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# Formation of globular clusters in galaxy mergers

## 1. Implosive formation of globular clusters

Several authors have suggested that very high pressure of ISM expected in major galaxy merging can be responsible for the rapid (triggered) collapse of GMCs and the subsequent GC formation (e.g., Elmegreen & Efremov 1997; Bekki et al. 2002). We numerically investigate the key questions on this GC formation scenario: whether or not the star formation efficiency within a GMC under such high pressure of ISM can be as high as that ($`>`$ 50 %, e.g., Hills 1980) required for the bound cluster formation. Figure 1 describes that the high pressure of the ISM can continue to strongly compress the cloud without losing a significant amount of gas from the cloud. As the strong compression proceeds, the internal density/pressure of the cloud can rise so significantly that a GC can form from the gas with a starburst (See the caption of Fig.1 for the detail of this).

## References

Bekki, K., Forbes, D. A., Beasley, M. A., & Couch, W. J. 2002, MNRAS, 335, 1176

Elmegreen, B. G., & Efremov, Y. N., 1997, ApJ, 480, 235

Hills, J. G. 1980, ApJ, 235, 986


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# Anisotropy and percolation threshold in a multifractal support

## I 1- Introduction

Due to the work of many physicists, and particularly to the contributions of Dietrich Stauffer, percolation theory has became a powerful tool in Science describing phenomena in many areas as geology, biology, magnetism, or social phenomena stauffer ; perc3 . Despite the enormous success of percolation it has been a theory studied in a support (lattice) that has a single dimension. The only references relating percolation and multifractality concern to the multifractal properties of some quantities of the spanning cluster at the percolation threshold multperc1 ; multperc2 .

Recently, a model to study percolation in a multifractal was proposed last  in the literature. In fact, the authors have created an original multifractal object, $`Q_{mf}`$, and an efficient way to estimate its percolation properties. In this work we study in detail the method to estimate $`p_c`$ for this multifractal and discuss the relation between $`p_c`$, some topologic characteristics, and the anisotropy of $`Q_{mf}`$.

The multifractal object we develop, $`Q_{mf}`$, is an intuitive generalization of the square lattice last . Suppose that in the construction of the square lattice we use the following algorithm: take a square of size $`1`$ and cut it symmetrically with vertical and horizontal lines. Repeat this process $`n`$-times; at the $`n^{th}`$ step we have a regular square lattice with $`2^n\times 2^n`$ cells. The setup algorithm of $`Q_{mf}`$ is quite similar, the main difference is that we do not cut the square in a symmetric way. In section $`2`$ we explain in detail this algorithm.

The development of $`Q_{mf}`$ has a twofold motivation. Firstly, there are systems like oil reservoirs that show multifractal properties Hermann  and are good candidates to be modeled by such object. Secondly, there is indeed a much more general scope: we want to study percolation phenomena in lattices that are not regular, but that are multifractal in the geometrical sense. It is important to know how site percolation transition happens in lattices in which the cells vary in size and also in the number of neighbors.

In this work we analyse some geometric and topologic properties of the percolation cluster generated on $`Q_{mf}`$ at the percolation threshold. The paper is organized as follows: in §2 we present the process of construction of $`Q_{mf}`$ and the algorithm for the estimation of $`p_c`$, in §3 we show the numerical simulations concerning the percolation threshold $`p_c`$ and the topologic properties of $`Q_{mf}`$; and finally in §4 we present our final remarks and comments.

## II 2- The Model

In this section we show the process of building of the multifractal $`Q_{mf}`$ and the key concepts to estimate $`p_c`$. We start with a square of linear size $`1`$ and a partition parameter $`0<\rho <1`$. For reasons that will be clear later, $`\rho =\frac{s}{r}`$, where $`s`$ and $`r`$ are integers. We call the multifractal built from this parameter $`\rho `$ as the ”$`\rho Q_{mf}`$”, or ”$`(r,s)Q_{mf}`$”.

The first step, $`n=1`$, consists of two sections of the square: a vertical and an horizontal. Initially the square is cut in two pieces of area $`\frac{r}{s+r}=\frac{1}{1+\rho }`$ and $`\frac{s}{s+r}=\frac{\rho }{1+\rho }`$ by a vertical line. This process is shown in figure 1(a), where we use as an example $`\rho =\frac{s}{r}=\frac{2}{3}`$. The horizontal cut in which we use the same partition $`\rho `$ is shown in figure 1(b). The first partition of the square generates four rectangular blocks: the largest one of area $`(\frac{\rho }{1+\rho })^2`$, two of area $`\frac{\rho }{(1+\rho )^2}`$ and the smallest one of area $`(\frac{1}{1+\rho })^2`$. The difference between the largest area and the smallest one increases as $`\rho 0`$, moreover, the blocks get more and more stretched in this limit. Therefore $`\rho `$ measures the anisotropy of $`Q_{mf}`$.

