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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

In the conventional investigation of high energy multiparticle production, all the events in a collision process are taken as a whole and the distributions, fluctuations and correlations inside the sample are studied without distinguishing the individual events. This kind of study is usually referred to as inclusive one. In the 80’s – 90’s of last century, motivated by the experimental observation   and theoretical perspective , people started to carry on the study event by event  , with the aim of exploring the possible existence of new physics, such as quark-gluon plasma (qgp or non-linear dynamics .

One of the differences in these two kinds of study is that, the inclusive dynamics can readily be extracted from the experimental measurement through averaging over a large number of events, while the extracting of event dynamics is complicated due to the statistical fluctuations coming from the limited number of particles in a single event.

For concreteness, let us consider the event-by-event fluctuation of the transverse momentum distribution $`p(p_\mathrm{t})`$, a knowledge of which is important for the understanding of the basic collision dynamics . Usually, it is convenient to “coarse-grain” $`p(p_\mathrm{t})`$, i.e. to divide the phase space region $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ of $`p_\mathrm{t}`$ into $`M`$ bins and integrate $`p(p_\mathrm{t})`$ over $`p_\mathrm{t}`$ in the $`m`$th bin $`\delta _m`$

$$p_m=_{\delta _m}p(p_\mathrm{t})dp_\mathrm{t},(m=1,2,\mathrm{},M).$$
(1)
The set

$$p_1,p_2,\mathrm{},p_M$$
(2)
is the “coarse-grained” distribution . When $`M\mathrm{}`$ ($`\delta _m0`$) it recovers the original distribution $`p(p_\mathrm{t})`$ . If $`p(p_\mathrm{t})`$ is continuous this process is convergent and a good approximation for $`p(p_\mathrm{t})`$ could be obtained for not very large $`M`$.

The realization of $`p(p_\mathrm{t})`$ in experiment is the distribution of the total number $`N`$ of particles in the $`p_\mathrm{t}`$ region $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, and the expression

$$q_m=N_m/N(m=1,2,\mathrm{},M)$$
(3)
is used to evaluate $`p_m`$, where $`N_m`$ is the number of particle falling into the $`m`$th bin. This is, however, exact only when $`N\mathrm{}`$. Just at this point appears the difference between the inclusive and event-by-event studies.

In an inclusive study, what is under consideration is the transverse momentum distribution $`p_{\mathrm{incl}}(p_\mathrm{t})`$ in the event sample. In this case, the number $`N`$ in Eq.(3) is the total number of particles in the whole sample and could be made arbitrarily large through increasing the number of events in the experiment and thus the effect of statistical fluctuation can be gotten rid of through averaging over a sufficiently large event sample. On the contrary, in an event-by-event study the distribution $`p(p_\mathrm{t})`$ in consideration is the transverse momentum distribution in a single event and the number $`N`$ in Eq.(3) is the number $`n`$ of particles in the event, which is limited by energy conservation, and the statistical fluctuation inevitably comes in.

Various methods have been proposed to eliminate the influence of statistical fluctuation and evaluate the dynamical ones. Most of them are based on the comparison of the measured fluctuation with the expectation of statistically independent particle emission. For example, in Ref.  the results from mixed events are considered as the baseline for the random distribution and the difference in the fluctuation from a random distribution defined as

$$d=\omega _{\mathrm{data}}\omega _{\mathrm{baseline}}$$
(4)
is taken as a measure of the dynamical fluctuation. In Eq.(4)

$$\omega =\frac{\sqrt{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}^2\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}^2}}{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}}=\frac{\sqrt{\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}}^2}}{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}},$$
(5)
$`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ is the mean transverse momentum in a single event and $`\mathrm{}`$ denotes the average over event sample.

Alternatively, in Ref.  the statistical variance of event mean $`p_\mathrm{t}`$, under the assumption of independent particle production, is estimated as

$$\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}\mathrm{stat}}^2=\frac{\sigma _{p_\mathrm{t}\mathrm{incl}}^2}{n},$$
(6)
and the difference between the variances of $`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ obtained from data and “stat” is taken as the dynamical variance

$$\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}\mathrm{dynam}}^2=\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}\mathrm{data}}^2\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}\mathrm{stat}}^2=\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}\mathrm{data}}^2\frac{\sigma _{p_\mathrm{t}\mathrm{incl}}^2}{n}.$$
(7)
A widely used measure for the non-statistical mean $`p_\mathrm{t}`$ fluctuation is the $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ proposed in Ref.

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_{p_\mathrm{t}}\sqrt{Z^2/n}\sqrt{z^2},$$
(8)
where $`z`$ and $`Z`$ are defined as $`zp_\mathrm{t}p_\mathrm{t}`$ for each particle and $`Z_{i=1}^nz_i=n(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}p_\mathrm{t})`$ for each event, respectively . The second term of the r.h.s. of Eq.(8) is the square root of the inclusive variance $`\sigma _{p_\mathrm{t}\mathrm{incl}}^2=(p_\mathrm{t}p_\mathrm{t})^2`$. Assuming that the multiplicity fluctuation is uncorrelated with the $`p_\mathrm{t}`$ fluctuation, we get from Eq.(8)

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_{p_\mathrm{t}}=\sqrt{n^2/n}\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}\mathrm{data}}\sigma _{p_\mathrm{t}\mathrm{incl}}.$$
(9)
This equation is evidently similar to Eq.(7), both have the same structure as Eq.(4), being based on a subtraction procedure, i.e. to subtract the variance of $`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ or a quantity related to it, that will be expected from pure statistical fluctuation, from the same quantity obtained in experiment. These measures will, of course, vanish for a pure statistical system, and a non-vanishing value of them will indicate the existence of dynamical effect. Therefore, the measures based on the subtraction procedure, as those listed above, will at least qualitatively measures the effect of dynamical fluctuation.

The aim of the present paper is to develop a systematic method, which is able to eliminate the statistical fluctuations directly from the experimental event-by-event analysis and extract quantitatively the dynamical $`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ moment of any positive integer order, under the assumption that the statistical fluctuations are of the Poisson type, i.e. due to uncorrelated random particle emission.

In Section II a theorem will be proved which is the basis of the elimination of Poissonian statistical fluctuations. In Section III the theorem is applied to the event-by-event analysis of transverse momentum distribution. In Section IV the event-by-event fluctuation of the non-linear fractal property will be discussed and the proposed method will be applied to this case to extract the dynamical fluctuation of fractal property. Section V is the conclusions.

## 2 The elimination of Poissonian statistical fluctuation

Divide the transverse momentum region $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ into $`M`$ bins. Let $`p_m`$ be the event dynamical probability of $`p_\mathrm{t}`$ in the $`m`$th bin, cf. Eq.(1), and $`n_m`$ the number of particle in the event with $`p_\mathrm{t}`$ lying in the $`m`$th bin, then we have the theorem:

$$\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}f_mp_m^p=\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}f_m\frac{n_m(n_m1)\mathrm{}(n_mp+1)}{n^p},$$
(10)
where $`f_m`$ is an arbitrary variable depending on $`m`$.

Before going on to prove this theorem, let us notice that the symbol $`\mathrm{}`$ in the two sides of Eq.(10), despite of both being the average over event sample, have different meanings. In the l.h.s. it is simply the average over dynamical probability distribution, while in the r.h.s. it includes also the average over Poisson distribution of particle number.

$$\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}f_mp_m^p=\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}f_mp_m^pP(p_m)\mathrm{d}p_m,$$
(11)
$`_{m=1}^Mf_m\frac{n_m\left(n_m1\right)\mathrm{}\left(n_mp+1\right)}{n^p}`$

$$=\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}\underset{n_m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}f_m\frac{n_m(n_m1)\mathrm{}(n_mp+1)}{n^p}\frac{\mathrm{e}^{p_mn}}{n_m!}(p_mn)^{n_m}P(p_m)\mathrm{d}p_m,$$
(12)
where $`P(p_m)`$ is the dynamical probability distribution of $`p_m`$ in the event space, $`p_mn=n_m`$ is the average multiplicity in the $`m`$th bin. Using the normalization condition of Poisson distribution, it is easy to see that the r.h.s. of the above two equations are equal and Eq.(10) follows.

Note that a simplified version of the above theorem with $`f_m=1`$ in Eq.(10) has been proved in Ref.  and has been widely used in the intermittency study . Eq.(10) is a more general theorem with a factor $`f_m`$ included, which is essential in the application of this theorem to the elimination of statistical fluctuation in event-by-event analysis.

## 3 The elimination of statistical fluctuation in event-by-event transverse momentum fluctuation

Let $`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ and $`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}_{\mathrm{exp}}`$ be, respectively, the dynamical and experimentally measured values of the event-averaged $`p_\mathrm{t}`$,

$$\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}=_\mathrm{\Delta }p_\mathrm{t}p(p_\mathrm{t})dp_\mathrm{t}=\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}(p_\mathrm{t})_mp_m,$$
(13)
$$\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}_{\mathrm{exp}}=\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}(p_\mathrm{t})_mq_m=\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}(p_\mathrm{t})_m\frac{n_m}{n},$$
(14)
where $`(p_\mathrm{t})_m`$ is the $`p_\mathrm{t}`$ value in the $`m`$th bin. The event-space moments of $`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ and $`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}_{\mathrm{exp}}`$ are

$$C_p(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}})=\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}^p=\left(\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}(p_\mathrm{t})_mp_m\right)^p,$$
(15)
$$C_p^{\mathrm{exp}}(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}})=(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}_{\mathrm{exp}})^p=\left(\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}(p_\mathrm{t})_m\frac{n_m}{n}\right)^p,$$
(16)
respectively.

Let us first consider the elimination of statistical fluctuations in the second and third order moments. When $`p=2,3`$ we have

$`C_2(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}})`$ $`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}}(p_\mathrm{t})_mp_m\right)^2`$ (17)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}}(p_\mathrm{t})_m^2p_m^2+{\displaystyle \underset{mm^{}}{\overset{M}{}}}(p_\mathrm{t})_m(p_\mathrm{t})_m^{}p_mp_m^{},`$
$`C_3(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}})`$ $`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}}(p_\mathrm{t})_mp_m\right)^3`$ (18)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}}(p_\mathrm{t})_m^3p_m^3+3{\displaystyle \underset{mm^{}}{\overset{M}{}}}(p_\mathrm{t})_m(p_\mathrm{t})_m^{}^2p_mp_m^{}^2`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{mm^{}m^{\prime \prime }}{\overset{M}{}}}(p_\mathrm{t})_m(p_\mathrm{t})_m^{}(p_\mathrm{t})_{m^{\prime \prime }}p_mp_m^{}p_{m^{\prime \prime }}.`$
Define

$`G_2(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}}(p_\mathrm{t})_m^2{\displaystyle \frac{n_m(n_m1)}{n^2}}+{\displaystyle \underset{mm^{}}{\overset{M}{}}}(p_\mathrm{t})_m(p_\mathrm{t})_m^{}{\displaystyle \frac{n_mn_m^{}}{n^2}},`$ (19)
$`G_3(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}}(p_\mathrm{t})_m^3{\displaystyle \frac{n_m(n_m1)(n_m2)}{n^3}}+3{\displaystyle \underset{mm^{}}{\overset{M}{}}}(p_\mathrm{t})_m(p_\mathrm{t})_m^{}^2{\displaystyle \frac{n_mn_m^{}(n_m^{}1)}{n^3}}`$ (20)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{mm^{}m^{\prime \prime }}{\overset{M}{}}}(p_\mathrm{t})_m(p_\mathrm{t})_m^{}(p_\mathrm{t})_{m^{\prime \prime }}{\displaystyle \frac{n_mn_m^{}n_{m^{\prime \prime }}}{n^3}}.`$
It is easy to see, using Eq.(10), that $`G_2(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}})=C_2(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}})`$, $`G_3(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}})=C_3(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}})`$, provided the statistical fluctuations are Poissonian. Thus the dynamical moments $`C_2,C_3`$ can be extracted from the experimental measurement by using $`G_2,G_3`$ and the statistical fluctuations have been eliminated. The elimination of statistical fluctuations in higher order moments can be proceeded in a similar manner.

