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# Understanding the Possible Proton Antiproton Bound State Observed by BES Collaboration

## Abstract

We comment on the quantum numbers and decay channels of the possible proton antiproton bound state observed by BES Collaboration. Based on the general symmetry consideration and available experimental information, we conclude that the quantum number of this state is very likely to be $`J^{PC}=0^+,I^G=0^+`$, which can not decay into final states $`\pi ^+\pi ^{},2\pi ^0,K\overline{K},3\pi `$. Besides its dissociation into $`p\overline{p}`$, the other important mesonic decay modes could be $`\eta \pi \pi `$, $`\eta ^{}\pi \pi `$, $`\eta \eta \eta `$, $`4\pi `$, $`K\overline{K}\pi `$, $`\eta K\overline{K}`$, $`K\overline{K}\pi \pi `$, 6$`\pi `$. Experimental search of this signal in these meson final states is strongly called for.

PACS number: 11.30.Er, 12.39.Mk, 13.25.Jx

Recently BES Collaboration in Beijing announced that they observed a narrow enhancement near the threshold in the invariant mass spectrum of $`p\overline{p}`$ pairs from $`J/\psi \gamma p\overline{p}`$ radiative decays. No similar structure is found in the $`\pi ^0p\overline{p}`$ channel .

If the near threshold enhancement is fit with S-wave Breit-Wigner resonance function, the resulting peak mass is $`M=1859_{10}^{+3}(\text{stat})_{25}^{+5}(\text{sys})`$ MeV below $`2m_p`$. The total width is less than $`30`$ MeV. Clearly such a mass and width does not match that of any known particle in PDG . With a P-wave fit, the peak mass is very close to the threshold, $`M=1876.4\pm 0.9`$ MeV and the total width is very narrow, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=4.6\pm 1.8`$ MeV. D-wave fit failed badly . The photon polar angle distribution is consistent with $`1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _\gamma `$ which suggests the angular momentum is very likely to be $`J=0`$.

The study of the possible nucleon anti-nucleon bound state has a very long history. An extensive and excellent review is given in Ref. . Interested readers are referred to Refs.  for the general status of the experiments and various theoretical approaches using quark model or conventional nucleon potentials. Datta and O’Donnell described the narrow resonance in the decay $`J/\psi \gamma p\overline{p}`$ deuteron-like singlet state in a simple potential model with a $`\lambda \lambda `$ confining interaction . Very recently Rosner discussed the nature of the low-mass baryon-antibaryon enhancement observed in B meson decays .

In this short note we will try to understand the quantum number of this state making full use of general symmetry requirement and the available experimental information. We will also discuss the experimental search of this state in the possible mesonic decay channels.

Both Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) and Quantum Electrodynamics (QED) conserve the charge conjugation parity. Both photon and $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$ have $`J^{PC}=1^{}`$. So $`C`$-parity of this state is positive $`C=+`$. For the particle and antiparticle system, we know from textbooks that $`C=()^{L+S}`$. Positive $`C`$-parity requires $`L+S=2m`$ where $`m`$ is an integer. The spin of proton is $`\frac{1}{2}`$. So the total spin of this state is $`S=0,1`$. The parity is $`P=()^{L+1}`$. BES measurement suggests that the total angular momentum is $`J=0`$ or $`J=1`$. When $`L=S=0`$, this state has $`J^{PC}=0^+`$. The combination of $`L=2,S=0`$ will lead to $`J=2`$ which is already excluded by BES measurement since a D-wave fit yields unacceptable $`\chi ^2`$. When $`L=S=1`$, the angular momentum could be $`J=0,1,2`$. So, in principle, the quantum number of this state can be $`J^{PC}=1^{++},0^{++}`$ with $`L=S=1`$ or $`J^{PC}=0^+`$ with $`L=S=0`$. BES’s measurement of photon polar angle distribution favors $`J=0`$. From now on, we mainly discuss the possibility of $`J^{PC}=0^+,0^{++}`$.

Now let us move on to the isospin and $`G`$-parity. The production mechanism of possible $`p\overline{p}`$ bound state is not unique in the radiative decay $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }\gamma p\overline{p}`$. For example the photon can be produced when charm quark pairs annihilate in the reaction $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }ng+\gamma 3q+3\overline{q}+\gamma p\overline{p}+\gamma `$ where $`g`$ is the virtual gluon, $`n=2,4,\mathrm{}`$ is the number of virtual gluons and $`q(\overline{q})`$ is the quark (antiquark) field. The photon was emitted from the internal charm quark lines. The $`n`$ gluons hadronize into three quark and anti-quark pairs. So the isospin of the resulting $`p\overline{p}`$ system should be zero. If perturbative QCD is still applicable in this energy scale, the leading order cross section is $`𝒪(\alpha _s^4\alpha )`$ where $`\alpha _s`$ and $`\alpha `$ is the strong and electromagnetic coupling constants respectively.

The other production mechanism is as follows : $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }ng3q+3\overline{q}3q+3\overline{q}+\gamma p\overline{p}+\gamma `$, where $`n=3,5,\mathrm{}`$. The $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$ first annihilates into three or more virtual gluons which turn into three up/down quark and anti-quark pairs. Note the isospin of the system of the three pairs of light quark and anti-quark is zero. Then a real photon is emitted from one of the up or down quarks. QED violates isospin symmetry explicitly. The isospin of the photon can be either one or zero. After hadronization, the isospin of the final $`p\overline{p}`$ system can be either one or zero. The leading order cross section is $`𝒪(\alpha _s^6\alpha )`$, which is suppressed by $`\alpha _s^2`$ compared with that of the first process.

Right now we know very little of the dynamics of this $`p\overline{p}`$ state. In the extreme case, it could be a baryonium or molecule state of proton and antiproton bound by long-range strong force or by electromagnetic force or by a combination of these two forces. Or it could be a six-quark state composed of three quarks and three antiquarks. We believe that this $`p\overline{p}`$ state is an isoscalar to a very good accuracy. However, we also discuss the possibility of it being an isovector for the sake of completeness. Later we will show such a possibility is already excluded by very recent BES analysis. Let us assume this state can have $`I^G=0^+`$ or $`1^{}`$ first.

Now we have four possibilities of the quantum number of this state: $`J^{PC}I^G=0^{++}1^{}`$, $`0^{++}0^+`$, $`0^+1^{}`$, $`0^+0^+`$. We shall discuss the possible mesonic decay channels of this state according to different quantum numbers.

For the strong decays of this state, the conservation of angular momentum, parity, $`C`$-parity, isospin, $`G`$-parity, charge and four momentum constrains the possible final states greatly even if we know nothing about how this state is bound. If its quantum number is $`J^{PC}I^G=0^{++}1^{}`$, the symmetry consideration allows the following possible meson final states : $`\pi ^0\eta `$, $`\pi ^0\eta ^{}`$, $`K\overline{K}`$, $`2\pi (K\overline{K})`$, $`\eta \pi (K\overline{K})`$, $`\eta \eta (K\overline{K})`$, $`5\pi `$ etc. We limit ourselves to final states less than six particles. Final states with particle number greater than five will be too challenging for BES detector. The dominant mesonic decay modes are possibly $`K\overline{K}`$, $`\pi ^0\eta `$, $`\pi ^0\eta ^{}`$.

With $`J^{PC}I^G=0^{++}0^+`$, the possible meson final states are: $`\pi \pi `$, $`K\overline{K}`$, $`\eta \eta `$, $`\eta \eta ^{}`$, $`\eta ^{}\eta ^{}`$, $`4\pi `$, $`\eta \pi (K\overline{K})`$, $`\eta \eta (K\overline{K})`$, $`2\pi (K\overline{K})`$ etc. The dominant mesonic decay modes are possibly $`\pi \pi ,K\overline{K},4\pi `$.

With $`J^{PC}I^G=0^+1^{}`$, the possible meson final states are: $`3\pi `$, $`\rho \pi `$, $`f_0\pi `$, $`f_0(1370)\pi `$, $`a_0\eta `$, $`f_0(1500)\pi `$, $`\eta \eta \pi `$, $`\eta \eta ^{}\pi `$ etc. The dominant mesonic decay mode is possibly $`3\pi `$.

Very recently BES Collaboration have performed careful search of this state in the radiative decay channels other than $`\gamma p\overline{p}`$. No evidence of a possible bound state near the threshold is found in the two pions, three pions, and two kaons final states in the decays $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }\gamma 2\pi `$, $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }\gamma 3\pi `$ and $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }\gamma K\overline{K}`$ .

We believe that BES detector should be able to observe this possible $`p\overline{p}`$ bound state through the radiative two-pion, three-pion and two-kaon decay channels if its quantum number were $`J^{PC}I^G=0^{++}1^{},0^{++}0^+,0^+1^{}`$. Since BES has not seen a clear signal in the $`2\pi `$, $`3\pi `$, and $`K\overline{K}`$ decay channels, we conclude that the quantum number of the possible bound state observed by BES Collaboration is very likely to be $`J^{PC}I^G=0^+0^+`$. Such a quantum number is consistent with BES’s S-wave fit.

From now on we focus on the decay patterns of possible $`p\overline{p}`$ bound state with $`J^{PC}I^G=0^+0^+`$. Parity and angular momentum conservation forbids any state with such a quantum number decaying into two pions and two kaons. $`G`$-parity conservation forbids it decaying into three pions. The smaller the total number of the necessary partial waves $`=\mathrm{\Sigma }l_i`$, the bigger the partial decay width as one naively expects because of phase space suppression. We list below the possible final states according to the total partial wave number $``$. For $`=0`$, the possible decay modes are $`K^+K^{}\pi ^0`$, $`K_SK_S\pi ^0`$, $`K_LK_L\pi ^0`$, $`K^+\overline{K^0}\pi ^{}`$, $`K^{}K^0\pi ^+`$, $`\eta K^+K^{}`$, $`\eta K_SK_S`$, $`\eta K_LK_L`$, $`\eta \pi ^+\pi ^{}`$, $`\eta \pi ^0\pi ^0`$, $`\eta ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$, $`\eta ^{}\pi ^0\pi ^0`$, $`\eta \eta \eta `$ .

For $`=3`$, the possible decay modes are $`K^+K^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$, $`K_LK_S\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$, $`K^+\overline{K^0}\pi ^{}\pi ^0`$, $`K^{}K^0\pi ^+\pi ^0`$. For $`=5`$, the possible decay modes are $`\pi ^+\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^{}`$, $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^0\pi ^0`$, $`K^+K^{}\pi ^0\pi ^0`$, $`K_SK_S\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$, $`K_SK_S\pi ^0\pi ^0`$, $`K_LK_L\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$, $`K_LK_L\pi ^0\pi ^0`$, $`\eta \pi ^0K^+K^{}`$, $`\eta \pi ^0K_SK_S`$, $`\eta \pi ^+K^{}K^0`$, $`\eta \pi ^{}K^+\overline{K^0}`$, $`\eta \pi ^0K_LK_L`$. There is also the possible final state $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\pi ^0\pi ^0`$ with $`=9`$.

The absence of strange quarks inside this $`p\overline{p}`$ bound state may render the partial width of $`K\overline{K}\pi `$ channels smaller than that of $`\eta \pi \pi `$ if the decay happens through the regrouping of the quark and antiquarks inside the proton and antiproton instead of through quark antiquark annihilation. If selection rule allows, the three pairs of light quark and anti-quark may recombine with each other to form three color singlets easily, which eventually decay into three mesons. One, or two or all of the resulting three mesons may decay into lighter meson final states like multiple pions if symmetry allows.

