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# On the crescentic shape of barchan dunes

## 1 Characteristics of Barchan Dunes

R.A. Bagnold opened the way to the physics of dunes with his famous book: *The physics of blown sand and desert dunes* B41 . From then on, a great deal of investigations - laboratory experiments B41 ; ACD01 ; HDA02 , field measurements CWG93 ; PT90 ; F59 ; LS64 ; N66 ; H67 ; LL69 ; H87 ; S90 ; HH98 ; SRPH01  and numerical computations WG86 ; NO92 ; W95 ; NYA97 ; S97 ; BAD99 ; S01 ; K02 ; ACD02  \- have been conducted by geologists and physicists. In particular, a large amount of work has been dedicated to the barchan, a dune shaped by the erosion of a unidirectional wind on a firm ground.

A side view of a barchan - see Fig. 1 \- shows a rather flat aerodynamic structure. When viewed from above, a barchan presents a crescentic shape with two horns pointing downwind. A sharp edge - the brink line - divides the dune in two areas: the windward side and the slip face, where avalanches develop - see Fig. 2. Because of a boundary layer separation along this sharp edge B41 ; CWG93 ; PT90 , a large eddy develops downwind and wind speed decreases dramatically. Therefore, the incoming blown sand is dropped close to the brink line. That is why the barchan is known to be a very good sand trapper. Sometimes, when the drift of sand is too large, an avalanche occurs and grains are moved down the slip face. In short, grains are dragged by the wind from the windward side of the dune to the bottom of the slip-face and, grain after grain, the dune moves. Field observations show that barchans can move up to $`70m/year`$ SRPH01 . Their speed is dependent on wind power and on their size: for the same wind strength, the velocity of barchans is roughly inversely proportional to their heights B41 ; ACD01 ; CWG93 ; LL69 ; S90 . Barchan dimensions range from $`1`$ to $`30`$ meters high, and from $`10`$ to $`300`$ meters long and wide B41 ; CWG93 ; PT90 . However, large barchans are often unstable, leading to complex structures called mega-barchans CWG93 ; PT90 . More accurate analyses reveal that the height, width and length are related by linear relationships ACD01 ; HH98  and that no mature barchan dune smaller than one meter high can be found: there is a minimal barchan size. Finally, the last important characteristic of barchans, but much less well-documented, is the sand leak at the tip of the horns B41 ; CWG93 ; PT90 ; HACHD03 , where no recirculation bubble develops. This shows that barchan dunes are three dimensional structures, whose center part and horns have totally different trapping efficiency - see Fig. 2.

Because of the inherent difficulties of field-work, (a typical mission duration is rather short compared to the lifetime of a dune and its shape movement), numerical modeling is, alongside laboratory experiment HDA02 , an important method to explore barchan properties such as their morphogenesis, their stability and their interaction modes, which are still poorly understood. Obviously, these problems are related to the original structure of barchans, and, accordingly, they should be studied with a $`3d`$ approach. The aim of the present paper is to discuss how to extend existing $`2d`$ models to the $`3d`$ situation. Then, we will show that the crescentic shape can be explained by the existence of a sand-flux constraint and a lateral sand-flux. In the following part, we start by recalling briefly the main features of $`2d`$ modeling of dunes . Then a model for the $`3d`$ situation will be presented.

## 2 The $`\text{C}_\text{c}^\text{c}`$ class of models

Numerical modeling of dune requires a description of the effect of wind flow over a sand-bed. Obviously, computing exact turbulent numerical solution starting with the Navier-Stokes equations is possible, but this would take a very long time. An alternative is to use the $`\text{C}_\text{c}^\text{c}`$ model ACD02 , based on the following approach.

### 2.1 Numerical model for the $`2d`$ case

Let us call $`h(x,t)`$ the sand bed profile and $`q(x,t)`$ the vertically integrated volumic sand-flux. They are linked by the mass conservation:

$$_th+_xq=0.$$
(1)
The sand flux $`q(x,t)`$ is the main physical parameter needed to understand dune physics. It cannot locally exceed a saturated value $`q_{sat}(x,t)`$, which is the maximum number of grains that the wind is able to drag per unit of time at $`x`$. Previous work have already focused on the important role played by the saturation of the sand flux and the so-called saturation length, $`l_{sat}`$ HDA02 ; K02 ; ACD02 . The nature of this saturation process can be understood in terms of sand grain inertia: if the wind speed increases, it takes some time for the grains, initially at rest, to reach the wind velocity. Different approaches are possible to describe the evolution of the sand flux towards its saturated value $`q_{sat}`$. However for the sake of simplicity, this saturation process is here taken into account with the equation,

$$_xq=\frac{q_{sat}q}{l_{sat}}.$$
(2)
This equation keeps the most important effect: the existence of a characteristic length-scale $`l_{sat}`$. Moreover, $`q_{sat}`$, depends on the wind shear velocity $`u_{}`$. Even if the nature of this dependency is still debated, the saturated flux is a growing function of $`u_{}`$ ASW91 ; Sorensen01 ; A03 . Then a linear expansion of $`q_{sat}`$, as proposed in the innovative work of Sauermann et al. S01 ; K02  from the model of Jackson & Hunt JH75 leads to:

$$\frac{q_{sat}(x)}{Q}=1+A\frac{d\chi }{\chi }_xh_e(x\chi )+B_xh_e(x),$$
(3)
where $`Q`$ is the saturated flux value on a flat ground and $`h_e(x)`$ is the envelope of the dune. This envelope encages the dune and its recirculation bubble S90 , and is used to include the boundary layer separation heuristically. Notice that in the latter equation, $`h_e(x,t)`$ appears only through its first spatial derivative. It is consistent with the assumption that atmospheric turbulent boundary layer is fully developed, so changes in $`u_{}`$, and accordingly in $`q_{sat}`$ are scale-invariant. From an aerodynamical point of view, this relation takes into account two effects: a pressure effect, controlled by $`A`$, where the whole shape acts on the wind flow; and a destabilizing effect, controled by $`B`$, which ensures that the maximum speed of the flow is reached before the dune summit. Although in principle we could compute the parameters $`A`$ and $`B`$, we prefer to consider them as tunable parameters. Finally, avalanches are simply taken into account: if the local slope exceeds a critical value, the sand flux is increased strongly along the steepest slope. We will come back to the description of avalanches in section $`4`$. The only scaling quantities are $`Q`$ and $`l_{sat}`$ and they are used to adimensionalize the problem.

In fact, this model belongs to what we called the $`\text{C}_\text{c}^\text{c}`$ class. It does not depend strongly on the model use for the shear stress: other models G02  of shear stress perturbations could be used providing that they include the role of the whole shape ($`A`$) and the asymmetry of the flow ($`B`$). The same remarks apply to the charge equationS01 ; K02  and to the equation linking $`q_{sat}`$ and $`u_{}`$. This shows the robustness of the physics ingredients used in this class of model. Even though this method does not provide the most detailed results, this kind of model has been used successfully to model $`2d`$ barchan profile S01 ; K02 ; ACD02 .

