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# Andromeda VIII – a New Tidally Distorted Satellite of M31

## 1 Introduction

Tidal streams from disrupting dwarf satellites provide a rich fund of information about both their progenitor satellite and the dark matter halo of the parent galaxy (eg Johnston, Zhao, Spergel, & Hernquist, 1999). In the Milky Way, studies of the streams of the Sgr dwarf galaxy (eg Ibata, Gilmore, & Irwin, 1994; Ibata et al., 2001; Dohm-Palmer et al., 2001; Majewski et al., 2003) are starting to teach us about both. The detection of tidal streams around M31 (Ibata et al., 2001; Ferguson et al., 2002; McConnachie et al., 2003) has raised the prospect of similar investigations of the accretion history and mass distribution of the Andromeda galaxy.

Kinematics of stream stars are vital, as they allow us to constrain the orbit of the stream and progenitor. These are more difficult to obtain in M31 than the Milky Way because, at its distance, velocities of individual stream red giants require 10m-class telescopes. However, both PNe and globular clusters are far more luminous and observations with 4m-class telescopes can easily provide good spectra and velocities.

Unfortunately, both of these tracers are rare: in a survey reaching 2.5 magnitudes down the PNLF, only one PN is detected per $`3\times 10^7`$ L — the estimated luminosity of the entire giant stream found in the SE region of M31 (Ciardullo et al., 1989; Ibata et al., 2001). Only the two most luminous dSph galaxies in the Milky Way have PNe: the Sgr dwarf has two and Fornax one (Zijlstra & Walsh, 1996). Only objects with larger luminosity such as M32 will have significant numbers of PN associated (Nolthenius & Ford, 1986, found 15). We expect any PNe associated with the M31 streams to be from strong density enhancements such as the still-bound cores of accreting satellites. dSph galaxies of this luminosity also have only a few globular clusters (Mateo, 1998).

There are now high-quality velocities available for over 300 globular clusters and 135 PNe in M31. The globular clusters have velocity errors of 12 km/s (Perrett et al., 2002) and the PNe, observed in a new survey which reaches out to 20 kpc from the center, have even more accurate velocities with typical errors of 5 km/s (Hurley-Keller et al., 2003). Such velocity precision allows, for the first time, sensitive searches both for disk kinematics (Morrison et al., 2003) and also velocity substructure. In this Letter we report on a group of PNe and globular clusters close to the projected position of M32 which have a very low velocity dispersion and a mean velocity which differs by 350 km/s from M32’s. There are also two small HI clouds at similar position and velocity. We suggest that they belong to a previously undiscovered satellite of M31’s, with luminosity of order 108 L, which is currently undergoing tidal disruption.

## 2 PN, Cluster and HI Kinematics

To search for substructure in regions projected on the disk, we need to recognize the disk’s kinematical signature. This is particularly clear when narrow strips parallel to the major axis are plotted with velocity vs. X (distance along the major axis: Brinks & Shane, 1984; Morrison et al., 2003). In Figure 1 we show the kinematics of PN and globular clusters in a strip with Y (distance parallel to the minor axis) from –4 to –7 kpc. These Y distances deproject to distances of 18 to 31 kpc (3 to 6 disk scale lengths) from the major axis. Thin disk objects show a diagonal line in this diagram because much of their circular velocity is projected away from the line of sight. This region is shown shaded in the Figure.

While more than half of the PNe in this region have disk kinematics, we also see a narrow velocity feature stretching over almost 10 kpc with mean velocity $``$ –200 km/s with respect to M31 (–500 km/s heliocentric). It contains 5–12 PNe and 1–3 globular clusters. Although M32 is located close to this position on the sky, its velocity is $``$350 km/s away. There is also some evidence that the feature extends out to X=14 kpc, showing a velocity gradient. However, we restrict our discussion here to the 5 PNe whose velocities are, within their individual 1-$`\sigma `$ errors, identical to –204 km/s, and the three globular clusters whose velocities agree with this velocity within their 2-$`\sigma `$ errors.

Figure 2 shows the location of the objects in this velocity feature. It can be seen that they trace out a very elongated structure about 10 by 2 kpc in size. In Tables 1 and 2 we give velocities for all possible members of this structure, and metallicity and E(B–V) estimates for the globular clusters. Data are from Hurley-Keller et al. (2003) for the PNe and from Perrett et al. (2002); Barmby et al. (2000) for the globular clusters. We use the naming convention of Barmby et al. (2000) for the globular clusters.

The HI survey of Brinks & Shane (1984) shows two small HI features well-isolated from the disk HI, at similar position and velocity: they are shown in Figures 1 and 2. The mass of HI associated with each feature is of order $`2\times 10^5`$ solar masses. These HI detections have been confirmed by a new survey of M31 in HI (Braun et al., 2003) which reaches to much lower column density: Thilker et al. (2003) find a giant HI tail extending tens of kpc away from the M31 disk to the SE, most apparent at a heliocentric velocity of –500 km/s.

## 3 Discussion

It is remarkable to find such a tight velocity feature in not only PNe and globular clusters, but also in HI. Because of the short evolutionary time of PNe, this feature has a substantial stellar luminosity, which we calculate below.

It is clear from Figure 1 that it is not associated with M31’s thin disk. Although M31 is known to have a substantial disk warp, the closeness to the minor axis means that any warp stars would also have most of their velocity perpendicular to the line of sight. The probability of five PNe with such low velocity dispersion being drawn from a smooth, dynamically hot population such as the bulge is very small444To make a rough estimate of how likely this is, we simulated 10,000 samples of 15 non-disk PN from a population with velocity dispersion 80 km/s. Only 0.2% of these samples had 5 objects within 10 km/s. The spatial association would make it less likely still.. The heliocentric velocity of the feature (–504 km/s) also makes any association with the Milky Way halo unlikely. We conclude that the feature is either a tidal stream or a hitherto undiscovered satellite of M31’s, whose projection close to M31 has made it invisible until velocity data were available.

What is its luminosity? We use the number of PN per unit luminosity of Ciardullo et al. (1989) and the limiting magnitude of our survey in this area (2.5 magnitudes down the PNLF, Hurley-Keller et al., 2003), and find a corresponding total luminosity of $`1.5\times 10^8`$L and an absolute magnitude of $`M_V`$=–15.6. (We obtain a similar luminosity by scaling by the number of PN detected in M32 in our survey.) This is a factor of $`5\pm 2`$ times the total luminosity of the giant star stream in the regions detected by Ibata et al. (2001), who estimate a luminosity of $`3\times 10^7`$ L an absolute magnitude of $`M_V`$=–14 and an average surface brightness of $`\mu _V=30`$ mag/arcsec2 for the regions of the giant stream they can detect in their star counts.

The surface brightness associated with this feature is $`\mu _V23.8`$ mag/arcsec2, assuming that its central 4 PNe are contained in a region of 12 kpc2. This is typical for Local Group dwarf galaxies, which have central surface brightness values ranging from $`\mu _V=22.1`$ to 26.5 mag/arcsec2 (Mateo, 1998). This estimate of the central surface brightness explains why the feature has not been discovered with imaging surveys. It subtends almost a degree on the sky, and has significantly lower surface brighness than the M31 disk in this region. The disk has $`\mu _V=20.9`$ at a distance of 7 kpc out on the SE minor axis, and the surface photometry of Walterbos & Kennicutt (1988) (kindly made available by Rene Walterbos) shows that the galaxy surface brightness is roughly constant between the minor axis and X=–10 kpc over the region occupied by this feature.

Although the elongated shape of the feature could indicate that we are observing a portion of a star stream rather than a tidally distorted but still bound satellite, its luminosity places it at the bright end of the existing dSph satellites in the Local Group. Its surface brightness is some 6 magnitudes brighter than the giant stream discovered by Ibata et al. (2001) and the star streams discovered in the Milky Way halo. In addition, it appears to stop abruptly near the minor axis: although we have detected a number of PNe and globular clusters at similar Y values and positive X, none of these objects have velocities near –500 km/s. We conclude that this is a still-bound satellite of M31’s which is tidally distorted but not completely disrupted, and we christen it And VIII.

Its large velocity difference with M32 makes it unlikely that they are physically associated.

