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# Imaginary in all directions: an elegant formulation of special relativity and classical electrodynamics

## 1 Introduction

One of the most established symmetries of our universe is the invariance under Lorentz transformations, or the principle of special relativity . Lorentz originally discovered that Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism was invariant under these transformations. Einstein subsequently interpreted them as a principle of relativity, which is by no means specific to electromagnetism but a fundamental and far reaching invariance of our universe. The transformations were formulated in terms of $`4\times 4`$ matrices $`(\mathrm{\Lambda }_\mu ^\nu )`$ that act on contravariant four vectors denoting space-time $`(q^\mu )(t,x,y,z)`$, energy-momentum $`(p^\mu )(E,p_x,p_y,p_z)`$, or the like. The introduction of the Minkowski metric $`(g_{\mu \nu })`$ and another set of covariant vectors such that $`(q_\mu )(t,x,y,z)`$ provided a highly convenient notation for relativistic theories, which has ever since been taught and referred to as relativistic notation. Einstein once even joked that his most important contribution to physics was to introduce this notation.

Apart from the success of the notation, it is taught to students of physics at such an early stage that they hardly question it. They learn in other classes, for example in alternating current circuit theory, the enormous technical advantage that can result if one employs complex numbers to describe the phase shifts in the time dependencies of real but alternating voltages and currents, but nothing suggests that any of this formalism, or a generalization of it, can simplify Lorentz transformations in a similar way. The only obvious application of imaginary units appears to be a rotation from Minkowski to Euclidean space by replacing the time $`t`$ by an imaginary time $`\tau it`$, with the effect that the Minkowski metric $`(g_{\mu \nu })`$ is replaced by a simple Euclidean metric $`(\delta _{\mu \nu })`$.

In this paper, we will show that a suitable imaginary parameterization of space-time or other Lorentz contra- or covariant quantities, using both one complex and three quaternionic imaginary units , yields a tremendous simplification of relativistic invariance : Lorentz transformations will no longer require multiplication by matrices, but only multiplication by complex-quaternionic (CQ) numbers. Classical electrodynamics will then provide us with a first orchard in which to harvest the gain in formal elegance . To be specific, Maxwell’s four equations will reduce to a single identity between two CQ numbers.

## 2 Special relativity

Let us now set up the formalism. We introduce a complex algebra with generators $`1,\mathrm{@}`$, such that

$$\mathrm{@}^2=1,$$
(1)
as well as an quaternionic algebra with generators $`1,i,j,k`$, such that

$$\begin{array}{ccc}& i^2=j^2=k^2=1,& \\ & ij=ji=k,jk=kj=i,ki=ik=j,& \end{array}$$
(2)
which mutually commute:

$$[i,\mathrm{@}]=[j,\mathrm{@}]=[k,\mathrm{@}]=0.$$
(3)
We further introduce a complex conjugate operation , which takes the form

$$\mathrm{@}\mathrm{@}^{}=\mathrm{@}$$

but leaves $`i`$, $`j`$, and $`k`$ unchanged, as well as a quaternionic conjugate operation -, which leaves @ unchanged but takes the form

$$i\overline{i}=i,j\overline{j}=j,\text{and}k\overline{k}=k.$$

Note that if $`o_1,o_2`$ are two CQ numbers, the order of the product $`o_1o_2`$ is reversed under quaternionic conjugation only:

$$(o_1o_2)^{}=o_1^{}o_2^{}\text{but}\overline{o_1o_2}=\overline{o}_2\overline{o}_1.$$
(4)
No simple product rule would exist if we had two or more mutually commuting quaternionic algebras.

We label space-time (and other Lorentz contravariant quantities usually denoted by four vectors) by a purely imaginary CQ number,

$$q\mathrm{@}t+ix+jy+kz$$
(5)
where $`t,x,y,z`$. We identify this subspace of $``$ using Minkowski space and denote it by $`𝕄`$. Complex conjugation  and quaternionic conjugation - correspond within this space to time reversal (T) and parity (P) transformations, respectively. Note that $`q^{}=\overline{q}`$ for $`q𝕄`$.

The corresponding covariant quantity is given by its quaternionic conjugate or parity reversed CQ number,

$$\overline{q}=\mathrm{@}tixjykz,$$
(6)
yielding the proper time interval

$$\overline{q}q=q\overline{q}=t^2x^2y^2z^2.$$
(7)
Let $`n=in_x+jn_y+kn_z`$ with $`n\overline{n}=n_x^2+n_y^2+n_z^2=1`$ and $`n_x,n_y,n_z`$ be a quaternionic imaginary unit vector $`(n_x,n_y,n_z)`$. Then a Lorentz transformation is given simply by

$$qq^{}=\omega q\overline{\omega }^{},$$
(8)
with either

$$\omega =e^{\frac{1}{2}n\theta }=\mathrm{cos}\frac{\theta }{2}+n\mathrm{sin}\frac{\theta }{2}$$
(9)
for a rotation by an angle $`\theta `$ around $`n`$, or

$$\omega =e^{\frac{1}{2}n\mathrm{@}\mathrm{\Lambda }}=\mathrm{cosh}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}+\mathrm{@}n\mathrm{sinh}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}$$
(10)
for a boost by a Lorentz angle $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ in direction $`n`$. (8-10) are readily verified using $`n^2=1`$ and $`(n\mathrm{@})^2=1`$.

Clearly the covariant CQ number $`\overline{q}`$ transforms as

$$\overline{q}\overline{q}^{}=\omega ^{}\overline{q}\overline{\omega }.$$
(11)
With $`\omega \overline{\omega }=\overline{\omega }\omega =1`$, the Lorentz invariance of the proper time $`\overline{q}q`$ is evident.

At this point we assume that the reader is aware of how awkward it is to write down a rotation around or a boost along an arbitrary axis using $`4\times 4`$ matrices, so that there is no need to dwell on the elegance of the formulation proposed here.

It is convenient at this point to use the norm given by the proper time interval to define a scalar product between two imaginary or Minkowski CQ numbers $`𝕄\times 𝕄`$, according to

$`p,q`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\left(\overline{(pq)}(pq)\overline{(p+q)}(p+q)\right)`$ (12)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(\overline{p}q+\overline{q}p)`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(p\overline{q}+q\overline{p}).`$
The proper time interval (7) is given by $`q,q=\overline{q}q`$. With $`p=\mathrm{@}E+ip_x+jp_y+kp_z`$ and $`q=\mathrm{@}t+ix+jy+kz`$, we obtain

$$p,q=Etp_xxp_yyp_zz.$$
(13)
Furthermore, it is convenient to define the contravariant differentiation operator

$$D\mathrm{@}\frac{}{t}i\frac{}{x}j\frac{}{y}k\frac{}{z}=\mathrm{@}_ti_xj_yk_z,$$
(14)
which likewise transforms according to

$$DD^{}=\omega D\overline{\omega }^{}.$$
(15)
Note that $`D\overline{q}=\overline{D}q=4`$, as expected. The covariant differentiation operator is, of course, given by

$$\overline{D}=\mathrm{@}_t+i_x+j_y+k_z,$$
(16)
and transforms

$$\overline{D}\overline{D}^{}=\omega ^{}\overline{D}\overline{\omega }.$$
(17)
## 3 Classical electrodynamics

We proceed by applying this formalism to classical electrodynamics. To begin with, we introduce a contravariant vector (or imaginary CQ field)

$$A\mathrm{@}\varphi +iA_x+jA_y+kA_z,$$
(18)
and require the theory to be invariant under electromagnetic gauge transformations

$$AA+D\lambda (q),$$
(19)
where $`\lambda (q)`$ is an arbitrary real-valued scalar function of space-time $`q`$. We proceed by defining the electromagnetic field strength

$$F\frac{1}{2}\left(\overline{D}A\overline{\overline{D}A}\right).$$
(20)
Clearly $`F`$ is invariant under (19). Note that we cannot replace $`\overline{\overline{D}A}`$ by $`\overline{A}D`$ in the second term in (20), since the derivative operator has to act on $`A`$. Under a Lorentz transformation, $`F=\overline{F}`$ transforms as

$$FF^{}=\omega ^{}F\overline{\omega }^{}.$$
(21)
At this point it is propitious to introduce

$$e_1i,e_2j,e_3k$$
(22)
such that

$$e_ie_j=\delta _{ij}+ϵ_{ijk}e_k\text{with}i,j,k\{1,2,3\},$$
(23)
where the indices $`i,j,k`$ in (23) are not to be confused with the quaternionic generators $`i,j,k`$ in (22). With summation over repeated indices but no hidden minus signs implied, we write

$$A=\mathrm{@}\varphi +e_iA_iD=\mathrm{@}_te_i_i\text{etc.}$$
(24)
Writing the field strength (20) out in components, we obtain

$$F=e_iϵ_{ijk}_jA_k\mathrm{@}e_i(_tA_i_i\varphi ).$$
(25)
Note that

$$DF=(\mathrm{@}_i+e_i_t)(_tA_i_i\varphi )e_iϵ_{ijk}_jϵ_{klm}_lA_m$$
(26)
is a purely imaginary CQ number ($`DF𝕄`$). This implies

$$DF+\overline{DF}^{}=0,$$
(27)
which will prove useful below.

We proceed by defining magnetic and electric field strengths according to

$$B_iϵ_{ijk}_jA_k\text{and}E_i_tA_i_i\varphi ,$$
(28)
and use them to rewrite (25) as

$$F=e_i(B_i\mathrm{@}E_i).$$
(29)
We may hence write the Lagrangian density for the electromagnetic field coupled to an external current $`(\rho ,J_i)`$ as

$``$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(E_i^2B_i^2\right)+\rho \varphi J_iA_i`$ (30)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\left(F^2+(F^{})^2\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(\overline{J}A+\overline{A}J\right),`$
where we have defined

$$J\mathrm{@}\rho +e_iJ_i.$$
(31)
Clearly, $``$ and $`F^2=E_i^2+2\mathrm{@}E_iB_i+B_i^2`$ are Lorentz invariant.