In the second step, $`n=2`$, we repeat the same process of vertical and horizontal sections as in step $`1`$. Generically we get $`2^{2n}`$ blocks after the $`n^{th}`$-step. The partition process produces a set of blocks with a variety of areas. We call a set of all elements with the same area as a $`k`$-set. At the $`n^{th}`$-step of the algorithm the partition of the square in blocks follows the binomial rule:

$$A=\underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}C_k^n\left(\frac{\rho }{1+\rho }\right)^k\left(\frac{1}{1+\rho }\right)^{nk}=\left(\frac{\rho +1}{\rho +1}\right)^n=1.$$
(1)
The number of elements of a $`k`$-set is $`C_k^n`$. In reference last  we see that as $`n\mathrm{}`$ all the $`k`$-sets determine a monofractal whose dimension is $`d_k=lim_n\mathrm{}\frac{logC_n^ks^kr^{(nk)}}{log(s+r)^{\frac{n}{2}}}`$. In this limit, the ensemble of all $`k`$-sets engenders the multifractal object $`Q_{mf}`$ itself.

Figure 2 shows a picture of $`Q_{mf}`$ for $`\rho =\frac{1}{3}`$ and $`n=4`$. We use the following code color: blocks of equal area have the same tonality. In other words, all the blocks of a same $`k`$-set share a common gray-tone. The general view of the object shows an anisotropic, heterogeneous lattice with a non-trivial topology. The anisotropy of $`Q_{mf}`$ will change the percolation threshold as we investigate in the next section. Before that we study in more detail the problem of percolation.

The main subject of this work is the study of percolation properties of $`Q_{mf}`$. To perform such a task we develop a percolation algorithm. The percolation algorithm for $`Q_{mf}`$ start mapping this object into the square lattice. The square lattice should be large enough that each line segment of $`Q_{mf}`$ coincides with a line of the lattice, this condition imposes that $`\rho `$ is a rational number (it means, $`r`$ and $`s`$ are integers). Therefore we consider that the square lattice is more finely divided than $`Q_{mf}`$. In this way all blocks of the multifractal are composed by a finite number of cells of the square lattice. To explain the percolation algorithm we suppose that $`Q_{mf}`$ construction is at step $`n`$. We proceed the percolation algorithm by choosing at random one among the $`2^{2n}`$ blocks of $`Q_{mf}`$ independent of its size or number of neighbors. Once a block is chosen all the cells in the square lattice corresponding to this block are considered as occupied. Each time a block of $`Q_{mf}`$ is chosen the algorithm check if the occupied cells at the underlying square lattice are connected in such a way to form a spanning percolation cluster. The algorithm to check percolation is similar to the one used in ziff ; freitas0 ; freitas2 ; freitas3 .

## III 3- Numerical Results

In this section we show numerical results concerning the percolation threshold. Before the numerics we introduce some definitions. We call lattice the square lattice underlying $`Q_{mf}`$. Following the literature stauffer  we call $`p`$ the probability of occupation of a lattice site. $`R_L`$ is the probability that for a site occupation $`p`$ there exists a contiguous cluster of occupied sites which crosses completely the square lattice of size $`L`$. $`p_c`$ is the probability of occupation at the percolation threshold. There are several ways ziff  to define $`R_L`$. We use two of them: $`R_L^e`$ is the probability that there exits a cluster crossing either the horizontal or the vertical direction, and $`R_L^b`$ is the probability that there exits a cluster crossing both directions. At the limit of infinite lattice size $`R_L^e`$ and $`R_L^b`$ converge to a common value for the square lattice case. Besides we call $`p_c^e`$ the value of $`p_c`$ estimated from $`R_L^e`$, it means, the average $`p_c`$ over lattices that percolate in one direction, the horizontal or the vertical. And, similarly, $`p_c^b`$ the value of $`p_c`$ estimated from $`R_L^b`$.

Figure 3 illustrates the behavior of $`p_c^e`$ and $`p_c^b`$ for $`7`$ different lattice sizes. Two typical values of $`\rho `$ are used: $`\rho =\frac{2}{3}`$ (solid line) and $`\rho =\frac{1}{4}`$ (dashed line). In 3 (a) we show both $`p_c`$ versus $`\frac{1}{L}`$, the upper values corresponds to $`p_c^b`$ and the bottom values to $`p_c^e`$. The lattice size, $`L=(r+s)^n`$, corresponds to $`4n10`$, in both cases $`r+s=5`$. The data of the upper branch of the figure collapse into a single curve, diversly from the lower branch. In other words, the curves of $`(2,3)Q_{mf}`$ and $`(4,1)Q_{mf}`$ share roughly the same $`p_c^e`$ but diverse $`p_c^b`$. The reason for this feature is the strong anisotropy of $`(4,1)Q_{mf}`$ compared to the case $`(2,3)Q_{mf}`$. The anisotropy of the percolation cluster does not affect $`p_c`$ in both directions, but it affects $`p_c`$ in one direction. In fact, the percolation in both directions comes from an average over both directions, in such situation, any eventual anisotropy of the percolation cluster vanishes because of the average.

