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# Emergence of clustering, correlations, and communities in a social network model

## Abstract

We propose a simple model of social network formation that parameterizes the tendency to establish acquaintances by the relative distance in a representative social space. By means of analytical calculations and numerical simulations, we show that the model reproduces the main characteristics of real social networks: large clustering coefficient, assortative degree correlations, and the emergence of a hierarchy of communities. Our results highlight the importance of communities in the understanding of the structure of social networks.

A considerable effort has been devoted in recent years to the understanding of complex systems that can be described in term of networks, in which vertices represent interacting units and edges stand for the presence of interactions between them Albert and Barabási (2002); Dorogovtsev and Mendes (2003). Examples of this new brand of complex networks have been found in systems as diverse as the Internet, the World-Wide-Web, food-webs, and biological and social organizations (see Albert and Barabási (2002); Dorogovtsev and Mendes (2003) and references therein).

While most of these so-called complex networks share many common traits that hint towards the possibility of common underlying structural principles Albert and Barabási (2002); Dorogovtsev and Mendes (2003), social networks Wasserman and Faust (1994) seem to show some essential differences that place them apart from other technological or biological networks Newman and Park (2003). The main differences between social and non-social networks can be summarized in the following three properties: (i) Clustering: The property of clustering can be measured by means of the clustering coefficient Watts and Strogatz (1998), defined as the probability that a pair of vertices with a common neighbor are also connected to each other. While most complex networks show a quite large level of clustering Albert and Barabási (2002), it has been recently shown that in some cases the value of the clustering coefficient can be mostly accounted for by a simple random network model in which edges are placed at random, under the constraint of a fixed degree distribution $`P(k)`$ (defined as the probability that a vertex is connected to $`k`$ neighbors, i.e. has degree $`k`$) Newman et al. (2001); Newman (2003). For networks with a scale-free degree distribution of the form $`P(k)k^\gamma `$, this random construction can yield noticeable values of the clustering coefficient for finite networks, indicating that, in this case, the clustering could be a merely topological property. This construction, however, cannot explain the large clustering coefficient observed in social networks with a bounded, non scale-free degree distribution Amaral et al. (2000). (ii) Degree correlations: It has been recently recognized Pastor-Satorras et al. (2001); Newman (2002) that real networks show degree correlations, in the sense that the degrees at the end points of any given edge are not independent. In particular, this feature can be quantitatively measured by computing the average degree of the nearest neighbors of a vertex of degree $`k`$, $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k)`$ Pastor-Satorras et al. (2001). In this sense, non-social networks exhibit disassortative mixing, implying that highly connected vertices tend to connect to vertices with small degree, and vice-versa. This property translates in a decreasing $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k)`$ function. Social networks, on the other hand, display a strong assortative mixing, with high degree vertices connecting preferably to highly connected vertices, a fact that is reflected in an increasing $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k)`$ function. It has been pointed out Maslov et al. (2002); Newman and Park (2003) that, for finite networks, disassortative mixing can be obtained from a purely random model, by just imposing the condition of having no more than one edge between vertices. This observation implies that negative correlation can find a simple structural explanation; explanation that, on the other hand, does not apply to social networks, which must be driven by different organizational principles. (iii) Community structure: Social networks possess a complex community structure Girvan and Newman (2002); Guimerà et al. (2002); Tyler et al. (2003), in which individuals typically belong to groups or communities, with a high density of internal connections and loosely connected among them, that on their turn belong to groups of groups and so on, giving raise to a hierarchy of nested social communities of practice showing in some cases a self-similar structure Guimerà et al. (2002).

Several authors Girvan and Newman (2002); Newman and Park (2003); Guimerà et al. (2002) have advocated this last property, the presence of a community structure, as the very distinguishing feature of social networks, responsible for the rest of the properties that differentiate those from non-social networks. In this spirit, in the present paper we propose a model of social networks in which each vertex (individual) has associated a position in a certain social space Watts et al. (2002), whose coordinates account for the different characteristics that define their relative social position with respect to the rest of the individuals. Individuals establish social connections (acquaintances) with a probability decreasing with their relative social distance (properly defined in the social space). This property yields as a result the presence of communities, defined as local clusters of individuals in a given social space neighborhood. For general forms of the connecting probability, the model yields networks of acquaintances with a non-vanishing clustering coefficient in the thermodynamic limit, plus general assortative correlations. For a certain range of connectivity probabilities, moreover, the model reproduces a community structure with self-similar properties. The model we propose resembles the hierarchical network model proposed in Ref. Watts et al. (2002) (see also Kleinberg (2002)). Our approach differs, however, in the fact that hierarchies are not defined a priori, but they emerge as a result of the construction process.

Our model can be described as follows: Let us consider a set of $`N`$ disconnected individuals which are randomly placed within a social space, $``$, according to the density $`\rho (\stackrel{}{h})`$, where vector $`\stackrel{}{h_i}(h_i^1,\mathrm{},h_i^d_{})`$ defines the position of the $`i`$-th individual and $`d_{}`$ is the dimension of $``$. Each subspace of $``$ (defined by the different coordinates of the vector $`\stackrel{}{h}`$) represents a distinctive social feature, such as profession, religion, geographic location, etc. and, in general, it will be parametrized by means of a continuous variable with a domain growing with the size of the population. This choice is justified by the fact there are not two identical individuals and, thus, increasing the number of individuals also increases the diversity of the society. Even though it is not strictly necessary for our further development, we also assume that different subspaces are uncorrelated and, therefore, we can factorize the total density as $`\rho (\stackrel{}{h})=_{n=1}^d_{}\rho _n(h^n)`$. Assuming again the independence of social subspaces, we assign a connection probability between any two pairs of individuals, $`\stackrel{}{h_i}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{h_j}`$, given by

$$r(\stackrel{}{h_i},\stackrel{}{h_j})=\underset{n=1}{\overset{d_{}}{}}\omega _nr_n(h_i^n,h_j^n)$$
(1)
where $`\omega _n`$ is a normalized weight factor measuring the importance that each social attribute has in the process of formation of connections. The key point of our model is the concept of social distance across each subspace Watts et al. (2002). We assume that given two nodes $`i`$ and $`j`$ with respective social coordinates $`\stackrel{}{h_i}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{h_j}`$, it is possible to define a set of distances corresponding to each subspace, $`d_n(h_i^n,h_j^n)[0,\mathrm{})`$, $`n=1,\mathrm{}d_{}`$. Moreover, we expect that the probability of acquaintance decreases with social distance. Therefore, we propose a connection probability

$$r_n(h_i^n,h_j^n)=\frac{1}{1+\left[b_n^1d_n(h_i^n,h_j^n)\right]^{\alpha _n}}$$
(2)
where $`b_n`$ is a characteristic length scale (that, eventually, will control the average degree) and $`\alpha _n>1`$ is a measure of homophyly Watts et al. (2002), that is, the tendency of people to connect to similar people.