The reddening of the globular clusters provides an interesting constraint. All three clusters have low values of E(B–V) (0.13, 0.15 and 0.04 respectively, Barmby et al., 2000), which are consistent with the foreground reddening from the Milky Way (E(B–V)=0.08, Burstein & Heiles, 1978). If the stream were located on the far side of M31, we would expect to see a significantly higher reddening of these globular clusters. Ford, Jacoby, & Jenner (1978) estimate that there is 0.5 mag. of reddening due to M31’s disk at the position of M32. We examined the globular cluster reddening values classified as “good” for clusters with $`|Y|>4`$ kpc from Barmby et al. (2000) , and found reddening values ranging from E(B-V) = 0.04 to 0.40. Since we would expect the globular clusters to be scattered both in front and behind the galaxy, this suggests that the reddening due to M31’s disk is at least as high as E(B-V)=0.40. We conclude that the satellite is likely located on the near side of M31. The outer regions of the giant stellar stream in the SE quadrant are on the far side of M31 (McConnachie et al., 2003), so it is unlikely that And VIII is part of it. This is also consistent with the fact that it is elongated roughly at right angles to the giant stream. However, it is intriguing to note that the giant stream appears to fan out in its southern portions (see, for example, Figure 2 of Ferguson et al. (2002)). The westernmost boundary of this fan-shaped feature is roughly aligned with the And VIII major axis: further imaging and PN detections in this region of the stream will allow us to test whether it is formed by the disruption of And VIII.

The position of the And VIII HI detections is intriguing because they seem slightly offset from the stellar locus of And VIII. While the survey of Braun et al. (2003) will provide much more accurate positional information for the HI associated with And VIII, we note that ram pressure stripping from hot gas in M31’s halo might cause the HI to follow a different locus from the stars.

Is there any more substructure of such relatively high surface brightness seen in the regions we surveyed? In this paper we have used the very low velocity dispersion of the PN and globular clusters plus their spatial clustering to infer that they belong to a separate satellite of M31’s. We examined the regions covered by our PN survey (an area bounded roughly by X=–20 to +10 kpc and Y=0 to –20 kpc) for other substructure and found no strong evidence for other substructure. This constrains the existence of other satellites in the large area covered by our survey.

## 4 Summary

Using high-precision velocities of both PNe and globular clusters in a region near M32, we have located a feature with very low velocity dispersion (unresolved within our errors) which contains 5–12 PNe, 1–3 globular clusters and two HI clouds. Its velocity (–204 km/s with respect to M31) differs from M32’s by some 350 km/s. It is projected on the outer disk of M31, which explains why it has not been detected before.

It shows an elongated shape (size $``$10 by 2 kpc), covers almost a degree on the sky, and has a total luminosity of $`10^8`$ L and a mean surface brightness of $`\mu _V24`$ mag/arcsec2. These values are typical of the Local Group dwarf galaxies, and some 6 magnitudes brighter than the tidal streams discovered in the Milky Way and M31. We conclude that it is a tidally disrupting dwarf satellite of M31. There are two HI features associated with And VIII which contain of order $`4\times 10^5`$ solar masses, about 0.1% of its total luminous mass. And VIII appears to be a dSph galaxy with a small amount of associated HI.

All three globular clusters have E(B–V) values consistent with foreground reddening from the Milky Way, so it is likely that And VIII, like M32, is in front of M31. The giant stellar stream of Ibata et al. (2001) is behind M31 in this region, so And VIII, if it is on the same orbit as this stream, must be on a very different part of it. The giant stream displays an unusual fan shape, and the westernmost edge of the fan aligns roughly with the major axis of And VIII. It is possible that this feature is actually two streams superposed on the line of sight, with the westernmost stream tidally stripped from And VIII.

Velocity measurements of stream stars will soon be available, allowing us to constrain the orbits of star streams in M31, investigate their connection with And VIII, and use them to study M31’s dark halo.

HLM acknowledges the support of NSF CAREER grant AST-9624542, DHK an NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Postdoctoral Fellowship AST-0104455. We would like to thank Robert Braun for generously sharing his result on the HI stream in advance of publication, and an anonymous referee whose suggestions substantially improved the paper. This discovery was made while HLM and PH were visiting Mt Stromlo, RSAA, ANU. We thank Mt Stromlo for its hospitality and for helpful conversations with many of its astronomers, particularly Gary Da Costa, Penny Sackett and Frank Briggs.


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# Multi-Frequency VSOP and VLBA Polarization Observations of 3C 279 and 3C 345

## 1. Imaging Relativistic Jets with Space-VLBI

One of the primary goals of orbiting-VLBI, and the VSOP mission in particular, is to image compact radio sources at low frequencies with resolution comparable to that of higher frequency ground-based only observations. This facilitates resolution independent spectral and polarization (rotation measure and field orientation) mapping of relativistic jets in AGN, a capability that is compromised when only ground-based interferometers are used.

To this end, we have obtained polarization-sensitive observations of four bright 3C quasars using the VLBA at 8.4, 15, 22, and 43 GHz, plus coordinated VSOP plus ground station observations at 1.6 and 5 GHz. Here, we present some preliminary results from our first-epoch mapping of 3C 279 (in April 1999) and 3C 345 (from July-Sept. 1998). Chen et al. (2003, this volume) present results on 3C 454.3; work on the fourth source, 3C 273, is in progress.

## 2. The Parsec-scale Jets in 3C 279 and 3C 345

The quasars 3C 279 (z=0.536) and 3C 345 (z=0.593) are well-studied VLBI sources (e.g. Piner et al. 2003, Klare et al. 2003) and are ideal targets for this study because of their bright pc-scale jets. Figures 1 & 2 show selected images from our first-epoch observations. The 5 GHz VSOP images of 3C 345 previously appeared in Moellenbrock, Roberts, & Wardle (2000).

Although the addition of the spacecraft mitigates the resolution issue in our study, the non-simultaneity (5 days for 3C 279 and $``$2 months for 3C 345) of the VLBA only and VSOP observations hampers a direct comparison of the images because of flux variability; we plan to resolve this by extrapolating from other contemporaneous data. We aligned the images using well-defined optically thin features in the jets as labeled in the figures. The proper motion of C4 in 3C 279 (0.4 mas/yr; Homan et al. 2003) does not compromise the image registration over the 5 day difference between observing epochs, and assuming a typical motion of $``$0.3 mas/yr (Ros, Zensus, & Lobanov 2000), the shift in 3C 345 is only $``$1/8th the beamwidth in the jet direction at 5 GHz (Fig. 2).

Once registered, we see in both objects, that the brightest feature at 5 GHz is further downstream from the core than at the higher frequencies, and is not the core itself (seen in the higher frequency images); thus opacity effects are important within our observing bands. In 3C 345, the modelfits (Fig. 1) and polarization maps (Fig. 2) show that the core is almost completely self-absorbed and depolarized at 5 GHz. This may explain the lack of circular polarization in the core at 8.4 GHz, but its detection at 15 GHz (Homan & Wardle 2003). We find also a low rotation measure in the core and jet, as measured previously by Taylor (1998). The 3C 345 spectra also show hints that the jet is beginning to become opaque near 5 GHz – this should become more apparent in the 1.6 GHz VSOP data. Lastly, there is a noticeable shift in the position of its core measured at 5 GHz, with respect to the higher frequency 15 to 43 GHz observations, which can not be reconciled by component motions over the $``$2 month elapse between the observations – it would require that all three jet components move more than 3 times faster than typically observed (Ros et al. 2000). Analysis of the L-band VSOP data for both objects are in progress, and observations at other epochs will track variability.

### Acknowledgments.

The NRAO is operated by Associated Universities, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the NSF. Space VLBI at NRAO is funded by NASA. The VSOP project is led by the Japanese ISAS in cooperation with many organizations and radio telescopes around the world. Radio astronomy at Brandeis is supported by the NSF.

## References

Homan, D. C., & Wardle, J. F. C. 2003, ApSS, in Circular Polarisation of Relativistic Jet Sources, eds. R.P. Fender & J.-P. Macquart, in press

Homan, D. C., Lister, M. L., Kellermann, K. I., et al. 2003, ApJ, 589, L9

Klare, J., et al. 2001, in Galaxies and their Constituents at the Highest Angular Resolutions, IAU Symposium 205, ed. R. T. Schilizzi, 130

Moellenbrock, G. A., Roberts, D. H., & Wardle, J. F. C. 2000, in Astrophysical Phenomena Revealed by Space VLBI, eds. H. Hirabayashi, et al., 129

Piner, B. G., Unwin, S. C., Wehrle, A. E., et al. 2003, ApJ, 588, 716

Ros, E., Zensus, J. A., & Lobanov, A. P. 2000, A&A, 354, 55

Taylor, G. B. 1998, ApJ, 506, 637


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# Observable Properties of Cosmological Reionization Sources

## 1 Introduction

The recent discovery of quasars at $`z>\mathrm{\hspace{0.25em}6}`$ in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (Fan et al., 2001) has given a new impetus to the study of the epoch of reionization. In particular, SDSSp J103027.10 +055255.0 at $`z=6.28`$ shows a significant continuum absorption shortwards of Ly$`\alpha `$, reminiscent of a Gunn-Peterson (1965) trough (Becker et al., 2001; Fan et al., 2002), and suggests that we may be close to identifying – or may have already identified – the end of the epoch of hydrogen reionization. A high priority now is to identify the sources responsible for producing the UV ionizing radiation (the reionization sources) and to determine their nature. There have been several attempts to predict the properties of these sources (Madau et al., 1999; Barkana and Loeb, 2000; Miralda-Escudé et al., 2000; Haiman et al., 2001; Oh et al., 2001; Bromm and Clarke, 2002; Yan et al., 2002; Cen, 2003; Fukugita and Kawasaki, 2003; Venkatesan et al., 2003; Wyithe and Loeb, 2003a, b) and several reviews have been published recently (Loeb and Barkana, 2002; Stiavelli, 2002).