### 2.2 Speed dispersion and trapping efficiency

As a matter of fact, simulations in $`2d`$ show the existence of two kinds of solutions: *dune* and *dome* ACD02 . The dune solution has a slip-face that catches all the incoming sand: the dune can only grow - except if the input sand flux is null. On the contrary, for a dome, a large amount of sand can escape, and if the loss of sand is not balanced by an influx, the dome can only shrink. Hence, these two solutions cannot co-exist. To compute the steady shape of a $`3d`$ barchan, it is possible to cut it in ”slices” parallel to the wind direction and, for each slice, to use the $`2d`$ model to compute its evolution. However, in a real barchan, a $`2d`$ slice from the horns seems to behave like $`2d`$ dome solution, while a $`2d`$ slice from the main body coresponds to $`2d`$ dune solution. However, in order to make slices from the main body and slices from the horns coexist, we must introduce a sand flux which will redistribuate laterally the sand from the center towards the horns. This sand flux coupling is also needed to overcome the speed dispersion effect. As a matter of fact, if all the slices have initially the same shape - but at a different scale ratio - the saturated flux at the crest is the same for all the slices, as imposed by turbulence scale invariance and the speed of a slice is given by:

$$c=\frac{q_cq_{out}}{h_c}$$
(4)
where $`q_c`$ and $`q_{out}`$ are respectively the flux at the crest and the output flux, and $`h_c`$ is the height at the crest of the slice. Hence, the smaller the slice, the faster its motion. This dispersion explains why the barchan takes a crescentic shape. But to reach a steady state, all the slices must move at the same speed. Therefore, the lateral coupling must also induce a speed homogenization.

## 3 Different lateral coupling mechanisms

What physical mechanisms can lead to a redistribution of the sand flux on the dune surface? We can think of three different possibilities: avalanches, lateral wind shear stress perturbations and grain motions (saltation and/or reptation).

### 3.1 Avalanches

First, avalanches develop in three dimensions along the steepest slope. This creates lateral sand flux in the slip face area. However, for real barchan dunes, that sand-transport is directed from the edges towards the center. Accordingly, the center part grows and slows down while the border slices shrink and accelerates. This does not constitute a stabilizing mechanism.

### 3.2 Wind deflection

The lateral wind deflection is another possibility. Field observations B41  and numerical simulations S01  tend to show that, due to its flatness, the dune does not make the wind flow deviate too much laterally. Consequently trajectories of grains are not dragged into the lateral direction. Nevertheless, it is always possible to compute the wind speed perturbations in the lateral direction and see what it gives. This has been done recently SH03-2 , but there is hardly any evidence that it is the main physical process responsible for a lateral sand flux on the dune. On the other hand, it appears to be an important effect for the development of lateral instabilities along transversal dunes SH03-1 .

### 3.3 Saltation and reptation coupling

A better candidate is the grain motion. Sand transportation can be described in terms of two species A03 : grains in saltation - the saltons \- and grains in reptation - the reptons \- see Fig. 3. Saltons are dragged by wind, collide with the dune surface, rebound, are accelerated again by the airflow, and so forth. At each collision, saltons dislodge many reptons, which travel on a short distance, rolling down the steepest slope, and then, wait for another salton impact.

As the wind deflection is weak, we assume that saltons follow quasi $`2d`$ trajectory in a vertical plane (see last section), except when they collide with the dune. At each collision, they can rebound in many directions, depending on the local surface properties, and this induces a lateral sand flux. Given that the deflection by collision is strongly dependent on the surface roughness, we assume that, on average, the deflection of saltons is smaller than for reptons, which are always driven towards the steepest slope. In the following derivation, we will neglect the sand flux deflection due to saltation collisions.

Despite the major role played by saltons in dune dynamics, the presence of reptons should not be dismissed. According to field observations HW88 ; H77 , reptons are strongly dependent on the local slope: this can be observed by looking at the relative orientation of the wind and ripples. On hard ground, ripples are perpendicular to wind direction, but on a dune their relative orientations change with the local slope H77 . Even if one is reluctant to use the saltation coupling because of its inherent difficulties, the reptons would still be rolling on the dune surface: gravity naturally tends to move the grains along the steepest slope, leading to lateral coupling of the dune slices. In the following part, we will focus on this coupling by reptation, which has never been used for the study of barchan dunes. The saltation process remains important in this model, since it induces reptation coupling.

## 4 A $`3d`$ model with reptation coupling

### 4.1 Formulation of the model

As reptons are created by saltons impacts, the part of the flux due to reptons is assumed to be proportional to the saltation flux, $`q_{sal}`$ B41 . Hence, the flux of reptons is simply written as discussion :

$$\stackrel{}{q_{rep}}=\alpha q_{sal}(\stackrel{}{e_x}\beta \stackrel{}{}h)$$
(5)
The $`\alpha `$ coefficient represents the fraction of the total sand flux due to reptation on a flat bed. In case the bed is not flat, the flux is corrected to the first order of the $`h`$ derivatives, by a coefficient $`\beta `$ and directed along the steepest slope to take into account the deflection of reptons trajectories by gravity. Assuming that saltation trajectories are $`2d`$, the total sand flux $`\stackrel{}{q}`$ is given by:

$$\stackrel{}{q}=q_{sal}(1+\alpha )\stackrel{}{e_x}\beta \alpha q_{sal}\stackrel{}{}h$$
(6)
Moreover, reptation flux is assumed to instantaneously follow the saltation flux, so that there is no other charge equation than the saltation flux one:

$$_xq_{sal}=\frac{q_{sat}q_{sal}}{l_{sat}}.$$
(7)
Then, the mass conservation equation becomes:

$$_th+_xq_{sal}+\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{q_{rep}}=0.$$
(8)
Calling $`D=\alpha \beta /(1+\alpha )`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{q}=(1+\alpha )q_{sal}`$, the two latter equations can be rewritten as :

$$_x\stackrel{~}{q}=\frac{\stackrel{~}{q}_{sat}\stackrel{~}{q}}{l_{sat}}$$
(9)
$$_th+_x\stackrel{~}{q}=D(_x(\stackrel{~}{q}_xh)+_y(\stackrel{~}{q}_yh))$$
(10)
Finally, we obtain the same set of equations as in the $`2d`$ $`\text{C}_\text{c}^\text{c}`$ model, but with one more phenomenological parameter, $`D`$, which can be understood as the importance of the lateral coupling, because of lateral deflection of reptons. This formulation appears to be a nonlinear difusion equation driven by the non dimensionnal coefficient $`D`$. For a homogeneous flux solution, $`QD`$ appears to be a diffusion coefficient, showing the diffusion-like role of the coupling coefficient $`D`$. Notice that $`\stackrel{~}{q}`$ is no longer the saltation flux, but the part of the flux that does not depend on the bed slope. Avalanches are computed in three dimensions using a simple trick. If the local slope exceeds the threshold $`\mu _d`$, the sand flux is strongly increased by adding an extra avalanche flux:

$$\stackrel{}{q_a}=E(\delta \mu )\stackrel{}{}h,$$
(11)
where $`\delta \mu `$ is null when the slope is lower than $`\mu _d`$ and equal to ($`\delta \mu =|\stackrel{}{}h|^2\mu _d^2`$) otherwise. For a sufficiently large coefficient $`E`$, the slope is relaxed independently of $`E`$. Finally, note that quasi-periodic boundary conditions (the total output flux is reinjected homogeneously in the numerical box) are used to perform the numerical simulations. These boundary conditions are used, first to work with a constant mass, and second to force the system to converge towards its steady state. Obviously these boundary conditions constrain the final shape.

