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# WEAK LENSING, STRUCTURE FORMATION AND DARK ENERGY

## 1 Introduction

In the last few years the cosmological parameters have been constrained in a narrow range of values by several experiments and the picture of the universe seems to be the following. The unexpected dimming of type Ia supernovae (SNIa), used as standard candles, is the evidence of an accelerating expansion of the universe, SNIa probes the cosmological expansion up to redshift $`z2`$ ; in a Friedmann Robertson Walker universe this acceleration is provided by an amount of dark energy that is $`70\%`$ of the whole energy content. Other independent indications of the presence of a missing energy come from Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) anisotropies  and Large Scale Structures (LSS) , CMB data support a flat cosmological geometry while LSS indicate that $`30\%`$ of critical density is clustered. The first candidate for the dark energy is the Cosmological Constant, which has two well known problems: the coincidence problem (why Cosmological Constant density and matter density are comparable today?) and the fine tuning problem (why Cosmological Constant scale is 120 orders of magnitude less than Planck scale?). To solve the latter problem a dynamical scalar field, known as Quintessence , has been introduced as a minimally extension of Cosmological Constant. With this field we have a dynamical equation of state for the dark energy alleviating the fine tuning problem. Recently a strong constraint has been put for the value of equation of state at present, combining CMB, LSS, SNIa and HST observations we have $`w_0<0.78`$ . The next challenge in cosmology is to constrain the time evolution of $`w`$; this can be done with future experiments like PLANCK for CMB  and future SNIa observations.

The weak lensing effect on CMB anisotropies has been studied  and the third order statistics, the bispectrum, has been used to constraint the effective dark energy equation of state . If the primordial anisotropies are Gaussian the bispectrum is zero within cosmic variance; cosmic structures produce a non-Gaussian feature on CMB and a non vanishing bispectrum. In this work we study the weak lensing effect produced by structure formation on CMB pattern in Quintessence cosmology; the bispectrum is written in terms of a line of sight integral involving the redshift derivative of gravitational potential and cosmological distances. Since the dynamics of dark energy involves both perturbations growth and cosmological distances, also the bispectrum depends on the evolution of dark energy; here we show how different dark energies with same value of $`w`$ at present produce different features on the bispectrum, introducing a new observable capable to discriminate between different dark energies independently on the value of $`w_0`$ .

## 2 Quintessence, weak lensing and integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect

We have considered two kind of potential for Quintessence: the Ratra-Peebles inverse power law (hereafter RP ) and SUGRA . In terms of scalar field $`\varphi `$ the potentials are written as

$$V_{\mathrm{𝑅𝑃}}=\frac{M^{\left(4+\alpha \right)}}{\varphi ^\alpha },V_{\mathrm{𝑆𝑈𝐺𝑅𝐴}}=\frac{M^{\left(4+\alpha \right)}}{\varphi ^\alpha }e^{4\pi G\varphi ^2};$$
(1)
with these potentials the problem of fine tuning is reduced: the only relevant condition for the initial value of scalar field is $`\varphi _i<<M_{Pl}`$ ($`M_{Pl}`$ is the Planck mass). In this way we can reach the present value $`\varphi _0`$ for a wide set of initial condition ; in the case of a scalar field the equation of state $`w_Q`$, defined as $`p_Q/\rho _Q`$, evolves in time depending on the potentials.

We consider now the CMB anisotropies produced at decoupling and those produced by the integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect (hereafter ISW ) taking into account the weak lensing effect of growing structures. The CMB anisotropy in the direction $`\widehat{n}`$ can be decomposed as

$$\mathrm{\Theta }\left(\widehat{n}\right)\mathrm{\Theta }_{lss}\left(\widehat{n}\right)+\mathrm{\Theta }_{ISW}\left(\widehat{n}\right)+\stackrel{}{}\mathrm{\Theta }_{lss}\left(\widehat{n}\right)\stackrel{}{\alpha },$$
(2)
the first term is the primordial anisotropy, the second one is the ISW anisotropy and the last one is the contribution due to weak lensing; $`\alpha `$ is the deflection angle. The potential perturbations that produces the ISW produces also the weak lensing; because of this the lensed CMB photons and those redden by ISW are correlated and a non-Gaussian feature on CMB pattern is produced, that give us a non null signal of bispectrum. To evaluate the non linear density power spectrum we have used a semi-analytical approach . Throughout this work we used the best fit of cosmological parameters (excluding $`w`$) , but with a $`n_s=1`$ value for the spectral index.

## 3 The CMB bispectrum

To calculate the bispectrum, we have used three equal multipoles $`l`$ probing the CMB pattern with equilateral triangles with size of about $`\theta 180^o/l`$; this is the easiest choice but it is sufficient to show how the dynamics of dark energy affect the bispectrum. The CMB bispectrum is written as

$$B_l=3l\left(l+1\right)\sqrt{\frac{\left(2l+1\right)^3}{4\pi }}\left(\begin{array}{ccc}l& l& l\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right)C_l^PQ\left(l\right),$$
(3)
where $`C_l^P`$ is the primordial power spectrum at multipole $`l`$, the parenthesis are the Wigner’s 3J symbols and $`Q\left(l\right)`$ is

$$Q\left(l\right)\left(a_{lm}^{lens}\right)^{}a_{lm}^{ISW}2_0^{z_{lss}}𝑑z\frac{r\left(z_{lss}\right)r\left(z\right)}{r\left(z_{lss}\right)r^3\left(z\right)}\left[\frac{P_\mathrm{\Psi }(k,z)}{z}\right]_{k=\frac{l}{r\left(z\right)}}.$$
(4)
In the previous relation the quantity $`P_\mathrm{\Psi }(k,z)`$ is the gravitational potential power spectrum, related to the density power spectrum by the relation $`P_\mathrm{\Psi }(k,z)=\left(\frac{3}{2}\mathrm{\Omega }_{M0}\right)^2\left(\frac{H_0}{ck}\right)^4P(k,z)\left(1+z\right)^2`$, $`z_{lss}`$ is the redshift of last scattering surface and $`a_{lm}^{lens}`$ and $`a_{lm}^{ISW}`$ are respectively the coefficients of harmonics expansion of lensing contribution and ISW. A detailed outline on how write Eq. (3) and (4) can be found in  and references therein.

The integral $`Q\left(l\right)`$ is the most relevant quantity in this work, it describes how the weak lensing on CMB is produced by the forming structures along the line of sight. Analyzing the redshift behavior of the integrand of (4) we can study how the contribution of $`Q\left(l\right)`$ is distributed along the line of sight and how it depends on the time evolution of Quintessence equation of state. The integrand can be decomposed in two factors: a geometrical factor $`\frac{r\left(z_{lss}\right)r\left(z\right)}{r\left(z_{lss}\right)r\left(z\right)^3}`$ and a derivative factor $`\frac{P_\mathrm{\Psi }}{z}`$. In the geometrical factor the redshift behavior of $`w`$ is averaged through the distance integral so we don’t have a significant sensitivity to this parameter while the derivative factor is more sensitive to the time evolution of Quintessence equation of state giving the most important contribution to the integrand of $`Q\left(l\right)`$. In Fig. 1 we have plotted the integrand of (4) for SUGRA model with $`w_0=0.9`$, once we fix the multipole $`l`$; coming form high redshift, the integrand probes from large to small scales by the relation $`\lambda \left(z\right)=2\pi r\left(z\right)/l`$. As the redshift comes down from infinity, the scale $`\lambda \left(z\right)`$ decreases until it meets the growing comoving scale of the horizon becoming a sub-horizon comoving scale; the gravitational potential starts to decrease because of the free streaming and this feature is represented by the positive peaks in Fig. 1 (the derivative factor is positive). As $`z`$ get smaller, the scale $`\lambda \left(z\right)`$ matches the scales which enter in the non-linear phase at that epoch and the power increase with time (the derivative factor is negative); this feature is shown in Fig. 1 with a negative peak. When $`z`$ approaches zero, the wavenumber tends to infinity and the power vanishes. $`Q\left(l\right)`$ has a non zero contribution, yielded by the derivative factor, in the narrow range of redshift (between 0.1 and 2) where the dark energy starts to dominate over the matter; therefore the integrand can be used as a window function that selects just the relevant redshift to probe the cosmic acceleration. In this pictures the dark energy equation of state is probed independently on its value today (the power is zero at the present as remarked above) and only at the redshift where the cosmological expansion rate is affected by it. In this way the correlation (4) is a powerful tool to study the redshift behavior of dark energy equation of state; RP and SUGRA have a different evolution of equation of state, from the tracking regime to $`w_0`$, and this difference is just in the range of redshift where the integrand is not null.

The different behaviors of $`w\left(z\right)`$ for different models of dark energy are reflected in $`Q\left(l\right)`$ and also in the bispectrum. In Fig. 2 we plotted the bispectrum for constant $`w`$, RP and SUGRA model, all with $`w_0=0.9`$. The main feature of bispectrum is the cusp and represents the transition between linear and non linear regime when density perturbations grows i.e. when the integral (4) is zero. The position of cusp in $`l`$-space depends on the dark energy model considered; in SUGRA model the cusp is shifted with respect to RP models of 50 multipoles in spite of the fact that both models have the same value of $`w_0`$ (for SUGRA the cusp is located at $`l=412`$, for RP at $`l=362`$). This shift is due to the fact that in SUGRA scenario the growth factor is sensibly larger than that of RP scenario at almost all epochs . Correspondingly, the change at low redshift (when the dark energy starts to dominate the expansion) is stronger in SUGRA scenario producing a larger amplitude for the linear regime in the line of sight integral (when the derivative factor is positive). The contribution to the bispectrum coming from the non linear scales has lower amplitude because the rise due to the onset of non-linearity has to overcome the gravitational potential decay which in SUGRA is stronger than in RP. The net effect is that, for a given multipole $`l`$, the larger is the value of $`w`$ at the relevant epoch, the larger is the contribution from the linear regime; the scale at which linear power balances the non-linear one is shifted at larger wavenumber (higher multipoles) as is shown in Fig. 2. The dependence on the dark energy of the position of the cusp in the bispectrum is a new feature that can be used to discriminate between different dark energies and must be take in consideration in future observations. For completness, in Fig. 3 we plot the CMB power spectrum for the models considered, together with the WMAP data ; in fact, comparing Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, the degeneration between models is higher in the power spectrum than in the bispectrum .

## 4 Conclusions

We have studied the CMB bispectrum produced by weak lensing and ISW effect in Quintessence cosmology; we have found a new observable capable to discriminate between different models of dark energy with the same value of equation of state at the present but with different behavior in the past.