An useful way to define $`p_c`$ is to take the average value $`p_{c_{ave}}=\frac{p_c^e+p_c^b}{2}`$. In figure 3(b) we plot $`p_{c_{ave}}`$ versus $`\frac{1}{L}`$ corresponding to the same data figure 3(a). We observe in this figure that both curves converge to a saturation value that is not the same. The difference between the two cases is related to the curve of $`p_c^b`$. The anisotropy (stretching of the blocks) due to $`\rho `$ implies an anisotropy in the percolation cluster. Such anisotropy determines that the percolation cluster does not have a correlation length independent of the direction. Because the percolation cluster is anisotropic the symmetry between $`p_c^e`$ and $`p_c^b`$ should fail. Therefore, we expect that for smaller $`\rho `$ (more anisotropy in the multifractal) a greater difference in $`p_{c_{ave}}`$ will appear. Figure 4 confirm this tendency for diverse values of $`\rho `$.

Figure 4 shows $`\overline{p}_c`$ versus $`\rho `$. To obtain $`\overline{p}_c`$ we make an average of $`p_{c_{ave}}`$ after the saturation process, it means, for $`n8`$. The parameter $`\rho `$ is indicated in the figure. These values are also shown in Table $`I`$. The straight line in the figure is the linear fitting of the data. We focus our attention on two features of the figure: the general tendency of decreasing $`p_c`$ with $`\rho `$, and the anomalous case $`(3,1)Q_{mf}`$. The main tendency of decreasing $`p_c`$ with $`\rho `$ we have discussed in connection with anisotropy. We comment the anomalous situation of $`(3,1)Q_{mf}`$ in relation to topologic properties of $`Q_{mf}`$ which are analyzed in what follows.

The object $`Q_{mf}`$ is build of a set of blocks $`i`$ with different areas, $`A_i`$, and number of neighbors, $`\zeta _i`$. The number $`\zeta _i`$ is a central quantity in the study of topology. A topologic quantity, that is important in the investigation of the percolation threshold, is $`\zeta _{ave}`$ which is an average of $`\zeta _i`$ over $`Q_{mf}`$. It means $`\zeta _{ave}=\frac{_i\zeta _i}{N}`$ where $`N=2^{2n}`$ is the total number of blocks and the sum in the numerator is performed over the full multifractal. Typically $`\zeta _{ave}`$ is a number that does not increase with $`n`$, but attains a constant value after $`n6`$. We plot in Table $`I`$ this topologic quantity for $`n=8`$ and several values of $`\rho `$.

Table I

| $`(s,r)`$ | (1,1) | (4,3) | (3,2) | (2,1) | (5,2) | (3,1) | (4,1) | (5,1) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`p_c`$ | 0.5929 | 0.5262 | 0.5262 | 0.5256 | 0.5252 | 0.5253 | 0.5243 | 0.5241 |
| $`\zeta _{ave}`$ | 999 | 5.436 | 5.436 | 5.434 | 5.436 | 5.426 | 5.436 | 5.436 |

We observe in the row of $`\zeta _{ave}`$ that all these values are roughly the same, the exception corresponds to the case of the $`(3,1)Q_{mf}`$. The conclusion we take is that the variation of the average number of neighbors causes the fluctuation in percolation threshold observed in figure 4. The $`p_c`$ of the $`(3,1)Q_{mf}`$ is a little bit greater than the other cases because it has a smaller average number of neighbors. In other words, because each block of the $`(3,1)Q_{mf}`$, in the average, has less neighbors, it percolates with more difficulty than the tendency among its group.

## IV 4- Final Remarks

To summarize we analyze in this work the role of the anisotropy and the average number of neighbors of $`Q_{mf}`$ on its percolation threshold, $`p_c`$. The multifractal object is composed by a set of blocks with different areas and number of neighbors. As the parameter defining $`Q_{mf}`$, $`\rho `$, goes to zero, the multifractal becomes more and more anisotropic. This anisotropy reflects in the percolation cluster creating an asymmetry between $`p_c^e`$ and $`p_c^b`$.

The anisotropy of $`Q_{mf}`$ is evident when we compare $`p_c^e`$ and $`p_c^b`$. The observed curves of $`p_c^e`$ show a similar behavior, in contrast to the curves of $`p_c^b`$. Actually, the measure of $`p_c^b`$ makes an average over both directions which erases any anisotropic effect of the percolation cluster. This erasing effect does not exist when we measure $`p_c^e`$. The anisotropy of $`Q_{mf}`$ decreases with $`\rho `$ (with $`\rho 0`$ the blocks became more stretched).

