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# IBIS/PICsIT in-flight performancesBased on observations with INTEGRAL, an ESA project with instruments and science data centre funded by ESA member states (especially the PI countries: Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Spain), Czech Republic and Poland, and with the participation of Russia and the USA.

## 1 Introduction

The IBIS telescope (Ubertini et al. 2003) provides unprecedented imaging capabilities over three decades of energy intervals in the gamma–ray regime, using a composite two–layer detection system made of discrete independent pixels. The upper layer, ISGRI (IBIS Soft Gamma–Ray Imager), is the low energy detector (Lebrun et al. 2003). ISGRI is based on CdTe pixels and covers the energy band $`151000`$ keV. Placed 10 cm below ISGRI, PICsIT (Pixellated Imaging CsI Telescope), is based on CsI(Tl) crystals, and it is operative between $`175`$ keV and $`10`$ MeV. Both layers are position sensitive and allow the reconstruction of the shadowgram cast by the tungsten coded mask placed $`320`$ cm above ISGRI. At that distance, one mask pixel, 1.12 cm wide, subtends an angle of $``$12 arcmin, which defines the angular resolution of the instrument, while the point source location accuracy (PSLA) for strong sources ($`20\sigma `$) is about 1 arcmin. A passive collimation system is present between ISGRI and the coded mask to shield the detectors against the cosmic diffuse background up to about 300 keV, while both layers are in anticoincidence with an active BGO veto system which surronds the sides and bottom of PICsIT for high–energy background rejection (Quadrini et al. 2003). The two–layer focal detection plane array is also coupled with the on–board IBIS calibration unit based on a 22Na source with a modified veto element as tagging detector, for gain and performance monitoring (Bird et al. 2003a).

PICsIT (Labanti et al. 2003) has been designed to attain, with the same instrument, good sensitivity, fine imaging, and moderate energy resolution in the gamma–ray energy domain between 175 keV and 10 MeV. It consists of 8 totally independent rectangular modules arranged in a $`2\times 4`$ array inside an aluminium mainframe. Each module contains 512 ($`16\times 32`$) CsI(Tl) scintillation crystals, each one coupled with a silicon photodiode (PD) for fluorescence light collection. The total assembly is a 4096 ($`64\times 64`$) pixel matrix. Each pixel is $`0.84\times 0.84`$ cm2 in cross–section, and 3 cm thick. Every crystal is polished and wrapped with a white diffusive paper to provide stability and physical isolation between pixels. Each PD is interfaced to an analogue front–end electronic chain including a biasing filter, charge amplifier, shaping amplifier, threshold discriminator, and peak detector plus stretcher. These circuits are implemented in an analogue application specific integrate circuit (ASIC). Each ASIC receives the signals from 16 PDs. The key performance parameter of PICsIT are listed in Table 1.

The PICsIT detector has undergone a long series of functional tests and scientific calibration before and after the the integration in the IBIS telescope. The pixel–by–pixel channel–to–energy relationship was calibrated on–ground in order to create the look–up tables (LUT) uploaded in the on–board data handling system (Labanti et al. 2003). The LUTs have then been re–created using the in–flight data from the IBIS calibration unit (Bird et al. 2003), and the first in–flight calibration results indicate a very good stability of the behaviour of PICsIT (Malaguti et al. 2003).

## 2 IBIS/PICsIT modes of operation and in–flight context

The on-board telemetry limitations do not allow a complete (position, time, energy), event–by–event, transmission of PICsIT data. This has implied a significant amount of on–board processing. Each PICsIT valid signal111Signals are not treated as PICsIT events when they are in coincidence with ISGRI ones (Compton events), calibration unit tags (calibration events), or veto strobes (removed as background). is first corrected for gain non–uniformity by means of the on–board LUT. These corrected events are then associated with their respective energy deposit, incidence pixel, and time tag. This on–board event pre–processing is performed differently according to the number of pixels triggered, the selected PICsIT operative science mode, and depends finally on the status of an on–board set of parameters which can be updated and uploaded via telecommand.

### 2.1 Event multiplicity and handling

In order to minimize the impact on scientific performances caused by the strong limitation imposed by the telemetry budget at satellite level, PICsIT data are treated on–board in different ways depending upon their multiplicity. A single event is the result of a gamma–ray photon triggering only one pixel, while a multiple event triggers two (double) or three (triple) pixels. Events with multiplicity greater than 3 are not transmitted to ground. Singles and multiples are put in two independent data sets. Multiple events are then processed on–board by the data handling system (DHS) and associated with one single energy deposit and incidence pixel. The first is the sum of the energies deposited in each pixel, while the incidence pixel, to form the multiple event shadowgram to be coupled with the mask pattern for image deconvolution, is reconstructed on–board by the DHS, which calculates the most probable incidence position implementing an algorithm developed from MonteCarlo simulations and scientific calibrations (Malaguti et al. 2001). The on–board event handling introduces a certain degree of detector non–uniformity. This is due to the fact that multiple events are treated at semi–module level ($`16\times 16`$ pixels), and, since there is no electronic communication between semi–modules, energy deposits falling across semi–module boundaries are not recombined into a single event. This gives rise to characteristic bi–convex (concave) shapes of the background for multiple (single) events (Malaguti et al. 2001, Bird et al. 2003).

### 2.2 PICsIT operative scientific modes

PICsIT has two fundamental operative modes: Photon–Photon Mode (PPM) and Standard Mode (SM). Because of the already mentioned satellite telemetry limitations, PPM can be used only in the case of limited count rate (e.g. selecting only one region of the operative spectral range). In PPM, the events (singles and multiples) are transmitted with full information: energy (1024 channels), pixel position, time tag between events. During slews, PICsIT is by default, switched to PPM.

SM is the nominal operating mode for PICsIT and it is composed of two submodes: Spectral Imaging (SI) and Spectral Timing (ST). In SI the events (singles and multiples) are integrated on–board for a characteristic time which is coupled to the duration of one pointing, i.e. $``$2000 s, to produce 3–dimensional histograms. SI histograms are optimized for spatial resolution. The raw 1024 channel spectra are rebinned to 256 channels, and one energy spectrum is obtained for every pixel. The final result is a $`256\times 64\times 64`$ histogram. The spectral re–binning is performed by means of a non–linear binning table (contained in the DHS context) in order to optimize the energy sampling.

On the other hand, ST is optimized for temporal resolution at the expense of the spatial information. PICsIT and the on–board DHS have been designed to have up to 8 programmable energy bands, and down to 0.97 ms time resolution. The implementation of ST in full resolution would however imply, because of telemetry limitation, significant loss of data for IBIS as a whole. The default (from end of June 2003) functioning foresees four energy bands ($`150÷200`$ keV, $`200÷250`$ keV, $`250÷350`$ keV, $`350÷700`$ keV) with 1.9 ms time resolution.

### 2.3 PICsIT and DHS in–flight context

PICsIT in–flight data processing requires a number of parameters and algorithm to be present and implemented on–board. The main ones are: LUT for gain and offset correction, channel–to–energy conversion, binning tables for SM, incidence pixel reconstruction algorithm from multiple events, dead pixel map. These are all stored in the PICsIT and DHS contexts. The contexts can be downloaded as part of the scientific housekeeping data (HKD) and their contents can be updated and uploaded via telecommand following a “reboot” of PICsIT.

A typical example is the handling of noisy pixels. When a pixel becomes noisy, it is killed by the on–board automatic noisy pixel handling system. If it remains noisy, its coordinates are put in the killed pixel map contained in the context and the pixel will remain switched off at the first PICsIT reboot. Only 2 pixels have become noisy during the first 7 months of the mission, and have therefore been killed, for a total of 51 killed pixels ($``$1% of total detecting area).

## 3 In–flight performance and sensitivity

The level and stability of PICsIT scientific performance has been monitored during the first months of the mission using the data from the in–flight calibration unit. For the first 4 months of the mission, PICsIT was switched off during belt transits. This implied a temperature decrease of $``$10C at constant satellite attitude during belt exits. These temperature fluctuations did not have measurable influence on energy resolution (measured at the two 22Na lines: 511 and 1275 keV), which remained constant. On the other hand, the observed gain drift during temperature increase and stabilization at belt exits up to revolution 37 are fully explained by temperature fluctuations (Malaguti et al. 2003). Therefore, after having verified the absence of significant effect on instrument behaviour, leaving few modules on during belt transits for several weeks, it was decided, starting from revolution 38, to keep PICsIT always switched on to avoid unnecessary temperature fluctuations and increase the instrument stability. The observed residual gain fluctuations are to be ascribed to the changing aspect of the satellite with respect to the sun direction, for the various pointings.

### 3.1 PICsIT background count spectrum

Prior to IBIS/PICsIT, no other pixellated CsI detector of this size was flown on a satellite. For this reason, the in–orbit background level and energy spectrum predictions, based on MonteCarlo simulations, or on semi–empirical scaling from other high energy space telescopes (e.g. OSSE, SIGMA), were accurate only within a factor of $``$2.

A series of photon-particle transport simulation programs have been developed to evaluate the in-orbit background rate and spectral shape. These resulted in a predicted total (all events) count rate between 1500 and 2000 counts/s (Armstrong et al. 1999, Lei et al. 1997). However, PICsIT design assumed a conservative estimate of 7500 counts/s at solar maximum level in the energy range 140 keV – 10 MeV. The most important contigency included in this evaluation is the uncertainty in the incident cosmic ray proton flux (Ferguson et al. 2003). Figure 1 shows the PICsIT in–orbit background spectrum for single and multiple events compared with the spectral shape obtained from Monte–Carlo simulations and scaled up to 7500 counts/s. The measurements are from the empty field acquisitions performed during revolution 38 (just before the first Crab observation), and give a total counting rate of $``$2900 and $``$650 counts/s for single and multiple events, respectively.

It is worth noting that, while the total count rate is a factor of $``$2 less than the expected conservative value, the observed background flux up to $``$250–300 keV is higher than expected. This is partly due to the events generated by the high–energy tracks to be ascribed to the photon–particle shower generated by high–energy cosmic rays interacting in the satellite–telescope structure or within PICsIT itself (Segreto et al. 2003).