The correlation between weak lensing and ISW is made of two contributions yielding opposite signs after horizon crossing: in the linear regime the gravitational potential decreases in time, in the non-linear one we have a growth. Most of the contribution to the bispectrum signal come from the narrow range of redshift where the dark energy starts to dominate the expansion rate of the universe driving the acceleration and this epoch is that typical of structure formation. Because of these reasons, the bispectrum is sensitive to cosmic expansion rate at that redshift, i.e. to the equation of state at that time independently on its value today. To illustrate this effect we have used two kinds of dark energy: RP model and SUGRA model. Both RP and SUGRA have a time-variable equation of state but a different behavior in redshift. As result we have a geometry shift of the projected bispectrum, affecting in particular the cusp, that represent the balance between linear and non-linear regime; in the case of SUGRA, the cusp is located at higher multipoles with respect RP and this shift is about one order of magnitude greater than the shift in the CMB power spectrum.

We don’t explored the degeneration of the cusp position with respect other cosmological parameters, but we must keep in mind that this effect is due to a projection along the line of sight, so the shift can be mimicked by variations in the cosmological parameters inducing geometrical features in CMB anisotropies (curvature, $`H_0`$). On the other hand these variations will strongly affect both the bispectrum and the power spectrum.

The capability of the next CMB probes, PLANCK and CMBPol, to look for the effect we pointed out here is currently under study, as well as future weak lensing surveys .

Acknowledgements.  Fabio Giovi would like to thanks Simona Rosati and Viviana Acquaviva for encouragement and support.


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# On the arc filtration for the singularities of Arnold’s lists

## Introduction

Let $`(V,0)`$ be a germ of a complex analytic variety. In  we defined a filtration on the ring $`𝒪_{V,0}`$ of germs of functions on the variety $`(V,0)`$, which we called arc filtration. An arc $`\varphi `$ on $`(V,0)`$ is a germ of a complex analytic mapping $`\varphi :(,0)(V,0)`$. For an arc $`\varphi `$ on $`(V,0)`$ and for a germ $`g𝒪_{V,0}`$ let $`v_\varphi (g)_0`$ be the order of the function $`g\varphi `$ at the origin, i.e., the power of the first non-vanishing term in the power series expansion $`g\varphi (\tau )=a\tau ^{v_\varphi (g)}+\mathrm{}`$ , $`a0`$ (if $`g\varphi 0`$, then $`v_\varphi (g)`$ is assumed to be equal to $`+\mathrm{}`$). Let $`v(g)`$ be the minimum over all arcs $`\varphi `$ on $`(V,0)`$ of the orders $`v_\varphi (g)`$. The arc filtration $`𝒪_{V,0}=F_0F_1F_2\mathrm{}`$ on the ring $`𝒪_{V,0}`$ is the filtration by the ideals $`F_i=\{g𝒪_{V,0}:v(g)i\}`$. Let $`𝔪`$ be the maximal ideal of the ring $`𝒪_{V,0}`$. Obviously $`𝔪^iF_i`$ and therefore the ideals $`F_i`$ have finite codimension in the algebra $`𝒪_{V,0}`$. Let

$$P_{V,0}(t)=\underset{i=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}dim(F_i/F_{i+1})t^i$$

be the Poincaré series of the arc filtration on the ring $`𝒪_{V,0}`$.

In , Poincaré series of the arc filtration on the ring of germs of functions of the rational double points were computed. A rational double point is an isolated surface singularity defined by $`\{f=0\}`$ where $`f`$ is a simple ($`0`$-modular) germ of a function in three variables. For each of these singularities the Poincaré series turns out to coincide with the quasihomogeneous filtration on the ring of functions of another simple surface singularity in $`(^3,0)`$.

In this paper we continue the study of the Poincaré series of the arc filtration of isolated 2-dimensional hypersurface singularities. We compute the Poincaré series $`P_{V,0}(t)`$ for the following surface singularities of V. I. Arnold’s lists : the stabilizations of the curve singularities of multiplicity at most 4 and the singularities of multiplicity 3 with a reduced 3-jet. These singularities include all the uni- and bimodular surface singularities. For the parabolic singularities we have the following table of Poincaré series $`P_{V,0}(t)`$:

| Notation | Equation | $`P_{V,0}(t)`$ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| $`T_{2,3,6}`$ ($`J_{10}`$) | $`x^6+y^3+z^2=0`$ | $`\frac{1t^6}{(1t)(1t^2)(1t^3)}`$ |
| $`T_{2,4,4}`$ ($`X_9`$) | $`x^4+y^4+z^2=0`$ | $`\frac{1t^4}{(1t)^2(1t^2)}`$ |
| $`T_{3,3,3}`$ ($`P_8`$) | $`x^3+y^3+z^3=0`$ | $`\frac{1t^3}{(1t)^3}`$ |

(the notation in brackets is the notation of Arnold .) These Poincaré series coincide with the Poincaré series of the natural quasihomogeneous filtrations on the rings of germs of functions on these singularities. We show that the Poincaré series of the arc filtrations for any uni- or bimodular surface singularity $`(V,0)`$ coincides with one of these series. Moreover, the singularity $`(V,0)`$ can be deformed to at least one parabolic singularity . The Poincaré series $`P_{V,0}(t)`$ of the arc filtration is equal to the corresponding Poincaré series of the parabolic singularity with the minimal Milnor number among those to which $`(V,0)`$ can be deformed. This means that the classification of the unimodular surface singularities by the Poincaré series of their arc filtrations is in accordance with the hierarchy defined by the adjacency relations described by E. Brieskorn .

Besides that we give a general formula for the Poincaré series $`P_{V,0}(t)`$ for an isolated surface singularity $`(V,0)(^3,0)`$ which is the stabilization of a (reduced) plane curve singularity. Moreover, we show that for a hypersurface singularity with a reduced tangent cone the arc filtration coincides with the filtration by powers of the maximal ideal.

## 1 Stabilizations of curve singularities

Since a big part of the singularities from Arnold’s lists are stabilizations of plane curve singularities, we start with a study of this case in general. Let $`(C,0)(^2,0)`$ be a germ of a reduced plane curve given by an equation $`f(x,y)=0`$ with $`f𝒪_{^2,0}`$. The stabilization of the plane curve singularity $`(C,0)`$ is the surface singularity $`(S,0)(^3,0)`$ defined by the equation $`f(x,y)z^2=0`$. The surface $`(S,0)`$ has an isolated singularity at the origin. Let $`\pi :(𝒳,𝒟)(^2,0)`$ be an embedded resolution of the curve singularity $`(C,0)`$. The exceptional divisor $`𝒟=\pi ^1(0)`$ of the resolution $`\pi `$ is the union $`_{i=1}^rE_i`$ of irreducible components $`E_i`$; each of them is a rational curve, i.e., is isomorphic to the projective line $`^1`$. For a germ $`g𝒪_{^2,0}`$, $`g0`$, let $`v_i(g)`$ be the multiplicity of the lifting $`\stackrel{~}{g}=g\pi `$ of the function $`g`$ to the space $`𝒳`$ of the resolution $`\pi `$ along the component $`E_i`$ of the exceptional divisor $`𝒟`$. We shall call $`m_i=v_i(f)`$ the multiplicity of the component $`E_i`$ of the exceptional divisor ($`f`$ is the left hand side of the equation of the curve $`(C,0)`$). Let $`\sigma _i=1`$ (respectively $`\sigma _i=2`$) if the multiplicity $`m_i`$ is even (respectively odd). Suppose that the resolution $`\pi `$ has the property that the strict transform $`\stackrel{~}{C}`$ of the curve $`C`$ intersects the exceptional divisor $`D`$ only at points of the components $`E_i`$ with even multiplicity $`m_i`$. Such a resolution can be obtained from an arbitrary (say, the minimal) one by blowing up intersection points of the strict transform $`\stackrel{~}{C}`$ with the components $`E_i`$ with odd multiplicity $`m_i`$.

The resolution $`\pi `$ defines a multi-index filtration on the ring $`𝒪_{^2,0}`$ of germs of functions of two variables which is called divisorial and which is defined by the valuations $`v_i()`$, i.e., the corresponding ideal $`J(\underset{¯}{v})`$ ($`\underset{¯}{v}=(v_1,\mathrm{},v_r)^r`$) is equal to $`\{g𝒪_{^2,0}:v_i(g)v_i,i=1,\mathrm{},r\}`$. (Pay attention that we defined the ideal $`J(\underset{¯}{v})`$ for all $`\underset{¯}{v}^r`$, not only for those with non-negative components). Let $`P_\pi (t_1,\mathrm{},t_r)`$ be the Poincaré series of this filtration (see, e.g., ). The Poincaré series $`P_\pi (t_1,\mathrm{},t_r)`$ is a power series in $`t_1`$, …, $`t_r`$ defined as

$$\frac{\left(_{\underset{¯}{v}^r}dim\left(J(\underset{¯}{v})/J(\underset{¯}{v}+\underset{¯}{1})\right)\underset{¯}{t}^{\underset{¯}{v}}\right)_{i=1}^r(t_i1)}{t_1\mathrm{}t_r1}.$$

Here $`\underset{¯}{t}^{\underset{¯}{v}}=t_1^{v_1}\mathrm{}t_r^{v_r}`$, $`\underset{¯}{1}=(1,\mathrm{},1)^r`$, $`_{\underset{¯}{v}^r}dim\left(J(\underset{¯}{v})/J(\underset{¯}{v}+\underset{¯}{1})\right)\underset{¯}{t}^{\underset{¯}{v}}`$ is a formal Laurent series in the variables $`t_1`$, …, $`t_r`$ infinite in all directions for $`r2`$ (for $`r=1`$ it is a power series).

For a component $`E_i`$ of the exceptional divisor $`𝒟`$ of the resolution $`\pi `$, let $`\stackrel{}{E}_i`$ be its ”smooth part”, i.e., $`E_i`$ without the intersection points with other components of the exceptional divisor $`𝒟`$, let $`\stackrel{~}{L}_i`$ be a germ of a non-singular curve transverse to the component $`E_i`$ at a smooth point, i.e., at a point of $`\stackrel{}{E}_i`$. Let the blow-down $`L_i=\pi (\stackrel{~}{L}_i)`$ of the curve $`\stackrel{~}{L}_i`$ be given by an equation $`g_i=0`$, $`g_i𝒪_{^2,0}`$, and let $`m_{ij}:=v_j(g_i)`$. The matrix $`(m_{ij})`$ is symmetric and is the inverse to minus the matrix of intersections of the components $`E_i`$. Let $`\underset{¯}{m}_i:=(m_{i1},\mathrm{},m_{ir})`$. In  it was shown that

$$P_\pi (t_1,\mathrm{},t_r)=\underset{i=1}{\overset{r}{}}(1\underset{¯}{t}^{\underset{¯}{m}_i})^{\chi (\stackrel{}{E}_i)},$$

where $`\chi (A)`$ is the Euler characteristic of a space $`A`$.

For a power series $`P(t_1,\mathrm{},t_r)`$, the reduction $`\overline{P}(t)`$ of this series is the series in one variable $`t`$ obtained from $`P`$ by substituting each monomial $`\underset{¯}{t}^{\underset{¯}{k}}`$, $`\underset{¯}{k}=(k_1,\mathrm{},k_r)_0^r`$, by the monomial $`t^k`$ with $`k=\underset{1ir}{\mathrm{min}}k_i`$ . For example, for $`P(t_1,t_2)=1+t_1t_2^2+t_1^2t_2+t_1^2t_2^2`$, one has $`\overline{P}(t)=1+2t+t^2`$.

