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# How Do Networks Become Navigable?

## I Introduction

It is well-known that a wide variety of social networks have the so-called small world property; networks of size $`n`$ have diameter $`O(\mathrm{log}n)`$, meaning that between any two nodes there exists a path of size $`O(\mathrm{log}n)`$. This property is also shared by sparse random graphs; however, random graphs lack several other important properties of real-world networks, such as clustering and heavy-tailed degree distributions (see review-structurefunction  for a review).

Another property of social networks which distinguishes them from random graphs, and which has received somewhat less attention, is their navigability. That is, not only do short paths exist, but it is easy to find them using only local information. The pioneering work of Milgram in the 1960s basic-milgram  showed that people can, at least some of the time, find short paths to other distant people by pursuing the greedy strategy where they pass the message to whichever of their own acquaintances they feel is “closest” to the target recipient. This experiment has recently been repeated using e-mail networks email . In a random graph, although a short path exists, a local algorithm must be lucky to find it as it can do little better than a random walk on the network.

Kleinberg basic-kleinberg ; kleinbergnature  addressed the issue of navigability by considering a small-world model consisting of a $`d`$-dimensional lattice with long-range links added to it. Unlike the Watts-Strogatz model basic-collectiveswndynamics  in which the long-range links are uniformly distributed, in the Kleinberg model pairs of nodes a distance $`\mathrm{}`$ apart are connected with some probability $`P(\mathrm{})`$, where $`P(\mathrm{})\mathrm{}^\alpha `$ and the number of outgoing links per node is fixed. While a finite-dimensional lattice is obviously a gross oversimplification of the social spaces in which we live, or the conceptual spaces in which one Web page seems “closer” to another, this model captures the essential features of the navigation problem: how can we minimize the routing time given local information about some metric?

Kleinberg studied the performance of the greedy algorithm, in which each node passes the message to whichever of its neighbors, either local or long-range, that is closest to the destination on the underlying lattice. He showed that if $`\alpha =d`$ this algorithm achieves a routing time of $`O(\mathrm{log}^2n)`$ on lattices of size $`n`$. However, if $`\alpha d`$, the routing time grows as $`O(n^\beta )`$ for some $`\beta >0`$. Note that if when $`\alpha =d`$, we integrate over spheres of radius $`\mathrm{}`$, we find that the distribution of link lengths is $`f(\mathrm{})\mathrm{}^1`$, with a cutoff when $`\mathrm{}`$ reaches the system size; this distribution provides the right mix of long-, medium-, and short-range links for the greedy algorithm to quickly “zero in” on its destination. Similar results have been obtained for the case where the underlying graph is a tree, representing a hierarchical structure, or an overlapping set of trees representing multiple affiliations in society kleinberg-trees ; wdn .

While Kleinberg’s work largely characterizes the static properties a network needs to have to be navigable, it leaves open the question of how or why networks might evolve these properties. Indeed, the topology of a social network is constantly being modified by its members. If, whenever these members find it difficult to search the network, they modify their own connections in an effort to make future searches easier, this dynamical process should make the network more navigable over time.

In this paper, we consider a dynamic network model inspired by surfers on the Web, each of whom controls the outgoing links from their home page. We start at a source node $`x`$, and choose a random destination node $`y`$. Based on the (metric) distance between $`x`$ and $`y`$, we set a threshold $`T_{\mathrm{thresh}}`$ on the number of (topological) steps we feel the journey should take. If after $`T_{\mathrm{thresh}}`$ steps we have not reached our destination, we stop searching, and rewire $`x`$’s long-range link to the place where we gave up. In the human-friendship network, this might correspond to gaining new acquaintances in the course of a search; on the Web, it corresponds to creating a bookmark/linking to the relevant pages, which other surfers can then use note .

Our main result is that this process does indeed cause the distribution of link lengths to converge to a power law $`f(\mathrm{})\mathrm{}^{\alpha _{\mathrm{rewired}}}`$. The precise value of $`\alpha _{\mathrm{rewired}}`$ varies with lattice size, and differs somewhat from Kleinberg’s prediction $`\alpha =d`$. We believe this is due to finite-size effects; to support this belief, we directly construct networks with power-law link length distributions (as opposed to rewiring them), measure the exponent $`\alpha _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ that minimizes the routing time, and find that it converges rather slowly to $`d`$ as $`n\mathrm{}`$, roughly as $`dO(1/\mathrm{log}^2n)`$. However, even though the exponents differ somewhat, our rewiring process produces networks whose routing times match or improve those of Kleinberg’s optimum.

Other types of dynamical models have been studied (e.g. rewiring-euclidspace ; rewiring-hamilton ; rewiring-ffp ; growing-attach ; growing-walk ). However, the model discussed here appears to be the first to optimize for navigability.

## II The Rewiring Process and Results

One restriction of Kleinberg’s model of a social space consists of a $`d`$-dimensional lattice of size $`n`$, where each node $`u`$ is connected to its $`2d`$ nearest neighbors and has a single long-range link to a node $`v`$, chosen with probability $`P(\mathrm{})\mathrm{}^\alpha `$ where $`\mathrm{}=|uv|`$ is the Manhattan distance (the $`L_1`$ norm). Such networks are denoted $`G(n,d,1,1,\alpha )`$ in basic-kleinberg ; here the two $`1`$s indicate the radius of the local connections and the number of long-range links per node. Our goal is to show that our rewiring process causes networks with a range of initial link length distributions to converge to this form, where $`\alpha =\alpha _{\mathrm{rewired}}`$ and is close to Kleinberg’s prediction $`\alpha =d`$. We report here on experiments where $`d=1`$, for which we can feasibly study networks of size up to $`n=10^7`$; our results for $`d=2`$ are qualitatively similar.

In each round of the rewiring process, we choose the source node $`x`$ uniformly, and choose the destination $`y`$ according to a demand distribution $`Q(x,y)`$. One method of selection is to choose a distance $`\mathrm{}`$ according to a distribution $`Q(\mathrm{})`$, and then choose $`y`$ randomly from among the nodes that satisfy $`|xy|=\mathrm{}`$. Here, we take $`Q(\mathrm{})`$ to be uniform, which for $`d=1`$ means that $`y`$ is simply a uniformly random node; we comment in the Conclusions on the effect of other demand distributions.

Starting at $`x`$, the greedy algorithm produces a path $`x=x_0,x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_T=y`$ where $`T`$ is the routing time, and where for each $`0i<T`$, $`x_{i+1}`$ is the outgoing neighbor of $`x_i`$ that minimizes $`|x_{i+1}y|`$ (with ties broken randomly). The rewiring process works as follows: if $`TT_{\mathrm{thresh}}`$, i.e., if the greedy algorithm reaches some $`x_i`$ with $`i=T_{\mathrm{thresh}}`$, then we discontinue the search and change $`x`$’s outgoing link to point to $`x_i`$.

In our experiments, we choose the threshold $`T_{\mathrm{thresh}}`$ uniformly at random from the interval $`[1,\mathrm{}]`$. Such a naive selection avoids making assumptions about the network’s size, performance or topology. In particular, it avoids assuming the $`O(\mathrm{log}^2n)`$ routing time which both the rewired networks and Kleinberg’s networks achieve.

For our initial conditions, the link length distributions have exponent $`\alpha _0`$ ranging from $`0`$, a uniform distribution as in the Watts-Strogatz model, to $`\mathrm{}`$, where all the “long-range links” are simply self-loops. We run $`\tau `$ rounds per node of the rewiring process; that is, $`\tau n`$ times we choose nodes $`x,y`$, run the greedy algorithm from $`x`$ to $`y`$ and rewire if $`TT_{\mathrm{thresh}}`$. We then compare the final link length distribution to Kleinberg’s optimum $`f(\mathrm{})\mathrm{}^1`$.

Figure 1 illustrates the resulting distributions for networks of size $`n=\{10^3,10^4,10^5,10^6\}`$ and $`\alpha _0=\mathrm{}`$. We see that after $`\tau n`$ rounds (we describe our choice of $`\tau `$ in the next section) the rewiring process has built a power-law distribution of link lengths, $`f(\mathrm{})\mathrm{}^{\alpha _{\mathrm{rewired}}}`$ with $`\alpha _{\mathrm{rewired}}\{0.78,0.82,0.85,0.88\}`$ respectively. Figure 2 shows that a range of initial distributions converge to the same final distribution. Starting with initial exponents $`\alpha _0`$ ranging from $`0`$ to $`2`$, the exponent of the rewired link length distributions all converge to $`\alpha _{\mathrm{rewired}}0.85`$ (here $`n=10^5`$) as the rewiring continues.

## III Finite-size effects

While our rewiring process produces a power-law link length distribution, the exponent is noticeably different from the value $`\alpha =1`$ (more generally, $`\alpha =d`$) which Kleinberg proved in the limit $`n\mathrm{}`$. Notably, Figure 2 shows that networks with an initial exponent $`\alpha _0=1`$ actually move away from this value as they are rewired.

This deflection appears to be due to finite-size effects, and in fact the exponent $`\alpha _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ that minimizes the routing time on finite lattices turns out to be rather different from Kleinberg’s value even at reasonably large $`n`$. We examined system sizes over six orders of magnitude, $`10^1n10^7`$. For each size, we constructed networks with $`\alpha `$ ranging from $`0`$ to $`1`$, and measured the mean routing time $`T(\alpha )`$ over $`50n`$ trials for each $`\alpha `$. We estimated $`\alpha _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ as the minimum of the best quadratic fit of $`T(\alpha )`$.

Figure 3 illustrates $`T(\alpha )`$ for several values of $`n`$ and clearly shows that $`\alpha _{\mathrm{opt}}<1`$. The dashed line illustrates $`\alpha _{\mathrm{opt}}`$’s slow approach to $`1`$ as $`n`$ increases. Figure 4 shows the dependence of $`\alpha _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ on $`n`$; it is fit rather closely by the form $`\alpha _{\mathrm{opt}}=1A/\mathrm{log}^2n`$ for $`A2.85`$. The fact that $`\alpha _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ converges polylogarithmically, as opposed to polynomially, indicates that finite-size effects are quite severe.