### 3.2 Continuum and line sensitivity

The statistical limits, i.e. the minimum detectable fluxes in case of negligible systematic effects, of PICsIT sensitivity to continuum ($`F_{\mathrm{min}}^{\mathrm{Cont}}`$ in photons cm-2 s-1 keV-1), and narrow222In this context an emission line is considered narrow, when its width is small compared with the energy resolution of the instrument at that energy. line ($`F_{\mathrm{min}}^{\mathrm{Line}}`$ in photons cm-2 s-1) emission, are given by:

$$F_{\mathrm{min}}^{\mathrm{Cont}.}=\frac{In_\sigma }{\epsilon AT\mathrm{\Delta }E(\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{o}\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{c})^2\epsilon _{\mathrm{ipr}}}\left(n_\sigma (\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{o}+\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{c})+\sqrt{n_\sigma ^2(\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{o}+\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{c})^2+4(\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{o}+\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{c})^2AT\mathrm{\Delta }EB}\right)$$
(1)
$$F_{\mathrm{min}}^{\mathrm{Line}}=\frac{In_\sigma }{0.75\epsilon _PAT(\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{o}\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{c})^2\epsilon _{\mathrm{ipr}}}\left(n_\sigma (\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{o}+\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{c})+\sqrt{n_\sigma ^2(\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{o}+\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{c})^2+4(\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{o}+\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{c})^2AT\delta EB}\right)$$
(2)
Since, both in PPM and SM, PICsIT single and multiple events are contained in two different and independent data sets, the total statistical limit for the minimum detectable flux is given by:

$$F_{\mathrm{min}}^{\mathrm{Tot}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\frac{1}{(F_{\mathrm{min}}^{\mathrm{singles}})^2}+\frac{1}{(F_{\mathrm{min}}^{\mathrm{multiples}})^2}}}$$
(3)
The input parameters for equations 1 are described in Table 2. The background spectrum is shown in figure 1 and discussed in section 3.1, the transparency of the closed elements of the coded mask has been calculated from the cross–section of 16 mm of tungsten, while the photopeak and total detection efficiency for single and double events has been obtained by means of a MonteCarlo photon–particle transport code cross–checked with the IBIS on–ground calibration results (Bird et al. 2003b).

Figure 2 shows the continuum and line PICsIT sensitivity curves, based on statistical principles only and calculated using the in–flight measured background spectrum. An important caveat is that the actual sensitivity limit depends also on systematic effects, mainly due to non-uniformity of the spatial response for both background and source events (Natalucci et al. 2003), to cosmic-ray induced events (Segreto et al. 2003), and to background temperature variations (Stephen et al. 2003). The actual version of the INTEGRAL Data Analysis System (IDAS333IDAS software is available from http://isdc.unige.ch/index.cgi?Soft+dowload . See also Goldwurm et al. (2003) for details.) performs the background correction on the basis of an empty field observation (Goldwurm et al. 2003). A refined correction of these effects will be possible with a background model obtained after an accurate study of the in-flight data.

### 3.3 Imaging capabilities

During the Performance Verification and Calibration Phases, IBIS has observed two point sources: Cyg X–1 and the Crab nebula. The first results shown here have been obtained with the Offline Scientific Analysis (OSA) of the IDAS, and show the imaging capabilities of PICsIT. Figure 3 and 4 show the significance map and profile in four energy bands (only one for Cyg X–1), obtained decoding the shadowgram casted by the coded mask (see Goldwurm et al. 2003 for details regarding image deconvolution in IBIS and the definition of significance). The significance of a detection in a coded mask telescope depends on a number of factors like, among others, the ratio between detector plane spatial resolution and mask element size, background non–uniformities, and off–axis position of the source (Skinner 2002). In the current version of IDAS, the calculation of the significance takes into account statistical effects plus a first evaluation of background and detector non–uniformity (using the empty field observation of revolution 38), while an interpolation is implemented to account for the uneven sampling of mask elements by the detector pixels.

Table 3 shows the reconstructed sky coordinates of the three point sources observed with PICsIT, compared with the reference position, which has been obtained from catalogues (Crab and Cyg X-1) and from ISGRI (GRB021125). Since PICsIT operates in a energy band where the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is intrinsically low, very long exposures are required. Therefore, it is not possible to make precise astrometry on a statistical basis. The residual offset can give an estimate of PICsIT point source location accuracy (PSLA), being the nominal value of the error radius of $`5^{}`$. A more detailed evaluation of PSLA (see Gros et al 2003 for more details) will be performed with the availability of a refined point spread function (PSF).

Table 4 shows the reconstructed count rates and associated significance of the Crab observations in three different telescope configurations. In revolution 39, IBIS observed the Crab on–axis, staring on the source for 77 ks; in revolutions 43 and 44 the Crab was pointed with a $`5\times 5`$ rectangular dither pattern (Jensen et al. 2003), on–axis for 132 ks and 30 arcmin off–axis for 104 ks, respectively.

The high fluctuation of the detected Crab rate in the lowest energy band is due to the presence of cosmic ray induced events. In fact, in SM the on-board accumulation of histograms allows only a partial a posteriori rejection of these events (see Goldwurm et al. 2003 for details on this type of correction).

Table 4 also shows that, for the 252–329 keV band, an increase of exposure does not result in the expected increase of detection significance (11$`\sigma `$ with 73 ks staring, against 10$`\sigma `$ with 132 ks dithering). This is explained by the fact that during revolution 43, the Crab was observed in dithering mode with the rectangular $`5\times 5`$ pattern (Jensen et al. 2003). This pattern samples regions close to the edge of the fully coded field of view, thus implying a sensitivity degradation of $``$20% (Foschini 2003).

These results are in good agreement with simulation results obtained by means of a dedicated MonteCarlo code in the energy range 252–655 keV, while are a factor of two lower than expected in the first energy channel, where the systematic effects caused by the cosmic–rays induced events affects the data analysis.

### 3.4 Spectral & Timing capabilities

The spectral and timing characteristics of PICsIT were analysed by using other sources. A solar flare, occurred on November $`10^{\mathrm{th}}`$, 2002, at about $`10:00`$ UTC, allowing the detection of several emission lines: the $`e^+e^{}`$ annihilation line at $`511`$ keV with the tail at lower energies made by the fusion lines, the neutron capture at $`2.2`$ MeV, and the nuclear excitation lines of 12C at $`4.4`$ MeV. These lines have confirmed the linearity of the detector over the entire energy range, while a more detailed analysis will be performed when the refined redistribution matrix (RMF) will be available.

The GRB of November $`25^{\mathrm{th}}`$, 2002, allowed a full test of the imaging, spectral, and timing capabilities in photon–by–photon mode and it is described in Malaguti et al. (2003).

In addition, the absolute timing performances both in standard and photon–by–photon mode were analysed by using the Crab pulsar observations (see Kuiper et al. 2003).

## 4 Conclusions

The in–flight functional and scientific performances of the IBIS/PICsIT detector have been described and discussed, together with the first observations performed during the PV and calibration phases. The instrument has demonstrated to work nominally, from an engineering point of view with respect to the design requirements. Activities are ongoing to improve the current scientific performances by minimizing the systematic effects due to the background evaluation, cosmic–rays induced events, and detector non–uniformities.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work has been partially funded by the Italian Space Agency (ASI). The italian participation to the INTEGRAL/IBIS project is financed by the Italian Space Agency (ASI). Fruitful collaboration with LABEN S.p.A., Alenia Spazio, and the use of the Calibration Facility at ESA/ESTEC is kindly acknowledged. LF acknowledges the kind hospitality of the INTEGRAL Science Data Centre (ISDC) during part of this work.


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# Baryonic Operators for Lattice Simulations

## 1 OVERVIEW

One major goal of the Lattice Hadron Physics Collaboration (LHPC) is to calculate a significant portion of the low-lying spectrum of baryon resonances from Monte Carlo estimates of Euclidean-space path integrals in lattice QCD. To accomplish this goal, large sets of operators which can create the baryon states of interest at a given time $`t`$ must be designed. Our approach to constructing such operators is outlined in this poster.

Baryon states are identified by their momentum $`𝒑`$, intrinsic (half-integral) spin $`J`$, projection $`\lambda `$ of this spin onto some axis, parity $`P=\pm 1`$, and quark flavor content (isospin, strangeness, etc.). Since we are interested first in the masses of these states, we restrict our attention to the $`𝒑=\mathrm{𝟎}`$ sector, so our operators must be invariant under all spatial translations allowed on a cubic lattice. The little group of all symmetry transformations which leave $`𝒑=\mathrm{𝟎}`$ invariant is the octahedral point group $`O_h`$, so our operators may be classified using the spinorial irreducible representations (irreps) of $`O_h`$. There are four two-dimensional irreps $`G_{1g},G_{1u},G_{2g}`$, $`G_{2u}`$ and two four-dimensional representations $`H_g`$ and $`H_u`$. The continuum-limit spins $`J`$ of our states must be deduced by examining degeneracy patterns across the different $`O_h`$ irreps.

We use a two-step approach to construct the operators. First, we design elemental operators $`B_i^F(t,𝒙)`$ having the appropriate flavor structure characterized by isospin, strangeness, etc., and color structure constrained by gauge invariance. In the second step, we apply group-theoretical projections to obtain operators which transform irreducibly under all lattice rotation and reflection symmetries:

$$B_i^{\mathrm{\Lambda }\lambda F}(t,𝒙)=\frac{d_\mathrm{\Lambda }}{g_{O_h}}\underset{RO_h}{}D_{\lambda \lambda }^{(\mathrm{\Lambda })}(R)U_RB_i^F(t,𝒙)U_R^{},$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ refers to an $`O_h`$ irrep, $`\lambda `$ is the irrep row, $`g_{O_h}`$ is the number of elements in $`O_h`$, $`d_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the dimension of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ irrep, $`D_{mn}^{(\mathrm{\Lambda })}(R)`$ is a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ representation matrix corresponding to group element $`R`$, and $`U_R`$ is the quantum operator which implements the symmetry operations. We also impose translation invariance for zero momentum states:

$$B_i^{\mathrm{\Lambda }\lambda F}(t)=\underset{𝒙}{}B_i^{\mathrm{\Lambda }\lambda F}(t,𝒙).$$
(2)
Note that in order to capture the spectrum, we plan to calculate correlation matrices

$$C_{ij}^{\mathrm{\Lambda }\lambda F}(t)=0|TB_i^{\mathrm{\Lambda }\lambda F}(t)\overline{B}_j^{\mathrm{\Lambda }\lambda F}(0)|0.$$
(3)
Matrices of correlation functions facilitate the reliable extraction of the masses of excited states since variational techniques, possibly combined with Bayesian methods, can be exploited. The operators are designed with one eye towards maximizing overlaps with the low-lying states of interest, and the other eye towards minimizing the number of sources needed to compute the required quark propagators. Throughout this work, we work in the approximation $`m_u=m_d`$, where $`m_u`$ and $`m_d`$ are the masses of the $`u`$ and $`d`$ quarks, respectively, and we ignore electromagnetic effects. Hence, isospin is a good quantum number.

## 2 DESIGN DETAILS

Gauge invariance and isospin dictate the color and flavor structure of the elemental operators in the first stage of the operator construction. Since we intend to include all allowed operators within a given isospin channel, we do not need to consider explicit $`SU(3)`$-flavor combinations. As long as we are careful to respect isospin, the variational method takes care of finding the preferred flavor combinations for us.

