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# Mapping the thermal history of the Universe with the new generation of CMB spectrum space experiments

## 1 Introduction

As widely discussed in many papers, the spectrum of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) carries unique informations on physical processes occurring during early cosmic epochs (see e.g. Danese & Burigana 1993 and references therein). The comparison between models of CMB spectral distortions and CMB absolute temperature measures can constrain the physical parameters of the considered dissipation processes. By jointly considering distortions generated in a wide range of early or intermediate cosmic epochs and at late cosmic epochs, we recently discussed the implications of the current CMB spectrum data (Salvaterra & Burigana 2002) as well as the great improvements in the knowledge of dissipation processes, in particular on those possibly occurred at early and intermediate epochs, achievable with a significant progress in the experiments at long wavelength, $`\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{>}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ cm, (Burigana & Salvaterra 2003), such that expected from a DIMES-like project (Kogut 1996, 2003).

Fixsen & Mather (2002) recently proposed a new generation of millimeter and submillimeter spectrum experiment, FIRAS II, aimed to improve by a factor $`100`$ the accuracy of the COBE/FIRAS measures.

While in the last decade many efforts have been 111http://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov (see e.g. Bennett et al. 1996, 2003 and references therein) and are currently 222http://astro.estec.esa.nl/Planck/ (see e.g. Mandolesi et al. 1998, Puget et al. 1998, Tauber 2000 and references therein) dedicated to greatly improve our knowledge of the whole sky CMB anisotropies since their COBE/DMR discovery (Smoot et al. 1992), the combination of high precision and large frequency coverage jointly forseen for DIMES and FIRAS II opens a completely new perspective also in CMB spectrum studies, as we will discuss in this paper.

In section 2 we briefly summarize the general properties of the CMB spectral distortions and the main physical informations that can be derived from the comparison with the observations. In section 3 we briefly report on the performances forseen for the DIMES and FIRAS II experiments and describe the generation of the simulated observations used in this work. The implications of such experiments for our knowledge of the thermal history of the Universe are presented in section 4: models including an undistorted spectrum and distorted spectra in the case of a single kind of spectral distortion or by jointly considering three kinds of spectral distortions are compared with data simulated according to the sensitivities quoted for the above experiments (the joint analysis of two spectral distortions is reported in Appendix A for completeness). Section 5 is dedicated to a comparison between some different classes of astrophysical and particle processes recently discussed in the literature occurring at relatively late epochs, able to distort the spectrum at different wavelength regions, and, possibly, to significantly contribute to the reionization of the Universe. Finally, we discuss the results and draw our main conclusions in section 6.

## 2 Theoretical framework

The CMB spectrum emerges from the thermalization redshift, $`z_{therm}10^610^7`$, with a shape very close to a Planckian one, owing to the strict coupling between radiation and matter through Compton scattering and photon production/absorption processes, radiative Compton and Bremsstrahlung, which were extremely efficient at early times and able to re-establish a blackbody (BB) spectrum from a perturbed one on timescales much shorter than the expansion time (see e.g. Danese & De Zotti 1977). The value of $`z_{therm}`$ (Burigana, Danese & De Zotti 1991a) depends on the baryon density (in units of the critical density), $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b`$, and the Hubble constant, $`H_0`$, through the product $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Omega }}_b=\mathrm{\Omega }_b(H_0/50)^2`$ ($`H_0`$ expressed in Km/s/Mpc).

On the other hand, physical processes occurring at redshifts $`z<z_{therm}`$ may lead imprints on the CMB spectrum.

The timescale for the achievement of kinetic equilibrium between radiation and matter (i.e. the relaxation time for the photon spectrum), $`t_C`$, is

$$t_C=t_{\gamma e}\frac{mc^2}{kT_e}4.5\times 10^{28}\left(T_0/2.7K\right)^1\varphi ^1\widehat{\mathrm{\Omega }}_b^1\left(1+z\right)^4\mathrm{sec},$$
(1)
where $`t_{\gamma e}=1/(n_e\sigma _Tc)`$ is the photon–electron collision time, $`\varphi =(T_e/T_r)`$, $`T_e`$ being the electron temperature and $`T_r=T_0(1+z)`$; $`kT_e/mc^2`$ is the mean fractional change of photon energy in a scattering of cool photons off hot electrons, i.e. $`T_eT_r`$; $`T_0`$ is the present radiation temperature related to the present radiation energy density by $`ϵ_{r0}=aT_0^4`$; a primordial helium abundance of 25% by mass is here assumed.

It is useful to introduce the dimensionless time variable $`y_e(z)`$ defined by

$$y_e(z)=_t^{t_0}\frac{dt}{t_C}=_1^{1+z}\frac{d(1+z)}{1+z}\frac{t_{exp}}{t_C},$$
(2)
where $`t_0`$ is the present time and $`t_{exp}`$ is the expansion time given by

$$t_{exp}6.3\times 10^{19}\left(\frac{T_0}{2.7K}\right)^2(1+z)^{3/2}\left[\kappa (1+z)+(1+z_{eq})\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_{nr}1}{\mathrm{\Omega }_{nr}}\right)\left(\frac{1+z_{eq}}{1+z}\right)\right]^{1/2}\mathrm{sec},$$
(3)
$`z_{eq}=1.0\times 10^4(T_0/2.7K)^4\widehat{\mathrm{\Omega }}_{nr}`$ being the redshift of equal non relativistic matter and photon energy densities ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_{nr}`$ is the density of non relativistic matter in units of critical density); $`\kappa =1+N_\nu (7/8)(4/11)^{4/3}`$, $`N_\nu `$ being the number of relativistic, 2–component, neutrino species (for 3 species of massless neutrinos, $`\kappa 1.68`$), takes into account the contribution of relativistic neutrinos to the dynamics of the Universe333Strictly speaking the present ratio of neutrino to photon energy densities, and hence the value of $`\kappa `$, is itself a function of the amount of energy dissipated. The effect, however, is never very important and is negligible for very small distortions..

Burigana, De Zotti & Danese 1991b have reported on numerical solutions of the Kompaneets equation (Kompaneets 1956) for a wide range of values of the relevant parameters and accurate analytical representations of these numerical solutions, suggested in part by the general properties of the Kompaneets equation and by its well known asymptotic solutions, have been found (Burigana, De Zotti & Danese 1995).

The CMB distorted spectra depend on at least three main parameters: the fractional amount of energy exchanged between matter and radiation, $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$, $`ϵ_i`$ being the radiation energy density before the energy injection, the redshift $`z_h`$ at which the heating occurs, and the baryon density $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Omega }}_b`$. The photon occupation number can be then expressed in the form

$$\eta =\eta (x;\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i,y_h,\widehat{\mathrm{\Omega }}_b),$$
(4)
where $`x`$ is the dimensionless frequency $`x=h\nu /kT_0`$ ($`\nu `$ being the present frequency), and $`y_hy_e(z_h)`$ characterizes the epoch when the energy dissipation occurred, $`z_h`$ being the corresponding redshift (we will refer to $`y_hy_e(z_h)`$ computed assuming $`\varphi =1`$, so that the epoch considered for the energy dissipation does not depend on the amount of released energy). The continuous behaviour of the distorted spectral shape with $`y_h`$ can be in principle used also to search for constraints on the epoch of the energy exchange. Of course, by combining the approximations describing the distorted spectrum at early (Sunyaev & Zeldovich 1970) and intermediate epochs with the Comptonization distortion expression (Zeldovich & Sunyaev 1969; Zeldovich, Illarionov & Sunyaev 1972) describing late distortions, it is possible to jointly treat two heating processes (see Burigana et al. 1995 and Salvaterra & Burigana 2002 and references therein for a more exhaustive discussion).

In this work simulated measures of the CMB absolute temperature are compared with the above models of distorted spectra by using a standard $`\chi ^2`$ analysis.

We determine the limits on the amount of energy possibly injected in the cosmic background at arbitrary primordial epochs corresponding to a redshift $`z_h`$ (or equivalently to $`y_h`$). This topic has been discussed in several works (see e.g. Burigana et al. 1991b, Nordberg & Smoot 1998, Salvaterra & Burigana 2002). We apply here the method of comparison with the theoretical models described in Salvaterra & Burigana 2002 and Burigana & Salvaterra 2003, by investigating the possibility of properly combining data simulated according to the DIMES and FIRAS II performances respectively at long and short wavelengths.

We will consider the recent improvement in the calibration of the FIRAS data, that sets the CMB scale temperature at $`2.725\pm 0.002`$ K at 95 per cent confidence level (CL) (Mather et al. 1999).

Then, we study the combined effect of two different heating processes that may have distorted the CMB spectrum at different epochs. This hypothesis has been also taken into account by Nordberg & Smoot 1998, who fit the observed data with a spectrum distorted by a single heating at $`y_h=5`$, a second one at $`y_h1`$ and by free-free emission, obtaining limits on the parameters that describe these processes. As in Salvaterra & Burigana 2002, we extend their analysis by considering the full range of epochs for the early and intermediate energy injection process, by taking advantage of the analytical representation of spectral distortions at intermediate redshifts (Burigana et al. 1995).

Long wavelength measures are particularly sensitive to the free-free distortion due to its well known dependence on the frequency. At moderately long wavelengths, where quite accurate observations can be carried out, $`(T_{th}T_0\varphi _i)/T_0y_B/x^2`$. Here $`\varphi _i`$ is the ratio between the electron and radiation temperature before the beginning of the dissipation process, $`y_B`$ is the so called free-free distortion parameter (Burigana et al. 1995), and $`T_{th}`$ is the (frequency dependent) equivalent thermodynamic temperature. At very long wavelengths the equivalent thermodynamic temperature approaches the electron temperature because of the very high bremsstrahlung efficiency.

The relationship between free-free distortion and Comptonization distortion is highly model dependent, being related to the details of the thermal history at late epochs (see e.g. Danese & Burigana 1993, Burigana et al. 1995), and can not be simply represented by integral parameters.