Variation of $``$ with respect to $`\delta \overline{A}`$ yields, after integration by parts,

$$\frac{1}{4}\left(DF\overline{DF}^{}\right)+\frac{1}{2}J=0.$$
(32)
Together with (27), we obtain

$$DF+J=0.$$
(33)
This is Maxwell’s equation. (In the standard formulation, there is need to speak of equations (plural), but we shall see now that this single equation replaces all four of them.) Note that (33) transforms contravariantly under Lorentz transformations. Evaluation of $`DF`$, starting from (29), yields

$$DF=_iB_i\mathrm{@}_iE_i+e_i\left(_tE_iϵ_{ijk}_jB_k\right)+\mathrm{@}e_i\left(_tB_i+ϵ_{ijk}_jE_k\right).$$
(34)
Since (33) implies that the coefficients of $`DF+J`$ in all eight orthogonal directions $`\{1,\mathrm{@},e_i,\mathrm{@}e_i\}`$ of $``$ vanish, substitution of (34) and (31) into (33) immediately yields

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill _iB_i& =& 0\hfill \\ \hfill _iE_i+\rho & =& 0\hfill \\ \hfill _tE_iϵ_{ijk}_jB_k+J_i& =& 0\hfill \\ \hfill _tB_i+ϵ_{ijk}_jE_k& =& 0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(35)
We assume the reader is familiar with these equations.

In Lorentz gauge,

$$_t\varphi _iA_i=\frac{1}{2}\left(\overline{D}A+\overline{\overline{D}A}\right)=0.$$
(36)
Maxwell’s equation (33) then reduces to

$$D\overline{D}A+J=0,$$
(37)
which is readily recognized as a wave equation.

## 4 Conclusion

In conclusion, we have shown that a suitable CQ parameterization of Lorentz contra- and covariant quantities can greatly enhance elegance and simplicity of relativistic theories. We believe that this language is likely to yield new perspectives on quantum field theories , which we are currently investigating.

## Acknowledgment

One of us (MG) is deeply indebted to S C Zhang  for countless discussions on his four-dimensional generalization of fractionally quantized Hall states that have inspired the present work.


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# Diffusion of Nonequilibrium Quasiparticles in a Cuprate Superconductor

## Abstract

We report a transport study of nonequilibrium quasiparticles in a high-$`T_c`$ cuprate superconductor using the transient grating technique. Low-intensity laser excitation (at photon energy 1.5 eV) was used to introduce a spatially periodic density of quasiparticles into a high-quality untwinned single crystal of YBa2Cu3O6.5. Probing the evolution of the initial density through space and time yielded the quasiparticle diffusion coefficient, and both inelastic and elastic scattering rates. The technique reported here is potentially applicable to precision measurement of quasiparticle dynamics, not only in cuprate superconductors, but in other electronic systems as well.

Quasiparticles are the elementary excitations of a superconductor, created when a Cooper pair of electrons breaks apart. The dynamic properties of quasiparticles, that is their rates of diffusion, scattering, trapping, and recombination, are critical for applications of conventional superconductors in X-ray detectors xray  and in the manipulation of superconductor-based qubits qubit . In more exotic superconductors, such as the high-$`T_c`$ cuprates, a better understanding of quasiparticle dynamics may help to uncover the mechanism for Cooper pairing. A special property of the cuprate superconductors is the d-wave symmetry of the gap function, which leads to an unusual quasiparticle spectrum. The minimum energy for the creation of a quasiparticle depends on the direction of its momentum shen . It is zero for momenta in the ’nodal’ direction, oriented at 45 relative to the Cu-O bond. The most energetically expensive quasiparticles are the ’antinodal’ ones, whose momenta are nearly parallel to the bond. The antinodal quasiparticles are the mystery particles of cuprate superconductivity. Because they feel the pairing interaction most strongly, their properties may hold the key to high-$`T_c`$ superconductivity. Unfortunately, their tendency to form strong pairs makes them difficult to study. In thermal equilibrium the population of quasiparticles is overwhelmingly dominated by the low energy nodal ones. As a result, transport measurements performed in equilibrium, such as microwave hosseini  and thermal ong  conductivity, are insensitive to antinodal quasiparticles.

In this work a transient grating technique was developed and used to probe the transport of nonequilibrium quasiparticles in the high-$`T_c`$ superconductor YBa2Cu3O6.5. We find that the diffusion coefficient, $`D`$, is much smaller than the value obtained in measurements on equilibrium quasiparticles in the same material. The disparity in $`D`$ suggests that the current experiment probes a population of quasiparticles that are not near the nodes, and are perhaps close to the antinodal regions of momentum space.

The nonequilibrium quasiparticles were introduced using short optical pulses. To probe their propagation, we generated a spatially periodic population by interfering two pulses at the sample surface. The spatial period, $`\lambda _g`$, equals $`\lambda /2`$sin$`\theta `$, where $`\lambda `$ is the wavelength of the pulse and $`2\theta `$ is the angle between the two pump beams. The nonequilibrium quasiparticles cause a change in the index of refraction at the laser frequency chwalek  which is a linear function of their density segre . As a result, the sinusoidal variation in quasiparticle density creates an index grating which can be detected by the diffraction of a probe pulse.

After creation, the distribution of quasiparticles evolves due to the combined effects of recombination and diffusion. In the process of recombination a pair of quasiparticles jumps back into the Cooper pair condensate with the simultaneous transfer of their creation energy to some other form (e.g. phonons). The amplitude of the grating may also decay as quasiparticle diffusion drives the system towards a spatially homogeneous quasiparticle concentration. The goal of the experiment is to disentangle these effects and measure both the rates of recombination and diffusion.

The transient grating technique has been used successfully in a wide variety of applications, including exciton diffusion, dynamics of biomolecules, propagation of ultrasound, and thermal diffusion tgbook . Observing the propagation of superconducting quasiparticles requires the ability to detect the transient grating at extremely dilute concentrations. At the low excitation densities needed to detect their propagation, the quasiparticles produce no more than $`10^5`$ fractional change in the index of refraction. The diffracted intensity from such a grating would therefore be of order $`10^{10}`$ of the incident probe intensity and consequently very difficult to detect.

Detection of the grating required measurement of the amplitude of the diffracted wave, which is a part in $`10^5`$ of the probe, rather than the intensity. This is accomplished through the use of heterodyne detection heterodyne1 ; heterodyne2 . The key element in the success of the heterodyne technique is the diffractive optic (DO) beamsplitter, which creates pairs of pump and probe beams DO1 ; DO2 . The DO element in our experimental setup (Fig. 1) is an array of 10 separate 2.5 mm square phase masks, each with a different grating period, on a fused silica substrate. A beam from a Ti:Sapphire laser ($`\lambda `$=800 nm and pulse repetition rate 80 MHz) is split into primary pump and probe beams, which are focused onto one of the phase masks at a small angle with respect to each other. The phase mask splits each of the primary beams by diffraction into the m=$`\pm `$1 orders. (For clarity, only the probe beam paths are shown in Fig. 1).

The interference of the two pump beams creates a spatially varying index of refraction in the sample which reaches a depth 1000 $`\AA `$ below the surface and has half the period of the phase mask. We detect the index variation using an implementation of the heterodyne technique that enables absolute calibration of the phase SOM . Each of the two probe beams is specularly reflected from the surface of the sample, and returns, via the DO, to a Si detector. The two possible round-trip beam paths are shown as solid and dashed lines in Fig. 1. With the use of the DO beamsplitter, detection of the diffracted probe is automatically aligned. The diffracted component of P1 is precisely colinear with reflected P2, and vice versa. The experiment is performed by alternately blocking one of the two reflected beams. If reflected P1 is blocked, then reflected P2 and diffracted P1 are mixed in the detector. This measurement by itself is insufficient to extract the wave amplitudes because the relative phase of P1 and P2 is undetermined. However, simply blocking reflected P2 instead of P1 produces a mixed signal with the conjugate phase. Comparing the detector output for the two conjugate beam paths fixes the absolute phase and therefore the wave amplitudes as well.

By adjusting the phase delay of P1 relative to P2, the output of the Si photodiode measures either the change of the specular reflection coefficient due to the grating, R, or the amplitude of the diffraction efficiency, TG. R is proportional to the spatial average of the quasiparticle concentration, whereas TG is proportional to the component of the quasiparticle concentration at the fundamental period of the grating, $`\lambda _g`$ fayer . In Fig. 2 we plot both R and TG for $`\lambda _g=`$2 $`\mu `$m as a function of time delay, for several intensities of the excitation pulses, and consequently for a range of initial quasiparticle concentrations. The temperature of the sample was 5 K and the grating wavevector was oriented along the crystallographic b axis (parallel to the Cu-O chains).

The curves are normalized to their value at time delay zero. The R curves, which decay due to recombination, are nonexponential, and their characteristic rate of decay increases with increasing concentration segre . The increase of recombination rate with density is consistent with the idea that each quasiparticle must encounter another to scatter into the Cooper pair condensate. The corresponding TG curves depend strongly on the pump intensity as well. However the time dependence at each pump intensity is different from R because TG reflects the combined effects of recombination and propagation. In systems where the recombination rate is independent of density, it is relatively straightforward to separate the effects of particle decay and diffusion. If the average concentration decays exponentially with rate $`\gamma `$, the amplitude of the grating decays with rate $`\gamma +Dq^2`$, where D is the diffusion coefficient and q is the wavevector of the grating, $`2\pi /\lambda _g`$. The ratio TG/R, which decays simply as exp(-$`Dq^2t`$), isolates the effects of diffusion on the evolution of the particle density.

With this example in mind, we are led to consider TG/R for our data (see Fig. 3). The left, and right, panels show TG/R for grating periods of 2, and 5 $`\mu `$m, respectively, for several values of the pump laser intensity. Unlike the example of density-independent recombination, the decay of TG/R is nonexponential and highly dependent on the excitation density. At high intensity TG/R recovers its value at zero time delay, after an initial rapid decrease. TG/R is nearly independent of grating period at high intensity. As intensity decreases, the minimum of TG/R moves systematically towards longer times and the decay approaches a simple exponential. The exponential rate at low pump laser intensity clearly depends strongly on $`\lambda _g`$, as is expected if the grating decays due to diffusion.

The dependence of TG/R on laser intensity and grating period results from an interplay of density-dependent recombination, diffusion, and energy transfer. To unravel these effects we have modeled the quasiparticle dynamics by adding a quadratic recombination term to the diffusion equation: $`n(x,t)/t=D^2n(x,t)/x^2\beta n^2(x,t)`$ SOM . Here, n is the quasiparticle density and $`\beta `$ is the recombination coefficient, which is a measure of the inelastic scattering rate scalapino . The dynamics predicted by this equation depend on the relative magnitude of $`\beta n`$ and $`Dq^2`$. In the high density regime, $`\beta nDq^2`$, recombination dominates over diffusion. Because the rate is more rapid where n is larger, recombination distorts the sinusoidal grating by flattening the crests. The distortion of the grating profile reduces the component of n at the fundamental grating period faster than its spatial average. This accounts for the initial decrease of TG/R. However, if this were the only process TG/R would never bounce back to its initial value, as it is seen to do in Fig. 3.

