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# Intracluster Planetary Nebulae in Clusters and Groups

## 1. Introduction

The study of intracluster starlight (ICL) has grown dramatically in the last few years. Once thought to be just another odd prediction of Zwicky (1951), intracluster starlight may be a useful tool in understanding the evolution of galaxies in clusters, and may be an important chain in the recycling of intergalactic and interstellar matter (see Arnaboldi, this conference for a review).

In particular, intracluster planetary nebulae (IPNe) are an excellent tracer of the intracluster light, and can be detected relatively easily in nearby galaxy clusters with deep narrow-band imaging. Extragalactic planetaries appear as point sources through a \[O III\] $`\lambda `$5007 narrow-band filter, but disappear altogether when imaged through a “off-band” filter. Planetary nebulae also follow the \[O III\] $`\lambda `$5007 planetary nebulae luminosity function (PNLF), which is a highly accurate distance indicator (see Ciardullo et al. 2002b and references therein). The well-defined luminosity function allows us to gather depth information on the intracluster stars. Finally, since IPNe are emission-line objects, their radial velocities can be determined with moderate-resolution spectroscopy (Freeman et al. 2000), allowing us to obtain crucial dynamical information.

Here, we focus on our group’s efforts to search for IPNe in nearby galaxy clusters and groups, and give a brief summary on the results to date. It is important to stress that surveys for IPNe are not pristine: we estimate that about 20% of our IPNe candidates in Virgo are actually Lyman-$`\alpha `$ galaxies at z = 3.1 (Ciardullo et al. 2002a).

## 2. Studies in Clusters

IPNe were first discovered in the Virgo cluster as a population of “overluminous” planetary nebulae, though they were not originally recognized as such (Jacoby, Ciardullo, & Ford 1990). Kinematic proof of IPNe was then found by Arnaboldi et al. (1996), and IPNe were subsequently detected in the Fornax cluster by Theuns & Warren (1997). Additional evidence for large numbers of IPNe in front of the Virgo elliptical M 87 quickly followed (Ciardullo et al. 1998). With the advent of wide-field mosaic detectors, it became feasible to observe much larger portions of the Virgo and Fornax clusters for IPNe.

Figure 1 shows the status of our surveys to date. We have detected 318 IPNe candidates in the Virgo cluster (Feldmeier, Ciardullo, & Jacoby 1998; Feldmeier et al. 2003; Feldmeier et al. 2004), and 95 candidates in the Fornax cluster (Ciardullo et al. 2004). Transforming the numbers of IPNe to a stellar luminosity is complicated by several factors: the amount of background contamination, the known density differences of PNe to stellar luminosity (Ciardullo 1995), and any line-of-sight effects (Feldmeier et al. 2004). However, if we take conservative limits for such effects, we find that both clusters contain 10–20% of their stars in an intracluster component.

The spatial distribution of IPNe in the cluster is also of great interest, since PNe closely follow the starlight in galaxies (Ciardullo et al. 1989). For instance, in Virgo we can find the upper limit distance to each IPNe field using the sharp cutoff of the PNLF. We can then compare these distances to the PNLF distances of the cluster ellipticals (Jacoby, Ciardullo, & Ford 1990; Ciardullo et al. 1998) and to the HST Cepheid distances of spirals (Freedman et al. 2001). As demonstrated in Figure 2, the IPNe are enormously extended, up to 3 Mpc in depth. This agrees with the inferred depth of Virgo’s spiral galaxies (derived from the Tully-Fisher observations; Solanes et al. 2002), and suggests that the bulk of the IPNe come from late-type galaxies

When we compare the IPNe density in Virgo and Fornax to that of the galaxies directly, we find that in both clusters, the amount of IPNe may drop more slowly with radius than that of the galaxies, though the scatter is large due to small numbers. From observing the positions of the IPNe on the sky, we also gain some insight on the spatial distribution of the ICL. We find that the IPNe are clustered on arcminute scales, implying that there is ongoing tidal stripping in these clusters.

## 3. Studies in Groups

Although the amount of intracluster starlight in clusters such as Virgo and Fornax is now well established, the amount of ’intra-group’ starlight is still uncertain. Theoretical studies predict that if most intracluster stars are removed by galaxy collisions (e.g., Richstone & Malumuth 1983; Moore et al. 1996), the fraction of intra-group stars, to first order, should be a smooth function of galaxy number density (LICL $``$ N$`{}_{}{}^{2}{}_{Gal}{}^{}`$).

To test this hypothesis, we have undertaken a large-scale \[O III\] $`\lambda `$5007 IPN survey of the nearby M 81 group of galaxies. This galaxy group is known to be strongly interacting, with multiple tidal tails seen in H I gas (Yun, Ho, & Lo 1994). We have surveyed 1.44 square degrees of this system with the KPNO 4-m and the Mosaic camera, and have reached at least two magnitudes down the PNLF in all of our fields.

Although the analysis is ongoing, there is already a clear result: there is substantially less IPNe in the M 81 group than in the rich clusters. For example, if we take the results from our Field 1, we find 102 PNe candidates near M81 proper, but no objects whatsoever in the remaining half of the field. If we assume this density limit is typical, and adopt a limit of 1 $`\pm `$ 1 intra-group PNe this leads us to a intra-group fraction of 1.3%. These results are strengthened by a deep broad-band survey of the M81 group to look for intra-group red giant stars which find a similarly small limit (see Durrell, this volume).

Our result, combined with a similar result for the Leo I Group (1.6%; Castro-Rodríguez et al. 2003), strongly implies there is substantially less (4–15 times) less intergalactic stars in groups than there are in clusters. The drop in density is unexpected, and will need to be explained by models of intracluster star production (see Ciardullo, this volume).

One of the motivations for surveying the M81 and Leo I systems for intra-group PNe is that both these groups contain a network of H I tidal features (Schneider et al. 1989; Yun, Ho, & Lo 1994). However, no correlation has been found between the H I gas and the IPNe. It may be that for normal spiral galaxies, tidal interactions can remove the H I in the outer galaxy without causing any of the stars in the inner regions to escape. IPNe observations in at least one undisturbed galaxy group would be helpful to ensure this result.

## 4. Dynamical Studies of Intracluster Light

Large samples of IPNe are already available for a radial velocity measurements, and many more will be found in the near future. Consequently, it is important to understand the kinematics of the ICL. Several groups have already begun the process of modeling the velocity structure of the ICL through a variety of simulations (Moore et al. 1996; Dubinski, Murali, & Ouyed 2001; Napolitano et al. 2003). In these models, the intracluster light generally follows a radial orbit distribution, but is dynamically unrelaxed, and fills the observed phase space non-uniformly, due to the presence of tidal debris. The radial orbit envelope may allow us to estimate the mass profile of galaxy clusters (Dubinski, Murali, & Ouyed 2001), independent of more traditional methods. Moreover, since the phase-space clumpiness of the ICL is related to the cluster’s dynamical age, the simulations, combined with the IPN observations, will allow us to place interesting limits on this quantity, as well as potential limits on cosmological parameters.

