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# Diffuse X-rays from the Inner 3 Parsecs of the Galaxy

## 1 Introduction

The inner few parsecs of the Galaxy contain several observed components that coexist within the central deep gravitational potential well. The pointlike, nonthermal radio source Sgr A\* appears to be the radiative manifestation of a $`3`$ million M concentration of dark matter within $`0.015`$ pc of the nucleus. This concentration, probably a central black hole, is surrounded by a cluster of evolved and young stars, a molecular dusty ring, ionized gas streamers, diffuse hot gas and Sgr A East, a shell-like, nonthermal radio source believed to be the remnant (SNR) of a supernova explosion at the center of the Galaxy some $`10,000`$ years ago (see Melia & Falcke, 2001).

Observations at infrared and, particularly, radio wavelengths have been very effective in unraveling the complex behavior of the central components through their mutual interactions. But only through recent observations with the Chandra X-ray Observatory have we been able to study the X-ray emission from Sgr A\* and its surroundings with sub-arcsecond resolution and a broad X-ray band imaging detector. These capabilities have provided us with the means to discriminate point sources, such as Sgr A\*, from the diffuse emission due to hot plasma in the ambient medium.

Baganoff et al. (2003) report that the Chandra/ACIS-I 0.5–7 keV image of the inner $`17^{}\times 17^{}`$ region of the galaxy contains remarkable structure; its detail is sufficient to allow comparisons with features seen in the radio and IR wavebands. The diffuse X-ray emission is strongest in the center of Sgr A East. Based on these X-ray observations, Maeda et al. (2001) conclude that Sgr A East is a rare type of metal-rich, “mixed-morphology” SNR that was produced by the Type II explosion of a 13–20 $`M_{}`$ progenitor. The X-ray emission from Sgr A East appears to be concentrated within the central 2–3 pc of the $`6\times 9`$ pc radio shell and is offset by about $`2`$ pc from Sgr A\* itself. The thermal plasma at the center of Sgr A East has a temperature $`kT2`$ keV, and appears to have strongly enhanced metal abundances with elemental stratification.

However, this is not the sole component of hot gas surrounding Sgr A\*. Chandra has also detected X-ray emission extending perpendicular to the Galactic plane in both directions through the position of Sgr A\*, which would seem to indicate the presence of a hot, “bipolar” outflow from the nucleus. And an additional component of X-ray emitting gas appears to have been found within the molecular ring, much closer to Sgr A\*. Indeed, the western boundary of the brightest diffuse X-ray emission within $`2`$ pc of the Galactic center coincides very tightly with the shape of the Western Arc of the thermal radio source Sgr A West. Given that the Western Arc is believed to be the ionized inner edge of the molecular ring, this coincident morphology suggests that the brightest X-ray emitting plasma is being confined by the western side of the gaseous torus. In contrast, the emission continues rather smoothly into the heart of Sgr A East toward the eastern side.

A detailed fit of the emission from the hot gas within $`10^{\prime \prime }`$ of Sgr A\* shows that it is clearly not an extension of the X-ray emitting plasma at the center of Sgr A East. The inferred 2–10 keV flux and luminosity of the local diffuse emission are $`(1.9\pm 0.1)\times 10^{15}`$ ergs cm-2 s-1 arcsec-2 and $`(7.6_{1.9}^{+2.6})\times 10^{31}`$ ergs s-1 arcsec-2, respectively. Based on the parameters of the best-fit model, it is estimated that the local, hot diffuse plasma has a RMS electron density $`n_e^2^{1/2}26`$ cm-3. Assuming that this plasma has a filling factor of unity and is fully ionized with twice solar abundances, its total inferred mass is $`M_{\text{local}}0.1M_{}`$. The local plasma around Sgr A\* appears to be distinctly cooler than the Sgr A East gas, with a temperature $`kT=1.3_{0.1}^{+0.2}`$ keV. By comparison, the best-fit model for Sgr A East indicates that the plasma there has about 4 times solar abundances, and twice this temperature (see above).

At least some of this local, hot plasma must be injected into the ISM via stellar winds. There is ample observational evidence in this region for the existence of rather strong outflows in and around the nucleus. Measurements of high velocities associated with IR sources in Sgr A West (Krabbe et al., 1991) and in IRS 16 (Geballe et al., 1991), the $`H_2`$ emission in the molecular ring and from molecular gas being shocked by a nuclear mass outflow (Gatley et al., 1986; but see Jackson et al., 1993 for the potential importance of UV photodissociation in promoting this $`H_2`$ emission), broad Br$`\alpha `$, Br$`\gamma `$ and He I emission lines from the vicinity of IRS 16 (Hall, Kleinmann & Scoville, 1982; Allen, Hyland & Hillier, 1990; Geballe et al., 1991), and radio continuum observations of IRS 7 (Yusef-Zadeh & Melia, 1991), provide clear evidence of a hypersonic wind, with a velocity $`v_w`$ 500–1,000 km s-1, a number density $`n_w10^{3\text{}4}`$ cm-3, and a total mass loss rate $`\dot{M}_w`$ 3–4 $`\times 10^3M_{}`$ yr-1, pervading the inner parsec of the Galaxy.

Chevalier (1992) discussed the properties of stellar winds in the Galactic center and their ability to produce X-rays, under the assumption that the colliding winds create a uniform medium with a correspondingly uniform mass and power input within the central 0.8 pc of the Galaxy. While the assumption of uniformity may be an over-simplification, steady-state models yield central conditions similar to those calculated in our simulations and (apparently) observed in nature.

The possibility that wind-wind collisions in the dense stellar core of the Galaxy might produce an observable X-ray signature was considered more recently in the context of transient phenomena by Ozernoy et al. (1997). These authors argued that the strong winds from OB stars or WR stars would produce shocks that heat the gas up to a temperature $`T10^7`$ K. Instabilities in the overall outflow could therefore produce transient high temperature regions, in which the X-ray luminosity could be as high as $`10^{33}`$$`10^{35}`$ ergs s-1.

A preliminary, low-resolution 3-dimensional hydrodynamical simulation by Melia & Coker (1999) subsequently revealed that although the tesselated pattern of wind-wind collision shocks can shift on a local dynamical time scale, the overall concentration of shocks in the central region remains rather steady. This is hardly surprising, given that 25 or so dominant wind sources are distributed rather evenly about the center.

In this paper, we study in detail the emission characteristics of shocked gas produced in wind-wind collisions within 3 parsecs of Sgr A\*. We present the results of comprehensive, high-resolution numerical simulations of the wind-wind interactions, using the latest suite of stellar wind sources with their currently inferred wind velocities and outflow rates. We use their projected positions and vary the radial coordinates to determine the effect of this uncertainty on the X-ray emissivity. In addition, it is clear now from the Chandra image that the stellar winds are also interacting directly with the molecular ring, and so we incorporate the latter into the set of boundary conditions for our simulations. The predicted X-ray luminosity and spatial profile may then be compared with the Chandra data. We describe our numerical technique, including the description of this molecular ring and the characteristics of the wind sources in § 2 of the paper. In § 3 we present our results, and discuss their implications for the conditions in the Galactic center in § 4.

## 2 The Physical Setup

Our calculations use the 3-dimensional smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) code discussed in Fryer & Warren (2002), and Warren et al. (2003). The Lagrangean nature of SPH allows us to concentrate spatial resolution near shocks and capture the complex time-dependent structure of the shocks in the Galactic center.

We assume that the gas behaves as an ideal gas, using a gamma-law ($`\gamma =5/3`$) equation of state. Since the mass of gas in the simulation at any time is many orders of magnitude less than the mass of the black hole and its halo of stars, we calculate gravitational effects using only the gravitational potential of the assumed central $`2.6\times 10^6M_{}`$ point mass.

