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# Shaping Planetary Nebulae and Related Objects

## 1 Introduction

This paper addresses some of the following open questions related to the shaping of planetary nebulae (PNs), with a number of comparisons to related objects.

1. Why and when does mass loss rate from asymptotic giant branch (AGB) progenitors of PNs become non-spherical? Many AGB stars lose mass in a spherical geometry, while most PNs are axisymmetric, or point symmetric. At the end of the AGB the mass loss geometry must change to become non-spherical. I address this question, and show that the binary model for the shaping of PNs can account for it, in section 2.
2. What is the connection of multiple semi-periodic concentric shells (arcs; rings; termed M-arcs) to the previous question? These are thought to be concentric (more or less) semiperiodic shells; some shells are complete while others are not. Reviews of the arc and ring properties are given by Hrivnak, Kwok, & Su (2001), Kwok, Su, & Stoesz (2001), Su (2004), and Corradi et al. (2004). I address this question in section 4.
3. When does a star in the “right” initial mass range form a PN? I will not address this issue directly here, but it is important when comparing theory with observations, e.g., in population synthesis studies. Soker & Rappaport (2000) discuss this issue. In particular, some stars will not form PNs: either they lose most or all of their envelope before reaching the upper AGB, or their mass loss rate while terminating the AGB is too low, and the PN will be too faint to be detected. This issue is related to questions raised be De Marco (2004) on the number of PNs with binary central stars.
4. What are the roles of jets in shaping PNs? If jets are not well collimated, I term them CFW, for collimated fast wind. In this respect, I will present the view that most, or even all, jets in PNs are blown by a binary companion–or even by a tertiary star. I elaborate on this question in relation to jets in clusters of galaxies in section 5.
5. What is the role of axisymmetric mass loss from the AGB stellar progenitor? Models for enhanced equatorial mass loss rate include fast rotating AGB stars, which were spun-up by companions (Soker 1997), and effects of magnetic fields. I will mention the presence of magnetic fields on the surface of AGB stars, and present my view that even when magnetic fields are detected, they are not likely to play a global (as opposed to local) dynamical role in the mass loss process from the AGB star. In section 3 I will try to clarify some confusion related to the roles of magnetic fields in shaping PNs.

Although this paper is basically a review following the Asymmetrical Planetary Nebulae III (APN3) meeting, it contains some new ideas as well. It doesn’t of course address all relevant questions, and doesn’t cite many papers; many of these can be found in papers already cited here. Note in particular the recent review by Balick & Frank (2002), which contains many references and relevant discussions, as do many papers in the Proceedings of APN3 (I hope all will be posted on astro-ph).

## 2 Basic Types of Binary Interaction

I distinguish between four basic types of interaction with stellar or substellar companions. Two of these lead to the formation of axisymmetrical PNs.

1. No interaction. There is no companion to the AGB progenitor, or the companion has too little mass and/or the orbital separation is too large. In that case a spherical PN is expected, and/or the mass loss rate stays low, and no observable PN ever emerges.
2. A very-wide companion. The companion does not influence the mass loss process because the orbital separation is too large, $`a100\mathrm{AU}`$. However, the companion is close enough, $`a10^4\mathrm{AU}`$, and massive enough, i.e., a stellar companion, such that it causes a departure from axisymmetry (see Soker & Rappaport 2001 for detailed study of this process, and references therein; Classification of PNs according to their departure from axisymmetry is reviewed by Bobrowsky 2004).
3. Shaping without disturbing the AGB progenitor. In this type of interaction the companion deflects the AGB wind, but it doesn’t influence the AGB progenitor itself. In the main process (Soker 2001a) the compact companion accretes from the AGB wind such that an accretion disk is formed, resulting in two jets (or a CFW). Soker (2001a) finds that $`520\%`$ of all PNs are formed by this process.
4. Shaping by disturbing the AGB progenitor. This type of interaction includes tidal interaction, Roche lobe over flow (RLOF), and common envelope. RLOF and tidal interaction (RLOF implies tidal interaction, but tidal interaction can occur without RLOF; Soker 2002c) are likely to lead to the formation of jets, and the formation of a bipolar PN with a narrow waist between the two lobes or bubbles (Soker & Rappaport 2000). During the common envelope phase jets are not likely to be blown, but the companion may blow jets prior to entering the CE or immediately after. Common envelope models include substellar companions (planets and brown dwarfs) as well.

The different types of interaction, the nature of the companion, and more on their relation to the shaping of PNs are in some of my earlier papers (e.g., Soker 1997; 1998; 2002c; Soker & Rappaport 2000). Note that a very-wide companion can exists together with a closer companion. This is indeed the case in many PNs showing departure from axisymmetry or from point-symmetry (Bobrowsky 2004).

In the binary model for shaping PNs, i.e., in the last two basic types of interaction, it is expected that the shaping mainly occurs as the progenitor is about to leave the AGB, and during the early post-AGB phase (for related phenomenon see the discussion of subdwarf B binaries in section 6). When the companion is at a large orbital separation (interaction type 3), the formation of a stable accretion disk, and presumably the formation of a CFW (or two jets), requires the AGB wind to be intensive and slow (Soker 2001a). Practically, for a significant fraction of binary systems to blow jets ($`10\%`$ of initial binary systems), the AGB mass loss rate should be $`\dot{M}_110^6M_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$ for a wind speed of $`v_w7\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, and $`\dot{M}_110^5M_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$ for a wind speed of $`v_w11\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (Soker 2001a). As mass loss rate increases in the range $`2\times 10^6M_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$, the AGB wind speed decreases (Elitzur, Ivezic & Vinkovic 2002). Therefore, this condition, of very high mass loss rate and a slow wind, is met only during the so-called superwind phase of the AGB, when mass loss rate is very high and wind speed is low. Huggins et al. (2003) find the flow structure in the bipolar proto-PN He 3-1475 to support such scenarios, i.e., where enhanced mass loss by the central star leads to ejection of two jets.

In the second basic type of interaction that leads to the formation of axisymmetrical PNs (type 4 interaction above), the companion substantially spins-up the AGB envelope, in particular during the strong tidal interaction phase, prior to the onset of RLOF and common envelope. Most of the spin-up, i.e., deposition of orbital angular momentum to the AGB envelope, occurs during a very short time (Soker 1995). This is likely to enhance mass loss rate. Therefore, this type of interaction both increases the mass loss rate and changes it to axisymmetric, rather than spherical. The high mass loss rate implies that the AGB progenitor is about to leave the AGB shortly.

One conclusion from the correlation between AGB high mass loss rate and the transition to axisymmetry, as observed and as expected in the binary model, is that most spherical PNs will not show signatures of superwind. This is indeed the case when one carefully defines spherical PNs (Soker 2002a, $`\mathrm{\S }2.2`$).

## 3 Comments on the Role of Magnetic Fields

The previous section, which clarified some aspects of binary interaction and the shaping of PNs, would not be complete without clarification of some aspects of magnetic fields.

### 3.1 The source of magnetic fields

There are now clear indications of magnetic fields in PNs and around AGB stars. The strongest indication comes from polarized maser emission (e.g., Kemball & Diamond 1997; Zijlstra et al. 1989; Miranda et al. 2001a; Vlemmings, Diamond, & van Langevelde 2002; Indra 2004). In many cases the local magnetic pressure inferred from the maser polarization is about equal to, or even larger than, the thermal pressure of the gas. Some papers claim that the strong magnetic fields indicate that magnetic fields globally shape PNs. I think that this conclusion is hardly justified. Instead, I (Soker 2002d) argue for magnetic fields with small coherence lengths, which result from stellar magnetic spots or from jets blown by an accreting companion; the magnetic field does not play a global role in shaping the circumstellar envelope. In the solar wind, in general, magnetic pressure exceeds thermal pressure only in magnetic clouds (e.g., Yurchyshyn et al. 2001), which are formed by impulsive mass loss events from the sun. In Soker & Kastner (2003) we suggest that the maser spots with strong magnetic fields which are observed around some AGB stars are similar in nature to the magnetic clouds in the solar wind, in that they represent local enhancements of the magnetic field. In related papers, Dorch & Freytag (2002) discuss local dynamo in Betelgeuse, and in Soker (2002e) I discuss enhanced magnetic activity of the cool companion in symbiotic systems.

To summarize this subsection, I expect the global magnetic pressure in the wind of AGB stars to be much below the thermal pressure, as winds from AGB stars are driven by radiation pressure on dust rather than by magnetic activity as in the sun. The magnetic field results from one of the following. (1) Locally (but not globally) strong magnetic field spots. (2) A magnetically active main sequence companion. (3) An accretion disk around a companion, which amplifies the magnetic field of the accreted gas.

### 3.2 The role of magnetic fields

Models where magnetic fields play a role in shaping the circumstellar matter are of four kinds. (1) Magnetic fields deflect the flow close to the stellar surface, i.e., the magnetic pressure and/or tension are dynamically important already on the AGB (or post-AGB) stellar surface (e.g., Pascoli 1997; Matt et al. 2000; Blackman et al. 2001). (2) The magnetic field is weak close to the stellar surface. It plays a dynamical role only at large distances from the AGB star (e.g., Chevalier & Luo 1994; García-Segura 1997; García-Segura et al. 1999). (3) Locally enhanced magnetic fields on the AGB stellar surface form cool spots. Dust formation rate, hence mass loss rate, is enhanced above these cool spots (Soker & Zoabi 2002, and references therein). Magnetic fields never become dynamically important on a large scale. This mechanism can operate even for very slowly rotating AGB envelopes; spin-up by planets is enough to account for the required rotation velocity. This process may lead to the formation of moderate elliptical PNs (those with small departure from sphericity), but can’t account for lobes, jets, etc. (4) Magnetic fields play a dominant role in the launching of jets from accretion disks, either around stellar companions or around the central star.

My view that the first two processes mentioned above (for more on these see García-Segura, Lopez, & Franco 2004; Matt, Frank, & Blackman 2004; Blackman 2004) can’t work in shaping PNs was presented in several papers (e.g., Soker & Zoabi 2002). In particular, they require that the progenitor AGB (or post-AGB) envelope be spun-up by a stellar companion. The companion then has other effects on the mass loss process which are more influential. It is important to emphasize that any model based on magnetic activity must state the required angular velocity and/or angular momentum, and then the source of this angular momentum. Models for magnetic activity during the post-AGB phase, have in addition the problem of explaining the bipolar outflow from systems where the progenitor is still an AGB star.

Process (4) is of a different nature. From young stellar objects, active galactic nuclei, and many other systems, it is well established that accretion disks can form two jets. The question regarding the exact mechanism for launching the two jets is an open one. However, for the pure question of PNs shaping, the main issue is whether an accretion disk is formed or not; understanding the exact launching mechanism will not solve the major open questions regarding the shaping of PNs.

In light of the problems mentioned in this subsection (and which are discussed in more detail in some of my earlier papers cited above), I have the feeling that the APN3-meeting talks devoted to magnetic activity were much too optimistic in estimating their ability to shape PNs.