Both link variable and quark field smearings are important for reducing the couplings of our operators to higher-lying states. Familiar APE smearing of the spatial links can be employed, and the three-dimensional covariant spatial Laplacian is used to smear the quark fields:

$$\stackrel{~}{\psi }(x)=(1+\varrho \stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Delta }})^{n_\varrho }\psi (x),$$
(4)
where $`\varrho `$ and integer $`n_\varrho `$ are tunable parameters and the three-dimensional gauge-covariant Laplacian is defined by

$$\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Delta }}\psi (x)=\underset{k=\pm 1,\pm 2,\pm 3}{}\left(\stackrel{~}{U}_k(x)\psi (x+\widehat{k})\psi (x)\right),$$
(5)
with $`\stackrel{~}{U}_\mu (x)`$ denoting a smeared link variable. Note that the square of the smeared field is equal to zero, similar to the simple Grassmann field.

Our three-quark elemental operators are constructed using the following building blocks:

$`\chi _{Aa\alpha }^n(x)`$ $``$ $`\left(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Delta }}^n\stackrel{~}{\psi }(x)\right)_{Aa\alpha },`$ (6)
$`\xi _{Aa\alpha }^{npj}(x)`$ $``$ $`\left(\stackrel{~}{D}_j^{(p)}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Delta }}^n\stackrel{~}{\psi }(x)\right)_{Aa\alpha },`$ (7)
where $`A`$ is a flavor index, $`a`$ is a color index, $`\alpha `$ is a Dirac spin index, and the $`p`$-link gauge-covariant displacement operator is defined by

$$\stackrel{~}{D}_j^{(p)}O(x)=\stackrel{~}{U}_j(x)\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{U}_j(x+(p1)\widehat{j})O(x+p\widehat{j}).$$
(8)
Our three-quark elemental operators have the following forms:

$`\varphi _{ABC}^F\epsilon _{abc}\chi _{Aa\alpha }^{n_1}\chi _{Bb\beta }^{n_2}\chi _{Cc\gamma }^{n_3},`$ (9)
$`\varphi _{ABC}^F\epsilon _{abc}\chi _{Aa\alpha }^{n_1}\chi _{Bb\beta }^{n_2}\xi _{Cc\gamma }^{n_3pj},`$ (10)
$`\varphi _{ABC}^F\epsilon _{abc}\chi _{Aa\alpha }^{n_1}\xi _{Bb\beta }^{n_2p_1j}\xi _{Cc\gamma }^{n_3p_2k},`$ (11)
where $`n_1,n_2,n_3,p,p_1,p_2`$ are positive integers, $`j,k=\pm 1,\pm 2,\pm 3`$ are spatial directions, $`\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma `$ are Dirac spin indices, $`A,B,C`$ are flavors, and $`a,b,c`$ are colors. The Levi-Civita symbol $`\epsilon _{abc}`$ specifies the color structure and the $`\varphi _{ABC}^F`$ specify the flavor combinations. Since baryon resonances are expected to be large objects, extended operators are crucial. Note that the different powers of the spatial Laplacian $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ are used to build up radial structure, while the displacement operator $`\stackrel{~}{D}_j^{(p)}`$ is used to incorporate orbital structure. A large number of baryons can be studied using a somewhat small number of quark propagator sources: $`n_\kappa (n_a+3n_pn_b)`$, where $`n_p`$ is the number of displacement lengths $`p`$, $`n_a`$ is the number of powers of $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$, $`n_b`$ is the number of powers of $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ combined with a displacement, and $`n_\kappa `$ is number of quark masses used.

In the second stage of the operator construction, the group-theoretical projections in Eq. (1) are applied. Eq. (1) requires explicit representation matrices for every group element. Representation matrices for all allowed proper rotations can be generated from the matrices for $`C_{4y}`$ and $`C_{4z}`$, the rotations by $`\pi /2`$ about the $`y`$\- and $`z`$-axes, respectively. The explicit matrices we use for these generators are given by

$$D^{(G_1)}(C_{4y})=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}\hfill 1& \hfill 1\\ \hfill 1& \hfill 1\end{array}\right]=D^{(G_2)}(C_{4y}),$$

$$D^{(G_1)}(C_{4z})=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}[\begin{array}{cc}1i& 0\\ 0& 1+i\end{array}]=D^{(G_2)}(C_{4z}),$$

$$D^{(H)}(C_{4y})=\frac{1}{2\sqrt{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill 1& \hfill \sqrt{3}& \hfill \sqrt{3}& \hfill 1\\ \hfill \sqrt{3}& \hfill 1& \hfill 1& \hfill \sqrt{3}\\ \hfill \sqrt{3}& \hfill 1& \hfill 1& \hfill \sqrt{3}\\ \hfill 1& \hfill \sqrt{3}& \hfill \sqrt{3}& \hfill 1\end{array}\right],$$

$$D^{(H)}(C_{4z})=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cccc}1i& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1i& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 1+i& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1+i\end{array}\right].$$

Inclusion of spatial inversion is straightforward.

The projections in Eq. (1) are carried out using Maple. The resulting operators transform irreducibly under $`O_h`$. In the continuum limit, the spin $`J`$ is identified using Table 1. For example, to identify a spin-$`\frac{1}{2}`$ baryon, it must occur in the $`G_1`$ irrep and accompanying degenerate levels in the $`G_2`$ and $`H`$ irreps must not occur. A level occurring at the same $`a0`$ mass in all three $`G_1`$, $`G_2`$, and $`H`$ irreps can be identified as a spin-$`\frac{7}{2}`$ baryon.

To illustrate our operator construction, consider an explicit example. Let

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_{\alpha \beta \gamma }=\epsilon ^{abc}\left(u_\alpha ^ad_\gamma ^bu_\beta ^cd_\alpha ^au_\gamma ^bu_\beta ^c\right),$$
(12)
ignoring smearing and powers of the Laplacian to simplify matters and using $`u,d`$ to indicate flavor. The above operators have isospin $`I=1/2`$, isospin projection $`I_3=1/2`$, and strangeness $`S=0`$. There are twenty independent operators due to the constraints $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{\alpha \beta \gamma }+\mathrm{\Phi }_{\gamma \beta \alpha }=0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{\alpha \beta \gamma }+\mathrm{\Phi }_{\beta \gamma \alpha }+\mathrm{\Phi }_{\gamma \alpha \beta }=0`$. Linear combinations which transform irreducibly under $`O_h`$ are listed in Table 2.

Although we focused on tri-quark baryon operators, our approach to constructing hadronic operators is applicable to mesons and penta-quark operators. By including $`𝑬`$ and $`𝑩`$ fields into our operators, hadrons bound by an excited gluon field can also be studied. This work was supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation under Awards PHY-0099450 and PHY-0300065, and by the U.S. Department of Energy under contracts DE-AC05-84ER40150 and DE-FG02-93ER-40762.


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# Cosmic rays, stellar evolution, and supernova physics

## 1 Stellar evolution and Supernova explosions

Massive stars form, evolve and finally explode as supernovae. The lower mass limit for single stars that explode is estimated to be near 8 solar masses. Stars in the mass range 8 to about 15 solar masses evolve without a strong stellar wind, and so explode directly into their environment, in the now classical picture of a self-similar explosion (e.g. D.P. Cox 1972). More massive stars, between about 15 and about 20 - 25 solar masses explode as red supergiant stars (RSG) with a wind. These winds are moderately powerful, and the surface of the star slowly exposes the deeper layers of Helium, so that the wind has a strong admixture of Helium at the time of explosion. From about 20 - 25 solar masses the stars evolve to a blue supergiant stage, the Wolf Rayet stage, with very powerful winds. These winds eat back into the star exposing the deep layers, and so show a mixture of Helium, Carbon and Oxygen. These winds are very strong, and produce a massive wind-shell, a shell of snow-plowed interstellar material, and former wind material, which in turn is of course former outer stellar material. The driving of these winds already had been a problem; it is generally accepted that radiation drives the wind, and that wave excitation transfers the momentum; the coupling constant is the wave speed. The temperature of the wind and so its speed of sound is strongly limited by cooling to 10,000 to 20,000 degrees K. Following earlier work by J. Cassinelli and St. Owocki we showed some time ago, that magnetic fields could help this problem by showing that the coupling between radiation and wind goes through the dominant wave speed, which could be the Alfvén speed; magnetic waves are not influenced by cooling. The optimum momentum transfer appears to occur when the wind is slightly super-Alfvénic, with an Alfvénic Mach number of a few, say, 3 (work with H. Seemann, 1997).

Wolf Rayet stars may hold the clue to our understanding of high energy cosmic ray particles, the origin of magnetic fields, the physics of supernova explosions, the origin of gamma ray bursts, and may even give us a bright standard candle for cosmology.

A much more extended recent version of some of these arguments is in two reviews by P.L. Biermann et al.  (2003a, astro-ph/0302168; 2003b, astro-ph/0302201), two reviews based on talks at the Palermo meeting Sep 2002; these reviews also contain many important references, which are omitted here for lack of space.

## 2  The cosmic ray spectrum

Cosmic ray particles, discovered in balloon flights just after 1910 by V.F. Hess and W. Kohlhörster, are now known to extend in particle energy to a few times $`10^{20}`$ eV. Around $`\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{18}`$ eV there is a kink in the spectrum and also a change in the chemical compositon, and this is generally believed to be the transition between Galactic cosmic rays and extragalactic cosmic rays: However, a final proof for such an interpretation is still waiting to be discovered. Here we concentrate on the cosmic ray particles below $`\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{18}`$ eV, and ask what their sources may be.

So let us first summarize their properties:

The spectrum of cosmic rays is approximately $`E^{2.7}`$ until the knee, which is a bend downwards at around $`\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{15}`$ eV. The spectrum beyond the knee is approximately $`E^{3.1}`$. There is a slight downward dip from $`\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{17}`$ eV, and a transition near $`\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{18}`$ eV. At $`\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{18}`$ eV there is switch from a quite steep local slope to a much flatter slope, as well as an apparent change in chemical composition from medium to heavy nuclei to light nuclei (Hydrogen and Helium). A general review including (almost) all data up to 1997 is in B. Wiebel-Sooth & P.L. Biermann (1999).

The key features for Galactic cosmic rays are the high particle energies, and the spectral bend at the knee; we also need to understand the second “knee” at $`\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{17}`$ eV, where the spectrum dips to merge into the extragalactic cosmic rays near $`\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{18}`$ eV. Berezinsky et al.  (2003) have recently discussed a very similar explanation of this dip.