###### Theorem 1

The Poincaré series $`P_{S,0}(t)`$ of the arc filtration of the stabilization $`(S,0)`$ of the curve $`(C,0)`$ is equal to the reduction $`\overline{Q}(t)`$ of the series

$$Q(t_1,\mathrm{},t_r)=(1+t_1^{\sigma _1m_1/2}\mathrm{}t_r^{\sigma _rm_r/2})P_\pi (t_1^{\sigma _1},\mathrm{},t_r^{\sigma _r}).$$

Remarks. 1. In , there is given a somewhat similar formula for the Poincaré series $`P_{V,0}(t)`$ for an arbitrary irreducible isolated singularity $`(V,0)`$ in terms of its resolution. However, for an arbitrary singularity (in contrast to a plane curve one) sometimes it is difficult to construct a resolution and, moreover, no general formula for the Poincaré series of the corresponding set of divisorial valuations is known.
2. Though the series $`Q(t_1,\mathrm{},t_r)`$ depends on $`r`$ variables, $`r`$ being the number of irreducible components of the exceptional divisor $`𝒟`$, the minimal exponents usually can be met only at variables corresponding to a few first components of the exceptional divisor (in the sense of the order of there appearance in the process of resolution by blow-ups). Often this reduces the calculations considerably.

Example. The rational double point $`D_4`$ is the stabilization of the curve singularity $`x^3+y^3=0`$. This curve is resolved after blowing up once. However, the exceptional divisor has odd multiplicity (equal to 3). Therefore, to get a suitable resolution, one has to blow up the 3 intersection points of the strict transform of the curve with the exceptional divisor. This leads to the resolution with the exceptional divisor consisting of 4 components with the intersection matrix

$$\left(\begin{array}{cccc}4& 1& 1& 1\\ 1& 1& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 1& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right).$$

Therefore

$$(m_{ij})=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}1& 1& 1& 1\\ 1& 2& 1& 1\\ 1& 1& 2& 1\\ 1& 1& 1& 2\end{array}\right)$$

and hence

$$P_\pi (t_1,t_2,t_3,t_4)=\frac{1t_1t_2t_3t_4}{(1t_1t_2^2t_3t_4)(1t_1t_2t_3^2t_4)(1t_1t_2t_3t_4^2)}.$$

Theorem 1 implies that the Poincaré series of the arc filtration is the reduction $`\overline{Q}(t)`$ of the series

$$(1+t_1^3t_2^2t_3^2t_4^2)\frac{1t_1^2t_2t_3t_4}{(1t_1^2t_2^2t_3t_4)(1t_1^2t_2t_3^2t_4)(1t_1^2t_2t_3t_4^2)}$$

which is equal to

$$\frac{1t^3}{(1t)^2(1t^2)}.$$

In  this result was obtained using a general description of the Poincaré series in several variables for rational surface singularities from .

The ring $`𝒪_{S,0}`$ of germs of functions on the stabilization $`(S,0)`$ is a free $`𝒪_{^2,0}`$–module of rank 2. Moreover each germ $`H𝒪_{S,0}`$ can in a unique way be written in the form $`H=h_1+zh_2`$ with $`h_i𝒪_{^2,0}`$, $`i=1,2`$. Thus one can identify $`𝒪_{S,0}`$ with $`𝒪_{^2,0}z𝒪_{^2,0}`$. The arc filtration on the ring $`𝒪_{S,0}`$ defines corresponding filtrations on the summands $`𝒪_{^2,0}`$ and $`z𝒪_{^2,0}`$.

###### Lemma 1

One has $`v(H)=\mathrm{min}(v(h_1),v(zh_2))`$. Therefore the Poincaré series $`P_{S,0}(t)`$ is the sum of the respective Poincaré series of these filtrations on $`𝒪_{^2,0}`$ and $`z𝒪_{^2,0}`$.

Proof. Obviously $`v(H)\mathrm{min}(v(h_1),v(zh_2))`$. Suppose that $`v(H)>v:=\mathrm{min}(v(h_1),v(zh_2))`$. This implies that there exists an arc $`\psi :(,0)(S,0)`$ on $`S`$ such that $`h_1\psi (\tau )=a\tau ^v+\mathrm{}`$, $`(zh_2)\psi (\tau )=a\tau ^v+\mathrm{}`$, $`a0`$. Consider the arc $`\psi ^{}`$ defined by $`\psi ^{}(\tau )=\iota \psi (\tau )`$ where $`\iota `$ is the natural involution on the surface $`S`$: $`(x,y,z)(x,y,z)`$. Then $`v_\psi ^{}(H)=v`$, a contradiction. The statement about the Poincaré series follows from the fact that $`\{H𝒪_{S,0}:v(H)i\}=\{h_1𝒪_{^2,0}:v(h_1)i\}\{h_2𝒪_{^2,0}:v(zh_2)i\}`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

For $`h𝒪_{^2,0}`$, let $`\stackrel{~}{v}_i(h):=\sigma _iv_i(h)`$. The functions $`\stackrel{~}{v}_i()`$ are not valuations (they do not respect the multiplication), however, they define a multi-index filtration on the space $`𝒪_{^2,0}`$ as well: $`\stackrel{~}{J}(\underset{¯}{v})=\{h𝒪_{^2,0}:\stackrel{~}{v}_i(h)v_i,i=1,\mathrm{},r\}`$ for $`\underset{¯}{v}^r`$.

Let $`\stackrel{~}{v}_i(zh):=\sigma _i(v_i(h)+(m_i/2))`$. Here, with some abuse of notation, one can say that $`v_i(h)+(m_i/2)`$ is the order along the component $`E_i`$ of the lifting to the space of the resolution of the function $`\sqrt{f}h`$. Then the functions $`\stackrel{~}{v}_i`$ define a multi-index filtration on the space $`z𝒪_{^2,0}`$ as well.

###### Lemma 2

One has

$$v(h)=\underset{1ir}{\mathrm{min}}\stackrel{~}{v}_i(h),v(zh)=\underset{1ir}{\mathrm{min}}\stackrel{~}{v}_i(zh).$$

Proof. Under the projection $`(x,y,z)(x,y)`$, an arc on the surface $`(S,0)`$ is mapped to a plane arc. Moreover, each arc in $`(^2,0)`$ is the projection of one or two geometrically different arcs on the surface $`(S,0)`$. The number of arcs on $`(S,0)`$ which are mapped to the same plane arc $`\varphi :(,0)(^2,0)`$ depends on the order $`v_\varphi (f)`$ of the function $`f`$ on the arc $`\varphi `$ and is equal to 1 or 2 if this order is odd or even (and finite) respectively. Moreover, in the first case the arc on $`(S,0)`$ is a two-fold covering of its projection, in the second case the projection defines an isomorphism between the curve in the plane and each of its preimages. If the order $`v_\varphi (f)`$ is infinite, i.e., if the arc $`\varphi `$ lies in the curve $`C=\{f=0\}`$, the arc $`\varphi `$ has one preimage isomorphic to it.

Let us prove the first statement of the lemma. Let $`\stackrel{~}{S}𝒳\times `$ be defined by the equation $`\stackrel{~}{f}z^2=0`$ where $`\stackrel{~}{f}=f\pi `$ is the lifting of the function $`f`$ to the space $`𝒳`$ of the resolution. The surface $`\stackrel{~}{S}`$ is a modification of the surface $`S`$. Arcs on $`S`$ arriving at the origin are in one-to-one correspondence with arcs on $`\stackrel{~}{S}`$ arriving at the exceptional divisor $`𝒟\times \{0\}`$. If we take an arc on $`𝒳`$ which intersects the exceptional divisor $`𝒟`$ at a generic point of the component $`E_i`$ then the order of the function $`\stackrel{~}{h}`$ along a preimage of this arc in $`\stackrel{~}{S}`$ is just equal to $`\stackrel{~}{v}_i(h)`$. (Note that here we use the fact that the strict transform of the curve $`\{f=0\}`$ intersects only the components $`E_i`$ of the exceptional divisor $`𝒟`$ with even multiplicity $`m_i`$.) Therefore $`v(h)\mathrm{min}_{1ir}\stackrel{~}{v}_i(h)`$.

Let us prove the opposite inequality. Suppose that an arc $`\varphi `$ on $`𝒳`$ intersects the exceptional divisor $`𝒟`$ at a point of $`\underset{i}{\overset{}{E}}`$ with multiplicity $`\mu _i2`$. If both $`\mu _i`$ and $`m_i`$ are odd then the order of the function $`\stackrel{~}{h}`$ along a preimage of the arc $`\varphi `$ in $`\stackrel{~}{S}`$ is greater than or equal to $`2\mu _iv_i(h)`$ (since the preimage is a two-fold covering of the arc $`\varphi `$). If at least one of the numbers $`\mu _i`$ and $`m_i`$ is even then this order is greater than or equal to $`\mu _iv_i(h)`$. In any case it is not less than $`\stackrel{~}{v}_i(h)`$.

Suppose that an arc $`\varphi `$ on $`𝒳`$ intersects the exceptional divisor $`𝒟`$ at the intersection point of two divisors $`E_i`$ and $`E_j`$. After several additional blow-ups of the intersection points of the components of the exceptional divisor, the strict transform of the arc $`\varphi `$ will intersect a new component at a smooth point. Therefore it is sufficient to prove that an additional blow-up of the intersection points of two components (say, $`E_i`$ and $`E_j`$) does not change the number $`\mathrm{min}_{\{i\}}\stackrel{~}{v}_i(h)`$. Let the new component created by blowing up be $`E_\alpha `$. Then $`v_\alpha (h)v_i(h)+v_j(h)`$, $`m_\alpha =m_i+m_j`$. It is not difficult to show that $`\stackrel{~}{v}_\alpha (h)\mathrm{min}\{\stackrel{~}{v}_i(h),\stackrel{~}{v}_j(h)\}`$ (this can be verified, e.g., considering three cases: 1) both $`m_i`$ and $`m_j`$ are even; 2) both $`m_i`$ and $`m_j`$ are odd; 3) $`m_i`$ is even, $`m_j`$ is odd). This implies the statement.

The proof of the other statement is analogous. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Lemma 3

The Poincaré series of the multi-index filtration on $`𝒪_{^2,0}`$ (respectively on $`z𝒪_{^2,0}`$) defined by the functions $`\stackrel{~}{v}_i()`$ is equal to $`P_\pi (t_1^{\sigma _1},\mathrm{},t_r^{\sigma _r})`$ (respectively to $`t_1^{\sigma _1m_1/2}\mathrm{}t_r^{\sigma _rm_r/2}P_\pi (t_1^{\sigma _1},\mathrm{},t_r^{\sigma _r})`$.)