However, while $`\alpha _{\mathrm{rewired}}`$ differs from $`d`$ (and from $`\alpha _{\mathrm{opt}}`$) our rewired networks achieve a mean routing time equivalent to networks with exponent $`\alpha _{\mathrm{opt}}`$, and better than those with exponent $`d`$. Fig. 5 compares the mean routing times for the three types of networks. All three are closely fit with a curve of the form $`T(n)\mathrm{log}^2n`$, just as Kleinberg’s analysis predicts basic-kleinberg ; kleinbergnature .

Of course, the routing time of the network depends on the number of rewiring rounds. In Figure 6, we show the number of rounds per node $`\tau `$ required to achieve a mean routing time $`T_{\mathrm{rewired}}`$ which is only $`1\%`$ greater than $`T_{\mathrm{opt}}`$, i.e., the routing time of a network with exponent $`\alpha _{\mathrm{opt}}`$. This rewiring time grows as $`\tau n^{0.77}`$ rounds per node, or $`n^{1.77}`$ rounds total.

## IV Discussion and Conclusions

Kleinberg basic-kleinberg ; kleinbergnature  explored the navigability of small-world networks built on an underlying $`d`$-dimensional space. In the limit of infinite size, he found the mean routing time in minimized by a power-law distribution of link lengths with exponent $`\alpha =d`$ note2 . Here, we have explained how social networks might develop such a distribution over time, by introducing a simple, decentralized rewiring process that relies only on local information (and is even ignorant of the size of the network).

This process has a natural interpretation: the topology of a social network is constantly being modified by its members, who update their personal connections as they explore and navigate the network. If a member becomes frustrated because the journey to a destination takes too long, they can be expected to change their connections to make similar journeys more quickly in the future.

Our results show that rewiring causes a wide range of initial topologies to converge to a power-law distribution of link lengths, very similar to Kleinberg’s. The exponent $`\alpha _{\mathrm{rewired}}`$ we obtain differs significantly from $`d`$, its optimal value on infinite lattices. We attribute this deflection to finite size effects which cause the optimal exponent $`\alpha _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ to converge polylogarithmically as $`n\mathrm{}`$. However, the rewired network achieves the same mean routing time as power-law networks with exponent $`\alpha _{\mathrm{opt}}`$, and better routing times than those with $`\alpha =d`$. Specifically, the mean routing time as a function of system size is $`O(\mathrm{log}^2n)`$ as predicted by Kleinberg’s analysis. The number of rounds of the rewiring process needed to achieve this routing time grows as a low-degree polynomial of $`n`$.

In addition to creating and maintaining a power-law distribution of link lengths, we believe this rewiring process to be adaptive. For instance, we conjecture that if new nodes are added to the network, or if certain nodes or links are removed, it will dynamically optimize for these new situations. We also believe, based on preliminary results, that if the demand distribution $`Q(x,y)`$ is not uniform, e.g. if certain destinations are more popular than others, or if the source and the destination are correlated (both of which are true in any real network), that it will optimize routing times for the source-destination pairs that appear more frequently. These adaptive properties would be particular useful in networks where nodes are constantly coming on- and off-line and where the demand of each destination rises and falls over time, such as live peer-to-peer networks, distributed sensor networks or massively parallel computers.

Our discussion contemplates a “social space” consisting of a finite-dimensional lattice, an obviously poor model for the complex social spaces we routinely navigate. An interesting study would be an analogous rewiring process for networks whose underlying structure is hierarchical kleinberg-trees , involves multiple group affiliations wdn  or is otherwise structured, as in the peer-to-peer network Freenet freenet  with the modifications described in freenetrouting . We leave these as directions for future work.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors are grateful to Mark Newman and Jon Kleinberg for helpful discussions. This work was funded by NSF grant PHY-0200909, and the Los Alamos National Laboratory.


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# Cluster Masses Accounting for Structure along the Line of Sight

## Abstract

Weak gravitational lensing of background galaxies by foreground clusters offers an excellent opportunity to measure cluster masses directly without using gas as a probe. One source of noise which seems difficult to avoid is large scale structure along the line of sight. Here I show that, by using standard map-making techniques, one can minimize the deleterious effects of this noise. The resulting uncertainties on cluster masses are significantly smaller than when large scale structure is not properly accounted for, although still larger than if it was absent altogether.

Introduction. Clusters of galaxies are powerful cosmological probes cluster . In particular, the number density of clusters as a function of mass and redshift depends sensitively on the cosmological growth function which in turn depends on the matter density and properties of the dark energy wang . Indeed, it is conceivable that we will learn as much about dark energy from clusters as from supernovae haiman .

While redshifts of clusters are relatively easy to obtain, cluster masses are much harder to pin down. A cluster mass can be estimated from optical richness or from its temperature, measured either in the X-ray or with radio observations of the Sunyaev-Zel’dovich distortion of the cosmic microwave background. However, the scatter around any of these indicators is large scatter  and depends on complicated physics, such as radiative transfer, star and galaxy formation, cooling, accretion, and feedback mechanisms. In principle, gravitational lensing bartel  allows for a more direct mass determination, since the distortions of background galaxies are sensitive only to the mass along the line of sight, not to the gas. In practice, there are many hurdles to overcome, most of which involve the observations themselves.

There is one systematic that affects lensing determinations of clusters that cannot be cured with better instruments or seeing. Large scale structure along the line of sight can be mistaken as being part of the cluster los . As Hoekstra hoekstra  has shown, the uncertainties caused by this noise can significantly impair our ability to estimate cluster masses. Since cluster abundances depend sensitively on their masses, this uncertainty clouds the possiblity of learning about dark energy from clusters.

Here I show that one can partially offset the deleterious effects of large scale structure by accounting for it in cluster mass estimates. To demonstrate how this works, I will focus on a single cluster at redshift $`0.3`$ with a Navarro, Frenk, and White (NFW) profile nfw . The mass enclosed within a radius within which the average density is $`200`$ times as large as the critical density, $`M_{200}`$, will be set to $`1.4\times 10^{15}M_{}`$ and the concentration $`c`$ to $`4.64`$. I will assume we have ellipticities for thirty background galaxies per square arcminute, all at redshift one. These parameters will allow us to compare with the results of Ref. hoekstra .

Effects of Large scale structure. To get a feel for some numbers, the shear due to this cluster has magnitude equal to $`0.02`$ at an angular distance $`10^{}`$ away from the center. In a one square arcminute pixel with thirty background galaxies, the rms noise due to the galaxy uncertainties is $`0.25/\sqrt{30}=0.046`$, significantly larger than the signal. The rms noise due to large scale structure is of order $`0.02`$ for a standard $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model. Adding the two sources of noise in quadrature leads to a ten percent increase in the noise due to large scale structure. Hoekstra hoekstra  however showed that the situation is not that simple. Since the signal to noise in each pixel is small, it is necessary to average over many pixels with the same signal, in this radially symmetric case, over azimuthal angle at fixed radius.

If we average over all pixels in an annulus of width $`1^{}`$ at radius of $`10^{}`$, then the shape noise gets reduced by a factor of $`N_p^{1/2}`$ where $`N_p`$ is the number of pixels, approximately equal to $`20\pi `$. The shape noise contribution to this angular average then should be of order $`0.046/(20\pi )^{1/2}0.006`$, significantly smaller than the signal. If the noise due to large scale structure was completely independent from one pixel to the next, then it too would be reduced by the same factor, and would have an rms amplitude of $`0.0025`$. Figure 1 shows that shape noise does behave as expected, but the noise due to large scale structure is larger than anticipated by more than a factor of two. Apparently, large scale structure produces a signal (noise) which is correlated over many pixels. The number of independent pixels then is much smaller than $`20\pi `$, and the contamination of the cluster signal from large scale structure is much more severe than one might naively estimate. As shown in Figure 1, the situation rapidly gets worse at larger angles, so Hoekstra argued that measurements beyond $`15^{}`$ were useless for determining the cluster mass profile: the noise from large scale structure overwhlems the useful information in such measurements.

The above hand-waving argument suggests a possible solution. Since the large scale structure signal is correlated over $`4^{}`$, why not make use of this correlation in the radial direction as well? That is, when averaging over the azimuthal shear, one implicitly discards all information about the combined radial/azimuthal structure of the shear. A circular blob of shear with diameter $`4^{}`$ due to large scale structure might be easily detected before the angular averaging and then subtracted off. If we first average over angles, we lose much of our power to identify and account for the shear due to large scale structure.

This is illustrated in Fig. 2, where a realization of each source of noise is shown in the top two panels. The noise from large scale structure is manifestly more coherent, extending over larger scales than is the shape noise. Just as clearly, this distinction disappears (bottom panel) if one averages over azimuthal angle.

In order to retain the information necessary to distinguish large scale structure shear from cluster shear, we need to start from the full shear field, $`\gamma _i(\stackrel{}{\theta }_a)`$, where $`i=1,2`$ labels the two components of the symmetric, traceless shear tensor. Assuming that the shear induced by large scale structure is Gaussian, the likelihood of obtaining the data is

$$=\frac{[2\pi ]^{N_p}}{det(N)^{1/2}}\mathrm{exp}\left\{\frac{1}{2}\left(\gamma _\alpha \gamma _\alpha ^{\mathrm{cl}}\right)[N^1]_{\alpha \beta }\left(\gamma _\beta \gamma _\beta ^{\mathrm{cl}}\right)\right\}$$
(1)
where the index $`\alpha `$ includes both pixel position ($`a`$) and shear component ($`i`$) so ranges from 1 to $`2N_p`$, with $`N_p`$ now the total number of pixels for which we have ellipticities. The noise matrix $`N`$ is the sum of the covariance due to shape noise and to large scale structure,

$$NC^{\mathrm{shape}}+C^{\mathrm{lss}}.$$
(2)
From this starting point, there are a number of directions one can take. Here I pursue two: (i) using the likelihood function and the Fisher matrix derived from it to project uncertainties on the two parameters characterizing the NFW profile and (ii) compressing the information in the likelihood function into a mass estimator which is optimal in the sense that it retains all the relevant information. In both cases, we can compare the results with what one would obtain without accounting for large scale structure.

