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# IFIC/03-43, FTUV/03-0930 Phenomenology of the ⟨VVP⟩ Green’s function within the Resonance Chiral Theory Talk given by P. D. Ruiz-Femenía at the High-Energy Physics International Conference in Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD 03), Montpellier, France, 2–8 July 2003.

## 1 Introduction

Effective field theories of QCD have provided efficient ways to explore hadron dynamics in those regimes where we are not able to solve the full theory. In the very low-energy domain, chiral perturbation theory ($`\chi `$PT)  has achieved a remarkable success in describing the strong interactions among pseudoscalar mesons. Moving up to the 1 GeV region the effects of vector resonances become dominant and must be accommodated in the theory. Several works  have provided a sound procedure to include resonance states within the chiral framework, namely the Resonance Chiral Theory (R$`\chi `$T). As the couplings entering the effective Lagrangian are not fixed by the symmetry alone, one should rely on the phenomenology or, alternatively, construct theoretical tools that could provide a meaningful way to compare the results of the effective theory with those of QCD. The pioneering work of Ref.  indicated that the analysis of Green’s functions and form factors of QCD currents yields valuable information on the resonance sector.

Recently, several authors have pushed forward this direction, either by using a Lagrangian with explicit resonance degrees of freedom or within the framework of the lowest meson dominance (LMD) approximation to the large number of colours ($`N_C`$) limit of QCD . In particular, the authors of Ref.  undertook a systematic study of several QCD three-point functions which are free of perturbative contributions from QCD at short distances. Therefore, their OPE expansion should be more reliable when descending to energies close to the resonance region. Under this hypothesis, it was shown  that while the ansatz derived from the LMD approach automatically incorporates the right short-distance behaviour of QCD by construction, the same Green’s functions as calculated with a resonance Lagrangian, in the vector-field representation, are incompatible with the OPE outcome. Moreover the authors put forward that these discrepancies cannot be repaired just by introducing local counterterms from the chiral Lagrangian $`_\chi ^{(6)}`$, as it was done at $`𝒪(p^4)`$ . This result severely questions the usefulness of the resonance effective theory beyond the initial work of Ref. , and deserves further investigation.

With this aim, we have reanalysed the vector-vector-pseudoscalar three-point function, this time with the vector mesons described in terms of antisymmetric tensor fields. This requires the introduction of an odd-intrinsic-parity effective Lagrangian in the formulation of Ref.  containing all allowed interactions between two vector objects (currents or resonances) and one pseudoscalar meson. The details of the calculation can be found in Ref. .

## 2 R$`\chi `$T and the odd-intrinsic-parity sector

The low-energy behaviour of QCD for the light quark sector is ruled by the spontaneous breaking of chiral symmetry. The corresponding effective realization of QCD describing the interaction between the Goldstone fields is $`\chi `$PT given, at $`𝒪(p^2)`$, by

$$_\chi ^{(2)}=(F^2/4)u_\mu u^\mu +\chi ^+.$$
(1)
The inclusion of resonances as explicit degrees of freedom in the chiral framework was carried out in Ref.  for the even–intrinsic–parity sector ($`_\mathrm{V}`$). For the odd–intrinsic–parity sector, three different sources might contribute to the $`\mathrm{VVP}`$ Green’s function :

* the Wess-Zumino action $`Z_{\mathrm{WZ}}[v,a]`$ , which is of $`𝒪(p^4)`$ and fulfills the chiral anomaly,
* chiral invariant $`ϵ_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }`$ terms involving vector mesons. Within the antisymmetric formalism, the basis of odd-intrinsic-parity operators which comprise all possible vertices involving two vector resonances and one pseudoscalar (VVP), and vertices with one vector resonance and one external vector source plus one pseudoscalar (VJP) reads:

$`𝒪_{\text{VJP}}^1`$ $`=`$ $`ϵ_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }\{V^{\mu \nu },f_+^{\rho \alpha }\}_\alpha u^\sigma ,`$
$`𝒪_{\text{VJP}}^2`$ $`=`$ $`ϵ_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }\{V^{\mu \alpha },f_+^{\rho \sigma }\}_\alpha u^\nu ,`$
$`𝒪_{\text{VJP}}^3`$ $`=`$ $`iϵ_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }\{V^{\mu \nu },f_+^{\rho \sigma }\}\chi _{},`$
$`𝒪_{\text{VJP}}^4`$ $`=`$ $`iϵ_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }V^{\mu \nu }[f_{}^{\rho \sigma },\chi _+],`$
$`𝒪_{\text{VJP}}^5`$ $`=`$ $`ϵ_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }\{_\alpha V^{\mu \nu },f_+^{\rho \alpha }\}u^\sigma ,`$
$`𝒪_{\text{VJP}}^6`$ $`=`$ $`ϵ_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }\{_\alpha V^{\mu \alpha },f_+^{\rho \sigma }\}u^\nu ,`$
$`𝒪_{\text{VJP}}^7`$ $`=`$ $`ϵ_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }\{^\sigma V^{\mu \nu },f_+^{\rho \alpha }\}u_\alpha ,`$ (2)
$`𝒪_{\text{VVP}}^1`$ $`=`$ $`ϵ_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }\{V^{\mu \nu },V^{\rho \alpha }\}_\alpha u^\sigma ,`$
$`𝒪_{\text{VVP}}^2`$ $`=`$ $`iϵ_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }\{V^{\mu \nu },V^{\rho \sigma }\}\chi _{},`$
$`𝒪_{\text{VVP}}^3`$ $`=`$ $`ϵ_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }\{_\alpha V^{\mu \nu },V^{\rho \alpha }\}u^\sigma ,`$
$`𝒪_{\text{VVP}}^4`$ $`=`$ $`ϵ_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }\{^\sigma V^{\mu \nu },V^{\rho \alpha }\}u_\alpha .`$ (3)
The corresponding resonance Lagrangian will thus be defined as

$$_V^{\mathrm{odd}}=\underset{a=1}{\overset{7}{}}\frac{c_a}{M_V}𝒪_{\text{VJP}}^a+\underset{a=1}{\overset{4}{}}d_a𝒪_{\text{VVP}}^a.$$
(4)
* the relevant operators in the $`𝒪(p^6)`$ Goldstone chiral Lagrangian . The successful resonance saturation of the chiral Lagrangian couplings at $`𝒪(p^4)`$  might translate naturally to $`𝒪(p^6)`$ couplings too, implying that they are generated completely through integration of vector resonances. Accordingly we do not include $`_{\mathrm{odd}}^{(6)}`$ in our evaluation.

In summary we will proceed in the following by considering the relevant effective resonance theory (ERT) given by :

$$Z_{\mathrm{ERT}}[v,a,s,p]=Z_{\mathrm{WZ}}[v,a]+Z_{\mathrm{V}\chi }^{\mathrm{odd}}[v,a,s,p],$$
(5)
where $`Z_{\mathrm{V}\chi }^{\mathrm{odd}}`$ is generated by $`_\chi ^{(2)}`$, $`_\mathrm{V}`$ and $`_V^{\mathrm{odd}}`$.

## 3 Short-distance information on the odd-intrinsic-parity couplings

The vector-vector-pseudoscalar QCD three-point function $`\mathrm{VVP}`$ is built from the octet vector current and the octet pseudoscalar density,

$`(\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mathrm{VVP}})_{\mu \nu }^{(abc)}`$ $`(p,q)={\displaystyle d^4xd^4ye^{i(px+qy)}}`$
$`\times `$ $`0|T[V_\mu ^a(x)V_\nu ^b(y)P^c(0)]|0`$
$`=`$ $`ϵ_{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }p^\alpha q^\beta d^{abc}\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mathrm{VVP}}(p^2,q^2,r^2),`$ (6)
with the four-vector $`r=(p+q)`$.

When both momenta $`p,q`$ in $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mathrm{VVP}}`$ become simultaneously large, the QCD calculation within the OPE framework gives, in the chiral limit and up to corrections of $`𝒪(\alpha _s)`$, :

$`\underset{\lambda \mathrm{}}{lim}\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mathrm{VVP}}`$ $`((\lambda p)^2,(\lambda q)^2,(\lambda r)^2)`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\overline{\psi }\psi _0}{2\lambda ^4}}{\displaystyle \frac{p^2+q^2+r^2}{p^2q^2r^2}}+𝒪\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\lambda ^6}}\right),`$ (7)
where $`\overline{\psi }\psi _0`$ is the single flavour bilinear quark condensate.

At leading order in the $`1/N_C`$ expansion of QCD, the three-point correlator in the effective resonance theory given by $`Z_{\mathrm{ERT}}`$ is evaluated from the tree-level diagrams shown in Fig. 1. The LMD approximation, which assumes that a single resonance in each channel saturates the requirements of QCD, is sufficient to satisfy the short–distance constraint (7) up to order $`1/\lambda ^4`$, provided the following conditions among the $`_V^{\mathrm{odd}}`$ couplings hold:

$`4c_3+c_1`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$
$`c_1c_2+c_5`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$
$`c_5c_6`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{N_C}{64\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{M_V}{\sqrt{2}F_V}},`$
$`d_1+8d_2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{N_C}{64\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{M_V^2}{F_V^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{F^2}{4F_V^2}},`$
$`d_3`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{N_C}{64\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{M_V^2}{F_V^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{F^2}{8F_V^2}}.`$ (8)
As the couplings of the Effective Lagrangian do not depend on the masses of the Goldstone fields the constraints above apply for non–zero pseudoscalar masses too.

Actually our $`\mathrm{VVP}`$ three-point function fully reproduces the LMD ansatz suggested in Ref.  :

$`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mathrm{VVP}}^{\mathrm{res}}={\displaystyle \frac{\overline{\psi }\psi _0}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{(p^2+q^2+r^2)\frac{N_C}{4\pi ^2}\frac{M_V^4}{F^2}}{(p^2M_V^2)(q^2M_V^2)r^2}},`$ (9)
which has been successfully tested in previous works . The authors of Ref.  found that the same agreement with the short-distance QCD behaviour could not be reached working with the resonance Lagrangian in the vector representation, not even at the expense of introducing local contributions from the $`𝒪(p^6)`$ chiral Lagrangian. They then suggested that the problem may be inherent to the effective Lagrangian approach and unlikely to be fixed just by using other representations for the resonance fields; our result, derived in the antisymmetric tensor-field formulation with an odd-intrinsic-parity sector, contradicts this assertion, at least in what concerns the $`\mathrm{VVP}`$ Green’s function.