OBELIX Collaboration observed that $`p\overline{p}K^+K^{}`$ cross section is much smaller than that of $`p\overline{p}\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ at very low momenta around $`50`$ MeV . In fact the total $`p\overline{p}`$ annihilation cross section is dominated by the multipion channels like $`3\pi ,4\pi ,5\pi `$. Especially the cross section of the $`5\pi `$ channel is three times larger than that of $`3\pi ,4\pi `$ channels at $`43.6`$ MeV .

We eagerly call for BES experimentalists to make strong efforts to search for this very interesting state in the above listed final states, especially with smaller $``$. Confirmation of the existence of this state in the meson final states will help unveil the mysterious underlying dynamics of this multiquark system, thus deepen our knowledge of the low energy sector of QCD.

Finally, we note in passing that although BES measurement of the photon polar angle distribution favors $`J=0`$, the possibility of $`J=1`$ is not absolutely excluded yet. If this state has $`J^{PC}I^G=1^{++}1^{}`$, it can decay into $`(\rho \pi )_{\text{S-wave}}`$, $`(\rho \pi )_{\text{D-wave}}`$, $`f_0(980)\pi `$ etc. The absence of clear signal in the three-pion final states has excluded such quantum number assignment.

With $`J^{PC}I^G=1^{++}0^+`$, the possible final states with the lowest total partial wave number $`=1`$ are $`K^+K^{}\pi ^0`$, $`K_LK_L\pi ^0`$, $`K_SK_S\pi ^0`$, $`K^+\overline{K^0}\pi ^{}`$, $`K^{}K^0\pi ^+`$, $`\eta \pi ^0\pi ^0`$, $`\eta K^+K^{}`$, $`\eta K_SK_S`$, $`\eta K_LK_L`$. We do not list the possible final states with $`=2,4,6`$ here. Interested readers may consult Ref.  or PDG .

In the extreme case that no narrow resonance with $`J^{PC}I^G=0^+0^+`$ is observed in the above mesonic decay channels, it is worthwhile making some efforts to look for possible $`p\overline{p}`$ resonances with $`J^{PC}I^G=1^{++}0^+`$ in the mesonic final states.

S.L.Z. thanks Professors Y.-B. Dai, B.-S. Zou, W.-Z. Deng and Z.-X. Zhang for useful discussions. C.S.G was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 90103019, the Doctoral Program Foundation of Institution of Higher Education, and the State Education Commission of China under Grant No. 2000000147. S.L.Z was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, Ministry of Education of China, FANEDD and SRF for ROCS, SEM.


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# Spectator interactions and factorization in 𝑩→𝝅𝒍𝝂 decay

## 1 Introduction

In recent years considerable progress in the theoretical description of exclusive $`B`$ meson decays into light energetic particles has been achieved. The ‘QCD-factorization approach’ Beneke:1999br  allows for a systematic computation of short-distance QCD corrections in the heavy quark limit. It can also be embedded into the soft-collinear effective field theory (SCET) framework Bauer:2000yr ; Chay:2002vy ; Beneke:2002ph ; Hill:2002vw . Factorization proofs for this class of $`B`$ decays are complicated, because two hard scales, $`m_b`$ and $`\sqrt{m_b\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$, are involved by interactions with the spectators in the $`B`$ meson. Simpler exceptions are the decays $`B\gamma \mathrm{}\nu `$ Descotes-Genon:2002mw ; Lunghi:2002ju ; Bosch:2003fc  (where collinear dynamics is absent at leading power) and $`BD\pi `$ Beneke:2000ry ; Bauer:2001cu  (where spectator interactions are absent), for which factorization proofs to all orders in perturbation theory have been given in the heavy quark limit.

In this article we focus on the superficially simplest ‘non-trivial’ case, namely the factorization theorem for $`B\pi `$ form factors:

$`F_i(q^2)`$ $`=`$ $`C_i(q^2)\xi _\pi (q^2)+\varphi _BT_i(q^2)\varphi _\pi `$ (1)
$`+\text{power-suppressed terms}`$
proposed in Beneke:2000wa . Here $`\xi _\pi (q^2)`$ denotes a single form factor independent of the Dirac structure $`\overline{q}\mathrm{\Gamma }_ib`$ of the weak decay current. It reflects the approximate large-recoil symmetry relations for heavy-to-light form factors Charles:1998dr . Corrections to these symmetry relations arise from radiative corrections to the decay vertex and hard spectator scattering. The coefficient functions $`C_i(q^2)`$ and hard-scattering kernels $`T_i(q^2)`$ are calculable perturbatively in $`\alpha _s`$. In addition, the factorization formula involves the (non-perturbative, but process-independent) light-cone distribution amplitudes $`\varphi _B`$ and $`\varphi _\pi `$ of the $`B`$ meson and pion.111 The first term in (1) resembles the well-known factorization formula for $`BD`$ decays where the form factors factorize into perturbative coefficient functions and a universal Isgur–Wise form factor Isgur:vq . The second term in (1) is analogous to the factorization formula for the pion form factor at large momentum transfer Efremov:1978rn . The present status of the factorization theorem (1) is as follows.

$``$ The short-distance functions $`C_i(q^2)`$ and $`T_i(q^2)`$ have been determined to order $`\alpha _s`$ Beneke:2000wa , confirming the structure of (1).

$``$ In SCET the functions $`C_i(q^2)`$ are interpreted as operator-matching coefficients, which arise from integrating out hard modes (virtualities of order $`m_b^2`$) Bauer:2000yr . The renormalisation group in SCET can be used to sum large logarithms $`\mathrm{ln}m_b`$.

$``$ The hard-scattering kernels $`T_i(q^2)`$ are obtained by integrating out hard-collinear modes (see Table 1 below) that arise from interactions of the external soft and collinear fields, and have virtualities of order $`m_b\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. In this way the tree-level expressions for $`T_i(q^2)`$ have been recovered Bauer:2002aj , and the general procedure for a two-step matching procedure in SCET to all orders in perturbation theory has been outlined.

A proof of (1) to all orders in $`\alpha _s`$ requires a detailed analysis of the second matching step, in which hard-collinear modes are integrated out perturbatively, since only then can the problem of convergence of the soft and collinear convolution integrals in (1) be addressed. Possible ‘endpoint divergences’ are related to the fact that the resulting operators in the effective theory do not necessarily factorize into purely soft or collinear hadronic quantities in the conventional sense. To prove (1), we have to define $`\xi _\pi (q^2)`$, and show that the remainder factorizes into conventional distribution amplitudes convoluted with a hard-scattering kernel $`T_i(q^2)`$, free of endpoint singularities.

In the following we sketch the main steps that lead to the completion of the factorization proof (for details see Beneke:2003 ). The effective theory set-up is similar to Bauer:2002aj : we perform the matching in two steps, onto an effective theory in which the degrees of freedom are quark and gluon fields with virtualities of order $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^2`$. In the rest frame of the $`B`$ meson, the initial state consists of only soft modes with all momentum components of order $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. The final state pion is made up only of collinear modes (Fig. 1). Hard and hard-collinear modes have been integrated out and are encoded as perturbative coefficient functions multiplying effective operators. Table 1 summarizes the various modes and the scaling of the momentum components defined with respect to two light-cone vectors $`n_\pm `$ (the pion momentum is $`p_\pi =En_{}`$, and for the heavy quark velocity we take $`v_{}=0`$). The expansion parameter in the effective theory is $`\lambda =\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }/m_b}`$.222The only objects scaling with an odd power of $`\lambda `$ are soft quark fields and meson states. Because $`B`$ mesons contain an even number of soft quark fields, the expansion parameter for exclusive matrix elements in the effective theory is in fact $`\lambda ^2=\mathrm{\Lambda }/m_b`$, but the absolute scaling may be an odd power of $`\lambda `$.

## 2 Results

We first checked the relevance of the different modes in Table 1 by considering a toy loop integral with the same kinematics as in $`B\pi `$. The expansion of the integral is reproduced by momentum regions along the lines of Beneke:1997zp , including separate hard-collinear and collinear regions. The collinear integral suffers from an endpoint divergence (not regularized in $`d`$ dimensions), when the $`n_+k`$ component of the loop momentum becomes small. This divergence is cancelled by an endpoint divergence in the soft region, arising from $`n_{}k0`$. The relation between endpoint divergences in soft and collinear integrals prevents the naive factorization of the form factor into light-cone distribution amplitudes (in which case we could have set $`\xi _\pi (q^2)`$ in (1) to zero).

Turning to the construction of the effective theory, we first integrate out hard modes at a factorization scale $`\mu m_b`$, and arrive at an effective theory SCET(hc,c,s), where soft and collinear fields interact by exchange of hard-collinear modes (heavy quarks only interact with soft modes). The first step consists of classifying all current operators in SCET(hc,c,s), which contribute to the leading-power form factor. To this end we determine the additional $`\lambda `$ suppression factors in the matrix elements of SCET(hc,c,s) operators incurred by the necessity to convert hard-collinear fields into collinear and soft fields via power-suppressed interaction terms. We then find only two possible structures Beneke:2002ph ; Pirjol:2002km :

$`\stackrel{~}{C}_{ij}({\displaystyle \frac{}{m_b}},{\displaystyle \frac{\mu }{m_b}})\overline{\xi }_{\mathrm{hc}}(0)\mathrm{\Gamma }_jh_v(0),`$ (2)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{m_b}}{\displaystyle 𝑑\widehat{s}\stackrel{~}{C}_{ij}^{}(\widehat{s},\frac{}{m_b},\frac{\mu }{m_b})\overline{\xi }_{\mathrm{hc}/\mathrm{c}}(0)A_{\mathrm{hc}}^{}(sn_+)\mathrm{\Gamma }_jh_v(0)},`$ (3)
(4)
where $`=(n_{}v)(n_+P)/2`$, and $`P`$ is the (collinear) momentum operator. In the second line the quark field can be collinear or hard-collinear. We also adopt the gauge $`n_+A_{\mathrm{hc}/\mathrm{c}}=n_{}A_s=0`$. The gauge transformations that undo light-cone gauge introduce collinear and soft Wilson lines into the operators. The projection properties of the $`\xi `$ and $`h_v`$ fields imply that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_j=\{1,\gamma _5,\gamma _{}^\mu \}`$ is the most general Dirac structure. The short-distance coefficients from integrating out hard modes may depend only on the boost-invariant and dimensionless ratios $`/m_b`$, $`\mu /m_b`$ and $`\widehat{s}=m_bs/(n_{}v)`$. Note that in SCET(hc,c,s) the operator (4) is suppressed relative to (2), but both contribute to the leading-power form factor Bauer:2002aj .

We now define the $`C_i(q^2)\xi _\pi (q^2)`$ term in (1) as the matrix element of the operator (2). Since only $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_j=1`$ does not vanish between $`\pi |`$ and $`|B`$, this defines one non-perturbative form factor independent of the original Dirac structure. It remains to show that the second operator (4) factorizes into light-cone distribution amplitudes (LCDAs). Although we do not need to further discuss the operator (2) at this point, we note that if one attempted to factorize it into LCDAs, the resulting convolution integrals would be divergent. Furthermore, three-particle LCDAs of the $`B`$ meson and pion would appear even at leading power (as also noted in Lange ). We also find that the matrix element of (2) scales as $`\lambda ^3`$, which confirms the well-known scaling of heavy-to-light form factors at large recoil.

In the second matching step hard-collinear modes are integrated out at $`\mu \sqrt{m_b\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$. The resulting effective theory is denoted by SCET(c,s). The following results and arguments are relevant to the factorization proof:

$``$ Soft and collinear fields are decoupled in the relevant terms of the SCET(c,s) Lagrangian.