Proof. A convenient way to see this is to write these Poincaré series as integrals with respect to the Euler characteristic (see, e.g., ). For example, the Poincaré series of the multi-index filtration defined by the functions $`\stackrel{~}{v}_i()`$ on the space $`z𝒪_{^2,0}`$ is equal to

$$_{𝒪_{^2,0}}t_1^{\stackrel{~}{v}_1(zh)}\mathrm{}t_r^{\stackrel{~}{v}_r(zh)}𝑑\chi .$$

Comparison of these integrals gives the statement. $`\mathrm{}`$

Proof of Theorem 1. The Poincaré series of the one-index filtration defined by the function $`\mathrm{min}_{1ir}\stackrel{~}{v}_i()`$ is the reduction of the (multi-variable) Poincaré series of the multi-index filtration defined by the functions $`\stackrel{~}{v}_i()`$. (This can be derived using the same arguments as in \[5, Proposition 2\].) Now the statement follows from Lemmas 1–3. $`\mathrm{}`$

As a corollary of Theorem 1 one has the following statement. For a germ $`f𝒪_{^2,0}`$ let $`m(f)`$ be its multiplicity, i.e., $`f𝔪^{m(f)}𝔪^{m(f)+1}`$. Suppose that an irreducible curve is tangent to a smooth one. In local coordinates $`(u,v)`$ with the $`u`$-axis representing the smooth curve the first one can be given by an equation $`v=p(u)`$ where $`p(u)`$ is a Puiseux series. We call the first non-trivial exponent of this series the order of contact between the curves.

###### Corollary 1

(i) If $`m(f)`$ is even then

$$P_{S,0}(t)=\frac{1t^m}{(1t^{m/2})(1t)^2}.$$

(ii) Let $`m(f)`$ be odd and let all components of the curve $`C`$ be tangent to the same smooth curve with order of contact at least 2. Then

$$P_{S,0}(t)=\frac{1t^{2m}}{(1t^m)(1t^2)(1t)}.$$

Proof. Let us number the components of the exceptional divisor in the order of their appearance in the process of the resolution by blow-ups. If $`m(f)`$ is even the statement follows from the fact that $`m_1=m(f)`$, $`\sigma _1=1`$, and for any $`i,j`$ one has $`m_{i1}=1m_{ij}`$. If $`m(f)`$ is odd then $`m_1=m(f)`$, $`m_2=2m(f)`$, $`m_{i1}=1`$, $`m_{i2}=2`$ for $`i2`$ and $`m_{ij}m_{i2}`$ for $`j2`$. This implies the statement. $`\mathrm{}`$

## 2 Singularities with a reduced tangent cone

Let a hypersurface singularity $`(V,0)(^{n+1},0)`$ be given by an equation $`f=0`$ with $`f=f_d+f_{d+1}+\mathrm{}`$ where $`f_d`$ is the homogeneous part of $`f`$ of degree $`d`$, $`f_d0`$. The tangent cone to the singularity $`(V,0)`$ is given by the equation $`f_d=0`$.

###### Theorem 2

If the tangent cone is reduced then the arc filtration on the ring $`𝒪_{V,0}`$ coincides with the filtration by powers of the maximal ideal. Therefore

$$P_{V,0}(t)=\frac{1t^d}{(1t)^{n+1}}.$$

Proof. Obviously $`𝔪^iF_i`$. To prove that $`𝔪^i=F_i`$ we shall show that for $`h𝔪^i𝔪^{i+1}`$ we have $`v(h)=i`$. This follows from the fact that there are many smooth arcs on the hypersurface $`V`$. The fact that $`h𝔪^i𝔪^{i+1}`$ means that a representative of $`h`$ in $`𝒪_{^{n+1},0}`$ (which we also denote by $`h`$) can be chosen of the form $`h=h_i+h_{i+1}+\mathrm{}`$ where the homogeneous part $`h_i`$ of degree $`i`$ is not divisible by $`f_d`$. Therefore there is a regular point $`p`$ in the hypersurface $`\{f_d=0\}^n`$ such that $`h_i(p)0`$. After blowing up the origin in $`^{n+1}`$, the strict transform $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ of the hypersurface $`V`$ is non-singular at the point $`p`$ of the exceptional divisor $`^n`$ and intersects $`^n`$ at this point transversely. An arc in the strict transform $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ transverse to $`^n`$ blows down to a smooth arc along which the order of the function $`h`$ is equal to $`i`$. Therefore $`v(h)i`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

Examples. 1. In particular, Theorem 2 implies the following statement: if a hypersurface singularity $`(V,0)`$ is the double suspension of a hypersurface singularity $`\{f=0\}^n`$ with $`f𝔪^2`$ (i.e., it is the hypersurface singularity in $`^{n+2}`$ defined by the equation $`f(z_1,\mathrm{},z_n)+x^2+y^2=0`$) then

$$P_{V,0}(t)=\frac{1t^2}{(1t)^{n+2}}\text{[5, Proposition 2]}.$$

2. If $`f(x,y,z)=xyz+termsofhigherdegree`$ then, for the surface singularity $`V=\{f=0\}`$, one has

$$P_{V,0}(t)=\frac{1t^3}{(1t)^3}.$$

## 3 Singularities of Arnold’s lists

###### Theorem 3

The Poincaré series $`P_{V,0}(t)`$ of the arc filtration are given by the following list:

(i) For the stabilizations of the curve singularities with non-zero 3-jet except the simple ones, i.e., $`J_{k,i}`$ ($`i0`$), $`E_{6k}`$, $`E_{6k+1}`$, and $`E_{6k+2}`$ (in all cases $`k2`$), we have

$$P_{V,0}(t)=\frac{1t^6}{(1t)(1t^2)(1t^3)}.$$

(ii) For the stabilizations of the curve singularities with zero 3-jet and non-zero 4-jet, i.e., for those of classes $`𝐗`$, $`𝐘`$, $`𝐙`$, and $`𝐖`$, we have

$$P_{V,0}(t)=\frac{1t^4}{(1t)^2(1t^2)}.$$

(iii) For the singularities of multiplicity 3 with a reduced 3-jet, i.e., for those of the series $`𝐐`$, $`𝐒`$, and $`𝐔`$, we have

$$P_{V,0}(t)=\frac{1t^3}{(1t)^3}.$$

Proof. Statement (i) is a particular case of Corollary 1 with $`m=3`$. Statement (ii) is a particular case of this corollary with $`m=4`$. Finally, (iii) is a particular case of Theorem 2. $`\mathrm{}`$

Universität Hannover, Institut für Mathematik
Postfach 6009, D-30060 Hannover, Germany
E-mail: ebeling@math.uni-hannover.de

Moscow State University, Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics
Moscow, 119992, Russia
E-mail: sabir@mccme.ru


text:
# Mean-field dynamo action in protoneutron stars

## 1 Introduction

The origin of the strong magnetic fields in neutron stars is still a matter of controversy. The magnetic fields inferred from the pulsar spin-down data ranges from $`5\times 10^{13}`$ to $`10^8`$G but these values are representative of the global magnetic configuration rather than of the fine magnetic structure near the stellar surface. X-ray spectra of some pulsars have recently started to provide a closer look at the magnetic field strength near the neutron star surface and the absorption features in the spectrum of 1E 1207.4-5209, for instance, have been used to estimate a strong surface magnetic field, $`B_s1.5\times 10^{14}`$G (Sanwal et al. 2002). This is to be contrasted with the dipolar magnetic field estimated from the spin-down rate of this pulsar: $`B_d(24)\times 10^{12}`$G (Pavlov et al. 2002), a value rather typical for a radio pulsar of $`0.21.6`$ Myr. As another example, Becker et al. (2002) have reported the presence of an emission line in the X-ray spectrum of PSR B1821-24 that could be interpreted as cyclotron emission from a corona above the pulsar’s polar cap. The line would be formed in a magnetic field $`B_s3\times 10^{11}`$G, approximately two orders of magnitude stronger than the dipolar magnetic field inferred from the spin evolution. Both measurements provide evidence that the local magnetic fields at the neutron star surface can be well above the dipolar one responsible for the secular spin-down of pulsars.

Observations of radio emitting pulsars also exhibit a distinction between the dipole and surface magnetic fields. Recently, Gil & Mitra (2001) and Gil & Melikidze (2002) have argued that the formation of a vacuum gap in radio pulsars is possible if the actual surface magnetic field near the polar cap is very strong, $`B_s10^{13}`$G, irrespective of the magnetic field measured from the spin evolution. Furthermore, the presence of a strong magnetic field with a small curvature ($`<10^6`$ cm) can account for the radio emission of many radiopulsars that lie in the pulsar graveyard and should be radio silent (Gil & Mitra 2001). This growing number of evidences for a complex structure of the magnetic field at the surface of neutron stars suggests that this may represent a general property of pulsars.

Magnetic fields with different strengths on different length-scales can be explained naturally if they are generated through a dynamo mechanism driven by turbulent motions. Indeed, it is generally accepted that protoneutron stars (PNSs) are subject, shortly after their birth, to hydrodynamic instabilities involving convective motions (Epstein 1979, Livio et al. 1980, Burrows & Lattimer 1986) and that these can last $`3040`$ s (Miralles et al. 2000, 2002). We here show that, under suitable conditions, turbulent motions can generate magnetic field via dynamo action and that a mean-field dynamo can be operative together with small-scale dynamo processes (Thompson & Duncan 1993; Xu & Busse 2001).

## 2 Convection in PNSs

Hydrodynamic instabilities in PNSs can be driven by either lepton gradients (Epstein 1979) leading to the so-called “neutron-finger instability” (Bruenn & Dineva 1996), or by negative entropy gradients which commonly observed in simulations of supernova explosions (Bruenn & Mezzacappa 1994, 1995; Rampp & Janka 2000) and evolutionary models of PNSs (Keil & Janka 1995; Keil et al. 1996; Pons et al. 1999). This latter instability is usually referred to as the “convective instability”, although both instabilities involve convective motions.

It has been calculated that these instabilities will first develop in the outer layers containing $`30\%`$ of the stellar mass, with the convectively unstable region surrounded by the neutron-finger unstable region, the latter involving therefore a larger portion of the stellar material. After a few seconds the two unstable regions move towards the inner parts of the star and after $`10`$ s from the initial development, more than $`90\%`$ in mass of the star is hydrodynamically unstable. At this stage the stellar core has become convectively unstable but it is still surrounded by an extended neutron-finger unstable region. In the $`20`$ s that follow, the temperature and lepton gradients are progressively reduced and the two unstable regions begin to shrink, leaving the outer regions of the star. After $`30`$ s, most of the PNS is stable and the instabilities disappear completely after $`40`$ s (Miralles et al. 2000).

During this period the PNS is opaque to neutrinos and the turbulent mean velocity can be estimated within the mixing-length approximation. The largest unstable length-scale is then of the order of the pressure length-scale, $`Lp|dp/dr|^1`$, and the effective flow velocity in this scale, $`v__L`$, can be estimated as $`v__LL/\tau __L`$, where $`\tau __L`$ is the growth-time of instability which is of the order of the turnover time in the scale $`L`$ (Schwarzschild 1958). In some cases, $`v__L`$ can be computed by equating $`\rho v__L^3`$, with $`\rho `$ the rest-mass density, to the total neutrino energy flux (Thompson & Duncan 1993). While the two approaches yield similar results at the peak of the convective instability, the first one is expected to be more accurate especially when not all of the energy is transported by turbulence (e.g. when the instability is not fully developed), when the temperature gradient is not significantly super-adiabatic, or when the lepton gradient is small.