Parametric Fitting.

Let’s assume that the cluster we are studying has an NFW profile and ask how well we can determine the parameters characterizing this profile. The Fisher matrix,

$$F_{ij}\frac{^2}{p_ip_j}=\frac{\gamma _\alpha ^{\mathrm{cl}}}{p_i}[N^1]_{\alpha \beta }\frac{\gamma _\beta ^{\mathrm{cl}}}{p_j},$$
(3)
quantifies the errors on these parameters $`p_1(M_{200})`$ and $`p_2(c)`$ from a lensing survey. We will consider the errors on $`M_{200}`$ and $`c`$ in three cases: (i) no large scale structure, $`N=C^{\mathrm{shape}}`$; (ii) including and accounting for large scale structure $`N=C^{\mathrm{shape}}+C^{\mathrm{lss}}`$; and (iii) large scale structure present, but parameters determined from the azimuthally averages tangential sheargamt , $`\gamma _t`$. In this last case, the data points $`\gamma _\alpha `$ in equation  are replaced by $`\gamma _t`$ in different radial bins and the noise matrix $`N_{\gamma _t}`$ consists of the shape noise per pixel reduced by the number of pixels in the azimuthal average and the azimuthally averaged large scale structure covariance matrix. Incidentally, if no large scale structure is present (i), then using all the pixels is not necessary: $`\gamma _t`$ maintains all the relevant information.

The top panel of Figure 3 shows the projected errors from a survey which measures background galaxies within $`20^{}`$ of the cluster center. The difference between the inner and outer ellipse reinforces the point emphasized by Hoekstra hoekstra , that the noise due to large scale structure degrades the parameter determination by a factor of order two if not properly accounted for. The middle ellipse shows though that the situation is not quite this dire. If one works from the likelihood function directly and does not azimuthally average, the effects of large scale structure can be minimized.

The bottom panel of Fig. 3 shows the error on $`M_{200}`$ (after marginalizing over the concentration) in these three cases as a function of the maximum distance out to which data is available. Here we can see that the optimal estimator (i.e. not azimuthally averaging) reduces the deleterious effects of large scale structure by roughly $`50\%`$ at least on large scales. This realization has practical implications: is it worthwhile taking data far from the cluster center or does the noise due to large scale structure make such data irrelevant when it comes to determining the cluster mass? Figure 3 shows that going out to $`25^{}`$ leads to a fifteen percent smaller error on $`M_{200}`$ as compared with $`\theta _{\mathrm{max}}=15^{}`$. While this is not quite as large as the $`18\%`$ gain if there was no large scale structure, it is much larger than five percent gain if large scale structure is not accounted for.

Mapmaking. One can also try to obtain information about the mass distribution in a cluster by inverting directly without assuming any particular profile. Since Kaiser and Squires first introduced this idea squireskaiser , many groups have worked to develop new techniques accounting for real world complications schneider . Here I simply want to discuss a way to improve an estimator by accounting for large scale structure. So, I will focus on one particular estimator hukeet , the so-called optimal estimator, used recently to make maps in CMB experiments mc . Although the maps made from this estimator are not particularly pretty, they do retain all the information stored in the likelihood function. Thus, they are very useful for quantitative analysis and they can be massaged in a number of ways (which I will not discuss here) to produce more realistic pictures. The main point is to see how much we can learn in the face of noise due to large scale structure.

The shear due to a cluster is linearly related to the convergance

$$\gamma _\alpha ^{\mathrm{cl}}=K_{\alpha a}\kappa _a$$
(4)
where the index $`a`$ ranges over all pixels for which we are fitting the surface density. This presumably will be of order $`N_p`$ (but it does not have to be exactly equal to it, for we may choose to estimate the density in a coarser grid than the measured ellipticities). The kernel is

$$K_{\alpha a}=\frac{A}{\pi |\theta _\alpha \theta _a|^2}\{\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{cos}(2\varphi )\hfill & i=1\hfill \\ \mathrm{sin}(2\varphi )\hfill & i=2\hfill \end{array}$$
(5)
where $`\varphi `$ is the angle between the $`x`$-axis and the vector $`\theta _\alpha \theta _a`$, and $`A`$ is the area of a pixel.

The measured shear is a combination of this signal, shape noise, and projections from large scale structure:$`\gamma _\alpha =\gamma _\alpha ^{\mathrm{cl}}+\gamma _\alpha ^{\mathrm{shape}}+\gamma _\alpha ^{\mathrm{lss}}.`$ The latter two contributions have mean zero and a total covariance matrix $`N`$. Then the minimum variance estimator for the convergence is

$$\widehat{\kappa }=C_NK^tN^1\gamma $$
(6)
with mean equal to $`\kappa ^{\mathrm{cl}}`$ and covariance matrix

$$C_N\left(K^tN^1K\right)^1.$$
(7)
Figure 4 shows the convergance of the cluster, along with the reconstruction accounting for large scale structure. Each of these was obtained from a pixelized set of ellipticities out to a radius of $`15^{}`$ which included the signal due to the cluster, shape noise, and large scale structure. Fig. 2 shows the two noise sources. The map in the middle of Fig. 4 was obtained with the minimum variance estimate of equation .

The bottom panel of Fig. 4 shows the difference between a map which accounts for large scale structure and one that does not (i.e., one in which $`N`$ was set to $`C^{\mathrm{shape}}`$). Note especially that the minimum variance estimator obtains greater densities along a swath extending from the lower left to upper right. A comparison with the top panel shows that the minimum variance estimator more accurately reproduces the density. It does this by properly accounting for large scale structure. The estimator which neglects LSS treats the negative $`\gamma _t`$ swath from lower left to upper right in Fig. 2 as produced by the cluster. Thus, the total $`\gamma _t`$ it ascribes to the cluster is smaller than it should be. The result is an underprediction of the density along this swath. The minimum variance estimator avoids this pitfall.

How much does the variance go up when one uses the estimator which neglects large scale structure?

Fig. 5 shows the errors on the mass within an annulus of radius $`\theta `$ compared with the errors if there was no large scale structure. As in the parametric estimation, we see that the minimum variance estimator more accurately determines the cluster mass. While the errors are larger than if there had been no large scale structure, they are significantly smaller than one gets when neglecting large scale structure.

This work is supported by the DOE, by NASA grant NAG5-10842, and by NSF Grant PHY-0079251. I am grateful to H. Hoekstra, C. Keeton, E. Rozo, and M. White for helpful comments.


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# ADP-03-129/T565 Chiral Structure in Baryon Magnetic Moments

## 1 INTRODUCTION

The issue of chiral extrapolation has been highlighted as an important problem facing modern lattice QCD simulations , if one is to make any comparison with experiment. Extrapolations in quark mass are nontrivial because of nonanalytic contributions which arise as a consequence of dynamically broken chiral symmetry in the QCD vacuum .

At typical lattice quark masses there is little evidence of nonanalytic variation in quark mass. Recently, the Kentucky group has reported observation of chiral nonanalytic behaviour in quenched simulations with overlap fermions by reaching pion masses as low as $`180\mathrm{MeV}`$ .

The lack of rapid, nonanalytic curvature at moderate quark masses is well understood through the use of a finite-range regulator (FRR) in chiral effective field theory . Finite-range regularisation provides a resummation of the chiral expansion which features the suppression of chiral loop effects with increasing quark mass , in accord with nature where the finite size of the Goldstone boson source plays a role.

We first highlight the features of chiral extrapolation with the use of FRR chiral perturbation theory ($`\chi `$PT) in the case of the nucleon mass in dynamical QCD. We discuss the quenched chiral extrapolation of the magnetic moments of both nucleon and Delta baryons.

## 2 FRR CHIRAL EFFECTIVE THEORY

Chiral perturbation theory is a low-energy effective field theory (EFT) for QCD. This EFT provides a systematic expansion of QCD about the chiral limit. The key example here is that one can generate a quark mass expansion for the behaviour of the nucleon mass. It is therefore essential, for chiral extrapolations from moderate quark masses, to incorporate the rigorous properties of QCD near the chiral limit.

In the naive application of $`\chi `$PT one obtains a truncated Taylor series of the form

$`m_N`$ $`=`$ $`c_0+c_2m_\pi ^2+c_3m_\pi ^3+c_4m_\pi ^4`$ (1)
$`+c_{4L}m_\pi ^4\mathrm{log}m_\pi +\mathrm{}.`$
The terms nonanalytic in the quark mass ($`m_qm_\pi ^2`$) are those arising strictly from pion loop integrals. They have coefficients which are model-independent constraints of QCD. The remaining analytic terms are determined by matching to non-perturbative QCD. In principle, it is the goal of lattice QCD to be able to constrain all coefficients — including the reproduction of the correct nonanalytic contributions. Until now, lattice simulations have not observed the rapid nonanalytic variation and one must fix the coefficients of these terms to their QCD values. For modern calculations, determination of the analytic terms enables extrapolation to the physical pion mass.

The application of the formal expansion in Eq. (1) has questionable applicability in the regime of modern QCD simulations, $`0.5m_\pi 1.0\mathrm{GeV}`$, because the coefficients of higher order terms are very large and oscillate in sign . This lack of convergence can be overcome by using a FRR in chiral EFT. Chiral loop integrals are evaluated with a finite cutoff in momentum space. This procedure incorporates two additional light energy scales in the expansion — the $`N`$$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ mass splitting and the finite size of the source of the pion field. By incorporating both these scales and resumming the chiral expansion one then has an enhanced range of applicability of the effective field theory . This resummation improves the convergence of the expansion to the point where the chiral extrapolation of modern lattice simulations can now be performed reliably .