In the combined analysis of the implications of future CMB spectrum experiments for energy dissipations at different cosmic times and free-free distortions we avoid to physically link Comptonization and free-free distortions. Eq. (4) generalizes then to

$$\eta =\eta (x;\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h),y_h,\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h1),y_B,\widehat{\mathrm{\Omega }}_b).$$
(5)
Comptonization and free-free emission could be also produced in several astrophysical scenarios. For example, ionized halos in the early stages of galaxy formation (Oh 1999) can produce a relevant free-free distortions and coupled Comptonization and free-free distortions can be produced in the reionization epoch, indicated by the WMAP data (Kogut et al. 1993).

It is also possible to extend the limits on $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$ for heatings occurred at $`z_h>z_1`$, where $`z_1`$ is the redshift corresponding to $`y_h=5`$, when the Compton scattering was able to restore the kinetic equilibrium between matter and radiation on timescales much shorter than the expansion time and the evolution on the CMB spectrum can be easily studied by replacing the full Kompaneets equation with the differential equations for the evolution of the electron temperature and the chemical potential. This study can be performed by using the simple analytical expressions by Burigana et al. 1991b instead of numerical solutions.

To evaluate the scientific impact represented by the future experiment improvements, we create different data sets simulating the observation of a distorted and non distorted spectra from a space experiments like DIMES and FIRAS II through the method described in section 3.1.

Each data set will be then compared to models of distorted spectra by using the method described in Salvaterra & Burigana 2002 (see also Burigana & Salvaterra 2000 for the details of the code) to recover the values of the parameters appearing in Eq. (5).

For simplicity, we restrict to the case of a baryon density $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Omega }}_b=0.05`$ our analysis of the implications for the thermal history of the Universe, but the method can be simply applied to different values of $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Omega }}_b`$.

## 3 Future experiments

The CMB spectrum experiments considered here are dedicated to improve our knowledge both at the same and at longer wavelengths with respect to the FIRAS frequency coverage ($`1`$ cm $`\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{>}{}\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{>}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.01}`$ cm).

As representative cases, and without the ambition to cover the whole set of planned experiments, we briefly refer here to the DIMES experiment from space (Kogut 1996) designed to reach an accuracy close to that of FIRAS up to $`\lambda 15`$ cm and to the FIRAS II experiment (Fixsen & Mather 2002) which will allow a sensitivity improvement by a factor $`100`$ with respect to FIRAS.

DIMES 444http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/DIMES/index.html (Diffuse Microwave Emission Survey) is a space mission submitted to the NASA in 1995, designed to measure very accurately the CMB spectrum at wavelengths in the range $`0.515`$ cm (Kogut 1996).

DIMES will compare the spectrum of each 10 degree pixel on the sky to a precisely known blackbody to precision of $`0.1`$ mK, close to that of FIRAS ($`0.020.2`$ mK). The set of receivers is given from cryogenic radiometers with instrument emission cooled to 2.7 K operating at six frequency bands about 2, 4, 6, 10, 30 and 90 GHz using a single external blackbody calibration target common to all channels to minimize the calibration uncertainty. The DIMES design is driven by the need to reduce or eliminate systematic errors from instrumental artifacts. The DIMES sensitivity represents an improvement by a factor better than 300 with respect to previous measurements at cm wavelengths.

Fixsen & Mather (2002) described the fundamental guidelines to significantly improve CMB spectrum measures at $`\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ cm. A great reduction of the residual noise of cosmic rays, dominating the noise of the FIRAS instrument, can be obtained by eliminating the data on-board co-add process or applying deglitching before co-adding, by reducing the size of the detectors and by using “spiderweb” bolometers or antenna-coupled microbolometers. They are expected to show a very low noise when cooled below 1 K while RuO sensors can reduce to 0.1 mK the read noise of thermometers. The Lagrangian point L2 of the Earth-Sun system is, of course, the favourite “site” for FIRAS II. Also, the calibration can be improved by order or magnitudes with respect to that FIRAS by reducing the contribution to the calibrator reflectance of light from the diffraction at the junction between the calibrator and the horn. A complete symmetrical construction of the instrument is recommended. This allows the cross-check between calibrators and between calibrators and the sky and to realize “an end-to-end calibration and performance test before lunch”. According to the authors, FIRAS II can be designed to have a frequency coverage from 60 to 3600 GHz (i.e. from 5 mm to 83 $`\mu `$m) with a spectral resolution $`\nu /\mathrm{\Delta }\nu <200`$ and sensitivity in each channel about 100 times better than FIRAS.

### 3.1 Generation of simulated data sets

We collect different data sets, simulating measurements of different CMB spectra, distorted or not, at the frequency ranges of the considered experiments.

For the cases of distorted spectra we calculate the theoretical temperature of the CMB spectrum as discussed in the previous section. Of course, the equivalent thermodynamic temperature held obviously constant at all the frequencies for the case of a non distorted spectrum.

The theoretical temperatures are then fouled to simulate real measurements affected by instrumental noise. The simulated temperature $`T_{obs}`$ at the frequency $`\nu `$ is given by $`T_{obs}(\nu )=T_{teor}(\nu )+n(\nu )\times \text{err}(\nu ),`$ where $`T_{teor}(\nu )`$ is the theoretical temperature at the frequency $`\nu `$ and err($`\nu `$) is the expected rms error (at 1 $`\sigma `$) of the experiment at this frequency. The numbers $`n`$ are a set of random numbers generated according to a Gaussian distribution with null mean value and unit variance with the routine GASDEV by Press et al. 1992 (§7).

The considered frequency channels are those of DIMES and those achievable with the spectral resolution forseen for FIRAS II. For sake of simplicity and differently from the analysis carried out in Salvaterra & Burigana 2002, we do not consider here the wavelength region at $`\lambda 800\mu `$m, accessible to FIRAS II, and neglect the problem of separating the signatures of CMB spectral distortions, dominant at $`\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{>}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ mm, from the contribution from Far-IR galaxies, dominant at $`\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}500}\mu `$m.

### 3.2 Simulated data sets

We generate a set (S-BB) of simulated data in the case of a blackbody spectrum at a temperature of 2.725 K in order to evaluate the joint capability of two experiments like DIMES and FIRAS II to improve the constraints on the amount of the energy injected in the cosmic radiation field. The analysis of this case is in fact directly comparable with the results obtained from the fit to the currently available data.

Of course, it is extremely important to evaluate the capability of so accurate experiments to detect and, possibly, precisely measure the spectral distortion parameters, the fractional energy exchanges and the dissipation epochs. To this aim, we generate other three sets of simulated data (respectively, S-E5C, S-E1.5C, S-E0.1C) assuming an instantaneous ($`\delta y_hy_h`$) earlier energy dissipation with $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h)=3\times 10^6`$ ($`\mu /1.4`$, where $`\mu `$ is the chemical potential of the Bose-Einstein (BE) formula describing the high frequency tail of the spectrum for distortions at sufficiently high redshifts) occurring at $`y_h=5`$ or at $`y_h=1.5`$ or at $`y_h=0.1`$ plus a later Comptonization distortion associated to an energy dissipation $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h1)=3\times 10^64u`$ (here $`u`$ is the “energy” Comptonization parameter). For simplicity, we assume here $`y_B=0`$ (see Sect. 5 for a discussion of combined Comptonization and free-free distortions on the basis of some specific models). All these distorted spectra are computed by setting $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b=0.05`$ and $`H_0=50`$ Km/s/Mpc.

These above simulated data set will be compared with models including spectral distortions generated by a dissipation process occurred at very different cosmic epochs, on a grid represented by the dimensionless time $`y_h=`$ 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.25, 0.1, 0.05, 0.025, 0.01, and $`y_h1`$, plus/or a Comptonization distortion, plus/or a free-free distortion, as described in Sect. 2, in order to analyse the quality of the recovery of the input parameters achievable with the considered experiments.

## 4 Results

### 4.1 Fits to simulated data: non distorted spectrum

#### 4.1.1 Analysis in terms of a single spectral distortion

We fit the simulated data set S-BB with a spectrum distorted by a single energy injection at different values of $`y_h`$ or by a free-free distortion in order to recover the value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$ or of $`y_B`$, expected to be null, and the limits (at 95 per cent of CL) on them. The results are reported in Table 1 for a representative set of the considered dissipation epochs. The table shows also the results obtained by using the FIRAS data alone combined with the long wavelength data accumulated in the last two decades (see also Salvaterra & Burigana 2002), the results achievable by combining the FIRAS data with the subset of the data set S-BB achievable by DIMES alone (see also Burigana & Salvaterra 2003), and, finally, the results achievable by exploiting the subset of data set S-BB achievable by FIRAS II alone.

The sensitivities reported in Table 1 for a given distortion parameter apply in the case in which quite strong priors can be assumed on the other two distortion parameters. In any case, FIRAS II alone or DIMES alone either is able to improve by more than one order of magnitude the current limits on the free-free distortions and on the energy exchanges. It is evident from the table that in this case FIRAS II alone is able to provide the best constraints on the energy exchanges (with a sensitivity improvement by a factor $`100`$) while DIMES alone is able to provide the best constraints on the free-free distortions (with a sensitivity improvement by a factor $`500`$), without any significant improvement from the combination of the two experiments.

#### 4.1.2 Joint analysis of three kinds of spectral distortions

We discuss here the possibility to significantly improve the constraints on the spectral distortion parameters in the more general case of a joint analysis of an early/intermediate dissipation process occurred at a given $`y_h`$, of a late dissipation process ($`y_h1`$), and of a free-free distortion. We exploit the same data sets of the previous subsection but without any prior on the distortion parameters.

The results are reported in Table 2 (95 per cent CL) for a representative set of the earlier dissipation epoch $`y_h`$ and displayed in Fig. 1 for the whole range of $`y_h`$.

Clearly, the sensitivities on each distortion parameter are worse than the “analogous” one in Table 1, but the relative improvements with respect to the current observational status are similar.

Although FIRAS II (DIMES) still plays the most relevant role for the energy exchanges (for the free-free distortions), it is interesting to note that in this case the spectral distortion parameter recovery appreciably improves by combining the two experiments. This is because such levels of accuracy on a so wide frequency range allow to remove the approximate degeneracy both between free-free and BE-like distortions and between Comptonization and BE-like distortions that remain in presence of future significant improvements only at $`\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{>}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ cm or at $`\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ cm, respectively.