Let us demonstrate the above results with a toy-model Monte Carlo simulation. In this model the distribution of $`p_\mathrm{t}`$ is taken as

$$p(p_\mathrm{t})=\frac{4}{a^2}p_\mathrm{t}\mathrm{e}^{2p_\mathrm{t}/a},$$
(21)
with a Gaussian distributed parameter $`a`$ ($`\sigma ^2(a)=0.24`$). In total 1,000,000 events have been generated. The resulting variance $`\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}}^2=\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}^2\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}^2`$ for $`C`$, $`C^{\mathrm{exp}}`$ and $`G`$ are plotted in Fig.1 as upward triangles, full circles and downward triangles, respectively. It can be seen from the figure that the width $`\sqrt{\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}}^2}`$ of experimentally measured $`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ distribution is wider than that of the dynamical distribution, especially when the average multiplicity is low, while the width calculated from $`G`$ coincides with the dynamical width, $`\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}}^{2\mathrm{G}}=\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}}^{2\mathrm{C}}`$, where $`\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}}^{2\mathrm{G}}=G_2(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}})\left(G_1(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}})\right)^2`$ and $`G_1(\overline{p_\mathrm{t}})=_m(p_\mathrm{t})_mn_m/n`$. Therefore, using $`G_p`$ the Poissonian statistical fluctuations are eliminated thoroughly and the event dynamics is successfully extracted.

## 4 The elimination of statistical fluctuation in event-by-event analysis of fractal property

In the above discussion the dynamical event-distributions of phase space variables —— rapidity $`y`$, transverse momentum $`p_\mathrm{t}`$, azimuthal angle $`\phi `$ —— are implicitly assumed to be continuous functions, i.e. fulfil the condition

$$\delta x0\delta p(x)0,x=y,p_\mathrm{t},\phi ,$$
(22)
which means that when the bin size decreases the probabilities in neighboring bins tend to be equal to each other.

However, there is evidences showing that this may not be true in some cases. The first experimental evidence is from a jacee event in 1983, in which the total multiplicity is about one thousand and the multiplicity fluctuations in a small rapidity bin are still 2 $`\times `$ the average. Similar phenomena have also been observed afterwards in accelerator experiments with local fluctuations up to 60 $`\times `$ the average . Obviously, this kind of fluctuations is out of the usual statistical ones, indicating the existence of self-similar fractal property in phase space distribution.

A characteristic phenomenon of self-similar fractal is the anomalous scaling of the normalized probability moments (npm):

$$C_q(M)M^1\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}(Mp_m)^qM^{\varphi _q}.$$
(23)
Such an anomalous scaling property can be demonstrated using a toy model for self-similar fractal —— random cascading $`\alpha `$ model . This model describes each multiparticle event as a series of steps, in which the initial phase space region $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is repeatedly partitioned into $`\lambda =2`$ parts. After $`\nu `$ steps we get $`M=2^\nu `$ sub-cells of size $`\delta =\mathrm{\Delta }/M`$. At each step $`\nu `$ the probabilty in each of the two parts is obtained by multiplication of the probability in the step $`\nu 1`$ by a particular value of the random variable $`\omega _{j_\nu }^{(\nu )}`$, where $`j_\nu `$ is the position of a sub-cell at the $`\nu `$th step ($`1j_\nu 2^\nu `$). The elementary fluctuation probability $`\omega `$ can be chosen in various ways. The simplest way is to choose it as

$$\omega _{2j1}^{(\nu )}=\frac{1}{2}(1+\alpha r),\omega _{2j}^{(\nu )}=\frac{1}{2}(1\alpha r),$$
(24)
where $`r`$ is a uniformly-distributed random number in the interval \[$`1,1`$\], $`j`$ is an integer ($`1j2^{\nu 1}`$), $`\alpha `$ is a characteristic parameter of the model taking value in the interval .

In this model, after $`\nu `$ steps of partition, the npm defined in Eq.(23) becomes

$$C_q(M)=M^q\omega ^q(1)\mathrm{}\omega ^q(\nu ).$$
(25)
Since $`\omega =1/2`$, we have the anomalous scaling of npm, cf. Eq.(23),

$$C_q(M)=M^q\omega ^q^\nu =M^q\mathrm{e}^{\nu \mathrm{ln}\omega ^q}=M^{\varphi _q},$$
(26)
with $`M=2^\nu =\mathrm{e}^{\nu \mathrm{ln}2}`$, $`\varphi _q=q+\mathrm{ln}\omega ^q/\mathrm{ln}2`$.

It is easy to see using Eq.(10) that the npm $`C_q`$ can be extracted from experimental data through the normalized factorial moments (nfm)

$$F_q(M)=M^{q1}\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}\frac{n_m(n_m1)\mathrm{}(n_mq+1)}{n^q},$$
(27)
The anomalous scaling of nfm, usually referred to as intermittency , has been observed in hadron-hadron  and e+e-  experiments, providing a first signal for the non-linear fractal property of strong interaction dynamics.

The npm defined in Eq.(23) can be viewed as the sample average of “event-probability moment” (epm)

$$C_q^{(\mathrm{e})}(M)=M^1\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}(Mp_m)^q.$$
(28)
It is natural to consider the distribution of epm itself instead of only its average . This distribution can be characterized by the $`p`$th order event-space moment $`C_{q,p}`$ of the $`q`$th order event-moment $`C_q^{(\mathrm{e})}`$

$$C_{q,p}(M)=\left(C_q^{(\mathrm{e})}(M)\right)^p=\left(M^1\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}(Mp_m)^q\right)^p$$
(29)
and the corresponding normalized moment

$$C_{q,p}^{(\mathrm{norm})}=C_{q,p}/(C_{q,1})^p.$$
(30)
In order to measure $`C_{q,p}`$ in real experiments, the $`p`$th order event-space moment of the $`q`$th order event-factorial-moment

$$F_{q,p}=\left(M^{q1}\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}\frac{n_m(n_m1)\mathrm{}(n_Mq+1)}{n^q}\right)^p$$
(31)
has been proposed . The scaling property of $`F_{q,p}`$ with the increase of $`M`$ is referred to as erraticity  and has been observed in experiments . However, when $`p1`$, $`F_{q,p}`$ contains statistical fluctuations  and is unequal to $`C_{q,p}`$, despite of the factorial moments apparently used. The observed erraticity phenomena have been shown to be dominated by statistical fluctuations and the dynamical effect is hidden .

In order to be able to observe the dynamical “erraticity”, the statistical fluctuation should be eliminated first. The elimination of (Poissonian) statistical fluctuation for the case $`p=1`$ is straightforward using Eq.(10). The result is just Eq.(31) with $`p=1`$, or Eq.(27). Let us consider the elimination of statistical fluctuations for the cases $`q=2`$, $`p=2,3`$. We have

$`C_{2,2}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(M{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}}p_m^2\right)^2=M^2{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}}p_m^4+{\displaystyle \underset{mm^{}}{\overset{M}{}}}p_m^2p_m^{}^2,`$ (32)
$`C_{2,3}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(M{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}}p_m^2\right)^3=M^3{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}}p_m^6+3{\displaystyle \underset{mm^{}}{\overset{M}{}}}p_m^2p_m^{}^4+{\displaystyle \underset{mm^{}m^{\prime \prime }}{\overset{M}{}}}p_m^2p_m^{}^2p_{m^{\prime \prime }}^2.`$ (33)
Define

$$G_{2,2}=M^2\underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}\frac{n_m\mathrm{}(n_m3)}{n^4}+M^2\underset{mm^{}}{\overset{M}{}}\frac{n_m(n_m1)n_m^{}(n_m^{}1)}{n^4},$$
(34)
$`G_{2,3}`$ $`=`$ $`M^3{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{n_m\mathrm{}(n_m5)}{n^6}}+3M^3{\displaystyle \underset{mm^{}}{\overset{M}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{n_m(n_m1)n_m^{}\mathrm{}(n_m^{}3)}{n^6}}`$ (35)
$`+`$ $`M^3{\displaystyle \underset{mm^{}m^{\prime \prime }}{\overset{M}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{n_m(n_m1)n_m^{}(n_m^{}1)n_{m^{\prime \prime }}(n_{m^{\prime \prime }}1)}{n^6}}.`$
Then, utilizing Eq.(10), it is ready to show that $`G_{2,2}=C_{2,2}`$, $`G_{2,3}=C_{2,3}`$, provided the statistical fluctuations are Poissonian. This means that using $`G_{2,2}`$, $`G_{2,3}`$ instead of $`F_{2,2}`$, $`F_{2,3}`$ to measure the dynamical moments $`C_{2,2}`$, $`C_{2,3}`$, the (Poissonian) statistical fluctuations are eliminated and the real dynamical “erraticity” is observed. This method can be extended to any positive integer orders $`q`$ and $`p`$.

To illustrate the above result by Monte Carlo simulation, the random cascading $`\alpha `$ model described above is used with a Gaussian distributed parameter $`\alpha `$ (mean=0.5, width=0.15). Particles are put into each event according to Poisson distribution with $`n=6`$. The results from 2,500,000 generated events are plotted in Fig.2. The coincidence of $`G_{q,p}^{\mathrm{norm}}`$ and $`C_{q,p}^{\mathrm{norm}}`$ is remarkable. It is to be contrasted with the strongly upward bending curves of ln$`F_{q,p}^{\mathrm{norm}}`$ vs. ln$`M`$. This shows that the strongly upward-bending behavior of ln$`F_{q,p}^{\mathrm{norm}}`$ vs. ln$`M`$ for positive $`p`$ which is typical in the conventional erraticity analysis  is due to statistical fluctuations. The reason is: when the partition number $`M`$ increases, the average multiplicity per bin becomes smaller and smaller and the statistical fluctuations get stronger and stronger. After eliminating the statistical fluctuations, the ln$`G_{q,p}^{\mathrm{norm}}`$ vs. ln$`M`$ curve coincides with ln$`C_{q,p}^{\mathrm{norm}}`$ vs. ln$`M`$ and recovers the anomalous scaling property of the event dynamics (dynamical erraticity) in the model.

V Conclusions

In this paper the problem of eliminating the random noise in event-by-event analysis is considered. New moments $`G_p`$ (for continuous distribution), and $`G_{q,p}`$ (for anomalous distribution) are proposed, which are experimentally measurable and can be used to eliminate the Poissonian type statistical fluctuations and recover the dynamical moments $`C_p`$ and $`C_{q,p}`$.

For a comparison of different methods we notice that most of the measures proposed in the market for the dynamical fluctuation of transverse momentum are based on a subtraction procedure, i.e. to subtract the variance of $`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ or a quantity related to it, that will be expected from pure statistical fluctuation, from the same quantity obtained in experiment. In the present paper we take another approach, i.e. not to evaluate the effect of pure statistical fluctuation and subtract it, but to eliminate the statistical fluctuations directly and quantitatively from the experimental data and recover the dynamical $`\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}}^2`$ under the unique assumption that the statistical fluctuation is Poissonian, i.e. due to uncorrelated random particle emission.

The difference between these two approaches is two-fold.

Firstly, in the subtraction method how to get the “pure statistical” variance from experimental data is a big problem. The mixing-event method  can in principle get the statistical variance, but the accuracy depends on the mixing-procedure. The method proposed in Ref.  relies on the equality $`\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}\mathrm{stat}}^2=\sigma _{p_\mathrm{t}\mathrm{incl}}^2/n`$, cf. Eq.(6), but this equality holds only for a pure statistical system without any dynamical fluctuation. In experimental data sample there exist simultaneously dynamical and statistical fluctuations, and the statistical variance $`\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}\mathrm{stat}}^{2\mathrm{d}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}}`$ included in the data sample is unequal to the inclusive variance of the data sample over average multiplicity:

$$\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}\mathrm{stat}}^{2\mathrm{d}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}}\sigma _{p_\mathrm{t}\mathrm{incl}}^{2\mathrm{d}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}}/n.$$
(36)
The same holds also for the $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ method .