In the convectively unstable region, the growth-time of instability is

$$\frac{1}{\tau __L^2}\frac{1}{\tau _c^2}\frac{1}{3}g\beta \frac{|\mathrm{\Delta }T|}{T},$$
(1)
where $`\tau _c`$ is the growth-time of convection, $`g`$ is the gravitational acceleration, $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ is the difference between the actual and the adiabatic temperature gradient, and $`\beta `$ is the coefficient of thermal expansion. Except during the last stages of the unstable phase, when the entropy gradients have been washed out, the convective instability grows on a short dynamical timescale. Miralles et al. (2000), have estimated this to be $`\tau _c0.11`$ ms, from which we derive the a mean turbulent velocity in the convectively unstable region $`v__L10^810^9`$ cm s-1.

In the neutron-finger unstable region, on the other hand, the lepton number gradients dominate over the temperature gradients and we can estimate the growth-time as

$$\frac{1}{\tau __L^2}\frac{1}{\tau _{nf}^2}\frac{1}{3}g\delta |Y|,$$
(2)
where $`\delta `$ is the coefficient of chemical expansion, and $`Y=(n_e+n_\nu )/n`$ is the lepton fraction with $`n_e`$, $`n_\nu `$, and $`n`$ being the number density of electrons, neutrinos, and baryons, respectively. The estimated growth-time in the neutron-finger unstable region is a couple of orders of magnitude longer than the one for the convective instability, i.e. $`\tau _{nf}30100`$ ms (Miralles et al. 2000), thus yielding a mean turbulent velocity $`v__L(13)\times 10^6`$ cm s-1.

The existence of two unstable regions with substantially different mean velocities is the most significant difference with the model by Thompson & Duncan (1993) in which the whole PNS was assumed to be convectively unstable with turbulent velocity $`v__L10^8`$ cm s-1. Furthermore, a longer growth-time (and hence turnover time) is what promotes the efficiency of the mean-field dynamo in the neutron-finger unstable region. We recall, in fact, that PNSs are likely to rotate and although the initial spin rates of pulsars are not well constrained by observations, they are believed to be around $`100`$ ms (Narayan 1987). As a result, the Rossby number, $`Ro=P/\tau __L`$, with $`P`$ being the PNS spin period, can take substantially different values in the two unstable regions. In particular, $`Ro100`$ in the convectively unstable region and the influence of rotation on the turbulence is therefore weak. As a consequence, and as already pointed out by Thompson & Duncan (1993), the mean-field dynamo will not operate efficiently here. In the more external regions unstable to neutron-fingers, on the other hand, $`Ro1`$, turbulence can be strongly modified by rotation and this favours the efficiency of a mean-field dynamo. Of course, in both regions turbulent magnetic fields can also be generated by small-scale dynamo driven by turbulent motions.

To investigate more quantitatively the efficiency of a mean-field dynamo action, we have modelled the PNS as a sphere of radius $`R`$ having two spherical turbulent zones with substantially different properties and separated at $`R_c`$. The inner parts ($`r<R_c`$) correspond to the convectively unstable region, while the outer ones ($`R_c<r<R`$) to the neutron-finger unstable region. The boundary between the two regions moves inward on a timescale comparable to the cooling timescale (i.e. $`110`$ s), much longer than the turnover time for both instabilities. Hence $`R_c`$ is a slowly varying variable and it is sufficient to consider a sequence of PNS models differing only for $`R_c`$.

## 3 Dynamo action in PNSs

Numerical simulations indicate that the turbulence in PNSs will be non-stationary, developing rapidly soon after the collapse, reaching a quasi-stationary regime after a few seconds, and then progressively disappearing as the temperature and lepton gradients are removed. Because the characteristic cooling timescale for the PNS exceeds both $`\tau _{nf}`$ and $`\tau _c`$, the turbulence can be treated adiabatically (this assumption will cease to be accurate as the instabilities are progressively suppressed). In this case, the mean-field induction equation for a turbulent, magnetised and conducting plasma can be written as

$$\frac{B}{t}=\times (v\times B+\alpha B)\times (\eta \times B),$$
(3)
where $`\eta `$ is the turbulent magnetic diffusivity, $`\alpha `$ is a pseudo-scalar measuring the efficiency of the dynamo (the “$`\alpha `$-parameter”). Here, $`v`$ is the velocity the ordered fluid motion, which we assume to follow a simple law, $`v=\mathrm{\Omega }\times r`$, but allow for the differential rotation often observed in numerical simulations (Zwerger & Müller 1997; Rampp et al. 1998; Dimmelmeier et al. 2001). As customary in dynamo theory, we express this differential rotation in terms of the radial coordinate $`r`$ and through a simple quadratic law, i.e.

$$\mathrm{\Omega }(r)=\mathrm{\Omega }__0+r^2\mathrm{\Omega }__1,$$
(4)
where the coefficients $`\mathrm{\Omega }__0\mathrm{\Omega }(r=0)>0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }__1`$ are not necessarily chosen so as to satisfy the Rayleigh stability criterion. Boundary conditions for the magnetic field need to be specified at the stellar surface, where we impose vacuum boundary conditions, and at the centre of the star, where we impose the vanishing of the toroidal magnetic field.

As discussed in Section 2, all of the PNS undergoes turbulent motions but with properties that are different in the inner parts ($`0rR_c`$), where fast convection operates, from those in the outer parts ($`R_crR`$), where the neutron-finger instability operates. To model this in a simple way, we assume the relevant physical properties of the two regions to vary in a smooth way mostly across a thin layer of thickness $`\mathrm{\Delta }R=0.025R`$. More precisely, we express $`\eta `$ as

$$\eta =\eta _c+(\eta _{nf}\eta _c)\left\{1+erf[(rR_c)/\mathrm{\Delta }R]\right\}/2,$$
(5)
where $`\eta _c`$ and $`\eta _{nf}`$ are respectively the turbulent magnetic diffusivities caused by the convective and neutron-fingers instabilities, and erf is the “error function”. Using (5), $`\eta \eta _c`$ in the convectively unstable zone ($`R_cr\mathrm{\Delta }R`$), while $`\eta \eta _{nf}`$ in the neutron-finger unstable zone ($`rR_c\mathrm{\Delta }R`$). Furthermore, because in typical PNSs $`\eta _{nf}\eta _c`$, we have here chosen $`\eta _{nf}/\eta _c=0.1`$. Similarly, we have modelled the $`\alpha `$-parameter as being negligibly small in the convectively unstable region and equal to $`\alpha _{nf}`$ in the neutron-finger unstable region, i.e.

$$\alpha (r,\theta )=\alpha _{nf}\mathrm{cos}\theta \left\{1+erf[(rR_c)/\mathrm{\Delta }R]\right\}/2,$$
(6)
where the angular dependence chosen in (6) is the simplest guaranteeing antisymmetry across the equator.

We recall that in a rotating turbulence with lengthscale $`\mathrm{}`$ and moderate Rossby number, $`\alpha \mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{}^2\mathrm{ln}(\rho v__L^2)`$ (Rüdiger & Kitchatinov 1993). In PNSs, however, the pressure is determined by degenerate neutrons and can, in a first approximation, be expressed with a simple relation of the type $`p\rho ^\gamma `$, where $`\gamma =5/3`$ for a non-relativistic neutron gas and $`\gamma =4/3`$ for a relativistic one. As a result, the density lengthscale is comparable to the pressure one $`L`$ and, as mentioned in Section 2, to the lengthscale of the instabilities. This introduces a great simplification since we can express the isotropic turbulence in the neutron-finger unstable zone simply as $`\alpha _{nf}\mathrm{\Omega }L`$.

## 4 Numerical results

The induction equation (3) with $`\eta `$ and $`\alpha `$ given by (5) and (6) has been solved with a numerical code employing finite-difference techniques for the radial dependence and a polynomial expansion for the angular dependence (see Bonanno et al. 2002 for details). The simulations reported here use 30 spherical harmonics and about 40 grid points in the radial direction; details on the numerical procedure will appear elsewhere.

Assuming $`v__LL/3=10^{11}`$ cm2 s-1 and progressively varying the velocity field (4) in terms of the differential rotation parameter $`qR^2\mathrm{\Omega }__1/\mathrm{\Omega }(r=R)`$, we have solved equation (3) to determine the critical value $`\alpha __0`$ corresponding to the marginal stability of the dynamo. Given a certain amount of differential rotation, in fact, the seed magnetic field will grow if $`\alpha _{nf}>\alpha __0`$ and instead decay if $`\alpha _{nf}<\alpha __0`$. The different types of dynamo can be distinguished according to whether the differential rotation is small and the evolution of the magnetic field stationary (i.e. a $`\alpha ^2`$-dynamo), or viceversa (i.e. a $`\alpha \mathrm{\Omega }`$-dynamo).

Since $`\alpha _{nf}\mathrm{\Omega }L`$, the critical value $`\alpha _0`$ effectively selects a critical value for the spin period, $`P__02\pi L/\alpha _0`$, such that magnetic field generation via a mean-field dynamo action will possible only if the stellar spin period is shorter than the critical one. In Fig. 1, we plot the critical period as a function of the differential rotation parameter $`q`$. Note that $`q<0`$ and $`q>0`$ correspond to situations in which the stellar surface rotates faster and slower than the centre, respectively (values $`q<1`$ correspond to a counter-rotation and may be not physically relevant).

As shown in Fig. 1, a stationary $`\alpha ^2`$-dynamo dominates the magnetic field generation process for $`|q|<1`$, while a $`\alpha \mathrm{\Omega }`$-dynamo is more efficient for $`|q|>1`$. This latter case will be characterised by a magnetic field of oscillating strength but, given the large differential rotation required, it may be difficult to achieve in practice. Hence, the $`\alpha ^2`$-dynamo appears to be the most likely source of magnetic field generation via dynamo processes in PNSs.

The critical spin found here is in general rather long and for a PNS rotating uniformly (i.e. $`q=0`$), a mean-field dynamo will develop if $`P1`$ s when $`R_c/R=0.6`$ and if $`P1.5`$ s when $`R_c/R=0.3`$. This difference is due to the fact that a PNS with a more extended neutron-finger unstable region can rotate proportionally more slowly while maintaining the same dynamo action. Furthermore, if the star rotates differentially with $`|q|1`$, $`P__0`$ is further reduced, being approximately 20% shorter. As a result, only PNSs with $`P11.5`$ s will not develop a turbulent mean-field dynamo. Such slow rotation rates should be rather difficult to achieve if angular momentum is conserved during the collapse to a PNS and, indeed, observations suggest that the initial periods of pulsars are considerably shorter than the critical period $`P__0`$ obtained here. We expect, therefore, that a turbulent mean-field dynamo will be effective during the initial stages of the life of most PNSs.

