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# Stationary Black Holes with Static and Counterrotating Horizons

## Abstract

We show that rotating dyonic black holes with static and counterrotating horizon exist in Einstein-Maxwell-dilaton theory when the dilaton coupling constant exceeds the Kaluza-Klein value. The black holes with static horizon bifurcate from the static black holes. Their mass decreases with increasing angular momentum, their horizons are prolate.

Introduction

Einstein-Maxwell (EM) theory admits a unique family of stationary axisymmetric black holes, the Kerr-Newman (KN) family of black holes, characterized by their global charges: their mass $`M`$, their angular momentum $`J`$, their electric charge $`Q`$, and their magnetic charge $`P`$ hair . The central singularity is hidden behind an event horizon, when these charges satisfy the condition $`M^2Q^2+P^2+J^2/M^2`$. The equality holds for extremal black holes, which possess a finite horizon area and vanishing surface gravity.

In many unified theories, including string theory and Kaluza-Klein (KK) theory, dilatons appear. Here we consider Einstein-Maxwell-dilaton (EMD) theory with action

$$S=d^4x\sqrt{g}\left\{R2_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }^\mu \mathrm{\Phi }e^{2\gamma \mathrm{\Phi }}_{\mu \nu }^{\mu \nu }\right\}.$$
(1)
The dilaton coupling constant $`\gamma `$ is treated as a free parameter. For $`\gamma =0`$ the dilaton decouples, for $`\gamma =1`$ contact with (the low energy effective action of) string theory is made, for $`\gamma =\sqrt{3}`$ the action corresponds to KK theory emd .

The coupling of the dilaton field to EM theory leads to profound consequences for the black holes. Although uncharged EMD black holes simply correspond to EM black holes, charged EMD black holes possess qualitatively new features.

Static EMD black holes with only electric charge (or only magnetic charge), for instance, exist for arbitrarily small horizon area emd . Their surface gravity depends in an essential way on the dilaton coupling constant $`\gamma `$. In the extremal limit, the surface gravity vanishes when $`\gamma <1`$, it reaches a finite limiting value when $`\gamma =1`$, and it diverges when $`\gamma >1`$ emd .

Static dyonic extremal EMD black holes can be unstable with respect to fission into two black holes beyond $`\gamma =1`$ kallosh . For fission to occur, it must be energetically favourable and thermodynamically allowed. Static EMD black holes with $`|P|=|Q|`$, for instance, have a trivial dilaton field since they correspond to Reissner-Nordstrøm (RN) black holes, whereas their fission products with $`|P||Q|`$ possess a non-trivial attractive scalar field, lowering their masses.

Rotating charged EMD black holes are known exactly only for KK theory FZB ; Rasheed . For arbitrary dilaton coupling constant $`\gamma `$, only perturbative results are available, for only electrically charged black holes HH ; casadio .

Dyonic extremal KK black holes possess further surprising properties Rasheed . When $`(P/M)^{\frac{2}{3}}+(Q/M)^{\frac{2}{3}}=2^{\frac{2}{3}}`$, they can carry finite angular momentum $`|J||PQ|`$, while they possess a vanishing horizon angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and no ergoregion. For these black holes the angular momentum can be increased from zero to $`|PQ|`$ without changing their mass or their charges.

Here we show that for dilaton coupling $`\gamma >\sqrt{3}`$, whole families of non-extremal black holes with finite angular momentum $`|J||PQ|`$ exist, which possess vanishing horizon angular velocity and no ergoregion. Moreover, we demonstrate, that even stranger black holes appear: black holes with counterrotating horizon, never encountered before.

Ansatz and Boundary Conditions

We consider stationary, axially symmetric black hole space times with Killing vector fields, $`\xi =_t`$, $`\eta =_\phi `$. The Lewis-Papapetrou form of the metric reads in isotropic coordinates

$$ds^2=fdt^2+\frac{m}{f}\left[dx^2+x^2d\theta ^2\right]+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta x^2\frac{l}{f}\left[d\phi \frac{\omega }{x}dt\right]^2.$$
(2)
The gauge field is parametrized by

$`𝒜_\mu dx^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`𝒜_0dt+𝒜_\phi d\phi .`$ (3)
The functions $`f`$, $`m`$, $`\omega `$, $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, $`𝒜_0`$, and $`𝒜_\phi `$ depend on $`x`$ and $`\theta `$, $`l`$ depends on $`x`$ alone.

The event horizon resides at a surface of constant radial coordinate, $`x=x_\mathrm{H}`$, and is characterized by the condition $`f(x_\mathrm{H})=0`$ kkrot . The Killing vector field $`\chi =\xi +\mathrm{\Omega }\eta `$ is orthogonal to and null on the horizon wald . We note, that the equations scale with $`x_\mathrm{H}`$.

At the horizon, we impose the boundary conditions $`f=m=l=0`$, $`\omega =\mathrm{\Omega }x_\mathrm{H}`$, $`_x\mathrm{\Phi }=0`$, $`𝒜_0+\mathrm{\Omega }𝒜_\phi =\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{e},\mathrm{H}}`$, and $`_x𝒜_\phi =0`$. Here $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{e},\mathrm{H}}`$ denotes the horizon electrostatic potential.

At infinity we impose the boundary conditions $`f=m=l=1`$, $`\omega =0`$, $`\mathrm{\Phi }=0`$, $`𝒜_0=0`$, $`𝒜_\phi =P\mathrm{cos}\theta `$.

On the symmetry axis, we impose for $`\theta =0`$ the boundary conditions $`_\theta f=_\theta m=_\theta l=_\theta \omega =0`$, $`_\theta \mathrm{\Phi }=0`$, $`_\theta 𝒜_0=0`$, $`𝒜_\phi =P`$. The boundary conditions for $`\theta =\pi `$ coincide with these, except for $`𝒜_\phi =P`$.

Regularity on the symmetry axis requires $`m=l`$. The function $`l`$ can be solved for analytically. For rotating dyonic black holes the symmetry with respect to reflection at the equatorial plane, present for black holes with only electric charge (or only magnetic charge), is broken.

Black Hole Properties

The global charges of the black holes can be read off the asymptotic expansion emdlong ,

$$f1\frac{2M}{x},\omega \frac{2J}{x^2},\mathrm{\Phi }\frac{D}{x},$$

$$𝒜_0\frac{Q}{x},𝒜_\phi P\mathrm{cos}\theta .$$
(4)
The dilaton charge $`D`$ depends on the electromagnetic charges, and vanishes when $`|P|=|Q|`$ emd ; FZB ; Rasheed .

The area parameter $`x_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is defined via the black hole horizon area $`A=4\pi x_\mathrm{\Delta }^2`$. The surface gravity $`\kappa `$ is obtained from the Killing vector $`\chi `$ wald

$$\kappa ^2=\frac{1}{4}(_\mu \chi _\nu )(^\mu \chi ^\nu ).$$
(5)
$`\kappa `$ is constant at the horizon, as required by the zeroth law of black hole mechanics. A measure for the deformation of the horizon is given by the ratio of the circumference of the horizon along the equator, $`L_\mathrm{e}`$, and the circumference of the horizon along the poles, $`L_\mathrm{p}`$.

EMD black holes satisfy the Smarr formula smarr ; Rasheed ; KKN , as well as the mass formula KKN

$$M=\frac{\kappa A}{4\pi }+2\mathrm{\Omega }J+2\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{e},\mathrm{H}}Q+\frac{D}{\gamma },$$
(6)
valid even for non-Abelian black holes.

Results

Here we investigate rotating EMD black holes numerically fidisol . We first consider black holes with static horizon, i.e. $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$, but non-vanishing angular momentum $`J`$. These black holes are necessarily dyonic. They bifurcate from the static spherically symmetric black holes at critical values of the parameters.

In Fig. 1 we show the angular momentum $`J`$ of such rotating $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ black holes, bifurcating from the static black holes, for fixed charges $`P=Q`$ and several values of the horizon radius $`x_\mathrm{H}`$ as a function of the dilaton coupling constant $`\gamma `$. The figure demonstrates that the upper limit of the angular momentum, $`|J|=|PQ|`$, valid for extremal $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ KK black holes, remains an upper limit also for non-extremal $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ black holes (where $`\gamma >\sqrt{3}`$). For horizon radius $`x_\mathrm{H}0`$, $`J`$ becomes increasingly steep and tends to a vertical line in the KK limit. There are no rotating $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ black holes for $`\gamma <\sqrt{3}`$.

For $`|P|=|Q|`$ the static black holes correspond to RN black holes. Therefore the critical values of the parameters, where the rotating $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ black holes bifurcate from the static black holes, can readily be obtained perturbatively. The charges scale with $`x_\mathrm{H}`$, and consequently also the critical values of the parameters. $`𝒫_{\mathrm{cr}}=(P/x_\mathrm{H})_{\mathrm{cr}}`$, for instance, yields the critical charge $`P_{\mathrm{cr}}`$ for a given horizon, or the critical horizon $`x_{\mathrm{H},\mathrm{cr}}`$ for a given charge. The dependence of $`𝒫_{\mathrm{cr}}`$ on $`\gamma `$ is shown in Fig. 2. Again we see, that $`\gamma =\sqrt{3}`$ represents the limit for rotating black holes with static horizon.

Considering rotating $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ black holes with fixed $`\gamma `$, $`P`$, and $`Q`$, and varying horizon radius $`x_\mathrm{H}`$, we observe a monotonic decrease of the angular momentum $`J`$ from its extremal value $`|J|=|PQ|`$ at $`x_\mathrm{H}=0`$ to zero at the critical value $`x_{\mathrm{H},\mathrm{cr}}`$, the bifurcation point with the static black holes. The horizon angular momentum $`J_\mathrm{H}`$ is always negative, and vanishes only at the end points. At the same time, the horizon area and the mass increase monotonically from their extremal values at $`x_\mathrm{H}=0`$ to the static black hole values at $`x_{\mathrm{H},\mathrm{cr}}`$. The horizon area of the extremal solution at $`x_\mathrm{H}=0`$ vanishes. Interestingly, the mass of the rotating $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ black holes is always smaller than the mass of the static black holes with the same horizon area (when these exist). Moreover the horizon of these black holes has a prolate deformation, whereas the horizon of KN black holes is always oblate.

The presence of non-extremal rotating $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ black holes immediately raises the question, what properties neighbouring black holes with finite $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ possess. Intriguingly, we here encounter black holes with counterrotating horizon, i.e. the horizon angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and the global angular momentum $`J`$ have opposite signs. Thus the rotating $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ black holes correspond to boundaries in parameter space, beyond which black holes with counterrotating horizon reside.

This is illustrated in Fig. 3, where we exhibit the angular momentum $`J`$ as a function of the electric charge $`Q`$ for rotating black holes with fixed magnetic charge, horizon radius, and dilaton coupling for several values of the horizon angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. The rotating $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ black holes bifurcate from the static ($`J=0`$) black holes at the critical value $`Q_{\mathrm{cr}}`$. Black holes with corotating horizon, where $`J`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ have the same sign, reside above the $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ curve, black holes with counterrotating horizon reside between the $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ curve and the static curve.