Here, we introduce a new approach to explore the observable properties of the reionization sources, while minimizing the number of model-dependent assumptions. Our main interest is to determine the minimum cumulative surface brightness (in flux, maximum in magnitudes) of the population of reionization sources rather than to provide a complete evolutionary model of these sources. A strict lower limit to the surface brightness of the sources is obtained by requiring that they produce as many ionizing photons as there are hydrogen atoms in the universe. This limit can be improved upon by considering the main physical effects taking place during reionization and their relative importance. The required surface brightness is minimum when the escape of ionizing UV radiation is the highest, so that the source luminosity is lowest in the non-ionizing UV and in the visible. A maximum surface brightness is obtained by requiring that the reionization sources do not overproduce heavy elements. Our general approach is applicable to most types of reionization sources, but when specific numerical examples are given, we illustrate our procedure by focussing on population III stars, as these objects have very high effective temperatures and therefore are very effective producers of ionizing UV photons. Our mean surface brightness estimates are compared to the parameter space that can be probed by existing and future telescopes, in order to help planning the most effective surveys.

In Section 2, we derive the minimum mean surface brightness of the reionization sources by maximizing the production and the release of Lyman continuum photons into the intergalactic medium (IGM). We first recover the proportionality between surface brightness of the reionization sources and the comoving density of hydrogen (2.1). The proportionality constant depends on both the helium fraction and the spectral energy distribution (hereafter SED) of the reionization sources. We start out with the case of a pure-hydrogen IGM (2.2) and then consider the effects of primordial helium (2.3). The least model-dependent results in this paper are those for the homogeneous case (2.4), and the corresponding minimum metallicity enrichment of the universe (2.5). In Section 3, we consider more realistic models in order to provide a better comparison with observations. In particular, we discuss the effects of a limited escape fraction of ionizing UV photons (3.1), increased recombinations induced by density inhomogeneities in the IGM (3.2), a luminosity function for the reionization sources (3.3), and the detectability of Ly$`\alpha `$ emission from these sources (3.4). Finally, in Section 4, we discuss the observability of these sources both from space, either with HST or JWST, and from ground-based facilities.

## 2 The minimum surface brightness for reionization

### 2.1 The surface brightness of reionization sources

There is a simple connection between the comoving density of hydrogen and the mean surface brightness $`J_\nu `$ of the reionization sources in their non-ionizing continua. Neglecting the absorption of non-ionizing photons in the IGM, the surface brightness of a class of sources is simply related to their volume emissivity $`E(\nu )`$, the power radiated per unit frequency per unit comoving volume, by

$$J_\nu =\frac{c}{4\pi }_{t_1}^{t_2}E([1+z(t)]\nu )𝑑t,$$
(1)
where $`t_1`$ indicates the cosmic time when the sources turn on and $`t_2`$ the time when reionization is complete (see, e.g., Peebles 1993). Here and elsewhere we refer to comoving volumes and densities unless otherwise specified. The production rate of ionizing photons per unit volume $`\dot{n}_c`$ is related to the volume emissivity by

$$\dot{n}_c=_{\nu _H}^{\mathrm{}}\frac{E(\nu )}{h\nu }𝑑\nu ,$$
(2)
where $`h`$ is Planck’s constant and $`\nu _H=2.467\times 10^{15}`$ Hz is the frequency of photons at the hydrogen ionization threshold. Here and in the following we denote with the subscript $`c`$ quantities referring to Lyman continuum photons.

For a given SED of reionization sources, there is a direct proportionality relation between the production rate of ionizing photons $`\dot{n}_c`$ and the emissivity $`E(\nu _0)`$ at some reference frequency $`\nu _o`$. With this in mind, we define the proportionality coefficient

$$A(\nu _o)\frac{E(\nu _o)}{\dot{n}_c}.$$
(3)
In the following, we choose $`\nu _0`$ to be a fixed frequency in the observer frame in the non-ionizing continuum of the sources.

In order to ionize hydrogen completely, the total number of ionizing photons per comoving volume must exceed the comoving number density of hydrogen $`n_H`$ by some factor $`B`$ that depends on the details of the recombination process and on the helium fraction

$$B\frac{1}{n_H}_{t_1}^{t_2}\dot{n}_c𝑑t.$$
(4)
Combining equations (1), (3), and (4), we obtain

$$J_\nu =\frac{c\overline{A}(\nu )B}{4\pi }n_H,$$
(5)
where $`\overline{A}(\nu )`$ denotes the average of $`A(\nu _0)`$ weighted by the production rate of ionizing photons, namely

$$\overline{A}(\nu )\frac{_{t_1}^{t_2}A([1+z(t)]\nu )\dot{n}_c𝑑t}{_{t_1}^{t_2}\dot{n}_c𝑑t}.$$
(6)
Equation (5) establishes a simple, direct relation, between the mean surface brightness of reionization sources and the comoving density of hydrogen atoms. In the following, for simplicity, we will neglect possible variations in $`\dot{n}_c`$. In this case, $`\overline{A}(\nu )`$ becomes a time average:

$$\overline{A}(\nu )\frac{1}{t_2t_1}_{t_1}^{t_2}A([1+z(t)]\nu )𝑑t.$$
(7)
The volume emissivity $`E(\nu )`$ for a population of sources is given in terms of their luminosity function per comoving volume, $`\mathrm{\Phi }(L_\nu )`$, as

$$E(\nu )=_0^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{\Phi }(L_\nu )L_\nu 𝑑L_\nu .$$
(8)
Equations (1) and (8) establish the connection between the mean surface brightness of a population of sources and their luminosity function. In the case of identical sources the luminosity function is simply a delta-function. The following subsections will be devoted to estimating the values of $`\overline{A}(\nu )`$ and $`B`$.

### 2.2 Reionization in a hydrogen-only IGM

Due to recombinations, the minimum number of ionizing photons per comoving volume needed to reionize hydrogen exceeds the number of hydrogen atoms ($`B>1`$). The equation for the ionized fraction $`xn_p/n_H`$, including recombinations is

$$\frac{dx}{dt}=\frac{\dot{n}_c}{n_H}C\alpha _Bx(1+z(t))^3n_e,$$
(9)
where $`n_e`$ is the comoving density of electrons, $`C<n_p^2>/<n_p>^2=<n_e^2>/<n_e>^2`$ is the IGM clumpiness factor, and $`\alpha _B=1.4\times 10^{13}`$ cm3 s-1 is the recombination rate for an electron temperature of $`T_e=2\times 10^4`$ K (Pengelly, 1964). This value of the electron temperature is appropriate for primordial HII regions (Daub, 1963; Davidson and Kinman, 1985; Tumlinson et al., 2001). The factor $`(1+z)^3`$ is due to the fact that recombinations depend on the proper (not comoving) density of electrons.

For the pure-hydrogen composition adopted in this section we have $`n_e=n_p`$. Solving equation (9) and requiring $`x(t_2)=1`$, we can determine $`\dot{n}_c`$ as a function of $`t_1`$ and $`t_2`$.

The parameter $`B`$ of equation (4) is the ratio of the actual number density of ionizing photons to the number density of hydrogen atoms. We define $`B_H`$ as the value of $`B`$ in the pure hydrogen case. In the absence of recombinations (i.e. in the limit of a very low density) and in the pure hydrogen case, the required comoving number density of ionizing photons, $`n_{c,\mathrm{noHe}}=\dot{n}_c(t_2t_1)`$, equals the comoving number density of hydrogen, $`n_{c,\mathrm{noHe}}=n_H`$ and therefore $`B_H=1`$. When recombinations are considered in the homogeneous case ($`C=1`$), we find $`B_H1.03`$ or $`1.08`$ for $`z_2=z(t_2)<\mathrm{\hspace{0.25em}10}`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }zz(t_1)z(t_2)=1`$ or 3, respectively. We also find that if reionization occurs at $`z_2=6`$, $`B_H1.3`$ for $`\mathrm{\Delta }z50`$. Thus, in a homogeneous ($`C=1`$) pure-hydrogen IGM, recombinations are only a minor correction.