In Fig. 2 we show the toroidal ($`B_\varphi `$) and poloidal ($`B_p`$) magnetic fields of a typical PNS model. Note that both components are generated in the outer neutron-finger unstable region, but turbulent diffusion produces a magnetic field also in the inner convectively unstable region, although this is considerably weaker. The toroidal magnetic field tends to concentrate near the polar regions whereas the poloidal one is more evenly distributed in latitude. The numerical calculations also show that if $`|q|<1`$ and the field is generated by the $`\alpha ^2`$-dynamo then $`B_\varphi /B_p10`$, while $`B_\varphi /B_p100200`$ if $`|q|>1`$ and the $`\alpha \mathrm{\Omega }`$-dynamo generates the magnetic field. Both results suggest that the internal magnetic fields in neutron stars could be substantially stronger than the observable surface ones.

## 5 Conclusions

We have calculated the turbulent mean-field dynamo during the turbulent instabilities that are expected to accompany the early stages of the life of a PNS. For $`3040`$ s, in fact, the PNS is subject to two substantially different instabilities, with a convective instability active in the inner regions of the star and a neutron-finger instability being more efficient in the outer regions. The turbulent motions are more rapid in the convectively unstable zone, where the Rossby number is large and the $`\alpha `$-parameter is likely not to be significant. In the neutron-finger unstable region, on the other hand, the turnover time is considerably longer, the Rossby number small, and the $`\alpha `$-parameter is sufficiently large that a mean-field dynamo can operate.

The occurrence of a dynamo depends sensitively on the stellar rotation rate since this can influence the turbulent motions if sufficiently high. Our simulations show that even relatively slowly rotating PNSs can be subject to a dynamo action in the neutron-finger unstable region, with the $`\alpha ^2`$-dynamo being the most efficient mechanism. The critical value of the spin period below which the dynamo is suppressed has been found to be $`P__01`$ s for a wide range of models and is essentially larger than the characteristic spin period of young pulsars as inferred from observations. As a result, a turbulent mean-field dynamo can be effective in the early stages of the life of most PNSs. The magnetic field produced in this way is concentrated mostly where the generation occurs, but turbulent diffusivity transports part of it also in the inner regions of the star.

We have here considered the generation of axisymmetric magnetic fields, but the $`\alpha ^2`$-dynamo could also lead to the generation of non-axisymmetric magnetic fields, with the critical spin period being not very different from the one discussed in the axisymmetric case (Rüdiger et al. 2003). The generation of non-axisymmetric magnetic fields and the effect of saturation will be considered in a forthcoming paper.

We note that the production of the mean magnetic field by a turbulent dynamo is accompanied by the generation of small-scale magnetic fields which are likely to be stronger than the mean one and that have not been considered here. However, nonlinear effects associated to these small-scale fields can influence the dynamo and need to be taken properly into account.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank the referee, A. Brandenburg, for his useful comments. Financial support has been provided by the MIUR and the EU Network Program (HPRN-CT-2000-00137). LR acknowledges hospitality at the KITP in Santa Barbara (NSF grant PHY99-07949). VU thanks INFN (Catania) for hospitality and support.


text:
# Vortex Lattice in Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ Well Above the First-Order Phase-Transition Boundary

## Abstract

Measurements of non-local in-plane resistance originating from transverse vortex-vortex correlations have been performed on a Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ high-Tc superconductor in a magnetic field up to 9 T applied along the crystal c-axis. Our results demonstrate that a rigid vortex lattice does exist over a broad portion of the magnetic field – temperature (H-T) phase diagram, well above the first-order transition boundary HFOT(T). The results also provide evidence for the vortex lattice melting and vortex liquid decoupling phase transitions, occurring above the HFOT(T).

, , ,

thanks: Also at FAENQUIL, 12600-000, Lorena, SP, Brasil

The knowledge of the magnetic field – temperature (H-T) phase diagram is a cornerstone of the phenomenological description of superconductors. The H-T phase diagram of conventional type-II superconductors is well known. In the Meissner-Ochsenfeld state, the surface currents screen the applied magnetic field. Above the lower critical field Hc1(T) the applied field penetrates the superconductor in the form of an Abrikosov vortex lattice which persists up to the upper critical field Hc2(T), where the superconductivity vanishes in the bulk of the sample. On the other hand, in high-temperature superconductors (HTS), due to strong thermal fluctuations, the occurrence of the vortex lattice melting phase transition at Hm(T) $``$ Hc2(T) has been predicted (for review articles see Ref.  and Ref.  and references therein). Since then, considerable efforts have been dedicated to identifying the melting transition in experiments. At present, it is widely believed that the vortex lattice melting is related to a first-order transition (FOT) occurring, e. g. in Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8 (Bi2212) high-Tc superconductor, at a very low field HFOT(T) . Thus, at T $``$ Tc/2 the HFOT $``$ 500 Oe, which is several orders of magnitude smaller than Hc2 $``$ 100 T. At the FOT, the equilibrium magnetization jump $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$Meq(H,T) takes place , which, together with the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, would imply the occurrence of the entropy jump $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$s(H,T) associated with the transition. However, an alternative explanation for the magnetization (entropy) jump due to first-order depinning transition is also possible . At this floating-type transition, the vortex lattice does not melt but does the opposite, it decouples from the atomic lattice becoming more ordered. The entropy jump associated with the vortex lattice floating transition has recently been obtained in Monte Carlo simulations by Gotcheva and Teitel . The occurrence of the floating vortex solid phase situated between a pinned vortex solid and a vortex liquid state has been proposed two decades ago by Nelson and Halperin . The FOT in HTS is accompanied by a sudden increase in the electrical resistivity  which demonstrates the sharpness of the vortex depinning onset. A sharp resistive magnetic-field-induced depinning transition separating disordered (low-field) from ordered (high-field) vortex states has recently been reported for NbSe2, suggesting the first-order nature of the depinning transition . In Bi2212, the in-plane non-local resistance, the indication of a finite shear stiffness of the vortex matter, has been measured above the FOT by Eltsev et al.. It has been concluded, however, that the strong transverse vortex-vortex correlations take place in the vortex liquid phase .

In the present work, we report the observation of in-plane non-local resistance in Bi2212 in an applied magnetic field up to H = 9 T. The obtained results demonstrate that the vortex lattice does exist over a broad portion of the H-T phase diagram above the FOT boundary.

The resistance measurements were performed on a $`l\times w\times t=1.94\times 0.28\times 0.03mm^3`$ size Bi2212 single crystal grown using the self-flux method. The crystal characterization details as well as dc magnetization measurements have been presented elsewhere . The crystal zero-field superconducting transition temperature T$`{}_{}{}^{0}{}_{c}{}^{}`$ = 87.7 K has been determined from the maximum of the temperature derivative dR/dT. The resistance measurements were made using PPMS (9T magnet) Quantum Design commercial equipment in magnetic fields applied along the crystal c-axis. The FOT boundary has been obtained by means of dc magnetization M(H,T) measurements (H $``$ c - axis) with the SQUID magnetometer MPMS5 (Quantum Design).

We used the line-electrode geometry  to study the non-local in-plane resistance. Six silver epoxy electrodes with contact resistance $``$ 1$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ were patterned on one of the main surfaces of the crystal, as shown in the inset of Fig.1, with a separation distance s $``$ 180 $`\mu `$m. In the experiments, the dc current I14 was applied between the current leads 1 and 4, and the voltage was measured simultaneously in both the applied current part of the crystal V23 and outside this region V56.

Figure 1 shows temperature dependences of both “primary” R14,23 = V14,23/I14 and “secondary” R14,56 = V14,56/I14 resistances obtained in applied field H = 9 T and for I14 = 1 mA. As can be seen from Fig. 1, R14,56 is negative in the normal state, and shows a crossover to positive values below a certain temperature within the superconducting state.

The negative R14,56, which develops with the increase of temperature is related to the current distribution through the crystal thickness, i. e. has a local origin. Using the equation derived by van der Pauw

$$R_{14,56}=(wR_{14,23}/\pi s)\mathrm{ln}[(a+b)(b+c)/b(a+b+c)],$$
(1)
where a, b, and c are distances between electrodes 1 and 4, 4 and 5, 5 and 6, respectively, we obtain the R14,56(T), depicted in Fig. 1 by a dotted line. The agreement between calculated and measured R14,56(T) is rather good, taking into consideration the strong crystallographic anisotropy of Bi2212, the finite width of the electrodes, and a probable distortion of the electrical potential along the line contacts. Shown in Fig. 2(a) and Fig. 2(b) are R14,23(T,H) and R14,56(T,H), respectively measured at various applied magnetic fields. As can be seen from Fig. 2(b), the positive “secondary” resistance R14,56(T,H) emerges and increases with field. For H $`>`$ 2 T, the R14,56(T,H) shows a well defined peak at the temperature Tmax(H), which decreases with the field increase.

The results presented in Figs. 35 unambiguously demonstrate that the positive contribution to R14,56(T,H) originates from the non-local resistance, i. e. is not related to the current distribution effects.

Figure 3 (a, b) shows R14,56(T) measured with I14 = 100 $`\mu `$A and I14 = 1 mA for H = 2 T \[Fig. 3(a)\] and H = 4 T \[Fig. 3(b)\]. In Fig. 4 we plotted $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$R14,56 = R14,56(I14 = 100 $`\mu `$A) – R14,56(I14 = 1 mA) and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$R14,23 = R14,23(I14 = 100 $`\mu `$A) – R14,23(I14 = 1 mA) versus temperature. From Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 we note that (1) as the temperature approaches Tmax(H) from below, R14,56 becomes larger for smaller applied current, and the R14,56(T,H) peaks at T $``$ Tmax (note that $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$R14,23 $``$ 0, i. e. R14,23 is current-independent at the studied temperatures), (2) the current dependence of R14,56 persists up to $``$ Tc, i. e. is essentially related to the superconducting state. Note also that the current effect vanishes with field, so that it is negligible for H $``$ 6 T. At T $`<`$ Tmax(H) the ratio R14,56/R14,23 increases with temperature, as shown in Fig. 5, for several studied fields. All these experimental facts can hardly be understood within a local approach, indeed.

Certainly, the large enhancement of the non-local resistance with temperature over a broad temperature interval cannot be accounted for by vortex-vortex correlations in the vortex liquid. On the other hand, the long-range positive non-local resistance can arise from a correlated transverse motion of the vortex lattice . The in-plane vortex-vortex correlations occurring on a millimeter scale have also been detected in Corbino-disk experiments .

The ratio R14,56(T)/R14,23(T) $`<`$ 1, see Fig. 5, can result from the vortex pinning effect which destroys the long-range positional order in the vortex lattice and, therefore, leads to a depression of the non-local resistance at large distances. As the temperature increases, both R14,56(T) and R14,56(T)/R14,23(T) increase due to a vortex pinning efficiency decrease. Approaching Tmax(H), the ratio R14,56(T)/R14,23(T) starts to decrease.