## 4 Phenomenology of intrinsic-parity violating processes

### 4.1 $`𝝎\mathbf{}𝝅𝜸`$

At tree-level, the intrinsic-parity violating transition $`\omega \pi \gamma `$ receives contributions from both the VJP and VVP terms of $`_V^{\mathrm{odd}}`$ (direct and $`\rho `$-mediated diagrams respectively). If we plug in the QCD constraints, Eq. (8), we find a full prediction for this process :

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\omega \pi \gamma )`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{\alpha }{192}}M_\omega \left(1{\displaystyle \frac{m_\pi ^2}{M_\omega ^2}}\right)^3`$
$`\times `$ $`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{N_C}{4\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{M_\omega ^2}{F^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{M_\omega ^2}{M_V^2}}\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{m_\pi ^2}{M_\omega ^2}}\right)\right]^2.`$ (10)
The direct and the $`\rho `$ exchange diagrams almost contribute to similar extent to this process. This means that contrary to what we would expect from VMD, the $`\omega \rho \pi `$ coupling does not saturate the decay $`\omega \pi \gamma `$. This has immediate consequences to other channels where VMD alone was thought to be the relevant mechanism of decay, as in $`\omega \pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^0`$, where the direct amplitude competes in size with the intermediate meson exchange term .

Varying the parameter $`F`$ from the bare value $`F_087`$ MeV to the dressed one (i.e. the pion decay constant), $`F_\pi 92.4`$ MeV , we get that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\omega \pi \gamma )`$ ranges from 0.703 MeV to 0.524 MeV, with $`M_V=M_\rho =771.1`$ MeV and $`M_\omega =782.6`$ MeV . This 5–30% deviation from the experimental value, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\omega \pi \gamma )|_{\mathrm{exp}}=(0.734\pm 0.035)\mathrm{MeV}`$, is in accordance with the expected size of next-to-leading $`1/N_C`$ corrections. Also the $`\rho \pi \gamma `$ decay widths, related with $`\omega \pi \gamma `$ by a SU(3)V-symmetry factor, are extracted from the analysis .

### 4.2 $`𝝅\mathbf{}𝜸𝜸`$

In the chiral limit, the amplitude for the $`\pi \gamma \gamma `$ process is non-vanishing and exactly predicted by the ABJ anomaly. The odd-intrinsic-parity interactions among vector resonances introduced in Section 2 generate $`𝒪(p^6)`$ chiral corrections to this process. Only the two-resonance driven diagram survives after the short-distance conditions are applied. The correction induced into the $`\pi \gamma \gamma `$ width gives :

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi \gamma \gamma )=\frac{\alpha ^2}{64\pi ^3F^2}m_\pi ^3\left[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}\mathrm{\Delta }\right]^2,$$
(11)
where

$$\mathrm{\Delta }=\frac{4\pi ^2}{3}\frac{F^2}{M_V^2}\frac{m_\pi ^2}{M_V^2}\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}0.006}.$$
(12)
This result provides a tiny 1$`\%`$ correction to the width, and it is perfectly compatible with the experimental uncertainty, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\pi \gamma \gamma )|_{\mathrm{exp}}=(7.7\pm 0.6)`$ eV.

### 4.3 $`𝝅\mathbf{}𝜸𝜸^{\mathbf{}}`$

The $`\pi \gamma \gamma ^{}`$ amplitude is usually written as a slope parameter $`\alpha `$ which modifies the on-shell behaviour:

$$_{\pi \gamma \gamma ^{}}=_{\pi \gamma \gamma }\left(1+\alpha k^2\right),$$
(13)
where $`k^{}`$ is the off-shell photon momentum. The interactions contained in $`_V^{\mathrm{odd}}`$ yield a contribution to the parameter $`\alpha `$ that amounts

$$\alpha ^{\mathrm{odd}}=\frac{1}{M_V^2}\left[1\frac{4\pi ^2F^2}{N_CM_V^2}\right]\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1.36}\mathrm{GeV}^2,$$

which is smaller than the VMD estimate, $`\alpha ^{\mathrm{VMD}}=1/M_V^21.68`$ GeV-2. The chiral loops contributions to this slope, $`\alpha ^\chi \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.26}\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ were calculated in Ref. . We can add both contributions to get $`m_\pi ^2\alpha 0.029`$, to be compared with the averaged value $`m_\pi ^2\alpha |_{\mathrm{exp}}=0.032\pm 0.004`$ in the PDG . $`\alpha ^{\mathrm{odd}}`$ has been extended beyond the LMD approximation by the inclusion of a second vector resonance into the $`\mathrm{VVP}`$ ansatz, Eq. (9), in Ref. . The latter is in fact needed to have the right $`1/k^2`$ behaviour for large $`k^{}`$  in the form factor $`_{\pi \gamma \gamma ^{}}(k^{})`$.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank S. Narison and his team for the organization of the QCD 03 conference. This work has been supported in part by TMR EURIDICE, EC Contract No. HPRN-CT-2002-00311, by MCYT (Spain) under grant FPA2001-3031, and by ERDF funds from the EU.


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# The diffuse X-ray background

## 1 Introduction

Most of the X-ray background (XRB) is generated by discrete extragalactic sources (e.g. Campana et al. 2001, Rosati et al. 2002, and references therein). Among those sources, various classes of AGNs constitute a dominating part. Probably 5 to 10 % of the soft XRB is produced by hot gas in clusters of galaxies. Hydrodynamical simulations of the evolution of the primordial gas demonstrate that some contribution to the XRB is generated by the baryonic matter which fills intergalactic space in the form of moderately hot plasma (Cen & Ostriker 1999, Davé et al. 2000, Bryan & Voit 2001, Croft et al. 2001). Due to its low density, thermal emission of this gas is extremely weak and the very existence of the “warm” baryons still waits for definite observational confirmation (e.g. Sołtan et al. 2002). Thus, apart from this small constituent, it is generally accepted that the XRB is produced by discrete sources. This notion has been strengthened directly by deep observations by ROSAT and more recently by Chandra.

A relationship between the total XRB flux and integrated flux produced by sources has been investigated in detail from the observational point by Moretti et al. (2003). These authors compared the source counts with the measured XRB level in two energy bands: soft ($`0.52`$ keV) and hard ($`210`$ keV). They have shown that in the soft band the source counts integrated down to the Chandra limit of $`2.4\times 10^{17}`$ erg s-1cm-2 produce $`94.3_{6.7}^{+7.0}`$ % of the XRB. A smooth extrapolation of counts down to $`3\times 10^{17}`$erg s-1cm-2 generates $`96`$ % of the XRB and is “consistent with its full value at $`1\sigma `$ level”. In the hard band discrete sources generate at most $`93`$ % (after source counts extrapolation) and are “only marginally consistent” with the XRB level. One should note also that the total XRB flux itself is not well determined; according to Moretti et al. (2003) the uncertainties of the XRB in both bands amount roughly to $`5`$ %.

Although the present data do not allow definite conclusions, it is possible that the apparent deficiency of the source counts contribution to the hard band could be removed by steepening of counts below the present threshold of $`2.6\times 10^{16}`$erg s-1cm-2. Such steepening is in fact predicted by recent evolutionary models of the obscured AGNs (e.g. Franceschini et al. 2002).

Since the deepest observations allow only for a few percent of the XRB in the form of genuine diffuse radiation, it is worthwhile to examine also those emission mechanisms which generate a weak signal as compared to the total XRB flux, but which potentially could contribute significantly to the diffuse component. The aim of the present paper is to estimate flux of the truly diffuse emission produced by Thomson scattering of X-rays in intergalactic space. The amplitude of the integrated scattered flux depends on the cosmic history of the XRB and on the density of free electrons as a function of redshift. These functions are investigated in Sects. 2 and 3, respectively. In Sect. 4 the amplitude of the scattered component is calculated and it is discussed what constraints on the faint end of the source counts are imposed by the present results.

Most of the AGN related XRB is generated at redshifts smaller than $`3`$ with practically no contribution at redshifts greater than $`6`$. Since cumulative Thomson scattering optical depths at redshift $`3`$ and $`6`$ do not exceed respectively $`0.02`$ and $`0.03`$ (Cen 2003), the effects of X-ray absorption remain low and the calculations below do not include effects of multiple scattering of X-rays. Integration of the radiative transfer is reduced to calculations of the XRB intensity as a function of redshift and then integration over redshift of the scattered component.

## 2 AGN luminosity density and the X-ray background

### 2.1 Local XRB

The relationship between the average X-ray background intensity and redshift is investigated. The XRB flux in the local universe is known with relatively high accuracy (e.g. Moretti et al. 2003, and reference therein). It is established that a large fraction of the local XRB is produced by AGNs distributed over a wide range of redshifts. Due to the strong cosmic evolution of the AGN population, the XRB varied substantially in the past cosmological epochs and AGNs constituted a dominating source of the X-ray radiation for most of the lifetime of the universe. In the present estimates only the AGN contribution to the XRB is considered, although some other classes of objects such as young galaxies could contribute to the XRB at high redshifts.

Observed locally at energy $`E`$ the XRB flux $`I_{}(E)`$ is equal to the integrated flux produced by sources along the line of sight:

$$I_{}(E)=_0^{z_{\mathrm{max}}}𝑑z\frac{dV}{dz}\frac{_z(E^{})(1+z)}{4\pi D_L^2},$$
(1)
where $`V`$ is the co-moving volume, $`D_L`$ is the luminosity distance, and $`_z(E^{})`$ is the luminosity density generated by AGNs at redshift $`z`$ and energy $`E^{}=E(1+z)`$. The maximum redshift, $`z_{\mathrm{max}}`$, is the redshift at which the first AGNs began to shine. Systematic variations of the luminosity density with redshift are described by the cosmic evolution $`(z)`$:

$$_z=_o(z).$$
(2)
Various models for $`(z)`$ have been proposed in the literature. The models differ between each other in details, but the general shape of the evolution is common. It is accepted that at low redshifts the luminosity density generated by AGNs rises sharply, stabilizes at moderate redshifts and probably decreases at high redshifts. One should note that in the present investigation the integrated luminosity density as a function of redshift is the only “interesting” quantity. Thus, neither the exact shape of the X-ray luminosity function nor the evolution type (luminosity vs. density evolution) affect the calculations. It was found that the Miyaji et al. (2000) estimates of the AGN luminosity function and cosmological evolution can be used to determine the luminosity density in a straightforward and effective way. Their Luminosity Dependent Density Evolution model (designated as LDDE1) is applied. It is based on the combined shallow and deep ROSAT surveys and adequately reproduces both the source counts and the AGN redshift distribution.