To gain a better understanding of these strange counterrotating black holes, let us consider their global and horizon properties. We exhibit in Fig. 4 the black hole mass $`M`$ and angular momentum $`J`$ as functions of the horizon angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ starting from the static black hole, for several values of the horizon radius $`x_\mathrm{H}`$, and fixed $`\gamma `$, $`P`$, and $`Q`$. Counterrotating black holes then exist, when $`x_\mathrm{H}<x_{\mathrm{H},\mathrm{cr}}`$. (Note, that an energetically degenerate set of black holes is obtained for $`\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Omega }`$, $`JJ`$.)

As seen in Fig. 4, when counterrotating EMD black holes emerge from the static black hole, the horizon velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ first decreases with increasing $`J`$, reaches a minimum at $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{min}}`$, and then increases, passing a rotating $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ black hole. The horizon velocity reaches a maximum at $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{max}}`$, and then decreases again, tending finally to zero. Along this path, the angular momentum $`J`$ increases monotonically, from zero to infinity.

The mass $`M`$, in contrast, decreases from the mass of the static black hole, and continues to decrease monotonically even beyond the rotating $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ black hole, up to a point $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{}>0`$. Thus the mass decreases with increasing $`J`$ not only for counterrotating black holes but even for the adjacent black holes with corotating horizon. Beyond $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{}`$ the mass increases monotonically.

Noting that $`\kappa A=8\pi x_\mathrm{H}`$, for fixed $`x_\mathrm{H}`$ a lowering of the mass is expected from the mass formula (6) for counterrotating black holes, since $`\mathrm{\Omega }J<0`$. It is surprising, however, that the mass continues to decrease beyond $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$, since $`\mathrm{\Omega }J>0`$. Here the decrease of the mass is due to a more than compensating decrease of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{e},\mathrm{H}}Q`$. In fact, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{e},\mathrm{H}}`$ decreases strongly, and almost linearly between $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{min}}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{max}}`$. ($`D=0`$, when $`|P|=|Q|`$.)

In Fig. 5 we exhibit horizon properties for the black holes of Fig. 4. For counterrotating black holes the shape of the black hole horizon is oblate close to the static black hole, but turns prolate in the vicinity of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{min}}`$, and remains prolate approximately up to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{max}}`$, reaching the strongest prolate deformation at $`\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Omega }^{}`$.

Considering fission of black holes, we conclude, that static dyonic extremal black holes may not only be unstable with respect to fission into two static extremal black holes kallosh , but that they may be unstable as well with respect to fission into two extremal rotating black holes Rasheed , also for $`\gamma >\sqrt{3}`$.

Let us give a summary of our results, restricting to black holes with $`|P|=|Q|`$ in Fig. 6. Here the scaled angular momentum $`|J|/M^2`$ of the extremal EMD black holes is shown versus the scaled charge $`|P|/M`$ for several values of $`\gamma `$ Rasheed ; foot . For a given $`\gamma `$ black holes only exist in the regions bounded by the axes and the solid curves. The dotted curves correspond to the rotating $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ black holes. For $`\gamma >\sqrt{3}`$ the corotating black holes are to the left of the dotted curve, whereas the counterrotating black holes are in the shaded region to the right of the dotted curve. As $`\gamma `$ approaches $`\sqrt{3}`$ the shaded region degenerates to the line forming the vertical part of the boundary, where only rotating $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ solutions exist. For $`\gamma <\sqrt{3}`$ no rotating $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ or counterrotating black holes exist. The dashed curve indicates the location of the spike of the boundary for $`\gamma >\sqrt{3}`$

Finally, we conjecture that black holes with counterrotating horizon may exist also in other theories.


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# Charm- and Bottom- Baryons: A Variational Approach Using Heavy Quark Symmetry

## 1 Introduction

The non-relativistic constituent quark model (NRCQM), using QCD-inspired potentials, has proved to be an excellent tool to predict properties of hadrons.

In the case of baryons including one heavy flavour ($`c`$, $`b`$) and two light ones ($`u`$, $`d`$, $`s`$), it is possible to take advantage of yet another property of QCD: Heavy Quark Symmetry (HQS) Ref. Isgur and Wise (1989); Neuber (1994). In the limit in which the mass of the heavy quark is infinity, the quantum numbers of the light degrees of freedom are well defined always. Furthermore, in this limit, the masses of the baryons depend only on the quark content and on the light-light quantum numbers of the baryon. All of this is a clear simplification for solving the three body problem. Thus, for bottom- and charm-baryons we can consider the quantum numbers of the two light quark system to be fixed, and neglect corrections terms in the wave function that scale as $`𝒪\left(\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}/m_{c,b}\right)`$.

The aim of this work is to determine masses and other properties like mass densities and electromagnetic form factors for baryons containing a heavy quark and two light ones. This study includes all baryons compiled in Table 1 and some more details will be given elsewhere Albertus et al. (2003).

## 2  The Three-Body Problem

The intrinsic hamiltonian that describes the dynamics of the baryon is given by111In this hamiltonian the motion of the center of mass (CM) of the baryon has been taken out.

$$H=\frac{\stackrel{}{}_1^2}{2\mu _1}\frac{\stackrel{}{}_2^2}{2\mu _2}+\frac{\stackrel{}{}_1\stackrel{}{}_2}{m_h}+V_{l_1h}(\stackrel{}{r}_1,spin)+V_{l_2h}(\stackrel{}{r}_2,spin)+V_{l_1l_2}(\stackrel{}{r}_1,\stackrel{}{r}_2,spin),$$
(1)
where $`\stackrel{}{r}_i`$ is the position of the $`i`$-th light quark with respect to the heavy one, $`m_h`$ stands for the mass of the heavy quark, while $`\mu _i`$ accounts the reduced mass of the heavy and the $`i`$-th light quark system, $`V_{l_ih}`$ and $`V_{l_1l_2}`$ are the light–heavy and light–light interaction potentials, and the words $`spin`$ stands for possible spin dependence of the potentials. Note the presence of the Hughes-Eckart term $`\stackrel{}{}_1\stackrel{}{}_2/m_h`$ that results from the separation of the CM movement.

The potentials used in this work are the one proposed by R.K. Bhaduri et al. in Ref. Bhaduri et al. (1981), and the set of potentials proposed by B. Silvestre-Brac and C. Semay that can be found in Ref. Silvestre-Brac (1996). The parameters of those potentials have been adjusted in the meson sector. For their use in the $`qq`$ sector they have to be adequately transformed. We use the prescription $`V_{ij}^{qq}=\frac{1}{2}V_{ij}^{q\overline{q}}`$ that assumes a $`\stackrel{}{\lambda }_i\stackrel{}{\lambda }_j`$ color dependence in all terms of the potential Silvestre-Brac (1996).

To solve the three-body problem one can use Faddeev equations Silvestre-Brac (1996). This is a non-trivial task from the computational point of view, and leads to wave functions that are difficult to use in other contexts. Here we propose an extremely simple variational scheme. As it is usual, we assume an antisymmetric wave-function for the color degrees of freedom and the spin-flavour wave function is determined by the quantum numbers specified in Table 1. Finally for the spatial wave function, we propose the ansatz

$$\psi (r_1,r_2,r_{12})=NF(r_{12})\varphi _1(r_1)\varphi _2(r_2)$$
(2)
where $`N`$ is a normalization factor, $`\varphi _i(r_i)`$ is the ground state wave function for the $`V_{l_ih}^{qq}`$ potential, and $`F(r_{12})`$ is a Jastrow correlation function in the relative distance of the two light quarks $`r_{12}`$222We have assumed that the relative orbital angular momentum between the light quarks is zero. Thus the spatial wave function can only depend on $`r_1`$, $`r_2`$ and $`r_{12}`$. For $`F`$ we take

$$F(r_{12})=\left(1e^{c_1r_{12}}\right)\underset{j=2}{\overset{4}{}}a_je^{b_j^2(r_{12}d_j)^2}$$
(3)
where the term $`e^{c_1r_{12}}`$ would be excluded in those cases where the potential $`V_{ll}^{qq}`$ does not show a repulsive hard core at the origin. Taking into account that the color wave function is antisymmetric we use symmetrized wave functions in the spin-isospin and orbital degrees of freedom of the two light quarks.

This variational scheme shows clear resemblances to that succesfully used in the study of double $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ hypernuclei Albertus et al. (2002).

## 3 Preliminary Results

Our results for the masses obtained with the AL1 potential of Ref. Silvestre-Brac (1996) are given in Tables 2 and 3. We find good agreement with experimental data K. Hagiwara (2002), when available, and with previous results from lattice K. C. Bowler (1996) and Faddeev calculations Silvestre-Brac (1996).

In Table 4 we give the mass radii obtained also for the AL1 potential. Our results agree with the ones obtained in Ref. Silvestre-Brac (1996) using a Faddeev approach. Conclusions are similar when the potential of Bhaduri et al. (1981) or potentials AL2, AP1 or AP2 of Ref. Silvestre-Brac (1996) are used.

Finally in Figs. 1 and 2 we give our results for the charge density and electric form factor of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_b`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b^{}`$ baryons.

## 4 Concluding Remarks

The use of HQS simplifies considerably the solution of the three body problem in baryons with a heavy quark. Here we propose a method based on a simple variational approach that provides us with simple and portable wave functions that can be used in other contexts. Our results agree with previous ones obtained in the lattice or using a more complicate Faddeev approach. Calculations with potentials obtained from chiral quark models Blanco et al. (1999) and the study of the semileptonic decay of bottom baryons into charmed ones are under consideration.

## 5 Acknowledgments

This work is supported by Spanish DGICYT and FEDER funds, under contracts no. BFM2000-1326 and BFM2002-03218 and by Junta de Andalucía and Junta de Castilla y León under contracts no. FQM225 and no. SA109/01. C. A. wishes to acknowledge a PhD. grant from Junta de Andalucía.


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# Searching for KvBLL calorons in 𝑆𝑈(3) lattice gauge field ensembles HU-EP-03/65

## 1 INTRODUCTION AND RETROSPECT TO $`SU(2)`$

The discovery of new caloron solutions with non-trivial holonomy  has revived hopes for a semiclassical description of Yang-Mills theory at $`T0`$, in particular of the deconfinement transition. A new aspect of these solutions is the interplay between topological charge and the local and asymptotic Polyakov loop. One new feature, the separation of a $`Q=1`$ object (caloron) into $`N_c`$ dyonic ($`D`$) constituents, happens only in some part of the parameter space which seems to be statistically enhanced in the confinement phase.