Each of our two calculations uses slightly different initial conditions; details of each calculation are summarized in Table 1. The initial conditions for each simulation assume that the Galactic center has been cleared of all mass (perhaps by the supernova explosion that produced Sgr A East). Massive stars then inject mass into the volume of solution via winds, gradually increasing the mass of gas in the Galactic center. The number of particles in each simulation initially grows rapidly, but reaches a steady state ($`7`$ million particles) when the addition of particles from wind sources is compensated by the particle loss as particles flow out of the computational domain or onto the central black hole. The particle masses vary from $`9.4\times 10^7M_{}`$ to $`1.0\times 10^5M_{}`$.

In addition, we place a torus of molecular material in a circumnuclear disk surrounding the inner 1.2 pc of the Galaxy. The boundary conditions (outer and central black hole), the circumnuclear disk, and the stellar wind sources are the only modifications made to the basic SPH code of Warren et al. (2003) to run these simulations, and we discuss these modifications in more detail in the next three subsections.

### 2.1 Boundary Conditions

The boundary conditions are the major particle sinks in the simulation. We assume that once these particles have achieved escape velocity beyond a certain distance, nothing confines the material flowing out of the Galactic center. The computational domain is a cube approximately $`6`$ pc on a side, centered on the black hole. To simulate “flow-out” conditions, particles passing through this outer boundary are removed from the calculation.

In addition, particles passing through an inner spherical boundary with a radius of $`1.9\times 10^{17}`$ cm (equivalent to $`2.5\times 10^5`$ Rs or $`0.7`$ Bondi-Hoyle capture radii for Sgr A\*) centered on the black hole are also removed. This assumes that the accretion onto Sgr A\* continues roughly at free-fall below this point. Such a simplified assumption only provides a limit on the X-ray luminosity of the point-source of Sgr A\*, but it does not affect the diffuse X-ray emission in the Galactic center that is the central topic of this paper.

### 2.2 Circumnuclear Disk

HCN synthesis data, taken at $`5^{\prime \prime }10^{\prime \prime }`$ spatial and $`4`$ km s-1 spectral resolution, reveal a highly inclined, clumpy ring of molecular gas surrounding the ionized central $`2`$ pc of the Galaxy (Güsten et al., 1987). This ring seems to be the inner edge of a thin molecular structure extending out to $`57`$ pc from the center. Within this cavity, and orbiting about Sgr A\*, is the huge H II region known as Sgr A West comprised of a 3-armed mini-spiral (Lo & Claussen, 1983; Lacy et al., 1991). The molecular and ionized gas in the central cavity appear to be coupled, at least along the so-called western arc (one of the spiral arms), which appears to be the ionized inner surface of the molecular ring. It has been suggested that the northern and eastern arms may be streamers of ionized gas falling toward Sgr A\* from other portions of the molecular ring (see Melia & Falcke, 2001, and references cited therein).

Since 1987, observations of various tracers of molecular gas (notably H2, CO, CS, O I, HCN, NH3) have somewhat refined our view of the circumnuclear disk (or CND, as it is sometimes called), leaving us with the following set of defining characteristics: a total mass of $`3\times 10^4M_{}`$, a very clumpy distribution with an estimated volume filling factor of $`0.01`$, a typical clump mass of $`30M_{}`$, size $`0.1`$ pc, and temperature $`100`$ K (see Gatley et al., 1986; Serabyn et al., 1986; Güsten et al., 1987; DePoy et al., 1989; Sutton et al., 1990; Jackson et al., 1993; Marr et al., 1993). As many as $`500`$ clumps fill its overall structure. Its height at the inner edge is $`0.5`$ pc, and it flares outward with distance from the center.

The Chandra $`0.57`$ keV image of the central $`1.3^{}\times 1.5^{}`$ region of the Galaxy (see Fig. 4 in Baganoff et al., 2003), overlaid on the VLA 6-cm contours of Sgr A\* and Sgr A West, shows that the western boundary of the brightest diffuse X-ray emission coincides very closely with the shape of the western arc, adding credence to the notion that the latter tracks the inner edge of the CND if one adopts the view that the X-ray glowing plasma is itself being confined by the western side of the molecular ring.

The CND therefore appears to be an essential element in the (partial) confinement of the hot gas, and we incorporate it into our simulations using a simple approach that nonetheless retains the CND’s important features. To keep the volume of solution tractable, we do not model the entire $`14`$-pc disk, but rather introduce an azimuthally-symmetric torus with inner radius $`1.2`$ pc (see Güsten et al., 1987) and thickness $`1`$ pc. The latter is a fair representation of the CND’s observed height at this radius. This structure does not, of course, account for the CND’s outer regions, but as we shall see, the hot, X-ray emitting gas does not penetrate far into the molecular boundary, so the outer CND is not directly relevant to this simulation. We assume that this torus has a mass of $`10^4M_{}`$, and is composed of 200 spherical clumps, each of mass $`50M_{}`$. We also incline it by $`60^{}`$ from the plane of the sky, orienting its principal axis (in projection) along the Galactic plane.

### 2.3 Wind Sources

It is well known by now that the Galactic center wind is unlikely to be uniform, since many stars contribute to the mass ejection (see, e.g., Melia & Coker, 1999). For these calculations, we assume that the early-type stars enclosed (in projection) within the Western Arc, the Northern Arm, and the Bar produce the observed wind. Thus far, 25 such stars have been identified (Genzel et al., 1996), though the stellar wind characteristics of only 8 have been determined from their He I line emission (Najarro et al., 1997). Figure 1 shows the positions (relative to Sgr A\*; $`1^{\prime \prime }0.04`$ pc at the Galactic center) of these wind sources; the size of the circle marking each position corresponds to the relative mass loss rate (on a linear scale) for that star. IRS 13E1 and IRS 7W seem to dominate the mass outflow with their high wind velocity ($``$ 1,000 km s-1) and a mass loss rate of more than $`2\times 10^4M_{}`$ yr-1 each.

Wind sources are modeled as literal sources of SPH particles. New particles are added in shells around each wind source as the simulation progresses and the existing particles move outward from each source. Using wind velocities inferred from observations (Najarro et al., 1997), shells around each wind source are added at a rate such that the spacing between shells is approximately equal to the spacing between particles within each incoming shell. Masses of the incoming particles are chosen to match the inferred mass loss rate for each source. The stars without any observed He I line emission are assigned a wind velocity of 750 km s-1 and an equal mass loss rate chosen such that the total mass ejected by the stars used here is equal to $`3\times 10^3M_{}`$ yr-1, the overall mass outflow inferred for the Galactic center region (see, e.g. Melia, 1994). The initial temperature of the stellar winds is not well known; for simplicity, we assume here that all the winds are Mach 30 at their point of ejection from the stellar surface. This corresponds to a gas temperature of $`10^4`$ K. We note, however, that our results are insensitive to this value, since the temperature of the shocked gas is set primarily by the kinetic energy flux carried into the collision by the winds. For the calculations reported here, the sources are assumed to be stationary over the duration of the simulation.

An additional uncertainty is the location in $`z`$ (i.e., along the line of sight) of the wind sources. To test the sensitivity of our results to the choice of $`z`$, we carry out two simulations with different coordinate assignments, and compare the overall shocked gas configurations and their X-ray emissivities. For the first choice of $`z`$ positions—listed as $`\mathrm{z}_1`$ in Table 2 and used in Simulation 1—we determine this third spatial coordinate randomly, subject to the condition that the overall distribution in this direction matches that in $`x`$ and $`y`$. With this proviso, all these early-type stars are located within the central few parsecs surrounding Sgr A\*. For the second choice of positions—listed as $`\mathrm{z}_2`$ and used in Simulation 2—we attempt to calculate a reasonable upper limit on the luminosity produced in the central parsec by moving all the sources closer together in $`z`$, toward the $`z=0`$ plane.

