text:
# D-Theory: Field Quantization by Dimensional Reduction of Discrete Variables

## 1 Introduction

Field theories are usually quantized by performing a path integral over configurations of classical fields. This is the case both in perturbation theory and in Wilson’s non-perturbative lattice formulation of quantum field theory . However, there is another form of quantization, which is well-known from quantum mechanics: a classical angular momentum vector can be replaced by a vector of Pauli matrices. The resulting quantum spin is described by discrete variables $`\pm 1/2`$, while the original classical angular momentum vector represents a continuous degree of freedom. Here we apply this kind of quantization to field theory.

Of course, it is far from obvious that such a quantization procedure is equivalent to the usual one. For example, a single spin $`1/2`$ has the same symmetry properties as a classical angular momentum vector, but it operates in a finite Hilbert space. How can the full Hilbert space of a quantum field theory be recovered when the classical fields are replaced by analogs of quantum spins? Indeed, as we will see, this requires a specific dynamics, which, however, is generic in a wide variety of cases. This includes scalar field theories as well as gauge theories. In these cases, a collective excitation of a large number of discrete variables acts as a classical field, in the same way as many spins $`1/2`$ can act as a classical angular momentum vector. In order to collect a large number of discrete variables, it turns out to be necessary to formulate the theory with an additional Euclidean dimension. When the $`(d+1)`$-dimensional theory is massless, the classical fields emerge as low-energy excitations of the discrete variables. Once the extent of the extra dimension becomes small in units of the correlation length, the desired $`d`$-dimensional quantum field theory emerges via dimensional reduction. Dimensional reduction of discrete variables is a generic phenomenon that occurs in a variety of models, thus leading to an alternative non-perturbative formulation of quantum field theory which we call D-theory . Gauge theories of discrete quantum variables were first discussed by Horn  and later by Orland and Rohrlich . They were rediscovered and related to standard gauge theories via dimensional reduction in .

D-theory has several interesting features that go beyond Wilson’s non-perturbative lattice formulation of quantum field theory. For example, due to the use of discrete variables, the theory can be completely fermionized. All bosonic fields can be written as pairs of fermionic constituents, which we call rishons. “Rishon” is Hebrew, means “first”, and has been used as a name for fermionic constituents of gauge bosons . In contrast to traditional composite models, the rishons of D-theory propagate at the cut-off scale and thus are not directly related to physical particles. The two indices of a bosonic matrix field — for example, the two color indices of a gluon field matrix — can be separated because they are carried by two different rishons. This may lead to new ways to attack the large $`N`$ limit of QCD and other interesting field theories . D-theory is also attractive from a computational point of view. Discrete variables are particularly well suited for numerical simulations using very powerful cluster algorithms. For example, in this way it has been possible to simulate the D-theory version of the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model at non-zero chemical potential , which remains impossible using Wilson’s approach.

In this paper, we concentrate on the algebraic structure of D-theory. It is organized as follows. In section 2, D-theory is explained in the context of the $`O(3)`$ model. Section 3 contains the D-theory representation of real and complex vector and matrix fields. In particular, we construct basic building blocks that can be used in a variety of D-theory models. For example, the discrete quantum analog of an $`O(N)`$ symmetric real scalar field is a generalized quantum spin in the algebra of $`SO(N+1)`$, while a $`U(N)`$ symmetric complex scalar field is represented by an $`SU(N+1)`$ quantum spin. Similarly, the quantum link variables that arise in the D-theory formulation of gauge theories with $`SO(N)`$, $`SU(N)`$, and $`Sp(N)`$ gauge groups naturally live in the algebras $`SO(2N)`$, $`SU(2N)`$, and $`Sp(2N)`$. These algebraic structures provide the basis for the explicit construction of various models in section 4. This includes $`O(N)`$, $`U(N)U(N)`$, and $`CP(N)`$ quantum spin models, as well as $`SO(N)`$, $`U(N)`$, and $`SU(N)`$ quantum link models. The dimensional reduction to ordinary scalar field theories or gauge theories is discussed in section 5. In particular, formulas are derived for the finite correlation lengths that arise in the dimensionally reduced theory. Finally, section 6 contains our conclusions.

## 2 The $`O(3)`$ Model from D-Theory

Let us illustrate the basic ideas behind D-theory in the simplest example — the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model, which we view as a Euclidean field theory in $`1+1`$ dimensions. Like QCD, this model is asymptotically free and has a non-perturbatively generated mass gap. In Wilson’s formulation of lattice field theory the model is formulated in terms of classical 3-component unit vectors $`\stackrel{}{s}_x`$ located on the sites $`x`$ of a quadratic lattice. The Euclidean action of the model is given by

$$S[\stackrel{}{s}]=\underset{x,\mu }{}\stackrel{}{s}_x\stackrel{}{s}_{x+\widehat{\mu }},$$
(2.1)
where $`\widehat{\mu }`$ represents the unit vector in the $`\mu `$-direction. The theory is quantized by considering the classical partition function

$$Z=𝒟\stackrel{}{s}\mathrm{exp}(\frac{1}{g^2}S[\stackrel{}{s}]),$$
(2.2)
which represents a path integral over all classical spin field configurations $`[\stackrel{}{s}]`$. Here $`g`$ is the coupling constant. Due to asymptotic freedom, the continuum limit of the lattice model corresponds to $`g0`$. In this limit the correlation length $`\xi \mathrm{exp}(2\pi /g^2)`$ diverges exponentially. The strength of the exponential increase is given by the 1-loop $`\beta `$-function coefficient $`1/2\pi `$ of the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model.

In contrast to the standard procedure, in D-theory one does not quantize by integrating over the classical field configurations $`[\stackrel{}{s}]`$. Instead, each classical vector $`\stackrel{}{s}_x`$ is replaced by a quantum spin operator $`\stackrel{}{S}_x`$ (a Pauli matrix for spin $`1/2`$) with the usual commutation relations

$$[S_x^i,S_y^j]=i\delta _{xy}ϵ_{ijk}S_x^k.$$
(2.3)
The classical action of the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model is replaced by the action operator

$$H=J\underset{x,\mu }{}\stackrel{}{S}_x\stackrel{}{S}_{x+\widehat{\mu }},$$
(2.4)
which resembles the Hamilton operator of a quantum Heisenberg model. Here we restrict ourselves to antiferromagnets, i.e. to $`J>0`$. Ferromagnets have a conserved order parameter, and therefore require a special treatment. Like the classical action $`S[\stackrel{}{s}]`$, the action operator $`H`$ is invariant under global $`SO(3)`$ transformations. In quantum mechanics this follows from $`[H,\stackrel{}{S}]=0`$, where

$$\stackrel{}{S}=\underset{x}{}\stackrel{}{S}_x$$
(2.5)
is the total spin. D-theory is defined by the quantum partition function

$$Z=\text{Tr}\mathrm{exp}(\beta H).$$
(2.6)
The trace is taken in the Hilbert space, which is a direct product of the Hilbert spaces of individual spins. It should be noted that D-theory can be formulated with any value of the spin, not only with spin $`1/2`$.

At this point, we have replaced the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model, formulated in terms of classical fields $`\stackrel{}{s}_x`$, by a 2-d system of quantum spins $`\stackrel{}{S}_x`$ with the same symmetries. The inverse “temperature” $`\beta `$ of the quantum system can be viewed as the extent of an additional third dimension. In the condensed matter interpretation of the 2-d quantum spin system this dimension would be Euclidean time. In D-theory, however, Euclidean time is already part of the 2-d lattice. Indeed, as we will see, the additional Euclidean dimension ultimately disappears via dimensional reduction. The 2-d antiferromagnetic spin $`1/2`$ quantum Heisenberg model has very interesting properties. It describes the undoped precursor insulators of high-temperature superconductors — materials like $`\text{La}_2\text{CuO}_4`$ — whose ground states are Néel ordered with a spontaneously generated staggered magnetization. Indeed, there is overwhelming numerical evidence that the ground state of the 2-d antiferromagnetic spin $`1/2`$ quantum Heisenberg model exhibits long-range order . The same is true for higher spins, and thus the following discussion applies equally well to all spin values. In practice, however, the smallest spin $`1/2`$ is most interesting, because it allows us to represent the physics of the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model in the smallest possible Hilbert space.

Formulating the 2-d quantum model as a path integral in the extra dimension results in a 3-d $`SO(3)`$-symmetric classical model. At zero temperature of the quantum system we are in the infinite volume limit of the corresponding 3-d model. The Néel order of the ground state of the 2-d quantum system implies that the corresponding 3-d classical system is in a broken phase, in which only an $`SO(2)`$ symmetry remains intact. As a consequence of Goldstone’s theorem, two massless bosons arise — in this case two antiferromagnetic magnons (or spin-waves). Using chiral perturbation theory one can describe the magnon dynamics at low energies . The Goldstone bosons are represented by fields in the coset $`SO(3)/SO(2)=S^2`$, which resembles a 2-dimensional sphere. Consequently, the magnons are described by 3-component unit vectors $`\stackrel{}{s}`$ — the same fields that appear in the original 2-d $`O(3)`$ model. Indeed, due to spontaneous symmetry breaking, the collective excitations of many discrete quantum spin variables form an effective continuous classical field $`\stackrel{}{s}`$. This is one of the main dynamical ingredients of D-theory.