By investigating a number of functional forms for the momentum-space cutoff of loop integrals in chiral EFT it is found that the extrapolated results show negligible sensitivity to the chosen form of regulator. Results of the extrapolation of CP-PACS lattice data  for four different regulators — sharp, monopole, dipole and gaussian — are shown in Figure 1 .

In summary, the resummation of the chiral series by the use of a FRR provides a remarkably robust chiral extrapolation for lattice simulations performed at moderate quark masses.

## 3 MAGNETIC MOMENTS

The study of magnetic moments on the lattice provides an enhanced opportunity to directly study chiral nonanalytic physics. In QCD the leading nonanalytic contribution to the nucleon magnetic moment is linear in $`m_\pi `$ — compare $`m_\pi ^3`$ for the mass expansion, Eq. (1). This contribution is large, nearly one third of the physical neutron’s magnetic moment. Such is the magnitude of the pion loop effects that one should expect dramatic results in lattice calculations as the light quark mass regime is probed.

Lattice simulations of the electromagnetic structure of baryons have so far been restricted to the quenched model of QCD . Because of the absence of $`q\overline{q}`$ pair-creation, pion loop effects are typically suppressed in the quenched approximation . The inclusion of the flavour singlet $`\eta ^{}`$ does offer the opportunity for detection of enhanced chiral behaviour in quenched simulations. As a result of double-hairpin loops the leading nonanalytic contribution is $`\mathrm{log}m_\pi `$ — i.e. magnetic moments diverge in the chiral limit .

The Delta baryon offers a unique opportunity to study chiral loop effects in quenched QCD. The $`\mathrm{\Delta }N\pi `$ loop integral appears with a negative sign, hence chiral curvature has the opposite effect to that of QCD . The enhancement of the $`N`$$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ mass splitting at light quarks in the quenched approximation has been observed .

The opposite sign on the $`\mathrm{\Delta }N\pi `$ loop means that such a vertex correction to the Delta baryon magnetic moment will also have a sign which is opposite to that of QCD. Finite volume effects cannot change this sign difference. The pion loop contributions to the magnetic moments are $`p`$-wave and hence the main effect of the finite volume is to create a gap in momentum space between $`0`$ and $`2\pi /L`$. Because the loop integrals are positive definite for both the proton and Delta when $`m_\pi +m_N>m_\mathrm{\Delta }`$, the finite volume can only suppress the magnitude of loop effects but cannot change their sign. Studying the nucleon and Delta magnetic moments together therefore provides a clear signal of quenched chiral physics independent of volume effects.

We have calculated the quenched chiral corrections to the Delta baryon magnetic moment using the diagrammatic method of Leinweber . The flavour symmetry of the decuplet baryon interpolating fields means that the magnetic moments are simply proportional to the charge in the quenched isospin symmetric limit. Consideration of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}`$ is therefore sufficient to determine the quark mass dependence of the whole isobar.

The photon vertex correction from the double hairpin $`\eta ^{}`$ dressing $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}\eta ^{}`$ provides a logarithmic divergence. The correction from a photon coupling to the meson loop trivially vanishes in the quenched theory. In the case of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}`$ a pion loop is always a neutral $`u\overline{u}`$ pair and cannot carry a charge current. It is therefore necessary to go to the next order where the photon couples to the intermediate baryon state with a meson loop in the air. The decuplet diagram, $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}\pi ^0`$, is actually increased from the analogous contribution in QCD by a factor $`4/3`$.

It is the decay channel to an intermediate octet state which gives rise to the most interesting behaviour in the quenched theory. There is a vertex correction from an intermediate $`uuu`$-octet state — a double-charge “proton”, $`p^{++}`$ . As discussed by Cloet et al., the opening of the decay channel at $`m_\pi =m_\mathrm{\Delta }m_N`$ gives rise to dramatic curvature at pion masses near threshold .

We show preliminary results of FLIC fermion simulations  of baryon magnetic moments . In particular, we plot together the $`p`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }^+`$ magnetic moments in Figure 2. We observe that at moderate quark masses the expected heavy-quark theory result is observed, with the $`\mathrm{\Delta }^+`$ lying slighty above the proton.

However, in the light-quark regime chiral physics becomes apparent with the clear separation of the two signals. The downward curvature in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }^+`$ is dominated by the coupling to an intermediate octet baryon.

The opposite behaviour of the proton and Delta allows one to unambiguously identify quenched chiral physics at pion masses $`500\mathrm{MeV}`$.

This work was supported by the Australian Research Council and the University of Adelaide.


text:
# Topological Origin of the Phase Transition in a Model of DNA Denaturation

## I The model

The system we studied was introduced in 1989 by Peyrard and Bishop bib:PB89  as a simple model for DNA thermal denaturation. It is defined by the following Hamiltonian

$`H={\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{p_i^2}{2m}}+{\displaystyle \frac{K}{2}}(y_{i+1}y_i)^2+D(e^{ay_i}1)^2+Dhay_i\right],`$ (1)
which represents the energy of a string of $`N`$ base pairs of reduced mass $`m`$. Each hydrogen bond is characterized by the stretching $`y_i`$ and its conjugate momentum $`p_i=m(dy_i/dt)`$. The elastic transverse force between neighboring pairs is tuned by the constant $`K`$, while the energy $`D`$ and the inverse length $`a`$ determine, respectively, the plateau and the narrowness of the on-site potential well that mimics the interaction between bases in each pair. It is understood that $`K`$, $`D`$, and $`a`$ are all positive parameters. The transverse, external stress $`h0`$ is a computational tool useful in the evaluation of the susceptibility. Our interest in it lies in the fact that a phase transition can occur only when $`h=0`$. We assume periodic boundary conditions.

The transfer operator technique bib:SSF72 ; bib:KS75  maps the problem of computing the classical partition function into the easier task of evaluating the lowest energy eigenvalues of a “quantum” mechanical Morse oscillator (no real quantum mechanics is involved, since the temperature plays the role of $`\mathrm{}`$). One can then observe that, as the temperature increases, the number of levels belonging to the discrete spectrum decreases, until for some critical temperature $`T_c=2\sqrt{2KD}/(ak_B)`$ only the continuous spectrum survives. This passage from a localized ground state to an unnormalizable one corresponds to the second order phase transition of the statistical model. Various critical exponents can be analytically computed and all applicable scaling laws can be checked. Detailed calculations as well as references to original works can be found in Ref. bib:DTP02 .

## II Topology of configuration space

According to the Morse theory bib:M , it is possible to understand the topology of a given manifold by studying the regular critical points of some smooth function (called Morse function) defined on it. In our case, the manifold $``$ is the configuration space $`^N`$ and the natural choice for the Morse function is the potential $`V(y)`$. Hence, one is lead to define the following family of submanifolds of $``$:

$`_v=\{y^N:V(y)v\}.`$ (2)
A full characterization of the topological properties of $`_v`$ generally requires one to find the critical points of $`V(y)`$, which means solving the equations

$`{\displaystyle \frac{V}{y_i}}=0,i=1,\mathrm{},N.`$ (3)
Moreover, one has to compute the indexes of all the critical points, that is the number of negative eigenvalues of the Hessian $`^2V/(y_iy_j)`$. Then the Euler characteristic $`\chi (_v)`$ can be computed by means of the formula

$`\chi (_v)={\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{N}{}}}(1)^k\mu _k(_v),`$ (4)
where $`\mu _k(_v)`$ is the total number of critical points of $`V(y)`$ on $`_v`$ which have index $`k`$. If applied to any generic model, such a task turns out to be quite formidable, but the exceptional simplicity of the Peyrard–Bishop model (1) makes it possible to carry on completely the topological analysis without invoking Eq. (4).

For the potential in exam, Eq. (3) results in the nonlinear system

$`{\displaystyle \frac{a}{R}}(y_{i+1}2y_i+y_{i1})=h2(e^{2ay_i}e^{ay_i}),`$ (5)
where $`R=Da^2/K`$ is a dimensionless ratio. It is easy to verify that a particular solution is given by

$`y_i={\displaystyle \frac{1}{a}}\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{1+\sqrt{1+2h}}{2}}i=1,\mathrm{},N.`$ (6)
The corresponding minimum of potential energy is

$`V_{\mathrm{min}}=ND\left({\displaystyle \frac{1+h\sqrt{1+2h}}{2}}h\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{1+\sqrt{1+2h}}{2}}\right).`$
Actually, there is only one other solution. Here is the proof: Equation (5) can also be interpreted as a finite difference second order equation for the evolution of the variable $`y_i`$. Let us introduce a set of new variables $`x_i=(y_iy_{i1})`$. We can fix an initial condition $`y_N=y_0=\overline{y}`$ so that this definition can be reversed into $`y_i=\overline{y}+_{j=1}^ix_j`$. In terms of these new variables, Eq. (5) is written

$`x_{i+1}=x_i+{\displaystyle \frac{R}{a}}\left[h2\mathrm{exp}\left(2a\overline{y}2a{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{i}{}}}x_j\right)+2\mathrm{exp}\left(a\overline{y}a{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{i}{}}}x_j\right)\right]`$ (7)
while the periodicity condition reads simply $`_{j=1}^Nx_j=0`$. Now we prove that no solution is compatible with this requirement besides the trivial solution $`x_i=0i=1,\mathrm{},N`$. From the recursive relation Eq. (7), we deduce that $`x_{i+1}x_i`$ if and only if

$`\mathrm{exp}\left(a\overline{y}a{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{i}{}}}x_j\right){\displaystyle \frac{1+\sqrt{1+2h}}{2}}.`$ (8)
Let us suppose that for some $`k`$ it results $`x_k>0`$. If $`x_kx_{k1}`$, then *a fortiori* $`x_{k+1}x_k`$ because $`e^{ax_k}<1`$. Now $`x_{k+1}>0`$ and $`x_{k+1}x_k`$ imply $`x_{k+2}x_{k+1}`$ and so on: The series $`\{x_j\}`$ increases for $`j>k`$. On the other hand, if $`x_k<x_{k1}`$, then $`e^{ax_{k1}}<1`$; hence, $`x_{k1}<x_{k2}`$ and so on. Either situation is incompatible with a periodic boundary condition. A completely analogous argument rules out the possibility that it could be $`x_k<0`$ for some value of $`k`$.