For a couple of years some of us have been searching  for this type of semiclassical background in $`SU(2)`$ lattice Monte Carlo configurations at finite $`T`$, mostly using cooling. Besides of opening a zoo of possible lattice solutions, a remarkable outcome was that, near $`T_c`$, the confinement phase is distinguished from deconfinement by a finite yield of non-trivial caloron configurations with 2 dyonic constituents. Sometimes they are separated into peaks of action, identifiable also by different localizations of the fermionic zero mode for periodic/antiperiodic temporal b.c., but always monopole pairs can be seen inside, such that the Polyakov loop $`P(x)`$ changes from $`+1`$ to $`1`$. Somewhat unexpectedly, also $`D\overline{D}`$ pairs have been obtained by cooling as metastable solutions, with action $`SS_{inst}`$ and equal-sign Polyakov loop. This happens only in the confined phase where the $`D\overline{D}`$ pairs originate from caloron-anti-caloron structures. Recently we have repeated the $`SU(2)`$ cooling studies at lower temperature. We found now that all calorons consist of overlapping action lumps, yet the Polyakov loop exhibits their non-trivial caloron nature.

## 2 SIGNATURE OF $`SU(3)`$ CALORONS

Let us now come to $`SU(3)`$. We parametrize as $`𝒫_{\mathrm{}}=\mathrm{diag}(\mathrm{e}^{2\pi i\mu _1},\mathrm{e}^{2\pi i\mu _2},\mathrm{e}^{2\pi i\mu _3})`$ the asymptotic holonomy, with $`\mu _1\mu _2\mu _3\mu _4=1+\mu _1`$ and $`\mu _1+\mu _2+\mu _3=0`$. Let $`\stackrel{}{y}_1`$, $`\stackrel{}{y}_2`$ and $`\stackrel{}{y}_3`$ be three $`3D`$ position vectors remote from each other. Then a KvBLL  caloron consists of 3 lumps carrying the instanton action split into fractions $`\mu _2\mu _1`$, $`\mu _3\mu _2`$ and $`\mu _4\mu _3`$, concentrated near the $`\stackrel{}{y}_i`$.

We discretized continuum calorons and applied a few cooling iterations to adapt it to torus boundary condition for the gauge field. Then an action $`S1.3S_{inst}`$ and a topological charge $`Q=\pm 1`$ are found. In Fig. 1 we show two extreme cases of lattice KvBLL solutions with well separated positions $`\stackrel{}{y}_i`$: a non-trivial one with almost equidistant phases $`\mu _i`$ and a caloron of trivial holonomy, i.e., $`𝒫_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{diag}(1,1,1)`$, $`\mu _1,\mu _2,\mu _30`$. In the trivial case one of the constituents carries (almost) all action and topological charge.

In Ref.  the zero mode $`\psi _0`$ of the Dirac operator in the background of a KvBLL solution was analytically computed, introducing an arbitrary phase in the temporal b.c. of the Dirac operator, i.e., $`\psi _0(t+1/T,\stackrel{}{x})=\mathrm{exp}(2\pi i\zeta )\psi _0(t,\stackrel{}{x})`$. An intricate interplay between the phase parameter $`\zeta `$ and the holonomy phases $`\mu _i`$ was found. The zero mode is not localized simultaneously at all dyonic constituents. Instead, it chooses one of them and changes its position with changing value of $`\zeta `$. A selection rule states that the zero mode is localized at the position $`\stackrel{}{y}_i`$ of the $`i`$-th constituent if $`\mu _i\zeta \mu _{i+1}`$. This implies that for a set of well-separated $`\mu _i`$ and $`\stackrel{}{y}_i`$ the zero mode will visit all 3 constituents during one cycle of $`\zeta `$ from 0 to 1. 111For cooled $`SU(2)`$ configurations evidence for KvBLL-type configurations was obtained from periodic and anti-periodic zero modes of the Wilson-Dirac operator .

We demonstrate this effect using the chirally improved lattice Dirac operator . This operator has good chiral properties and is known to reproduce the zero mode of latticized standard instantons . We clearly reproduce the behavior of the zero mode for the non-trivial caloron (see Fig. 2). We plot the scalar density of the zero mode. This gauge invariant observable is obtained by summing $`|\psi _0(x)|^2`$ at each lattice point $`x`$ over color and Dirac indices. In order to assess the physical relevance of calorons, one should study the correlation between the zero mode positions and the topological charge density $`q(x)`$ and find out the statistical distribution in the caloron parameter space. This could be difficult because generic equilibrium configurations might contain dyonic constituents difficult to separate. Yet it is indispensable because the calorons have to be disentangled from the additional topological structure which might be of different nature.

## 3 COOLED CALORONS AND OTHER OBJECTS

In order to explore the appearance of more general $`SU(3)`$ KvBLL solutions on the lattice we cooled hot configurations in the confinement phase on $`16^3\times 4`$ lattices (created with Wilson gauge action at $`\beta =5.5`$), keeping torus b.c. for the gauge field. Then the evolution of the holonomy, starting from an average Polyakov loop $`\overline{P}0`$ (where $`P=\frac{1}{3}\text{tr}𝒫`$), is not predictable. With increasing number of cooling steps $`n_{cool}`$ the asymptotic Polyakov loop $`\overline{P}_{\mathrm{}}`$ (an average over all lattice points where the local action density $`s<10^4`$) becomes more and more scattered over the complex region accessible for the Polyakov loop. One can find cooled configurations with any non-trivial holonomy. Quasiclassical lattice configurations are identified when the cooling history $`S(n_{cool})`$ goes through a plateau i.e., the equations of motion are minimally violated. The distribution in $`\overline{P}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is more centered around the origin for higher plateaus and more spread for the caloron plateaus $`S=S_{inst}`$. Of course, only part of the caloron events with asymptotic holonomy $`\overline{P}_{\mathrm{}}Z(3)`$ have such a clean $`DDD`$ structure of the action density as the non-trivial example shown in Fig. 1. Most of the $`S=S_{inst}`$ plateaus have only two distinguishable lumps of action. Nevertheless, all caloron events are characterized by a distribution of the Polyakov loop field $`P(\stackrel{}{x})`$ as shown in Fig. 3 where the ideal non-trivial caloron is compared with a generic caloron (two-lump) event. The bulk of lattice points represents the asymptotic holonomy while the constituents are mapped to the envelope of this plot. In the metric of $`P`$, the distance of a constituent from the bulk is proportional to the fraction of action (topological charge) it carries.

Purely (anti-)selfdual configurations are most frequently observed on the $`S=S_{inst}`$ and $`S=2S_{inst}`$ plateaus. The latter, analogous to the calorons, preferentially contain four lumps of action, but probably belong to a wider class of $`Q=\pm 2`$ KvBLL solutions. Besides of these, we have found metastable cooled configurations which are not of KvBLL caloron type. In the $`Q=0`$ sector we found $`D\overline{D}`$ events at plateaus $`S0.65S_{inst}`$ as well as $`DD\overline{D}\overline{D}`$ events at $`S1.35S_{inst}`$, usually left over from the annihilation of $`D`$’s and $`\overline{D}`$’s, former constituents of caloron and anti-caloron in a confinement configuration.

## 4 ZERO MODES FOR $`Q=\pm 1`$ EQUILIBRIUM CONFIGURATIONS

In the last few years it was understood that the low lying eigenmodes of the lattice Dirac operator provide a good filter which removes short distance fluctuations of the gauge field allowing the study of topological objects on the lattice. This mostly concerns the near zero modes. The peculiar behavior of the zero mode known for the KvBLL configurations suggests that this $`\zeta `$ dependence for any zero mode might be an excellent, simple and stable tool to highlight the presence of caloron background fields in equilibrium configurations among other carriers of topological charge, without cooling. A more detailed account of the results presented in this section can be found in Ref. .

We have computed eigenmodes of the chirally improved lattice Dirac operator , using quenched $`SU(3)`$ gauge ensembles generated with the Lüscher-Weisz action  on $`20^3\times 6`$ lattices at inverse gauge couplings of $`\beta =8.20`$ and $`\beta =8.45`$. These values correspond to lattice spacings of $`a=0.115`$ fm and $`a=0.094`$ fm and describe physics just below and above the QCD phase transition (located at $`\beta _c=8.24`$ ). From the full ensembles of gauge configurations we have selected those configurations which have only a single zero mode, i.e., configurations with topological charge $`Q=\pm 1`$. This choice leads one to consider only the simplest case where no mixing between different zero modes can occur. All or a certain fraction of these configurations might contain the excess topological charge $`\pm 1`$ in the form of well-separated dyons.

For an equilibrium configuration, let us illustrate the effect of changing fermionic b.c. on the scalar density of the zero mode $`\psi _0`$. In Fig. 4 we show $`x`$-$`y`$ slices of the scalar density of the zero mode for the configuration No. 125 from the confined ensemble and compare the cases of anti-periodic and periodic temporal fermionic boundary conditions. The position of the zero mode is seen to change under a switch from $`\zeta =0`$ to $`\zeta =0.5`$ which gives us 2 out of 3 expected locations. Later we will show that in all 3 positions the zero mode is located on top of lumps of topological charge with appropriate sign. In the particular example shown in Fig. 4 the two positions are 1.3 fm apart.

For a more systematical study we computed the zero mode 10 times on the same configuration using values of $`\zeta =0.0,0.1,0.2,\mathrm{},0.9`$ in the fermionic b.c.. This detailed investigation was done for 10 configurations in the confined phase ($`\beta =8.20`$) and 10 configurations in the deconfined phase ($`\beta =8.45`$).

In the confined phase the expectation value of the Polyakov loop vanishes, suggesting a choice $`\mu _1=1/3`$, $`\mu _2=0`$, $`\mu _3=1/3`$, $`\mu _4=2/3`$. The selection rule then implies that $`\zeta `$ can be contained in three different intervals $`[0,1/3]`$, $`[1/3,2/3]`$, $`[2/3,1]`$, each selecting another dyonic constituent. For 5 of our 10 configurations we found that the zero mode indeed visits exactly 3 different lumps. For 3 of the 10 configurations we found only 2 distinct lumps. The explanation might be that two of the constituents are very close to each other in space. Finally, for 2 of the 10 configurations we found even 4 different positions of the zero mode. This latter observation could be an effect of large quantum fluctuations on top of the infrared structure mimicking an additional peak. It would be interesting to repeat the calculation on a finer lattice with the same temperature where one expects the disturbance from quantum fluctuations to be less severe.

In the deconfined phase the Polyakov loop has a non-vanishing expectation value. Due to the center symmetry of the gauge action this expectation value can be realized with three different $`Z(3)`$ phases $`0,\pm 2\pi /3`$. For real Polyakov loop one has $`\mu _1\mu _2\mu _30`$ and $`\mu _41`$. Roughly speaking, the boundary phase parameter $`\zeta `$ can be contained only in the two intervals $`[0,0]`$ and $`[0,1]`$. Only for $`\zeta 0`$ the zero mode is not able to see the same lump that it sees for all other $`\zeta 0`$, which contains a well-localized topological charge ($`Q\pm 1`$). For configurations with complex Polyakov loop (phase $`\pm 2\pi /3`$) this critical value of $`\zeta `$ is shifted to $`1/3`$ respectively $`2/3`$. Our set of 10 configurations in the deconfined phase contained configurations with real Polyakov loop as well as with complex Polyakov loop (here we also computed the values $`\zeta =1/3,2/3`$). For all 10 configurations we confirmed that only for the critical value of $`\zeta `$ a different position of the zero mode may be taken.