Another ingredient is dimensional reduction, to which we now turn. To lowest order in chiral perturbation theory, the effective action of the Goldstone bosons takes the form

$$S[\stackrel{}{s}]=_0^\beta 𝑑x_3d^2x\frac{\rho _s}{2}\left(_\mu \stackrel{}{s}_\mu \stackrel{}{s}+\frac{1}{c^2}_3\stackrel{}{s}_3\stackrel{}{s}\right).$$
(2.7)
Here $`c`$ and $`\rho _s`$ are the spin-wave velocity and the spin stiffness. Note that $`\mu `$ extends over the physical space-time indices 1 and 2 only. The 2-d quantum system at finite temperature corresponds to a 3-d classical model with finite extent $`\beta `$ in the extra dimension. For massless particles — i.e. in the presence of an infinite correlation length $`\xi `$ — the finite temperature system appears dimensionally reduced to two dimensions, because $`\beta \xi `$. In two dimensions, however, the Mermin-Wagner-Coleman theorem prevents the existence of interacting massless Goldstone bosons, and, indeed, the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model has a non-perturbatively generated mass gap. Hasenfratz and Niedermayer used a block spin renormalization group transformation to map the 3-d $`O(3)`$ model with finite extent $`\beta `$ to a 2-d lattice $`O(3)`$ model . One averages the 3-d field over volumes of size $`\beta `$ in the third direction and $`\beta c`$ in the two space-time directions. Due to the large correlation length, the field is essentially constant over these blocks. The averaged field is defined at the block centers, which form a 2-d lattice of spacing $`\beta c`$. Note that this lattice spacing is different from the lattice spacing of the original quantum antiferromagnet. The effective action of the averaged field defines a 2-d lattice $`O(3)`$ model, formulated in Wilson’s framework. Using chiral perturbation theory, Hasenfratz and Niedermayer expressed its coupling constant as

$$1/g^2=\beta \rho _s\frac{3}{16\pi ^2\beta \rho _s}+𝒪(1/\beta ^2\rho _s^2).$$
(2.8)
Using the 3-loop $`\beta `$-function of the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model together with its exact mass gap , they also extended an earlier result of Chakravarty, Halperin, and Nelson  for the correlation length of the quantum antiferromagnet to

$$\xi =\frac{ec}{16\pi \rho _s}\mathrm{exp}(2\pi \beta \rho _s)\left[1\frac{1}{4\pi \beta \rho _s}+𝒪(1/\beta ^2\rho _s^2)\right].$$
(2.9)
Here $`e`$ is the base of the natural logarithm. The above equation resembles the asymptotic scaling behavior of the 2-d classical $`O(3)`$ model. In fact, one can view the 2-d antiferromagnetic quantum Heisenberg model in the zero temperature limit as a regularization of the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model. It is remarkable that this D-theory formulation is entirely discrete, even though the model is usually formulated with a continuous classical configuration space.

The dimensionally reduced effective 2-d theory is a Wilsonian lattice theory with lattice spacing $`\beta c`$. The continuum limit of that theory is reached as $`g^2=1/\beta \rho _s0`$, and hence as the extent $`\beta `$ of the extra dimension becomes large. Still, in physical units of the correlation length, the extent $`\beta \xi `$ becomes negligible in this limit, and hence the theory undergoes dimensional reduction to two dimensions. In the continuum limit, the lattice spacing $`\beta c`$ of the effective 2-d Wilsonian lattice $`O(3)`$ model becomes large in units of the microscopic lattice spacing of the quantum spin system. Therefore, D-theory introduces a discrete substructure underlying Wilson’s lattice theory. This substructure is defined on a very fine microscopic lattice. In other words, D-theory regularizes quantum fields at much shorter distance scales than the ones considered in Wilson’s formulation.

The additional microscopic structure may provide new insight into the long-distance continuum physics. In the context of the quantum Heisenberg model, the microscopic substructure is due to the presence of electrons hopping on a crystal lattice. After all, the spin waves of a quantum antiferromagnet are just collective excitations of the spins of many electrons. In the same way, gluons appear as collective excitations of rishons hopping on the microscopic lattice of the corresponding quantum link model for QCD. In that case, the lattice is unphysical and just serves as a regulator. However, even if the rishons propagate only at the cut-off scale, they may still be useful for understanding the physics in the continuum limit. Let us illustrate the rishon idea in the context of the quantum Heisenberg model. Then the rishons can be identified with physical electrons. In fact, the quantum spin operator at a lattice site $`x`$,

$$\stackrel{}{S}_x=\frac{1}{2}\underset{i,j}{}c_x^i\stackrel{}{\sigma }_{ij}c_x^j,$$
(2.10)
can be expressed in terms of Pauli matrices $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }`$ and electron creation and annihilation operators $`c_x^i`$ and $`c_x^i`$ ($`i,j\{1,2\}`$) with the usual anti-commutation relations

$$\{c_x^i,c_y^j\}=\{c_x^i,c_y^j\}=0,\{c_x^i,c_y^j\}=\delta _{x,y}\delta _{ij}.$$
(2.11)
It is straightforward to show that $`\stackrel{}{S}_x`$, constructed in this way, has the correct commutation relations. In fact, the commutation relations are also satisfied when the rishons are quantized as bosons. It should be noted that the total number of rishons at each site $`x`$ is a conserved quantity, because the local rishon number operator $`𝒩_x=_ic_x^ic_x^i`$ commutes with the Hamiltonian. In fact, fixing the number of rishons is equivalent to selecting a value for the spin, i.e. to choosing an irreducible representation.

The discrete nature of the D-theory degrees of freedom allows the application of very efficient cluster algorithms. The quantum Heisenberg model, for example, can be treated with a loop cluster algorithm . Defining the path integral for discrete quantum systems does not even require discretization of the additional Euclidean dimension. This observation has led to a very efficient loop cluster algorithm operating directly in the continuum of the extra dimension . This algorithm, combined with a finite-size scaling technique, has been used to study the correlation length of the Heisenberg model up to $`\xi 350000`$ lattice spacings . In this way the analytic prediction of Hasenfratz and Niedermayer — and hence the scenario of dimensional reduction — has been verified. This shows explicitly that the 2-d O(3) model can be investigated very efficiently using D-theory, i.e. by simulating the $`(2+1)`$-d path integral for the 2-d quantum Heisenberg model. In this case, the numerical effort is compatible to simulating the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model directly with the Wolff cluster algorithm . However, D-theory allows us to simulate the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model even at non-zero chemical potential , which has not been possible with traditional methods. For most other lattice models — for example, for gauge theories — despite numerous attempts, no efficient cluster algorithm has been found in Wilson’s formulation. If an efficient cluster algorithm can be constructed for the D-theory formulation, it would allow simulations much more accurate than the ones presently possible.

The exponential divergence of the correlation length is due to the asymptotic freedom of the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model. Hence, one might expect that the above scenario of dimensional reduction is specific to $`d=2`$. As we will see now, dimensional reduction also occurs in higher dimensions, but in a slightly different way. Let us consider the antiferromagnetic quantum Heisenberg model on a $`d`$-dimensional lattice with $`d>2`$. Then, again, the ground state has a broken symmetry, and the low energy excitations of the system are two massless magnons. The effective action of chiral perturbation theory is the same as before, except that the integration now extends over a higher-dimensional space-time. Again, at an infinite extent $`\beta `$ of the extra dimension, one has an infinite correlation length. Thus, once $`\beta `$ becomes finite, the extent of the extra dimension is negligible compared to the correlation length, and the theory undergoes dimensional reduction to $`d`$ dimensions. However, in contrast to the $`d=2`$ case, now there is no reason why the Goldstone bosons should pick up a mass after dimensional reduction. Consequently, the correlation length remains infinite and we end up in a $`d`$-dimensional phase with broken symmetry. When the extent $`\beta `$ is reduced further, we eventually reach the symmetric phase, in which the correlation length is finite. The transition between the broken and symmetric phase is known to be of second order. Thus, approaching the phase transition from the symmetric phase at low $`\beta `$ also leads to a divergent correlation length, and hence, again, to dimensional reduction. Thus, the universal continuum physics of $`O(3)`$ models in any dimension $`d2`$ is naturally contained in the framework of D-theory.

Still, the $`d=1`$ case requires a separate discussion. The behavior of quantum spin chains depends crucially on the value of the spin. Haldane has conjectured that 1-d antiferromagnetic $`O(3)`$ quantum spin chains with integer spins have a mass gap, while those with half-integer spins are gapless . This conjecture is by now verified in great detail. For example, the spin $`1/2`$ antiferromagnetic Heisenberg chain has been solved by the Bethe ansatz, and indeed turns out to have no mass gap . The same has been shown analytically for all half-integer spins . On the other hand, there is strong numerical evidence for a mass gap in spin 1 and spin 2 systems . Hence, only for half-integer spins the $`(1+1)`$-dimensional D-theory with an infinite extent $`\beta `$ in the second direction has an infinite correlation length. The low-energy effective theory for this system is the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model at vacuum angle $`\theta =\pi `$, i.e.

$$S[\stackrel{}{s}]=_0^\beta 𝑑x_1𝑑x_2\left[\frac{1}{2g^2}\left(_1\stackrel{}{s}_1\stackrel{}{s}+\frac{1}{c^2}_2\stackrel{}{s}_2\stackrel{}{s}\right)+\frac{i\theta }{4\pi }\stackrel{}{s}\left(_1\stackrel{}{s}\times _2\stackrel{}{s}\right)\right],$$
(2.12)
as conjectured by Haldane . This model is in the universality class of a 2-d conformal field theory — the $`k=1`$ Wess-Zumino-Novikov-Witten model  — as was first argued by Affleck . Indeed, it has been shown numerically that the mass gap of the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model (which is present at $`\theta \pi `$) disappears at $`\theta =\pi `$ . The simulation of the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model at $`\theta =\pi `$ is extremely difficult due to the complex action. Still, it is possible using the Wolff cluster algorithm combined with an appropriate improved estimator for the topological charge distribution. It is remarkable that no complex action arises in the D-theory formulation of this problem, and the simulation is hence much simpler. When the above model is dimensionally reduced by making the extent $`\beta `$ of the extra dimension finite, the topological term disappears, because $`_t\stackrel{}{s}`$ is then negligible due to the large correlation length. Using the same renormalization group argument as before, one obtains a 1-d $`O(3)`$ Wilsonian lattice model with effective coupling constant $`\beta /g^2`$. In the continuum limit $`\beta \mathrm{}`$ this model describes the quantum mechanics of a particle moving on the sphere $`S^2`$. Hence, D-theory even works for $`d=1`$, however, only when formulated with half-integer spins. For integer spins there is no infinite correlation length, and hence one basic dynamical ingredient, necessary for the success of D-theory, is missing. Still, in the classical limit of large integer spin $`S`$ the correlation length increases as $`\xi \mathrm{exp}(\pi S)`$. Indeed, one could reach the continuum limit of the 2-d $`O(3)`$ model with $`1/g^2=S/2`$ in this way. However, this is not in the spirit of D-theory, because one then effectively works with classical fields again.