Secondly, the variance $`\sigma _{\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}}^2`$ contains the $`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ moment only up to second order, which only gives the width of the distribution of $`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ in the event space. Using the method proposed in the present paper the $`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ moment of any integer order can be extracted and the dynamical distribution of $`\overline{p_\mathrm{t}}`$ in the event space is portrayed in much more detail.

In the anomalous case, the difficulty coming from the dominance of statistical fluctuation in the theoretical and experimental studies of erraticity up to now can be overcome and the dynamical erraticity, if exists, can be extracted using the method proposed in the present paper.

Applying the proposed method to real experimental data is highly recommended.

Acknowledgement The authors thank Wu Yuanfang and Liu Feng for helpful discussions and comments.


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# Coronae of Cool Stars

## 1. Introduction

Grating spectrometers on board Chandra and XMM-Newton have revolutionized the field of X-ray spectroscopy of cosmic plasmas. Individual lines can be measured in the soft X-ray energy range with sufficient accuracy to permit measurements of elemental abundances, plasma densities, or simply to reveal the spectroscopic nature of a cosmic plasma (e.g., see Paerels & Kahn 2003 for a review on high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy with Chandra and XMM-Newton).

Many cool stars are bright X-ray sources thanks to their hot coronae and their close distances. They are ideal targets for X-ray spectroscopy since they display a wealth of bright emission lines of various elements. Recent reviews summarize results obtained in the first years after the launch of Chandra and XMM-Newton (e.g., Audard 2003, Güdel 2003, Linsky 2003). In particular, patterns in coronal abundances have been recognized in which elements with a first ionization potential (FIP) $`<10`$ eV are underabundant with respect to the high-FIP elements when observed in very active stars; this is opposite to the solar FIP effect in which low-FIP elements are overabundant whereas high-FIP elements are of photospheric composition. However, coronal abundances in a sample of stars with a broad range of magnetic activity seem to reverse from a solar-like FIP effect in the least active, old stars to an “inverse”-FIP effect in the most active, young stars (Güdel et al. 2002). The trend is suggestive and a larger sample is certainly needed.

Two very active stars, YY Men and V824 Ara, have been observed with grating spectrometers on board Chandra and XMM-Newton in order to study, in particular, their coronal abundances. YY Men is one of the (rare) class of single giants with very hot coronae, whereas V824 Ara is an example of a close main-sequence, very active RS CVn binary. We present here preliminary results of the grating observations.

## 2. Observations and Data Reduction

Chandra observed YY Men in the ACIS-S/HETG configuration for 74 ks in February 1–2, 2002, whereas the 86 ks-long XMM-Newton observation dates from October 5–6, 2001. The RS CVn binary V824 Ara was observed with Chandra ACIS-S/HETGS for 94 ks on July 10–11, 2002. The Chandra data sets were reduced with CIAO 2.3 with CALDB 2.21 using standard techniques described in threads; however, events for V824 Ara and LDS 587B were resolved using narrower, non-standard grating arms (10 times the 1$`\sigma `$ cross-dispersion width instead of the default 35 times). Thanks to the low background in ACIS, no background spectra were used in the Chandra spectral analysis allowing us to use the robust C statistics. The XMM-Newton grating data were reduced with SAS 5.4.1 using standard techniques (see Audard et al. 2003).

## 3. YY Mensae = HD 32918

The Chandra and XMM-Newton observations were motivated by the very hot temperature detected with ROSAT PSPC and ASCA (Güdel et al. 1996) and its extreme luminosity ($`\mathrm{log}L_\mathrm{X}32`$ for a distance of 291 pc). YY Men ($`P9.55`$ d; $`v\mathrm{sin}i50`$ km s-1; e.g., Collier Cameron 1982) is a member of a loosely-defined class of rapidly rotating single G and K giant stars (“FK Com stars”), whose outstanding property is a projected equatorial velocity measured up to 160 km s-1, in contrast with the expected maximum of 6 km s-1 for giants. One of the leading theories to explain the extreme properties of FK Com stars suggests that they were formed by coalescence of a contact binary when one of the components entered into the giant stage (Bopp & Stencel 1981).

Figure 1 shows the Chandra ACIS-S/HETG first-order HEG and MEG spectra. Several emission lines are detected; in particular Fe lines in various ionization states can be found, from Fe xvii to Fe xxv, indicating a broad distribution of plasma temperatures, typically from $`4`$ MK to $`30`$ MK. Elements such as N, O, Ne, Mg, Si, S, Ar, and Ca are detected as well, mostly in H-like and He-like transitions. The strong Ly$`\alpha `$ lines indicated a dominant very hot plasma, also suggested by the Fe K$`\alpha `$ complex and the strong underlying continuum.

We used a multi-$`T`$ approach and fitted the MEG and HEG data simultaneously to obtain a discretized emission measure (EM) distribution of YY Men along with coronal abundances. We also approached the data differently and extracted line fluxes to construct a continuous EM distribution and obtain coronal abundances as well. We describe our methodology elsewhere (Audard et al. 2004). We report here, in brief, on the 3-$`T`$ approach: a very hot (40 MK) plasma dominates the X-ray spectrum; however two other plasma components are detected as well (7 MK and 14 MK). No lower $`T`$ component could be detected either in the Chandra HETGS data or in the RGS spectrum. The EM ratios are 1:2:19 (where the coolest component has EM=1), the X-ray luminosity is $`L_\mathrm{X}=2.2\times 10^{32}`$ erg s-1 (0.1–10 keV) with $`N_\mathrm{H}=7.5\times 10^{20}`$ cm-2. Coronal abundances indicate a pattern reminiscent of the inverse FIP effect observed in active RS CVn binaries (e.g., Audard et al. 2003). However, a high N abundance ($`[\mathrm{N}/\mathrm{H}]=+0.3`$) probably reflects a high photospheric N abundance due to CN processing in the stellar interior; indeed the RGS spectrum does not show a C vi Ly$`\alpha `$ line, indicating a low $`[\mathrm{C}/\mathrm{N}]=0.8`$ ratio.

Line broadening is detected in the Ne x Ly$`\alpha `$ line ($`\sigma =7\pm 0.7`$ mÅ; Figure 2). Similar tentative detections are reported in Ne x Ly$`\beta `$, O viii Ly$`\alpha `$, Mg xii Ly$`\alpha `$, and Si xiv Ly$`\alpha `$. However, S, Ar, and Ca Ly$`\alpha `$ lines are either too weak or at too short wavelength to detect line broadening. N vii Ly$`\alpha `$, however, does not show evidence of broadening. Th Ne x line broadening is unlikely to be due to rotation since (i) it would require $`v\mathrm{sin}i50`$ km s-1, and (ii) it would be easily detected in the longer wavelength lines. Thus we interpret the observed broadening as Doppler thermal broadening in the very hot corona of YY Men. The N vii line, despite the lower atomic mass of N than of Ne, is probably not broadened because it is mostly formed by the lower $`T`$ components, while the Ne lines are mostly formed by the very hot plasma (as are the lines with tentative detections of line broadening). This is also supported by the absence of line broadening in Fe lines, probably due to the larger Fe atomic mass. The observed Doppler width ($`\sigma _\mathrm{D}=(\lambda /c)\times \sqrt{kT/m}`$) corresponds to a plasma $`T`$ in the range 60–90 MK. Possibly additional broadenings, e.g., due to rotation, contribute to the total line width, which would lower the $`T`$ range.

## 4. V824 Arae = HD 155555

The nearby (31 pc) binary consists of G5 V+K0 V stars tidally locked with an orbital period of 1.68 d. Based on its kinematics and its high Li abundance, V824 Ara is either in the pre-main-sequence phase (Pasquini et al. 1991) or in the zero-age-main-sequence phase (Martín & Brandner 1995), with an age of $`10^710^8`$ yr. Its common proper-motion dM4.5e companion (33′′ away), LDS 587B, also displays high chromospheric and coronal activity. Since V824 Ara is so young, its photosphere should have near-solar photospheric composition.

Figure 3 shows the Chandra ACIS-S/HETG MEG spectrum of V824 Ara together with a best-fit 4-$`T`$ plasma model. The EM distribution differs from YY Men; it is flatter with $`T`$ of 3.7, 7.7, 14, and 28 MK, EM ratios of 1:3:2:2.7, and $`L_\mathrm{X}=4.4\times 10^{30}`$ erg s-1 (0.1–10 keV). The coronal abundances show a distinct inverse FIP effect ($`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]=0.5`$, $`[\mathrm{O}/\mathrm{H}]=0.3`$, $`[\mathrm{Ne}/\mathrm{H}]=0.1`$), except at very low FIP ($`<7`$ eV), where the Al and Ca abundances seem to increase. A similar pattern was observed in the coronal abundances of the RS CVn binary $`\sigma ^2`$ CrB (Osten et al. 2003). The LDS 587B companion was sufficiently bright ($`L_\mathrm{X}=2.8\times 10^{29}`$ erg s-1) and spatially resolved to produce a distinct grating spectrum that reveals a similar $`T`$ structure (although EM ratios for a 3-$`T`$ fit are 1:1.1:1.6). Preliminary coronal abundances indicate no obvious correlation with the FIP.

Plasma densities can be derived from line ratios, typically from the forbidden and intercombination lines of He-like transitions. The well-developed HETGS spectrum of V824 Ara reveals no variation from the low density limit in the various He-like triplets, suggesting that the dominant X-ray emitting plasma has an electron density below $`10^{10}`$ cm-3. Since coronae are inhomogeneous, this result does not mean that no high-density plasma exists. However, it suggests that such plasma has a very low volume (since $`EMn_e^2V`$).

## 5. Conclusions

We have presented results of observations of YY Men and V824 Ara with Chandra and XMM-Newton. The highly active stars show contrasting X-ray spectra: the EM distribution of YY Men is dominated by a very hot (40 MK) plasma but has measurable EM between 6 and 15 MK, whereas the binary V824 Ara displays a rather flat EM distribution from 3 MK to 30 MK. Despite their differences, their coronal abundances (relative to the solar photospheric composition) generally follow the inverse FIP effect observed in other active binaries. However, coronal abundances in the M dwarf LDS 587B do not correlate with the FIP. The coronal N abundance in YY Men is enhanced (C is depleted), probably reflecting a true photospheric N/C enhancement due to mixing of CN-cycle material in the stellar interior. YY Men also shows line broadening in Ne x Ly$`\alpha `$ and possibly in other lines, which we interpret as Doppler broadening.

The general picture is that coronal abundances in very active stars display an inverse FIP effect, while inactive stars show a solar-like FIP effect (e.g., Güdel et al. 2002). However, most current studies are limited to comparing stellar coronal abundances to solar photospheric abundances because of the lack of accurate photospheric measurements in active stars. Thus caution is in effect, since coronal abundances could also be affected by anomalous photospheric compositions as shown here for YY Men, apart from selective, FIP-dependent coronal enrichment. Improvements in the photospheric composition in stars will help better understand the coronal composition.

### Acknowledgments.

We acknowledge support from the Swiss National Science Foundation (fellowship 81EZ-67388 & grant 2000-058827), from NASA to Columbia University for XMM-Newton mission support and data analysis, and from SAO grant G02-3016X.