The degree distribution $`P(k)`$ of the network can be computed using the conditional probability $`g(k|\stackrel{}{h})`$ (propagator) that an individual with social coordinates $`\stackrel{}{h}`$ has $`k`$ connections Boguñá and Pastor-Satorras (2003). We can thus write $`P(k)=\rho (\stackrel{}{h})g(k|\stackrel{}{h})𝑑h`$, where $`dh`$ stands for the measure element of space $``$. The propagator $`g(k|\stackrel{}{h})`$ can be easily computed using standard techniques of probability theory Boguñá and Pastor-Satorras (2003), leading to a binomial distribution

$$g(k|\stackrel{}{h})=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{N1}{k}\right)\left(\frac{\overline{k}(\stackrel{}{h})}{N1}\right)^k\left(1\frac{\overline{k}(\stackrel{}{h})}{N1}\right)^{N1k}$$
(3)
where $`\overline{k}(\stackrel{}{h})`$ is the average degree of individuals with social coordinate $`\stackrel{}{h}`$. For uncorrelated social subspaces, this average degree takes the form

$$\overline{k}(\stackrel{}{h})=(N1)\underset{n=1}{\overset{d_{}}{}}\omega _n\rho _n(h^n)r_n(h^n,h^n)𝑑h^n.$$
(4)
In the case of a sparse network—constant average degree—the propagator takes a Poisson form Boguñá and Pastor-Satorras (2003) and the degree distribution can simply be written as

$$P(k)=\frac{1}{k!}\rho (\stackrel{}{h})[\overline{k}(\stackrel{}{h})]^ke^{\overline{k}(\stackrel{}{h})}𝑑h$$
(5)
Therefore, if the population is homogeneously distributed in the social space, the degree distribution will be bounded, in agreement with the observations made in several real social systems Guimerà et al. (2002); Ebel et al. (2002); Amaral et al. (2000) 111This form of the degree distribution is due to the particular connection probability Eq. (2) considered. More complex forms can yield different degree distributions, even with scale-free behavior..

The clustering coefficient is defined as the probability that two neighbors of a given individual are also neighbors themselves. Following Boguñá and Pastor-Satorras (2003), we first compute the probability that an individual with social vector $`\stackrel{}{h}`$ is connected to an individual with vector $`\stackrel{}{h^{}}`$, $`p(\stackrel{}{h^{}}|\stackrel{}{h})`$. This probability reads $`p(\stackrel{}{h^{}}|\stackrel{}{h})=(N1)\rho (\stackrel{}{h^{}})r(\stackrel{}{h},\stackrel{}{h^{}})/\overline{k}(\stackrel{}{h})`$. Given the independent assignment of edges among individuals, the clustering coefficient of an individual with vector $`\stackrel{}{h}`$ is

$$c(\stackrel{}{h})=p(\stackrel{}{h^{}}|\stackrel{}{h})r(\stackrel{}{h^{}},\stackrel{}{h^{\prime \prime }})p(\stackrel{}{h^{\prime \prime }}|\stackrel{}{h})𝑑h^{}𝑑h^{\prime \prime }$$
(6)
and the average clustering coefficient is simply given by

$$c=\rho (\stackrel{}{h})c(\stackrel{}{h})𝑑h$$
(7)
In order to test the behavior of our model, we consider the simplest case of a single social feature, i.e. $`d_{}=1`$. As we will see, even in this case our model presents several non-trivial properties, that are the signature of real social networks. Considering the space $``$ to be the one-dimensional segment $`[0,h_{max}]`$, we assign individuals a random, uniformly distributed, position, i.e. $`\rho (h)=1/h_{max}`$. In this way, the density of individuals in the social space is given by $`\delta =N/h_{max}`$. The distance between individuals is defined as $`d(h_i,h_j)|h_ih_j|`$. Therefore, the controlling parameter in the model is the homophyly parameter $`\alpha `$.

The left panel of Fig. 1 shows some typical examples of networks generated with our model, for different values of the parameter $`\alpha `$.

The model, as defined above, is homogeneous in the limit $`h_{max}1`$, which means that all the vertex properties will eventually become independent of the social coordinate $`h`$. Therefore, the average degree can be calculated as $`k=lim_{h_{max}\mathrm{}}\overline{k}(h=h_{max}/2)`$ which leads to

$$k=\frac{2\delta b\pi }{\alpha \mathrm{sin}\pi /\alpha }.$$
(8)
Thus, for fixed $`\delta `$, we can construct networks with the same average degree and different homophyly, $`\alpha `$, by changing $`b`$ according to the previous expression. For $`\alpha =1`$ the average degree diverges because, in this case, there is a finite probability of connection to infinitely distant vertices.

The clustering coefficient can be computed by means of Eq. (6), yielding

$$c=\frac{\alpha ^2}{4\pi ^2}f(\alpha )\mathrm{sin}^2\frac{\pi }{\alpha }$$
(9)
where

$$f(\alpha )=_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}\frac{dxdy}{(1+|x|^\alpha )(1+|xy|^\alpha )(1+|y|^\alpha )}$$
(10)
Fig. 2 shows the perfect agreement between simulations of the model compared to the theoretic value Eq. (9), computed by numerical integration. We observe that the clustering coefficient vanishes when $`\alpha =1`$, that is, for weakly homophyllic societies, and converges to a constant value $`c=3/4`$ when $`\alpha \mathrm{}`$ 222$`f(\alpha \mathrm{})`$ can be exactly computed by noticing that the functions within the integrals approach, in this limit, to step functions., which corresponds to a strongly homophyllic society.

Regarding the degree correlations, at first sight one could conclude that, since the network is homogeneous in the social space $``$, the resulting network is free of any correlations. However, numerical simulations of the average degree of the nearest neighbors as a function of the degree, $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k)`$, show a linear dependence on $`k`$ and, consequently, assortative mixing by degree (see Fig. 2). This counterintuitive result is a consequence of the fluctuations of the density of individuals in the social space. Indeed, if individuals are placed in the space $``$ with some type of randomness, they will end up forming clusters (communities) of close individuals, strongly connected among them. Therefore, an individual with large degree will most probably belong to a large cluster, and consequently its neighbors will have also a high degree.