### 4.2 The origins of the crescentic shape

Our $`3d`$ $`\text{C}_\text{c}^\text{c}`$ model depends on three phenomenological parameters : $`A`$ and $`B`$ take into account aerodynamics effects, and $`D`$ describes the efficiency of the slices coupling. The final shape, if one exists, depends on these parameters. For example, Fig. 4 shows a typical $`3d`$ final steady state of a computed barchan dune, which looks likes a real aeolian one. The arrows on Fig. 5 indicate the direction of the total sand flux on the whole dune shape. The deviation towards the horns is clearly visible as the sand captured by the slip-face. Looking at Fig 6 helps us to understand the formation of the crescentic shape of barchan dune. Starting from a sand-pile, some horns will appear and since they are faster than the center slice of the dune, a crescentic shape appears. Now, let us consider a slice and let us call $`q_x`$, the excess flux due to reptons coming from the lateral sand flux, $`q_{in}`$ the incoming saltation sand flux brought by the wind and $`q_e`$ the flux due to erosion. The existence of a saturated flux imposes :

$$q_e+q_x+q_{in}<q_{sat}^{max}.$$
(12)
where $`q_{sat}^{max}`$ is the maximum value of the saturated flux on the given slice. Thus, if the excess flux $`q_x`$ increases, the erosion flux, $`q_e`$, decreases. As the speed of the slice is governed by the erosion, the slice slows down. After a while, the horns receive enough sand from the main body to decrease their speed and to compensate the output flux. Finally the speed of all slices is the same and the barchan moves without changing its shape. Moreover, the center part, which would grow without lateral coupling, can now have an equilibrium shape, since all the extra flux is deviated towards the horns. Furthermore this coupling process is stabilizing with respect to local deformation. If a slice increases in height, the excess sand flux leaving the slice will increase, and the deformation will shrink. Similarly, starting from a two maxima shape, the part of the flux sensitive to the local slope tends to fill up the gap between the two maxima: the whole mass is redistributed and a single barchan shape is finally obtained - see Fig. 6. This agrees with the apparent robustness of the crescentic shape observed on the field. Whatever the external conditions are, the same morphology is roughly found everywhere where barchans develop. Hence, this lateral coupling helps us to understand such barchan structures. However, we have no clue about the possible value of this coupling coefficient $`D`$ and it is therefore useful to study the influence of $`D`$ on the barchanic shape.

## 5 Significance of the coefficients

### 5.1 The influence of the coupling coefficient $`D`$

As can be seen on Fig. 7, $`D`$ has a crucial influence on the global morphology. First of all, for a small $`D`$, (i.e. a small lateral sand flux), the flux escaping from the tip of the horns is mainly due to $`q_{in}`$ and to the erosion flux, $`q_e`$. Therefore, erosion may be important, and the horns may move quickly. Thus, during the transient, the barchan elongates. On the contrary, for a larger $`D`$, the lateral flux received by the horns, $`q_x`$, is larger and then the erosion is less important. The horns move slower and the elongation is shorter.

Secondly, the width of the horns is also dependent on $`D`$. For a large $`D`$, the deflected flux is large. However, as the output sand flux cannot exceed a maximum value, horns have to be wide in order to transport away all the incoming sand, and indeed, the width of the horns increases with $`D`$. This simple explanation is confirmed by numerical simulation, as depicted in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. Measuring the width of the horns in the desert may be a convenient way to estimate the value of $`D`$ from field observations.

Finally the aspect ratio of the dune, $`h/w`$, varies with $`D`$, because the coupling mechanism tends to diminish slopes. In other words, the dune tends to spread out laterally when $`D`$ increases, sometimes leading to structures without a slip-face: $`3d`$ dome solution. In this case, sand can escape from the whole transversal section of the dune and the output flux is then higher than for the dune solution. Basically the transition from $`3d`$ dune to $`3d`$ dome situations occurs when the horn width is equal to half the dune width. This corresponds approximately to $`D=2.0`$ with the parameters $`A=9.0`$ and $`B=5.0`$. For too large a diffusion, the dune becomes very wide and flat, without a slip-face, and remains unsteady.

### 5.2 The influence of coefficients $`A`$ and $`B`$

However, looking only at the $`D`$ influence is not accurate enough to describe qualitatively the influence of diffusion. In fact, the shape is the result of three physical effects governed by the parameters $`A`$, $`B`$ and $`D`$. Fig. 9 presents a phase diagram with $`D`$ kept constant at a value of $`0.5`$. Many different morphologies can be observed, from a large and thin unsteady crescent to a flat unsteady sand patch, and with steady barchans inbetween. First, $`A`$ governs the stability of the sand bed, and then a large $`A`$ tends to flatten the sand-pile. Increasing $`B`$, on the other hand, forces the slope to increase and to nucleate a slip-face. Thus, when the ratio $`A/B`$ is high, there is hardly a slip face. On the contrary, when it is low, the slip face develops on the whole dune. Thus the $`A/B`$ parameter controls the way the slip-face appears. Secondly, one can observe that the dunes obtained with a constant ratio $`A/B`$ have different morphologies. This shows that for small $`A`$ and $`B`$ the coupling coefficient $`D`$ plays an important role in the shaping of the dune. Field measurements of the horns’ width and the minimal size of barchans should help us to give an estimation of these parameters. The following table provides with a summary of the different qualitative effects of $`A`$,$`B`$ and $`D`$.

|  | physical mechanism | Main effect when increasing |
| --- | --- | --- |
| $`A`$ | curvature effect | $`L`$ increases, |
|  |  | $`W`$ decreases. |
| $`B`$ | slope effect | Slip-face appears easily, |
|  |  | $`_xh`$ increases, $`W`$ increases. |
| $`D`$ | Lateral coupling | $`H`$ decreases, |
|  |  | $`W`$ and horns width increase, |
|  |  | output flux increases. |

Finally, the initial sand-pile does not always reach a constant shape. For large $`A/B`$ no steady state appears. This is due to the fact that the erosion is so strong that it cannot be balanced by the influx, and the sand-pile just becomes flatter and flatter. On the contrary, for a large $`B/A`$, a thin unsteady crescent appears. Finally, for a large $`D`$ (compared to $`A`$ and $`B`$) steady and unsteady dome solutions are produced by the numerical model. This shows the importance of $`A`$, $`B`$ and $`D`$ on the shape and on the minimal size of computed barchan dunes.

## 6 Conclusion

We have seen that reptation can be used to describe the $`3d`$ crescentic shape of barchan dunes. As reptons are sensitive on the local slope, they induce a lateral sand flux. This allows a given sand-pile blown by the wind to reach an equilibrium shape, despite varying ”slices” speed and intrinsic differences between the main body and the horns. The crescentic shape comes from two mechanisms, which compete with each other. The first one is the speed dispersion within the dune: the small height slices are faster than higher ones, leading to the crescentic shape, and eventually to the destruction of the barchan dune. The second one, is the lateral flux deflection that reduces the horns’ speed by decreasing the erosion flux on them. It leads to the homogenization of the speed of the different slices, and eventually to the propagation of a steady state dune or a steady sand dome. This mechanism is efficient since the overall excess flux can escape from the horns. In other words, barchanic shape appears to be the very basic shape taken by any sand-pile blown by a unidirectional wind. Now that the steady shape of barchan dunes seems to be well described, it would be interesting to study the dynamics of such a structure placed far from equilibrium conditions, because, in the field, input flux has no reason to be related to the output flux of a dune.

As a matter of fact, in this paper, barchans have been numerically obtained with quasi-periodic boundary conditions. If standard boundary conditions are used, a typical barchan dune takes the crescentic shape, for the same reasons as the ones exposed in this article, but it keeps growing or shrinking depending on the incident sand flux, either higher or lower than the sand flux escaping from the hornsHACHD03 . This point is crucial because it suggests that single real barchan dunes are not steady structures and, moreover, it shows that a crescentic shape can form even if the dune is not in an equilibrium state. Therefore, further investigations are still required to understand the long-term existence and shape of barchan dune in the field. In our model we have neglected saltation coupling; but we believe that it is not the dominant effect. Moreover, it could easily be taken into account by adding a new coupling coefficient dedicated to lateral deflection of saltons.

Finally, it appears that depending on the coupling coefficient, $`D`$, the solution can either be a $`3d`$ dome or a $`3d`$ barchan. Similarly, changing $`A`$ and $`B`$ can lead to different shapes, and different behavior. it might be interesting to understand the transformation of a $`3d`$ sand patch, steady or unsteady, into a barchan dune because of fluctuations of these parameters, and particularly of $`D`$ variations. As a matter of fact, these parameters may depend on external conditions such as grains size distribution, humidity or wind fluctuation.