Supernova explosions into the interstellar medium do not give such a kink, and also are not usually accepted to give a maximum particle energy of $`\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{18}`$ eV (P. O. Lagage & C. J. Cesarsky 1983). The kink at around $`\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{15}`$ eV has had a variety of proposals to explain it: The main proposal has been the notion that it reflects a change in propagation: This entails a steepening of the energy dependence of the propagation by about 0.3 to 0.4 at a specific energy/charge ratio $`E/Z`$. Such a specific energy/charge ratio $`E/Z`$ corresponds to a precise length scale in the interstellar medium, about 0.4 parsec. At that length scale the properties of the irregularities in the interstellar medium should change rather drastically. There is no such evidence. Also, if that were the case, the anisotropies near $`10^{18}`$ eV should be large, and from the AGASA data at that energy we know that the anisotropy is small. All available evidence suggests that as regards cosmic ray transport the interstellar medium can be described by a Kolmogorov law from very small scales much below 0.4 pc all the way up to much larger scales, up to a few hundred pc. This is still a fraction of the scale of the hot gas, magnetic field and cosmic ray disk, which has a full width of about 4 kpc, as suggested by ROSAT data (Snowden et al.  1997). Therefore we conclude that the explanation of the kink has to be sought in the source.

In a series of papers (first qualitatively, H.J. Völk & P.L. Biermann 1988, and then quantitatively in several papers starting with P.L. Biermann 1993) we have suggested that the key to understand the acceleration of higher energy particles was the recognition that many massive stars explode into their own wind. In a magnetic wind, such as the Solar wind (L.F. Biermann 1951), the magnetic field has a basic topology already suggested by E.N. Parker (1958), with $`B_r1/r2`$, $`B_\theta =0`$, and $`B_\varphi \mathrm{sin}\theta /r`$, an Archimedian spiral. Therefore the dominant magnetic field runs as $`1/r`$ with radial distance $`r`$, and so the Larmor radius of any particle with some given energy/charge ratio $`E/Z`$ scales linearly with $`r`$. Any shock racing through the wind introduces also a scale from the snow-plow effect, of $`r/4`$. Near the pole the acceleration is in a parallel magnetic field configuration (i.e. shock normal parallel to the locally prevailing magnetic field), which is the situation discussed by P.O. Lagage & C.J. Cesarsky (1983): near the equator the acceleration is in the near perpendicular configuration as discussed by R. Jokipii (1987); the perpendicular configuration introduces also drift acceleration, while both configurations also need to include adiabatic lossses, and the density history of injection. The key is the introduction of the notion of the “smallest dominant scale” to describe the large scale turbulence in the unstable shock region, both in real space as in velocity space (P.L. Biermann 1993); the character of the turbulence in the shock region is the critical argument here, as recognized by many. The final result is the predicted spectrum of $`E^{8/30.02\pm 0.02}`$ below the knee, $`E^{3.070.07\pm 0.07}`$ above the knee, for wind-SNe; from matching the two acceleration regimes the knee energy, as well as the ankle energy, are $`E_{knee}=ZeB(r)r(3/4U_{sh}/c)2`$, and $`E_{ankle}=ZeB(r)r`$. The gradual cutoff with $`Z`$ gives the second knee, and then the steepening between $`\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{17}`$ eV and $`\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{18}`$ eV. Both quantities, $`E_{knee}`$ and $`E_{ankle}`$, are constant with $`r`$ in a magnetic wind, considering most of $`4\pi `$. Putting in numbers suggested in 1993 (see the review at the Calgary 23rd ICRC meeting, P.L. Biermann 1994) that the knee and ankle energies are $`0.6Z\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{15}`$ eV, and $`Z\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{17}`$ eV, with a fair uncertainty due to a specific choice of numbers for stellar properties, that are hard to know.

Recently, with the advent of the KASKADE data we have been able to test the predictions, and determined in a direct fit the two spectra to $`E^{2.67}`$, and $`E^{3.14}`$, and the two energies to $`E_{knee}=1.7Z\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{15}`$ eV, and $`E_{ankle}=2.2Z\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{17}`$ eV. A full scale Monte-Carlo CORSIKA fit to all vertical and slanted shower data available from KASKADE gives very similar numbers, but then with error bars: The two spectra are $`E^{2.65\pm 0.03}`$ and $`E^{3.25\pm 0.04}`$, and the knee energy comes out to $`2.1\pm 0.14Z\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{15}`$ eV, while the ankle energy cannot be easily determined in this way, using a Monte-Carlo approach; all details are described in P.L. Biermann et al.  (2003b). Therefore the predictions were confirmed quantitatively.

This implies that all sources must be very similar, because otherwise a source based model could not describe an overlap of many injection events. Since the asymptotic Parker magnetic field topology in our context implies that the rotation of the star is highly differential so as to allow a highly tangential field already at the surface, this finding from the fit also has consequences for the rotation of the star, since angular momentum loss is minimized.

## 3 Origin of magnetic fields

These stars and their winds are magnetic, and so inject magnetic fields into the interstellar medium. We noted above that the Alfvénic Machnumber is most likely of order 3. This entails that the termination shock of the wind injects magnetic fields into the environment that have already near 10 % of equipartition values. Considering the origin of the magnetic field in the interstellar medium, and its topology, this may be all that is necessary in terms of strength - however, this does not produce any order in the field, and that requirement leads to very different considerations. One might ask what magnetic fields massive stars produce in analogy to the Sun: The convective interior will produce a magnetic field from the seed field (derived from the fact that surfaces of constant pressure and constant density do not generally coincide in a rotating system, and so drive an electric current, L.F. Biermann 1950, L.F. Biermann & A. Schlüter 1951) and the dynamo mechanism (M. Steenbeck & F. Krause, and E.N. Parker). This magnetic field is quite strong, and can readily be transported to the surface by meridional circulations, also known as Sweet-Eddington circulations. Therefore we conclude that magnetic field may be relevant in the evolution of massive stars, as well as to explain the interstellar magnetic fields. As galactic winds and radio galaxies transport these galactic fields into intergalactic space, such as clusters of galaxies, and sheets and filaments of the cosmic web of the galaxy distribution, it might just be that Wolf Rayet stars hold one of two keys to explain all magnetic fields in the universe - the other key is the explanation of the symmetry and order.

## 4 Implications for the supernova mechanism

If the fit says that all stars give the same knee and ankle energy, then this immediately suggests that explosion energy, magnetic field, and rotation are deeply connected, and are in fact always nearly the same number for each exploding star, above the zero age main sequence star mass of about 20 - 25 solar masses.

This strongly supports the concept proposed by G. Bisnovatyi-Kogan in 1970, that the explosion of these massive stars is caused by a combination of rotation, magnetic fields and potential energy, based on an an earlier suggestion by N.S. Kardashev in 1964. The idea is as follows, and reminds one immediately of many much more recent arguments about gamma ray bursts (especially the work by C. Wheeler and S. Woosley):

The core of the star rotates, and so when it collapses due to a lack of supporting pressure, it contracts into a small flat disk in rotational balance. This is at a few $`10^7`$ cm. Since at that size the magnetic field would exceed the Landau level, this transfer of energy implies many rotation periods of energy injection during the approach to this size. The magnetic field is all sheared and wound up, and so transports angular momentum and the potential energy of the small disk to the outside, exploding the star. The energy of the rotating small disk constitutes the visible energy of the supernova, and is readily estimated to be $`10^{51}`$ to $`10^{52}`$ erg. When the small disk then finally collapses into a neutron star or into a black hole, then that last energy is radiated away as neutrinos, as observed.

This mechanism obviously is extremely anisotropic, and it can safely be predicted that supernovae following this concept appear very different if viewed from different angles. It is quite plausible that various supernova types might be unified in such a scheme, very much in analogy to the unified scheme long used in active galactic nuclei, where aspect angle is a major parameter. It can be expected that along the symmetry axis explosion speeds might be very much faster than along the equatorial belt, and so may explain various observations of very fast knots. It is not clear at this point just what the precise connection to gamma ray bursts could be; if this is also the general mechanism for gamma ray bursts, in addition to the main mechanism for massive star explosions or supernovae, then gamma ray bursts could be very much more frequent than commonly argued.

Now considering the transfer of energy and angular momentum from the small collapsed disk by magnetic fields, it is clear that this is fully symmetric along the rotation axis between “up” and “down”, giving a saddle point instability. This entails, that the slightest asymmetry between the two sides will give rise to a powerful sling shot effect exactly along the rotational and symmetry axis, leading to a high speed pulsar, which flies just along the direction defined by its own rotational axis. This can be tested observationally, and would be a second powerful confirmation of the mechanism of G. Bisnovatyi-Kogan (see Bisnovatyi-Kogan & Moiseenko 1992).

Also, there is another corollary: Using the abundances in the pre-supernova winds (taken from N. Langer) we can determine the connection between cosmic ray flux for some element like Carbon, and connect the appropiate supernova rate with the energy contained in cosmic rays for each single event. This leads to an estimate of order $`10^{51}`$ erg for each event in cosmic ray particles alone, and then using an inefficiency of 0.1 to an explosion energy of $`10^{52}`$ erg, already quite close to what has been called a Hypernova by B. Paczynski.

## 5 Gamma ray bursts

There is growing evidence that gamma ray bursts and supernovae might be connected (see, e.g., Uemara et al.  2003, Price et al.  2003, Hjorth et al.  2003, and many other comments and articles on GRB 030329). There are two simple possibilities: First, for extremely massive stars the supernova explosion might lead to a central black hole, and maybe just those stars also produce a gamma ray burst. In this case the frequency of gamma ray bursts might be much higher than one per million years in a normal galaxy. Second, it is also conceivable that a binary system is required, with the main star exploding triggering a gamma ray burst in the small neutron star companion leading to a collapse to a black hole. In this case the mass transfer towards the neutron star companion could dramatically increase just prior to the explosion, and so trigger a catastrophic collapse very close to the supernova explosion. In the first case the gamma ray burst would happen at exactly the same time as the supernova, with very high velocities along the line of sight, and in the second case the gamma ray burst would have to precede the actual supernova explosion, because otherwise the supernova explosion itself would dirty the gamma ray burst with baryonic matter beyond recognition. Maybe Nature realizes both options. The literature shows that there are many more possibilities.

A magnetic mechanism provides an interpretation of the extreme degree of gamma ray polarization found recently (Coburn & Boggs 2003, GRB 021206).

If we could find a way to observe the traces of the last few gamma ray bursts in our Galaxy, then the time scale could be strongly restricted. In recent work with R. Engel, G. Medina-Tanco and G. Pugliese we have proposed that the AGASA excess of events at $`10^{18}`$ eV in the Galactic Center region is such a trace.