The present calculations cover a wide range of redshifts. The observed energy band \[$`E_1,E_2`$\] corresponds to the band \[$`E_1(1+z),E_2(1+z)`$\] at the source. Since the observed flux results from the integrated emission along the line of sight, the relevant luminosity function and evolution are defined in the (redshifted) source frame (see discussion in Miyaji et al. (2000)). In the paper the soft X-ray band $`0.52`$ keV is used as reference and all the data extracted from the literature are corrected to this standard band.

The AGN sample used in the Miyaji et al. (2000) analysis contained a limited number of high redshift QSOs ($`17`$ with $`z>2.2`$). In effect, constraints on the evolution rate at high redshifts are not restrictive. Miyaji et al. (2000) note, however, that the X-ray data are consistent with the decline of the space density of optically selected QSO for redshifts greater than $`2.7`$. To account for this trend, the evolution function, $`(z)`$, is calculated from the LDDE1 model with an additional “damping factor”:

$$_z\mathrm{exp}(2.7z)\mathrm{for}z>2.7.$$
(3)
The cosmological model $`(\mathrm{\Omega }_m,\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda })=(0.3,0.7)`$ has been used in all the calculations. In Fig. 1 the evolution rate defined as a ratio of the co-moving luminosity density at redshift $`z`$ to its local value is shown for the LDDE1 model. The density evolution derived by Boyle et al. (1994) is plotted for comparison. Differences between both evolution laws of $`25`$ % which arise at $`z1.5`$ indicate the level of uncertainties involved in the evolution estimates (see below).

A relationship between volume, distance and redshift for the cosmological model used in the paper is taken from Hogg (1999):

$$\frac{dV}{dz}\frac{1}{D_L^2}=\omega \frac{c}{H_{}}\frac{1}{F_{}(z)(1+z)^2},$$
(4)
where

$$F_{}(z)=\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_m(1+z)^3+\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }}$$
(5)
with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$. Eqs. (4) and (5) inserted into Eq. (1) give for unit solid angle $`\omega =1`$ sr:

$$I_{}(E)=\frac{1}{4\pi }\frac{c}{H_{}}_{}(E)_0^{z_{\mathrm{max}}}𝑑z\frac{(z)}{F_{}(z)(1+z)^2}.$$
(6)
The local background flux $`I_{}(E)`$ is only weakly dependent on the maximum redshift in the integral and in all the calculations $`z_{\mathrm{max}}=6`$ was put. The local luminosity density and evolution have been computed from the Miyaji et al. (2000) formulae and inserted into Eq. (6). The results are dependent on extrapolation of the X-ray luminosity function (XLF) at the low luminosity end. In the present calculations the XLF is integrated over the luminosity range actually covered by the Miyaji et al. (2000) sample, i.e. between $`L_{\mathrm{min}}=10^{41.5}h_{50}^2`$ erg s-1 and $`L_{\mathrm{max}}=10^{47}h_{50}^2`$erg s-1, where $`h_{50}=H_{}/50`$ km s-1Mpc-1. In the energy band of $`0.52`$ keV the AGNs according to the LDDE1 with the decline described by Eq. (3) model produce a background flux of $`1.97\times 10^8`$ erg s-1 cm-2 sr-1. Using the Moretti et al. (2003) estimate of the total soft XRB at $`2.47\times 10^8`$ erg s-1 cm-2 sr-1, it gives the AGN contribution at $`80`$ %. A pure LDDE1 model (without decline of luminosity density at high redshifts) generates a flux of $`2.16\times 10^8`$ erg s-1 cm-2 sr-1 ($`=88`$ % of the total XRB).

### 2.2 XRB in the past

A hypothetical observer at redshift $`z`$ would detect the integrated XRB appropriate for his epoch:

$$I_z^{}(E^{})=_0^{z_{\mathrm{max}}^{}}𝑑z^{}\frac{dV^{}}{dz^{}}\frac{_{z_1}^{}[E^{}(1+z^{})](1+z^{})}{4\pi D_{L}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}},$$
(7)
where primes () indicate that all quantities refer to and are measured by the observer at redshift $`z`$. Photons emitted at redshift $`z^{}`$ were sent at an epoch, which for us corresponds to the redshift $`z_1`$:

$$1+z_1=(1+z)(1+z^{}).$$
(8)
The cosmological parameters in Eq. (7) satisfy relationships analogous to Eqs. (4) and (5):

$$\frac{dV^{}}{dz^{}}\frac{1}{D_{L}^{2}{}_{}{}^{}}=\omega \frac{c}{H_z}\frac{1}{F_z(z^{})(1+z^{})^2},$$
(9)
and

$$F_z(z^{})=\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_m^{}(1+z^{})^3+\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}}.$$
(10)
Standard relationships (e.g. Hogg 1999) give:

$$H_z=H_{}F_{}(z),$$
(11)
$$F_{}(z_1)=F_{}(z)F_z(z^{}),$$
(12)
$$_{z_1}^{}=(1+z)^3_{z_1}$$
(13)
$$I_z(E^{})=\frac{1}{(1+z)^2}I_z^{}(E^{}),$$
(14)
where $`I_z^{}(E^{})`$ is the XRB flux per proper unit surface measured by observer at redshift $`z`$ and $`I_z(E^{})`$ represents flux per co-moving unit surface. Using Eqs. (8) – (14) we finally get:

$`J_z(E_1^{},E_2^{})=`$ (15)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{c}{H_{}}}(1+z)_{}(E_1,E_2){\displaystyle _0^{z_{\mathrm{max}}^{}}}𝑑z^{}{\displaystyle \frac{_{}(z_1)}{F_{}(z_1)(1+z^{})^2}},`$
where $`J_z(E_1^{},E_2^{})`$ is the XRB flux per co-moving unit surface measured at redshift $`z`$ within the energy band $`E_1^{}E_2^{}`$ multiplied by a solid angle of $`4\pi `$.

## 3 Electron density in intergalactic space

Extensive hydrodynamical simulations of the matter distribution (e.g.Valageas et al. 2002 and references therein) show that a dominating fraction of all the baryonic matter in the universe resides outside galaxies and cluster of galaxies. In the local universe baryons accumulated in these objects constitute $`30`$ % of the total baryonic mass, while the remaining $`70`$ % still stays in the diffuse and warm-hot phases filling $`99`$ % of volume space. The fraction of the diffuse components rises with redshift and reaches roughly $`99`$ % at $`z=3`$ (Cen & Ostriker 1999, Davé et al. 2000). Intergalactic matter is virtually fully ionized up to $`z6`$ (e.g. Cen 2003).

Estimates of the total baryonic mass based on WMAP observations give $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b=0.044`$ for $`H_{}=71`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 (Spergel et al. 2003). Using results on the fraction of baryons in the intergalactic space by Cen & Ostriker (1999), the WMAP data give the local average electron density at $`n_e(0)=2.2\times 10^7`$ cm-3. Due to systematic increase of the diffuse component with redshift, the electron co-moving density rises to $`n_e(z)=2.2\times 10^6`$ cm-3 at $`z=1`$ and to $`n_e(z)=2.0\times 10^5`$ cm-3 at $`z=3`$. At still higher redshifts, practically all baryons reside in the diffuse component and $`n_e(z)(1+z)^3`$.

## 4 The scattered component

The luminosity density generated by the Thomson scattering of the XRB is given by:

$$_z^T=n_e(z)\sigma _TJ_z,$$
(16)
where $`\sigma _T=6.65\times 10^{25}`$ cm2 is the Thomson cross-section. The XRB flux due to Thomson scattering is calculated using an equation analogous to Eq. (6):

$$I_{}^T(E_1,E_2)=\frac{1}{4\pi }\frac{c}{H_{}}_0^{z_{\mathrm{max}}}𝑑z\frac{_z^T(E_1^{},E_2^{})}{F_{}(z)(1+z)^2}.$$
(17)
Due to the strong dependence of the electron density on redshift, the scattered component is generated primarily at high redshifts. The standard LDDE1 model with constant luminosity density for $`1.6<z<6`$ represented by the dotted curve in Fig. 2 generates scattered XRB flux of $`4.14\times 10^{10}`$ erg s-1 cm-2 sr-1, which accounts for $`1.7`$ % of the total XRB. If the AGN luminosity density declines exponentially for redshifts $`z>2.7`$ according to Eq. (3) (solid curve in Fig. 2), the scattered XRB flux is reduced to $`2.42\times 10^{10}`$ erg s-1 cm-2 sr-1 or $`0.98`$ % of the total XRB.

Low optical depth for Thomson scattering for $`z<6`$ implies relatively weak signal of the scattered XRB component. However, in the deepest exposures of the present-day instruments just a few percent of the soft XRB remain unresolved into discrete sources. Thus, the scattered component contributes measurably to the unresolved part. Moreover, a separate diffuse contribution by the WHIM is expected in the soft XRB. The amplitude of this component has not been determined yet with reasonable accuracy (Sołtan et al. 2002). The WHIM contribution to the XRB is expected to drop sharply with redshift (Cen & Ostriker 1999) and it is likely that thermal emission in the $`0.52.0`$ keV band does not exceed $`23`$ % of the total XRB. Moretti et al. (2003) point out that a smooth extrapolation of the counts down to a flux level of $`3\times 10^{18}`$ erg s-1 cm-2 sr-1, i.e. a factor of 10 below the present limits could account for $`96`$ % of the total XRB. Although this estimate is subject to relatively high uncertainties ($`7`$ % at the $`1\sigma `$ level), the existence of the diffuse component further strengthens the conclusion that with a moderate extrapolation of source counts, all constituents of the XRB are accounted for and there is no room for new classes of X-ray sources. In particular, in the soft band the source counts cannot exhibit steepening which would increase the integrated XRB more than a few percent.