Finally, we focus on the community structure displayed by our model. To this purpose, we use the algorithm proposed by Girvan and Newman (GN) Girvan and Newman (2002) to identify communities in complex networks. The performance of this algorithm relies on the fact that edges connecting different communities have high betweenness (a centrality measure of vertex and edges of the network Freeman (1977), that is defined as the total number of shortest paths among pairs of vertices of the network that pass through a given vertex or edge Brandes (2001)). The algorithm recursively identifies and cuts the edge with the highest betweenness, splitting the network until the single vertex level. The information of the entire process can be encoded into the binary tree generated by the splitting procedure. The advantage of using the binary tree representation is twofold, since it gives information about the different communities—which are the branches of the tree—and, at the same time, unravels the hierarchy of such communities. The right panel of Fig. 1 shows the binary trees corresponding to the networks shown in the left panel. As $`\alpha `$ grows, the network eventually becomes a chain of clusters connected by a few edges. In contrast, as $`\alpha `$ approaches $`1`$ the network is more and more interconnected and develops a hierarchical structure. This hierarchical structure can be quantified by means of the cumulative distribution of community sizes, $`P_c(s)`$, in which the community size $`s`$ is defined as the number of individuals belonging to each offspring during the splitting procedure. Fig. 3 shows $`P_c(s)`$ for $`\alpha =1.1`$, $`2`$ and $`3`$. When $`\alpha 1`$, the cumulative size distribution approaches to $`P_c(s)s^1`$, reflecting the hierarchical structure of the network. For higher values of $`\alpha `$ the hierarchy is still preserved for large community sizes whereas for small sizes there is a clear deviation as a consequence of clusters of highly connected individuals which form indivisible communities, breaking thus the hierarchical structure at low levels. These clusters are identified in the binary tree as the long branches with many leaves at the end of the tree.

To sum up, in this paper we have presented a model of social network with non-zero clustering coefficient in the thermodynamic limit, assortative degree mixing, and a hierarchical (self-similar) community structure. The origin of these properties can be traced back to the very presence of communities, due to the fluctuations in the position of individuals in social space. Our approach opens thus new views for a further understanding of the structure of complex social networks.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work has been supported by DGES of the Spanish Government, Grant No. BFM2000-0626 and EC-FET Open Project No. IST-2001-33555. R.P.-S. acknowledges financial support from the MCyT (Spain), and from the DURSI, Generalitat de Catalunya (Spain). We thank R. Guimerà, L.A.N. Amaral, and A. Vespignani for helpful discussions.


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# CONSTRUCTION AND TESTS OF MODULES FOR THE ATLAS PIXEL DETECTOR

## 1 Module Layout

A pixel module consists of a single n-on-n silicon sensor, approx. 2$`\times `$6 cm2 in size. The sensor is subdivided into 47,268 pixels which are connected individually to 16 front-end (FE) chips via ”bumps”. These chips are connected to a module-control chip (MCC) mounted on a kapton-flex-hybrid glued onto the back-side of the sensor. The MCC communicates with the off-detector electronics via opto-links, whereas power is fed into the chips via cables connected to the flex-hybrid .

The sensor is subdivided into 41984 “standard” pixels of 50 $`\mu `$m in azimuth times 400 $`\mu `$m parallel to the LHC beam, and 5284 “long” pixels of $`50\times 600`$ $`\mu `$m to cover the gaps between adjacent front-end chips. The module has 46080 read-out channels, which is smaller than the number of pixels because there is a 200 $`\mu `$m gap in between FE chips on opposite sides of the module. To get full coverage the last eight pixels in each row are connected to only four channels (“ganged” pixels).

The connection between each pixel and its read-out channel is made through a bump bond. Two technologies are used, indium bumps and solder bumps. The minimum bump spacing is 50 $`\mu `$m. No underfill material is used between the bumps to minimise the capacitive coupling between pixels as well as the capacitive load on the FE inputs. Consequently the bumped assembly is mechanically held together only by the bumps .

The FE chips contain 2880 individual charge sensitive analogue circuits with a digital read-out that operates at 40 MHz clock. The analogue part consists of a high-gain, fast preamplifier followed by a DC-coupled second stage and a differential discriminator. The threshold of the discriminator ranges up to 1 fC, its nominal value being 0.5 fC. On top of a globally set threshold value the threshold of each of the 2880 channels can be adjusted individually to allow fine tuning. When a hit is detected by the discriminator the pixel address and the time at which the hit occured is provided. Alongside that the time over threshold (ToT) information allows reconstruction of the charge seen by the preamplifier. The pixel address and timing/charge information is then passed to buffers at the bottom of the chip where data waits for a matching trigger before being sent to the MCC. The MCC does a first event-building of the individual data of the 16 FE chips .

## 2 Module Tests

In order to assure full functionality of the modules in the later experiment, measurements in a test beam and at the production sites are performed.

Beam tests are performed at the SPS at CERN using 180 GeV/c hadrons. The setup consists of a beam telescope for the position measurement , trigger scintillators for timing measurement to 36 ps, and up to four pixel modules. The number of defective channels is observed to less than $`10^3`$ and for standard pixels the efficiency for normal incidence particles is 99.57$`\pm `$0.15%. The timewalk, i.e. the variation in the time when the discriminator input goes above threshold, is an issue since hits with a low deposited charge have an arrival time later than the ones with high charges, in particular for ganged pixels. This problem has been addressed in the latest version of FE chips.

An important test that allows a large range of in-laboratory measurements is the threshold scan. Signals are created with on-module charge injection and scanning the number of hits versus the so injected charge yields the physical value of the threshold of the discriminator and the equivalent noise charge as seen by the preamplifier. A set of such scans is used to reduce the threshold dispersion by adjusting a parameter individually for each channel (see above). The resulting threshold and noise after threshold tuning is shown in figure 1. Typically approx. 100 e threshold dispersion across a module and a noise value of below 200 e for standard pixels is achieved, as is needed for good performance.

In a similar fashion, the cross-talk is measured to a few per cent for standard pixels and a timewalk measurement yields a result similar to that from the test beam. Data taken when illuminating the sensor with a radioactive source allows in-laboratory detection of defective channels, again yielding a number similar to that of the test beam. The source-spectrum reconstructed from the ToT-readings is in agreement with expectations.

In addition, modules are irradiated to a dose approximately corresponding to 10 years of ATLAS operation The latter results are currently only preliminary and are thus not reported here although they look promising.


