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# Near-field diffraction of fs and sub-fs pulses: super-resolutions of NSOM in space and time

## I Introduction

The near-field diffraction of light by sub-wavelength apertures and its implication for near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) has been investigated over the last decade Poh ; Nie . In NSOM, a sub-wavelength aperture illuminated by a continuous wave is used as a near-field light source providing the super (sub-wavelength) resolution in space. In the last few years, a big interest of researchers attracted the study of near-field diffraction of ultra-short light pulses aimed at obtaining the simultaneous super-resolutions in space and time (for example, see the studies Lew ; Betz ; Xie ; Amb ; Nah ; Bro ; Mit1 ; Mit2 ; Kuk1  and references therein). The studies of NSOM-pulse system primarily dealt with the diffraction of relatively long (ps) far-infrared pulses by $`\mu `$m-size apertures Nah ; Bro ; Mit1 ; Mit2 . It was shown that at particular experimental conditions a ps pulse experiences significant spectral Mit1 ; Mit2  and temporal Nah ; Bro ; Mit1 ; Mit2  deformations when diffracted by a $`\mu `$m-size aperture. The deformations lead to a modification of the temporal resolution associated with the incident ps-pulse. The recent study Mit1  indicated that spatial resolution of the NSOM performing with ps pulses is defined by the aperture size and it is independent of the wavelength.

The use of ps pulses in NSOM provides ps temporal resolution together with $`\mu `$m-scale spatial resolution. The achievement of higher simultaneous resolutions in space and time is challenging. The NSOM performing with a continuous wave provides nm-scale spatial resolution Poh ; Nie . High-harmonic generation produces near 0.5-fs (500 as) wave-packets with 50-nm central wavelengths Pau ; Hen . A method of generation of sub-as pulses has been already suggested in Ref. Kap . The perspective is the achievement of the simultaneous nm-scale spatial resolution together with the fs or sub-fs temporal resolution. In the visible spectral region, which is the most important domain for potential applications, the NSOM-pulse system can be realized using the conventional setup of NSOM. Unfortunately, the capabilities and limits of simultaneous spatial and temporal resolutions of such a system are not known. From a theoretical point of view, the most important questions are the degree of collimating, the duration of the ultra-short pulse past the sub-wavelength aperture and the rate of spatial and temporal broadening of the pulse farther from the aperture. To address these questions, the near-field diffraction of fs and sub-fs pulses by a nm-size slit-type aperture in a perfectly conducting thick screen is theoretically studied in the present paper.

The article is organized as follows. The theoretical approach used for finding the amplitude distribution of the ultra-short pulse in the near-field diffraction zone of the sub-wavelength aperture is described in Section II. Results of computer simulation of the near-field diffraction and discussion of the capabilities and limits of simultaneous spatial and temporal resolutions of the NSOM-pulse system are presented in Section III.

## II Theory

Owing to the complicity of boundary conditions of the near-field diffraction experiment, the solution of the Helmholtz wave-equation even for a continuous wave can be obtained only by extremely extended computations. In order to simplify the computations, the NSOM model is usually restricted to two dimensions of a slit-type aperture Nee ; Bet . The combination of NSOM with an ultra-short pulse makes the numerical analysis of the problem even more difficult. In the present article, we consider a model of the NSOM-pulse system based on the transmission of fs and sub-fs pulses through a nm-size slit-type aperture in a perfectly conducting thick screen. The amplitude distribution of the diffracted wave-packet is found by using the Neerhoff and Mur coupled integral equations Nee ; Bet , which are solved numerically for each Fourier’s component of the wave-packet.

Let us briefly describe the integral approach of Neerhoff and Mur, which was developed in the studies Nee ; Bet  for finding the near-field distributions of the amplitude and intensity of a continuous wave diffracted by a sub-wavelength slit in a perfectly conducting thick screen. In the region I, the continuous plane wave falls onto the slit at an angle $`\theta `$ with respect to the $`z`$-axis in the $`xz`$ plane, as shown in Fig. 1. The slit width and the screen thickness are $`2a`$ and $`b`$, respectively. The magnetic field of the incident wave is assumed to be time harmonic and both polarized and constant in the direction $`y`$:

$`\stackrel{}{H}(x,y,z,t)=U(x,z)\mathrm{exp}(i\omega t)\stackrel{}{e}_y.`$ (1)
The electric field of the incident wave is found by using the Maxwell equations for the field $`\stackrel{}{H}`$. The restrictions in Eq. 1 reduce the diffraction problem to one involving a single scalar field in only two dimensions. The Green function approach Nee ; Bet  uses the multipole expansion of the field with the Hankel functions in the regions I and III and with the waveguide eigenmodes in the region II. The expansion coefficients are determined by using the standard boundary conditions for a perfectly conducting screen. In region III, the near-field distributions of the magnetic $`\stackrel{}{H}(x,z,t)`$ and electric $`\stackrel{}{E}=E_x\stackrel{}{e}_x+E_y\stackrel{}{e}_y`$ fields of the diffracted wave are given by

$`\stackrel{}{H}(x,z,t)=i{\displaystyle \frac{a}{N}}{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ_3}{ϵ_2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}H_0^{(1)}[k_3((xx_j)^2+z^2)^{1/2}](D\stackrel{}{U}_0)_j\mathrm{exp}(i\omega t)\stackrel{}{e}_y,`$ (2)
$`E_x(x,z,t)={\displaystyle \frac{a}{N}}{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{ϵ_3}}{ϵ_2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{z}{((xx_j)^2+z^2)^{1/2}}}H_1^{(1)}[k_3((xx_j)^2+z^2)^{1/2}](D\stackrel{}{U}_0)_j\mathrm{exp}(i\omega t),`$ (3)
$`E_z(x,z,t)={\displaystyle \frac{a}{N}}{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{ϵ_3}}{ϵ_2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{xx_j}{((xx_j)^2+z^2)^{1/2}}}H_1^{(1)}[k_3((xx_j)^2+z^2)^{1/2}](D\stackrel{}{U}_0)_j\mathrm{exp}(i\omega t),`$ (4)
where $`ϵ_i`$ and $`k_i`$ are respectively the permittivity and the wave number in the regions $`i`$ = I, II and III; $`x_j=2a(j1/2)/Na`$, with $`j=1,2,\mathrm{},N`$ and $`N>2a/z`$; $`H_0^{(1)}`$ and $`H_1^{(1)}`$ are the Hankel functions. The coefficients $`(D\stackrel{}{U}_0)_j`$ are computed by solving a set of the Neerhoff and Mur coupled integral equations Bet . For more details of the integral approach of Neerhoff and Mur see Refs. Nee ; Bet .

We now consider the near-field diffraction of an ultra-short light pulse. For the sake of simplicity, we assume that a pulse falls normally ($`\mathrm{\Theta }=0`$) on the aperture. The magnetic field of the incident pulse is assumed to be Gaussian-shaped in time and both polarized and constant in the direction $`y`$:

$`\stackrel{}{H}(x,y,z,t)=U(x,z)\mathrm{exp}[2\mathrm{ln}(2)(t/\tau )^2]\mathrm{exp}(i\omega _0t)\stackrel{}{e}_y,`$ (5)
where $`\tau `$ is the pulse duration and $`\omega _0`$ is the central frequency. The pulse can be composed in the wave-packet form of a Fourier time expansion Kuk2 :

$`\stackrel{}{H}(x,y,z,t)={\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}}\stackrel{}{H}(x,z,\omega )\mathrm{exp}(i\omega t)𝑑\omega .`$ (6)
The field distribution of the diffracted pulse is found by using the expressions (2-4) for each Fourier’s $`\omega `$-component of the wave-packet (6). The algorithm was implemented numerically in section III. In the computations, we used the discrete Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) of the function $`\stackrel{}{H}(x,y,z,t)`$ instead of the integral composition (6). The spectral interval $`[\omega _{min},\omega _{max}]`$ and the sampling points $`\omega _i`$ were optimized by matching the FFT composition to the original function (5).

## III Results and discussion

In this section, the amplitude distribution of the diffracted pulse is found by using the expressions (2-4) for each Fourier’s $`\omega `$-component of the wave-packet (6). In order to establish guidelines for the computational results, we first consider the dependence of the amplitude of a time-harmonic continuous plane wave (a FFT $`\omega `$-component of the wave-packet) transmitted through the aperture on the the wave frequency $`\omega =2\pi c/\lambda `$. The amplitude of a transmitted FFT $`\omega `$-component depends on the frequency $`\omega `$. Owing to this effect, the Fourier spectra and duration of the wave-packet are changed under propagation through the aperture leading to modification of the temporal and spatial resolutions associated with the input pulse. The dispersion for a time-harmonic continuous wave is usually described by the normalized transmission coefficient $`T_{cw}`$. The coefficient is calculated by integrating the normalized energy flux $`S_z/S_z^i`$ over the slit value Bet ; Har :

$`T_{cw}={\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{ϵ_1}}{4a\mathrm{cos}\theta }}{\displaystyle _a^a}\underset{z0^{}}{lim}[(E_xH_y^{}+E_x^{}H_y)]dx,`$ (7)
where $`S_z^i`$ is the energy fluxe of the the incident wave of unit amplitude; $`S_z`$ is the transmitted flux. The first objective of our computer analysis was to check the consistency of the results by comparing the transmission coefficients calculated in the studies Bet ; Har  with those obtained by our computations. We have computed the coefficient $`T_{cw}=T_{cw}(\lambda ,a,b)`$ for different slit widths $`2a`$ and a variety of screen thicknesses b. The results are presented in Fig. 2 for the wavelength $`\lambda `$=500 nm. We notice that the transmission resonances of $`\lambda /2`$ periodicity Bet ; Har  are reproduced. Furthermore, the resonance positions and the peak heights ($`T_{cw}\lambda /2\pi a`$ Bet , at the resonances) are in agreement with the results Bet ; Har . Notice, that $`T_{cw}\lambda /2\pi a>1`$ in the case of $`a<\lambda /2\pi `$. The dispersion $`T_{cw}=T_{cw}(\lambda )`$ for the given values of $`a`$ and $`b`$ is shown in Fig. 3. We notice that the the amplitude of the short-wavelength waves is practically unchanged, while the amplitude of the long-wavelength components increases. Thus, effectively, the aperture ”cuts off” the short-wavelength FFT-components of the wave packet (6).

Owing to the ”cut-off frequency” effect, the Fourier spectrum of the wave-packet narrows under transmission through the aperture. According to the Fourier analysis, the decrease of the spectral width of the wave packet leads to increase of the pulse duration and to modification of the temporal resolution associated with the incident pulse. The capabilities and limits of simultaneous spatial and temporal resolutions of the NSOM-pulse system are not known. From a theoretical point of view, the most important questions are the degree of collimating, the duration of the ultra-short pulse past the sub-wavelength aperture and the rate of spatial and temporal broadening of the pulse farther from the aperture. To address these questions, the near-field amplitude distributions of fs and sub-fs pulses passed through a nm-size slit-type aperture was computed. The amplitude distribution $`|\stackrel{}{E_x}|`$ of the diffracted wave-packet was computed for different values of the incident-pulse duration $`\tau `$, central wavelength $`\lambda _0=2\pi c/\omega _0`$, slit width $`2a`$ and screen sickness $`2b`$. As an example, the distribution $`|\stackrel{}{E_x}|`$ is shown at the three distances $`z`$ from the screen: at the edge of the screen $`(z=0.1a)`$, in the near-field $`(z=a)`$ and far-field $`(z=10a)`$ zones of the diffraction (Figs. 4 and 5). Figures 4 and 5 show the amplitude distributions for the cases of $`\tau `$ = 2 fs and 750 as, respectively. Notice, that the value $`2a=50`$ nm is the minimum aperture size, which is generally accepted for the practical near-field ($`za`$) microscopy in the visible spectral region ($`\lambda 500`$nm) Bet .

