.  to calculate the magnetic field dependence of the upturn. Here $`𝐯_s`$ is the local superfluid velocity and a typical shift $`v_sk_F(H/H_0)\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$, where $`H`$ is the applied field and $`H_0=3\mathrm{\Phi }_0/(\pi ^2\xi _0\lambda _0)`$ is of the order of the thermodynamic critical field.

The Nambu propagator for a pure $`d`$-wave superconductor in the presence of an external magnetic field is $`\underset{¯}{G}_𝐤^0(\omega _n)=[(i\omega _n+𝐯_s𝐤)\tau _0+\xi _𝐤\tau _3+\mathrm{\Delta }_𝐤\tau _1]/D_𝐤`$, where $`D_𝐤(\omega _ni𝐯_s𝐤)^2+\xi _𝐤^2+\mathrm{\Delta }_𝐤^2`$, $`\xi _𝐤ϵ_𝐤\mu `$, and the $`\tau _i`$ are Pauli matrices. In the presence of one single $`\delta `$-function impurity, the Green’s function can be expressed exactly in terms of the Green’s function of the pure system and the $`T`$-matrix for the impurity. The $`\tau _0`$-component of the $`T`$-matrix is $`T_0(\omega )=(\pi N_0)^1G_0(\omega )/(c^2G_0(\omega )^2)`$ where $`c`$ is cotangent of the $`s`$-wave scattering phase shift ($`c=0`$ corresponds to infinitely strong scattering) and $`G_0=(1/2\pi N_0)\mathrm{Tr}_𝐤\underset{¯}{G}_𝐤^0(\omega )`$. Here we consider the case in which the superfluid velocity is in the $`x`$-direction, so the Doppler shift $`𝐯_s𝐤_F`$ at the four nodes is $`\omega _{1,4}=\omega _{2,3}=\omega _s=v_sk_F/\sqrt{2}`$. The integrated Green’s function $`G_0(\omega )=(\frac{i\omega _+}{\pi N_0\sqrt{\omega _+^2+\mathrm{\Delta }_0^2}})𝖪(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_0}{\sqrt{\omega _+^2+\mathrm{\Delta }_0^2}})+(\frac{i\omega _{}}{\pi N_0\sqrt{\omega _{}^2+\mathrm{\Delta }_𝐤^2}})𝖪(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_0}{\sqrt{\omega _{}^2+\mathrm{\Delta }_0^2}})`$ where $`\omega _\pm =\omega \pm i\omega _s`$ and $`𝖪`$ is the complete elliptic integral of the first kind . We now use Eq. 3 of Ref.  to calculate the paramagnetic response $`\delta K^{xx}(𝐩,𝐪)`$ and from it obtain the change in the penetration depth $`\delta \lambda `$ following the procedure as in Ref. . Fig. 1 shows the result for a unitary scatterer ($`c=0`$) and $`\omega _s/\mathrm{\Delta }_0=0,0.01,0.03,0.05,0.09`$. The integral over momentum is performed for $`p,q1/\lambda k_F`$ and nodal expansion of the order parameter. The Matsubara sum has been performed numerically.

In order for the upturn to be observable, a finite number of isolated strong scatterers must be present in the sample. An estimate of the likelihood of occurence of these rare configurations for randomly distributed impurities in order to extend the theory to finite disorder can be found in Ref. . In real systems clustering may take place and we expect dependence not only on the concentration of impurities but also on the nature of the statistical distribution of the impurities in the sample. Indeed measurements on YBCO single crystals doped with the same amount (0.31%) of Zn show strong sample-to-sample dependence .

In the absence of the external magnetic field, the parameter $`\eta _p=v_F^z/\lambda `$ sets a lower bound for the temperature in which the upturn occurs. A rough estimate for the value of the external magnetic field in which supression of the upturn should occur is given by $`\omega _s\eta _p`$, i.e., $`\stackrel{~}{H}/H_0\xi _{0z}/\lambda `$. Typical values for YBCO ($`\xi _{0z}5\AA `$, $`\lambda 1500\AA `$, $`H_02.5T`$) give $`\stackrel{~}{H}8mT`$.

Observation of this effect would represent a remarkable example of the strong influence that statistically rare impurity distributions can sometimes have on the macroscopic properties of a condensed matter system. It can be distinguished from the similar effect in a $`d`$-wave superconductor due to Andreev surface states by its disorder dependence and by its independence of field orientation and crystal shape.