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# Quasar Apparent Proper Motion Observed by Geodetic VLBI Networks

## 1. History of Radio Source Observing by Geodetic Networks

Since 1979, geodetic VLBI networks have observed in 3555 24-hour experiment sessions. Most of these observations were made by about 40 antennas. The number of radio sources observed in geodetic sessions has grown significantly during the last two decades. Until 1986, only 65 sources had been observed and these were nearly all in the Northern Hemisphere. From 1987 to 1989, 210 more sources were observed and the distribution of sources between hemispheres was greatly improved. In our current geodetic solutions, we estimate positions for 610 radio sources. Due to the fact that most of the geodetic antennas are in the Northern hemisphere, the distribution of radio sources is still better in the Northern than the Southern hemisphere.

Since 1990, there have been 2-3 24-hour geodetic sessions each week, where typically 40-50 radio sources are observed per session. Typically each session used a network of 4-7 antennas, but we also have data from the bimonthly RDV series of sessions (1997-2003) that mostly used 10 of the standard geodetic antennas along with the 10-station VLBA. In each session, the choice of radio sources to be observed depended on the geometry of the network. The result is that the sampling history of the set of all sources that have been observed is generally uneven.

## 2. Observed Proper Motion Field

A VLBI terrrestrial reference frame solution was performed using all VLBI observations from 1979-2003. In this type of solution, station positions, station velocities, and radio source positions and velocities are estimated from all of the data. To remove the translational and rotation degeneracies of the solution, it is necessary to apply several constraints. Here, the station positions and velocities were weakly constrained to ITRF2000 via no net translation and rotation constraints. Similarly, radio source positions were weakly constrained to a priori ICRF positions with a no net rotation constraint. Radio source velocities (proper motions) were constrained to have no net rotation velocity. The paper by Ma et al. (1990) describes the least-squares estimation program (SOLVE) used in the analysis. For each 24-hour session observing day, the estimated parameters are pole coordinates and their rates, UT1 and the UT1 rate, and nutation offsets. Several nuisance parameters are estimated as piecewise linear functions with constraints on the rate of change between segments. These parameters are station clock functions with one hour segments, wet atmospheric delay with 20 minute segments, and horizontal tropospheric delay with 6 hour segments. For the most part, the theoretical time delays follow the IERS Conventions (McCarthy 1996).

Figure 1 shows the distribution of proper motion for 580 radio sources with proper motion formal uncertainties better than 0.5 mas/yr. Since the observations of sources have not been very even, the uncertainties of the source proper motion estimates range from less than 50 $`\mu `$as/yr to more than 1 mas/yr. The formal uncertainties for 167 sources are better than 20 $`\mu `$as/yr and better than 50 $`\mu `$as/yr for 348 sources. There are about 50-60 sources with observed proper motion with at least 3 sigma significance. In terms of obvious systematic effects, there is not any clear declination dependence of observed proper motion in declination or in right ascension. However, the precision of determinations of proper motion for southern declination sources (below 40-50S) is poorer than for higher declination sources. The main reason for this is that most of the geodetic antennas are in the northern hemisphere. For the distribution of estimated proper motions, we find that the weighted RMS of motion in declination was 30 $`\mu `$as/yr and in right ascension (arc length) was 26 $`\mu `$as/yr.

Figure 2 shows the magnitude of observed proper motion versus redshift for sources where the proper motion uncertainty is at least as good as 50 $`\mu `$as/yr. The available redshifts were taken from Archinal (1997), which contains radio source characteristics compiled from a number of sources. The observed quasars (355 sources) have redshifts as large as 4.3. The observed radio galaxies (54 sources) and BL Lac objects (56 sources) generally have redshifts less than 1. There may be a trend toward lower proper motion with increasing redshift but it is not very clear.

## 3. Possible Source Structure Effects

Source structure variations are known to be correlated with variations in the apparent position measured by VLBI (Charlot et al. 1990). When a solution is made in which source position time series are estimated, one observes both linear and nonlinear variation. One problem is that we do not know how much of this observed linear variation is due to structure variation. Figure 3 shows the time series for the right ascension of 4C39.25, whose apparent proper motion has been shown to be related to structure variations (Fey et al. 1997). Sovers et al. (2002) have derived structure corrections from source maps for the RDV series of VLBI sessions and found that these corrections removed about 8 ps in quadrature from solution weighted rms delay residuals (typically at a level of 30 ps).

## 4. Pattern of Apparent Proper Motion

We have analyzed the observed proper motion vector field to determine whether there are systematic patterns present. We have expressed the observed field as an expansion of transverse vector spherical harmonics (VSH), which conveniently comprise an orthonormal basis for vector fields on a sphere.

$$\underset{l,m}{}(a_{l,m}^EY_{l,m}^E+a_{l,m}^MY_{l,m}^M)$$

The E-harmonics are the electric or poloidal harmonics and the M-harmonics are the magnetic or toroidal harmonics. Since the observed motion is real, we estimate real linear combinations of the complex amplitudes. This is similar to the approach of Gwinn et al. (1997) except that instead of estimating the expansion amplitudes (externally) from the set of proper motion estimates made for each source (solution in Section 2), the expansion amplitudes were estimated directly in the solution. We also have available another six years of data.

The L=1 M-harmonics are simply rotations and are therefore indistinguishable from Earth rotation. On the other hand, the L=1 E-harmonics can arise from galactocentric acceleration or quasar/galaxy acceleration. The RMS of the proper motion for observed sources using the sum of these harmonics was found to be 8 $`\mu `$as/yr. For the sum of the L=2 harmonics, we obtained an RMS of 19 $`\mu `$as/yr. Gwinn et al. (1997) related the squared proper motion averaged over the sky to the energy density of gravitational radiation for wavelengths short compared to source distances. Figure 4 shows the estimated L=2 vector field.

A variant of the above solution was made in which for each year, the positions for all sources observed in a given year were estimated with a VSH expansion. One can clearly see the linear evolution in time of the expansion amplitudes after 1990. For years increasingly earlier than 1990, the distribution of sources poorer especially in the Southern hemisphere so that a spherical harmonic expansion becomes increasingly less reliable.

## 5. Discussion

The position error floor of the ICRF (International Celestial Reference Frame) is 250 $`\mu `$as and the orientation stability is about 20 $`\mu `$as. The stability of the celestial reference frame depends on the level of secular change of radio source positions. The WRMS of observed proper motion from nearly 2 decades of observations by geodetic networks is at the level of about 30 $`\mu `$as/yr in both right ascension and declination. Given this level of observed motion and an observing duration of 1-2 decades, modeling or corrections are needed to make improvement in stability below the nominal noise floor.