Analysis of Figs. 4(a) and 5(a) shows that the pulse is collimated to exactly the aperture width at the edge of the screen. Hence, the basic concept of NSOM remains valid for the ultra-short pulses: the fs or sub-fs pulse passing through a nm-size aperture can be used to provide a sub-wavelength (nm-scale) image, super-resolution in space. We notice that in the case of Fig. 4a, the duration $`\tau ^{}`$ of the diffracted pulse at the screen edge is practically the same as that of the incident pulse ($`\tau ^{}2`$fs). Thus, the temporal resolution associated with the duration of the incident 2-fs pulse is practically unchanged past the aperture. This demonstrates the possibility of the simultaneous nm-scale resolution in space and the fs resolution in time. In the case of the attosecond pulse ($`\tau =750`$as), the Fourier spectrum of the transmitted pulse experiences sufficient narrowing. This leads to the increase of the pulse duration in a few times (Fig. 5(a)). In the visible spectral region, this effect imposes a limit on the simultaneous spatial and temporal resolutions. It could be noted that the increase of the pulse duration in the case of the attosecond pulses can be reduced by decreasing of the central wavelength of the incident wave-packet Kuk1 . Further analysis of Figs. 4(a) and 5(a) indicates that the amplitude distribution of the diffracted wave-packet is characterized by the formation of maxima at the rims of the aperture. Notice, that the similar effect exists in the case of the near-field diffraction of a continuous wave Nov .

The results presented in Figs. 4(b) and 5(b) indicate the possibilities and limits of the simultaneous spatial and temporal resolutions at the distance $`(z=a)`$. In the case of the 2-fs incident pulse, the spatial resolution of the NSOM-pulse system is approximately equal to the geometrical projection of the aperture at the distance of half the aperture width (see, Fig. 4b). This result demonstrates the practical possibility of the simultaneous 50-nm resolution in space and the fs resolution in time. The value of 50 nm is the practical limit of the spatial resolution also for NSOM the NSOM performing with a continuous wave Bet . The spatial resolution of the NSOM-pulse system in the case of the 750-as incident pulse (see, Fig. 5(b)) is approximately two times lower respect to the case of Fig. 4(b). This results indicates that the spatial resolution of the NSOM-pulse system in the sub-fs domain depends on the value of the incident-pulse duration. It can be noted that spatial resolution of the SNOM-pulse system performing with ps pulses is defined only by the aperture size and independent of the wavelength Mit1 . It is clear now that the spatial resolution of the NSOM-pulse system is different for each FFT $`\omega `$-component of the wave packet. The lowest spatial resolution is achieved for the FFT $`\omega `$-component having the lowest frequency $`\omega _{LW}`$ . The value $`\omega _{LW}=\omega _0\mathrm{\Delta }\omega /2`$ depends on the central frequency $`\omega _0`$ and spectral width $`\mathrm{\Delta }\omega `$ of the wave-packet. The width $`\mathrm{\Delta }\omega 1/\tau `$ increases with decreasing of the duration $`\tau `$. Therefore, the spatial resolution of the NSOM-pulse system increases with the increase of the values of $`\tau `$ and $`\omega _0`$.

In the far-field region $`(z=10a)`$, we notice the considerable temporal and spatial broadenings and the wave-shape changes in the cases of the 2-fs and 750-as incident pulses (Figs. 4(c) and 5(c)). We also notice the existence of the negative time delay of the diffracted pulse respect to the point $`t=0`$. The time advancement increases with the increase of the distance $`z`$ (see, Figs. 4(a-c) and 5(a-c)). The time-advancement effect is in agreement with the superluminar behaviour of the light pulses described in the study Wyn .

In the present model of the NSOM-pulse system we used the standard boundary conditions based on the assumption of the perfect conductivity of the screen. The super-resolution capabilities of the system in time and space is a consequence of the assumption. The perfect conductivity is a good approximation in a situation involving a thick metal screen of sufficient opacity for a fs wave-packet having the central wavelength ($`\lambda _0=500`$nm) in the visible spectral region. However, in the case of sub-fs pulses the decrease of the metal conductivity with decreasing the wavelength should be taken into account for the short-wavelength components of the wave-packet. The conductivity dispersion should lead to some decrease of the spatial and temporal resolutions of the NSOM-pulse system based on the use of sub-fs pulses. It should be noted that the presence of a microscopic sample (a molecule, for example) placed in strong interaction with the NSOM aperture modifies the boundary conditions. In the case of the strong interaction, which takes place in the region $`z<0.1a`$, the application of the standard boundary conditions practically impossible. Probably, in this region the problem can be overcome by combination of a microscopic and macroscopic descriptions of NSOM Gir , where the response function accounting for the modification of the quantum mechanical behaviour of the molecule is derived self-consistently through the solution of Dyson’s equation.

## IV Conclusion

The near-field diffraction of fs and sub-fs light pulses by nm-size slit-type apertures and its implication for near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) has been analyzed. The amplitude distributions of the diffracted wave-packets having the central wavelengths in the visible spectral region were have been found by using the Neerhoff and Mur coupled integral equations, which were solved numerically for each Fourier’s component of the wave-packet. In the case of fs pulses, the duration and transverse dimensions of the diffracted pulse remain practically the same as that of the input pulse. This demonstrates feasibility of the NSOM in which a fs pulse is used to provide the fs temporal resolution together with nm-scale spatial resolution. In the sub-fs domain, the Fourier spectrum of the transmitted pulse experiences a considerable narrowing that leads to the increase of the pulse duration in a few times. This imposes a limit on the simultaneous resolutions in time and space. The results demonstrate the capabilities and limits of simultaneous spatial and temporal resolutions of the NSOM based on the use of the ultra-short light pulses.

###### Acknowledgements.

This study was supported by the Fifth Framework of the European Commission (Financial support from the EC for shared-cost RTD actions: research and technological development projects, demonstration projects and combined projects. Contract NG6RD-CT-2001-00602). The authors thank the Computing Services Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Pecs, for providing computational resources.


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# Dissipation of angular momentum in light heavy ion collision

## I INTRODUCTION

Several experimental studies have been made in the recent years to understand the reaction mechanism of fragment emission in light heavy ion collisions  at low bombarding energies ($``$ 10 MeV/nucleon). The fragments (mostly binary in nature at these energies) are emitted with different degree of dissipation of the entrance channel kinetic energy between the two colliding ions - ranging from quasi elastic to deep inelastic (DI) to the fully relaxed fusion-fission (FF) processes. Thus the fragments carry the signatures of nuclear dissipation, which, if deciphered, may bring out valuable informations on the nature of nuclear dissipation.

In addition to kinetic energy dissipation, dissipative heavy ion collision processes also result in significant dissipation of relative angular momentum in the entrance channel. Phenomenologically, the kinetic energy dissipation originates from friction (radial and tangential) between the surfaces of the rotating dinuclear system; on the other hand, angular momentum dissipation is decided solely by the tangential component of the friction, and the magnitude of dissipation is expected to lie between two limits (rolling and sticking). However, very large dissipation of relative angular momentum in excess of the sticking limit predictions has also been reported in the literature . This anomaly, as pointed out by several authors , is due to the ambiguity in the determination of the magnitude of angular momentum dissipation (and vis-a-vis the rotational contribution to the fragment kinetic energy). Estimation of the angular momentum in the exit channel is strongly dependent on another poorly known factor, i.e., the scission configuration of the rotating dinuclear system. This apparently hinted at the incompleteness of our understanding of the dynamics of nuclear dissipation process, which prompted us to make a systematic study of angular momentum dissipation in light nuclear systems where Coulomb and rotational contributions to the fragment kinetic energies are comparable.

It is clear from the above that an independent estimation of the scission configuration is necessary to make a proper estimate of the angular momentum transfer. Generally, it is estimated from the total kinetic energy of the rotating dinuclear system, $`E_k`$, which is given by,

$$E_k=V_N(d)+f^2\frac{\mathrm{}^2l_i(l_i+1)}{2\mu d^2},$$
(1)
where $`V_N(d)`$ is the contribution from Coulomb and nuclear forces at dinuclear separation distance $`d`$, $`\mu `$ is the reduced mass of the dinuclear configuration, $`l_i`$ is the relative angular momentum in the entrance channel and $`f`$ is the numerical factor denoting the fraction of the angular mometum transferred depending on the type of frictional force. Since it is not possible to determine both $`f`$ and $`d`$ by solving Eq. 1, in the earlier works, one of them was estimated phenomenologically (usually for $`f`$, its value corresponding to sticking limit was taken) and the other was estimated from the experimental fragment kinetic energy data using Eq. 1. It is however well known (see, for example, Ref.  and references therein) that, apart from dissipative collision process, fusion-fission process also contributes significantly in the fragment emission scenario. Thus, it is required to estimate and separate out the FF part of the fragment energy spectra in order to extract the kinetic energy distribution of the DI part of the rotating dinuclear system. In the present work, we have studied fragment emission from 16O (116 MeV) + 27Al, 28Si, 20Ne (145 MeV) + 27Al, 59Co and report on how angular momentum dissipation can be estimated from the FF and DI components extracted by nonlinear optimisation procedure using multiple Gaussians . Some parts of the 16O (116 MeV) + 27Al data have already been published in Ref. , where it has been shown that the FF component is quite competitive, in agreement with the previous work .

The paper has been organised as follows. Experimental details and results have been described in Sec. II. Discusssions of the results have been given in Sec. III. Finally, the summary and concluding remarks have been given in Sec. IV.

## II EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS

The experiment was performed using $`116`$ MeV 16O5+ and $`145`$ MeV 20Ne6+ ion beams from the Variable Energy Cyclotron at Kolkata. Self-supporting targets of 420 $`\mu `$g/cm2 27Al, $``$1 mg/cm2 28Si and $``$2 mg/cm2 59Co were used in the experiment. The fragments were detected using three solid state (Si(SB)) telescopes ( $``$ 12$`\mu m`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$E, 300$`\mu m`$ E) mounted on one arm of the 91.5 cm scattering chamber. Typical solid angle subtended by each detector was $``$0.3 msr. A monitor detector ($``$300$`\mu m`$ Si(SB)) was placed on the other arm of the scattering chamber for normalisation purpose. The telescopes were calibrated using elastically scattered 16O and 20Ne ions from Au target and $`\alpha `$-particles from (229Th-$`\alpha `$) source. Energy losses of the incoming beam as well as the outgoing fragments in the target have been properly taken care of.

Inclusive energy distributions for various fragments (4$`Z`$7) were measured in the angular range 10-65. Typical energy spectra of the fragments (4$`Z`$7) emitted in the reaction 16O (116 MeV) + 27Al have been shown in Fig. 1 for $`\theta _{lab}=15^{}`$. The systematic errors in the data, arising from the uncertainties in the measurements of solid angle, target thickness and the calibration of current digitizer have been estimated to be $``$ 10%.

### a Decomposition of FF and DI components :

The contributions of fusion-fission and deep inelastic (DI) components are estimated by fitting the measured spectra with Gaussian functions as per the procedure laid down in Ref. . The energy spectra of different fragments at each angle have been fitted with two Gaussian functions in two steps. In the first step, the FF contributions have been obtained by fitting the energy distributions with a Gaussian having centroid at the energies obtained from Viola systematics , adapted for light nuclear systems , of total kinetic energies(TKE) of mass-symmetric fission fragments duly corrected for asymmetric factor . The width of the Gaussian was obtained by fitting the lower energy tail of the spectra. The FF component of the energy spectrum thus obtained was then substracted from the full energy spectrum. In the next step, the DI component was obtained by fitting the substracted energy spectra with a second Gaussian. This is illustrated for 16O (116 MeV) + 27Al system in Fig. 1, where the extracted FF and DI components for Be, B, C and N fragments have been displayed (dotted and dash-dotted curves, respectively) alongwith the experimental data for $`\theta _{lab}`$= 15. It is clear from Fig. 1 that the experimental energy spectra for all the fragments are nicely fitted with two Gaussians representing FF and DI components. To investigate further the applicability of the scheme over the whole angular range of the data, experimental energy spectra of Carbon and Nitrogen fragments for the same system at two other angles (20, 40) have also been displayed alongwith the respective estimates of FF and DI components in Fig. 2. It is clear from the figure that in these cases too, the above scheme is fairly successful in estimating the experimental energy spectra. For further illustration, experimental energy spectra of Carbon and Nitrogen fragments at two different angles for the other systems (i.e., 16O (116 MeV) + 28Si, 20Ne (145 MeV) + 27Al, 59Co) have been displayed along with the respective estimates of FF and DI components in Figs. 345, respectively. It is evident that in all cases the above scheme for the decomposition of FF and DI components works fairly well in estimating the experimental energy spectra.