We have proven that no solution is possible for Eq. (5) unless it results $`y_i=Y`$ $`i`$. Now it is evident that, when $`h=0`$, the limiting point $`Y+\mathrm{}`$ is a critical point. Here it is useful to introduce new variables $`w_ie^{ay_i}`$, so that the condition of vanishing gradient reads

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{R}}\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{w_i^2}{w_{i+1}w_{i1}}}=h2w_i(w_i1),`$ (9)
from which we immediately recognize, beside the minimum Eq. (6), a second solution $`w_i=0i=1,\mathrm{},N`$, present only when $`h=0`$. This is an irregular critical point because its Hessian matrix is degenerate; hence, the potential can no longer be considered a good Morse function. Two remarks are in order: First, as already stated, we do not need Eq. (4) because $`_v`$ is homotopous to a full disk; second, since the Euler characteristic is a homotopical invariant, it does not change at $`v_c`$ for the submanifolds $`_v`$.

Notwithstanding this, we still have a way to complete our analysis. Let us consider the *boundaries* of $`M_v`$, the hypersurfaces

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }_v\{y^N:V(y)=v\}.`$ (10)
If we choose one direction $`\stackrel{~}{y}=(\stackrel{~}{y}_1,\mathrm{},\stackrel{~}{y}_N)`$ and study the asymptotic behavior of the function $`V(y)`$ in that direction by taking the limit $`\lambda \mathrm{}`$ in $`V(\lambda \stackrel{~}{y})`$, we find that if there is at least one negative component $`\stackrel{~}{y}_j<0`$, then the limit is positive infinity because of the exponential term. If all of the components are positive, then the potential goes as

$`{\displaystyle \frac{K\lambda ^2}{2}}{\displaystyle (\stackrel{~}{y}_{i+1}\stackrel{~}{y}_i)}+\lambda Dha{\displaystyle \stackrel{~}{y}_i}+ND,`$ (11)
so that the limit is always positive infinity unless all $`\stackrel{~}{y}_j`$ are equal and $`h=0`$. This implies that for $`v`$ raising from $`V_{\mathrm{min}}`$ to $`v_c=ND`$ it happens that $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_v`$ is a closed ($`N`$$`1`$) hypersurface \[$`\chi (\mathrm{\Sigma }_v)=0`$ or 2 depending on $`N`$ being odd or even, respectively\].

On the contrary, if $`v=v_c`$ and $`h=0`$, in the direction singled out by the condition $`\stackrel{~}{y}_1=\stackrel{~}{y}_2=\mathrm{}=\stackrel{~}{y}_N`$, the level hypersurface $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{v_c}`$ closes at positive infinity (see Fig. 1 for a $`N=2`$ example), while for each $`v>v_c`$ the level hypersurfaces fail to close \[$`\chi (\mathrm{\Sigma }_v)=1`$\]. This topological change is evidently related to the phase transition, since its presence is due to the very same feature of the potential (its plateau) giving rise to the phase transition.

## III Conclusions

Since its original formulation Caiani:1997yv , the topological hypothesis has received several indirect and direct confirmations. If we limit ourselves to the latter, we may cite the numerical study of the $`\varphi ^4`$ theory Franzosi:1999cq  and the analytical computations of the Euler characteristic of the mean-field XY model bib:ccp99 ; bib:CPC03  and of the mean-field $`k`$-trigonometric model bib:ACPRZ03 .

The main difference between our work and previous results lies in the low dimensionality of the Peyrard-Bishop model. By choosing a 1D system, we get an enormous simplification of the landscape of critical points of the potential $`V(y)`$, resulting in a completely transparent description of the relation between topology and phase transition. Indeed, the same mechanism responsible for the appearance of the phase transition is clearly seen to produce the topology change in configuration space.

Moreover, the present work contributes to enlarge the record of cases (quite a useful job in a research field so recent and full of open questions such as this) in at least two respects: It is the first analytical study of the topology of a *noncompact* configuration manifold and, while previous results bib:ACPRZ03  identify the phase transition point in a discontinuity of the first derivative of $`\chi (_v)`$, the present work is peculiar in the sense that the topological change is signaled by the Euler characteristic of the boundary submanifolds $`\chi (\mathrm{\Sigma }_v)`$.

In conclusion, it should be remarked that, though the Peyrard–Bishop model is very simple, it represents a first step in the exploration of the complex and interesting world of biological transition phenomena. Topological techniques will hopefully provide valuable insight to such a challenging research topic.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was partially supported by the European Commission TMR programme HPRN-CT-2002-00325 (EUCLID). The work of P. G. is supported by the COFIN “Teoria dei Campi, Meccanica Statistica e Sistemi Elettronici”.


text:
# The Rotation Of The Deep Solar Layers

## 1 Introduction

Helioseismologists use the oscillations of acoustic waves that propagate inside the Sun to infer its rotation profile. Due to the solar rotation (and magnetic fields), the frequencies of two modes of the same degree $`\mathrm{}`$ and radial order $`n`$, but with different azimuthal orders $`m`$, are separated by a small amount referred to as splitting ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\omega _{\mathrm{}nm}`$).

The understanding of the angular momentum redistribution in the deep interior requires a precise derivation of the rotation profile below the convection zone, but this profile is still a matter of debate. In the past an increase of the rotation rate near the core has long been favored (e.g. Lazrek et al. 1996), but recent results by Chaplin et al. (1999) and Eff-Darwich, Korzennik, & Jiménez-Reyes (2002) favor a slight decrease. Corbard et al. (1997), using LOWL data, and Ehgamberdiev et al. (2001), using IRIS data, also derived such a decrease.

Here we focus on the rotation in the solar core derived from the GOLF (Global Oscillations at Low Frequency) and MDI (Michelson Doppler Imager) instruments, supplemented for modes with $`\mathrm{}>3`$ by LOWL data. These data sets and the interest of the low-order modes are presented in sections 2 and 3 respectively. In section 4, the method utilized to extract the rotational splittings is discussed. In section 5 we discuss the rotation profile. We conclude in section 6.

## 2 The Data

We use data from GOLF/SoHO and MDI/SoHO for the modes $`\mathrm{}3`$. GOLF detects the global solar oscillations by the Doppler shift they produce at the surface on the sodium lines. It is specifically designed to be more sensitive to the low-degree modes, and only detects those with $`\mathrm{}+m`$ equal to an even number. We utilize the 2034-day long GOLF series (starting in April 1996) for the GOLF-alone splittings. MDI detects solar surface velocity from a nickel spectral line and resolves the solar surface. To produce integrated-disk temporal series sensitive to the low-$`\mathrm{}`$ modes, we apply two masks (gaussian, and gaussian zero mean) to the 2243-day long MDI series (Henney et al. 1999). These two series have been properly combined with GOLF 2243-day long series to increase the signal-to-noise ratio of the low-$`\mathrm{}`$ modes, and to reduce the leakage of higher-$`\mathrm{}`$ modes present on the MDI spectrum (García et al. 2003). The use of the MDI+GOLF time series allows for the precise measurement of lower-$`n`$ modes. This point of interest is discussed further in section 3. We supplemented these GOLF-alone and MDI+GOLF data with LOWL rotational splittings for $`\mathrm{}>3`$. We used six LOWL series of 1 year, from February 1994 to February 2000. The splittings have been extracted for each year but the final result uses the 6 years statistics (Jiménez-Reyes 2001).

## 3 Information Value of Low-Order Modes

The derivation of the rotation profile in the radiative zone requires high-precision splittings. For instance, only $`3.5\%`$ of the splitting ($`406`$ nHz) of the mode $`\mathrm{}=1`$ $`n=9`$ $`m=1`$ (at $`1472.85\mu `$Hz) is due to the rotation below $`0.2R_{}`$ (Couvidat 2002). Thus, we need to derive $`\mathrm{\Delta }\omega _{1,9,1}`$ with a precision better than $`14.2`$ nHz to obtain information on the core. The error associated with this splitting is $`\pm 5.3`$ nHz (see Table 1). It contains more information than the mode $`\mathrm{}=1`$ $`n=20`$ (at $`2963.43\mu `$Hz), for which $`6.5\%`$ of its splitting ($`401`$ nHz) is due to the core, i.e. $`26`$ nHz, but the uncertainty is $`34.6`$ nHz. This point is illustrated by the left panel of Fig 1. Even though the inner turning point is closer to the core as $`n`$ increases, the outer turning point is also closer to the surface, where stochastic excitation and solar cycle effects become more important. Therefore, the most favorable trade-off between sensitivity to the core rotation and uncertainty in the rotational splitting determination occurs for low-$`\mathrm{}`$ low-$`n`$ p modes. Consequently we use only these modes in the present analysis.

## 4 The Rotational Splittings

The splittings are obtained by fitting the components of each mode to asymmetric Lorentzian profiles (Nigam & Kosovichev 1998) using a maximum likelihood code based on Appourchaux, Gizon, & Rabello-Soares (1998). The modes $`\mathrm{}=0`$ & $`2`$ are fitted together, likewise the modes $`\mathrm{}=1`$ & $`3`$. For the GOLF-alone series, we use the periodogram of the data as the power spectrum, except for the modes $`\mathrm{}=1`$ $`n=7`$ & $`8`$, and $`\mathrm{}=2`$ $`n=8`$ & $`9`$, for which we use a multitaper spectral estimator (e.g. Percival & Walden 1993). For the combined MDI+GOLF series we again use the multitaper. We restricted the search of the splittings to modes with a frequency less than $`3000\mu `$Hz, and use for the inversion only the modes with $`n15`$. This way we limit the impact of the solar cycle and surface effects. This approach is consistent with the results of Chaplin et al. (2001) who demonstrated that the splittings are strongly biased at higher frequencies, and Chaplin et al. (2003), who showed that the solar cycle does not affect the splittings of the low-$`n`$ $`\mathrm{}=2`$ modes.