## References

Audard, M. 2003, Adv. Space Res., 32, 927

Audard, M., Güdel, M., Sres, A., et al. 2003, A&A, 398, 1137

Audard, M., et al. 2004, ApJ, in preparation

Bopp, B. W. & Stencel, R. E. 1981, ApJ, 247, L131

Brown, G. V., Beiersdorfer, P., Liedahl, D. A., et al. 2002, ApJS, 140, 589

Collier Cameron, A. 1982, MNRAS, 200, 489

Güdel, M., Guinan, E. F., Skinner, S. L., & Linsky, J. L. 1996, Röntgenstrahlung from the Universe, 33

Güdel, M. 2003, Adv. Space Res., in press

Güdel, M., Audard, M., Sres, A., et al. 2002, in 35th ESLAB Symposium, ASP Conf. Ser. 277, eds. F. Favata & J. J. Drake (San Francisco: ASP), 497

Linsky, J. L. 2003, Adv. Space Res., 32, in press

Martín, E. L. & Brandner, W. 1995, A&A, 294, 744

Osten, R. A., Ayres, T. R., Brown, A.,et al. 2003, ApJ, 582, 1073

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Pasquini, L., Cutispoto, G., Gratton, R., & Mayor, M. 1991, A&A, 248, 72


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# Boundary susceptibility in the spin-1/2 chain: Curie like behavior without magnetic impurities

## Abstract

We investigate the low-temperature thermodynamics of the spin-1/2 Heisenberg chain with open ends. On the basis of boundary conformal field theory arguments and numerical density matrix renormalization group calculations, it is established that in the isotropic case the impurity susceptibility exhibits a Curie-like divergent behavior as the temperature decreases, even in the absence of magnetic impurities. A similar singular temperature dependence is also found in the boundary contributions of the specific heat coefficient. In the anisotropic case, for $`1/2<\mathrm{\Delta }<1`$, these boundary quantities still show singular temperature dependence obeying a power law with an anomalous dimension. Experimental consequences will be discussed.

Impurity doping in low dimensional antiferromagnetic systems has been a topic of great interest in recent years. New interesting boundary phenomena give a better physical insight to the underlying structure of the strongly correlated states in those systems. In one-dimensional systems impurities typically cut the chains and play the role of effective boundary conditions. The open ends give rise to intriguing boundary phenomena, which result in a characteristic temperature dependence of the excess susceptibility and specific heat due to the impurities. Famous examples include the spin-1 chain where effective spin-1/2 degrees of freedom are created near the open ends which show clear experimental signatures. Even in the two dimensional Heisenberg model it has been postulated that non-magnetic impurities may give rise to a divergent Curie-like impurity susceptibility. However, the temperature dependence of the boundary susceptibility has been much less clear in the case of the antiferromagnetic spin-1/2 chain, which is possibly the oldest and most studied prototype of a strongly correlated system. According to the Bethe ansatz solutions for integrable systems with open boundaries, the boundary part of the uniform spin susceptibility at zero temperature behaves like $`1/[h\{\mathrm{ln}(h)\}^2]`$ for a small magnetic field $`h`$ in the case of SU(2) spin rotational symmetry. This divergent behavior implies that in the vicinity of the open edges spin excitations are very sensitive to small external fields. It seems therefore likely that the susceptibility should also show divergent behavior for small temperatures at zero field. On the other hand, irrelevant boundary operators are known to only produce a small finite impurity susceptibility at low temperatures. We now show that an addition to the surface energy from the marginally irrelevant bulk operator actually gives rise to the leading singular temperature behavior of the impurity susceptibility and the specific heat coefficient corresponding to a Curie-like behavior with logarithmic corrections.

We consider the antiferromagnetic spin-1/2 Heisenberg chain with open boundaries

$$H_{XXZ}=J\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}[S_i^xS_{i+1}^x+S_i^yS_{i+1}^y+\mathrm{\Delta }S_i^zS_{i+1}^z]$$
(1)
in the limit $`NJ/T`$, i.e. the thermodynamic limit. Note that in the opposite limit $`T/J1/N`$ the behavior is trivially described by the ground state, which is a singlet for even $`N`$ with exponentially small susceptibility as $`T0`$ and a doublet for odd $`N`$ with a Curie law behavior. The crossover to the ground state behavior is experimentally important and will be discussed later, but for now we will consider the low temperature behavior in the thermodynamic limit $`1/NT/J1`$. In the massless region, $`0\mathrm{\Delta }1`$, the low energy fixed point of the Hamiltonian (1) is the Tomonaga-Luttinger liquid, which belongs to the universality class of the Gaussian theory with the central charge $`c=1`$. The low energy effective Hamiltonian with leading irrelevant interactions has been exactly obtained by Lukyanov. Using this effective theory we can implement a perturbative expansion of the free energy in terms of leading irrelevant interactions, and evaluate impurity corrections of order $`1/N`$. Following the idea of Cardy and Lewellen, we consider a semi-infinite cylinder on which the direction tangent to the circumference is taken as an imaginary time axis, and the direction perpendicular to it as a space axis. The circumference is equal to the inverse temperature $`1/T`$. We define the boson phase field on this geometry, of which the mode expansion is given by

$$\varphi ^c(x,\tau )=Qi\pi TPx+2\pi T\frac{w\tau }{\sqrt{2K}}+\frac{i}{2}\underset{n0}{}\frac{1}{n}(\alpha _ne^{2\pi Tn(x+i\tau )}+\overline{\alpha }_ne^{2\pi Tn(xi\tau )}),$$
(2)
where $`w`$ is the winding number of $`\varphi ^c`$, $`K`$ is the Luttinger liquid parameter, and the operators satisfy the commutation relations $`[\alpha _n,\alpha _m]=[\overline{\alpha }_n,\overline{\alpha }_m]=n\delta _{n+m,0}`$, $`[\alpha _n,\overline{\alpha }_m]=0`$, and $`[Q,P]=i`$. Then, the low-energy effective Hamiltonian on the semi-infinite cylinder is written as,

$`H^c`$ $`=`$ $`H_0^c+H_{int}^c,`$ (3)
$`H_0^c`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{1/T}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau }{2\pi }}[(_\tau \varphi ^c)^2+(_x\varphi ^c)^2],`$ (4)
$`H_{int}^c`$ $`=`$ $`a^{2K2}\lambda {\displaystyle _0^{1/T}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau }{2\pi }}\mathrm{cos}(\sqrt{8K}\varphi ^c).`$ (5)
Here the constants $`K`$ and $`a`$ are parametrized as, $`K=[1(1/\pi )\mathrm{cos}^1(\mathrm{\Delta })]^1,`$ $`a=2(K1)/[JK\mathrm{sin}(\pi /K)],`$ and $`\lambda `$ is given by equation (2.24) in Ref.. For this choice of the lattice parameter $`a`$, the velocity of spinons is unity in the unit of $`1/a`$. Thus the Hamiltonian (3) is obtained by simply interchanging time and space coordinates of the usual Hamiltonian defined on a circumference of $`L=aN`$.

We express the partition function by using the transfer matrix $`\mathrm{exp}(LH^c)`$ and the boundary state for $`H_0^c`$, $`|B`$. The lowest order terms of the free energy for the Hamiltonian (3) are given by,

$`F={\displaystyle \frac{aT}{L}}\mathrm{ln}0|e^{LH_0^c}B+{\displaystyle \frac{aT}{L}}{\displaystyle _0^L}𝑑x{\displaystyle \frac{0|\mathrm{exp}(LH_0^c)\mathrm{exp}(xH_0^c)H_{int}^c\mathrm{exp}(xH_0^c)|B}{0|\mathrm{exp}(LH_0^c)|B}}+\mathrm{},`$ (6)
where $`|0`$ is the ground state of $`H_0^c`$. The first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (6) is the free energy of the $`c=1`$ Gaussian model. The second term is the $`1/L`$ correction that emerges as a result of boundary effects. For the periodic boundary condition, this term vanishes. In the case of an external magnetic field $`h`$, the free energy is evaluated by shifting the boson field $`\varphi ^c(x)`$ to $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }^c(x)=\varphi ^c(x)\sqrt{K/2}hx`$. Using Cardy and Lewellen’s method, we compute the first order term as,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda }{L}}{\displaystyle \frac{(\pi aT)^{2K}}{2\pi a}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Phi }|B}{0|B}}{\displaystyle _0^L}𝑑x{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{cos}(2Khx)}{[\mathrm{sinh}(2\pi Tx)]^{2K}}},`$ (7)
where $`|\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is the primary state that corresponds to the conformal field $`\mathrm{exp}(i\sqrt{8K}\varphi ^c)`$. In the following, we evaluate Eq. (7) exactly for the free open boundary condition.

To calculate the prefactor in Eq. (7), we utilize properties of the boundary state. A conformally invariant boundary condition is imposed by demanding $`T(z)=\overline{T}(\overline{z})`$ at the boundary. Here $`T(z)`$ ($`\overline{T}(\overline{z})`$) is the holomorophic (anti-holomorophic) part of the stress energy tensor. For the Gaussian model with $`c=1`$, this condition leads to the following constraint on the boundary state,

$`(\alpha _n\pm \overline{\alpha }_n)|B=0,`$ (8)
where the plus (minus) sign corresponds to the Neumann (Dirichlet) boundary condition. Equation (8) is solved in terms of the Ishibashi states, which, in our case, are constructed from the highest weight states of the U(1) Kac-Moody algebra $`|v,w`$ and their descendants. Here $`v`$, $`w`$ are integers specifying the U(1) highest weight state. The leading irrelevant interaction (5) is expressed by the primary field $`\mathrm{exp}(i\sqrt{8K}\varphi ^c)`$ which corresponds to the primary state $`|2,0`$. Therefore, $`\mathrm{\Phi }|B`$ is non-vanishing, only if $`|B`$ contains $`|2,0`$. The Neumann boundary state which consists of the highest weight state $`|0,w`$ and its descendants does not satisfy this condition. On the other hand, the Dirichlet boundary state,

$`|D=\left({\displaystyle \frac{K}{2}}\right)^{1/4}{\displaystyle \underset{v=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}e^{i\sqrt{2K}v\varphi _0}e^{_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}\alpha _n\overline{\alpha }_n/n}|v,0,`$ (9)
has a finite overlap with $`|\mathrm{\Phi }`$. Then, we have,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{2,0|D}{0|D}}=1.`$ (10)
Carrying out the integral in Eq. (7) and using Eq. (10), we obtain corrections to the boundary part of the free energy,

$`\delta F_\mathrm{B}={\displaystyle \frac{\lambda }{2\pi aN}}(2\pi aT)^{2K1}\mathrm{Re}[B(K+i{\displaystyle \frac{Kh}{2\pi T}},12K)],`$ (11)
where $`B(x,y)=\mathrm{\Gamma }(x)\mathrm{\Gamma }(y)/\mathrm{\Gamma }(x+y)`$.

The boundary contribution to the spin susceptibility is derived from Eq. (11),

$`\chi _\mathrm{B}={\displaystyle \frac{\lambda aK^2}{2\pi N}}B(K,12K)[\pi ^22\psi ^{}(K)](2\pi aT)^{2K3},`$ (12)
with $`\psi ^{}(x)=d\psi (x)/dx`$. Note that for $`1<K<3/2`$ ($`1/2<\mathrm{\Delta }<1`$), the boundary spin susceptibility $`\chi _\mathrm{B}`$ shows a divergent behavior $`1/T^{32K}`$, as temperature decreases. This anomalous temperature dependence is also observed in the boundary part of the specific heat coefficient computed as,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{C_\mathrm{B}}{T}}={\displaystyle \frac{2\pi a\lambda }{N}}(2K1)(2K2)B(K,12K)(2\pi aT)^{2K3}.`$ (13)
Boundary terms that are regular in $`h`$ and $`T`$ give higher order corrections and have been neglected here. We would like to stress that in the formulas (12) and (13) there is no free parameter, and the prefactors are exact. The divergent behaviors of Eqs. (12) and (13) for $`T0`$ are physically understood as follows. In contrast to the bulk Heisenberg chains, the ground state degeneracy at the boundaries gives rise to large spin fluctuations, which disturb the spin singlet formation. It should be emphasized that the singular behaviors are not due to the presence of boundary operators, but interpreted as a consequence of finite-temperature corrections of the surface energy and the boundary entropy $`\mathrm{ln}0|B`$ caused by bulk irrelevant interactions.