TG/R recovers in the high-intensity regime because the energy released as the quasiparticles recombine appears in another form, one that also creates a change in the index of refraction. In conventional superconductors the quasiparticle energy is converted to lattice vibrational energy, which (in the presence of electron-phonon coupling) will change the index. While phonons may play this role in the cuprate superconductors as well, excitations involving the flipping of electron spins may be generated instead when quasiparticles recombine quinlan . In either case, the recovery of TG/R follows if this secondary form of energy does not diffuse on the 100 ps time scale. In this case, the original sinusoidal distribution of energy is written into a stationary form of energy before the quasiparticles have had a chance to diffuse. When almost all the energy has been handed off from the quasiparticles to non-propagating modes, the grating recovers its sinusoidal profile and TG/R returns to its value at time zero. The energy remains frozen until the nanosecond time scale, when thermal diffusion becomes significant fayer2 .

The effects of diffusion dominate in the low density regime, $`\beta nDq^2`$, where quasiparticle motion washes out the grating before energy transfer can take place. According to the equation governing $`n(x,t)`$, TG/R becomes q dependent and intensity independent in this limit. To find the rate of diffusion, we measured TG/R at low power (P=0.32 mW) for several grating periods between 2 and 5 $`\mu `$m. The initial decay rate of TG/R at low power is plotted as a function of $`q^2`$ in Fig. 4. The decay rate depends systematically on the grating period, demonstrating that the dynamics are in the propagation-dominated regime. The rates for the grating oriented along both the a and b crystallographic directions are plotted. For both directions the rate is a linear function of $`q^2`$, demonstrating that the quasiparticle propagation is diffusive. From the slope of a linear fit we determine that $`D_a`$=20 cm2/s and $`D_b`$=24 cm2/s. The intercept as q tends to zero is the decay rate due to recombination.

It is possible to infer the mean free time $`\tau `$ and mean square velocity $`<v^2>`$ of nonequilibrium quasiparticles from the values of $`D`$ quoted above. A lower bound on $`\tau `$ is obtained by inserting the maximum quasiparticle velocity, the Fermi velocity $`v_F`$, into the kinetic formula, $`D=<v^2>\tau /2`$. The literature value valla  $`v_F=2\times 10^7`$ cm/s yields a lower bound of 100 fs. An upper bound on $`\tau `$ of essentially the same value can also be inferred from the experiment. If $`\tau `$ were significantly longer than 100 fs then quasiparticle propagation would be ballistic on the subpicosecond time scale. However, the time and wavevector dependence of $`TG`$ proves that quasiparticle motion is diffusive at the earliest times we can resolve, which is $``$ 300 fs after creation of the grating. Thus the allowed values of $`\tau `$ and $`v`$ are narrowly bracketed near 100 fs and $`v_F`$, respectively. Furthermore, the measurements indicate that $`\tau `$ is determined by elastic, rather than inelastic, processes. The nonequilibrium particles survive for $``$ 100 ps, and therefore scatter $``$ 1000 times before decaying. This would be impossible if each scattering event resulted in a significant reduction of the quasiparticle’s energy.

Equilibrium measurements find (in the same crystal and at the same temperature) that $`\tau =`$ 20 ps turner , which is 200 times longer than $`\tau `$ of the nonequilibrium quasiparticles. The contrast suggests that the nonequilibrium quasiparticles are different from those present in thermal equilibrium. The equilibrium particles occupy states which have a small energy ($`k_BT`$) relative to the chemical potential, and therefore lie very near the gap nodes. If the nonequilibrium quasiparticles are different, they must occupy higher energy states, perhaps ones closer to the antinodal regions of momentum space. It is possible that the constraints of momentum and energy conservation prevent relaxation of antinodal quasiparticles to the nodal regions. If the particles are antinodal, it is relevant to compare the width of the antinodal quasiparticle peak as measured by photoemission with $`\mathrm{}/\tau `$ as measured by nonequilibrium transport. The peak width of 14 meV fedorov  corresponds to $`\tau `$=50 fs, which is close to the transport value, particularly considering that photoemission is performed on Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8 rather than YBa2Cu3O6.5. The similarity of lifetimes suggests that the peak width in photoemission may be controlled by elastic scattering as well.

The transient grating method reported here promises to be broadly applicable to superconductors, as well as other materials in which there is a gap in the quasiparticle spectrum. The technique works readily in transmission or reflection geometry and therefore can be applied to bulk materials or thin films. The propagation of quasiparticles can be tracked in any system where nonequilibrium excitations generate a change in the index of refraction at the laser wavelength. In conventional superconductors, quasiparticle diffusion can be measured without fabricating trapping layers and junction detectors. In more exotic systems with multiple or anistropic gaps, such as reported in this paper, the transient grating technique can track the propagation of quasiparticles that conventional transport methods cannot detect.

This work was supported by DOE-DE-AC03-76SF00098, CIAR, and NSERC.


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# The Muon Decay at the Two Loop Level of the Electroweak Interactions.

## 1 Introduction

The muon lifetime is one of the key observables of today’s particle physics. Not only is it measured very precisely, since the current experimental error is 18 ppm, but can be described to competing accuracy within the Standard Model, giving rise to a strong correlation between the masses of the heavy gauge bosons. As a low energy process, the decay is expected to be governed by an effective interaction involving only the electron, muon and their respective neutrinos. The dynamics of the system should be corrected mostly by QED, whereas the electroweak interactions determine solely the size of the coupling constant.

The calculation at the two loop level has been completed recently with the evaluation of the electroweak bosonic corrections . Subsequently, the fermionic part, which was first obtained in  has been recalculated . A difference between the two results has been found and the original result  corrected. There is now agreement on all parts of the two loop contributions.

## 2 Two loop contributions

The main complication in the calculation of the bosonic contributions is connected with the separation of the QED corrections to the Fermi model. This problem has been solved with the use of the effective theory language, where the full lagrangian

$$_{\mathrm{SM}}=_{\mathrm{SM}}(\alpha ,\alpha _s,m_\nu ,m_l,m_q,M_W,M_Z,M_H,m_t,V_{\mathrm{MSN}},V_{\mathrm{CKM}}),$$
(1)
has been replaced with the Fermi lagrangian

$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ $`=`$ $`_{\mathrm{kin}}(\nu )+_{\mathrm{QED}}(\alpha ^0,m_l^0,m_q^0,l^0,q^0,A_\mu ^0)+_{\mathrm{QCD}}(\alpha _s^0,m_q^0,q^0,A_\mu ^{a,0})`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{G_F}{\sqrt{2}}}\overline{e^0}\gamma ^\alpha (1\gamma _5)\mu ^0\times \overline{\nu _\mu }\gamma _\alpha (1\gamma _5)\nu _e,`$
and the amputated renormalized Green functions in both theories have been required to be equal up to higher order terms in an expansion in the $`W`$ boson mass

$$𝒢_{\mathrm{SM}}=𝒢_{\mathrm{eff}}+𝒪(1/M_W^4).$$
(3)
The above matching equation has the advantage that one can take any suitable masses and momenta of the light particles and subsequently expand in them. For the calculation, all of these parameters were put to zero and no expansion was necessary. This lead to problems with the Dirac gamma matrix structure in the four-fermion operators, which were solved by a suitable projection operator. However, the procedure has also been tested with fermion masses as infrared regulators and agreement was found.

The result for the pure bosonic contributions is given in Fig. 1. The impact of this class on the prediction of the $`W`$ boson mass as well as that of the fermionic part is summarized in Fig. 2.

## 3 Acknowledgments

This work was supported in part by DESY Zeuthen and the KBN Grant 2P03B01025.


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# Catastrophe Management and Inter-Reserve Distance for Marine Reserve Networks

## 1 Introduction

The design of reserve networks for marine conservation is a contentious issue from both theoretical and practical points of view. One of the difficult theoretical issues in marine reserve system design concerns the optimal connectedness of the reserves within the network. The closer two reserves are placed together, the more likely it is that a population occupying one reserve will colonise the other, increasing population viability. However, most theories fail to consider the possibility of catastrophic events (Possingham et al. (2000), Shafer (2001), Sala et al. (2002) and Allison et al. (2003)); the closer two reserves are placed together the more likely they are to be struck by the same catastrophic event, thus decreasing viability. Consequently, there exists a natural tension between these two processes. Whilst this trade-off has been identified by many authors, a detailed theoretical investigation of its influence and the subsequent analytic determination of an optimal spacing, has, to the best of our knowledge, not been undertaken.

In this paper we explore the question of how closely two marine reserves should be placed in order to maximise the viability of a species in a reserve network under the competing processes of colonisation and catastrophe. We use a simple discrete-time Markov chain metapopulation model to explore the effect of reserve spacing on the viability of the metapopulation. The mathematical fomulation of the model follows closely the work of Day and Possingham (1995). We use the quasi-stationary distribution (the distribution of the metapopulation conditioned upon the population being extant) to determine an optimal inter-reserve spacing. The analysis relies on finding eigenvalues of the transition matrix of the Markov chain. The rate at which the metapopulation decays to extinction from quasi-equilibrium is given by the second eigenvalue of the probability transition matrix (Darroch and Senata (1965)). Thus, having found the second eigenvalue of the Markov chain, we can investigate the influence of inter-reserve distance on metapopulation viability, and by maximising this eigenvalue determine the optimal inter-reserve distance.

Having constructed a baseline model for the viability of a marine metapopulation, we will then examine how the inclusion of two further processes impacts optimal reserve spacing. The inclusion of an external recruitment process allows us to model a more expansive population which is not just confined to the reserves under consideration (Sweaerer et al. (2002) and Cowen et al. (2000)). The analysis of this new model is similar to that for the baseline model, however we must now use the stationary distribution to investigate the effect of external recruitment since extinction (absorption) is not possible. We determine the optimal spacing by minimising the probability of having both reserves empty in equilibrium. We extend the model further by including the possibility of local reserve extinction, in which the population can become extinct in the absence of catastrophes. These two additional processes allow us to create a more general and realistic model of a marine metapopulation and to develop a more comprehensive idea of optimal inter-reserve spacing. This is a significant extension over the recent work by McCarthy et al. (2005) and a related uncertainty analysis of that model (Halpern et al. (2006)).