### b Total elemental yields :

The FF and DI components of the total elemental yields, extracted using the procedure outlined above, have been displayed in Fig. 6 for all the reactions under present study. The FF components of the fragment emission cross-sections have been compared with the theoretical estimates of the same obtained from the extended Hauser-Feshbach method (EHFM) . The values of the critical angular momentum for fusion, $`l_c`$ and the grazing angular momentum, $`l_g`$ for the systems considered here have been given in Table I. The values of critical angular momenta have been obtained from experimental fusion cross section data, whereever available . Otherwise, they have been obtained from dynamical trajectory model calculations with realistic nucleus-nucleus interaction and dissipative forces generated self-consistently through stochastic nucleon exchanges . The $`l_c`$ values predicted by the dynamical model have been cross checked with the respective available experimental values and they were found to be in excellent agreement (e.g., for 16O + 28Si and 20Ne + 27Al systems, predicted values of $`l_c`$ were 35$`\mathrm{}`$ and 37$`\mathrm{}`$, respectively, which were same as their respective experimental estimates - see Table I). The calculated fragment emission cross-sections are shown in Fig. 6 as solid histogram and compared with the experimental estimates of the same (different symbols correspond to different reactions). It is seen from the figure that the theoretical predictions are in fair agreement with the experimental results.

### c Angular distributions :

The centre of mass angular distributions of FF and DI components for a typical ejectile Carbon emitted in the reactions mentioned above have been displayed in Fig. 7 as a function of centre of mass angle $`\theta _{c.m.}`$. The centre of mass (c.m.) angular distributions of the FF components, as expected, are found to be symmetric ($`1/\mathrm{sin}\theta _{c.m.}`$ ), whereas those of the DI components are falling off more rapidly indicating shorter lifetime of the dinuclear composite (Fig. 7).

### d Average Q-values :

The average Q-values for the DI fragments ($`<Q_{DI}>`$) have been displayed in Fig. 8 as a function of c.m. angle ($`\theta _{c.m.}`$). The Q-values have been estimated from fragment kinetic energies assuming two body kinematics. The fragment kinetic energies were appropriately corrected for particle evaporation from the excited primary fragments assuming thermal equilibrium of the dinuclear composite system. The values of $`<Q_{DI}>`$ for Be and B are found to be nearly constant as a function of angle, whereas those for C and N are found to decrease at forward angles ($`\theta _{c.m.}40^{}`$) and then the two gradually tend to become constant; these imply that, beyond this point, the kinetic energy damping is complete and dynamic equilibrium has been established before the scission of the dinuclear composite takes place. In the following, we try to explore these completely damped collisions further to extract the magnitude of angular mometum damping.

## III DISCUSSION

As mentioned earlier, magnitude of angular momentum damping may be estimated from Eq. 1 only if scission configuration can be estimated independently. Assuming the friction to be at its limit (sticking limit), the extracted scission configuration for 20Ne (120 MeV) + 27Al was found to be $``$11 fm , which is much larger than the sum of nuclear radii. However, experimental study of DI collision in the reaction 20Ne (151 MeV) + 27Al  indicated that scission configuration of the fully damped component (at larger angles) may be quite compact, whereas that for the partially damped component (at smaller angles) may be quite elongated having neck length $``$3.7 fm. This may be intuitively justified as follows. Deep inelastic collisions are believed to occur within the angular momentum window between the critical angular momentum for fusion, $`l_c`$ and the grazing angular momentum, $`l_g`$. The partially damped part of it (at forward angles) originate in near peripheral collisions ($`ll_g`$), which correspond to small overlap and thus a fairly elongated dinuclear configuration; on the other hand, fully damped components (at larger angles) correspond to more compact collisions near $`ll_c`$. Interestingly, fusion-fission yield is also most predominant in the vicinity of $`ll_c`$. It is, therefore, likely that the exit channel configurations of both the processes are similar and it appears to be fairly reasonable to assume a compact scission shape for the fully damped component of the data. In the present work, we estimated the scission configuration from the extracted fusion-fission component of the measured fragment energy spectra. The separation distance $`d`$ between the the two fragments at the scission point is calculated from the energy centroid of the FF energy spectra which obeyed Viola systematics  corrected for asymmetric mass splitting . The mean values of $`d`$ thus estimated are; $`7.0\pm 0.7`$ fm for 16O + 27Al, $`7.2\pm 0.7`$ fm for 16O + 28Si, $`7.7\pm 1.2`$ fm for 20Ne + 27Al and $`10.9\pm 1.9`$ fm for 20Ne + 59Co. Assuming these scission configurations corresponding to each mass splitting to be ’frozen’, Eq. 1 may then be used to extract the mean angular momentum dissipation factor, $`f`$, in the case of DI collisions. The values of $`f`$ extracted for different systems are displayed in Fig. 9 (filled circles) alongwith the rolling and sticking limit predictions (dotted and solid curves, respectively) for the same. For the purpose of evaluation of $`f`$, the value of initial angular momentum $`l_i`$ was taken to be equal to the critical angular momentum for fusion, $`l_c`$.

It is apparent from Fig. 9 that for all the reactions considered, there is discrepancy between the experimental and empirical estimates of angular momentum dissipation. In all cases, the experimental estimates of the mean angular momentum dissipation are more than their limiting values predicted by the sticking condition (for 20Ne + 59Co reaction, however, the experimental estimates of $`f`$ and the corresponding sticking limit predictions are within the ranges of experimental uncertainties). The discrepancy is more for lighter fragments, and gradually decreases for heavier fragments. This may be intuitively understood as follows; it is known from the study of dissipative dynamics of fission ( see, for example, Ref.  and references therein) that, strong frictional forces in the exit channel cause considerable retardation of the scissioning process leading to increase in scission time scale. As the exit channel configurations of the fully damped DI process are taken to be similar to those for FF process (except that the dinuclear system, in case of DI collision, is formed beyond the conditional saddle point directly), the dynamics of DI process may also experience stronger frictional forces. Microscopically, friction is generated due to stochastic exchange of nucleons between the reacting partners through the window formed by the overlap of the density distributions of the two. Stronger friction, in this scenario, essentially means larger degree of density overlap and more nucleon exchange. Consequently, lighter DI fragments (corresponding to more net nucleon transfer) originate from deeper collisions, for which interaction times are larger. Therefore, angular momentum dissipation too, originating due to stochastic nucleon exchange, may be more which, at least qualitatively, explains the observed trend. Moreover, it is also seen that the difference between the experimental estimates and the corresponding sticking limit predictions is more for lighter systems (16O + 27Al, 28Si, 20Ne + 27Al), and less for the heavier system (20Ne + 59Co). Qualitatively, this may be due to entrance channel effect ; as the formation time (of shape equilibrated fused composite) is smaller for the lighter system at lower spin, the two time scales (of fusion and DI processes) are closer. This may give rise to larger angular momentum dissipation for lighter systems as observed in the present work.

## IV SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In summary, we have studied fragment emission from 16O (116 MeV) + 27Al, 28Si, 20Ne (145 MeV) + 27Al, 59Co reactions and extracted the contributions of fusion-fission and deep inelastic components. Assuming a compact exit channel configuration for the fully damped part of the DI reactions, the exit channel configuration has been estimated from the extracted FF part of the spectra. The angular momentum dissipation for the fully damped DI reactions has then been extracted using these scission shapes. The angular momentum dissipations have been found to be more than the corresponding sticking limit predictions in all the cases except for the case of 20Ne + 59Co, where, the mean values of the experimental estimate of angular momentum dissipation are systematically less than the corresponding sticking limit values, though they are within the range of experimental uncertainty. This may be due to stronger friction in the exit channel which may cause longer overlap of the dinuclear system and consequently more nucleon exchange and dissipation of angular momentum due to stochastic nature of nucleon exchange. The effect is more for lighter systems, as in this case there is more overlap in the time scales of FF and DI processes. However, further systematic studies for each system at different bombarding energies are needed for a better understanding on the dissipation mechanism in light nuclear systems. The inclusive yields for some fragments may have additional contribution from other reaction mechanisms like projectile breakup process (e.g., $`\alpha `$-breakup in the case of Ne projectile), which should be properly taken care of. The inclusive data presented in this paper may also be useful for future exclusive experiments for which light charged particles are detected in coincidence with either fully damped deep-inelastic or fusion-fission fragments.

## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors like to thank cyclotron operating staff for smooth running of the machine, R. Saha and H. P. Sil for the fabrication of thin Si detectors for the experiment. One of the authors (C.B) likes to thank C. Beck of IReS, Strasbourg, for valuable discussions. One of the authors (A. D) acknowledges with thanks the financial support received from C. S. I. R., Government of India.


text:
# NON-LOCAL EFFECTS IN THE MEAN-FIELD DISC DYNAMO. I. AN ASYMPTOTIC EXPANSION

## 1 Introduction

In the standard thin-disc asymptotic approach to mean-field dynamos, the dynamo equation

$$\frac{𝑩}{t}=\times \left(𝑽\mathbf{\times }𝑩+\alpha 𝑩\beta \times 𝑩\right),$$
(1)
splits into a local part containing only derivatives with respect to the vertical coordinate $`z`$ and the horizontal part containing derivatives with respect to the cylindrical radius $`r`$ and the azimuthal angle $`\varphi `$. Here $`𝑩`$ is the mean magnetic field, $`𝑽`$ is the mean velocity, $`\alpha `$ is the coefficient describing the alpha-effect, and $`\beta `$ is the turbulent magnetic diffusivity. We use cylindrical polar coordinates $`(r,\varphi ,z)`$ and consider axisymmetric solutions of the kinematic dynamo equation, $`/\varphi =0`$. In terms of the azimuthal components of the magnetic field $`B`$ and the vector potential $`A`$, Eq. (1) reduces to

$`{\displaystyle \frac{B}{t}}`$ $`=`$ $`DG{\displaystyle \frac{A}{z}}+{\displaystyle \frac{^2B}{z^2}}+\lambda ^2{\displaystyle \frac{}{r}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}{\displaystyle \frac{}{r}}rB\right),`$ (2)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{A}{t}}`$ $`=`$ $`\alpha B+{\displaystyle \frac{^2A}{z^2}}+\lambda ^2{\displaystyle \frac{}{r}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}{\displaystyle \frac{}{r}}rA\right),`$ (3)
where $`D=\alpha _0Gh^3/\beta ^2`$ is the dynamo number, $`G=r\mathrm{\Omega }/r`$ (with $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ the angular velocity), and we have used dimensionless variables defined by the disc semi-thickness $`h`$ for $`z`$, characteristic disc radius $`R`$ for $`r`$, magnetic diffusion time $`h^2/\beta `$ for $`t`$, and the ratio of units for $`B`$ and $`A`$ is $`\alpha _0h^2/\beta `$, with $`\alpha _0`$ a representative value of the $`\alpha `$-coefficient (see, e.g., Ruzmaikin et al., 1988 for details). We have neglected the term with $`\mathrm{\Omega }/z`$ in Eq. (2) assuming that $`|\mathrm{\Omega }/z||\mathrm{\Omega }/r|`$ under typical conditions in astrophysical discs. In terms of the dimensionless variables, we consider the region $`|z|1,0<r<\mathrm{}`$. Astrophysical discs have no well defined radial boundary, and the dynamo active region has a finite size because the intensity of the dynamo action decreases at large $`r`$; therefore, the characteristic radius of the dynamo region $`R`$, introduced below, is finite. The disc boundary is not sharp at its surface as well, but the turbulent magnetic diffusivity rapidly increases with height (at least, in spiral galaxies), so that vacuum boundary conditions posed at a finite height are a good approximation (Moss et al., 1998).