This point will be discussed again in the next subsections, where the analysis of the capability of such experiments to measure spectral distortions possibly present in the CMB spectrum and the corresponding dissipation epochs is presented.

### 4.2 Fits to simulated data: distorted spectra

In this subsection we exploit the simulated data S-E5C, S-E1.5C, and S-E0.1C (see Sect. 3.2) to evaluate the quality of spectral distortion parameter recovery achievable with the considered experiments.

#### 4.2.1 Combining DIMES and FIRAS II

We first consider the information achievable by combining DIMES and FIRAS II.

In the case of the data set S-E5C, a fit in terms of two energy exchanges at the epochs assumed in the input model ($`y_h=5`$ and $`y_h1`$) shows that the values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$ can be accurately recovered: for example, in the considered test, we find $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h=5)=(2.79\pm 0.79)\times 10^6`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h1)=(3.03\pm 0.42)\times 10^6`$ (errors at 95 per cent CL) with a $`\chi ^2`$/d.o.f. $`=1.100`$. This results are not significantly affected by allowing also for a free-free distortion. We find in this case: $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h=5)=(2.71\pm 0.90)\times 10^6`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h1)=(3.06\pm 0.47)\times 10^6`$, and the recovered $`y_B=(1.69\pm 9.96)\times 10^8`$ is clearly in agreement with the null input value ($`\chi ^2`$/d.o.f. $`=1.119`$).

We verified also that a (wrong) interpretation of these simulated data in terms of a single kind of spectral distortion is clearly ruled out (and the recovery of the spectral distortions parameters is, of course, wrong). Even in the most favourite case of a Comptonization distortion we find a $`\chi ^2`$/d.o.f. $`2`$ (the $`\chi ^2`$ goes from $`58`$ of previous fits to $`108`$). Analogously, an interpretation in terms of a single energy dissipation plus a free-free distortion is ruled out (we find $`\chi ^2`$/d.o.f. $`=1.774`$ in the most favourite case of a Comptonization distortion coupled to a free-free distortion).

We then tried to estimate the epoch of the earlier energy injection. By assuming $`y_h=2`$ we find a $`\chi ^258`$ but a degraded spectral distortion parameter recovery. In particular, the $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$ value of the later process is very weakly affected, while that of the earlier process is underestimated of $`10`$ % and a (wrong) small negative free-free detection, $`y_B=(7.34\pm 9.21)\times 10^8`$, appears, although clearly compatible with the input value $`y_B=0`$ at $`1.6\sigma `$.

If we try a fit assuming $`y_h=1`$ the results, substantially unchanged in terms of $`\chi ^2`$, degrades further from the physical point of view: we find $`y_B=(1.14\pm 0.89)\times 10^7`$, i.e. a sign no longer compatible (at $`2.6\sigma `$) with that of the, again only slightly affected, recovered Comptonization distortion.

To verify the physical trouble of such possible sign differences we computed the (negative) Comptonization distortion parameter produced by simple thermal histories (namely, with $`\varphi \mathrm{constant}`$ and fully ionized medium) at pre-recombination epochs or after the recombination able to generate free-free distortions in the range on the negative values found above. For example, we find $`u\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}1.8\times 10^5`$ by assuming a process in the redshift range $`10^410^3`$ and $`u\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}5.6\times 10^7`$ for a process in the redshift range $`10^310^2`$, while a process in the redshift range $`300`$ can produce such negative free-free distortions only for unphysical matter cooling processes involving $`\varphi \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.2}`$. Since also a cooling process with significant ionization at $`z10^310^2`$ seems to be excluded by WMAP, the only possible scenarios producing different signs of $`y_B`$ and $`u`$ should involve or a pre-recombination cooling process able to produce negative Comptonization and free-free distortions followed by a late heating process with a very small free-free distortion and a significant Comptonization distortion able to properly compensate the previous one, or, in general, particularly ad hoc thermal histories. In general, these possible scenarios should involve accurate fine tunings and appear difficult and untenable and should be discarded in favour of an early energy injection at relevant $`y_h`$ followed by a late dissipation mechanism.

In spite of the insignificant variations of the $`\chi ^2`$, the disagreement between the signs of free-free and Comptonization distortions due to the wrong assumption on the earlier process epoch, tends to “physically” support the (right) interpretation of the S-E5C data set involving an energy dissipation at $`y_h`$ certainly larger than 1 and, probably, larger than 2 or 3. We then conclude that reliable estimates of the epochs of the possible dissipation processes are achievable by combining DIMES-like and FIRAS II-like experiments, even for very small energy exchanges.

By exploiting the data set S-E1.5C, we find that a fit in terms of two energy exchanges at the epochs assumed in the input model ($`y_h=1.5`$ and $`y_h1`$) allows to recover the values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$ with a sensitivity similar to that quoted above for the data set S-E5C. Again, allowing for a free-free distortion does not represent a problem and models involving a single kind of spectral distortion or a single energy dissipation plus a free-free distortion can be easily ruled out by simple $`\chi ^2`$ arguments. Concerning the determination of the epoch of the earlier energy injection, in this case the comparison between the recovered signs of Comptonization and free-free distortions does not play a relevant role and the direct analysis of the $`\chi ^2`$ rules out values of $`y_h`$ smaller than $`0.1`$.

Finally, we analysed the data set S-E0.1C. We note that the differences between a spectrum resulting from a dissipation at $`y_h0.1`$ and that produced by a late ($`y_h1`$) process are significantly less evident that those between a spectrum resulting from a dissipation at relevant $`y_h`$ ($`y_h\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{>}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$) and that produced by a late ($`y_h1`$) process. Consequently, we may expect a degradation of the fit result quality. In fact, we find an appreciable underestimation of the earlier energy dissipation and an analogous overestimation of the later energy dissipation, and error bars significantly larger that in the previous cases: $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h=0.1)=(2.31\pm 1.34)\times 10^6`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h1)=(3.59\pm 1.33)\times 10^6`$ (errors at 95 per cent CL). Note that, even in this unfavourite case, the recovered values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$ are in agreement with the input ones at $`1\sigma `$ level. Also in this case, allowing for a free-free distortion does not degrade further the fit energy exchange recovery and models involving a single kind of spectral distortion or a single energy dissipation plus a free-free distortion can be directly ruled out by simple $`\chi ^2`$ arguments. A firm estimate of the epoch of the earlier energy injection can not be achieved in this case: fits involving models with an earlier energy injection at $`y_h\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{>}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ do not show a significant increase of the $`\chi ^2`$. On the other hand, from the analysis of the previous cases we know that the epoch of a possible energy injection at relevant $`y_h`$ can be quite well estimated from such high quality data. Therefore, in the situation in which a fit to the data in terms of two energy injections at different epochs (plus, possibly a free-free distortion) does not allow to estimate the epoch of the earlier process, it is quite reasonable to argue that the earlier process has been occurred at an epoch not particularly early (by looking at the results found for the data set S-E1.5C, we argue in this case an upper limit $`y_h\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$).

We conclude that the combined information contained in future DIMES and FIRAS II experiments will allow to clearly identify the presence of spectral distortions also in the quite general case of a thermal histories involving early/intermediate and late processes, to measure the corresponding parameters with a good precision even for small amounts ($`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i10^6`$) of dissipated energy, and to quite well constrain the epochs at which the processes have been possibly occurred.

#### 4.2.2 FIRAS II alone

In the previous subsection we have considered the information achievable by combining DIMES and FIRAS II. Burigana & Salvaterra 2003 discussed the scientific capabilities of accurate long wavelength measures coupled to the available FIRAS data. We then report here the results obtained by repeating the same analyses carried out above, but by considering the subsets of the data sets S-E5C, S-E1.5C, and S-E0.1C achievable by using FIRAS II alone.

In the case of the data set S-E5C, we find that the two values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$ can be recovered with an accuracy only slightly degraded with respect to that of the previous section only by performing the fit in terms of two energy exchanges at the epochs assumed in the input model (the resulting $`\chi ^2`$/d.o.f. $`=1.136`$ in this case) while allowing for a free-free distortion implies a degradation of a factor $`1.5`$ in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$ recovery sensitivity. Models with a single spectral distortions can be again ruled out; the same holds for models involving a single energy dissipation plus a free-free distortion, although with a $`\chi ^2`$ increase less significant than that found in the previous subsection (for example, for a fit in terms of a Comptonization distortion coupled to a free-free distortion we find $`\chi ^2`$/d.o.f. $`=1.399`$, to be compared with the value of 1.774 found in the previous subsection).

Results similar to those described above are found by considering the data set S-E1.5C. The main difference concerns the impact of free-free distortion: by allowing for it in the fit we find in the test a significant underestimation ($`36`$ %, no longer compatible at $`1\sigma `$ with the input one) on the recovery of the earlier energy injection ($`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h=1.5)=(1.92\pm 1.35)\times 10^6`$) and a corresponding (false) detection of a negative (at $`1.3\sigma `$) free-free distortion ($`y_B=(0.823\pm 1.248)\times 10^6`$) \[while the effect on Comptonization distortions is small; we find $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h1)=(3.37\pm 0.72)\times 10^6`$, errors at 95 per cent CL\]. Clearly, by using only high frequency data, the two errors tends to compensate each other, because of their signatures in the final spectrum.

The exploitation of the data set S-E0.1C shows analogous results. The above problem related to the impact of free-free distortion is further enhanced and the parameter recovery sensitivity is significantly degrades: we find $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h=0.1)=(1.58\pm 2.28)\times 10^6`$, $`y_B=(0.517\pm 1.199)\times 10^6`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h1)=(4.18\pm 2.20)\times 10^6`$ (errors at 95 per cent CL). In addition, while models with a single spectral distortions can be again directly ruled out, and the same holds for models without a late energy injection, models involving a single late ($`y_h1`$) energy dissipation plus a free-free distortion can not be longer ruled out on the basis on a direct $`\chi ^2`$ analysis but on the requirement of having Comptonization and free-free distortions with the same sign (we recover in this case the values $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i(y_h1)(5.78\pm 0.22)\times 10^6`$, i.e. about corresponding to the sum the energy dissipated by the two processes in order to fit the higher frequency tail of the spectrum, and a negative $`y_B`$ ($`(1.22\pm 0.76)\times 10^6`$) that tends to mimic the effect of an earlier energy dissipation).