A special case in our analysis is the $`(3,1)Q_{mf}`$. This case is singular compared to others analyzed cases. For a same number of blocks, the $`(3,1)Q_{mf}`$ case has less neighbors than the multifractal blocks corresponding to other values of $`\rho `$. This phenomenon is intrinsic to the topology of $`Q_{mf}`$. It implies that the $`(3,1)Q_{mf}`$ is less connected, and, as a consequence, it shows more difficulty to percolate. Therefore the case of the $`(3,1)Q_{mf}`$ has a percolation threshold slighter greater then its neighbors in the $`\rho `$ sequence. In a future work we intend to study in more detail the effect of other topologic properties on the percolation properties.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)-Brazil, FINEP and CTPETRO.

FIGURE LEGENDS


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# 1 Introducción

## 1 Introducción

El principio de invariancia de norma, de acuerdo al cual cada una de las interacciones fundamentales entre fermiones elementales es mediada por el intercambio de los bosones de norma del grupo de simetría correspondiente, está en la base de las teorías modernas de partículas elementales . Su importancia es tal que cualquier modelo que pretenda hacer una descripción realista (renormalizable) de las interacciones fundamentales, debe primero asegurar que se cancelan todas las posibles anomalías que pueden poner en peligro su validez .

El grupo de simetría de una interacción fundamental puede ser abeliano como en el caso del grupo $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$Q$}`$ de transformaciones de fase de la electrodinámica; o puede contener factores no abelianos como en el caso del grupo $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$S$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$c$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$S$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$L$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$Y$}`$ del modelo de Wienberg-Salam que describe las interacciones fuertes ($`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$S$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$c$}`$) y electrodébiles ($`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$S$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$L$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$Y$}`$). Teorías basadas en grupos no abelianos de transformaciones de norma locales son llamadas teorías de Yang-Mills . Si los parámetros asociados a un grupo de transformaciones de simetría son independientes de la localización espacio-temporal la simetría es global; en caso contrario es local. La simetría, a su vez, puede ser exacta como la descrita por el grupo $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$S$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$c$}`$ del color, caso en el cual los bosones de norma correspondientes son no masivos; o puede estar espontáneamente rota (oculta) debido a que campos escalares, llamados campos de Higgs, adquieren valores esperados en el vacío distintos de cero que hacen que el estado vacío de la subyacente teoría cuántica de campos no sea invariante de norma aunque sí lo sea el Lagrangiano. El teorema de Goldstone  asegura entonces la aparición de campos escalares sin masa asociados a grados de libertad no físicos que serán absorbidos por los bosones de norma del grupo de simetría rota, los cuales, como consecuencia, adquieren masa. Este fenómeno es el llamado mecanismo de Higgs . En las referencias  se presentan los detalles de la teoría general de las transformaciones de norma.

El presente trabajo tiene como finalidad ilustrar estas ideas con un sistema clásico muy simple en el cual se presenta invariancia bajo transformaciones de norma abelianas.

Sea una esfera de masa $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}`$ que puede oscilar a lo largo del eje $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}`$, sujeta a un par de resortes. Su energía potencial es $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}`$. Adicionalmente se la somete a una fuerza oscilante de la forma $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{cos}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}`$, donde $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}`$ es mucho mayor que la frecuencia de las oscilaciones libres. La oscilación forzada tiene una amplitud $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$. Al hallar la frecuencia de pequeñas oscilaciones (lineales) en función del parámetro $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}`$ se encuentra que hay un valor $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$ en el cual esta frecuencia varía de manera discontinua .

Luego el modelo se modifica de la siguiente manera: Se toma una partícula cargada en un potencial $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$ similar a $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$, con simetría cilíndrica, y también sometida al efecto de la fuerza oscilante de alta frecuencia, cuando $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$<$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$, y además se coloca un campo magnético uniforme. Finalmente se analizan los efectos relacionados con la elección de la norma del potencial del campo electromagnético.

En este artículo se argumenta la presencia del “mecanismo de Higgs”, uno de los principales ingredientes del modelo stándard, en el sistema clásico descrito. Este trabajo tiene relación con otros aparecidos recientemente en la literatura. Se ha observado el rompimiento espontáneo de simetría en mecánica clásica de partículas descrita por medio de una función de distribución , igualmente en la simple colocación de un bloque rectangular sobre una cuña formada por dos superficies . El problema de la invariancia de norma y su relación con las variables canónicas ha sido también estudiado . T. Dittrich et al  han estudiado efectos debidos a la adición de un término oscilante sobre el movimiento de partículas en un potencial del tipo “diente de sierra”.

## 2 Modelo mecánico

Se asume que $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}`$ y $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$k$}`$ son tales que se puede ignorar el efecto del peso de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}`$, y que $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$>$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}`$ ($`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}`$). Véase Fig. 1. La fuerza neta vertical sobre la esfera es

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$k$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$s$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{sin}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\theta $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$k$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$s$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{sin}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\theta $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(1)
Se reemplaza $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$s$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}`$ y $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{sin}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\theta $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}`$, con lo cual

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$k$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$k$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(2)
Se ve que cuando $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$ el resorte es intrínsecamente no lineal.