So far, we have seen that D-theory naturally contains the continuum physics of $`O(3)`$ models in any dimension. This alone would be interesting. However, as we will see, D-theory is much more general. It can be extended to other scalar field theories and to gauge theories with various symmetries and in various space-time dimensions.

## 3 D-Theory Representation of Basic Field Variables

As we have seen, in the low-temperature limit the 2-d spin 1/2 quantum Heisenberg model provides a D-theory regularization for the 2-d $`O(3)`$-symmetric continuum field theory. In that case, a vector of Pauli matrices replaces the 3-component unit-vector of a classical field configuration. Here, this structure is generalized to other fields.

### 3.1 Real Vectors

It is not obvious how the $`N`$-component unit-vectors of an $`O(N)`$ model should be represented in D-theory. An important hint comes from the quantum XY model which has an $`SO(2)`$ symmetry. In that case, the Hamilton operator takes the form $`H=J_{x,\mu }(S_x^1S_{x+\widehat{\mu }}^1+S_x^2S_{x+\widehat{\mu }}^2)`$. The 2-component unit vector $`(s^1,s^2)`$ of the classical XY model has been replaced by the first two components of a quantum spin $`(S^1,S^2)`$ which indeed form a vector under $`SO(2)`$. This has a natural generalization to higher $`N`$. Let us consider the $`(N+1)N/2`$ generators of $`SO(N+1)`$. Among them, $`N`$ generators $`S^i=S^{0i}`$ ($`i\{1,2,\mathrm{},N\}`$) transform as a vector under $`SO(N)`$ and the remaining $`N(N1)/2`$ generators $`S^{ij}`$ generate the subgroup $`SO(N)`$. In other words, in the subgroup decomposition $`SO(N+1)SO(N)`$ the adjoint representation of $`SO(N+1)`$ decomposes as

$$\{\frac{(N+1)N}{2}\}=\{\frac{N(N1)}{2}\}\{N\}.$$
(3.1)
The commutation relations of the group $`SO(N+1)`$ take the form

$`[S^i,S^j]=iS^{ij},[S^i,S^{jk}]=i(\delta _{ik}S^j\delta _{ij}S^k),`$
$`[S^{ij},S^{kl}]=i(\delta _{il}S^{kj}+\delta _{ik}S^{jl}+\delta _{jk}S^{li}+\delta _{jl}S^{ik}).`$ (3.2)
Just as in the quantum XY model, one works with an $`SO(N+1)`$ algebra, although the symmetry of the model is only $`SO(N)`$. It should be noted that for $`N=3`$ the above construction does not reduce to the quantum Heisenberg model which is formulated in terms of the three generators of $`SO(3)`$. Instead, it yields another $`SO(3)`$-invariant quantum spin model expressed in terms of the six generators of $`SO(4)`$. In fact, the Heisenberg model construction is special and has no natural generalization to $`O(N)`$ models. The above commutation relations of $`SO(N+1)`$ can be represented by

$$S^i=S^{0i}=i(c^0c^ic^ic^0),S^{ij}=i(c^ic^jc^jc^i).$$
(3.3)
In this case, the rishon operators $`c^0=c^0`$ and $`c^i=c^i`$ are Hermitean and obey the anticommutation relations

$$\{c^0,c^i\}=0,\{c^i,c^j\}=\delta _{ij}.$$
(3.4)
Note that the Clifford algebra of these “Majorana” rishons can be represented by ordinary $`\gamma `$-matrices.

### 3.2 Real Matrices

Spin models with an $`SO(N)_LSO(N)_R`$ symmetry are formulated in terms of classical real $`O(N)`$ matrix fields. Similarly, in $`SO(N)`$ lattice gauge theory one deals with real valued classical parallel transporter matrices $`o`$ which transform appropriately under $`SO(N)_LSO(N)_R`$ gauge transformations on the left and on the right. This symmetry is generated by $`N(N1)`$ Hermitean operators. In D-theory, the real valued classical matrix $`o`$ is replaced by an $`N\times N`$ matrix $`O`$ whose elements are Hermitean operators. Altogether, this gives $`N(N1)+N^2=N(2N1)`$ generators — the total number of generators of $`SO(2N)`$. The corresponding subgroup decomposition $`SO(2N)SO(N)_LSO(N)_R`$ yields

$$\{N(2N1)\}=\{\frac{N(N1)}{2},1\}\{1,\frac{N(N1)}{2}\}\{N,N\}.$$
(3.5)
Again, it is straightforward to show that the following rishon representation generates the algebra of $`SO(2N)`$

$$O^{ij}=i(c_+^ic_{}^jc_{}^jc_+^i),L^{ij}=i(c_+^ic_+^jc_+^ic_+^j),R^{ij}=i(c_{}^ic_{}^jc_{}^ic_{}^j).$$
(3.6)
There are two sets of Hermitean “Majorana” rishons, $`c_+^i=c_+^i`$ and $`c_{}^i=c_{}^i`$, associated with the left and right $`SO(N)`$ symmetries generated by $`\stackrel{}{L}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{R}`$. They obey the anticommutation relations

$$\{c_+^i,c_+^j\}=\delta _{ij},\{c_{}^i,c_{}^j\}=\delta _{ij},\{c_+^i,c_{}^j\}=0.$$
(3.7)
### 3.3 Complex Vectors

We have seen how to represent a real $`N`$-component vector $`s`$ in D-theory. It is simply replaced by an $`N`$-component vector of Hermitean generators $`S^i`$ of $`SO(N+1)`$. In $`CP(N1)`$ models, classical $`N`$-component complex vectors $`z`$ arise. We will now discuss their representation in D-theory. The symmetry group of a $`CP(N1)`$ model is $`U(N)`$ which has $`N^2`$ generators. In D-theory the complex components $`z^i`$ are represented by $`2N`$ Hermitean operators — $`N`$ for the real and $`N`$ for the imaginary parts. Hence, the total number of generators is $`N^2+2N=(N+1)^21`$ — the number of generators of $`SU(N+1)`$. In this case, the subgroup decomposition $`SU(N+1)SU(N)U(1)`$ takes the form

$$\{(N+1)^21\}=\{N^21\}\{1\}\{N\}\{\overline{N}\}.$$
(3.8)
A rishon representation of the $`SU(N+1)`$ algebra is given by

$$Z^i=c^0c^i,\stackrel{}{G}=\underset{ij}{}c^i\stackrel{}{\lambda }_{ij}c^j,G=\underset{i}{}c^ic^i.$$
(3.9)
In this case, we use “Dirac” rishons $`c^0,c^0,c^i,c^i`$ with the usual anti-commutation relations. Here $`\stackrel{}{\lambda }`$ is the vector of Gell-Mann matrices for $`SU(N)`$ which obeys $`[\lambda ^a,\lambda ^b]=2if_{abc}\lambda ^c`$ as well as $`\text{Tr}(\lambda ^a\lambda ^b)=2\delta _{ab}`$. The quantum operator $`Z^i`$ replaces the classical variable $`z^i`$, $`\stackrel{}{G}`$ is a vector of $`SU(N)`$ generators obeying $`[G^a,G^b]=2if_{abc}G^c`$, and $`G`$ is a $`U(1)`$ generator.

### 3.4 Complex Matrices

Chiral spin models with a global $`SU(N)_LSU(N)_RU(1)`$ symmetry as well as $`U(N)`$ and $`SU(N)`$ lattice gauge theories are formulated in terms of classical complex $`U(N)`$ matrix fields. The corresponding symmetry transformations are generated by $`2(N^21)+1`$ Hermitean operators. In D-theory a classical complex valued matrix $`u`$ is replaced by a matrix $`U`$ whose elements are non-commuting operators. The elements of the matrix $`U`$ are described by $`2N^2`$ Hermitean generators — $`N^2`$ representing the real part and $`N^2`$ representing the imaginary part of the classical matrix $`u`$. Altogether, we thus have $`2(N^21)+1+2N^2=4N^21`$ generators — the number of generators of $`SU(2N)`$. The corresponding subgroup decomposition $`SU(2N)SU(N)_LSU(N)_RU(1)`$ takes the form

$$\{4N^21\}=\{N^21,1\}\{1,N^21\}\{1,1\}\{N,\overline{N}\}\{\overline{N},N\}.$$
(3.10)
A rishon representation of the $`SU(2N)`$ algebra is given by

$$U^{ij}=c_+^ic_{}^j,\stackrel{}{L}=\underset{ij}{}c_+^i\stackrel{}{\lambda }_{ij}c_+^j,\stackrel{}{R}=\underset{ij}{}c_{}^i\stackrel{}{\lambda }_{ij}c_{}^j,T=\underset{i}{}(c_+^ic_+^ic_{}^ic_{}^i).$$
(3.11)
There are two sets of “Dirac” rishons, $`c_+^i`$ and $`c_{}^i`$, again associated with the left and right $`SU(N)`$ symmetries generated by $`\stackrel{}{L}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{R}`$. As before, $`T`$ is a $`U(1)`$ generator. For example, the above structure is used in $`U(N)`$ and $`SU(N)`$ quantum link models in which the elements of Wilson’s classical parallel transporter matrices are replaced by non-commuting operators.