$``$ Two-quark operators in SCET(c,s) do not contribute to the hard-scattering amplitudes $`T_i(q^2)`$, because the collinear (soft) fields in the operator must have the same quantum numbers as the pion ($`B`$ meson). The relevant terms in the matching of (4) on SCET(c,s) operators must therefore contain the fields $`[\overline{\xi }_c\xi _c][\overline{q}_sh_v]`$, and possibly additional gluon or quark fields with the correct quantum numbers.

$``$ Dimensional analysis and boost invariance imply that the operator (4) matches only onto four quark operators at leading power,

$`\overline{\xi }_{\mathrm{hc}/\mathrm{c}}(0)A_{\mathrm{hc}}^{}(sn_+)\mathrm{\Gamma }_jh_v(0)`$
$`{\displaystyle 𝑑s^{}𝑑t\stackrel{~}{C}_{jk}^{\prime \prime }(\widehat{s};\mathrm{ln}[\mu ^2s^{}t],n_+Ps^{})}`$
$`\times [\overline{\xi }_c(s^{}n_+)\mathrm{\Gamma }_kh_v(0)][\overline{q}_s(tn_{})\mathrm{\Gamma }_k\xi _c(0)].`$ (5)
The right-hand side scales as $`\lambda ^8`$, implying a contribution to the form factor at order $`\lambda ^3`$, which is as large as the $`C_i(q^2)\xi _\pi (q^2)`$ term. We also note that the effective current (5) must be local in the transverse direction.

$``$ The right-hand side of (5) has the required structure $`\varphi _BT_i(q^2)\varphi _\pi `$ after taking the $`B\pi `$ matrix element, but it remains to show that the convolution integrals converge (under the assumption of the standard endpoint behaviour of the LCDAs). Boost invariance implies that the short-distance coefficients $`\stackrel{~}{C}_{jk}^{\prime \prime }`$ may depend only logarithmically on the light-cone distance $`t`$ between the heavy quark and the soft spectator, and that only the plus-projection of the $`B`$ meson light-cone matrix element appears in (5). After taking the $`B\pi `$ matrix element, the $`t`$-convolution integral is therefore

$`{\displaystyle 𝑑t\stackrel{~}{C}_{jk}^{\prime \prime }(\mathrm{ln}t)\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_+^B(t)}.`$ (6)
This integral converges, given the endpoint behaviour of the $`B`$ meson light-cone distribution amplitude $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_+^B(t)`$ Lange:2003ff .

$``$ It follows that the collinear convolution integrals over $`\widehat{s}`$ and $`s^{}`$ also converge. If this were not the case, the collinear convolution integral would have to be regulated. The regulator dependence introduced by the endpoint divergence would have to cancel against a soft endpoint divergence (since the effective theory is assumed to reproduce the infrared physics correctly). Since there is none, the collinear convolution integrals must be finite.

This completes the proof of the factorization formula (1). Both terms in the formula are of order $`\lambda ^3`$, as far as heavy quark power counting is concerned. The hard scattering term is proportional to $`\alpha _s(\sqrt{m_b\mathrm{\Lambda }})`$. It is an open question whether the $`C_i(q^2)\xi _\pi (q^2)`$ term is proportional to 1 (as assumed in Bauer:2000yr ; Beneke:2000wa ; Charles:1998dr ), or proportional to $`\alpha _s(\sqrt{m_b\mathrm{\Lambda }})`$. The clarification of this point requires an analysis of large logarithms in SCET(c,s).

## 3 Summary and outlook

We have proved the factorization formula (1) for $`B\pi `$ transition form factors in the heavy quark limit. Attempting to factorize heavy-to-light form factors along the same lines as the $`\pi \pi `$ transition form factor Efremov:1978rn , it is found that three-particle Fock states of the $`B`$ meson and the pion contribute at leading power, and that the convolution integrals are in general ill-defined. We have shown that all this is part of a single form factor $`\xi _\pi (q^2)`$, while the remaining contributions can be factorized in the standard way. This confirms the factorization conjecture of Beneke:2000wa  and completes the factorization argument of Bauer:2002aj . Our result generalizes to other heavy-to-light form factors ($`B\rho `$ etc.). We remark that in the case of the $`B\gamma `$ form factor, the endpoint divergences and ‘non-factorizable’ contributions only appear at subleading order in the heavy quark expansion, when the hadronic structure of the photon is resolved. Our framework can also be adapted to situations with two collinear directions, such as for the pion electromagnetic form factor at large momentum transfer. For details we refer to a forthcoming paper Beneke:2003 .

### Acknowledgements

We would like to thank S. Bosch, S. Descotes–Genon, B. Lange, E. Lunghi, D. Pirjol, and I. Stewart for interesting discussions.


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# Monoperiodic 𝛿 Scuti star UY Camelopardalis: an analogue of SX Phe and RR Lyr-type variables

## 1 Introduction

$`\delta `$ Scuti stars are regularly pulsating variables situated in the lower classical Cepheid instability strip on or near the main sequence (MS). In general, the period range of $`\delta `$ Sct stars lies between 0.02 and 0.25 d and the spectral types range from A2 to F2. The majority of $`\delta `$ Sct stars pulsate with a number of non-radial $`p`$-modes simultaneously excited to low amplitudes, but some are (pure) radial pulsators with larger amplitudes and others pulsate in a mixture of radial and nonradial modes. We launched a mission dedicated to the investigations of poorly-studied $`\delta `$ Sct stars in 1996. UY Camelopardalis (=HIP 39009=GSC 04369-01129, $`\alpha _{2000}=07^\mathrm{h}58^\mathrm{m}59^\mathrm{s}.0`$, $`\delta _{2000}=+72^{}47^{}23^{\prime \prime }.7`$, $`V`$=11.44 mag, A3-A6 III; Rodríguez et al. 2000) belongs to high amplitude $`\delta `$ Sct stars (HADS) subclass with less knowledge on its nature. Therefore it was selected as one of the targets for the mission.

UY Camelopardalis was discovered to be a variable by Baker (1937), who classified the star as a Cepheid. Observations on five nights in 1962 led Williams (1964) to resolve a period of 0.267 days. Williams suggested UY Cam as an RRc Lyrae star. He pointed out that further observations with a larger telescope (than his 20-inch one) are necessary to establish the possible existence of cycle-to-cycle changes in the light curves and to study their details. During 1946 and 1965, Beyer (1966) collected 21 maxima and derived a constant period. According to the author, the light curve was unstable and its amplitudes changed from 0.17 to 0.50 mag. However, the potential instability of the light curves of UY Cam, suspected by both Williams and Beyer, was not observed late in 1985 by Broglia & Conconi (1992), who obtained a total of five nights Johnson $`BV`$ data covering five maxima.

Considering the insufficiency of previous data in revealing the possibility of amplitude variations, we observed UY Cam from 1999 to 2003 with an emphasis of time-resolving and longer time baseline. We collected a number of CCD and photoelectric photometric data in the Johnson $`V`$ band. In this paper, we present the results of a comprehensive analysis aimed at short and/or secular behaviour of light variations using all available data. Section 2 contains an outline of the observational journal and data reduction. Section 3 devotes to analyses of the data. The nature of the variable is briefly discussed in Section 4 and our main results are summarized in Section 5.

## 2 Data acquisition

New observations of UY Cam were secured between 1999 November 17 and 2003 March 3. The data consist of 8337 measurements (merged bins in 60-s) in Johnson $`V`$ band (129.5 h) collected in 19 observing nights. A journal of the observations is given in Table 1.

### 2.1 CCD photometry

From 1999 November 19 to 2000 January 24, Johnson $`V`$ photometry of UY Cam was performed with the light-curve survey CCD photometer (Wei et al., 1990; Zhou et al., 2001b) mounted on the 85-cm Cassegrain telescope at the Xinglong Station of the Beijing Astronomical Observatory (BAO) of China. The photometer employed a red-sensitive Thomson TH7882 576$`\times `$384 CCD with a whole imaging size of 13.25$`\times `$8.83 mm2 corresponding to a sky field of view of $`11^{}.5\times 7^{}.7`$, which allows sufficient stars to be toggled in a frame as reference. Depending on the nightly seeing the integration times varied from 20 to 60 s. All the monitored reference stars in the field of UY Cam were detected as nonvariables within the observational error ($``$0.006 mag), which is the typical standard deviation of magnitude differences between the reference stars. Among them, GSC 4369-1457 ( $`\alpha _{2000}=07^\mathrm{h}58^\mathrm{m}11^\mathrm{s}.12`$, $`\delta _{2000}=+72^{}45^{}51^{\prime \prime }.8`$, $`V`$=11.6 mag) was confirmed to be the best comparison against the variable. Then the differential magnitudes of UY Cam were measured with respect to GSC 4369-1475. Atmospheric extinction was ignored because of the proximity between the two stars. The procedures of standard data reduction, including on-line bias subtraction, dark reduction and flatfield correction, were outlined in Zhou et al. (2001b).

### 2.2 Photoelectric photometry

From 2002 January 23 to 2003 March 3, UY Cam was reobserved with the three-channel high-speed photoelectric photometer (Jiang & Hu, 1998) attached to the same telescope. This detector is used in the Whole Earth Telescope campaigns (WET; Nather et al. 1990). GSC 4380-1705 ($`\alpha _{2000}=08^\mathrm{h}00^\mathrm{m}13^\mathrm{s}.29`$, $`\delta _{2000}=+72^{}43^{}47^{\prime \prime }.9`$, $`V`$=11.2 mag) was chosen as the comparison star. The variable, comparison star and sky background were simultaneously monitored in continuous 10-s intervals through a standard Johnson $`V`$ filter throughout the two observing runs in 2002 and 2003. The typical observational accuracy with the three-channel photometer is about 0.006 mag.

## 3 Data analysis

### 3.1 Frequency detection

Previous works on UY Cam did not suggest any other additional pulsation frequencies except the known primary frequency. We decided to make a further detection to find a complete set of pulsation frequencies. To do so, we merged all the data collected from 1999 to 2003. The frequency analysis was carried out by using the programmes period98 (Breger, 1990; Sperl, 1998) and mfa (Hao, 1991; Liu, 1995), where single-frequency Fourier transforms and multifrequency least-squares fits were processed. The two programmes use the Discrete Fourier Transform method (Deeming, 1975) and basically lead to identical results. We first computed the noise levels at each frequency using the residuals at the original measurements with all trial frequencies prewhitened. Then the confidence levels of the trial frequencies were estimated following Scargle (1982). Last, to judge whether a peak is or not significant in the amplitude spectra we followed the empirical criterion of Breger (1993), that an amplitude signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio larger than 4.0 usually corresponds to an intrinsic peak of the variable. Note that the S/N criterion assumes a good spectral window typical of multisite campaigns. However, in the case of single-site observations, the noise level can be enhanced by the spectral window patterns of the noise peaks and possible additional frequencies. Therefore a significant peak’s S/N value might be a little less than 4.0 in single-site case.