La energía potencial está dada por

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$k$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$k$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\hfill \\ & & \\ & \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}\hfill \end{array}$$
(3)
$`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$ y $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}`$ son positivas. Podríamos pensar que al orden más bajo, $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}`$ representa un “oscilador armónico” con masa de signo erróneo.

Si $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}`$ es una posición de equilibrio de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}`$, se tiene para $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}`$,

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\prime \prime $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\prime \prime $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}\hfill \end{array}$$
(4)
De $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$ y $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\prime \prime $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$12$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}`$ se sigue que las posiciones de equilibrio posibles son

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\hfill \\ & & \\ & \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{y}$}& \\ & & \\ \hfill \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\left($}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\right)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\hfill \end{array}$$
(5)
en las cuales la segunda derivada vale $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\prime \prime $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$<$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$, con lo cual $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$ es inestable, y $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\prime \prime $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$>$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$, con lo tanto $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}`$ y $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}`$ son estables.

Por lo tanto, para movimientos cercanos a $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$ y $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}`$ se tiene

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}$$
(6)
respectivamente. El alejamiento indefinido de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$ es caracterizado por $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\lambda $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}`$ y las pequeñas oscilaciones alrededor de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}`$ por la frecuencia $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}`$.

Ahora, se somete la esfera una fuerza

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{cos}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}$$
(7)
la cual induce oscilaciones forzadas $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{cos}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}`$, donde $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\lambda $}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$. Nótese que $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$ no admite pequeñas oscilaciones libres alrededor de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$ y que $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$ decrece monótonamente con $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}`$. Esto difiere del caso en el cual la posición de equilibrio $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$ es estable, $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$ tiene un máximo en la frecuencia de resonancia, y hay un desfase de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pi $}`$ de la oscilación forzada respecto a la fuerza externa. Véase §22 en .

La ecuación del movimiento es

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\ddot{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(8)
## 3 “Transición de fase”

Se asume ahora que $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{cos}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}`$, donde $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}`$ es la componente de bajas frecuencias del desplazamiento .

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\ddot{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{cos}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{cos}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(9)
Promediando los dos lados de la ecuación del movimiento (9) en un período de la oscilación de alta frecuencia se obtiene

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\ddot{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{cos}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}$$
(10)
donde

$$\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{cos}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{cos}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(11)
Usando $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{cos}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{cos}$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$ y $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{cos}$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\gamma $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}`$ se llega a

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\ddot{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$6$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\hfill \\ & \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}\hfill \end{array}$$
(12)
La fuerza y la energía potencial efectivas son

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\hfill \\ \hfill \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\hfill \end{array}$$
(13)
donde $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}`$ puede ser positiva o negativa al cambiar $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$. Además $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}`$ para $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$.

Si se definen las cantidades positivas $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}`$ y $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$,

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(14)
$`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}}`$ tiene la misma forma de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}`$ con un diferente coeficiente de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}`$. La figura 2 sirve para representar a $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}}`$ para $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$<$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$. En el modelo de la figura 1, el sistema dinámico obtenido de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}`$ puede sufrir una bifurcación que da lugar a la aparición de dos puntos de equilibrio estables cuando el origen se desestabiliza, cuando se varía el parámetro $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}`$. Pero acabamos de encontrar otra forma de realizar lo mismo, variando $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}`$ o sea la amplitud de la fuerza aplicada de frecuencia muy alta.

Cuando $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$<$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$ las posiciones de equilibrio $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}`$ son estables y $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$ es inestable, pero cuando $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$>$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$ solo existe una posición de equilibrio, $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$, la cual es estable. Véase la figura 3.

Si $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$<$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$ la frecuencia de pequeñas oscilaciones alrededor de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}`$ es

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\omega $}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\left($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\right)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$6$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$c$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}$$
(15)
y cuando $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$>$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$ la frecuencia de pequeñas oscilaciones alrededor de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$o$}`$ es

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\omega $}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\left($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\right)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$6$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(16)
La derivada de la frecuencia $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\omega $}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}`$ respecto a $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}`$ tiene un salto en $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$. Véase Fig. 4. La segunda derivada de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$ en $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$, dada por $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\prime \prime $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$6$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$, cambia de signo cuando $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$.

La aparición de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}}`$ se interpreta diciendo que la fuerza externa de alta frecuencia hace oscilar el valor del potencial original $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}`$, pero el valor medio de dicha oscilación puede cambiar la estabilidad de la posición de equilibrio de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}`$ .

Cuando $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}`$, o sea $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$, es grande, la masa $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}`$ oscila alrededor de la posición de equilibrio $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$. En este caso el movimiento mantiene la simetría con relación a la sustitución $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}`$. Cuando $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}`$ baja hasta un valor $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$<$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$, la esfera oscilará alrededor de una de las dos posiciones de equilibrio $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}`$, en este caso el movimiento pierde la mencionada simetría.