In the harder band of $`210`$ keV source counts extrapolated down to fluxes an order of magnitude below the present threshold generate $`93`$ % of the total XRB (Moretti et al. 2003). The relative contribution of the Thomson scattered component in this band is similar to the contribution in soft X-rays, while the expected WHIM emission above $`2`$ keV is negligible. Thus, taking into account the diffuse component does not change the Moretti et al. (2003) conclusion that the source counts are likely to steepen below $`10^{15}`$ erg s-1 cm-2 due to a population of highly obscured, hard sources.

Taking into account the uncertainties of the absolute flux of the total XRB and uncertainties of the discrete source contribution, which both are at the level of several percent, calculations in the present paper do not address the question whether the source counts match exactly the observed XRB. One should stress that the objective of the present investigation was to estimate the amount of the diffuses XRB component generated by Thomson scattering. The amplitude of this component is calculated using the AGN X-ray luminosity function and evolution. The uncertainty of the diffuse component flux results mainly from uncertainties related to the evolution of the AGN population. The present calculations show that the Thomson scattered flux amounts to or slightly exceeds $`1`$ % of the total XRB, Thus, as long as uncertainties of the relevant measurements are subject to larger errors, this component does not affect decisively the XRB budget. Nevertheless, in the soft band the Thomson component narrows noticeably the distance between the resolved and total XRB and reduces the range of the allowed $`\mathrm{log}S\mathrm{log}N`$ relatioships. One might expect that the relative importance of the Thomson component will grow with a further increase of the resolved fraction of the background.

Direct detection of the scattered component poses a serious observational problem. This is because the spectral shape of the scattered flux strictly corresponds to the average AGN spectrum and the diffuse component mimics a population of unresolved AGN-like sources. The amplitude of the diffuse flux could be determined only indirectly by subtraction of the discrete source contribution from the total XRB. In practical terms, to establish precisely the flux produced by discrete sources one needs to determine the $`\mathrm{log}N\mathrm{log}S`$ relationship well below the present limits.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. This work has been partially supported by the Polish KBN grants 5 P03D 022 20 and PBZ-KBN-054/P03/2001.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Saturation is now a very popular term, and it has a very wide meaning. It includes “shadowing” and “anti-shadowing” processes, gluon saturation, unitarization, etc. In this paper, by “saturation” we mean that the “black disk” limit (BDL) has been reached, and that effects connected to the unitarity of the scattering amplitude must be taken into account.

Standard ingredients for the discussion of this regime can be found, e.g. in the loop-loop correlation model , which is based on a functional integral approach to high-energy collisions . Here, the $`T`$-matrix element for elastic scattering is given by the correlation function of two light-like Wigner-Wilson loops:

$`T_{pp}(s,t)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}2}is{\displaystyle d^2b_{}e^{i\stackrel{}{q}_{}\stackrel{}{b}}J_{pp}(s,|\stackrel{}{b}|)}`$
$`\mathrm{with}J_{pp}(s,|\stackrel{}{b}|)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle 𝑑z_1d^2r_1𝑑z_2d^2r_2|\psi _p(z_1,\stackrel{}{r}_1)|^2|\psi _p(z_2,\stackrel{}{r}_2)|^2}`$ (1)
$`\times \left[1S_{DD}(s,\stackrel{}{b},z_1,\stackrel{}{r}_1,z_2,\stackrel{}{r}_2)\right]`$
The saturation of the profile function $`J_{pp}`$ appears then as a manifestation of the unitarity of the $`S`$-matrix.

Whether the BDL will affect LHC physics, and how it is reached in QCD is still a matter of debate. For instance, if we consider its effect on the total cross section $`\sigma _{tot}`$ (which can be obtained directly from $`T_{pp}`$), the standard point of view is that the saturation of $`J_{pp}(s,|\stackrel{}{b}|)`$ tames its growth: there is a transition from a power-like to an $`\mathrm{ln}^2(s)`$-increase of $`\sigma _{pp}^{tot}(s)`$, which then respects the Froissart bound

But where this effect will take place is not clear: the analysis of  predicts that the saturation regime at small $`b`$ is reached only at very small $`x10^{10}`$ and very high energies $`\sqrt{s}10^6`$GeV. Thus – according to this model – the onset of the BDL in $`pp`$ collisions is about two orders of magnitude beyond LHC energy. However, other authors (see e.g. ) predict the same effect, within the dipole picture of soft processes, but at much lower energies.

The connection with unitarisation becomes clear if we notice that the eikonal representation for the scattering amplitude in $`\stackrel{}{b}`$-space, in the form $`1\mathrm{exp}(\chi (s,b))`$, reaches the BDL only asymptotically. However, this representation is not the only possibility, and it may be more useful to consider the effects of saturation by considering parametrisations in $`s`$ and $`t`$, transforming them to impact parameter space, and imposing the BDL as an upper bound on the amplitude in $`s`$ and $`b`$.

## 2  Donnachie -Landshoff (DL) model

Hence, we shall first consider this approach in the DL model, which must certainly be unitarized at high energies. Here, the $`pp`$-elastic scattering amplitude is proportional to the hadronic form factors, and can be approximated at small $`t`$ by:

$`T(s,t)=h_0s^ϵe^{Dt}e^{\alpha t\mathrm{ln}s}.`$ (2)
Going to impact parameter space, we obtain the 1-pomeron amplitude $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1(b,s)`$:

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1(b,s)=h_0{\displaystyle \frac{(s/s_0)^ϵ}{2[4+\alpha ^{}\mathrm{ln}s/s_0]}}\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \frac{b^2}{4(4+\alpha ^{}\mathrm{ln}s/s_0)}}\right),`$ (3)
with $`h_0=4.7`$GeV-2; $`ϵ=0.0808`$; $`\alpha ^{}=0.25`$ GeV-2; $`D=4`$ GeV-2 and $`s_0=1`$ GeV2 ($`s_0`$ will be dropped below). Double-pomeron exchange then gives:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_2(b,s)=\mathrm{\Gamma }_1(b,s)\lambda \mathrm{\Gamma }_1^2(b,s)/2$$

At some energy and at small $`b`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1(b,s)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2(b,s)`$ reach the BDL (see Fig. 1). For one-pomeron exchange, this happens at $`\sqrt{s}=1.5`$TeV whereas the 2-pomeron exchange term moves the limit up to $`\sqrt{s}=4.5`$TeV (for $`\lambda =0.2`$).

The details of the saturation process are very important at super-high energies. In Fig. 2, we show different ways to implement saturation at $`\sqrt{s}=14`$TeV: the solid line shows $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ without saturation; the dashed line corresponds to the “hard cut” case, where we simply freeze $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ at 1, which corresponds to a specific point where the curve has a knee; the dash-dotted curve and the circles represent the above cases for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$. Simply freezing $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ breaks analyticity, hence we must consider scenarios where the BDL is smooth. First of all, we can continue the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1`$ plateau by a Gaussian which connects quickly to the original curve (“soft cut”). Secondly, we shall consider a (“scaling”) case: once $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ reaches 1, we assume that the factor multiplying the exponential in Eq. (3) is renormalised to 1, but the curve gets shifted towards higher values of $`b`$, such that the growth of the radius (defined as the point at which $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1/2`$) remains the same as in the unsaturated curve. This gives us a smooth growth of the saturated core, as shown by the dotted curve in Fig. 2. Although it slightly changes the form of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ near the knee, it gives the same asymptotic behaviour at large $`b`$.

Fig. 3 shows the consequences of the above saturation schemes on $`\sigma _{tot}`$. The solid line corresponds to the case without saturation, the dash-dotted line to the “hard cut”, the dashed line to the “soft cut” and the dash-dotted-dotted line to the “scaling” case. Fig. 3 also gives the results of full eikonalization ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }(b,s)=1\mathrm{exp}[1.233\mathrm{\Gamma }_1(b,s)]`$) as a long dashed line and of the Dynamic Peripheral Model (DPM)  as a dotted line. We see that $`\sigma _{tot}`$ does not depend much on the details of saturation at LHC energies, whereas at very large energies a sizable fraction of the cross section will come from these, and hence from the hadron structure at large distances.

Fig. 3: The different predictions of
$`\sigma _{tot}`$ (see explanation in text)

Fig. 4: $`d\sigma /dt_{pp}`$ in the $`pp`$ case, at 4 and 14 TeV.

At the LHC, the effects of saturation can however be observed in elastic scattering. Fig. 4 shows that the saturation effects can lead to a large increase in the differential cross section at large $`|t|`$. The solid and long-dashed lines represent $`d\sigma /dt`$ at $`4`$ and $`14`$TeV, without saturation. The dash-dotted line and the points show $`d\sigma /dt`$ at $`14`$TeV in the “hard cut” and “scaling” cases. Both scenarios, while giving different predictions for the growth of $`\sigma _{tot}`$, lead to a similar large growth of the differential cross section. Note that we do not aim here at quantitative predictions, but only want to gauge possibilities.

## 3  The Dynamic Peripheral Model

We can compare the above results with those of the eikonal dynamical model of $`hh`$-scattering developed in . The model is based on the general principles of quantum field theory

. Fig. 5: $`d\sigma /dt`$ from the DPM in the $`pp`$ case.

Fig. 6: $`d\sigma /dt`$ from the DPM in the $`pp`$ case at fixed $`t`$.

(analyticity, unitarity, causality ) and takes into account basic information on the structure of a hadron as a compound system, with a central region in which the valence quarks are concentrated and with a long-distance region occupied by the color-singlet quark-gluon field. The model provides a self-consistent picture of $`d\sigma /dt`$ and of spin phenomena for different hadron processes.