At zero temperature with a small magnetic field, a similar singular behavior appears in the field dependence of the boundary spin susceptibility given by,

$`\chi _\mathrm{B}(T=0)={\displaystyle \frac{\lambda (aK)^{2K1}}{2\pi aN}}\mathrm{sin}(\pi K)\mathrm{\Gamma }(32K)h^{2K3}.`$ (14)
The zero temperature susceptibility is also derived from the Bethe ansatz exact solution by using the Wiener-Hopf method. We have checked that Eq. (14) coincides with the result obtained by the Bethe ansatz method.

Now let us consider the isotropic case $`K=1`$. The free energy correction (11) possesses poles for $`K=1`$. To deal with these singularities, we follow the procedure considered by Lukyanov for bulk spin systems. We rewrite $`H_{int}`$ in terms of the SU(2) current operators,

$`H_{int}={\displaystyle \frac{dx}{2\pi }[g_{}J_0\overline{J}_0+\frac{g_{}}{2}(J_+\overline{J}_{}+J_{}\overline{J}_+)]}.`$ (15)
The exact expressions for the running coupling constants are known as $`g_{}=2(11/K)(1+q)/(1q)`$, $`g_{}=4(11/K)q^{1/2}/(1q)`$. Here the parameter $`q`$ is the function of $`T`$ and $`h`$, of which the expression is also known exactly. On the other hand, for the value of $`K`$ close to 1, Eq. (11) can be expanded in power series of $`11/K`$. Comparing the expansion of Eq. (11) with the expression for $`g_{}`$ and $`g_{}`$, we can write the free energy correction (11) as a power series expansion in terms of $`g_{}`$ and $`g_{}`$. Then, taking the limit $`K1`$ and $`g_{},g_{}g`$, we end up with,

$`\delta F_\mathrm{B}={\displaystyle \frac{Tg}{2N}}{\displaystyle \frac{h^2}{24NT}}(g+g^2)+\mathrm{}.`$ (16)
for $`hT`$. The running coupling constant is determined from the equation,

$`g^1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{ln}(g)=\mathrm{Re}[\psi (1+{\displaystyle \frac{ih}{2\pi T}})]+\mathrm{ln}(\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{e^{1/4}J}{T}}),`$ (17)
where $`\psi (x)`$ is the di-gamma function. Using Eqs. (16) and (17), we obtain the leading term of the boundary spin susceptibility and the specific heat coefficient,

$`\chi _\mathrm{B}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{g}{12NT}}+{\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{12NT}}(1{\displaystyle \frac{3\psi ^{\prime \prime }(1)}{2\pi ^2}})+\mathrm{}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{12NT\mathrm{ln}(\alpha /T)}}\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{ln}(\alpha /T)}{2\mathrm{ln}(\alpha /T)}}+\mathrm{}\right),`$ (18)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{C_\mathrm{B}}{T}}={\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{2NT}}+{\displaystyle \frac{5g^3}{4NT}}+\mathrm{}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2NT(\mathrm{ln}(\alpha /T))^2}}\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{ln}(\alpha /T)}{\mathrm{ln}(\alpha /T)}}+\mathrm{}\right),`$ (19)
where $`\alpha =\sqrt{\pi /2}\mathrm{exp}(1/4+\gamma )`$ with $`\gamma `$ the Euler constant. At zero temperature, the boundary spin susceptibility for a small magnetic field is also derived from the opposite limit $`hT`$ of Eq. (11),

$`\chi _\mathrm{B}(T=0)={\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{4Nh}}+{\displaystyle \frac{5g^3}{8Nh}}+\mathrm{}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4Nh(\mathrm{ln}(2\pi \alpha /h))^2}}\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{ln}(2\pi \alpha /h)}{\mathrm{ln}(2\pi \alpha /h)}}+\mathrm{}\right).`$ (20)
This result (20) coincides completely with that obtained by the Bethe ansatz exact solutions.

The prefactor of the leading terms in Eqs. (18), (19), and (20) are exact for the isotropic Heisenberg chain, but not universal. For example a frustrating nearest neighbor coupling $`J_2`$ will change the prefactors and at the critical point $`J_20.241167`$ the singular behavior is absent. Special logarithmic singularities at boundaries have also been found in the NMR relaxation rate, which are also directly related to the bulk marginal operator. However, in Eqs. (18) and (19) it is even the leading T-dependence that is changed due to this irrelevant operator.

For comparison we have also used the numerical density matrix renormalization group for transfer matrices (TMRG) applied to impurity problems. This method can calculate local expectation values and the impurity free energy directly in the thermodynamic limit $`N\mathrm{}`$. When evaluating the impurity susceptibility we need to take the second derivative of the impurity free energy and therefore subtract two large numbers, which becomes inaccurate for very low temperatures. For the lowest temperatures ($`T<0.1J`$) we have therefore instead summed over the excess local responses in a range around the open ends, which gave more accurate results. This method agrees with taking the second derivative for higher $`T`$ and should also be a good approximation for $`T<0.1J`$. Note, however, that taking the excess response only at the site closest to the open end as was done in Ref.  gives a weaker temperature dependence. The results are shown in Fig. 1 without any adjustable parameters.

Finally, we would like to remark on the implications of our findings for experimental observations. In experimental quasi-one dimensional systems such as $`\mathrm{Sr}_2\mathrm{CuO}_3`$ a small density $`\rho `$ of impurities is always present in the form of intrinsic defects of the crystal which effectively cut the chains. A corresponding Curie contribution has been observed that can be strongly reduced by careful annealing, which implies that this Curie tail cannot be due to magnetic impurities in the sample. For extremely low temperatures $`T/J1/N`$ such a Curie behavior can be explained by finite chains with odd $`N`$ that have locked into their doublet ground state. We have now shown that a Curie-like behavior can even be expected for higher temperatures, albeit with a different Curie constant in Eq. (18). The crossover between the ground state and the thermodynamic behavior is well understood, and in fact the partition function can be written explicitly if irrelevant operators are ignored. Roughly, the crossover occurs when the temperature becomes comparable to the finite size energy gap $`T\pi v/N`$. For a carefully annealed sample of $`\mathrm{Sr}_2\mathrm{CuO}_3`$ with $`\rho 0.013\%`$  this means that the ground state contribution is only significant for $`T0.001J2K`$. For higher temperatures the impurity susceptibility is dominated by the expression in Eq. (18). Experimentally this means that the effective Curie constant first drops logarithmically as the temperature is lowered. In previous studies this slight change of the Curie constant has been fitted to a Curie Weiss correction assuming a phenomenological interaction between the impurity moments. The result in Eq. (18) now gives a clear prescription for the expected form of the impurity susceptibility. At the lowest temperatures $`T5\rho J`$ the Curie constant increases again sharply to a limiting value of $`\rho /8J`$ as $`T0`$ due to the ground state contributions of the chains with odd $`N`$, leading to a characteristic minimum in the average Curie constant $`T\chi _{\mathrm{avg}}`$. The approximate behavior of the averaged impurity susceptibility $`T\chi _{\mathrm{avg}}`$ is shown in the inset of Fig. 1 for $`\rho =0.1\%`$ by averaging over all chain lengths and assuming a sharp crossover from ground state to thermodynamic behavior.

In summary, we have studied the boundary thermodynamics for spin-1/2 Heisenberg chains with open ends by using boundary conformal field theory and numerical TMRG calculations. It has been shown that the boundary contributions of the spin susceptibility and the specific heat coefficient exhibit divergent behaviors as the temperature is lowered, which explains experimental observations in quasi one dimensional compounds.

We would like to thank I. Affleck, F.H.L. Essler, and N. Kawakami for valuable discussions. We are also grateful to A. Furusaki for sharing his insight about related issues which led us to find an error in an earlier version of the formula (18). This work was partly supported by a Grant-in-Aid from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, Japan and the Swedish Research Council.


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# Luminosity and Redshift Dependence of Quasar Spectral Properties

## 1. Introduction

The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS, York et al. 2000) is now identifying tens of thosands of new quasars a year. The large sample, wide ranges of both redshift and luminosity, and the high-quality calibrated spectra, make the SDSS quasar sample extraordinarily useful for exploring the dependence of spectral properties on redshift and luminosity – two of the most important parameters for any extragalactic population. Here we present initial results on the composite spectral properties of more than 16000 quasars from the SDSS.

## 2. The Dataset and Composite Spectrum Construction

The quasar data are taken mainly from the SDSS First Data Release (DR1, Abazajian et al. 2003), appended with several hundred more post-DR1 quasar spectra in order to extend the redshift and luminosity coverage. Quasars in the DR1 are described by (Schneider et al. 2003). We modify the definition of quasar here to mean any extragalactic object with at least one emission line FWHM of at least $`1000`$km/s, and impose no luminosity criteria. We also remove from consideration any spectrum with an apparent broad absorpion line or strong associated absorption line, since these significantly affect the true profiles of some emission lines. Spectra with long unprocessable wavelength ranges are also rejected. The luminosity is measured as the rest frame K-corrected $`i`$ band absolute magnitude, $`M_i`$, measured at the spectral epoch to avoid variability effects, using a flat cosmology with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M=0.3,\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7,H_0=70`$km/s/Mpc.

The full sample consists of 16716 independent quasar spectra from the SDSS. The sample was divided into redshift bins of width $`\mathrm{\Delta }log(1+z)=0.04`$ starting at $`z=0`$, and absolute magnitude bins of half a magnitude. Composite spectra were generated for each bin by calculating the geometric mean of all of the spectra contained in the bin, using techniques similar to those described by Vanden Berk et al. (2001). The geometric mean preserves the average index of a set of power laws. We have found that the resulting composite spectra do not change greatly when at least about 20 spectra are combined. In this analysis we consider only bins with at least 20 spectra; there are 133 such bins, spanning redshifts beyond 4.7 and absolute magnitudes from -20 to -29.5.

## 3. Results

One of the primary conclusions of this study is that the average spectral properties of quasars do not vary greatly as a function of either redshift or luminosity. The primary trend with either parameter is the decrease of most emission line equivalent widths with luminosity – the well-known Baldwin effect (BE, Baldwin 1977). To illustrate this, Fig. 1 shows seven composite spectra from the same redshift bin, $`2.020z<2.311`$, but spanning more than an order of magnitude in luminosity. The spectra are normalized to unity at a rest wavelenth of 2200Å, and they are color coded to show the absolute magnitue bin range. The BE is obvious for most emission lines, but especially Ly $`\alpha `$ and Civ$`\lambda `$1549. Notable exceptions include OI, Aliii, and most likely Nv.

It can be discerned from Fig. 1 that the peaks of several of the lower ionization lines, e.g. Mgii$`\lambda `$2800, shift redward with increasing luminosity. Since these lines are expected to lie at close to the systemic redshifts of the quasars, and the measured redshifts rely more strongly on the Civ high-ionization line, in reality it is the high-ionization lines that are increasingly blushifted with luminosity. This confirms the relationship between line shift and the Baldwin effect found by Richards et al. (2002).

The continuum slopes of the spectra in Fig. 1 are remarkably similar. However, at redshifts below about 0.5, the slopes become bluer with luminosity. The reason for this is that host galaxy contamination increases with decreasing luminosity, making the quasar spectrum appear redder. We have confirmed this by fitting the low-$`z`$ composite spectra with a pure quasar and a pure galaxy component using sets of eigenvectors. After subtracting the host galaxy component, the quasar spectra reveal a Baldwin effect for the Balmer lines and the narrow forbidden lines, a point which has previously been controversial.

While the Baldwin effect is a strong function of luminosity, Fig. 2 shows that it is also a function of redshift. The equivalent width of Civ is shown as a function of luminosity and redshift, in bins in which the other parameter is held nearly constant. The redshift dependence is weaker, but still quite significant. The redshift dependence may explain much of the “scatter” that is often found in the Baldwin effect; unfortunately this also means that the BE will remain difficult to use for cosmology since it evolves with redshift.