## 3 The Gas Profile and Spectrum

Wind-wind collisions in the central parsec create a complex configuration of shocks that efficiently converts the kinetic energy of the winds into internal energy of the gas. Figure 2 shows isosurfaces of specific internal energy in the central cubic parsec of Simulation 1, $`10,000`$ years after the beginning of the calculation. The blue surfaces indicate regions of gas with low specific internal energy, which lie near the wind sources; the red surfaces mark regions of high specific internal energy, where gas has passed through multiple shocks. 26% of the total energy in the central parsec has been converted to internal energy via multiple shocks: the total kinetic energy of material in the central parsec is $`7.7\times 10^{48}`$ ergs, while the total internal energy is $`2.7\times 10^{48}`$ ergs.

In order to calculate the observed continuum spectrum, we assume that the observer is positioned along the negative $`z`$-axis at infinity and we sum the emission from all of the winds—and their shocks—produced by the 25 stars in Table 2. For the conditions we encounter here, scattering is negligible and the optical depth is always less than unity. For these temperatures and densities, the dominant components of the continuum emissivity are electron-ion ($`ϵ_{ei}`$) and electron-electron ($`ϵ_{ee}`$) bremsstrahlung.

Figures 3 and 4 show the 2–10 keV luminosity per arcsec2 from the central 10′′ of Simulations 1 and 2, respectively, versus time since the beginning of each calculation. The winds fill the volume of solution after $``$ 4000 years, which coincides with the point in each figure where the luminosity stops rising rapidly and begins varying by only $``$ 5% around a steady value. The inset plot in each figure shows variation of the luminosity on a timescale of $``$ 10 years. Data points in the insets are plotted for each of 990 time steps, where the size of each time step is 0.16 years. Variation between consecutive data points is due primarily to numerical noise, but variations on timescales of several years indicate noticeable changes in the temperature and density of the gas in the central 10′′.

The range of values of the average luminosity per arcsec2 measured in the central 10′′ of our simulations illustrates the sensitivity of the luminosity to the positions of the wind sources. Luminosities for each of our simulations are reported in Table 1; for comparison, Baganoff et al. reported a 2–10 keV luminosity of $`(7.6_{1.9}^{+2.6})\times 10^{31}`$ ergs s-1 arcsec-2 from the local diffuse emission within 10′′ of Sgr A\*. Results from both simulations fall within the error bars reported by Baganoff et al.

Table 1 also includes two different estimates for the temperature of the plasma within 10′′ of Sgr A\*. Tmass is an average temperature calculated using the mass of each particle as a weighting factor, while Tlum uses the luminosity of each particle as a weighting factor. Since the temperature is determined primarily by the kinetic energy flux initially carried by the winds, and since the initial wind velocities in each calculation are the same, the average temperature for the plasma at the center of each calculation is essentially the same.

Figures 5 and 6 show the average luminosity per volume and average luminosity-weighted temperature as a function of radius from the center of Simulation 1. The majority ($`77\%`$ of the overall 2–10 keV luminosity) of the 2–10 keV emission comes from the central 0.4 pc, where it is produced in wind-wind collisions. There is also noticeable emission ($`2.5\%`$ of the overall luminosity) from a high-temperature region centered on 1.2 pc, which is the location of the inner edge of the CND; emission here is produced when winds collide with the clumps in our model torus.

Figures 7 and 8 show contours of 2–10 keV luminosity per arcsec2 from Simulations 1 and 2, respectively, $`10,000`$ years after the winds were turned on. The dotted circle overlaid on each figure shows the size of the 10′′ central region. The zones of relatively high luminosity at the north-east and south-west corners of each figure, and along the northwest side of the Simulation 2 contours, result from collisions of the outflowing wind with the inner edge of the CND.

The gas distribution in a multiple-wind source environment like that modeled here is distinctly different from that of a uniform flow past a central accretor (Coker & Melia, 1997). Unlike the latter, the former does not produce a large-scale bow shock, and therefore the environmental impact of the gravitational focusing by the central dark mass has significantly less order in this case. We shall defer a more extensive discussion of this point to a later publication, in which we report the results of a multiple-wind source simulation for the accretion of shocked gas onto the central, massive black hole.

## 4 Discussion

Using only the latest observed stellar positions and inferred mass loss rates and wind velocities, we have produced self-consistent X-ray luminosity maps of the Galactic center. It appears that the diffuse X-ray luminosity and temperature within $`10^{\prime \prime }`$ of Sgr A\* can be explained entirely by shocked winds; the luminosities from both of our simulations fall within the error bars associated with the diffuse 2–10 keV X-ray luminosity measured by Chandra. This seems rather significant in view of the fact that, were the diffuse X-rays surrounding Sgr A\* being produced by another mechanism, we would need to lower the overall stellar mass-loss rate or wind velocity by a factor of 2 or more in order to render the emissivity produced by wind-wind collisions unobservable. The luminosities that we calculate are fairly insensitive to the placement of the wind sources along the line of sight to the Galactic Center; the 2–10 keV luminosity per arcsec2 differs by only $`15\%`$ between Simulation 1—in which sources are randomly distributed in $`z`$—and Simulation 2—in which sources are compressed toward Sgr A\* perpendicular to the plane of the sky.

Although the wind mass-loss rate is $`3\times 10^3M_{}`$ yr-1, the average accretion rate though our inner boundary is only $`4.25\times 10^4M_{}`$ yr-1 for Simulation 1 and $`4.59\times 10^4M_{}`$ yr-1 for Simulation 2. Even so, this is much higher than what one would expect from the X-ray emission at this inner boundary. Since we do not model this accretion, we have neglected a number of effects from magnetic fields to radiation pressure. We postpone this detailed analysis to a future paper.

One possible explanation for the relatively low luminosity of Sgr A\* has been that the supernova that created Sgr A East swept most of the gas out of the environment surrounding Sgr A\*. However, our calculations show that the stellar winds within 3 parsecs of the Galactic center bring the environment near the black hole back to a steady state within $``$ 4000 years. In addition, the gas temperature and X-ray luminosity calculated from our results add weight to Baganoff et al.’s hypothesis that the X-ray emitting gas surrounding Sgr A\* really is a different component than that at the center of Sgr A East, which has a temperature closer to 2 keV.

Collision of the wind with the inner edge of the CND may produce the western arm of the minispiral. Our simple model for the CND produces clear emission at the location of the inner edge of the molecular ring, although we do not reproduce the entire complex morphology of the X-ray emitting gas seen by Chandra.

The excellent agreement between our calculated X-ray luminosities and the value of the luminosity measured by Chandra solidifies our understanding of the gas dynamics in the Galactic center. Future calculations will move the inner boundary of the simulation inward and explore the dynamics of the shocked gas as it falls toward the central black hole.

Acknowledgments This research was partially supported by NASA under grants NAG5-8239 and NAG5-9205, and has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Abstract Service. This work was also funded under the auspices of the U.S. Dept. of Energy, and supported by its contract W-7405-ENG-36 to Los Alamos National Laboratory and by a DOE SciDAC grant number DE-FC02-01ER41176. FM is grateful to the University of Melbourne for its support (through a Sir Thomas Lyle Fellowship and a Miegunyah Fellowship). The authors also thank the anonymous referee for helpful corrections and comments. The simulations were conducted on the Space Simulator at Los Alamos National Laboratory.


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# The MOJAVE Program: Studying the Relativistic Kinematics of AGN Jets

## 1. Introduction

Kinematic studies using very-long-baseline interferometry have greatly increased our understanding of extragalactic jets on parsec-scales, but there are still many questions regarding their dynamics and evolution that remain unanswered. This is partially due to the lack of a long-term, systematic, full-Stokes imaging survey of a large complete sample in which the selection effects are well-understood. MOJAVE (Monitoring Of Jets in AGN with VLBA Experiments) is a new VLBA program that is designed as a follow-up to the VLBA 2 cm survey (Kellermann et al. 1998). It is currently investigating structural and polarization changes in the 134 brightest AGN jets in the northern sky, of which 98 were part of the original VLBA 2 cm Survey. The main goals of MOJAVE are to:

* Measure the distribution of apparent jet speeds, both within individual sources and for the entire population.
* Determine whether jet speed is related to other intrinsic quantities, such as luminosity, black hole mass, and emission line strength.
* Characterize the kinematics of moving jet features, and determine whether they are consistent with streaming paths along bent trajectories.
* Investigate how magnetic fields evolve within the jets, and how they track the moving features.
* Search for parsec-scale circularly polarized jet emission, and examine how it evolves with time.