The free parameters of the fitted profiles for each mode are: the full width at half maximum (FWHM, the same for all the components of a mode), the amplitude (the relative amplitudes of the different components are fixed empirically), the asymmetry (the same for each component), the central frequency, the noise level (assumed to be constant in the fit window of 40 $`\mu `$Hz), and the splittings. The latter parameters are sectoral values ($`|m|=\mathrm{}`$). We restrict the fits to frequencies $`20002200\mu `$Hz on the MDI+GOLF data, because of the growing influence of higher-$`\mathrm{}`$ modes in the fit window (for instance, $`\mathrm{}=5`$ modes perturb the $`\mathrm{}=2`$ profiles).

In Table 1, we list the synodic sectoral splittings and their uncertainties. The rotational splittings common to the MDI+GOLF and GOLF-alone datasets generally agree within the $`1\sigma `$ uncertainty. Right panel of Fig 1 presents these splittings as a function of the inner turning point. This plot emphasizes the high quality of the SoHO data after 5 years of observation in comparison with previous data sets.

## 5 The Solar Rotation Profile

The 1D inversion of sectoral splittings provides information about the rotation mainly along the solar equator, but with contamination by the higher latitudes. We applied a 1D MOLA inversion technique (Multiplicative Optimally Localized Averages, see e.g. Corbard et al. 1998). The MDI+GOLF and GOLF-alone splittings (when the former are unavailable) were completed for $`\mathrm{}>3`$ with splittings from LOWL. The direct inversion of the data leads to a rigid rotation from the base of the convective zone at $`0.713R_{}`$ down to $`0.35R_{}`$ (see upper panel of Fig 2). Below there is a decrease in the rotation rate of the solar equator, as mentioned previously by several authors. Depending on the regularization parameter, this decrease is more or less pronounced (here we show the profile with the most pronounced decrease). However, the 1D inversion with the sectoral splittings relies on the assumption that the rotation rate at any latitude is equal to the rate at the equator.

As the differential rotation of the convective zone implies the higher latitudes rotate more slowly than the equator, we need to correct the splittings for this contribution. Therefore, we add $`12`$ nHz to the $`\mathrm{}=1`$ splittings, $`8`$ nHz to the $`\mathrm{}=2`$, and $`6`$ nHz to the $`\mathrm{}=3`$, following Corbard et al. (1998). The values of these corrections were derived from a 2D Regularized Least-Squares inversion of MDI data in the convective zone, by comparing the splittings computed with the exact linear relation (that involves the 2D rotational kernels and rotation profile) with the splittings computed with the 1D sectoral approximation. We present on the lower panel of Fig 2 the profile derived with the corrected splittings. We obtain a flat profile in the radiative interior. The dip around $`0.3R_{}`$ might be due to the absence of correction of the LOWL splittings but we cannot rule out a physical phenomenon at the limit of the nuclear core.

This careful inversion of our most precise seismic data therefore favors a flat rotation curve at $`430`$ nHz in the solar radiative interior. This lends support for a magnetic field strong enough to suppress any differential rotation that might arise from an angular momentum redistribution through the gravity waves (Talon, Kumar, & Zahn 2002). We think that the absence of a decrease or increase in the rotation rate, compared with previous works, is mainly due to the quality of the present data and the limitation in the degradation of these data by the external layers. We note that an increase of the rotation rate seems now very unlikely down to $`0.2R_{}`$, but cannot be ruled out below $`0.2`$ by the present gravity-mode analysis (Turck-Chièze et al. 2002).

We have also reduced the MDI+GOLF splittings to $`a_1`$ coefficients (Schou et al. 1994) by removing $`a_3`$ (for $`\mathrm{}=2,3`$) and $`a_5`$ (for $`\mathrm{}=3`$) estimated from our knowledge of the rotation in the convection zone. This allows us to combine them directly with LOWL $`a_1`$ coefficients and carry a 1D inversion for a latitudinally averaged rotation rate. This gives results nearly identical to the one shown on the bottom panel of Fig 2. Finally, we also suppressed the solar cycle effects for intermediate- and high-$`\mathrm{}`$ by using only the first year of LOWL data. Of course this increases the vertical error bars but does not change the rotation profile.

## 6 Summary

By using the high-quality seismic data from the spatial instruments GOLF & MDI, and by using only the low-$`n`$ modes, we limit the effects of the variable magnetic field that takes place in the outer layers and obtain a very coherent dataset for rotation below the solar convection zone. While a proper treatment of the latitudinal dependence of the rotation speed is still needed to extract the rotation in the core from 1D inversions, the method we apply here removes the effect of latitudinal variation of the rotation in the convection zone, and we obtain a flat rotation profile down to 0.2 $`R_{}`$. This puts a strong constraint on the redistribution of the angular momentum. The uncertainties in the rotation rate are still quite large below $`0.3R_{}`$: progress on this point can be achieved by the detection of mixed low-$`\mathrm{}`$ pressure modes, and gravity modes.

## Acknowledgments

GOLF & MDI instruments are cooperative efforts (of French and Spanish institutes for GOLF) to whom we are deeply indebted. SoHO is a project of international cooperation between ESA and NASA. S.C. acknowledges the support of a CEA/Saclay doctoral Grant and the NASA Grant NAG5-10483. We wish to thank ECHO team for providing us the LOWL mode parameters.


text:
# Theory and Phenomenology of the Polyakov loop in QCD Thermodynamics

## Abstract

A synthesis of Polyakov loop models of the deconfinement transition and quasiparticle models of gluon plasma thermodynamics leads to a class of models in which gluons move in a non-trivial Polyakov loop background. These models are successful candidates for explaining both critical behavior and the equation of state for the $`SU(3)`$ gauge theory at finite temperature. Two sensitive lattice probes which can discriminate between models are the Polyakov loop $`P`$ and $`\epsilon 3p`$.

The body of results on the critical behavior and thermodynamics of QCD and related theories at finite temperature are among the most important that lattice gauge theory simulations have provided, giving important guidance in both theory and experiment. Theoretical work on the thermodynamics of the quark-gluon plasma at zero chemical potential is often benchmarked against results from lattice simulations. Here we explore a class of models which synthesize the attractive features of quasiparticle models of the quark-gluon plasma  and Polyakov loop models of the deconfinement phase transition . Quasiparticle models, which are partially motivated by perturbation theory, have been successful in fitting lattice results for thermodynamic quantities such as the pressure over a large range of temperatures, but typically at the cost of introducing a number of extra assumptions and parameters. Polyakov loop models extend the equilibrium free energy density $`f`$ to a function of the Polyakov loop $`P`$, which is the order parameter for the deconfining phase transition in pure gauge theories. The spontaneous breaking of center symmetry in pure gauge theories, which underlies our understanding of the deconfinement transition, occurs in these models because the free energy develops symmetry-breaking global minima above the deconfinement temperature $`T_c`$.

The general class of models of deconfinement we study have free energies of the form

$`f(T,P)`$ $`=`$ $`V(T,P)p_g(T,P,M(T))`$ (1)
$`+B(T,P,M(T)).`$
The first term $`V(T,P)`$ is phenomenological, and favors the confined phase at low temperature. The second term is the negative of the quasiparticle pressure $`p_g`$, and represents the contribution of gluonic quasiparticles moving in the presence of a background Polyakov loop. The quasiparticle pressure is given by

$`p_g(T,P,M(T))`$ $`=`$ $`2T{\displaystyle \frac{d^3k}{\left(2\pi \right)^3}}`$ (2)
$`Tr_A\mathrm{ln}\left[1e^{\beta \omega _k}P\right]`$
where $`Tr_A`$ denotes the trace in the adjoint representation. The pressure depends on the quasiparticle mass through the quasiparticle energy, assumed to have the simple form $`\omega _k=\sqrt{k^2+M\left(T\right)^2};`$ the quasiparticle mass is temperature-dependent. The third term is the so-called bag term. It arises because the zero-quasiparticle state has a non-zero, temperature-dependent energy $`B`$. If we assume that $`B`$ depends on $`T`$ only through the quasiparticle mass $`M`$, then thermodynamic consistency leads to an expression for $`B`$which may be written as

$`B(T,P,M(T))`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _{T_0}^T}𝑑\tau {\displaystyle \frac{M^2}{\tau }}{\displaystyle \frac{d^3k}{\left(2\pi \right)^3}\frac{1}{k^2}}`$ (3)
$`Tr_A\mathrm{ln}\left[1e^{\omega _k/\tau }P\right].`$
After minimization with respect to $`P`$, the equilibrium pressure is given by the negative of the minimum of the free energy density.

In previous work , we have developed two models for the $`SU(N)`$ deconfinement transition which fit within this general class. In both models, we took $`M=0`$ and hence $`B=0`$. Both of these models gave a good representation of the critical behavior for all $`N`$, and reasonable thermodynamic behavior. Here we extend the second of these two models, called model B, to model B+M which includes quasiparticle mass effects. The potential $`V`$associated with model B has the form

$$V(T,P)=\frac{T}{R^3}\mathrm{ln}\left[\mu \left(P\right)\right]+v_0$$
(4)
where $`\mu (P)`$ is Haar measure on the gauge group. This form for the potential can be understood as enforcing color neutrality at scales $`R`$ and larger. We again use the parameter $`R`$ to set $`T_c`$ to the result of lattice simulations. The constant $`v_0`$ is used to match the pressure at one point on the curve, again chosen to be $`T_c`$.