On the other hand, the occurrence of the maximum in $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$R14,56(T) at T $``$ Tmax(H), see Fig. 4, rules out any trivial (i.e. within a local approach) explanation of the R14,56(T) reduction above Tmax(H). A non-trivial origin of the maximum in R14,56(T,H) is supported by the observation of a splitting of this maximum into two peaks which takes place below $``$ 1 T, see Fig. 6. The occurrence of two peaks (or hollow) in R14,56(T,H) at low fields can be understood assuming the “reentrant” enhancement of the vortex pinning efficiency in the temperature interval Tp1(H) $`<`$ T $`<`$ Tp2(H), which resembles a phenomenon known as “peak effect” (PE) . In agreement with the PE occurrence, the increase of the “primary” R14,23(T,H) resistance slows down at T $``$ T1 $``$ Tp1, as Fig. 7, where dR14,23(T,H)/dT vs. T is plotted, illustrates for H = 0.3 T. A similar phenomenon takes place at the temperature T1(H) just below Tmax(H) in the high-field limit, see Fig. 7 (the second peak in the derivative dR14,23(T,H)/dT occurring at temperature T2(H) is related to the superconductor-normal metal transition). In the low-field limit, we have also observed a current-induced suppression of R14,56(T,H) at T $`>`$ Tmin(H), see inset in Fig. 6. This implies a similar vortex state occurring above Tmax(H) (high fields) and above Tmin(H) (low fields).

The above results are summarized in the magnetic field – temperature (H-T) diagram (Fig. 8) which we discuss now.

The FOT boundary obtained by means of dc magnetization measurements (not presented here) is plotted in Fig. 8 together with data from Ref. , measured for a similar Bi2212 crystal. It is evident from Fig. 8 that at T $``$ Tc/2, the HFOT(T) is about 100 times smaller than the Hmax(T), implying that the long-range transverse vortex-vortex correlations persist well above the FOT boundary. This fact has a natural explanation, assuming that the floating (depinning) transition is associated with the FOT . At H $`<`$ HFOT(T) $``$ $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$/$`\lambda _{ab}^2`$, the vortex lattice shear modulus decreases exponentially with field $`c_{66}(\epsilon _0/\lambda _{ab}^2)(H\lambda _{ab}^2/\mathrm{\Phi }_0)^{1/4}exp[(\mathrm{\Phi }_0/H\lambda _{ab}^2)^{1/2}]`$, whereas at H $`>`$ HFOT(T), $`c_{66}(\epsilon _0/4\mathrm{\Phi }_0)H`$, i. e. c66 linearly increases with field , where $`\epsilon _0=(\mathrm{\Phi }_0/4\pi \lambda _{ab})^2`$. This implies that, at H $`<`$ HFOT(T), the interaction between vortices and the quenched disorder overwhelms the vortex-vortex interaction, leading to a stronger vortex pinning in the low-field regime (note that at H $`<`$$`<`$ HFOT(T) the pinned vortex liquid is expected ). With the field increase the c66(H,T) and hence the inter-vortex interaction increase, and the vortex lattice de-couples from the atomic lattice at HFOT(T). Usually, the depinning transition in HTS is rather sharp . We stress that besides theoretical expectations of a sharp depinning transition , an experimental evidence of a jumpy-like magnetic-field-induced floating transition has recently been reported . At H $`>`$ HFOT(T) and low enough temperatures, c66(H,T) is weakly temperature-dependent. In this regime, the vortex lattice becomes more ordered when the temperature is increased due to the suppression of the vortex pinning efficiency by thermal fluctuations, resulting in the increase of the non-local in-plane resistance with temperature. This observation is in excellent agreement with the second-order diffraction in small-angle neutron scattering experiments  which revealed the formation of a more ordered vortex lattice with the temperature increase for intermediate temperatures and magnetic fields. The c66(H,T) rapidly decreases, however, approaching either the upper critical field Hc2(T) or the melting phase transition boundary Hm(T) $`<`$ Hc2(T). In both cases, the vortex lattice can better adjust the pinning potential  leading to the reduction of the non-local signal. There are two plausible scenarios which allow us to account for the occurrence of the minimum in R14,56(T,H) in the low-field regime, see Fig. 6. The first possibility is that thermal fluctuations smear out the pinning potential, improving the vortex lattice which leads to the reentrant increase of R14,56(T,H) with the temperature increase at T $`>`$ Tmin(H) . At T = Tp2(H), the vortex lattice melts or the superconducting order parameter diminishes because of strong fluctuations in its amplitude; both effects will suppress the non-local resistance. On the other hand, the minimum in R14,56(T,H) occurring at the Tmin(H) can coincide with the melting transition temperature Tm(H) in the presence of quenched disorder . Then, in a narrow temperature interval above the Tm(H), a shear viscosity due to a finite crossing energy U×(H,T) of the entangled vortex liquid  can lead to the restoration of the non-local resistance. As temperature increases further, the U×(H,T) vanishes , and the non-local resistance will be suppressed together with the entangled vortex state at the “decoupling” transition temperature TD(H) = Tp2(H) $`>`$ Tm(H), above which vortex fluctuations have a two-dimensional (2D) character. This second scenario agrees with the observed suppression of R14,56(H,T) at T $`>`$ Tmin(H) by the applied current, assuming the occurrence of current-induced vortex cutting . There is also a striking correspondence between the experimental results, see Fig. 9, and the low-field portion of the H-T phase diagram proposed by Glazman and Koshelev  for layered superconductors. Indeed, the H(Tmin) can be described perfectly by a theoretical 3D “melting line”

$$H_m(T)\mathrm{\Phi }_0\epsilon _0^2c_L^4/(k_BT)^2\gamma ^2,$$
(2)
where $`\gamma `$=$`\lambda _c`$/$`\lambda _{ab}`$ is the anisotropy factor, $`\lambda _c`$ is the out-of-plane penetration depth, and cL = 0.1 – 0.4 is the Lindemann number. The Eq. (2) can be re-written in the form

$$H_m(T)=B(1t^2)^2/t^2,$$
(3)
where t $``$ Tm/Tc0, Tc0 is the mean-field transition temperature, and $`B=\mathrm{\Phi }_0^5c_L^4/256\pi ^4(k_BT_{c0})^2\gamma ^2\lambda _{ab}^4(0)`$. The fitting gives B = 1.5 T (see Fig. 9). Taking a dimensional crossover field  for our crystal H3D-2D $``$ $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$/($`\gamma `$d)2 $``$ 0.5 T which separates 3D (H $`<`$ H3D-2D) and quasi-2D (H $`>`$ H3D-2D) vortex fluctuation regimes, we obtain $`\gamma `$ $``$ 40 (here d = 15 Å is the distance between weakly coupled CuO2 bi-layers). Then, with $`\lambda _{ab}`$(0) $``$ 1000 Å, one gets a reasonable value for the Lindemann number cL $`=`$ 0.23.

On the other hand, H(Tp2) can be best approximated by the linear dependence (see Fig. 9)

$$H_D(T)=C(T_cT)/T,$$
(4)
which describes the thermally induced 3D-2D vortex liquid decoupling transition in a vicinity of Tc . Here $`C=\alpha _D\mathrm{\Phi }_0^3/dk_BT_c(4\pi \lambda _c)^2`$, and $`\alpha _D`$ is some constant. With the fitting parameter C = 4.4 T, one has $`\alpha _D1`$. The apparent crossing of Hm(T) and HD(T) lines seen in Fig. 9 originates from the entering into the critical superconducting fluctuations region (see, e. g., Ref. ).

For H $`>`$ 0.5 T, H($`T_{p1}`$) and H(Tp2) start to merge and, for H $`>`$ 2 T, a single transition in the vortex matter takes place at Tmax(H). For H $`>`$$`>`$ H3D-2D, the theory  predicts that Hm(T) approaches the melting temperature of an isolated superconducting CuO2 bi-layer $`T_m^{2D}(k_B8\pi \sqrt{3})^1d\epsilon _0`$ according to the equation:

$$H_m(T)H_{3D2D}exp\{b[T_m^{2D}/(TT_m^{2D})]^\nu \},$$
(5)
where b $``$ 1, and $`\nu `$ = 0.37. Figure 10 demonstrates a good agreement between Eq. (5) and the experimental H(Tmax) boundary at H $`>`$ 4 T. The fitting gives H3D-2D = 0.74 T and T$`{}_{}{}^{2D}{}_{m}{}^{}`$ = 46.3 K ($`\lambda _{ab}`$(0) $``$ 1200 Å).

Thus, taking the overall data together, we are led to conclude on a possible occurrence of vortex lattice melting and “decoupling” phase transitions associated with H(Tmin) and H(Tp2) low-field boundaries, respectively, as well as on the melting of a quasi-2D vortex solid which takes place along the H(Tmax) boundary at $`HH_{3D2D}`$. The current effect on the non-local resistance measured at both T $``$ Tmin(H) and T $``$ Tmax(H), and its vanishing with the field increase, suggests the ocurrence of the entangled vortex liquid for low and intermediate fields. We stress that the results obtained here suggest an enhancement of the vortex pinning in the vortex liquid state, being in agreement with Refs. .

To summarize, results of the present work provide an experimental evidence for the vortex lattice existence in Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8 well above the first-order transition boundary HFOT(T). For the first time, the H-T phase diagram of the high-Tc superconductor is constructed on the basis of direct probe of transverse vortex-vortex correlations.

We gratefully acknowledge valuable discussions with G. Carneiro, P. Esquinazi, E. Granato, V. M. Vinokur, and E. Zeldov.

This work was supported by FAPESP, CNPq and CAPES Brazilian agencies.


text:
# Muon 𝑔-2

## 1 Introduction

The anomalous $`g`$ values, $`a=(g2)/2`$, of leptons arise from quantum mechanical effects. Their precise measurement has historically played an important role in the development of particle theory. The anomalous magnetic $`g`$ value of the electron, $`a_e`$, has been measured to within about four parts per billion (ppb) , and is thus among the most accurately known quantities in physics. Its value is described in terms of standard model (SM) field interactions, with nearly all of the measured value contributed by QED processes involving virtual photons, electrons, and positrons. Heavier particles contribute to $`a_e`$ only at the level of the present experimental uncertainty.

The anomalous magnetic $`g`$ value of the muon, $`a_\mu `$, is more sensitive than $`a_e`$ to processes involving particles more massive than the electron, typically by a factor $`(m_\mu /m_e)^2410^4.`$ A series of three experiments  at CERN measured $`a_\mu `$ to within 7 parts per million (ppm), which is predominantly statistical. The CERN generation of experiments thus tested electron-muon universality and established the existence of a hadronic contribution to $`a_\mu `$ with a relative size of $`59`$ ppm. Electroweak processes are expected to contribute at the level of 1.3 ppm, as are many speculative extensions of the SM.

The muon $`g2`$ experiment at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) is conceptually similar to the last CERN experiment, and has determined $`a_{\mu ^+}`$ of the positive muon with an uncertainty of 0.7 ppm from a sample of about $`410^9`$ decay positrons collected in the year 2000. The analysis of $`a_\mu ^{}`$ of the negative muon from a similarly sized sample of decay electrons collected in 2001 is well underway.