To improve upon the situation, we have constructed our own high-resolution, fully-self consistent N-body models, using large scale structure simulations. We use the simulations to find proto-clusters at high redshift, replace the low resolution galaxies with self-consistent galactic models (Hernquist 1993), and run the simulations. We confirm the general results thus far: our ongoing focus is on developing useful metrics for observations.

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# Future Evolution of the Intergalactic Medium in a Universe Dominated by a Cosmological Constant

## 1 Introduction

Independent data sets, involving the temperature anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background (de Bernardis et al., 2000; Hanany et al., 2000; Spergel et al., 2003), the luminosity distances of Type Ia supernovae (Garnavich et al., 1998; Riess et al., 1998; Perlmutter et al., 1999; Hanany et al., 2000), the large-scale distribution of galaxies (Peacock et al., 2001; Verde et al., 2002), and cluster abundances (Eke et al., 1998; Bahcall & Bode, 2003), appear to be all consistent with a single set of cosmological parameters. In the concordance $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$–Cold Dark Matter ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM) model, the universe is flat and its expansion rate is currently accelerating; the cosmic mass density is dominated ($`70\%`$) by the vacuum (the so-called cosmological constant or “dark energy”) with the remaining density mostly in the form of cold dark matter ($`26\%`$) and baryons ($`4\%`$).

Given the emergence of a standard model in cosmology with a specific set of parameters, it is of much interest to follow the immediate consequence of these parameters in terms of the near future evolution of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM universe. While several recent studies considered the qualitative implications of the accelerating universe by analytic means (Adams & Laughlin, 1997; Krauss & Starkman, 2000; Chiueh & He, 2002; Gudmundsson & Björnsson, 2002; Loeb, 2002), it is clear that further quantitative insight can be gained only through direct numerical simulations. In Nagamine & Loeb (2003, hereafter Paper I), we simulated the evolution of nearby large-scale structure using a constrained realization of the Local Universe with only dark matter particles. We have found that structure will freeze within two Hubble times from the present epoch, and that the dark matter halo mass function will not evolve subsequently. Busha et al. (2003) further studied the generic evolution of the density profile around dark matter halos embedded in an accelerating universe.

In this paper we extend previous numerical work and study the evolution of the baryonic component of the universe using a hydrodynamic cosmological simulation. In Section 2 we describe the simulation. Images of the simulated gas mass distribution and gas temperature distribution are presented in Section 3. We describe the global evolution of gas temperature and overdensity in Section 5, and provide a more quantitative analysis based on the distribution functions of these quantities in Section 6 and 7. The ionization fraction of cosmic gas is analyzed in Section 8. Finally, we summarize our main conclusions in Section 9.

## 2 Simulation

We carried out a hydrodynamic simulation with the concordance cosmological parameters ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_{M,0}`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{\Lambda },0}`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b`$, $`h`$, $`\sigma _8`$, $`n`$)=(0.3, 0.7, 0.04, 0.7, 0.9, 1.0) from a redshift $`z=99`$ (i.e. a scale factor $`a=(1+z)^1=0.01`$) through the present time ($`z=0`$, $`a=1`$), and up to 6 Hubble times into the future ($`a=166`$; $`84`$ billion years from today). Because the present Hubble time $`t_\mathrm{H}1/H_0=14`$ Gyr is very close to the current age of the Universe $`t_0=13.5`$ Gyr in the adopted cosmology, the epoch of $`a=166`$ roughly corresponds to $`t=t_0+6t_\mathrm{H}7t_\mathrm{H}`$ from the Big Bang ($`t=0`$), where a subscript zero denotes present-day values.

We use the updated version of the parallel tree Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) code GADGET111http://www.MPA-Garching.MPG.DE/gadget/(Springel et al., 2001). The comoving box size of our simulation is $`50h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, and the particle number is $`64^3`$ for the gas and $`64^3`$ for the dark matter, with corresponding particle masses $`m_{\mathrm{DM}}=3.4\times 10^{10}h^1M_{}`$ and $`m_{\mathrm{gas}}=5.3\times 10^9h^1M_{}`$ (so that a group of $`50`$ particles has a total mass comparable to that of the Milky Way galaxy). We adopt the ‘entropy-conserving’ formulation of SPH as described by Springel & Hernquist (2002). The simulation includes a standard treatment of the radiative cooling and heating of Katz et al. (1996) assuming that the gas is optically thin and in ionization equilibrium (see Section 8 for the discussion on the validity of this assumption at late times). The abundance of different ionic species, including H0, He0, H+, He+, and He++, is computed by solving the network of equilibrium equations self-consistently with a uniform ultra-violet (UV) background radiation of a modified Haardt & Madau (1996) spectrum and with complete reionization at $`z6`$ (Davé et al., 1999; Becker et al., 2001). The UV background (or, equivalently, the photoionization rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of the IGM) is linearly extrapolated beyond the present epoch, after which it quickly approaches zero. We have tested the validity of this assumption by carrying out another simulation with a maximum UV background field, where the value of the photoionization rate was set equal to the $`z=0`$ value and remained constant afterwards. Even for this maximum UV background field, the future thermal evolution of the IGM remained similar. The exact behavior of the UV background field after $`z=0`$ is unimportant because the photoionization time-scale is rapidly increasing to values much longer than the Hubble time. This follows from the fact that the cosmic volume element (by which the ionizing photons are diluted) grows as $`a^3`$ and $`a`$ grows exponentially with cosmic time, i.e. $`a\mathrm{exp}\{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{\Lambda },0}}H_0t\}`$ at $`tt_0`$. The evolution of the neutral hydrogen mass density in a similar simulation run was discussed by Nagamine et al. (2003a).

Feedback from star formation and supernovae is formulated as in Springel & Hernquist (2003a, b); the underlying assumptions are also reviewed in Nagamine et al. (2003b). However, the details of the adopted star formation model should not be very important for the results presented here since the heating of the gas on large scales is dominated by the gravitationally-induced shocks. Although the numerical resolution of our simulation is not adequate for following the detailed star formation history of the Universe (see Springel & Hernquist, 2003b), it does capture well the large-scale properties of baryons in the IGM which are the focus of this work. Future simulation runs with a higher resolution and an improved model of star formation and supernova feedback could address more complicate issues, such as the distribution of metals in the IGM.

Our simulation was performed at the Center for Parallel Astrophysical Computing222http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/cpac/ at Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.