## 2. Sample Selection and Observational Status

The goals of our program require a complete sample of extragalactic jets that is large enough to investigate statistical aspects of the parent population, and to perform inter-comparisons between various sub-classes, such as quasars, BL Lacertae objects, gamma-ray loud sources, and intra-day variables. Whereas the selection criteria of the 2 cm VLBA survey were loosely defined in order to include a wide range of sources such as gigahertz-peaked spectrum objects and radio galaxies, the MOJAVE sample is selected purely on the basis of compact radio flux density. The latter choice ensures a high degree of completeness since a) all known AGN jets are radio-loud, b) all-sky radio surveys are available at several frequencies, c) all our sources are detectable by the VLBA. Another benefit is that we are able to directly compare our data to Monte Carlo simulations of relativistic beaming, without worrying about contamination from extended, steep-spectrum emission. Also, the radio emission comes from the same region as where we are measuring the apparent jet speeds, which is important when estimating Doppler beaming factors from the kinematic data. Our specific selection criteria are: a) declination $`>20^{}`$, b) galactic latitude $`|b|>2.5^{}`$, and c) total 2 cm VLBA flux density $`1.5`$ Jy at any epoch since 1994 ($`2`$ Jy for sources with $`\delta <0^{}`$).

By not restricting our flux density criterion to a single epoch, we have included many interesting variable sources that might have otherwise been omitted. Our final sample consists of 129 confirmed and 5 candidate objects. We are currently gathering single-dish and VLBA data on the latter to determine whether they meet our selection criteria. Thirty-four of our sources are members of the third EGRET gamma-ray catalog, and broken down by optical classification there are 95 quasars, 21 BL Lacs, 10 radio galaxies, and 8 unidentified objects. Redshift information is currently available for $`90\%`$ of the sample.

Since the start of our observations in May 2002, we have obtained single-epoch polarization images for 95% of the sample, and 13 sources have been imaged at more than one epoch. As of Sept. 2003, we have had ten successful observing sessions, of which nine have been fully reduced. Our observations are currently planned to continue into 2004, and we have been allotted one new 24-hour long session every six to eight weeks. We are able to observe eighteen sources each session, which implies that each source is observed roughly once per year. There are many highly variable sources that need more frequent sampling, however, so we try to observe these more often at the expense of longer monitoring intervals for the other sources. We are also monitoring our sample at cm-wavelengths with the UMRAO and RATAN telescopes to monitor overall spectral changes and to calibrate our polarization vectors.

## 3. Preliminary Results

### 3.1. Linear Polarization

We have detected linearly polarized emission in all 123 jets we have imaged thus far, with the exception of NGC 1052 and 2021+614. The latter are likely heavily depolarized by intervening gas in the host galaxy (see, e.g., Vermeulen et al. 2002). The unresolved cores (located close to the base of the jet) are weakly polarized, with the majority having fractional polarizations under $`4\%`$. Six cores (3C 111, 4C 39.25, M87, 1413+135, 2008$``$159, and 2128$``$123) have no detectable polarization. In most cases the magnetic field order increases with distance down the jet, with features in the jets being appreciably more polarized than the cores. In many sources (e.g., 1222+216; Fig. 1), the field appears highly ordered on the outside edge where the jet bends, suggesting a compression of the field from interaction with the external medium.

### 3.2. Jet polarization versus optical line strength

The question of whether the jets of weak-lined blazars (BL Lacertae objects) are intrinsically different than those of broad-lined blazars (radio-loud quasars) is still not fully resolved, in large part due to uncertainties associated with projection and relativistic beaming effects. One basic test involves looking for differences in the jet polarization properties of these two classes. In Figure 2 we plot the distribution of fractional polarization for polarized features in the jets of BL Lacs and quasars in our sample. A Kolmogorov-Smirnov test on the two distributions indicates only a $`0.1\%`$ probability that they are from the same parent distribution.

Further evidence for intrinsic differences can be found in a plot of fractional polarization versus distance from the core (Fig. 3). The majority of the BL Lac jet components are more highly polarized at a given projected distance down the jet than those of the quasars. This confirms an earlier result obtained at 7 mm by Lister (2001) for the smaller Pearson-Readhead AGN sample. Fig. 3 also shows a weak trend of increasing fractional polarization down the jet, which suggests that the magnetic fields of quasar jets take longer than the BL Lac jets to become organized. It is noteworthy that these polarization differences are located well outside the broad-line region where the optical emission lines are produced. Further investigation is required to determine whether these reflect intrinsic differences in the interstellar medium of the host galaxy, or in the jet itself.

### 3.3. Circular Polarization

The large number of sources that we observe at each epoch makes our survey ideal for calibration of both linear and circular polarization (CP). Using the techniques of Homan et al. (2001), we have detected weak parsec-scale circularly polarized jet emission in 8 of 68 sources analyzed thus far. Since the CP level is variable in many sources, we anticipate on having a sufficient number of detections to look for correlations between linear and circular polarization levels, and monitor the CP sign consistency over time. We also intend to examine whether circularly polarized jets possess any peculiar characteristics that distinguish them from other sources.

## 4. Summary

The MOJAVE program represents the first large-scale, systematic survey of a complete sample of AGN jets in all four Stokes parameters. Its main goals are to obtain a better understanding of the kinematics and magnetic field structures of relativistic jets, and determine how these are related to other host galaxy properties such as the emission line strength and black hole mass. A more thorough description of our program and access to our on-line database can be found at http://www.physics.purdue.edu/$``$mlister/MOJAVE.

The author wishes to acknowledge the members of the MOJAVE collaboration: H. Aller, M. Aller, M. Cohen, D. Homan, M. Kadler, K. Kellermann, Y. Kovalev, A. Lobanov, E. Ros, R. Vermeulen, and J. Zensus.

## References

Homan, D. C., Attridge, J. M., & Wardle, J. F. C. 2001, ApJ, 556, 113

Kellermann, K. I., et al. 1998, AJ, 115, 1295

Lister, M. L. 2001, ApJ, 562, 208

Vermeulen, R. C., et al. 2003, A&A, 401, 113


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# Logarithmic correction to the Cardy-Verlinde formula in Achucarro-Oritz Black Hole

## 1 Introduction

It is commonly believed that any valid theory of quantum gravity must necessary incorporate the Bekenestein-Hawking definition of black hole entropy  into its conceptual framework. However, the microscopic origin of this entropy remains an enigma for two reasons. First of all although the various counting methods have pointed to the expected semi-classical result, there is still a lack of recognition as to what degrees of freedom are truly being counted. This ambiguity can be attributed to most of these methods being based on dualities with simpler theories, thus obscuring the physical interpretation from the perspective of the black hole in question. Secondly, the vast and varied number of successful counting techniques only serve to cloud up an already fuzzy picture.
de Sitter/Conformal Field Theory correspondence (dS/CFT) - may hold the key to its microscopical interpretation. Naively, we would expect dS/CFT correspondence to proceed along the lines of Anti-de Sitter /Conformal Field Theory (AdS/CFT) correspondence  because de Sitter spacetime can be obtained from anti-de Sitter spacetime by analytically continuing the cosmological constant to imaginary values. The Cardy-Verlinde formula proposed by Verlinde , relates the entropy of a certain CFT with its total energy and its Casimir energy in arbitrary dimensions. Using the AdSd/CFTd-1 and dSd/CFTd-1 correspondences, this formula has been shown to hold exactly for different black holes. In previous paper , by using the Cardy-Verlinde formula, we have obtained the entropy of the Achúcarro-Ortiz black hole which is a two-dimensional black hole derived from the three-dimensional rotating BTZ black hole.