Finally, we find that for all the three data sets only a poor information on the epoch of the earlier energy dissipation can be achieved.

#### 4.2.3 FIRAS II alone versus DIMES and FIRAS II

From the comparison between the results reported in the two previous subsections we can draw the following conclusions.

A FIRAS II-like experiment shows a sensitivity to the values of the two energy exchanges at different cosmic times similar to that achieved by combining a FIRAS II-like experiment and a DIMES-like experiment only in presence of a strong prior on the free-free distortion.

In the realistic case in which also $`y_B`$ should be recovered from the CMB spectrum data, the sensitivity of the spectral distortion parameter recovery will result significantly affected with respect to the case in which both FIRAS II and a DIMES data are available, with a sensitivity degradation factor of about $`1.52`$, related to the epoch of the earlier dissipation process, and possible significant deviations of the recovered values from the input ones.

In addition, the rejection of “wrong” (i.e. different from those assumed in the input model) models becomes less reliable in the case of earlier dissipations at $`y_h\mathrm{some}\times 0.1`$, being based no longer on direct $`\chi ^2`$ analyses but on physical requirements about the signs of the recovered free-free and Comptonization distortions.

Finally, quite accurate estimates of the epochs of the earlier processes are no longer possible.

By combining these results with those reported in Sect. 4.1 and with those presented in Burigana & Salvaterra 2003, we conclude that, although a significant progress of CMB spectrum measures only at $`\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{>}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ cm or at $`\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ cm certainly implies a great improvement of the current knowledge of thermal history of the Universe, only the combination of very precise measures both at $`\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{>}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ cm and at $`\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ cm will allow to recover the spectral distortion parameters and to map the thermal history of the Universe under quite general conditions.

### 4.3 Constraints on very high redshift processes

We extend here at $`z_h>z_1`$ (i.e. $`y_h>5`$) the constraints on $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$ that would be possible to derive at $`z_h=z_1`$ ($`y_h=5`$) with the combination of a DIMES-like and a FIRAS II-like experiment. We remember that at $`z>z_1`$ the Compton scattering is able to restore, after an energy injection, the kinetic equilibrium between matter and radiation, yielding a BE spectrum, and the combined effect of Compton scattering and photon production processes tends to reduce the magnitude of spectral distortions, possibly leading to a blackbody spectrum. The contribution to the thermalization process by a possible cyclotron emission associated to cosmic magnetic fields by including also stimulated emission and absorption (Afshordi 2002 and references therein) has been recently evaluated for realistic shapes of the distorted spectrum at early epochs (Zizzo 2003, Zizzo & Burigana 2003): the strong decreasing of the frequency dependent chemical potential, $`\mu (x)`$, of the BE-like spectrum (Sunyaev & Zeldovich 1970) at the very long wavelengths relevant for the cyclotron process implies a large suppression of the cyclotron efficiency. Therefore, only for values of the cosmic magnetic field, $`B`$, larger than $`10^6`$ G, well above current observational evidencies and theoretical predictions, this process is found to play a significant role, comparable to (or larger than) the combined effect of radiative Compton and bremsstrahlung that drives the thermalization process for reasonable values of $`B`$.

We consider here for simplicity only the case of the simulated observation of a not distorted spectrum, that represents a good example of the possible improvements represented by such kinds of experiments, directly comparable to the results based on the current data. The comparison is shown in Fig. 2, where the results obtained by considering only simulated data from a DIMES-like experiment together with the real FIRAS data (Burigana & Salvaterra 2003) are also reported.

Note how the constraints on $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$ can be improved by a factor $`10100`$ for processes possibly occurred in a wide range of cosmic epochs, corresponding to about a decade in redshift at $`z`$ about $`10^6`$.

It is also evident the improvement of the constraints on $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$ at $`z_h\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}\mathrm{few}\times 10^5`$, possible by adding FIRAS II data to DIMES data.

Finally, note that the results based on simulated FIRAS II and DIMES data are obtained by relaxing any assumption on $`y_B`$, assumed to be null in the other two cases (compare also the different cases reported in Tables 1 and 2).

Of course, large energy injections are still possible at very early epochs close to the thermalization redshift, when primordial nucleosynthesis set the ultimately constraints on energy injections in the cosmic radiation field.

## 5 Implications for some classes of late astrophysical processes

In the previous sections the constraints on free-free and Comptonization distortions from the new generation of CMB spectrum experiments have been considered from a general point of view, without assuming detailed physical models for their genesis. Such kinds of late distortions are expected in many astrophysical scenarios involving some energy dissipation mechanisms during various stages of the star and galaxy evolution or some particle or scalar field decay model (see e.g. De Zotti & Burigana 1992, Tegmark & Silk 1995). The relevance of their detection (Kogut 2003) has been partially renewed by the WMAP satellite discovery of a reionization phase at relevant redshifts, mainly supported by WMAP detection of an excess in the CMB TE cross-power spectrum on large angular scale (multipoles $`\mathrm{}\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}7}`$), indicating an optical depth to the CMB last scattering surface of $`\tau _e0.16`$ (Kogut et al. 2003).

Without the ambition to exhaustively cover a so wide topic, we compare here the coupled free-free and Comptonization distortions for some of the models recently discussed in the literature and discuss the possibility to reveal them with the new generation of CMB spectrum experiments.

Table 3 summarizes the chances of observing the Comptonization and free-free distortions for the four classes of processes discussed in the following subsections on the basis of the sensitivities reported in Table 2 (of course, a more optimistic conclusion for the possibility to measure the Comptonization distortion, i.e. a sensitivity improvement by a factor $`2.53`$, could be derived by assuming a quite strong prior on the earlier energy exchange; compare the last row of Table A1 with the last three rows of Table 2).

### 5.1 Free-free emitters

Oh (1999) predicted the level of free-free distortion can be produced by ionized halos in the early stage of galaxy formation by computing the moments of the intensity distribution from a Press-Schechter based model. The predicted free-free distortion results to be $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_B=3.4\times 10^3`$ K at $`2`$ GHz corresponding to a free-free distortion parameter $`y_B1.5\times 10^6`$, well within the sensitivity of DIMES. The associated Comptonization distortion predicted in this work is below the current FIRAS upper limit by about one order of magnitude, and is then likely measurable by a FIRAS II-like experiment. Moreover, this work assumed that free-free emitters are the only radio-bright sources in the sky. The existence of radio-loud galaxies and AGNs is likely to increase the spectral distortion due to radio sources.

### 5.2 Quasar driven blastwaves

The integrated Comptonization distortion from quasar driven blastwaves has been recently computed by Platania et al. 2002 through a quite general “energetic” approach, not particularly related to a detailed physical assumption. They found $`u2.4\times 10^6`$, clearly measurable with a FIRAS II-like experiment, with approximately the same fractional contribution from low-$`z`$ (0–2) and high-z (2–4) objects. The evaluation of the corresponding integrated free-free distortion is less model independent, being significantly sensitive to the density profile inside the blastwave because of the $`n_e^2`$ dependence of the free-free emission. By assuming the model described in Sect. 2 of Platania et al. 2002, we have computed the ratio between the Comptonization parameter $`u`$ and the free-free parameter $`y_B`$ integrated over the line-of-sight of the blastwave centre between the galaxy outer cut-off radius, $`R_g`$, approximately separating the virialized and infall regions, and an inner radius, $`r_{ff}`$ ($`(1/101/20)\times R_g`$, where the time required for the shock front to reach the outer radius of the galaxy equals the free-free cooling timescale (it is in fact reasonable to assume that the physical conditions at $`r<r_{ff}`$ are more related to the central engine than to the blastwave evolution). By assuming an electron temperature $`T_e10^6`$ K ($`T_e10^7`$ K) and a wide range of line-of-sight velocity dispersions, $`\sigma 100400`$ Km/s, we find $`y_B/u\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}\mathrm{few}\times 10^2`$ ($`\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}\mathrm{few}\times 10^3`$) for objects both at $`z1`$ and at $`z3`$, while only for low values of $`T_e`$ ($`10^5`$ K) and high values of $`\sigma `$ ($`400`$) $`y_B/u`$ approaches the unity. A reasonable upper limit to $`y_B`$ in this model is then $`\mathrm{some}\times 10^810^7`$, a value significantly smaller than the free-free distortion predicted in the model by Oh 1999 and below or comparable to the sensitivity of a DIMES-like experiment.

### 5.3 First stars in galaxies

The reionization of the Universe indicated by the WMAP data must have begun at relatively high redshift. Ciardi, Ferrara & White (2003) have studied the reionization process using supercomputer simulations of a large and representative region of a Universe which has cosmological parameters consistent with the WMAP results. The simulation follows both the radiative transfer of ionizing photons and the formation and evolution of the galaxy population which produces them.

They have shown that the WMAP measured optical depth to electron scattering is easily reproduced by a model in which reionization is caused by the first stars in galaxies with total masses of a few $`\times 10^9M_{}`$. Moreover, the first stars are “normal objects”, i.e. their mass is in the range 1–50 $`M_{}`$, but metal-free. Among the different model explored, the “best” WMAP value for $`\tau _e`$ is matched assuming a moderately top-heavy initial mass function (IMF) (Larson IMF with $`M_c=5M_{}`$) and an escape fraction of 20%. A Salpeter IMF with the same escape fraction gives $`\tau _e=0.132`$, which is still all the suggested 68% confidence ranges. Decreasing $`f_{esc}`$ to 5% gives $`\tau _e=0.104`$, which disagrees with WMAP only at $`1.01.5\sigma `$ level, the exact level depending on the detailed cosmological scenario adopted to fit the WMAP (and auxiliary) data.

Using the redshift evolution of the density of free electrons obtained by these simulations (kindly provided us by A. Ferrara), we compute the expected CMB spectral distortions. We obtain $`u`$distortions of the order of $`2.3\times 10^6`$ ($`4.5\times 10^7`$) for a constant electron temperature of $`10^6`$ K ($`2\times 10^4`$ K) corresponding to an energy injection of $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i9.2\times 10^6`$ ($`1.8\times 10^6`$) well below the current FIRAS upper limits, but easily detectable by an experiment with a sensitivity such that proposed for FIRAS II. We compute also the corresponding free-free distortion that results to be so small ($`y_B10^{11}`$) that can not be detected by any future experiment.