### 3.5 Symplectic, Symmetric, and Anti-Symmetric Complex Tensors

The third main sequence of Lie groups (besides $`SO(N)`$ and $`SU(N)`$) are the symplectic groups $`Sp(N)`$. The group $`Sp(N)`$ is a subgroup of $`SU(2N)`$ whose elements $`g`$ obey the additional constraint $`g^{}=JgJ^{}`$. The real skew-symmetric matrix $`J`$ obeys $`J^2=\mathrm{𝟣}\mathrm{𝟣}`$. It is interesting to ask how $`Sp(N)`$ gauge theories can be formulated in D-theory. In fact, this is completely analogous to the $`SO(N)`$ and $`SU(N)`$ cases. The $`Sp(N)_LSp(N)_R`$ symmetry transformations are generated by $`N(2N+1)`$ Hermitean operators on the left and $`N(2N+1)`$ operators on the right. In D-theory, the $`(2N)^2`$ elements of an $`Sp(N)`$ symplectic matrix are described by $`4N^2`$ Hermitean operators. Altogether, we thus have $`2N(2N+1)+4N^2=2N(4N+1)`$ generators — the number of generators of $`Sp(2N)`$. The corresponding subgroup decomposition $`Sp(2N)Sp(N)_LSp(N)_R`$ takes the form

$$\{2N(4N+1)\}=\{N(2N+1),1\}\{1,N(2N+1)\}\{2N,2N\}.$$
(3.12)
Other useful building blocks for D-theory models are symmetric ($`S^T=S`$) and anti-symmetric ($`A^T=A`$) complex tensors which transform as

$$S^{}=gSg^T,A^{}=gAg^T,$$
(3.13)
under $`SU(N)`$ transformations. In D-theory, the $`N(N+1)/2`$ elements of a complex symmetric tensor are represented by $`N(N+1)`$ Hermitean operators. In addition, there are again $`N^21`$ $`SU(N)`$ and one $`U(1)`$ generators. Hence, altogether, there are $`N(N+1)+N^2=N(2N+1)`$ generators — namely those of $`Sp(N)`$. In this case, the subgroup decomposition is $`Sp(N)SU(N)U(1)`$ and it takes the form

$$\{N(2N+1)\}=\{N^21\}\{1\}\{\frac{N(N+1)}{2}\}\{\overline{\frac{N(N+1)}{2}}\}.$$
(3.14)
Similarly, the $`N(N1)/2`$ elements of a complex anti-symmetric tensor are represented by $`N(N1)`$ Hermitean operators. Again, there are also $`N^21`$ generators of $`SU(N)`$ and one $`U(1)`$ generator. In total, there are $`N(N1)+N^2=N(2N1)`$ generators — exactly those of $`SO(2N)`$. Now the subgroup decomposition $`SO(2N)SU(N)U(1)`$ takes the form

$$\{N(2N1)\}=\{N^21\}\{1\}\{\frac{N(N1)}{2}\}\{\overline{\frac{N(N1)}{2}}\}.$$
(3.15)
To summarize, in D-theory classical real and complex vectors $`s`$ and $`z`$ are replaced by vectors of operators $`S`$ and $`Z`$ which are embedded in $`SO(N+1)`$ and $`SU(N+1)`$ algebras, respectively. Similarly, classical real and complex valued matrices $`o`$ and $`u`$ are replaced by matrices $`O`$ and $`U`$ with operator valued elements which are embedded in the algebras of $`SO(2N)`$ and $`SU(2N)`$. In addition, $`2N\times 2N`$ symplectic matrices, as well as $`N\times N`$ symmetric and anti-symmetric complex tensors are represented by the embedding algebras $`Sp(2N)`$, $`Sp(N)`$, and $`SO(2N)`$, respectively. In the next section, we will use these basic building blocks to construct a variety of D-theory models, both with global and with local symmetries.

## 4 D-theory Formulation of Various Models

In this section various quantum field theories are formulated in the framework of D-theory. Several models with various global and local symmetries are constructed explicitly. The action operator $`H`$ of a model is defined on a $`d`$-dimensional lattice. It has the form of a Hamiltonian that propagates the system in an extra dimension and replaces the Euclidean action in the standard formulation of lattice field theory. In D-theory, the partition function takes the quantum form $`Z=\text{Tr}\mathrm{exp}(\beta H)`$. The dynamics of the various models — in particular, the details of their dimensional reduction — will be discussed in section 5.

### 4.1 $`O(N)`$ Quantum Spin Models

In the standard formulation of lattice field theory, $`O(N)`$ models are defined in terms of classical real $`N`$-component unit-vector fields $`\stackrel{}{s}_x`$. Their action is given by

$$S[s]=\underset{x,\mu }{}\stackrel{}{s}_x\stackrel{}{s}_{x+\widehat{\mu }},$$
(4.1)
which is obviously invariant under $`SO(N)`$ rotations. In D-theory, $`\stackrel{}{s}_x`$ is replaced by an $`N`$-component vector of Hermitean operators $`\stackrel{}{S}_x`$ which represent $`N`$ of the generators of $`SO(N+1)`$. The corresponding action operator is

$$H=J\underset{x,\mu }{}\stackrel{}{S}_x\stackrel{}{S}_{x+\widehat{\mu }}.$$
(4.2)
Now the global $`SO(N)`$ symmetry of the model follows from

$$[H,\underset{x}{}S_x^{ij}]=0.$$
(4.3)
The rishon representation of the local $`SO(N+1)`$ algebra on each lattice site $`x`$ is given by

$$S_x^i=i(c_x^0c_x^ic_x^ic_x^0),S_x^{ij}=i(c_x^ic_x^jc_x^ic_x^j).$$
(4.4)
These “Majorana” rishon operators obey the anti-commutation relations

$$\{c_x^0,c_y^0\}=\delta _{xy},\{c_x^0,c_y^i\}=0,\{c_x^i,c_y^j\}=\delta _{xy}\delta _{ij}.$$
(4.5)
Like the Heisenberg model, the $`O(N)`$ quantum spin model can be formulated using different representations — in this case the representations of $`SO(N+1)`$. The rishon representation is just one particular choice, namely the fundamental spinorial representation of $`SO(N+1)`$.

### 4.2 $`SO(N)`$ Chiral Quantum Spin Models

Let us consider $`SO(N)_LSO(N)_R`$ chiral spin models. In the standard Wilson approach, they are formulated in terms of classical orthogonal $`SO(N)`$ matrices $`o`$ with an action

$$S[u]=\underset{x,\mu }{}\text{Tr}(o_x^{}o_{x+\widehat{\mu }}+o_{x+\widehat{\mu }}^{}o_x),$$
(4.6)
where the dagger reduces to the transpose. The above action is invariant under global $`SO(N)_LSO(N)_R`$ transformations

$$o_x^{}=\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_+\stackrel{}{\lambda })o_x\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_{}\stackrel{}{\lambda }),$$
(4.7)
where $`\stackrel{}{\lambda }`$ are the anti-Hermitean generators of $`SO(N)`$.

The $`SO(N)`$ chiral quantum spin model of D-theory is defined by the action operator

$$H=J\underset{x,\mu }{}\text{Tr}(O_x^{}O_{x+\widehat{\mu }}+O_{x+\widehat{\mu }}^{}O_x),$$
(4.8)
where $`O_x`$ are matrices consisting of $`N^2`$ Hermitean generators of $`SO(2N)`$. The unitary operator generating the global $`SO(N)_LSO(N)_R`$ symmetry transformation takes the form $`\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_+_x\stackrel{}{L}_x)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_{}_x\stackrel{}{R}_x)`$ and

$$[H,\underset{x}{}\stackrel{}{L}_x]=[H,\underset{x}{}\stackrel{}{R}_x]=0.$$
(4.9)
The “Majorana” rishon representation of the site-based $`SO(2N)`$ algebra is given by

$`O_x^{ij}=i(c_{x,+}^ic_{x,}^jc_{x,}^jc_{x,+}^i),`$
$`L_x^{ij}=i(c_{x,+}^ic_{x,+}^jc_{x,+}^jc_{x,+}^i),`$
$`R_x^{ij}=i(c_{x,}^ic_{x,}^jc_{x,}^jc_{x,}^i),`$ (4.10)
and the anti-commutation relations take the form

$$\{c_{x,+}^i,c_{y,+}^j\}=\{c_{x,}^i,c_{y,}^j\}=\delta _{xy}\delta _{ij},\{c_{x,+}^i,c_{y,}^j\}=0.$$
(4.11)
Using the embedding algebra $`Sp(2N)`$, it is straightforward to construct an $`Sp(N)`$ chiral quantum spin model along the same lines.

### 4.3 $`U(N)`$ and $`SU(N)`$ Chiral Quantum Spin Models

Chiral spin models with an $`SU(N)_LSU(N)_RU(1)`$ global symmetry are usually formulated in terms of classical complex $`U(N)`$ matrices $`u`$ with an action

$$S[u]=\underset{x,\mu }{}\text{Tr}(u_x^{}u_{x+\widehat{\mu }}+u_{x+\widehat{\mu }}^{}u_x).$$
(4.12)
This action is invariant under global $`SU(N)_LSU(N)_R`$ transformations

$$u_x^{}=\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_+\stackrel{}{\lambda })u_x\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_{}\stackrel{}{\lambda }),$$
(4.13)
as well as under global $`U(1)`$ transformations

$$u_x^{}=\mathrm{exp}(i\alpha )u_x,$$
(4.14)
which are insensitive to left or right. By restricting the matrices $`u_x`$ to $`SU(N)`$ the symmetry of the model can be reduced to $`SU(N)_LSU(N)_R`$. In D-theory the $`U(N)`$ chiral model is described by the action operator

$$H=J\underset{x,\mu }{}\text{Tr}(U_x^{}U_{x+\widehat{\mu }}+U_{x+\widehat{\mu }}^{}U_x),$$
(4.15)
where $`U_x`$ are matrices consisting of $`2N^2`$ Hermitean generators of $`SU(2N)`$. The unitary operator that generates a global symmetry transformation in the Hilbert space is given by $`\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_+_x\stackrel{}{L}_x)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_{}_x\stackrel{}{R}_x)\mathrm{exp}(i\alpha _xT_x)`$, and the $`SU(N)_LSU(N)_RU(1)`$ invariance of the model now follows from

$$[H,\underset{x}{}\stackrel{}{L}_x]=[H,\underset{x}{}\stackrel{}{R}_x]=[H,\underset{x}{}T_x]=0.$$
(4.16)
The rishon representation of the $`SU(2N)`$ algebra per local site is given by

$`U_x^{ij}=c_{x,+}^ic_{x,}^j,\stackrel{}{L}_x={\displaystyle \underset{ij}{}}c_{x,+}^i\stackrel{}{\lambda }_{ij}c_{x,+}^j,\stackrel{}{R}_x={\displaystyle \underset{ij}{}}c_{x,}^i\stackrel{}{\lambda }_{ij}c_{x,}^j,`$
$`T_x={\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}(c_{x,+}^ic_{x,+}^ic_{x,}^ic_{x,}^i).`$ (4.17)
The rishon operators obey canonical anti-commutation relations

$`\{c_{x,+}^i,c_{y,+}^j\}=\{c_{x,}^i,c_{y,}^j\}=\delta _{xy}\delta _{ij},\{c_{x,+}^i,c_{y,}^j\}=\{c_{x,}^i,c_{y,+}^j\}=0,`$
$`\{c_{x,\pm }^i,c_{y,\pm }^j\}=0,\{c_{x,\pm }^i,c_{y,\pm }^j\}=0.`$ (4.18)
The action operator commutes with the local rishon number

$$𝒩_x=\underset{i}{}(c_{x,+}^ic_{x,+}^i+c_{x,}^ic_{x,}^i).$$
(4.19)
Selecting a fixed rishon number corresponds to choosing a representation of $`SU(2N)`$.