There does appear to be a statistically significant pattern in the observed proper motion vector field. The problem, however, is to how to determine how much the observed apparent motion is due to unmodelled source structure effects. To improve the determination of spherical expansion amplitudes, it would be desirable to make more observations of southern declination sources below about -40.

## References

Archinal, B. A., Arias, E. F., Gontier, A. -M., & Mercuri-Moreau, C. 1997, IERS Technical Note 23, III-11

Charlot, P. 1990, AJ, 99, 1309

Fey, A., Eubanks T. M., & Kingham, K. 1997, AJ, 114, 2284

Gwinn, C. R., Eubanks, T. M., Pyne, T., Birkinshaw, M, & Matsakis, D. N. 1997, ApJ, 485, 87

Ma, C., Sauber, J. M., Bell, L. J., Clark, T. A. ,Gordon, D., Himwich, W. E., & Ryan, J. W. 1990, J. Geophys. Res, 95, 21991

McCarthy, D. D. 1996, IERS Technical Note 21

Sovers, O. J., Charlot, P., Fey, A. L. & Gordon, D. G. 2002, IVS 2002 General Meeting Proceedings, 243


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# Experimental Scheme to Test the Fair Sampling Assumption in EPR-Bell Experiments

(August 26, 2003)

## Abstract

We propose here an experimental test of the fair sampling assumption in two-channel EPR-Bell experiments for which the detection loophole holds.

In order to assess that a violation of Bell inequality Bell (1964) has been experimentally observed, EPR-Bell experiments Aspect et al. (1982); Weihs et al. (1998) for which the detection loophole holds are interpreted assuming *fair sampling* Garrucio and Rapisarda (1981); Adenier and Khrennikov . The purpose of this note is to propose an experimental scheme to test this fair sampling assumption for two-channel type experiments.

Let label as usual the possible measurement results for each particle as +1 if the particle is detected in the ordinary channel, as -1 if it is detected in the extraordinary channel, and as 0 if it remains undetected. Let label the settings of the left and right two-channel measurement devices respectively as $`\phi _1`$ and $`\phi _2`$ (see Fig. 1).

With a local realistic model, an apparent violation of a Bell Inequality can be obtained because of the existence of the 0 channel. The pairs that must remain unregistered for this purpose must however not be selected completely randomly, but according to the context of the two-channel measurement devices encountered by the particles Adenier and Khrennikov , that is, the sampling must be *unfair* and done according to $`\phi _1`$ and $`\phi _2`$. Note that it is a completely local process, the rejection of pairs mimics nonlocality only because of the coincidence circuitry, since as long as one particle is undetected the whole pair is naturally rejected.

The trouble with the one-channel experiment that makes checking of the fair sampling assumption impossible is that the only measurement result that can be recorded is the +1 result. Hence, channels -1 and 0 cannot be distinguished as they correspond both to a non detection. In the two-channel experiment, this distinction is made, and all four coincidence rates are available—not only $`R_{++}`$ as in the one-channel experiment, but also $`R_+`$, $`R_+`$, and $`R_{}`$. It is therefore possible to compute the total rate of detected pairs as $`R_d=R_{++}+R_++R_++R_{}`$, which as we shall see can prove to be a crucial tool to test the fair sampling assumption.

Suppose that such an unfair sampling is indeed at stakes in a two-channel experiment. Let $`R_u`$ be the rate of pairs rejected according to this unfair sampling process, and $`R_f`$ be the rate of pairs rejected according to a fair one. The total rate $`R`$ of pairs entering in the coincidence circuitry is then $`R=R_d+R_f+R_u`$. The unfair sampling part $`R_u`$ is a coherent process depending strongly on the polarization distribution of the source and of the orientations $`\phi _1`$ and $`\phi _2`$ of the two-channel devices Adenier and Khrennikov . On the contrary, the fair sampling part $`R_f`$ should be completely independent of these factors, provided that the rate $`R`$ of pairs entering in the coincidence circuitry is a constant of time.

Let us assume the source is indeed stable, so that both $`R`$ and $`R_f`$ are invariants for different settings of the instruments. It means that $`R_d+R_u`$ must remain invariant too, so that $`R_d`$ can be an indirect way to check whether an unfair sampling $`R_u`$ is at stakes. Since it is however possible to build a local realistic model that exhibit independent errors Larsson (2000), in which $`R_d`$ remains a constant for a source of entangled photons, whatever $`\phi _1`$ and $`\phi _2`$, and since a model with dependent errors exhibit in this case very small oscillations of $`R_d`$ Adenier and Khrennikov  anyway, observing that $`R_d`$ is invariant for a source of entangled photon cannot be taken as a proof that there is no unfair sampling at stakes. Hence, our proposal to test fair sampling for the two-channel experiment is to modify and control the source. Instead of the rotationally invariant singlet state, we propose to send a set of pairs already sampled, i.e., with a preferred direction of polarization $`\theta `$. Provided that there is an unfair sampling at stakes with the measurement setup, then when this $`\theta `$-sampled source meets the unfair sampling measurement setup depending on $`\phi `$, $`R_u`$ and therefore $`R_d`$ should exhibit some variations when $`\theta `$ is varied. The result of simulations Adenier and Khrennikov  shows a strong variation (see Fig. 2).

In order to control the source experimentally, our proposal is thus to insert aligned polarizers oriented along an angle $`\theta `$ in the coincidence circuitry before the two-channel measurement devices, both oriented along the same angle $`\phi `$ (see Fig. 3). If the sampling is fair then $`R_d`$ should remain invariant when the angle $`\theta `$ is varied with respect to $`\phi `$, and no such oscillations as in Fig. 2 should be observed.

The fair sampling test we propose here should be simple to implement, and should allow to either discard all known local realist models based on detection loophole, or on the contrary, to show that the analyzers which are assumed to be ideal two-channel measuring devices are in fact unfair and therefore inappropriate for an EPR-Bell test.


text:
# SN 1994W: evidence of explosive mass ejection a few years before explosion

## 1 Introduction

Type IIn supernovae are believed to arise from massive stars exploding into a dense circumstellar environment. Often highly luminous, they offer us an intriguing new window on the final stages of the progenitor’s evolution.