El comportamiento de las frecuencias de oscilación como funciones de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}`$ es matemáticamente análogo a las transiciones de fase de segunda clase que se estudian en física estadística . Todos los sistemas que presentan transiciones de fase poseen coordenadas macroscópicas, como la resistividad, el calor específico o la magnetización de una substancia, las cuales son análogas de la coordenada lenta $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}`$ de este problema. Las oscilaciones forzadas rápidas constituyen el análogo del fenómeno de transporte de calor y $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}`$ es análogo de la temperatura. $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$ es el análogo de la temperatura en la cual ocurre la transición de fase. En los alrededores de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$ la magnitud correspondiente a $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}`$ (la resistividad por ejemplo) es pequeña, $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}`$ así como también lo es la frecuencia de las oscilaciones propias. En rigor, en el modelo mecánico considerado se tiene una bifurcación que se comporta de manera análoga a una transición de fase.

Este sistema pertenece a la clase de universalidad de los sistemas que presentan transiciones de fase de segunda clase, según la denominación de Landau. Allí se define $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$ϵ$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$, el cual en este caso es una función de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$, $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$l$}`$ y $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}`$. $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}`$ es el “parámetro de orden” que depende de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$ϵ$}`$ como

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\pm $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\left($}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\right)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$ϵ$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}$$
(17)
con esto el exponente del parámetro de orden es $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\beta $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}`$. Por otra parte la fuerza en $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$ vale $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$f$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}`$, con lo cual el “exponente crítico está dado por $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\delta $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$3$}`$. Igualmente se pueden encontrar otros parámetros análogos a los que aparecen en transiciones de fase.

En esta clase de transiciones ocurre un cambio de simetría al variar de manera continua un parámetro. Usualmente la “fase” que se presenta para $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$>$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$ tiene mayor simetría que la de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$<$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$T$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}`$. Entre los fenómenos de transición de fase de segunda clase están: La ferroelectricidad de las perovskitas , el ferromagnetismo , la superconductividad , las oscilaciones en plasmas , y el mecanismo por el cual los bosones en las teorías de campos de norma de Yang-Mills adquieren masa , entre otros. También las oscilaciones transversas de una partícula cargada en un campo magnético no homogéneo constituyen un modelo mecánico de estas transiciones, véase el problema 10.8 en la referencia .

## 4 El principio de invariancia de norma

Queremos ahora hacer compatible el comportamiento descrito con las propiedades del campo electromagnético bajo transformaciones de norma.

### Ecuaciones de Maxwell

El campo electromagnético está descrito por las ecuaciones de Maxwell, las cuales en el sistema internacional de unidades toman la forma,

$$\begin{array}{cccccc}\hfill \stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$D$}}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\hfill & \hfill \stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\hfill \\ & & & & & \\ \hfill \stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\times $}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$E$}}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\hfill & \hfill \stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\times $}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$H$}}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$j$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$D$}}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$;$}\hfill \\ & & & & & \\ \hfill \stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$D$}}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$ϵ$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$E$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\hfill & \hfill \stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$H$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}\hfill \end{array}$$
(18)
### Potenciales electromagnéticos

$$\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$E$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(19)
### Transformaciones de norma

$$\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\chi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\chi $}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(20)
$`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$ y $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$ dan lugar a los mismos campos $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$E$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$.

### Transformaciones canónicas

Si se tiene un sistema mecánico cuyo hamiltoniano no depende del tiempo y una transformación canónica $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$p$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$Q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$P$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$, se cumple

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$p$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$i$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$i$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$P$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$i$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$Q$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$i$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$H$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$Q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$P$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$H$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$p$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}$$
(21)
donde $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$Q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$ es la función generatríz de la transformación.

El lagrangiano está relacionado con el hamiltoniano por

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$L$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\underset{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$i$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$p$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$i$}\dot{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$i$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$H$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(22)
En consecuencia, al realizar la transformación se obtiene un nuevo lagrangiano que está relacionado con el viejo así,

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$L$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\dot{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$L$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$Q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\dot{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$Q$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}$$
(23)
lo cual dice que en una transformación canónica el lagrangiano se afecta adicionando la derivada total respecto al tiempo de la función generatríz de la transformación, que como se sabe no cambia la dinámica del problema. Una transformación puntual es también canónica.

### Notación 4-dimensional

Definimos $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$i$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$c$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}`$ y el tensor métrico $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$g$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\delta $}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}}`$. Entonces la corriente es $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$j$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$j$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$i$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$c$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$, la cual cumple la ecuación de continuidad $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$j$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$. $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}`$ es la densidad de carga. El potencial vectorial es $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$i$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$c$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$. El tensor de campo electromagnético es ,

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(24)
Las ecuaciones de Maxwell expresadas en términos de los campos toman la forma

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$j$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\lambda $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\lambda $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\lambda $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}\hfill \end{array}$$
(25)
Las ecuaciones de Maxwell expresadas en términos de los potenciales toman la forma

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$j$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}$$
(26)
y la otra ecuación se satisface automáticamente por la expresión de los campos en términos de los potenciales.