## 3 Images

Figure 1 shows the projected distribution of mass-weighted temperature (left column) and the mass surface density (right column) of the gas as functions of cosmic time in a slice with a comoving thickness of $`10h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ and a comoving width of $`50h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ on a side.

As shown in Paper I, the evolution of large-scale structure in the dark matter distribution freezes within two Hubble times from the present epoch. Similarly, the right column of Figure 1 indicates that the gas distribution does not evolve either at late times. The only noticeable change in comoving coordinates relative to the present epoch is that the filaments thin out as their mass is drained into X-ray clusters. The two visible X-ray clusters (one at the top middle and the other at the bottom middle of this simulation) are still connected by a low-temperature filament of gas and dark matter even at $`t=t_0+6t_\mathrm{H}`$. In physical coordinates, these filaments rarefy considerably as the universe expands exponentially with cosmic time.

Due to the adiabatic expansion of the IGM, the temperature distribution of the cosmic gas evolves dramatically with time. At $`t=t_0`$, the high-temperature clusters (with $`T>10^7`$ K, indicated by yellow) are connected by filaments with a somewhat lower temperature ($`10^5<T<10^7`$ K, indicated by red). As time progresses, the red filaments cool down ($`T<10^5`$ K in green), get thinner, and eventually disappear into the dark background. Consequently, virialized dark matter halos with gas temperature $`T10^4`$ K are left as ‘island universes’ embedded within the low-temperature IGM.

In principle, it is possible for the IGM to fragment into baryonic objects (which do not necessarily overlap with dark matter halos) due to its rapid adiabatic cooling. We have tested for this possibility by applying the HOP grouping algorithm (Eisenstein & Hut, 1998) to the gas particles in the simulation, but found no evidence for such fragmentation. We caution, however, that our numerical resolution is not adequate for probing fragmentation below the mass-scale of $`M_{gas}5\times 10^{11}h^1M_{}`$.

## 4 Growth Factor

In order to demonstrate the freezing of the structure formation in the future from a different perspective, we examine the evolution of the growth factor of linear density fluctuations in a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM universe. Figure 2 shows the growth factor (Heath, 1977; Carroll, Press, & Turner, 1992) as a function of the logarithm of the scale factor, $`a`$,

$$D(a)\frac{1}{a}\frac{da}{d\tau }_0^a\left(\frac{da^{}}{d\tau }\right)^3𝑑a^{},$$
(1)
where

$$\left(\frac{da}{d\tau }\right)^2=1+\mathrm{\Omega }_{M,0}\left(\frac{1}{a}1\right)+\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{\Lambda },0}(a^21),$$
(2)
and $`\tau =H_0t`$. The curve is normalized to unity at $`a=1`$. It clearly demonstrates that the growth of structure ceases at about two Hubble times from the present time in a Universe which is dominated by a cosmological constant, consistently with the results of Paper I. This saturation is caused by the exponential expansion of $`a(t)`$ as driven by the cosmological constant.

## 5 Temperature – Density Diagram

Next we project the global evolution of the gas properties on the temperature–gas density ($`T`$$`\rho `$) plane. In Figure 3 we show the mass-weighted distribution of baryons on the temperature – gas overdensity plane as a function of cosmic time. The time and corresponding scale factor values are indicated in each panel, and the plotted contours are equally spaced in six logarithmic intervals between the minimum and maximum values on the plane.

The top left panel shows the familiar geometry of the gas distribution at the present time; the solid line divides the gas into 3 different categories following the criteria of Davé et al. (2001). As shown later, the dividing line of $`\rho /\rho (1+\delta )=10^3`$ (where $`\rho `$ is the mean density) has a special meaning in terms of the future evolution of the IGM as well. The bottom left region of the diagram corresponds to the diffuse IGM which has a low density and a low temperature. Most of the gas mass in this region lies on the tight nearly-adiabatic power-law relation, which can be described by analytic means (Hui & Gnedin, 1997). A plume-shaped region of shock-heated gas extends above the horizontal solid line at $`T=10^5`$ K. The gas with temperatures $`10^5<T<10^7`$ K is the so called warm-hot intergalactic medium (WHIM; Cen & Ostriker, 1999), and the dense gas with $`T>10^8`$ K is the hot gas in clusters of galaxies. In the current study, the distinction between the warm-hot and hot gas is not particularly important, and so we simply refer to them both as hot gas. Finally, the bottom right portion of the diagram is occupied by condensed gas that has cooled radiatively inside dark matter halos.

Within two Hubble times into the future ($`t=t_0+2t_\mathrm{H}`$), the innermost contour line splits into two islands, one for the low-density diffuse IGM and the other for the gas in virialized dark matter halos. The overdensity of gas in dense regions increases with time because the physical density there remains nearly fixed while the background density rarefies rapidly due to its Hubble expansion.

The $`T`$$`\rho `$ diagram is stretched into a more elongated shape in the distant future. This elongation of the contour can be understood by considering the gas in clusters of galaxies that have $`T=10^{7.5}`$ K and overdensity of $`200`$ at $`z=0`$. The Bremsstrahlung (which dominates the cooling rate at this temperature) cooling time of such gas is much longer than the current Hubble time:

$$t_{cool}\frac{2\frac{3}{2}kT}{ϵ_B}10^2\left(\frac{200}{\rho /\rho _0}\right)\left(\frac{T}{10^{7.5}\mathrm{K}}\right)^{1/2}t_\mathrm{H},$$
(3)
where $`ϵ_BT^{0.5}\rho `$ is the Bremsstrahlung cooling rate per electron at a temperature $`T`$ and density $`\rho `$ of the cluster gas. The factor of 2 in the numerator accounts for the thermal energy of the protons in addition to that of the cooling electrons. Because of this long cooling time, such gas in the outskirts of clusters of galaxies will remain hot in the distant future.

The contour peak at $`T10^6`$ K and $`\mathrm{log}(\rho /\rho )>3.0`$ corresponds to gas inside galaxies and groups of galaxies. For this gas, the significance of metal line cooling increases with time as the gas gets enriched with supernova ejecta, and the cooling time of the enriched gas is already shorter than the Hubble time at present. Since our simulation does not include metal cooling and star formation is not treated accurately due to lack of numerical resolution, we cannot rule out the possibility that the peak at $`T10^6`$ K disappears at late times.

After six Hubble times ($`t=t_0+6t_\mathrm{H}`$), the flat bottom of the contour plot reaches the temperature floor of $`T=5`$ K, which is set by hand in the simulation and is not physical. The virialized gas maintains a temperature above $`T=10^4`$ K because its cooling curve drops sharply below this temperature. The vertical solid line indicates the dividing overdensity of $`10^3`$. The horizontal solid line at $`T=10^{3.2}`$K will be discussed later.