We show in figure 1 the dimensionless pressure $`p/T^4`$as a function of $`T/T_c`$ for models B and B+M, along with simulation data from . Note that once $`R`$ and $`v_0`$ are fixed by determining $`T_c`$ and $`p(T_c)`$, there are no more free parameters in model B. The pressure from Model B overshoots the lattice data at higher temperatures, and the quasiparticle mass corrects this. The quasiparticle mass term has the form suggested by perturbation theory, $`M(T)=g(T)T/\sqrt{2}`$. We take the temperature-dependent coupling constant to be given by $`g^2(T)=8\pi ^2/11\mathrm{ln}\left(T/\mathrm{\Lambda }\right)`$ where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is an adjustable parameter. We have obtained the best fit to the lattice pressure data by replacing $`T/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ in $`g(T)`$ with a crossover function of the form $`\left[\left(T/\mathrm{\Lambda }\right)^n+\left(T_{cr}/\mathrm{\Lambda }\right)^n\right]^{1/n}`$ where we have taken $`n=10`$. Both Polyakov loop effects and a rapidly rising quasiparticle mass suppress the temperature as one moves to lower temperature, and both are not needed. It is physically plausible that $`g`$ does not run with $`T`$ all the way down to zero temperature, and the crossover function provides that effect. The critical temperature is taken to be $`T_c=0.272GeV`$, although an exact number is not needed. The parameter $`R`$ is determined from $`T_c`$, and is given by $`R^1=0.61T_c=0.17GeV`$ which may be compared with the result for model $`B`$, $`R^1=73T_c=0.2GeV`$. The value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ obtained was $`0.3T_c=.081GeV`$, with a crossover temperature $`T_{cr}=2.4T_c`$.

Figure 2 compares the dimensionless interaction measure $`\mathrm{\Delta }=(\epsilon 3p)/T^4`$ for model B+M with both lattice results and a quasiparticle model without Polyakov loop effects ($`L=1`$). Model B+M shows a peak in $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ just above $`T_c`$, consistent with the lattice data, and correctly reproduces the latent heat of the first-order $`SU(3)`$ deconfinement transition. Of course, the model without Polyakov loops effects is incapable of reproducing the deconfinement transition. The first-order character of the $`SU(3)`$ deconfinement transition is also clear in Figure 3, which shows the Polyakov loop as a function of $`T/T_c`$The shape of the curve is similar to that found in a recent lattice determination of the Polyakov loop . It is also interesting to compare the quasiparticle masses for model B+M with the $`L=1`$ model, as shown in figure 4. The most notable difference is the rapid rise of the quasiparticle mass in the $`L=1`$ model near $`T_c`$.

It should be apparent that many models will be able to fit lattice thermodynamic results well. The ability to describe both the thermodynamic results and the deconfinement transition, while not unique to the model described here, seems very desirable. The introduction of an extra term $`V`$ in the free energy is phenomenological, but based on our understanding of the deconfinement transition. The onus of describing the temperature region just above $`T_c`$ is placed where it likely belongs, on the confinement mechanism. It is possible to extend this model to include quarks. As with confinement, our inability to describe chiral symmetry breaking in a fundamental way forces us to use phenomenological models, in this case of Nambu-Jona Lasinio type. Nevertheless, a useful synthesis of our current understanding of deconfinement and chiral symmetry restoration is likely possible.


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# Hidden glassy behaviors in an ideal Heisenberg Kagomé antiferromagnet

## Abstract

Dynamics of classical Heisenberg spins, $`𝐒_i=(𝐬_i,S_{iz})`$, on the Kagomé lattice has been studied. An ideal Heisenberg Kagomé antiferromagnet is known to remain disordered down to $`T=0`$ due to the macroscopic degeneracy of the ground state. Through the study, however, we find that $`𝐒_i`$ and their planar components $`𝐬_i`$ behave in a qualitatively different way and especially planar spins ($`𝐬_i`$) show the exotic glass-like transition in the very low temperature $`T0.003J`$ ($`J`$: spin exchange). The glassy behaviors of $`𝐬_i`$ would be found to be driven by the spin-nematic fluctuations, different from ordinary spin glasses by disorders or anisotropies.

Magnetic systems in which the exchange energy is not minimized by a simple regular arrangement of the spins are called the frustrated magnetic systems. Frustrated antiferromegnets induced by the geometry of the lattice have been a recent subject attracting much experimental and theoretical interestsSchiffer . One example of such systems is the antiferromagnet on the Kagomé lattice. It consists of triangles. The Kagomé lattice is, however, more frustrated than the triangular lattice because triangles on the former lattice share only one vertex, but on the latter share one side. Indeed, classical Heisenberg spins on the Kagomé lattice have an infinitely degenerate ground state and some novel ground state is expected as $`T0`$ without developing long-range order at any $`T`$, which has been a main reason drawing considerable attentionHuse ; Harris ; Chalker ; Ritchey ; Reimers . Their experimental realizations are, for instance, the insulating layered compound SrCr8-xGa4+xO19 (Cr3+ carries $`S=3/2`$)Ramirez ; Broholm ; Uemura  and the jarosites $`A`$Fe3(OH)6(SO4)2 ($`A`$=K, H3O, Na, NH4, and so forth; Fe3+ carries $`S=5/2`$)Inami ; Wills .

Extremely high degeneracy of the ground state inhibits the long-range order at any $`T`$. But it has been known that thermal fluctuations in the system select a subset of ground state manifold at low $`T`$ (known as ordering by disorder)Chalker ; Reimers , even if this subset is not clear enough to lead to long-range Néel order. Chalker et al.Chalker  have argued by low temperature expansions that thermal fluctuations resolve degeneracy of ground states and cause the system to select a coplanar nematic ground states. There are at least two coplanar ground states possessing long-range Néel order; one is the so-called $`q=0`$ state and the other is $`\sqrt{3}\times \sqrt{3}`$ state (See the inset in Fig.1(a); in the $`q=0`$ state, spins along lines are placed in an alternating sequence compared to the $`\sqrt{3}\times \sqrt{3}`$ state). Reimers and BerlinskyReimers  have shown, through the Monte Carlo simulation, that an increase in the order parameter of the $`\sqrt{3}\times \sqrt{3}`$ state is dominant over the $`q=0`$ state. In addition, SachdevSachdev  has also argued that the $`\sqrt{3}\times \sqrt{3}`$ state is further accepted and favored in the low temperature limit by quantum fluctuations.

Magnetic frustration used to be found with the site disorder, even if these two features may appear independently. When both, disorder and frustration, are strong, its interplay gives place to the spin glass phaseChowdhury . On the other hand, the antiferromagnetic Heisenberg model on the Kagomé lattice is an ideal geometrically frustrated magnet without disorders. Nevertheless, in some of prototype systems of the Kagomé lattice, the spin glass ordering at a finite temperature is actually observed because of deviations from an ideal one. In SrCr8-xGa4+xO19, $`T_g=3.3`$ K is found in a case of $`x=0`$ corresponding to 89% occupation of Cr sitesRamirez ; Broholm ; Uemura . In the system, Cr3+ just enters three different octahedral sites (namely, 2a, 12k, 4f) with an almost random distribution and SrCr8Ga4O19 has then $``$14% site disorder (nonmagnetic impurities) on the Kagomé layer (12k sites). The glass order is enhanced by the additional dilution of Cr sitesRamirez . The glassy phase in nondisordered frustrated magnetic systems has been attracting much interests. Most two-dimensional magnetic materials exhibit some kinds of spin anisotropy. A critical slowing down of magnetic fluctuations is found in the hydronium-jarosite (H3O)Fe3(OH)6(SO4)2 with much less disordersWills . The glass phase in the system may be a bit different from in SrCr8Ga4O19, due to the $`xy`$ anisotropy (”easy-plane”), which could drive the Kagomé antiferromagnet to experience the topological Kosterlitz-Thouless-type transition to a glassy stateRitchey . The glassy behavior in the Kagomé antiferromagnet with the easy-axis type anisotropy has been also exploredKuroda .

In this paper, through the study of dynamical properties, we report the hidden glassy behaviors of Heisenberg spins on the ideal Kagomé lattice without any disorder or anisotropy. KerenKeren  has investigated the stability of the spin order against excitation and the dynamical responses of spins on the Kagomé lattice. Actually, in his study, there is found no transition down to $`T=0`$ as there should not be. Nevertheless, we find that behaviors of $`𝐒_i`$ and its planar component $`𝐬_i`$ are qualitatively different from each other and $`𝐬_i`$ undergoes a glassy transition around $`T0.003J`$ unlike $`𝐒_i`$.

Taking the classical Heisenberg spins as $`𝐒_i=(𝐬_i,S_{iz})`$, we have the Hamiltonian

$$=J\underset{ij}{}𝐬_i𝐬_j+J\underset{ij}{}S_{iz}S_{jz},$$
(1)
where $`𝐬_i^2+S_{iz}^2=1`$. Reimers and BerlinskyReimers  have demonstrated that the tendency toward spin-nematic order starts at $`T0.01J`$, which motivates us to explore the respective dynamics of $`𝐒_i`$ and $`𝐬_i`$ at the relevant temperature range, i.e. $`T0.01J`$. Particularly, we have interests in the local spin-spin correlation functions as

$`J(\omega )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}{\displaystyle 𝑑\tau e^{i\omega \tau }\underset{i}{}𝐒_i𝐒_i(\tau )},`$
$`j(\omega )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}{\displaystyle 𝑑\tau e^{i\omega \tau }\underset{i}{}𝐬_i𝐬_i(\tau )}.`$ (2)
The correlation functions such as $`J(\omega )`$ and $`j(\omega )`$ can be most properly evaluated by the Monte Carlo simulationLandau . The time evolution of spins are governed by the equation of motion $`𝐒_i/\tau =J𝐒_i\times _{ji}𝐒_j`$. A practical integration of the equation is done using the Suzuki-Trotter decomposition on the three sublattices (say $`A`$, $`B`$, and $`C`$) of the Kagomé lattice, $`\{𝐒_i(\tau +\delta \tau )\}=e^{(A+B+C)\delta \tau }\{𝐒_i(\tau )\}`$, where $`e^{(A+B+C)\delta \tau }`$ is decomposed using $`e^{(X+Y)\delta \tau }=_{i=1}^5e^{p_iX\delta \tau /2}e^{p_iY\delta \tau }e^{p_iX\delta \tau /2}+𝒪(\delta \tau ^5)`$ and $`p_1=p_2=p_4=p_5=p=1/(44^{1/3})`$ and $`p_3=14p`$Landau . We use the hybrid Monte Carlo procedure which combines the Metropolis update and the overrelaxation updateBrown . One hybrid Monte Carlo step in our calculation consists of two Metropolis steps and four overrelaxation steps. Using the hybrid algorithm, $`𝒪(10^4)`$ hybrid steps are typically used to reach the equilibrium configurationhybrid . A system size is defined by the linear dimension $`L`$ of the lattice and the total number of spins $`N`$ is $`3L^2`$. In an actual simulation for dynamical correlation functions, the time integration has been performed up to $`\tau _{max}=26214.4J^1`$ with a step of $`\delta \tau =0.2J^1`$. The thermal average of time-dependent variables is computed over the observables obtained by evolving all independent initial equilibrium configurations. Typically, $`10^3`$ configurations were generated at a given $`T`$. An adopted system size for dynamical calculations is $`L=24`$, that is, 1728 spinsLsize .