### 2.3 Reionization in a hydrogen-helium IGM

More realistically, the chemical composition of the universe at reionization includes both hydrogen and helium, with mass fractions $`X=0.76`$ and $`Y=0.24`$ (Pagel, 2000). Thus, the mean molecular weight is given by $`(m_HY/m_{He}+X)^1m_H1.2m_H`$, where $`m_H`$ and $`m_{He}`$ are the masses of hydrogen and helium atoms, respectively. Assuming $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.268`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b=0.044`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.732`$, and $`H_0=71`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 (the best-fit WMAP parameters; Spergel et al. 2003), we find that the number density of hydrogen atoms (including ions) per comoving volume, $`n_H`$ is $`2.1\times 10^7\mathrm{cm}^3`$ or $`6.2\times 10^{66}\mathrm{Mpc}^3`$.

Photons with energies above 24.4 eV can ionize He as well as H. The cross section for He ionization at the threshold is higher than that of H by about a factor 7 but the number density of He is lower by a factor of about 12, so that photons at these energies may be absorbed by, and ionize, either atoms. In the following we will assume that He absorbs as many photons as possible in proportion to its abundance relative to H, i.e. about 8 % of the total budget of ionizing photons. Photons with energy above 54.4 eV can ionize helium twice. Whether helium is ionized or not and how many times, depends on the hardness of the UV spectrum. As an example, a blackbody at $`T=10^5`$ K emits 60% of its ionizing photons at energies greater than 24.4 eV. In this case, all helium will be ionized, and about 10 % will be twice ionized. Therefore, we have $`n_e1.09n_p`$, and the required minimum number of ionizing photons will be higher by 9% relative to the pure H case. Note that if the SED were hard enough to double-ionize all helium, $`n_e`$ would increase to $`1.16n_p`$. This is unlikely to happen for stellar sources, but it might for active galactic nuclei (AGNs).

Helium ionization has an additional, indirect effect on the required number of ionizing photons because the 9% increase in the electron number density makes recombinations slightly more effective. This can be estimated by integrating equation (9) for $`n_e1.09n_p`$, from which we obtain

$$B1.09[1+1.09(B_H1)]B_H.$$
(10)
In general, we find that primordial helium recombinations increase $`B`$ by less than an additional 1% for $`z_210`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }z3`$ and by less than 2% for reionization at $`z_2=6`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }z50`$. Thus, recombinations remain a minor correction in the homogeneous ($`C=1`$) case, even for a hydrogen-helium IGM.

### 2.4 Results for a homogeneous IGM

So far, the only dependence of our calculations on the type of ionizing sources has been in the assumption that all helium is ionized. Indeed, even if this assumption were not verified, our results would change only by 10 % or less. In order to derive the mean surface brightness of sources from their production of ionizing photons, we need to assume a specific SED and compute the quantity $`\overline{A}(\nu )`$. For definiteness, we will now consider population III stars as the sources responsible for reionization of hydrogen. Pop III stars are characterized by virtually zero metallicities and consequently very high effective temperatures (Castellani et al., 1983; Tumlinson and Shull, 2000; Marigo et al., 2001; Bromm et al., 2002). Here we will describe them as blackbodies with effective temperatures of $`10^5`$ K. Note that high temperatures around $`10^5`$ K are reached even if the mass function does not extend beyond $`100M_{}`$ (Tumlinson and Shull, 2000; Baraffe et al., 2001; Schaerer, 2002). Pop III stars thus provide us with the minimum mean surface brightness needed for the case of reionization by stars. In fact, for a fixed flux of ionizing photons, cooler star are brighter in the visible and in the non-ionizing UV continuum. One can define the efficiency of an ionization source as proportional to the ratio of the number of ionizing photons to the total energy output. Cooler stars emit a smaller fraction of their radiation in the form of ionizing photons and are therefore less efficient ionizers. As an example, for equal ionizing fluxes, a stellar population with $`T_{}=5\times 10^4`$ K is a factor $``$4.5 brighter at $`\lambda =1400`$ Å than a stellar population with $`T_{}=10^5`$ K. A similar comparison can be made for typical AGNs. We find that for typical power-law SEDs, AGNs are less efficient ionizers than Pop III stars.

Once the SED is specified, we can determine the value of $`\overline{A}`$ from equation (3) and (7). In integrating equation (7), the emissivity can be assumed to be zero below the rest-frame wavelength of 1216 Å since during the reionization era these photons will be absorbed by intervening neutral hydrogen. In magnitude units, the surface brightness per square arcmin is given by $`\mu _{AB}=2.5logJ_\nu +8.9`$, when $`J_\nu `$ is expressed in Jy arcmin-2.

In Table 1, we give the minimum surface brightness for reionization sources for a variety of terminal redshifts of reionization $`z_2`$ and durations $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$. Two values of surface brightness are given in the table for each combination of $`z_2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$, corresponding to the rest-frame 1400 Å wavelength observed at the terminal redshift of reionization $`z_2`$ or at the mean redshift $`\overline{z}=(z_1+z_2)/2`$. Thus, they are computed at the observer wavelengths $`\lambda =1400(1+z_2)`$ Å and $`\lambda =1400(1+\overline{z})`$ Å , respectively. In addition, we also give the number of photons per ionization $`B`$ and the Thomson opacity $`\tau _T`$, integrated to the beginning of the reionization process, and given by

$$\tau _T=\frac{c\sigma _T}{H_0}_0^{z_1}\frac{n_e(z)}{(1+z)[\mathrm{\Omega }_m(1+z)^3+\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }]^{1/2}}𝑑z,$$
(11)
where $`\sigma _T=6.653\times 10^{25}`$ cm2 is the Thomson cross-section.

All results in Table 1 include the effects of helium ionization (by population III stars) and recombinations. It is clear that in the homogeneous case ($`C=1`$), the minimum surface brightness (in flux, maximum in magnitude) is essentially independent of the terminal redshift of reionization (within 0.1 magnitudes for $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=1`$) but does depend on $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$.

The value of the Thompson opacity is a strong function of $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$. In the case of extended reionization, $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=50`$, we obtain values of $`\tau _T0.15`$ compatible with the WMAP result ($`\tau _T=0.17\pm 0.06`$ for the combined fit). The empirical 2$`\sigma `$ limit, $`\tau _T0.05`$, implies $`\mathrm{\Delta }z1`$. In the figures, we will focus on the $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=1`$ case since it is close to the minimum ionizing photon requirement $`B=1`$ (obtained in the absence of recombinations), while remaining marginally compatible with the WMAP results.

The numbers given in Table 1 can be used directly to obtain the luminosity of the sources of ionizing photons on the assumption that they are a population of identical objects with a specified surface number density. Indeed, the numbers in the table represent the apparent magnitudes of individual objects if their surface number density is 1 arcmin-2. A simple rescaling yields the apparent magnitude $`m`$ for different assumed surface densities $`𝒩`$ namely

$$log𝒩=0.4(m\mu _{AB}),$$
(12)
where $`\mu _{AB}`$ is the mean surface brightness given in Table 1. This relationship for $`z_2=6`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=1`$, and an observer wavelength $`\lambda =1400(1+z_2)`$ Å is shown in the left panel of Figure 1 as the solid line labeled $`(1,1)`$ (this notation will be explained in the next Section). Models characterized by different values of mean surface brightness are obtained by simple translations with respect to this reference model.

Note that in the idealized case of identical sources, an entire population of such sources is represented by a single point in diagrams such as Figure 1. Those lying on the indicated line in the diagram would be sufficient to ionize the IGM. Observations that fail to detect sources at some surface density-luminosity combination along the line would not rule out the model but instead could indicate that the sources lie at some other point along the line. The shaded area below the line indicates the area where sources would not produce enough ionizing photons for reionization.

The results for a different effective temperature are illustrated in the right panel of Figure 1, which is analogous to the left panel but refers to sources with $`T_{}=5\times 10^4`$ K.