In the baseline case, and the two extensions to this model, we find reserve spacings that maximise the viability of the metapopulation. Our analytical results are an advance on existing theory, which is largely driven by results from Monte Carlo simulation models and often ignores the effect of catastrophes.

## 2 The Baseline Model

Our baseline model consists of two processes: colonisation, and extinction caused by catastrophic events. This model is constructed to find the optimal spacing between two marine reserves under these competing processes. A catastrophe in this case is an extinction event which affects one or both populations. This occurs as either a direct reduction in population size or a process which degrades the habitat to such an extent that no organism will survive after a given time period, e.g. due to coral bleaching (Allison et al. (2003)).

For each reserve we model the presence or absence of the marine species within that reserve (Akcakaya and Ginzburg (1991)). We also assume that both patches are identical, thus reducing the state space to three states since we only need to keep track of whether zero (total extinction), one or both patches are occupied.

We have used basic probability theory to construct a discrete-time Markov chain for each of the processes – colonisation and catastrophe – considered in this model. To construct our probability transition matrix we need to determine the probabilities for each possible transition in our state space. Our model examines two marine reserves which lie at some point along a coastline. These two reserves are separated by a distance $`d`$ and are susceptible to being struck by some catastrophic event, such as an oil spill, which has a probability $`r`$ of occurrence in each time step. We assume that the probability that the catastrophe affects the second reserve decays exponentially with the distance $`d`$ between the reserves, and additionally depends upon the mean catastrophe size $`\mu `$. Based upon these assumptions we construct an extinction matrix $`E`$. An empty reserve may be colonised by an occupied reserve with a probability that decays exponentially with the distance $`d`$ between the reserves, and also depends upon a fitness parameter $`\alpha `$, which may be estimated for a particular marine system and accounts for the landscape between a particular reserve pair. The fitness parameter $`\alpha `$ may also be interpreted as the inverse of the average distance an individual disperses over the time period. Based upon these assumptions we construct a colonisation matrix $`C`$. Having constructed these matrices we can calculate the transition matrix $`A`$ for the complete process. We assume that extinction occurs before colonisation, and thus $`A=E\times C`$ (Gilpin (1992), Day and Possingham (1995)). This order of matrix multiplication is usually chosen since it is a “worst-case” scenario, in that it will overestimate the probability of extinction. Additionally, in the present study we are only considering the second eigenvalue of the matrix $`A`$, and thus the order of multiplication does not affect the results. To calculate the probability of survival at some future time we may recursively evaluate $`P_{t+1}=P_tA`$, where $`P_t`$ is a vector containing the probabilities of being in each state at time step $`t`$.

### 2.1 Colonisation Process

We now need to establish the colonisation probability matrix. In this model we have that an unoccupied reserve can be colonised by an occupied reserve in each time step. Initially we construct a state space diagram (Figure (2)), which shows the four possible transitions. If both reserves are empty, then there are no individuals in the reserve network to colonise the reserves, and thus the zero state is clearly absorbing.

The process of migration from one patch to another is dependant upon the fitness $`\alpha `$ of a population within the landscape and the distance $`d`$ that the two reserves are placed apart from each other. This form of colonisation probability is ubiquitous in the literature and has been empirically observed for many metapopulations (Gilpin (1992), Hanski (1994a, 1994b) and Cowen et al. (2000)). Hence, the colonisation matrix is given by

$$C=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 1e^{(\alpha d)}& e^{(\alpha d)}\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right).$$
(1)
In Figure $`(3)`$ we can see that the chance one patch is colonised from another decays with distance and the relationship is dependent upon the fitness parameter $`\alpha `$. In a marine environment, the process of colonisation takes place continuously through time, implying that the dispersal of marine organisms in all stages of their life cycle, whether that is dispersal of larvae or the translocation of adults, plays an important role in metapopulation viability (Cowen et al. (2000)). Furthermore, organisms who are able to translocate as a stress response, related to some catastrophic event affecting their environment, will also migrate to an unaffected reserve in the manner proposed by $`C`$.

### 2.2 Extinction Process

We now derive the extinction probability matrix. Once again we construct a state space diagram (Figure (4)), which shows the six possible transitions. Since we are only considering the process of extinction, an increase in the number of occupied reserves is impossible.

A catastrophe that affects at least one reserve, arrives with probability $`r`$ within each time step. When a catastrophe occurs, we assume that it affects both reserves with probability $`\mathrm{exp}(d/\mu )`$, and therefore affects only one reserve with probability $`1\mathrm{exp}(d/\mu )`$, where $`\mu `$ is the mean catastrophe size. This formulation assumes that the probability that a catastrophe affects both reserves decays exponentially with increasing inter-reserve distance. This is a reasonable assumption, in particular for catastrophes with a radius that is exponentially distributed in size, with an average radius of $`\mu `$.

We shall now derive the functional forms for each possible transition. Firstly, if neither reserve is occupied, then the system will remain unoccupied since we are only considering catastrophic events. Thus, the entry $`E(0,0)`$ of our transition probability matrix $`E`$ will be $`1`$, and $`E(0,1)`$ and $`E(0,2)`$ will both be $`0`$. When both reserves are occupied, we have that the system will only remain fully occupied if a catastrophe does not occur within the time step, thus $`E(2,2)=1r`$. If a catastrophe does occur (with probability $`r`$), it removes only one reserve with probability $`1\mathrm{exp}(d/\mu )`$ and both reserves with probability $`\mathrm{exp}(d/\mu )`$. Thus, $`E(2,1)`$ and $`E(2,0)`$ are $`r(1\mathrm{exp}(d/\mu ))`$ and $`r\mathrm{exp}(d/\mu )`$, respectively. Finally, when only one reserve is occupied, we have that the system will remain with only one reserve occupied if either a catastrophe does not occur (with probability $`1r`$), or a catastrophe occurs but only affects the unoccupied reserve – this occurs with probability $`(1/2)(1\mathrm{exp}(d/\mu ))`$, since a catastrophe affects only one reserve with probability $`(1\mathrm{exp}(d/\mu ))`$, and with probability $`1/2`$ this was the one occupied (since we are assuming that each patch is identical and that the catastrophe is equally likely to affect either patch initially). Thus, $`E(1,1)=(1r)+(r/2)(1\mathrm{exp}(d/\mu ))`$. The state of the system will change to no reserves occupied if the catastrophe affects both reserves, or affects only one reserve, with this reserve being the one that was initially occupied. Therefore, $`E(1,0)=r[(1/2)(1\mathrm{exp}(d/\mu ))+\mathrm{exp}(d/\mu )]`$, and since we are only considering catastrophic events, $`E(1,2)=0`$.

This generates our transition matrix for the catastrophe/extinction process,

$$E=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ \frac{r}{2}\left(1+e^{\frac{d}{\mu }}\right)& 1\frac{r}{2}\left(1+e^{\frac{d}{\mu }}\right)& 0\\ re^{\frac{d}{\mu }}& r\left(1e^{\frac{d}{\mu }}\right)& 1r\end{array}\right).$$
(2)
Figure $`(5)`$ shows the probability $`r\mathrm{exp}(d/\mu )`$ of a catastrophe occurring in a time step and it affecting both reserves, for different values of $`\mu `$ and $`r=0.5`$.

## 3 Baseline Model Results

As mentioned previously, to analyse the baseline model we use the second eigenvalue of the probability transition matrix. This eigenvalue provides the rate at which the metapopulation decays to extinction from quasi-stationarity. The graph below (Figure $`(6)`$) plots the second eigenvalue of $`A=E\times C`$ as a function of inter-reserve spacing $`d`$. The optimal inter-reserve distance is given by the value of $`d`$ for which the second eigenvalue is largest.

We can see from Figure $`(6)`$ that when the mean catastrophe size $`\mu `$ is smaller than, or comparable to, the mean dispersal distance $`1/\alpha `$, there exists a unique optimal inter-reserve spacing, signified by the hump in the curves corresponding to $`\mu =5`$ and $`10`$. It can also be seen that the optimal inter-reserve distance increases with increasing catastrophe size. As $`\mu `$ increases, eventually the trade-off between between colonisation and catastrophe disappears, and the optimal inter-reserve distance is found to be much larger. This emerges because as the distance increases (so as to attempt to avoid catastrophes affecting both reserves), the probability of colonisation becomes smaller. Eventually colonisation becomes essentially impossible, and as a consequence the optimal inter-reserve spacing is almost entirely determined by attempting to minimise the probability of a catastrophe affecting both reserves. In this situation, it is still optimal to place the reserves at the minimum distance for which the curve is no longer increasing (since catastrophes will usually be infrequent compared to colonisation events). This is to allow for the best chance of recolonisation.

Given particular parameter estimates, our model and method of analysis allows the calculation of the optimal inter-reserve distance. This generality is very helpful in attempting to determine the optimal placement of reserves within a complex marine park such as the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, off Australia’s east coast. Rather than having to use Monte Carlo simulations to estimate the probability of survival at a given distance in a two patch model such as this, we can calculate directly the effect of distance and plan more effectively for disaster.

## 4 Model with External Recruitment

In marine reserves, very few species have such a restricted occurrence that they only exist in two places. Thus, a logical extension of the model is to allow for external recruitment into the two patch metapopulation. This local patch effect, which has been coined the rescue effect by Brown and Kodric-Brown (1977), proposes that the migration of individuals into a struggling population may allow for the reduction in local extinction. The state space diagram in Figure (7), shows how the inclusion of external recruitment allows a locally extinct population (zero patches occupied), to now be recolonised (Jones et al. (1999) and Strathmann et al. (2002)). As such, the inclusion of external recruitment into our model creates a system without an absorbing state. However, we will refer to the state with both reserves unoccupied as being extinct.

To construct the new overall transition matrix $`A`$ we first need to construct an external recruitment matrix $`R`$, that tells us how external recruitment affects transitions between each state. The external recruitment matrix requires only one parameter $`a`$, being the probability that an empty patch is colonised by external recruits in a time step. Therefore we have that

$$R=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}(1a)^2& 2a(1a)& a^2\\ 0& 1a& a\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right).$$
(3)
The new transition matrix $`A`$, with catastrophes, colonisation and external recruitment combined is given by $`A=E\times C\times R`$. This order of matrix multiplication assumes that external recruitment occurs last, after the extinction and colonisation processes have occurred. The order of matrix multiplication does influence the results in this case, since we are interested in the first eigenvector (instead of the eigenvalue) of the matrix $`A`$. However, the order does not appear to have too much of an influence on the results from our investigations. This is partly due to the fact that we are only interested in finding the distance that minimises the probability of being extinct in equilibrium, rather than the actual probabilities of being in each of the states. The stationary distribution of $`A`$, which we obtain from the first eigenvector, tells us the probabilities of being in each of the states when the system is in equilibrium (Grimmett and Stirzaker (1992)). From the stationary distribution we can find an analytic solution for the placement of marine reserves in a network, by examining the first element within the stationary distribution; by taking one minus the first element within the stationary distribution we can calculate the probability that a species is extant in equilibrium. This is the probability which we need to maximize to effectively use this model to manage marine reserves.