Se pueden elegir convenientemente los potenciales. Usualmente se usa la invariancia de norma para restringir la clase de potenciales a usarse, por ejemplo la clase de los que satisfacen la condición de Lorentz

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(27)
Un paso adicional, la elección de la norma de Coulomb, escoge unívocamente el potencial dentro de los de dicha clase,

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(28)
### La partícula cargada en un campo EM

El lagrangiano (no relativista),

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$L$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$v$}}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$v$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(29)
Ecuación de Lagrange,

$$\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$v$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$E$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$v$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\times $}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(30)
Momento canónico,

$$\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$p$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$v$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(31)
Hamiltoniano,

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$H$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$p$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(32)
El lagrangiano en un sistema de referencia que rota con velocidad angular definida por $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\omega $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\times $}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$r$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}`$, al aplicar la transformación $`\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$v$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$v$}}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$r$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\omega $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\times $}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$r$}}`$ es,

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$L$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$r$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$v$}}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$r$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(33)
Cuando $`\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}`$ es homogéneo se tiene $`\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$r$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\times $}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}`$ y por tanto $`\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\omega $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$, la frecuencia de Larmor. En este caso,

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$L$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$r$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$v$}}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$r$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$8$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(34)
### Acción e invariancia bajo transformaciones de norma

Si los potenciales que aparecen en el lagrangiano de la ecuación (29) se someten a una transformación de norma, este es reemplazado por

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$L$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}& \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$v$}}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\chi $}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$v$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\chi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\hfill \\ & & \\ & \colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}& \frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$v$}}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$v$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\chi $}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$d$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}\hfill \end{array}$$
(35)
La acción de Hamilton es

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$S$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\underset{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}}{\overset{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$L$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$𝑑$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(36)
Si la función arbitraria $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\chi $}`$ se escoge tal que $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\chi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$ en $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$t$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$, entonces la acción de Hamilton se transforma en

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$S$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$S$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\chi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(37)
Por propiedades de la acción de Hamilton se tiene que la dinámica de la partícula es independiente de la elección de la norma.

Si la función de onda semiclásica es

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{\Psi }$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$a$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$i$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$S$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{}$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}$$
(38)
se obtiene que un cambio de norma produce un cambio en la fase, así,

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{\Psi }$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{\Psi }$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$i$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\chi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{}$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(39)
Una transformación de norma en los potenciales electromagnéticos no tiene consecuencias observables en mecánica clásica porque sólo da lugar a la adición a la lagrangiana de la derivada total respecto al tiempo de una función arbitraria de las coordenadas espacio-temporales. Esto está asociado a un cambio de fase de la función de onda, que en mecánica cuántica tampoco tiene efectos observables. El argumento puede invertirse: La adición de la derivada total de una función arbitraria implica la presencia de un campo vectorial $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}`$ que experimenta una transformación de norma. Esta es la forma clásica del principio de invariancia de norma. En mecánica cuántica se tiene que el tipo de interacción está determinado por los cambios de fase de la función de onda.

Si se realiza una transformación canónica de las variables mecánicas del sistema, de acuerdo a la ecuación (23) se adiciona la derivada total respecto al tiempo de la función generatríz. En consecuencia, al combinar los dos efectos se puede decir que el lagrangiano quedará invariante (e igualmente la fase de la función de onda semiclásica) si se realiza una transformación de norma tal que

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\chi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$.$}$$
(40)
Como $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$F$}`$ es función de las coordenadas, se tiene que cada transformación canónica puede compensarse con una transformación de norma local. Si esto es así, el lagrangiano queda invariante y se tiene que esa combinación de transformaciones representa una simetría del lagrangiano.

En conclusión, exigir invariancia de norma bajo transformaciones canónicas infinitesimales (las cuales son locales en el espacio de fases) requiere la introducción de una interacción con el campo electromagnético. La invariancia de norma local genera dinámica.

## 5 Simetría oculta

Sea el problema de la partícula cargada que se mueve con la energía potencial $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$4$}`$. Puede considerarse como una generalización del sistema de la figura 1. Suponemos que este $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}`$ no es de naturaleza electromagnética. En nuestro análisis tampoco son de naturaleza electromagnética las oscilaciones de frecuencia rápida que determinan el tipo de estabilidad del punto con $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$. $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$ es una superficie con la forma de un sombrero mexicano. Sólo se consideran movimientos en el plano $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}`$. $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$ no depende del ángulo $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}`$ que hace $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}`$ con el eje $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}`$, $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$H$}`$ tiene la simetría de rotación alredededor del eje $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$z$}`$ por un ángulo arbitrario.