The predictions of the DPM for elastic $`pp`$-scattering at $`\sqrt{s}=53`$GeV and $`14`$TeV are shown in Fig. 5. At high energies, on can see that $`d\sigma /dt`$ changes its behavior and grows with increasing energy. This can be seen in more details in Fig. 6. This effect is due to the peripheral term which comes from the interaction of the pomeron with the two-pion cut and leads to a growth of $`\sigma _{tot}`$ as $`(\mathrm{ln}s)^2`$ and to a rapid growth of $`d\sigma /dt`$ at large $`|t|`$. It is evident that the growth of the size of proton increases the role of peripheral effects at super-high energies, where the BDL is reached. After that, $`d\sigma /dt`$ changes behavior and begins to grow at fixed $`t`$.

## 4 Conclusion

We have shown that the saturation effects, in very different approaches, may be observable at the LHC. They lead on the one hand to a change in the monotonic behavior of $`\sigma _{tot}`$ and, on the other, to an increase of $`d\sigma /dt`$ at large $`|t|`$. Hence the LHC experiments may tell us if we reached the saturation regime, and provide information on the hadron dynamics at large distances.

The authors would like to thank P. Landshoff for helpful discussions. O.V.S. is a Visiting Fellow of the Fonds National pour la Recherche Scientifique, Belgium.


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# Discovery of a double ring in the dwarf galaxy Mrk 409

## 1 Introduction

Now in the era of the precision cosmology, where fundamental parameters (H0,$`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{M}`$,$`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$) have been measured with unprecedented accuracy (Bennett et al. 2003), the understanding of the evolution of the baryonic matter becomes even more important than in the past. In this sense, the feedback of gas and metals collectively ejected by starburst galaxies is currently the most poorly-known ingredient of state-of-the-art hierarchical models of galaxy formation and evolution (Kay et al. 2002; Somerville & Primack 1999). This is particularly important in the case of dwarf galaxies because of their shallow gravitational potentials. Despite recent progress, the actual efficiency of this mechanism is still unknown, mainly due to our poor understanding of the initial, pre-burst galaxy state (Silich & Tenorio-Tagle 2001; Mac Low & Ferrara 1999).

In this Letter we report the discovery of an unusual system of two concentric rings of ionized gas around a massive nuclear starburst in Mrk 409. Echelle spectroscopy obtained with MIKE at the 6.5-m Magellan-I telescope at Las Campanas (Chile) shows ionized gas flowing out of the disk of the galaxy. These results lead us to suggest that the peculiar morphology of this system may be the result of the interaction of a collective starburst-driven shock with the galaxy’s interstellar medium (ISM). Understanding the formation of these peculiar structures may provide fundamental clues for the study of the evolution of starbursts and their impact on the future evolution of dwarf galaxies.

Mrk 409 is a nearby BCD galaxy (vhelio=1527 km s-1) with $`B`$-band luminosity $`M_B`$=$``$17.27$`\pm `$0.03 ($`h`$=0.7; see Gil de Paz et al. 2003; GMP hereafter). It has been recently included in the Nearby Field Galaxy Survey of Jansen et al. (2000) and it was identified as a possible counterrotator by Kannappan & Fabricant (2001; KF01 hereafter).

## 2 Observations and Reduction

On May 14-15, 2002 we obtained optical $`BR`$ and narrow-band H$`\alpha `$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`\lambda `$$``$20Å) images of Mrk 409 at the Palomar 60-inch telescope using a 2048$`\times `$2048 CCD. Additional $`BR`$ images were taken with the 1.23-m and 2.2-m telescopes at Calar Alto (Almería, Spain) on February 4, 2000 and March 10, 1997, respectively. Deeper, higher quality $`R`$ and H$`\alpha `$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`\lambda `$$``$50Å) images were later obtained (Jan 09 2003) using the ALFOSC camera at the 2.5-m NOT telescope (La Palma, Spain) again using a 2048$`\times `$2048 CCD. Exposure times were 960 s ($`R`$) and 7200 s (H$`\alpha `$) and the seeing ranged between 0.9-1.0″. Finally, near-infrared ($`JHK`$) images were obtained at the 1.5-m Carlos Sánchez telescope (Tenerife, Spain) on March 8, 2000 using the CAIN camera with exposure times of 960 s ($`J`$), 1140 s ($`H`$), and 1440 s ($`K`$). Images were reduced using standard procedures of bias subtraction and flat-fielding within IRAF. Figure 1 shows the different images obtained and the corresponding surface brightness and color profiles.

An echelle spectrum of Mrk 409 was obtained using MIKE at the Magellan-I (Baade) telescope on Las Campanas (Chile) on April 28, 2003. For a complete description of MIKE see Bernstein et al. (2003). The 1″-wide (5″-long) slit used provided a spectral resolution of $``$14.1$`\pm `$0.4 km s-1 (FWHM) in the light of H$`\alpha `$. The position angle of the slit was 39 and the exposure time 1200 s (see Fig. 1b). The reduction and extraction of the spectrum was carried out using the IRAF task doecslit. In Figure 2 we show the bidimensional image in the region of H$`\alpha `$ (Panel a) and the extracted spectrum in some of the lines detected (b-f).

## 3 Results and Discussion

### 3.1 Nuclear Starburst

The center of Mrk 409 is of high surface brightness in the optical ($`\mu _B`$=19 mag/$`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$; see Fig. 1e). This value is two magnitudes brighter than the value obtained from the extrapolation of the surface brightness profile of the underlying stellar population (21.16 mag/$`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$), which dominates the profile in the outer regions of the galaxy. The enhancement in its surface brightness profile along with the presence of ionized-gas emission associated with the galaxy nucleus indicates the presence of a nuclear starburst.

If we assume an exponential profile for the low-surface-brightness (LSB) underlying stellar population the decomposition of the surface brightness profile yields a total luminosity for the starburst of $`M_B`$=$``$16.5 mag. However, the slightly convex shape of the surface-brightness profile at distances $`>`$28″ suggests a central intensity flattening of the LSB component. Such flattening has been recently found to be common within BCDs (see Noeske et al. 2003). This fact along with the moderately high extinction present in the galaxy nuclear regions (inferred both from the galaxy nuclear $`BR`$ color and its Balmer decrement; see below; see also Jansen et al. 2000) make the number given above a lower limit to the starburst luminosity.

The echelle spectrum of the galaxy nucleus reveals the presence of a double-peaked H$`\alpha `$ emission-line with a total equivalent width of 11$`\pm `$1 Å (see Fig. 2b). These two peaks are shifted by $``$54$`\pm `$3 and 37$`\pm `$3 km s-1 with respect to the radial velocity of the stars. The latter was obtained by fitting the profile of the MgI b 5184 Å absorption line (see Fig. 2c).

Taking into account the contribution of the underlying stellar population and the corresponding uncertainties the H$`\alpha `$ equivalent width of the nuclear starburst should be in the range 11-15 Å. If we now assume an instantaneous burst with a Salpeter IMF (1-100 M) and a typical metallicity of Z/5 the age derived would be $``$10.7-11.3 Myr (Leitherer et al. 1999). However, as we show below, a significant fraction of this emission is certainly arising from shock-excited gas. Therefore, since the timescale for the injection of mechanical energy is much longer than the photoionization timescale ($``$10 Myr), the nuclear starburst could be significantly older than this value. Thus, using 10 Myr as a lower limit for the age we derive a total stellar mass for the starburst $``$7$`\times `$106 M.

The H$`\alpha `$ blue and redshifted components show very different intensities. The approaching side is almost a factor of 2 brighter than the receding one. This cannot be attributed just to a dust-opacity effect since the H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ ratio of the redshifted (4.86$`\pm `$0.25) and blueshifted (4.91$`\pm `$0.25) components are comparable. The two components also show different excitation conditions. The \[NII\]6583 Å/H$`\alpha `$ line ratio of the redshifted component is \[NII\]/H$`\alpha `$red=0.480$`\pm `$0.007 while for the blueshifted one \[NII\]/H$`\alpha `$blue=0.306$`\pm `$0.005 (see Fig. 2d,f). The \[SII\]6717,6731 Å/H$`\alpha `$ and \[OIII\]/H$`\beta `$ line ratios are log \[SII\]/H$`\alpha `$blue=$``$0.34 and log \[OIII\]/H$`\beta `$blue=0.51 while
log \[SII\]/H$`\alpha `$red=$``$0.12 and log \[OIII\]/H$`\beta `$red=0.67. These numbers indicate that the emission of both components, but particularly that of the redshifted one, has a significant contribution from shock-excited gas (see Martin 1997). One possible explanation is that the larger contribution from photoionized gas to the blueshifted component is due to its greater proximity to the ionization source. This would also explain why this component is brighter than the one arising from the more distant, shock-excited, redshifted gas. However, if that would be the case we should expect the blueshifted lobe to be moving with a lower velocity (with respect to the systemic velocity) than the redshifted one, in contradiction with what we observe.

It is also possible that either the amount of ionizing photons absorbed by dust before ionization or the escape fraction of these photons are significantly smaller for the blueshifted lobe than for the redshifted one. This would result both in a larger contribution of the photoionized-gas emission compared with that from shock-excited-gas and a larger total emissivity of the blueshifted lobe.

### 3.2 Nuclear ring

At a distance of 5″ (0.6 kpc) from the galaxy nucleus we find an H$`\alpha `$-emitting ring delineated by at least 8 individual Hii regions (see Fig. 1b). The mean H$`\alpha `$ equivalent width of the regions in the ring as measured from the azimuthally-averaged $`R`$ and H$`\alpha `$ surface brightness profiles is 45$`\pm `$4 Å. The equivalent width of H$`\alpha `$ corrected for the contribution of the underlying stellar population is estimated to be in the range 70-80 Å (see Fig. 1f). Unfortunately, the continuum emission at the position of this nuclear ring is also strongly contaminated by the nuclear starburst, so EW(H$`\alpha `$) values higher than this number are expected. With regard to the $`BR`$ color, the position of the ring coincides with the bluest portion of the galaxy profile. Higher resolution images would be desirable in order to derive the properties (color, luminosity, age, mass) of each individual region in the ring.

Interestingly, the distribution and properties of the regions in the nuclear ring resemble those in the BCD Mrk 86. Like in Mrk 409, Mrk 86 shows a ring of young Hii regions at a galactocentric radius of 0.5-1 kpc around a massive, relatively evolved nuclear starburst. In Gil de Paz et al. (2000a,b) we proposed a scenario for the evolution of Mrk 86 where the gas, swept out by the nuclear starburst in the galactic plane, eventually reached densities large enough to become molecular, thereafter forming a ring of Hii regions and newly-born stars. The similarity in the apparent properties of these two galaxies suggests that the same mechanism could have taken place in Mrk 409.