For a larger set of 89 deconfined configurations and 70 confined ones we followed the numerically cheaper approach of comparing only the periodic ($`\zeta =0.0`$) with the the anti-periodic ($`\zeta =0.5`$) zero mode. For both boundary conditions we determined the position of the corresponding peak and then computed the Euclidean distance $`d_4`$ between the two peaks. The histograms of distances are shown in Fig. 5. In the confinement phase (l.h.s.) $`d_4`$ is distributed over all distances. The histogram for deconfinement (r.h.s.) shows that for many configurations the mode does not jump at all or only over a small $`d_4`$. There is only a small, separate component in the histogram with $`d_49a`$, all related to configurations having a real Polyakov loop $`\overline{P}`$. We highlight this subsample of the deconfined phase in the r.h.s. plot.

This observation confirms the selection rule for zero modes in a KvBLL background. It allows jumps between periodic and anti-periodic b.c. only in the real sector. This does, however, not imply that the zero mode in the real sector always jumps over large distances since the two constituents might be close to each other. In Ref.  several other tests of the zero modes were performed such as a study of their inverse participation ratio, a measure of their localization, as function of $`\zeta `$. Throughout we found fair agreement with the properties of zero modes in the background of a KvBLL solution in the confined phase and even excellent agreement in the case of the deconfined phase. We have also extended our study of zero modes with general boundary conditions to lattices with zero temperature geometry and still find jumping of the zero modes. A detailed writeup of these observations is in preparation.

In the meantime KvBLL solutions have been generalized to higher topological charge, and their corresponding zero modes have been constructed analytically . It would be interesting to perform a study of the zero modes in higher topological sectors. We also remark that in Ref.  it was argued that the effect of jumping zero modes can hardly be due to overlapping standard instantons and therefore this effect is truly a consequence of the presence of a KvBLL background in the $`Q=\pm 1`$ configurations under study.

## 5 COMPARISON WITH SMOOTHING

We have experimented with cooling techniques in order to study the correlation between the topological charge density and the positions occupied by the zero mode with changing $`\zeta `$. We tried restricted cooling , adapted to the Lüscher-Weisz action, and APE smearing. The latter procedure was used by A. Hasenfratz et al.  to disclose the topological content of lattice fields. In the confinement phase the emerging structures are similar for both procedures (which therefore can be tuned to each other) and relatively stable with respect to cooling/smearing iterations.

Here we concentrate on results obtained by APE smearing with $`N_{smear}=10`$ iterations and $`\alpha =0.45`$ . As an example for the confined phase we show configuration No. 125 on the l.h.s. of Fig. 6. The map of the topological density is shown in three $`y`$-$`z`$ slices, selected such that each contains one of the 3 zero mode positions. Crosses show the projection of all 3 positions on the given plane, while crosses with circles emphasize the zero mode sitting in the plane. There is a complex pattern of positive and negative charge density222The line separates regions of positive and negative $`q(x)`$. while the total charge is $`Q=1`$. The zero mode always settles at same-sign lumps which are all well-localized. The topological charge is not exactly balanced between the lumps, because the largest $`\zeta `$ interval corresponds to $`t_{zm}=5`$, $`x_{zm}=14`$, $`y_{zm}=16`$, $`z_{zm}=18`$ (the position in the upper plot).

As an example for the deconfined phase we show configuration No. 383 on the r.h.s. of Fig. 6. The configuration has $`Q=1`$ and a real-valued asymptotic Polyakov loop. For almost all $`\zeta `$ the zero mode is localized on top of the well-localized constituent seen in the upper plot. For $`\zeta 0`$ however, the zero mode appears much less-localized in another region of topological density $`q(x)>0`$. The topological charge is much less concentrated there, too, consisting of two lumps with the zero mode center in between.

Obviously, also in the deconfined phase one finds a complex topological structure which is more sensitive to cooling than in the confinement phase. The gap separating the near zero modes strongly depends on it. We have observed that the gap rapidly closes if we cool too much.

For the confined configuration No. 125 and for the three possible localizations of the zero mode we calculated the cumulative topological charges of same and opposite sign (relative to $`Q`$) as a function of the radius of a 4-sphere. The curves shown in Fig. 7 are an average over the three cases. The radius inside of which the topological density has a coherent sign of $`q(x)`$ is a good definition of the constituent radius. Then the average topological charge of a constituent is $`Q_{const}\pm \frac{1}{3}`$ in the confinement phase.

## 6 CONCLUSIONS

We obtained new classical solutions by cooling of confined $`SU(3)`$ lattice configurations. For Monte Carlo configurations in the topological sector $`Q=\pm 1`$, the dependence of the localization of the fermionic zero mode on the aperiodicity angle $`\zeta `$ matches the specific expectations derived from the KvBLL caloron picture for the confined and deconfined phases. For slightly APE-smeared configurations we are able to corroborate these findings by considering the topological charge distribution close to the zero mode locations.


text:
# Ecology of active and passive players and their impact on information selection

## 1 Active and passive players: a stochastic model

We would like to describe now a simple model of web page attendance in a local network. The number of web sites $`N`$ is fixed in the time-frame of the visits dynamics. Each one of them is endowed with an intrinsic quality $`ϵ_i`$, distributed according to a given function $`p(ϵ)`$. Such a scalar fitness is suitable to compare sites belonging to the same domain. At each time step $`t`$ a new player places a query. In order to account for visitors’ heterogeneity in a minimal model, we consider the case in which players can be included in two different classes: active and passive. With probability $`\rho `$ the player will be active, driven by the quality of web sites. Although his decision be affected by a noise, he visits site $`i`$ with average probability

$$p_i=\frac{e^{\beta ϵ_i}}{_je^{\beta ϵ_j}},$$
(1)
where $`\beta `$ is an external parameter which plays the role of an inverse temperature. Active players may be thought of as experts of the domain under consideration. With complementary probability $`(1\rho )`$, on the other hand, the player is passive, driven by the popularity of web sites. His probability $`g_i`$ of visiting site $`i`$ follows linear preferential attachment:

$$g_i(t)=\frac{n_i(t)}{_{j=1}^Nn_j(t)},$$
(2)
where $`n_i(t)`$ is the number of visits to site $`i`$ at time $`t`$. Notice that $`_{j=1}^Nn_j=t`$ for we have one visit per time step.

The following stochastic equation is intended to mimic the model just described:

$$n_i(t+1)n_i(t)=(1\rho )\frac{n_i(t)}{t}+\rho \xi _i(t)$$
(3)
with initial conditions

$$n_i(0)=0,n_i(1)=\xi _i(0).$$
(4)
The stochastic noise $`\xi `$ is distributed as follows:

$$p(\xi _i)=p_i\delta (\xi _i1)+(1p_i)\delta (\xi _i).$$
(5)
The first term on the rhs of (3) accounts for the “richer get richer” phenomenon due to passive players using preferential attachment (2). The second term is stochastic and describes the behavior of active players. On average they employ probability (1), but they are only allowed to pick one site when they come into play. Therefore the noise term must be normalized as follows:

$$\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\xi _i(t)=1,t.$$
(6)
## 2 Mean field results

If we average equation (3) over the noise, making use of (5), and take the continuous time limit, we obtain the corresponding mean field evolution equation. We shall analyze it for two significant instances of the distribution of web sites’ quality $`p(ϵ)`$.

### 2.1 Random choice

Let us consider a network where all web sites share the same quality value $`ϵ_i=ϵ`$. Since, in this case, the preference probability of active players (1) becomes $`p_i=1/N`$, they actually place random queries. The evolution equation reads in this case:

$$\frac{n_i}{t}=(1\rho )\frac{n_i}{t}+\frac{\rho }{N},$$
(7)
with initial conditions $`n(t,t_i)=0`$ $`t<t_i`$ and $`n_i(t_i,t_i)=1`$. Here $`t_i`$ is the time of the first visit to site $`i`$. For $`t>t_i`$ the solution is:

$$n_i(t,t_i)=\frac{t}{N}+\left(1\frac{t_i}{N}\right)\left(\frac{t}{t_i}\right)^{1\rho }.$$
(8)
The statistics of the first-time $`t_i`$ is well described by the probability that a site $`i`$ is not searched by active players up until time $`t_i`$, i.e.

$$P(t_i)=\frac{\rho }{N}\left(1\frac{\rho }{N}\right)^{t_i}\frac{\rho }{N}e^{\frac{\rho }{N}t_i},$$

where the last formula holds in the large $`N`$ limit. The average number of visits to a site is given by

$`<n(t,t_i)>_{t_i}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle n(t,x)P(x)𝑑x}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{t}{N}}+\left({\displaystyle \frac{t\rho }{N}}\right)^{1\rho }\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\rho }}\mathrm{\Gamma }(\rho +1)+\mathrm{\Gamma }(\rho )\right]`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{t}{N}},`$
as expected. Upon separating the terms due to the action of active and passive players in (8) and equating them, one finds the crossover time

$$t_c(1+\rho )^{(1/\rho )}N/\rho .$$
(9)
We have performed numerical simulations of this model, gathering data at time $`T=500`$.

In fig. 1 we plot the probability distribution of visits for three different values of $`\rho =0.1,0.9,0.5`$, whose corresponding crossover times (9) are $`t_c=26N,2.5N,4.5N`$. After $`T=500`$ time steps, therefore, the system of $`N=100`$ sites is expected to be found, respectively, in the passive dominant, in the active dominant and around the transition region for the three $`\rho `$ values chosen. In fact we observe that for $`\rho =0.1`$, when passive players are the majority, the density $`P(n)`$ of sites with a given number $`n`$ of visits decreases as a power-law of $`n`$, whereas for $`\rho =0.9`$, when active players are the majority, it follows a gaussian distribution. Finally, for $`\rho =0.5`$, we observe a more complex intermediate behavior.