SN 1994W, discovered on 1994 July 29 in NGC 4041, was a luminous Type IIn supernova whose light curve dropped dramatically at 110 days. The low luminosity after this point has been used to derive a very low mass of nickel in the ejecta ($`M_{\mathrm{Ni}}<`$0.003 M; SCL98 ). In a forthcoming paper C03 , we present and analyse all the SN 1994W spectra and model the circumstellar interaction.

## 2 Observations

The spectra were taken between 1994 July and 1995 February using BFOSC on the BAO 1.5-m telescope, the IDS on the Isaac Newton Telescope, ISIS on the William Herschel Telescope (La Palma), the Kast spectrograph at Lick Observatory’s Shane 3-m reflector, and the LDS at the Nordic Optical Telescope on La Palma.

## 3 Spectral evolution

No broad ejecta absorption lines are seen (Figure 1). Together with high luminosity at maximum, this suggests an extended progenitor interacting with a circumstellar (CS) envelope, and the presence of a cool dense shell (CDS), which should form in SN II with extended envelopes FA77 ; G71 .

The spectra show persistent narrow P Cygni lines of H i with broad bases (Figure 2). Triangular profiles with $`v_{\mathrm{FWHM}}2500`$ km s-1 are seen in He i and Mg ii. Black body fits to the continuum show that the temperature declines from 15000 K on day 31 to 7200 K on day 89. From day 121 onward, only narrow emission lines are clearly seen.

We see broad lines with maximum velocity 4000 km s-1, which we take to be the expansion velocity of the CDS. We think the broad lines come from Rayleigh-Taylor fingers from the interface of the radiative forward shock and the CS envelope (Figure 3). The persistent, narrow P Cygni lines with maximum blue velocity 1100 km s-1 indicate the maximum velocity of the circumstellar envelope, which is overrun by the ejecta at 110 days. Broad wings on H i, and nearly inverse Balmer decrement on day 31 point to a high optical depth for Thomson scattering, from which we estimate that the density in the CS envelope is as high as $`10^9`$ cm-3.

## 4 Light curve models confirm energetics

We model the broad band light curves using the multi-energy group radiation hydrodynamic code STELLA. The best fit model is for a $`1.5\times 10^{51}`$ erg explosion, $`M_{\mathrm{Ni}}=`$0.015 M and $`M_{\mathrm{ej}}=7`$ M ejecta, with circumstellar envelope extending out to $`R_{\mathrm{out}}=4.5\times 10^{15}`$ cm (Figure 4). A similar model, with the same bulk mass but no CS envelope, fails to reproduce the bright plateau up to 110 days.

## 5 H$`\alpha `$ profile model reveals kinematics

We have also modelled the evolution of the H$`\alpha `$ line profile. The CS envelope is ionized by radiation from the forward shock, leading to line emission from recombination and collisional excitation. Our best fit is for a model with free expansion in the CS envelope and a boundary velocity of 1100 km s-1. This suggests a mass ejection $``$1.5 yr before explosion.

Some SN IIn seem to be due to interaction with a superwind. SN 1994W, on the other hand, like SN 1995G CD03 , seems instead to have been preceded by a violent ejection event shortly before explosion, perhaps due to a Ne flash CD03 ; WW86 .

## Index


text:
# Testing the Paradigm of Low-Mass Star Formation

## 1. Introduction

What do we mean when we speak of “testing the paradigm of low-mass star formation”? If it is simply questioning the sequence of events – a molecular cloud core collapses at near free-fall velocities to a protostar plus disk system, followed by accretion through a disk onto the star, and eventual planet formation (e.g., Shu, Adams, & Lizano 1987) – then there is little controversy. On the other hand, if one is testing details from older models – for example, that molecular cloud cores must lose substantial magnetic flux by ambipolar diffusion before collapse; that cores are essentially static before collapsing; and that core collapse occurs “inside-out’– then there is much less agreement. Indeed, developments over the last several years have cast significant doubt on many of these details.

More broadly, it is obvious that any theory of low-mass star formation must encompass the end points: specifically, the formation of protostellar cores, and the formation of binary and/or multiple systems (probably through post-collapse fragmentation in many if not most cases). The standard paradigm is essentially silent on these issues; it must be expanded if we are to understand aspects of star formation such as the initial mass function.

In this contribution I will focus on the origin of protostellar cores, which has implications for core structure and therefore for subsequent phases of collapse and fragmentation.

## 2. Molecular clouds and magnetic fields

Because cores are subunits of molecular clouds, some attention must be paid to the processes of cloud formation and dispersal. For some time it was thought that giant molecular clouds are relatively long-lived (e.g., Solomon et al. 1979). This view implies that molecular clouds must be supported by supersonic turbulence (Norman & Silk 1980; Larson 1981); that this turbulence is responsible for preventing wide-spread gravitational collapse, which would result in far too large a galactic star formation rate (Zuckerman & Evans 1974); and that cloud turbulence must be strongly Alfvenic in character, to avoid dissipating too rapidly (Arons & Max 1975; see discussion in Shu, Adams, & Lizano 1987).

A preliminary step toward changing this long-life view was taken by Blitz & Shu (1980). They used several arguments to argue that typical cloud lifetimes are $`<30`$ Myr, including the concentration of OB associations to spiral arms (implying that molecular gas does not drift for a long time past the arms) and the rapidity with which massive stars can disperse molecular gas.

However, stellar population ages suggest that cloud lifetimes in the solar neighborhood are of order 3-5 Myr, i.e. an order of magnitude smaller than the Blitz-Shu estimate. As shown in Table 1, taken from Hartmann, Ballesteros-Paredes, & Bergin (2001; HBB), it is very rare to find substantial molecular clouds without at least some young stars forming within them. In almost all local clouds, the typical age of the stellar population is $`13`$ Myr. And older groups, whether OB associations or low-mass groups, of ages 5-10 Myr have no associated molecular gas. These data clearly demonstrate that star formation proceeds almost immediately upon cloud formation; that molecular clouds are transient structures; and that clouds are rapidly dispersed.

This picture has a number of important implications. Numerical simulations have indicated that, contrary to expectation, MHD turbulence decays rapidly (Stone, Ostriker, & Gammie 1998; Mac Low et al. 1998; Mac Low 1999). However, even with this rapid dissipation, short cloud lifetimes comparable to or less than crossing times (Elmegreen 2000; HBB) imply that turbulence need not be regenerated, but could simply be left over from cloud formation. This avoids difficulties using stellar energy sources to maintain turbulence for long periods of time, which in at least in the case of massive stars are much more likely to disrupt the cloud than stabilize it. Short cloud lifetimes also imply that the low rate of star formation is the result of reduced efficiency of conversion to gas to stars (Hartmann 1998; Elmegreen 2000) rather than slow cloud contraction as ambipolar diffusion proceeds.