## 6 Consequences for cosmology

To emphasize the conclusion from the cosmic ray data fit: The explosion energy has to be very nearly the same for each such star, as also the rotation, magnetic field and mass - all measured just prior to the explosion. The stellar evolution of these stars leads to a common final state just prior to the explosion.

This suggests that the light curve of the supernova may also be the same, if integrated over all aspect angles. Such an integration might be possible using infrared emission, echoing and polarization. This remains to be worked out and tested. On the other hand, if this correction for anisotropy could be done, then we would have a standard candle for use in cosmology which has the promise to be much brighter than the commonly used supernova type Ia.

## 7 Conclusion

Wolf Rayet stars are one key to understand the magnetic fields in the universe, the enrichment in heavy elements, and much of the observed cosmic rays; cosmic rays in turn suggest that the magneto-rotational mechanism by G. Bisnovatyi-Kogan does explain the explosion of these stars, possibly providing a key to understand gamma ray bursts. The cosmic ray data imply that these stars converge to a common final state in their evolution, just prior to the explosion. Finally, if we could work out the corrections for anisotropy, these supernovae could be very bright new standard candles in cosmology.

## 8 Acknowledgements

PLB would like to acknowledge working on these questions most recently with S. Casanova, R. Engel, N. Langer, H.S. Lee, G. Medina-Tanco, S. Moiseenko, A. Ødegård, G. Pugliese, E.-S. Seo, S. Ter-Antonyan, and A. Vasile. He would also like to acknowledge very lively and useful discussions on these topics with I. Axford, Z. Berezhiani, V. Berezinsky, G. Meynet, G. Sigl and T. Stanev. These results were first introduced in this breadth at lectures in Paris spring 2002 and then at the Palermo meeting September 2002 (see below, on astro-ph), and PLB would like to express his appreciation to N. Sanchez and her colleagues for their continuing hospitality. Work with PLB is mainly being supported through the AUGER theory and membership grant 05 CU1ERA/3 through DESY/BMBF (Germany); further support for the work with PLB comes from the DFG, DAAD, Humboldt Foundation and the Naumann-Foundation (all Germany), grant 2000/06695-0 from FAPESP (Brasil) through G. Medina-Tanco, KOSEF (Korea) through H. Kang and D. Ryu, ARC (Australia) through R.J. Protheroe, a NATO-grant with S. Moiseenko (Russia), and European INTAS/ Erasmus/ Sokrates/ Phare grants. Finally, PLB is very grateful to the organizers of the meeting at Seeon May 2003, specifically R. Diehl, for the invitation to present these results. The author also wishes to thank S. Moiseenko for a critical reading of the article.


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# Paradoxical games and Brownian thermal engines

## 1 Paradoxical games

Suppose we have a biased coin, so that the probability that any flip will result in a head is $`0.5ϵ`$, where $`ϵ`$ is a small and positive number. With this coin, call it coin 1, it is proposed that you play the following game: if the flip results in a tail you receive $`1`$ dollar, if not you pay the same amount. If you have unlimited capital then you should accept to play the game without hesitation: if $`x(t)`$ is your opponent’s capital after $`t`$ runs, it will not be difficult for you to show that its mean value, $`x(t)`$ is a strictly a decreasing function of $`t`$ (while your average capital is an increasing function of $`t`$).

Now, it is proposed that you play a second game that uses two coins, call them coin $`2`$ and coin $`3`$ respectively. Coin $`3`$ is flipped whenever your opponent’s capital is a multiple of $`3`$, in any other case coin $`2`$ is flipped (note that your opponent can have negative capital; by a multiple of $`3`$ it is understood any integer number that can be written as $`3n`$, with $`n`$ an integer number). Let $`p_2=0.75ϵ`$ and $`p_3=0.1ϵ`$ be the probabilities that your opponent wins with coin $`2`$ and coin $`3`$ respectively, see Figure 1. The analysis of this game is not as simple as that of our previous game. However, it can be shown – see Appendix 1 and Figure 1 – that this game, too, is favourable for you in the sense that the mean value of the opponent’s capital $`x(t)`$ is, once again, a strictly decreasing function of $`t`$. Let us call the first game we have described “game A” and the second one “game B.”

Once you are convinced that your opponent will lose in both games you are given a third proposal: alternate the games following the sequence AABBAABB… If you frown, the proposal can be modified to make it less suspicious: in each run we will randomly chose the game that is played. If you accept either of these proposals you would have trusted your intuition too much, not realizing that random systems, even as simple as the ones we have just described, may behave in an unexpected way.

Indeed, if we alternate the games, either by following a fixed sequence AABBAABB… or chosing randomly the game we play, then your opponent’s average capital $`x(t)`$ will be a strictly increasing function of $`t`$. Figure 2 shows your opponent’s capital in different situations: games A and B played alone, in several periodic combinations and in a random combination.

## 2 Detailed analysis of the games

The phenomenon we have just described is known as Parrondo’s paradox and it is receiving some attention  because it is thought it might have application in areas such as economics and evolutionary theory. It is true that this phenomenon may arise in any situation that involves the interplay of two or more random dynamics. However, we have not yet described a real situation where the paradox takes place.

Let us see how we can analyse these paradoxical games. Game B and the random combination of games A and B may be reduced to a 3-state Markov chain . These states are: the capital is multiple of $`3`$, multiple of $`3`$ plus $`1`$ or multiple of $`3`$ plus $`2`$. The variable that determines these states is

$$yx\mathrm{mod}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3}$$
(1)
which only takes on the values $`0`$, $`1`$ and $`2`$. The analysis of this Markov chain can be carried out by diagonalizing a $`3\times 3`$ matrix (see Appendix 1).

This analysis gives us the following intuitive explanation of the paradox. Game B uses two coins: one “bad”, coin $`3`$, and one “good”, coin $`2`$. When game B is played alone, the probability of using coin $`3`$ is

$$\pi _0=\frac{5}{13}\frac{440}{2197}ϵ+\mathrm{}$$
(2)
where we have dropped the terms of order $`ϵ^2`$ to simplify the analysis. Notice, also, that the probability $`\pi _0`$ is not equal to $`\frac{1}{3}`$, as one might have initially thought, but greater than $`\frac{1}{3}`$. Consequently, the probability of winning is

$$P_{\mathrm{win}}=\pi _0p_3+(1\pi _0)p_2=\frac{1}{2}\frac{147}{169}ϵ+\mathrm{}$$
(3)
which is less than $`\frac{1}{2}`$ for any positive $`ϵ`$. Nevertheless, when games A and B are combined randomly, the probability of using coin $`3`$ becomes

$$\pi _0^{}=\frac{245}{709}\frac{48880}{502681}ϵ+\mathrm{}$$
(4)
which is less than $`\pi _0`$. The probability of winning is now

$$P_{\mathrm{win}}^{}=\pi _0^{}\frac{p_3+p_1}{2}+(1\pi _0^{})\frac{p_2+p_1}{2}=\frac{727}{1418}\frac{486795}{502681}ϵ+\mathrm{}$$
(5)
which is greater than $`\frac{1}{2}`$ if $`ϵ`$ is small enough. What happens then is that game A, even though it consists of just one “bad” coin, redistributes the frequencies of use of the two coins of game B in such a way that the “good” coin is being used more often than its counterpart. This is the essence of the paradox: the winning tendency is already built-in into game B, but when this game is played alone, the losing tendency is dominant. The role of game A is to reverse this dominancy. Thus, game A, in spite of being a losing game, effects a reprise of the “good” coin of game B that overcomes its own losing tendency, so that the combination of games A and B becomes a winning game.

## 3 A simple Brownian motor

What has all this to do with physics? Even though now the paradox is part of probability theory, it was originally inspired by a physical system, namely, a Brownian motor or molecular motor .

With a slight change in the winning and losing probabilities, the games described above could be interpreted as a Brownian particle in one-dimension subjected to certain potentials.

Let us consider the following model of a Brownian particle in one-dimension, where the particle can occupy the discrete set of positions $`x=0,\pm 1\pm 2,\mathrm{}`$. The particle jumps with certain probability from one position to another at discrete times $`t=0,1,2,\mathrm{}`$ Suppose the particle is under the action of a certain periodic potential $`V(x)`$ of period $`3`$, i.e. $`V(x+3)=V(x)`$. This means the potential is completely defined by the three values: $`V(0)`$, $`V(1)`$ and $`V(2)`$, which we denote by $`V_0`$, $`V_1`$ and $`V_2`$, respectively. We will set $`V_0=0`$, $`V_1=V`$ and $`V_2=\frac{V}{2}`$, so that the potential is asymmetric (see Figure 3). In addition, suppose there is an external force $`F`$ acting on the particle and pointing to the left. The energy at each point is then

$$E(x)=V(x)+Fx.$$
(6)
How does this particle move at a certain temperature $`T`$? When a physical system is at a certain temperature $`T`$ and can be found in different states $`i`$ with energy $`E_i`$ its evolution may be described by a Markov chain . The dynamics are expressed in terms of the transition probabilities $`p(ij)`$ for jumping from state $`i`$ to the state $`j`$. These probabilities must satisfy the detailed-balance condition. One of the dynamics to satisfy this requirement is the Metropolis algorithm (see Appendix 2) that is used in Monte-Carlo simulations of systems in equilibrium at a certain temperature $`T`$ .

When our Brownian particle evolves following the Metropolis algorithm at a finite temperature $`T`$, its position $`x(t)`$ behaves more or less like the capital in game B. On the other hand, if we follow the Metropolis algorithm at a very high temperature, the resulting system is very much like game A. In both cases the external force plays the role of the games’ $`ϵ`$ parameter. These analogies give us a strong indication how to reproduce the paradox in the behaviour of the Brownian particle. At any temperature the particle moves to the left because this is the direction of the external force $`F`$. Hence, the mean value of $`x(t)`$ decreases with $`t`$. On the other hand, if we alternate two different temperatures $`T_1`$ and $`T_2`$, the particle moves to the right against the external force, that is $`x(t)`$ increases with $`t`$. Again, two dynamics where $`x(t)`$ decreases give rise, when combined, to dynamics where $`x(t)`$ increases. This phenomenon is depicted in Figure 4; there we plot the position of the particle as a function of time, obtained by numerical simulation for the temperatures, $`T_1=1`$ and $`T_2=0.3`$, and the alternating sequence $`T_1T_1T_2T_2T_1T_1`$.

Even more interesting is to check that the particle is a thermal engine. Let us consider a periodic alternating sequence of the type $`T_1T_1T_2T_2T_1T_1\mathrm{}`$, that is, we put the particle in contact with a thermal bath at temperature $`T_1`$ for two time-steps, then in contact with a thermal bath at temperature $`T_2`$ for the next two time-steps, and so on. Let us assume $`T_1>T_2`$. We have, thus, a system in contact with two thermal baths at different temperatures just as in the well known cycles of the classical thermal engines. So, the particle behaves exactly as a thermal engine, that is, it extracts energy from the hot source, does work against the external force and dissipates part of the extracted energy in the form of heat towards the cold source.