In order to reduce the symmetry of the quantum spin model from $`SU(N)_LSU(N)_RU(1)`$ to $`SU(N)_LSU(N)_R`$ one breaks the additional $`U(1)`$ symmetry by adding the real part of the determinant of each matrix to the action operator

$$H=J\underset{x,\mu }{}\text{Tr}(U_x^{}U_{x+\widehat{\mu }}+U_{x+\widehat{\mu }}^{}U_x)+J^{}\underset{x}{}(\text{det}U_x+\text{det}U_x^{}).$$
(4.20)
One should note that the definition of $`\text{det}U_x`$ does not suffer from operator ordering ambiguities. In rishon representation it takes the form

$`\text{det}U_x`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N!}}ϵ_{i_1i_2\mathrm{}i_N}(U_x)_{i_1i_1^{}}(U_x)_{i_2i_2^{}}\mathrm{}(U_x)_{i_Ni_N^{}}ϵ_{i_1^{}i_2^{}\mathrm{}i_N^{}}`$ (4.21)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N!}}ϵ_{i_1i_2\mathrm{}i_N}c_{x,+}^{i_1}c_{x,}^{i_1^{}}c_{x,+}^{i_2}c_{x,}^{i_2^{}}\mathrm{}c_{x,+}^{i_N}c_{x,}^{i_N^{}}ϵ_{i_1^{}i_2^{}\mathrm{}i_N^{}}`$
$`=`$ $`N!c_{x,+}^1c_{x,}^1c_{x,+}^2c_{x,}^2\mathrm{}c_{x,+}^Nc_{x,}^N.`$
Only when this operator acts on a state with $`𝒩_x=N`$ rishons it can give a non-vanishing result. Thus, the $`U(1)`$ symmetry can be eliminated via the determinant, only when one works with $`𝒩_x=N`$ fermionic rishons on each site. This corresponds to choosing the $`(2N)!/(N!)^2`$-dimensional representation of $`SU(2N)`$ with a totally antisymmetric Young tableau with $`N`$ boxes.

### 4.4 $`U(N)`$ and $`SU(N)`$ Quantum Link Models

Wilson’s formulation of lattice gauge theory uses classical complex $`SU(N)`$ parallel transporter link matrices $`u_{x,\mu }`$ with an action

$$S[u]=\underset{x,\mu \nu }{}\text{Tr}(u_{x,\mu }u_{x+\widehat{\mu },\nu }u_{x+\widehat{\nu },\mu }^{}u_{x,\nu }^{}).$$
(4.22)
The action is invariant under $`SU(N)`$ gauge transformations

$$u_{x,\mu }^{}=\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_x\stackrel{}{\lambda })u_{x,\mu }\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_{x+\widehat{\mu }}\stackrel{}{\lambda }).$$
(4.23)
In D-theory, the action is replaced by the action operator

$$H=J\underset{x,\mu \nu }{}\text{Tr}(U_{x,\mu }U_{x+\widehat{\mu },\nu }U_{x+\widehat{\nu },\mu }^{}U_{x,\nu }^{}).$$
(4.24)
Here the elements of the $`N\times N`$ quantum link operators $`U_{x,\mu }`$ consist of generators of $`SU(2N)`$. Gauge invariance now means that $`H`$ commutes with the local generators $`\stackrel{}{G}_x`$ of gauge transformations at the site $`x`$, which obey

$$[G_x^a,G_y^b]=2i\delta _{xy}f_{abc}G_x^c.$$
(4.25)
Gauge covariance of a quantum link variable requires

$$U_{x,\mu }^{}=\underset{y}{}\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_y\stackrel{}{G}_y)U_{x,\mu }\underset{z}{}\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_z\stackrel{}{G}_z)=\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_x\stackrel{}{\lambda })U_{x,\mu }\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_{x+\widehat{\mu }}\stackrel{}{\lambda }),$$
(4.26)
where $`_x\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{}{\alpha }_x\stackrel{}{G}_x)`$ is the unitary operator that represents a general gauge transformation in Hilbert space. The above equation implies the following commutation relation

$$[\stackrel{}{G}_x,U_{y,\mu }]=\delta _{x,y+\widehat{\mu }}U_{y,\mu }\stackrel{}{\lambda }\delta _{x,y}\stackrel{}{\lambda }U_{y,\mu }.$$
(4.27)
It is straightforward to show that this is satisfied when we write

$$\stackrel{}{G}_x=\underset{\mu }{}(\stackrel{}{R}_{x\widehat{\mu },\mu }+\stackrel{}{L}_{x,\mu }),$$
(4.28)
where $`\stackrel{}{R}_{x,\mu }`$ and $`\stackrel{}{L}_{x,\mu }`$ are generators of right and left gauge transformations of the link variable $`U_{x,\mu }`$. The commutation relations of eq.(4.27) imply

$$[\stackrel{}{R}_{x,\mu },U_{y,\nu }]=\delta _{x,y}\delta _{\mu \nu }U_{x,\mu }\stackrel{}{\lambda },[\stackrel{}{L}_{x,\mu },U_{y,\nu }]=\delta _{x,y}\delta _{\mu \nu }\stackrel{}{\lambda }U_{x,\mu }.$$
(4.29)
The rishon representation is given by

$$U_{x,\mu }^{ij}=c_{x,+\mu }^ic_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^j,\stackrel{}{L}_{x,\mu }=\underset{ij}{}c_{x,+\mu }^i\stackrel{}{\lambda }_{ij}c_{x,+\mu }^j,\stackrel{}{R}_{x,\mu }=\underset{ij}{}c_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^i\stackrel{}{\lambda }_{ij}c_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^j.$$
(4.30)
The rishon operators obey canonical anti-commutation relations

$$\{c_{x,\pm \mu }^i,c_{y,\pm \nu }^j\}=\delta _{xy}\delta _{\pm \mu ,\pm \nu }\delta _{ij},\{c_{x,\pm \mu }^i,c_{y,\pm \nu }^j\}=0,\{c_{x,\pm \mu }^i,c_{y,\pm \nu }^j\}=0.$$
(4.31)
The whole algebra commutes with the rishon number operator

$$𝒩_{x,\mu }=\underset{i}{}(c_{x,+\mu }^ic_{x,+\mu }^i+c_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^ic_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^i)$$
(4.32)
on each individual link. Together with the generator

$$T_{x,\mu }=\underset{i}{}(c_{x,+\mu }^ic_{x,+\mu }^ic_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^ic_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^i).$$
(4.33)
the above operators form the link based algebra of $`SU(2N)`$. One finds

$$[T_{x,\mu },U_{y,\nu }]=2\delta _{x,y}\delta _{\mu \nu }U_{x,\mu },$$
(4.34)
which implies that

$$G_x=\frac{1}{2}\underset{\mu }{}(T_{x\widehat{\mu },\mu }T_{x,\mu })$$
(4.35)
generates an additional $`U(1)`$ gauge transformation, i.e.

$$U_{x,\mu }^{}=\underset{y}{}\mathrm{exp}(i\alpha _yG_y)U_{x,\mu }\underset{z}{}\mathrm{exp}(i\alpha _zG_z)=\mathrm{exp}(i\alpha _x)U_{x,\mu }\mathrm{exp}(i\alpha _{x+\mu }).$$
(4.36)
Indeed the action operator of eq.(4.24) is also invariant under the extra $`U(1)`$ gauge transformations and thus describes a $`U(N)`$ lattice gauge theory.

In the $`SU(2)`$ quantum link model constructed in  the link matrices are represented as $`O(4)`$-vectors. This leads to the algebra of $`SO(5)=Sp(2)`$ instead of $`SU(4)`$. That construction does not contain the additional $`U(1)`$ gauge symmetry but it can not be generalized to $`SU(N)`$. Instead, its generalization to larger $`N`$ naturally leads to $`Sp(N)`$ gauge theories, which in D-theory are embedded in the algebraic structure of $`Sp(2N)`$. In order to reduce the symmetry of the quantum link model from $`U(N)`$ to $`SU(N)`$ one breaks the additional $`U(1)`$ gauge symmetry by adding the real part of the determinant of each link matrix to the action operator

$$H=J\underset{x,\mu \nu }{}\text{Tr}(U_{x,\mu }U_{x+\widehat{\mu },\nu }U_{x+\widehat{\nu },\mu }^{}U_{x,\nu }^{})+J^{}\underset{x,\mu }{}(\text{det}U_{x,\mu }+\text{det}U_{x,\mu }^{}).$$
(4.37)
The $`U(N)`$ symmetry can be reduced to $`SU(N)`$ via the determinant only when one works with $`𝒩_{x,\mu }=N`$ rishons on each link. Again, this corresponds to choosing the $`(2N)!/(N!)^2`$-dimensional representation of $`SU(2N)`$.