## 6 Distribution & Evolution of Gas Overdensity

To describe the evolution of the IGM more quantitatively, we show in Figure 4 the mass-weighted distribution function of the cosmic gas as a function of its density contrast $`df_M/d\mathrm{log}(\rho /\rho )`$ \[panel (a)\], and the cumulative mass fraction of gas with overdensity larger than a specific value $`f_M(>\rho /\rho )`$ \[panel (b)\]. Hereafter, we denote the gas mass fraction in general by $`f_M`$.

Panel (a) indicates that the gas distribution becomes bimodal as time progresses; the bottom of the valley that separates the gas into two islands is located near a density contrast $`\rho /\rho 1+\delta =10^3`$ at $`t=t_0+6t_\mathrm{H}`$, as indicated by the vertical dotted line. This makes $`1+\delta =10^3`$ a natural choice for the borderline separating the gas into its two phases: the diffuse IGM and the phase which remains bound in virialized dark matter halos (as marked by the solid lines in Figure 3).

Panel (b) shows that more gas shifts toward higher overdensities as it falls into the potential wells of dark matter halos at late times. This is partially because the physical density in virialized halos remains nearly the same while the background density rarefies rapidly due to the exponential expansion of the universe. From this panel, we derive the gas mass fraction that is in the region above some overdensity value, as indicated by the dashed lines. We find that the gas mass fraction with $`1+\delta >10^3`$ is 10% (40%) at $`t=t_0`$ ($`t=t_0+6t_\mathrm{H}`$). The gas mass fraction with $`1+\delta >200`$ is 22% (43%) at $`t=t_0`$ ($`t=t_0+6t_\mathrm{H}`$). Finally, the fraction with $`1+\delta >17.6`$ is 47% (58%) at $`t=t_0`$ ($`t=t_0+6t_\mathrm{H}`$). These results are summarized in Figure 5, which shows the gas mass fraction $`f_M(>1+\delta _{\mathrm{th}})`$ with density contrast higher than $`1+\delta _{th}=\rho /\rho =17.6`$ (solid), 200 (short-dashed), and 1000 (long-dashed line), as a function of cosmic time from the present epoch in units of the current Hubble time. This figure shows the convergence of the amount of gas that is trapped inside virialized dark matter halos in two Hubble times from the present time. The gas mass fractions with $`1+\delta >200`$ and $`>1000`$ both converge to $`40\%`$ at $`t=t_0+6t_\mathrm{H}`$. At the lower threshold overdensity of $`1+\delta =17.6`$, the mass fraction increases to 58%. The threshold value of 17.6 was derived in Paper I as the critical overdensity above which mass remains bound to virialized objects at late times.

## 7 Distribution & Evolution of Gas Temperature

Figure 6 shows the mass-weighted distribution function of gas as a function of the logarithm of the temperature $`df_M/d\mathrm{log}T`$ \[panel (a)\], and the cumulative mass fraction of gas $`f_M(>\mathrm{log}T)`$ with a temperature larger than a certain value \[panel (b)\].

Panel (a) shows that the minimum IGM temperature decreases as a function of time due to the expansion of the Universe, while the maximum temperature stays constant at $`T=10^8`$ K due to the lack of growth in the potential well depth of dark matter halos. The artificial cutoff at the temperature floor of $`T=5`$ K is set by hand in the simulation.

Panel (b) implies that the mass fraction of gas with $`T>10^5`$ K is roughly 60% at $`t=t_0`$, and that this fraction decreases to 20% at $`t=t_0+6t_\mathrm{H}`$. The mass fraction of gas with $`T>10^{3.2}`$ K is 40% at $`t=t_0+6t_\mathrm{H}`$ (corresponding to the mass fraction above $`1+\delta =10^3`$ in Figure 4).

Figure 7 shows the evolution of the maximum temperature for gas with a fixed gas mass fraction of 40% in lower density regions as a function of the logarithm of the scale factor. This quantity measures the evolution of the temperature at $`f_M(\mathrm{log}T)=0.6`$ in panel (b) of Figure 6 because Figure 6 was a cumulative plot. Figure 7 indicates that the temperature of the diffuse IGM cools down roughly according to the adiabatic expansion law, $`Ta^2`$, as illustrated by the dashed line. We confirmed that the result doesn’t change very much even in the ‘max-UV field’ run which we described in Section 2.

Figure 8 shows the mean (mass-weighted) temperature of all the gas in the Universe, $`T`$, as a function of the scale factor, $`a=(1+z)^1`$. The upper horizontal axis indicates the corresponding redshift, $`z`$. It can be seen that the beginning (redshifts $`z>20`$) of the thermal history of the diffuse IGM are dominated by the adiabatic cooling. This is also true for the end of the thermal history of the diffuse IGM as we already showed in Figure 6. In between these two cooling phases, there is an epoch of structure formation during which the IGM is heated through large-scale shocks or the radiation emitted by stars and quasars. The value of $`T`$ at late times is dominated by the gas trapped in virialized dark matter halos which will cool only slowly with cosmic time. Overall, we find that $`T`$ will peak at a value of $`2\times 10^6`$ K at $`a2.5`$, only one Hubble time ($`14`$ billion years) from the present epoch. The appearance of the peak value of $`T`$ in the relatively near future simply reflects the lack of subsequent growth in the mass function of virialized halos.

## 8 Ionization Fraction

Finally, we consider the ionization fraction of the cosmic gas, which we define as

$`F_{\mathrm{ion}}={\displaystyle \frac{n_e}{n_e+n_n}},`$ (4)
where $`n_e`$ is the electron number density, and $`n_n`$ is the total number density of neutral atoms. Since our simulation includes only the ionization of hydrogen and helium, $`n_n=n_{\mathrm{HI}}+n_{\mathrm{HeI}}`$. With this definition, $`F_{\mathrm{ion}}1`$ for a fully ionized gas and $`F_{\mathrm{ion}}0`$ for fully neutral gas.

Figure 9 shows the mass-weighted distribution of the ionization fraction as a function of the comoving gas overdensity. The contours and the gray levels are displayed on six equal logarithmic intervals in between minimum and maximum values of the projected gas mass density. The top left panel indicates that most of the gas at $`t=t_0`$ is fully ionized except for a pockets of neutral gas in star forming regions at $`\mathrm{log}\rho /\rho 6.0`$. At even higher densities ($`6<\mathrm{log}\rho /\rho <8`$), the gas is ionized again due to supernovae feedback.

The neutral fraction in star forming regions (corresponding to the narrow contour structure extending down to the lower-right corner of each panel at $`\mathrm{log}\rho /\rho >6`$) continues to grow until $`tt_0+2t_\mathrm{H}`$, but diminishes afterwards as the neutral gas is consumed by star formation. Additional infall onto virialized halos is suppressed in an exponentially expanding universe. After $`t=t_0+3t_\mathrm{H}`$, recombination is only important in the dense cores of virialized halos, and the IGM remains ionized as it continues to expand and cool. The distribution of $`F_{\mathrm{ion}}`$ in the IGM does not evolve at later times.