Using our numerical model for the evolution of a starburst-driven bubble (Silich & Tenorio-Tagle 1998) along with the evolution of the kinetic-energy deposition rate predicted by the Leitherer et al. (1999) models for a 7$`\times `$106 M massive starburst we derive an average density for the surrounding ISM of $`n_{\mathrm{ISM}}`$$``$2 cm-3 and an evolutionary time of $``$7.4 Myr. Here we have adopted a shell radius of 600 pc and an expansion velocity of 50 km s-1. The small difference between the bubble evolutionary time and the starburst age can be explained as the time required for the coherent shell to form (see Silich et al. 2002).

The total H$`\alpha `$ luminosity of the shell (considering both photo- and shock-ionized emission) can be written as 1.36$`\times `$(4$`\pi `$$`R_{\mathrm{shell}}`$$`n_{\mathrm{ISM}}`$$`v_{\mathrm{shell}}`$$`+`$$`N_{\mathrm{UV}}`$) 10-12 erg s-1, where $`N_{\mathrm{UV}}`$ is the number of ionizing photons per second escaping from the star-cluster region. Adopting an evolutionary time for the bubble of 7.4 Myr and the number of Lyman photons emitted by the starburst as the value for $`N_{\mathrm{UV}}`$ the expected H$`\alpha `$ luminosity would be 2.5$`\times `$1040 erg s-1. This number is larger than the total H$`\alpha `$ luminosity of the galaxy (1.6$`\times `$1040 erg s-1; GMP) suggesting that a significant fraction of the ionizing photons are trapped within the nuclear starburst region as it is also shown by Fig. 1e, and/or the actual starburst age exceeds the adopted value.

It is worth mentioning that according to the simulations carried out in Gil de Paz et al. (2002) the ring of swept-out gas is not necessarily in equilibrium and, in fact, has a rotational velocity smaller than that of the underlying stellar population. This behavior could explain the smaller velocity gradient of the gas compared with the stars observed by KF01 in the inner regions of Mrk 409.

### 3.3 Outer ring

Our deep H$`\alpha `$ image of Mrk 409 also reveals the presence of an outer ring of line-emitting clumps at larger galactocentric distance (see Fig. 1b). A small enhancement in the continuum light is also observed in the broad-band images at a similar position (see Fig. 1d,e). The overall distribution of the brightest clumps both in the H$`\alpha `$ image and the unsharp-masked $`B`$-band image seems to be well reproduced by an ellipse with ellipticity $``$0.1-0.2, position angle $``$50, and major axis radius 19″ ($``$2 kpc). Note that although the rings in Mrk 409 are named according to the terminology used for lenticular and spiral galaxies their formation mechanism may be different. In particular, Mrk 409 does not show any obvious oval distortion or bar, which are believed to be responsible for the formation of rings in those galaxies (see Buta & Combes 1996).

A first explanation for the geometry observed in H$`\alpha `$ is that the outer ring represents the brightened-limb of an hour glass-like structure of ionized gas with the innermost ring being the narrowest part of it, where the gas present in the galactic plane would have been swept out (see Silich & Tenorio-Tagle 1998). However, both the enhancement in the continuum light associated with this ring (which suggests the presence of secondary star formation) and the high intensity contrast between the ring and the inter-ring regions allow us to rule out this scenario.

Therefore, in the case of the outer ring, an independent mechanism must have been responsible for shaping this ring and triggering its recent star formation activity. Some scenarios are proposed, (1) the existence of an episodic starburst activity in the nucleus that has resulted in the formation, first, of the outer ring and, more recently, of the nuclear one, (2) the merging with a companion galaxy or cloud, or (3) gas accretion from the galaxy halo.

The standard-model equations for the evolution of the bubble radius and expansion velocity (Mac Low & Mac Cray 1988) imply that, in order for the scenario (1) to be compatible with the starburst mass and outer-ring radius measured, the host galaxy has to have an extended gaseous halo with an average density well below 1 cm-3.

On the other hand, the remarkably regular morphology of the galaxy LSB component suggests that if the scenario (2) is correct the collision probably involved a very low mass gas-rich companion galaxy, as those proposed by Bergvall & Östlin (2002) to explain the recent star formation activity in BCD galaxies.

Finally, the scenario (3) requires that the outer-ring radius roughly coincides with the boundary of the radial velocity curve that shows solid-body rotation. However, stellar spectroscopy carried out by KF01 indicates that the radius where the rotation curve flattens ($``$0.7 kpc) is significantly smaller than the outer-ring radius ($``$2 kpc).

## 4 Conclusions

We have discovered a double ring of H$`\alpha `$-emitting regions in the BCD Mrk 409. Although multiple rings are common in lenticular and spiral galaxies (Buta & Combes 1996) this is the first time that such a complex morphology is observed in a dwarf galaxy like Mrk 409. Echelle spectroscopy reveals the presence of gas flowing out of the galaxy most probably associated with a starburst-driven supershell arising from a massive (relatively obscured) nuclear starburst. The formation of the nuclear ring is interpreted as being due to the sweeping of the ISM by the shock in the galactic plane.

The origin of the outer ring is less clear. Different scenarios are proposed: (1) the existence of previous nuclear starburst activity that shaped an expanding ring in a way similar to how the nuclear ring has been proposed to be formed, (2) the merging with a low-mass gas-rich companion galaxy, and (3) gas accretion from the galaxy halo.

In the future we plan to obtain echelle spectra of individual clumps in the rings, which, in combination with our hydrodynamical models for the evolution of starbursts (Silich & Tenorio-Tagle 1998), will allow us to understand the mechanisms that led to the formation of the structures observed in Mrk 409. This may provide further clues to understanding the actual impact of the recent star formation activity on the future evolution of dwarf galaxies.

We acknowledge the referee (R. Buta) for his valuable comments. We thank the Palomar, LCO, Teide, NOT, & CAHA observatories staff for their help and support. This work has been financed by the Spanish PN de Astronomía y Astrofísica grants AYA2000-1790 and AYA2003-1676, the DFG grants FR325/50-1 and FR325/50-2, the CONACYT (Mexico) grant 36132-E, the EC Marie-Curie grant HPMF-CT-2000-00774, and the NASA GALEX mission.


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# Binaries discovered by the SPY project. III. HE 2209-1444: a massive, short period double degenerateBased on observations collected at the German-Spanish Astronomical Center (DSAZ), Calar Alto, operated by the Max-Planck-Institute für Astronomie jointly with the Spanish National Commission for Astronomie Based on observations at the Paranal Observatory of the European Southern Observatory for program No. 165.H-0588(A) and 167.D-0407(A) Based on observations made with the INT operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias

## 1 Introduction

Supernovae of type Ia (SN Ia) play an outstanding role in the study of cosmic evolution. In particular, they are regarded as one of the best standard candles for the determination of the cosmological parameters $`H_0`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ (e.g. Riess et al. R98 (1998), Leibundgut L01 (2001)). However, the nature of their progenitors remains a mystery (e.g. Livio L00 (2000)).

There is general consensus that the SN event is due to the thermonuclear explosion of a white dwarf likely when the Chandrasekhar limit of $``$ 1.4 $`M_{}`$ is reached. But the exact nature of the progenitor system is still unclear. While it must be a binary with matter being transferred to the white dwarf from a companion, two main scenarios exists. According to the so-called double degenerate (DD) scenario (Iben and Tutukov I84 (1984)), the mass donating companion is also a white dwarf. In the so-called singe degenerate (SD) scenario (Whelan and Iben W73 (1973)), the mass donating component is a red giant/subgiant.

A DD has to fulfill two criteria to be considered as a potential SN Ia progenitor. The total mass of the system has to exceed the Chandrasekhar limit, and the two components have to merge in less than a Hubble time due to the loss of angular momentum via gravitational wave radiation. During the last decades, several systematic radial velocity (RV) searches have been undertaken (see Marsh M00 (2000) for a review). By now, combining all surveys nearly 180 white dwarfs have been checked for RV variations yielding a sample of 18 DDs with periods of less than 6.3 days (Marsh M00 (2000), Maxted et al. 2000a ). Among these 18 systems, only 6 double-lined systems have been found (in three of them, the companion is barely detectable). However, none of the known 18 systems seems to be massive enough to qualify as a SN Ia precursor. Since theoretical simulations suggest only a few percent of all close DDs to be potential SN Ia progenitors (Iben et al. I97 (1997), Nelemans et al. NYP01 (2001)) this result is not surprising and a larger sample size is needed to find a potential SN Ia progenitor.

Therefore – to perform a definite test of the DD scenario – we have embarked on a large spectroscopic survey of $``$ 1000 white dwarfs using the UV - Visual Echelle Spectrograph (UVES) at the ESO VLT UT2 (Kueyen), searching for RV variations of white dwarfs and pre white dwarfs (ESO SN Ia Progenitor surveY \- SPY). The ongoing SPY project already provided a wealth of new RV variable DDs (Napiwotzki et al. 2001a  and N03 (2003)). In particular, more than a dozen double-lined systems have been found by SPY. These are of outstanding importance because the radial velocity curves can be solved for all system parameters if the gravitational redshifts of the components are unequal (see Sect. 3). An analysis of the subdwarf B plus white dwarf system HE 1047$``$0436 was presented in the first paper of this series (Napiwotzki et al. 2001b ). In paper II (Napiwotzki et al. N02 (2002)) we have presented the double-lined system HE 1414$``$0848, which has a system mass of 1.26 $`M_{}`$, but will merge only in two Hubble times.

In this paper we report on the results of our follow-up spectroscopy of the new double-lined system HE 2209$``$1444. We will show that this system is another massive DD, but with an orbital period shorter than the HE 1414$``$0848 system. After a description of the observations and data reduction in Sect. 2 we deal with the determination of the system’s radial velocity curves and orbital parameters in Sect. 3. Section 4 gives a model atmosphere analysis of the spectra. We compare the results to predictions of population synthesis models in Sect. 5 and summarize in a final Sect. 6.