In the best-fit model of Ciardi et al. (2003) reionization is essentially complete by $`z_r13`$. This is difficult to reconcile with observations of the Gunn-Peterson effect in $`z>6`$ quasars (Becker et al. 2001; Fan et al. 2002). This implies a volume-average neutral fraction above $`10^3`$ and a mass-averaged neutral fraction $`1`$% at $`z=6`$. A fascinating (although speculative) possibility is that the Universe was reionized twice (Cen 2003; Whyte & Loeb 2002) with a relatively short redshift interval in which the IGM became neutral again.

### 5.4 Particle decays

An alternative scenario has been proposed by Hansen & Haiman (2003). They considered the case of a cosmologically significant particle with the property that it decays around a redshift $`z20`$. The decay products could have energies high enough to reionize the light elements. If this hypothetical particle is sufficient abundant, then it may explain the high value of the optical depth, without the need for stars to reionize the Universe at high redshift, but normal stellar populations could form at $`z<10`$ with the usual efficiencies and account for the completion of reionization epoch that appears to be occurring at $`z<10`$.

Hansen & Haiman (2003) proposed that this particle could be a sterile neutrino with a mass $`m_\nu 200`$ MeV and decay time $`\tau _d4\times 10^{15}`$ s. The decaying of this neutrino can account for the electron scattering optical depth $`\tau 0.16`$ (Kogut et al. 2003) measured by WMAP without violating existing astrophysical limits on the CMB and gamma ray background. In particular, they have shown that the expected energy injection in the CMB of this process is $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i0.43\times 10^6`$, depending on the fraction of the mean electron energy that goes into heating the IGM. These values are well below the current FIRAS upper limits, but in principle can be detected by future experiments such as FIRAS II (Fixsen & Mather 2002). We calculate the associated free-free distortion of the CMB spectrum generated during a redshift interval corresponding to a time interval between $`\tau _d/10`$ and $`3\tau _d`$ for different simple thermal histories ($`T_e\mathrm{const}`$ or $`\varphi \mathrm{const}`$) producing the above values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$. The expected $`y_B`$ is in the range $`0.41.4\times 10^7`$ depending mainly on the exact amount of energy that goes into the IGM and only slightly on the considered thermal history of the process. Particularly for cases in which a large amount of the electron energy goes into heating the IGM, this distortion can be in principle observable by the future DIMES experiment.

## 6 Discussion and conclusions

We have studied the implications of the new generation of CMB spectrum space experiments for our knowledge of the thermal history of the Universe.

The combination of two experiments with the sensitivity and the frequency coverage jointly forseen for DIMES and FIRAS II will be able to greatly change our vision of the capability of the CMB spectrum information to constrain physical processes at different cosmic ages. The limits on the energy dissipations at the all cosmic times accessible to CMB spectrum investigations ($`z\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}z_{therm}`$) could be improved by about two order of magnitudes and even dissipation processes with $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i10^6`$ could be detected and possibly accurately studied.

We tested also the possibility to have an independent cross-check on the baryon density accurately measured by CMB anisotropy experiments in presence of possible small early distortions, by using such accurate measures at $`\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ cm to determine the chemical potential and the longer wavelengths to estimate $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Omega }}_b`$ through the decreasing of the equivalent thermodynamic temperature at increasing wavelengths, without finding a significant improvement with respect to the results previously described in Burigana & Salvaterra 2003: only high accuracy measures at very long wavelengths ($`50`$ cm) about the minimum of the equivalent thermodynamic temperature are able to provide a firm and accurate independent cross-check on $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Omega }}_b`$.

With a joint analysis of two dissipation processes occurring at different epochs, we demonstrated that the sensitivity and the wide frequency range jointly covered by DIMES and FIRAS II would allow to accurately recover the two amounts of energy exchanged in the primeval plasma and to constrain quite well also the epochs of the two processes even when possible, a priori unknown, imprints from free-free distortions are taken into account in the data analysis. All the three distortion parameters could be in fact accurately reconstructed in this perspective: the sensitivity at 95 per cent CL is $`(59)\times 10^7`$ for the two values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$ and of $`10^7`$ for $`y_B`$.

These results are possible because such levels of accuracy on a so wide frequency range allow to remove the approximate degeneracy both between free-free and BE-like distortions and between Comptonization and BE-like distortions that remain in presence of future significant improvements only at $`\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{>}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ cm or at $`\lambda \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ cm, respectively. The sensitivity on $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ/ϵ_i`$, mainly determined by a FIRAS II-like experiment, improves by a factor $`1.5`$ by adding the information from a DIMES-like experiment, while the sensitivity on $`y_B`$, mainly determined by a DIMES-like experiment, improves by a factor $`1.32.6`$, by adding the information from a FIRAS II-like experiment.

Of course, not only a very good sensitivity, but also an extreme control of the all systematic effects and, in particular, of the frequency calibration is crucial to reach these goals.

Finally, we discussed the different signatures imprinted on the CMB spectrum by some late astrophysical and particle decay models recently proposed in the literature and possibly related to the reionization of the Universe indicated by WMAP, and compared them with the sensitivity of such classes of CMB space spectrum experiments. Different processes produce different levels of coupled Comptonization and free-free distortions and the combination of very accurate CMB spectrum measures at long and short wavelengths can in principle probe or constrain these models.

## Acknowledgements

We warmly thank L. Danese, G. De Zotti, A. Ferrara and P. Platania for numberless conversations on theoretical aspects of CMB spectral distortions and on the ionization history. It is a pleasure to thank M. Bersanelli and N. Mandolesi for useful discussions on CMB spectrum observations. Some of the calculations presented in Sect. 5 have been carried out on an alpha digital unix machine at the IFP/CNR in Milano by using some NAG integration codes.

## Appendix A Joint analysis of two kinds of spectral distortions

For sake of completeness we report in Table A1 the constraints that can be in principle derived from a FIRAS II-like experiment and from the combination of a DIMES-like experiment with a FIRAS II-like experiment in the joint analysis of two kinds of spectral distortions. These sensitivities on a couple of distortion parameters apply in the case in which a quite strong prior is assumed on the third distortion parameter (in practice, assuming it ranging within an interval much smaller than the corresponding sensitivity quoted in Table 2). Compare Table A1 with Table 2. Although the best sensitivity on $`y_B`$ is reached when the earlier energy exchange is assumed known, the sensitivity on $`y_B`$ does not depend much on the considered case and not much degrades by considering two energy exchanges. Finally, the sensitivity on one of the two energy exchanges is better by assuming known the other one and unknown the free-free distortion than by assuming known the free-free distortion and unknown the other energy exchange.


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# Aspect ratio dependence of charge transport in turbulent electroconvection

## Abstract

We present measurements of the normalized charge transport or Nusselt number $`\mathrm{Nu}`$ as a function of the aspect ratio $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ for turbulent convection in an electrically driven film. In analogy with turbulent Rayleigh-Bénard convection, we develop the relevant theoretical framework in which we discuss the local-power-law-scaling of $`\mathrm{Nu}`$ with a dimensionless electrical forcing parameter $``$. For these experiments where $`10^42\times 10^5`$ we find that $`\mathrm{Nu}\mathrm{F}(\mathrm{\Gamma })^\gamma `$ with $`\gamma `$ either $`=0.26(\pm 0.02)`$ or $`0.20(\pm 0.03)`$, in excellent agreement with the theoretical predictions of $`\gamma =1/4`$ and $`1/5`$. Our measurements of the aspect ratio-dependence of $`\mathrm{Nu}`$ for $`0.3\mathrm{\Gamma }17`$ compares favorably with the function $`\mathrm{F}(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ from the scaling theory.

Heat transport has for many years been the cornerstone in the study of turbulent Rayleigh-Bénard convection (RBC) kadanoff\_01 . Over the past three years there has been remarkable experimental ahlers\_00 ; ahlers\_side\_00 ; niemela\_00 ; ahlers\_01 ; xia\_lam\_zhou\_02 ; ahlers\_03 ; niemela\_03  and theoretical GL\_00 ; GL\_01 ; GL\_sidewall\_03  progress in characterizing the properties and mechanisms of heat transfer in fluids heated from below. So far, experiments and theory are relevant only to approximately unit aspect ratio systems i.e. geometries that have comparable lateral and vertical dimensions. Turbulent convection flows in nature, however, are laterally extended and the transport of heat across a layer of fluid has been inadequately studied as a function of the aspect ratio $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{lateral}\mathrm{dimension}/\mathrm{vertical}\mathrm{dimension}`$. In particular, experiments at $`\mathrm{\Gamma }>2`$ have seldom been performed primarily because it is extremely difficult to achieve the strong forcing that is readily reached in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1`$ containers.

In this Letter, we present a study of an analogous electrically driven convecting system which allows a broad range of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ to be explored at moderate levels of forcing. We show that measurements of the normalized charge transport $`\mathrm{Nu}`$ varies with the aspect ratio $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ consistent with a function $`\mathrm{F}`$ given by the scaling theory. The strong dependence on $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ especially for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1`$ implies that experiment and theories relevant to this regime are restrictive. The data and the function $`\mathrm{F}`$ become increasingly independent of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1`$. This observation highlights the importance of developing experiments and theory for laterally extended systems where it appears that universal behavior, often lacking in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1`$ systems, may be restored daya\_ecke\_01 . Our data also reveal that $`\mathrm{Nu}^\gamma `$ with $`\gamma =0.26`$ and $`0.20`$ in agreement with a local-power-law-scaling theory developed in a manner identical to the Grossmann-Lohse (GL) model for turbulent RBC GL\_00 ; GL\_01 .