Finally, there are other redshift trends to note, mainly that the strengths and profiles of many of the iron complexes evolve. This occurs most notably in the so-called small blue bump region – the entire region from about 2200-4000Å appears to become bluer with decreasing redshift. Some of this may be due to changes in the Balmer continuum, but the Fe emission complex profiles also change, indicating that Fe itself contributes at least partially to the effect.

Funding for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, and the Max Planck Society. Participating Institutions

The SDSS is a joint project of The University of Chicago, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, The Johns Hopkins University, Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, University of Pittsburgh, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington.

## References

Abazajian, K. et al. 2003, AJ, 126, 2081

Baldwin, J. A. 1977, ApJ, 214, 679

Richards, G. T. et al. 2002, AJ, 124, 1

Schneider, D. P. et al. 2003, AJ, in press

Vanden Berk, D. E. et al. 2001, AJ, 122, 549

York, D. G. et al. 2000, AJ, 120, 1579


text:
# Outflows and Jets I: a personal take

## References

Bond, H. E. 2000, in Asymmetric Planetary Nebulae II, eds. J. H. Kastener, N. Soker & S. A. Rappaport (ASP 199), 115

De Marco, O., Sandquist E. L., Mac Low, M.-M., Herwig, F., Taam, R. E. 2003, RMxAC, 15, 34

Corradi, R. L. M. 2003, MNRAS, 340, 417

Mathieu, R. D. 1992, in Binaries as Tracers of Stellar Formation, eds. A. Duquennoy, & M. Mayor, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge), 155

Sahai, R. & Trauger 1998

Sandquist, E. L., Taam, R. E., Chen, X., Bodenheimer, P., Burkert, A. 1998, ApJ, 500, 909


text:
# Electromagnetic mass-models in general relativity reexamined

## 1 Introduction

A point charge is incompatible with classical electrodynamics, because it leads to the well-known self-energy and stability problems as well as to the occurrence of “runaway” solutions of the Lorentz-Dirac equations. One way to overcome these problems is to assume that charged particles are built as singularity-free concentrations of fields that, however small, have finite size.

The first model of an “extended” charged particle was studied by Abraham . This model ascribed the $`entire`$ mass of the particle to the interaction energy with its own electromagnetic field. This would make the particle radius $`R`$ equal to

$$R=\frac{Q^2}{Mc^2},$$
(1)
where $`Q`$ and $`M`$ are the charge and mass of the particle. This quantity is commonly known as the “classical electron radius” .

Shortly after, it was realized that this model was unstable and inconsistent with the Lorentz transformations of special relativity. A mechanism to overcome the electrostatic repulsion was suggested by Poincar$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$. He postulated the existence of non-electromagnetic cohesive forces that would hold the charge together, and make the model compatible with special relativity. Since these forces provide a phenomenological, rather than a fundamental, description of the particle, this mechanism is not really satisfactory.

Today, the Abraham-Lorentz-Poincar$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$ model for an extended charge belongs to the history of physics. And the problems associated with the point charge theory are overcome in quantum electrodynamics via renormalization, without the necessity of introducing extended particles.

However, this does not mean that the interest in the description of extended charged particles has been lost. And although charged particles obviously belong to the quantum domain, today it is understood that the concept of particle structure does not negate the notion of “elementarity” . Rather, extended particles are still in use to model the actual particle structure and extract relevant physical predictions.

In general relativity extended models have been used by several authors to discuss some important aspects in the theory. For example, the role of gravitation in charged-particle formation has been analyzed by Cooperstock and Rosen . The relevance of the equation of state of “false vacuum” $`\rho =p`$ to relativistic electromagnetic mass models has been discussed by Grøn  and by Tiwari, Rao and Kanakamedala . The phenomenon of gravitational repulsion around elementary particles like electrons has been investigated by a number of authors -. Also, the validity of singularity theorems inside the electron has been discussed by Bonnor and Cooperstock  as well as by the present author .

All the models for extended charged particles, used in the literature, exhibit the following “peculiar” feature: They need the presence of some negative mass to maintain stability against Coulomb’s repulsion. That is, independently of the working assumptions of the specific model, the picture of a (classical) charged particle is always the same: the particle should consist of a core of $`negative`$ mass surrounded by a positive-mass outer layer, which emerges from the Reissner-Nordström field.

However, in “conventional” physics, the mass is always positive. And, although one can invoke that macroscopic physics does not hold within charged particles, it is natural to ask whether it is possible or not to avoid the use of negative masses in the structure of charged particles. That is, without the introduction of a negative mass, can one construct an extended model for a charged particle?

The object of this work is to show that the answer to this question is positive. In Sec. 2, we show how the Einstein-Maxwell equations can be used to construct a model of a charged particle whose gravitational and inertial masses are nowhere negative. In Sec. 3, we discuss the condition for the mass to be of electromagnetic origin. In Sec. 4, we give a simple example that illustrates the fact that the model satisfies the energy conditions of Hawking and Ellis. Sec. 5 is a summary and discussion.

## 2 Structure of the Abraham-Lorentz-Poincar$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$ particle

In its rest frame, the charge will be described by a static, spherically symmetric distribution of matter, which is assumed to be governed by the Einstein-Maxwell equations.

We choose the line element in curvature coordinates

$$ds^2=e^\nu dt^2e^\lambda dr^2r^2(d\theta ^2+sin^2\theta d\varphi ^2),$$
(2)
where $`\nu `$ and $`\lambda `$ are functions of $`r`$ alone. In these coordinates the energy-momentum tensor $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ is diagonal, viz.,

$$T_\nu ^\mu =diag(M_0^0+\frac{E^2}{8\pi },M_1^1+\frac{E^2}{8\pi },M_2^2\frac{E^2}{8\pi },M_3^3\frac{E^2}{8\pi }),$$
(3)
where $`(0,1,2,3)(t,r,\theta ,\varphi ),`$ E is the usual electric field intensity, $`M_{\mu \nu }`$ represents the energy-momentum tensor associated with the “matter” contribution, and $`M_2^2=M_3^3`$ because of the spherical symmetry (We note that the symmetry does not require $`M_1^1=M_2^2`$).

The electrovacuum region around the particle is described by the Reissner-Nordström field, which, in curvature coordinates, has the form111In what follows we use gravitational units: $`c=G=1`$.

$$ds^2=(1\frac{2M}{r}+\frac{Q^2}{r^2})dt^2(1\frac{2M}{r}+\frac{Q^2}{r^2})^1dr^2r^2(d\theta ^2+sin^2\theta d\varphi ^2),$$
(4)
The charge inside a sphere of radius $`r`$ is given by

$$q(r)=4\pi _0^r\rho _er^2𝑑r,$$
(5)
where $`\rho _e`$ is the charge density222This quantity is related to the “proper” charge density $`\widehat{\rho }_e`$ by $`\rho _e=e^{\lambda /2}\widehat{\rho }_e`$.. Therefore, the total charge is $`Qq(R)`$.

The “effective” gravitational mass inside a sphere of radius $`r`$ is given by the Tolman-Whittaker formula, viz.,

$$M_G(r)=4\pi _0^r(T_0^0T_1^1T_2^2T_3^3)r^2e^{(\nu +\lambda )/2}𝑑r$$
(6)
By analogy with (5), the quantity

$$\mu (r)=[(T_0^0T_1^1T_2^2T_3^3)e^{(\nu +\lambda )/2}],$$
(7)
can be interpreted as an “effective” gravitational mass density.

The total mass $`M`$ in (4) is then $`M=M(\mathrm{})`$. That is

$$M4\pi _0^R\mu _{in}r^2𝑑r+4\pi _R^{\mathrm{}}\mu _{out}r^2𝑑r,$$
(8)
where the subscripts “in” and “out” mean inside and outside the particle, respectively.

Outside the particle $`M_{\mu \nu }=0`$, and $`E^2=Q^2/r^4`$. Therefore, using (3), (4) and (7), we find $`\mu _{out}=Q^2/(4\pi r^4)`$. Therefore, the second term in (8) can integrated to get

$$M=4\pi _0^R\mu _{in}r^2𝑑r+\frac{Q^2}{R}.$$
(9)
Now, in order to construct the relativistic version of the old Abraham-Lorentz-Poincar$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$ model for an extended charge , , we set $`R=Q^2/M`$. Thus, from (9) we find

$$_0^R\mu _{in}r^2𝑑r=0.$$
(10)
We now assume that the effective gravitational mass density is nowhere negative, viz.,

$$\mu (r)0.$$
(11)
Consequently, from (10) and (11) it follows that $`\mu _{in}(r)`$ must vanish everywhere within the source, viz.,

$$\mu _{in}(r)=0.$$
(12)
In general relativity, because of the $`linear`$ relation between the curvature tensor and $`T_{\mu \nu }`$, the strong energy condition requires $`R_{\mu \nu }V^\mu V^\nu 0`$ for an arbitrary non-spacelike vector $`V^\mu `$. Therefore, our assumption (11) is equivalent to assuming that the “strong” energy condition is applicable within the particle.

Let us now write the Einstein-Maxwell equations associated to (2)

$$8\pi \rho +E^2=e^\lambda (\frac{1}{r^2}\frac{\lambda ^{}}{r})+\frac{1}{r^2},$$
(13)
$$8\pi p_r+E^2=e^\lambda (\frac{1}{r^2}+\frac{\nu ^{}}{r})+\frac{1}{r^2},$$
(14)
$$8\pi p_{}E^2=\frac{e^\lambda }{2}(\nu ^{\prime \prime }+\frac{\nu _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{2}+\frac{\nu ^{}\lambda ^{}}{r}\frac{\nu ^{}\lambda ^{}}{2}),$$
(15)
$$E(r)=\frac{q(r)}{r^2},$$
(16)
where $`\rho M_0^0`$, $`p_rM_1^1`$ and $`p_{}M_2^2=M_3^3`$ denote the rest energy density and the principal pressures of the matter present, respectively. The primes denote differentiation with respect to $`r`$. In this notation the condition (12) reduces to

$$\mu _{in}=(\rho +p_r+2p_{}+\frac{E^2}{4\pi })e^{(\nu +\lambda )/2}=0,$$
(17)
### 2.1 Unequal principal pressures

Let us immediately note that if $`p_r`$ were equal to $`p_{}`$, then the particle would contain some negative “rest (or inertial)” mass density. Indeed, at the boundary $`r=R`$, (17) would reduce to $`\rho (R)=Q^2/(4\pi R^4)<0`$, because the continuity of $`E`$, $`\nu `$, $`\lambda `$, and $`\nu ^{}`$, requires $`E^2(R)=Q^2/R`$ and $`p(R)=0`$.

The conclusion, therefore, is that to construct an Abraham-Lorentz-Poincar$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$ model for an extended charge with $`(I)`$ Everywhere non-negative gravitational mass and $`(II)`$ Everywhere positive rest mass density, the particle must have unequal principal pressures.

### 2.2 $`M_G=0`$ inside the particle

From the field equations, we find that (17) is equivalent to

$$(r^2e^{(\nu \lambda )/2}\nu ^{})^{}=0.$$
(18)
The regularity conditions as well as the condition of local flatness at the center demand $`\nu ^{}0`$ as $`r0`$. Therefore, from (18) it follows that $`\nu ^{}=0`$ and $`M_G=0`$ throughout the source (although the “inertial” mass $`4\pi _0^RT_0^0r^2𝑑r>0`$).

On the other hand, the boundary conditions require continuity of $`\nu `$, and $`\nu ^{}`$ across the boundary, defined as $`r=R`$. Consequently, from (4) we get

$$e^\nu =(1\frac{M}{R}).$$
(19)
## 3 The pure-field condition

The purpose of this section is to construct a model of a charged particle as a non-singular concentration of fields. With this aim we now introduce the“purely gravitational field energy”, which is represented by the Weyl tensor.