### 2.2 Uniform quality distribution

We shall now analyze the continuous time limit of equation (3), averaged with respect to the noise distribution (5), with $`ϵ_i`$ uniformly distributed between zero and unity. The corresponding evolution equation reads:

$$\frac{n_i}{t}=(1\rho )\frac{n_i}{_jn_j}+\rho \frac{e^{\beta ϵ_i}}{_je^{\beta ϵ_j}},$$
(10)
with initial conditions $`n(t,t_i)=0`$ $`t<t_i`$ and $`n_i(t_i,t_i)=1`$. For $`t>t_i`$ the solution reads

$$n_i(t,t_i)=p_it+(1t_ip_i)\left(\frac{t}{t_i}\right)^{1\rho }.$$

As in the random case, this model displays two different regimes. The crossover time can be similarly computed:

$$t_cN\frac{(1+\rho )^{(1/\rho )}}{\rho }\frac{1e^\beta }{\beta }.$$
(11)
For $`tt_c`$ the dynamics is dominated by active players, who select valuable web sites. In the $`\rho =1.0`$ limit, in particular, we only have active players in the system. The average number of visits to a given web page $`i`$ reads

$$n_i(t)=\frac{e^{\beta ϵ_i}}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}t,$$

where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=_{i=1}^Ne^{\beta ϵ_i}`$. The probability distribution of the number of visits satisfies the relation $`P(n)dn=p(ϵ)dϵ`$ which, together with $`(\text{2.2})`$, gives the power law distribution

$$P(n)\frac{1}{n}.$$
(12)
We have simulated this dynamics for different values of $`\beta `$ and in the entire range of the $`\rho `$’s. In Fig. 2 we report distribution $`P(n)`$ at small times $`T=500`$ (graph(a)) and at longer times $`T=10^5`$ (graph(b)). The solid lines plot the theoretical curve $`(\text{12})`$ expected to be valid in the $`\rho =1.0`$ limit.

In order to measure how much the differences in the quality of web pages is reflected in the number of visits they receive, we have ranked them in order of decreasing number of visits and of increasing quality. We have then measured the probability $`P^{r,r}`$ a web page ranked $`r`$ in the ranking of the number of visits would coincide with the web page ranked $`r`$ in the quality ordering. In order to measure $`P^{r,r}`$ we have ran the visit dynamics for $`500`$ time steps and we have calculated the number of times the web pages ranked $`r`$ in the two possible orderings were the same. In fig. 3 we plot simulation data for different $`\rho `$’s at number of visits $`T=500`$ and $`T=10^5`$. In fig. 4 we plot the probability that the web page that takes the maximal number of visits is the best one, i.e. $`P^{1,1}`$, as a function of $`\rho `$.

## 3 Analytical results for the stochastic model

Now we turn to our original model, described by equation $`(\text{3})`$ with initial conditions (4), and try to solve it making use of methods similar to those outlined in references . To this end it is useful to define the generating functions:

$`G_i(\lambda )={\displaystyle \underset{t=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\lambda ^tg_i(t)`$ (13)
$`\mathrm{\Xi }_i(\lambda )={\displaystyle \underset{t=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\lambda ^t\xi _i(t),`$ (14)
where $`g_i(t)=\frac{n_i(t)}{t}`$. In fact, if we multiply $`(\text{3})`$ by $`\lambda ^t`$ and sum over $`t`$, we obtain

$`(1\lambda )_\lambda G_i(\lambda )=(1\rho )G_i(\lambda )+\rho \mathrm{\Xi }_i(\lambda )+\xi _i(0),`$
which admits the following formal solution

$$G_i(\lambda )=\xi _i(0)\frac{1(1\lambda )^{1\rho }}{1\rho }+\rho (1\lambda )^{1\rho }_0^\lambda 𝑑x\frac{\mathrm{\Xi }_i(x)}{(1x)^{2\rho }}.$$
(15)
Comparison between the small $`\lambda `$ development of (15) and definition (13), yields

$$g_i(t)=\underset{s=0}{\overset{t1}{}}\xi _i(s)A_{\rho ,t}(s),$$

with coefficients

$`A_{\rho ,t}(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(1)^{t+1}}{t!}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\rho +t1)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\rho )}}`$ (16)
$`A_{\rho ,t}(s)`$ $`=`$ $`\rho \left[{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(s+1)\mathrm{\Gamma }(\rho +t1)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(t+1)\mathrm{\Gamma }(\rho +s)}}\right].`$ (17)
### 3.1 Probability distribution

We are now able to write a formal expression for $`P_t(\{g_i\})`$, the probability density function of having a certain set of $`g_i`$-s ($`i=1,2,\mathrm{},N`$) at time $`t`$:

$$P_t(\{g_i\})=\delta \left(g_i(t)\underset{s=0}{\overset{t1}{}}\xi _i(s)A_{\rho ,t}(s)\right)\underset{t^{}=0}{\overset{t1}{}}\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}d\xi _j(t^{})p\left(\xi _j(t^{})\right)\delta _{kr}\left(\underset{l=1}{\overset{N}{}}\xi _l(t^{})1\right).$$
(18)
We can now employ the Fourier representation of the Dirac delta function

$$\delta \left(g_i\underset{s=0}{\overset{t1}{}}\xi _i(s)A_{\rho ,t}(s)\right)=\underset{\alpha 0}{lim}\frac{1}{2\pi }_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑k_i\mathrm{exp}\left[\alpha k_i^2+ık_i\left(g_i\underset{s=0}{\overset{t1}{}}\xi _i(s)A_{\rho ,t}(s)\right)\right]$$

inside (18). Thus we can separate the noise and integrate it out:

$`P_t(\{g_i\})=\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi }}{\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{N}{}}}(1p_k)\right]^t{\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle 𝑑k_l\mathrm{exp}(\alpha k_l^2+ik_lg_l)}`$
$`{\displaystyle \underset{s=0}{\overset{t1}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{h=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{p_h}{1p_h}}\mathrm{exp}(ık_hA_{\rho ,t}(s)).`$
By rewriting the last term of the integrand as a product of sums (instead of a sum of products) and taking the limit $`\alpha 0`$, the former expression becomes:

$`P_t(\{g_i\})={\displaystyle \underset{k_1,k_2,\mathrm{},k_N;_{i=1}^Nk_i=t}{\overset{1,N}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{e^{\beta ϵ_i}}{_{l=1}^Ne^{\beta ϵ_l}}}\right)^{k_i}`$
$`\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{e^{\beta ϵ_i}}{_{l=1}^Ne^{\beta ϵ_l}}}\right)^{tk_i}{\displaystyle \underset{T(\{k\})}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\delta \left(g_l{\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{k_l}{}}}A_{\rho ,t}(T_{l,i})\right).`$ (19)
Here $`\{k\}=k_1,k_2,\mathrm{},k_n`$ represents a particular outcome of the game, in which site $`1`$ has been visited $`k_1`$ times, site $`2`$ $`k_2`$ times, and so forth. The symbol $`T(\{k\})`$ stands for the set of time sequences $`T_{l,i}`$ (the time step at which site $`l`$ has been visited for the $`i^{th}`$ time) with a given set of $`k`$. There are $`M(\{k\})=\frac{t!}{_{i=1}^Nk_i!}`$ such sequences.

Having in hand the complete probability distribution (19) with coefficients (16) and (17), all quantities of interest can be calculated with projection techniques.

### 3.2 Probability that the best wins

As an example of quantities that can be calculated, we shall find the probability $`P_t^{1,1}`$ that the site with the best fitness has the greater number of visits at time $`t`$. Defining the events $`W_k=\left(g_k(t)>g_i(t)ik\right)`$ and $`E_k=\left(ϵ_k(t)>ϵ_i(t)ik\right)`$, we can write

$$P_t^{1,1}=\underset{k=1}{\overset{N}{}}P_t(W_k|E_k)p_t(E_k)=NP_t(W_1,E_1).$$

The joint probability above reads

$$P_t(W_1,E_1)=_0^1𝑑g_1\underset{i=2}{\overset{N}{}}_0^{g_1}𝑑g_i_0^1𝑑ϵ_1\underset{j=2}{\overset{N}{}}_0^{ϵ_1}𝑑ϵ_jP_t(\{g_k\}).$$
(20)
If we now plug equation (19) into equation (20), we obtain:

$`P_t(W_1,E_1)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{k_1,k_2,\mathrm{},k_N;_{i=1}^Nk_i=t}{\overset{1,N}{}}}u_t(\{k\})f_t(\{k\})`$ (21)
$`u_t(\{k\})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{T(\{k\})}{}}{\displaystyle _0^1}𝑑g_1{\displaystyle \underset{i=2}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle _0^{g_1}}𝑑g_i{\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\delta \left(g_l{\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{k_l}{}}}A_{\rho ,t}(T_{l,i})\right)`$ (22)
$`f_t(\{k\})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^1}𝑑ϵ_1{\displaystyle \underset{j=2}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle _0^{ϵ_1}}𝑑ϵ_j{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{e^{\beta ϵ_i}}{_{l=1}^Ne^{\beta ϵ_l}}}\right)^{k_i}\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{e^{\beta ϵ_i}}{_{l=1}^Ne^{\beta ϵ_l}}}\right)^{tk_i}.`$ (23)
While the integral in (22) is straightforward, i.e.

$$u_t(\{k\})=\underset{T(\{k\})}{}\underset{l=2}{\overset{N}{}}\mathrm{\Theta }\left[\underset{i=1}{\overset{k_1}{}}A_{\rho ,t}(T_{1,i})\underset{i=1}{\overset{k_l}{}}A_{\rho ,t}(T_{l,i})\right]$$
(24)
the one in equation (23) needs some approximation to be solved.

#### 3.2.1 Calculation of $`f_t(\{k\})`$

Let us assume the $`ϵ_i`$ are uniformly distributed between zero and one. Defining the transformation of variables

$`y_i=e^{\beta ϵ_i}/{\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{N}{}}}e^{\beta ϵ_l}`$
$`\mathrm{\Lambda }={\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{N}{}}}e^{\beta ϵ_l},`$
equation (23) can be written:

$$f_t(\{k\})=\frac{1}{N\beta }_N^{Ne^\beta }𝑑\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }^{Nt1}_{1/N}^{\frac{e^\beta }{e^\beta +N1}}𝑑y_1_{\frac{1}{Ne^\beta }}^{y_1}\underset{j=2}{\overset{N}{}}dy_j\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\left[y_i^{k_i1}(1y_i)^{tk_i}\right]\delta \left(1\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}y_i\right).$$
(25)
Using the integral representation of the delta function

$$\delta \left(1\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}y_i\right)=_i\mathrm{}^i\mathrm{}𝑑qe^{q\left(1_{i=1}^Ny_i\right)},$$

one can evaluate the integral (25) by means of the saddle point method, where the variable $`q`$ will play the role of a Lagrange multiplier. Integrand maximization yields

$`\stackrel{~}{y}_i`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{k_i1}{t1}}+{\displaystyle \frac{q(k_i1)(tk_i)}{(t1)^3}}\text{ for }qt1`$
$`\stackrel{~}{q}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(N1)(t1)^2}{t^2tN+t_{i=1}^Nk_i^2}};`$
the former result is, therefore, valid only if $`tN`$. In this limit the approximate solution reads:

$$f_t(\{k\})=\frac{1}{tN^t\beta }\mathrm{\Theta }(k_1t/N)\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\stackrel{~}{y}_i^{k_i1}(1\stackrel{~}{y}_i)^{tk_i}\mathrm{\Theta }(k_1k_i).$$
(26)
In the opposite limit, that of large $`N`$, one can use the law of large numbers over the fitness distribution, i.e.