Acknowledgement : The author is grateful to T. Bohr for his constructive remarks. The author whishes to thank K.H. Andersen, B. Andreotti, P. Claudin and S. Douady for their important role in this work, and also S. Bohn for delightful discussions about barchans. This work has benefited from an ACI J.Ch.


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# Anisotropic magnetoresistance in a 2DEG in a quasi-random magnetic field

Present address \]Cavendish Laboratory, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HE, England.

## Abstract

We present magnetotransport results for a 2D electron gas (2DEG) subject to the quasi-random magnetic field produced by randomly positioned sub-micron Co dots deposited onto the surface of a GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs heterostructure. We observe strong local and non-local anisotropic magnetoresistance for external magnetic fields in the plane of the 2DEG. Monte-Carlo calculations confirm that this is due to the changing topology of the quasi-random magnetic field in which electrons are guided predominantly along contours of zero magnetic field.

preprint: APS/123-QED

The transport properties of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG), subject to a spatially random magnetic field, have attracted great theoretical interest recently RefA1 ; RefA2 . This is partly due to its relevance to the fractional quantum Hall effect, which can be understood in terms of composite fermions moving in an effective random magnetic field RefA2 . The problem of a 2DEG subject to large amplitude random magnetic fields, with correlation lengths that are small compared to the electron mean free path, is particularly interesting because the transport properties are predicted to be dependent on semi-classical ”snake orbits” trajectories in which electrons are guided along lines of zero magnetic field RefA2 . In a previous study we demonstrated that such ”snake orbits” can lead to very large magnetoresistances when a 2DEG is subject to large amplitude periodic magnetic fields RefA3 . In this paper we show that electrons are indeed guided along contours of zero magnetic field in a quasi-random magnetic field and that this gives rise to a new type of anisotropic magnetoresistance.

The devices investigated in this study are hybrid ferromagnetic/ semiconductor structures in which the magnetic field at the 2DEG is produced by randomly positioned sub-micron Co dots fabricated on the surface of a GaAs based heterostructure. Recently, there has been considerable interest in the properties of hybrid ferromagnetic/ semiconductor devices due to their potential applications as magnetic field sensors RefA4  and magnetic storage devices RefA5 . There have been several previous experimental studies of a 2DEG subject to a random magnetic field. However, these concerned very weak random magnetic fields RefE1 , or random magnetic fields with correlation lengths approximately equal to RefE2  or much larger than RefE3  the electron mean free path. Recently, we showed how large amplitude, short correlation length random magnetic fields can be realised by using the naturally occurring domain structures of CoPd films RefE4 . The method considered here also produces a large amplitude, short correlation length, random magnetic field, but has the particular advantage that the topology of the field can be controlled by an external in-plane magnetic field.

Our device consists of a GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs heterostructure containing a 2DEG 35nm below the surface. At 1.3K the electron density, $`n=3.8\times 10^{15}m^2`$ and the mobility, $`\mu =45m^2V^1s^1`$ corresponding to a mean free path, $`\lambda =4.5\mu m`$ RefF . The device has a standard Hall bar design as shown in Fig. 1(a). The random magnetic field is produced by depositing a randomly distributed pattern of Co dots onto the surface of the Hall bar. This is represented by the shaded area in the figure. The Co dots have a diameter of 500nm and a thickness of 70nm. The pattern was produced using electron beam lithography and dc magnetron sputtering to deposit the Co. A computer program was used to generate the positions of the dots which cover 50% of the surface area and are distributed so that they can touch each other, but not overlap. Figure 1(b) shows a scanning electron microscope image of the Co dots. There are some areas where the Co has remained between a cluster of dots after lift-off, but such occurrences are rare.

Figure 2 shows the longitudinal magnetoresistance of the covered section of the device measured at 1.3K with a magnetic field applied parallel to the plane of the 2DEG RefG . The magnetoresistance is defined as $`\mathrm{\Delta }R/R_0`$=$`(RR_0)/R_0`$, where $`R`$ is the measured resistance of the covered section when the magnetic field is applied and $`R_0`$ is the resistance of the uncovered section in zero field. Results are shown for angles of $`0^{}`$, $`50^{}`$ and $`90^{}`$ between the current along the Hall bar and the direction of the applied field. We observe a positive magnetoresistance for all angles which saturates at approximately $`\pm 0.2`$ T. The size of the magnetoresistance is largest when the field is applied in the direction of the current and decreases as the angle between the field and the current is rotated to $`90^{}`$. The presence of hysteresis in the measurements is consistent with the fact that sputtered Co films tend to have the easy axis of magnetisation in the plane RefH . Indeed, we carried out transport measurements with the magnetic field applied perpendicular to the device and no hysteresis was observed.

We have shown previously that the resistance of a 2DEG increases with increasing random magnetic field amplitude RefE4 . The magnetisation state of the dots is not known at zero external magnetic field. However, we expect the formation of multidomain or vortex states, as has been observed by Miramond et al RefI  for dots of diameter greater than 50nm. Such states have a high degree of, but not complete, flux closure and the small net stray field will produce a small amplitude random magnetic field at B=0T. This is the origin of the positive value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }R/R_0`$ at B=0T. With increasing external field, domains aligned with the applied field will grow until eventually, the magnetisation of the dots is saturated in the direction of the applied field. The amplitude of the random magnetic field at the 2DEG will therefore grow with increasing external field until saturation magnetisation is reached. This will lead to the observed increase and then saturation of the measured resistance.

We now restrict ourselves to analysing the resistance when the magnetisation of the dots is saturated. The magnetic field profile at the site of the 2DEG due to the random array of Co dots can be calculated numerically, since we know the positions of all the Co dots. The dynamics of the 2D electrons are only sensitive to $`B_z`$, the component of the magnetic field perpendicular to the 2DEG. We have calculated $`B_z`$ for our device RefJ  and find that the rms amplitude is 0.13T at saturation. Figure 3 shows the contours of zero field ($`B_z=0T`$) calculated for the case when the magnetisation of the dots is saturated in the x-direction. It can be seen that the contours are preferentially aligned in the direction perpendicular to the magnetisation of the dots. Using the calculated magnetic field profile we have calculated the expected device resistance using the semi-classical Kubo formalism. The method involves calculating the trajectories of electrons with the Fermi velocity in the random magnetic field profile. By averaging the velocity-velocity correlation function over all of the trajectories the diffusivity tensors for the system can be calculated using the Kubo formula RefK :

$$D_{xx}=_0^{\mathrm{}}v_x(0)v_x(t)𝑑t$$
(1)
Here the x-axis is parallel to the direction of the applied field. We can then calculate the magnetoresistance RefJ . Scattering is included in the model by randomising the electron direction using a Monte-Carlo method with appropriate probability distributions for the scattering angle and scattering time. Figure 4 shows the calculated final positions of 10,000 electrons starting at the same initial position (0,0) with the Fermi velocity and initial angles spread evenly over $`360^{}`$. Each electron is allowed to travel 6 momentum relaxation mean free path lengths. The results show that the electrons are preferentially guided in the direction of the $`B_z=0T`$ contours. Our calculations show that this leads to an enhancement of the ratio $`D_{yy}/D_{xx}`$ as is also the case in a sign alternating magnetic field profile with contours of zero $`B_z`$ aligned in the y-direction RefA3 .

Figure 5 shows the magnetoresistance, measured for an in-plane field of 0.5T, against the angle between the current and the applied field. If the anisotropic magnetoresistance is due to only the induced magnetisation and the samples have no additional intrinsic anisotropy, arising from anisotropy in the dot positions for example, then one expects RefM

$$\rho _{xx}=\rho _{}+(\rho _{}\rho _{})cos^2\theta $$
(2)
where $`\rho _{}`$ is the measured resistivity for $`\theta `$=$`0^{}`$ and $`\rho _{}`$ is the measured resistivity for $`\theta `$=$`90^{}`$. The dashed line in Fig. 5 shows that this gives an excellent fit to our data. Also shown are the results of numerical calculations of the conductivity tensors. The fit was obtained by using the thickness of the Co dots as the only adjustable parameter. We see excellent quantitative agreement to our data when a thickness of 75nm is used, which is in very close agreement to the nominal thickness of 70nm.