Equations (2) and (3) are written for the $`\alpha \omega `$-dynamo, but generalization to $`\alpha ^2\omega `$-dynamos is straightforward as long as the radial scale of the solution in not affected much. Our basic result, Eq. (32), remains valid for both $`\alpha \omega `$\- and $`\alpha ^2\omega `$-dynamos, but $`\gamma _0(r)`$ and $`\eta (r)`$ defined below will follow from different local equations.

An asymptotic solution of Eqs. (2) and (3) is represented by Ruzmaikin et al. (1988) in the form

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}B\\ A\end{array}\right)=\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{\Gamma }t)\left[Q(\lambda ^{1/2}r)\left(\begin{array}{c}b(z;r)\\ a(z;r)\end{array}\right)+\mathrm{}\right],$$

where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the growth rate of the field ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is known to be real for the dominant modes in a thin disc if $`D<0`$), $`(b,a)`$ is the local solution (suitably normalized) depending on $`r`$ only parametrically, and $`Q(r)`$ is the amplitude of the global solution. The asymptotic parameter is the disc aspect ratio

$$\lambda =\frac{h}{R}10^2\text{}10^1.$$

Equation (1) should be supplemented by appropriate boundary conditions (discussed in detail below), and then the lowest-order approximation in $`\lambda `$ yields a boundary value problem for $`(b,a)`$, whereas the solvability condition for the first-order equations leads to an equation for $`Q`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. The procedure for the derivation of the asymptotic equations is reconsidered in detail below.

The boundary conditions traditionally used in conjunction with Eqs. (2) and (3) are the so-called vacuum boundary conditions. If there are no electric currents outside the disc, then $`\times 𝑩=0`$ and, for axisymmetric solutions, (see, e.g., Zeldovich et al., 1983, p. 151)

$$B=0\text{for}|z|1.$$

Further, $`^2𝑨=0`$ outside the disc, so that

$$\frac{^2A}{z^2}+\lambda ^2\frac{}{r}\left(\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{r}rA\right)=0\text{for}|z|1.$$
(4)
In order to impose boundary conditions at the disc surface, we recall that the eigenfunctions of Eq. (4) are of the form $`A\mathrm{exp}(k\lambda |z|)J_1(kr)`$ with some radial wave number $`k`$. Since we require that the scale of the radial variation of $`A`$ is of order unity, $`k=O(1)`$, we obtain

$$\frac{A}{z}=k\lambda A=O(\lambda )\text{for}z1.$$
(5)
To the lowest order in $`\lambda `$, the resulting boundary condition is

$$\frac{A}{z}=0\text{for}z=1.$$
(6)
It was noted by Soward (1992a,b) that the term of order $`\lambda `$ in Eq. (5) must be retained if higher-order terms of the asymptotic solution of Eqs. (2) and (3) are considered. Our goal here is to include these terms in a consistent manner into a regular asymptotic scheme. The physical meaning of these corrections is as follows. Since $`A/z=B_r`$, the boundary condition (6), together with $`B=0`$, restricts the magnetic field to be purely vertical outside the disc, similarly to an external field of an infinite homogeneous slab. Then magnetic fields at different radii can be connected only via magnetic lines passing through the disc where $`B_r0`$. However, the boundary condition (5) implies that the field on and above the disc surface has a weak but finite radial component, and magnetic lines can thus connect different regions in the disc through the vacuum. This leads to non-local effects arising in higher orders of asymptotic expansion, and a description of these effects is our subject here.

A treatment of the non-local asymptotics for mean-field dynamos in a thin disc can be found in Soward (1978, 1992a,b, 2000) where both steady and oscillatory dipolar and quadrupolar modes are considered, but only for marginally stable solutions and in a local, Cartesian geometry. Here we consider exponentially growing (or decaying), non-oscillatory, quadrupolar modes in cylindrical geometry, ready for applications to astrophysical discs, especially those in spiral galaxies. Another new element in our approach is that we do not expand the coefficients of the dynamo equations into power series in $`r`$, and so we allow for arbitrary radial variation in the dynamo coefficients. In this paper we present the derivation of the asymptotic equations. Their solutions will be discussed elsewhere (Willis et al., 2000).

## 2 Vacuum boundary conditions for a thin disc

In this section we derive boundary conditions for a thin disc surrounded by vacuum in a form suitable for asymptotic analysis. For this purpose we first perform the Hankel transform of Eq. (4) to obtain:

$$\frac{^2\widehat{A}}{z^2}\lambda ^2k^2\widehat{A}=0,$$
(7)
where

$$\widehat{A}(z,k)=_0^{\mathrm{}}A(z,r)J_1(kr)r𝑑r$$
(8)
is the Hankel transform of $`A(z,r)`$ with respect to $`r`$. Equation (7) has a simple solution decaying at infinity, $`\widehat{A}(z,k)=A_0(k)\mathrm{exp}(k\lambda |z|)`$. However, this solution contains an arbitrary function of $`k`$, $`A_0(k)`$, so it cannot be used to formulate a closed boundary condition at $`|z|=1`$. Instead, we note that, for $`z>0`$, solution of Eq. (7) decaying at $`z\mathrm{}`$ satisfies

$$\frac{\widehat{A}}{z}+\lambda k\widehat{A}=0\text{for }z1,$$

which is useful to compare with Eq. (5). We apply the inverse Hankel transform to this equation and set $`z=1`$ to obtain

$$\frac{A}{z}|_{(1,r)}+\lambda _0^{\mathrm{}}\widehat{A}(1,k)J_1(kr)k^2𝑑k=0,$$
(9)
and the plus sign must be replaced by minus for $`z=1`$.

We could now substitute Eq. (8) into Eq. (9) in order to obtain a closed boundary condition for $`A`$ at $`z=1`$ in an integro-differential form, but the resulting operator contains a strongly divergent kernel $`_0^{\mathrm{}}J_1(kr)J_1(kr^{})k^2𝑑k`$. Therefore, we develop a slightly more elaborate procedure devised to isolate the singularity in the integral kernel. Firstly, we improve the convergence of the kernel by eliminating the factor $`k^2`$ in it. This can be done by rewriting the integral operator in terms of $`{}_{}{}^{2}A/r^2`$. For this purpose, we use the general relation (Sneddon, 1951, Sect. 10)

$$k^2\widehat{A}=_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{}{r}\left(\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{r}rA\right)J_1(kr)r𝑑r,$$

written at $`|z|=1`$, to reduce Eq. (9) to the form

$$\frac{A}{z}\frac{\lambda }{r}_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{}{r^{}}\left(\frac{1}{r^{}}\frac{}{r^{}}r^{}A\right)W(r,r^{})𝑑r^{}=0\text{at }z=1,$$
(10)
where

$$W(r,r^{})=rr^{}_0^{\mathrm{}}J_1(kr)J_1(kr^{})𝑑k;$$
(11)
note that we have isolated a factor $`rr^{}`$ in $`W(r,r^{})`$ to ensure that it does not diverge at $`r,r^{}0`$ (see below).

We can prove that $`W(r,r^{})`$ is square integrable and has only a weak singularity at $`rr^{}=0`$. For this purpose we explicitly isolate the singularity of $`W(r,r^{})`$ which occurs at $`rr^{}=0`$. We shall consider consecutively the cases prone to a singular behaviour.

We start with $`r,r^{}0`$ when a singularity at $`r=r^{}`$ can be expected. We introduce a new variable $`\sigma =kr`$ for $`r^{}>r`$ or $`\sigma =kr^{}`$ for $`r^{}<r`$ in Eq. (11) and use Eq. (A1) of Appendix A to see that

$$W(r,r^{})=\frac{1}{\pi }(rr^{})^{1/2}\mathrm{ln}|rr^{}|+\mathrm{};$$
(12)
here and henceforth dots stand for a nonsingular part. In a similar way, the case when $`r,r^{}0`$ can be shown to lead to the singularity of Eq. (12) because terms like $`(rr^{})^{1/2}\mathrm{ln}r`$ are not singular.

Next consider $`r=\text{const}0,r^{}0`$. The new variable is now $`\sigma =kr^{}`$, so that

$$W(r,r^{})=\frac{1}{\pi }(rr^{})^{1/2}\mathrm{ln}|rr^{}|+\frac{1}{\pi }(rr^{})^{1/2}\mathrm{ln}r^{}+\mathrm{}.$$

Both logarithmic terms are finite due to the factor $`rr^{}`$ in $`W(r,r^{})`$, so in this case the kernel is free of singularities. As $`r`$ and $`r^{}`$ enter $`W`$ in a symmetrical manner, we conclude that there is no singularity at $`r0,r^{}=\text{const}0`$, as well.

Altogether, Eq. (12) shows that the integral kernel has an integrable (logarithmic) singularity, and thus it can be treated as a finite kernel (see, e.g., Kolmogorov and Fomin, 1957). As a result Eq. (10) provides a viable exact boundary condition for a slab surrounded by vacuum.

## 3 Representation of the Asymptotic Solution

In this section we consider asymptotic solutions of Eqs. (2) and (3) which are free of boundary layers. Such layers may arise at the disc surface and also at certain radii (e.g., contrast structures — Belyanin et al., 1994).

With the definition $`𝒀=\left(\begin{array}{c}B(z,r)\\ A(z,r)\end{array}\right)`$, the eigenvalue problem for Eqs. (2) and (3) can be conveniently rewritten in the form

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }𝒀=_z𝒀+\lambda ^2_r𝒀,$$
(13)
with the boundary conditions

$$𝒫_{z,0}𝒀=0\text{at }z=0;𝒫_{z,1}𝒀\frac{\lambda }{r}𝒦𝒀=0\text{at }z=1,$$
(14)
where the following operators have been introduced:

$$_z=\left(\begin{array}{cc}^2/z^2& DG/z\\ \alpha & ^2/z^2\end{array}\right),_rX=\frac{}{r}\left(\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{r}rX\right),$$

$$𝒫_{z,0}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}/z& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right),𝒫_{z,1}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& /z\end{array}\right),$$

and

$$𝒦\left(\begin{array}{c}x_1\\ x_2\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ _0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑r^{}W(r,r^{})_r^{}(x_2)\end{array}\right).$$
(15)
The operators $`𝒫_{z,1}`$ and $`𝒦`$ are defined at $`z=1`$ and $`𝒫_{z,0}`$ at $`z=0`$.

Consider asymptotic solutions of Eqs. (2) and (3) for $`\lambda 1`$. We denote the asymptotic parameter $`ϵ`$, a function of $`\lambda `$ to be determined below, and represent the asymptotic solution in the form

$$𝒀(z,r)=Q(ϵ^1r)𝒀_0(z;r)+ϵ^2𝒀_1(z,ϵ^1r;r)+\mathrm{},$$
(16)
with unknown functions

$$Q(ϵ^1r),𝒀_0=\left(\begin{array}{c}b(z;r)\\ a(z;r)\end{array}\right),𝒀_1=\left(\begin{array}{c}B_1(z,ϵ^1r;r)\\ A_1(z,ϵ^1r;r)\end{array}\right).$$

Our motivation for the particular choice of this form will immediately become clear. We only note here that Eq. (16) features two types of dependence on $`r`$. One of them is connected with the presence of the radial derivatives in Eq. (13), this involves the argument $`ϵ^1r`$. Another kind of $`r`$-dependence arises from the radial variation of the coefficients of the local operator, $`_z`$; this is a slow parametric variation of the solution with $`r`$ unrelated to any differential operator in $`r`$. The asymptotic expansion of the eigenvalue $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ will emerge later.

In order to preserve a similarity to earlier asymptotics developed for galactic dynamos, we do not introduce scaled variables, e.g., $`ϵ^1r`$. Therefore, some of our asymptotic equations, e.g., Eq. (32), will formally contain terms with $`ϵ`$ or $`\lambda `$, but all terms in such equations will always be of the same order of magnitude in $`\lambda `$.