$$\underset{l=1}{\overset{N}{}}e^{\beta ϵ_l}\mathrm{\Lambda }=\frac{N}{\beta }(e^\beta 1)\text{for }\beta >0$$

and

$`{\displaystyle \underset{i=2}{\overset{N}{}}}`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{e^{\beta ϵ_i}}{_{l=1}^Ne^{\beta ϵ_l}}}\right)^{k_i}\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{e^{\beta ϵ_i}}{_{l=1}^Ne^{\beta ϵ_l}}}\right)^{tk_i}`$
$`c_t(\{k\})`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{exp}\left[{\displaystyle \underset{i=2}{\overset{N}{}}}\beta k_i<ϵ_i>t\mathrm{log}\mathrm{\Lambda }+(tk_i)\mathrm{log}\left(\mathrm{\Lambda }e^{\beta ϵ_i}\right)\right]`$ (27)
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{exp}\left[{\displaystyle \underset{i=2}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\beta k_i}{2}}t\mathrm{log}\mathrm{\Lambda }+{\displaystyle \frac{(tk_i)}{\beta }}{\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{e^{\beta l}1}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^ll^2}}\right].`$ (28)
Here the angular brackets stand for averages over the distribution of the $`ϵ_i`$-s. Hence:

$`f_t(\{k\})`$ $``$ $`c_t(\{k\}){\displaystyle _0^1}𝑑ϵ\left({\displaystyle \frac{e^{\beta ϵ}}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\right)^{k_1}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1e^{\beta ϵ}}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\right)^{tk_1}ϵ^{N1}`$ (29)
$``$ $`c_t(\{k\})\left({\displaystyle \frac{k_1}{t}}\right)^{k_1}\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{k_1}{t}}\right)^{tk_1}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{log}\mathrm{\Lambda }k_1/t}{\beta }}\right)^{N1}\mathrm{\Theta }\left(\mathrm{\Lambda }k_1t\right),`$ (30)
where the saddle point method has been employed to solve the last integral.

## 4 Statistics of visits on a ultrametric argument space

We now turn our attention to the entire World Wide Web. While inside a given category it is easy to compare different sites, the WWW deals with various arguments, sometimes not overlapping at all. Scalar fitnesses should, therefore, be replaced by vectors and players could only be active in the domains they are experts of.

Here we would like to introduce a simple hierarchical structure of Internet categories, taking only into account passive players employing different research efforts. Inspired by a recent work on social networks  we place $`N=2^M`$ sites on the leaves of a ultrametric tree with $`M`$ levels. Upon labeling them sequentially from $`0`$ to $`N1`$, the ultrametric distance between two web pages $`i`$ and $`j`$ can be defined as the greatest exponent $`d`$ such that

$$[i/2^d^{}]=[j/2^d^{}]\text{ for }d^{}d,$$

where $`[a]`$ denotes the integer part of $`a`$. At each time step a visitor places a query (say $`i[0,N1]`$) and extract distance $`d`$ from a distribution $`\rho (d)`$, such that all the nodes within a radius $`d`$ from the query are eligible answers. We assume that the probability that a site $`j`$ receives a visit as a consequence of a given query $`i`$ is driven by the generalized preferential attachment rule

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_j\theta (d(i,j)d)(n_j+1)^\alpha .$$

Here the constant one represents the initial attractiveness of each node, which is necessarily non-zero when there are no active players. Since the system is not growing and the number of sites is fixed, as in the quasi-static scale free networks , simple linear preferential attachment is not enough for the number of visits to be power-law distributed.

Let us first analyze the model when $`\rho (d)`$ is uniform. In figure 5 the number of visits $`n`$ of a given web page $`i`$ is plotted versus its rank $`r(i)=N_{n_i}^{\mathrm{}}P(n_i)`$. For $`\alpha 2`$ we observe a power-law behavior of $`n(r)`$

$$n(r)r^\xi $$
(31)
corresponding to a power-law $`P(n)n^{\frac{\xi +1}{\xi }}`$ in the probability density of the number of visits. For lower values of the exponent $`\alpha `$ (including the special case of linear preferential attachment) the power-law $`(\text{31})`$ disappears.

### 4.1 Dependence from the specificity of the request

We now analyze the role of distribution $`\rho (d)`$, which modulates the proportion of players who place a very specific query with short distance $`d`$ and that of players who are much more easily satisfied, looking for popular sites within a wider radius. In particular we have considered the two distributions

$`\rho (d)`$ $`=`$ $`(\kappa +1)(d/M)^\kappa `$ (32)
$`\rho (d)`$ $`=`$ $`(\theta +1)(1d/M)^\theta .`$ (33)
In the first case queries that require a more precise answer (small distances $`d`$) are less frequent than queries that require a less precise answer. The reversal applies to the second case.

We start with a system of web pages in which the visits dynamics is driven by a preferential attachment with $`\alpha =1`$. The impact of the variation of distribution $`\rho (d)`$ is illustrated in Fig. $`\text{6}a`$, where the rank distribution of visits is displayed in linear scale. Indeed the curve $`n(r)`$ becomes steeper as visitors increase their search radius.

The role of distribution $`\rho (d)`$ becomes crucial for greater values of $`\alpha `$. In particular in Fig. $`\text{6}b`$ we consider the case $`\alpha =2`$. For a distribution of the type $`(\text{32})`$ the power-law functional form of $`n(r)`$ (Eq. 31) breaks down, leaving place to the logarithm of the rank $`n(r)\mathrm{log}(r)`$. For distribution (33) the scaling $`(\text{31})`$ is conserved, but the curves get steeper with increasing $`\theta `$ values.

## 5 Conclusions

We proposed a simple model of web pages attendance, focusing our attention on webpages that are found in the same category. We investigated correlations between the number of visits they receive and their quality, as it emerges from the interplay of heterogeneous players: the passive players, driven by the popularity of the web page and its advertisement, and active players, driven by their own information of the sites’ intrinsic quality. We studied the model by numerical simulations and by analytical calculations. Connectivity statistics follows power laws with different slopes, but a typical length scale might occasionally appear, as in fig. 1. When a scalar indicator characterizes the intrinsic quality of web sites, experts participation can improve the effectiveness of Internet searches (fig. 3 and 4). In fact the model displays a cross-over from the passive dominated phase to the active dominated phase, in which the correlations between quality and visits build up. It would be interesting to know where the actual Word-Wide-Web is placed respect to this cross-over point and how much the popularity based ranking, still used by some search engines, really reflects the ideal quality ranking of the web pages.

We conclude the paper with a discussion of how the websites attendance varies in a system with multiple categories. We formulate a hierarchical model in which we define a distance (the ultrametric distance) between different pages. In this model there are no active players that visit their chosen web page but there are only passive players that visit web pages distant less than $`d`$ from a given query. We have shown that the more generic is the search (the wider the radius $`d`$) the steeper is the distribution of the number of visits while the more specific is the search (the smaller is $`d`$) the smoother is the distribution of visits.

## 6 Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Matteo Marsili for helpful discussions. This work was supported by the Swiss National Fund, Grant No. 20-61470.00.


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# Time-dependent thermal effects in GRB afterglows

## 1 Time-dependent X-ray emission from a thermal plasma

Determination of physical parameters of astrophysical sources with plasma densities up to $`10^{11}10^{12}`$ cm-3 should include time-dependent ionization processes. The cooling time for a completely ionized plasma composed of electrons and ions with charge $`Z`$ (due to free-free radiation alone; allowing for the recombination emission decreases this time severalfold) is $`t_c2\times 10^{15}[s]n_e\sqrt{T/10^8}/Z`$ In real GRB, the duration of gamma-ray emission is 1-100 s and can be much smaller than the plasma cooling time.

X-ray lines in the GRB 011211 afterglow. XMM-Newton observations of GRB011211 afterglow  11 hrs after the GRB are best fit by a thermal plasma continuum with $`T`$ of several (2-4) keV and emission lines (identified with highly ionized metal species, except for iron) faded away over $`10^4`$ s. In contrast to purely geometrical interpretation of these observations (which requires a very high density shell with $`n_e10^{15}`$ cm), our time-dependent approach identifies this time with thermal relaxation time of a plasma heated by passing gamma-rays up to a temperature of several keV (deposited energy $`ϵ_010`$ keV per nucleon). This time implies plasma density $`n_e10^{11}10^{12}`$ cm-3. Then the observed X-ray emission measure $`EM=n_e^2V10^{69}`$ cm-3 means $`V10^{47}10^{45}`$ cm3.

Need for clouds. The optical thickness w.r.t. Thompson scattering $`n\sigma _T<1`$ requires a clumpy surroundings with the number of clouds $`N_{cl}10^6`$ of size $`l_{cl}10^{13}`$ cm and the total volume providing the required emission measure. (This is an upper limit: the realistic cooling function yields $`EM4\times 10^{68}`$ cm-3 for normal cosmic abundance and $`EM10^{65}`$ cm-3 for plasma without H and He and other elements in solar ratio). The ISM with such cloudy properties is common around e.g. late AGB stars . Sub-AU clouds of the density $`10^{12}`$ cm-3 were also involved by  to explain the observed short time-scale variability on GRB light curves in the external shock scenario.

The energy deposit into surroundings. The required energy deposit per nucleon $`ϵ_0`$ 10 keV limits the external space where such a medium can be heated by gamma rays to the distance $`d=\sqrt{\frac{\sigma _\gamma E_\gamma }{4\pi ϵ_0}}2\times 10^{17}\text{cm}`$ where $`E_\gamma =5\times 10^{52}`$ erg is the total isotropic GRB energy, $`\sigma _\gamma 0.1\sigma _T`$ is the effective gamma-ray deposition cross section for heating the environment per nucleon . This distance is independent of the assumed isotropy/beaming of the GRB emission. Again, this distance is strikingly similar to what is needed in the external shock scenario .

GRB jet opening angle $`\theta `$ should be specified to calculate the total volume of the circumburst matter illuminated by GRB. Assuming time delay $`t_l=10^4`$ s to be entirely due to thermal relaxation and not to geometrical retardation yields the relation $`d(1\mathrm{cos}\theta )=(ct_l)/(1+z)10^{14}\text{cm}`$ For small $`\theta `$, $`d=2\times 10^{17}`$ cm and $`z=2.14`$ we get $`\theta \sqrt{2ct_l/(1+z)d}0.05`$. Such jet collimation angles $`2\theta 0.1`$ are common in GRB . The total illuminated volume is thus $`V\theta ^2d^33\times 10^{49}`$ cm-3 which implies the cloud filling factor $`f10^{45}/10^{49}10^4`$. So the physically acceptable structure of clumpy ISM can actually be the source of the observed thermal X-rays from GRB 011211. For example, such a medium can be produced if several hundred late-type stars with strong winds fall within the GRB cone. Unusual in our Galaxy, this could possibly take place in star-forming galaxies at large redshifts where GRB are observed.