For the judgement of significant peaks the amplitude spectra and spectral window are given in Fig. 1, in which each spectrum panel corresponds to the residuals with all the previous frequencies prewhitened. The last panel (‘Data – 2f’) shows the residuals after subtracting the fit of the two outstanding frequencies, together with the significance curve – spline-connected points – four times the noise points obtained in a spacing of 0.2 d-1. The observational noise is frequency-dependent and it was defined as the average amplitude of the residuals in a range of 1 d-1 (11.57 $`\mu `$Hz), close to the frequency under consideration. We see high noise in the low frequency region (0–5 d-1), which might be caused by instrument shifts and nonidentical zero points of different runs or even night-to-night zero point shifts. Apart from the outstanding primary frequency $`f_0`$ and its first harmonic $`2f_0`$, a peak at 0.7394 d-1 ($`f_n`$) with S/N=5.0 has an effect on the spectrum (see the last two panels of Fig. 1). Frequencies $`f_0`$ and $`2f_0`$ fit the light curves with a standard deviation of residuals of $`\sigma `$=0.0312 mag and a zero point $``$0.0019 mag. If $`f_n`$ was considered, the values become to be 0.0242 and 0.00164 mag, respectively. The term $`f_n`$ improved the fitting quality evidently by about 22%. However, there is no reason allowing us to attribute this frequency ($`f_n`$) to the variable, we regard it as a noise content involved in the data. So prewhitening $`f_n`$ played a role of denoising the data. As a final result, the pulsation frequency $`f_0`$=3.7447 d-1 and its harmonic $`2f_0`$ with amplitudes of 0.1638 and 0.020 mag, respectively, are detected to be intrinsic to UY Cam. No additional peak is significant in the residual spectrum. Therefore, the variable is monoperiodic. Figure 2 displays the light curves folded with the main frequency $`f_0`$. The differential light curves along with the fits using $`f_0`$ and $`2f_0`$ after denoising are presented in Fig. 3. It is noted that there exists a zero point shift on one night in the phase diagram. This figure appears to be an evidence of amplitude variability. We will explore this in more detail in next subsection.

Fourier parameters of the best-fitting sinusoids, $`m(t)=A_0+_{i=1}^NA_i\mathrm{cos}(2\pi f_it+\varphi _i)`$, are listed in Table 2, where the errors in frequencies, amplitudes and phases were estimated through the formulae of Montgomery & O’Donoghue (1999). We assumed the root-mean-square deviation of the observational noise to be of 0.00242 mag, the standard deviation of the fit with $`f_0`$ and $`2f_0`$ after removing the noise content ($`f_n`$), five times the practical observational accuracy. We further used the real nights with data for the time baseline rather than the span of observations. Even in this way, we found the frequency errors might have been underestimated. Because the single-frequency Fourier transform showed the second frequency term at 7.48685 d-1 differing from $`2f_0`$ by 0.0026 d-1, which is larger than the theoretically calculated errors above (0.00007 and 0.00054 d-1 for $`f_0`$ and $`2f_0`$, respectively). So we finally adopted the values five times the calculated errors so that the error for $`2f_0`$ becomes 0.0027 mag conforming with the difference 0.0026 mag. As mentioned by Montgomery & O’Donoghue (1999), this is a perfectly valid thing to do so, since hidden correlations in the errors in the data lead to an underestimate of the true errors because correlations in the noise can modify the calculating relations.

### 3.2 Frequency and amplitude variability

It is possible to search the data for amplitude and/or frequency variability for the star. We dealt with the data in individual subsets corresponding to different observing runs. The CCD data in 1999 were ignored for their bad quality. In addition, data set 1985 (5 nights) was adopted from Broglia & Conconi (1992). Table 3 summarizes these data sets. Individual Fourier analyses were then carried out for each set of the data. However, we are aware that the Fourier results highly depend on the data structure, i.e. the number of data points, sampling rate, time span, etc. Fourier analysis assumes the frequency and amplitude of a signal to be constant in the time domain. Therefore, our results for the time-dependence of frequency and amplitude should be regarded as the averaged values during the investigated period.

Given the trial frequency values of $`f_0`$=3.7447 d-1 and its two harmonics $`2f_0`$ and $`3f_0`$, non-linear least-squares sinusoidal fittings to each data set were performed. Our results are listed in Table 4, where the errors were estimated following the methods in previous section. The standard deviations of fits for the four subsets are $`\sigma `$=0.0117, 0.0222, 0.0382 and 0.0216 mag, respectively. The fitting error for data set 1985 agrees with its observational accuracy. However, the fitting quality is generally low for the present data. For sets 2000 and 2003, the errors are about four times the observational accuracy, while more than 6 times for set 2002. In view of these inconsistent large fitting errors, the pulsation frequency and amplitude seemed to change. However, from Table 4, within the error bars, the primary frequency were quite stable over the past years. On the other hand, except the data set 1985, the amplitudes were basically consistent with each other.

According to Figs. 2 and 4, as well as the light curves on HJD 24512304 (2002 Jan.29, the panel with abscissa ’804’ in Fig. 3), amplitude variation, at least at cycle-to-cycle level might present. A glance at Table 4 shows that pulsation amplitudes in 2000–2003 were the same within the errors range. However, the amplitude in 1985 was a little bit higher than the others. Because the best fittings make all three Fourier parameters optimized, we attempted to check the case when frequencies are fixed. By fixing the frequency $`f_0`$=3.7447 d-1 and its harmonics $`2f_0`$= 7.4894 d-1 and $`3f_0`$= 11.2341 d-1 and allowing their amplitudes and phases to change, we obtained the amplitudes of the three frequencies for different years’ data. Deviations between fits and light curves are relatively smaller in 1985 data set than in other three sets: 0.0149, 0.0226, 0.0383 and 0.0219 mag for the four runs, respectively. The results in Table 5 are consistent with those in Table 4. Amplitudes for 2000, 2002 and 2003 were consistent with each other. However, in both Tables 4 and 5, the amplitude of $`f_0`$ in 1985 is obviously higher than those in other three years. In the estimated errors range, this difference probably is real. Consequently, we think that the amplitude of $`f_0`$ changed in 1985, but it kept constancy during 2000 and 2003. In addition, the contribution of the third-order harmonic $`3f_0`$ to the light variations could be neglected. The picture of amplitude variation likes that mentioned by Breger (2000) that the HADS typically have less amplitude variation than those low-amplitude $`\delta `$ Sct stars.

In order to further examine the stability of the primary frequency, we determined the times of maximum light and made use of those existing maxima. To determine a maximum, we applied a polynomial fit to a portion of the light curve around each maximum and took the extrema of the polynomials as the observed times of maximum light. We usually tried several times of fitting by selecting polynomials of different orders (e.g. 3-order, sometimes 5-order) and different regions until a satisfactory fit was reached. Generally, we choose a range with an amplitude of about one-third of the full amplitude. See an illustration in Fig. 4. The fitting errors are typically 0.008 mag, being in agreement with the observational precision. Thus 16 maxima were determined from the present data. The errors of maxima determination are about 0.00045 d. In addition, in order to avoid the difficulties of fitting a polynomial to determine the precise time of maximum of each peak, one could perform a sine fit including the harmonics for the given season of observations, i.e. the observations in 1985 and in 2000–2003. However, given that the relative amplitude of the harmonics may change with respect to the amplitude of the fundamental frequency $`f_0`$ (and that this would change when the time of maximum occurs even if the frequency $`f_0`$ is absolutely constant), it may be safer to look at the time of maximum of only the $`f_0`$ component, not the $`2f_0`$ or $`3f_0`$ components. This way, we selected four times of maximum light for seasons of 1985, 2000, 2002 and 2003: 24546173.4361, 2451560.21625, 2452301.2504 and 2452699.13721. Their corresponding $`OC`$ values are $``$0.04249, 0.00678, 0.00493 and 0.00214 d. It is noted that these times of maximum have a lag ranging from 0.00375 to 0.01197 d with respect to their observed peaks determined by polynomial fits. Moreover, the fits with only $`f_0`$ is poor, so these times act as mean values.

We adopted five maxima from Broglia & Conconi (1992). In addition, there are 21 maxima in $`B`$ band by Beyer (1966) in the literature. In terms of the $`BV`$ light curves (IAU archives No.246E) of Broglia & Conconi (1992), we found the phase difference between $`V`$ and $`B`$ filters can be ignored. In fact, when fixing $`f_0`$ and $`2f_0`$, fittings to the $`BV`$ data produced an equivalent phase difference of 0.0003 days, which is less than the errors of maxima determination. We refer the reader to Fig. 5, where the $`BV`$ light curves on HJD 2446171 were drawn. So we combined the 21 maxima in $`B`$ band with the others in $`V`$. In total, we have 42 observed times of maximum light (see Table 6). Our first maximum was taken as the initial epoch and $`P_0`$=1/$`f_0`$=0.26704 d as the trial period, i.e. we defined an initial ephemeris

$$\mathrm{HJD}_{\mathrm{max}}=2451557.27203+0.26704E.$$
(1)
Then the observed minus the calculated times of maxima ($`OC`$ residuals) and the cycles elapsed from this epoch were calculated. We noted the counting of cycles are integers so whenever a maximum occurred at a time near to next cycle, i.e. more than half a cycle away from the previous cycle, the next cycle number was chosen for this maximum. To determine whether the times of maximum light are consistent with a constant period ($`OC`$ residuals lie on a truly straight line) or a changing period (on a parabola), a parabolic fit was applied to the data. We fit the $`OC`$ residuals to the equation $`OC=\mathrm{\Delta }T_0+\mathrm{\Delta }PE+0.5\beta E^2`$, following e.g. Kepler et al. (2000) and Zhou (2001). Where $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_0=T_0^{\mathrm{new}}T_0^{\mathrm{ini}}`$ (improved new epoch minus assumed initial epoch), $`\mathrm{\Delta }P`$ refers to improved minus adopted trial period, and $`\beta `$ refers to $`\frac{\mathrm{d}P}{\mathrm{d}t}`$, period change rate. Using all available times of maximum light, we obtain

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill OC=0.00853+& 9.1110^7E\hfill & 4.4310^{12}E^2\hfill \\ \hfill \pm 0.00234\pm & 2.21\hfill & \pm 3.38\hfill \end{array}$$
(2)
with a fitting error of $`\sigma `$=0.0104 d. If the quadratic term was ignored — disregarding period change, fit becomes to be linear as

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill OC=0.00819& +& 1.19199\times 10^6E\hfill \\ \hfill \pm 0.00234& \pm & 0.05309\hfill \end{array}$$

with $`\sigma `$=0.01049 d (see the dash-dot line in Fig. 6). If the (5+16) maxima in 1985–2003 are replaced by their four corresponding mean times (plotted as lengthened bars in Fig. 6), parabolic fitting to the 25 data points (21 points from 1946–65) leads us to

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill OC=0.0000180187& +4.58639\times 10^7E\hfill \\ \hfill \pm 0.00311& \pm 2.54803\hfill \\ & 1.3416\times 10^{11}E^2\hfill \\ & \pm 0.3528\hfill \end{array}$$
(3)
($`\sigma `$=0.00829 d). Compared with the fits in Eq.(2) and (3.2), the quality of fitting was improved in Eq.(3). Equation (2) means a rate of period change (decrease) $`\frac{\mathrm{d}P}{\mathrm{d}t}=(8.86\pm 6.76)\times 10^{12}`$ d cycle-1 = $`(3.32\pm 2.53)\times 10^{11}`$ d d-1, and $`\frac{1}{P}\frac{\mathrm{d}P}{\mathrm{d}t}=(4.54\pm 3.46)\times 10^8\mathrm{yr}^1`$. In the case of Eq.(3), $`\frac{\mathrm{d}P}{\mathrm{d}t}=(10.0\pm 2.6)\times 10^{11}`$ d d-1 and $`\frac{1}{P}\frac{\mathrm{d}P}{\mathrm{d}t}=(13.68\pm 3.56)\times 10^8\mathrm{yr}^1`$, is about three times the previous one. The values of period change are comparable with those listed in Breger & Pamyatnyhk (1998) and Rodríguez et al. (1995). We note here that error bars for the maxima from 1985 to 2003 are around 0.0005 days, which are about a quarter of the size of the symbols in Fig. 6, so they are invisible in current figure.