Figure 10 shows the mass-weighted distribution function of the gas mass as a function of its ionization fraction, i.e. $`df_M/d\mathrm{log}F_{\mathrm{ion}}`$. The lower end of the distribution gradually extends to lower $`F_{\mathrm{ion}}`$ values between $`t=t_0`$ and $`t=t_0+3t_\mathrm{H}`$, although most of the mass is still fully ionized ($`\mathrm{log}F_{\mathrm{ion}}=0.`$). At $`t=t_0+3t_\mathrm{H}`$, 99% of the gas mass has an ionization fraction higher than 80%. Subsequently, the $`F_{\mathrm{ion}}`$ distribution freezes outside the dense cores of virialized halos.

In our simulation, we have assumed that the gas is optically thin and in ionization equilibrium when computing the abundance of different ionic species. This assumption is of course only valid in the high density region where the collisional ionization and recombination time scales are shorter than the Hubble time. We find that the ionization fraction evolve only for $`\mathrm{log}(\rho /\rho )>4`$ until $`t=t_0+3t_\mathrm{H}`$. In this regime of densities, the recombination rate is still higher than $`1/t`$, and the assumption of ionization equilibrium is justified. After $`t=t_0+3t_\mathrm{H}`$, the recombination time-scale becomes much longer than the Hubble time for most of the plotted range of densities, and the distribution of ionization fraction of the IGM is expected to freeze for gas that has not assembled into dark matter halos.

## 9 Conclusions

We have simulated the future evolution of the intergalactic medium in a universe dominated by a cosmological constant, focusing on the overdensity, temperature, and ionization fraction of the cosmic gas.

We have found that within a few Hubble times from the present epoch, the baryons will split into two major phases: one phase of low-density, low-temperature, diffuse IGM which cools adiabatically (with $`Ta^2`$; see Figure 7), and a second phase of high-density, high-temperature gas in virialized dark matter halos which cools more slowly by up to two orders of magnitude \[see Equation (3)\]. The mass fraction of gas which is confined in virialized dark matter halos (defined as regions with an overdensity larger than $`200`$) converges to $`40\%`$ at late times, about twice its calculated value at the present epoch.

The simulated maps of gas temperature show that the large-scale filaments disperse and merge with the low-temperature IGM background after a few Hubble times, and only the ‘island universes’ of virialized gas maintain their physical structure. Although these islands are linked by filaments of dark matter and gas in comoving coordinates, the filaments rarefy and disperse in physical coordinates due to the exponential temporal growth of the cosmic scale factor, $`a`$. We do not find evidence for fragmentation of the baryons in the IGM at later times above the mass-scale of $`M_{gas}5\times 10^{11}h^1M_{}`$.

The recombination time of the expanding IGM exceeds the Hubble time by a factor that grows rapidly in the future, and so most of the IGM gas remains ionized. After three Hubble times from the present epoch, 99% of the gas mass maintains an ionization fraction above 80%. If the Universe is indeed dominated by a true cosmological constant, then the diffuse IGM outside virialized dark matter halos will get extremely cold but remain highly ionized.

We thank Volker Springel and Lars Hernquist for helpful discussions and for allowing us to use the updated parallel version of the GADGET code which is described in Springel & Hernquist (2002, 2003a, 2003b). This work was supported in part by the grants ATP02-0004-0093 from NASA and AST-0071019, AST-0204514 from NSF for AL. The simulations were performed at the Center for Parallel Astrophysical Computing at Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.


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# Constraints on SN Ia Progenitors and ICM enrichment from field and cluster SN rates

## 1 The SN Ia Rate in $`z1`$ Galaxy Clusters and the Source of Cluster Iron

The iron mass in galaxy clusters is about 6 times larger than could have been produced by core-collapse supernovae (SNe), assuming the stars in the cluster formed with a standard initial mass function (IMF; e.g., Renzini 1997). SNe Ia have been proposed as the alternative dominant iron source. Different SN Ia progenitor models predict different “delay functions”, between the formation of a stellar population and the explosion of some of its members as SNe Ia. We use updated measurements of the total iron mass-to-light ratio in rich clusters to normalize the predicted SN Ia rate in clusters vs. redshift, using the delay function parameterization of Madau, Della Valle, & Panagia (1998). We then use our previous measurements of the cluster SN Ia rate at high redshift (Gal-Yam, Maoz, & Sharon 2002) to constrain SN Ia progenitor models and the star-formation epoch in clusters. The low observed rate of cluster SNe Ia at $`z01`$ (Fig. 1) means that, if SNe Ia produced the observed amount of iron, they must have exploded at even higher $`z`$. This puts a $`>95\%`$ upper limit on the mean SN Ia delay time of $`\tau <2`$ Gyr ($`<5`$ Gyr) if the stars in clusters formed at $`z_f<2`$ ($`z_f<3`$), assuming $`H_o=70`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 (see Maoz & Gal-yam 2003 for full details). In the next section, we show that, for some current versions of cosmic (field) star formation history (SFH), observations of field SNe Ia place a lower bound on the delay time, $`\tau >3`$ Gyr. If these SFHs are confirmed, the entire range of $`\tau `$ will be ruled out. Cluster enrichment by core-collapse SNe from a top-heavy IMF will then remain the only viable option.

## 2 The Redshift Distribution of Field SNe Ia: Constraints on Progenitors and Cosmic Star Formation History

In this section, we use the redshift distribution of SNe Ia discovered by the Supernova Cosmology Project (Pain et al. 2002) to constrain the star formation history (SFH) of the Universe and SN Ia progenitor models. Fig. 2 illustrates how, for a given choice of parameters describing the SFH and SN Ia delay time, we predict the observed cumulative (i.e., unbinned) redshift distribution in a given survey, and compare it to the data. Given some of the recent determinations of the SFH, the observed SN Ia redshift distribution indicates a long ($`>1h^1`$ Gyr) mean delay time between the formation of a stellar population and the explosion of some of its members as SNe Ia (Fig. 3). For example, if the Madau et al. (1998) SFH is assumed, the delay time $`\tau `$ is constrained to be $`\tau 1.7(\tau 0.7)h^1`$ Gyr at the $`95\%(99\%)`$ confidence level (CL). SFHs that rise at high redshift, similar to those advocated by Lanzetta et al. (2002), are inconsistent with the data at the $`95\%`$ CL unless $`\tau >2.5h^1`$ Gyr. Long time delays disfavor progenitor models such as edge-lit detonation of a white dwarf accreting from a giant donor, and the carbon core ignition of a white dwarf passing the Chandrasekhar mass due to accretion from a subgiant (e.g., Yungelson & Livio 2000). The SN Ia delay may be shorter, thereby relaxing some of these constraints, if the field star formation rate falls, between $`z=1`$ and the present, less sharply than implied, e.g., by the original Madau plot. The discovery of larger samples of high-$`z`$ SNe Ia by forthcoming observational projects should yield strong constraints on the progenitor models and the SFH (see Gal-Yam & Maoz 2003 for full details). In the previous section we have demonstrated that if SNe Ia produce most of the iron in galaxy clusters, and the stars in clusters formed at $`z2`$, the SN Ia delay time must be lower than $`2`$ Gyr. If so, then the Lanzetta et al. (2002) SFH is inconsistent with the data presented here (Figure 3).