### 2.5 Mean metallicity at reionization

It is interesting to compute the mean metallicity to which the universe is enriched by stellar populations with the minimum mean surface brightness required to ionize the IGM. Here we define metallicity as $`Z=\mathrm{\Omega }_Z/\mathrm{\Omega }_b`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Z`$ is the fractional comoving density in metals (in both galaxies and the IGM). Massive stars with effective temperatures in the range $`3\times 10^4`$ to $`10^5`$ K produce $`10^{62}`$ Lyman continuum photons per unit of stellar mass. Assuming a typical yield in metals of 0.2 (Woosley and Weaver, 1995), we find that the massive stars responsible for reionization enrich the universe to a minimum metallicity of $`Z_{min}1.2\times 10^4`$ Z. This result does not change by more than a factor 3 for a wide range of stellar properties. As an example, by considering only supermassive Pop III stars, with masses between 100 and 1000 $`M_{}`$ with the yields as given by Heger and Woosley (2002), and a power-law mass function with a slope between $`1`$ and $`2`$, we find that the mean mass-weighted yield is $`0.2\pm 0.05`$ (neglecting the metals trapped in black hole remnants). Stars in this mass range will produce $`7.6\times 10^{61}`$ ph $`M_{}^1`$ (Tumlinson et al., 2001), so that the minimum surface brightness model enriches the universe to a mean metallicity $`Z_{min}1.7\times 10^4Z_{}`$. For a given IMF, any reduction of the output of ionizing photons can be regarded as an inefficiency in the energetics of reionization and will increase the fraction of hydrogen that needs to undergo nuclear processing and therefore will increase the mean metallicity. Thus, the maximum efficiency, minimum surface brightness model also corresponds to the minimum metallicity case.

Estimates of the mean density of heavy elements in the universe at the end of reionization ($`z6`$) place additional constraints on the mean surface brightness of the stellar component of reionization sources. It is difficult to determine $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Z`$ precisely since some metals will be in stars, some in the interstellar media of galaxies, and some in the IGM. But we can bracket the likely range of metal densities as follows. Songaila (2001) has estimated a mean metal density in the IGM of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{Z,IGM}3\times 10^7`$, corresponding to $`Z3\times 10^4Z_{}`$, at $`z5`$ from the statistics of CIV and SiIV absorption-line systems. This provides a firm lower limit to the mean metal density shortly after the end of reionization. This limit is about twice the metallicity of the minimum surface brightness model $`Z_{min}`$ (discussed above).

The present mean metallicity in galaxies is close to solar (Kulkarni and Fall, 2002) and the present mean density of the stellar and interstellar components of galaxies is $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{gal}4\times 10^3`$ (Fukugita et al., 1998). Together these imply $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{Z,gal}10^4`$ at $`z=0`$. A variety of observations and models indicate that the fraction of mass in galaxies $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{gal}`$ was smaller at $`z6`$ than at $`z=0`$ by a factor of 10 or more, and that the mean metallicity in galaxies was also smaller by a similar factor (Pei et al., 1999). From these considerations we infer a generous but non-rigorous upper limit on the mean metal density of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Z10^5`$, corresponding to $`Z_{max}=\mathrm{\Omega }_Z/\mathrm{\Omega }_b0.01Z_{}`$ at $`z6`$. This value is $`60`$ times higher than the metallicity of the minimum surface brightness model.

If metal-producing sources are surrounded by local HII regions, their luminosity at $`\lambda =1400`$ Å can be enhanced by up to a factor 3 due to the nebular continuum contribution (see Section 3.1). Including this factor, we use the limit to metal production as an upper limit to the mean surface brightness of reionization sources. This is obtained for $`z_2=6`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=1`$. Reionization at higher redshifts or occurring over a more extended time interval, produces the same (or higher) metallicity for fainter sources. Thus, the regions under the global metallicity constraint lines in Figure 1 define necessary but not sufficient conditions to guarantee that metals are not overproduced. All reionization models compatible with the global metallicity constraint must lie in the non-shaded region in Figure 1. Our results are broadly compatible with those of Miralda-Escudé and Rees (1998) once the different assumptions are taken into account.

## 3 More realistic models

### 3.1 Escape of ionizing photons

It is likely that some Lyman continuum photons are absorbed within the reionization sources themselves. Even in an environment with primordial composition, and thus free of dust, a lower escape fraction $`f_c`$ can result if the individual sources are surrounded by an envelope of neutral hydrogen left by incomplete star formation in protogalaxies. In such clouds, recombinations would occur at much higher rates; these objects would produce local HII regions for at least part of their lifetimes and thus could display hydrogen and helium emission lines in their spectra (Bromm et al., 2002; Haiman, 2002). We do not know the best value of the mean escape fraction. It only takes a column density of $`1.7\times 10^{17}`$ hydrogen atoms cm-2 to produce unit optical depth at the Lyman limit ($`\lambda =912`$ Å). Moreover, some amounts of dust may well be present because of enrichment by previous generations of stars. Steidel et al. (2001) derive from their observations, corrected for intervening IGM absorption, a reduction of the Lyman continuum with respect to the continuum at 1500 Å by $`50`$ %. They estimate that dust absorption in the far-UV be a factor of $`5`$. Thus, the total combined effect of gas and dust gives $`f_c0.1`$. The Steidel et al. (2001) observations also suggest that metal-free, dust-free galaxies might have $`f_c0.5`$. However, the properties of the reionization sources at $`z>6`$, including the Lyman continuum escape fraction, may be different from those of the Lyman-break galaxies at $`z3`$. Leitherer et al. (1995) argue for escape fractions below 15% in bright starburst galaxies in the local universe. However, these observational studies measure the escape fraction near 912 Å while the hydrogen ionization cross section decreases rather rapidly with decreasing wavelength so that even with optical depth $`\tau =23`$ at 912 Å one could have a Lyman continuum escape fraction greater than 20 %, especially for supermassive stars that are hotter than local O stars (Mezger, 1978; Panagia et al., 2003). There have also been a few attempts to estimate the escape fraction theoretically based on idealized assumptions on the structure of the sources. The derived values of the escape fraction span a relatively wide range roughly centered around $`f_c0.1`$ (Dove and Shull, 1994; Dove et al., 2000; Ricotti and Shull, 2000). In the absence of a definite value, we will consider two possible escape fractions: $`f_c=0.5`$ and $`f_c=0.1`$.

An escape fraction $`f_c<1`$ increases the required mean surface brightness relative to the minimum value. This in turn increases the required value of $`B`$ by a factor $`f_c^1`$. Moreover, the fraction of Lyman-continuum radiation that does not escape generates a nebular continuum (mostly two photon emission) in the rest-frame non-ionizing UV, which dominates the observed continuum flux at $`\lambda =1400`$ Å (Panagia et al., 2003). Combining the two effects, we find that the actual continuum flux $`F`$ at $`\lambda =1400`$ Å is higher than the value for the complete escape of ionizing photons by the factor

$$\frac{F(f_c)}{F(1)}\frac{32f_c}{f_c},$$
(13)
where the coefficients 3 and 2 account for the fact that the nebular continuum at 1400 Å for population III HII regions is roughly twice as high as the stellar continuum.

### 3.2 Clumpy IGM

In addition to inhomogeneities near and within the sources, there will also be density fluctuations on larger scales. Such inhomogeneities will increase the recombination rate and act as sinks of ionizing UV photons. This effect can be included by changing the value of the clumpiness factor $`C`$ in equation (9). We have considered the value of $`C=30`$ (Gnedin and Ostriker, 1997; Madau et al., 1999) and recomputed the mean surface brightness and the Thomson optical depth $`\tau _T`$ for the same models that we considered for $`C=1`$. The resulting values are also given in Table 1. Based on the simulations by Gnedin and Ostriker (1997), the value of $`C=30`$ appears to be a reasonable choice for $`z67`$. At higher redshifts, smaller values would be expected. Thus, it is likely that the effective value of $`C`$ is bracketed by the two values ($`C=1`$ and 30) we consider here.

As a result of gravitational instability, more reionization sources will form and the IGM will become more clumpy as time increases. Thus, the increase in the ionization and recombination rates will at least partially offset each other. This argument suggests that our results, based on the idealization that $`\dot{n}_c`$ and $`C`$ are constant, will be more accurate than they might at first appear.

An interpolation formula connecting the parameters $`B`$ and $`C`$ is given in the Appendix. We find that the value of $`C`$ does not affect the optical depth $`\tau _T`$ significantly. In contrast, the surface brightness increases by a factor of 2-10 (i.e. 0.8-2.5 magnitudes) for the models with $`C=30`$, as shown in Table 1.