### 3.1 Zeroth-order equations

Substituting Eq. (16) into Eqs. (13) and (14) and combining terms of equal orders in $`ϵ`$ we obtain in the leading order in $`\lambda `$

$$\left(\mathrm{\Gamma }𝒀_0_z𝒀_0\right)Q=0,$$
(17)
$$Q𝒫_{z,0}𝒀_0=0,Q𝒫_{z,1}𝒀_0=0,$$
(18)
where we have deliberately retained the factor $`Q`$, a function of $`ϵ^1r`$. If $`Q`$ were cancelled, Eq. (17) would become intrinsically contradictory as $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ must be independent of $`r`$ whereas the coefficients of $`_z`$ depend on $`r`$. To overcome this difficulty, we consider separately two radial ranges. At those $`r`$ where $`Q`$ is small, Eqs. (17) and (18) are satisfied, to the required accuracy of $`O(ϵ^2)`$, just because $`Q`$ is small, of order $`ϵ^2`$ or less. At radii where $`Q=O(1)`$ we replace Eqs. (17) and (18) with the following equations:

$$\gamma _0(r)𝒀_0_z𝒀_0=0,$$
(19)
$$𝒫_{z,0}𝒀_0=0,𝒫_{z,1}𝒀_0=0,$$
(20)
where $`\gamma _0(r)`$ is the local growth rate (more precisely, its zeroth-order term), a function of radius. With this definition of $`\gamma _0(r)`$, we have

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }\gamma _0(r)=O(ϵ^2)\text{if }Q(ϵ^1r)=O(1).$$
(21)
Outside the radial range where $`Q(ϵ^1r)=O(1)`$, $`\gamma _0(r)`$ still can be defined as the leading eigenvalue of Eqs. (19) and (20).

Equation (21) in fact restricts the radial range $`\mathrm{\Delta }r`$ where $`Q=O(1)`$ to be $`\mathrm{\Delta }r=O(ϵ)`$ provided $`\gamma _0(r)`$ can be approximated by a quadratic function of $`r`$ near its maximum, $`\gamma _0(r+\mathrm{\Delta }r)\gamma _0(r)+C\mathrm{\Delta }r^2`$ with a certain constant $`C`$. The radial variation of $`\gamma _0(r)`$ is controlled by that of $`\alpha `$ and $`G`$, the coefficients of $`_z`$. The weaker is the radial variation of $`\alpha `$ and $`G`$, the wider is the radial range where Eq. (21) can be satisfied.

Earlier experience with solutions of Eqs. (19) and (20) (Ruzmaikin et al., 1988) shows that the leading local eigenvalue is real for $`D<0`$ and, furthermore, this eigenvalue is isolated, i.e., there are no other positive eigenvalues for moderate values of $`|D|`$ (in other words, the difference of the eigenvalues is of order unity). We restrict our attention to the mode with the largest real eigenvalue $`\gamma _0(r)`$.

Since the boundary value problem (19) and (20) has been extensively studied earlier (e.g., Ruzmaikin et al., 1988 and references therein), we do not discuss it further, but assume that its solution, $`𝒀_0(z;r)`$ and $`\gamma _0(r)`$, is given.

### 3.2 First-order equations

Having isolated zeroth-order terms, we can represent the remaining terms in Eq. (13) as

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }𝒀_\mathrm{𝟏}=_z𝒀_1\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\gamma _0(r)}{ϵ^2}𝒀_0Q+\frac{\lambda ^2}{ϵ^2}𝒀_0_rQ+\mathrm{},$$
(22)
where dots denote terms of order $`ϵ^2`$ and higher. We temporarily retain the term of the order $`\lambda ^2/ϵ^2`$ as the connection of $`ϵ`$ and $`\lambda `$ still has not been determined; we shall show that this term must be omitted in the first-order equations.

Similarly the terms remaining in the boundary conditions are

$`𝒫_{z,0}𝒀_1+\mathrm{}`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$
$`𝒫_{z,1}𝒀_1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda }{ϵ^2r}}𝒦(Q𝒀_0)+\mathrm{}.`$
We determine $`ϵ`$ from the requirement that the two terms in the second boundary condition are of equal orders of magnitude in $`\lambda `$. As shown in Eq,. (16), the eigenfunction is expected to be of order unity in a region whose radial extent $`\mathrm{\Delta }r`$ is of order $`ϵ`$, so that $`dQ/drQ/\mathrm{\Delta }rQ/ϵ`$. This is true for the leading eigenfunctions $`Q`$ that do not rapidly oscillate with $`r`$. Since $`_rA=O(\mathrm{\Delta }r^2)=O(ϵ^2)`$, we obtain $`𝒦(Q𝒀_0)ϵ^2\mathrm{\Delta }rϵ^1`$ (see Appendix B). Thus, we require that

$$\frac{\lambda }{ϵ^2}ϵ^1=1,$$

or

$$ϵ=\lambda ^{1/3}.$$

Then Eq. (21) implies that

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }[\gamma _0(r)]|_{\mathrm{max}}=O(\lambda ^{2/3}).$$

Now we can see that $`\lambda /ϵ=o(1)`$, so that $`\lambda ^2ϵ^2_r(Q)=O(\lambda ^{2/3})`$ and the desired first-order boundary value problem based on Eq. (22) reduces to

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }𝒀_\mathrm{𝟏}=_z𝒀_1\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\gamma _0(r)}{\lambda ^{2/3}}𝒀_0Q,$$
(23)
$$𝒫_{z,0}𝒀_1=0,𝒫_{z,1}𝒀_1=\frac{\lambda ^{1/3}}{r}𝒦(Q𝒀_0).$$
(24)
However, this form of the first-order boundary value problem is inconvenient for further analysis. We rewrite it to obtain a boundary value problem with homogeneous boundary conditions. Let us represent the solution of Eqs. (23) and (24) in the form

$$𝒀_\mathrm{𝟏}=𝑿_1+𝑿_2,$$

where $`𝑿_1`$ solves the following boundary value problem:

$$_z𝑿_1=0,$$

$$𝒫_{z,0}𝑿_1=0,𝒫_{z,1}𝑿_1=\frac{\lambda ^{1/3}}{r}𝒦(Q𝒀_0).$$

Then $`𝑿_2`$ is the solution of the following boundary value problem

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }𝑿_2_z𝑿_2=\frac{\gamma _0(r)\mathrm{\Gamma }}{\lambda ^{2/3}}𝒀_0Q\mathrm{\Gamma }𝑿_1,$$
(25)
$$𝒫_{z,0}𝑿_2=0,𝒫_{z,1}𝑿_2=0.$$
(26)
Here $`𝑿_1`$ is in fact a first-order correction to the eigenfunction $`𝒀_0`$ of Eqs. (17) and (18) arising from the term with $`\lambda ^{1/3}`$ in the boundary condition (24) at $`z=1`$. Note that $`|𝑿_1|=O(Q)`$. The boundary value problem for $`𝑿_1`$ can be solved straightforwardly upon solving Eq. (32) for $`q(r)=Q(r)a^{}(1,r)`$.

It is useful to represent $`𝒀_1`$ as a sum of the two terms, $`𝑿_1`$ and $`𝑿_2`$, because this results in a universal form of the left-hand sides in the local boundary value problems in all asymptotic orders. An alternative approach, without this representation, is discussed by Soward (2000).

We expect that $`𝑿_2`$ has the same functional form as the zeroth-order term in the asymptotic expansion (16), so we take $`𝑿_2(z;r)=Q_1(\lambda ^{1/3}r)𝑿_{2,0}(z;r)`$. Then Eqs. (25) and (26) reduce to a form similar to Eqs. (17) and (18):

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }𝑿_{2,0}(_z𝑿_{2,0})Q_1=\frac{\gamma _0(r)\mathrm{\Gamma }}{\lambda ^{2/3}}𝒀_0Q\mathrm{\Gamma }𝑿_1,$$
(27)
$$Q_1𝒫_{z,0}𝑿_{2,0}=0,Q_1𝒫_{z,1}𝑿_{2,0}=0,$$
(28)
where, as above, we retain the factor $`Q_1`$ in the boundary conditions and consider again two radial ranges. At those radii where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\gamma _0(r)=O(\lambda ^{2/3})`$ and $`Q=O(1)`$, we expect that $`Q_1=O(1)`$. In this radial range we obtain the following first-order equations:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }𝑿_{2,0}_z𝑿_{2,0}=\left[\frac{\gamma _0(r)\mathrm{\Gamma }}{\lambda ^{2/3}}𝒀_0Q\mathrm{\Gamma }𝑿_1\right]Q_1^1,$$
(29)
$$𝒫_{z,0}𝑿_{2,0}=0,𝒫_{z,1}𝑿_{2,0}=0.$$
(30)
These equations have the same operators on the left-hand sides as Eqs. (19) and (20). As for the radial range where $`Q_1=o(1)`$, the form of $`Q_1`$ is unimportant there and we do not discuss it further. Equations (29) and (30) represent the desired form of the first-order boundary value problem which we use below to obtain an equation for $`Q`$.

## 4 The radial dynamo equation

In this section we derive a closed equation for the radial part of the zeroth-order eigenfunction, $`Q`$, which follows from the solvability condition for the first-order boundary value problem (29) and (30). By Fredholm’s solvability condition, the r.h.s. of Eq. (29) must be orthogonal to the eigenvector $`𝑿^{}`$ of the corresponding adjoint homogeneous problem (this problem is formulated and discussed in Appendix C), i.e.,

$$\left[\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\gamma _0(r)}{\lambda ^{2/3}}𝒀_0Q+\mathrm{\Gamma }𝑿_1\right]Q_1^1,𝑿^{}=0,$$

where $`𝑭,𝑮=_0^1𝑭\mathbf{}𝑮𝑑z`$ denotes the scalar product in the space of continuous vector functions on the interval $`0z1`$. This yields the following equation for $`Q`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$:

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\gamma _0(r)}{\lambda ^{2/3}}Q𝒀_0,𝑿^{}+\mathrm{\Gamma }𝑿_1,𝑿^{}=0.$$
(31)
We recall that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\gamma _0(r)=O(\lambda ^{2/3})`$ and $`|𝑿_1|=O(1)`$ in the radial range where $`Q=O(1)`$ and $`|𝑿_1|=o(1)`$ outside this range. Therefore, to the accuracy $`O(\lambda ^{2/3})`$ we can replace $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ by $`\gamma _0(r)`$ to obtain

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }𝑿_1,𝑿^{}`$ $`=`$ $`𝑿_1,\gamma _0(r)𝑿^{}`$
$`=`$ $`𝑿_1,_z^{}𝑿^{}`$
$`=`$ $`a^{}(1,r){\displaystyle \frac{\lambda ^{1/3}}{r}}𝒦(aQ),`$
where, in order to obtain the last equality, we performed two integrations by parts and took into account the boundary conditions (20) and (C3).

Now Eq. (31) can be rewritten as

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }Q=\gamma _0(r)Q+\frac{\lambda a^{}(1;r)}{r𝒀_0,𝑿^{}}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑r^{}W(r,r^{})_r^{}\left(Qa(1,r^{})\right).$$

This is the desired equation for magnetic field amplitude $`Q`$ and global growth rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. We stress that all terms in this equation are of the same order in $`\lambda `$ because $`dQ/dr=O(\lambda ^{1/3})`$.

To reduce this equation to a final form, we introduce

$$q(r)=Q(r)a^{}(1,r),$$

to obtain

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }q=\gamma _0(r)q+\frac{\lambda }{r}\eta (r)_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑r^{}W(r,r^{})_r^{}(q),$$
(32)
where

$$\eta (r)=\frac{a(1,r)a^{}(1,r)}{𝒀_0,𝑿^{}}$$

is a function of radius which is obtained from the zeroth-order equations,

$$𝒀_0=\left(\begin{array}{c}b(z;r)\\ a(z;r)\end{array}\right),𝑿=\left(\begin{array}{c}b^{}(z;r)\\ a^{}(z;r)\end{array}\right).$$

It is important to note that both $`q(r)`$ and $`\eta (r)`$ are independent of the normalization of the local solutions.