## 3 Conclusions

The large mass of iron in clusters, combined with the low SN Ia rate we have measured in $`z1`$ clusters, require that, if SNe Ia are the dominant iron source, their delay time must be short. This would cast doubt, e.g., on the double degenerate models. The observed redshift distribution of field SNe Ia implies a slowly changing field SNR(z) for SNe Ia. For several popular star-formation histories, this then indicates a long delay time. Taken together, these constraints may suggest that the iron in clusters is from core-collapse SNe, from an early stellar population with a top-heavy IMF.

## Index


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# Exploring Complex Graphs by Random Walks 3footnote 33footnote 3based on talk presented at Seventh Granada Lectures Modeling Complex Systems, Granada, Spain 2002; Appeared (without abstract!) in Modeling Complex Systems, AIP Conference Proceedings 661, p. 24, (2003), Editors: P.L. Garrido and J. Marro.

## I Introduction

We are living in the world of networks, majority of which are not static but evolve in time recent\_review . The evolution of network is governed by microscopic rules that in course of time lead to the emergence of complex structures through the mechanism of self-organization and dynamical constraints. The emergent scale-free structure of links in technological networks the Internet and the Web and in molecular and gene regulatory networks is of particular importance for their functional stability. The networks are adequately represented by graphs with a given structure of links. The obvious question is then how the networks function, making the necessity of modeling dynamic processes on these graphs. The dynamics of random walks on graphs represents a powerful tool, in which we can explore connection between the graphs topology and functional properties of the network.

To explore numerically graphs representing complex evolving networks by random walks, two types of algorithms are necessary: First, an algorithm to grow the graph with a given structure of links; Second, an algorithm that governs a random walk on that graph. Complexity of link structure in scale-free graphs such as the Web graph suggests various possibilities for local navigation. For instance, apart from a naive move strategy, the random walker may learn from nodes linking preferences to get quickly to a well connected node adaptive . For intentional random walks directed to a given destination on the graph, we implement local search algorithm that monitors near- and next-near neighbors in search for the destination node.

## II Graph growth algorithms: the Web graph

We present an algorithm BT  to grow a graph with scale-free structure and flexible wiring diagram in the class of the world-wide Web. Objectives are to grow a graph that has statistically the same properties as measured in the real Web: scale-free degree distributions both for in- and out-links (exponents $`\tau _{in}2.2`$ and $`\tau _{out}2.6`$); occurrence of a giant component and the distribution of clusters with the exponent $`\tau _s2.5`$. As demonstrated in Ref. BT  a minimal set of microscopic rules necessary to reproduce such graphs include growth, attachment, and rewiring. Time is measured by addition of a node, which attempts to link with probability $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$ to a node $`k`$. Else, with probability $`1\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$ a preexisting node $`n`$ rewires or adds a new out-link directed to $`k`$. Nodes $`k`$ and $`n`$ are selected with probabilities $`p_{in}p_{in}(k,t)`$, $`p_{out}p_{out}(n,t)`$

$$p_{in}=(M\alpha +q_{in}(k,t))/(1+\alpha )Mt;p_{out}=(M\alpha +q_{out}(n,t))/(1+\alpha )Mt,$$
(1)
which depend on current number of respective links $`q_{in}(k,t)`$ and $`q_{out}(n,t)`$. $`M`$ is average number of links per time step (see BT ; BT\_ccp  for more details). The graph flexibility, which is measured by the degree of rewiring $`(1\stackrel{~}{\alpha })/\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$, is essential both for the appearance of the scale-free structure of out-links and for occurrence of closed cycles, which affect the dynamic processes on the graph.

By solving the corresponding rate equations we find that the local connectivities $`<q_{in}(s,t)>`$ and $`<q_{out}(s,t)>`$ at a node added at time $`s`$ increase with time $`t`$ as

$$q_\kappa (s,t)=A_\kappa \left[\left(t/s\right)^{\gamma _\kappa }B_\kappa \right].$$
(2)
with $`\kappa =in`$ and $`out`$, and $`\gamma _{in}=1/(1+\alpha )`$ and $`\gamma _{out}=(1\stackrel{~}{\alpha })/(1+\alpha )`$. We use the original one-parameter model introduced in BT  with $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }=\alpha =0.25`$ and $`M=1`$. When $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }=1`$ the emergent structure is tree like with one out-link per node.

In Fig. 1a we show simulated local connectivities for $`t=N=10^4`$ nodes in agreement with Eq. (2). This implies the power-law behavior of emergent degree distributions with exponent $`\tau _\kappa =1/\gamma _\kappa +1`$, in agreement with simulations in BT ; BT\_ccp .

## III Random Walks on scale-free graphs

We now explore the graph with an ensemble of intentional random walks. To stress importance of the graph topology, we compare results obtained on the Web graph, the tree graph with same in-link structure and on randomly grown graph. We first consider dynamics of an ensemble of independent random walkers, that can be implemented sequentially. We then introduce some details of the dynamics of interacting random walks which are navigated in parallel while moving towards their selected destinations, leading to queueing processes on the Web graph.

### Sequential Walks and Graph Topology

For each random walk we select a start and destination node at random (see TP ; book  for electrical networks). Then the walk is navigated by next-near-neighbor ($`nnn`$-) algorithm to search for its destination. In Fig. 1a also is shown the average number of visits $`<u>`$ at node $`s`$ for the walker using both in- and out-links equally. As expected, the number of visits to a node are determined by its local connectivities. This is further illustrated in Fig. 1b where the distribution of number of visits $`P(u)`$ is shown for three different graph topologies. The distribution falls of faster in the case of Web (slope $`\tau _u=2.275\pm 0.015`$) compared to the tree graph ($`\tau _u=1.94\pm 0.018`$), suggesting that the presence of closed cycles on the Web graph increases its searcability.