Let us see how to quantitatively study the energy exchange of this engine. In a certain step $`tt+1`$, in which the particle is in contact with, say, bath $`1`$, the energy transferred from the bath to the particle is

$$Q_{tt+1}^{(1)}=\underset{x=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}[\pi _x(t+1)\pi _x(t)](V(x)+Fx)$$
(7)
where $`\pi _x(t)`$ is the probability that the particle is at the position $`x`$ in time $`t`$. The right hand side of the above equation can be decomposed into two terms

$$Q_{tt+1}^{(1)}=\mathrm{}𝒰_{tt+1}W_{tt+1}.$$
(8)
The first term is $`\mathrm{}𝒰_{tt+1}=𝒰_{t+1}𝒰_t`$, where $`𝒰(t)`$ is the internal energy of the system

$$𝒰(t)=\underset{x=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\pi _x(t)V(x)=V(x(t)).$$
(9)
On the other hand, the second term is the change of energy due to the external force $`F`$, that is, the work done by the force on the particle

$$W_{tt+1}=Fv(t)$$
(10)
where $`v=x(t+1)x(t)`$ is the mean velocity of the particle. Hence Equation (10) has a simple interpretation: the work done by the force on the particle in a unit of time, or the power developed by the force, is the product of the force times the mean velocity of the particle. The minus sign arises because the direction of the force points to the left.

The three quantities we have defined, the internal energy, heat and work are related through Equation (8), which is nothing else that the First Law of Thermodynamics111An alternative viewpoint considers the term $`Fx(t)`$ as part of the internal energy. In this interpretation, the heat dissipated in each bath is the same as the one computed in this article. There are changes, however, in the work, which is always zero, and the internal energy. This interpretation has two problems. Firstly, the engine is not strictly cyclic, because the internal energy increases in each cycle. And secondly, it is not possible to define in a simple way the efficiency of the engine. (the sign convention we follow is the usual one in physics, namely, that heat and work are both positive if there is energy entering the system).

The same procedure is applied to the time-steps when the system is in contact with bath $`2`$. When we alternate the two baths in a cycle of four steps, $`T_1T_1T_2T_2\mathrm{}`$, the system, after a certain number of cycles, reaches a regime where the internal energy and the mean velocity are periodic in time. In this regime we can compute the amount of heat extracted from each bath and the total work done by the force. The analytical treatment is analogous to the one carried out for the games and it is based on a three-state Markov chain. We shall not include here the details of the calculations but shall give some of the results that can be obtained. Applying equation (7) to the first two steps of the cycle we compute the energy $`Q_1`$ transferred from bath $`1`$ to the system, which is positive if $`T_1>T_2`$. However, when we apply the same equation to the last two steps of the cycle we obtain a negative energy $`Q_2`$, and, if $`F`$ is weak enough, we obtain a negative $`W=Q_1Q_2`$. These results tell us that the system extracts energy from the hot bath, dissipates part of this energy towards the cold bath and uses what remains of it to do work against the external force. The efficiency of the thermal engine is

$$\eta =\frac{W}{Q_1}=1+\frac{Q_2}{Q_1}$$
(11)
which is positive and less than 1.

In Figure 5 we plot the engine efficiency as a function of the external force $`F`$. When the force is zero the efficiency is zero because the engine does not do any work and there is an irreversible heat transfer from the hot source to the cold one. Note that this holds even though in this case there exists a current of particles. For sufficiently strong forces the efficiency is once again zero. The reason is that the particles cannot move against strong forces. On the other hand, there exists a force for which the particle is, on the average, at rest and does not do work, while there still exists heat transfer from the hot bath to the cold one.

As it can be seen, the engine always works irreversibly, so it can never attain the efficiency of the Carnot engine. This is a common fact in the majority of Brownian motors  (an exception are the reversible ratchets , whose efficiencies can be arbitrarily close to Carnot’s ), including the Feynman ratchet . It is worth pointing out here that Feynman did not notice the intrinsic irreversibility of his thermal engine and went on to show that under a certain hypothesis that the engine could attain the Carnot efficiency. It has recently been shown that such hypotheses are incorrect .

In Figure 6 we show the engine’s efficiency for several temperatures $`T_2`$ keeping fixed the temperature $`T_1`$. Observe that the Carnot efficiency curve, $`1\frac{T_2}{T_1}=1T_2`$, is well above all the curves plotted in Figure 6.

## 4 Conclusions

We have shown a physical application of the paradoxical games, namely, in Brownian or molecular motors. The name “molecular motor” comes from biophysics where several forms of energy conversion within the cell are studied. For example, there are“pumps” capable of transporting ions from one side of a biological membrane to the other against the ion’s electrochemical gradient ; molecules travelling through microtubules transporting diverse cellular material; or molecules capable of “pulling off” a filament and making up the muscular tissue . Each one of these systems consists of a unique protein that changes its tri-dimensional configuration upon hydrolysis of ATP molecules. The protein is different for each system considered (kinesins in the transport through micro-channels, myosines in the muscular tissue), but all of them are motors capable of extracting the stored energy in the ATP bonds and transform it into mechanical energy. All these transformations are carried out at a scale where the thermal fluctuations are unavoidable.

For all this, we believe that in order to understand the energy-exchange processes at the cellular level a disposal of the authentic thermodynamics of Brownian motors will be essential. This thermodynamics will have to be, as we have seen, one of irreversible processes wherein the thermal fluctuations play a relevant role. It will, also, have to be different from the so-called finite-time thermodynamics, since the latter studies irreversible motors but of macroscopic character.

In recent years, the first steps have been taken towards building up the theory of molecular motors. Nevertheless, despite some work that shows general properties  most of the results so far refer to concrete models  that are too simple to represent the behaviour of molecular motors.

Finally, we would like to conclude by recalling that the paradoxical games may have applications in other contexts. The paradox shows that the result of alternating two stochastic dynamics is far from being the “sum” or combination of the effects of each dynamic considered alone, and that could, in fact, be completely unexpected. This result should raise the interest in alternating dynamics in physical, biological and economics systems.

## Appendix 1 – Markov Chain

A Markov chain is a set of $`N`$ states and we consider a particle that jumps in from one state to another in a probabilistic way and in discrete time steps. The Markov chain is defined by the matrix

$$\mathrm{\Pi }=\{p_{ij}\}_{i,j=1}^N$$
(12)
where $`p(ij)`$ is the particle transition probability from state $`i`$ to the state $`j`$. Contrary to the usual matrix notation we shall use $`i`$ as the column index and $`j`$ as the row index. It can be readily checked that all the matrix elements are real numbers between $`0`$ and $`1`$ and that the entries of every column add up to $`1`$.

Let us call $`\pi _i(t)`$ the probability that the particle is in the state $`i`$ in time $`t`$. The probability to find the particle in the state $`i`$ at time $`t+1`$ is equal to the probability that the particle jumps, in the step $`tt+1`$, from any other state $`j`$ (including the case $`i=j`$), that is

$$\pi _i(t+1)=\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}\pi _j(t)p_{ji}.$$
(13)
Hence the distribution of probability $`\pi (t)=(\pi _1(t),\mathrm{}\pi _N(t))`$ satisfies the following evolution equation

$$\stackrel{}{\pi }(t+1)=\mathrm{\Pi }\stackrel{}{\pi }(t).$$
(14)
The distribution $`\pi (t)`$ tends, at large $`t`$, to a stationary distribution, $`\pi _i^{\mathrm{st}}`$, that satisfies equation (15)

$$\stackrel{}{\pi }^{\mathrm{st}}(t+1)=\mathrm{\Pi }\stackrel{}{\pi }^{\mathrm{st}}(t)$$
(15)
that is, $`\pi ^{\mathrm{st}}`$ is the eigenvector of the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ with eigenvalue $`1`$.

The stationary distribution tells us, in the limit of long times, what are the probabilities of the particle being in the different states $`i=1,2,\mathrm{}N`$.

Game B consists of a Markov chain of three states, namely, $`0`$, $`1`$ and $`2`$. The matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is

$$\mathrm{\Pi }=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& 1p_2& p_2\\ p_3& 0& 1p_2\\ 1p_3& p_2& 0\end{array}\right).$$
(16)
Notice that the elements of every column add up to $`1`$. The stationary probability distribution is

$$\stackrel{}{\pi }^{\mathrm{st}}=\frac{1}{Z}(1,\frac{p_2p_3+1p_2}{1p_2+p_2^2},\frac{p_2p_3+1p_3}{1p_2+p_2^2})$$
(17)
where $`Z`$ is a normalization constant. Finally, a similar analysis holds for the random combination of games A and B upon substituting $`p_2`$ for $`\frac{(p_2+p_1)}{2}`$ and $`p_3`$ for $`\frac{(p_3+p_1)}{2}`$. From this stationary probability distribution $`\pi _i^{\mathrm{st}}`$ it is easy to compute the probability of winning in a particular run, as we have done in the main text.

## Appendix 2 – The Metropolis algorithm

Let us suppose we have a physical system that can be in any of the states $`i=1,2,\mathrm{}N`$ with energy $`E_i`$. What are the transition probabilities $`p(ij)`$ that govern the probabilistic evolution of the system when this is in contact with with a thermal bath at temperature $`T`$?

The requirement these transition probabilities have to satisfy is that they should eventually attain the Boltzmann distribution, that is, its stationary distribution should be

$$\stackrel{}{\pi }^{\mathrm{st}}=\frac{1}{Z}e^{\beta E_i/kT}$$
(18)
where $`Z`$ is a normalized constant and $`\beta =\frac{1}{kT}`$, with $`k`$ the Boltzmann constant. Consequently, the transition matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ has to be such that it has the distribution $`\pi ^{\mathrm{st}}`$, given by (18), as its eigenvector with eigenvalue $`1`$.

A particular case is when the transition probabilities satisfy the condition of detailed balance

$$\pi _i^{\mathrm{st}}p_{ij}=\pi _j^{\mathrm{st}}p_{ji}.$$
(19)
An even more particular case is the Metropolis algorithm wherein the transition probabilities are given by the following rule, for $`ij`$: or $`i`$ and $`j`$ are not connected, in which case $`p(ij)=p(ji)=0`$, or they are connected, so that

$$p_{ij}=\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{1}{C_i}& \mathrm{if}E_jE_i,\\ \frac{1}{C_i}e^{(E_jE_i)\beta }& \mathrm{if}E_jE_i,\end{array}$$
(20)
where $`C_i`$ is chosen so that all the transition probabilities are between $`0`$ and $`1`$ (it often is the coordination number, i.e. the number of states connected to the state $`i`$) Finally, the transition probability from $`i`$ to itself is

$$p_{ii}=1\underset{ji}{}p_{ij}$$
(21)
where the sum is carried over all the states $`j`$ connected to $`i`$. It can readily be checked that the transition probabilities so defined satisfy the condition of detailed balance.