At a first glance, however, if one looks only at the data from 1946 to 1965, then it appears very linear. Furthermore, if one looks at the 1985 plus the 2000–03 data, then one can also draw a straight line through them. Therefore, we made individual linear fits to the two parts of data. For the 1946–65 data, we get $`OC=0.06357+2.32624\times 10^6E`$ with $`\sigma `$=0.00556 d (see solid line in Fig. 6). While for the 1985–2003 data, we have $`OC=0.00886+1.8807\times 10^6E`$ with $`\sigma `$=0.00557 d (see short dot line in Fig. 6). There is a small difference between the slopes of these two lines but the latter intercept (corresponding to the improved initial epoch of maximum light) differs from the former by 0.07243 d. If we shifted upwards the 1985–2003 data by this offset, then we would find all the measurements lie on a straight line described by

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill OC=0.06383& +& 2.32083\times 10^6E.\hfill \\ \hfill \pm 0.00140& \pm & 0.03132\hfill \end{array}$$

This linear fit appears to be perfect — the quality of fit ($`\sigma `$=0.00618 d) was improved evidently compared to that ($`\sigma `$=0.01049 d) given by Eq.(3.2). This line is also drawn in dash in Fig. 6. It has almost the same slope as that for the early 1946–65 data. For these shifted data, a parabolic fit results in

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill OC=0.06378& +2.02\times 10^6E\hfill \\ \hfill \pm 0.00133& \pm 0.03\hfill \\ & 4.82\times 10^{12}E^2\hfill \\ & \pm 1.92\hfill \end{array}$$
(4)
($`\sigma `$=0.0059 d). However, there are not adequate evidences allowing us to insert such an offset. We recalled the maxima in 1946–65 are in $`B`$ band, but phase difference between $`V`$ and $`B`$ is impossible to cause such a big offset as we can see in Fig. 5. This offset, if it existed, would mean that there is some sort of inconsistency in the zero point time calibrations between the old and the new data. That is, each observed time of maxima from 1985–2003 had a time lag equivalent to this offset so that the resulted $`OC`$ values should be shifted relative to the 1946–65 data by this offset. Because the 1985–2003 data compose two different groups’ observations collected in four years, this kind of consistent errors in the zero point times (i.e. the starting observing times) in each observing year are incogitable. Therefore, this possibility can be ruled out. Another possible cause of such an offset comes from period change. The pulsation period of the star was changing from 1965 to 1985 when we were not looking it, but in 1985, the star went back to exactly the same period which it had in 1946–65. Because there was no observation in this time span, we are unable to affirm whether any changes had occurred or not during this period. Furthermore, there is also a time span between 1985 and 2000 without observations. These two time spans without data bring about great uncertainties in deriving period change through a parabolic fit to the $`OC`$ residuals. Therefore we think the $`OC`$ analysis is not a suitable method for determining this star’s period variability with current data.

Now it is clear that the overall profile of the $`OC`$ residuals indicates a measurable period change, but the Fourier solutions for different data sets did not resolve any period changes. We note the fact that fewer data (42 maxima) with two vacancies of data in 1965–86 and 1985–2000 in the long investigated period (1946–2003) does not support a reliable analysis of $`OC`$.

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 Light curves and types of variability

An inspection on all the light curves show that they are slightly asymmetrical or nearly sinusoidal with rounded maxima. It was estimated that about 55% of time ($``$3.5 h) the variable be in the descending branch. Amplitude variations at cycle-to-cycle time-scale did not always occur from a cycle to next. Deviation between the fit and the observations on HJD 24512304 (2002 Jan. 29) is unique in our 19 nights’ data as well as in the 5 nights’ data of Broglia & Conconi (1992). The difference of amplitudes between 1985 and 2000s seems not to be a strong evidence for longer time-scale amplitude variability. We could not infer any periodicity of amplitude variation from these light curves. On the contrary, we might interpret the deviation on 2002 Jan. 29 to be a ‘peculiar cycle’. In the point of current Fourier solution, there exist other types of variability to explain the light variations.

We know the $`\delta `$ Sct stars are pulsating variables with periods less than 0.3 d, and visual light amplitudes in the range from a few thousands of a magnitude to about 0.8 mag. They occupy a position on the H–R diagram either on or somewhat above/below the MS. Most $`\delta `$ Sct stars belong to Population I, but a few variables show low metals, low masses and high space velocities typical of Pop. II (i.e. SX Phoenicis-type stars). The majority of the known $`\delta `$ Sct stars have evolved to post-MS stage. The effective temperature range corresponds well with the extension of the Cepheid and RR Lyrae instability strip to MS. Pop. I HADS having normal mass and chemical composition, evolving away from the MS, together with SX Phe stars with low mass and metal content, have periods of 1 to 5 hours, amplitudes of 0.3 to 0.8 mag. For a long time this small group (dwarf Cepheids) included with the large RR Lyr family. They were late distinguished from RR Lyr stars by their shorter periods and weaker absolute luminosities (Smith, 1955, 1995). RR Lyr stars usually reside in galactic globular clusters (about 130 in our Galaxy, e.g. IC 4499, Clement et al. 1979) of age about 10 Gyr or more as well as in the bulge region of our Galaxy and other dwarf galaxies. The RRc Lyr variables have lower light amplitudes ($``$0.5 mag) and nearly sinusoidal light curves with a rounded maximum. In all known cases of RRc Lyr, the dominant mode is the radial first overtone, the periods are mostly in a range from about 0.2 to 0.5 days.

From the above, UY Cam is similar to the SX Phe stars in amplitude, while it is similar to the RRc Lyr stars in period and in the shape and amplitude of light curves. A high-amplitude $`\delta `$ Sct star might be misclassified and could be reclassified to be SX Phe or RR Lyr-type. To go into details of the variability types, we give further information on the nature of the star below.

### 4.2 Physical parameters

By adopting the values $`(by)`$=0.149, $`m_1`$=0.110, $`c_1`$=1.140 and $`\beta `$=2.754 mag for UY Cam from Rodríguez et al. (2000), we can deredden these indices making use of the dereddening formulae and calibrations for A-type stars given by Crawford (1979). This way, we derive a color excess of $`E(by)`$=0.003 mag and the following intrinsic indices: $`(by)_0`$=0.146, $`m_0`$=0.111 and c0=1.139 mag. Furthermore, deviations from the zero age main sequence values of $`\delta `$$`m_0`$=0.077 and $`\delta `$c0=0.452 mag are also found.

A mean metal abundance of \[Me/H\]=$``$0.732 dex (or Z=0.0037) was derived from $`\delta m_0`$ using the calibrations for metallicity of A-type stars by Smalley (1993). A poorer value of \[Me/H\]=$``$1.51 was derived by Fernley & Barnes (1997). The metallicity is quite poorer than those of other HADS, and is comparable with those of SX Phe-type stars, e.g. see table 2 of McNamara (2000). Usually, the shorter-period variables are metal poor (SX Phe stars), while the longer-period variables are metal strong as seen from the table 2 and fig. 1 of McNamara (2000). However, the period of UY Cam ($`\mathrm{log}P`$=$``$0.573) is the second longest (almost equal to that of V1719 Cyg and shorter just than the period of SS Psc), but its metal abundance derived above is so poor that the star does not fit the general profile or relation of \[Fe/H\] – $`\mathrm{log}P`$ for the high-amplitude $`\delta `$ Sct stars (see fig. 1 of McNamara 2000).

Stellar physical parameters of UY Cam including effective temperature, absolute magnitude, surface gravity and other quantities can be derived by applying suitable calibrations for the $`uvby\beta `$ indices. As doing in Zhou et al. (2001a, 2002), we derived $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}=7300\pm 150`$ K. We used $`\beta `$, which is free of interstellar extinction effects, as the independent parameter for measuring temperature (Crawford, 1979). The effective temperature was determined from the model-atmosphere calibrations of $`uvby\beta `$ photometry by Moon & Dworetsky (1985). Due to large value of $`\delta c_0`$ ($`>`$0.28 mag, too luminous relative to normal $`\delta `$ Sct stars) we were misled to an unusual value of absolute visual magnitude $`M_v`$=$``$1.16 mag as well as a small surface gravity of $`\mathrm{log}g=2.79\pm 0.06`$ by Moon’s program uvbybeta (Moon, 1985). However, this value of $`M_v`$ is generally unreasonable because it would place the star out of the $`\delta `$ Sct instability strip according to several Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagrams of the pulsating variables, e.g. fig. 2 of Breger (2000), fig.2 of McNamara (2000) and fig. 8 of Rodríguez & Breger (2001), even though we know there are a few $`\delta `$ Sct stars outside the instability strip. The gravity is also too low for a normal $`\delta `$ Sct star. Therefore, we tried to determine $`M_v`$ and $`\mathrm{log}g`$ in other ways. Based on $`\beta `$=2.754 mag, assuming $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$=25 km s-1 (a statistic average value for HADS according to Jiang 2000), we obtained $`M_v`$=$``$0.228 mag using the relation by Domingo & Figueras (1999). This value is comparable with the results derived from Crawford (1979) and from Mathew & Rajamohan (1992): $``$0.454 and $``$0.218 mag, respectively. Furthermore, this value has a small difference from (0.246$`\pm `$0.15 or 0.235$`\pm `$0.18 mag) that predicted by the period-luminosity relation for HADS, SX Phe and RR Lyr stars of fundamental pulsation (Høg and Petersen, 1997; Petersen & H$`ø`$g, 1998; McNamara, 1997, 2002; Laney et al., 2002). On the other hand, we can check $`M_v`$ from the Hipparcos parallax. Unfortunately, the parallax has a great uncertainty ($``$1.64$`\pm `$2.08 mas). An examination throughout the $`\delta `$ Sct stars catalogue (Rodríguez et al., 2000) tells us there are only eight stars having negative parallax values with determination errors larger than themselves (the stars are TV Lyn, CW Ser, V974 Oph, V567 Oph, BQ Ind, BP Peg, DE Lac and UY Cam). Taking the positive value $`1.64+`$2.08=0.44 mas for UY Cam we have $`M_v`$=$``$0.38 mag if $`V`$=11.4 mag from the formula $`M_v=m+5+5\mathrm{log}p`$, where $`p`$ is parallax in parsecs. Therefore, we tend to take $`M_v`$=$``$0.2$`\pm `$0.2 for UY Cam. As a consequence, these parameters suggest the variable to be a $`\delta `$ Sct star with poor abundance in metals and situated into the upper $`\delta `$ Sct region in the H-R diagrams as can be seen from fig. 8 of Rodríguez & Breger (2001) and fig.2 of McNamara (2000).

In addition, we derived $`\mathrm{log}g`$=3.46$`\pm `$0.06 from the biparametric calibrations by Ribas et al (1997) and the grids of $`uvby`$ colors for \[Me/H\]=$``$0.5 by Smalley & Kupka (1997).