Another clear example of the effect of contours of $`B_z=0T`$ guiding the electron motion can be observed by performing measurements in a non-local geometry. The inset to Fig. 6 shows the experimental arrangement. A constant ac current of $`300\mu A`$ is passed between two voltage probes in the y-direction, across the Hall bar, and the voltage is measured between two adjacent voltage probes. The external magnetic field is applied parallel to the plane of the 2DEG. Figure 6 shows the measured voltage, as the external magnetic field is swept to $`\pm 0.5T`$, for angles of $`0^{}`$, $`45^{}`$ and $`90^{}`$ between the current and the field. When the magnetic field is parallel to the current, the contours of $`B_z=0T`$ will guide electrons in the x-direction, perpendicular to the direction of net current flow i.e. the current will tend to spread along the Hall bar. This results in an increase in the measured voltage. When the magnetic field is perpendicular to the current, the contours of $`B_z=0T`$ will tend to focus electrons along the y-direction reducing the spread of the current density in the x-direction. This results in a decrease in the measured voltage. For $`45^{}`$ one expects the existence of the orientated zero field contours to have no effect. Therefore, the form of the measured voltages in Fig. 6 is consistent with the picture of electron trajectories being guided along zero field contours.

In conclusion, we have observed a new type of anisotropic magnetoresistance and demonstrated that this arises from the dependence of the anisotropy of the quasi-random magnetic field on the direction of the net magnetisation. In particular, we have shown the strong influence of the contours of zero magnetic field, which has been predicted theoretically RefA2 .

###### Acknowledgements.

We gratefully acknowledge funding by the EPSRC (UK) and the ESPRIT SPIDER programme (EU). We also wish to thank S.Thoms for allowing us to use the electron beam facility at the Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, The University of Glasgow.


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# Remarkable thermal stability of BF3-doped polyaniline

## Abstract

We show that the recently synthesized BF3-doped polyaniline (PANI) exhibits remarkable stability against thermal ageing. Unlike the protonated PANI, which shows rapid degradation of the conductivity on heating in air, BF3-doped PANI shows more than an order of magnitude improvement in conductivity. We employ x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopy, and x-ray diffraction (XRD) to understand this unexpected phenomenon.

Interesting electrical and optical properties exhibited by conducting polymers make them an attractive choice for various technological applications. However, the use is often limited by a number of crucial technical factors such as the environmental stability. Rapid degradation on exposure to environmental conditions is the primary reason why many of the doped polyacetylene systems, with conductivities nearly as high as that of copper, find less use in applications than doped polyaniline (PANI) with much lower conductivities. 1 ; 2  The 50% oxidized form of PANI is popular for its environmental stability in both pristine and doped forms. However, at elevated temperatures (above $``$75 C) the doped PANI suffers significant drop in the conductivity. 3 ; 4  The process of thermal ageing in HCl-doped PANI has been studied extensively and contrary to the previously held hypothesis of thermal dedoping, it was found that the polymer undergoes a chain oxidation followed by chlorination of the aromatic rings, causing a serious disruption in the conjugated network. 3 ; 5  Since the protonated polymer undergoes irreversible chemical modifications upon heating in air, its conductivity cannot be recovered by redoping. 6  In several respects, the recently discovered form of highly conducting PANI doped with electron-deficient BF3 is distinct compared to the usual protonated form of PANI. 7 ; 8  In particular, a high conductivity in conjunction with its amorphous nature makes this new system quite interesting. 8  However, nothing is as yet known of the environmental stability of this interesting class of compounds. In the present work, we report a detailed investigation of various thermal treatments of BF3-doped PANI in order to understand the effect of thermal ageing. We find a remarkable thermal stability of BF3-doped PANI compared to other doped PANI systems, the thermal treatment in fact leading to an unexpected increase in the conductivity over a wide range of temperature and duration of the treatment.

The sample was prepared 7  by doping BF3 into the emeraldine base, synthesized by the chemical oxidation of aniline using (NH4)2S2O8 at 0-5 C. 9  In order to investigate thermal ageing in normal atmospheric conditions, powder samples were heated at two temperatures, 100 and 140 C, for different time intervals in an open mouthed vessel; for comparison, heating experiments were also performed in an argon atmosphere. The powder was characterized at different stages of heating using fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopy and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Resistivity was measured by pressing the powder into thin pellets. In certain cases, pellets instead of powders were given the thermal treatment.

Fig. 1*a* shows the effect of heating powdered BF3-doped and HCl-doped PANI in air at 100 and 140 C; we also show the results of heating pellets at 100 C in the same figure. The relative conductivity, defined as the ratio of conductivity of the aged sample to that of the non-aged one, is plotted against the duration of heating. HCl-doped PANI clearly shows a marked degradation upon heating. The conductivity of the powdered samples decreases by orders of magnitude, the higher temperature heating exhibiting a much stronger effect; even the pellet shows a substantial loss in conductivity at 100 C. On the contrary, BF3-doped PANI shows an *increase* of the conductivity in every case, particularly in the short time regime, in certain cases the samples showing more than an order of magnitude improvement. Additionally, beyond the initial stages of heating, the conductivity remains almost the same in spite of prolonged heating in every case.

Various experiments carried out by us suggest that heating in air or in Ar yields very similar results, eliminating the possibility of any oxidation related influence on the conductivity. Fig. 1*b* shows the change in relative conductivity upon heating the pellet in Ar at various temperatures for two different time intervals. We note that the conductivity reaches its highest value upon heating at temperatures close to 125 C. In fact, among all the heated samples, the highest conductivity (34.2 S cm-1) was obtained upon heating the pellet at 125 C for 1 hr. Further, we observed that annealing the sample at 125 C for a period as short as 2 min. is sufficient to increase the conductivity by an order of magnitude. The experimental data presented in Fig. 1*a* and *b* are sufficient to establish the remarkable thermal stability of BF3-doped PANI in sharp contrast to protonated PANI and consequently the desirability and efficacy of this recently discovered system, particularly in high temperature applications. In the following, we probe the microscopic origin of this unexpected behavior.

We find that the temperature-dependence of conductivity in all BF3-doped PANI samples is well described in terms of Sheng’s model 10 ; 11  of fluctuation induced tunnelling, leading to $`\sigma (T)=\sigma _0exp[T_0/(T+T_1)]`$. Fig. 2 shows the excellent linearity of $`ln\sigma `$ for a number of samples with a variety of treatment, when plotted against $`1/(T+T_1)`$, where $`T_1`$ in each case is determined by a least-squared error fitting procedure. The parameter values obtained from the fit are listed in Table 1. Sheng’s model views the doped polymer as a heterogeneous system, consisting of large, highly conducting regions separated by thin insulating barriers. In BF3-doped PANI, these insulating barriers most probably arise from the grain boundaries. $`T_0`$ in the above expression for $`\sigma (T)`$ defines the average height of the potential barrier between two conducting grains. Table 1 shows that $`T_0`$ and consequently the barrier height decrease significantly and systematically upon heating, suggesting a better intergrain connectivity in the heated samples, providing a clue to the understanding of the unexpected improvement of $`\sigma (T)`$ on heating. Similar evidence is also provided by the x-ray diffraction (XRD) data.