In previous work, it has been demonstrated that an electrically conducting, freely suspended liquid crystal film between parallel wires could be driven to convect when a sufficiently large potential drop was applied across its edges morris\_90 ; mao\_97 ; daya\_97 ; dey\_97 ; daya\_98 ; daya\_99 ; daya\_thesis\_99 ; daya\_01 ; daya\_02 . Experiments daya\_98 ; daya\_thesis\_99 ; daya\_01 ; daya\_02  and theory daya\_99 ; daya\_thesis\_99  were then extended to the naturally periodic geometry of an annular film shown schematically in Fig. 1. Analogous to RBC where an inverted mass density distribution is unstable to buoyant forcing, the thin film has an inverted surface charge density distribution that is unstable to electrical forcing. In this system, an initial bifurcation to convection rolls occurs when the applied voltage $`V`$ exceeds a critical voltage $`V_c`$, corresponding to the critical temperature difference in RBC. Secondary bifurcations occur at higher forcing and result in changing the number of counter-rotating vortex pairs that are arranged around the annulus. At much higher forcing the fluid becomes turbulent but retains the large scale structure of the rolls or convection cells.

Electroconvecting smectic films have several advantages and disadvantages relative to traditional RBC experiments. In turbulent RBC experiments, the accurate measurement of heat transport requires detailed accounting of the heat conducted through the sidewalls ahlers\_side\_00 . The annular geometry of the smectic film (see Fig. 1a) is free of lateral boundaries and consequently without sidewall losses, which facilitates precise measurement of the charge transport between the inner and outer electrodes. The film is an annular disk of width $`d=r_or_i5`$ mm and thickness $`s0.1\mu `$m. Here $`r_i(r_o)`$ are the radii of the inner (outer) electrodes that support the film (see Fig. 1b). These radii can be varied so as to achieve different values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. The tiny size of the film, which contains many orders of magnitude less working fluid than required for an RBC experiment, results in data acquisition timescales of minutes, rather than days. On the other hand, the smectic film is delicate and while many films survive vigorous forcing without thickness change, some do suffer sudden thickness variations. Since $`V_c`$ and other properties of the flows depend on thickness, these data must be discarded. The dc electrical forcing also results in conductivity drifts in the films, which result in systematic uncertainties. The experiments we describe here were carried out at atmospheric pressure, which increases the film stability. But air drag, which is known to produce a quantitative but not qualitative change to the dissipation, is not properly accounted for in the theory. Nevertheless, notwithstanding these caveats, we are able to efficiently explore the turbulent scaling regime over a broad range of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, complementing RBC experiments.

Our experiment consists of a temperature controlled film of octylcyanobiphenyl (8CB), a smectic-A liquid crystal, suspended between two concentric gold-plated electrodes. In the smectic-A phase, the film flows as an isotropic, incompressible and Newtonian fluid in the plane of the film. The flow is strictly two-dimensional. The film is driven to electroconvect by a dc voltage applied to its inner edge while holding the outer edge at ground potential. The annular assembly is enclosed in a Faraday cage. An experiment consists of imposing a voltage $`V`$ to the inner electrode and measuring the current $`I`$ transported through the film with a sensitive electrometer. The applied voltage was varied between $`0`$ and $`1000`$ volts in a sequence of small incremental and decremental steps resulting in a current-voltage characteristic. Further details of the apparatus and procedure can be found in Refs. daya\_98 ; daya\_99 ; daya\_thesis\_99 ; daya\_01 ; daya\_02 . Figure 2 shows a representative current-voltage (IV) characteristic. For $`V<V_c`$ the fluid is quiescent with the current sustained by ohmic conduction. When $`V>V_c`$ the fluid is organized in counter-rotating vortices and additional charge is transferred by convection; this is seen by the increase in slope of the IV-characteristic. At higher voltages, the fluid becomes turbulent and the transition is marked by a sudden increase in the rms fluctuations of the current, as shown in the inset of Fig. 2.

A film is a 2D annular sheet. The film has thickness/width $`s/d10^4`$. Geometrically, a film is described by its radius ratio $`\alpha =r_i/r_o`$ and the aspect ratio $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_r=\pi (r_i+r_o)/(r_or_i)`$, which is the ratio of the mid-radius circumference to the film width. So defined, $`\pi <\mathrm{\Gamma }_r<\mathrm{}`$. To make correspondence with the conventional aspect ratio $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ for RBC, we define $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }_r\pi `$ for the annulus. Two other dimensionless parameters describe the experimental system: $`=ϵ_0^2V^2/\sigma \eta s^2`$ and $`𝒫=ϵ_0\eta /\rho \sigma sd`$. Here $``$ is the control parameter and is a measure of the external electrical forcing and $`𝒫`$, the Prandtl-like parameter, is the ratio of the time scales of electrical and viscous dissipation processes in the film. In the above the fluid density, molecular viscosity, and conductivity are denoted by $`\rho `$, $`\eta `$, and $`\sigma `$, and $`ϵ_0`$ is the permittivity of free space.

We normalize the measured total electric current $`I`$ by the portion due to conduction $`I_{cond}=cV`$ where $`c`$ is the ohmic conductance of the film obtained from the IV-characteristic when the film is not convecting, i.e. when $`V<V_c`$. We define the normalized charge transport or Nusselt number $`\mathrm{Nu}=I/I_{cond}`$. Figure 3 shows representative sets of $`\mathrm{Nu}`$ vs $``$ data at $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=0.33\pm 0.01`$ and $`6.60\pm 0.02`$. We find that $`\mathrm{Nu}^\gamma `$ for $`10^42\times 10^5`$ with either $`\gamma =0.26\pm 0.02`$ or $`\gamma =0.20\pm 0.03`$, depending on the size of $`𝒫`$. The error bar is obtained from the variation in the best-fit value of $`\gamma `$ over $`26`$ data sets for all four values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

We developed a theoretical model describing turbulent electroconvection by borrowing from turbulent RBC. The equations of motion that describe electroconvection consist of the incompressible Navier-Stokes equation supplemented with an electrical body force, the charge conservation equation that accounts for ohmic conduction and advection of charge and Maxwell’s equation that relates the surface charge density to the electric potential;

$`_t𝐮+𝐮𝐮`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{p}{\rho }}+\nu ^2𝐮{\displaystyle \frac{q}{\rho }}\psi ,`$ (1)
$`_tq+𝐮q`$ $`=`$ $`\sigma ^2\psi ,`$ (2)
$`q`$ $`=`$ $`2ϵ_0_z\psi .`$ (3)
These equations are constrained by the no-slip and applied electric potential boundary conditions. In the above equations $``$, $`𝐮`$, $`p`$ and $`\nu `$ are the 2D gradient, velocity, pressure and kinematic viscosity respectively. The electric potential $`\psi `$ is three dimensional and extends outside the film, where $`(^2+_z^2)\psi =0`$. The Maxwell equation relates the perpendicular gradient of $`\psi `$ to the surface charge $`q`$. The factor of 2 arises from the film’s two free surfaces. The relation between $`\psi `$ and $`q`$ is thus nonlocal and somewhat complex. It can be considerably simplified by making a local approximation, setting $`q=2\beta \psi `$, where $`\beta `$ is a certain constant. This local approximation has been shown to be adequate in describing the onset of electroconvection. See Ref. daya\_99  for a detailed discussion of the theoretical model.

The Eqns. 12 are similar to the Boussinesq equations for turbulent RBC. In particular, in the local approximation, there is an almost precise correspondence between the temperature and the electric potential. The periodicity of the annular geometry and thereby of the velocity and electric potential allow for exact relations for the globally-averaged kinetic and electric dissipations. Denoting averages over the system volume by $`\mathrm{}`$ we find the following for the kinetic dissipation $`ϵ_𝐮\nu (𝐮)^2`$ and for the electric dissipation $`ϵ_\psi \sigma (\psi )^2`$:

$`ϵ_𝐮`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\nu ^3𝒫^2(\mathrm{Nu}1)}{\mathrm{ln}(1/\alpha )(r_o^2r_i^2)(r_or_i)^2}},`$ (4)
$`ϵ_\psi `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\sigma V^2\mathrm{Nu}}{\mathrm{ln}(1/\alpha )(r_o^2r_i^2)}}.`$ (5)
These relations are similar to those for the kinetic and thermal dissipation in RBC presented in Refs. GL\_00 ; GL\_01 ; shr\_sig\_90\_94 . Following the GL theory, we decompose the kinetic and electric dissipations into bulk and boundary layer parts: $`ϵ_{𝐮,\psi }=ϵ_{𝐮,\psi }^{BULK}+ϵ_{𝐮,\psi }^{BL}`$. Considering the various combinations of the dominant contributors to the total dissipation (e.g. BL-$`\psi `$ and BULK-$`𝐮`$ etc.) we can determine the corresponding local power-law scalings for each of the regimes. We assume that the turbulent flow is comprised of convection cells that tile the annulus as shown in Fig. 1a and that each cell is roughly square i.e. it has the same transverse and lateral dimension. The large scale circulation is then the vortex that defines a cell. Assuming laminar boundary layer scaling we can then show that

$`\mathrm{Nu}`$ $``$ $`\mathrm{F}(\mathrm{\Gamma })^\gamma 𝒫^\delta ,\mathrm{Re}^\gamma _{}𝒫^\delta _{},\mathrm{and}`$ (6)
$`\mathrm{F}(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }+\pi }{\pi }}\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }+2\pi }{\mathrm{\Gamma }}}\right).`$ (7)
As might be expected, we find the same set of exponents $`\gamma ,\delta ,\gamma _{},\delta _{}`$ that appear in the GL theory. Here, $`\mathrm{Re}`$ is the Reynolds number of the large scale circulation.

In the relatively small $``$ regime, the total dissipation is dominated by the BL-contributions and the theory predicts $`\gamma =1/4`$ and $`\delta =1/8`$. In a neighboring regime where the dissipation is primarily $`ϵ_𝐮^{BULK}`$ and $`ϵ_\psi ^{BL}`$, the theory predicts $`\gamma =\delta =1/5`$. Our measured $`\gamma `$ exponents, as shown in Figure 3 are in reasonable agreement with the theoretical predictions from the GL model, if we suppose that we traverse the appropriate regimes as $`𝒫`$ varies. A detailed validation of the theory would depend crucially on either directly demonstrating the correctness of the assumptions about the dominant contributions to the dissipation or on systematically showing that the right local power-law scalings are indeed obtained as one varies $`𝒫`$ and $``$. Our experiments currently span only relatively low $`<2\times 10^5`$ and sparsely cover the rather wide range $`5<𝒫<250`$. Many more experiments will be needed to adequately test the GL theory for turbulent electroconvection.