The interstellar reddening can be neglected in terms of the color excess of $`E(by)`$=0.003 mag and the galactic latitude ($`b`$=30.8) of the star. In fact, following Crawford & Mandwewala (1976) the reddening value is only about 0.0006 mag. Consequently, a distance modulus $`(mM_v)`$ =11.2$`\pm `$0.2 mag was obtained, i.e. a distance of 1.74 Kpc by the formula 5 $`\mathrm{log}r=(mM_v)+5`$. This distance in turn results in a parallax of 0.57 mas. Assuming a bolometric correction, B.C.=0.02 mag, derived from Malagnini et al. (1986) for $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$=7300 K, the bolometric magnitude is $`M_{\mathrm{bol}}`$=0.0$`\pm `$0.2 ($`\mathrm{log}L/L_{\mathrm{}}`$ = 1.90$`\pm `$0.08). Moreover, it is possible to gain some insight into the mass and age of this star using the evolutionary tracks of Claret and Giménez (1998) for Z=0.004. In this case, values of an evolutionary mass $`M=2.0\pm `$0.3 M and an age of 0.7$`\pm `$0.1 Gyr are found with $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$=7300 K and $`\mathrm{log}g`$=3.46. So radius $`R`$=5.5$`\pm `$0.5 R from radiation raw or period-radius relation (McNamara & Feltz, 1978; Fernie, 1992; Laney et al., 2002) and a mean density of $`\overline{\rho }M/R^3`$=0.012$`\pm `$0.005 $`\rho _{}`$ were derived. Table 7 tabulates the parameters derived for UY Cam.

Regarding younger age and lower surface gravity, UY Cam is similar to a Population I star. But it could be a Pop. II star (SX Phe-type) for its poor metal abundance and advanced evolution stage, or a RR Lyr-type star for its distance, period, luminosity, metallicity and morphology of light curves.

Furthermore, with respect to long pulsating periods, Rodríguez & Breger (2002) discussed the implication of the $`\delta `$ Sct stars with periods longer than 0.25 days. There are only 14 stars in this subgroup from the list of a total of 636 $`\delta `$ Sct stars (Rodríguez et al., 2000). On the basis of an examination of the pulsational behaviors, luminosities, metallicities and light curves, they reclassified three HADS, DH Peg, UY Cam and YZ Cap as RR Lyr-type variables, while suspected three other HADS including SS Psc to be not $`\delta `$ Sct-type. We found UY Cam resembles V1719 Cyg in several aspects. However, V1719 Cyg is remained as a $`\delta `$ Sct pulsator. A comparison between them was made and listed in Table 8. It is quite interesting to conduct a further comparison study for the two stars.

V1719 Cyg has a rotational velocity of $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$=31 km s-1 (Solano & Fernley, 1997). No observed $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ value was found for UY Cam in the literature, e.g. in the catalogue of stellar projected rotational velocities of Glebocki et al. (2000). According to the statistics made by Jiang (2000) and Rodríguez et al. (2000), as our previous estimate, UY Cam’s rotational velocity should be around 20 km s-1. Observations showed that the HADS appear to be much more slowly rotating than the other $`\delta `$ Sct stars, as pointed by e.g. Breger (2000). Statistic results of pulsation amplitudes vs rotational velocities of known 191 $`\delta `$ Sct stars are that amplitudes decrease with $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ values increasing, i.e. high-amplitude pulsators have low $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ values and fewer modes, while low-amplitude pulsators are more fast rotators with multiple simultaneously excited modes (Breger, 2000; Jiang, 2000; Rodríguez et al., 2000). This correlation between slow rotation and high amplitude may be an important clue to the excitation and damping mechanisms for the pulsations in these stars. However, limited by our observational conditions, we could not obtain a spectrum for this fainter star ($`V`$=11.4 mag). If a high-resolution spectrum of this star could be taken in the future so that some sort of model atmosphere fit could be done and then we may expect to derive its rotational velocity, effective temperature, surface gravity, metallicity and other atmospheric parameters. RR Lyr variables have no detectable rotation – Petersen et al. (1996) estimated an upper limit of $`v\mathrm{sin}i<`$ 10 km s-1 for the RR Lyr stars. So a spectroscopic study of UY Cam is very useful for determining the star’s nature.

SX Phe-type variables are not yet fully explained by the stellar evolution theory. Both SX Phe and RR Lyr stars are distance scale and are very important objects for the study of stellar evolution as well as the study of clusters and the structures of galaxies, in which quite a number of SX Phe and RR Lyr stars inhabit. The speciality sharing part of the photometric properties of $`\delta `$ Sct, SX Phe and RR Lyr variables makes UY Cam an important star.

### 4.3 The mode

From a study of phase shift and amplitude ratio between different colors’ data, UY Cam was identified as a radial pulsator (Rodríguez et al., 1996). By means of the empirical formula of Petersen & J$`ø`$rgensen (1972), we obtained pulsation constant $`Q`$=0.037$`\pm `$0.007 d for $`f_0`$. Error might be underestimated due to various calibrations used in deriving physical parameters. Anyhow, this Q value means the primary frequency is a radial mode. From the basic pulsation equation $`Q_0=P_0\sqrt{\overline{\rho }}`$ (here $`P_0`$ is the fundamental period), mean density $`\overline{\rho }`$=0.02 $`\rho _{}`$, is about double of the value estimated above ($`M/R^3`$0.01 $`\rho _{}`$). If $`\overline{\rho }`$=0.01 $`\rho _{}`$, then Q=0.0267 d, a value largely corresponding to first-overtone pulsation. So $`f_0`$ is probably not the fundamental mode. Furthermore, owing to the uncertainty in $`M_{\mathrm{bol}}`$ value, $`f_0`$ has possibilities to be a fundamental or first-overtone mode according to the empirical period-luminosity-color relations (Stellingwerf, 1979; López de Coca et al., 1990; Tsvetkov, 1985). If $`f_0`$ is the first-overtone mode, we could expect the mean period fundamentalized to be 2.913 d-1 by assuming normal frequency ratio $`f_0/f_1`$=0.778, the ratio predicted from models. We noted there is a term at 2.98 d-1 appeared in the residual spectrum after removing $`f_0`$ and $`2f_0`$, but not significant in the last panel of Fig. 1. Succeeding Fourier transforms output two frequencies at 1.364 and 2.987 d-1 with amplitudes 0.018 and 0.014 mag (below the significance level), respectively. But they were not detected to be real at all. It is very hard to safely detect an intrinsic oscillation frequency in this low-frequency region (0–4 d-1) at the above amplitude level. If $`f_0`$ were fundamental mode, then the expected second frequency would be at 4.8 d-1 as potential first-overtone mode. Similarly, this term is difficult to resolve with current data. Finally, obtaining accurate value of $`M_{\mathrm{bol}}`$ is very important to identify the mode of the primary frequency. If $`M_{\mathrm{bol}}`$ is positive, e.g. 0.2 mag, the mode will be the fundamental. In conclusion, the oscillation nature of $`f_0`$ is radial with possibility of fundamental or first-overtone mode.

## 5 Conclusions

Based on the available data from 1985 to 2003, we confirm UY Cam is a monoperiodic radial pulsator. The light curves of UY Cam are slightly asymmetrical. About 55% of time ($``$3.5 h) the variable be in the descending branch.

We searched the four-year data for possible frequency and amplitude variability. Fourier analyses cannot resolve period change (see Table 4). Forced parabolic fits to the observed minus calculated times of maximum light, Eq.(2) and (3), suggest a period change rate of $`\frac{d\mathrm{P}}{d\mathrm{t}}=(3.32\pm 2.53)\times 10^{11}`$ d d-1 or $`(10.0\pm 2.6)\times 10^{11}`$ d d-1. We discussed the distribution of the $`OC`$ data points in 1985–2003 and finally dismissed the treatment of inserting an offset for this part of data. Due to vacancies of data in the two periods 1965–85 and 1985–2000 and fewer data points in the $`OC`$ plot, fits to the $`OC`$ residuals suffered from great uncertainties. The $`OC`$ diagram is shown in Fig. 6. At present, we do not think the period change of UY Cam has been established concerning the current status of data and the fitted results. In the errors range, the amplitudes of $`f_0`$ were constant in 2000–2003, but it appeared to change from 1985 to 2000s. Table 5 shows the amplitudes in the 1985, 2000, 2002 and 2003.

According to the star’s location in the color-magnitude diagram (see fig. 8 of Rodríguez & Breger 2001), UY Cam is located in upper portion of the instability region of $`\delta `$ Sct variables. Using photometric indices, we derived the main physical parameters for UY Cam. The photometric properties and stellar parameters are given in Table 7. UY Cam could be a Pop. I high amplitude $`\delta `$ Sct star with poor metal abundances (Z=0.0037, about 18.5 per cent of solar values) evolving on its post-MS stage after the turn-off point (age=0.7$`\pm `$0.1 Gyr) in a shell hydrogen-burning phase. UY Cam probably pulsates in radial first-overtone mode.

UY Cam becomes an interesting object because of its longer period, poorer metallicity, higher luminosity, lower gravity and larger radius among the HADS. The star intervenes in Pop. I HADS, Pop. II HADS or SX Phe stars and RR Lyr-type stars. Concerning these properties and features, the variable is therefore an analogue of both dwarf Cepheids (HADS plus SX Phe) and RR Lyr stars.

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.10273014).


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# 1 Life expectancy of Swedish women, mostly from demog.berkeley.edu/wilmoth/mortality. The approximation by a straight line is much worse than that by a hyperbolic tangent. Thus our approximations which lead roughly to straight lines can only be used for limited times.

Should retirement age be coupled to life expectancy ?

J.S. Sá Martins1 and D. Stauffer2.

Laboratoire PMMH, Ecole Supérieure de Physique et Chimie Industrielle, 10 rue Vauquelin, F-75231 Paris, Euroland

1 Visiting from Instituto de Física, Universidade Federal Fluminense; Av. Litorânea s/n, Boa Viagem, Niterói 24210-340, RJ, Brazil; jssm@if.uff.br

2 Visiting from Institute for Theoretical Physics, Cologne University, D-50923 Köln, Euroland; stauffer@thp.uni-koeln.de

Abstract: Increasing every year the retirement age by the same amount as the increase of the life expectancy gives roughly stable ratios of the number of retired to working-age people in industrialized countries. Continuous influx of immigrants, below one percent per year of the total population, is needed for this stabilization.

The increase of the life expectancy (at birth) over the last centuries in the industrialized countries is enormous, as seen in Figure 1 from Wilmoth’s Berkeley Mortality Database for Swedish women. The nonlinearity of this increase warns us against extrapolating present trends to more than a century. Nevertheless, the increase of the number of older people is for the next few decades a rather predictable “age quake” and causes governments in the industrialized countries to plan reductions in pensions and increases in the retirement age. In France, these plans lead to social unrest in 2003, in Germany they are also discussed controversially since fall of 2002, in Brazil the legislation of 2003 was pushed through against protest demonstrations of tens of thousands of public employees, in California public retirement benefits might in the future become available only after an age coupled to life expectancy. We prefer to simulate the effects of such legislation on a computer before they are imposed on millions of people (Bomsdorf 1993 and 2003, Tuljapurkar et al. 2000, Olshansky et al. 2001, Łaszkiewicz et al. 2003).

Our basic method was described by Stauffer (2002) and assumes for the adult mortality function at age $`x`$ a Gompertz law $`\mu /b=Ae^{b(xX)}`$, with time-dependent parameters $`b0.1;X100`$, where our time unit is one year (Mildvan and Strehler 1960, Gavrilov and Gavrilova 1991, Azbel 1996, Wachter and Finch 1997). Starting in the year 2005, immigration of people between the ages of 6 and 40 amounts to a fraction $`c`$ of the total population each year; $`c`$ is about half a percent. Births diminished drastically around 1970 to 1.4 per woman and are assumed to stay at this value, below the replacement value slightly above 2; thus immigration is needed to stabilize the population. The results are given by Stauffer (2002).