The short lag time between cloud formation and the onset of star formation makes it unlikely that ambipolar diffusion can operate for a long time. In turn, this implies that large amounts of magnetic flux need not be removed from the cloud; i.e., that the cores cannot be highly magnetically subcritical. This seems to fly in the face of the so-called magnetic flux problem (Mestel & Spitzer 1956), which would seem to imply that formation of clouds from diffuse interstellar conditions would result in far too much magnetic flux for clouds of thousands of solar masses or less to contract without flux loss.

To avoid the magnetic flux problem, supercritical clouds can be formed by flows along the magnetic field (e.g., Mestel 1985). This requires large-scale flows, at least if molecular clouds are to be formed by accumulation out of the diffuse galactic interstellar medium. The accumulation length $`l`$ needed to produce a critical cloud, measured along the magnetic field, adopting interstellar medium parameters typical of the solar neighborhood, is

$$l_c430(B/5\mu G)(n_H/1\mathrm{c}\mathrm{m}^3)\mathrm{pc},$$
(1)
While $`l_c`$ appears to be rather large, Blitz & Shu (1980) considered formation of giant molecular clouds from accumulation over 500 pc along the field.

Observations of large GMCs suggest that cloud accumulation lengths often are very large. In a number of cases, the lateral crossing times of star-forming regions or young associations are substantially longer than the ages of the stellar population (HBB). It is difficult if not impossible to explain this coordination over large distance scales by propagating information along the cloud. The natural explanation is that the clouds are swept up by large scale flows driven by either stellar winds, supernovae, spiral density wave shocks, or a combination of all three. The flows must have substantial correlation lengths to explain some of the largest regions. For instance, the Sco OB2 association has a projected extent of order 150 pc (and an internal velocity dispersion in the plane of the sky of only $`1.5\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ or less; de Bruijne 1999). Flows of hundreds of pc in length are much more likely to exhibit such lateral coherence.

The numerical simulations of the interstellar medium by Enrique Vazquez and his collaborators (Passot, Vazquez-Semadeni & Pouquet 1995; see also Ballesteros-Paredes et al. 1999 and HBB) also suggest that accumulation lengths are large, and lead to supercritical clouds. These ideal MHD simulations have some limitations – they are two-dimensional, and do not reach high densities – but they are extremely important because they cover very large regions (1 kpc on a side) and can thus address cloud formation by flows on larger scales than any other simulation.

These simulations show that flows do extend for hundreds of pc, and that they do tend to accumulate mass along magnetic field lines, as required to make supercritical clouds out of the diffuse medium. The simulations also indicate that the flows can bend the magnetic field lines, if necessary, to accomodate mass accumulation. Finally, the simulations indicate that massive regions tend to be magnetically supercritical, as shown in Figure 1.

There is a fairly straightforward argument to be made why molecular clouds formed in this way should be supercritical, as discussed in HBB. In essence, dense regions tend to be magnetically-supercritical because supercritical conditions are dynamically favorable for cloud formation. If the internal magnetic field in a cloud creates a pressure force stronger than the force of gravity (i.e., the cloud is subcritical), then the cloud will expand unless external pressures confine it. Therefore dense clouds tend to have magnetic pressure forces weaker than the external (ram) pressures. But star formation generally proceeds in clouds where gravitational forces are important in comparison with external pressure forces. Thus, self-gravitating clouds tend to have gravitational forces larger than both external pressure and internal magnetic forces, i.e. they are supercritical. In addition, molecular clouds only form in the solar neighborhood when the column density of material is sufficient (generally, visual extinctions of order unity or larger) to shield the molecules from the dissociating interstellar radiation field. At this point, the self-gravity of the cloud is comparable to or larger than that of typical interstellar medium pressures (Franco & Cox 1986). Thus when clouds accumulate enough material to become molecular, they also tend to be both self-gravitating and supercritical.

Independent arguments suggesting that giant molecular clouds are at least critical if not supercritical were given by McKee (1989). Nakano (1998) also made somewhat similar arguments that cores are generally supercritical. Finally, recent observational studies of dense regions indeed suggest that cores are roughly critical if not supercritical (Crutcher 1999; Bourke et al. 2001).

Note that, given the low efficiency of star formation on a global scale (i.e., the entire molecular cloud), gravitational collapse need only occur rapidly over limited scales. Thus, even if the cloud as whole is close to critical, some regions will be magnetically-strong and others magnetically-weak, and the B-weak regions will probably collapse first. Ambipolar diffusion is thus unlikely to slow protostellar collapse, and magnetic forces do not prevent local rapid star formation upon the formation of molecular gas, as required by observations.

## 3. Filaments and fragmentation

The rapidity of star formation in molecular clouds indicates the need for a dynamic theory of protostellar core formation. Indeed, it is difficult to see how it could be otherwise, as one must take diffuse molecular gas and concentrate it somehow, with some kind of motions. There are two extreme possibilities here. One is that the turbulent motions present in the cloud occasionally focus material into small enough volumes that become Jeans unstable and then collapse (e.g., Padoan & Nordlund 1999). The other extreme picture invokes gravitational focusing in a relatively quiescent medium (e.g., Larson 1985). It seems likely that the true solution lies somewhere in between these two extremes; clouds are supersonically turbulent, but gravity must obviously play an important role as well.

As an initial step towards addressing these problems, consider the situation in the Taurus star-forming region. Taurus may not be typical of such regions; it is of relatively low density, it is not making massive stars, and it appears to have a somewhat distinctive initial mass function in comparison with other regions (e.g., Briceño et al. 2002). However, it is close, easy to study, and relatively quiescent. If the paradigm of low-mass star formation applies anywhere, it should apply in Taurus.

While it has long been recognized that the distribution of dense gas in Taurus is filamentary, it has only recently been emphasized that the distribution of young stars is extremely filamentary (Hartmann 2002). In particular, as shown in Figure 2, on a large scale most of the stars (and the dense gas) are distributed in three extensive, roughly parallel bands. One of these bands extends the entire length of the association.

To see the implications of this structure, it is again useful to compare with the results of numerical simulations. Klessen (2001) and Klessen & Burkert (2001) have computed dynamical structures with forced driving of turbulence on a variety of scales. Driving with fluctuations on small scales unsurprisingly produces small-scale structures with no hint of large-scale filaments. In contrast, low-spatial-wavenumber (large-scale) driving of turbulence yielded long filaments in the Klessen et al. simulations. Therefore the Taurus structure suggests large-scale driving. It is tempting to identify this large-scale driving source with the large-scale flow that I suspect formed Taurus in the first place.