The graph of one minus the first element in the first eigenvector is presented below (Figure $`(8)`$). We can see that when the recruitment probability is small, we find similar results to those for the baseline model. The optimal inter-reserve distance does not appear to change too much following the introduction of external recruitment, with only a slight increase found. The optimal inter-reserve distance also appears to be relatively independent of the external recruitment probability.

## 5 Model with Local Extinction

Another important aspect of metapopulations we consider in this investigation is the process of local extinction caused by non-catastrophic events (Akcakaya and Ginzburg (1991)). We construct a transition matrix $`L`$ which contains the probabilities of transitions between states due solely to local extinction events (e.g. which may occur through unfavourable local environmental conditions). The construction of $`L`$ is similar to that for the matrix $`R`$; the matrix $`L`$ only requires one parameter $`b`$, being the probability of local extinction within a time step. Therefore we have that

$$L=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ b& 1b& 0\\ b^2& 2b(1b)& (1b)^2\end{array}\right)$$
(4)
The new transition matrix $`A`$, with catastrophes, colonisation, external recruitment and local extinction is given by $`A=E\times L\times C\times R`$. After constructing this Markov chain we perform the same analysis as with the previous model and find the spacing between reserves that maximizes the viability of the population (Figure $`(9)`$).

It can be seen that local patch extinction does not have too much of an effect on optimal inter-reserve spacing. The probability of being extant in equilibrium does however decrease, and thus the determination of the optimal inter-reserve distance becomes of more significance for ensuring maximum population persistence.

## 6 Discussion

Ecologists and marine park managers have for a great deal of time relied upon practical experience and qualitative methods to design marine reserves for conservation purposes (Shafer (2001)). The additional inclusion of a variety of stake holders into the process of marine reserve design may also detract from the formulation of a conservation management plan that ensures the survival of a particular species. We have provided methods that allow the precise calculation of the optimal inter-reserve distance. This allows decision makers to have quick estimates for optimal inter-reserve spacing, and thus quantitative information for discussion with stake holders.

The results for our baseline model showed how to optimally space marine reserves under the competing processes of colonisation and catastrophe. This analysis involved maximising the second eigenvalue of the transition probability matrix, which results in the longest possible persistence of the species. We found that when the mean catastrophe size is smaller than, or comparable to, the mean dispersal distance, there exists a unique optimal inter-reserve spacing. As the mean catastrophe size increases, we arrive at a continuum of optimal inter-reserve distances. In this latter situation, the minimum of these optimal distances should usually be selected, to provide the maximum probability of colonisation.

We then included the possibility of external recruitment and local extinction events. With the expansion of the model there is now no absorbing state and the first element of the first eigenvector tells us the equilibrium probability that the species is absent. To calculate the optimal reserve design strategy we minimize this probability. We found similar behaviour to the situation where there is no external recruitment and local extinction, but the importance of determining the optimal inter-reserve spacing was highlighted.

As more information becomes available concerning species occupying marine landscapes, more accurate predictions for marine reserve design will be achievable. The values we have adopted in this paper appear typical for many species, with larval dispersal distances in the range of $`10100`$ km (Cowen et al. (2006)).

Our results are of most interest in situations were the process of dispersal and catastrophe are on a similar scale. The extension of our results to the multiple-reserve network will also be interesting, as catastrophe and colonisation will always be on a similar scale, at least for some subset of the whole network. In such situations it will also be of interest to look at combining our results with those of others concerning marine reserve design, see for example McCarthy et al. (2005, 2006). In such situations there will always exist a trade-off between the size of the reserves, the number of reserves and the spacing, and the interaction between each with catastrophes will be of great importance (Airame et al. (2003)).

Acknowledgements. We would like to thank the referees for their valuable comments which did much to improve this paper. Additionally, LDW would like to acknowledge the support the Australian Research Council Centre for Complex Systems (ACCS) and JR wishes to acknowledge the support of the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Mathematics and Statistics of Complex Systems (MASCOS).


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# State transitions in the 2001/2002 outburst of XTE J1650–500

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Black Hole Candidate (BHC) X-ray transients often show correlated spectral and variability properties during their outbursts. Several distinct states of spectral and variability behavior have been recognized (). Until a few years ago, it was thought that the states of a source and transitions between them were determined and driven by (variations in) the mass accretion rate ($`\dot{m}`$). Recent observations () have challenged this idea; these suggest that in addition to $`\dot{m}`$ there is another parameter responsible for the state of a system.

Here we present a study of the state transitions observed with the Rossi High Energy Timing Explorer (RXTE) during the 2001/2002 outburst of the BHC X-ray transient XTE J1650–500.

## 2 OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS

### 2.1 Data analysis

We used 176 pointed RXTE observations for our study of XTE J1650–500, covering the period between 2001 September 6 and 2002 June 21. Especially the beginning of the outburst was extremely well sampled, giving us the opportunity to study the hard$``$soft transition in great detail. For our spectral analysis, we combined PCA and HEXTE data to obtain 3–150 keV energy spectra. For our timing analysis, we performed Fast Fourier Transforms (FFTs) of the high time resolution data (6–32 keV), resulting in 1/128–1024 Hz power density spectra. All energy spectra were fitted with a combination of a (cut-off) power law, a disk black body, a smeared edge, and a relativistic Fe K emission line from the accretion disk; our power spectra were fitted with a model consisting of several Lorentzians.

### 2.2 Overall outburst behavior

The 2.5–25 keV PCA light curve and the 4.5–7.9 keV/2.5–4.6 keV hardness ratio are shown in Figure 1. Already before the peak in the count rate the spectrum was softening. This trend continued for the early part of the decay until day 16, when both the count rate and hardness showed erratic changes. After day 33 the smooth softening observed before day 16 continued, which was accompanied by a further decrease in the count rate. On day 75 the spectrum showed a sudden hardening and an increase in the count rate . After a 30 day gap in our observations (due to solar constraints) the source had a more or less constant spectral hardness similar to that of the first observation, while the count rate showed long term oscillations on top of a slow decay . The complex relation between count rate and spectral hardness can also be seen in the hardness-intensity diagram (HID; Fig. 2), which shows several distinct branches. Starting in the upper-right corner, the source moved through the HID counter-clockwise. Although it returned to a similar hardness as in the beginning of the outburst, it did so at a count rate that was a factor of 30 lower. Following  we defined several groups, based on their position in the HID, the spectral and variability properties of which will be the subject of the next section. An analysis of RXTE/ASM data strongly suggests that during the rise of the outburst the source moved along a path of constant hardness ($`0.7`$) and increasing count rate to the right-hand side of group I/II.

### 2.3 Correlated spectral and variability properties

Like in other BHC transients, the energy and power spectra evolved in a correlated way during the outburst. In XTE J1650–500 the types of correlated behavior changes from one group to the other. This is clear from Figure 3 in which we show the fractional contribution of the disk component ($`f_d`$) in the 2–100 keV range (3a), the index ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) of the power-law component (3b) and the strength ($`r`$) of the 0.01–100 Hz variability (3c). The three vertical lines mark the transitions between the first four groups, each of which shows distinct behavior - data from after the gap are not shown. At the beginning of the outburst the source showed properties that are typical for the hard state ($`f_d<`$0.05, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$=1.35, and $`r`$=26% rms). In group I/II these parameters smoothly changed to $`f_d`$0.4, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$=2.1, and $`r`$=16% rms, which is typical for the very high state. At the time of the transition to group III the 2–100 keV flux had decreased from $`\mathrm{3.4\hspace{0.17em}10}^8`$ erg cm-2 s-1, at the peak of the outburst (third day), to $`\mathrm{1.8\hspace{0.17em}10}^8`$ erg cm-2 s-1. In group III $`f_d`$ and $`r`$ changed erratically, whereas $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ was remarkably constant ($``$2.25). Although the properties of group III classify it as very high state, its behavior is quite different from that in group I/II as is evident from Figs. 4 and 5 (more on those later). In group IV the spectrum was dominated by the disk component ($`f_d>0.85`$) and variability was very weak ($`r<2\%`$ rms), typical for the soft state. Group V/VI was characterized by the sudden decrease in $`f_d`$ ($`<`$0.3) and the return of strong variability ($`r`$22%); $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ smoothly decreased to 1.8 – these properties were very similar to observations in group I/II, albeit at a flux that was a factor of $``$5–10 lower. After the $``$30 day gap in our observations (group VII) $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ was similar to that in the first observation and variability was strong ($`r`$35%), typical for the hard state. For a discussion of the remarkable $``$14 day oscillations in this phase of the outburst we refer to .

## 3 DISCUSSION

During its 2001/2002 outburst XTE J1650–500 showed several types of behavior, which could be classified either as distinct states (groups III and IV, VII) or as transitions between states (groups I/II and V/VI). Only during the transition from the hard to the soft state an extended interval (group III) of nearly constant $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ was observed. Interestingly, this is the same part of the outburst in which narrow high frequency QPOs were found by . This is most likely the ’steep power-law’ state, as defined by . Figure 4 shows that not only $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ saturates in this state, but the QPO frequency as well, although it is not completely clear whether the QPOs in groups I/II and III are of the same type. The behavior of the Iron line flux as a function of power law flux (Fig. 5) also reveals different patterns for groups I/II and III, suggestive of a change in the properties of the hard component and/or ionizations state of the disk . Additional changes are observed in the high energy cutoff and the coherence and time lag properties. The fact that this state is not observed during the soft$``$hard transition suggests that this transition does not necessarily display the reverse behavior seen during the hard$``$soft transition as was suggested by .