## 2 Experiment

The measurements at the Brookhaven Alternating Gradient Synchrotron used a secondary pion beamline. For most of the data taking periods, longitudinally polarized muons of about 3.1 GeV from forward decays were momentum-selected and injected into a 14.2 m diameter storage ring magnet  through a field-free inflector  region in the magnet yoke. A pulsed magnetic kicker  located at approximately one quarter turn from the inflector region produced a 10 mrad deflection which placed the muons onto stored orbits. Pulsed electrostatic quadrupoles  provided vertical focusing. The magnetic dipole field of about 1.45 T was measured with an NMR system  relative to the free proton NMR frequency $`\omega _p`$ over most of the 9 cm diameter circular storage aperture. Twenty-four electromagnetic calorimeters  read out by 400 MHz custom waveform digitizers (WFD) were used on the open, inner side of the C-shaped ring magnet to measure the decay positrons and electrons. Muon decay violates parity, which in the laboratory frame results in a modulation of the number of positrons (electrons),

$$N(t)=N_0(E)\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{t}{\gamma \tau }\right)\left[1+A(E)\mathrm{sin}\left(\omega _at+\varphi (E)\right)\right],$$
(1)
above an energy threshold $`E`$. Here, $`N_0`$ is a normalization, $`\gamma \tau 64\mu \mathrm{s}`$ is the dilated muon lifetime, $`A0.4`$ is an asymmetry factor, $`\varphi `$ is a phase, and $`\omega _a`$ is the angular difference frequency of muon spin precession and momentum rotation.

The muon anomalous magnetic $`g`$ value is evaluated from the ratio of the measured frequencies, $`R=\omega _a/\omega _p`$, according to:

$$a_\mu =\frac{R}{\lambda R},$$
(2)
in which $`\lambda =\mu _\mu /\mu _p`$ is the ratio the muon and proton magnetic moments. The value with smallest stated uncertainty, $`\lambda =\mu _\mu /\mu _p=\mathrm{3.183\hspace{0.17em}345\hspace{0.17em}39}(10)`$ , results from measurements of the microwave spectrum of ground state muonium  and theory .

## 3 Data Analysis

The proton NMR frequency $`\omega _p`$ and the muon spin precession frequency $`\omega _a`$ were analyzed independently by several groups within the collaboration. The values of $`R=\omega _a/\omega _p`$ and $`a_\mu `$ were evaluated only after each of the frequency analyses had been finalized; at no earlier stage were the absolute values of both frequencies known to any of the collaborators.

### 3.1 The magnetic field

During the data collection period from January to March 2000, a field trolley with 17 NMR probes was used 2-3 times per week, 22 times in total, to measure the field throughout the muon storage region. Figure 2a shows the field value measured in the storage ring with the center trolley probe versus the azimuthal angle. The field is seen to be uniform to within about $`\pm 50`$ppm of its average value over the full azimuthal range, in particular also in the region near $`350^{}`$ where the inflector magnet is located. Since the field averaged over azimuth is uniform to within 1.5 ppm over the storage aperture (Fig. 2b), the field integral encountered by the (analyzed) muons is rather insensitive to the precise location and profile of the beam.

The probes inside the field trolley were calibrated with respect to each other during the data collection period using dedicated measurements in which a single NMR probe was plunged into the storage vacuum. This so-called plunging probe, as well as a subset of the trolley probes, were calibrated in situ with respect to a standard probe .

The 22 measurements with the field trolley were used to relate the readings of 370 NMR fixed probes in the outer top and bottom walls of the storage vacuum chamber to the field values in the beam region, so that the fixed NMR probe readings could be used to interpolate the field when the field trolley was ’parked’ in the storage vacuum just outside the beam region and muons circulated in the storage ring.

For the data collection between January and March 2000, the field frequency $`\omega _p`$ weighted by the muon distribution was found to be,

$$\omega _p/(2\pi )=\mathrm{61\hspace{0.17em}791\hspace{0.17em}595}(15)\mathrm{Hz}\text{(0.2\hspace{0.17em}ppm)},$$
(3)
where the uncertainty has a leading contribution from the calibration of the trolley probes and is thus predominantly systematic. The result was confirmed by a second, largely independent analysis, which made use of additional calibration data, a different selection of fixed NMR probes, and a different method to relate the trolley and fixed probe readings. The result from the data collection on the negative muon in the year 2001 is expected to have further improved uncertainty.

### 3.2 The muon spin precession frequency

About $`410^9`$ reconstructed positrons with energies greater than 2 GeV and times between 50 $`\mu `$s and 600 $`\mu `$s following the beam injection were available for analysis from the data collection between January and March 2000. Figure 3a shows their time spectrum after corrections for the bunched time structure of the beam and for overlapping calorimeter pulses, so called pile-up , had been applied.

The main characteristics of the spectrum are muon decay and spin precession (Eq. 1), however, additional effects need to be considered as illustrated by the Fourier spectrum in Fig. 3b. These effects include detector gain and time instability, muon losses, and oscillations of the beam as a whole, so-called coherent betatron oscillations (CBO). The latter are caused by the injection of the beam through the relatively narrow $`18(\mathrm{w})\times 57(\mathrm{h})\mathrm{mm}^2`$ aperture of the 1.7 m long inflector channel into the 90 mm diameter aperture of the storage region. Their frequencies are determined by the focusing index of the storage ring, and have been observed directly with fiber harp monitors that were plunged into the beam region for this purpose. Since the calorimeter acceptances vary with the muon decay position in the storage ring and with the momentum of the decay positron, CBO cause modulation of the time and energy spectra of the observed positrons.

Numerically most important to the determination of $`\omega _a`$ from the data collected between January and March 2000 were the CBO in the horizontal plane, whose frequency was numerically close to twice the frequency $`\omega _a`$. When the modulations of the asymmetry and phase with frequency $`\omega _{\mathrm{cbo},\mathrm{h}}2\times \omega _a`$ were not accounted for in the function fitted to the data, artificial shifts of up to 4 ppm in the frequency values $`\omega _a`$ determined from individual calorimeter spectra were observed. In the joined calorimeter spectrum, such shifts are largely canceled because of the circular symmetry of the experiment design.

Several approaches were pursued in the analysis of $`\omega _a`$. In one approach, the time spectra from individual positron calorimeters was fitted in narrow energy intervals using a fit function as in Eq. 1 extended by the aforementioned number, asymmetry, and phase modulations. Other approaches made use of the cancellation in the joined calorimeter spectra and either fitted for the residual of the leading effects, or accounted for their neglect in a contribution to the systematic uncertainty. The results were found to agree, on $`\omega _a`$ to within the expected 0.5 ppm statistical variation resulting from the slightly different selection and treatment of the data in the respective analyses. The combined result was found to be,

$$\omega _a/(2\pi )=\mathrm{229\hspace{0.17em}074\hspace{0.17em}11}(14)(7)\mathrm{Hz}\text{(0.7\hspace{0.17em}ppm)},$$
(4)
in which the first uncertainty is statistical and the second is systematic. The above frequency includes a correction of +0.76(3) ppm for the net contribution to the muon spin precession and momentum rotation caused by vertical beam oscillations and, for muons with $`\gamma 29.3`$, by horizontal electric fields . The systematic uncertainty has a leading contribution of 0.2 ppm caused by CBO. In the year 2001, an event sample of comparable size on the negative muon was collected. The storage ring was operated with two different values of the focusing index, which is expected to reduce the leading systematic uncertainty.

## 4 Results and Discussion

The value of $`a_\mu `$ was evaluated after the analyses of $`\omega _p`$ and $`\omega _a`$ had been finalized,

$$a_{\mu ^+}=\mathrm{11\hspace{0.17em}659\hspace{0.17em}204}(7)(5)\times 10^{10}\text{(0.7\hspace{0.17em}ppm)},$$
(5)
where the first uncertainty is statistical and the second systematic. The result agrees well with the preceding measurements  and drives the present world average,

$$a_\mu (\mathrm{exp})=\mathrm{11\hspace{0.17em}659\hspace{0.17em}203}(8)\times 10^{10}\text{(0.7\hspace{0.17em}ppm)},$$
(6)
in which the uncertainty accounts for known correlations between the systematic uncertainties in the measurements. Figure 4 shows our recent measurements of $`a_{\mu ^+}`$, together with two SM evaluations discussed below.

In the SM, the value of $`a_\mu `$ receives contributions from QED, hadronic, and electroweak processes, $`a_\mu (\mathrm{SM})=a_\mu (\mathrm{QED})+a_\mu (\mathrm{had})+a_\mu (\mathrm{weak})`$. The QED and weak contributions can, unlike the hadronic contribution, be evaluated perturbatively, $`a_\mu (\mathrm{QED})=\mathrm{11\hspace{0.17em}658\hspace{0.17em}470.57}(29)\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{10}`$  and $`a_\mu (\mathrm{weak})=15.4(2)\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{10}`$ . The hadronic contribution is, in lowest order, related by dispersion theory to the hadron production cross sections measured in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions and, under additional assumptions, to hadronic $`\tau `$-decay. Clearly, the hadronic contribution has a long history of values as new data appeared and analyses were refined.

At the time of the PIC-2003 conference, a recent and detailed evaluation was the one by Davier and co-workers, which – unlike preceding analyses – incorporated the low-energy $`e^+e^{}`$ annihilation cross section into hadrons by the CMD-2 collaboration  , $`e^+e^{}`$ measurements  with improved accuracy in the 2–5 GeV energy region from BES, preliminary results from the final ALEPH analysis  of hadronic $`\tau `$-decay at LEP1, and additional data  from CLEO. Significant discrepancies between the $`e^+e^{}`$ and $`\tau `$ data were found.

The CMD-2 collaboration has since released a reanalysis of their cross section measurements  and Davier and co-workers have provided updated estimates for the contribution to $`a_\mu (\mathrm{SM})`$ from lowest order hadronic vacuum polarization, $`a_\mu (\mathrm{had},1)=696(7)\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{10}`$ from $`e^+e^{}`$ data and $`a_\mu (\mathrm{had},1)=711(6)\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{10}`$ from $`\tau `$ data . The authors refrain from averaging the values, noting that significant discrepancies remain in the underlying data in the center-of-mass region between 0.85 and 1.0 GeV. Radiative return measurements at the $`e^+e^{}`$ factories may reach the required precision to shed light on the situation, as might lattice calculations. Higher order contributions to $`a_\mu (\mathrm{had})`$ include higher order hadronic vacuum polarization  and hadronic light-by-light scattering .

Open questions thus concern the SM value of $`a_\mu `$, in particular its hadronic contribution, and the experimental value of $`a_\mu ^{}`$ at sub-ppm precision. Stay tuned!

## 5 Acknowledgements

This work was supported in part by the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. National Science Foundation, the U.S. National Computational Science Alliance, the German Bundesminister für Bildung und Forschung, the Russian Ministry of Science, and the U.S.-Japan Agreement in High Energy Physics.