We shall use the Metropolis algorithm in this article to model a particle in contact with a thermal bath. Notice also that in Equation (20) there is a non-zero probability that the particle increases its energy. These transitions are the result of thermal fluctuations where the thermal bath gives energy to the particle.


text:
# Explanation of the anomalous acceleration of a free moving body in the frame of extended space model

## Abstract

We consider (1+4) generalization of classical electrodynamics including gravitation field. With this approach it is assumed a presence of an extra component of extended field stress tensor, whose physical interpretation is based on necessity to obtain Newton gravity law as particular case.

In model analyzed in present work mass of having in 4D a rest mass particle moves in five-dimensional space-time along fifth coordinate with light velocity and its electric charge is a stationary value in additional dimension. Generalized gravity law that is obtained from extended Maxwell equations confirmed by existence of variable component of Pioneer 10 additional acceleration, whose analyze is made in frame of this model.

Generalization of the special theory of relativity (SR) for 5-dimensional extended space with the metric (+; -, -, -, -) has been offered in the papers \[1-11\]. In particular, this model of extended space (ESM) allows integrating electromagnetic and gravitational interactions.

In ESM interval $`S`$ (which already exists in the (1 + 3) -dimensional Minkowski space $`M(T;\stackrel{}{X})`$ ) is used as the 5-th additional coordinate of the (1 + 4) -dimensional extended space $`G(T;\stackrel{}{X};S)`$:

$$S^2=(ct)^2x^2y^2z^2.$$
(1)
Interval $`S`$ is conserved at common Lorentz transformations in the Minkowski space $`M(T;\stackrel{}{X})`$ but varies at turns in the extended space $`G(T;\stackrel{}{X};S)`$. Thus, Minkowski space $`M(T;\stackrel{}{X})`$ is a cone in extended space $`G(T;\stackrel{}{X};S)`$. A stable particle, which has a rest mass in the 4-D Minkowski space, has not a rest mass in 5-D space independence from turns in this 5-D space. This particle moves along fifth coordinate with speed of light (in case of zero 5-interval). Such approach corresponds to the Kaluza-Klein theory  and theory of induced substance .

Other version will be existence of a particle in 5-D space, which can be stationary in this space and has a rest mass (nonzero 5-interval). Not limiting a generality, we will consider version with a zero 5-interval.

The various details of the ESM structure were considered in papers \[4-10\], and also repeatedly were reported on various scientific conferences . The main difference ESM from SR is that ESM allows to study processes at which mass m of a particle is an alternative value. In the ESM model mass of a particle is a component of 5-vector in space $`G(T;\stackrel{}{X};S)`$ other components are energy and momentum of a particle. Thus, mass of a particle varies at transformations in $`G(T;\stackrel{}{X};S)`$.

In articles  (see also ) in the ESM were constructed:

5-vector potential -

$$(\phi ,\stackrel{}{A},A_4)=(A_T,A_x,A_y,A_z,A_S),$$
(2)
the stress 5x5 tensors -

$$F_{ik}=\frac{A_i}{x_k}\frac{A_k}{x_i}$$
(3)
and energy-momentum-mass tensors -

$$T^{ik}=\frac{1}{4\pi }(F^{il}F_l^k+\frac{1}{4}g^{il}F_{lm}F^{lm});i,k=0,1,2,3,4$$
(4)
Here $`g^{ik}`$ \- metric tensor of the extended space. The stress tensor was recorded as:

$$F_{ik}=\left(\begin{array}{ccccc}0& E_x& E_y& E_z& Q\\ E_x& 0& H_z& H_y& G_x\\ E_y& H_z& 0& H_x& G_y\\ E_z& H_y& H_x& 0& G_z\\ Q& G_x& G_y& G_z& 0\end{array}\right),$$
(5)
where the elements with indexes $`i,k=0,1,2,3`$ correspond to components of stress tensor of an electromagnetic field in 4-D space-time. Vector $`\stackrel{}{G}=(G_x,G_y,G_z)`$ and scalar $`Q`$ are additional components.

In the element of energy-momentum-mass tensor, which associated with density of energy, are added additional members $`G^2`$ and $`Q^2`$:

$$T^{00}=\frac{1}{8\pi }(E^2+H^2+G^2+Q^2).$$
(6)
Modified vector of the momentum density looks as:

$$\stackrel{}{P}=\frac{1}{c}(T^{01}+T^{02}+T^{03})=\frac{1}{4\pi c}([\stackrel{}{E},\stackrel{}{H}]Q\stackrel{}{G}).$$
(7)
Poynting vector of a field is expressed through vector of a momentum as $`\stackrel{}{S}=c^2\stackrel{}{P}`$ .

Vector of the current constructed in the paper :

$$\stackrel{}{\rho }=(\rho ,\stackrel{}{j},j_s),$$
(8)
where $`\rho ,\stackrel{}{j}`$ are densities of electric charge and current, $`j_s`$ is additional component, corresponds to coordinate $`s`$.

In present paper we will turn to account formalism allowing separation electric charge from mass. It consists in assumption that if massive particle moves in fifth dimension with light velocity his electric charge is stationary in this dimension. But in 4D mass and electric charge of the particle have the same coordinates. Introduction of this formalism is conditioned, first, by necessity of fulfillment of the Maxwell equations and, secondly, by necessity of an absence of electric current in the open form in the given below equation (15), defined gravitation law, since otherwise presence of stationary in 4D electric charge influences on gravity. Such assumption does not contradict to the Kaluza-Klein theory and may be considered as version of ESM.

By means of the stress tensor (5) and the vector of the current extended Maxwell equations have been obtained in :

$`div\stackrel{}{H}=0,`$ (9)
$`rot\stackrel{}{E}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{}{H}}{t}}=0,`$ (10)
$`rot\stackrel{}{G}+{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{}{H}}{s}}=0,`$ (11)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{}{E}}{s}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{}{H}}{t}}+gradQ=0,`$ (12)
$`div\stackrel{}{E}+{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{}{Q}}{s}}=4\pi \rho ,`$ (13)
$`rot\stackrel{}{H}{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{}{G}}{s}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{}{E}}{t}}={\displaystyle \frac{4\pi }{c}}\stackrel{}{j},`$ (14)
$`div\stackrel{}{G}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{}{Q}}{s}}=4\pi j_s.`$ (15)
Vector $`\stackrel{}{G}`$ in  is related to gravitation field and it is necessary to note, that in the equation (15) the only mass current $`j_s`$ is included, since otherwise a stationary electric charge in 4D would influence on gravity. As components of the stress tensor have to be identical we set vector $`\stackrel{}{G}`$ as :

$$\stackrel{}{G}=q\stackrel{}{V},$$
(16)
where $`\stackrel{}{V}`$ is the stress vector of the gravitation field, $`q`$ is a constant having dimension $`[q]=[\mathrm{m}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{s}]/[\mathrm{e}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{e}]`$.

In the present work we will determine the field $`Q`$ by the following expression:

$$Q=4\pi c\gamma q\underset{t_0}{\overset{t}{}}\mu (t,x,y,z,s)𝑑t,$$
(17)
where $`\gamma `$ is gravitational constant, $`\mu `$ is mass density, $`t_0`$ is a constant of time. Introduction of field $`Q`$ in this generalize form is conditioned by the demand that Newton gravity has to be a particular case with substitution one in equation (15). In this interpretation field $`Q`$ bears a relation to mass but this component of stress tensor has not a direct connection with mass, since we take derivative of $`Q`$ with respect to time.

Current density $`j_s`$ we assume to be null, which describes absence of the electric charges movement along the fifth coordinate. Let us consider example of field when electrical and magnetic components of the stress tensor are default, current vector and potentials are the following:

$`\stackrel{}{\rho }=0,\phi =0,\stackrel{}{A}=0`$
$`A_s=qW+2\pi c\gamma q{\displaystyle \underset{\tau _0}{\overset{\tau (t)}{}}\mu (x,y,z)𝑑\tau (t)𝑑t}+C,`$ (18)
where $`W`$ is a gravitational potential that expressed through vector $`\stackrel{}{V}`$ as: $`V_i=\frac{W}{x_i},i=1,2,3`$, $`\tau `$ is a proper time in the point $`X=(x,y,z)`$ , $`\tau _0`$ and $`C`$ are constant. We take $`W`$ to be independent from time and fifth coordinate $`s`$. Introduction of coordinate time in point $`X`$ is conditioned by the fact that field $`Q`$ (17) is depended from time, which of course may differentiate in points $`X_0`$ and $`X`$ . Here point $`X_0`$ sets down as a center of the coordinate system.

Thus the system of extended Maxwell equations gives only non-vanish equation (15), which taking into account (16) turns out to be

$$div\stackrel{}{V}+4\pi \gamma \frac{\tau }{t}\mu (x,y,z)=0.$$
(19)
With $`\tau =t`$ that means an equality of proper and coordinate time, this equation is transformed to the well-known Poisson equation for gravitation field.

Let us employ this approach for the analysis of the Pioneer-effect. NASA launched Pioneer 10 on March 1972 towards distant planets of the solar system. Radiometric data shows that additional acceleration takes place in direction of the Sun . In  the constant component of this acceleration is considered as manifestation of non-orthogonal metric of five-dimensional space-time.

As was noticed earlier we don’t consider a case when massive particle in 5D is stationary in space and has a rest mass, and its motion consists with non-zero 5D interval:

$$(ct)^2x^2y^2z^2s^2=const>0.$$
(20)
However, we note that in gravitational field the photon velocity is less then light velocity and this mathematically gives a nonzero value of the 5D interval in (20) for describing the movement in this field . Then for explanation of constant component of Pioneer 10 anomalous acceleration existence in framework of ESM the approach described in  is allowed, since non-zero 5D interval is considered for metric introduced here. This possibility will be a subject of our further research. Review of theories that explained an existence of the additional acceleration is contained in . Taking into account type of the Pioneer 10 mission it is possible to consider as trustworthy the data from 1987 to 1999 years , when its distance to the Sun was increased from $`40`$ to $`60`$ $`\mathrm{AU}`$. In work  variable component observed additional acceleration is related with periodic change of a velocity of Pioneer 10 in relation to the Earth, which is caused by its movement around the Sun. Velocity of the Pioneer 10 in relation to the Earth $`v`$ approximately determined by the expression

$$u=u_P+u_Ecos(\nu t+\phi _0),$$
(21)
where $`u=v/c`$, $`u_P4.13\times 10^5`$ corresponds to the Pioneer 10 velocity in relation to the Sun and $`u_E=9.97\times 10^5`$ corresponds to the orbital Earth velocity, $`\gamma =2\pi `$ $`1/\mathrm{year}`$, $`\phi _0`$ is a constant.