The start of the hard$``$soft transition occurred at an 2–100 keV luminosity that was a factor of $``$10 higher than at the start of the soft$``$hard transition. This hysteresis effect, which was already recognized as such by  in other transients, has been attributed by several authors to the presence of two flows in these X-ray binary systems ; one which responds rapidly to changes in the mass accretion rate (a coronal type flow) and one that responds much slower (a disk flow). The fact that almost the entire rise likely took place in the hard state, suggests that the fast flow couples directly to the medium responsible for the hard flux. Although the hard states in black hole transients are observed over a range of more than $`10^410^6`$ in luminosity, they only seem to be stable at the low luminosity end. That they are still observed at high luminosities, for short periods, is likely the result of the slow response of the disk flow. Whether the eventual decrease in the hard component is due to the disappearance of the fast flow, or to another mechanism, possibly involving cooling by the soft disk flux, is not clear. What is clear, though, is that like in many other systems , the hard component in XTE J1650–500 starts to dominate again at luminosities of less than $``$10% of the Eddington luminosity.


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# Reaching to the Edge of the Milky Way Halo with SDSS

## 1. Introduction

### 1.1. RR Lyrae Stars as a Probe of Galactic Halo

Studies of substructures, such as clumps and streams, in the Galactic halo can help constrain the formation history of the Milky Way (Helmi, White & Springel 2003, and references therein). Hierarchical models of galaxy formation predict that these substructures should be ubiquitous in the outer halo, where the dynamical timescales are sufficiently long for them to remain spatially and dynamically coherent (e.g. Johnston et al. 1996). Among the best tracers to study the outer halo are RR Lyrae stars because

* They are nearly standard candles ($`\sigma _M0.15`$ mag) and thus it is straightforward to determine their distance
* They are sufficiently bright to be detected at large distances (5-100 kpc for $`14<r<20.7`$).
* They are sufficiently numerous for detailed tracing of the halo structure (more so than e.g. C and M giants)

### 1.2. The Selection of Candidate RR Lyrae Stars Using SDSS Data

The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS; York et al. 2000, Azebajian et al. 2003, and references therein) is revolutionizing studies of the Galactic halo by providing homogeneous and deep ($`r<22.5`$) photometry in five passbands ($`u`$, $`g`$, $`r`$, $`i`$, and $`z`$, Fukugita et al. 1996, Gunn et al. 1998) accurate to 0.02 mag (Ivezić et al. 2003a); ultimately, up to 10,000 deg2 of sky in the Northern Galactic Cap will be observed. The survey sky coverage will result in photometric measurements for over 100 million stars and a similar number of galaxies. Astrometric positions are accurate to better than 0.1 arcsec per coordinate (rms) for sources with $`r<20.5^m`$ (Pier et al. 2003), and the morphological information from the images allows robust star-galaxy separation to $`r`$ 21.5m (Lupton et al. 2001).

There are several methods for selecting candidate RR Lyrae stars using SDSS. While RR Lyrae stars are best found by obtaining well-sampled light curves, Ivezić et al. (2000) demonstrated that candidates can be efficiently and robustly found even with two-epoch data, using the accurate multi-band SDSS photometry. The robustness of their sample and efficiency estimates were later confirmed by the QUEST survey (Vivas et al. 2001). Furthermore, even when multiple SDSS imaging observations are unavailable, candidate RR Lyrae stars can be selected by comparing SDSS imaging and spectro-photometric magnitudes (Smolčić et al. 2003), SDSS imaging and POSS magnitudes (Sesar et al. 2003), and even by color selection from single-epoch data (Ivezić et al. 2003b). In this contribution we discuss over 3,000 candidate variable stars selected by comparing SDSS imaging data to another imaging epoch, or to spectro-photometric measurements, which are the most robust methods. For a subset of 700 of these stars SDSS also provides radial velocity measurements.

## 2. The Selection and Analysis of the SDSS RR Lyrae Candidates

### 2.1. Variability-selected Candidate RR Lyrae Stars

We used multiple SDSS imaging data and SDSS spectrophotometric measurements to select 3,127 RR Lyrae candidates in $``$1,000 deg2 of sky. The details of the selection are described in detail by Ivezić et al. (2000) and Smolčić et al. (2003). The sample completeness is about 35%, and its efficiency (the estimated fraction of true RR Lyrae stars) is about 90%.

The overall distribution of the selected candidates on the sky is shown in Figure 1. The most significant feature, found at (R.A.$``$218o, Dec$``$0o), is the well-known clump associated with the Sgr dwarf tidal stream (Ivezić et al. 2000, Yanny et al. 2000, Vivas et al. 2001). It is easily visible in Figure 2 which shows two projections of the Galactic distribution for the same sample. The clump is at (X$``$20 kpc, Y$``$-10 kpc, Z$``$40 kpc).

### 2.2. The Properties of the Sgr Dwarf Tidal Stream

We select 1,157 stars that probably belong to the Sgr dwarf tidal stream by using a 20 degree wide strip along the great circle of its orbit, as shown in Figure 1. The distribution of distances along the stream (the origin corresponds to the main body of Sgr dwarf galaxy) is shown as large dots in the top panel of Figure 3. For an analogous plot showing other data, see Fig. 18 in Majewski et al. (2003, hereafter M03). The model prediction for the stellar distribution in this diagram by Ibata et al. (2001) is shown by small dots. The bottom panel shows marginal distance distributions for three segments (A, B, C), as marked in the panels. While there are some detailed disagreements between model and data, the model captures well the overall appearance of the data distribution. Most notably, there is good correspondence between multiple peaks in a given segment, suggesting that multiple streams are projected onto the great circle on the sky. However, this interpretation is not conclusive because such clumps may also be consistent with statistical fluctuations predicted by Bullock, Kravtsov & Weinberg (2001, BKW01).

SDSS spectra, and thus radial velocity measurements (accurate to $``$20-30 km/s), are available for a subsample of 680 stars. The radial velocity distribution for the 305 stars that probably belong to the Sgr dwarf tidal stream is shown in Figure 4. Similar to the comparison of distance distributions, the model provides a good qualitative description of the data but fails to quantitatively match the peaks in the data distributions.

### 2.3. The Density Profile Outside the Sgr Dwarf Tidal Stream

In order to estimate the density profile outside the Sgr dwarf tidal stream, we select four pencil beams marked in Figure 1. They contain 400 stars and span a large range of orientations with respect to the Galactic center. The Galactocentric density distribution along these four beams is shown in Figure 5. Remarkably, outside the Sgr dwarf tidal stream the density profile is well described by $`R^3`$ power law out to 60-70 kpc from the Galactic center, in agreement with previous work that probed inner 30 kpc (Wetterer & McGraw 1996, WMG96).

## 3. Discussion and Conclusions

SDSS is producing a large and robust catalog of distant RR Lyrae stars which allow detailed investigation of the halo out to 100 kpc. Only a few years ago there were no more than a handful of known RR Lyrae stars at distances greater than 30 kpc, (WMG96), and now there exists a sample of 500 confirmed halo RR Lyrae stars discovered by the QUEST survey (Vivas et al. 2001), and over the 3,000 probable RR Lyrae stars discussed here. These large and accurate samples are bound to enhance our understanding of the Galactic halo.

The spatial and radial velocity distributions of candidate RR Lyrae stars discussed here confirm that the Sgr Dwarf tidal stream is the most pronounced feature in the outer halo, in agreement with M03. The new data presented here are consistent with multiple perigalactic passages of the Sgr Dwarf, but a more detailed analysis of models such as those proposed by BKW01 is needed before definitive conclusions can be drawn. Models for the Sgr Dwarf tidal stream provide a good qualitative description of the data, but there is room for quantitative improvement. Outside this stream, an $`R^3`$ power law is a good description of the spatial distribution in the 5–60 kpc range of Galactocentric radius $`R`$. Further out, in the range 60-100 kpc, the spatial distribution appears rather clumpy (see Figure 2), in qualitative agreement with predictions by BKW01. x

Funding for the creation and distribution of the SDSS Archive has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, and the Max Planck Society. The SDSS Web site is http://www.sdss.org/.  x

## References

Azebajian, K., et al. 2003, AJ, in press

Bullock, J.S., Kravtsov, A.V., & Weinberg, D.H. 2001, ApJ, 548, 33 (BKW01)

Fukugita, M., et al. 1996, AJ, 111, 1748

Gunn, J.E., et al. 1998, AJ, 116, 3040

Helmi, A., White, S.D.M., & Springel, V. 2003, MNRAS, 339, 834

Ibata, R.A., et al. 2001, ApJ, 551, 294

Ivezić, Ž., et al. 2000, AJ, 120, 963

Ivezić, Ž., et al. 2003a, astro-ph/0301400

Ivezić, Ž., Vivas, A.K., Lupton, R.H. & Zinn, R. 2003b, submitted to AJ

Johnston, K.V., Hernquist, L., & Bolte, M., 1996, ApJ, 465, 278

Lupton, R.H. et al. 2001, ASP Conference Proceedings, Vol.238, p. 269.

Majewski, S. et al. 2003, astro-ph/0304198 (M03)

Pier, J.R. et al. 2003, AJ, 125, 1559

Sesar, B., et al. 2003, in prep.

Smolčić, V., et al. 2003, in prep.

Vivas, A.K. et al. 2001, ApJL, 554, L33

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York, D.G., et al. 2000, AJ, 120, 1579

Wetterer, C.J., & McGraw, J.T. 1996, AJ 112, 1046 (WMG96)


text:
# Evidence for formation of a narrow 𝐾⁰_𝑆𝑝 resonance with mass near 1533 MeV in neutrino interactions

(Submitted to Yad. Fiz. (Phys. At. Nucl.))

## Abstract

A narrow baryon resonance is observed in invariant mass of the $`K_S^0p`$ system formed in neutrino and antineutrino collisions with nuclei. The mass of the resonance is estimated as $`1533\pm 5`$ MeV. The observed width is less than 20 MeV, and is compatible with being entirely due to experimental resolution. The statistical significance of the signal is near 6.7 standard deviations. The analysis is based on the data obtained in past neutrino experiments with big bubble chambers: WA21, WA25, WA59, E180, and E632.

A narrow baryon resonance with mass near 1540 MeV and unnatural (positive) strangeness has been recently detected in the $`K^+n`$ system formed in the reaction $`\gamma nK^+K^{}n`$ on Carbon  and in the $`K^0p`$ system from the charge-exchange reaction $`K^+nK^0p`$ in low-energy $`K^+`$Xe collisions . Similar observations have since been reported by two other photoproduction experiments . This object, referred as the $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+(1540)`$, is tentatively interpreted as the lightest member of an antidecuplet of pentaquark baryons, as predicted some time ago in the framework of the chiral soliton model . This paper reports on a search for formation of the $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+`$ baryon in neutrino and antineutrino collisions with protons, deuterons, and Neon nuclei.