In 1992 Bañados, Teitelboim and Zanelli (BTZ)  showed that $`(2+1)`$-dimensional gravity has a black hole solution. This black hole is described by two (gravitational) parameters, the mass $`M`$ and the angular momentum (spin) $`J`$. It is locally AdS and thus it differs from Schwarzschild and Kerr solutions since it is asymptotically anti-de-Sitter instead of flat spacetime. Additionally, it has no curvature singularity at the origin. AdS black holes, are members of this two-parametric family of BTZ black holes and they are very interesting in the framework of string theory and black hole physics .

For systems that admit 2D CFTs as duals, the Cardy formula  can be applied directly. This formula gives the entropy of a CFT in terms of the central charge $`c`$ and the eigenvalue of the Virasoro operator $`l_0`$. However, it should be pointed out that this evaluation is possible as soon as one has explicitly shown (e.g using the AdSd/CFTd-1 correspondence) that the system under consideration is in correspondence with a 2D CFT .
In  Cadoni and Mignemi, using Cardy formula have been calculated the statistical entropy of two-dimensional Jackiw-Teitelboim black hole, which can be considered as the dimensional reduction of the $`j=0`$ (zero angular momentum) BTZ black hole. Using a canonical realization of the asymptotic symmetry of two-dimensional anti-de Sitter space and Cardy’s formula they have been calculated the statistical entropy of 2D black hole. In this case this reference relate a two-dimensional black hole to a one-dimensional CFT, living on the boundary of $`AdS_2`$. In fact the one-dimensional nature of the boundary CFT, implies that we are dealing with some kind of particle quantum mechanics, rather than quantum field theory. In the other hand as have been shown in second paper by Cadoni and Mignemi  in the family of the AdSd/CFTd-1 dualities, the $`d=2`$ case is very similar to the $`d=3`$ one, the conformal group being in both instances infinite dimensional. But a feature that is peculiar to the $`d=2`$ case is the complete equivalence of the diffeomorphisms and the conformal group in one dimension. The physical implication of this equivalence is that the usual difference between gauge symmetries and symmetries related to conserved charges disappears. If one accepts the $`d=2`$ case is not fundamental then the CFT1 should be thought of just as (half) of CFT2, in the way have been explained in , therefore in the $`d=2`$ context the general AdSd/CFTd-1 duality becomes a duality between two 2d conformal field theories. Although the possibility of describing 2D black holes by means of a CFT has been widely investigated , it is not completely clear if it is always possible to mimic the gravitational dynamics of the 2D black hole through a CFT. However, in some cases and/or for generic black holes in particular regimes, CFTs have been shown to give a good description, this is in particular true for black holes in AdS space. In this paper I consider the two-dimensional Achucarro-Oritz black hole which is asymptotically AdS2, then we show a 2D CFT give a good description in this case also. When the black hole is put in correspondence with a 2D CFT, the entropy of black hole horizon is reproduce using the Cardy-Verlinde formula.
There has been much recent interest in calculating the quantum corrections to $`S_{BH}`$ (the Bekenestein-Hawking entropy) -. The leading-order correction is proportional to $`\mathrm{ln}S_{BH}`$. There are, two distinct and separable sources for this logarithmic correction  (see also recent paper by Gour and Medved ). Firstly, there should be a correction to the number of microstates that is a quantum correction to the microcanonical entropy, secondly, as any black hole will typically exchange heat or matter with its surrounding, there should also be a correction due to thermal fluctuations in the horizon area. In a recent work Carlip  has deduced the leading order quantum correction to the classical Cardy formula. The Cardy formula follows from a saddle-point approximation of the partition function for a two-dimensional conformal field theory. This leads to the theory’s density of states, which is related to the partition function by way of a Fourier transform . In Medved has been applied the Carlip’s formulation to the case of a generic model of two-dimensional gravity with coupling to a dilaton field.
In this paper we consider the Achucarro-Oritz black hole, In section $`2`$ we calculate the corresponding thermodynamical quantities for black hole horizon. In section $`3`$ we calculate leading order correction due to small statistical fluctuations around equilibrium, to the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy formula then we obtain the same correction to the Cardy-Verlinde entropy formula. In the other term we assume the equality of Bekenstein-Hawking and CFT entropy, then we uses the known statistical corrections to the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy to predict the corrections to the Cardy-Verlinde formula. Last section contain a summary of paper.

## 2 Thermodynamical quantities of Achucarro-Oritz black hole

The black hole solutions of Bañados, Teitelboim and Zanelli  in $`(2+1)`$ spacetime dimensions are derived from a three dimensional theory of gravity

$$S=𝑑x^3\sqrt{g}({}_{}{}^{\left(3\right)}R+2\mathrm{\Lambda })$$
(1)
with a negative cosmological constant ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\frac{1}{l^2}>0`$).

The corresponding line element is

$$ds^2=\left(M+\frac{r^2}{l^2}+\frac{J^2}{4r^2}\right)dt^2+\frac{dr^2}{\left(M+{\displaystyle \frac{r^2}{l^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{J^2}{4r^2}}\right)}+r^2\left(d\theta \frac{J}{2r^2}dt\right)^2$$
(2)
There are many ways to reduce the three dimensional BTZ black hole solutions to the two dimensional charged and uncharged dilatonic black holes . The Kaluza-Klein reduction of the $`(2+1)`$-dimensional metric (2) yields a two-dimensional line element:

$$ds^2=g(r)dt^2+g(r)^1dr^2$$
(3)
where

$$g(r)=\left(M+\frac{r^2}{l^2}+\frac{J^2}{4r^2}\right)$$
(4)
with $`M`$ the Arnowitt-Deser-Misner (ADM) mass, $`J`$ the angular momentum (spin) of the BTZ black hole and $`\mathrm{}<t<+\mathrm{}`$, $`0r<+\mathrm{}`$, $`0\theta <2\pi `$.

The outer and inner horizons, i.e. $`r_+`$ (henceforth simply black hole horizon) and $`r_{}`$ respectively, concerning the positive mass black hole spectrum with spin ($`J0`$) of the line element (3) are given as

$$r_\pm ^2=\frac{l^2}{2}\left(M\pm \sqrt{M^2\frac{J^2}{l^2}}\right)$$
(5)
and therefore, in terms of the inner and outer horizons, the black hole mass and the angular momentum are given, respectively, by

$$M=\frac{r_+^2}{l^2}+\frac{J^2}{4r_+^2}$$
(6)
and

$$J=\frac{2r_+r_{}}{l}$$
(7)
with the corresponding angular velocity to be

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\frac{J}{2r_+^2}.$$
(8)
The Hawking temperature $`T_H`$ of the black hole horizon is

$`T_H`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi r_+}}\sqrt{\left({\displaystyle \frac{r_+^2}{l^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{J^2}{4r_+^2}}\right)^2{\displaystyle \frac{J^2}{l^2}}}`$ (9)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi r_+}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{r_+^2}{l^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{J^2}{4r_+^2}}\right).`$
In two spacetime dimensions we do not have an area law for the black hole entropy, however one can use thermodynamical reasoning to define the entropy

$$S_{bh}=4\pi r_+.$$
(10)
The specific heat of the black hole is given by

$$C=\frac{dE}{dT}=\frac{dM}{dT}=4\pi r_+(\frac{r_+^2r_{}^2}{r_+^2+3r_{}^2})=S_{bh}(\frac{r_+^2r_{}^2}{r_+^2+3r_{}^2}),$$
(11)
$`r_+>r_{}`$, then the above specific heat is positive. The stability condition is equivalent to the specific heat being positive, so that the corresponding canonical ensemble is stable.