In the theoretical treatment described above, we have taken into account the dependence on the aspect ratio of the system, a consideration that was missing in the GL theory which treated only $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1`$ systems GL\_00 ; GL\_01 ; GL\_sidewall\_03 . We find that the charge transport is modified by a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-dependent factor $`\mathrm{F}`$($`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$). Since the large scale circulation is local to each convection vortex, $`\mathrm{Re}`$ is independent of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Unlike Ref. shr\_sig\_90\_94 , we find the aspect-ratio dependence is not a power-law scaling but rather a function of the finite annular geometry. We can make a direct comparison with previous turbulent RBC experiments by making a correspondence between the different cell geometries, using $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }_r\pi `$ as described above. We plot $`k\mathrm{F}`$($`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) vs. $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, with the constant $`k=\pi /((\pi +1)\mathrm{ln}(2\pi +1))=0.382`$. Following Ref. ahlers\_00 , we choose this normalization so that $`k\mathrm{F}(\mathrm{\Gamma }=1)=1`$. Then $`k\mathrm{F}0.764`$ in the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{}`$ limit. The function $`k\mathrm{F}`$ decreases monotonically with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ with the greatest variation for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }<2`$, and is within $`2\%`$ of the limiting value for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }>7`$.

Our experimental data span the range $`0.3\mathrm{\Gamma }17`$. From power-law fits to $`\mathrm{Nu}`$ vs. $``$ data we have extracted the exponents $`\gamma `$. To determine $`\mathrm{F}(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ we then divide $`\mathrm{Nu}`$ by $`^\gamma 𝒫^\delta `$. Because our data extend over a rather wide range of $`𝒫`$, we expect to cross regimes with differing $`\gamma `$ and $`\delta `$GL\_00 ; GL\_01 . To extract the aspect ratio dependence alone, we used the fitted value of $`\gamma `$, and where $`\gamma 0.25(0.20)`$, we used the GL-theory prediction of $`\delta =1/8(1/5)`$. Using one free parameter for all the data, we again scaled these results so that $`\mathrm{F}(\mathrm{\Gamma }=1)=1`$. Our data for $`4`$ different $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ are in reasonable quantitative agreement with the theoretical function $`\mathrm{F}`$, as shown in Fig. 4. Each data point is an average over $`410`$ runs. The error estimates are representative of the scatter in $`\mathrm{F}`$ over these data. In particular, the largest contribution to the error at $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=16`$ is systematic and arises from the ambiguity in the correct exponent for $`𝒫`$.

Data from several turbulent RBC experimentsahlers\_00 ; ahlers\_side\_00 ; niemela\_00 ; niemela\_03 ; HKgroup\_96  for $`4`$ values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ are also broadly in agreement with the function $`\mathrm{F}`$, in spite of the difference in geometry and the higher range of Rayleigh numbers. Earlier RBC experimentsthrelfall\_74 ; wu\_libchaber\_92  used gases as the working fluid and deviate significantly from $`\mathrm{F}`$.

Several important questions are raised by our results on the aspect ratio dependence of charge transport in turbulent electroconvection and, by extension, that of heat transport in turbulent RBC. The strong dependence of $`\mathrm{F}`$ on $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ for $`0\mathrm{\Gamma }7`$, suggests that the dynamics of turbulent convection is dependent on the system’s lateral extent. That the charge or heat transport, a global property, is sensitive to the aspect ratio further suggests that local properties such as temperature and charge fluctuations may be even more strongly dependent on $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Experiments in turbulent RBC clearly show that while heat transport is insensitive to cell geometry at fixed $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1`$, the fluctuations are strongly affected by the shape of the lateral boundary daya\_ecke\_01 . The relative independence of $`\mathrm{F}`$ on $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ for large aspect ratio, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }7`$ suggests that the normalized charge and heat transport approach a universal value in laterally extended systems. We conjecture that fluctuations in the interior may also become universal in large aspect ratio systems.

Our results emphasize the importance of extending convective turbulence experiments to larger aspect ratios. For turbulent smectic electroconvection, we would like to make a systematic study of the scaling of $`\mathrm{Nu}`$ in the parameter space of $``$ and $`𝒫`$. $`𝒫`$ can be varied in principle by changing the thickness and/or width of the film. We would also like to study long time series of $`\mathrm{Nu}`$ in order to infer the characteristic size and duration of the fluctuations. It is a challenge to extend the forcing parameter $``$ to values much beyond $`10^6`$, since this requires applying large voltages across the film that may result in dielectric breakdown. A first step would be to better control the electrochemistry of the liquid crystal film to reduce drifts and push down the critical voltage $`V_c`$. It would also be interesting to extend our previous studies of electroconvection under shear daya\_98 ; daya\_99 ; daya\_thesis\_99 ; daya\_01 ; daya\_02  to the turbulent regime. Finally, we would like to develop local probes to study the fluctuations of the velocity and electric potential over the film.

We thank G. Ahlers, E. Ben-Naim, R. E. Ecke and E. Titi for helpful discussions and constructive comments. This research was supported by the Canadian NSERC and the U.S. DOE (W-7405-ENG-36).


text:
# The variable quiescence of Cen X-4

## 1 Introduction

Many Low Mass X–ray Binaries (LMXRB) accrete matter at very high rates, and therefore shine as bright X–ray sources, only sporadically. Among these systems are Soft X–ray Transients (SXRTs) hosting an old neutron star (for a review see Campana et al. 1998a). These systems alternate periods (weeks to months) of high X–ray luminosity, during which they share the same properties of persistent LMXRBs, to long (1–few 10 years) intervals of quiescence in which the X–ray luminosity drops by up to 5–6 orders of magnitude.

Cen X-4 is one of the best studied SXRTs. Bright X–ray outbursts were detected in 1969 and 1979; the source remained quiescent since. During the 1979 outburst Cen X-4 reached a peak flux $`L_X4\times 10^{37}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (for a distance of $`d1.2`$ kpc, Kaluzienski, Holt & Swank 1980). Type I bursts were observed, testifying to the presence of an accreting neutron star. Cen X-4 was observed several times in quiescence (Asai et al. 1996, 1998; Campana et al. 1997, 2000; Rutledge et al. 2001). The spectrum was fit with a soft thermal component (neutron star atmosphere or black body) plus a hard power law with photon index in the 1–2 range. Rutledge et al. (2001) reported that the 0.5–10 keV luminosity decreased by $`40\pm 8\%`$ in the 5 yr between the ASCA and Chandra observations. This variability can be attributed to the power-law component; on the contrary temperature variations in the thermal component are limited to $`\stackrel{<}{}10\%`$. Short time variability was discovered by Campana et al. (1997) during a ROSAT HRI pointing, with the source flux fading by a factor of $`3`$ on a timescale of $`\stackrel{<}{}4`$ days.

Extensive spectroscopic and photometric measurements of the optical counterpart in quiescence (V=18.7 mag) led to the determination of the orbital period (15.1 hr; Chevalier et al. 1989; McClintock & Remillard 1990; Cowley et al. 1988) and mass function ($`0.2M_{}`$, converting to a neutron star mass between $`0.52.3M_{}`$). The optical spectrum shows the characteristics of a K5-7 main sequence star, contaminated by lines (e.g. H$`\alpha `$, H$`\beta `$ and H$`\gamma `$) and continuum emission probably resulting from an accretion disk (Shahbaz, Naylor & Charles 1993). The latter was estimated to contribute $`80\%`$, $`30\%`$, $`25\%`$ and $`10\%`$ of the quiescent optical flux in the B, V, R and I bands, respectively. A short wavelength HST/FOS spectrum of the quiescent optical counterpart yielded a 1350–2200 Å luminosity of $`0.64\times 10^{31}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$. These results were confirmed by higher quality HST/STIS spectra (McClintock & Remillard 2000). In particular, the UV spectrum appears to lie on the extrapolation of the power law component seen in X rays.

In this paper we take advantage of an XMM-Newton observation of Cen X-4 to investigate, in much higher detail its quiescent state. We describe the observation characteristics and data filtering in Section 2. In Section 3 we discuss on spectral and timing results. The interpretation of the data and discussion is presented in Section 4. Our conclusions are in Section 5.

## 2 Observation and data analysis

The XMM-Newton Observatory (Jansen et al. 2001) comprises three $`1500`$ cm2 effective area X–ray telescopes each with a European Photon Imaging Camera (EPIC, 0.1–15 keV) at the focus. Two of the EPIC imaging spectrometers use MOS CCDs (Turner et al. 2001) and one uses pn CCDs (Strüder et al. 2001). Reflection Grating Spectrometers (RGS, 0.35–2.5 keV, den Herder et al. 2001) are located behind two of the telescopes.

Cen X-4 was observed on 2001 August 20–21. The EPIC cameras were operated in the Prime Full Window mode with thin filters. We used the data generated by the Pipeline Processing Subsystem in September 2001. The observation is plagued by high background intervals due to soft proton flares. We excluded them using an intensity filter: all events accumulated in a time interval such that the rate, excluded the source region, exceeded 0.3 c s-1 in the 10–12 keV band for each of the two MOS cameras and 0.8 c s-1 for the pn camera were rejected. We adopted these thresholds, which are somewhat higher than the standard ones, motivated by the strength of our source ($`1`$ c s-1 in the 0.2–8 keV band of the pn, see below). We verified that results obtained by using standard thresholds are consistent with the cleaner (but shorter) exposures. We obtained net (original) exposure times of 32 (52) ks, 32 (52) ks, 24 (40) ks for MOS1, MOS2 and pn, respectively. These represent the deepest observation of a neutron star SXRT ever carried out. RGS spectra were heavily affected by soft proton flares due to the dispersion over the field of view. Optical monitor was not operated.

For the pn, single and double pixel events were selected (patterns 0 to 4), for the MOS, events corresponding to patterns from 0 to 12 were selected. Source spectra were extracted from a circular region of $`45^{\prime \prime }`$ for the two MOS cameras and $`40^{\prime \prime }`$ for pn camera, corresponding to an encircle energy fraction of $`90\%`$. Background spectra have been extracted from nearby circular regions $`2^{}`$ and $`2.5^{}`$ for the MOS1 and MOS2, respectively. For the pn we considered two circular regions of $`40^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`60^{\prime \prime }`$ in the same CCD of the source. Following the prescriptions of Snowden et al. (2002) we extracted the spectra (including the FLAG=0 option) obtaining 9609 counts (0.29 c s-1), 9829 counts (0.30 c s-1), 28673 counts (1.1 c s-1) from the MOS1, MOS2 and pn in the full band, respectively. Note that pile up was negligible ($`<1\%`$).

Response matrices and ancillary region files were generated with the SAS (v5.3.3) tasks rmfgen and arfgen. The spectral analysis was carried out in the 0.5–10 keV energy range for all the instruments using XSPEC (v11.2). All spectral uncertainties are given at $`90\%`$ confidence level for one interesting parameter ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2=2.71`$).

## 3 Results

### 3.1 Spectral analysis: I

We first consider the total spectrum. We rebinned the MOS and pn spectra so as to have 25 and 30 counts per spectral channel, respectively. We verified that the background spectra, especially at high energies, are not dominated by residual soft proton flares. In particular, pn and MOS background spectra show the same behaviour and decrease by a factor of $`2`$ from 2 to 10 keV as expected for normal conditions (Lumb et al. 2002).

The spectrum cannot be fit with any single component model. We then tried the canonical spectrum for SXRT in quiescence (e.g. Campana et al. 1998b; Campana 2001), i.e. an absorbed neutron star hydrogen atmosphere plus a power law (we adopted the absorption model TBABS by Wilms, Allen & McCray 2000 and the neutron star atmosphere model by Gänsicke, Braje & Romani 2002). We included also a constant factor to account for the mismatch between the different EPIC instruments (Kirsch 2002). This model provides a reduced $`\chi _{\mathrm{red}}^2=1.07`$ for 518 degrees of freedom (d.o.f.), corresponding to a null hypothesis probability (n.h.p.) of $`12\%`$ (see Fig. 1). Neutron star atmosphere models with iron or solar composition or a disk black body model provided worse fits with $`\chi _{\mathrm{red}}^2>1.3`$. A black body model formally provided a better fit to the data but with a null column density ($`<1.4\times 10^{20}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ see Table 1). Taking instead a column density of $`9\times 10^{20}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ (in line with expectations from optical data) we obtained a worse fit ($`\chi _{\mathrm{red}}^2=1.18`$).

The unabsorbed 0.5–10 keV flux of the power law plus neutron star atmosphere models is $`2.3\times 10^{12}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{cm}^2`$ that at a distance of 1.2 kpc translates into a luminosity of $`3.9\times 10^{32}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$. In the 0.5–10 keV band the atmosphere model accounts for $`63\%`$ of the total luminosity.

### 3.2 Temporal analysis

For timing analysis we considered the entire observation, including high background time intervals. Besides source light curves, we extracted background light curves which we subtract (including the error on the background rate) from the source light curve. The resulting light curve is clearly not constant (Fig. 2). The importance of the background is in any case minimal apart from the minimum around 21.5 hr in Fig. 2 when the background reached $`40\%`$ of the Cen X-4 rate.

We extracted light curves in selected energy bands: 0.2–1 keV, 1–2 keV and 2–8 keV (see Fig. 3). A smaller amplitude of the variability at high energies is apparent. Taking a bin time of 500 s (in order to have a mean of 30 counts per bin in the 2–8 keV light curve) we fit the light curves with a constant and we obtained $`\chi _{\mathrm{red}}^2=13.7,4.8,1.6`$ in the three energy bands, respectively. Possible flare-like events can be identified around 14 hr, 16.5 hr and 22.5 hr in Fig. 2. Rise times are about 20 min. A dip-like feature is also visible around 21.5 hr.

We obtained a power spectrum of the entire observation by using the cleanest pn exposure. The power spectrum shows a strong noise component below $`0.01`$ Hz (i.e. a timescale longer than $`100`$ s), consistent with the variability discussed above. The rms variability amounts to $`45\pm 7\%`$ in the $`10^41`$ Hz band. The power spectrum can be well fit with a power law with index $`1.2\pm 0.1`$. No significant periodicities or quasi-periodic oscillations are seen. The power-law index of the X–ray power spectrum is consistent with the optical one which is characterized by an index of $`1`$, $`1.5`$ (Hynes et al. 2002; Zurita et al. 2003).

### 3.3 Spectral analysis: II

To study possible spectral changes related to the variability we constructed the color-color diagram made by a soft color (1–2 keV / 0.2–1 keV) versus a hard color (2–8 keV / 1–2 keV, see Fig. 4). Spectral variations are visible in the data. We plot in the same diagram the colors expected for single (absorbed) power law and neutron star atmosphere spectra for a set of parameters. As expected from the spectral analysis (section 3.1) these single component models cannot account for the data. In addition, we plot two lines with different column densities and different fractions of the two components models. We note that variations appear to be consistent with variations in the column density across the observation. Alternatively a variation in the fraction of the power law flux to neutron star atmosphere flux can account for the observed variation.

To check these hypotheses we carry out a more detailed spectral analysis. We concentrate on pn data, since these provide a factor of $`2`$ more counts than the two MOS cameras together. We divided the data in the pn light curve (1,000 s bin) at three different count rates: above 1.3 c s-1, between 1.0 and 1.3 c s-1 and below 1.0 c s-1. We then fit the three corresponding spectra in order to search for possible differences. We consider the same absorbed power law plus neutron star atmosphere model. The same spectrum for the three count rate spectra is clearly not acceptable ($`\chi _{\mathrm{red}}^2=2.60`$). Letting the column density vary freely produces an improvement in the fit but not enough to make the fit acceptable ($`\chi _{\mathrm{red}}^2=1.51`$; the column density is smaller at larger count rates). This shows that the variability cannot be fully ascribed to a column density variation. Better results can be obtained allowing (at least) one of the spectral component to vary together with the column density111In the case of a free neutron star atmosphere component, we consider only a variation in temperature and check that indeed the neutron star radius remains stable. (Table 2). With an additional parameter we obtained better results, however we cannot decide on a statistical basis which of the two fits is better. No clear correlations are observable. The column density is within the errors for both these new fits. In the case of a variable neutron star atmosphere, the temperature increases with the count rate, in the case of a variable power law, the power law photon index steepens as the count rate increases.

## 4 Discussion

The quiescent state of Cen X-4 has been recognised to be variable both on long times scales ($`40\%`$ in 5 yr, Rutledge et al. 2001) and on shorter timescales (factor of $`3`$ in a few days, Campana et al. 1997). During this XMM-Newton observation X–ray variability has been observed (at a level of $`45\%`$ rms) on even shorter timescale (down to $`100`$ s) thanks to the large collecting area. Variability on such a short timescale would have been missed if observed with any previous X–ray satellite.

In the pn light curve three flare-like events can be identified. X–ray flares have been observed in the transient black hole candidate V404 Cyg also in quiescence (Wagner et al. 1994; Kong et al. 2002). Flare activity has been recently reported also in the optical for a number of transient black holes during quiescence as well as for Cen X-4 (Zurita, Casares & Shabhaz 2003; Hynes et al. 2002). Flares occur on timescales of minutes to a few hours, with no dependence on orbital phase. R-band luminosities are in the range $`10^{31}10^{33}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The mean duration of optical flares in Cen X-4 is 21 min. This is similar to what observed in the X–rays.

Several mechanisms have been proposed for optical flares (Zurita et al. 2003; Hynes et al. 2002). Chromospheric activity, instabilities in the mass transfer rate from the companion and viscous instabilities in an accretion disk have been ruled out for different reasons (Zurita et al. 2003). Reprocessing of X–ray variations in the outer disk regions has also been considered less likely due to the large ratio between optical and X–ray emission (Zurita et al. 2003). In passing, we note that in the X–ray light curve three flare events can be identified (see Fig. 2). The durations and energetics of the first two flares are comparable: 0.9 and 1.2 hr and 1.8 and $`4.4\times 10^{35}`$ erg, respectively. The last flare is much shorter and less energetic (0.1 hr and $`0.6\times 10^{35}`$ erg).

Long term X–ray variability in the quiescent state of Aql X-1 has also been reported based on Chandra data. In particular, Rutledge et al. (2002) showed that these variations cannot be caused by variations in the power law only, but can be accounted for by a varying temperature of the neutron star atmosphere model. These variations are not monotonic but show first a decrease, then an increase and finally a decrease in time. This would rule out the deep crustal heating mechanism for SXRTs in quiescence. Campana & Stella (2003) provided a different interpretation of these data (plus an additional BeppoSAX observations): a varying column density and power law component together with a stable neutron star atmosphere model.

This latter model is motivated by the recent discovery of a millisecond radio pulsar PSR J1740–5340 in the globular cluster NGC 6397 (D’Amico et al. 2001; Ferrario et al. 2001). This pulsar shows irregular eclipses in radio and it is also emitting in X–rays (Grindlay et al. 2001). The X–ray emission is likely powered by the interaction of the relativistic wind of the radio pulsar with matter outflowing from the companion. This shock emission mechanism has also been put forward to explain the X–ray emission of the radio pulsar PSR 1259–63 orbiting a Be companion (Tavani & Arons 1997). This model is not disproved by the data. The power law photon index is between 1.5 and 2 as one would expect from simple modelling based synchrotron emission. The luminosity increases as the power law photon index increases as observed in PSR 1259–63 for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }<1.8`$.

## 5 Conclusions

We observed large ($`45\%`$) r.m.s. X–ray variability in the quiescent state of Cen X-4. Small spectral variations are observed as well. These can be mainly accounted for by a variation in the column density together with another spectral parameter. Based on the available spectra we cannot prefer a variation of the power law versus a variation in the temperature of the atmosphere component (even if the first is slightly better in terms of reduced $`\chi ^2`$). This variability can be accounted for by accretion onto the neutron star surface (e.g. Rutledge et al. 2002) or by the variable interaction between the pulsar relativistic wind and matter outflowing from the companion in a shock front (e.g. Campana & Stella 2003).

We thank M. Guainazzi for his advice in the data analysis.