### 4.5 $`SO(N)`$ Quantum Link Models

Lattice gauge theory can also be formulated with real valued classical orthogonal parallel transporter link matrices $`o_{x,\mu }`$, i.e. with the gauge group $`SO(N)`$. Again, the action takes the form

$$S[o]=\underset{x,\mu \nu }{}\text{Tr}(o_{x,\mu }o_{x+\widehat{\mu },\nu }o_{x+\widehat{\nu },\mu }^{}o_{x,\nu }^{}),$$
(4.38)
but the dagger now reduces to a transpose. In D-theory, the action is replaced by the action operator

$$H=J\underset{x,\mu \nu }{}\text{Tr}(O_{x,\mu }O_{x+\widehat{\mu },\nu }O_{x+\widehat{\nu },\mu }^{}O_{x,\nu }^{}).$$
(4.39)
The elements of the $`N\times N`$ quantum link operators $`O_{x,\mu }`$ consist of generators of $`SO(2N)`$. Again, gauge invariance implies that $`H`$ commutes with the local generators $`G_x`$ of gauge transformations which are given by

$$G_x^{ij}=\underset{\mu }{}(R_{x\widehat{\mu },\mu }^{ij}+L_{x,\mu }^{ij}).$$
(4.40)
The rishon representation takes the form

$`O_{x,\mu }^{ij}=i(c_{x,+\mu }^ic_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^jc_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^jc_{x,+\mu }^i),`$
$`L_{x,\mu }^{ij}=i(c_{x,+\mu }^ic_{x,+\mu }^jc_{x,+\mu }^jc_{x,+\mu }^i),`$
$`R_{x,\mu }^{ij}=i(c_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^ic_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^jc_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^jc_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^i).`$ (4.41)
The “Majorana” rishon operators obey the anti-commutation relations

$$\{c_{x,\pm \mu }^i,c_{y,\pm \nu }^j\}=\delta _{xy}\delta _{\pm \mu ,\pm \nu }\delta _{ij}.$$
(4.42)
### 4.6 Quantum Link Models with Other Gauge Groups

It is interesting to ask how gauge theories with other gauge groups can be formulated in D-theory. Besides the Lie groups $`SU(N)`$ and $`SO(N)`$ there is also the symplectic group $`Sp(N)`$. Quantum link models with the symplectic gauge group $`Sp(N)`$ can be constructed in complete analogy to the $`SU(N)`$ and $`SO(N)`$ cases. As discussed in section 3.5, the embedding algebra is then $`Sp(2N)Sp(N)_LSp(N)_R`$. In particular, the construction of the $`Sp(1)=SU(2)`$ quantum link model uses the embedding algebra $`Sp(2)=SO(5)`$. This case was discussed in detail in .

Besides the main sequence Lie groups $`SU(N)`$, $`SO(N)`$, and $`Sp(N)`$ there are also the exceptional Lie groups $`G(2)`$, $`F(4)`$, $`E(6)`$, $`E(7)`$, and $`E(8)`$. These groups must be treated on a case by case basis. Here we only consider the simplest exceptional group $`G(2)`$ which is a subgroup of $`SO(7)`$. The group $`G(2)`$ has rank 2, it has 14 generators, and it contains those $`SO(7)`$ matrices $`o`$ that satisfy the cubic constraint

$$T_{ijk}=T_{lmn}o^{li}o^{mj}o^{nk}.$$
(4.43)
Here $`T`$ is a totally anti-symmetric tensor whose non-zero elements follow by anti-symmetrization from

$$T_{127}=T_{154}=T_{163}=T_{235}=T_{264}=T_{374}=T_{576}=1.$$
(4.44)
Eq.(4.44) implies that eq.(4.43) represents 7 non-trivial constraints which reduce the 21 degrees of freedom of $`SO(7)`$ to the 14 parameters of $`G(2)`$. In D-theory one needs $`14+14=28`$ generators of the embedding algebra in order to represent the $`G(2)_LG(2)_R`$ gauge symmetry at the two ends of a link. In addition, one needs 49 Hermitean generators to represent the $`7\times 7`$ real matrix elements of a link variable. Hence, altogether one needs at least $`28+49=77`$ generators. It is tempting to try to embed this structure in the algebra $`E(6)`$ which has 78 generators. However, this does not work because $`E(6)`$ does not even contain $`G(2)_LG(2)_R`$ as a subgroup . Instead, one can use the embedding algebra $`SO(14)`$ which is used in the $`SO(7)`$ quantum link model. The group $`SO(14)`$ has 91 generators. Under the subgroup decomposition $`SO(14)G(2)_LG(2)_R`$ they decompose as

$$\{91\}=\{14,1\}\{7,1\}\{1,14\}\{1,7\}\{7,7\}.$$
(4.45)
If one simply uses the action operator of the $`SO(7)`$ quantum link model, the theory is by construction $`SO(7)`$ — and not just $`G(2)`$ — gauge invariant. In order to explicitly break the symmetry down to $`G(2)`$ one adds another term to the action operator

$$H=J\underset{x,\mu \nu }{}\text{Tr}(O_{x,\mu }O_{x+\widehat{\mu },\nu }O_{x+\widehat{\nu },\mu }^{}O_{x,\nu }^{})+J^{}\underset{x,\mu }{}T_{ijk}T_{lmn}O_{x,\mu }^{li}O_{x,\mu }^{mj}O_{x,\mu }^{nk}.$$
(4.46)
The additional term is $`G(2)`$ but not $`SO(7)`$ gauge invariant. This procedure is similar to the way in which the gauge symmetry of a $`U(N)`$ quantum link model was reduced to $`SU(N)`$.

### 4.7 Quantum $`CP(N1)`$ Models

$`CP(N1)`$ models are interesting because they have a global $`SU(N)`$ symmetry as well as a $`U(1)`$ gauge invariance. However, in this case, the gauge fields are just auxiliary fields. In the standard formulation of lattice field theory, $`CP(N1)`$ models are formulated in terms of classical complex unit-vectors $`z_x`$ and complex link variables $`u_{x,\mu }U(1)`$. The action can be written as

$$S[z,u]=\underset{x,\mu }{}(z_x^{}u_{x,\mu }z_{x+\widehat{\mu }}+z_{x+\widehat{\mu }}^{}u_{x,\mu }^{}z_x).$$
(4.47)
Note that there is no plaquette term for the gauge field. Consequently, the gauge field can be integrated out — it only acts as an auxiliary field. In D-theory, the corresponding action operator takes the form

$$H=J\underset{x,\mu }{}(Z_x^{}U_{x,\mu }Z_{x+\widehat{\mu }}+Z_{x+\widehat{\mu }}^{}U_{x,\mu }^{}Z_x).$$
(4.48)
Here the $`N`$ components $`Z_x^i`$ of the quantum spin $`Z_x`$ consist of $`2N`$ Hermitean generators of $`SU(N+1)`$ and $`U_{x,\mu }=S_{x,\mu }^1+iS_{x,\mu }^2=S_{x,\mu }^+`$ is the raising operator of an $`SU(2)`$ algebra on each link. In rishon representation we have

$$Z_x^i=c_x^0c_x^i,U_{x,\mu }=c_{x,+\mu }^{}c_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }.$$
(4.49)
Global $`SU(N)`$ transformations are generated by

$$\stackrel{}{G}=\underset{x}{}\underset{ij}{}c_x^i\stackrel{}{\lambda }_{ij}c_x^j,$$
(4.50)
and the generator of $`U(1)`$ gauge transformations takes the form

$$G_x=\frac{1}{2}\underset{\mu }{}(T_{x\widehat{\mu },\mu }T_{x,\mu })+\underset{i}{}c_x^ic_x^i.$$
(4.51)
In rishon representation we have

$$T_{x,\mu }=c_{x,+\mu }^{}c_{x,+\mu }c_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }^{}c_{x+\widehat{\mu },\mu }.$$
(4.52)
The invariance properties of the model follow from $`[H,\stackrel{}{G}]=[H,G_x]=0`$. In this case, the rishon numbers on each site and on each link are separately conserved.

It should be clear by now that D-theory is a very general structure which naturally provides us with lattice field theories formulated in terms of discrete variables — quantum spins and quantum links. The cases worked out here in some detail are examples that demonstrate the generality of D-theory. There are certainly more models one could investigate. In particular, it is straightforward to include fermion fields . In fact, the additional dimension of D-theory provides a natural framework for domain wall fermions. Next, we will argue that D-theory does not define a new set of field theories. It just provides a new non-perturbative regularization and quantization of the corresponding classical models. In order to understand this, we now address the issue of dimensional reduction.

## 5 Classical Fields from Dimensional Reduction of Discrete Variables

As we have seen in detail in section 2, the quantum Heisenberg model provides a D-theory regularization for the $`d`$-dimensional $`O(3)`$ model. The connection between the two models is established using chiral perturbation theory. The Goldstone boson fields $`\stackrel{}{s}`$ describing the low-energy dynamics of the Heisenberg model emerge as collective excitations of the quantum spins. By dimensional reduction they become the effective 2-d fields of a lattice $`O(3)`$ model. The continuum limit of this lattice model is reached when the extent $`\beta `$ of the extra Euclidean dimension becomes large. The success of D-theory relies entirely on the fact that the $`(d+1)`$-dimensional theory is massless, i.e. that in the ground state of the quantum Heisenberg model the $`SO(3)`$ symmetry is spontaneously broken to $`SO(2)`$. Only then chiral perturbation theory applies and dimensional reduction occurs. The same is true for other D-theory quantum spin models. In case of the spin 1/2 quantum Heisenberg model it required very precise numerical simulations before one could be sure that spontaneous symmetry breaking indeed occurs. For the other D-theory spin models similar simulations have not yet been done. In the following discussion of the dynamics we will assume that in D-theory the same symmetry breaking pattern arises as in the corresponding Wilsonian lattice field theory. This can indeed be shown for sufficiently large representations of the corresponding embedding algebra . In practical numerical calculations one would like to work with small representations. We expect that efficient cluster algorithms can be constructed for various D-theory models. Hence, it should be possible to investigate if massless modes indeed exist in the $`(d+1)`$-dimensional theory, and thus perform detailed tests of the dynamical picture that is drawn here.

### 5.1 $`O(N)`$ Models

Let us investigate the $`O(N)`$ quantum spin models constructed in the previous section. First, we consider $`d=2`$. The quantum statistical partition function $`Z=\text{Tr}\mathrm{exp}(\beta H)`$ can then be represented as a $`(2+1)`$-dimensional path integral with finite extent $`\beta `$ in the extra Euclidean dimension. At $`\beta =\mathrm{}`$ we have an infinite 3-d system with an $`SO(N)`$ symmetry. In Wilson’s formulation of lattice field theory, such models can be in a massless phase in which the symmetry is spontaneously broken to $`SO(N1)`$. Here we assume that the same is true for the quantum spin model. Just as in the Heisenberg model, for small representations of the embedding algebra $`SO(N+1)`$, this assumption can only be tested in numerical simulations. First, we limit ourselves to the non-Abelian $`N>2`$ case. The Abelian $`N=2`$ case of the quantum XY model requires a separate discussion. When an $`SO(N)`$ symmetry breaks spontaneously down to $`SO(N1)`$, the low-energy Goldstone boson dynamics is described by chiral perturbation theory. In this case, the Goldstone bosons are represented by fields in the coset space $`SO(N)/SO(N1)=S^{N1}`$ which is an $`(N1)`$-dimensional sphere. Consequently, the Goldstone boson fields are $`N`$-component unit vectors $`\stackrel{}{s}`$ and their low-energy effective action is given by

$$S[\stackrel{}{s}]=_0^\beta 𝑑x_3d^2x\frac{\rho _s}{2}\left(_\mu \stackrel{}{s}_\mu \stackrel{}{s}+\frac{1}{c^2}_3\stackrel{}{s}_3\stackrel{}{s}\right).$$
(5.1)
Again, $`c`$ and $`\rho _s`$ are the spin wave velocity and the spin stiffness.