## 3 Logarithmic correction to the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy and Cardy-Verlinde formula

There has been much recent interest in calculating the quantum corrections to $`S_{BH}`$ (the Bekenestein-Hawking entropy) -. The corrected formula takes the form

$$𝒮=S_0\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}C+\mathrm{}$$
(12)
When $`r_+r_{}`$, $`CS_{bh}=S_0`$, in this case we have

$$𝒮=S_0\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}S_0+\mathrm{}$$
(13)
It is now possible to drive the corresponding correction to Cardy-Verlinde formula. In a recent paper, Verlinde  propound a generalization of the Cardy formula which holds for the ($`1+1`$) dimensional Conformal Field Theory (CFT), to $`(n+1)`$-dimensional spacetime described by the metric

$$ds^2=dt^2+R^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_n$$
(14)
where $`R`$ is the radius of a $`n`$-dimensional sphere.

The generalized Cardy formula (hereafter named Cardy-Verlinde formula) is given by

$$S_{CFT}=\frac{2\pi R}{\sqrt{ab}}\sqrt{E_C\left(2EE_C\right)}$$
(15)
where $`E`$ is the total energy, $`E_C`$ is the Casimir energy, $`a`$ and $`b`$ a priori arbitrary positive coefficients, independent of $`R`$ and $`S`$. The definition of the Casimir energy is derived by the violation of the Euler relation as

$$E_Cn\left(E+pVTSJ\mathrm{\Omega }\right)$$
(16)
where the pressure of the CFT is defined as $`p=E/nV`$. The total energy may be written as the sum of two terms

$$E(S,V)=E_E(S,V)+\frac{1}{2}E_C(S,V)$$
(17)
where $`E_E`$ is the purely extensive part of the total energy $`E`$. The Casimir energy $`E_C`$ as well as the purely extensive part of energy $`E_E`$ expressed in terms of the radius $`R`$ and the entropy $`S`$ are written as

$`E_C`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{b}{2\pi R}}S^{1\frac{1}{n}}`$ (18)
$`E_E`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{a}{4\pi R}}S^{1+\frac{1}{n}}.`$ (19)
After the work of Witten on AdSd/CFTd-1 correspondence , Savonije and Verlinde proved that the Cardy-Verlinde formula (15) can be derived using the thermodynamics of AdS-Schwarzschild black holes in arbitrary dimension . For the present discussion, the total entropy is assumed to be of the form Eq.(13), where the uncorrected entropy, $`S_0`$ correspondence to that associated in Eq. (10). Since the two-dimensional Achúcarro-Ortiz black hole is asymptotically anti-de-Sitter, the total energy is $`E=M`$. It then follows by employing Eqs.(6-9) that the Casimir energy Eq.(16) can be expressed in term of the uncorrected entropy.

$$E_C=\frac{J^2}{2r_+^2}\frac{1}{2}T_HLnS_0,$$
(20)
Then by setting the above corrected Casimir energy in Eq.(15) and expanding in term of $`\frac{1}{2}T_HLnS_0`$ we obtain

$`{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi R}{\sqrt{ab}}}\sqrt{E_C\left(2EE_C\right)}S_0(1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}T_HlnS_0{\displaystyle \frac{E_CE}{E_C(2EE_C)}}).`$ (21)
In the limit where the correction is small, the coefficient of the logarithmic term on the right-hand side of Eq.(21) can be expressed in terms of the energy and Casimir energy

$$\frac{(E_CE)}{2E_C(2EE_C)}T_HS_0=\frac{(E_CE)(2EE_CE_q)}{2E_C(2EE_C)},$$
(22)
where

$$E_q=Q\varphi =J\mathrm{\Omega },$$
(23)
is the electromagnetic energy, in our analysis the charge $`Q`$ is the angular momentum $`J`$ of the two-dimensional Achucarro-Oritz black hole, the corresponding electric potential $`\varphi `$ is the angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. We may conclude, therefore that in the limit where the logarithmic corrections are sub-dominant, Eq.(21) can be rewritten to express the entropy in terms of the energy, and Casimir energy.

$`S_0={\displaystyle \frac{2\pi R}{\sqrt{ab}}}\sqrt{E_C\left(2EE_C\right)}{\displaystyle \frac{(E_CE)(2EE_CE_q)}{2E_C(2EE_C)}}ln({\displaystyle \frac{2\pi R}{\sqrt{ab}}}\sqrt{E_C\left(2EE_C\right)})`$ (24)
and consequently, the total entropy Eq.(13) to first order in the logarithmic term, is given by

$`S{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi R}{\sqrt{ab}}}\sqrt{E_C\left(2EE_C\right)}({\displaystyle \frac{(E_CE)(2EE_CE_q)}{2E_C(2EE_C)}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}})ln({\displaystyle \frac{2\pi R}{\sqrt{ab}}}\sqrt{E_C\left(2EE_C\right)})`$ (25)
Therefore taking into account thermal fluctuations defines the logarithmic corrections to the black hole entropies. As a result the Cardy-Verlinde formula receive logarithmic corrections in our interest Achucarro-Oritz black hole background in two dimension, in the way similar to the Cardy-Verlinde formula for the SAdS and SdS black holes in 5-dimension  also for TRNdS black holes in any dimension. It is easily seen that the logarithmic prefactor is negative and therefore the thermal corrections are also negative. Furthermore, the entropy of two-dimensional Achucarro-Oritz black hole described in the context of Das et al  analysis by the modified Cardy-Verlinde formula satisfy the holographic bound .

## 4 Conclusion

For a large class of black hole, the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy formula receives additive logarithmic corrections due to thermal fluctuations. On the basis of general thermodynamic arguments, Das et al  deduced that the black hole entropy can be expressed as

$$𝒮=\mathrm{ln}\rho =S_0\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}\left(CT^2\right)+\mathrm{}.$$
(26)
In this paper we have analyzed this correction of the entropy of Achucarro-Oritz black hole in two dimension in the light of AdS/CFT. We have obtain the logarithmic correction to black hole entropy. Then using the form of the logarithmic correction Eq.(13) we have derived the corresponding correction to the Cardy-Verlinde formula which relates the entropy of a certain CFT to its total energy and Casimir energy. The result of this paper is that the CFT entropy can be written in the form Eq.(25).


text:
# A Survey for EHB Stars in the Galactic Bulge

## 1 Introduction: EHB stars and the bulge

This meeting is mainly concerned with very hot stars on the extreme or extended horizontal branch (EHB). It is important, however, to place these stars in the wider context of the formation and evolution of the entire blue horizontal branch (BHB), here meaning HB stars that are hotter than the RR Lyrae instability strip.

As we will hear at this meeting, EHB stars are common in the local field, and have been discovered in several globular clusters and a few open clusters. Among the globulars, only those with metallicity $`0.05`$ solar ($`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]1.3`$) have hot BHB stars in abundance. In contrast, very few are found in intermediate-metallicity systems such as 47 Tucanae, but they have been discovered in small numbers in two metal-rich globulars (Rich et al., 1997; Sosin et al., 1997).

The well-known phenomenon of the ultraviolet (UV) upturn (Code & Welch, 1979; Bertola et al., 1980; O’Connell et al., 1986; Deharveng et al., 2002) in massive ellipticals and the bulges of other spirals tells us that old, metal-rich stellar populations can make significant numbers of hot stars (see other contributions to this conference). The generally accepted sources of the UV light are the EHB stars at the very hot end of the horizontal branch, the subdwarf B (sdB) stars and their shorter-lived progeny (O’Connell, 1999). The numbers or lifetimes of EHB stars must increase with metallicity, since the far-UV flux does (Faber, 1983; Burstein et al., 1988; Longo et al., 1989).

Locally, metal-rich BHB stars do exist. In the old open cluster NGC 6791, Liebert et al. (1994) find sdB stars, and Peterson & Green (1998) confirm a proper-motion and radial velocity member as a metal-rich ($`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]=+0.4\pm 0.1`$) star on the cool BHB. But even in this massive open cluster, the EHB is too sparse to determine many details of the evolution of these stars: the lifetimes of these evolved stars are too short.

Globular clusters have a different relationship between metallicity and UV light from bulges or elliptical galaxies, as illustrated in Figure 1. This plots the strength of the UV excess (from the 1550 Å$`V`$ color) against metallicity (from the $`\mathrm{Mg}_2`$ index of Faber et al. 1985). The open points are for Galactic globular clusters (Dorman et al., 1995); the one with the lowest far-UV flux is 47 Tucanae. The triangles show ellipticals and spiral bulges from Burstein et al. (1988). The filled triangles on Figure 1 are, in order of increasing $`\mathrm{Mg}_2`$, for M 32 and M 31. At present, there is no direct measure of the 1550 Å flux in the bulge because of the high interstellar extinction at low galactic latitudes, but there is a measurement of the integrated $`\mathrm{Mg}_2`$ index in the Baade’s Window field of the bulge, 500 pc from the galactic center (Idiart et al., 1996). This is shown as a vertical line in Figure 1, and indicates the range of UV fluxes expected from the inner bulge. Perhaps not surprisingly given the luminosity of the bulge, we can then expect that the bulge will contain more EHB stars per volume than M 32, where EHB stars are known to exist (Brown, this conference), but fewer than in M 31.

Furthermore, the bulge is a good example of an old, metal-rich population akin in density and star formation history to that in elliptical galaxies and the bulges of other spirals (Frogel & Whitford, 1987; Frogel et al., 1990). Abundances in the inner bulge span \[Fe/H\] $`=1.0`$ to $`+0.3`$, with many stars showing enhanced light-element abundances (Whitford & Rich, 1983; McWilliam & Rich, 1994; Castro et al., 1996; Sadler et al., 1995). This resembles models of elliptical galaxy formation (Yoshii & Arimoto, 1987) and interpretations of the integrated optical spectrum of the central regions of external galaxies (Worthey, 1992; Worthey et al., 1992). The radial metallicity gradient in the bulge (Terndrup, 1988; Terndrup et al., 1990; Tiede et al., 1995) provides a natural testbed of how metallicity drives BHB formation. The bulge is massive enough to support a large BHB population, perhaps including the short-lived progeny of EHBs. Stars of all types can be counted and analyzed, allowing a direct determination of the contribution of BHB and EHB stars to the UV fluxes of the centers of galaxies; hot HB stars can seriously affect the determination of ages and metallicities deduced for these systems from their integrated optical or UV spectra (Ponder et al., 1998; Peterson et al., 2003).

## 2 Survey strategy

We have been conducting a survey which will yield complete samples of BHB stars of all temperatures. There are several components to this survey:

1) Wide-field, shallow imaging with the CTIO Schmidt telescope to identify BHB stars down to a limiting magnitude of $`B19`$. This is not sufficient to find the EHB stars that would create the UV flux (below), but it does generate large samples of cooler ($`T_{\mathrm{eff}}15000`$ K) BHB stars for follow-up spectroscopy to determine metallicities. In addition, we have time-series photometry with the Schmidt on several lines of sight to identify RR Lyraes, whose large excursions in temperature (or non-simultaneous $`UBV`$ photometry in the survey) could land them in our samples of BHB stars.

2) Fiber spectroscopy of BHB stars selected from the Schmidt survey. Stellar temperatures, gravities, and abundances are derived from spectral synthesis. Reddening is found by comparing observed colors with those predicted for the resulting stellar model. Distances follow from the apparent magnitude, providing with the radial velocities a check of membership in the bulge. A particularly important metallicity indicator is the Mg II $`\lambda 4481`$ Å line, which is not strongly affected by radiative levitation for $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}16000`$ K (Behr et al., 1999). Most evolutionary models (e.g., Yi et al. 1997, 1998) predict that mechanisms of producing EHB stars at high metallicity will also cooler ($`T_{\mathrm{eff}}10000`$ K) metal-rich BHB stars as well.

3) Deep imaging in $`UBV`$ and SDSS $`u`$ along the bulge’s minor-axis with the CTIO Mosaic camera on the Blanco 4m telescope, to identify and determine the spatial distribution of faint EHB candidates.

The lines of sight in our survey are illustrated in Figure 2.

## 3 Some results and future plans

The first results from our survey were presented by Peterson et al. (2001), who obtained 2dF spectra at 2.4 Å resolution of 130 stars distributed all across the bulge CMD. 47 stars proved to be hot, and 37 were BHBs. They derived temperatures and metallicities for these by comparison to synthetic spectra based on the Kurucz (1993) models. Temperatures were set independently of reddening using the central profile (but not the core) of the Balmer lines H$`\beta `$, H$`\gamma `$, and H$`\delta `$ where necessary. Most of the BHB stars were metal-poor, but two had abundances of solar or higher.

In 2001, we returned to the 2dF and obtained spectra of over 1000 BHB candidates on three lines of sight (see Fig. 2). The sample selection included mainly fainter BHBs than previously. Most of the sample has S/N $`>40`$ down to $`B=17.5`$. Analysis of these spectra is underway. A preliminary comparison of the spectra against empirical templates in NGC 6752 obtained on the same observing run reveal a few sdB candidates, some of which may have composite spectra indicating a cooler companion like many field sdB stars (Saffer et al., 2000); at these magnitudes sdB stars are likely to be foreground objects. A few metal-rich BHB stars are seen, but most are metal poor as was found in the earlier survey. Preliminary results from the search for RR Lyraes in these fields show that only a few percent of the BHB stars are likely variables.

The main result relevant to this meeting is shown in Figure 3, which displays a color-magnitude diagram (CMD) in $`B`$ and $`BV`$ for the field at $`(\mathrm{},b)=(+0^{},6^{})`$. The axes are marked “instrumental” because we are still working out the final details of the photometric calibration at the $`0.1`$ mag level. The CMD shows the usual features one sees on lines of sight toward the bulge (e.g., Terndrup (1988); Kiraga et al. (1996)), namely a prominent giant branch and clump, and a foreground sequence of main-sequence dwarfs. In addition, there is an extended blue HB, with bluer colors than the foreground sequence and which extends down to below $`B=20`$.

The faintest stars on the blue HB are as faint as the confirmed EHB stars in globular and open clusters ($`M_V+4`$). In the metal-rich open cluster NGC 6791, for example, sdB stars are found at $`B=17.9`$, $`BV=0.1`$. The cluster is 4.8 kpc distant ($`mM_V=13.42`$), with $`(BV)=0.1`$ (Chaboyer et al., 1999). Were the cluster located at a distance of 8 kpc with $`E(BV)=0.5`$, the sdB stars would be found at $`B20.8`$, $`BV=0.4`$, or $`V=20.2`$. The CMD in Figure 3 reaches nearly a magnitude fainter.

We also note that the bulge HB in all the currently reduced MOSAIC fields appears to have a gap around $`B=18`$; there are a large number of cool BHB stars, many faint and blue stars, and markedly little in between. This gap occurs at $`M_V=+2`$; similar features are seen in the CMDs of several globular clusters.