In Fig.1, the temperature-dependences of $`J(0)`$ and $`j(0)`$ are provided both when relaxing and annealing the system. $`J(0)`$ (or $`j(0)`$) is a quasi-elastic response of local spin-spin correlation function and a quantity directly related to the spin-lattice relaxation rate $`T_1`$ of a local probe like the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). For a case of relaxing, the nominal state at $`T=0`$ is taken as the $`\sqrt{3}\times \sqrt{3}`$ state. For a case of annealing, on the other hand, after heating the $`\sqrt{3}\times \sqrt{3}`$ state to $`T=0.05J`$, we obtain the equilibrium state by gradual cooling. Fig.1 shows that $`J(0)`$ is history-independent, whereas $`j(0)`$ is history-dependent roughly below $`T0.003J`$. History-dependent magnetic responses can be one of indications of the glassy phase because of the slow dynamics of spins in the phase. Hereafter the aimed configuration is obtained by warming the system from the $`\sqrt{3}\times \sqrt{3}`$ state, if not stated otherwise. In the inset of the figure, $`J(0)j(0)`$, i.e. $`J_z(0)`$ are given. A much sharper comparison between $`J(0)`$ and $`j(0)`$ is done by taking their inverses. In Fig.2, $`1/J(0)`$ and $`1/j(0)`$ are shown more or less linear with respect to $`T`$ and $`1/j(0)`$ suffers an abrupt and appreciable change of the proportionality constant near $`T0.003J`$, which is not found in $`1/J(0)`$.

It should be also interesting to investigate the behaviors of $`J(\omega )`$ and $`j(\omega )`$ in the low energy region ($`\omega 0.003J`$). Fischer and KinzelFischer  have extended the dynamical analysis of early spin glass theories and predicted a crossover in low energy behaviors of the ac magnetic susceptibility ($`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega )`$; basically, same as $`J(\omega )`$) from $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega )\omega `$ in high temperatures to $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega )\omega ^{\nu (T)}`$ near $`T_g`$ and especially $`\nu (T_g)=1/2`$. Paulsen et al.Paulsen  have found that $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega )`$ in the spin glass system Eu0.4Sr0.6S has a power-law dependence on frequency like $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega )\omega ^{\nu (T)}`$ and $`\nu (T)`$ has abruptly changed from $`\nu (TT_g)0.09`$ to $`\nu (TT_g)0.4`$ around the freezing temperature $`T_g`$. Broholm et al.Broholm  have also reported the similar power law behavior like $`\omega ^{\nu (T)}`$ of the local response function in SrCr8-xGa4+xO19 and changes of $`\nu (T)`$ around $`T_g`$, that is, $`\nu (T)0`$ below $`T_g`$ and $`1`$ in high temperatures. In Fig.3, the low energy responses of the spin-spin correlation functions are given. Behaviors of $`j(\omega )`$ in the lower panel of Fig.3 is appealing in that $`j(\omega )\omega ^0`$ ($`j(\omega )`$ is expected to follow $`1/(\omega ^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }(T)^2)`$) below $`T0.003J`$ changes to $`j(\omega )\omega ^\nu `$ ($`\nu >0`$) above $`T0.003J`$. No similar changes are found in $`J(\omega )`$ as shown in the upper panel of the figure. All previous results of Figs.1-3 on $`j(\omega )`$ are subordinate to the glass-like phase transition at $`T0.003J`$ and quite consistent with each other. On the contrary, any indication of spin phase transition down to $`T0`$ is not found in magnetic responses of $`𝐒_i`$ (i.e. $`J(0)`$ and $`J(\omega )`$), which is consistent with Keren’sKeren .

We now importantly note that $`𝐒_i`$ and $`𝐬_i`$ behave in a qualitatively different way. In order to understand the differences, we pay attention to the low energy sector of the Hamiltonian. Following Chalker et al.Chalker , $``$, in the low temperature expansion, on the Kagomé lattice is schematically

$$=_0+_\mathrm{h}(ϵ_\alpha ^2,ϵ_\beta ^2)+_{\mathrm{anh}}(ϵ_\alpha ϵ_\beta ^2,ϵ_\beta ^4,\mathrm{}),$$

where $`ϵ_\alpha `$ ($`ϵ_\beta `$) is the fluctuation perpendicular to $`𝐒_i`$ in the particular planar ground state and in (out of) the spin plane and $`_\mathrm{h}`$ and $`_{\mathrm{anh}}`$ includes harmonic and anharmonic fluctuations, respectively. In harmonic fluctuations (within the linear spin waves), $`ϵ_\alpha ^2`$ gives three transverse modes and $`ϵ_\beta ^2`$ two transverse modes and one zero mode per unit cell comprising three spins. The role of quartic potential for the zero mode is then unique and is to stabilize the planar states by inducing the spin-nematic fluctuation. Now, let us think of the planar counterpart of $``$, i.e. $`_𝐬`$,

$$_𝐬=_0+_\mathrm{h}(ϵ_\alpha ^2)+_{\mathrm{anh}}(ϵ_\alpha ϵ_\beta ^2,ϵ_\beta ^4,\mathrm{}).$$

In $`_𝐬`$, terms of $`ϵ_\alpha ϵ_\beta ^2`$ and $`ϵ_\beta ^4`$ disturb the system like disorders (but not static) in a complicated way. For a weakly (or non-) disordered case, it is known that the ground state configuration is such that the energy of each separate triangle is minimized (”rule of satisfied triangles”), implying the glass phase will not occurShender . In $`_𝐬`$, however, in Fig.4, the energy minimization of each triangle depends on the local spin distortions produced by neighboring triangles, in other words, by correlations between fluctuating degrees of freedom (e.g. $`ϵ_\alpha ^iϵ_{\beta }^{j}{}_{}{}^{2}`$ or $`ϵ_{\beta }^{i}{}_{}{}^{2}ϵ_{\beta }^{j}{}_{}{}^{2}`$). Alternatively, terms of $`ϵ_\alpha ϵ_\beta ^2`$ and $`ϵ_\beta ^4`$ can be also understood to lead to planar spins of dynamically varied magnitudes, which act as strong disorders such that glassy behavior may occur. To integrate out $`\{ϵ_\alpha \}`$ in the partition function or correlation functions leaves terms of $`ϵ_\beta ^4`$. If we note its role in $``$ and the ground state, the glass-like order of planar spins can be attributed to the spin-nematic fluctuations. The glass-like order in the system is different from conventional spin glasses in that it is originated by the dynamical fluctuations of inherent degrees of freedom, not by the static physical disorders or anisotropies in the systems.

Finally, it may be interesting to test a case of XY spins (planar spins by definition) without such fluctuationsHxy , for which the easiest way is probably to examine the static spin susceptibility. It is also a good indicator of the spin ordering and shows a cusp at the transition temperature in the spin glassChowdhury ; Chalupa . The spin susceptibilities are defined for $`𝐒_i`$ and $`𝐬_i`$ as $`\chi _𝐒(T)1/T_{ij}\left[𝐒_i𝐒_j𝐒_i𝐒_j\right]`$ and $`\chi _𝐬(T)1/T_{ij}\left[𝐬_i𝐬_j𝐬_i𝐬_j\right]`$, respectively. In Fig.5, it is found that only $`\chi _\mathrm{s}(T)`$ shows a cusp at $`T0.003J`$ and other $`\chi _𝐒(T)`$ and $`\chi _{\mathrm{XY}}(T)`$ increases smoothly without any singularities with respect to $`T`$, even if all the three cases are started from the seemingly same spin configuration (i.e. $`\sqrt{3}\times \sqrt{3}`$ state). Spin susceptibilities in Fig.5 ascertain the glassy behavior of the planar components of Heisenberg spins on the Kagomé lattice and further support that it would be induced by the spin-nematic fluctuation. As mentioned, one of the most outstanding features of the frustrated magnet is the high degeneracy of the ground state, whose peculiarity could result in the spin-nematic ordering in the limit of very low temperatures ($`TJ`$). The nematic glassy state should then be crucial and eminently important in understanding the novel ground state of the frustrated magnet.

In summary, we have found and discussed qualitative differences between $`𝐒_i`$ and its planar component $`𝐬_i`$ in an ideal Heisenberg Kagomé antiferromagnet. It is remarkable to find the hidden glass-like order of $`𝐬_i`$ even in the Heisenberg model on the Kagomé lattice without any disorder or anisotropy. The glassy behavior has been shown through dynamical spin responses and static susceptibilities. We find that it would be driven by the dynamical fluctuation of spin-nematic order, different from ordinary spin glasses by static disorders or anisotropies.

Discussions with Brent Fultz and Tim Kelley are appreciated. Technical helps on the parallel computation from Jiao Lin are appreciated, too. This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy under contract DE-FG03-01ER45950.