Dimensional reduction now occurs exactly as in the $`O(3)`$ Heisenberg model. When the extent $`\beta `$ of the extra dimension becomes finite, the correlation length $`\xi `$ is much larger than $`\beta `$ and the system becomes 2-dimensional. In two dimensions, however, the Mermin-Wagner-Coleman theorem implies that the Goldstone bosons pick up a mass. Hasenfratz and Niedermayer have determined the corresponding finite correlation length

$$\xi =\beta c\left(\frac{e(N2)}{16\pi \beta \rho _s}\right)^{1/(N2)}\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(1+\frac{1}{N2}\right)\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{2\pi \beta \rho _s}{N2}\right)\left[1\frac{1}{4\pi \beta \rho _s}+𝒪(1/\beta ^2\rho _s^2)\right].$$
(5.2)
Again, $`1/g^2=\beta \rho _s`$ defines the coupling constant $`g`$ of an effective $`O(N)`$ symmetric Wilsonian lattice gauge theory with lattice spacing $`\beta c`$. The exponential divergence of $`\xi `$ is due to asymptotic freedom. In this case, the 1-loop $`\beta `$-function coefficient is $`(N2)/2\pi `$. The continuum limit of the effective lattice model is reached in the $`g0`$ limit, i.e. when the extent $`\beta `$ of the extra dimension becomes large. Still, in physical units of $`\xi `$, this extent becomes negligible and the $`(2+1)`$-dimensional D-theory model is reduced to the 2-d $`O(N)`$ model.

In higher dimensions the situation is exactly as in the $`d`$-dimensional Heisenberg model. Assuming again that the ground state has a broken symmetry, dimensional reduction occurs once $`\beta `$ becomes finite. However, in contrast to the $`d=2`$ case, the Goldstone bosons remain massless after dimensional reduction. Still, when $`\beta `$ becomes too small, one enters the symmetric phase with a finite correlation length. The universal continuum behavior at the corresponding second order phase transition is naturally contained in the framework of D-theory. For general $`N`$, the $`d=1`$ case is different from $`N=3`$ because there are no instantons — and thus no $`\theta `$-term — for $`N3`$. Consequently, we expect the 1-d $`O(N)`$ quantum spin chain to be always massive. In that case, dimensional reduction would not occur and no universal continuum physics arises.

Let us now turn to the $`N=2`$ case of the 2-d quantum XY model. The classical 2-d XY model has a Kosterlitz-Thouless transition separating a massive phase with a vortex condensate from a massless spin wave phase. In this case, the Mermin-Wagner-Coleman theorem is evaded because the spin waves do not interact with each other. There is numerical evidence for a Kosterlitz-Thouless transition at finite $`\beta `$ also in the quantum XY model . For a large extent of the third Euclidean dimension, one is in a massless phase with an infinite correlation length, which means that dimensional reduction occurs already at finite $`\beta `$. Hence, the dimensional reduction in the 2-d quantum XY model is analogous to the behavior of $`O(N)`$ models with $`N3`$ in dimensions $`d3`$. The continuum field theory resulting from the 2-d quantum XY model is the 2-d classical XY model — an $`SO(2)`$-symmetric theory of a free massless scalar field.

### 5.2 $`SU(N)`$, $`Sp(N)`$, and $`SO(N)`$ Chiral Models

Let us consider the $`d`$-dimensional $`SU(N)`$ chiral quantum spin model. Its partition function is described by a $`(d+1)`$-dimensional path integral with an extent $`\beta `$ of the extra dimension. At $`\beta =\mathrm{}`$ we have a $`(d+1)`$-dimensional system with an $`SU(N)_LSU(N)_R`$ chiral symmetry. For a sufficiently large representation of the embedding algebra $`SU(2N)`$ it has been shown that the quantum chiral spin model has the same spontaneous symmetry breaking pattern that occurs in Wilson’s lattice field theory . Consequently, the $`SU(N)_LSU(N)_R`$ symmetry breaks down to $`SU(N)_{L=R}`$ and the coset space for the Goldstone boson fields is $`SU(N)_LSU(N)_R/SU(N)_{L=R}=SU(N)`$. For $`d=2`$ the low-energy effective action takes the form

$$S[U]=_0^\beta 𝑑x_3d^2x\frac{\rho _s}{4}\text{Tr}\left(_\mu U^{}_\mu U+\frac{1}{c^2}_3U^{}_3U\right).$$
(5.3)
The dimensional reduction is exactly like in $`O(N)`$ models with $`N3`$. In particular, in $`d=2`$, due to the Mermin-Wagner-Coleman theorem, one again obtains a finite correlation length $`\xi `$. Using the exact mass gap of the 2-d $`SU(N)`$ chiral model , up to order $`1/\beta \rho _s`$ corrections, one obtains

$$\xi =\beta c\left(\frac{e}{N\beta \rho _s}\right)^{1/2}\frac{\mathrm{exp}(2\pi \beta \rho _s/N)}{4\mathrm{sin}(\pi /N)}\left[1+𝒪(1/\beta \rho _s)\right].$$
(5.4)
Note that this is consistent with the $`O(4)`$ model result for $`N=2`$. Again, due to asymptotic freedom, dimensional reduction occurs in the $`\beta \mathrm{}`$ continuum limit. In higher dimensions dimensional reduction already occurs at finite $`\beta `$.

Similarly, using the exact mass gap of the 2-d $`Sp(N)`$ and $`SO(N)`$ chiral models  one obtains corresponding results for the correlation length. For the $`Sp(N)`$ chiral spin models one gets

$$\xi =\beta c\left(\frac{e}{(N+1)\beta \rho _s}\right)^{1/2}\frac{\mathrm{exp}(2\pi \beta \rho _s/(N+1))}{2^{(3N+1)/(N+1)}\mathrm{sin}(\pi /(N+1))}\left[1+𝒪(1/\beta \rho _s)\right].$$
(5.5)
This is consistent with the $`SU(2)SU(2)`$ model for $`N=1`$.

For $`SO(N)`$ with $`N7`$ the correlation length is given by

$$\xi =\beta c\left(\frac{e}{(N2)\beta \rho _s}\right)^{1/2}\frac{\mathrm{exp}(2\pi \beta \rho _s/(N2))}{2^{(2N2)/(N4)}\mathrm{sin}(\pi /(N2))}\left[1+𝒪(1/\beta \rho _s)\right].$$
(5.6)
Since $`SO(3)SU(2)=Sp(1)`$, $`SO(5)Sp(2)`$, and $`SO(6)SU(4)`$, the cases $`N=3`$, 5, and 6 are covered by the corresponding $`SU(N)SU(N)`$ and $`Sp(N)Sp(N)`$ chiral models. Since $`SO(4)SU(2)SU(2)`$ the $`N=4`$ case corresponds to two decoupled $`SU(2)SU(2)`$ chiral models.

### 5.3 $`SU(N)`$, $`Sp(N)`$, $`SO(N)`$, and $`U(1)`$ Gauge Theories

Let us consider $`SU(N)`$ non-Abelian gauge theories, first in $`d=4`$. The action operator of the corresponding quantum link model, which is defined on a 4-d lattice, describes the evolution of the system in a fifth Euclidean direction. The partition function $`Z=\text{Tr}\mathrm{exp}(\beta H)`$ can then be represented as a $`(4+1)`$-d path integral. Note that we have not included a projector on gauge invariant states, i.e. gauge variant states also propagate in the fifth direction. This means that we do not impose a Gauss law in the unphysical direction. Not imposing Gauss’ law implies $`A_5=0`$ for the fifth component of the gauge potential. This is convenient, because it leaves us with the correct field content after dimensional reduction. Of course, the physical Gauss law is properly imposed because the model does contain non-trivial Polyakov loops in the Euclidean time direction.

Dimensional reduction in quantum link models works differently than for quantum spins. In the spin case the spontaneous breakdown of a global symmetry provides the massless Goldstone modes that are necessary for dimensional reduction. On the other hand, when a gauge symmetry breaks spontaneously, the Higgs mechanism gives mass to the gauge bosons and dimensional reduction would not occur. Fortunately, non-Abelian gauge theories in five dimensions are generically in a massless Coulomb phase . This has recently been verified in detail for 5-d $`SU(2)`$ and $`SU(3)`$ lattice gauge theories using Wilson’s formulation . For sufficiently large representations of the embedding algebra $`SU(2N)`$ the same is true for quantum link models . Whether a $`(4+1)`$-d $`SU(N)`$ quantum link model using a small representation of $`SU(2N)`$ is still in the Coulomb phase can only be checked in numerical simulations. The leading terms in the low-energy effective action of 5-d Coulombic gluons take the form

$$S[A]=_0^\beta 𝑑x_5d^4x\frac{1}{2e^2}\left(\text{Tr}F_{\mu \nu }F_{\mu \nu }+\frac{1}{c^2}\text{Tr}_5A_\mu _5A_\mu \right).$$
(5.7)
The quantum link model leads to a 5-d gauge theory characterized by the “velocity of light” $`c`$. Note that here $`\mu `$ runs over 4-d indices only. The dimensionful 5-d gauge coupling $`1/e^2`$ is the analog of $`\rho _s`$ in the spin models. At finite $`\beta `$ the above theory has only a 4-d gauge invariance, because we have fixed $`A_5=0`$, i.e. we have not imposed the Gauss law. At $`\beta =\mathrm{}`$ we are in the 5-d Coulomb phase with massless gluons and thus with an infinite correlation length $`\xi `$. When $`\beta `$ is made finite, the extent of the extra dimension is negligible compared to $`\xi `$. Hence, the theory appears to be dimensionally reduced to four dimensions. Of course, in four dimensions the confinement hypothesis suggests that gluons are no longer massless. Indeed, as it was argued in , a finite correlation length