We analyze the data collected by several neutrino experiments with big bubble chambers—BEBC at CERN and the 15-foot chamber at Fermilab. These two bubble chambers were close to each other in geometry, fiducial volume, and operating conditions, and their data were collected and processed using very similar techniques and algorithms. In the past, this already allowed to combine the neutrino data collected with BEBC and the 15-foot bubble chamber for a number of physics analyses . A database compiled by one of us (A.A.) comprises some 120 000 $`\nu _\mu `$\- and $`\overline{\nu }_\mu `$-induced charged-current events, and embraces the bulk of neutrino data collected with BEBC (expts. WA21, WA25, and WA59) and a significant fraction of data collected with the 15-foot bubble chamber111Unfortunately, our database does not include the biggest neutrino sample from the 15-foot bubble chamber—that collected by the $`\nu `$Ne experiment E53 . (expts. E180 and E632). Though obtained several decades ago, the neutrino data from big bubble chambers are still unrivaled in quality and completeness of physics information.

In the BEBC experiments WA21 (hydrogen fill), WA25 (deuterium fill), and WA59 (neon-hydrogen mix), the data were collected using essentially the same wide-band horn-focused beam, with mean energies of $`\nu _\mu `$CC and $`\overline{\nu }_\mu `$CC events near 50 and 40 GeV, respectively. The experiment E180 used the 15-foot bubble chamber filled with a Ne–H2 mix and exposed to a wide-band antineutrino beam under conditions very similar to WA59. In the last bubble-chamber experiment, E632 at Fermilab, the 15-foot chamber was filled with a (lighter) Ne–H2 mix and exposed to a neutrino beam with quadrupole-triplet focusing from the Tevatron. In E632, mean energies of neutrino and antineutrino events reached some 140 and 110 GeV, respectively. Neutral-current interactions are not systematically included in the database222In WA59, the bulk of NC events were rejected at scanning stage., and therefore our analysis is restricted to charged-current events with $`p_\mu >4`$ GeV. Total numbers and mean energies of $`\nu _\mu `$CC and $`\overline{\nu }_\mu `$CC events collected by the aforementioned experiments are summarized in Table 1. Further details on these neutrino experiments can be found in .

Unlike charged kaons that are virtually indistinguishable from pions, neutral kaons are identified in a bubble chamber by reconstructing the decays $`K_S^0\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$. On average, the $`K^0(\overline{K^0})`$ detection efficiency is near 25%. At the same time, protons with momenta below $``$ 1 GeV can be identified by the stopping signature, bubble density, and variation of track curvature in magnetic field. Therefore, the $`K^0p`$ channel seems mandatory when searching for formation of the $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+`$ in a bubble chamber. The numbers of events featuring either reconstructed $`K_S^0\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ decays and identified protons with $`p_p<900`$ MeV, that are used in this analysis, are quoted in Table 1 for each (anti)neutrino sample considered. The momenta of protons identified in hydrogen, deuterium, and neon are plotted in Fig. 1. In deuterium, the enhancement at proton momenta below some 200 MeV is due to spectator protons. For neon events with reconstructed $`K_S^0`$ mesons and identified protons, mean proton multiplicity is $`1.4`$.

For either fill, the $`m(K_S^0p)`$ distributions of $`\nu _\mu `$CC and $`\overline{\nu }_\mu `$CC events are separately plotted in Fig. 2 and combined—in Fig. 3. Protons are selected in the momentum interval of $`300<p_p<900`$ MeV. The combined $`\nu +\overline{\nu }`$ distribution for neon shows a distinct enhancement at $`m(K_S^0p)`$ $`1530`$ MeV. No neutrino events contribute twice or more to the peak region. The peak survives dropping the events that feature two or more identified protons with $`300<p_p<900`$ MeV, see the lower (open) histogram in the bottom panel of Fig. 3. The combined $`\nu +\overline{\nu }`$ distribution for deuterium is also slightly enhanced in the same mass region. The background in the peak region is estimated by pairing a $`K_S^0`$ from one event and a proton—from another event randomly selected in the same $`\nu /\overline{\nu }`$ subsample. Thus obtained ”random-star” distribution is then normalized to the $`K_S^0p`$ mass spectrum by the number of entries in the nonresonant region of $`m(K_S^0p)`$ $`>2`$ GeV (see the dotted histograms in Fig. 3). It is noteworthy that, apart from the peak near 1530 MeV in the $`m(K_S^0p)`$ distribution for neon, the random-star background fails to reproduce a broad enhancement in the mass region 1650 $`<`$ $`m(K_S^0p)`$ $`<`$ 1850 MeV of the same spectrum. The latter enhancement may be due to $`\overline{K^0}p`$ decays of a number of excited $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^+`$ states that populate this mass region .

Figure 4 shows the $`m(K_S^0p)`$ distribution for the Neon and Deuterium data combined. In two 10-MeV bins between 1520 and 1540 MeV, we have 27 events with a background of $`8`$ events as estimated from random $`K_S^0p`$ pairs (see the dotted histogram). The statistical significance of the peak is thus near 6.7 standard deviations. It makes no sense to fit a signal restricted to just two bins as in the top panel of Fig. 4, so in the bottom panel we plot the same $`m(K_S^0p)`$ distribution with bins shifted by 5 MeV. A fit of the latter histogram to a Gaussian on top of linear background returns $`M=1533\pm 5`$ MeV and $`\sigma =8.4\pm 2.0`$ MeV for the position and r.m.s. width of the resonance, respectively. The r.m.s. width is found to be consistent with experimental resolution on $`m(K_S^0p)`$ estimated from live events in the peak ($`8.5`$ MeV).

For neutrino and antineutrino events that contribute to the peak region of 1510 $`<`$ $`m(K_S^0p)`$ $`<`$ 1550 MeV, mean values of $`E_\nu `$ ($`57\pm 10`$ GeV) and $`Q^2`$ ($`12.5\pm 3.3`$ GeV2) are consistent with those for all CC events with detected $`K_S^0`$ mesons. Mean momentum of the $`K_S^0p`$ system for peak events, $`p(K_S^0p)=1.08\pm 0.06`$ GeV, is much less than that of all detected $`K_S^0`$ mesons (see Table 1).

Unfortunately, neutrino data do not allow to determine the strangeness of the observed resonant state with mass near 1533 MeV, as was done in . On the other hand, there are no known $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^+`$ states in this mass region. Therefore, we interpret the enhancement near 1533 MeV observed in the $`m(K_S^0p)`$ distribution as a signal from formation of the $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+`$ baryon in neutrino and antineutrino collisions with nuclei. The mass and width of this state are estimated as $`M=1533\pm 5`$ MeV and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }<20`$ MeV, respectively. The cross section of $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+`$ production by neutrinos appears to increase with atomic number of the target nucleus.

The excellent neutrino data analyzed in this paper are a result of painstaking and ingenious work of the WA21, WA25, WA59, E180, and E638 experimental teams over many years, and their efforts are gratefully acknowledged. We wish to thank Prof. M.V. Danilov, Prof. L.B. Okun, Dr. V.S. Borisov, and Dr. V.S. Verebryusov for useful comments and suggestions.


text:
# Bridging k- and q- Space in the Cuprates: Comparing ARPES and STM Results

## Abstract

A critical comparison is made between the ARPES-derived spectral function and STM studies of Friedel-like oscillations in Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ (Bi2212). The data can be made approximately consistent, provided that (a) the elastic scattering seen in ARPES is predominantly small-angle scattering and (b) the ‘peak’ feature seen in ARPES is really a dispersive ‘bright spot’, smeared into a line by limited energy resolution; these are the ‘bright spots’ which control the quasiparticle interferences. However, there is no indication of bilayer splitting in the STM data.

Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) studies in Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ (Bi2212) find striking periodic patterns in real-space local density of states (dos) maps. A number of periodicities are found, with different orientations and dispersing with binding energy $`\omega `$ below the Fermi level. While a number of models have been proposed for this effect, here some consequences of a particular quasiparticle interference (QPI) model will be explored. The QPI model suggests that the periodicities arise from quasiparticle interference effects, similar to the Friedel-like oscillations observed on clean metal surfaces, near a step edge or point impurity. This model has been extremely successful in predicting an array of periodicities and their dispersions, and moreover extracting both a Fermi surface $`E(\stackrel{}{k})`$and a superconducting gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }(\stackrel{}{k})`$ which are in good agreement with those found by angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES).

The main issue addressed in the present paper is: are ARPES results consistent with the QPI model? More specifically, whereas normal-state Friedel oscillations are dominated by ‘lines’ – nesting of flat segments of Fermi surface – the superconducting QPI is dominated by ‘points’ – highly localized peaks in the local density of states, herein called ‘bright spots’. While these bright spots provide a detailed explanation for the STM observations, they should be directly observable in the ARPES spectra, and they have not so far been reported. Here it is shown that this could be a result of finite ARPES resolution blurring the bright spots into the quasiparticle peak seen in ARPES in the superconducting state as extending around much of the Fermi surface.

Figure 1 shows an experimental Fermi surface (FS) map of an overdoped Pb-doped Bi2212 sample with $`T_c=70K`$ with strongly suppressed superstructure, taken in the superconducting state. The figure shows no trace of the isolated bright spots postulated in the QPI model (compare, e.g., Fig. 3 below). While the STM data are actually taken on more underdoped samples, the overdoped sample was chosen as having much sharper spectra (including well resolved bilayer splitting), which should make the bright spots easier to see. While the ARPES spectrum is multiplied by a matrix element, there is no reason why this should obscure the bright spots.

For modelling purposes, the electronic dispersion is fit, Fig. 1, to the form

$`ϵ_k=2t(c_x+c_y)4t^{}c_xc_y4t^{\prime \prime }(c_x^2+c_y^21)`$ (1)
$`\pm {\displaystyle \frac{t_z}{2}}({\displaystyle \frac{c_xc_y}{2}})^2,`$ (2)
with $`c_i=\mathrm{cos}k_ia`$, and parameters $`t=0.3eV`$, $`t^{}=0.11eV`$, $`t^{\prime \prime }=0.028eV`$, $`t_z=0.24eV`$, and chemical potential $`\mu =0.44eV`$. While the fit assumes one hole-like and one electron-like FS, the experimental spectra are so broad that comparable fits could be made assuming two hole Fermi surfaces.