## 5 Discussion

It is useful to compare the main result of this paper, Eq. (32), with the corresponding equation resulting from using the boundary condition (6) in all orders (see, e.g., Ruzmaikin et al., 1988):

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }Q=\gamma _0(r)Q+\lambda ^2_rQ.$$
(33)
The last term on the right-hand side describes magnetic diffusion in the radial direction. The new feature of the theory discussed here is that this term is replaced by an integro-differential operator. Numerical analysis of Eq. (32) presented elsewhere (Willis et al., 2000) shows that the integral term results in enhanced magnetic diffusion, so that Eqs. (32) and (33) have similar physical significance. This is understandable since the kernel $`W(r,r^{})`$ has a singularity. If this singularity were extreme, say, $`W(r,r^{})\delta (rr^{})`$, the functional form of Eq. (33) would be recovered precisely, albeit with additional factor $`\eta (r)`$ which can hardly be of major importance. However, the actual kernel has a wider radial profile (and weaker singularity), so the magnitude of this term is enhanced by non-local coupling, but its nature still remains basically diffusive.

The integral, non-local character of magnetic diffusion affects the nature of the asymptotic solution for $`Q(r)`$. From Eq. (33), the radial width of the eigenfunction is of the order of $`ϵ=\lambda ^{1/2}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\gamma _0=O(\lambda )`$ (Ruzmaikin et al., 1988), whereas Eq. (32) corresponds to $`ϵ=\lambda ^{1/3}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\gamma _0=O(\lambda ^{2/3})`$. We should note, however, that the difference is hardly important for most applications to astrophysical discs where, for $`\lambda 10^2`$, the difference amounts to a factor of $`\lambda ^{1/6}1/2`$. A wider radial distribution of the magnetic field resulting from Eq. (32) (Soward, 2000; Willis et al., 2000) can help in accelerating the amplification of magnetic fields in the outer regions of young galaxies along the lines discussed by Moss et al. (1998).

Using heuristic arguments, Poezd et al. (1993) generalized Eq. (33) to nonlinear regimes arising from alpha-quenching. The resulting nonlinear equation has $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ replaced by $`/t`$ and $`\gamma _0(r)`$ by $`\gamma _0(r)[1Q^2/B_0^2(r)]`$, where $`B_0(r)`$ defines the dynamo saturation level appearing in the alpha-quenching model. It is plausible that a similar generalization is possible with Eq. (32). Another problem is to generalize the theory to nonaxisymmetric solutions where the boundary conditions should take a more complicated form.

## Acknowledgements

The research was initiated during a one month visit (28 August to 25 September 1993; supported by the Royal Society) of Andrew Soward to the Science Research Computer Center, Moscow State University. We are grateful to A. D. Poezd for his contributions at that early stage. We thank the University of Newcastle upon Tyne for encouraging further mutual visits during the course of this study, which were supported by PPARC (grant PPA/G/S/1997/00284) and the Royal Society.

## Appendix A. The singularity of $`{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}J_1(k)J_1(k\sigma )𝑑k`$

In this section we isolate the singularity of the integral

$$I(\sigma )=_0^{\mathrm{}}J_1(k)J_1(k\sigma )𝑑k,$$

where $`\sigma `$ is a constant. It is a special case of the Weber and Schafheitlin integral discussed at length by Watson (1922, Sect. 13.4), which can expressed as

$$I(\sigma )=\frac{1}{2}\sigma {}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(\frac{3}{2},\frac{1}{2},2,\sigma ^2).$$

We can restrict ourselves to the case $`\sigma >1`$ because Eq. (11) reduces to the above form with $`\sigma =r/r^{}`$ for $`r>r^{}`$ and $`\sigma =r^{}/r`$ for $`r^{}>r`$.

Asymptotics of this integral for $`\sigma 11`$ can be obtained by expressing $`I(\sigma )`$ in terms of the complete elliptic integral of the first kind, which yields $`I(\sigma )\pi ^1\mathrm{ln}|1\sigma |`$ (see Willis et al., 2000 for details).

This asymptotic form can also be obtained from the following arguments which make clear the nature of the singularity at $`\sigma 1`$. Introduce

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(x)=J_1(x)\left(\frac{2}{\pi x}\right)^{1/2}\mathrm{cos}\left(x\frac{3}{4}\pi \right),$$

so that $`\mathrm{\Delta }(x)=O(x^1)`$ for $`x1`$. Then

$`I(\sigma )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^1}J_1(k)J_1(k\sigma )𝑑k+{\displaystyle _1^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{\Delta }(k)\mathrm{\Delta }(k\sigma )𝑑k`$
$`+{\displaystyle _1^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{\Delta }(k)\mathrm{cos}(k\sigma \frac{3}{4}\pi )\left({\displaystyle \frac{2}{\pi k\sigma }}\right)^{1/2}+{\displaystyle _1^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{\Delta }(k\sigma )\mathrm{cos}(k\frac{3}{4}\pi )\left({\displaystyle \frac{2}{\pi k}}\right)^{1/2}𝑑k`$
$`+2{\displaystyle _1^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{cos}(k\frac{3}{4}\pi )\mathrm{cos}(k\sigma \frac{3}{4}\pi ){\displaystyle \frac{dk}{\pi k\sigma ^{1/2}}},`$
where the only divergent term is the last one. For $`\sigma >1`$, the latter integral can be expressed in terms of the sine integral $`\mathrm{Si}(x)=_0^xu^1\mathrm{sin}udu`$ and the cosine integral $`\mathrm{Ci}(x)=_x^{\mathrm{}}u^1\mathrm{cos}udu`$ (which has a singular component $`\mathrm{ln}x`$) as

$`2{\displaystyle _1^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{cos}(k\frac{3}{4}\pi )\mathrm{cos}(k\sigma \frac{3}{4}\pi ){\displaystyle \frac{dk}{\pi k\sigma ^{1/2}}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi \sigma ^{1/2}}}\left[\frac{1}{2}\pi \mathrm{Si}(\sigma +1)\mathrm{Ci}(\sigma 1)\right]`$
$`=`$ $`f(\sigma ){\displaystyle \frac{1}{\pi \sigma ^{1/2}}}\mathrm{ln}(\sigma 1),`$
where $`f(\sigma )`$ is a finite function.

Hence, for $`\sigma >1`$ we have

$$_0^{\mathrm{}}J_1(k)J_1(k\sigma )𝑑k=F(\sigma )\frac{1}{\pi \sigma ^{1/2}}\mathrm{ln}(\sigma 1),$$
(A1)
where $`F(\sigma )`$ is finite.

## Appendix B. The order of magnitude of the integral term

Here we estimate the order of magnitude of

$$𝒦(Qa)=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑r^{}W(r,r^{})_r^{}\left(Q(ϵ^1r^{})a(z;r^{})\right).$$

Since $`a`$ is a slowly varying function of $`r^{}`$, its radial derivatives are of order unity. The dominant term in $`_r^{}Q`$ arises from $`d^2Q/dr^2=O(ϵ^2)`$. Since the magnitude of the integral is controlled by the singularity in $`W(r,r^{})`$, Eq. (12), we have

$$𝒦(Qa)_0^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{ln}|rr^{}|\frac{d^2Q}{dr^2}dr^{}.$$

It may seem that the order of magnitude of this integral is $`ϵ^2\mathrm{\Delta }r\mathrm{ln}|\mathrm{\Delta }r|ϵ^1\mathrm{ln}ϵ`$ because the main contribution to the integral arises from a neigbourhood of $`r=r^{}`$ whose width is $`\mathrm{\Delta }rϵ`$.

However, this estimate is wrong because $`d^2Q/dr^2`$ changes rapidly and even changes sign within the $`ϵ`$-neighbourhood of $`rr^{}`$. The correct calculation is as follows. We introduce $`\delta 0`$ and consider

$$_0^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{ln}|rr^{}|\frac{d^2Q}{dr^2}dr^{}_0^{r\delta }\mathrm{ln}|rr^{}|\frac{d^2Q}{dr^2}dr^{}+_{r+\delta }^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{ln}|rr^{}|\frac{d^2Q}{dr^2}dr^{},$$

so that now we can integrate by parts to obtain

$$𝒦(Qa)=\left[\frac{dQ}{dr^{}}\mathrm{ln}|rr^{}|\right]_0^{r\delta }+\left[\frac{dQ}{dr^{}}\mathrm{ln}|rr^{}|\right]_{r+\delta }^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{v}.\mathrm{p}._0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{dQ}{dr^{}}\frac{1}{rr^{}}𝑑r^{}.$$

Since the $`\mathrm{ln}|rr^{}|`$ is symmetric with respect to $`r,r^{}`$ and $`dQ/dr=0`$ for $`r=0`$ and $`\mathrm{}`$, the logarithmic terms cancel and

$$𝒦(Qa)=\mathrm{v}.\mathrm{p}._0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{dQ}{dr^{}}\frac{1}{rr^{}}𝑑r^{}ϵ^1.$$

## Appendix C. The adjoint problem

Consider the homogeneous counterpart of the boundary value problem (29) and (30), i.e.,

$$_z𝑿\gamma _0𝑿=0,$$
(C1)
$$𝒫_{z,0}𝑿=0,𝒫_{z,1}𝑿=0.$$
(C2)
This boundary value problem coincides with the zeroth-order problem (19) and (20). Our aim here is to formulate the adjoint problem and to discuss its properties.

We introduce the eigenvectors of the original and adjoint problems, respectively:

$$𝑿=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{b(z;r)}{a(z;r)}\right),𝑿^{}=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{b^{}(z;r)}{a^{}(z;r)}\right).$$

By the definition of the adjoint operator, we have

$`_z𝑿,𝑿^{}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^1}\left[(DGa^{}+b^{\prime \prime })b^{}+(\alpha b+a^{\prime \prime })a^{}\right]𝑑z`$
$`=`$ $`\left(DGab+b^{}bbb_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}\right)|_0^1+\left(a^{}a^{}aa_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}\right)|_0^1+`$
$`+{\displaystyle _0^1}\left[b\left(b_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }+\alpha a^{}\right)+a\left(DGb_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}+a_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }\right)\right]𝑑z`$
$`=`$ $`𝑿,_z^{}𝑿^{}.`$
Therefore, the problem adjoint to (19), (20) is

$`\gamma _0^{}(r)b^{}`$ $`=`$ $`b_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }+\alpha a^{},`$
$`\gamma _0^{}(r)a^{}`$ $`=`$ $`DGb_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}+a_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime },`$
$$a^{}(0)=0,b_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}(0)=0,b^{}(1)=0,a_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}(1)=0.$$
(C3)
According to Fredholm’s theory, the adjoint problem has the same spectrum as the problem (19) and (20), i.e., $`\gamma _{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{}(r)=\gamma _0`$.

## References

Belyanin, M.P., Sokoloff D.D., and Shukurov, A.M. (1994) Asymptotic steady-state solutions to the nonlinear hydromagnetic dynamo equations, Russ. J. Math. Phys., 2, 149–174.

Kolmogorov, A.N., and Fomin, S.V. (1957) Elements of the Theory of Functions and Functional Analysis, Graylock Press, Rochester, N.Y.

Moss, D., Shukurov, A., and Sokoloff, D. (1998) Boundary effects and propagating magnetic fronts in disc dynamos, Geophys. Astrophys. Fluid Dyn., 89, 285–308.

Poezd, A., Shukurov, A., and Sokoloff, D. (1993) Global magnetic patterns in the Milky Way and the Andromeda nebula. Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., 264, 285–297.

Ruzmaikin, A.A., Shukurov, A.M., and Sokoloff, D.D. (1988) Magnetic Fields of Galaxies, Kluwer, Dordrecht.

Soward, A.M. (1978) A thin disc model of the Galactic dynamo, Astron. Nachr., 299, 25–33.

Soward, A.M. (1992a) This disc $`\alpha \omega `$-dynamo models. I. Long length scale modes, Geophys. Astrophys. Fluid Dyn., 64, 163–199.

Soward, A.M. (1992b) This disc $`\alpha \omega `$-dynamo models I. Long length scale modes, Geophys. Astrophys. Fluid Dyn., 64, 201–225.

Soward, A.M. (2000) Thin aspect ratio $`\alpha \mathrm{\Omega }`$-dynamos in galactic discs and stellar shells, in: Advances in Nonlinear Dynamos (Ed. M. Núñez and A. Ferriz Mas), The Fluid Mechanics of Astrophysics and Geophysics, Gordon and Breach, New York (to appear).

Sneddon, I.N. (1951) Fourier Transforms, McGraw–Hill, N.Y.

Willis, A., Shukurov, A., Sokoloff, D.D., and Soward, A.M. (2000) Non-local effects in the mean-field disc dynamo. II. (in preparation).

Zeldovich, Ya.B., Ruzmaikin, A.A., and Sokoloff, D.D. (1983) Magnetic Fields in Astrophysics, Gordon and Breach, New York.


text:
# How Common are Engines in Ib/c Supernovae?

## 1 Hydrodynamic vs. Engine Driven Explosions

Stellar explosions can be characterized by their kinetic energy, $`E_K`$, and the mass of the ejecta, $`M_{\mathrm{ej}}`$. Equivalently one may consider $`E_K`$ and the mean initial speed of ejecta, $`v_0`$, or the Lorentz factor, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0=[1\beta _0^2]^{1/2}`$, where $`\beta _0=v_0/c`$. In this context, supernovae (SNe) and $`\gamma `$-ray bursts (GRBs), are distinguished by their ejecta velocities: $`v_010^4`$ km s-1 as inferred from optical absorption features (e.g. fil97 ), and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0>100`$, inferred from the non-thermal prompt emission goo86 ; pac86 , respectively.

In the conventional interpretation, $`M_{\mathrm{ej}}`$ for SNe is large because $`E_K`$ is derived from the (essentially) symmetrical collapse of the core and the energy thus couples to all the mass left after the formation of the compact object.

GRB models, on the other hand, appeal to an engine — a stellar mass black hole, which accretes matter on many dynamical timescales and powers relativistic jets (the so-called collapsar model; woo93 ). Observationally, this model is supported by the complex temporal profiles and long duration of GRBs, their high Lorentz factors, a high degree of asymmetry fks+01 , and episodes of energy injection.

## 2 SN 1998bw: An Engine Driven Supernova

The unusual SN 1998bw shares some of the unique attributes expected of GRBs. This Type Ic SN coincided in time and position with GRB 980425 gvv+98 , for which the inferred isotropic energy in $`\gamma `$-rays was only $`8\times 10^{47}`$ erg paa+00 , three to six orders of magnitude fainter than typical GRBs. More importantly, SN 1998bw exhibited unusually bright radio emission indicating about $`10^{50}`$ erg of mildly relativistic ejecta as well as variable energy input lc99 . To date these features have not been seen in any other nearby SN. Thus, the empirical data strongly favor an engine in SN 1998bw.

Two scenarios for the origin of SN 1998bw and its relation to GRBs have been proposed: (i) GRB 980425 may have been a typical burst but viewed well away from the jet axis (hereafter, the off-axis model), and (ii) SN 1998bw represents a different class of SNe.

A powerful discriminant between these two scenarios is the expected rate of SN 1998bw-like events. In the off-axis model, the fraction of Type Ib/c SNe that are powered by a central engine is linked to the mean beaming factor of GRBs, $`f_b`$ (e.g. fks+01 ); a recent estimate is $`f_b^1500`$ fks+01 . Coupled with an estimated local GRB rate of $`0.5`$ Gpc-3 yr-1 sch01  compared to a Type Ib/c SN rate of $`4.8\times 10^4`$ Gpc-3 yr-1 mcp+98 ; cet99 ; frp+99 , we expect that $`0.5\%`$ of Type Ib/c SNe will be similar to SN 1998bw.

On the other hand, if SN 1998bw is not an off-axis burst, then the rate of similar events has to be assessed independent of the GRB rate. In this context, Norris (2002) nor02  has argued that of the $`1429`$ long-duration BATSE bursts, about 90 events possess similar high-energy attributes as that of GRB 980425. This number corresponds to about $`25\%`$ of Type Ib/c SNe within 100 Mpc.

## 3 A VLA Survey of Type Ib/c Supernovae

Our basic hypothesis is that (mildly) relativistic ejecta are best probed by radio observations, as was demonstrated in the case of SN 1998bw. To this end we began a program of observing most reported Type Ib/c SNe with the Very Large Array in late 1999 bkf+03 .

Figure 1 provides a succinct summary of the radio lightcurves and upper limits. Three strong conclusions can be drawn from this Figure. First, SNe as bright as SN 1998bw are rare; we find a limit of $`<3\%`$ from our survey. Second, there is significant dispersion in the luminosities of Type Ib/c SNe. Finally, the radio emission from SNe (including SN 1998bw) is orders of magnitude dimmer than that of GRB afterglows.

### 3.1 Expansion Velocities and Energetics

In the framework of synchrotron self-absorption, the peak time and peak luminosity directly measure the mean expansion speed of the fastest ejecta che98 . We infer velocities ranging from $`v10^4`$ to $`10^5`$ km s-1 based on our detections and upper limits bkf+03 .

We also find that the ejecta giving rise to the radio emission from SNe for which detailed information is available (SN 1984L and SN 2002ap) can be produced by a hydrodynamic explosion bkc02 ; bkf+03 . In fact, the estimated energies from the hydrodynamic models che82 ; mm99 ; inn+00  exceed those inferred from the radio observations by up to two orders of magnitude. This may indicate that the total kinetic energies have been over-estimated, possibly as a result of neglecting a mild asymmetry.

We therefore conclude that none of the SNe observed in our survey and in the past clearly exhibits the unique characteristics of SN 1998bw: a significant excess of energy in mildly relativistic ejecta.

## 4 A Comparison to $`\gamma `$-Ray Burst Afterglows

From Figures 1 and 2 it is clear that the radio lightcurves of GRB afterglows and SNe are dramatically different. This has significant implications, namely none of the Type Ib/c SNe presented in Figure 1 could have given rise to a typical $`\gamma `$-ray burst. However, SN 1998bw is unique in both samples: it is fainter than typical radio afterglows of GRBs but much brighter than Type Ib/c SNe (Figure 2).

### 4.1 Hypernovae

The discovery of broad optical lines and large explosive energy release, $`>few`$ FOE, in SN 1998bw prompted some astronomers to use the designation “hypernovae” for SN 1998bw-like SNe. Unfortunately, this designation is not well defined, and has been applied liberally in recent years.

In our framework the critical distinction between an ordinary supernova and a GRB explosion is relativistic ejecta carrying a considerable amount of energy. Such ejecta are simply not traced by optical spectroscopy. This reasoning is best supported by the fact that the energy carried by the fast ejecta in SN 1998bw and SN 2002ap bkc02  differ by four orders of magnitude even though both exhibit broad spectral features at early times and both have been called hypernovae.

## 5 Conclusions

We end with the following conclusions. First, radio observations provide a robust way of measuring the quantity of energy associated with high velocity ejecta. This allows us to clearly discriminate between engine-driven SNe such as SN 1998bw and ordinary SNe, powered by a hydrodynamic explosion, such as SN 2002ap bkc02 . Second, at least $`97\%`$ of local Type Ib/c SNe are not powered by engines and furthermore have a total explosive yield of only $`10^{48}`$ erg in fast ejecta. As summarized in Figure 2, this indicates that there is a clear dichotomy between Type Ib/c SNe and cosmic, engine-driven explosions.

## Index


text:
# A Time Dependent Model of HD209458b

## 1. Introduction

The transiting planet HD209458b should be in synchronous rotation. This implies a significant day/night temperature variation driving a strong atmospheric circulation with wind velocity of $``$1 km/s (Guillot & Showman, 2002). Charbonneau et al. (2002) constrained the sodium abundance in its atmosphere by a spectroscopic study. It is lower than predicted by most models which assume a uniform temperature field. We present a time-dependent radiative model for this atmosphere. It allows us, by modeling the circulation as a solid body rotation, to investigate the longitudinal dependence of temperature.

## 2. Time-dependent radiative model

Radiative fluxes in the atmosphere (stellar and thermal infrared) are calculated throught a line by line code in the spectral range 0.3–9 $`\mu `$m. The following opacity sources were included: Rayleigh scattering; H2 and He CIA absorptions; molecular species such as H2O, CO, CH4, Na, K, TiO; H- bound-free and H$`{}_{}{}^{}{}_{2}{}^{}`$ free-free absorptions. Clouds were not considered. We calculated molecular abundances assuming thermochemical equilibrium at each level and a solar abundance of the elements. Our bottom boundary condition is set by the intrinsic flux of the planet. Guillot & Showman (2002) showed that an equivalent intrinsic effective temperature of Tint=400K is required to fit HD209458b’s age and radius.

The solution profile is calculated by solving the energy equation:
$`\frac{\mathrm{d}T}{\mathrm{d}t}=\frac{mg}{c_p}\left(\left(\frac{\mathrm{d}F_{}}{\mathrm{d}P}\right)\left(\frac{\mathrm{d}F_{IR}}{\mathrm{d}P}\right)\right),`$ where $`\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}P}F_{/IR}`$ are respectively the heating/cooling rates. A time-marching algorithm is used to reach a periodic solution. We investigated the temperature as a function of longitude by modelling the atmospheric circulation as a solid body rotation. Fig. 1 shows the results for a 1 km/s wind velocity, as predicted by Showman & Guillot (2002). We found a 600K day/night temperature variationat the 0.1-bar level, in agreement with their model. A major effect is the condensation of Na on the night side. The sodium absorption present in the HST observations is a factor of 3 less than predicted by most static models (Charbonneau et al., 2002). If the sodium condenses in the night side, half of the limb is depleted in sodium, which might explain the weak HST absorption.

## 3. References

Charbonneau, D., Brown, T. M., Noyes, R. W., & Gilliland, R. L. 2002, ApJ, 568, 377
Guillot, T. & Showman, A. P., 2002, A&A, 385,156
Showman, A. P. & Guillot, T., 2002, A&A, 385,166


text:
# Morphologies and Spectral Energy Distributions of Extremely Red Galaxies in the GOODS-South Field Based on observations taken with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. (AURA) under NASA contract NAS 5–26555. , Based on observations collected at the European Southern Observatory, Chile (ESO Programmes 164.O-0561, 168.A-0485, 169.A-0725, 170.A-0788, 267.A-5729)

## 1. Introduction

The newest challenges to galaxy formation models lie in predicting or explaining the state of galaxy assembly when the universe was in its middle ages, at only several billion years old. In field populations at these redshifts, $`z1`$$`2`$, it is necessary to sample a large enough volume at sufficient depth to overcome biases due to cosmic variance. This is particularly true for strongly clustered galaxies, such as the population of “extremely red objects” (EROs). These have comoving correlation scales of $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}h_{100}^1`$ Mpc at $`z\stackrel{>}{}1`$ (Roche et al. 2002; Firth et al. 2002; Daddi et al. 2000a, 2002), and therefore require surveys of solid angle at least 100 arcmin2 to have a variance less than $`20`$% (Somerville et al. 2003).

The spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of galaxies are products of the amalgam of stellar mass functions, star formation histories, dust, and geometry, often with degeneracies (such as in age and metallicity) complicating interpretation. EROs, by their simple optical-minus-infrared color selection, embody this degeneracy extremely well, and are known to consist of at least two distinct classes of galaxies: old, and dusty/star-forming. Surveys in other wavelengths have post facto uncovered EROs, including radio (Willott et al. 2001), sub-mm (Smail et al. 2002; Wehner et al. 2002), and both hard- and soft-X-ray surveys (Alexander et al. 2002; Brusa et al. 2002). Each class (and subclass) of EROs offers a potentially important datum for further unfolding and challenging galaxy formation models. Currently, predictions of CDM-based semi-analytic models do not compare well against the numbers and statistics of EROs as a whole (Firth et al. 2002; Cimatti et al. 2002b). Having the relative fractions and space densities of, minimally, *morphologically*-determined early-type EROs versus all EROs (e.g. Yan & Thompson 2003), should improve the situation for comparisons against models.

Currently, there is a popular working hypothesis that some (large) fraction of EROs (those similar to the $`z=1.552`$ 53W091, Spinrad et al. 1997) are the ancestors of present-day elliptical galaxies (e.g. Daddi et al. 2000b; Moustakas & Somerville 2002 \[MS02\]; and references therein). Conversely, many EROs demonstrably host highly obscured starbursts (e.g. the $`z=1.44`$ HR10; Graham & Dey 1996) which could be an important component of the global luminosity density (Elbaz et al. 2002; Cimatti et al. 2002a). A photometric technique has been proposed by Pozzetti & Mannucci (2000) to make broad distinctions between passive and star-forming, dusty EROs. This is as yet not well-tested. A systematic morphological and photometric study of a large, homogeneously-selected sample of EROs is therefore timely.

In this *Letter* we present the selection, morphological mix, and mean rest-frame SEDs of $`K_s<22.0`$ (AB) EROs, selected from the GOODS-South *HST*/ACS mosaic (Giavalisco et al. 2003) over $`163`$ arcmin2. The sample selection and their redshifts are described in § 2, followed by the morphological study in § 3. In § 4 we present the relative fractions, space densities, and average rest-frame SEDs by morphological type. Conclusions are drawn in § 5. We give magnitudes in the AB system111The most relevant conversions to Vega magnitudes and colors for this paper are: $`R_{\mathrm{Vega}}=R0.206`$ and $`K_{s,\mathrm{Vega}}=K_s1.859`$. Thus, $`RK_s>3.35`$ in AB corresponds to $`(RK_s)_{\mathrm{Vega}}>5.0`$., and, where necessary, we use a flat cosmology with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=1\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.3`$ and $`H_0=70`$$`h_{70}`$ km s-1 Mpc-1.

## 2. Sample selection and redshifts

The GOODS data are described in Giavalisco et al. (2003). Briefly, for the Southern field (overlapping with CDFS; Giacconi et al. 2002), an ACS mosaic covering $`163`$ arcmin2 in $`B_{435}`$, $`V_{606}`$, $`i_{775}`$, and $`z_{850}`$ are supported by a broad set of ground-based optical and infrared imaging, $`U^{}UBVRIJHK_s`$, from the VLT, NTT, and 2.2 m telescopes. The infrared data are from the SOFI and ISAAC instruments. For this work, we employ a PSF-matched SOFI $`K_s`$-selected catalog from which the stars have been removed222Unresolved sources are identified by a plot of the $`z_{850}`$ $`0.0625`$ arcsec-diameter surface-brightness vs isophotal magnitude, which provides a robust separation to $`z_{850}26.5`$.. The SOFI data reach $`50`$% completeness at $`K_s22.8`$, and are still nearly entirely complete at $`K_s22.0`$ (Moy et al. 2003; Giavalisco et al. 2003).

We consider several definitions of EROs, all of which are essentially complete for these survey depths: three color cuts ($`RK_s>3.35`$, $`3.65`$, and $`4.35`$) for each of two magnitude limits ($`K_s<21.0`$ and $`22.0`$). The largest (“full”) sample ($`RK_s>3.35`$, $`K_s<22.0`$) consists of 275 objects. The smallest sample ($`RK_s>4.35`$, $`K_s<21.0`$) contains 18 objects.

Photometric redshifts are computed using the method of Benítez (2000). These are well-calibrated to $`z_{\mathrm{spec}}1.5`$, with $`\sigma [\mathrm{\Delta }z/(1+z_{\mathrm{spec}})]=0.11`$ (to $`R<25.5`$; Mobasher et al. 2003) using a total of 434 spectroscopic redshifts, including 202 from a VLT/FORS2 campaign over 2002-2003 (to be presented elsewhere), and from the K20 survey (Cimatti et al. 2002b, c). This sample includes 66 EROs with $`RK_s>3.35`$ and $`K_s<22.0`$, for which $`\sigma [\mathrm{\Delta }z/(1+z_{\mathrm{spec}})]=0.05`$. In the analysis that follows, photometric redshifts have been replaced with spectroscopic redshifts where possible. There is one faint compact ERO with a formal $`z_{\mathrm{phot}}=6.4`$, which is a candidate $`L`$-dwarf; for completeness we keep this object in the full sample. The ERO redshift distribution for the full sample is shown in Fig. 1. The $`N(z)`$ has a fairly sharp edge at $`z0.95`$, a median value of $`z_{\mathrm{med}}1.2`$. The $`N(z)`$ for the redder subsets are similar, but shifted to a higher median redshift, $`z_{\mathrm{med}}1.5`$ (for $`RK_s>4.35`$).

## 3. Morphological classification of EROs

The study of EROs has been largely motivated by their tantalizing connection with both the progenitors of present-day massive elliptical galaxies, and possibly, ultraluminous infrared galaxies. Using the high-resolution ACS data, it should be possible to distinguish between these extremes morphologically. With the ACS $`z_{850}`$ data, restframe morphologies longward of 4000Å can be determined for redshifts $`z\stackrel{<}{}1.3`$, reducing possible morphological $`k`$-correction issues (e.g. Giavalisco et al. 1996) for most EROs in this sample. The GOODS data reach a $`z_{850}`$ 1-$`\sigma `$ isophotal limit of $`27.3`$ mag arcsec-2 (Giavalisco et al. 2003). As the average magnitude of galaxies in the full sample is $`z_{850}23.0`$, for most cases the distinction between early- and non-early-types should be clear. At redshifts beyond $`z1.3`$, the 4000Å-break begins to shift past the $`z_{850}`$ band, and morphological $`k`$-corrections may become important. This can be solved by also examining longer-wavelength imaging (e.g. the $`0.4`$ arcsec-resolution ISAAC data in the $`K_s`$-band); this will be done in future work.

We began by exploring the galaxy morphologies with the concentration and asymmetry (CAS) parameters of Conselice (2003, see also ). We found that the parameter values were fairly continuous and did not cleanly distinguish “classes,” which reflects the morphological richness of all types of EROs. We therefore resorted to a *visual* classification approach, and report the range and spread of the resulting by-type CAS values below.

We adopt four broad morphological types: Early, Late, Irregular, and Other. The classification is based largely on the $`z_{850}`$ data, with cross-examination of the $`B_{435}`$, $`V_{606}`$, and $`i_{775}`$ imaging for the colors and multi-wavelength structure of features. Since a primary goal of this work is to make a census of EROs that may be present-day elliptical progenitors, we use a conservative definition for Early types, excluding galaxies with any definite evidence of a prominent disk or dust-band. An isolated environment was not a requirement, so included are galaxies that are clearly interacting or merging. The Late-type category consists of galaxies with some regular, disky component, independent of the bulge fraction – which can be quite large. Irregular-types are the Magellanic-type galaxies, whereas the Other type predominantly includes low surface brightness galaxies and chain galaxies with multiple star-formation sites. Two examples of each type are given in Fig. 2.

The classifications were done independently by four authors (SC, PE, RL, LAM), with the consolidation done by LAM. The overall agreement was very good, the greatest differences arising in the use of galaxies’ central concentration as a criterion for several cases of morphologically Early-type galaxies. Since it became apparent that many EROs appear to be in dynamical disequilibrium, potentially softening the sharpness of cores, concentration as a criterion was relaxed.

For both Early- and Late-type EROs, the mean values and typical dispersions of the CAS parameters, are $`C_\mathrm{E}C_\mathrm{L}3.1\pm 0.5`$, and $`A_\mathrm{E}A_\mathrm{L}0.25\pm 0.1`$. The Irregular- and Other-type EROs are both less concentrated (at $`C_\mathrm{I}C_\mathrm{O}2.5\pm 0.3`$) and more asymmetric (at $`A_\mathrm{I}A_\mathrm{O}0.3\pm 0.2`$).

## 4. Results

The full ERO dataset comprises $`10`$% of all $`K_s`$-selected galaxies at $`K_s=20`$$`22`$. The relative fractions of EROs by morphological type are presented in Table 1 for several limiting magnitudes and color limits. We find the relative fraction of Early-types does not depend strongly on the selection criteria, staying at $`3344`$% of the total numbers. Late-types, however, dominate the population at brighter magnitudes (with 55% at $`K_s<21.0`$, $`RK_s>3.35`$), and comprise much smaller fractions (23%) at the faintest, reddest limit (see also $`I_{F814W}`$-band WFPC2-based analyses by Yan & Thompson 2003 and Gilbank et al. 2003, which find similar relative fractions). The redshift distributions of Early- and Late-types are very similar (Fig. 1). The combined fraction of Irregular- and Other-types increases dramatically with both limiting magnitude and color threshold; these galaxies also tend to have higher photometric redshifts, with a median of $`z_{\mathrm{med}}1.5`$. Based on the observed redshift distributions, comoving space densities are calculated and presented in Table 2. The volume probed by the full sample is $`4.4\times 10^5`$$`h_{70}^3`$ Mpc3, for a total comoving space density of $`n=(6.40\pm 0.39)\times 10^4`$$`h_{70}^3`$ Mpc-3, and the cosmic variance uncertainty is therefore $`\sigma _{\mathrm{cv}}15`$% (Somerville et al. 2003).

To explore whether there is a useful correspondence between morphological type and colors, we calculate the rest-frame SED of each ERO, normalized to $`f_\nu =1`$ (arbitrary units) at 5200 Å. In Fig. 1 we plot all data points for two groupings of morphological types, with the corresponding mean “blue” and “red” SEDs, as described in the caption. The strong break around $`4000`$ Å follows from the red-color selection of EROs. It is interesting that the *range* of SED shapes is extremely similar for all EROs. This is reflected also in the formal SED-fitting done for calculating photometric redshifts in Mobasher et al. (2003). Even the reddest normal starburst SEDs (drawn from Kinney et al. 1996) are too blue to fit EROs, so the EROs tend strongly to be best-fit by the earliest (elliptical) SED templates. As seen in the inset of Fig. 1, the empirical SED of the ultraluminous infrared galaxy (ULIRG) Arp 220 (as given in Elbaz et al. 2002) is sufficiently red to match ERO colors, and is coincidentally remarkably similar to the SED of an old, passively-evolved, unreddened system. Many of the Late-type galaxies have large bulges, and so their SEDs may naturally be dominated by old stellar populations. Even the Irregular and Other morphological types alone, which may arguably be candidates for ULIRGs, span the same range of SED shapes shown in Fig. 1. We conclude that in this wavelength-range, color information is insufficient to *generally* distinguish between clearly distinct morphological types of EROs.

## 5. Conclusions

Samples of color-selected EROs consist of several distinct galaxy types for all magnitude ranges and color-cuts. All morphological types are found over very similar redshift ranges, $`z_{\mathrm{med}}1.2`$, with the more morphologically-disturbed (Irregular and Other) types tending to somewhat higher redshifts. This may be due to a combination of a morphological $`k`$-correction selection effects (where at redshifts above $`z1.3`$ galaxy bulges may be less apparent in the $`z_{850}`$ data); and a hint of a population of real, “train-wreck” galaxies, seen at redshifts closer to $`z2`$. With the present data, it is not possible to distinguish between these possibilities from the photometry alone, as seen by the grossly-similar rest-frame SEDs of all morphological types. This does suggest that those EROs that *are* perhaps “dusty starbursts,” have SEDs that are more similar to local ULIRGs (such as Arp 220), rather than (mere) starburst galaxies.

The comoving space density of morphologically Early-type EROs ($`n_\mathrm{E}2.5\times 10^4h_{70}^3\mathrm{Mpc}^3`$) is quite comparable to present-day giant Ellipticals, $`n_{\mathrm{gE},\mathrm{z}=0}2.1\times 10^4h_{70}^3\mathrm{Mpc}^3`$ (c.f. MS02). This suggests that the $`z1.2`$ Early-type galaxies identified within the ERO population may in fact correspond to the majority of the most massive ellipticals today, pointing to an epoch of assembly, as well as star-formation, at redshifts well beyond $`z>2`$.

We acknowledge discussion at many stages of this work with D. Alexander and F. Bauer, and comments by L. Yan. The work of DS was carried out at JPL, Caltech, under a contract with NASA. Support for this work, part of the *Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF)* Legacy Science Program, was provided by NASA through contract number 1224666 issued by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under NASA contract 1407.