In a spherically symmetric space-time all the components of the Weyl tensor are proportional to the quantity $`W`$, defined by

$$W=\frac{r}{6}\frac{r^3e^\lambda }{6}(\frac{\nu ^{\prime \prime }}{2}+\frac{\nu _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{4}\frac{\nu ^{}\lambda ^{}}{2r}\frac{\nu ^{}\lambda ^{}}{4}+\frac{1}{r^2}).$$
(20)
Now using the Einstein-Maxwell equations (13)-(15), one can show that

$$M_G=[W+\frac{4\pi r^3}{3}(\rho +2p_r+p_{})]e^{(\nu +\lambda )/2}.$$
(21)
This expression333This result is general, in the sense that it does not assume (17).  is interesting because it gives the effective mass as the sum of two parts only; $`W`$ and $`(\rho +2p_r+p_{})`$, for the “purely gravitational field” and matter contribution, respectively. It suggests that the quantity $`(\rho +2p_r+p_{})e^{(\nu +\lambda )/2}`$ can be interpreted as a kind of “average” effective density444In the case of perfect fluid the term $`(\rho +2p_r+p_{})`$ reduces to the familiar expression $`(\rho +3p)`$. of the matter inside a sphere of radius $`r`$.

Thus, an extended particle consisting of “pure-field” is obtained by setting the matter terms equal to zero555Note that in the literature the condition for the mass to be of electromagnetic origin is normally taken as $`\rho =0`$. Instead of this, from the arguments given above, we see that a better condition would be (22).

$$(\rho +2p_r+p_{})=0$$
(22)
The effective gravitational mass arises completely from the Weyl tensor, viz.,

$$M_G(r)=e^{(\nu +\lambda )/2}W(r)$$
(23)
In this sense, the “equation of state” (22) generates a model wherein the particle is composed only of charge and gravitational energy and, consequently, can be interpreted as a singularity-free concentration of fields.

Let us now focus on the properties of the model. Substituting (19) and (22) into the field equations we get

$$e^\lambda (\frac{1}{r^2}+\frac{\lambda ^{}}{2r})\frac{1}{r^2}=0.$$
(24)
This equation can be easily integrated as

$$e^\lambda =1+Cr^2,$$
(25)
where $`C`$ is a constant of integration, to be defined from the boundary conditions.

The final form of the interior metric is then

$$ds^2=(1\frac{M}{R})dt^2(1\frac{Mr^2}{R^3})^1dr^2r^2(d\theta ^2+sin^2\theta d\varphi ^2),$$
(26)
The corresponding “equations of state” are

$$\rho =p_r+\frac{M}{4\pi R^3},$$
(27)
$$\rho =p_{}+\frac{M}{2\pi R^3}.$$
(28)
Note that $`dp_r/d\rho =dp_{}/d\rho =1`$. Which means that the distribution is consistent with the “causality condition” $`dp/d\rho 1`$ (See for example Ref. ).

## 4 Uniform charge density

In order to illustrate our model, we assume that the charge density $`\rho _e(r)`$ is constant throughout the sphere. This is equivalent to assuming that the proper charge density $`\widehat{\rho }_e`$ varies as666This assumption was used by Tiwari, Rao and Kanakamedala in their study of electromagnetic mass models .

$$\widehat{\rho }_e(r)=\widehat{\rho }_e(0)e^{\lambda (r)/2},$$
(29)
where $`\widehat{\rho }_e(0)`$ is the constant charge density at $`r=0`$.

The final form of the matter distribution inside the charge is as follows

$$\rho (r)=p_r(r)+\frac{M}{4\pi R^3}=\frac{3M}{8\pi R^3}(1\frac{r^2}{3R^2}),p_r(R)=0,$$
(30)
$$E^2(r)=\frac{M}{R^5}r^2.$$
(31)
It is not difficult to see that the resulting model is “physically reasonable”, in the sense that it is free of singularities, $`p_r=p_{}`$ at $`r=0`$, and $`\rho >0`$ as well as $`\rho p_i`$ throughout the distribution.

## 5 Discussion and conclusions

We have presented here a general-relativistic version of the old Abraham-Lorentz-Poincar$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$ model for an extended charged particle.

In contrast to other models in the literature where $`\rho =0`$, in our model the particle contains matter with positive rest density $`\rho `$ and positive proper “inertial” mass $`4\pi _0^R\rho r^2e^{\lambda /2}𝑑r`$. Therefore, the matter and charge that make up the particle also have a positive density, viz., $`T_0^0=(\rho +E^2/8\pi )`$.

The fact that $`T_0^0`$ and $`\mu `$ are different can be understood from the following argument. In any volume element there is not only matter (with positive density) but also certain amount of binding energy - which is the energy necessary to maintain stability and keep the charge together. The effective matter density $`\mu `$ can be interpreted as the sum of the positive density $`T_0^0`$ and the binding energy, which is negative. Condition $`\mu _{in}(r)=0`$, in Eq. (17), expresses that the binding energy, in our model, exactly balances the positive contribution from the matter and the electrical field. Because of this, in our model, the effective gravitational mass is nowhere negative. The “weak”, “dominant” and “strong” energy conditions are satisfied and there is no gravitational repulsion anywhere.

The equation of state inside the particle is (what we call the pure-field condition) $`\rho +2p_r+p_{}=0`$, which is the anisotropic generalization of $`(\rho +3p)=0`$. This condition replaces the usual $`\rho =0`$ requirement. We note that the equation of state $`(\rho +3p)=0`$ has been considered in different contexts by several authors. Notably, in discussions of cosmic strings . Also, it is the only equation of state consistent with the existence of zero-point fields . Another important feature in our model is that the particle must have unequal principal pressures, otherwise it would contain some negative rest mass.

From a mathematical viewpoint, the pure-field model discussed here (with $`\rho +2p_r+p_{}=0`$) can be generalized in several ways. For example, one can assume $`\mu _{in}(r)=const`$, instead of $`\mu _{in}(r)=0`$ as in (12). In this case the “bare (or intrinsic) mass” of the particle will be different from zero, i.e., $`M_G(R)=W(R)0`$, and consequently $`R>Q^2/M`$. All these models share similar properties in the sense that the tensions $`p_rp_{}`$ are responsible for holding the charge together. However, from a physical and historical viewpoint, they are different. In the Abraham-Lorentz-Poincar$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$ model the mass is entirely of electromagnetic origin. While, if we modify (12) this is no longer so. The mass of the charged particle is now the sum of the bare “pure gravitational” mass $`W(R)`$ and the electromagnetic mass $`Q^2/R`$.

In summary, without the introduction of negative masses, here we have been able to construct a simple model where a charged particle can be visualized as a concentration of fields. The positiveness of energy inside the source, as well as the energy conditions, require the electron to be an “extreme” Reissner-Nordström source of gravity .


text:
# The RR Lyrae Distance to the Draco Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy

## 1 Introduction

Dwarf spheroidal (dSph) galaxies are probably the most common types of galaxies in the present-day Universe. They are metal poor galaxies with a metallicity $`Z<0.001`$ (Mateo, 1998), which resembles that found in galactic globular clusters. Most dSph galaxies show evidence for multiple star-formation episodes, having populations of different ages. There are very few, namely Tucana, Draco and possibly Ursa Minor, that host a single stellar population older than 10 Gyr (see Dall’Ora et al., 2003, and references therein).

The Draco dSph galaxy, a companion to the Milky Way, was discovered by Wilson (1955) and was first observed by Baade & Swope (1961) for variables. They found 261 variables in their $`24\mathrm{}\times 24\mathrm{}`$ field, but only measured 137 for magnitudes. Of these, 133 were RR Lyrae variables, which they used to derive the distance to the galaxy. There have not been any recent variability studies of Draco, except for the survey by Kinemuchi et al. (2002) which is currently underway. The lack of high quality CCD observations of the RR Lyrae in Draco dSph motivated us to do this project.

However, several studies of Draco’s stellar population have been conducted and for these CCD photometry has been obtained. Grillmair et al. (1998) present the CMD diagram obtained from observations with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and confirm that star formation in Draco was primarily single-epoch and that Draco is very similar to the globular clusters M68 and M92, but 1.6 Gyr older. It has a luminosity of $`2\times 10^5\mathrm{L}_{\mathrm{}}`$, which places it among the least luminous galaxies known. Bellazzini et al. (2002) have done a comparative study of the Draco and Ursa Minor dSph galaxies with new $`V,I`$ photometry. Recently, Rave et al. (2003) have released a catalog of photometry of $`5,600`$ stars in Draco. They find 142 candidate variables from their colors, using photometry from five catalogs. However, a uniform dataset taken with the same instrument would be more reliable for finding RR Lyrae and obtaining accurate photometry and periods for them.

In this paper, we present a catalog of variable stars found in Draco dSph. The paper is organized as follows: §2 provides a description of the observations; the data reduction procedure, calibration and astrometry is outlined in §3; the catalog of variable stars is presented in §4. In §5 we determine the distance to Draco and in §6 we summarize our results.

## 2 Observations

The observations of the Draco dSph were made with the 1.2m telescope at the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory on Mount Hopkins, Arizona, between August 19th, 1998 and June 20th, 1999, over 22 nights. We used the “4Shooter” camera (Szentgyorgyi et al., 2003), with 4 thinned and AR-coated Loral 20482 pixel CCDs. The pixels are 15 microns in size and map to $`0.33\mathrm{}`$ per pixel on the focal plane, making each image $`11\mathrm{}`$ on the side. The camera was centered at $`\alpha =17:19:57.5,\delta =57:50:05,\mathrm{J2000}.0`$. The data consists of 148 $`\times `$ 600 $`s`$ exposures in the $`V`$ filter, 44 $`\times `$ 900 $`s`$ exposures in the $`B`$ filter and 47 $`\times `$ 600 $`s`$ exposures in the $`I`$ filter. The median value of the seeing in $`V`$ was $`2.0\mathrm{}`$. The field was observed through airmasses ranging from 1.12 to 1.55, with the median being 1.19. The completeness of our photometry starts to drop rapidly at about 22.5 in $`I`$ and 23 mag in $`V`$ and $`B`$. The CCDs saturate for stars brighter than 14 in $`I`$, 15 in $`V`$ and 15.5 mag in $`B`$. On one photometric night of the run, several images of standard Landolt (1992) fields were taken.

## 3 Data Reduction, Calibration and Astrometry

Preliminary processing of the data was performed with standard routines in the IRAF 111IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories, which are operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the NSF. CCDPROC package. The differential photometry for the variable stars was extracted using the ISIS image subtraction package (Alard & Lupton, 1998; Alard, 2000) from the $`V`$-band data. The DAOPHOT/ALLSTAR package (Stetson, 1987) was used for the conversion into magnitudes. Mochejska et al. (2001) describe the procedure in detail.

On August 31st, 1998, we observed 2 sets of 3 Landolt (1992) fields in the $`BVI`$ filters at air masses ranging from 1.18 to 1.99. The transformation from the instrumental to the standard system was derived for each chip in the following form:

$`b=B+\chi _\mathrm{b}+\xi _\mathrm{b}(\mathrm{B}\mathrm{V})+\kappa _\mathrm{b}\mathrm{X}`$
$`v=V+\chi _{\mathrm{v1}}+\xi _{\mathrm{v1}}(\mathrm{B}\mathrm{V})+\kappa _{\mathrm{v1}}\mathrm{X}`$
$`v=V+\chi _{\mathrm{v2}}+\xi _{\mathrm{v2}}(\mathrm{V}\mathrm{I})+\kappa _{\mathrm{v2}}\mathrm{X}`$
$`i=I+\chi _\mathrm{i}+\xi _\mathrm{i}(\mathrm{V}\mathrm{I})+\kappa _\mathrm{i}\mathrm{X}`$
where lowercase letters correspond to the instrumental magnitudes, uppercase letters to standard magnitudes, X is the airmass, $`\chi `$ is the zeropoint, $`\xi `$ the color and $`\kappa `$ the airmass coefficient. Since most of the color coefficients are small, we used $`BV=VI=1`$ when transforming the magnitudes of our stars. Note that the $`B`$-band coefficients are larger, therefore our B magnitudes for red stars may be off by 0.1 mag or 0.2 mag (in chip 2), in the worst case.