### 3.3 Two-parameter models

In the following, we denote models with the notation ($`f_c`$, $`C`$) to indicate the adopted values of the Lyman-continuum escape fraction and of the clumpiness parameter. The (1, 1) label indicates the minimum surface brightness model as described in the previous section. The $`B`$ factor of equation (5) is now a function of $`f_c`$ and $`C`$. Any model with $`C=1`$ located below the metallicity constraint in Figure 1 is allowed. Note that the maximum-metallicity constraint was derived in the limit of very small $`f_c`$ so that the nebular continuum can enhance the source luminosity by up to a factor of three. Models with $`f_c1`$ and $`C>1`$ would have little or no contribution from nebular continuum but would be intrinsically bright and therefore produce more metals. Thus, it is possible that some models with $`C>1`$ and $`f_c1`$ lie below the shaded area but still violate the maximum metallicity constraint. In Figure 1, we plot as thin dotted lines the luminosity-surface density relations for identical reionization sources from models with $`(f_c,C)=(0.5,1)`$, and $`(0.1,30)`$. The lines were computed for $`z_2=6`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=1`$ but are nearly identical for all $`z_2<10`$. The mean surface brightness of the reionization sources changes with $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ by less than a factor 4 for all $`C30`$ (see Table 1). For the sake of completeness, we have explored a wider range of parameters than it is probably realistic. Note that both of the (0.5,1) and (0.1,30) models are allowed by the maximum metallicity constraint.

### 3.4 Luminosity function of ionizing sources

So far, we have considered reionization sources with identical luminosity, but it is more likely that they are characterized by a broad luminosity function. On the basis of both theoretical considerations and experience at lower redshifts, it is reasonable to adopt a Schechter (1976) differential luminosity function, $`\mathrm{\Phi }(L)L^\alpha \mathrm{exp}(L/L_{})`$. Here, we adopt the parameters derived for Lyman-break galaxies at $`z34`$, i.e. $`\alpha =1.6`$ and $`M_{,1400}=21.2`$ as our reference luminosity function (Steidel et al., 1999; Yan et al., 2002) and explore the effects of variations in both $`M_{,1400}`$ and $`\alpha `$. The top left panel of Figure 2 was computed for the reference cumulative luminosity function in the case of $`z_2=6`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=1`$. The bottom solid line refers to the minimum surface brightness (1,1) model. The area beneath this line would not reionize the IGM. The top solid line shows the metallicity constraints and the shaded area above this line shows the region where – with the adopted luminosity function – metals would be overproduced. The (0.5,1) and (0.1,30) models are shown as dotted lines. The remaining panels of Figure 2 explore the effects of varying $`M_{,1400}`$. The top right panel is for $`M_{,1400}`$ = -23.2, i.e. two magnitudes of luminosity evolution compared to $`z=3`$ Lyman break galaxies. The bottom left panel is for $`M_{,1400}`$ = -17.5 corresponding to a star cluster with $`10^6M_{}`$ in massive stars forming over a period of $`1`$ Myr. Finally, the bottom right panel is for $`M_{,1400}=13.5`$ which represents 7.7 magnitudes of luminosity evolution compared to the $`z=3`$ Lyman break galaxies and corresponds to the case of small dwarf galaxies or proto-globular clusters. The non-shaded area in the figures indicates the allowed region for each luminosity function. The curves would shift by less than 0.1 magnitudes for any value of $`z_2<10`$.

In contrast to those in Figure 1, the lines in Figure 2 represent luminosity functions that need to be populated everywhere in order to produce the required ionizing flux. Thus, a survey ruling out sources at one point along a curve would rule out that particular combination of $`(f_c,C)`$ model and luminosity function.

In Figure 3, we explore the effects of changing the slope of the luminosity function. The top left panel is identical to that of Figure 2 and is repeated here for convenience. The top right panel is for $`\alpha =1.1`$, similar to the slope of the $`z=0`$ luminosity function. The bottom left panel is for $`\alpha =1.9`$. The bottom right panel of Figure 3 shows the forbidden region (double shading) and the preferred region (no shading) for a range of models. In this last panel, we have considered models with $`M_{,1400}`$ ranging from -21.2 to -16.2 and luminosity function slopes ranging from $`\alpha =1.1`$ to 1.9. The lower shaded area represents the region of underproduction of ionizing photons common to all these luminosity functions. Similarly, the upper shaded area corresponds to the common region of overproduction of metals. The non-shaded area is allowed for all the models within the adopted range of parameters. Thus, this area should be favored in searches for the reionization sources.

The analogs of Figures 2 and 3 for models other than those with $`z_2=6`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=1`$ need in general to be recomputed by properly renormalizing the luminosity function. However, these curves can be obtained approximately by translating vertically the curves for the $`(1,1)`$ model with $`z=6`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=1`$ by an amount $`\mathrm{\Delta }log𝒩=0.4\mathrm{\Delta }\mu _{AB}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mu _{AB}`$ is the difference between the values of mean surface brightness of the models considered. This procedure is only approximate because it does not properly average the value of $`M_{,1400}`$ over the redshift interval $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ being considered.

### 3.5 Detecting Ly$`\alpha `$ from ionizing sources

The fraction $`1f_c`$ of the ionizing continuum that does not escape generates local HII regions around the reionization sources, making them potentially visible in the H recombination lines and, more faintly, in the HeI lines. Prior to full reionization, when the universe consisted of sources embedded in their own HII regions, Ly$`\alpha `$ photons were able to escape if these HII regions were big enough that their outer boundaries were redshifted out of resonance (Madau and Rees, 2000; Haiman, 2002). In the absence of dust, the fraction of Ly$`\alpha `$ photons that escape from the HII region is determined solely by its size and hence by the production rate of ionizing photons of its central source $`\dot{N}_c`$ (Loeb and Rybicki, 1999). In the more realistic case, where some dust is present, an even smaller fraction of Ly$`\alpha `$ photons would escape (Panagia and Ranieri, 1973; Bonilha et al., 1979; Charlot and Fall, 1993). Neglecting absorption by the neutral medium, the Ly$`\alpha `$ line intensity can be computed as follows. Each recombination within the HII region has a 69% probability of producing one decay leading to Ly$`\alpha `$ emission. Under conditions of very low metallicity ($`Z<10^2Z_{}`$), the Ly$`\alpha `$ production is increased by $``$50 % due to collisional excitation (Panagia et al., 2003). The number density of ionizing photons absorbed within the local HII region is obtained from the required number density of photons needed to reionize the universe, $`n_c`$ as $`(f_c^11)n_c`$, where $`f_c`$ is again the escape fraction of Lyman continuum photons. Following Miralda-Escudé and Rees (1998) – and in analogy to equation (5) – we find that the rate of production of Ly$`\alpha `$ photons per unit solid angle is:

$$\frac{d\dot{N}_\alpha }{d\mathrm{\Omega }}=\frac{c}{4\pi }(f_c^11)n_c.$$
(14)
The Ly$`\alpha `$ surface brightness is the product of $`d\dot{N}_\alpha /d\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and the mean observer frame photon energy $`h\overline{\nu }_\alpha `$. For $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=1`$ and $`z_2=6`$, this surface brightness is $`(f_c^11)\times 1.276\times 10^{16}`$ erg cm-2 s-1 arcmin-2. This value is a strong function of $`C`$, decreases with increasing $`z_2`$, and depends only slightly on the duration of reionization. We now define $`f_\alpha `$ as the escape fraction of Ly$`\alpha `$ photons. The average surface brightness in Ly$`\alpha `$, $`J_\alpha `$, of the reionization sources corresponding to the $`(f_c,C)`$ model is then expressed as

$$J_\alpha =\frac{c}{4\pi }B(f_c^11)f_\alpha h\overline{\nu }_\alpha n_H.$$
(15)
We have computed $`f_\alpha `$ following Miralda-Escudé (1998) and Madau and Rees (2000), assuming a line width of 150 km s-1. In the left panel of Figure 4, we show the locus of identical Ly$`\alpha `$ sources corresponding to $`(f_c,C)=(0.5,1)`$ and $`(0.1,30)`$ and for $`z_2=6`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=1`$. We also show the metallicity constraint as the upper shaded area. In the case of Ly$`\alpha `$ sources, there is no lower shaded area, indicating insufficient production of ionizing photons, as sources with $`f_c`$ close to unity have arbitrarily low Ly$`\alpha `$ flux but are still capable of ionizing the IGM. The right panel of Figure 4 shows two luminosity functions for the Ly$`\alpha `$ sources. The solid line represents the same luminosity function as the $`z=3`$ Lyman-break galaxies converted to Ly$`\alpha `$ luminosity for the (0.5,1) model. The dashed line represents a luminosity function with $`\alpha =1.1`$ and $`M_{,1400}=17.5`$.

In addition to the case of an intrinsic width of 150 km s-1, we have also considered cases with 75 to 300 km s-1. As expected, the wider the line, the more Ly$`\alpha `$ radiation escapes. For example, for sources at the faint end of Figure 4, the fraction of escaping Ly$`\alpha `$ photons is $`30`$ % higher for $`v=200`$ km s-1 and $`30`$% lower for $`v=100`$ km s-1.