How are the filaments produced? One possibiity is that turbulence is entirely responsible, as in the Klessen et al. simulations. There is clearly smaller-scale structure in the dense gas filaments, as shown in the left panel of Figure 3, which almost certainly reflects small-scale motions of some kind. Alternatively, gravity could play an important role in focusing material into filaments, as for example in the simulations by Miyama et al. (1987a,b).

However the filaments are formed, it seems most likely to me that core production is the result of gravitational fragmentation in the filaments, as envisaged by Larson (1985). It seems unlikely to me that even if non-gravitational flows form the filaments, sub-flows would then arise to break up the filament; in contrast, gravitational fragmentation should naturally operate.

The gravitational fragmentation hypothesis predicts that the initial scale of fragmentation should be longer than the typical width of the filament. In support of this hypothesis, as shown in the right hand panel of Figure 3, cores are typically elongated along their host filaments. Note that this picture of gravitational fragmentation can only work if the filaments are supercritical; otherwise the magnetic field would prevent concentration.

Thus I suggest that core formation is essentially the initial stages of gravitational collapse, at least in Taurus. Supersonic flows, however induced, make filaments in this picture. In the post-shock gas within filaments, gravitational fragmentation and subsequent collapse occurs. This picture predicts that there should be large-scale infall motions, as seen for example by Tafalla (1998) and Lee, Myers, & Tafalla (2001). It also predicts that core collapse follows immediately upon core formation (because formation occurs by gravitational instability); this is also reasonably consistent with core statistics which suggest that starless cores do not live for many free-fall times (Jijina et al. 1999).

## 4. Core structure

Most protostellar cores are elongated in projection. Myers et al. (1991) argued that typical cores are more prolate than oblate, which if true would pose significant problems for simple magnetically-dominated models of core structure, which most naturally tend to be oblate (flattened along the magnetic field) than prolate. Prolate magnetic models have been constructed by Curry & Stahler (2001), but these are quasi-static; Fiege & Pudritz (2000) constructed static models, but the plausibility of the adopted boundary conditions is in doubt.

Several independent investigations of core structure have been carried out which exhibit some tendency to support the notion of prolate (like) cores (Jones & Basu 2002; Curry 2002). However, most studies assume a random distribution of core inclinations and then make statistical analyses. It is quite clear from Figure 3 (right) that the cores in Taurus are NOT randomly distributed in space; there is a definite overall orientation. Given the elongation of cores along large-scale filaments, it seems inescapable that the cores are more prolate-like than oblate.

In the picture of core formation and evolution advanced in the previous section, cores are not completely static but are dynamic. In principle, this makes it easier to understand prolate and other complex structure; all forces need not be balanced perfectly, as in true hydrostatic equilibrium. Even a relatively ordered, smooth-looking core like L1544 (Figure 4) is not only elongated, but asymmetric along the major axis; this structure would require some carefully arranged magnetic field distribution to explain in pure hydrostatic equilibrium. Such careful arrangements are not necessary in the dynamic model. Increasingly realistic calculations of dynamic core formation are needed to test against the observations. The simulations discussed by Ballesteros-Paredes et al. (2003) are a start; these calculations “turn on” gravity late in the process, which seems unrealistic.

For purposes of initial analysis, and in the absence of dynamic models, static equilibrium models of cores can be useful. It has become increasingly popular to compare observations of cores with so-called Bonnor-Ebert spheres, isothermal, pressure-bounded models. The BE sphere models have a significant advantage over the earlier singular isothermal sphere models; they can be stable, while the singular sphere is not. In addition, it has become increasingly clear that starless cores tend to have flattened density distributions near their centers (as in L1544, Figure 4) rather than singular distributions (e.g., Bacmann et al. 2000). The BE sphere models can match these properties qualitatively. In the special case of B68, a rather spectacular fit can be made to the circularly-averaged data (Alves et al. 2001).

Caution should be employed that such analyses are not overinterpreted, especially if used to conclude that cores are generally in hydrostatic equilibrium, and deriving extremely precise properties. Averaging can make a very big difference to the interpretation. For example, consider the toy core model in Figure 5; it is a uniform rectangle (filament) projected on the sky. Now, circularly average; the resulting surface density has a flat inner region with an $`r^1`$ falloff, because the mass grows with $`r`$ but the surface area increases as $`r^2`$. Next, interpret this in terms of spherical structure; this introduces an extra power of $`r`$ in the volume density outside the “core”. In this way it is possible to produce something that looks like a BE sphere, with a flat inner core, and an $`r^2`$ volume density dependence outside this core, from a density distribution that is qualitatively different.

Real cores don’t look like my toy core; they are more centrally-condensed. Nevertheless, it is clear that circular averaging smooths over a lot of real structure, and that interpretation in terms of a spherical structure can be misleading. I think this is true even in the case of B68, which is fairly, but not precisely, round; which has significant lumps in non-smoothed extinction maps; and which has significant, though subsonic, correlated velocity structure (Lada et al. 2003). In short, B68 is probably close to, but not quite in, hydrostatic equilibrium; and B68 is far from typical of most cores. We need dynamic models, plus some clever way of applying these models to non-smoothed data if we are really going to understand cores.

Why is core structure important? For one thing, the mass infall rate of cores with flattened inner structures vary substantially with time, with higher rates at earlier times (Foster & Chevalier 1993; Henriksen, André, & Bontemps 1997; Whitworth & Ward-Thompson 2001); this probably helps to explain the Class 0 phase of protostellar collapse as a high-infall phase compared with Class I objects (André, Ward-Thompson, & Barsony 1993). In contrast, the singular isothermal sphere models produce a constant infall rate with time. Perhaps more importantly, cores with flattened inner density distributions and with strong non-axisymmetric structure are more favorable for the production of binaries and multiple systems through post-core-collapse fragmentation (Bodenheimer et al. 2000, and references therein).

Clearly we are at a very early stage in understanding the consequences of a more dynamic picture of low-mass core collapse and star formation. Much more realistic time-dependent numerical simulations are needed to fully exploit the increased observational capabilities at nearly all wavelengths to understand star formation and the origin of the stellar initial mass function.

### Acknowledgments.

I wish to thank Javier Ballesteros and Ted Bergin for their contributions to the development of these ideas. This work was supported in part by NASA grant NAG5-9670.

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