In the case of HCl-doped PANI, it is known that the ageing process is initiated at the periphery of the crystalline grains and moves progressively towards its center, transforming the material into an amorphous and poorly conducting phase. 3  As prepared BF3-doped PANI, however, is known to be already amorphous, despite its high conductivity. 8  Powder XRD patterns of the heated samples showed complete resemblance with the non-heated sample, suggesting their amorphous nature. It was earlier reported 8  that the XRD pattern of as-prepared BF3-doped PANI, when left in atmosphere for sometime, develops a peak at 24.8, which corresponds to the formation of protonated PANI, as a result of BF3 hydrolysis; simultaneously, two sharp peaks corresponding to boric acid begin to appear at 14.8 and 28.1. This suggests that some amount of unreacted BF3 remains adhered to the as-prepared sample, probably at the grain boundaries, that reacts with moisture in the atmosphere. In contrast, the XRD patterns of the heated samples do not show the above mentioned changes even after being left in atmospheric conditions for a long time. It appears that by heating the sample, it is possible to get rid of this impurity from the grain boundary surfaces and therefore, it must be at least partially responsible for the increase in the conductivity.

The macroscopic conductivity of a multigrain sample is contributed by both the intragrain intrinsic conductivity and the intergrain connectivity. The evidences presented so far establish only an improved intergrain connectivity in the heated samples. In order to investigate the possibility of changes in the intragrain chemical composition, we carried out a detailed XPS study on BF3-doped PANI. Fig. 3*a* shows the N 1*s* spectra of the doped sample before (solid circles) and after (open circles) heating at 100 C. For the ease of comparison, we have overlapped the spectrum of the unheated sample (solid line) with that of the heated one. It is evident that the two spectra are essentially identical, establishing identical chemical states for N in both the cases. C 1*s* spectra, shown in Fig 3*b*, also exhibit identical features for as-prepared and heated samples, once again demonstrated by overlapping the signal from the pristine sample as a solid line on the signal from the heated sample (open circles). This suggests that the thermal treatment does not change the backbone of the doped polymer. However, B 1*s* spectrum exhibits a significant decrease in the spectral width upon heating (see Fig. 3*c*). In order to understand better the spectral changes, we decompose the total B 1*s* spectrum in each case in terms of component spectra appearing at 193.5$`\pm `$0.05 eV and 192.4$`\pm `$0.1 eV shown by thin dashed lines, arising from BF3 reacted to the PANI and traces of boric acid due to partial hydrolysis of unreacted BF3 near the grain boundary, respectively; the thick lines overlapping the data points are the sums of the two components. The spectral decomposition of B 1*s* spectra clearly establish a strong reduction of the peak at 192.4 eV on heating the sample, leaving the other B 1*s* component arising from the doped BF3 essentially unchanged. Since the features corresponding to N 1*s*, C 1*s* and B 1*s* from the doped BF3 species remain identical in as-prepared and heated samples, we conclude that heating does not change the chemical composition of the doped polymer; therefore, the changes in the conductivity on heating are primarily due to changes near the grain boundaries, rather than any change within the grains.

We have also characterized the samples at every stage of heating using FTIR spectroscopy. When the sample is heated in air at 140 C for prolonged period of time, the spectrum exhibits a few small changes. A small peak begins to appear at 1374 cm-1 after about 8 hrs of heating, growing further in intensity with continued heating. Although the origin of this peak remains unclear, it is known that this peak is present in the spectrum of undoped PANI and that it diminishes gradually with an increase in the extent of doping, 7  being present in all partially doped PANI systems. We, therefore, conclude that heating for prolonged periods at a high temperature leads to a slight amount of dedoping; this is consistent with the decrease in the relative conductivity below unity, as observed in the case of BF3-doped PANI heated at 140 C for 1500 min. (see Fig. 1*a*). The fact that no such change is observed in the FTIR spectrum of samples heated at 100 C, is in agreement with the conductivity results, showing a saturation and suggesting the absence of any significant dedoping at 100 C. Since, dedoping is found to be the main reason for the decrease in the conductivity on prolonged heating at the higher temperature, we redoped the sample previously heated at 140 C for 1500 min. The redoped sample showed a 2.6 fold increase in the room temperature conductivity, leading to a value that is close to the highest conductivity observed in the case of heating at 140 C.

In conclusion, BF3-doped PANI shows remarkable stability towards thermal ageing. In sharp contrast to protonated PANI, where heating in air causes chemical degradation and sharp decrease in the conductivity, BF3-doped PANI shows a rapid enhancement in conductivity. XPS, FTIR and XRD results show that heating removes the impurities from the grain boundary regions of the as-prepared samples. Partial dedoping upon heating at 140 C for long periods causes a small decrease in the conductivity, which could however be recovered upon redoping the heated samples.

We are grateful to the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) for providing the financial support.


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# From Infall to Rotation around Young Stars: The Origin of Protoplanetary Disks

## 1. Introduction

This contribution, the first in a series in this volume on the disks that surround many young stars (e.g., Beckwith & Sargent 1996), reviews our current understanding of the transition from infalling envelopes to rotating disks. It is based on recent theoretical and observational work, with an emphasis on high-resolution results. Time and space constraints limit the discussion to low-mass stars only, and the intriguing question of the presence and nature of disks around higher mass stars is left unaddressed (cf. Cesaroni et al. 1997; Norris et al. 1998; Zhang, Hunter, & Sridharan 1998; De Buizer 2003; Sandell, Wright, & Forster 2003).

The origin of a disk lies in the angular momentum of the cloud cores from which the star condensed. The evolution of the angular momentum during the star-formation process determines the properties of the disk that will form: its mass and size, and therefore its density. These disks are the likely birthplace of planets, and the surface density in the disk is an important parameter in planet-formation theories (e.g., Lissauer 1993; Ruden 1999). It is for this reason that the study of the origin of disks is so important.

The outline of this contribution is as follows. Section 2 describes the initial conditions: the angular-momentum distribution in dense cloud cores before collapse. Section 3 presents evidence for a characteristic length scale at which dense cores decouple from the surrounding cloud and start to collapse. Section 4 gives a brief overview of theoretical work on the collapse of rotating cloud cores. Section 5 provides a sampling of recent high-resolution observational work that addresses the origin of disks. Section 6 concludes this contribution with a short summary and an outlook to future developments in this area.

## 2. Initial Conditions: Rotation in Interstellar Clouds

Interstellar cloud complexes have a hierarchical structure, consisting of filaments, clumps, and dense cores (see, e.g., Blitz & Williams 1999; McKee 1999; Myers 1999). It is generally thought that magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) turbulence provides the support of these clouds against collapse under their own gravity, because the widths of molecular emission lines are usually much larger than can be explained by thermal motions alone (e.g., Fuller & Myers 1992). The quasi-equilibrium nature of clouds was recently questioned by Hartmann, Ballesteros-Paredes, & Bergin (2001), who argue that at least the Taurus-Auriga cloud complex may have a much shorter life time than previously thought. This would obviate the need for a support mechanism, but disucssion about this interpretation is not yet settled.

In addition to random (turbulent) motions, cloud cores also exhibit organized motions (velocity gradients). Goodman et al. (1993) constructed a velocity-gradient vs. size plot for a large sample of dense cores, akin to the line-width vs. size relation first identified by Larson (1981). Goodman et al. finds that the rotation rate $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ increases at most moderately with decreasing core size, $`\mathrm{\Omega }R^{0.4}`$, although the relation shows significant scatter. With assumptions about the mass distribution inside these cores, this relation corresponds to a relation between the specific angular momentum (=angular momentum per mass unit) $`jR^{1.6}`$. Both relations show that smaller cores do not spin much faster, or, in other words, if smaller cores are the descendants through contraction of larger cores, they do not spin up much and must loose specific angular momentum. A likely explanation is that the magnetic field lines that permeate the core and that are coupled to the ions transfer angular momentum from the contracting to core to the surrounding cloud. This mechanism is known as magnetic braking and was studied in the context of weakly ionized media by Königl (1987). Another result of Goodman et al. (1993) is that the ratio of rotational energy to gravitational energy of the cores, $`\beta `$, is independent of size and $`0.03`$. Since this value is $`1`$, it indicates that rotation is dynamically unimportant for cloud cores.