## 4 Present and Future Surveys

Our models can be used to plan and interpret searches for reionization sources with present and future telescopes. A possible approach to identifying the reionization sources is the Lyman-break technique, which consists of broad-band photometry with three filters, two to measure the continuum longwards of Ly$`\alpha `$ and a third filter to measure (or place upper limits on) a much lower flux just below Ly$`\alpha `$. Note that for $`z<\mathrm{\hspace{0.25em}4}`$, the technique places the shortest wavelength filters across the Lyman-continuum break, while at $`z>\mathrm{\hspace{0.25em}5}`$ the combined effect of the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest shifts the wavelength of the break to Ly$`\alpha `$. In Figures 1, 2 and 3, we identify the region in the surface density vs luminosity plane probed by the GOODS ACS survey (Dickinson and Giavalisco, 2003), the HDF (Thompson et al., 1999) and HDFS (Williams et al., 2000) NICMOS fields, the Hubble Ultra Deep Field (UDF) and a hypothetical survey with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) with 100 hr of integration per filter. The limiting magnitudes are those corresponding to a 10$`\sigma `$ detection in the prescribed integration time. The limiting surface densities of these surveys has been determined by requiring that at least three sources be detected at or above 10$`\sigma `$ significance level in the survey area. Thus, the limiting surface density is given by $`𝒩_{lim}=3/(\mathrm{survey}\mathrm{area})`$. These two limits define the quadrant in the $`log𝒩m_{AB}`$ plane where a particular survey is sensitive to reionization sources, i.e. higher $`𝒩`$ and brighter magnitudes. Note that the curves in Figure 1 again apply to the case of identical sources. Thus, a survey not finding sources at its limiting depth and surface density does not rule out a particular model but only a particular luminosity-surface density combination. In contrast, in Figures 2 and 3 where broad luminosity functions are plotted, all sources along the particular curve being considered are needed to reionize the IGM. Thus, a survey not finding sources at its limiting luminosity and surface density can rule out that model-luminosity function combination.

It is clear that GOODS/ACS observations cannot reach the faintest predictions shown in the figures. Depending on the actual luminosity function parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`M_{,1400}`$, GOODS/ACS may be more or less successful than the UDF in identifying $`z=6`$ reionization sources. In general, ACS observations could identify reionization sources with the F850LP filter if reionization occurred at a low redshift (z$``$6) and if the reionization sources had a luminosity function similar to that of Lyman-break galaxies. However, even for $`z_2=6`$, one can detect all reionization sources as F775W dropouts only if $`\mathrm{\Delta }z<\mathrm{\hspace{0.25em}0.5}`$. For larger values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ or higher values of the reionization redshift, many sources would drop out of F850LP and could be identified only by a deep follow-up study, e.g., with the IR channel of WFC3 (Stiavelli et al., 2000). While the HDF/HDFS NICMOS observations could be used to probe higher redshifts, they lack the combination of area and sensitivity necessary to detect reionization sources as faint as the minimum surface brightness ones. In contrast, JWST has both the wavelength coverage and the sensitivity to detect minimum surface brightness reionization sources for all the models discussed here, provided that $`M_{,1400}<14.2`$; see, for example, the bottom panels in Figure 2.

Another approach to search for the reionization sources before the advent of JWST is to use gravitational lensing by foreground clusters of galaxies to increase the sensitivity of the surveys (Ellis et al., 2001; Hu et al., 2002). In Figure 5, the line identified as ”Lens” represents a hypothetical survey with 100 orbits per filter with the ACS. The field is centered on one cluster of galaxies at $`z=0.5`$, idealized as a singular isothermal sphere with a one-dimensional velocity dispersion of 1000 km s-1, corresponding to $`T_X10`$ keV. The faint-end of the line represents an amplification by a factor 10. The slope of this line in the intrinsic density of sources (in the source plane) vs. flux plane is -2. This slope corresponds to a constant observed surface brightness since the apparent (i.e. in the lens-plane) density of sources is lower by a factor identical to the gravitational amplification. The luminosity function assumed for this figure has a slope $`\alpha =1.6`$ and a knee at $`M_{,1400}=17.5`$. Clearly, these sources would be too faint to detect in a survey like the UDF but would be detectable in a 400 orbits survey with ACS pointed toward a suitably chosen cluster of galaxies acting as a lens. Such a survey could probe an interesting area of parameter space, especially if followed-up by WFC3 near-IR imaging to extend its sensitivity to higher redshifts.

An alternative approach to the Lyman-break technique is the direct detection of Ly$`\alpha `$ emission. As pointed out by Haiman (2002) and others and discussed in Section 3, Ly$`\alpha `$ emission can be detected, with less sensitivity, even from sources at redshifts before reionization is completed (i.e., $`z>z_2`$) as long as either the line is intrinsically wide or the source is bright enough to generate its own ”proximity effect” by ionizing neutral hydrogen in its neighborhood. Figure 4 shows the detection limits for a survey based on the narrow-band excess technique (Rhoads and Malhotra, 2001; Hu et al., 2002), which consists in obtaining narrow-band exposures to detect line emission and broad-band images or adjacent narrow-band exposures to measure the continuum level. We assume that the survey would be carried out at $`z>6`$ using a large field-of-view camera on a 4-meter ground-based telescope. In the case illustrated in Figure 4, the search is assumed to cover $`0.6`$ square degrees with $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda /\lambda 0.01`$ (labelled LALA in the Figure). Since Figure 4 shows the density of all Ly$`\alpha `$ sources, the effective area explored by a narrow-band excess survey is reduced by a factor proportional to the $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ spanned by the filter. The oblique marker identified as Lens in Figure 4 represents the detection limits of a 100-orbit ACS grism survey exploiting gravitational lensing. In addition, we plot in Figure 4 the upper limits (arrows) and the single detection (solid vertical bar) reported by Hu et al. (2002). Taken at face value, these upper limits would rule out, for the present model, values of $`M_{}`$ brighter than $`17.5`$, thus suggesting that only dwarf galaxies exist before reionization. The estimated density of objects like the one detected by Hu et al. (2002) at $`z6.56`$, by gravitational lensing amplification, would be sufficient to reionize the universe if these objects had hot ionizing continua with a high escape fraction, $`0.1f_c0.5`$. Clearly, before strong conclusion can be drawn, we need to identify and study more sources at $`z>6`$.

## 5 Conclusions

We have developed a method to predict the observability of cosmological reionization sources based on the fact that reionization requires a known comoving density of ionizing photons. This number needs to be at least one per atom, thus providing a model-insensitive minimum mean surface brightness (in flux, maximum in magnitudes) for the reionization sources. This minimum mean surface brightness of reionization sources is general and robust. Our particular choice of cosmological parameters does not affect our results by more than a few tenths of a magnitude. We find that if reionization is caused by UV-efficient, minimum surface brightness sources, the non-ionizing continuum emission from reionization sources will be difficult to detect before the advent of JWST. However, the actual mean surface brightness may be many times higher than this ideal limit if some UV photons are absorbed within the sources themselves and/or if some ionizations are offset by recombinations in the clumpy intergalactic medium. In this more realistic case, HST has a reasonable chance of detecting the reionization sources in very deep images, especially if the sources are observed behind clusters of galaxies, so that they are magnified gravitationally. If instead the sources of reionization were not extremely hot population III stars but cooler population II stars or AGNs, they would be brighter by 1-2 magnitudes and thus they would be easier to detect.

The predictions for Ly$`\alpha `$ emission intensities are less secure than our continuum fluxes because they depend on geometry and line width and could be diminished by absorption by dust, which we have ignored here for simplicity. However, if the Ly$`\alpha `$ intensities are close to our estimates, searches based on narrow-band excess techniques or slitless grisms would be promising and might lead to the detection of the reionization sources within this decade.

We wish to thank Tommaso Treu and Mike Gladders for helpful discussions. Comments from an anonymous referee contributed to significantly improving the presentation of our results. This work is partially supported by NASA Grant NAG5-12458.

## Appendix A An interpolation formula for $`B(C)`$

As discussed in Sections 2 and 3 (see also Table 1) the factor B, which provides a measure of the extra ionizations needed to compensate for recombinations and for competing He ionizations, is a sensitive function of both the clumpiness factor $`C`$ and the redshift interval $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ over which the universe reionization takes place. This is because both a high-redshift and a large $`C`$ imply higher densities and, therefore, an overall higher recombination rate that requires a larger number of ionizing photons.

On the other hand, the direct dependence of B on the reionization redshift for any fixed $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ is much weaker, because when the reionization process is assumed to take place over a fixed $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ interval, for each redshift there is partial compensation between a higher density $`(1+z)^3`$ and a shorter duration of the phenomenon, $`\mathrm{\Delta }t(1+z)^{5/2}`$.

These facts are clearly illustrated in Figure 6, in which the behaviour of B as a function of C is shown for $`z_2=6`$ and several values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ (left-hand panel), and for $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=1`$ and several values of the reionization redshift (right-hand panel).

Given the importance of the parameter B in cosmological applications, it is convenient to devise a simple formula that allows a fairly accurate and quick calculation of B for any value of $`z`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$, and $`C`$, while retaining the correct functional dependences in the asymptotic limits. After a little experimentation, we find the following approximate formulae:

$$B=1.09[1+(\xi C)^{5/4}]^{4/5},$$
(A1)
$$\xi =0.4/[1+(6/\mathrm{\Delta }z)(6/z_2)^p],$$
(A2)
$$p=0.30+0.6(z_2/6)(\mathrm{\Delta }z/6).$$
(A3)
These formulae correctly tend to a constant value of B=1.09 in the limit of small values of $`C`$ and to B directly proportional to $`C`$ for high $`C`$ values. Equation (A1) gives an excellent fit (better than 6%) for $`z_2=6`$ and all values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ as shown in Figure 6 (left-hand panel), as well as for cases of $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=1`$ and any value of $`z_2`$ (right-hand panel). For all other cases, the accuracy is still within about 12%, which is adequate for most applications. The fit can be optimized for specific needs by adjusting the coefficient of the $`z_2\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ term in equation (A3).


text:
# Nonperturbative Renormalization for Domain Wall Fermions and the Chiral Condensate

## 1 Introduction

The RBC collaboration has performed simulations with domain wall fermions (DWF) and the DBW2 gauge action and presented results for weak matrix elements. This report focuses on the chiral condensate $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ and exploits non-perturbative renormalization calculations to get physical values for both quenched and dynamical fermions. The simulation details are given the Table 1. Two lattice volumes are used, $`24^3\times 48`$ for $`a^1=3`$GeV, and $`16^3\times 32`$ for the others. Domain wall fermion are used for all simulations with three values of $`L_s`$: $`16`$ for the Wilson gauge action and for the DBW2 gauge action with $`a^1=2`$GeV and 1.3GeV, $`10`$ for $`a^1=3`$GeV and $`12`$ for dynamical fermions. Among these, data and simulation details for the Wilson gauge action and DBW2 gauge action with 1.3GeV and 2GeV have already reported. The DBW2, 3GeV quenched and dynamical fermion simulations with $`a^1=1.8`$GeV are reported in this meeting by RBC.

## 2 $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ measurement

Using DWF, we can compute the value of the chiral condensate directly by evaluating $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ at a series of quark mass and extrapolating to $`m_f=m_{res}`$ (see the section 4). For the quenched, $`a^1=3\text{GeV}`$ case, we use 5 fermion masses: $`0.008,0.016,0.024,0.032,0.04`$ and $`m_{res}=9.7210^5`$. For the dynamical case, three dynamical fermion masses $`m_f^{dyn}=0.02,0.03\text{ and }0.04`$, and 5 valence masses,$`m_f^{val}=0.01,0.02,0.03,0.04\text{ and }0.05`$ are used. In the dynamical case, in order to get a physical value, we extrapolate along the line $`m_f^{val}=m_f^{dyn}m_{\mathrm{res}}`$. In the dynamical simulation, $`m_{res}=1.3610^3`$ . Besides the direct measurement of $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ above, we may also determine $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ from the $`m_f`$ dependence on the pion mass, using Gell-Mann-Oakes-Renner (GMOR) relation:

$$f_\pi ^2\frac{m_\pi ^2}{48(m_f+m_{res})}=\overline{\psi }\psi $$
(1)
The values obtained using both methods are given in lattice units in Tab. 2. Apart from the 3GeV case, the values from each method agree nicely.

## 3 Non-perturbative renormalization

In order to get physical values for continuum observables, results obtained from lattice simulation need to be renormalized. The RBC group has used the non-perturbative RI renormalization scheme which benefits from the $`𝒪(a)`$ off-shell improvement of DWF. A detailed explanation of this method is given in the paper . There are two systematic errors in this approach: lattice artifacts which appear at large momenta and non-perturbative phenomena which appear at small momenta. I will describe each of these in turn.

This approach gives renormalization factors for quark bilinear operators $`\overline{u}\mathrm{\Gamma }_id,(\mathrm{\Gamma }_i=\{1,\gamma _\nu ,\gamma _5,\gamma _\nu \gamma _5,\sigma _{\mu \nu }\})`$ where $`u`$ and $`d`$ are quark fields, using a corresponding vertex amplitude $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_i`$. The renormalization factor $`Z_i`$ is determined by the condition:

$$Z_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_i}Z_q^1\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_i,0}(p,p)|_{p^2=\mu ^2}=1.$$
(2)
For the case of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_S\text{ and }\mathrm{\Lambda }_P`$, there are non-perturbative contributions which must be removed. They are shown in the equations:

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{P,latt}(ap,ap)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{a^2\overline{q}q}{(ap)^2(m_f+m_{res})}}C_1Z_q`$ (3)
$`+`$ $`Z_mZ_q`$
$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{S,latt}(ap,ap)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{C_1Z_q}{(ap)^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{a^3\overline{q}q}{m_f}}+Z_mZ_q.`$ (4)
Subtracting the effects of the first term in each of these equations, gives values of $`Z_S/Z_P`$ close to unity over a large range of momentum, see Fig. 1.

Generally, renormalization factors in perturbation theory have logarithmic momentum dependence. This physical momentum dependence should be removed before attempting to identify $`𝒪(a^2p^2)`$ errors. Therefore we define a scale invariant (SI) version of the RI renormalization factor:

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_i}^{SI}((ap)^2)=\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_i}((ap)^2)/C_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_i}((ap)^2)$$
(5)
where $`C_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_i}`$ is calculated through three loops and is normalized so that $`C_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_i}(\mu ^2)=1`$. As an example, Fig. 2 shows the bare $`Z_S/Z_q`$ and its SI version for 3GeV and dynamical simulations. In this figure, the dashed line is a linear fit of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_i}^{SI}`$ as a function of $`(ap)^2`$, permitting us to remove this large momentum lattice artifact.

To determine the conventional physical quantities defined in the continuum theory, it is necessary to convert renormalization factors obtained in RI-scheme to those in the $`\overline{MS}`$ scheme using a relation of the form:

$$\frac{Z^{RI}}{Z^{\overline{MS}}}=1+\frac{\alpha _s}{4\pi }Z_0^{(1)RI}+\frac{\alpha _s^2}{(4\pi )^2}Z_0^{(2)RI}+\mathrm{}.$$
(6)
In order to extract the needed factor $`Z_S\text{ and }Z_P`$ from Eq. 2, we must determine $`Z_q`$. This is best done indirectly by using $`Z_A/Z_q`$ from the vertex function of the local axial current and $`Z_A`$ obtained from comparing the local and the conserved axial current. This method is described in detail in Ref.  and gives values for $`Z_A`$ of $`0.8876(3)`$ for $`a^1=3`$GeV and $`0.7576(6)`$ the dynamical case . Using these $`Z_A`$ value, $`Z_A/Z_q`$ and $`Z_S/Z_q`$ from RI-scheme and the Eq. 6, we determine the $`Z`$ factors given in Tab. 4.

## 4 $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ values in physical units

Using the renormalization factors discussed in the previous section, we obtain the values for $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ in physical units given in Tab. 3. The results for $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ agree very well except for the direct calculation in the 3GeV case which is shifted 30% above the others. It is expected because of the $`a`$ dependence of the explicit chiral symmetry breaking in the domain wall scheme where $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ can be written in physical unit as,

$$\overline{\psi }\psi =c_0\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^3+\frac{c_1}{a^2}m_f+\frac{c_2}{a^3}e^{L_S\alpha }.$$
(7)
The last term in this equation can be estimated to be of the same size as $`\frac{1}{a^2}m_{res}`$. For the GeV case, this contributes an error to the value of $`(12\overline{\psi }\psi )^{1/3}`$ quoted in Tab. 3 on the order of 20%. This error is expected to decrease as $`L_s\mathrm{}`$.

## 5 Conclusion

Values for $`\overline{\psi }\psi `$ are obtained from different methods with different lattice scales. Good agreement is found in all but one case where a larger $`L_s`$ is required.

## 6 Acknowledgment

I thank the RBC members for providing the simulation results analyzed in this report and many useful suggestions, especially Dr.C.Dawson for his help for NPR calculation, and Prof.N.Christ for his help.