The higher efficiency of the $`nnn`$-search on the Web compared to tree graph is further expressed in the distributions of duration of search on Fig. 2a, where the respective slopes are $`\tau _{ts}=1.541\pm 0.008`$ and $`\tau _{ts}=0.98\pm 0.016`$ . Intuitively, this can be understood as the $`nnn`$-search algorithm often directs walks through the hub node, to which a majority of in-links point. In the Web graph, the same algorithm can use two types of well connected nodes—hub and authority nodes. It is interesting to note that a broad distribution of search time is also found on randomly grown graph (the exponent $`\tau _{ts}=0.425\pm 0.008`$), whereas the corresponding distribution of visits is a stretch-exponential function (cf. Fig. 1b).

### Parallel Walks: Transport on Graphs

To model simultaneous random walks, as for instance information packet transport on the Internet, in addition to graph topology and search algorithm as above, we need additional parameters to specify packet creation rate $`R`$ and queueing discipline, as LIFO TR . In addition, we assume finite maximal queue length $`H`$, which then modifies search when a local queue is at its maximum TR . Technically, the object-oriented programming is necessary. As a consequence of simultaneous intentional walks, we have new phenomena related to dynamically interacting queues on the graph. At low creation rate $`R0`$ the statistics of independent walks as above applies. For $`R>0`$, the time that a walker spends on the graph, which is interesting for costs planning, consists of search time and time that it spends trapped in queues along the way. For large $`R`$ we have dense traffic, in which searchability is limited, and eventually a transition to jammed state occurs. The dynamics of queueing depends on the graph topology and the parameters $`R`$ and $`H`$. Few details are shown in Fig. 2b for our scale-free graph with cycles. For large enough creation rate the density of packets arriving at a hub node in a single time step exhibits long-range temporal correlations. Similar correlations are found in the number of simultaneously moving packets (activity) and in the number of present packets (moving and queueing) at each time step. An analysis of transit time statistics and queue properties for a scale-free tree graph can be found in TR .

Presence of closed cycles enhances searchability of flexible scale-free graphs. The efficiency of $`nnn`$-search algorithm on these graphs is related to occurrence of hub and authority nodes. Sequential walks discover directly the graph topology, which together with parameters $`R,H`$ affects transport and queueing on the graph.


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# Polarization observables in 𝜋-photoproduction on the deuteron1footnote 11footnote 1To appear in the Proceedings of 4th Conference on Nuclear and Particle Physics, October 11-15, 2003, Fayoum, Egypt.

## I Introduction

Meson photo- and electroproduction on light nuclei is primarily motivated by the following possibilities: (i) study of the elementary neutron amplitude in the absence of a neutron target, (ii) investigation of medium effects, i.e., possible changes of the production operator in the presence of other nucleons, (iii) it provides an interesting means to study nuclear structure, and (iv) it gives information on pion production on off-shell nucleon, as well as on the very important $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$-interaction in a nuclear medium.

Polarization observables will give additional valuable information for checking the spin degrees of freedom of the elementary pion production amplitude of the neutron, provided, and this is very important, that one has under control all interfering interaction effects which prevent a simple extraction of this amplitude. As an illustration of these various aspects, incoherent single pion photoproduction on the deuteron in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$(1232)-resonance region is investigated with special emphasis on polarization observables EedNew1 ; EedNew . The importance of this process derives from the fact that the deuteron, being the simplest nuclear system, plays a similar fundamental role in nuclear physics as the hydrogen atom plays in atomic physics.

## II Polarization observables

The most general expression for all possible polarization observables in terms of the transition matrix elements is given by EedNew1 ; EedNew ; Aren88

$`𝒪`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\alpha \alpha ^{}}{}}{\displaystyle _0^{q_{\mathrm{max}}}}𝑑q{\displaystyle 𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }_{p_{NN}}\rho _s_{s^{}m^{},m_\gamma ^{}m_d^{}}^{(t^{}\mu ^{})}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_{s^{}m^{}sm}_{sm,m_\gamma m_d}^{(t\mu )}\rho _{m_\gamma m_\gamma ^{}}^\gamma \rho _{m_dm_d^{}}^d},`$ (1)
where we have introduced as a shorthand for the quantum numbers $`\alpha =(s,m,t,m_\gamma ,m_d)`$ and $`\alpha ^{}=(s^{},m^{},t^{},m_\gamma ^{},m_d^{})`$. Furthermore, $`m_\gamma `$ denotes the photon polarization, $`m_d`$ the spin projection of the deuteron, $`s`$ and $`m`$ total spin and projection of the two outgoing nucleons, respectively, $`t`$ their total isospin, and $`\mu `$ the isospin projection of the pion. $`\rho _{m_\gamma m_\gamma ^{}}^\gamma `$ and $`\rho _{m_dm_d^{}}^d`$ denote the density matrices of initial photon polarization and deuteron orientation, respectively, $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_{s^{}m^{}sm}`$ is an operator associated with the observable, which acts in the two-nucleon spin space. For details with respect to the density matrices we refer to Aren88 . The transition $``$-matrix elements of the $`d(\gamma ,\pi )NN`$ reaction as well as the phase space factor $`\rho _s`$ are given in Dar03 .

As in our previous work EedNew , the unpolarized differential cross section is given by

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^3\sigma }{d\mathrm{\Omega }_\pi dq}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}{\displaystyle \underset{\alpha }{}}{\displaystyle 𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }_{p_{NN}}\rho _s|_{smm_\gamma m_d}^{(t\mu )}|^2}.`$ (2)
The photon asymmetry for linearly polarized photons is given by EedNew1

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{𝒜}}\mathrm{}e{\displaystyle \underset{smtm_d}{}}{\displaystyle _0^{q_{\mathrm{max}}}}𝑑q{\displaystyle 𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }_{p_{NN}}\rho _s_{sm+1m_d}^{(t\mu )}_{sm1m_d}^{(t\mu )}},`$ (3)
with

$`𝒜`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\alpha }{}}{\displaystyle _0^{q_{\mathrm{max}}}}𝑑q{\displaystyle 𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }_{p_{NN}}\rho _s|_{smm_\gamma m_d}^{(t\mu )}|^2}.`$ (4)
The vector target asymmetry $`T_{11}`$ is given by EedNew1

$`T_{11}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{6}}{𝒜}}\mathrm{}m{\displaystyle \underset{smtm_\gamma }{}}{\displaystyle _0^{q_{\mathrm{max}}}}𝑑q{\displaystyle 𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }_{p_{NN}}\rho _s\left[_{smm_\gamma 1}^{(t\mu )}_{smm_\gamma +1}^{(t\mu )}\right]_{smm_\gamma 0}^{(t\mu )}}.`$ (5)
The tensor target asymmetries are given by EedNew1