A more direct comparison with STM results can be made. Indeed, the Fourier transform of these STM oscillations (which is here called a ‘q-map’) is approximately given by the convolution of the ARPES spectral function at wave number $`\stackrel{}{k}`$ with that at $`\stackrel{}{k}+\stackrel{}{q}`$, averaged over $`\stackrel{}{k}`$ (see Eq. 6, below). Figure 2 presents an experimental reconstruction of this quantity, derived from convolution of ARPES data at a series of energies $`\omega `$ = 2-12meV, below the superconducting gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$. These data were taken from the same sample as in Fig. 1; the analysis was kindly carried out by P. Bogdanov. In the direct convolution, these features are superposed upon a large, featureless peak near $`(\pi ,\pi )`$; to enhance contrast, a derivative of the convolution spectrum is displayed. While there is considerable variation of relative intensities of the features with energy, the spectra are characterized by patterns of extended lines which do not shift significantly with $`\omega `$. This is just the pattern expected from the convolution of the broadened ARPES spectra illustrated in Fig. 1. Since the ARPES spectral function is an extended arc, the convolution gives rise to a q-map consisting of similar arcs.

The ARPES spectra should show enhanced scattering at the special points found by Wang and Lee, due to a high local density of states. To understand the absence of these sharp peaks responsible for the STM features, it is necessary to calculate model theoretical spectra. Since STM measures a local density of states, the resulting q-map is itself a perturbative correction to the spectral function, which can be divided into a potential source term $`V(q)`$ and an electronic response. The source term is assumed to be some unknown function of the impurity distribution, NPS, etc., while the electronic response can be analyzed for the ‘spectrum’ of strongly coupled wave numbers. The response to a point impurity, considered as a superposition of magnetic and potential scatterers, has been studied in detail for d-wave superconductors. A simple expression is possible when the scattering is weak (Born limit):

$`Im(\delta G(\stackrel{}{q},\omega ))={\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{k}}{}}Im(V_\stackrel{}{q}G(\stackrel{}{k}+\stackrel{}{q},\omega )G(\stackrel{}{k},\omega ))`$ (3)
$`=V_\stackrel{}{q}^{\prime \prime }\overline{\chi }^{}(\stackrel{}{q},\omega )+V_\stackrel{}{q}^{}\overline{\chi }^{\prime \prime }(\stackrel{}{q},\omega ),`$ (4)
where $`V_\stackrel{}{q}=V_\stackrel{}{q}^{}+iV_\stackrel{}{q}^{\prime \prime }`$, and similarly for $`\overline{\chi }(\stackrel{}{q},\omega )`$ with response function

$$\overline{\chi }(q,\omega )=\underset{k}{}G(k,\omega )G(k+q,\omega ).$$
(5)
For comparison to ARPES, it is convenient to decompose $`\overline{\chi }^{}=\overline{\chi }_1^{}+\overline{\chi }_2^{}`$, with

$`\overline{\chi }_1^{}(\stackrel{}{q},\omega )={\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{k}}{}}Re(G(\stackrel{}{k}+\stackrel{}{q},\omega ))Re(G(\stackrel{}{k},\omega ))`$ (6)
$`\overline{\chi }_2^{}(\stackrel{}{q},\omega )={\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{k}}{}}Im(G(\stackrel{}{k}+\stackrel{}{q},\omega ))Im(G(\stackrel{}{k},\omega )),`$ (7)
The significance of this separation comes from the fact that the term $`\overline{\chi }_2^{}`$ can be expressed as a convolution of the ARPES spectral weight $`A=Im(G)/\pi `$ with itself, and hence can be numerically reconstructed directly from the ARPES spectrum.

To account for the large broadening found in the ARPES spectra, the Green’s function is calculated in an Eliashberg approach, with allowance for elastic scattering. To minimize pairbreaking effects, it is assumed that the elastic scattering is predominantly small-angle scattering ($`V_\stackrel{}{q}=V_1\delta (\widehat{q})`$), which is not pairbreaking. (Strong small angle scattering has been postulated in a number of studies of the cuprates.) In this case, the superconducting state Green’s function becomes

$$G(\stackrel{}{k},\omega )=\frac{\omega Z_\stackrel{}{k}+\xi _\stackrel{}{k}}{(\omega ^2\mathrm{\Delta }_\stackrel{}{k}^2)Z_\stackrel{}{k}^2\xi _\stackrel{}{k}^2}$$
(8)
with $`\xi _\stackrel{}{k}=ϵ_\stackrel{}{k}ϵ_F`$,

$$Z_\stackrel{}{k}=1+\frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }_{1,\stackrel{}{k}}}{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }_\stackrel{}{k}^2\omega ^2}},$$
(9)
$`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{1,\stackrel{}{k}}=n_IN_\stackrel{}{k}(0)|V_1|^2`$, and a d-wave gap is assumed $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\stackrel{}{k}=\mathrm{\Delta }_0(c_xc_y)/2`$. In the overdoped Bi-2212 sample, the measured gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0(0)`$ is 15 meV. Fits to the superconducting state dispersion give $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_120meV`$ (the angle dependence of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is neglected). As $`Im\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ appears to increase as doping is decreased, a value $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_1=30meV`$ is assumed for comparison with STM results.

From Eq. 8, $`G(\stackrel{}{k},\omega )`$ develops an imaginary part when $`\omega >\mathrm{\Delta }_\stackrel{}{k}`$. Near this threshold, $`Z_\stackrel{}{k}i\mathrm{\Sigma }_I^{el}/\sqrt{\omega ^2\mathrm{\Delta }_\stackrel{}{k}^2}`$, and

$$A(\stackrel{}{k},\omega )=\frac{\omega \mathrm{\Sigma }_I^{el}/\pi }{(\xi _\stackrel{}{k}^2+\mathrm{\Sigma }_I^{el2})\sqrt{\omega ^2\mathrm{\Delta }_\stackrel{}{k}^2}}$$
(10)
if $`\omega \mathrm{\Delta }_\stackrel{}{k}`$. Thus, the spectral weight actually diverges at the ’bright spots’, the special points which satisfy both $`\xi _\stackrel{}{k}=0`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }=\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Delta }}_k`$. (This is different from the clean limit ($`Z_\stackrel{}{k}=1`$), where the spectral weight is proportional to the local density of states, which peaks at the bright spots.)

Figure 3 shows the corresponding constant energy maps of $`A`$ at several binding energies, including a small pairbreaking, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_2=0.5meV`$, plus giving $`\omega `$ a small imaginary part, $`\delta _\omega =1meV`$. The bright spots are clearly visible, while the accompanying arcs approximately superpose on the bare dispersion at all energies.

Once the Green’s function is known, the STM susceptibility, Eq. 5, can be calculated. Figure 4 compares several different contributions to the q-map, comparing $`\overline{\chi }_2^{}`$ (a) with the full $`\overline{\chi }^{}`$ (b), and then combining $`\overline{\chi }^{}`$ with $`\overline{\chi }^{\prime \prime }`$. To estimate the importance of this contribution, it is assumed for illustrative purposes that $`V_q^{}=\pm V_q^{\prime \prime }`$ in Fig. 4c,d. It can be seen that the convolution term is dominated by the bright spots, and reproduces the patterns found in STM measurements. Inclusion of the additional terms modifies the details of the spectral function convolution, enhancing features from the nesting of FS arcs while making the bright spots stand out somewhat less from the background, but does not lead to any significant shifts of spectral features.

Figure 5 shows a series of q-maps at various excitation energies $`\omega `$, corresponding to the constant energy maps of Fig. 3. For simplicity, only the $`\overline{\chi }_2^{}`$ contribution is included. The general form of the resulting q-maps can readily be understood as a convolution of the bright spot peaks, exactly as in the experimental analysis. The calculated positions of the bright spot convolutions are shown by the circles and squares in Fig. 5; at the higher energies, where the bilayer splitting is evident, the circles represent the stronger peaks associated with the antibonding band (nearer the VHS), the squares the weaker bonding band peaks. (Additional scattering from bonding to antibonding bright spots is automatically included in the calculated maps, but not illustrated by symbols.) While the resulting spectra include weak extended arcs, which shift little with $`\omega `$, the bright spot features are quite prominent and strongly $`\omega `$-dependent, yielding a q-map in good agreement with Ref. . For $`\omega >0.5\mathrm{\Delta }`$, the agreement with experiment is less good. The spots from the bonding and antibonding bands overlap, leading to smoother spectra without clearly resolved bright spots. In contrast, the STM studies do not find any features associated with the antibonding bands, so the bonding band bright spots persist to higher energies.

While the experimental ARPES spectral functions show sharp quasiparticle peaks in the superconducting state, the bright spots are not clearly resolved. This can be understood as due to the finite energy resolution. Thus, Fig. 6a shows te result of averaging the MD spectra over the range $`0\omega 0.5\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$. The resulting strips of roughly constant intensity are in much better agreement with the measured ARPES spectra. Note that the experimental resolution in Fig. 1 is $`15meV\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$. The resulting convolution, Fig. 6b, is in good agreement with the experimental convolutions of Fig. 2.

There is one striking discrepancy between the model calculations and the STM maps: the ARPES spectra find a bilayer splitting while STM does not. In particular, model q-maps find both bilayer split bands, with the most intense feature coming from the (antibonding) band nearest the Van Hove singularity. On the other hand, the STM derived q-maps were inverted to reconstruct the Fermi surface, and only a single Fermi surface section was found, corresponding to the bonding band. While the bilayer splitting is most easily observed in overdoped and Pb substituted samples, it is found that in underdoped samples the bilayer splitting does not decrease, although the spectra broaden.

In conclusion, a detailed comparison of recent ARPES and STM measurements in BISCO has been provided. It is found that the most striking features of the STM results can be understood in terms of ‘bright spot’ quasiparticles, but that conclusive evidence will have to await higher resolution ARPES measurements. In the clean limit, the ARPES spectral weight of the bright spots has been estimated. In particular, it is predicted that the ARPES ‘peak’ feature is really an image of these dispersive bright spots, smeared into an extended streak by finite energy resolution. Residual discrepancies remain between the STM-derived and ARPES Fermi surfaces, in particular the absence of bilayer splitting in the STM results.

Acknowledgments: This work was begun while I was on sabbatical at Stanford. I thank Z.X. Shen, P. Bogdanov, A. Lanzara, J.C. Davis, A. Kapitulnik, and M. Greven for many stimulating conversations, and Z.X. Shen and P. Bogdanov for permission to use Figs. 32.