## 4 Post-AGB Envelope Instabilities

### 4.1 Personal note

The evolution of a single star during the final AGB phase (as it is about to leave the AGB) and early post-AGB phase holds some unsolved puzzles (even before adding the complications due to a binary companion). Some of these will be mentioned later in this section. My view is that present numerical codes can’t handle all these complications, which involve processes on timescales and lengthscales which span a large domain, e.g., pulsations with large amplitudes on the surface, possible magnetic activity with local dust formation close to the surface, large convective eddies, long-term envelope relaxation (see later this section). In several papers, and in this section, I address some of these issues. Two recent papers (Soker 2003c; Soker & Harpaz 2003) were rejected by journals following referee reports. I think the arguments in these papers still hold, even if containing some speculative components. I have very strong criticisms on these referee reports, but I will not present them for the following reason. My paper on the magnetic activity of the cool component in symbiotic systems (Soker 2002e) received a very negative referee report (it was published following a positive report by a second referee). I presented the entire report with my strong criticism at a meeting on symbiotic stars in 2002. I submitted these for the Proceedings of that meeting, but was asked by the editors to remove this report and my criticism from the Proceedings. In the near future, therefore, I will not repeat such an attempt (it is not a common practice in our community). I think that the present situation, where someone can present his or her scientific view (i.e., in a referee report) without the need to stand behind this view (because it is not going to be published anywhere) is scientifically intolerable. The electronic publication system must be used to change the refereeing system. For example, a paper can be posted in a public place for a few weeks for open comments from anyone interested. Should someone think that the paper should not be published, his or her view (with the name) can be given along with the paper, and with the authors’ reply; future readers will make their own decision in the dispute.

### 4.2 Indications for long-term instabilities

The evelopes of upper AGB stars are known to be unstable, not only to oscillations on dynamical time scales of $`1\mathrm{yr}`$, but also to much longer time-scale perturbations. On the theoretical side there are several effects that may lead to such long-time scale variations. Icke, Frank, & Heske (1992) found chaos in the behavior of oscillating AGB stars on time-scales much longer than the dynamical time. Ya’ari & Tuchman (1996, 1999) emphasize the need to include long-term nonlinear thermal effects, which change the entropy structure of the envelope, when analyzing pulsating AGB stars. The dependence of the opacity on temperature, in particular in the temperature range appropriate for the photospheres of upper AGB stars, may also lead to sharp changes in the AGB stellar radius (Soker 2003c). This effect is particularly important in oxygen-rich AGB stars because the opacity sharply increases as temperature drops below $`2900\mathrm{K}`$, and it may lead to large expansion, a process termed opacity-induced over-expansion (Soker 2003c). This may occur, therefore, when the photospheric (effective) temperature drops to $`T_p2900\mathrm{K}`$. The much higher opacity implies a much lower photospheric density, which allows the envelope to expand (I will return to this effect later in this section). Finally, when the envelope mass becomes low the AGB star stops expanding and starts contracting (see below). The numerical stellar evolutionary model kindly given to me by Amos Harpaz (Soker 1992) shows the stellar envelope shrinking a little when the envelope mass becomes $`M_{\mathrm{env}}0.16M_{}`$, and then expanding again when $`M_{\mathrm{env}}0.08M_{}`$.

From the observational direction, Zijlstra, Bedding, & Mattei (2002) studied the long-term period evolution of the Mira variable R Hydrae. They find the orbital period to decrease from 495 days to 385 days in $`200\mathrm{yr}`$, from which they deduce a decrease of the stellar radius by $`16\%`$. They also argue for a strong decline in the mass loss rate, by a factor of $`10`$, with the envelope contraction. Zijlstra et al. (2002) then very nicely raise the possibility that if the behavior of R Hydrae is periodic, it can account for multiple semi-periodic concentric shells (arcs; rings; I term them ‘M-arcs’).

### 4.3 Motivation for long-term semi-periodic evolution

As indicated in the previous subsection, there are strong arguments in favor of long-term semi-periodic variations in upper-AGB stars. I now show that such behavior may resolve some puzzling issues.
(1) M-arcs. Zijlstra et al. (2002) already proposed that long-term non-linear behavior like that in R Hydrae can form M-arcs. Presently there is a disagreement on the process that forms M-arcs. In the literature there are several proposed models: ($`i`$) Binary interaction. It seems that this model can’t work (see Soker 2002b). ($`ii`$) Instability in dust-disk coupling (Deguchi 1997; Simis, Icke, & Dominik 2001; Meijerink, Mellema, & Simis 2003). Although this model is popular, I think it has some problems (Soker 2002b). ($`iii`$) Solar-like magnetic activity cycle (Soker 2000; García-Segura, Lopez, & Franco 2001). As more PNs are found to have M-arcs (Corradi et al. 2004), this speculative idea becomes less likely. ($`iv`$) Van Horn et al. (2003) propose that the influence of mass loss on the H-burning shell can set long-term semi-periodicity in the nuclear burning rate and mass loss rate. A crucial assumption in their model is that the mass flux throughout the envelope is constant and equals the mass loss flux at the stellar surface. I consider this assumption unrealistic, as numerical models show the envelope mass decreasing (e.g., Soker 1992; Soker & Harpaz 1999111Note that the density scale in Figs. 1-5 of Soker & Harpaz (1999) is too low by a factor of 10; the correct scale is displayed in their Fig. 6.), rather than mass being supplied to the envelope by the core. It seems the nuclear burning rate will not be influenced by the mass loss process. ($`v`$) Long-term envelope instabilities (Zijlstra et al. 2002). In the next subsection I will propose a phenomenological model for such a behavior. In any case, it seems that the mass-losing star blows the M-arcs before being disturbed. Therefore, I speculate that most PNs with M-arcs come from binary interation type 3 of section 2, i.e., the companion does not disturbed much the AGB star, and shaping occurs mainly via accretion and jet blown by the companion. Type-4 interacting binaries can also lead to M-arcs if the interaction occurs at a late stage. The images of most PNs with M-arcs (Corradi et al. 2004) look like spherical shells that were shaped by jets, and most don’t have large bubbles and narrow waist. Large bubbles and narrow waist are likely to reuslt from strong interaction (Soker & Rappaport 2000) that may prevent spherical M-arcs

(2) Mass loss rate and transition time. AGB stars start to shrink and their effective temperature starts to increase when their envelope mass decreases to $`M_{\mathrm{env}}0.20.8M_{}`$, with the higher values for more massive cores. In many models for dust formation (e.g., Wachter et al. 2002), the mass loss rate steeply decreases as the temperature increases. The strong dependence on the temperature implies that as the star evolves along the post-AGB track and becomes hotter, at constant luminosity, the mass loss rate steeply decreases with time. However, observations of planetary nebulae (PNs) and stellar evolution calculations along the post-AGB require the high mass loss rate to continue during the early post-AGB phase (e.g., Tylenda & Stasinska 1994). Models where the stellar effective temperature is the sole main physical parameter which determines the mass loss rate, therefore, predict too long post-AGB evolution (for more on this see Soker & Harpaz 2003). Soker & Harpaz (2003) argue that the envelope structure, in particular the entropy and density gradients, should be among the main parameters which determine the mass loss rate on the tip of the AGB and the early post-AGB evolutionary phases. The entropy profile becomes steeper and the density profile becomes shallower as the star becomes hotter on the early post-AGB phase, until the star heats up to $`T8000\mathrm{K}`$. Soker & Harpaz (2003) propose that mass loss rate stays very high because of the envelope structure, and drops only when the effects of the temperature become important once again as the post-AGB star heats up to $`6,000\mathrm{K}`$. Note, they do not propose a new mass loss mechanism, but rather mention several mechanisms by which these profiles may influence the mass loss rate within the popular mechanism for mass loss on the AGB, where pulsations coupled with radiation pressure on dust cause the high mass loss rate (e.g., Höfner 1999; Winters et al. 2000; Andersen, Höfner & Gautschy-Loidl 2003; Willson 2004). This discussion suggests that some effect(s) in addition to the dependence on effective temperature (or stellar radius and luminosity) must operate during the upper AGB phase. Long-term semi-periodic oscillations, resulting from the steep entropy profile and shallow density profile, are discussed in the next subsection.

### 4.4 Phenomenological treatment of long-term oscillations

When the envelope mass of an AGB star declines to $`0.2M_{}`$ the density profile becomes very shallow and the entropy profile very steep as the envelope mass decreases (see graphs in Soker 1992, and Soker & Harpaz 1999). This can be seen from simple principles (Soker & Harpaz 1999, 2003; Soker 2003c, where the quantitative derivation is given). The photospheric density, derived from the definition of the optical depth being $`2/3`$, is inversely proportional to the the photospheric temperature $`T_p`$, stellar radius $`R`$, and opacity $`\kappa `$: $`\rho _p(R^2\kappa T_p)^1`$. As the star evolves along the AGB, the temperature drops and the opacity drops as well, increasing the photospheric density. Because of mass loss and increasing radius at the same time, the average density in the envelope decreases. The outcome is that the density profile in the envelope becomes very shallow. To maintain the convective energy flux in a low density envelope, the entropy profile becomes very steep (Soker & Harpaz 1999). The outcome is an envelope prone to instabilities. Since the photospheric density must be lower than the average envelope density, the envelope must eventually shrink to increase the average envelope density and lower the photospheric density. This is the reason AGB stars start to shrink and heat up when their envelope still contains substantial mass. For a core mass of $`M_c0.6M_{}`$ the AGB star starts shrinking when $`M_{\mathrm{env}}0.2M_{}`$ (for $`M_c0.9`$ the AGB star starts shrinking earlier, when $`M_{\mathrm{env}}0.8M_{}`$; see data in Frankowski 2003). Using the data given by Frankowski (2003; also private communication), and Soker (1992), I take a simple formula to describe the equilibrium, i.e., non-oscillatory, average stellar radius as a function of envelope mass in the range $`0.02<M_{\mathrm{env}}<0.2M_{}`$. I take

$$R_{\mathrm{eq}}=260+1400M_{\mathrm{env}}3500M_{\mathrm{env}}^2,$$
(1)
where envelope mass is in units of solar mass and radius in units of solar radius. This function is drawn as a thick line on the upper panel of Figure 1.