Recent theoretical work tries to reproduce the observed cloud characteristics through numerical simulations of MHD turbulence (e.g., Myers & Gammie 1999; Burkert & Bodenheimer 2000; Ostriker et al. 2001; Ossenkopf & MacLow 2002; contribution by Vázquez-Semadeni in this volume). Burkert & Bodenheimer (2000) find that the specific angular momentum and the ratio of rotational to gravitational energy on cloud-core scales in their simulations corresponds well to the values reported by Goodman et al. (1993). This supports the idea that MHD turbulence is the shaping mechanism of interstellar clouds and regulates the angular momentum distribution of their constituents.

## 3. Decoupling of Cloud Cores

Magnetic fields cannot support cloud cores against collapse indefinitely, because only the ions couple to the field lines while the neutrals can slip through. Through this process, called ambipolar diffusion, cloud condensations will slowly form. Because of the increased recombination rate in denser gas, the ionization degree in these cores will decrease, and dynamic collapse is inevitable. For a more detailed description see, e.g., Shu in this volume.

Goodman et al. (1998) show evidence of a transition around 0.03 pc, where the line widths (tracing random motions in the cores) become much smaller (close to thermal) and no longer depend on the size of the core. They interpret this as a cutoff scale for MHD turbulence. When these MHD waves can no longer penetrate, the motions inside the cores damp out rapidly.

Ohashi et al. (1997) find that around that same scale of 0.03 pc, the specific angular momentum of objects no longer decreases with size, as it did for cloud cores: infalling envelopes around Class 0/I objects and rotationally supported disks all have angular momenta of $`10^3`$ km s-1 pc independent of size. This amount of specific angular momentum is comparable to the high end of values found in Solar-neighborhood binaries (Heacox 1998). This further supports the suspicion that when cores decouple from the magnetic field of the surrounding cloud around 0.03 pc, $`10^3`$ km s-1 pc of specific angular momentum is locked into the nascent stellar system.

## 4. Theory of Collapsing and Rotating Cores

Since rotation is dynamically unimportant in cores, it can initially be treated as a perturbation to a non-rotating collapse solution. In the absence of angular momentum redistribution, the infalling material will spin up, and the perturbation approach is valid only outside the radius where the centripetal force grows to a significant fraction of the gravitational force (or, equivalently, where the stream lines of the infalling material start to deviate appreciably from the radial direction). Inside this rotational radius $`R_c`$ a disk forms (see below). $`R_c`$ evolves over time as material with different amounts of angular momentum falls in.

Terebey, Shu, & Cassen (1984) based such a perturbational procedure on the self-similar collapse solution of Shu (1977) and the assumption of initial solid-body rotation. Because of this assumption of solid-body rotation, the rotational radius grows rapidly with time, $`R_ct^3`$, as material that falls in at later times originated from larger radii and carries more angular momentum.

For a magnetized core a different initial angular momentum profile is expected. Basu (1997) explores the slow contraction of a magnetized core by ambipolar diffusion, and finds that the core tends toward differential rotation. The outside of the core, where densities are low and the ionization degree significant, remains strongly coupled to the slow rotation of the surrounding cloud. The contracting central region, less strongly coupled to the magnetic field, spins up, and is joined by a sharp gradient in rotation rate to the outside. As a result of this differentially rotating configuration, once dynamic collapse starts the rotational radius grows only linearly with time, $`R_ct`$ (Basu 1998).

Whatever the rate of growth of $`R_c`$, within this radius material will form a disk. Stahler et al. (1994) explored this analytically in the Terebey et al. framework, and find that material piles up at $`\frac{1}{3}R_c`$. In their model an infinitely thin ring of infinitely high density is formed; in reality, viscosity will spread this ring and set up an accretion disk within this radius. Many authors have explored the formation of a disk numerically (e.g., Bodenheimer et al. 1990; Yorke, Bodenheimer, & Laughlin 1993, 1995; Nakamura 2000; Krasnopolsky & Königl 2002). Because of the difficulty of the problem (the order of magnitude of scales involved; the physics of magnetic fields; the poorly understood source(s) of viscosity) much of this work is limited in the range of modeled scales or ages, and few direct comparisons with observations have been made.

Other contributions in this volume discusses the structure of disks around young stars in detail (see the contributions by Dullemond, by Wardle, and by D’Alessio). Here it suffices to mention that disks offer mechanisms to redistribute angular momentum for the first time in the star-formation process since decoupling from the cloud magnetic field. In addition to viscosity, disk instabilities can transfer angular momentum, and photo-evaporated material can carry it away. Alternatively, angular momentum can be stored in a binary system, or carried away when objects are ejected from multiple systems.

## 5. A Sampling of Recent Observations

### 5.1. Disks Deeply Embedded in Collapsing Cores

Disks are formed inside collapsing cores, hampering direct observation of their formation process. Aperture-synthesis observations at (sub) millimeter wavelengths can reveal the presence of a distinct compact source inside an extended envelope from the distribution of detected flux as function of angular scale. Looney, Mundy, & Welch (2000, 2003) surveyed a number of deeply embedded young stellar objects (Class 0 YSOs) using the Berkeley-Illinois-Maryland Association (BIMA) array. They find that during this early evolutionary stage the disks are not more massive than during the later Class I and T Tauri stages, with derived masses of $`0.12`$ M. This suggests that the disks funnel mass onto the star at a rate comparable to that with which the envelope material falls onto the star–disk system.

Looney et al. also report that $`>85`$% of the millimeter flux originates from the extended envelope, illustrating the difficulty of distinguishing a disk from the envelope. This is further exacerbated by the fact that the envelopes are strongly centrally concentrated. When trying to determine the degree of central concentration from lower-resolution (e.g., SCUBA) data, the presence of a disks affects the derived density slope when unaccounted for (see, e.g, Harvey et al. 2003; Jørgensen et al. submitted to A&A.). Fig. 1 illustrates how interferometer data can separate envelope from disk emission.

### 5.2. An accretion shock

When material falls in from the collapsing envelope onto the rotationally supported disk, an accretion shock is expected. Recently, Velusamy et al. (2002) presented evidence for such a shock. Observations obtained with the Owens Valley (OVRO) Millimeter Array of the Class 0 object L1157 show CH3OH emission surrounding the continuum disk, with respective sizes of $`1210\times 640`$ AU and $`800\times 590`$ AU. Since CH3OH is usually only found when icy grain mantles evaporate, requiring temperatures higher than present in the collapsing envelope, its presence is taken as evidence for an accretion shock. This work illustrates how understanding the gas- and solid-state chemistry is an essential tool.

### 5.3. The velocity field in a Class 0 envelope

Infall is commonly detected in Class 0 envelopes (Gregersen et al. 1997; Mardones et al. 1997), while slow rotation is reported in flattened Class I envelopes (Ohashi, this volume). To date one of the best studied velocity fields of a Class 0 object is that of IRAM 04191+1522. Using molecular-line observations from the IRAM 30-meter telescope and the Plateau de Bure interferometer, Belloche et al. (2002) find two regimes of inward motions: slow contraction at $`R>3000`$ AU and inside-out collapse at $`R<3000`$ AU. They also identify two regimes of rotation: a steep fall off in rotation rate at $`R>3500`$ AU and a much shallower or even constant profile at $`R<3500`$ AU. They suggest that this 3000–3500 AU (0.015–0.017 pc) scale reflects the decoupling of the core from the magnetic field of the surrounding cloud, as expected in models of the contraction and collapse of magnetized cores (Basu 1997, 1998).