$$\xi \beta c\left(\frac{11e^2N}{48\pi ^2\beta }\right)^{51/121}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{24\pi ^2\beta }{11Ne^2}\right)$$
(5.8)
is expected to be generated non-perturbatively. Here $`11N/48\pi ^2`$ is the 1-loop $`\beta `$-function coefficient of $`SU(N)`$ gauge theory. In contrast to the spin models, the exact value for the mass gap (and hence the prefactor of the exponential) is not known in this case. For large $`\beta `$ the gauge coupling of the dimensionally reduced 4-d theory is given by

$$1/g^2=\beta /e^2.$$
(5.9)
Thus the continuum limit $`g0`$ of the 4-d theory is approached when one sends the extent $`\beta `$ of the fifth direction to infinity. Hence, dimensional reduction occurs when the extent of the fifth direction becomes large. This is due to asymptotic freedom, which implies that the correlation length grows exponentially with $`\beta `$. As in the spin models, it is useful to think of the dimensionally reduced 4-d theory as a Wilsonian lattice theory with lattice spacing $`\beta c`$ (which has nothing to do with the lattice spacing of the quantum link model). In fact, one can again imagine performing a block renormalization group transformation that averages the 5-d field over cubic blocks of size $`\beta `$ in the fifth direction and of size $`\beta c`$ in the four physical space-time directions. The block centers then form a 4-d space-time lattice of spacing $`\beta c`$ and the effective theory of the block averaged 5-d field is indeed a Wilsonian 4-d lattice gauge theory.

Using the 1- and 2-loop $`\beta `$-function coefficients, it is straightforward to derive similar formulas for the correlation lengths of $`Sp(N)`$ and $`SO(N)`$ quantum link models. In the $`Sp(N)`$ case, one obtains

$$\xi \beta c\left(\frac{11e^2(N+1)}{48\pi ^2\beta }\right)^{51/121}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{24\pi ^2\beta }{11(N+1)e^2}\right),$$
(5.10)
while for $`SO(N)`$ with $`N4`$

$$\xi \beta c\left(\frac{11e^2(N2)}{48\pi ^2\beta }\right)^{51/121}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{24\pi ^2\beta }{11(N2)e^2}\right).$$
(5.11)
Since $`SO(3)SU(2)`$, the $`N=3`$ case is covered by eq.(5.8).

Let us also consider the $`d=3`$ case. Then, due to confinement, there is no massless phase in $`d+1=4`$ dimensions. Hence, one then expects no dimensional reduction and no universal continuum behavior. This situation is analogous to the behavior of 1-d quantum spin chains discussed earlier. Still, in accordance with Haldane’s conjecture, the $`O(3)`$ spin chain displays universal behavior because half-integer spins correspond to the massless 2-d $`O(3)`$ model at $`\theta =\pi `$. Similarly, it is possible that 3-d $`SU(N)`$ quantum link models, formulated with an appropriate representation of $`SU(2N)`$, correspond to a 4-d Yang-Mills theory at $`\theta 0`$. Again, such a theory may be massless. Cluster algorithms for quantum link models would be an ideal tool to investigate $`\theta `$-vacua in gauge theories because the corresponding D-theory model may not have a complex action problem.

The situation for 4-d $`U(1)`$ gauge theory is analogous to the 2-d XY model. In contrast to non-Abelian gauge theories, after dimensional reduction from five to four dimensions, there is no reason for the photons to pick up a mass. They can exist in a 4-d Coulomb phase because they are not confined. Hence, dimensional reduction occurs already at a finite extent of the fifth dimension — not only in the $`\beta \mathrm{}`$ limit. Still, when $`\beta `$ becomes too small, one enters the strong coupling confined phase which has a finite correlation length. If the phase transition between the confined phase and the Coulomb phase is of second order one obtains universal continuum behavior via dimensional reduction by approaching the phase transition in the confined phase. For $`d=3`$, a $`U(1)`$ quantum link model can undergo dimensional reduction from four to three dimensions because 4-d $`U(1)`$ gauge fields can exist in a massless Coulomb phase. However, after dimensional reduction the correlation length becomes finite because 3-d $`U(1)`$ gauge theories are always in the confined phase . In fact, just as in non-Abelian gauge theories in four dimensions, an exponentially large correlation length arises. Therefore, dimensional reduction now occurs in the $`\beta \mathrm{}`$ limit. Hence, the universal continuum behavior of $`U(1)`$ gauge theories, both in three and four dimensions, is naturally contained in the framework of D-theory.

### 5.4 $`CP(N1)`$ Models

First, let us consider quantum $`CP(N1)`$ models in $`d=2`$. Their partition function is again given by a $`(2+1)`$-d path integral with a finite extent $`\beta `$ in the extra dimension. As before, in the $`\beta \mathrm{}`$ limit we have a 3-d system, in this case with a global $`SU(N)`$ and a local $`U(1)`$ symmetry. Again, assuming the same symmetry breaking pattern as in Wilson’s theory, such a system has a broken symmetry phase with only a global $`U(N1)`$ symmetry left intact. As a consequence, the corresponding Goldstone bosons live in the coset space $`SU(N)/U(N1)=S^{2N1}/S^1`$ — i.e. they are just the classical $`N`$-component complex unit-vectors $`z`$ of a $`CP(N1)`$ model with a $`U(1)`$ gauge symmetry. Therefore, the low-energy effective action takes the form

$$S[z,A]=_0^\beta 𝑑x_3d^2x\frac{\rho _s}{2}\left[|(_\mu +A_\mu )z|^2+\frac{1}{c^2}|_3z|^2\right].$$
(5.12)
Note that there is no kinetic term for the $`U(1)`$ gauge field $`A_\mu `$ — it is just an auxiliary field. Since we have not imposed Gauss’ law for states propagating in the extra dimension, the third component $`A_3`$ of the gauge field vanishes. Consequently, an ordinary (not a covariant) derivative arises in the last term. When the above system of Goldstone bosons is considered at a finite extent $`\beta `$, it undergoes dimensional reduction to two dimensions. Again, due to asymptotic freedom an exponentially large correlation length

$$\xi \beta c\left(\frac{N}{4\pi \beta \rho _s}\right)^{2/N}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{4\pi \beta \rho _s}{N}\right)$$
(5.13)
is generated, and dimensional reduction occurs in the $`\beta \mathrm{}`$ continuum limit. In this case, the exact mass gap is not known analytically. As usual, $`N/4\pi `$ is the 1-loop coefficient of the perturbative $`\beta `$-function. In higher dimensions the reduction is exactly as in $`O(N)`$ models with $`N3`$ or in chiral models.

One-dimensional $`CP(N1)`$ quantum spin chains are interesting because they may be similar to the Heisenberg chain. Note that, at the classical level, $`CP(1)=O(3)`$. In contrast to $`O(N)`$ models, $`CP(N1)`$ models have instantons and hence a $`\theta `$-angle for all $`N`$. This suggests to extend Haldane’s conjecture to these models. When formulated with appropriate representations of $`SU(N+1)`$ (the embedding algebra of quantum $`CP(N1)`$ models), quantum $`CP(N1)`$ chains may correspond to 2-d classical $`CP(N1)`$ models with a $`\theta `$-term. Still, unlike in the $`O(3)`$-model, this would not necessarily mean that 1-d quantum $`CP(N1)`$ chains undergo dimensional reduction. In fact, for 2-d classical $`CP(N1)`$ models one expects a first order phase transition at $`\theta =\pi `$ . In that case, the correlation length remains finite and dimensional reduction does not occur.

## 6 Conclusions

We have seen that D-theory provides a rich structure which allows us to formulate quantum field theories in terms of discrete variables — quantum spins or quantum links. Dimensional reduction of discrete variables is a generic phenomenon. In $`(d+1)`$-dimensional quantum spin models with $`d2`$, it occurs because of spontaneous symmetry breaking, while in $`(4+1)`$-dimensional non-Abelian quantum link models it is due to the presence of a 5-d massless Coulomb phase. The inclusion of fermions is very natural when one follows Shamir’s variant  of Kaplan’s domain wall fermion proposal . In particular, the fine-tuning problem of Wilson fermions is solved very elegantly by going to five dimensions.

It is remarkable that D-theory treats bosons and fermions on an equal footing. Both are formulated in a finite Hilbert space per site, both require the presence of an extra dimension, and both naturally have exponentially large correlation lengths after dimensional reduction. The discrete nature of the fundamental variables makes D-theory attractive, both from an analytic and from a computational point of view. On the analytic side, the discrete variables allow us to rewrite the theory in terms of fermionic rishon constituents of the bosonic fields. This may turn out to be useful when one studies the large $`N`$ limit of various models . In particular, one can now carry over powerful techniques developed for condensed matter systems (like the quantum Heisenberg model) to particle physics. This includes the use of very efficient cluster algorithms which has the potential of dramatically improving numerical simulations of lattice field theories.

In D-theory the classical fields of ordinary quantum field theory arise via dimensional reduction of discrete variables. This requires specific dynamics — namely a massless theory in one more dimension. In general, the verification of this basic dynamical ingredient of D-theory requires non-perturbative insight — for example, via numerical simulations or via the large $`N`$ limit. Thus, the connection to ordinary field theory methods — in particular, to perturbation theory — is rather indirect. This could be viewed as a potential weakness, for example, because it seems hopeless to do perturbative QCD calculations in the framework of D-theory. However, the large separation from perturbative methods may actually turn out to be a major strength of D-theory. The fact, that perturbative calculations are difficult, may imply that non-perturbative calculations are now easier. After all, D-theory provides an additional non-perturbative microscopic structure underlying Wilson’s lattice theory. Our hope is that this structure will help us to better understand the non-perturbative dynamics of quantum field theories.

## Acknowledgements

We are indebted to P. Forgacs, F. Niedermayer, and M. Reuter for very interesting discussions. This work was supported in part by funds provided by the U.S. Department of Energy (D.O.E.) under cooperative research agreement DE-FG02-96ER40945, by the Schweizerischer Nationalfond (SNF), and by the European Community’s Human Potential Programme under contract HPRN-CT-2000-00145.