The shallow density profile has the following implication when mass loss rate is high. To maintain a constant stellar radius the lost mass must be replaced by mass from inner layers. Because the envelope density profile is shallow, to maintain a negative density profile, mass must flow outward from deep layers. This process increases the gravitational energy of the envelope; the source of this energy is the nuclear burning, i.e., the stellar luminosity. Because the envelope stays in a quasi-equilibrium, only a small fraction, $`\eta `$, of the stellar luminosity, $`L_{\mathrm{eq}}`$, will be used to lift mass. Let me take a high mass loss rate of $`10^4M_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$, such that in $`10\mathrm{yr}`$ a mass of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m10^3M_{}`$ is lost. (For an AGB star with $`L_{\mathrm{eq}}=6000L_{}`$ the maximum mass loss rate will be lower by a factor of 3-5, compared with the scaling used here.) I also scale the equation with $`\eta =10^3`$, $`L_{\mathrm{eq}}=6000L_{}`$, and a core mass of $`M_c=0.6M_{}`$. To lift mass from an average radius of $`r_{\mathrm{in}}0.1R_{\mathrm{eq}}30R_{}`$ to large radii, the thermal time scale is

$$\tau \frac{GM_c\mathrm{\Delta }m}{r_{\mathrm{in}}\eta L}100\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }m}{0.001M_{}}\right)\left(\frac{r_{\mathrm{in}}}{30R_{}}\right)^1\left(\frac{\eta L_{\mathrm{eq}}}{6L_{}}\right)^1\mathrm{yr}.$$
(2)
To summarize the previous paragraph, I propose that the shallow density profile on the upper AGB and early post-AGB phases implies that the envelope shrinks after a short period of high mass loss rate. After a time-scale of $`100\mathrm{yr}`$, which is basically a thermal time-scale, the envelope re-expands. Because of the steep entropy profile the envelope is prone to instabilities, and it rebounds to larger than the equilibrium radius. For demonstrative purposes only, I build the following qualitative phenomenological model. I take the envelope to possess long-term oscillations, as depicted by the thin line in the upper panel of figure 1. The exact form of the assumed long-term oscillation is not important for the present demonstration. In any case, the form used is given by

$$R_{long}=R_{\mathrm{eq}}+A_r,$$
(3)
where

$$A_r=0.2R_{\mathrm{eq}}\mathrm{sin}^2[2\pi (0.2M_{\mathrm{env}})/0.02]\mathrm{for}\mathrm{sin}[2\pi (0.2M_{\mathrm{env}})/0.02]0$$
(4)
and

$$A_r=0.25(440R_{\mathrm{eq}})\mathrm{sin}^{1/2}[2\pi (0.2M_{\mathrm{env}})/0.02]\mathrm{for}\mathrm{sin}[2\pi (0.2M_{\mathrm{env}})/0.02]>0.$$
(5)
Masses and radii are in solar units.

To follow the evolution with time, a mass loss formula should be given. Again, for demonstrative purposes I use a formula that includes very strong dependence on the temperature (or stellar radius), as found by people studying pulsations and dust formation (e.g., Bowen & Willson 1991; Höfner & Dorfi 1997; Wachter et al. 2002), but includes dependence on envelope mass as well, for reasons discussed in the previous subsection (Soker & Harpaz 2003). The mass loss rate is taken to be

$$\dot{M}=10^4\left(\frac{R}{400R_{}}\right)^8\left(\frac{M_{\mathrm{env}}}{0.2M_{}}\right)^{1.5}M_{}\mathrm{yr}^1$$
(6)
Although the numerical values in this formula were chosen to accord with the formula for $`R_{\mathrm{long}}`$, I suggest that its form is more general. With the mass loss rate as a function of envelope mass and radius given, the equations for the evolution of the envelope with time can be numerically integrated. The evolution of the mass loss rate with time is given by the lower line in the lower panel of Figure 1. The upper line in this panel gives the effective temperature, assuming a constant luminosity of $`L_{\mathrm{eq}}=6000L_{}`$. As in the rest of this section, the dynamical oscillations (the regular Mira, etc., oscillations) on a time-scale of $`1\mathrm{yr}`$, are not considered.

Although very speculative, I hope that the postulated long-term oscillations discussed here will motivate more research into the post-AGB mass loss process. As indicated in section 2, the very high mass loss rate, which probably comes with a slower wind, may substantially increase the likelihood of disk formation, hence jets, around a companion. Finally, it is also possible that such long-term oscillations require the envelope to be perturbed, e.g., by being spun-up via tidal interaction with a companion. In such a case, only systems where the companion is close, but

not too close to prevent RLOF, will have strong long-term oscillations.

## 5 Bubbles in PNs and Clusters of Galaxies

This section summarizes the main results of three of my recent papers (Soker 2003a,b,d). These papers point to an interesting and nontrivial similarity in the morphology and some non-dimensional quantities between pairs of X-ray-deficient bubbles in clusters of galaxies and pairs of optical-deficient bubbles in PNs. This similarity leads me to postulate a similar formation mechanism, hence strengthening models for PN shaping by jets (not all PNs are shaped by jets). The presence of dense material in the equatorial plane observed in the two classes of bubbles constrains the jets and CFW activity in PNs to occur while the AGB star still blows its dense wind, or very shortly after. Only stellar companions can account for such jets. I then find that to inflate fat bubbles, the opening angle of the jets must be large, i.e., the half opening angle measured from the symmetry axis of the jets should typically be $`\alpha 40^{}`$, or the jets should precess. For such wide-opening angle jets a collimated fast wind (CFW) is a more appropriate term. Narrow jets will form elongated lobes rather than fat bubbles. I emphasize the need to include jets with a large opening angle, i.e., $`\alpha 3070^{}`$, in simulating bubble inflation in both PNs and clusters of galaxies (these may resemble precessing jets, which are more difficult to simulate).

Most, or all, pairs of bubbles in clusters are found in cooling flow clusters, i.e., those where the radiative cooling time of the gas at their center is shorter than the age of the cluster. I find the term cooling flow appropriate. Gas cools radiatively, and star formation and AGN activity indicate that some gas is removed from the intracluster medium (ICM). Therefore, some inflow must exist, whether of the hot, warm, or cold medium. The cooling rate is much below values cited a decade ago; an appropriate term is therefore a moderate cooling flow model (Soker et al. 2001).

### 5.1 General arguments for jets in PNs

The idea that jets (or CFW) shape PNs is not new. Jet shaping was proposed by several authors to explain different morphological features, e.g., jets (or CFW) blown by a stellar companion (Morris 1987; Soker & Rappaport 2000) to explain bipolar PNs, and jets blown at the final AGB phase or early post-AGB phase to form dense blobs along the symmetry axis (Soker 1990; these blobs are termed ansae, or FLIERs for fast low ionization emission regions), or shape the PN (Sahai & Trauger 1998; Sahai 2004). Basically, the need for jet shaping came with the failure of the interacting stellar winds (ISW) model to explain some structures observed in PNs. (In the ISW model the shaping is due mainly to the interaction of the fast wind blown by the central star with a previously ejected non-spherical AGB wind; see Balick & Frank 2002 and references therein.) This failure was pointed out already in 1990, when I showed that the ISW can’t form ansae (Soker 1990). Later, the point-symmetric structure observed in many PNs (Sahai & Trauger 1998) finally killed the ISW model as the major PN shaping process. Wind interaction still occurs and influences the structure of PNs, but in most PNs it is not the major shaping process. Therefore, despite the optimistic view presented by Icke (see Rijkhorst, Icke, & Mellema 2004) in the last APN3 meeting when presenting his numerical simulations, I disagree with his claim that the ISW model can account for the shaping of PNs. The right direction to take to understand the shapes of bipolar PNs (those with large lobes or bubbles) is to simulate AGB winds blown simultaneously with jets (or CFW) blown by a companion (Garcia-Arredondo & Frank 2004), as proposed by Morris (1987) and Soker & Rappaport (2000). On the observational side, a search for CFW seems to be promising (e.g., Lee, Lim, & Kwok 2004).

Despite these arguments, and unlike the dominant view in the clusters community, the idea of shaping by jets is controversial in the PNs community. I think that the similarities in the structure of pairs of bubbles in clusters and in some PNs strongly support jets’ shaping of bubbles and lobes in PNs. Note that not all PNs have bubbles (the more spherical cavities) or lobes (the more elongated cavities), so not all PNs are shaped by jets.

### 5.2 The similarities

Chandra X-ray observations of clusters of galaxies reveal the presence of X-ray-deficient bubbles in the inner regions of many clusters, e.g., Hydra A (McNamara et al. 2000), Abell 2052, (Blanton et al. 2001, 2003), A 2597 (McNamara et al. 2001), RBS797 (Schindler et al. 2001), Abell 496 (Dupke & White 2001), and Abell 4059 (Heinz et al. 2002). These bubbles are characterized by low X-ray emissivity, implying low density. In most cases, the bubbles are sites of strong radio emission. The optical morphologies of some PNs reveal pairs of bubbles (cavities), similar in morphology to the pairs of X-ray-deficient bubbles in clusters of galaxies. Examples are given in table 1, and a more detailed discussion, including more examples, are in Soker (2003a).

Despite the several orders of magnitude differences in some quantities between clusters and PNs, the values of some non-dimensional quantities are similar (see table 2 of Soker 2003a). The main qualitative difference between the two classes is the environment into which the bubbles expand. Bubbles in clusters evolve inside the ICM, which is in hydrostatic equilibrium; if global flow is present, it is highly subsonic. The bubbles in clusters move outward because of buoyancy. In PNs the bubbles move outward as part of the global outflow of the wind. Gravity is negligible in PNs. However, this difference doesn’t influence the inflation phase of the bubbles.

The main relevant similarities between the two types of bubble pairs are as follows. (1) The most striking similarity is in the morphology. In particular, in many cases there is a dense region in the equatorial plane between the two bubbles, e.g., the cluster A 2597 (McNamara et al. 2001) and the Owl PN(NGC 3587: Guerrero et al. 2003). (2) In some cases more than one pair of bubbles are seen, e.g., in the Perseus cluster (Fabian et al. 2000, 2002) and in the PN Hu 2-1 (Miranda et al. 2001b). (3) In both types of bubbles the density inside the bubble is 2-3 orders of magnitude lower than that in the environment, with an opposite ratio in temperatures. (4) In both cases the typical lifetime of observed bubbles is estimated to be $`10`$ times the estimated duration of the main energy injection phase that forms the bubbles. (5) In clusters the bubbles move subsonically, or mildly supersonically, through the ICM. In PNs the situation is more complicated, but this does not much influence the inflation phase of the bubbles (see Soker 2003a for more on these).

It is those similarities in morphologies and some non-dimensional quantities that hint at a similar formation process in these vastly different objects (clusters and PNs). In clusters it is commonly accepted that pairs of bubbles are formed by two opposite jets (e.g., Brighenti & Mathews 2002; Brüggen 2003; Brüggen et al. 2002; Fabian et al. 2002; Nulsen et al. 2002; Quilis, Bower, & Balogh 2001; Soker, Blanton, & Sarazin 2002; Omma et al. 2003). An axisymmetrical density structure of the ambient medium is not needed to form the cluster’s bubbles (only very close to the AGN, on a scale much smaller than the bubble size, does the accretion disk influence the flow).

The similarity in several non-dimensional quantities suggests that if the initial flow structure is similar, the bubble morphologies will be similar, as observed. This leads to the following. (1) The similar shapes strengthen the general idea that jets (or CFW) form and shape the bubbles in PNs, as well as other types of bipolar PNs.