Now we are interested in the ratio $`R`$ of the number of people beyond average retirement age $`x_r`$ to the number of working-age people and how $`R`$ depends on changes in this retirement age $`x_r`$. Working was assumed to start at age 20; the present retirement age was taken as 62. Figure 2 summarizes the resulting ratio $`R`$ from several assumptions. The three top curves assume no immigration. The top curve assumes the retirement age to stay at 62. The second-highest curve assumes $`x_r`$ to increase from 62 to 64 over an interval of 24 years, starting in 2011, while the third curve from top assumes an increase from 62 to 67 over the same time interval; such laws are presently discussed in Germany. The lowest curve adds half a percent immigration per year to the model given by the third-highest curve.

Such increases in $`x_r`$ are easily accepted by computers but not by humans. Public acceptance might be higher if the changes do not seem to be arbitrarily imposed by politicians but arise more unavoidably from nature, like ageing. The life expectancy $`L`$ at birth is a widely reported quantity, and a coupling of changes in $`L`$ to changes in $`x_r`$ appears more plausible and thus perhaps more acceptable. Though $`L`$ from cohort life tables should be better (Bomsdorf 2003) than $`L`$ from period life tables, we take $`L`$ as that calculated from the mortalities in the given year of the computer simulation, since this $`L`$ is best known to the general public. And we use both $`L`$ at birth and the remaining life expectancy after retirement which is more relevant for financing retirement than life expectancy at birth.

Figure 3 shows what happens if, starting after 2010, each year $`x_r`$ is increased by an amount proportional to the increase of $`L`$ five years earlier. The proportionality factor is 1.0 for $`L`$ at retirement and 0.6 for $`L`$ at birth. We see slight periodic oscillations not visible in Figure 2, but otherwise the results look nice and show the dangerous peak in $`R`$ around the year 2030 to be of rather limited duration and thus perhaps better manageable than the results of Fig.2. (Immigration was set at $`c=0.0038`$ to keep the total population constant in the second half of the 21st century). Fig. 4 shows the resulting change in $`L`$ and $`x_r`$.

In summary we found in Fig.3 a surprisingly stable though high ratio $`R`$ of pensioneers to working-age people, if the retirement age is coupled to the life expectancy at birth.

Acknowledgements: To PMMH at ESPCI for the warm hospitality, to Sorin Tănase-Nicola for helping us with the computer facilities; JSSM thanks the Brazilian agency FAPERJ for financial support.

Azbel, M. Ya., 1996. Unitary mortality law and species-specific age. Proc. Roy. Soc. B 263, 1449-1454.

Bomsdorf, E., 1993. Generationensterbetafeln für die Geburtsjahrgänge 1923-1993: Modellrechnungen für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Verlag Josef Eul, Köln; and 2003 preprint, Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences, Cologne University.

Gavrilov, L.A., Gavrilova, N.S. 1991. The Biology of Life Span, Harwood Academic Publisher, Chur and 2001. The reliability theory of aging and longevity, J. Theor. Biology 213, 527-545.

Łaszkiewicz A., Szymczak Sz., S. Cebrat S., 2003. The Oldest Old and the Population Heterogeneity. Int. J. Modern Physics C 14, No. 10 (2003).

Olshansky, S.J., Carnes B.A., Désesquelles A., 2001. Demography - Prospects for human longevity Science 291, 1491-1492.

Stauffer D., 2002. Simple tools for forecasts of population ageing in developed countries based on extrapolations of human mortality, fertility and migration. Exp. Gerontology 37, 1131-1136.

Strehler, B. L., Mildvan, A.S. 1960. General theory of mortality and aging, Science 132, 14-21.

Wachter, K.W., Finch, C.E., 1997. Between Zeus and the Salmon. The Biodemography of Longevity, National Academy Press, Washington DC; see also La Recherche 322 (various authors), July/August 1999; Nature 408, No. 680 (various authors), November 9, 2000.

Tuljapurkar, S., Li, N., Boe, C., 2000. A universal pattern of mortality decline in the G7 countries. Nature 405, 789-792.


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# Tidal Streams around External Galaxies

## 1. Introduction

Hierarchical clustering scenarios of galaxy formation, such as cold dark matter-dominated cosmologies, predict that structure forms first on small scales and later combines to form larger galaxies. Low-mass objects similar to dwarf galaxies are supposed to be the building blocks and should have formed prior to the epoch of giant galaxy formation. Later they merge to build the larger galaxies. In this context, the accretion and tidal disruption of dwarf galaxies would play an important role in the evolution of galaxy halos and is essential for understanding the stellar mass assembly of large spiral galaxies. Minor mergers (satellites with about 1/10 $`M_{\mathrm{parent}}`$) will significantly affect the star-formation and further evolution of disk galaxies, e.g. by inducing disk thickening, warping, or bar formation. Even smaller minor mergers, so called “miniscule” mergers (Ibata 2001), with dwarf galaxies of lower mass should frequently happen to every large spiral galaxy. This accretion of low-mass systems, as a natural consequence of the merging history of a galaxy, is still ongoing and should give rise to long stellar streams (Johnston et al. 1996) around the parent galaxies.

## 2. Known Stellar Streams and Open Questions

The Local Group is the natural place to start looking for streams and the discovery of the prior unknown Sagittarius dwarf galaxy (Ibata et al. 1994) revealed a close satellite of the Milky Way confirmed to be caught in the act of tidal destruction by means of star counts and kinematics. In addition, Ibata et al. (2001) detected another giant stellar stream within M31’s (Andromeda Galaxy) halo. The Sgr and And stream support the scenario of “spaghetti halos” (Morrison et al. 2000): Galaxy halos build up by accumulation of tidally disrupted dwarf galaxies. But are tidal streams really common around galaxies? Only a few detections of possible streams in external galaxies have been made. Taking into account that Sgr viewed from outside would have a surface brightness of $`\mu _\mathrm{V}=31`$mag$`/`$$`\mathrm{}^{\prime \prime }`$, this is not difficult to understand. The first examples of extragalactic tidal streams are shown in the paper by Malin & Hadly (1997). Using special contrast enhancement techniques they were able to highlight faint structures around nearby galaxies of large angular size on deep photographic plates. From this paper M 83 (cf. Fig. 1) is probably one of the best cases, but structures in M 104 (Sombrero) and NGC 2855 may also represent stellar streams.

Perhaps the most compelling example found to date is an elliptical loop, 45 kpc in diameter, around the nearby, late-type, edge-on galaxy NGC 5907 by Shang et al. (1998). Recent discoveries include Peng et al.’s (2002) detection of a stellar stream in the envelope of the giant elliptical galaxy NGC 5128 (CenA), and a fine example in the HST/ACS commissioning data which nicely shows that UGC 10214’s long tail is produced by tidal disruption of an in-falling dwarf galaxy.

The discovery of these extragalactic tidal streams evoke a number of questions: Are they exceptional cases or are tidal streams around galaxies really as common as predicted by current models? Are these examples typical of the appearance of such streams? What can we learn from these streams? What are the possibilities to find more of them? The latter question is addressed nicely by Johnston et al. (2001), who estimate typical surface brightnesses of streams around external galaxies from semianalytic modelling. For one of their $`10^8M_{}`$ model satellites the stream starts with surface brightness $`\mu _\mathrm{R}26.0`$ mag$`/`$$`\mathrm{}^{\prime \prime }`$and, by spreading stripped material along its orbit, decreases to 28.5 mag$`/`$$`\mathrm{}^{\prime \prime }`$after 1 Gyr and down to 30.0 mag$`/`$$`\mathrm{}^{\prime \prime }`$after 4 Gyr . Systematic searches for more extragalactic tidal streams, in addition to providing evidence for the miniscule merger scenario, would hopefully turn up more examples of geometrically simple cases like NGC 5907 for which comparison to models like those of Johnston et al. (2001) would yield reliable estimates of progenitor mass and age.

## 3. New Streams and Outlook

What methods can be used to detect extragalactic streams? While previous discoveries have been serendipitous, the natural approach would be a deep survey of edge-on spiral galaxies in order to geometrically maximize the detection probability. This could be done either for nearby, large angular sized galaxies with the currently available wide-field imaging devices or for more distant samples using single CCD devices. Though the influence of the $`(1+z)^4`$ cosmological surface brightness dimming for galaxies out to 100 Mpc will be negligible — only 0.1 mag — we have had little success with either approach: In a pilot survey using deep KPNO 0.9m MOSAIC images ($`\mu _{\mathrm{lim}}^\mathrm{R}27`$ mag$`/`$$`\mathrm{}^{\prime \prime }`$), we have not found indications for streams around the nearby edge-on disks NGC 3044, NGC 3079, and NGC 3432, and, surprisingly, in a deep ($`\mu _{\mathrm{lim}}^\mathrm{V}2627`$ mag$`/`$$`\mathrm{}^{\prime \prime }`$) imaging sample of $`80`$ more distant, edge-on disk galaxies (Pohlen 2001) we have found only one clear example (ESO 572-044) of a minor merger stream (two additional galaxies — NGC 5170 and ESO 286-018 — show clear tidal features but are probably connected to more similar mass sized companions). Meanwhile, we have had better success searching publicly available, deep, wide-field surveys. Though not typically centered on nearby spiral galaxies and the typically detected streams will tend to be at redshifts where the surface brightness dimming becomes important (e.g., for a redshift of $`z=0.12`$ the brightness already decreases by 0.5 mag), this technique has been used to find three of the four new stream candidates shown in Fig. 2:

ESO 572-044: This Sb galaxy (diameter: $`d=`$1.7) is probably surrounded by a tidal stream. It is enclosed by an arc-like structure with a possible dwarf galaxy as the origin. ESO 572-044 exhibits a large thick outer disk at low surface brightness which may indicate a recent interaction with the similar-sized nearby spiral ESO 572-046 ($`\mathrm{\Delta }v_{\mathrm{rad}}=150`$kms-1). PGC 1018343: This small galaxy ($`d25`$′′) was fortuitously found on a deep ING/WFC image. It is listed as NPM1G-07.0455 in NED and also detected in 2MASS, but has no measured redshift. The stream is clearly visible on the lower right side but also extends to the upper left side. PGC 751050: This edge-on S0 galaxy ($`d25`$′′) is another serendipitous detection of a possible stream found in the ESO-WFI wide-field image of the Chandra Deep Field South. The stream is obvious and connected to a possible satellite at the end. It has a 2dF redshift of $`z=0.1028`$ and is listed in 2MASS as 2MASXi J0332467-274212. S J160610.7+552700 : This spiral galaxy ($`d20`$′′) with unknown distance lay by chance in the field of the HST image of the famous Tadpole galaxy taken during ACS commissioning. It also shows a stream extending on both sides.

We are in the process of collecting the missing redshifts and calibrated photometry that will allow a detailed comparison of these new detections with the Johnston et al. (2001) models. In addition, we are working with a deep, partly multi-colour, public survey of 10 $`\mathrm{}^{^{}}`$from the Wide Field Camera at the ESO 2.2m telescope (kindly provided by M.Schirmer and T.Erben from Bonn University). This survey covers a set of random fields outside of any specific cluster, and therefore provides a suitable sample of isolated spiral galaxies at various redshifts to systematically search for tidal streams.

Acknowledgments.  Credits for UGC 10214 to NASA, H. Ford (JHU), G. Illingworth (USCS/LO), M.Clampin (STScI), G. Hartig (STScI), the ACS Science Team, and ESA. We would like to thank Mischa Schirmer and Thomas Erben at the “Wide Field Expertise Center” of the Institut für Astrophysik und Extraterrestrische Forschung der Universität Bonn (IAEF) in Germany for providing the reduced ESO/WFI CDF-S image. In addition, we would like to thank D. Malin for providing the deep photographic image of M83 (Fig. 1).