## 2 Observations and data analysis

HE 2209$``$1444 ($`\alpha _{2000}`$ = $`22^\mathrm{h}12^\mathrm{m}18.1^\mathrm{s}`$, $`\delta _{2000}`$ = $`14^\mathrm{o}29^{}48^{\prime \prime }`$, $`B_{\mathrm{pg}}`$ = $`15.3^{\mathrm{mag}}`$) was discovered by the Hamburg ESO survey (HES; Wisotzki et al. W00 (2000), Christlieb et al. C01 (2001)) as a potential cool white dwarf and, therefore, was included in our SPY project. From the first survey spectrum taken in December 2000 we found HE 2209$``$1444 to be a double-lined binary system consisting of two DA white dwarfs. The Hα line cores of both components were separated by 4.5 Å in the discovery spectrum, corresponding to a RV difference of 200 km/s.

Therefore we observed the system during our follow-up observations for the SPY project at the Calar Alto Observatory, Spain. From 2001 July 6th to July 15th a total of 15 medium resolution spectra were obtained with the TWIN spectrograph at the 3.5 m telescope. For the blue arm we used grating No. 5 while No. 6 was used in the red. Both gratings have 1200 lines/mm, giving a dispersion of 0.54 Å/pix. The wavelength coverage ranges from 3900 Å to 5000 Å at a resolution of 1.3 Å in the blue part of the spectrum. In the red part, the wavelength scale ranges from 6000 Å to 7000 Å at a resolution of 1.2 Å. The data were reduced with a set of standard routines for long slit spectra from the ESO MIDAS package. A two dimensional bias correction was done for the object data as well as for the dome flats. After flatfield correction, the spectra were extracted from the two dimensional images with respect to the sky background. Finally we performed the wavelength calibration using the internal ThAr lamp of the spectrograph.

Figure 1 shows a sequence of six Hα spectra taken at Calar Alto Observatory during two hours. The observed spectra are plotted as well as the fits (cf. Sect. 3). The rapid change of the spectral appearance due to the orbital motion is obvious.

Our TWIN spectra are supplemented by spectra taken with the ESO VLT and the Isaac Newton Telescope. The UVES data we got from the ESO VLT UT2 were taken in December 2000 and October 2001. Although the data provided by the UVES reduction pipeline were quite useful for candidate selection, in many cases the quality of the pipeline data was insufficient for a quantitative analysis of Balmer line profiles. Therefore, the raw data were reduced with a semi-automatic reduction package developed in Bamberg (details will be published in a forthcoming paper).

The last set of data used for our analysis of HE 2209$``$1444 was taken on October 28th to October 30th using the 2.5 m Isaac Newton Telescope (INT) on La Palma. Eight spectra were taken with the Intermediate Dispersion Spectrograph (IDS), using the 500 mm camera and R1200R grating, giving a dispersion of 0.37 Å/pix from 6300 to 6700 Å at a resolution of 1 Å. The spectra were reduced (using the overscan bias level and a tungsten flat field) with standard IRAF111IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories, which are operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation tasks, using optimal extraction (Horne Hor86 (1986)). The wavelength calibration was done using CuAr and CuNe lamp taken at the same position of the telescope and extracted at the same place on the CCD as the object spectra, typically giving an rms scatter less than 0.01 Å.

## 3 Radial velocity curve and orbital parameters

RVs were determined from the TWIN and UVES spectra from a fit of a set of mathematical functions to the observed line profiles within the MIDAS context. We concentrated on a 100 Å wide range of the spectra centered on Hα. Two Gaussians were used to fit both line cores, a Lorentzian to model the line wings and a linear function to reproduce the overall spectral trend. Radial velocities of both components were calculated from the central wavelengths of the fitted Gaussians. Afterwards the measured RVs were corrected to heliocentric values. The INT spectra were analyzed using the MOLLY software package, fitting three Gaussians to the central part of the Hα line.

Both components are very similar, but the left one in Figure 1 is slightly deeper and broader. This component is called component A further on. However, sometimes it was difficult to do an unambiguous identification of the components especially near conjunction phases and in some spectra with relatively low S/N ratio and of lower resolution (from Calar Alto and La Palma). Therefore, we computed the separation of the components first and fitted sine curves for a range of periods to the measured RV differences and determined the $`\chi ^2`$ value for each period. All times were heliocentric corrected and calculated for the center of the exposure. Doing this we produced a ”difference power spectrum” indicating the quality of our RV fit as a function of period (like the one presented in Fig. 2). This way we got a first estimate of the period of the system and were subsequently able to identify the individual components unambiguously for all of our spectra. This enabled us to compute for each individual component a ”power spectrum”. Both power spectra showed an outstanding peak at $`6^\mathrm{h}38^\mathrm{m}46.2^\mathrm{s}`$ (0.276924d). An inspection of the phased RV curves created using periods corresponding to other peaks in the power spectra allowed us to rule out aliases, because of one or more strongly deviating RV measurements. This way, the period corresponding to the main peak of the power spectrum remained as an unambiguous solution for component A as well as for component B – exactly as it should be for a binary system (see Fig. 3). Finally, adding the $`\chi ^2`$ values of the two individual power spectra we produced a ”combined power spectrum” for the whole system (Fig. 2).

In a final step we determined accurate orbital parameters from a simultaneous fit of all spectra with the program fitsb2 (see Sect. 4 and Napiwotzki et al. N03 (2003)) in a fashion similar to the method described in Maxted et al. (M01 (2002)). Two model profiles, one for each star, consisting of a combination of two Gaussians for the line core and a Lorentzian for the line wings were fitted. The position of each profile is determined from

$$\mathrm{RV}_{\mathrm{A}/\mathrm{B}}=\gamma _{\mathrm{A}/\mathrm{B}}\pm K_{\mathrm{A}/\mathrm{B}}\mathrm{sin}\left(\frac{TT_0}{P}\right).$$

Free parameters are the mean velocities (including gravitational redshift) of each component $`\gamma _{\mathrm{A}/\mathrm{B}}`$, the (projected) orbital velocities $`K_{\mathrm{A}/\mathrm{B}}`$, the zeropoint $`T_0`$, and the period $`P`$, plus the parameters defining the line profiles.

The final ephemeris of the system for the time $`T_0`$ defined as the conjunction time at which star A moves from the blue side of the RV curve to the red one (i.e. star A is closest to the observer) is

$`\mathrm{Hel}.\mathrm{JD}(T_0)=(2,452,097.0349\pm 0.0021)+`$
$`(0.276928\pm 0.000006)\times E.`$ (1)
Also from the RV curves (see Fig. 3) of the fitsb2 analysis we found the semi-amplitude of component A to be $`K_\mathrm{A}=108.7\pm 7.5`$ km/s ($`\gamma _\mathrm{A}=14.4\pm 4.5`$ km/s) whereas for component B the semi-amplitude is $`K_\mathrm{B}=109.1\pm 10.75`$ km/s ($`\gamma _\mathrm{B}=18.7\pm 6.8`$ km/s). The mass ratio can be computed from the ratio of the semi-amplitudes to be

$`{\displaystyle \frac{M_\mathrm{B}}{M_\mathrm{A}}}={\displaystyle \frac{K_\mathrm{A}}{K_\mathrm{B}}}=1.00\pm 0.13`$ (2)
i.e the masses of both white dwarfs are identical within the error limits. For white dwarfs the gravitational redshift can easily be measured from high resolution spectra (e.g. Reid R96 (1996)). As described in paper II for the case of HE 1414$``$0848, in a double degenerate system the difference of gravitational redshifts can be measured from $`\gamma _\mathrm{A}\gamma _\mathrm{B}`$. If this difference is non zero we obtain an additional constraint equation, which allows to solve for the individual masses. However, since the masses of both components of HE 2209$``$1444 are very similar, the redshift difference is zero within error limits. Hence we cannot solve for the individual masses from the radial velocity curve alone. The required additional information, however, will be obtained from a quantitative spectral analysis described in the next section.

## 4 Spectroscopic analysis

Since in the case of HE 2209$``$1444 mass estimates from the RV curves alone are impossible, we had to rely on a model atmosphere analysis. Because this system is double-lined the spectra are a superposition of both individual white dwarf spectra. This problem is sometimes circumvented by assuming that the results of a simple single-lined model fit is representative for the average parameters. In paper II we estimated the mean gravity and individual temperatures of the components of HE 1414$``$0848 from the analysis of individual spectra taken close to conjunction and quadrature phases. However, this approach is of limited accuracy, only.

A direct approach would be to disentangle the observed spectra by deconvolution techniques into the spectra of the individual components. Then we could analyze the spectra by fitting synthetic spectra developed for single-lined white dwarfs to the individual line profiles. Such a disentangeling procedure has been developed by Simon and Sturm (S94 (1994)) and was sucessfully applied to main sequence double-lined binaries. However, it has not been tested for white dwarfs, for which the wavelength shifts caused by orbital motions are much smaller than the line widths of the broad Balmer lines. Therefore we choose a different approach for our analysis of the HE 2209$``$1444 system. We used the program fitsb2 (Napiwotzki et al. N03 (2003)), which performs a spectral analysis of both components of double-lined systems. It is based on a $`\chi ^2`$ minimization technique using a simplex algorithm. The fit is performed on all available spectra covering different spectral phases simultaneously. For HE 1414$``$0848 (paper II) we made use of spectra taken at conjunction or quadrature only. But now, all available spectral information is combined into the parameter determination procedure. An application of the program fitsb2 to HE 1414$``$0848 yielded encouraging results (Napiwotzki et al. N03 (2003)). A detailed description of the program and an evaluation of its performance will follow in a subsequent paper (Napiwotzki, in prep.).

A large grid of synthetic spectra for DA white dwarfs computed from LTE model atmospheres with a code described in Finley et al. (F97 (1997)) was used for the analysis. A simultaneous fit of the Balmer lines Hβ to H8 (UVES spectra) or Hβ to Hδ (TWIN spectra) was performed. We did not include the INT spectra for the model atmosphere analysis, because these spectra cover only the Hα range. For details refer to Koester et al. (K01 (2001) and references therein). The model spectra were convolved with Gaussians with FWHMs corresponding to the resolution of the observed spectra.