(2) The low density in the bubble implies that the jets are fast, with a speed of $`>100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ in PNs. Therefore, the object launching the jets in PNs must be compact, since the jets’ speed is of the order of the escape velocity (Livio 2000). (3) The presence of more than one pair of bubbles in the PN Hu 2-1 indicates, as in clusters, multiple episodic events. (4) In clusters the surrounding density increases as radius decreases down to the center. The similar bubble morphologies and the presence of dense material in the equatorial plane between the two bubbles suggests that a similar ambient medium exists in PNs when the jets are blown. Namely, the AGB dense wind is still active, or has ceased only recently, when the jets are blown in PNs. This is possible only if the jets are blown by a companion, or the central star moves extremely rapidly from the AGB to become a compact star that can blow fast jets. This rapid evolution is in contrast to finding of stellar evolution studies, and is also unlikely to explain the multiple activity (point 3 above; Miranda et al. 2001b argue for a CFW that was blown by a binary system progenitor of Hu 2-1). One of the observational implications is that we should see evidence of fast jets in objects that are still unambiguous AGB stars. A good example is the system OH231.8+4.2 (Rotten Egg nebula), for which Kastner et al. (1998) detect the presence of a Mira inside this bipolar nebula which contains jets (Zijlstra et al. 2001). Zijlstra et al. (2001) present evidence for jets in some OH/IR early post-AGB stars. There are also resolved jets near some AGB stars (e.g., Imai et al. 2002, 2003, for W34A; Hirano et al. 2004 and Sahai et al. 2003 for V Hydrae; Vinkovic et al. 2004).

### 5.3 Summary: main results of the similar morphology

The similarity in morphology and some other properties strongly supports jets or CFW models for the shaping of pair of bubbles in PNs. The presence of dense material in the equatorial plane constrains the jets and CFW activity to occur while the AGB star still blows its dense wind, or very shortly after. The requirement that the jets and CFW be fast and the presence of more than one pair of bubbles in, e.g., Hu 2-1, constrains the object that blows the jets and CFW to be a compact companion, i.e., a main sequence or a white dwarf star. Although I considered here only PNs with well defined pairs of closed bubbles, the results are more general in strengthening the idea that bipolar and extreme elliptical PNs are shaped by jets or CFW blown by an accreting companion. Going from PNs to clusters, some determined quantities in PNs, e.g., the inflating jets are non-relativistic, may help constrain the bubble formation process in clusters.

Comments to table 1: The images of all these objects are summarized in a powerpoint file I presented during the APN3 meeting (2003). The site:
http://www.astro.washington.edu/balick/APN/APN\_talks\_posters.html
(go the ‘ppt’ file in the “discussion” of session 13).

Free access to individual images are at these sites:
 http://arxiv.org/PS\_cache/astro-ph/pdf/0210/0210054.pdf
 http://ad.usno.navy.mil/pne/images/rob22.jpg (Terzian & Hajian 2000)
 http://arxiv.org/PS\_cache/astro-ph/pdf/0007/0007456.pdf
 http://arxiv.org/PS\_cache/astro-ph/pdf/0303/0303056.pdf
 http://arxiv.org/PS\_cache/astro-ph/pdf/0107/0107221.pdf
 http://ad.usno.navy.mil/pne/images/vv171.jpg
 http://arxiv.org/PS\_cache/astro-ph/pdf/0010/0010450.pdf
 http://ad.usno.navy.mil/pne/images/he2\_104.jpg
 http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/cycle1/hcg62/index.html
\[10a\] http://arxiv.org/PS\_cache/astro-ph/pdf/0009/0009396.pdf
also: \[10b\] http://ad.usno.navy.mil/pne/images/hu21\_ha.gif
 http://arxiv.org/PS\_cache/astro-ph/pdf/0001/0001402.pdf
 http://ad.usno.navy.mil/pne/images/ngc6537.jpg
 http://arxiv.org/PS\_cache/astro-ph/ps/0109/0109488.f1.gif
\[14a\] http://ad.usno.navy.mil/pne/images/ngc7009.jpg
see also (Goncalves et al. 2003, fig. 1)
\[14b\] http://arxiv.org/PS\_cache/astro-ph/pdf/0307/0307265.pdf

## 6 Relevant Related Objects

The main point of this review, like that of many of my papers in the last 15 years, is that binary interaction, with a stellar or a substellar companion (planets or brown dwarfs), can account for the shaping of PNs. PN research can contribute a lot to the study of shaping of some other astrophysical systems, and at the same time benefit from research conducted to understand these and other objects. In this section I list some of these objects.

Symbiotic Systems. Schwarz gave a talk (Schwarz & Monteiro 2004) and Corradi (2004) led a discussion on the relation of symbiotic systems to bipolar PNs$``$those with lobes (or fat-bubbles) and an equatorial waist between them. Although the relation of PNs to symbiotic systems was noted by several people in the past, Corradi and Schwarz (1995, and other papers) led the research along this line. The morphological similarity between some symbiotic nebulae and some bipolar PNs strongly suggests that bipolar PNs are formed by binary systems, most with the accreting companion outside the AGB envelope. The accumulating evidances for jets in symbiotic systems (Kellogg, Pedelty, & Lyon 2001; Brocksopp et al. 2003) add to their connection to PNs and some other objects listed here. For example, note the similarity in the X-ray jet in R Aqr (Kellog et al. 2001) and the X-ray jet in Mz 3 (Kastner et al. 2003). Other arguments for binary progenitor models of bipolar PNs, such as the class of post-AGB stars with a companion and a circumbinary disk (Jura 2004; Van Winckel 2003, 2004), are summarized in Soker (1998).

Supersoft X-ray Sources. Supersoft X-ray sources are thought to be white dwarfs accreting at rates of $`10^810^7M_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$ from a companion, and sustaining nuclear burning on their surface (e.g., Greiner 1996). Fast, $`10005000\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, collimated outflows have been observed in some supersoft X-ray sources (Southwell, Livio, & Pringle 1997; Becker et al. 1998; Motch 1998). These systems teach us that accreting WDs can blow jets (Soker & Rappaport 2000). Bipolar PNs hint that bipolar nebulae should exist around some supersoft X-ray sources, even if very faint.

Novae. The relation of novae to PNs was reviewed by Bode (2004) at the APN3 meeting. After the novae eruption, the system enters a short common envelope phase. The axisymmetrical structure of many novae eruptions shows that common envelope phase can lead to axisymmetrical structures. About 20 PNs are known, and many more are expected, to harbor close binary systems (Bond 2000; Sorensen & Pollacco 2004; Hillwig 2004; De Marco et al. 2004) which went through a common envelope phase.

R Coronae Borealis stars. These are carbon-rich hydrogen-poor stars, with effective temperatures more than twice those of AGB stars. They are known to form dust sporadically on local spots very close to the surface (at APN3 these objects were discussed by Clayton 2004). Their relevance is that they show that dust can be easily formed very close to the surface of giant stars, in a non-spherical configuration (Soker & Clayton 1999).

Young stellar objects. Many YSO are known to blow jets. Similar jets in PNs (Lee & Sahai 2004), e.g., similar outflow speeds, strengthen the case for an accretion disk as the source of the jets in PNs, and most likely indicate that the companion blowing the jet is a main-sequence companion. (Much faster jets are likely to originate at an accreting white dwarf, as in supersoft X-ray sources.)

Massive stars: WR 98A. This massive binary system, where one of the components is a massive WR star, has a circumbinary matter in a spiral structure (Monnier, Tuthill, & Danchi 1999). This spiral structure results from a binary interaction. Spiral structure is expected to be formed by some binary-systems progenitors of PNs (Soker 1994; Mastrodemos & Morris 1999). The spiral is expected to be smeared quite fast, in particular after ionization starts. WR 98A and similar systems suggest that careful observations of proto-PNs, possibly by dividing two images at different spectral lines, may reveal spiral structure.

Massive stars: $`\eta `$ Car. Gehrz (2004) reviewed $`\eta `$ Car at the APN3 meeting. This system which is known to harbor a binary system, shows that a binary system is behind the bipolar structure. The arguments given here, i.e., that the companion blows jets that form the lobes of bipolar PNs, suggest that in $`\eta `$ Car as well the bipolar structure was formed by jets blown by the accreting companion (Soker 2001b)

Massive stars: SN 1987A. Sugerman & Crotts (2004) review the structure of the material around the progenitor of SN 1987A. The basic structure is similar to that of some bipolar PNs. This suggests, as was noted in the past, that a binary companion most likely shaped the circumstellar matter around SN 1987A, and that it accreted mass and blew jets.

Massive stars: $`\rho `$ Cassiopeiae. This yellow hypergiant stars is known to go through non-periodic outbursts (Lobel et al. 2003). The outbursts are suggested to result from envelope instabilities (Lobel et al. 2003). This may be related to the postulated long-term oscillations of upper AGB stars, in showing that envelopes of giant stars may be unstable on time-scales of $`101000\mathrm{yr}`$, i.e., longer than the dynamical time.

Clusters of galaxies. These objects are different in nature from all other related objects listed above, as these are not stellar objects, and the length-scales involved are $`5`$ orders of magnitude larger than those involved in PNs. However, the similar structure of bubbles in clusters and bubbles in PNs is striking and nontrivial. I argue that the similarity in structure and several non-dimensional quantities (Soker 2003a) has implications for the formation mechanisms of fat-bubbles in PNs: they are formed by jets blown by a companion while the progenitor is still an AGB star, or a very young post-AGB star. In Soker (2003b) I argue that some of the fat-bubbles in clusters and PNs are likely to be formed by jets having a wide opening angle (collimated fast wind; CFW), or precessing jets. Rayleigh-Taylor instability at shell’s front is discussed in Soker (2003d).

Subdwarf B binaries. These objects are related to the question of the transition from spherical to axisymmetrical mass loss geometry just as the star is about to leave the AGB. In section 2 I explain this in the paradigm of stellar binary interaction. The subdwarf B binaries (sdB) composed of a helium core of mass $`0.5M_{}`$ and a very thin hydrogen layer of $`<0.02M_{}`$, and a companion, either a main sequence star of a white dwarf, or even a brown dwarf companion (Rauch 2003), with orbital periods in the range $`1`$ hour$``$1000 days (see Morales-Rueda, Maxted, & Marsh 2003, and references therein). It is not clear how these stars (the helium core stars) lose most of their hydrogen-rich envelope on the red giant branch (RGB) but still managed to ignite helium (Morales-Rueda et al. 2003). It is probably that the binary interaction that causes most of the envelope to be lost occurs when these stars are on the upper RGB, and just about to ignite helium. The rapid interaction with stars on the upper RGB can be understood from the evolution of the stellar radius with core mass. The analytical approximate relations from Iben & Tutukov (1984) for RGB stars which are descendant of population I main sequence stars in the mass range $`0.8<M/M_{}<2.2`$ read

$$\frac{R_g}{R_{}}=10^{3.5}\left(\frac{M_c}{M_{}}\right)^4\mathrm{and}\dot{M}_c=10^{5.36}\left(\frac{M_c}{M_{}}\right)^{6.6}M_{}\mathrm{yr}^1,$$
(7)
where $`M_c`$ is the core mass, and $`R_g`$ the RGB radius. These relations show that when the RGB star reaches large radii, its core mass is already large, and the evolution becomes more rapid as the core mass and radius increase. Considering that tidal interaction evolves on short time scales as well (section 2), it is expected that many RGB stars will interact with their binary companion during a short time when they are large and their core is massive. (These stars can then ignite helium in the core while cooling after envelope collapse; D’Cruz et al. 1996.) Similar rapid evolution of binary interaction occurs on the upper AGB. This is the relation of these binary stars to PNs and proto-PNs showing rapid transition from spherical to axisymmetrical mass loss.

This review was initiated by two meetings I attended in the summer of 2003: The Riddle of Cooling Flows in Galaxies and Clusters of Galaxies, and Asymmetrical Planetary Nebulae III. I benefited from discussions with many people during these two meetings. Among these are James Binney, Adam Frankowski, Joel Kastner, Raghvendra Sahai, Hans Van Winckel, Jan Vrtilek, Ray White, and Albert Zijlstra. Special thanks to my long-time collaborator Amos Harpaz, for making possible the study of the AGB and post-AGB stellar evolution, and for many useful discussions. This research was supported in part by the Israel Science Foundation.


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# Sunyaev-Zel’dovich Effects from Quasars in Galaxies and Groups

## 1. Introduction

The thermal energy content of the hot interstellar (ISM) or the intracluster medium (ICM) pervading galaxies or their groups and clusters can be probed with the Sunyaev-Zel’dovich (1980, SZ) effect. This arises when the hot electrons Compton upscatter some of the CMB photons crossing the structure; then the black body spectrum is tilted toward higher frequencies.

In the $`\mu `$wave band the tilt mimics a diminution $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mu w}5.5y`$ K of the CMB temperature, proportional to the Comptonization parameter $`ynTR`$. This is evenly contributed by the electron density $`n`$ and the temperature $`T`$; in fact, what matters is the electron pressure $`p=nkT`$ integrated along a line of sight (see Fig. 1):

$$y=2\frac{\sigma _T}{m_ec^2}_0^R𝑑\mathrm{}p(r).$$
(1)
To now, SZ signals have been measured in many rich clusters at levels $`y10^4`$ or $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mu w}0.5`$ mK (see Rephaeli 1995; Birkinshaw 1999; Zhang & Wu 2000; Reese et al. 2002). These levels are consistent with ICM temperatures $`kT5`$ keV, sizes $`R`$ of a few Mpcs, and central densities $`n10^3`$ cm-3. Similar values are indicated by the standard cluster view based on gravitational potential wells of virial depth $`kT_vGM/R`$ dominated by the mass $`M10^{15}M_{}`$ of the dark matter (DM). In such wells ICM masses $`m0.2M`$ are settled in hydrostatic equilibrium at specific energies $`kTkT_v`$.

The above values also fit in with the X-ray luminosities $`L_Xn^2R^3\sqrt{T}10^{44}10^{45}`$ ergs s-1 emitted through thermal bremsstrahlung by the ICM. Groups, on the other hand, are underluminous relative to clusters; they emit far less than the baseline level $`L_gT_v^2`$ scaled at constant $`m0.2M`$ after the DM rules. The observed $`L_XT_v`$ correlation is clearly steeper, and goes from $`L_XT_v^3`$ in clusters to $`L_XT_v^4`$ or $`T_v^5`$ in poor groups, albeit with a wide variance (O’Sullivan, Ponman & Collins 2003). In other words, the ICM in groups appears to be underdense compared to clusters.

The origin of such lower densities is currently debated. One view centers on extensive radiative cooling (Bryan 2000) which would remove much low entropy gas. An alternative line of explanations (see Cavaliere, Lapi & Menci 2002, CLM02; and refs. therein) focuses on the energy injections affecting the ICM equilibrium while the DM is hierarchically accrued over dynamical timescales $`t_d`$. The inputs are provided when the baryons in galaxies condense to form stars possibly in starbursts, which then explode as SNe; alternatively or correlatedly (Menci et al. 2003, in prep.), the baryons accrete onto supermassive black holes (BHs) energizing active galactic nuclei (AGNs). Such feedback actions deplete the ICM density in the shallower potential wells by causing from inside thermal outflow and dynamical blowout; they also preheat the gas exterior to the newly forming structures, and so hinder its inflow.

In any case, for groups in *equilibrium* the values of $`y`$ can be anticipated from the continuum $`L_X`$ through the model-independent relation (Cavaliere & Menci 2001)

$$y/y_g=\left(L_X/L_g\right)^{1/2}\left(T/T_v\right)^{3/4}.$$
(2)
Here $`y_g(1+z)^{3/2}T_v^{3/2}`$ is the baseline value scaled to the formation redshift $`z`$ (Cole & Kaiser 1988). So for groups where $`L_X<L_g`$ holds we expect *depressed* $`y`$.

Are *enhanced* SZ effects also possible, or even likely? What can these tell about the processes affecting $`n`$ and $`T`$ in groups and galaxies? Here we propose that a specific answer will come from SZ observations.

## 2. The transient regime

We start from recasting $`y_gE/R^2`$ in terms of the gas thermal energy $`EpR^3`$ at equilibrium. A small group or an early massive galaxy with their virial temperatures $`kT_v1`$ or $`0.5`$ keV would produce SZ signals $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mu w}/0.5\mathrm{mK}5`$ or $`3\times 10^2(1+z)^{3/2}`$. Larger energies $`\mathrm{\Delta }EE`$ added to the ICM/ISM are expected to enhance the SZ signals yielding $`y/y_g\mathrm{\Delta }E/E`$.

Such may be the case with the AGNs (see Valageas & Silk 1999; Wu, Fabian & Nulsen 2000; Roychowdhury & Nath 2002) that produce large total outputs, typically around $`5\times 10^{61}`$ ergs over times around $`10^8`$ yr comparable to $`t_d`$ of their host structures. Such outputs can drive a blastwave sweeping out the gas mass and raising its pressure (see Platania et al. 2002; also Yamada & Fujita 2001).

We will see that the blast is *constrained* by the coupling of the AGN outputs to the surrounding gas, and *restrained* by the initial pressure and the DM gravity. We describe the blast flow on using the self-similar hydrodynamical solutions presented by CLM02. The simplest one obtains when the energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }E(t)t`$ is delivered over times of order $`t_d`$ at the center of an isothermal configuration for the DM and for the gas with $`n(r)p(r)r^2`$. Then the leading shock moves out with uniform Mach number $``$, i.e., with radius $`R_s=\dot{R}_st`$; the kinetic, the thermal and the gravitational energies of the perturbed gas all scale like $`R_s`$. So we can consistently define inside $`R_s`$ the total initial energy $`E`$ (modulus); most important, our solutions provide realistic predictions not only for *strong* blasts but also for the *weak* ones driven by constrained values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E`$.

Detailed profiles are presented in Fig. 2. Note that the perturbed flow is confined to a shell; this is bounded by the leading shock at $`R_s`$, and by a trailing contact surface (“piston”) located at $`\lambda R_s<R_s`$ where the density diverges weakly while the pressure is finite. So the relevant quantities may be also obtained from the simple and precise “shell approximation” (see Ostriker & McKee 1988), which provides the energy balance in the form

$$\mathrm{\Delta }EE=\frac{1}{2}mv_2^2+\frac{3}{2}pV\frac{GMm}{R_s}.$$
(3)
Here $`p=p_2(5^2+7)/(5^21)`$ is the mean pressure within the shell volume $`V=4\pi R_s^3(1\lambda ^3)/3`$, important for the SZ signals; $`M`$ and $`m`$ are the DM and the gas masses within $`R_s`$. The Rankine-Hugoniot jump conditions yield the postshock quantities: the velocity $`v_2=3\dot{R}_s(^21)/4^2`$, the pressure $`p_2=p_1(5^21)/4`$ and the density $`n_2=4n_1^2/(^2+3)`$, given the preshock values $`p_1`$, $`n_1`$.

As to the energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ actually injected over $`t_d`$, the paradigm of supermassive BHs for the AGNs implies $`\mathrm{\Delta }E2\times 10^{62}f(M_{BH}/10^9M_{})(1+z)^{3/2}`$ ergs when the mass $`M_{BH}`$ is accreted with conversion efficiency of order $`10^1`$. The fractional energy $`f`$ coupled to the surrounding gas is poorly known. Including inefficiencies due to low momentum transfer, non-spherical geometries and covering factors it may range from $`f10^2`$ for radio-quiet, to some $`10^1`$ for strongly absorbed (BAL) or radio-loud quasars, a small minority. Average values $`f5\times 10^2`$ are shown below to be consistent with the observations both of the relic BHs in galaxies and of $`L_X`$ in groups.

The ratio $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E`$ is seen from Eq. (3) to be uniform, and to constitute a key parameter for the shock strength. Table 1 presents quantities relevant to our computations of SZ signals.

We have extended our basic solution to initial density runs $`nr^\omega `$, with $`2\omega <2.5`$. Then the initial temperature declines as $`T(r)r^{2\omega }`$, and the shock decelerates as $`R_st^{2/\omega }`$, again under self-similarity; this also implies declining source luminosities with $`\mathrm{\Delta }E(t)t^{2(52\omega )/\omega }`$. Table 1 shows that larger $`\omega `$ yields somewhat higher $``$ and $`p`$ at given $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E`$.

## 3. Transient and equilibrium SZ effects

In computing how $`y`$ is *enhanced* during the blast transit, we focus on $`\overline{y}R^2𝑑ssy(s)`$ averaged over the structure area, which will subtend small angles $`R/D_A1^{}`$ for an early group or galaxy. Normalizing the shock position as $`xR_s(t)/R`$, we find the full signal

$$\frac{\overline{y}}{\overline{y}_g}=\frac{p}{3p_1}(1\lambda ^3)x+\sqrt{1x^2}\frac{p}{3p_1}(1\lambda ^3),$$
(4)
in terms of $`\overline{y}_g=(4\sigma _T/m_ec^2)p(R)R`$. The last approximation applies for $`x1`$, which maximizes the transit time in the structure and optimizes the observability.

Strong SZ signals are seen from Eq. (4) and Table 1 to require substantial blasts driven through the ISM or the ICM, i.e., input $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ competing with the equilibrium value $`E`$. For $`\omega =2`$ the latter writes $`E2\times 10^{61}(kT/\mathrm{keV})^{5/2}(1+z)^{3/2}`$ ergs; so the ratio reads

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }E}{E}=0.1\frac{f}{10^2}\frac{M_{BH}}{10^9M_{}}\left(\frac{kT_v}{\mathrm{keV}}\right)^{5/2}.$$
(5)
Here $`M_{BH}`$ is the mass accreted within $`t_d(1+z)^{3/2}`$ by the central BH in a massive galaxy, or by the sum of BHs shining within a group. Eq. (5) yields $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ close to $`E`$ for a poor group with $`kT_v1`$ keV and $`M_{BH}10^9M_{}`$. In going toward local, rich clusters $`M_{BH}`$ clearly lags behind $`M`$, so $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E`$ will decrease strongly, see CLM02 for details.

At the other end, toward galaxies $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E`$ is constrained not to exceed a few, lest the gas contained within kpcs and the accretion it feeds are cut down (see Silk & Rees 1998). The pivotal value $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E1`$ recast in terms of the DM velocity dispersion $`\sigma =(kT_v/0.6m_p)^{1/2}`$ reads

$$M_{BH}2\times 10^9M_{}\left(\frac{f}{10^2}\right)^1\left(\frac{\sigma }{300\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1}\right)^5.$$
(6)
Converting to the bulge dispersion $`\sigma _{}\sigma ^{1.2}`$ (see Ferrarese 2002) yields $`M_{BH}\sigma _{}^4`$. For values $`f5\times 10^2`$ the relation accords with the observations in Tremaine et al. (2002).

Our results are represented in Fig. 3 vs. the depth $`kT_v`$ of the host potential well. The square illustrates the *minimal* enhancement we expect from an early group at $`z=1.5`$ with $`kT_v=1`$ keV, $`f=5\times 10^2`$ and $`M_{BH}=10^9M_{}`$, so with $`\mathrm{\Delta }E=0.5E`$. The bar gives a realistic upper *bound* for structures with steeper $`n(r)`$, namely, with $`\omega =2.4`$; here $`E`$ is larger but the energy release is more impulsive, resulting (see Table 1) in stronger signals. With radii $`R250`$ kpc, the angular sizes $`2R/D_A1^{}`$ are close to their minimum in the concordance cosmology (cf. Bennett et al. 2003). Comparable resolutions will soon be achieved, see § 4.

The circles in Fig. 3 represent our results for a massive ($`\sigma =300`$ km s-1, $`R100`$ kpc) and still gas-rich ($`m=0.15M`$) protogalaxy at $`z=2.5`$. The open circle refers to $`\mathrm{\Delta }E=E`$ or $`M_{BH}=6\times 10^8M_{}`$; the filled one to $`\mathrm{\Delta }E=3E`$ or $`M_{BH}=2\times 10^9M_{}`$, just compatible with the scatter in the $`M_{BH}\sigma `$ correlation. The related angular sizes are around $`0.5^{}`$; with resolution fixed at $`2\theta _b1^{}`$, the signals will be diluted after $`(R/D_A\theta _b)^21/4`$ and scaled down to $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mu w}20\mu `$K.

The inset represents the corresponding statistics. This is evaluated on inserting the related blue luminosities $`L=\mathrm{\Delta }E/10ft_d5\times 10^{45}`$ and $`1.5\times 10^{46}`$ ergs s-1 (with a bolometric correction $`10`$) in the quasar luminosity function observed for $`z2.5`$ by Boyle et al. (2000), and discussed by Cavaliere & Vittorini (2000, CV00). In terms of the cumulative fraction of bright galaxies hosting a type 1 quasar brighter than $`L`$, this reads

$$N(L)L\mathrm{2\hspace{0.17em}10}^2(1+z)^{3/2}\left(L_b/L\right)^{2.2},$$
(7)
beyond the break at $`L_b=5\times 10^{45}[(1+z)/3.5]^3`$ ergs s-1. The same luminosity function interpreted in terms of interactions of the host galaxy with its group companions (CV00) yields a few signals per $`10`$ poor groups, with the strength represented by the square in Fig. 3.

After the passage of the blast, the gas recovers hydrostatic equilibrium. This may be described by $`n(r)=n(R)\mathrm{exp}(\beta \mathrm{\Delta }\varphi )`$ for a nearly isothermal ICM in the (normalized) DM potential well $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi (r)`$, see Cavaliere & Fusco-Femiano (1976). The blast heats up the gas so decreasing the value of the parameter $`\beta =T_v/T`$, that we reset on using $`T`$ averaged over the mass in the shell. The blast also ejects gas and depletes all densities; we reset $`n(R)`$ by requiring the volume integral of $`n(r)`$ to equal the gas mass left by the blast inside $`R`$ at $`t=t_d`$.

The equilibrium SZ effect is then computed after Eq. (1), and the resulting signals are also plotted in Fig. 3. We recall from CLM02 that the equilibrium also provides good fits to the observed $`L_X`$ in groups for the *same* coupling $`f5\times 10^2`$, consistent with Eq. (6).

## 4. Discussion and Conclusions

This Letter centers on how the SZ effect is affected by the energy fed back by AGNs into the surrounding gas. We predict both transient, *enhanced* and long-term, *depressed* SZ signals to be produced by an energy addition $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ to the equilibrium value $`E`$.

In $`1`$ keV groups the condition $`\mathrm{\Delta }EE`$ holds, and the AGN feedback has a considerable impact. A blast is driven through the gas; during its transit the area-averaged SZ signal is enhanced as the gas is just redistributed while its pressure is *raised*. But eventually a considerable gas fraction is *ejected*; so $`n`$ is depleted and $`ynT`$ is decreased at equilibrium. We have computed these effects under the *restraints* set to (weak) blast propagation by initial pressure and DM gravity.

The result on the SZ effect is twofold: on scales $`1^{}`$ we predict *transient* enhancements up to $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mu w}80\mu `$K (a representative example at $`z1.5`$ is given in Fig. 3), followed by *long-term* depressions. The latter correlate after Eq. (2) with the equilibrium X-ray luminosities $`L_Xn^2\sqrt{T}`$ which are very depressed.

Larger $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E`$, yet *constrained* by Eq. (6), yield stronger SZ enhancements in gas-rich massive protogalaxies with halo radii $`R100`$ kpc; representative examples are shown by the circles in Fig. 3. With angular sizes $`0.5^{}`$, these may be diluted down to $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mu w}`$ $`20\mu `$K when observed at a resolution around $`1^{}`$.

Such resolutions will be achieved by several instruments now being built or designed, enabling “blind” sky surveys for SZ signals to $`\mu `$K sensitivities over tens of square degrees (see Carlstrom, Holder & Reese 2002). In particular, promising perspectives are offered by multi-beam, high frequency radio receivers like OCRA (Browne et al. 2000), and also by interferometers equipped with wide-band correlators like ATCA, SZA (Holder et al. 2000), AMI (Jones 2002), and AMiBA (Lo 2002). The SZ signals we consider may contribute equally or more than clusters to the excess power already detected at high multipoles with BIMA (Dawson et al. 2002). In the (sub)millimetric band the SZ signal is positive, and will be accessible to large bolometer arrays like BOLOCAM, whose developments will enable deep, wide surveys (Mauskopf et al. 2002). Eventually, ALMA (http://www.alma.nrao.edu/) will provide in selected areas higher resolution for both sides of the SZ effect.

Enhanced signals as discussed here would constitute *signatures* of strong feedback caught in the act. This is specific of AGNs, since SNe feed back at most $`0.3`$ keV/particle (see CLM02); on the other hand, extended cooling which depletes $`n`$ without increasing $`T`$ hardly could enhance $`ynT`$. Interlopers might be introduced by merging events; however, these primarily govern the growth of the DM halos and set the virial $`T_vM^{2/3}`$ included in our baseline $`y_gT_v^{3/2}`$. Only an exceptional major merging may contribute an energy step sizeable but still bound by $`\mathrm{\Delta }E<E`$. Even this produces transonic inflows in the high-$`T_v`$ partner gas, originating limited warmer features as picked up by highly resolved X-ray studies of clusters. Still smoother inflows are produced by SN preheating (see Voit et al. 2003), while stronger blasts are driven by AGNs, in the galaxies and groups that we propose here as primarily SZ objects.

Detecting $`10`$ such signals will require surveys over $`500`$ arcmin2 at $`1^{}`$ resolution, based on the conservative surface density of $`10^2`$ powerful quasars/deg2 consistent with Eq. (7). For groups our evaluations (Fig. 3) lead to SZ enhancements in the range $`\overline{y}/\overline{y}_g1.24`$ over a depressed if wrinkled landscape. In fact, for $`kT_v1`$ keV the baseline $`y_g`$ is affected mainly by SNe (see Fig. 3); these depress the average levels somewhat, and cause at $`z1.5`$ a $`10\%`$ relative scatter (at $`96\%`$ confidence). This landscape may be sampled or bounded from independent groups catalogued at comparable $`z`$. For massive protogalaxies intrinsically stronger enhancements, less depression and narrower scatter obtain. The candidate peaks are to be followed up with ALMA for higher resolutions; in addition, optical $`z`$, and optical $`\sigma `$ or X-ray $`T`$ will require current or moderately extrapolated techniques (cf. Rosati, Borgani & Norman 2002; Shields et al. 2003).

In conclusion, we expect that AGN energy outputs around $`10^{62}`$ ergs with coupling $`f5\times 10^2`$ leave two consistent *relics*: the depressed X-ray luminosities $`L_X`$ in local galaxies and groups (see CLM02); the $`M_{BH}\sigma `$ relation on subgalactic scales (Eq. 6). Relatedly, on intermediate scales we evaluate here (Fig. 3) *transient* SZ signals standing out of a generally depressed landscape. Such signals can provide real time *evidence* of AGN feedback acting on the diffuse baryons in galaxies and groups. The evidence should be looked for primarily in the SZ surveys that will be soon available.

We thank N. Menci and our referee for helpful comments.


text:
# 1 Open problems

## 1 Open problems

Every link can be simplified to a trivial link by crossing changes ( ). This observation led to many significant developments, in particular, the construction of the Jones polynomial of links and the Reshetikhin-Turaev invariants of 3-manifolds. These invariants had a great impact on modern Knot Theory. The natural generalization of a crossing change, which is addressed in this paper, is a tangle replacement move, that is, a local modification of a link, $`L`$, in which a tangle $`T_1`$ is replaced by a tangle $`T_2`$. Several questions have been asked about which families of tangle moves are unknotting operations.

One such family of moves, which is significant not only in Knot Theory but also in Computational Biology, is the family of rational moves \[Sum\]. In this note we devote our attention to special classical cases.

1. Nakanishi 4-move conjecture, 1979.
Every knot is $`4`$-move equivalent to the trivial knot.
2. Montesinos-Nakanishi 3-move conjecture, 1981.
Every link is $`3`$-move equivalent to a trivial link.
3. Kawauchi’s question, 1985.
Are link-homotopic links 4-move equivalent?
4. Harikae-Nakanishi conjecture, 1992.
Every link is $`(2,2)`$-move equivalent to a trivial link.
5. $`(2,3)`$-move question, 1995.
Is every link $`(2,3)`$-move equivalent to a trivial link?

The method of Burnside groups, which we introduce, allows us to answer questions (2), (3), (4) and (5) although Conjecture (1) remains open.
We generalize questions (2), (4) and (5) to the following question:

1. Rational moves question.
Is it possible to reduce every link to a trivial link by rational $`\frac{p}{q}`$-moves where $`p`$ is a fixed prime and $`q`$ is an arbitrary nonzero integer? See Def. 1.1.

To approach our problems we define new invariants of links and call them the Burnside groups of links. These invariants are shown to be unchanged by $`\frac{p}{q}`$-rational moves. The strength of our method lies in the fact that we are able to use the well-developed theory of classical Burnside groups and their associated Lie rings \[Mag\]. We first describe, in more detail, how our method is applied to rational moves. In particular, we settle the Montesinos-Nakanishi and Harikae-Nakanishi conjectures. Later we answer Kawauchi’s question in detail (Section 3).

###### Definition 1.1

A rational $`\frac{p}{q}`$-move111This move was first considered by J.M.Montesinos \[Mon\]. refers to changing a link by replacing an identity tangle in it by a rational $`\frac{p}{q}`$-tangle of Conway (Fig.1.1).

Fig. 1.1

The tangles shown in Figure 1.2 are called rational tangles and denoted by $`T(a_1,a_2,\mathrm{},a_n)`$ in Conway’s notation. A rational tangle is the $`\frac{p}{q}`$-tangle if $`\frac{p}{q}=`$ $`a_n+\frac{1}{a_{n1}+\mathrm{}+\frac{1}{a_1}}`$. Conway proved that two rational tangles are ambient isotopic (with boundary fixed) if and only if their slopes are equal (compare \[Kaw\]).

Fig. 1.2

Rational tangles can also be viewed as tangles, which are obtained by applying a finite number of consecutive twists of the neighboring endpoints to the elementary tangle $`[0]`$.
Rational $`\frac{p}{q}`$-tangles were used by Sumners and Ernst in their mathematical model of DNA recombination \[E-S\]. This is a very promising development in Computational Biology.

The following definition establishes a connection between two classical theories, Knot Theory and the Theory of Burnside Groups222These groups were first considered by W.Burnside in 1902, when he asked when the group, in modern notation $`B(r,n)`$, is finite. Here $`B(r,n)`$ is the quotient group of the free group on $`r`$ generators modulo the subgroup generated by all words of the form $`w^n`$. It was shown that $`B(r,n)`$ is finite for $`n=2,3,4,6`$. On the other hand, Novikov and Adjan proved that $`B(r,n)`$ is infinite for $`r2`$ and $`n`$ odd and sufficiently large \[N-A\]. It is an open problem whether the group $`B(2,5)`$ is infinite, as most of experts predict, or finite, in which case it would have $`5^{34}`$ elements.. Burnside groups of a link play a crucial role in our research and they can contribute significantly to the applications of Knot Theory in Computational Biology.

###### Definition 1.2

Let $`D`$ be a diagram of a link $`L`$. We define the associated core group $`\mathrm{\Pi }_D^{(2)}`$ of $`D`$ by the following presentation: generators of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_D^{(2)}`$ correspond to arcs of the diagram. Any crossing $`v_s`$ yields the relation $`r_s=y_iy_j^1y_iy_k^1`$ where $`y_i`$ corresponds to the overcrossing and $`y_j,y_k`$ correspond to the undercrossings at $`v_s`$ (see Fig.1.3).

###### Remark 1.3

In the above presentation of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_L^{(2)}`$ one relation may be dropped since it is a consequence of others.

Fig. 1.3

###### Definition 1.4

1. The $`n`$th Burnside group of a link is the quotient of the fundamental group of the double branched cover of $`S^3`$ with the link as the branch set by its subgroup that is generated by all relations of the form $`w^n=1`$. Succinctly: $`B_L(n)=\pi _1(M_L^{(2)})/(w^n)`$.
2. The unreduced $`n`$th Burnside group of the unoriented link $`L`$ is the quotient group $`\widehat{B}_L(n)=\mathrm{\Pi }_L^{(2)}/(w^n)`$, where $`\mathrm{\Pi }_L^{(2)}`$ is the associated core group of $`L`$.

The relation to the fundamental group of a double branched cover, mentioned before, is formulated below. An elementary proof using only Wirtinger presentation and also valid for tangles is presented in \[Pr\].

###### Theorem 1.5 (Wada)

If $`D`$ is a diagram of a link (or a tangle) $`L`$, then $`\mathrm{\Pi }_D^{(2)}=\pi _1(M_L^{(2)})Z.`$ Furthermore, if we put $`y_i=1`$ for any fixed generator, then $`\mathrm{\Pi }_D^{(2)}`$ reduces to $`\pi _1(M_L^{(2)})`$.

The next theorem allows us to use Burnside groups to analyze elementary moves on links.

###### Theorem 1.6

The groups $`B_L(n)`$ and $`\widehat{B}_L(n)`$ are preserved by rational $`\frac{n}{q}`$-moves. In particular the $`n`$th Burnside group is preserved by $`n`$-moves.

Proof: Let $`L^{}`$ be obtained from $`L`$ by a $`\frac{n}{q}`$-move. Then $`M_L^{}^{(2)}`$ is obtained from $`M_L^{(2)}`$ by performing the $`\frac{q}{n}`$-surgery. Such a surgery can be easily proved to preserve the $`n`$th Burnside group of the fundamental group of the manifold. $`\mathrm{}`$

## 2 Reductions by rational moves

We show that the answer to the rational move question, Problem (6) is negative.

###### Theorem 2.1

1. The closure, $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}_3^4`$, of the 3-braid $`\mathrm{\Delta }_3^4=(\sigma _1\sigma _2)^6`$ (Figure 2.1) is not $`\frac{p}{q}`$-move reducible to a trivial link for any prime number $`p5`$.
2. The closure of the 5-braid $`\mathrm{\Delta }_5^4=(\sigma _1\sigma _2\sigma _3\sigma _4)^{10}`$ (Figure 2.2) is not 3-move reducible to a trivial link.

Sketch of the proof: We use Sanov’s theorem about the structure of the Lie algebra associated to the Burnside group of prime exponent $`p5`$ \[San, V-Lee\]. For $`p=3`$ we observe that the third Burnside group $`B_{\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}_5^4}(3)`$ is the quotient of the free Burnside group, $`B(4,3)`$, by the normal subgroup generated by relations $`Q_ix_i^1`$, where the words $`Q_i`$ can be computed from the Fig.2.2 using the core relations (Fig.1.3)333One gets $`Q_i=x_1x_2^1x_3x_4^1x_5x_1^1x_2x_3^1x_4x_5^1x_ix_5^1x_4x_3^1x_2x_1^1x_5x_4^1x_3x_2^1x_1`$ (see \[D-P-1\]).. To see that relations are non-trivial in the free Burnside group we use the theorem of Levi and van der Waerden about the structure of the associated Lie rings of Burnside groups of exponent 3 \[L-W\].

The closed braid $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}_5^4`$ is 3-move equivalent to a link of 20 crossings (closure of the 5-string braid $`(\sigma _3\sigma _4^1\sigma _3\sigma _1^1\sigma _2)^4`$). It is still an open problem whether the Montesinos-Nakanishi conjecture holds for links up to 19 crossings. Q.Chen proved that it holds for links up to 12 crossings \[Ch\].

The negative answers to Problems (2), (3) and (5) follow from Theorem 2.1 for $`p=3,5`$ and $`7`$, respectively (see \[D-P-2\] for details).

## 3 Kawauchi’s Question on 4-moves

In this section, we use the $`4`$th Burnside group of links to show that there is an obstruction to 4-move reducibility of links which are link homotopically trivial. Therefore the answer to Kawauchi’s question is negative.

Let $`𝒲`$ denote the “half” 2-cabling of the Whitehead link, which is link homotopy equivalent to the trivial link of 3 components (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1

###### Theorem 3.1

The link $`𝒲`$ is not 4-move equivalent to a trivial link.

Our proof uses the obstruction in the Burnside group $`B(2,4)`$. The obstruction lies in the last nontrivial term of the lower central series, $`\gamma _5`$, of $`B(2,4)`$ or equivalently in the fifth term of the associated graded Lie ring of $`B(2,4)`$. In fact we have:

###### Lemma 3.2

$`B_𝒲(4)=B(2,4)/\gamma _5`$.

Figure 3.2 Computation of relations of $`B_𝒲(4)`$.

Sketch of the proof: The lower central series of $`B(2,4)`$ is known to be of class 5, with the last term $`\gamma _5=L_5`$ isomorphic to $`Z_2Z_2`$, \[V-Lee\]. First we compute $`\pi _1(M_𝒲^{(2)})`$ using a presentation of the associated core group of $`𝒲`$ by putting the generator $`z=1`$. From the diagram we obtain the relations: $`Q_1x^1`$ and $`Q_2y^1`$ (Fig.3.2), and further the equivalent relations
$`R_1=xy^2x^2y^2x^3y^2x^2y^2`$ and $`R_2=yxy^2x^2y^2xyx^2y^2x^2`$.
Therefore $`\pi _1(M_𝒲^{(2)})=\{x,y|R_1,R_2\}`$.
In $`B_𝒲(4)`$ this relations can be reduced into:
$`R_1=x^1(x^2y^2x^2y^2)x(x^2y^2x^2y^2)=x^1(x^2y^2)^4xx^1(y^2x^2)^2x(x^2y^2)^2`$
$`=x^1(x^2y^2)^4x[x,(x^2y^2)^2]=[x,(x^2y^2)^2]=[x,[x^2,y^2]]=[x,y,x,y,x]\gamma _5`$ (see \[V-Lee\]). Analogously, $`R_2=[y,x,y,x,y]\gamma _5`$.
Those elements form a basis of $`\gamma _5=Z_2Z_2`$ considered as a $`Z_2`$ linear space. We verified this fact using programs GAP, Magnus, and Magma. These calculations can be done manually, however they strongly depend on the unpublished Ph.D. thesis of J.J. Tobin \[Tob\], as it was pointed out to us by M.Vaughan-Lee \[V-Lee-2\].

It follows from Lemma 3.2 and the fact that $`\gamma _5`$ is in the center of $`B(2,4)`$, that $`|B_𝒲(4)|=2^{10}`$. On the other hand the abelianization of $`B_𝒲(4)`$ is isomorphic to $`Z_4Z_4`$. So if $`𝒲`$ were 4-reducible into a trivial link then the trivial link would have $`3`$ components. But $`B_{T_3}(4)=B(2,4)`$ has $`2^{12}`$ elements, as predicted by Burnside and verified by Tobin \[Bu, Tob, V-Lee\]. This completes the proof.

###### Remark 3.3

Nakanishi showed, using Alexander modules, that the Borromean rings, BR, cannot be reduced to a trivial link by 4-moves. Our Burnside obstruction method also works in this case. Knowing that $`|B(2,4)|=2^{12}`$ we can verify that $`|B_{BR}(4)|=2^5`$. In addition, we conclude that $`𝒲`$ and $`BR`$ are not 4-move equivalent.

By Coxeter’s theorem \[Cox\] the quotient group $`B_3/(\sigma _i^4)`$ is finite. Therefore, for closed 3-braids, we can list all possible $`4`$th Burnside groups. This allows us to find all 4-move equivalence classes of closed $`3`$-braids \[D-P-2\].

## 4 Limitations of the Burnside group invariant

The method based on the Burnside group invariant has been quite successful in the study of the unknotting property of several classes of tangle replacement moves. As we saw in Sections 2 and 3, for any fixed prime number $`p3`$ and an arbitrary nonzero integer $`q`$, rational $`\frac{p}{q}`$ \- moves are not unknotting operations. However our method has its limitations. We have been unable to find, by our method, obstructions for $`\frac{n}{q}`$-reduction of a link $`L`$, to a trivial link if the abelianization of the $`n`$th Burnside group of the link, $`(B_L(n))^{(ab)}=H_1(M_L^{(2)},𝐙_n)`$, is a cyclic group $`\text{(i.e. }\{1\}or𝐙_n\text{)}`$. This is explained in Theorem 4.1.

Define the restricted Burnside group of a link, $`R_L(n)`$, as the quotient group $`B_L(n)/N`$, where $`N`$ is the intersection of all normal subgroups of $`B_L(n)`$ of finite indexes.

###### Theorem 4.1

Let $`n`$ be a power of a prime number. Assume that the abelianization of $`B_L(n)`$ is a cyclic group. Then the restricted Burnside group, $`R_L(n)`$, is isomorphic to $`H_1(M_L^{(2)},𝐙_n)`$. In particular, if $`B_L(n)`$ is finite $`\text{(e.g. for}n=2,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}\text{)}`$, then $`B_L(n)`$ is a cyclic group.

Proof: It was proved by E. Zelmanov that $`R(r,n)`$ is finite for any $`n`$. It follows that $`R_L(n)`$ is finite for any $`n`$.
Let $`\gamma _1\gamma _2\mathrm{}\gamma _i\mathrm{}`$ be the lower central series of $`B_L(n)`$. If $`(B_L(n))^{(ab)}`$ (and therefore also $`(R_L(n))^{(ab)}`$) is a cyclic group then $`\gamma _2=\gamma _3=\gamma _4\mathrm{}`$. Since $`R_L(n)`$ is a finite nilpotent group, therefore $`R_L(n)=(B_L(n))^{(ab)}`$.
If $`B_L(n)`$ is finite (as it is in the case of $`n=2,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}`$), then $`R_L(n)=B_L(n)`$, so $`B_L(n)`$ is a cyclic group. $`\mathrm{}`$

Therefore, the method based on the Burnside group invariant will not produce any obstructions for the Nakanishi 4-move conjecture and the Kawauchi 4-move question for a link of two components.

## 5 Conclusion

Our interest in the analysis of rational moves on links was inspired by our long pursuit of a program for understanding a 3-dimensional manifold by the knot theory which it supports. The method we introduced, the Burnside group of links, not only settles classical conjectures (e.g., the Montesinos-Nakanishi conjecture) but also has clear potential to be used in computational biology in an analysis of DNA, its recombination, action of topo-isomers, and analysis of protein folding and protein evolution.

Department of Mathematics
George Washington University
Washington, DC 20052
e-mails: mdab@gwu.edu
przytyck@gwu.edu


text:
# The early Stages of NOVA Oph 2003 (V2573 Oph)Based on observations made at ESO, LaSilla Chile

## 1 Introduction

NOVA Oph 2003 was discovered July 10th 2003 as an 11$`\stackrel{m}{.}`$4 object (Takao el al. IAUC\_A1 (2003)). They point out that Tabur detected this variable on CCD images already March 21th 2003 and that ”he initially dismissed the object as a less-urgent variable star due to its long presence on his past images”. There is some ongoing discussion on the validity of this detection (Kato kato\_private (2003)). This late report reminds us on the situation of the report of the Nova V1178 Sco (Hasada et al. IAUC\_A (2001); Andersen & Kimeswenger nova01 (2001)). Thus the first spectroscopic data with higher resolution was only obtained July 18th (Della Valle et al. IAUC\_A2 (2003)) showing the nova to be caught during its early decline. The variable star name given to the object is V2573 Oph (Samus IAUC\_A3 (2003)).

We obtained spectra using the ESO NTT telescope at LaSilla (July 19th to 22nd) with the multi mode instrument EMMI mounted. Also $`V`$ filter images were obtained there. This allowed a precise astrometry.

## 2 Photometric Classification

For the light curve different resources from literature and network were combined (Takao et al. IAUC\_A1 (2003); Liller et al. IAUC\_B2 (2003); http://archive.princeton.edu/$``$asas). The data of Tabur, labelled as unfiltered CCD images in the IAUC seem to be taken in fact with an R band filter. The photometry before May 10th are suspected to be spurious detections (Kato kato\_private (2003)). It is beyond the scope and the possibilities of the authors to verify this here. They were shifted by 1$`\stackrel{m}{.}`$0 to fit the visual light curve and the upper limits given by Liller et al. (IAUC\_B2 (2003)) for June. This might be a major source of uncertainty, as the target surely will have changed its color during the early phases. The resulting light curve is shown in Fig. 1. The shape is similar to the ones of V1548 Aql and V723 Cas, which are joined to a subclass by Kato & Takamizawa (IBVS5100 (2001)). Although the increase from the plateau phase to the final peak of about 3$`\stackrel{m}{.}`$0 is double that of these two older novae, they seem to have a lot in common. Using the decline phase data from the maximum (JD = 2452816) in the ASAS-3 data only, we derive a $`t_262`$ days. This is very similar to that of the slow FeII class novae like DQ Her and V868 Cen with 67 and 55 days respectively (Della Valle & Livio DV98 (1998)).

## 3 Astrometry and Cross–identification

To obtain a very accurate astrometry of the target a set of $`V`$ band images were taken. The EMMI red arm is currently equipped with a mosaic of two 2k$`\times `$4k CCDs giving, according to the manual, a resolution of 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$333 per pixel. In fact we measure 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$33459. The FWHM on the images used for the astrometry were within the range of 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$68 to 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$81. Only the chip covering the optical center of the field of view was used to avoid additional free parameters like rotation between the chips or different scales due to inclination. We used only the central distortion free part of the image, 2$`\stackrel{}{.}`$7$`\times `$3$`\stackrel{}{.}`$5 in size around the target. As the target was taken near the zenith there should be no differential refraction. Astrometric calibrators were taken from USNO CCD Astrometric Catalogue (UCAC) (Zacharias et al. UCAC (2000)). 13 stars surrounding the target were used to obtain the astrometry. The next nearby TYCHO-2 source has a distance of more than 6$`\stackrel{}{.}`$0 and is known to have a high proper motion. Thus an additional TYCHO reference system, as in Andersen & Kimeswenger (nova01 (2001)), was not applied here.

The source extraction was obtained by using SExtractor v2.1.6 (Bertin & Arnouts Bertin (1996)). The rms of the positions was 31 mas (Fig. 2). The largest residuals are found for the faintest sources. As our S/N was very high even for those sources, we assume that part of this error originates from the UCAC. As the target is very bright, the internal accuracy of the target coordinates was even better (5 mas rms). Assuming some systematic effects an error estimate of 20 mas is very conservative:

$`\alpha _{\mathrm{𝙹𝟸𝟶𝟶𝟶}\mathtt{.0}}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}17}^𝚑19^𝚖14\stackrel{s}{.}0913\pm 0\stackrel{s}{.}0014`$

$`\delta _{\mathrm{𝙹𝟸𝟶𝟶𝟶}\mathtt{.0}}=27\mathrm{°}22^{}35\stackrel{}{.}315\pm 0\stackrel{}{.}020`$

These coordinates are more accurate than those given by McNaught & Garradd (IAUC\_B1 (2003)). Their larger error bars do overlap to the results here. An inspection of the sky survey plates SERC V and 2nd ed. ER shows a source at the plate limits very near to this position. The SuperCOSMOS scans (Hambly et al. SuperCOSMOS (2001)) give an estimate of B$``$20$`\stackrel{m}{.}`$5 and R$`>`$19$`\stackrel{m}{.}`$5 (Fig. 3) when using the PSF fitting for deblending and photometric calibration as described in Kimeswenger & Weinberger (KW01 (2001)). There is no brighter source in the field which is a candidate for the progenitor. This allows to derive a lower limit for the amplitude of the outburst of about 10$`\stackrel{m}{.}`$0.

## 4 Spectroscopy

The spectra were obtained at the ESO NTT + EMMI. We used grism #2 (resolution of 0.35 nm/pixel; 390 to 980 nm) and grism#6 (resolution of 0.14 nm/pix; 500 to 880 nm). There were taken at least two spectra with each grism during four nights, starting 19./20. July. The observations always were obtained between 23:20 and 0:40 UT. The calibration (bias, flatfield, wavelength calibration and response curve) was done using usual procedures in MIDAS.

The spectra had a S/N of $`>`$200 in the continuum over the whole region (Fig. 4). The intensity of most of the lines slowly decreased (Tab. 1) during the observation period. In the night 19./20. July the Hα and the Ca IR triplet were overexposed.
Lines of the Balmer series (Fig. 5), OI (Fig. 6) and NaI (Fig. 7) show significant P-Cygni profiles giving expansions of up to 1800, 2200 and 1600 km s-1 respectively. This is somewhat higher but within the same range than the values measured July 18th by Della Valle et al. (IAUC\_A2 (2003)). Remarkably, the iron lines are stronger than e.g. reported in CI Aql (Kiss et al. Kiss (2001)), while \[NII\]575 hardly is visible. The Na-D line is very prominent too. Normally blended by HeI588, this line appears here only as a weak absorption feature at the blue end. This part of the spectrum is very much like that of Nova Sco 2001 (Andersen & Kimeswenger nova01 (2001)).

The Ca II IR triplet does not show P-Cygni profiles, but a pronounced saddle like profile (Fig. 8). This may originate from a tilted equatorial expanding ring or bipolar ejected clumps. Although assuming spheroidicity, this also can be explained by a transition of the object from photosphere to shell type spectra as shown in Williams (will92 (1992)) for Nova LMC 1988 No. 2 for the hydrogen lines. As Ca II has the lowest excitation of the optical lines here, the object was maybe just starting this process at its outer cooler parts. The structure seems to be blueshifted with respect to the rest wavelength of the line by about 150 km s-1.

## 5 Conclusion

The spectrum classifies this object as of ”Fe II” subtype (after Williams will92 (1992)). The astrometry presented here clearly indicates that the possible progenitors are at the plate limit of the sky surveys or beyond. This allows us to give a lower limit for the outburst magnitude of $`\mathrm{\Delta }M10\stackrel{m}{.}0`$. The photometry classifies it as slow nova, with some signature of starting humps during decline as e.g. described in Kato et al. (IBVS5309 (2002)). On the other hand the outburst magnitude is unusual high for a slow nova (Kato et al. IBVS5309 (2002)). Also the derived expansion is high for a typical slow nova: e.g. V356 Aql had 450 km s-1 (McLaughlin V356 (1955)) and RR Tel had not more than 600 km s-1 (Thackeray & Webster RRtel (1974)). Thus the FeII-broad classification (Williams will92 (1992)) may be applied here. The pre max halt 3$`\stackrel{m}{.}`$5 below maximum is very unusual at for a $`t_262^d`$.

Della Valle (DV02 (2002)) give $`M_V=7\stackrel{m}{.}2_{0\stackrel{m}{.}9}^{+1\stackrel{m}{.}2}`$ for such kind of slow novae. As there is no information about the interstellar reddening we estimate with the information of DellaValle et al. (IAUC\_A2 (2003)) an extinction of $`A_V<5\stackrel{m}{.}0`$. This leads to a crude estimate for the distance of 3.5-4.0 kpc. Future measurements (namely the expansion parallax of the post-nova shell) are needed to fix the distance and thus the absolute magnitude of the object.
The spectroscopy shows a complex structure of the outflow. The velocity field obtained by the hydrogen and helium lines suggests a two shell structure similar to the models for Supernova 1997A (Hanuschik et al. shell (1993)) or strong aspherical components like expanding rings or bipolar outflows. The metal lines even indicate a more complex, most likely non–symmetric outflow with respect to the line of sight.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank the referee M. Della Valle for his helpful suggestions. KS is grateful to the Bundesministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft und Kultur (BMfBWK) for travel support.