## References

Ibata, R. A., Gilmore, G., & Irwin, M. J. 1994, Nature, 370, 194

Ibata, R. 2002, ASP Conf. Ser. 275: Disks of Galaxies, p.431

Ibata, R., Irwin, M., Lewis, G., Ferguson, A. M. N., & Tanvir, N. 2001, Nature, 412, 49

Johnston, K. V., Hernquist, L., & Bolte, M. 1996 ApJ, 465, 278

Johnston, K. V., Sackett, P. D., & Bullock, J. S. 2001, ApJ, 557, 137

Malin, D. & Hadley, B. 1997, PASA, 14, 52

Morrison, H. L., Mateo, M., Olszewski, E. W., et al. 2000, AJ, 119, 2254

Peng, E. W., Ford, H. C., Freeman, K. C., & White, R. L. 2002, AJ, 124, 3144

Pohlen, M. 2001, PhD thesis, University Bochum

Shang, Z., et al. 1998, ApJL, 504, L23;


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# Vacuum Condensates and Dynamical Mass Generation in Euclidean Yang-Mills Theories**footnote *Talk given by S.P. Sorella at the International Conference on Color Confinement and Hadrons in Quantum Chromodynamics, Confinement 2003, TITech & RIKEN, Tokyo, Japan, July 21-24, 2003.

## 1 Introduction

Vacuum condensates of dimension two in Yang-Mills theories have witnessed increasing interest in recent years, both from the theoretical point of view as well as from lattice simulations, which have provided rather strong evidence for an effective dynamically generated gluon mass. Here we shall report on our current work on these condensates. Our aim is that of defining a renormalizable effective potential and evaluating it in analytic form. The condensates arise thus as nontrivial solutions of the gap equation corresponding to the minimization of the effective potential. The content of this work is as follows. In Sect.2 we review the gluon condensate $`A^2`$ in the Landau gauge. In Sect.3 the mixed gluon-ghost condensate $`\frac{1}{2}A_\mu ^\alpha A_\mu ^\alpha +\xi \overline{c}^\alpha c^\alpha `$ is analysed in the Maximal Abelian and Curci-Ferrari gauges. Sect.4 contains a few remarks on the gauge (in)dependence of the obtained effective gluon mass and on possible relationships with lattice simulations. We conclude with a short discussion on the operator $`A^2`$ in linear covariant $`\alpha `$-gauges.

## 2 The condensate $`A^2`$ in the Landau gauge

The gluon condensate $`A^2=A_\mu ^aA_\mu ^a`$ in the Landau gauge has been introduced  in order to account for the discrepancy between the expected perturbative behavior and the lattice results concerning the two and three point functions in pure Yang-Mills theories. The lattice estimate for the condensate is  $`A^2(1.64GeV)^2`$. A simple argument shows that $`d^4xA^2`$ is invariant under infinitesimal gauge transformations, $`\delta A_\mu ^a=\left(D_\mu \omega \right)^a`$, in the Landau gauge, $`A=0`$, namely $`\delta d^4xA^2=0`$. In the BRST framework, it turns out that $`d^4xA^2`$ is BRST invariant on shell

$$sd^4xA^2=0+\mathrm{Eqs}.\mathrm{motion}$$
(1)
This property ensures that the local operator $`A^2`$ is multiplicatively renormalizable to all orders of perturbation theory . Its anomalous dimension $`\gamma _{A^2}`$ can be expressed  as a combination of the gauge beta function $`\beta `$ and of the anomalous dimension $`\gamma _A`$ of the gauge field $`A_\mu ^a`$, i.e.,

$$\gamma _{A^2}=\left(\frac{\beta (a)}{a}+\gamma _A(a)\right),a=\frac{g^2}{16\pi ^2}$$
(2)
Concerning the analytic evaluation of $`A^2`$, the two-loop effective potential for $`A^2`$ has been obtained  in pure Yang-Mills theory by combining the Local Composite Operators technique with the Renormalization Group Equations. This has led to a gap equation whose weak coupling solution gives a nonvanishing condensate, resulting in an effective gluon mass $`m_{\mathrm{gluon}}500MeV`$. Recently, the inclusion of massless quarks has been worked out . It is worth mentioning that an effective gluon mass has been reported in lattice simulations in the Landau gauge , yielding $`m_{\mathrm{gluon}}600MeV`$.

## 3  Other Gauges

### 3.1 The Maximal Abelian Gauge

The so called Maximal Abelian gauge (MAG) plays an important role for the dual superconductivity picture for confinement. In the MAG, the gauge field is decomposed according to the generators of the Cartan subgroup of the gauge group. For $`SU(2)`$, we have $`A_\mu ^aT^a=A_\mu T^3+A_\mu ^\alpha T^\alpha `$ with $`\alpha =1,2`$. The gauge fixing term in the MAG is given by

$$d^4x\left[\frac{1}{2\xi }F^\alpha F^\alpha \overline{c}^\alpha M^{\alpha \beta }c^\beta g^2\xi \left(\overline{c}^\alpha \epsilon ^{\alpha \beta }c^\beta \right)^2\right]$$
(3)
where $`\xi `$ is the gauge parameter and

$$F^\alpha =D_\mu ^{\alpha \beta }A_\mu ^\beta =\left(_\mu A_\mu ^\alpha +g\epsilon ^{\alpha \beta }A_\mu A_\mu ^\beta \right)$$
(4)
with

$$M^{\alpha \beta }=(D_\mu ^{\alpha \gamma }D_\mu ^{\gamma \beta }+g^2\epsilon ^{\alpha \gamma }\epsilon ^{\beta \sigma }A_\mu ^\gamma A_\mu ^\sigma )$$
(5)
The MAG allows for a residual local $`U(1)`$ invariance, which has to be fixed later on. Lattice simulations have shown that the off-diagonal components $`A_\mu ^\beta `$ acquire a mass , reporting $`m_{\mathrm{off}\mathrm{diag}}1.2GeV`$. The operator $`A^2`$ can be generalized to the MAG . Indeed, the gluon-ghost dimension two operator $`O_{\mathrm{MAG}}=\left(\frac{1}{2}A_\mu ^\alpha A_\mu ^\alpha +\xi \overline{c}^\alpha c^\alpha \right)`$ turns out to be BRST invariant on-shell, namely

$$sd^4xO_{\mathrm{MAG}}=0+\mathrm{Eqs}.\mathrm{motion}$$
(6)
The condensate $`O_{\mathrm{MAG}}`$ could thus provide effective masses for the off-diagonal components. However, at present, very little is known about the condensate $`O_{\mathrm{MAG}}`$. Concerning the UV properties of $`O_{\mathrm{MAG}}`$, it has been proven  to be multiplicatively renormalizable. Its anomalous dimension can be expressed as

$$\gamma _{O_{\mathrm{MAG}}}=2\left(\frac{\beta (a)}{a}+\gamma _{c_{\mathrm{diag}}}\right)$$
(7)
where $`\gamma _{c_{\mathrm{diag}}}`$ is the anomalous dimension of the diagonal ghost field.

### 3.2 The Curci-Ferrari gauge

The Curci-Ferrari gauge shares similarities with the MAG, providing useful information on the gluon-ghost condensate. The gauge fixing term is

$$d^4x\left(\frac{\left(A^a\right)^2}{2\xi }+\overline{c}^a_\mu D_\mu c^a+\frac{\xi g}{2}f^{abc}A^a\overline{c}^bc^c\frac{\xi g^2}{16}f^{abc}\overline{c}^a\overline{c}^bf^{mnc}c^mc^n\right)$$
(8)
where $`a,b,c=1,\mathrm{},(N^21)`$ for $`SU(N)`$. For the gluon-ghost operator in the CF gauge we have $`O_{\mathrm{CF}}=\left(\frac{1}{2}A_\mu ^aA_\mu ^a+\xi \overline{c}^ac^a\right)`$. The operator $`O_{\mathrm{CF}}`$ is renormalizable to all orders, its anomalous dimension being given by

$$\gamma _{O_{\mathrm{CF}}}=2\left(\gamma _c+\gamma _{gc^2}\right)$$
(9)
where $`\gamma _{gc^2}`$ is the anomalous dimension of the composite operator corresponding to the BRST variation of the ghost $`c`$, i.e., $`sc=\frac{g}{2}f^{abc}c^bc^c`$. Recently, the effective potential for $`O_{\mathrm{CF}}`$ has been obtained , leading to a nonvanishing condensate $`O_{\mathrm{CF}}`$ and to a dynamical gluon mass. Something similar is expected to happen in the MAG.

## 4 Open problems and future perspectives

Many aspects concerning the gauge condensates of dimensions two are still open, deserving a better understanding. Two important questions which arise almost immediately are:

$``$ 1) are these condensates related to the effective gluon masses observed in lattice simulations?

$``$ 2) to what extent are these condensates and the related gluon masses gauge (in)dependent?

Concerning the first question, it could be useful to observe that, to the first approximation, the condensates $`A^2`$, $`A^2/2+\xi \overline{c}c`$ modify the euclidean gluon propagator according to

$$\frac{1}{k^2}\frac{1}{k^2+m_{\mathrm{eff}}^2}$$
(10)
This suggests that the lattice data could be fitted with a formula which contains a Yukawa type term. This seems to be the case for the off-diagonal masses in the MAG . Also, it is worth remarking that the fitting formula employed in the lattice simulations for the gluon propagator in the Landau gauge

$$\underset{a,\mu }{}A_\mu ^a(k)A_\mu ^a(k)=\frac{N}{k^2+m_A^2}\left[\frac{1}{k^4+m_2^4}+\frac{s}{\left(\mathrm{log}(m_L^2+k^2)\right)^{13/22}}\right]$$
(11)
contains in fact a Yukawa term. Expression (11) fits well the lattice data with

$$m_A=0.64GeV,m_2=1.31GeV,m_L=1.23GeV,s=0.32,N=8.1$$

Concerning the second question, we look at other gauges allowing for a local renormalizable operator which could condense, providing thus an effective gluon mass. That is why we are studying in detail the local operator $`A^2`$ in linear covariant $`\alpha `$-gauges, whose gauge fixing term is

$$d^4x\left(\frac{1}{2\alpha }\left(A^a\right)^2_\mu \overline{c}^aD_\mu c^a\right)$$
(12)
Notice that in this gauge the operator $`A^2`$ is not BRST invariant on-shell. Nevertheless, we have strong indications of its multiplicative renormalizability to all orders of perturbation theory . There is a simple understanding of this property. In linear $`\alpha `$-gauges, due to the shift symmetry of the antighost, i.e. $`\overline{c}\overline{c}+\mathrm{const}.`$, the operator $`A^2`$ cannot mix with the other dimension two ghost composite operator $`\overline{c}c`$, which cannot show up due to the above symmetry. The renormalizability of $`A^2`$ is the first step towards the construction of a renormalizable effective potential in order to study the possible condensation of $`A^2`$ and the related dynamical mass generation . Although this doesn’t yet answer the question of the gauge (in)dependence, it might increase the number of gauges displaying such an interesting phenomenon. Finally, it is worth underlining that an effective gluon mass has been reported in the Coulomb gauge  as well as in the lattice Laplacian gauge .

## Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the Organizing Committee of the Conference and to M.N. Chernodub, H. Suganuma, V.I. Zakharov and D. Zwanziger for valuable and helpful discussions. We are indebted to J. Greensite for pointing out ref.. The Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico CNPq-Brazil, the SR2-UERJ, the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior CAPES and the MIUR-Italy are acknowledged for financial support.