### 5.4. L1489 IRS: A Transitional Object?

One of the most intriguing observational pieces of evidence on the transition from infall to rotation is offered by the object L1489 IRS. Millimeter and sub-millimeter data presented by Hogerheijde & Sandell (2000) and Hogerheijde (2001) show that this Class I object is surrounded, not by an infalling envelope with perhaps a small measure of rotation, but by a 2000 AU radius rotating disk. Unresolved, single-dish spectra of the dense-gas tracers HCO+ $`J`$=1–0, 3–2, and 4–3 show the ‘classic’ infall signature (as explained in Evans 1999). High-resolution interferometric images of HCO+ 1–0 and 3–2 emission obtained with OVRO and BIMA show a highly flattened circumstellar configuration and a velocity gradient clearly indicative of rotation (Fig. 2). The disk interpretation is further supported by HST/NICMOS data from Padgett et al. (1999) that shows light reflected off two flared surfaces, separated by a dark lane. With a mass of 0.02 M, this disk is no different than commonly found around T Tauri stars (e.g., Beckwith & Sargent 1996), but its size (2000 AU radius) is larger by a factor of at least 2–3 than other gas disks. This implies that its surface density is lower by an order of magnitude or more: a fact that would have consequences for its planet-forming capability.

Modeling the velocity field as observed in the interferometer beam in detail, Hogerheijde (2001) finds that it is well characterized by Keplerian rotation around a 0.65 M object, but only if inward motions amounting to 10% of total magnitude of the velocity vector are included. These radial motions are required to explain the asymmetry of the HCO+ position–velocity diagram and the clear collapse signatures in the single-dish HCO+ line profiles. With such inward motions, the lifetime of this 2000 AU disk is only $`2\times 10^4`$ yr. This velocity field is radically different from those of Class I objects, where rotation does not account for more than a small fraction of the total velocity vector (Fig. 3).

The resolution of the HCO+ interferometer images is $`5^{\prime \prime }`$ or 700 AU. Do the inward motions continue all the way to the star? These much smaller scales are sampled by the 4.65 $`\mu `$m Keck/NIRSPEC spectrum presented by Boogert, Hogerheijde, & Blake (2002) and reproduced here in Fig. 4. This spectrum shows a wealth of gas-phase CO absorption lines from the vibrational ground state into the first excited state, in addition to a prominent solid-state CO absorption band. The gas-phase lines from 12CO, 13CO, and C18O originate in a wide range of rotationally excited levels, requiring kinetic temperatures as high as 250 K. Such temperatures are only expected close to the star, well within an AU. The excellent spectral resolution of NIRSPEC ($`R25,000`$) resolves the 12CO absorption lines into a narrow line core plus a red wing extending to 100 km s-1 (Fig. 5). On the basis of the velocity model derived from the HCO+ interferometer data, such inward motions are expected only within 0.1 AU. With a few minor adaptations (a change in the uncertain density profile of the disk, and the inclusion of a small amount of scattered light) this velocity model can provide an adequate fit to the 12CO and 13CO absorption lines. Apparently, inward motions continue from the 1000 AU scales sampled by the HCO+ data to within 0.1 AU as traced by the Keck M-band spectrum.

This velocity field does pose some problems, however. If the entire disk participates in the inward motions, the implied accretion rate exceeds the observational limits (Muzerolle, Hartmann, & Calvet 1996) by more than an order of magnitude. Also, a viscous accretion disk model would predict subsonic flow, while the observed velocities are supersonic. A possible solution would be inflow in a thin surface layer only (reducing the amount of mass participating in the flow and hence the accretion rate). Another solution would be that the observations trace two regions if inflow: one in the outer disk ($`>500`$ AU) probed by the HCO+ interferometry where envelope material is settling onto the (unresolved) rotationally supported disk; and a second in the inner disk ($`<0.1`$ AU) where material accretes from the disk onto the star. The fact that the same velocity model fits both regions is not surprising, since it is determined by the gravitational potential well of the same star. Both explanations are supported by the failure of the velocity model to fit the core of the 12CO absorption line, underestimating the amount of the material that is not moving radially. The alternative explanation of the 12CO lines originating from two disks around the members of a binary system is ruled out by the NICMOS observations of Padgett et al. (1999) and lack of temporal changes in the line profiles (Boogert, priv. comm.).

In summary, L1489 IRS appears to represent a transitional object between Class I YSOs characterized by infalling envelopes with little rotation, and T Tauri stars surrounded by Keplerian disks. Inward motions are present throughout the large, rotating disk that surrounds L1489 IRS, but their exact nature remains elusive. Higher (both angular and spectral) resolution observations and the identification of additional object like it are required to correctly interpret the nature of this intriguing object.

### 5.5. Keplerian Disks around T Tauri Stars

Other contributions in this volume (e.g., Wilner, Dutrey) discuss observations of disks around T Tauri stars in detail. Here it only needs to be mentioned that their velocity fields are Keplerian (e.g., Simon, Dutrey, & Guilloteau 2000) with little indication for large radial motions. In viscous accretion disks, no such motions are expected. The presence of accretion signatures in the stellar spectra clearly shows that material does flow inward through these disks, however.

## 6. Summary and Outlook

Before collapse, the angular momentum in cloud cores is regulated by MHD turbulence. Through ambipolar diffusion, dense cores slowly grow, which have a decreasing ionization degree and which ultimately decouple from the magnetic field and collapse. The scale for this decoupling appears to be $`0.03`$ pc. At the moment of decoupling, angular momentum is locked in the collapsing core, which will lead to the formation of a disk. Theoretical description of the disk-formation process are progressing, but detailed comparisons with observations are still lacking. Observationally, millimeter-interferometry can pick out disks deep inside envelopes. These disks are found to be no more massive than their counterparts during later evolutionary stages, indicating they funnel mass onto the star efficiently. The velocity fields of only a handful of YSOs have been studied in detail, but they appear to follow theoretical expectations for collapsing, magnetized cores. The object L1489 IRS may represent a short-lived, transitional object between these embedded YSOs and T Tauri stars. It is surrounded by a large (2000 AU radius), rotating disk, that has significant inward motions traced from $`>700`$ AU to $`<0.1`$ AU with HCO+ interferometry and CO M-band spectroscopy. While the exact nature of this object’s velocity field remains unknown, L1489 IRS, and other possible objects like it, offer intriguing insight into the transition from infall to rotation.

The outlook for high-resolution observations is very promising, with numerous facilities coming online, being constructed, or being planned. (Sub) millimeter arrays such as the Combined Array for Research in Millimeter Astronomy (CARMA), the SubMillimeter Array (SMA), and ultimately the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) will revolutionize our view of collapsing envelopes and circumstellar disks. The sensitivity and accuracy with which ALMA is designed to probe a wide range of spatial scales will prove essential in uncovering the birth of disks deep inside the collapsing envelopes. Our increased understanding of the chemistry that occurs during star formation will help us the select tracers that are as unambiguous as possible, even for unresolved observations.

At shorter wavelengths, the spectral resolution at infrared wavelengths is increasing incrementally, with the EXES instrument designed for the Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) surpassing the NIRSPEC data presented above by a factor of almost 4 (but with lower sensitivity). At these infrared wavelengths, interferometric facilities such as VLTI, Keck-I, and one day Darwin/TPF will uncover the processes occurring close to the star, such as accretion, outflow, and disk structure. Together, these observations will no doubt inspire more theoretical work, and direct comparisons between theory and observations. The prospects for uncovering the origin of disks, and thereby the initial conditions of planet formation, are excellent.

#### Acknowledgments.

MRH wishes to thank the organizers for their invitation to speak at the symposium, and regrets that unforeseen circumstances prevented him from attending. He extends special thanks to Geoffrey Blake for replacing him at short notice.

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