Modeling the X-ray spectrum. We use time-dependent code to compute the state of ionization and radiation of thermal plasma which include the basic elementary processes (collisional ionization, autoionization, photorecombination, dielectronic recombination, ion charge exchange) and computes free-free, free-bound, bound-bound and two-photon emission for ions of all types. The parameters include time-dependent temperature $`T`$, density $`\rho `$ and chemical composition. The calculated spectral lines are shown in Fig. 1 (see  for more detail).

## 2 Time-dependent thermal effects in optical GRB afterglows

The GRB explosion in an inhomogeneous medium is a generic picture which is responsible for the observed variety of effects in X-ray and optical afterglow light curves (see  for pioneer study). We consider two possible types of surroundings: a cloudy, patchy medium and a shell-like structure around the GRB. The second case could be identified with an earlier SN explosion or intensive stellar wind of the underlying SN-type event. In both cases, a fraction of the GRB energy is deposited into the surroundings. This energy is thermalized and radiated away. If plasma of the clouds is optically thin, it rapidly cools down. The time-dependent effects from the ”blue” (approaching the observer) gamma-ray beam are expected on the plasma cooling timescale $`t_c`$ after the GRB, while the reverberation effects could be observed at different wavelengths later on from the ”red” (receding) jet on timescales $`t_2R(t)/c`$. Here $`R(t)`$ is time-dependent distance of the photosphere (if formed) in the medium from which low-energy photons are generated. The maximum time the time-dependent effects from the ”red” beam will be observed is determined by the limiting distance $`d`$ and also by possible hydrodynamical effects. So the evolving ”SN-like” features in the optical spectra observed in the afterglow of GRB 030329 several days – a month after the burst (also called SN 2003dh ) could be a manifestation of such effects and might have no direct relation to SN explosion.

To illustrate how the cooling plasma forms a photosphere, we present the results of LTE calculations of plasma opacities as a function of decaying temperature for a fiducial plasma density $`\rho =10^{14}`$ g/cm3 with normal cosmic abundance (Fig. 2). The scattering opacity is $`\kappa _T\rho 3\times 10^{15}`$ cm-1 and is independent of temperature until recombination at low temperatures lowers it down to $`10^{19}`$ cm-1. These calculations indicate that up to limiting distances $`d10^{17}`$ cm (as appropriate to the case of GRB 030329), such a medium remains optically thin for scattering, but a photosphere start forming for hard photons when temperature drops below $`10^6`$ K.

To have an idea what kind of optical events can be expected from clouds illuminated, we apply the multi-group radiation hydrocode STELLA  to calculate UBV-light curves (in the GRB rest-frame). We assume an energy deposit $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ thermalized in a homogeneous cloud ($`\rho =10^{14}`$ g/cm3) of mass $`M`$ over the GRB duration time $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$. No equilibrium between photons and plasma is assumed. These calculations are similar to our ”mini-supernova” model , but the difference is that here the cloud is transparent for photons so the energy is thermalized within the entire volume of the cloud. Fig. 3 shows the light curve for a large ($`R=6\times 10^{15}`$ cm) cloud with a total mass of $`5M_{}`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }E6\times 10^{49}`$ erg, and $`\delta t=100`$s. The cloud is heated up to a temperature of $`10^4`$ K. The optical emission from the cooling cloud continues for more than a month. For comparison, U (filled triangles), B (open squares), V (open circles) data of a typical plateau type II SN 1969L are shown. A very bright optical outburst (the peak absolute magnitude $`M_V21.5^m`$) is expected shortly after the energy deposit (the light travel time correction will somewhat smear the peak on the time scale $`R/c`$.) This effect can be compared with the enigmatic outburst seen in the R afterglow of GRB 030329 $`1.7`$ day after the GRB  .

A different picture is obtained if we consider a smaller homogeneous cloud with $`R=1.4\times 10^{13}`$ cm and $`\rho =10^{13}`$ g/cm3 (i.e. like those required to explain non-stationary X-ray emission lines in GRB 011211). An energy deposit of $`10^{43}`$ erg into the inner $`\mathrm{\Delta }M=6\times 10^7M_{}`$ over $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=10`$ s heats up the cloud to $`T40000`$ K. This yields (Fig. 4) $`M_{opt}5^m\mathrm{}7^m`$. A collection ($`10^510^6`$) of such clouds (patchy presupernova wind?) at $`d10^{17}`$ cm would naturally produce a reverberating optical bump with $`M_{op}17^m\mathrm{}19^m`$ on the optical light curve of the canonical power-law GRB afterglow several weeks after the GRB. It is still to be explored if such clouds can mimic spectrum of a SN Ic event spectroscopically identified in GRB 030329 .

## 3 Conclusions

Time-dependent thermal plasma effects from GRB surroundings should manifest in X-ray and lower energy afterglows of a GRB twofold:

(1) Shortly after GRB (on the plasma cooling time scale determined by density, chemical composition and the energy deposited over the GRB emission time) thermal effects may be produced by plasma heated up by the ”blue” GRB jet. The fading X-ray emission lines in GRB 011211 may provide an example.

(2) At later times, variable thermal optical features can be observed superimposed on the underlying non-thermal afterglow continuum due to the contribution from cooling clouds/shells heated by the receding (”red”) GRB jet on timescales limited by the most remote clouds $`d`$. Optical afterglows of GRB 021004 and GRB 030329 deviating from pure power-law can provide the example. The effective photosphere moving across the heated region can mimic the SN-like effects observed in some GRB.


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# The aperiodic timing behaviour of the accretion–driven millisecond pulsar SAX J1808.4–3658

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Many of the neutron star low–mass X–ray binaries can be classified as so–called atoll sources, based on the correlated behaviour of their timing properties at low frequencies ($`\nu <200`$ Hz) and their X–ray spectral properties . The atoll sources show quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) with frequencies ranging from a few hundred Hz to more than 1000 Hz (kilohertz QPOs). The low–frequency part of the power spectra is usually dominated by a broad band–limited noise component. In addition to the band–limited noise the atoll sources show several Lorentzian components below 200 Hz (see e.g. ). In the atoll sources all components become broader as their characteristic frequency decreases . Therefore several features can only be classified as a QPO (FWHM $`<`$ centroid frequency/2) at high frequencies. In addition to these timing features, that are observed in the persistent emission of the systems, 11 of the atoll sources show millisecond oscillations (270–619 Hz) during thermonuclear X-ray bursts (see  for a review). These burst oscillations are thought to be connected with the spin of the neutron star and were the first evidence that atoll sources harbour millisecond pulsars.

In 1998 the first accreting millisecond pulsar was found with the Rossi X–ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) during an outburst of SAX J1808.4–3658 . During this outburst no thermonuclear X-ray bursts were observed and the source did not show traditional kilohertz QPOs . The low frequency power spectrum was very similar to that of other atoll sources  and both the atoll sources and SAX J1808.4–3658 followed one relation when the characteristic frequency of a low–frequency Lorentzian was plotted versus that of the band–limited noise . During a new outburst of SAX J1808.4-3658 in October 2002, for the first time kilohertz QPOs and burst oscillations were observed in an accreting millisecond pulsar . Recently, four additional accreting millisecond pulsars were seen. Those systems (and the 2002 outburst of SAX J1808.4–3658) are reviewed in detail elsewhere in these proceedings . Here we present a preliminar analysis of the aperiodic–timing behaviour of SAX J1808.4–3658 in the frequency range 0.004–4096 Hz. We study the correlations between the characteristic frequencies of the different timing features and compare the behaviour of SAX J1808.4–3658 with that of three well studied atoll sources (for a more detailed presentation we refer to ).

## 2 ANALYSIS

In this analysis we study the 1998 and 2002 outbursts of SAX J1808.4-3658 using data from RXTE’s proportional counter array (PCA). The data are divided into observations that consist of one to several satellite orbits. We exclude data for which the angle of the source above the Earth limb is less than 10 degrees or for which the pointing offset is greater then 0.02 degrees.

We construct power spectra per observation using data segments of 256 s and 1/8192 s time bins such that the lowest available frequency is 1/256 Hz and the Nyquist frequency 4096 Hz; the normalization of Leahy et al.  was used. We subtracted a Poisson noise level using the method of Klein–Wolt et al. , which is built on the analytical function from Zhang et al. . The resulting power spectra were then converted to squared fractional rms. To improve the statistics several observations, adjacent in time, and for which the power spectra remained the same, were added up. Before fitting, all frequency bins containing the 401 Hz pulse spike were removed from the power spectra.

As a fit function we use the multi–Lorentzian function; a sum of Lorentzian components (see e.g. ). We only include those Lorentzians in the fit whose power could be measured to an accuracy of better than 33%. We plot the power spectra in the power times frequency representation ($`\nu \mathrm{P}_\nu `$), where the power spectral density is multiplied by its Fourier frequency. For a multi–Lorentzian fit function this representation helps to visualize a characteristic frequency, $`\nu _{\mathrm{max}}`$, namely, the frequency where each Lorentzian component contributes most of its variance per logarithmic frequency interval: in $`\nu \mathrm{P}_\nu `$ the Lorentzian’s maximum occurs at $`\nu _{\mathrm{max}}`$ ($`\nu _{\mathrm{max}}=\sqrt{\nu _0^2+\mathrm{\Delta }^2}`$, where $`\nu _0`$ is the centroid and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ the HWHM of the Lorentzian ).

## 3 RESULTS & DISCUSSION

We find that four to six Lorentzian components were needed to fit the power spectra of SAX J1808.4-3658. The power spectra are very similar to those of other atoll sources, and all Lorentzian components could be identified in the scheme of Belloni et al.  and van Straaten et al. .

An extensive description of this scheme can be found in van Straaten et al. . To summarise; Lu is the upper kilohertz QPO. L is the lower kilohertz QPO at high frequencies ($`\nu >200`$ Hz) and a broad bump at low frequencies which does not appear simultaneously. Note, however, that it is unclear whether these two features are actually the same component. The hectohertz Lorentzian, a broad Lorentzian with a frequency that is nearly constant and close to 150 Hz is called LhHz. We call the band–limited noise component that “transforms” into a QPO at higher frequencies (above 15 Hz) as well as the QPO it becomes Lb and the “new” broad band–limited noise appearing at lower frequency Lb2, but please note that there are uncertainties in the interpretation underlying this nomenclature. Finally there is another low frequency Lorentzian above Lb called Lh. In Figure 1 we show two power spectra of SAX J1808.4–3658 compared to those of other atoll sources studied in .

The frequencies of the variability components of the atoll sources follow a universal scheme of correlations, suggesting a very similar accretion flow configuration . If we plot the characteristic frequencies of the several power spectral components versus that of the Lorentzian identified as the upper kilohertz QPO, SAX J1808.4–3658 shows similar correlations (see Figure 2).