Stetson (2000) has calibrated $`400`$ stars in the Draco dSph as secondary standards. In chips 3 and 4, where our overlap was large, we normalized to his photometry using the brightest 80 stars (to 19.5 mag) and 66 stars (to 20th mag) respectively to determine the offsets in $`V`$. The difference between his photometry and ours in these chips was 0.04 and 0.02 mag. In chips 1 and 2 the overlap was too small for a meaningful comparison, thus we kept our own photometry. We then compared our normalized $`V`$ photometry in chips 3 and 4 with the photometry of Grillmair et al. (1998) from the HST. For 100 stars down to 19 mag, the differences between their photometry and ours were 0.06 and 0.03 mag. Bellazzini et al. (2002) have obtained ($`V,I`$) photometry of the field and the agreement with our photometry is good, the largest offset being 0.07 mag in chip 3, $`V`$-band.

Equatorial coordinates were determined for the $`V`$ star list. The transformation from rectangular to equatorial coordinates was derived using for chips 1-4: 174, 146, 400 and 282 transformation stars respectively with $`V<20`$ from the USNO-A2.0 (Monet, 1996) catalog. The median difference between the catalog and the computed coordinates for the transformation stars was $`0.\mathrm{}3`$ in RA and $`0.\mathrm{}3`$ in Dec. We also compared the astrometry to Stetson’s catalog and found 18, 4, 272 and 151 matches for chips 1-4, having a median offset $`<0.\mathrm{}2`$. We use these derived J2000.0 equatorial coordinates to name the variables in the format: Draco$`hhmmss.s`$+$`ddmmss.s`$. The first three fields ($`hhmmss.s`$) correspond to RA expressed in hours, the last three ($`ddmmss.s`$) to Dec, expressed in degrees, separated by the declination sign.

## 4 Results

Our search for variables in our field in Draco produced 163 stars, 136 of which were previously identified by Baade & Swope (1961). The remaining 27 are new discoveries. Of these 163 stars, 146 are RR Lyrae, 4 are anomalous Cepheids and the remaining 13 are other long period or non-periodic variables. We found a new field eclipsing binary and a SX Phe star among these. Of the 146 RR Lyrae, 123 are fundamental mode pulsators (RRab), 16 are first overtone pulsators (RRc), 6 are double-mode pulsators (RRd) and one is pulsating in the first and second overtone (RR12). Figures 1, 2 and 3 show typical light curves of RR Lyrae and other variables found in Draco. Tables 1 and 2 present coordinates, periods, intensity averaged $`BVI`$ magnitudes, $`V`$-band amplitudes, the type of variable and the corresponding name given in Baade & Swope (1961). Stars exhibiting the Blazhko effect are also marked. The catalog of all variables, as well as their $`BVI`$ photometry and $`V`$ finding charts, is available electronically via anonymous ftp222On cfa-ftp.harvard.edu, in pub/kstanek/DIRECT/Draco and the World Wide Web333http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/~kstanek/DIRECT/Draco. The complete set of the CCD frames is available upon request.

We used the multiharmonic analysis of variance technique (Schwarzenberg-Czerny, 1996) to search the light curves for periodicity. Additionally, Fourier series were fit to the RR Lyrae light curves phased to the period determined earlier and parameters such as the amplitude of the variation and amplitude and phase of each harmonic were calculated. We searched for multiperiod variables by subtracting the first three harmonics of the Fourier series from the phased light curves and then repeating the period search. We then redetermined secondary periods for the 6 double mode (RRd) stars found by Nemec (1985) in the data of Baade & Swope (1961), by searching the periodogram where the second period was expected.

Baade & Swope (1961) do not find any red irregular or long period variables in their data, with the exception of BS-203, a bright blue variable with a period of $`3`$ years. We observed all of their “special variables” except for BS-138. The only significant difference in these is that the period we find for BS-134 is 0.592 days, not 1.458 days, which agrees with Nemec (1985) who realanyzed the data of Baade & Swope (1961). The periods we calculated for variables also found by Baade & Swope (1961) are very similar in most cases. The cases that differ are marked with an asterisk in Table 1. As a result some stars are classified differently from Baade & Swope (1961). BS-97, BS-121, BS-173 and BS-145 are all RRc stars and BS-190, BS-169, BS-143, BS-72, BS-11, BS-112 are RRd stars. We did not find variables BS-10, BS-31, BS-111 and BS-195 due to the proximity of highly saturated stars.

We present a histogram of the 139 RRab and RRc Lyrae in Draco, with 0.02 day bins in Figure 4. Both components of the double-mode stars are also plotted (in black). The median period for RRab stars is 0.617 days and for RRc stars is 0.392 days, which places the Draco dSph between Oosterhoff type I ($`0.55`$ days) and type II ($`0.65`$ days) clusters, similarly to other dSph (Dall’Ora et al., 2003). In Figure 5 we present a color magnitude diagram (CMD) of stars in Draco. Circles represent RR Lyrae, squares are anomalous Cepheids and triangles are other variables. Among these other variables is the long period blue variable BS-203, a foreground 0.24 day eclipsing binary, and a multimode SX Phe star which is pulsating in three modes, with periods 0.068, 0.073 and 0.079 days. The period-amplitude diagram for the 146 RR Lyrae in Draco is shown in Figure 6. Circles represent RRab stars, triangles RRc stars and squares RRd stars, for which both periods are plotted.

## 5 Distance to Draco dSph

The distance to the Draco dSph galaxy has been estimated by several authors. Baade & Swope (1961) obtained a distance of $`d=99`$ kpc assuming an absolute magnitude of $`M_B=0.5`$ mag for RR Lyrae; Nemec (1985) obtained $`d=84\pm 12`$ kpc using RRd stars found by reanalyzing the data of Baade & Swope (1961); Aparicio et al. (2001) obtained $`d=80\pm 7`$ kpc by the magnitude of the horizontal branch at the RR Lyrae instability strip; Bellazzini et al. (2002) obtained $`d=92.9\pm 6`$ kpc by fitting template cluster horizontal branches.

We use the short distance scale statistical parallax calibration of Gould & Popowski (1998), which is a robust method of measuring the absolute magnitude of RR Lyrae stars. They find

$$\mathrm{M}_\mathrm{V}=0.77\pm 0.13,$$
(1)
at $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]=1.60`$, for a sample of 147 halo RR Lyrae stars with high-quality proper motions from the $`Hipparcos`$ (European Space Agency 1997) and Lick NPM1 (Klemola, Hanson & Jones 1993) surveys. Shetrone et al. (2001) find $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]=2.00\pm 0.21`$ in Draco dSph from high resolution spectroscopy of 6 red giants in the galaxy. Lehnert et al. (1992) also found a metallicity of $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]=1.9`$, $`\sigma =0.4`$, from spectra of 14 giants. The abundances seem to fall into two groups, one with an average \[Ca, Mg/H\] near $`1.6\pm 0.2`$ and the other $`2.3\pm 0.2`$. We adopt the value $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]=2.00`$ (also quoted in Mateo, 1998) for our distance determination. The metallicity correction is derived from the slope of the luminosity-metallicity relation for RR Lyrae, which lies between 0.2 (Chaboyer, 1999) and 0.3 (Sandage, 1993). Using 0.2 for the value of the slope and 0.4 dex for the difference in metallicity of Draco dSph from galactic RR Lyrae, we find $`M_V=0.69`$ for the RR Lyrae in Draco dSph.

Draco dSph is located at Galactic coordinates $`l=86\mathrm{°}.37,b=34\mathrm{°}.72`$. To remove the effects of the Galactic interstellar extinction we used the reddening map of Schlegel et al. (1998) which yields $`E(BV)=0.027`$ mag. This corresponds to expected values of Galactic extinction of $`A_I=0.053`$, $`A_V=0.091`$, $`A_B=0.118`$ mag, using the extinction corrections of Cardelli et al. (1989) as prescribed in Schlegel et al. (1998).

For the distance determination we only used the RRab stars found in chips 3 and 4, which are normalized to the photometry of Stetson (2000). There are 94 such stars in our data. The remaining RRab stars from chip 1 and 2 are not included in this list. We fit a Gaussian to a histogram of these 94 stars, using 0.03 mag bins and found $`\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{V}=20.18\pm 0.02`$, $`\sigma =0.08`$, as shown in Figure 7. This value is in agreement with the value of Aparicio et al. (2001) for the horizontal branch at the RR Lyrae instability strip, $`20.2\pm 0.1`$ mag, and with the value of Bellazzini et al. (2002) of $`20.30\pm 0.12`$ mag, obtained by fitting to the template cluster M68. Our measurement implies a distance modulus of $`\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{V}\mathrm{M}_\mathrm{V}=19.49`$ mag. Correcting for extinction gives a true distance modulus of $`(\mathrm{m}\mathrm{M})_0=19.40`$ mag and a distance of 75.8 kpc to Draco dSph.

The systematic errors are 0.06 mag in $`A_V`$, 0.03 mag in photometry, 0.13 mag in the calibration method and 0.04 mag in metallicity. The error in the reddening from Schlegel et al. (1998) is 0.02 mag, which corresponds to 0.06 mag in $`A_V`$, and the error in metallicity is calculated from a conservative error of 0.1 in the slope of the luminosity-metallicity relation times 0.4 dex, the metallicity difference. Adding the systematic errors in quadrature gives a conservative total estimate of 0.15 mag, which is dominated by the calibration error. We consider the effects of internal extinction to be negligible from a comparison of the spread in magnitudes of RRab stars in different filters. Similarly to Figure 7 for $`V`$ with $`\sigma =0.08`$, the spread in magnitudes of RRab stars in $`B`$ and $`I`$ are $`\sigma =0.10`$ and $`0.12`$, respectively. Thus we find no evidence for internal dust in the Draco dSph galaxy.

The statistical error is 0.02 mag, which leads to a true distance modulus of $`(\mathrm{m}\mathrm{M})_0=19.40\pm 0.02(\mathrm{stat})\pm 0.15(\mathrm{syst})`$ mag, corresponding to a distance of $`75.8\pm 0.7(\mathrm{stat})\pm 5.4(\mathrm{syst})`$ kpc.

## 6 Conclusions

We have presented the results of the first CCD variability study in the Draco dSph galaxy since Baade & Swope (1961). Our search produced 163 variable stars, 146 of which are RR Lyrae, 4 are anomalous Cepheids, 1 is a field eclipsing binary, 1 a SX Phe star and 11 are other types of variables. We have used the short distance scale statistical parallax calibration of Gould & Popowski (1998) for 94 RRab in our field and obtained a distance modulus of $`(\mathrm{m}\mathrm{M})_0=19.40\pm 0.02(\mathrm{stat})\pm 0.15(\mathrm{syst})`$ mag. By comparing the spread in magnitudes of RRab stars in different filters, we find no evidence for internal dust in the Draco dSph galaxy.

The catalog of all variables, as well as their photometry and finding charts, is available electronically via anonymous ftp and the World Wide Web. The complete set of the CCD frames is available upon request.

We thank Grzegorz Pojmański and Wojtek Pych for their LC and Fourier series programs and Barbara Mochejska for her help. We also thank Janusz Kaluzny, Piotr Popowski, John Huchra and the referee for their careful reading of and comments on the manuscript. We finally thank Mike Pahre, Emilio Falco, Lucas Macri and Saurabh Jha, for helping obtain the observations. Guest User, Canadian Astronomy Data Centre, which is operated by the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory for the National Research Council of Canada’s Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics.