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# Ultraluminous X–ray Sources and Star Formation

## 1 Introduction

Recent observations of external galaxies have uncovered a population of ultraluminous X–ray sources (ULXs: see Makishima et al., 2000 and references therein) with apparent luminosities well above the Eddington limit $`L_{\mathrm{Edd}}`$ for a stellar–mass black hole (or neutron star). Several authors have suggested that ULXs reveal accretion on to intermediate–mass black holes (IMBH), with masses between stellar values and the $`>10^6\mathrm{M}_{}`$ inferred for active galactic nuclei (e.g. Colbert & Mushotzky, 1999; Ebisuzaki et al., 2001).

An alternative view (King et al., 2001) holds that ULXs are a bright, shortlived, but common phase of stellar–mass X–ray binary evolution. There is observational support for this, as Grimm, Gilfanov & Sunyaev (2002; see Table 1) show that apparently super–Eddington episodes are not uncommon in stellar–mass binaries. For example the high–mass system V4641 Sgr had a luminosity in the Chandra X–ray band of $`3.3\times 10^{39}`$erg s-1, despite a measured black hole mass of $`9.6\mathrm{M}_{}`$. The high apparent luminosities of the ULXs may either result from viewing a significantly anisotropic radiation pattern at a favourable angle, or be genuinely super–Eddington (cf Shaviv 1998, 2000; Begelman, 2002) or both. This form of ‘beaming’ need not involve relativistic effects, although Markoff et al., (2001) and Koerding et al. (2002) have suggested that Doppler boosting in a relativistic jet could explain the high luminosities of ULXs.

A major clue to the nature of ULXs comes from the discovery of 7 ULXs in Chandra observations of the Antennae (Fabbiano et al., 2001). These strongly indicate a connection with recent massive star formation. IMBH models for ULXs (Miller & Hamilton, 2002; Gürkan, Freitag & Rasio, 2003) incorporate this by considering dense star clusters. These provide promising sites both for IMBH formation, and for capturing stellar companions to provide the accretion source. The X–ray binary picture (King et al., 2001) has a natural connection with massive star formation since it invokes a phase of high–mass X–ray (HMXB) binary evolution. This is the thermal–timescale mass transfer that must follow the familar wind–fed HMXB phase, as is probably seen in SS433 (King, Taam & Begelman, 2000). (Note that ULXs are also seen in elliptical galaxies; in the X–ray binary picture these are bright, long–lasting outbursts of soft X–ray transients such as GRS 1915+105, cf King, 2002.)

The spectacular recent Chandra observation of the Cartwheel galaxy (Gao et al., 2003) gives the most graphic illustration so far of the connection between ULXs and star formation. The Cartwheel is well known as a site of recent massive star formation. Most of this is in a crisp ring expanding about the point where an intruder galaxy plunged through the gas–rich disc of the galaxy about $`3\times 10^8`$ yr ago. The Chandra image reveals more than 20 ULXs (defined as $`L_{0.510\mathrm{k}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}3\times 10^{39}`$ erg s-1). Most of these (about 80% of the entire X–ray emission from the galaxy) are in the dominant star–forming sites located precisely in the southern quadrant of the ring. Each source is brighter ($`L_{0.510\mathrm{k}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}6\times 10^{39}`$ erg s-1) than the most luminous ULXs seen in the Antennae. The lack of radial spread in these source positions, together with the known expansion velocity of the ring, show that these ULXs must have ages $`10^7`$ yr (Gao et al., 2003).

These observations clearly place very tight constraints on models for ULXs. I examine these below.

## 2 ULXs and star formation

King et al. (2001) examined the statistics of ULX formation, independently of the adopted model. If $`n`$ is the number of currently–observed ULXs in some region of a galaxy, they showed first that the total number of potentially active ULXs in this region is actually

$$N=\frac{n}{bd}$$
(1)
where $`b1`$ is the beaming (radiation anisotropy) factor, and $`d1`$ the duty cycle. If for example $`bd<<1`$, most ULXs would either be radiating in directions away from our line of sight, or currently in low states. In the Cartwheel we can say more: the dearth of observed ULXs inside the expanding star–forming ring means that most have now ‘died’, i.e. ceased accreting. The total number of dead ULXs inside the ring is thus

$$N_{\mathrm{tot}}=N\frac{t_{}}{t_{\mathrm{life}}}=\frac{n}{bd}\frac{t_{}}{t_{\mathrm{life}}}\frac{300}{bd}$$
(2)
where $`t_{}3\times 10^8`$ yr is the time since the wave of star formation began to propagate outwards, $`t_{\mathrm{life}}10^7`$ yr is the ULX lifetime in the ring, and I have used eq. (1) with $`n10`$. This estimate could be still larger if as usual, the gas surface density in the pre–intrusion galaxy increased exponentially towards the dynamical centre.

Second, King et al. (2001) showed that the mass–transfer lifetime of a ULX is

$$\tau =10^6\frac{m_2a}{bdL_{40}}\mathrm{yr}.$$
(3)
Here $`m_2`$ is the initial mass (in $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$) of the reservoir from which the compact object accretes, $`a1`$ is the acceptance rate, i.e. the fraction of transferred reservoir mass actually gained by the accretor, and $`L_{40}`$ is the apparent (isotropic) bolometric luminosity of the ULX in units of $`10^{40}`$ erg s-1. Dividing (3) into (1) gives the important result that the required birthrate of ULXs is independent of both anisotropy $`b`$ and duty cycle $`d`$ (King et al., 2001). The Cartwheel observations now imply a further pair of constraints. Clearly, one of these is that the mass–transfer lifetime must be smaller than the inferred ULX lifetime, i.e. $`\tau <t_{\mathrm{life}}`$. Using (3) this gives

$$m_2<10\frac{bd}{a}L_{40}.$$
(4)
If the mass reservoir for the ULX is a binary companion star, we must also require that its main–sequence lifetime is less than $`t_{\mathrm{life}}`$. Otherwise ULXs with initially wide separations would start mass transfer only long after the wave of star formation had passed. This would lead to a roughly uniform distribution of ULXs inside the ring, quite unlike the sharp concentration at the ring edge actually observed. This constraint translates directly into a limit on the initial companion mass

$$m_215$$
(5)
e.g. Iben (1967). With (4) this gives

$$a<0.6bdL_{40}$$
(6)
This inequality must be satisfied by a comfortable margin to avoid the requirement that all ULXs should form with a narrow range of companion masses near $`15\mathrm{M}_{}`$. We can now apply the constraints (2, 5 6) to the two types of models for ULXs.

### 2.1 Stellar–mass ULXs

If the ULXs in the Cartwheel are stellar–mass binaries obeying the Eddington limit we must have $`b0.1`$. Constraint (5) tells us that these systems must be HMXBs, as expected. This probably means that $`d1`$, so that (2) implies

$$N_{\mathrm{tot}}3000.$$
(7)
This is quite reasonable for a population of HMXBs. Finally (6) gives

$$a0.06,$$
(8)
i.e. the accretion process must be very inefficient, with most of the mass lost by the companion failing to accrete on to the compact object. This requirement is easily satisfied for thermal–timescale mass transfer: the mass–loss rate from the companion is $`\dot{M}_2M_t/t_{\mathrm{KH}}10^5\mathrm{M}_{}`$ yr-1, giving $`a0.01`$ for a $`10\mathrm{M}_{}`$ black hole accretor if the Eddington limit applies.

### 2.2 Intermediate–mass black hole ULXs

If the Cartwheel ULXs contain IMBHs accreting from massive stars we get a different set of constraints. Even without any assumptions about radiation anisotropy or duty cycle, (2) requires at least $`N_{\mathrm{tot}}=300`$ inactive IMBH within the star–forming ring. However Kalogera et al (2003; see also King et al., 2001) show that all such IMBH binaries are likely to be transient, with accretion discs subject to the standard thermal–viscous instability. This by definition means that the duty cycle $`d<1`$. Disc theory does not yet provide quantitative estimates of $`d`$; however observed disc–unstable systems have $`d10^2`$, and there is considerable observational evidence (Ritter & King, 2001) to suggest that long–period systems with large discs, as in these ULXs binaries, have even smaller duty cycles $`d10^210^3`$. We thus get from (2) the constraint

$$N_{\mathrm{tot}}\frac{3\times 10^4}{bd_2}$$
(9)
where $`d_2`$ is $`d`$ in units of $`10^2`$. From (6) we get

$$a<6\times 10^3bd_2.$$
(10)
## 3 Discussion

I have considered explanations of the ULXs of the Cartwheel in terms of stellar–mass and IMBH binaries. Subsection 2.1 suggests that a population of high–mass X–ray binaries offers a reasonable picture. These systems must accrete at super–Eddington rates, as expected in the thermal–timescale mass transfer phase. These rates in turn suggest possible lines of explanation for the high apparent luminosities. The accretors in these HMXB binaries must be black holes with typical masses $`M_110\mathrm{M}_{}`$, as Roche lobe overflow is dynamically rather than thermally unstable for initial mass ratios $`M_1/M_2`$ below some critical value (Webbink, 1977; Hjellming, 1989) which is probably of order 0.5 for the massive donors ($`M_215\mathrm{M}_{}`$) in these HMXBs. (Dynamical–timescale mass transfer is ruled out as it would extinguish the binaries as X–ray sources.) Black hole accretors with $`M_110\mathrm{M}_{}`$ also satisfy the constraint that their progenitors must have lifetimes $`10^7`$ yr, whereas this is probably not true of neutron stars for example.

Explanations of the Cartwheel ULXs invoking IMBHs accreting from massive stars run into problems. The required production rate $`10^6`$ yr-1 of IMBH implies a minimum total $`N_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ of $`300`$, or more probably $`3\times 10^4`$, within the star–forming ring. Each of these IMBH must have found a stellar partner of $`15\mathrm{M}_{}`$. If this process has efficiency $`\eta <1`$ the above estimates of $`N_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ increase by factors $`\eta ^1`$, i.e. to $`N_{\mathrm{tot}}3\times 10^4\eta ^1`$. Models of IMBH formation in clusters (Miller & Hamilton, 2002; Gürkan, Freitag & Rasio, 2003) predict that only one IMBH is produced by a typical cluster mass of $`3\times 10^5\mathrm{M}_{}`$. Hence if all the ULXs in the Cartwheel are assumed to be IMBH this requires a mass $`10^{10}\eta ^1\mathrm{M}_{}`$ to have appeared in star clusters since the intrusion event, which seems unlikely. Finally it appears that the accretion efficiency $`a`$ must be low ($`6\times 10^3`$) for IMBH binaries. Of course this is not implausible for transient outbursts in which the accretion rate is very high; however it is perhaps disappointing to find super–Eddington accretion rates reappearing in a model specifically designed to exclude them.

Given these results, one should consider ways of rescuing the IMBH idea. There appear to be three main possibilities.

(a) Conditions at the current position of the star–forming ring may be highly unrepresentative of the region within it. This idea lacks plausibility, and would be completely ruled out if similar results are found in other galaxies.

(b) IMBH do not accrete from stars to make ULXs in starburst galaxies, but from some other kind of mass reservoir. There is no obvious candidate for this reservoir, and the constraints that accretion must should occur at rates $`10^6\mathrm{M}_{}`$ yr-1 and shut off after $`10^7`$ yr are severe.

(c) Most if not all of the ULXs found in regions of star formation are indeed HMXBs. However there is currently no clinching argument against a small minority containing IMBHs, as all the arguments presented here refer to population rather than individual source properties.

This last idea appears the most plausible. It is supported by the work of Grimm, Gilfanov & Sunyaev (2003), who show that ULXs fit on to the X–ray luminosity functions of nearby star–forming galaxies when these are normalised by the star formation rate.

## 4 Acknowledgments

I thank Martin Beer, Hans Ritter, Dan Rolfe and Klaus Schenker for helpful discussions. Research in theoretical astrophysics at Leicester is supported by a PPARC rolling grant. I gratefully acknowledge a Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit Award.


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# Direct observation of orbital ordering in La0.5Sr1.5MnO4 using soft x-ray diffraction

## I Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge experimental support and discussions with T.A.W. Beale. We are grateful to the director of the Synchrotron Radiation Source for access to the beamline and to EPSRC and CLRC for financial support. PDS and SBW would like to thank EPSRC for financial support and PDH thanks the University of Durham Research Foundation for financial support.


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# 1 𝑚_𝜈₂ versus sin{𝜃₁₂} for Δ𝑚₂₁²=6.9×10⁻⁵ eV2, Δ𝑚₂₃²=2.5×10⁻³ eV2 and sin{ϕ_𝜈}=0 (solid), 0.6 (dotted) and 0.96 (dot-dashed).

MPP-2003-77

KANAZAWA-03-26

Majorana Phase in Minimal $`S_3`$ Invariant Extension
of the Standard Model

Jisuke Kubo aaaPermanent address: Institute for Theoretical Physics, Kanazawa University

Max-Planck-Institut für Physik, Werner-Heisenberg-Institut
D-80805 Munich, Germany

## Abstract

The leptonic sector in a recently proposed minimal extension of the standard model, in which the permutation symmetry $`S_3`$ is assumed to be an exact flavor symmetry at the weak scale, is revisited. We find that $`S_3`$ with an additional $`Z_N`$ symmetry allows CP violating phases in the neutrino mixing. The leptonic sector contains six real parameters with two independent phases to describe charged lepton and neutrino masses and the neutrino mixing. The model predicts: an inverted spectrum of neutrino mass, $`\mathrm{tan}\theta _{23}=1+O(m_e^2/m_\mu ^2)`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _{13}=m_e/\sqrt{2}m_\mu +O(m_em_\mu /m_\tau ^2)0.0034`$. Neutrino mass as well as the effective Majorana mass $`<m_{ee}>`$ in the neutrinoless double-$`\beta `$ decay can be expressed in a closed form as a function of $`\varphi _\nu ,\mathrm{\Delta }m_{21}^2,\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2`$ and $`\mathrm{tan}\theta _{12}`$, where $`\varphi _\nu `$ is one of the independent phases. The model also predicts $`<m_{ee}>(0.0360.066)`$ eV.

PACS numbers: 11.30.Hv, 12.15.Ff,14.60.Pq

The Yukawa sector of the standard model (SM), which is responsible for the generation of the mass of leptons and quarks, and their mixing, has too many redundant parameters. This not only weakens the predictivity of the SM, but also makes ambiguous how to go beyond the SM. An exact flavor symmetry could reduce this redundancy, thereby giving useful hints about how to unify the flavor structure of the SM.

Recently, a minimal $`S_3`$ invariant extension of the SM was suggested in , while assuming that the Higgs, quark and lepton including the right-handed neutrino fields belong to the three-dimensional reducible representation of the permutation group $`S_3`$ 111A partial list for permutation symmetries is . See for instance  for a review. The basic idea of  is similar to that of .. This smallest nonabelian symmetry based on $`S_3`$ is only spontaneously broken, because the electroweak gauge symmetry $`SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ is spontaneously broken. It was found in  that this flavor symmetry is consistent with experiments, and that in the leptonic sector an additional discrete symmetry $`Z_2`$ can be introduced. It was argued there that due the additional discrete $`Z_2`$ symmetry the neutrino mixing matrix $`V_{\mathrm{MNS}}`$ can not contain any CP violating phase 222See for instance  for recent reviews on CP violation in the leptonic sector.. We now believe this is incorrect, and we would like to re-investigate the leptonic sector of the model in this letter.

We will find that it is possible to introduce two independent CP violating phases  in the neutrino mixing even with an additional $`Z_N`$ symmetry in the leptonic sector. The permutation symmetry $`S_3`$ with $`Z_N`$ allows three real mass parameters for the charged lepton mass matrix, and three real parameters and two phases for the neutrino mass matrix. The model predicts 333Similar but different predictions are obtained from different types of discrete symmetry . See also  and .: an inverted spectrum of neutrino mass, $`\mathrm{tan}\theta _{23}=1+O(m_e^2/m_\mu ^2)`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _{13}=m_e/m_\mu \sqrt{2}+O(m_em_\mu /m_\tau ^2)`$. Neutrino mass as well as the effective Majorana mass $`<m_{ee}>`$ in the neutrinoless double-$`\beta `$ decay can be expressed in a closed form as a function of $`\varphi _\nu ,\mathrm{\Delta }m_{21}^2,\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2`$ and $`\mathrm{tan}\theta _{12}`$, where $`\varphi _\nu `$ is one of the independent phases. We find that the minimum of $`m_{\nu _2}`$ as well as $`<m_{ee}>`$ occurs at $`\varphi _\nu =0`$, which is approximately $`\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2}/\mathrm{sin}2\theta _{12}`$.

Before we will come to our main purpose of the letter, let us briefly summarize the basic ingredient of the $`S_3`$ invariant SM of . The quark, lepton and Higgs fields are denoted by $`Q^T=(u_L,d_L),u_R,d_R,L^T=(\nu _L,e_L),e_R,\nu _R,H`$. Each of them forms a reducible representation $`\mathrm{𝟏}+\mathrm{𝟐}`$ of $`S_3`$. The doublets carry capital indices $`I,J`$ which run from $`1`$ to $`2`$, and the singlets are denoted by $`Q_3,u_{3R},u_{3R},L_3,e_{3R},\nu _{3R},H_3`$. The most general renormalizable Yukawa interactions are given by

$`_Y`$ $`=`$ $`_{Y_D}+_{Y_U}+_{Y_E}+_{Y_\nu },`$ (1)
where

$`_{Y_D}`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{Q}{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}}𝐘_{H_i}^dH_id_R+h.c.,`$
$`_{Y_U}`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{Q}(i\sigma _2){\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}}𝐘_{H_i}^uH_iu_R+h.c.,`$
$`_{Y_E}`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{L}{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}}𝐘_{H_i}^eH_ie_R+h.c.,`$
$`_{Y_\nu }`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{L}(i\sigma _2){\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}}𝐘_{H_i}^\nu H_i\nu _R+h.c.,`$
and the Yukawa coupling matrices are given by

$`𝐘_{H_1}^k`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& Y_2^k& Y_5^k\\ Y_2^k& 0& 0\\ Y_4^k& 0& 0\end{array}\right),𝐘_{H_2}^k=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}Y_2^k& 0& 0\\ 0& Y_2^k& Y_5^k\\ 0& Y_4^k& 0\end{array}\right),`$ (8)
$`𝐘_{H_3}^k`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}Y_1^k& 0& 0\\ 0& Y_1^k& 0\\ 0& 0& Y_3^k\end{array}\right),k=d,u,l,\nu .`$ (12)
Further, the Majorana mass terms for the right-handed neutrinos is given by

$`_M=M_1\nu _{IR}^TC\nu _{IR}M_3\nu _{3R}^TC\nu _{3R},`$ (13)
where $`C`$ is the charge conjugation matrix444Supersymmetrization of the present model has been proposed in ..

Pakvasa and Sugawara  analyzed the Higgs potential. The potential they analyzed has not only an abelian discrete symmetry (which we will use for selection rules of the Yukawa couplings), but also a permutation symmetry $`S_2`$: $`H_1H_2`$, which is not a subgroup of the flavor group $`S_3`$ of the model. We assume throughout this letter that the vacuum can respect this accidental symmetry of the Higgs potential, and

$`<H_1>`$ $`=`$ $`<H_2>`$ (14)
is satisfied. \[$`<H_1>=<H_2>`$ would yield the same physics.\] Then the Yukawa interactions (1) yield the mass matrices of the general form

$`𝐌=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}m_1+m_2& m_2& m_5\\ m_2& m_1m_2& m_5\\ m_4& m_4& m_3\end{array}\right).`$ (18)
The Majorana mass for $`\nu _L`$ can be obtained from the see-saw mechanism , and the corresponding mass matrix is given by $`𝐌_\nu =𝐌_{\nu _𝐃}\stackrel{~}{𝐌}^1(𝐌_{\nu _𝐃})^T`$, where $`\stackrel{~}{𝐌}=\text{diag}(M_1,M_1,M_3)`$. The mass matrices are diagonalized by the unitary matrices $`U^{}`$s as

$$U_{d(u,e)L}^{}𝐌_{d(u,e)}U_{d(u,e)R},U_\nu ^T𝐌_\nu U_\nu .$$

The diagonal masses can be complex, and so the physical masses are their absolute values, which we denote by $`m_{\nu _1},m_{\nu _2},m_{\nu _3},m_e,m_\mu ,m_\tau ,`$ etc.

It would be certainly desirable to classify, in a similar way as in , all possible mass matrices that are consistent with an additional discrete abelian symmetry and with experimental data. We, however, leave this program to feature work. Here we simply adopt the result of  that

$`Y_1^e`$ $`=`$ $`Y_3^e=Y_1^\nu =Y_5^\nu =0,`$ (19)
and consequently

$`m_1^e`$ $`=`$ $`m_3^e=m_1^\nu =m_5^\nu =0`$ (20)
follows from a $`Z_2`$ symmetry. We emphasize that there are a number of different charge assignments of $`Z_N`$ that can yield (19) 555 We do not consider $`U(1)`$ to avoid the appearance of a (nearly) massless particle.: Provided that the charge of $`H_3`$, $`Q(H_3)`$, is different from $`Q(H_{1,2})`$, only the conditions

$`Q(L_3)`$ $`=`$ $`Q(L_{1,2})=Q(e_{3R})+Q(H_{1,2})=Q(e_{1,2R})+Q(H_{1,2})`$ (21)
$`=`$ $`Q(\nu _{1,2R})Q(H_{1,2})=Q(\nu _{3R})Q(H_3)`$
modulo $`N`$ should be satisfied to forbid $`Y_1^e,Y_3^e,Y_1^\nu `$ and $`Y_5^\nu `$. Unfortunately, none of the abelian discrete symmetries above is a symmetry in the quark sector. Note that if $`Z_N`$ is chiral, it is broken by QCD anyway ($`S_3`$ is not broken by QCD, because it is not a chiral symmetry.) The symmetry violating effect of the quark sector appears first at the two-loop level in the leptonic sector, so that the violation of $`Z_N`$ in the leptonic sector may be assumed to be negligibly small. Therefore, we throughout neglect that violating effect 666That is, we assume that the relation (19) is satisfied at the weak scale. If one assumes that it is satisfied at some higher scale, one should take into account the renormalization group running of the parameters . See also  for further references. We however expect that the corrections will be small in the present model, in contrast to models, in which a large neutrino mixing is not related to a symmetry of the theory..

To proceed with our discussion, we calculate the unitary matrix $`U_{eL}`$ from

$`U_{eL}^{}𝐌_e𝐌_e^{}U_{eL}=\text{diag}(m_e^2,m_\mu ^2,m_\tau ^2),`$ (22)
where

$`𝐌_e𝐌_e^{}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}2(m_2^e)^2+(m_5^e)^2& (m_5^e)^2& 2m_2^em_4^e\\ (m_5^e)^2& 2(m_2^e)^2+(m_5^e)^2& 0\\ 2m_2^em_4^e& 0& 2(m_4^e)^2\end{array}\right),`$ (26)
and all the mass parameters appearing in (26) are real. We find that $`U_{eL}`$ can be approximately written as

$`U_{eL}`$ $``$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\frac{y}{2}\left(1+\frac{1}{x^2}\right)& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(1\frac{y^2}{4}\frac{y^2}{2x^2}\right)& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\\ \frac{y}{2}\left(1\frac{1}{x^2}\right)& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(1\frac{y^2}{4}+\frac{y^2}{2x^2}\right)& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\\ 1\frac{y^2}{4}& \frac{y}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{y}{\sqrt{2}x^2}\end{array}\right),`$ (30)
where $`x=m_5^e/m_2^em_\tau /m_\mu `$ and $`y=m_4^e/m_2^e\sqrt{2}m_e/m_\mu `$.

The Majorana masses of the right-handed neutrinos, $`M_1`$ and $`M_3`$ in (13) which may be complex, can be absorbed by a redefinition of $`m_2^\nu ,m_4^\nu `$ and $`m_3^\nu `$, and we may therefore assume that $`M_1`$ and $`M_3`$ are real. After rescaling of $`m_2^\nu ,m_4^\nu `$ and $`m_3^\nu `$ as

$`(m_2^\nu )`$ $``$ $`\rho _2^\nu =(m_2^\nu )/M_1^{1/2},(m_4^\nu )\rho _4^\nu =(m_4^\nu )/M_1^{1/2},(m_3^\nu )\rho _3^\nu =(m_3^\nu )/M_3^{1/2},`$ (31)
we obtain

$`𝐌_\nu `$ $`=`$ $`𝐌_{\nu _𝐃}\stackrel{~}{𝐌}^1(𝐌_{\nu _𝐃})^T=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}2(\rho _2^\nu )^2& 0& 2\rho _2^\nu \rho _4^\nu \\ 0& 2(\rho _2^\nu )^2& 0\\ 2\rho _2^\nu \rho _4^\nu & 0& 2(\rho _4^\nu )^2+(\rho _3^\nu )^2\end{array}\right).`$ (35)
All the phases in (35), except for one, can be absorbed. Without loss of generality, we may assume that $`\rho _3^\nu `$ is complex. We find that $`𝐌_\nu `$ can be diagonalized as

$`U_\nu ^T𝐌_\nu U_\nu `$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}m_{\nu _1}e^{i\varphi _1i\varphi _\nu }& 0& 0\\ 0& m_{\nu _2}e^{i\varphi _2+i\varphi _\nu }& 0\\ 0& 0& m_{\nu _3}\end{array}\right),`$ (39)
where

$`U_\nu `$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}s_{12}& c_{12}e^{i\varphi _\nu }& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\\ c_{12}e^{i\varphi _\nu }& s_{12}& 0\end{array}\right),`$ (43)
$`m_{\nu _3}\mathrm{sin}\varphi _\nu `$ $`=`$ $`m_{\nu _2}\mathrm{sin}\varphi _2=m_{\nu _1}\mathrm{sin}\varphi _1,`$ (44)
and $`c_{12}=\mathrm{cos}\theta _{12}`$ and $`s_{12}=\mathrm{sin}\theta _{12}`$. The mixing angle is given by

$`\mathrm{tan}^2\theta _{12}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(m_{\nu _2}^2m_{\nu _3}^2\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi _\nu )^{1/2}m_{\nu _3}|\mathrm{cos}\varphi _\nu |}{(m_{\nu _1}^2m_{\nu _3}^2\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi _\nu )^{1/2}+m_{\nu _3}|\mathrm{cos}\varphi _\nu |}},`$ (45)
from which we find

$`{\displaystyle \frac{m_{\nu _2}^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(1+2t_{12}^2+t_{12}^4rt_{12}^4)^2}{4t_{12}^2(1+t_{12}^2)(1+t_{12}^2rt_{12}^2)\mathrm{cos}^2\varphi _\nu }}\mathrm{tan}^2\varphi _\nu `$ (46)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{12}\mathrm{cos}^2\varphi _\nu }}\mathrm{tan}^2\varphi _\nu \text{for}|r|<<1,`$ (47)
where $`t_{12}=\mathrm{tan}\theta _{12},r=\mathrm{\Delta }m_{21}^2/\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2`$. As in , we find that only an inverted mass spectrum

$`m_{\nu _3}`$ $`<`$ $`m_{\nu _1},m_{\nu _2}`$ (48)
is consistent with the experimental constraint $`|\mathrm{\Delta }m_{21}^2|<|\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2|`$ in the present model. To see this, we first derive

$`m_{\nu _1}\mathrm{cos}\varphi _1m_{\nu _3}\mathrm{cos}\varphi _\nu `$ $`=`$ $`2\rho _2^\nu \rho _4^\nu A_1`$ (49)
$`m_{\nu _2}\mathrm{cos}\varphi _2m_{\nu _3}\mathrm{cos}\varphi _\nu `$ $`=`$ $`2\rho _2^\nu \rho _4^\nu A_2,`$ (50)
where

$`A_1`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{sin}2\theta _{12}+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _{12}/\mathrm{tan}2\theta _{12},A_2=\mathrm{sin}2\theta _{12}\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{12}/\mathrm{tan}2\theta _{12}.`$ (51)
Then we use the fact that if $`A_1`$ is positive (negative), then $`A_2`$ is always positive (negative). Suppose that $`2\rho _2^\nu \rho _4^\nu A_2`$ is positive, which implies that $`m_{\nu _2}\mathrm{cos}\varphi _2>m_{\nu _3}\mathrm{cos}\varphi _\nu `$ and $`m_{\nu _1}\mathrm{cos}\varphi _1<m_{\nu _3}\mathrm{cos}\varphi _\nu `$. In this case, eq. (44) can be satisfied, only if $`m_{\nu _2}>m_{\nu _3}`$ or $`m_{\nu _1}>m_{\nu _3}`$. Similarly, if $`2\rho _2^\nu \rho _4^\nu A_1`$ is positive, then $`m_{\nu _2}>m_{\nu _3}`$ or $`m_{\nu _1}>m_{\nu _3}`$ has to be satisfied. Therefore, $`m_{\nu _3}`$ cannot be the largest among $`m_{\nu _i}`$’s 777 Of course, $`m_{\nu _1}>m_{\nu _3}>m_{\nu _2}`$ or $`m_{\nu _2}>m_{\nu _3}>m_{\nu _1}`$ is mathematically allowed, but is excluded by experiments..

In fig. 1 we plot $`m_{\nu _2}`$ versus $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _{12}`$ for $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{21}^2=6.9\times 10^5`$ eV2, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2=2.5\times 10^3`$ eV2 (best-fit values reported in ) and $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi _\nu =0`$ (solid), $`0.6`$ (dotted) and $`0.96`$ (dashed). The $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi _\nu `$ dependence of $`m_{\nu _2}`$ is shown in fig. 2 for $`\mathrm{tan}\theta _{12}=0.68`$ and the same values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{21}^2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2`$ as in fig. 1. As we see from (47) and also from fig. 2, $`m_{\nu _2}`$ assumes at $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi _\nu =0`$ its minimal value

$`m_{\nu _2,\mathrm{min}}`$ $`\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2}/\mathrm{sin}2\theta _{12}=(0.0360.066)\text{eV},`$ (52)
where we have used $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2=(1.33.0)\times 10^3`$ eV2 and $`\mathrm{sin}2\theta _{12}=0.831.0`$ .

Now the product $`U_{eL}^{}PU_\nu `$ with $`P=\text{diag.}(1,1,\mathrm{exp}i\text{arg}(Y_4^\nu ))`$ defines a neutrino mixing matrix, which we bring by an appropriate phase transformation to the popular form

$`V_{\mathrm{MNS}}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}c_{12}c_{13}& s_{12}c_{13}& s_{13}e^{i\delta }\\ s_{12}c_{23}c_{12}s_{23}s_{13}e^{i\delta }& c_{12}c_{23}s_{12}s_{23}s_{13}e^{i\delta }& s_{23}c_{13}\\ s_{12}s_{23}c_{12}c_{23}s_{13}e^{i\delta }& c_{12}s_{23}s_{12}c_{23}s_{13}e^{i\delta }& c_{23}c_{13}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& e^{i\alpha }& 0\\ 0& 0& e^{i\beta }\end{array}\right).`$ (59)
We find:

$`s_{13}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{m_e}{m_\mu }}+O(m_em_\mu /m_\tau ^2)0.0034,t_{23}={\displaystyle \frac{s_{23}}{c_{23}}}=1{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}({\displaystyle \frac{m_e}{m_\mu }})^2+O(m_e^2/m_\tau ^2),`$ (60)
$`\delta `$ $`=`$ $`\text{arg}(Y_4^\nu )\varphi _\nu ,`$ (61)
$`\mathrm{sin}2\alpha `$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{sin}(\varphi _1\varphi _2)`$ (62)
$`=`$ $`\pm {\displaystyle \frac{m_{\nu _3}\mathrm{sin}\varphi _\nu }{m_{\nu _1}m_{\nu _2}}}\left(\sqrt{m_{\nu _2}^2m_{\nu _3}^2\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi _\nu }+\sqrt{m_{\nu _1}^2m_{\nu _3}^2\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi _\nu }\right)`$
$``$ $`\pm 2\mathrm{sin}\varphi _\nu (m_{\nu _3}/m_{\nu _2})\sqrt{1(m_{\nu _3}/m_{\nu _2})^2\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi _\nu },`$ (63)
$`\mathrm{sin}2\beta `$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{sin}(\varphi _1\varphi _\nu )`$ (64)
$`=`$ $`\pm {\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}\varphi _\nu }{m_{\nu _1}}}\left(m_{\nu _3}\sqrt{1\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi _\nu }+\sqrt{m_{\nu _1}^2m_{\nu _3}^2\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi _\nu }\right),`$
for $`\varphi _1+\varphi _2\pm \pi `$, where $`\varphi _1,\varphi _2`$ and $`\varphi _\nu `$ are defined in (39). Since $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}4.6\times 10^5`$, future oscillation experiments such as J-Park experiment  can easily exclude the model. In fig. 3 we plot $`\mathrm{sin}2\alpha `$ (solid) and $`\mathrm{sin}2\beta `$ (dotted) as a function of $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi _\nu `$. As we can see, $`\mathrm{sin}2\alpha `$ reaches its maximal value $`1`$ at $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi _\nu 0.94`$. Similarly, the maximal value of $`\mathrm{sin}2\beta `$, which is about $`1`$, occurs at $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi _\nu 0.85`$.

We then consider the effective Majorana mass

$`<m_{ee}>`$ $`=`$ $`|{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}}m_{\nu _i}V_{ei}^2||m_{\nu _1}c_{12}^2+m_{\nu _2}s_{12}^2\mathrm{exp}i2\alpha |,`$ (65)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2}}{\mathrm{cos}\varphi _\nu }}[\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{12}\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi _\nu ]^{1/2}[1+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{12}}{2}}(\mathrm{cos}2\alpha 1)]^{1/2},`$ (66)
which can be measured in neutrinoless double $`\beta `$ decay experiments. ($`\alpha `$ is given in (62).) In fig. 4 we plot $`<m_{ee}>`$ as a function of $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi _\nu `$. As we can see from fig. 4, the effective Majorana mass stays at about its minimal value $`<m_{ee}>_{\mathrm{min}}`$ for a wide range of $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi _\nu `$. Since $`<m_{ee}>_{\mathrm{min}}`$ is approximately equal to $`m_{\nu _2,\mathrm{min}}`$ (which is given in (52)), it is consistent with recent experiments  and is within an accessible range of future experiments . An experimental verification of (47), (48) and (60)–(66) would strongly indicate the existence of the smallest nonabelian symmetry based on the permutation group $`S_3`$ along with an abelian discrete symmetry $`Z_N`$ at the electroweak scale, where $`Z_N`$ is only an approximate symmetry of the whole theory, but the effect of its violation is of two-loop order in the leptonic sector.

$`S_3`$ is obviously a possible answer to the question why there exist three generations of leptons and quarks. $`S_3`$, of course, can not explain the hierarchy of the fermion mass spectrum, but $`S_3`$ with $`Z_N`$ in the leptonic sector can relate the mass spectrum and mixing in this sector, making testable predictions, which have been re-investigated in the present letter. Therefore, $`S_3`$ solves partially the flavor problem of the SM. Since there are three $`SU(2)_L`$ doublet Higgs fields in the model, there exit FCNC processes at the tree level. In  the magnitude of various tree level FCNC amplitudes have been estimated, and it has been found that they are sufficiently suppressed. The suppression follows from the smallness of the corresponding Yukawa couplings, where $`S_3`$ plays an important role for that smallness. However, we find that $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_K`$, the difference of the mass of $`K_L`$ and $`K_S`$, exceeds the experimental value, unless the mixing of the Higgs fields is fine tuned. This problem is currently under investigation, and we will report the result elsewhere.

It is straightforward to keep the discrete flavor symmetries, $`S_3`$ in the hadronic sector and $`S_3\times Z_N`$ in the leptonic sector, in a supersymmetric extension of the standard model . The supersymmetric flavor problem has been investigated there, and it has been explicitly found that thanks to the flavor symmetries the dangerous FCNC and CP violating processes, that originate from soft supersymmetry breaking terms, are sufficiently suppressed, in a similar manner as it was found in .

Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (No. 13135210).


text:
# Transcendental meromorphic functions with three singular values

(February 27, 2004)

## Abstract

Every transcendental meromorphic function $`f`$ in the plane, which has only three critical values, satisfies

$$\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim\; inf}\frac{T(r,f)}{\mathrm{log}^2r}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2\pi },$$

and this estimate is best possible.

AMS Subject classification: 30D30, 30D25.

A singular value of a meromorphic function $`f`$ in the plane $`𝐂`$ is, by definition, a critical value or an asymptotic value. If we denote the closure of the set of singular values by $`S`$, then

$$f:𝐂\backslash f^1(S)\overline{𝐂}\backslash S$$

is a covering map. Meromorphic functions with finitely many singular values play an important role in value distribution theory (see, for example, , and Jim Langley’s papers on the distribution of values of derivatives), as well as in holomorphic dynamics .

In this paper, “meromorphic function” will always mean a transcendental111On algebraic functions with three critical values see . meromorphic function in the plane, unless some other region is specified.

Langley  discovered that there exists a relation between the number of singular values of a meromorphic function $`f`$ and the growth of the Nevanlinna characteristic $`T(r,f)`$. In  he proved that all meromorphic functions $`f`$ with finitely many singular values satisfy

$$\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim\; inf}\frac{T(r,f)}{\mathrm{log}^2r}>0.$$

On the other hand, he showed in  that for every $`ϵ>0`$ there exists a meromorphic function $`f`$ with four singular values such that

$$\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim\; sup}\frac{T(r,f)}{\mathrm{log}^2r}<ϵ.$$

Concerning meromorphic functions with three singular values, Langley proved in  that they satisfy

$$\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim\; inf}\frac{T(r,f)}{\mathrm{log}^2r}c,$$
(1)
where $`c`$ is an absolute constant.

In this paper, the precise value of this constant is found. I thank Walter Bergweiler who brought  to my attention and suggested the extremal problem which the following theorem solves.

Theorem Let $`f`$ be a meromorphic function with at most three singular values. Then $`(\text{1})`$ holds with $`c=\sqrt{3}/(2\pi )`$, and there exists a meromorphic function $`f_0`$ with three singular values, such that

$$T(r,f_0)/\mathrm{log}^2r\sqrt{3}/(2\pi )\text{as}r\mathrm{}.$$
(2)
Remarks

1. If $`f`$ has finitely many singular values and at least one of them is an asymptotic value, then

$$\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim\; inf}\frac{T(r,f)}{\sqrt{r}}>0;$$
(3)
in particular this holds for all entire functions with finitely many singular values. We sketch a proof of this, different from that mentioned in . If $`a`$ is an asymptotic value, and there are no other singular values in an $`ϵ`$-neighborhood of $`a`$, then one of the components of the set $`\{z:|f(z)a|<ϵ\}`$ is an unbounded region $`D`$ whose boundary consists of one simple curve, and $`f(z)a`$ in this region. Applying the standard growth estimates to the harmonic function $`\mathrm{log}|f(z)a|^1`$ in $`D`$ we conclude that (3) holds.

2. Let $`f`$ be a meromorphic function with at most three critical values. Then the conclusion of the Theorem holds.

Indeed, we can assume that $`f`$ has finite lower order (otherwise there is nothing to prove). For such functions with finitely many critical values, the set of asymptotic values is also finite. This was proved in  for functions of finite order and extended in  to functions of finite lower order. If there are asymptotic values, we apply Remark 1, if there are none, we apply the Theorem.

A similar improvement can be made in the results of Langley mentioned above.

3. All meromorphic functions with two singular values are of the form $`L\mathrm{exp}`$, where $`L`$ is a fractional-linear transformation.

4. Let $`\mu `$ be a probability measure on the Riemann sphere $`\overline{𝐂}`$, and $`\nu =f^{}\mu `$ the pull-back of $`\mu `$. We denote

$$A_\mu (r)=\nu \left(\{z:|z|r\}\right),r>0.$$

If $`\mu `$ is the normalized spherical area, then $`A_\mu (r)A(r)`$ is the average number of sheets of the map $`f:\{z:|z|r\}\overline{𝐂}`$. The Nevanlinna characteristic satisfies

$$T(r,f)=_e^r\frac{A(t)}{t}𝑑t+O(\mathrm{log}r),r\mathrm{}.$$

For an arbitrary probability measure $`\mu `$ on the sphere, we have

$$_e^r\frac{A_\mu (t)}{t}𝑑tT(r,f)+O(1),$$

which is a consequence of the First Fundamental Theorem of Nevanlinna, \[14, VI,§4\]. Thus, to prove our theorem, it is sufficient to show that

$$A_\mu (t)\frac{\sqrt{3}}{\pi }\mathrm{log}t+O(1),t\mathrm{},$$
(4)
for some probability measure $`\mu `$.

Proof of the Theorem.

Let $`F`$ be a connected oriented surface of finite topological type, possibly with boundary. A triangular net on $`F`$ is a locally finite covering of $`F`$ by closed sets $`T`$ called triangles, such that

(i) Each triangle $`T`$ is a closed Jordan region (homeomorphic to a closed unit disc) with three marked distinct boundary points called vertices. A closed boundary arc between two adjacent vertices is called an edge of $`T`$.

(ii) The intersection of two triangles is either empty, or a union of common edges and common vertices.

(iii) Triangles are divided into two classes, white and black, so that any two triangles with a common edge are of different colors.

(iv) Vertices are labeled by the letters $`A,B`$ and $`C`$, so that for each triangle, all three labels are present on its boundary. Furthermore, the cyclic order on the oriented boundary of a white triangle is $`(A,B,C)`$, and opposite on the oriented boundary of a black triangle.

Suppose that a covering of $`F`$ by triangles satisfying (i) and (ii) is given, and there exists a labeling of vertices satisfying (iv). Then such a labeling is uniquely defined by a choice of labels on the three vertices of one triangle. The colors of triangles are evidently determined by the labeling of vertices.

Let $`f`$ be a meromorphic function satisfying the assumptions of the Theorem. In view of Remarks 1–3, we assume without loss of generality that $`f`$ has no asymptotic values and exactly three critical values, $`A,B`$ and $`C`$. Composing $`f`$ with a fractional linear transformation we may assume that $`A,B`$ and $`C`$ are real, and $`A<B<C`$.

Consider the triangular net $`N_0`$ on the Riemann sphere, which consists of two triangles, the closed upper half-plane (white) and the closed lower half-plane (black), and the vertices $`A,B`$ and $`C`$.

We construct the $`f`$-preimage of this net, which will be called $`N`$. The vertices of $`N`$ are preimages of the vertices of $`N_0`$, and they are labeled according to their images. The triangles of $`N`$ are the closures of the components of the preimages of the open upper and lower half-planes, and the edges of $`N`$ are defined in the evident way. Each triangle in $`N`$ is assigned the same color as its image in $`N_0`$.

Our assumptions about $`f`$ imply that $`N`$ is a triangular net in the plane $`𝐂`$.

Choose one triangle $`T_0N`$ and remove its interior $`\mathrm{int}T_0`$ from the plane. We obtain a bordered surface $`D=𝐂\backslash \mathrm{int}T_0`$ which is homeomorphic to a closed semi-infinite cylinder.

Let $`GD`$ be a compact closed region homeomorphic to a closed ring, which separates $`T_0`$ from $`\mathrm{}`$. We are going to estimate from below the extremal length222 See, for example,  for a definition and simplest properties. $`\lambda `$ of the family of all closed non-contractible curves in $`G`$. For this purpose we construct a conformal metric $`\rho `$ in $`D`$. In this metric, each triangle of the net $`N\backslash T_0`$ will be isometric to a Euclidean equilateral triangle $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ with sidelength $`1`$.

First we define a flat conformal metric $`\rho _0`$ on $`\overline{𝐂}\backslash \{A,B,C\}`$. Let $`g`$ be the conformal map of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ onto the upper half-plane sending the vertices of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ to $`A,B,C`$. (An explicit expression of $`g`$ will be given at the end of the paper). The metric $`\rho _0`$ is defined in the upper half-plane by the length element $`ds=|(g^1)^{}(z)||dz|`$, so that $`g`$ becomes an isometry from $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ with the Euclidean metric to the upper half-plane with the metric $`\rho _0`$. Using the Symmetry Principle, we extend $`\rho _0`$ to $`\overline{𝐂}\backslash \{A,B,C\}`$.

The Riemann sphere with the metric $`\rho _0`$ can be visualized as a “two-sided triangle $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$”. The area of the sphere with respect to $`\rho _0`$ is $`\sqrt{3}/2`$.

Now we define $`\rho =f^{}\rho _0`$, the pull-back of $`\rho _0`$ via $`f`$.

The metrics $`\rho `$ and $`\rho _0`$ have isolated singularities at the vertices, but this does not cause any problems.

Now we estimate the $`\rho `$-length of non-contractible curves in $`D`$ from below.

Lemma Let $`D^{}`$ be a surface homeomorphic to $`\{1|z|2\}`$, equipped with a triangular net and an intrinsic metric333A metric is called intrinsic if the distance between any two points equals the infimum of lengths of curves connecting these points. such that every triangle of the net is isometric to $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Then the length of every closed non-contractible curve in $`D^{}`$ is at least $`\sqrt{3}`$.

Figure 1. An extremal configuration. Bold segments are identified. An extremal curve is the broken line.

The idea of the following proof, which is simpler than the original one, was suggested by Mario Bonk.

Proof. Let $`\gamma `$ be a shortest non-contractible curve in $`D^{}`$; evidently such a curve exists. Then $`\gamma `$ is homeomorphic to a circle, because otherwise we could remove extra loops and shorten $`\gamma `$.

Suppose first that $`\gamma `$ passes through a vertex $`v`$ of the net, that is $`\gamma (t_0)=v`$. Let $`F`$ be the interior of the union of all triangles of the net that have $`v`$ as a common vertex. Then $`F`$ is a simply connected region, and to be non-contractible, our curve has to pass through a point $`w_DF=F\mathrm{int}D`$. Then two arcs of $`\gamma `$ from $`v`$ to $`w`$ have lengths at least $`\sqrt{3}/2`$ each, which proves the Lemma in this case.

From now on we assume that $`\gamma `$ does not pass through the vertices.

As our metric $`\rho `$ is flat away from the vertices, every point $`wD^{}\backslash \{\text{vertices}\}`$ has a neighborhood $`W`$ which is isometric to a region $`V`$ in the plane with the standard (intrinsic) metric. This isometry $`\varphi :WV`$ is called the “developing map”. It has an analytic continuation to every simply connected region in $`D^{}\backslash \{\mathrm{vertices}\}`$ that contains $`w`$, and also an analytic continuation along any curve in $`D^{}`$ which does not pass through the vertices. The image of any arc of our shortest curve $`\gamma `$ under the developing map is an interval of a straight line in the plane.

Our curve $`\gamma `$ evidently intersects some edge. Let $`v`$ be a point of intersection with an edge $`e`$, and choose a parametrization $`\gamma :[0,1]D^{}`$ such that $`\gamma (0)=\gamma (1)=v`$. Let $`\varphi `$ be a germ of the developing map at $`v`$, and $`\varphi _1`$ the result of its analytic continuation along $`\gamma `$. Let $`T_1,\mathrm{},T_n`$ be the sequence of triangles in $`D^{}`$ visited by $`\gamma `$, enumerated in the natural order. Then the branches of the developing map are defined in $`T_j`$ by analytic continuation of the germ $`\varphi `$ along $`\gamma `$. Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Delta }_n`$ be the images of the triangles $`T_1,\mathrm{},T_n`$ under these branches.

Reflections in the sides of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1`$ generate a group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of isometries of the plane. It is clear that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1,\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Delta }_n`$ can be obtained by applying some elements of this group to $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1`$. The full orbit of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1`$ under $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ forms the hexagonal tiling of the plane by equilateral triangles of sidelength $`1`$. We label the vertices of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1`$ similarly to the corresponding labels of $`T_1`$. This uniquely defines the labeling of vertices of the hexagonal tiling of the plane, thus making it into a triangular net in $`𝐂`$. The branches of the developing map $`T_j\mathrm{\Delta }_j`$ preserve the labels of vertices.

The edges of our nets have orientations induced by the cyclic order on the labels of vertices. Let us consider the edges $`e^{}=\varphi (e)`$ and $`e_1^{}=\varphi _1(e)`$. We claim that the oriented edge $`e_1^{}`$ can be obtained from the oriented edge $`e^{}`$ by a translation from $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ which is not the identity map.

Let $`\alpha `$ be the angle, counted anti-clockwise from the positive direction of $`e`$ to the tangent vector $`\gamma ^{}(0)`$ at $`v`$. The image of $`\gamma `$ under the analytic continuation of the developing map is a (non-degenerate) straight line segment which makes the same angle $`\alpha `$ with $`e^{}`$ and $`e_1^{}`$. We conclude that $`e^{}`$ and $`e_1^{}`$ have the same direction but do not coincide. As $`e^{}`$ and $`e_1^{}`$ are edges of the hexagonal triangular net, we easily conclude that $`e_1^{}`$ can be obtained from $`e^{}`$ by a translation in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. This proves our claim.

Now, he shortest translation in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ has magnitude $`\sqrt{3}`$, and this completes the proof of the Lemma. $`\mathrm{}`$

As a corollary we obtain that the extremal length $`\lambda `$ of the set of non-contractible curves in any compact ring $`GD`$ separating $`T_0`$ from $`\mathrm{}`$ in $`D`$ satisfies

$$\lambda \frac{3}{\mathrm{area}(G)},$$
(5)
where the area corresponds to the metric $`\rho `$.

To complete the proof, we consider the set

$$G(t)=\{z:|z|t\}\backslash \mathrm{int}T_0.$$

This set is homeomorphic to a ring if $`t`$ is large enough. The extremal length $`1/\lambda `$ of the family of curves connecting the boundary components of the ring $`G(t)`$ is $`(2\pi )^1\mathrm{log}t+O(1)`$ as $`t\mathrm{}`$. According to (5), the area of this ring with respect to the metric $`\rho `$ is at least

$$\frac{3}{\lambda }=\frac{3}{2\pi }\mathrm{log}t+O(1),t\mathrm{}.$$

The $`\rho _0`$-area of the Riemann sphere is $`\sqrt{3}/2`$. Taking $`\mu `$ to be the $`\rho _0`$-area divided by $`\sqrt{3}/2`$, we obtain $`A_\mu (t)(\sqrt{3}/\pi )\mathrm{log}t+O(1)`$, which is (4). $`\mathrm{}`$

Example

Consider the equilateral triangle $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝐂`$ with vertices $`0,i`$ and $`(\sqrt{3}+i)/2`$. Let $`g`$ be a conformal map of this triangle onto the right half-plane, sending the vertices to $`\mathrm{},ia,ia`$, where $`a>0`$. By reflection, $`g`$ extends to a meromorphic function in $`𝐂`$ with no asymptotic values and three critical values, $`ia,ia`$ and $`\mathrm{}`$. All preimages of the critical values are critical points of order $`3`$.

This function $`g`$ is doubly periodic and its shortest period is $`\sqrt{3}`$. It can be expressed in terms of the Weierstrass function of an equiharmonic lattice, see . If we choose

$$a=k^3,\text{where}k=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }^3(1/3)}{2\pi \sqrt{3}},$$

then $`g=\mathrm{}^{}`$ where $`\mathrm{}`$ is the Weierstrass function with periods $`\sqrt{3}`$ and $`\sqrt{3}e^{2\pi i/3}`$. The Riemannian metric $`\rho _0`$ in the proof of the Theorem corresponds to the length element $`|(g^1)^{}(w)||dw|.`$

The function

$$f_1(z)=g\left(\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2\pi i}\mathrm{log}z\right),$$

is evidently meromorphic in $`𝐂^{}=𝐂\backslash \{0\}`$ and has three critical values. Simple calculation shows that it satisfies

$$A(r,f_1)=\frac{\sqrt{3}}{\pi }\mathrm{log}r+O(1),r\mathrm{}.$$

Now we modify $`f_1`$ to obtain a function meromorphic in $`𝐂`$. Consider the integral

$$I(z)=_0^z\frac{d\zeta }{\zeta ^{2/3}(1\zeta )^{1/3}},$$

Using the positive value of the cubic root, and integrating over $`[0,1]`$ we obtain

$$I(1)=2\pi /\sqrt{3}.$$

Using this, one can easily verify that

$$f_0(z)=g\left(\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2\pi i}I(z)\right)$$

is meromorphic in the plane. This function $`f_0`$ has three critical values, no asymptotic values, and satisfies (2), as a branch of $`I(z)`$ near infinity has the same asymptotic behavior as the logarithm.

We also sketch a purely geometric construction of $`f`$, based on the Uniformization theorem.

Consider the closed region $`K_0`$ in $`𝐂`$ made of four equilateral triangles as in Figure 1, and put

$$K=_{j=1}^{\mathrm{}}(K_0+j),$$

the union of translates of $`K_0`$ by positive integers. Then $`K`$ is a closed half-strip in the plane, and we define a Riemann surface $`P`$ by identifying pairs of points with equal $`x`$-coordinates on the two horizontal boundary rays of $`K`$. The surface $`P`$ is homeomorphic to a semi-infinite closed cylinder, and its boundary consists of two edges. We “patch the hole” by adding a $`2`$-gon consisting of two triangles with two common edges.

Thus we obtain a surface $`P^{}`$ homeomorphic to the plane and covered by triangles. It is easy to see that one can label the vertices of triangles in $`P^{}`$ to obtain a triangular net. So we obtain a triangular net $`N`$ in the plane.

Every triangular net in the plane defines a ramified covering $`h:𝐂\overline{𝐂}`$ in the following way. Choose a triangular net $`N_0`$ of $`\overline{𝐂}`$ with two triangles and three vertices. First define $`h`$ on the vertices, by sending each vertex of $`N`$ to the similarly labeled vertex of $`N_0`$. Then extend $`h`$ to the edges, so that the restriction to each edge is a homeomorphism, and the extended map is continuous on the $`1`$-skeleton of $`N`$. Finally, extend $`h`$ to the interiors of triangles, so that the extended map is a homeomorphism on each triangle.

By the Uniformization theorem, there exists a homeomorphism $`\psi :U𝐂`$, where $`U`$ is either a disc or the plane, such that $`h\varphi `$ is a meromorphic function.

To show that $`U=𝐂`$, and to prove (2) one can make extremal length estimates using the Euclidean metric on $`P^{}`$ such that all triangles of the net are equilateral with side length $`1`$. We omit the details which are similar to those in the proof of the Theorem.

The author thanks A.A. Go’ldberg and V. S. Azarin for a useful discussion of this paper.

Purdue University

West Lafayette, IN 47907

eremenko@math.purdue.edu


text:
# Van der Waals interactions across stratified media

## 1 Introduction

Once one starts looking for them, multilayers are everywhere. (Bio)macromolecules such as phospholipid layers  are prone to create multilamellar assemblies either in solution or in apposition to supporting interfaces . Layer upon layer of polymer multilayers, assembled either electrostatically  or through interlayer hydrogen bonding  allow fabrication of multicomposite molecular assemblies of tailored architecture  with important technological applications. Understanding molecular interactions in these systems is an important step in controlling the assembly process. Though these interactions are due to many different specific processes, the van der Waals interactions are their common feature. Unless one is satisfied with the trivial, pairwise additive formulation of van der Waals interactions in multilayer geometries, their general and exact derivation on the Lifshitz level is complicated, abstruse and seldom attempted.

Here we will set up a new approach to the van der Waals - Lifshitz interactions in multilayer geometries based on a recent reformulation of the Lifshitz theory  in terms of an algebra of 2x2 matrices that allows us to derive simple and transparent formulas for the van der Waals interactions across finely layered systems. We use this reformulation to evaluate the interactions across a multilayer and then compare these with a continuum uniaxial-dielectric approximation based on van der Waals interactions across anisotropic media.

## 2 Formalism

We consider a symmetric periodic array, Fig. 1, between a leftmost halfspace $`L`$ and a rightmost halfspace $`R`$. The periodic motif is the sequence of $`AB`$ pairs repeated $`N`$ times between $`L`$ and $`R`$, schematically $`LABAB\mathrm{}ABAR`$.

Recently we showed  that in the Lifshitz theory computation of the secular determinant of the electromagnetic field modes can be mapped onto an algebra of $`2\times 2`$ matrices. The secular determinant in fact follows from the $`11`$ element of a transfer matrix that can be simply constructed from the interaction geometry as a product of discontinuity $`𝔻`$ and propagator $`𝕋`$ matrices. In the case considered here, following the ”mnemonic” introduced in , the transfer matrix assumes the form

$`𝕄=𝔻_{RA}\times \underset{N}{\underset{}{\underset{𝔸}{\underset{}{𝕋_A\times 𝔻_{AB}\times 𝕋_B\times 𝔻_{BA}}}\times \mathrm{}\times \underset{𝔸}{\underset{}{𝕋_A\times 𝔻_{AB}\times 𝕋_B\times 𝔻_{BA}}}}}\times 𝕋_A\times 𝔻_{AL}.`$ (1)
In this notation the discontinuity and the propagator matrices become

$$𝔻_{AB}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& \overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}\\ \overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}& 1\end{array}\right)=𝔻_{BA},$$
(2)
and

$$𝕋_{A,B}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& e^{2\rho _{A,B}a,b}\end{array}\right),$$
(3)
where $`a`$ and $`b`$ are the thicknesses of the $`A`$ and $`B`$ regions, and

$$\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}=\left(\frac{\rho _Aϵ_B\rho _Bϵ_A}{\rho _Aϵ_B+\rho _Bϵ_A}\right),$$
(4)
with $`ϵ_A(\omega )`$ and $`ϵ_B(\omega )`$ the frequency dependent dielectric functions of regions $`A`$ and $`B`$. Finally

$$\rho _{A,B}^2=Q^2\frac{ϵ_{A,B}\omega ^2}{c^2}.$$
(5)
We will assume that region $`A`$ corresponds to hydrocarbon, $`ϵ_A(\omega )`$, and regions $`L,B,R`$ to water, $`ϵ_B(\omega )`$, dielectric response. We use the standard  forms for $`ϵ_A(\omega )`$ and $`ϵ_B(\omega )`$ where the dielectric response of water is described with one MW relaxation frequency, five IR relaxation frequencies and six UV relaxation frequencies and that of the hydrocarbons with four UV relaxation frequencies.

The discontinuity matrix describes the propagation of the EM modes across the dielectric boundary and the propagator matrix their propagation inside a dielectrically homogeneous region. The above equations are strictly valid for the TM field modes. The result appropriate for the TE field modes is obtained analogously, via a formal substitution

$$\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}=\left(\frac{\rho _Aϵ_B\rho _Bϵ_A}{\rho _Aϵ_B+\rho _Bϵ_A}\right)\mathrm{\Delta }=\left(\frac{\rho _A\mu _B\rho _B\mu _A}{\rho _A\mu _B+\rho _B\mu _A}\right),$$
(6)
where $`\mu _{A,B}`$ are the magnetic permeabilities of the regions $`A,B`$.

The transfer matrix can be written equivalently in the form

$$𝕄=𝔻_{RA}\times 𝔸^N\times 𝕋_A\times 𝔻_{AL},$$
(7)
where the matrix $`𝔸`$ can be obtained as

$$𝔸=𝕋_A\times 𝔻_{AB}\times 𝕋_B\times 𝔻_{BA}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}^2e^{2\rho _Bb}& \overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}\left(1e^{2\rho _Bb}\right)\\ \overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}e^{2\rho _Aa}\left(1e^{2\rho _Bb}\right)& e^{2\rho _Aa}\left(e^{2\rho _Bb}\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}^2\right)\end{array}\right).$$
(8)
The product $`𝔸^N`$ can be factored via the Abelés formula for square matrices . This formula can be reproduced straightforwardly via induction starting from the trivial $`N=2`$ case  so that

$$𝔸^N=\frac{(det𝔸)^{N/2}}{\mathrm{sinh}\xi }\left(\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{sinh}N\xi \frac{a_{11}}{\sqrt{det𝔸}}\mathrm{sinh}(N1)\xi & \mathrm{sinh}N\xi \frac{a_{12}}{\sqrt{det𝔸}}\\ \mathrm{sinh}N\xi \frac{a_{12}}{\sqrt{det𝔸}}& \mathrm{sinh}N\xi \frac{a_{11}}{\sqrt{det𝔸}}\mathrm{sinh}(N1)\xi \end{array}\right),$$
(9)
where

$$\xi \mathrm{log}\frac{1}{2}\frac{\mathrm{Tr}𝔸}{\sqrt{det𝔸}}\left(1+\sqrt{14\frac{det𝔸}{(\mathrm{Tr}𝔸)^2}}\right).$$
(10)
Here $`e^\xi `$ and $`e^\xi `$ are the two eigenvalues of the unitary matrix $`𝔸^{}=𝔸/\sqrt{det𝔸}`$, viz. for unitary matrices the product of the eigenvalues equals one. From the definition of $`\xi `$, Eq. 10, we derive explicitly

$$\xi =(\rho _Aa+\rho _Bb)\mathrm{log}\frac{u}{1+\sqrt{1\left(ue^{(\rho _Aa+\rho _Bb)}\right)^2}}=(\rho _Aa+\rho _Bb)\mathrm{log}f(u,\rho _Aa+\rho _Bb),$$
(11)
where we defined

$$u=\frac{2(1\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}^2)}{1\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}^2\left(e^{\rho _Aa}+e^{\rho _Bb}\right)+e^{2(\rho _Aa+\rho _Bb)}}\mathrm{and}f(u,\rho _Aa+\rho _Bb)=\frac{u}{1+\sqrt{1\left(ue^{(\rho _Aa+\rho _Bb)}\right)^2}}.$$
(12)
The product $`𝔸^N`$ can be further decomposed as

$$𝔸^N=\frac{(det𝔸)^{N/2}e^{(N1)\xi }}{(1e^{2\xi })},$$
(13)
where

$$(N)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}p_{11}(N)& p_{12}(N)\\ p_{21}(N)& p_{22}(N)\end{array}\right)=\left(1e^{2N\xi }\right)\frac{𝔸}{\sqrt{det𝔸}}e^\xi \left(1e^{2(N1)\xi }\right)𝕀,$$
(14)
with the unit matrix $`𝕀`$.

In Lifshitz theory the fluctuation free energy is directly related to the $`11`$ element of the tranfer matrix $`𝕄`$ ; here

$$m_{11}=\frac{(det𝔸)^{N/2}e^{(N1)\xi }}{(1e^{2\xi })}\left(p_{11}(N)+p_{21}(N)\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{RA}+e^{2\rho _Aa}\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{AL}(p_{12}(N)+p_{22}(N)\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{RA})\right).$$
(15)
The mode equation, or the secular determinant of the TM field modes can be written

$$m_{11}^{TM}=𝒟_{TM}(\omega ,Q)=0,$$
(16)
with an analogous equation for TE field modes. The combined secular determinant thus equals the product $`𝒟(\omega ,Q)=𝒟_{TM}(\omega ,Q)𝒟_{TE}(\omega ,Q)`$. The free energy of the fluctuating EM modes in a system of $`N`$ (AB) layers can now be cast  into a form containing the secular determinant of the TM and TE modes

$$(N;a,b)=kT\underset{𝐐}{}\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}^{}\mathrm{ln}𝒟(i\xi _n,Q)=kT\underset{𝐐}{}\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}^{}\mathrm{ln}m_{11}^{TM}(i\xi _n,Q)+kT\underset{𝐐}{}\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}^{}\mathrm{ln}m_{11}^{TE}(i\xi _n,Q),$$
(17)
where $`\omega `$ has been substituted by the imaginary Matsubara frequencies $`i\xi _n=i2\pi \frac{kT}{\mathrm{}}n`$ and the primed sum signifies that the $`n=0`$ term is taken with the weight $`1/2`$. What we will investigate now is the dependence of the van der Waals interaction free energy, defined as the difference

$$𝔽(N;a,b)=(N;a,b)(N\mathrm{};a,b)$$
(18)
on the number of (AB) layers, $`N`$. From the above definition of the interaction free energy we obtain the corresponding Hamaker coefficient $`H(N;a,b)`$ as

$$𝔽(N;a,b)=\frac{H(N;a,b)}{12\pi (a+b)^2N^2}.$$
(19)
## 3 Result

We first write the $`11`$ element for the TM modes in a form that makes explicit the dependence on $`N`$. We first notice that

$$\mathrm{log}m_{11}=\mathrm{log}2\mathrm{sinh}\xi +N\mathrm{log}\sqrt{det𝔸}e^\xi +\mathrm{log}\left(p_{11}(N)+p_{21}(N)\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{RA}+e^{2\rho _Aa}\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{AL}(p_{12}(N)+p_{22}(N)\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{RA})\right),$$
(20)
so that the corresponding free energy Eq. 17 has three terms. The first does not depend on $`N`$ and is thus not of immediate concern here. The second term, linear in $`N`$, represents the chemical potential or the free energy of adding a single combined layer to the system. As already formulated in  this chemical potential has the form

$$\mu =\mathrm{log}\sqrt{det𝔸}\lambda ^{(+)},$$
(21)
where $`\lambda ^{(+)}=e^\xi `$ is one of the eigenvalues of the matrix $`𝔸^{}`$. However it is the last term of Eq. 20 that describes the interactions in the multilayer composite. Using Eqs. 17 and 18 we end up with

$$𝔽(N;a,b)=kT\underset{𝐐}{}\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}^{}\mathrm{log}\left(\frac{p_{11}(N)+p_{21}(N)\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{RA}+e^{2\rho _Aa}\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{AL}(p_{12}(N)+p_{22}(N)\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{RA})}{p_{11}(\mathrm{})+p_{21}(\mathrm{})\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{RA}+e^{2\rho _Aa}\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{AL}(p_{12}(\mathrm{})+p_{22}(\mathrm{})\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{RA})}\right),$$
(22)
the main result of this paper. It gives the complete van der Waals interaction across the stratified medium $`AB`$ in a form with explicit dependence on the number of layers $`N`$. Not excessively complicated, it allows for straightforward numerical computations.

Before analyzing Eq. 22 in detail, we verify that it has the correct limiting behavior. When $`ϵ_A=ϵ_B`$, so that $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}=0`$ with $`\rho _A=\rho _B=\rho `$, if the stratified medium behaves homogeneously. In this case

$$f(u,\rho _Aa+\rho _Bb)=1\mathrm{and}\xi =(\rho _Aa+\rho _Bb)=\rho (a+b).$$
(23)
Furthermore in the same limit we obtain for the matrix $``$

$$=2\mathrm{sinh}(\rho _Aa+\rho _Bb)\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& e^{2N(\rho _Aa+\rho _Bb)}\end{array}\right).$$
(24)
From these Eq. 22 becomes

$$𝔽(N;a,b)=kT\underset{𝐐}{}\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}^{}\mathrm{log}\left(1+\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{RA}\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{AL}e^{2\rho (a+N(a+b))}\right).$$
(25)
Thus we recover the standard Lifshitz expression for the interaction of media $`L`$ and $`R`$ across the medium $`A=B`$ of thickness $`a+N(a+b)`$. Obviously in the limit where the dielectric properties of $`A`$ and $`B`$ coincide, this is just the total thickness of the region $`A`$ .

The general formula Eq. 22 can be rewritten

$$𝔽(N;a,b)=\frac{kT}{2\pi }\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}^{}_0^{\mathrm{}}Q𝑑Q\mathrm{log}\left(\frac{p_{11}(N)+p_{21}(N)\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{RA}+e^{2\rho _Aa}\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{AL}(p_{12}(N)+p_{22}(N)\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{RA})}{p_{11}(\mathrm{})+p_{21}(\mathrm{})\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{RA}+e^{2\rho _Aa}\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{AL}(p_{12}(\mathrm{})+p_{22}(\mathrm{})\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{RA})}\right).$$
(26)
Its consequences can be fully appreciated only after a full numerical analysis. In Fig. 2 we evaluate the $`n=0`$ term separately and then compare it to the full $`n`$ summation that includes retardation effects, Fig. 3.

## 4 Numerical computations and Conclusions

For intuition about the general result Eq. 26 we evaluate the van der Waals interactions across a slab of material of thickness $`a+N(a+b)`$, the continuum composite of layers $`A`$ and $`B`$ of Fig. 1. Because of its layered structure, we can associate with it a transverse dielectric function $`ϵ_{}=ϵ_{xx}=ϵ_{yy}`$ and a longitudinal dielectric function $`ϵ_{}=ϵ_{zz}`$. The continuum composite is thus a uni-axial dielectric with two distinct values of the dielectric response parallel and perpendicular to the layer normal. In terms of the dielectric functions $`ϵ_A`$ and $`ϵ_B`$ by analogy to capacitors in series and in parallel,

$$ϵ_{}=\frac{1}{a+b}\left(aϵ_A+bϵ_B\right)\mathrm{and}\frac{1}{ϵ_{}}=\frac{1}{a+b}\left(\frac{a}{ϵ_A}+\frac{b}{ϵ_B}\right).$$
(27)
The longitudinal and the transverse dielectric response of a layered continuum composite thus depend on the volume fractions $`a/(a+b)`$ and $`b/(a+b)`$ of the materials $`A`$ and $`B`$ in the system.

We use the result of Šarlah and Žumer  to derive the van der Waals interactions in a non-isotropic homogeneous uniaxial slab composed of periodic layers. If we associate the index $`\overline{A}`$ with the continuum uniaxial composite, we have for the TM modes

$$\rho _{\overline{A}}^2=\frac{ϵ_{}}{ϵ_{}}\left(Q^2\frac{ϵ_{}\omega ^2}{c^2}\right).$$
(28)
The corresponding values for

$$\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{R\overline{A}}=\left(\frac{\rho _{\overline{A}}ϵ_A\rho _Aϵ_{}}{\rho _{\overline{A}}ϵ_A+\rho _Aϵ_{}}\right)=\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{\overline{A}L},$$
(29)
and mutatis mutandis  for the TE field modes.Thus we obtain the interaction free energy as

$$𝔽(N;a,b)=\frac{kT}{2\pi }\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}^{}_0^{\mathrm{}}Q𝑑Q\mathrm{log}\left(1+\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{R\overline{A}}\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}_{\overline{A}L}e^{2\rho _{\overline{A}}(a+N(a+b))}\right),$$
(30)
plus an analogous term for the TE modes. This is the expression that we will compare with our exact formula Eq. 26.

Fig. 2 gives the dependence of the zero order term, $`n=0`$, interaction free energy $`𝔽(N;a,b)`$, in its exact form Eq. 26 as well as its continuum approximate form Eq. 30, on the number of layers $`N`$, where we have taken $`A`$ to correspond to hydrocarbon and $`B,L,R`$ to correspond to water. The cases for $`b=4nm`$ and $`a=1,4,8nm`$ are shown. It is clear from Fig. 2 that the effect of discreteness of layers is effectively gone after about 10 layers in the stack. Also obviously the interaction free energy is larger the larger the volume fraction of the lipid in the system.

The same is true also for the complete form, Eq. 26, with the explicit summation over $`n`$, Fig. 3. The higher order terms in the $`n`$-summation are obviously important only for small $`N`$. In both cases, $`n=0`$ as well as full summation over $`n`$, the way the continuum limit is approached obviously depends on the characteristics of the layers, especially on their respective thicknesses. As is well known  for the hydrocarbon-water system the $`n=0`$ term gives the dominant contribution to the interaction energy and assures that contrary to the case of other materials the van der Waals interactionshave a non-retarded form even at very large separations.

The $`n=0`$ Hamaker coefficient, Fig. 4 and Eq. 19, reinforces conclusions based on the evaluation of the interaction free energy. Again the continuum limit of the Hamaker coefficient is safely reached after about $`10`$ layers, the swiftness of the transition to the continuum approximation being dictated by the thickness and the dielectric properties of the layers $`A`$ and $`B`$. Also the magnitude of the Hamaker coefficient, for fixed thickness of the periodic layer, $`a+b=8nm`$ in the case examined, depends on the volume fraction of both layers. It is biggest when the lipid layer volume fraction is highest. This is indeed as one would expect since for high water volume fractions the dielectric inhomogeneity and thus van der Waals interactions are non-existent. It is only at much higher values of $`N`$ that the effect of retardation will set in, leading to a levelling off of the Hamaker coefficient at about half of its $`n=0`$ value. Since our focus here is the granularity or stratification of the medium, we do not delve any further on the retardation effects.

If the Hamaker coefficient were evaluated in the model based on an isotropic mixture of $`A`$ and $`B`$ the Hamaker coefficient would be about $`20\%`$ smaller than in the anisotropic continuum model.

Comparing the exact dependence of the van der Waals interactions across a periodic multilayer on the number of layers with a continuum approximation based on the van der Waals interactions across uni-axial anisotropic composite, we have been able to assess the validity of the continuum approximation and show that it indeed reduces to the properly defined limit after about $`10`$ layers. Again, this limit has to acknowledge the uniaxial continuum structure of the multilayer.


text:
# A cross-correlation of WMAP and ROSAT

## 1 Introduction

The recent release of the WMAP data (Bennett et al. 2003) has opened a new window for studies of large-scale structure based on the well known Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effect (SZ effect) (Sunyaev & Zel’dovich, 1972). The SZ effect shifts the spectrum of the CMB photons to higher frequencies. This shift is redshift-independent and proportional to the product of the electron column density with the average temperature along the line of sight. The electron temperature and optical depth due to Thomson scattering are particularly high inside galaxy clusters. Thus, the SZ effect is a good tracer of clusters, even for those at high redshift. Around galaxy clusters, a diffuse, possibly filamentary, distribution of hot gas is believed to be present. These filaments have not been definitively detected due to their low contrast compared with the background (either CMB or X-ray backgrounds). The same electrons which cause the SZ effect will also emit X-rays by bremsstrahlung emission. Therefore, one expects the SZ effect and the X-ray emission of galaxy clusters and filaments to be spatially correlated. Since the X-ray background and the CMB are not correlated (except at very large scales where there could be a correlation due to the integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect (Boughn et al. 1998)), the cross-correlation of an X-ray map with the CMB should enhance the signal of clusters and filaments with respect to the background. This fact motivates the present study.

We will be interested in studying the cross-correlation $`SZXR`$ (where $``$ stands for cross-correlation). We need to define a statistical object to quantify this correlation. We will use the power spectrum of the $`SZXR`$ map as such an object. We will also use the so-called cross-power spectrum (cross-correlation of the Fourier modes). There are several advantages to using the power spectrum and cross-power spectrum over other statistical objects. First, they contain useful information at different scales. For instance the 0 mode accounts for the correlation coefficient of the two maps. Higher modes will contain information about the fluctuations at smaller scales. The modelling of the power spectrum is also easier and it can easily account for the uncertainties in the assumptions made in the model. The power spectrum will also tell us something about the contribution of clusters and filaments to the CMB power spectrum. Previous papers have claimed an excess in the CMB power spectrum (Mason et al. 2003; Bond et al. 2002). It is not yet clear whether this excess could be caused by the SZ effect signal or just be inadequately subtracted residuals (compact sources or residual noise). An independent estimation of the SZ effect power spectrum would help to clarify this point. The reader can find all the details of this work on Diego et al. (2003)

## 2 The cross-correlation WMAP$``$ROSAT

WMAP data consists of 5 all-sky maps at five different frequencies (23 Ghz $`<`$ $`\nu `$ $`<`$ 94 Ghz). At low frequencies, these maps show strong galactic emission (synchrotron and free-free). The highest frequency maps (41-94 Ghz) are the cleanest in terms of galactic contaminants and will be the most interesting for our purpose. We will focus on one basic linear combination of the WMAP data, the differenced $`QW`$ bands of the $`1^{}`$ smoothed version of the original data. This differencing completely removes the main contaminant in this work, the CMB, leaving a residual dominated by galactic and extragalactic foregrounds as well as filtered instrumental noise.
On the other hand, the ROSAT All-Sky Survey data (RASS, see Snowden et al. 1997) is presented in a set of bands ($`0.12`$ keV). Low energy bands are highly contaminated by local emission (local bubble and Milky Way galaxy) while high energy bands show an important contribution from extragalactic AGN’s. The optimal band for our purposes will be the band R6 ($``$ 0.9-1.3 keV). This band is the best in terms of instrumental response, background contamination and cluster vs AGN emission. The ROSAT maps have been cleaned from the most prominent point sources (sources above the threshold 0.02 cts/s in the R5+R6 band). However, we should note that for the above threshold, the survey source catalogue was incomplete and there are still some (very hard) point sources present in the maps of the diffuse X-ray background. We also have to note that during the point source subtraction process several compact clusters were removed from the data. This fact may introduce a systematic error in our conclusions which will be discussed later.

In order to maximise the extragalactic signal, we restrict our analysis to regions outside the galactic plane. In particular, we will consider only a clean portion of the sky above $`b=40^{}`$ and $`70^{}<\mathrm{}<250^{}`$ which will also exclude the contribution from the north-galactic spur. This optimal area of the sky covers $`9\%`$ of the sky.
We also have to remove a few bright point sources in the ROSAT maps which were not originally removed. Some of these sources will produce a correlation signal if we do not remove them. One of these bright sources (MRK 0421) was already identified in a previous work as a source of correlation between ROSAT and COBE maps (Kneissl et al. 1997).

The power spectrum of $`WMAPROSAT`$ (power spectrum of the product of the maps in real space) is shown in figure 1.

At large scales (small multipoles) the product maps contains more power that at small scales (large $`l`$’s). This is mostly due to the smoothing process of WMAP maps ($`1^{}`$) which suppresses power at small scales. We should also mention that, contrary to what happens in the cross-power spectrum, the power spectrum of the product maps does not have to be 0 if there is no correlation between the maps. This fact makes more difficult the identification of a correlation between two maps. In order to identify possible correlations we have to rotate one of the maps. Then, if there is a spatial correlation between the maps, the power spectrum will be smaller after rotating one of the maps. When we do that for several rotation angles we observe that the power spectrum does not change. This means that there is not a significant correlation between the maps.

When we look at the cross-power spectrum, we do not observe any significant correlation either. The cross-power spectrum oscillates around 0 as expected for two maps which are not correlated. The cross-power spectrum is the $`k`$-ring average of the product of the Fourier modes of the two maps. If the maps are not correlated this average must be 0.

Although we do not detect any signal neither with the power spectrum of the product maps nor the cross-power spectrum, we can still use this fact to set some constraints on the model. In figures 1 and 2 we compare the measured power and cross-power with three different models where we change the parameter $`\sigma _8`$ ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ is fixed to 0.3). This simple comparison tell us that models with low $`\sigma _8`$ are favoured by the observed lack of correlation between the two data sets. High values of $`\sigma _8`$ can be accommodated if the SZ effect is significantly contaminated by point sources (embedded in the clusters) so the net distortion in the CMB is smaller than if the cluster signal is just pure SZ effect (point sources contribute as positive signals while the SZ effect is negative at the frequencies considered in this work).

High values of $`\sigma _8`$ can also be compatible with the data if the fraction of clusters removed in the point source subtraction process in ROSAT data contribute significantly to the power spectrum and cross-power spectrum. We have estimated this possible source in systematic error in the worst-scenario case in which all the clusters above the 0.02 cts/s point source removal threshold have been subtracted. In this case the theoretical power spectrum shown in figures 1 and 2 should be smaller by a factor $`3`$. Taking this reduction in power into account, models with $`\sigma _8=0.9`$ could be marginally consistent with the lack of correlation but models with $`\sigma _8=1.0`$ still seem difficult to reconcile.

## 3 conclusions

We do not find any significant correlation between WMAP and ROSAT. This lack of correlation can be due to contamination of the SZ effect by point sources, a significant reduction in the cluster signal due to erroneously subtracted clusters during the point source subtraction process in ROSAT data, the possibility that we live in a universe with a low normalisation of the power spectrum $`\sigma _8`$ or a combination of the previous factors.
We found that different assumptions about the model lead to different fits to the data. In particular, high values of $`\sigma _8`$ seem to be difficult to reconcile with the absence of significant correlation.

This absence of significant correlation could also be used to rule out the possibility that the excess in ACBAR and CBI is due to SZ effect. We illustrate this point in figure 3 where we compare the power spectrum of the SZ effect for the models A,B, and C with the recent estimate of the CMB power spectrum by WMAP (solid line) and with estimates from ACBAR (Kuo et al. 2003) and CBI (Mason et al. 2003).
From this plot we could conclude that the fact that we do not observe a correlation between WMAP and ROSAT implies that the SZ effect power spectrum should not contribute significantly to any of these experiments. Unfortunately, the quality of the data does not allow us to make such a severe affirmation. An updated version of this work made with the four year CMB data from WMAP and a new version of the soft X-ray diffuse background maps (with no cluster subtraction) could certainly help to answer this question.

## 4 Acknowledgements

This research has been supported by a Marie Curie Fellowship of the European Community programme Improving the Human Research Potential and Socio-Economic knowledge under contract number HPMF-CT-2000-00967.


text:
# INTEGRAL observations of SS433, a supercritically accreting microquasar with hard spectrum Based on observations with INTEGRAL, an ESA project with instruments and science data centre funded by ESA member states (especially the PI countries: Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Spain), Czech Republic and Poland, and with the participation of Russia and the USA.

## 1 Introduction

SS433 is a unique galactic X-ray binary system – a microquasar with mildly relativistic ($`v=0.26c`$), narrow-collimated (opening angle $`\theta 1^o`$, Namiki et al 2003), precessing jets (Margon 1984; Cherepashchuk 1981, 1988; Crampton & Hutchings 1981). The system exhibits three photometric and spectral periodicities related to precession ($`P_{\mathrm{prec}}=162^d.5`$), orbital ($`P_{\mathrm{orb}}=13^d.082`$) and nutation ($`P_{\mathrm{nut}}=6^d.28`$) periods (Goranskii et al. 1998). Recent spectral observations (Gies et al. 2002a) revealed the presence of absorption lines in the spectrum of the optical A ($``$ A7Ib) supergiant companion. The observed orbital Doppler shifts of the optical star absorption lines correspond to the mass ratio of relativistic ($`m_\mathrm{x}`$) and optical ($`m_\mathrm{v}`$) component $`q=m_\mathrm{x}/m_\mathrm{v}=0.57\pm 0.11`$ and masses $`m_\mathrm{v}=(19\pm 7)M_{}`$, $`m_\mathrm{x}=(11\pm 5)M_{}`$. Similar characteristics were derived from optical light curves of SS433 (Antokhina & Cherepashchuk 1987).

Recent infrared spectroscopy (Fuchs et al. 2002) indicated an enhanced helium abundance in the matter outflowing from the optical star into the superaccreting precessing accretion disc. This confirmed the evolutionary status of SS433 as a massive X-ray binary at an advanced evolutionary stage (Cherepashchuk 1981, 1988) with supercritical accretion (Shakura & Sunyaev 1973). The new spectroscopic data (Gies et al. 2002a) may indicate that the observed large width of X-ray eclipse in SS433 can be due to collision stellar winds of the binary components (Cherepashchuk et al. 1995). So it is established now that SS433 is a microquasar with a black hole (BH), supercritical precessing accretion disc and precessing quasi-stationary relativistic jets.

It is well known that X-ray spectra of BH X-ray binaries, in contrast to accreting neutron stars, show power-law tails extending up to many hundreds keV (Sunyaev et al. 1991a,b). In supercritical accretion regime the thermalisation of X-ray emission within the optically thick wind outflowing from the supercritical accretion disk is expected to cut off the spectrum of an accreting BH at comparatively low energies, of order of tens keV. At the same time, geometrical factors, such as the tunnel swept by the relativistic jets in the disc wind, leave the hope to observe the possible hard X-ray component from SS433 at least in the precession phases when the disk is observed mostly face-on (under the inclination angle $`30^o`$).

In this paper we report on the searches for hard X-ray component from the supercritically accreting BH in SS433 using the dedicated INTEGRAL observations carried out in May 2003. We also use the INTEGRAL data on SS433 obtained during observations of Aql X-1 (Molkov et al. 2003) in March 2003.

Hard X-ray emission of SS433 had been observed before by RXTE (Kotani et al. 2002). The IBIS detector onboard the INTEGRAL satellite offers a unique possibility of studying SS433 in hard X-rays up to hundreds keV (for more detail on INTEGRAL scientific payload and mission description see Winkler 1996, 1999).

## 2 Observations and data reduction

The international gamma-ray observatory INTEGRAL was successively launched to its orbit with a Russian rocket PROTON from the Baikonur cosmodrome on Oct 17, 2002. The scientific payload includes instruments designed for the investigation of cosmic sources in a wide energy band 3-10000 keV: 1) the IBIS telescope, consisting of the two detectors ISGRI and PICsIT working in the energy band 15-10000 keV, and allowing sources localization with an accuracy of about 30″; 2) the spectrometer SPI, which works in an energy band 15-8000 keV and is designed for an accurate spectroscopy with the energy resolution $`E/\delta E500`$ (at 1 MeV); 3) the X-ray monitor JEM-X with an effective energy range 3-35 keV. All telescopes are using the principle of coding aperture. The full field of view (FOV) of IBIS telescope, data from which is used in this work is $`25^o\times 25^o`$ with fully coded FOV $`9^o\times 9`$ (FCFOV).

SS433 has been observed by INTEGRAL in two sets on 11,23,30 March, 6,13 April and May 3-9 and 11, 2003, with a total duration of about 500 ks. At this time, SS433 was seen maximally face-on which favored observations of the deepest parts of the “tunnel” worked out by the jets in the disk wind. On May 3, the accretion disk was nearly in front of the optical star and on May 11 it was partially shielded by the optical companion. So these observations allowed us to detect both the total X-ray emission from the jets and the X-ray emission from jets with subtracted central parts shielded by the optical star. Consequently, we can study the “pure” spectrum of the very central jet parts close to the BH. Here we present a preliminary quick-look analysis of May 3-8 observations when the optical star was located behind the accretion disc. These observations relate to the total emission of the X-ray jet, including its central part.

In addition, we have used the INTEGRAL data on SS433 obtained during observations of Aql X-1 (Molkov et al. 2003) in March-April 2003 to study its hard X-ray long-term variability, motivated by the precessional motion observed in SS433.

Calibrations of instruments of INTEGRAL observatory is still not finished, and right now it is not possible for us to make full analysis of data of all telescopes. Therefore, our paper focuses on the data from the IBIS telescope which has the largest effective area.

For data reduction, we used the standard software package OSA 1.0, distributed by INTEGRAL Science Data Center (ISDC, http://isdc.unige.ch). This version does not allow us to make a full spectral and timing analysis of data, therefore for the preliminary spectral analysis of SS433 we used a big set of public calibration observations of the Crab nebula obtained in February 2003 (revolutions 39–45). Taking into account the present uncertainties of the calibrations leading to strong dependence of the reconstructed source intensity on its distance from the center of FOV (obtained from the Crab nebula analysis), especially in low channels of the ISGRI detector, in our subsequent analysis we used only the data of observations when SS433 was inside FCFOV, where the intensity of the source should be relatively stable. The count rates for the the Crab nebula which were used for the calibration are 131 counts/s and 89 counts/s in 25-50 and 50-100 keV energy bands, respectively.

A reconstruction of the sky regions was made using May 2003 data with the total exposures of ISGRI detector $`450`$ ks (orbits 67, 68, 69, 70) for the image reconstruction and $`200`$ ks (orbits 67, 68) for spectral analysis.

## 3 Results

### 3.1 Position accuracy of IBIS and the SS433 image shape

The accuracy of object positions obtained by IBIS has been tested using the four identified sources – SS433, Aql X-1, Ser X-1 and GRS 1915+105. The result is that there is a systematic shift in the sources’ position determination of $`3.9^{}`$ with dispersion $`2^{}`$ The systematic shift is mostly along the RA coordinate. So the X-ray source coincides with the optical position of SS433 within the $`2^{}`$ error. The position accuracy can be ameliorated in future calibrations.

On the IBIS images, SS433 appears point-like with a radius of $`4^{}`$, without any significant deviation of isophots from the circular form. Any extended details such as jets or lobes are not detected. For comparison, in Fig. 1 we plot the ROSAT image of SS433 superimposed on the IBIS 25-50 contours (in counts per pixel). The extended X-ray lobes seen on the ROSAT image are not detected on the IBIS/ISGRI images by the existing software possibly due to insufficient sensitivity and uncertainties in the background subtraction, “hot” pixels tackling procedure, etc.

SS433 is distinctly seen in the IBIS FOV at 25-50 keV (Fig. 2) and 50-100 kev (3) energy band, along with the famous microquasar GRS1915+105 hosting a sub-critically accreting BH. The very fact of the good seeing of SS433 up to 100 keV evidences for important role of the geometrical factor (precessing accretion disk) and may suggest the presence of relativistic particles in the vicinity of the supercritically accreting BH (see below).

### 3.2 The hard X-ray luminosity of SS433

SS433 is known to be a moderately bright X-ray source in the 2-10 keV energy band with $`L_\mathrm{x}10^{35}10^{36}`$ erg/s (Marshall et al. 2002, Namiki et al. 2003) which is mainly due to jet emission. The luminosity of SS433 in the hard X-rays as inferred from the May 3 INTEGRAL observations is $`L_\mathrm{x}3\times 10^{35}`$ erg/s (25-50 keV) and $`L_\mathrm{x}1.2\times 10^{35}`$ erg/s (50-100 keV), assuming the distance of $`4.85`$ kpc (Vermeulen et al 1993) Thus, the total X-ray luminosity of SS433 is less than that of classical high-mass X-ray binaries with OB-supergiants (e.g., Cherepashchuk et al. 1996).

### 3.3 Hard X-ray variability of SS433

The X-ray flux (2-10 keV) from SS433 is observed by RXTE to be variable on timescales 100-1000 s (Kotani et al. 2002). This timescale corresponds to Keplerian frequencies at distances from 10 $`M_{}`$ BH where the 1000 km/s disk wind is formed. Hard X-rays from the jet could also have such a variability, so we tried to analyze our data to find it. The hard X-ray variability formed at the very basement of the jets provides information on the jet production and collimation. We found evidence neither for periodic pulsations on timescales 400-4000 s, nor quasiperiodic oscillations (typical for subcritically accreting BH).

The light curves of SS433 from the IBIS/ISGRI detector exhibit precessional and orbital variability in the 25-50 keV band. The variations of the flux from 7 to 25 mCrab are clearly detected in the pointings of March 11, 23, 30 and April 6, 13 as well as on May 3-9, 11. The precessional variability is traced from the cross-over phase (on March 8), when the disk is seen edge-on and the X-ray flux is minimal, up to the maximum phase (on May 1), when the disk is maximally open to the observer. The flux changes more than two times in magnitude with the precession phase in the 25-50 keV band (see Fig. 4). The amplitude of the precessional variability in the 2-12 keV band as inferred from RXTE ASM data (Gies et al., 2002b) is smaller, $`40\%`$.

The pointings of May 9 and 13, 2003 show the decrease of the flux from $`25`$ down to $`7`$ mCrab, which is apparently due to an X-ray eclipse in the primary orbital minimum when the “normal” star is in front of the compact source (on May 11). The eclipse phase agrees with the ephemeris given by Goranskii et al (1998) calculated using optical data only. The X-ray eclipse egress is clearly seen as a sharp flux increase. Though the observation sequence is not continuous, the X-ray eclipse duration is estimated to be $`2`$ days. Note that the X-ray flux exhibits essential decrease in all the observed moments of the expected optical eclipses (shown as black triangles in Fig. 4), most clearly on April 2 and May 11. The eclipses in the 25-50 keV band are deep and sharp, which possibly indicates that the eclipsed emission originates from the compact source itself or from the inner parts of the jets.

### 3.4 Hard X-ray spectrum of SS433

Despite the preliminary character of our analysis, the hard X-ray spectrum of SS433 appears relatively flat from 20 keV to 100 keV (Fig. 5) with the power-law photon index $`\alpha 2`$. Such spectra are typical for accreting BHs (Sunyaev et al. 1991a,b).

The most straightforward explanation of this spectrum is thermal Comptonisation of soft photons emitted by the inner parts of the disc on relativistic electrons in a hot non-thermal corona above accretion disc. Such coronas are thought to exist in BH X-ray binaries in the low/hard states and disappear (due to effective Compton cooling) when accretion luminosity increases (at the high/soft state). So it is hard to imagine how such a corona could survive a supercritical accretion transition in the case of SS433. It is also problematic to observe directly the hard photons generated in a supercritical accretion disk due to photon trapping effects (e.g. Ohsuga et al. 2003).

Another explanation could be particle acceleration in Poynting-dominated jets in the vicinity of the BH. The maximum Lorentz-factor of particles in a Poynting dominated outflow is (Michel 1969)

$$\gamma _{\mathrm{max}}\sigma ^{1/3}$$
(1)
where $`\sigma =B^2/(4\pi n_\mathrm{e}m_\mathrm{e}c^2)`$ is plasma magnetization parameter ($`B`$– magnetic field strength at the jet base, $`n_\mathrm{e}`$ is the electron density). For electron-proton jet launched by a relativistic rotator with circular frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ the magnetization parameter can be rewritten as (see also Camenzind 1990)

$$\sigma =\frac{m_\mathrm{p}}{m_\mathrm{e}}\frac{B^2R^2}{\dot{M}_\mathrm{j}c}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }R}{c}\right)^2$$
(2)
where $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{j}=4\pi n_\mathrm{e}m_\mathrm{p}R^2c`$ is the mass ejection rate at the jet base. For estimation, near the BH we can put $`\mathrm{\Omega }R/c1`$ and assume a maximum magnetic field from $`B^2/4\pi n_\mathrm{e}m_\mathrm{p}c^2`$. Then $`\sigma m_\mathrm{p}/m_\mathrm{e}2000`$ and $`\gamma _{\mathrm{max}}12`$. Some additional acceleration can occur outside the fast magnetosonic surface due to a strong photon field ($`L_\mathrm{x}L_{\mathrm{edd}}`$) around the jet (Beskin, Zakamska & Sol 2003), as the compactness parameter in this case is $`l_\mathrm{a}=(L/R)\sigma _\mathrm{T}/(m_\mathrm{e}c^3)10^310^4>\sigma `$. This estimate shows that hard (up to 100 keV) X-ray photons can be Compton upscatterred soft X-ray photons from the inner parts of the disk on mildly relativistic electrons accelerated in the Poynting dominated jet formed close to the BH. We stress here that actually observed jet outflow $`10^6M_{}`$/yr with $`v=0.26c`$ is an order of magnitude larger than the Eddington-controlled matter flux near BH and should be formed around and upstream the initial jet involving non-relativistic disk wind. The observed precession of the jets locked with disk precession firmly indicates that the most jet outflow in SS433 is due to the disk wind. We also note that in the jets, various thermal instabilities can operate giving rise to their inhomogeneous structure. More detailed analysis of rapid variability of SS433 in hard X-rays is in progress.

The total spectrum of SS433 from radio to hard X-rays is shown in Fig. 6. Maximum energy release is in the optical band, as expected from a supercritically accreting disk in which most energy released in the disk is thermalised by the optically thick disk wind. We stress again that the presence of hard X-ray emission from the supercritically accreting disk in SS433 and its variability with precessional period provides evidence for a hollow cone in the polar regions of the disk apparently swept-up in the disk wind by precessing jets.

## 4 Conclusion

We have presented a quick-look analysis of SS433 by the IBIS telescope onboard the INTEGRAL gamma-ray observatory. The observations revealed for the first time the clear presence of a variable hard X-ray continuum in the SS433 (up to 100 keV). Hard X-rays from supercritical accreting disk around a 10 $`M_{}`$ BH can be due to Comptonisation of soft X-ray photons generated in the inner disk on relativistic electrons accelerated in the central part of the jet near the BH.

###### Acknowledgements.

Research has made use of data obtained through the INTEGRAL Science Data Center (ISDC), Versoix, Switzerland, and Russian INTEGRAL Data Center, Space Research Institute, Moscow, Russia. The authors acknowledge N.I.Shakura, A.N.Timokhin, and E.A.Antokhina for valuable notes. The work is partly supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (projects 00-15-96553 and 00-02-17164) and by the program of the support of leading scientific schools of Russia.