We can use figure 2 to identify the upper kilohertz QPO (Lu) at the lowest characteristic frequencies ($``$ 150 Hz) found in any source to date. These characteristic frequencies were reached during the 1998 outburst where the characteristic frequencies of all the power spectral components were generally lower than during the 2002 outburst. Previous work  already did observe these features, but did not recognize them as upper kilohertz QPOs due to their low frequencies and broad character. Now that kilohertz QPOs have been observed at high frequencies in SAX J1808.4–3658, the correlations in figure 2 clearly show that the upper kiloherz QPO is present in a broad frequency range.

If we compare the relations of SAX J1808.4–3658 with those of the atoll sources 4U 0614+09, 4U 1728–34 , and 4U 1608–52  we find similar correlations, but we see that the upper kilohertz QPO frequency is too low by a factor of about 1.5 compared to the atoll sources (see Figure 3).

A possible explanation for the shift in upper kilohertz QPO frequency could be that the magnetic field strenght $`B`$ is higher in SAX J1808.4–3658: In most models the upper kilohertz QPO frequency reflects the Keplerian frequency at the inner edge of the accretion disk (e.g. ). Because of the weaker $`B`$ field in the atoll sources the inner radius of the disk can get closer to the neutron star surface. If the low frequency features are formed further out in the disk their radii and therefore frequencies are independent of $`B`$ field strenght. So while the low frequency features have similar characteristic frequencies in the atoll sources as in SAX J1808.4–3658, the upper kilohertz QPO frequency is lower.

## 4 CONCLUSIONS

* SAX J1808.4-3658 can be classified as an atoll source based on its low frequency timing.
* The upper kilohertz QPO of Wijnands et al.  is present in a wide (150–700 Hz) frequency range. At the lowest characteristic frequencies, observed during the 1998 outburst, the features were previously not recognised as upper kilohertz QPO, but could now be identified with the help of frequency relations.
* The first accreting milisecond pulsar plotted on the frequency relations diagram deviates from the other sources. The deviation is most easily described as a shift in upper kilohertz QPO frequency. This shift might be due to a higher $`B`$ field strength in SAX J1808.4-3658.


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# THE GraS HYPOTHESIS: A MODEL FOR DARK MATTER-BARYONS GRAVITATIONAL INTERACTION

## 1 Introduction

The success of the cold dark matter (CDM) paradigm in explaining a wide range of properties of the visible structures on scales $`1`$ Mpc  does not extend down to sub-galactic scales. Some inconsistencies between observations and theory (via simulations) still lack a satisfactory interpretation, indeed a possible scenario of “CDM crisis” on small galactic scales has been evocated .

One issue is that, high-resolution observations of the inner rotation curves of low-surface brightness (LSB) galaxies suggest that the dark matter is distributed in spherical halos with nearly constant density cores , whereas DM simulations systematically predict much steeper density profiles $`\rho r^\beta `$ with $`\beta `$ 1-1.5 (see, e.g. ). It now seems that the cuspy density profile of halos that form in simulations of the dark matter component is a robust and reproducible feature of the collisionless dynamics of halo formation (e.g., ), and, as a matter of fact, steep profiles consistent with the simulations have recently been “seen” through gravitational lensing at the center of galaxy clusters . A parallel problem is that a scale-invariant primordial spectrum of perturbations generates significantly more virialized objects of dwarf-galaxy mass than are observed around the Milky Way . Again, preliminary observations of multiple image gravitational lenses  seem to confirm the presence of these mass substructures, thus indicating that a possible solution to this problem may be found in some mechanism that prevents star formation in most of the low mass galactic satellites. Intriguingly enough, these problems appear to be characterized by the same physical scale length of the order of the kiloparsec.

It is known that, in order to have efficient structure formation, dark matter (DM) must be sufficiently decoupled from the Standard Model particles. As a consequence, the direct detection of DM is (and is proving to be ) a difficult task. Moreover, DM properties must be inferred from the dynamic and distribution of the visible component, which in turn are affected and shaped by DM only through gravitation. In what follows we review the recently proposed  gravitational suppression (GraS) hypothesis which addresses the above mentioned kpc-scale problems via a modification of the gravitational law between DM and baryons. Of course, the theoretical framework of four dimensional General Relativity hardly accomplishes departures from the Newton law, unless other light field-mediated forces are introduced. Nevertheless, from an empirical stand point, a modification of gravity may be considered as a “minimal” attempt to solve the above mentioned inconsistencies between observations and theory, since it’s just and only gravity that rules the reciprocal behavior of baryons and DM. In other terms we do not add or modify hypothetical properties of DM particles (e.g.. ) but, applying ”Occam razor”, we suggest a modification of a measurable phenomenon whose general consequences are directly testable and falsifiable.

As recalled by Tremaine , there have been two major observational issues in the solar system since 1800: the unexplained residuals in the orbit of Uranus that led to the discovery of Neptune, and the anomalous precession of Mercury perihelion that was explained by General Relativity. The large scale issue was explained by the discovery of new matter and the small scale anomaly by a radical new physical law. In analogy, the dynamics of spiral galaxies at large radii has lead to the discover of dark matter, while the inner rotational behavior of low surface brightness (LSB) galaxies may contain a hint of fundamental new physics. We leave speculations about the theoretical origin of such a proposed modification to future work. At present we adopt an instrumentalist view and try to asses the performances of GraS as a working hypothesis.

## 2 The Gravitational Suppression Hypothesis

The GraS hypothesis has been formulated in  as follows:  *In the Newtonian limit of approximation (small curvatures and small velocities in Planck units), the gravitational interaction between baryonic and non baryonic particles is suppressed on small ($``$ kpc) scales.* The picture is very simple and schematically represented in Fig. 1: nothing changes in each of the two sectors (visible-dark) with respect to Newtonian gravity but, as two particles (one “dark” and one “visible”) get closer than a kpc to each other, they experience a suppression of the usual gravitational Newton law.

In order to model a general small scale modification of gravity we have used a Yukawa-type correction to the usual $`1/r`$ law. The resulting gravitational potential between two point-like particles of different nature goes like

$$\varphi (r)\frac{1}{r}(1+\alpha e^{r/\lambda }),$$
(1)
where $`r`$ is the distance between the two particles. The parameter $`\alpha `$ gives the strength and the type (repulsive or attractive) of the Yukawa contribution. As $`\alpha `$ gets close to $`1`$ the total gravitational interaction tends to be *totally suppressed* in the small scale limit. The length $`\lambda `$, on the other hand, gives the typical scales over which such a suppression is effective. Accidentally, we note that the same kind of interaction is generated by a light scalar mediated force. However, a universal scalar interaction cannot be active only in the $`mixed`$ sector without affecting also the dynamics internal to each sector.

## 3 Fitting the parameters

Low surface brightness (LSB) galaxies are very good laboratories to test our model. Since they are dominated by dark matter  we can neglect the dynamical contribution of the disc to the velocity rotation curves. Moreover, since GraS doesn’t change the usual Newton law between DM particles, the general predictions of numerical simulations concerning the density profiles of DM halos hold. In particular, we expect inner power-law cusps of the type $`\rho r^\beta `$ with $`\beta `$ 1-1.5  . In  the velocity rotation curve generated by a power-law density profile of generic slope $`\beta `$ has been calculated within the framework of the Yukawa model of equation (1). Such a theoretical curve has been compared to a sample of high resolution LSB rotation curves measured and reduced by different authors  in order to fix the universal parameters of our model, $`\alpha `$ and $`\lambda `$, and to find the best value $`\beta `$ of the internal slope consistent with the GraS hypothesis (see Fig. 1 in ).

The value of $`\alpha `$ ($`\alpha =1\pm 0.1`$) is remarkably stable in all the galaxies considered and seems to point towards a *total* suppression scenario where the gravitational attraction between two particles of different nature is really “cut-off” at small distances. The characteristic scale below which the suppression mechanism is active is constrained to be $`\lambda =1.1\pm 0.08`$ kpc. Finally, the inner density slope, $`\beta =1.35\pm 0.05`$, is in good agreement with the simulations  and in particular with some recent high-precision ones which seem to indicate the value $`\beta =1.2`$ . The rotational velocity predicted by such a set of universal parameters has been superimposed in Fig 2. to the observed velocity curve of a new LSB galaxy  for which sufficiently high resolution inner rotation data (but unfortunately large observational errors for a meaningful fit) are available.

## 4 GraS: Predictions

GraS provides a cosmological mechanism that segregates the fraction of baryons in halos of different mass sizes. The reason is rather intuitive: small mass halos of sizes up to a kpc are much less effective in attracting the cosmologically diffused baryons. It may be worth noting that dwarf galaxies of $`10^9`$ M typically grew out of fluctuations which, at decoupling, were not larger than $`10^1`$ kpc. In  this effect has been calculated at linear order in perturbation theory considering the baryon fraction

$$f=\frac{\rho _B}{\rho _D}=(\mathrm{\Omega }_B/\mathrm{\Omega }_D)\frac{1+\delta _B}{1+\delta _D}$$
(2)
at the epoch of turnaround. As a result, the baryon fraction in halos of $`10^6`$ solar masses is about half the average cosmological value $`\mathrm{\Omega }_B/\mathrm{\Omega }_D`$ (see Fig. 3). This linear approach, however, is likely to underestimate the GraS effects. At turnaround, in fact, where the linear theory approximation still holds, $`\delta _D1.1`$ and, even for completely frozen baryonic fluctuations $`\delta _B0`$, the fraction on the RHS of (2) cannot be lower than about $`1/2`$. As a consequence galaxy formation is not 100% efficient in trapping baryons inside small halos, and a relevant fraction of the total baryonic budget should consist of cool baryonic clouds outside virialized structures. It is tempting to speculate on how this mechanisms may help in interpreting the fact that part of the baryons expected in standard nucleosynthesis models are yet undetected in the present day universe.

Moreover, loosening the tight coupling between baryons and exotic particles, other complementary astrophysical mechanisms such as Supernovae feedback and photoionization may become more effective in preventing star formation. For instance, the GraS predicted binding energy of baryons in halos of $`10^8`$ solar masses is about a factor of one tenth less than predicted by Newtonian gravity. A more realistic picture of gas/star density distribution and evolution in small galaxies could be obtained by implementing GraS non-linear, non-gravitational dynamical effects into high resolution hydrodynamical simulations.

Simulations may also help in assessing the effect of GasS on the dynamical coupling between the stellar bars in galaxy discs and the surrounding dark matter halo and the subsequent evolution of both components. One may speculate that the apparent absence of slow bars in galaxies is due to a suppression of the dynamical friction between the baryons and CDM particles and thus to a less effective transfer of angular momentum between the bar and halo components.

In summary we have argued that the severe challenges facing DM models may indicate that a serious examination of the way baryons respond to a dark matter potential on small scales should be considered.

Acknowledgements.  In Marseille, during the days of the conference, we’ve enjoyed the good company of, among others, Latham Boyle, Marco Bruni, Justin Khoury, Roberto Mainini, Roger Malina, Saul Perlmutter, Claudia Quercellini and Matthew Parry. It is a pleasure to thank all these people for stimulating discussions about this and other subjects