Thus the Pioneer 10 proper time in Earth’s center coordinate system neglecting terms containing $`u`$ of higher orders of magnitude will be

$$\tau =(1u)t.$$
(22)
Taking in account this relation the equation (19) has a solution in a form of a potential in point $`(x_P,y_P,Z_P)`$:

$$W=(1u)\gamma \frac{\mu d\mathrm{\Omega }}{\sqrt{(xx_P)^2+(yy_P)^2+(zz_P)^2}},$$
(23)
where $`d\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is volume element. This potential can be rewritten as:

$$W=(1u)\gamma \frac{M}{r},$$
(24)
where $`M`$ is Sun’s mass, $`r`$ is a distance from the Sun to the Pioneer 10. By comparison with Newton gravity obtained potential gives additional acceleration

$$\widehat{a}=u\gamma \frac{M}{r^2},$$
(25)
to the massive particle with a radial movement.

It may be made still one supplementary prediction following from ESM on additional acceleration originated from $`u_P=4.13\times 10^5`$ taking into account (21) and (24). But its value will be smaller by an order than the full acceleration (25).

We obtain from the equation (25) that amplitude of the oscillation of periodic component of the velocity (21) $`u_E`$ has the amplitude of additional variable acceleration $`|a_P^E|=3.7\times 10^8`$ $`\mathrm{cm}/\mathrm{s}^2`$ at the distance $`r=40`$ $`\mathrm{AU}`$ and $`|a_P^E|=1.6\times 10^8`$ $`\mathrm{cm}/\mathrm{s}^2`$ at $`r=60`$ $`\mathrm{AU}`$. For the Pioneer 10 this amplitude determined from measurements  amounts correspondingly to $`|a_P^E|_{40AU}=(2.92.4)\times 10^8`$ $`\mathrm{cm}/\mathrm{s}^2`$ and $`|a_P^E|_{60AU}=(1.30.8)\times 10^8`$ $`\mathrm{cm}/\mathrm{s}^2`$.

Thus, we considered (1+4) generalization of classical electrodynamics including gravitation field. With this approach it is assumed a presence of an extra component of extended field stress tensor, whose physical interpretation is based on necessity to obtain Newton gravity law as particular case.

In this work we have analyzed model where mass of having in 4D a rest mass particle moves in five-dimensional space-time along fifth coordinate with light velocity and its electric charge is a stationary value in additional dimension. Generalized gravity law that was obtained from extended Maxwell equations confirmed by existence of variable component of Pioneer 10 additional acceleration, whose analyze was made in frame of this model.


text:
# The X-ray emission of the Crab-like pulsar PSR J0537-6910

## 1 Introduction

PSR J0537$``$6910 is a Crab-like pulsar embedded in the supernova remnant N157B in the 30 Doradus region located at the centre of the LMC. This supernova belongs to the rare class of Crab-like remnants  distinguished by their centrally-filled morphology and non-thermal X-ray spectra, whose emission is predominantly powered by the young pulsar at the center. PSR J0537$``$6910 is the most rapidly rotating pulsar associated with a SNR ($`P`$=16.1 ms), twice as fast as the Crab pulsar, with a period derivative of $`\dot{P}`$=5.17$`\times `$10-14 s s-1, a rotational energy loss rate of $`\dot{E}=4.8\times 10^{38}`$ erg s-1, a magnetic field at the neutron star surface of $`B_s=9.2\times 10^{11}`$ G and a braking age of $`\tau =5.0\times 10^3`$ yr in agreement with the predicted SNR age . It represents the oldest known Crab-like pulsar.

Pulsed emission was first discovered in the X-ray range by RXTE/PCA  and soon after confirmed by BeppoSAX  and ROSAT/HRI . The light curve is characterized by a narrow pulse shape with a full width duty cycle of about 10% . The 2–10 keV pulsed spectrum has been modeled with a simple power law: RXTE+ASCA measured a spectral index of 1.6$`\pm `$0.4 and a 2–10 flux of (6.7$`\pm `$0.6)$`\times `$10-13 erg cm-2 s-1 , in agreement with the BeppoSAX values of 1.1$`\pm `$0.4 and (5.1$`\pm `$1.1)$`\times `$10-13 erg cm-2 s-1 .

The source shows intense glitch activity: 6 glitch events, with a mean amplitude in the frequency change of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu /\nu `$=0.36$`\times `$10-6, have been observed during the almost 3 years monitoring campaign performed by RXTE . No pulsed emission have been detected at radio wavelengths since now .

## 2 Observation and Data Reduction

The RXTE observations considered in our analysis were performed between 26 March and 19 December 2001. We used PCA  accumulated in ”Good Xenon” telemetry mode (1$`\mu `$s accuracy) selecting all detector layer to increase the S/N ratio of the pulsation. Standard selection criteria were applied on the observation data excluding time intervals correspondent to South Atlantic Anomaly passage and when Earth limb was less than 10o and angular distance between the source position and the pointing of the satellite was larger than 0.02o. All analysed observations were pointing to PSR J0537$``$6910 and are relative to the same gain epoque. The total exposure is about 1300 ks.

The narrow field instruments onboard BeppoSAX  observed LMC field several times during its life. For our analysis, we selected the observations pointing at N157B and considered data from the two imaging detectors LECS (0.1–10 keV) and MECS (1.6–10 keV) for a total exposure of 29 ks and 89 ks, respectively. In both instruments, events were extracted from a circular region centred at the source position with a radius of 3’ which maximize the signal-to-noise ratio of the pulsed component. The LECS energy range 0.1–1.0 keV was not included in the analysis because of the low statistical significance of the pulsed emission due to the presence of a contribution from the hot gas of 30 Doradus .

## 3 Timing Analysis

The UTC arrivals times of all selected events were first converted to the Solar System Barycentre using the (J2000) pulsar position $`\alpha `$=5h 37m 47.2s and $`\delta `$=-69o 10’ 23”  and the JPL2000 planetary ephemeris (DE200, ). For each observation, we searched the pulsed frequency $`\nu `$ using the folding technique in a range centred at the value computed with the pulsar ephemeris reported by . The central time of each observation was chosen as reference epoque and the corresponding frequency was estimated by fitting the $`\chi ^2`$ peak with a gaussian. Frequency errors at 1$`\sigma `$ level were computed from the interval corresponding to a unit decrement with respect to the maximum in the $`\chi ^2`$ curve. The top panel of Fig. 1 shows the frequencies obtained for BeppoSAX (triangles) and RXTE (stars) together with the linear ephemeris quoted by  (dotted line); residuals respect to this relation are presented in the bottom panel.

The highest significance of the pulsation is reached in the energy intervals 2.5–30 keV in RXTE data and 1.0–10 keV in BeppoSAX data. The RXTE profile is shown in Fig. 2: it is characterized by a narrow single peak with a duty cycle of 0.28 at zero level. Fitting the peak with a gaussian, a value of 0.11$`\pm `$0.07 is obtained for the FWHM, compatible with the value obtained with ROSAT  and Chandra data

## 4 Spectral analysis

Pulse phase histograms were accumulated for each unit and for each observation of the PCA independently for the 256 PHA channels. The same procedure has been applied to MECS data. RXTE response matrix were derived for each unit and summed together weighting with the background subtracted counts of the correspondent PCU’s phase histograms. RXTE spectra were combined by summing the individuals units and assigning a total exposure time equal to the sum of the individual exposures. The spectral distribution of the pulsed signal was accumulated in the phase interval 0.64–0.84 subtracting the off-pulse level evaluated in the phase range 0.0–0.5. The two phase regions considered in our analysis are indicated in Fig. 2.

The BeppoSAX and RXTE spectra covering the energy range 1.0–30 keV were fitted together. The intercalibration factors were fixed to the values derived fitting the common energy interval 2-10 keV: in particular the value 0.9$`\pm `$0.3 has been derived for LECS-MECS and 1.19$`\pm `$0.09 for XTE-MECS. The spectra have been modeled with a simple power law whose best fit parameters are shown in Table 1. The best fit parameters of the simple power law are in agreement with the previous evaluations  and, according to the $`\chi ^2`$ value, this model well represent the spectra over the whole range. The detected 2–10 unabsorbed flux is (7.3$`\pm `$0.5)$`\times `$10-13 erg cm-2 s-1, corresponding to a uniform luminosity of 1.9$`\times `$1035 erg s-1 for an estimate distance of 47 kpc . Table 1 shows the best fit result. A second models have been investigated: a curved power law characterized by a linear dependence of the spectral slope upon the logarithm of energy:

$$F(E)=KE^{[\alpha +\beta Log(E)]}$$
(1)
This model has been used to fit the broad band pulsed spectra of the other Crab-like pulsars Crab , PSR B1509-58 PSR B0540-69. The best fit result for this model is also shown in Table 1. The introduction of the curvature parameter $`\beta `$ however is significant at 99.7% confidence level computed with the F-test for the introduction of a single parameter. Moreover the $`\beta `$ detected value is in agreement with the values obtained for the three other pulsars.

## 5 Conclusion

We presented some preliminary results on the spectral and timing analysis of the X-ray pulsed emission of the 16 ms pulsar PSR J0537$``$6910 in the energy range 1.0–30 keV, based on archival BeppoSAX and RossiXTE observations. The detected profile is characterized by a narrow single peak with a duty cycle of 0.28 at zero level. The pulsed spectrum has been fitted with two models: the simple power law and a curved power law. The simple power law gave acceptable $`\chi ^2`$, but the introduction of the curvature parameter $`\beta `$ is significant at 99.7% confidence level. This result suggests that the photon index softens at higher energies. The value of the bending parameters is compatible within the errors with the values find for the other Crab-like pulsars Crab , PSR B1509-58 , PSR B0540-69 . According to the measured parameters of the curved model, the SED of the pulsed emission have a maximum at the energy:

$$E_m=10^{[(2\alpha )/(2\beta )]}$$
(2)
wich correspond to $``$170 keV, practically coincident with the value measured in the interpulse of the Crab pulsar .

The models that have been proposed to explain high energy emission from pulsars can be classified in two distinct classes, outer gap  and polar gap models , depending on the location of the emitting region. In the framework of the outer gap model, the energy of the maximum follows the appropriate scaling relation with respect to the interpeak emission of the Crab as observed for the PSR B1509-58 .