The total number of fit parameters (stellar and orbital) is high. Therefore we fixed as many parameters as possible before performing the model atmosphere analysis. We have kept the radial velocities of the individual components fixed according to the radial velocity curve presented in Sect. 3. Since the mass ratio is already accurately determined from the radial velocity curve we fixed the gravity ratio. The remaining fit parameters are the effective temperatures of both components and the gravity of the primary. The gravity of the secondary is adjusted according to the primary value during the fitting procedure. The surface gravities also determine the relative weight of the two model spectra from the radius, obtained from the mass-radius relation of Benvenuto & Althaus (B99 (1999)). The flux ratio in the V-band is calculated from the actual parameters and the model fluxes are scaled accordingly. The individual contributions are updated consistently as part of the iteration procedure.

Strong NLTE cores are present in Hα and Hβ, which cannot be reproduced by our LTE model spectra. In principle, these lines are important for the temperature determination, especially of the cooler and fainter B component. However, due to the large NLTE effects we had to exclude Hα completely and the core of Hβ ($`\pm `$ 4 Å). The final fit results are summarized in Table 2 and a sample fit is shown in Fig. 4. The fit of the line cores is not perfect, even after excluding Hα. The parameter which is most sensitive to details of the fitting procedure is, as may be expected, the temperature of the fainter component B. If, e.g., we include the wings of the Hα line we increase $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ of component B by almost 500 K, while the temperature of A and the gravity are only modified within the error limits. Thus, while the temperature of B is less well determined than that of A, the basic properties of the HE 2209$``$1444 system are reliable. Both components have identical masses (MA = MB = 0.58 M) but different temperatures (8490 K vs. 7140 K). White dwarf masses were computed from the mass - radius relations of Benvenuto & Althaus (B99 (1999)) with “thick hydrogen envelopes” (MH/MWD = 10-4). This result does not depend much on the choice of a particular model computation. From the thick envelope cooling sequences of Wood (W95 (1995)) we derived virtually identical results: 0.58 M and 0.57 M, respectively. However, since the HE 2209$``$1444 system is the result of a common envelope evolution it is not clear which envelope layer is the correct one. Using the “thin” envelope models (MH = 0) of Benvenuto & Althaus (B99 (1999)) as the other extreme would yield slightly lower masses (0.57 M and 0.56 M, resp.). The resulting sum of masses of the HE 2209$``$1444 system is $`1.15\pm 0.07M_{}`$. The error limit for the sum of masses is smaller than expected from a simple combination of the individual errors, because the mass errors of the individual components are partially anti-correlated.

## 5 Evolutionary status

From the temperatures derived above we can estimate the ages of both components using cooling tracks for white dwarfs. Our estimate is based on the calculations of Benvenuto & Althaus (B99 (1999)) for C/O white dwarfs with thick hydrogen envelopes. Ages were interpolated from these tracks for the derived masses and temperatures of the white dwarfs. Resulting ages are 0.9 Gyrs for A and 1.4 Gyrs for B, i.e. the cooling ages of both white dwarfs differ by 0.5 Gyrs or 50%.

The separation between both white dwarfs is quite small, only $`1.87R_{}`$. Thus HE 2209$``$1444 obviously underwent phases of strong binary interaction in its history. From the size of the orbits and the period the orbital velocity can be computed to be 171 km/s. The comparison with the observed RV amplitudes allows us to determine the inclination of this system as $`i=40^{}`$. This system will merge within 5 Gyrs due to gravitational wave radiation. Figure 5 shows the total masses and periods of the sample of known double-lined DD systems. As can be seen, neither HE 2209$``$1444 nor HE 1414$``$0848 (Paper II) qualify as a SN Ia progenitor. However, both objects found by SPY are much closer to the region where such progenitors are expected than any DD system known before.

We can compare the properties of HE 2209$``$1444 with the outcome of computations for the synthesis of the population of double white dwarfs of Nelemans et al. (NYP01 (2001)). Fig. 6 shows the expected period - mass ratio distribution of systems in which one component has a mass above 0.50 M from model A2 of Nelemans et al. (NYP01 (2001)). Only systems with a luminosity ratio between the components of less than 5 are plotted. The derived period and mass ratio of HE 2209$``$1444 is marked in Fig. 6 with its error bar. The figure shows that such systems are expected to have periods smaller than $``$10 hours and either similar or more massive companions.

HE 2209$``$1444 confirms the trend that double white dwarfs tend to have roughly equal masses, in contrast to population models using a standard common envelope description (see for a discussion Maxted et al. 2000c , Nelemans et al. NYP01 (2001)) and more in line with the results presented in Nelemans et al. NYP01 (2001), in which the outcome of dynamical unstable mass transfer is calculated from the angular momentum balance, rather than the energy balance. However, it should be noted that a model using standard common envelope also produces systems similar to HE 2209$``$1444.

The SPY project will provide a large, homogeneous sample of close double white dwarfs, which will enable us to confirm or refuse the alternative common envelope formalism.

## 6 Summary

We report the discovery of the close double-lined binary HE 2209$``$1444 by SPY. From follow-up observations at three different telescopes we derived the radial velocity curve. The analysis yielded an orbital period of $`P=6^\mathrm{h}38^\mathrm{m}47^\mathrm{s}`$ and identical semi-amplitudes of 109 km/s for both components. Parameters of both individual components were determined from a model atmosphere analysis. We made use of a novel method which combines all available spectra covering the different orbital phases for a simultaneous fit. The result is a common gravity of 7.97 and temperatures of 8490 K and 7140 K for components A and B, respectively.

Masses were determined from a subsequent comparison with the cooling tracks of Benvenuto & Althaus (B99 (1999)). The results are masses of $`0.58M_{}`$ for the individual components and a total mass for the HE 2209$``$1444 system of $`1.15\pm 0.07M_{}`$. This makes HE 2209$``$1444 the second most massive DD ever found in a RV survey, surpassed only by HE 1414$``$0848, another detection of the SPY project (Napiwotzki et al. N02 (2002)). However, the seperation of the components in HE 2209$``$1444 is smaller than in the case of HE 1414$``$0848. Therefore, the merging time of the former system is 5 Gyrs whereas in the latter case the system will merge within two Hubble times.

We compared the resulting orbital parameters of HE 2209$``$1444 with the outcome of theoretical calculations for the formation of DDs and find that the properties of HE 2209$``$1444 are in agreement with recent predictions.

###### Acknowledgements.

C.A.K. is supported by DFG under grant Na365/3-1 and by travel grants. G.N. would like to thank Tom Marsh for the use of his MOLLY and aliases software.


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# Determining the abundance of extragalactic planets

## Planet detection by microlensing

By means of creating distortions to the gravitational field of their parent stars, unseen planets of mass $`m`$ around unseen lens stars of mass $`M`$ can cause deviations of 1–20 % (lasting days for jupiters to hours for earths) to the light curves of background stars undergoing a microlensing event which lasts $``$1 month. The probability for a planetary signal varies with the projected orbital radius of the planet $`r_\mathrm{p}`$ reaching a maximum near $`r_\mathrm{p}r_\mathrm{E}`$, with the Einstein radius $`r_\mathrm{E}=\sqrt{2R_\mathrm{S}D}`$, the Schwarzschild radius of the lens star $`R_\mathrm{S}=(2GM)/c^2`$, $`D=D_\mathrm{L}(D_\mathrm{S}D_\mathrm{L})/D_\mathrm{S}`$, and $`D_\mathrm{S}`$ and $`D_\mathrm{L}`$ being source or lens distances.

By achieving a galactic length scale $`D2.5\text{kpc}[r_\mathrm{E}/(2.5\text{AU})]^2`$ for M-dwarf lens stars ($`M0.3M_{}`$), one becomes sensitive to planetary systems similar to our own. This condition is met not only for observations of Galactic bulge stars being lensed by stars in both the Galactic disk or the bulge itself ($`D_\mathrm{S}8.5\text{kpc}`$, $`D_\mathrm{L}6\text{kpc}`$), but also for observations of stars in other galaxies as M31 (Crotts 1992; Jetzer 1994) lensed by stars in the same galaxy ($`D_\mathrm{S}D_\mathrm{S}D_\mathrm{L}`$, $`DD_\mathrm{L}`$).

While the probability to detect a planetary deviation and its duration decreases with smaller mass ratios $`q=m/M`$ (roughly as $`\sqrt{q}`$), the maximal deviation $`\delta _{\mathrm{th}}`$ is only limited by the radius of the source star $`R_{}`$ (Bennett & Rhie 1996). For $`\delta _{\mathrm{th}}=10`$% on observing M31 stars, a minimal mass ratio of $`q_{\mathrm{min}}=2\times 10^3[R_{}/(100R_{})]^2`$ is required for $`r_\mathrm{E}2.5\text{AU}`$ and M-dwarf lens stars, corresponding to planets with twice the mass of Saturn for $`R_{}100R_{}`$.

## M31 microlensing observations

Due to its small angular size, the monitoring of M31 requires only a few fields and therefore only a fraction of telescope time during each night. A proposed network of at least four 2m-class telescopes distributed around the northern hemisphere (Dominik 2002) will provide a sampling interval of $`6`$h. On-line data reduction based on difference-imaging will allow an increased sampling through target-of-oppurtunity observations in the case of ongoing anomalies.

Since M31 observations comprise unresolved star fields, only events with high peak magnification $`A_0`$ on bright sources are detectable, ruling out catching signatures of Earth-mass planets. The smaller fraction of useful events is partly compensated by the large number of source stars and an increased planet detection efficiency for larger peak magnifications (Griest & Safizadeh 1998).

The table compares the detection capabilities for Galactic and extragalactic planets with ground-based campaigns. Planet detection efficiencies follow Gould & Loeb (1992) and Covone et al. (2000) and are averaged over the lensing zone ($`0.6r_\mathrm{E}r_\mathrm{p}1.6r_\mathrm{E}`$). The determination of planet parameters is not required for obtaining upper abundance limits based on the absence of deviations.

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Dominik, M. 2002, in Napoli Series on Physics & Astrophysics, 6, General Relativity, Cosmology and Gravitational Lensing, ed. G. Marmo, C. Rubano & P. Scudellaro (Napoli: Bibliopolis), 87

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