The most important remaining observational goal is to see whether the faint, blue stars we find on the MOSAIC CMDs are bulge EHB stars. We know from our 2dF spectra that the majority of the BHB stars bluer than the foreground disk and with $`B18`$ are probably in the bulge, though there are also likely to be halo HB stars at larger distances and the occasional foreground A-type main-sequence star as found by Peterson et al. (2001). We do not currently have spectra for the faintest candidates on Figure 3 to confirm their status as EHB stars in the bulge. While the spectroscopy would be challenging, one could get a reasonable sample since the surface density of these faint EHB candidates is well suited for the current generation of multifiber spectrographs: in the field shown in Figure 3, there are several dozen targets in an area approximately $`26\times 26`$ arcmin.


text:
# MIGALE : A MULTIPARAMETRIC VIRTUAL INSTRUMENT TO STUDY GALAXY EVOLUTION

## 1 Scientific context

The formation of the galaxies and the stars that they are made of is one of the great puzzles of modern astrophysics. The first surveys (CFRS, HDF and Keck) indicate that the peak of stellar formation should be between $`z=`$1 and $`z=`$1.5 (Madau et al, 1996). HST observations show that at large distances ($`z>`$ 0.7) the galaxies with strong stellar formation ($`>`$ 10$`M_{}/year`$) are either interacting systems (detected by ISO & VLA; Flores et al, 1999) or compact galaxies (Guzman et al, 1997), with the comobile density of disks decreasing very progressively with $`z`$ (Lilly et al, 1998). However, numerous fundamental questions remain unsolved, for example: What is the quantity of mass accreted by coalescence when the galaxy forms ? What is the importance of galaxy interactions ? How do the numerous population of compact galaxies evolves from large $`z`$ ? How do we explain the stability and evolution of galaxy disks ? What is the role of spiral arms and bars ? How is redistributed the angular momentum that was acquired by tidal interactions between halos and how it is related to the disks sizes ?

Therefore, the observation of galaxy morphology and kinematics during their evolution and as a function of the redshift is necessary to disentangle the various formation and evolution scenarios. It is also fundamental to understand how stellar populations evolve and what are the associated feedback processes which could delay the gas from cooling and its collapse into disks.

## 2 The database and the virtual instrumentation

The statistical observation of galaxy kinematics appears to be the only means to shed some light on or even perhaps solve the puzzle of the angular momentum. The building of template samples in the local universe is also fundamental in understanding the properties of distant galaxies. For this reason, we have decided to group together the two multiparametric and multiwavelength databases HYPERLEDA (local universe) and GIRAFFE (cosmological fields at intermediate redshifts) in the frame of the same structure of virtual instrumentation. This statistical approach will allow us to understand, in particular, how the Hubble sequence was formed from distant galaxies, which have a less structured morphology compared to present day galaxies, and to identify the mechanism that triggers the intense stellar formation.

### 2.1 What is MIGALE ?

MIGALE (Multi-parametric virtual Instrument for the study of GALaxy Evolution) consists of a central node, hosting in particular the LEDA catalogue of homogenized parameters and a set of catalogues containing raw data tables (updated from litterature and some large surveys), some links towards associated observational projects and archives, some data mining tools to point towards external archives and on-the-fly treatment softwares developped by various associated scientific teams and which allows us to manipulate the extracted images or spectra.

MIGALE is then based on a multiparametric approach cross-identifying, homogenizing and combining data from many different sources, in particular wide field (or whole sky) samples such as DSS, DENIS, 2MASS, SDSS or 2dF. It allows us to manage and acces the data downstream of the telescope’s archives, develope new analysis tools and distributes them either as packages or through web access.

From the point of view of an external user, one can for example:

* select samples, specifying simultaneously various constraints on numerous physical parameters: e.g. select all edge-on Sb galaxies brighter than 14. in B and having a 21-cm line measurement
* do statistical studies on large samples: e.g. study the Tully-Fisher or Fundamental plane scaling laws as a function of morphology or redshift; study the stellar population characteristics as a function of environment
* access and process template data: e.g. extract, rescale, convolve and combine some available high resolution stellar spectra to mimic your own low or medium resolution observed spectrum
* access and process data from several large surveys: e.g. extract, filter and combine subimages from the DENIS and the 2MASS surveys
* use virtual instruments: e.g. create a synthetic galaxy spectrum according to some stellar population characteristics

### 2.2 The historical LEDA catalogue

The LEDA catalogue was built from an exhaustive compilation of litterature and thanks to its association with some large observational projects (DENIS, KLUN+, DSS…). It has grown from 73,000 galaxies in 1989 to about 3 millions today (see e.g. Paturel et al 2003a). It was used in 1993 to create the RC3 catalogue. LEDA maintains, in collaboration with NED, a general index of galaxies, characterised by the pgc number. It also: 1) provides on the fly data homogenization and correction, 2) displays on line charts and DSS images, 3) produces an homogenized catalogue of 80 astrophysical mean parameters per galaxy and 4) permits SQL access to all the stored data. The statistics for a magnitude complete sample up to $`B`$=18 is given in table 1.

### 2.3 The Hypercat contribution

The Hypercat concepts are at the heart of the LEDA’s transformation towards HYPERLEDA’s datamining framework and now MIGALE. In addition to the principle of a network database involving several nodes driven by different scientific teams, the Hypercat team has built up the cornerstone of the present project, the PLEINPOT package, which contains the infrastructure and all the facilities from which the database and the analysis tools are constructed. The package contains many modules related to interface and data acces, statistics, astronomy and image analysis. Among these on finds the following possibilities: flat-field correction, wavelength calibration, flux calibration, flux normalization, extraction of a subimage either from its coordinates or its name, projection (2D $``$ 1D), substraction of sky background, removal of cosmics, mask or filter application… In addition to the LEDA catalogues, the HYPERLEDA site already provides the following facilities. The pixel server distributes or give access to the images from DSS1, DSS2, DENIS (I and J bands) and 2-MASS (J, H and K bands). The ELODIE library of stellar high resolution spectra is available on-line (1970 spectra for 1200 stars with a resolution of 10,000 and a wavelength range of 410–480 nm) and the PEGASE simulator (evolutive spectral synthesis, Fioc & Rocca 1997) is also interfaced.

### 2.4 The HI catalogue and the KLUN+ survey

The aim of the KLUN+ project is to collect an homogeneous Tully-Fisher sample of 20,000 field spiral galaxies distributed over the whole sky. This sample is gathered both from an exhaustive compilation of the litterature and from a large complementary programme of 21-cm line observations. From June 2001, our ”KLUN+” programme has been accepted as the Cosmological Key-project of the refurbished Nançay radiotelescope and is allocated about 25% of the telescope time. The on-line HI archive give acces to the 21-cm line profile for $``$ 4500 galaxies. Our last HI data compilation contains today 16,666 galaxies, from 611 references, among them 5263 galaxies observed with the Nançay antenna (Paturel et al 2003b, Theureau et al 2003). This calalogue has permitted in particular a detailled investigation into local universe peculiar velocity field and large scale structures (Hanski, Theureau & Paturel 2003 and this conference)

### 2.5 The CAI component

The Center of Image Analysis (CAI) manages the MAMA multibank microdensitometer and produces high resolution scan images from photographic plates. Its resolution is 0.6 arcsec, thus much better than e.g. DSS1 and DSS2. The whole atlas SRC-J and ESO-R covering the southern sky as well as their corresponding catalogues will be made available in 2004.

### 2.6 GIRAFFE and internal dynamics

The Giraffe database is devoted to the exploitation of the stellar and extragalactic spectroscopic data provided by the GIRAFFE spectrograph. This database will supply the users with : the spectra and the deduced parameters (e.g. in total up to 30,000 spectra in the 35 nights of guaranted time), the wide field images resulting from the preparation of GIRAFFE observations with their astrometry, the associated images at high resolution and the photometric catalogues.

GIRAFFE cosmological fields observations will produce in particular high resolution galaxy spectra up to $`z`$=1 providing detailed emission line profiles ($`H\alpha `$, $`H\beta `$, $`[OIII]`$ …) and, in the IFU or ARGUS modes, allowing very accurate galaxy internal velocity field studies (Fig. 1).

## Acknowledgments

This project is the work of the whole group and I thank all the collaborators of the MIGALE project, in particular the members of the project group: P.Prugniel (P.I), F.Tajahmady (P.M), H.Flores, J.Guibert, I.Jegouzo, F.Royer and J.Vétois. Also acknowledged are the institutes supporting the project: the GEPI (Paris Observatory), the CRAL (Lyon Observatory) and the PNG (Programe National Galaxies, CNRS, France).