Como se vió, el estado de equilibrio estable se alcanza no en $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$, donde $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$, sino sobre un círculo de radio $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\sqrt{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}}`$, donde $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}`$ es negativo. Es claro que cualquier punto del círculo es una posible posición de equilibrio. Todos esos puntos son igualmente estables y aceptables como “el” estado base, difieren sólo por la “fase” $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}`$. Esos “estados base” que difieren sólo por $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}`$ son equivalentes, ahí reside la simetría. El “rompimiento espontáneo de la simetría” ocurre cuando se escoge un valor particular de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}`$. Así, si se toma $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}`$ se tiene $`\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\sqrt{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}}\widehat{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$ı$}}`$.

Es evidente de la ecuación (40) que al tomar el equilibrio en

$$\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\left($}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$C$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\right)$}^{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\widehat{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$ı$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{cos}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\widehat{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$ȷ$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{sin}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}$$
(41)
con $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}`$ arbitrario se produce un cambio en el lagrangiano que puede compensarse con una transformación de norma sobre $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}`$, y por lo tanto dicha elección es una simetría del lagrangiano.

Por efecto de un campo magnético $`\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}`$ se induce un momento magnético $`\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}}`$ que a su vez interactúa con el campo para dar la energía adicional $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$E$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mu $}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}`$, cuyo valor es

$$\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$8$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}$$
(42)
que coincide con el término dependiente de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}`$ en la ecuación (34).

Como consecuencia del diamagnetismo, el campo magnético que experimenta la carga no coincide con $`\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$B$}}`$, sino que es menor debido al campo de dirección opuesta que se crea de acuerdo a la ley de Lenz, “el campo diamagnético interno”. El momento magnético es proporcional a la corriente y esta a la densidad de carga.

El diamagnetismo está asociado a las llamadas corrientes de apantallamiento diamagnético, las cuales a su vez dan lugar a la aparición de un “término de masa” en la ecuación de onda para el fotón. $`\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$j$}}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$s$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$c$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$r$}}`$ es proporcional al potencial vectorial,

$$\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$j$}}_{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$s$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$c$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$r$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\frac{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\stackrel{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}{\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}$$
(43)
donde $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}`$ es la densidad de carga, en este caso dada por una $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\delta $}`$ de Dirac por tenerse una partícula puntual. Puede generalizarse par incluir objetos no puntuales como cuerdas o membranas. Esta ecuación (sin el término de la norma) es análoga a la de London de la superconductividad.

La ecuación de Maxwell (26) para $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}`$, luego de imponer la condición de Lorentz, y de utilizar una norma dependiente de $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\varphi $}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$e$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{tan}$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$y$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$, toma la forma

$$\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\mathrm{}$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$+$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$M$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$A$}_\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\nu $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$0$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$,$}$$
(44)
donde $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$M$}^\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$2$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$=$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$q$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$/$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$m$}`$. Es la ecuación de Proca. Compárese con el resultado de . La ecuación (44) representa el campo de una partícula libre vectorial de masa $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$M$}`$. El sistema original tiene cuatro grados de libertad, dos modos de oscilación de la partícula y dos estados de polarización del campo. El rompimiento espontáneo de simetría y la elección apropiada de la norma han dado lugar a un sistema equivalente en el cual la partícula tiene sólo un modo de oscilación pero el campo tiene tres estados de polarización. A este resultado se llega fácilmente, en estrecha analogía con el campo bosónico cargado interactuante con el campo EM, a partir de la densidad lagrangiana del sistema formado por el campo y la partícula . También es relevante para el presente modelo una discusión análoga a la de  acerca del término de masa.

## 6 Conclusión

Se analizó un sistema constituido por una partícula en un potencial $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$\rho $}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$. Se encontró que se presentan tres fenómenos relacionados: La existencia de una “transición de fase”, más precisamente de una bifurcación, que se puede atribuir a un campo rápidamente oscilante, en la cual el origen de coordenadas cambia su tipo de estabilidad. A su vez, cuando el origen se desestabiliza aparece un conjunto de nuevas posiciones estables equivalentes relacionadas entre si por el grupo $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$U$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$($}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$1$}\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$)$}`$. Una posición de equilibrio cualquiera se puede mapear en la localizada sobre el eje $`\colorbox[rgb]{1,1,1}{$x$}`$ al escoger la norma del potencial vectorial correspondiente al ángulo de la rotación requerida (“rompimiento de la simetría”). La escogencia de esta norma da lugar a la aparición de un “término de masa” en la ecuación de onda que determina el potencial vectorial. Esta masa depende de las corrientes diamagnéticas del sistema. A su vez las oscilaciones de la partícula cargada alrededor de la nueva posición de equilibrio representan el “campo de Higgs” y su masa es positiva. Véase el comentario que sigue a la ecuación (3).

Una conclusión de este ejercicio es que el sistema analizado podría tomarse como un “sistema modelo” del principio de invariancia de norma y sus efectos conexos. Una realización macroscópica del modelo puede ser difícil a causa de la pequeñez de las corrientes diamagnéticas. Fenómenos de este tipo se podrían presentar en estados de Rydberg de un átomo hidrogenoide en un campo magnético. También campos de norma no abelianos pueden encontrarse en sistemas de espines clásicos en campos magnéticos.