$`T_{20}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}𝒜}}{\displaystyle \underset{smtm_\gamma }{}}{\displaystyle _0^{q_{\mathrm{max}}}}𝑑q{\displaystyle 𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }_{p_{NN}}\rho _s\left[|_{smm_\gamma +1}^{(t\mu )}|^2+|_{smm_\gamma 1}^{(t\mu )}|^22|_{smm_\gamma 0}^{(t\mu )}|^2\right]},`$ (6)
$`T_{21}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{6}}{𝒜}}\mathrm{}e{\displaystyle \underset{smtm_\gamma }{}}{\displaystyle _0^{q_{\mathrm{max}}}}𝑑q{\displaystyle 𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }_{p_{NN}}\rho _s\left[_{smm_\gamma 1}^{(t\mu )}_{smm_\gamma +1}^{(t\mu )}\right]_{smm_\gamma 0}^{(t\mu )}},`$ (7)
and

$`T_{22}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\sqrt{3}}{𝒜}}\mathrm{}e{\displaystyle \underset{smtm_\gamma }{}}{\displaystyle _0^{q_{\mathrm{max}}}}𝑑q{\displaystyle 𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }_{p_{NN}}\rho _s_{smm_\gamma 1}^{(t\mu )}_{smm_\gamma +1}^{(t\mu )}}.`$ (8)
## III Results and discussion

For the evaluation of the above mentioned observables we have chosen the laboratory frame of the deuteron. As coordinate system a right-handed one is taken with $`z`$-axis along the momentum $`\stackrel{}{k}`$ of the incoming photon and $`y`$-axis along $`\stackrel{}{k}\times \stackrel{}{q}`$, where $`\stackrel{}{q}`$ is the pion momentum. As seen above, all observables are calculated by integrating over the pion momentum $`q`$, the polar angle $`\theta _{p_{NN}}`$ and the azimuthal angle $`\varphi _{p_{NN}}`$ of the relative momentum $`\stackrel{}{p}_{NN}`$ of the two outgoing nucleons. These integrations are carried out numerically. The number of integration points was being increased until the accuracy of calculated observable becomes good to 1$`\%`$.

The contribution to the pion production amplitude is evaluated by taking a realistic $`NN`$ potential model for the deuteron wave function. For our calculations we have used the wave function of the Paris potential La+81 , which is in excellent agreement with $`NN`$ scattering data Dar03th . For the elementary pion photoproduction operator, we have taken the effective Lagrangian model of Schmidt et al. ScA96 . This model had been constructed to give a realistic description of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$(1232)-resonance region. It is given in an arbitrary frame of reference and allows a well defined off-shell continuation as required for studying pion production on nuclei. Therefore, this model for the elementary photoproduction amplitude is quite satisfactory for our purpose, namely to incorporate it into the reaction on the deuteron.

Fig. 1 shows our results for the $`\pi `$-meson spectra (2) as a function of pion momentum $`q`$. One sees that when $`q`$ reaches its maximum, the absolute value of the relative momentum $`p_{NN}`$ of the two outgoing nucleons vanishes, and thus a narrow peak is appears in the forward pion angles. In the lower part of Fig. 1 we see that the unpolarized differential cross section is small and the narrow peak which appears at forward angles is disappears. The same effect appears in the coherent process of charged pion photo- and electroproduction on the deuteron Lag78 ; Kob87 , in deuteron electrodisintegration Fab76  as well as in $`\eta `$-photoproduction Fix97 . It is also clear that the maximum value of $`q`$ (when $`p_{NN}0`$) decreases with increasing the pion angle. It changes from $``$ 300 MeV at forward angles to $``$ 200 MeV at backward ones. In principle, the experimental observation of this peak in the high $`\pi `$-momentum spectrum may serve as another evidence for the understanding of the $`\pi `$-meson spectra.

Our results for the photon asymmetry $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ for linearly polarized photons (3) for all different charge states of the pion of $`d(\stackrel{}{\gamma },\pi )NN`$ are plotted in Fig. 2 at different photon lab-energies as a function of pion angle $`\theta _\pi `$ in the laboratory frame. First of all, we see that the photon asymmetry has always a negative values at forward and backward pion angles. One notes qualitatively a similar behaviour for charged pion channels whereas a totally different behaviour is seen for the neutral pion channel.

For extreme forward and backward pion angles one sees, that the effect of Born contributions is relatively small in comparison to the results when $`\theta _\pi `$ changes from $`60^{}`$ to $`120^{}`$. One notices also, that the contribution from Born terms are much important in this region. In the energy range of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$(1232)-resonance, one sees that the contribution from Born terms are important in the case of charged pion channels. For the neutral pion channel we see, that this contribution is very small at 330 MeV. For lower and higher energies, one sees again the sizeable effect from Born terms which arise mainly from the Kroll-Rudermann term. One sees also, that $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is sensitive to the energy of the incoming photon. Finally, we observe that the interference of the Born terms with the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$(1232)-resonance contribution causes considerable changes in the linear photon asymmetry. Experimental measurements will give us more valuable information on this asymmetry.

Our results for the vector target asymmetry $`T_{11}`$ (5) are depicted in Fig. 3 for $`\gamma \stackrel{}{d}\pi ^{}pp`$ (left panels), $`\pi ^+nn`$ (middle panels), and $`\pi ^0np`$ (right panels), respectively. The asymmetry $`T_{11}`$ clearly differs in size between charged and neutral pion photoproduction channels, being even opposite in phase. For charged pion photoproduction reactions we see, that the vector target asymmetry has always a negative values which mainly come from the Born terms. A small positive contribution from the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance is found only at pion forward angles. At backward angles, the negative values for $`T_{11}`$ come from an interference of the Born terms with the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$(1232)-resonance contribution. For all energies one observes at forward angle the strongest effect of the Born terms.

With respect to the neutral pion photoproduction channel, we see that the vector target asymmetry is always positive. For energies below the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance, a very small negative value is found at extreme backward pion angles while a relatively large positive value at forward angles is found. We see also, that $`T_{11}`$ is sensitive to the Born terms. The same effect was found by Blaazer et al. Bla94  and Wilhelm and Arenhövel Wil95  for the coherent pion photoproduction reaction on the deuteron. The reason is that $`T_{11}`$ depends on the relative phase of the matrix elements as can be seen from (5). It would vanish for a constant overall phase of the $`t`$-matrix, a case which is approximately realized if only the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$(1232)-amplitude is considered. Finally, we notice that $`T_{11}`$ is vanishes at $`\theta _\pi =0`$ and $`\theta _\pi =\pi `$ which is not the case for the linear photon asymmetry.

Let us discuss now the results of the tensor target asymmetries $`T_{20}`$ (6), $`T_{21}`$ (7), and $`T_{22}`$ (8) as shown in Figs. 4, 5, and 6 for $`\gamma \stackrel{}{d}\pi ^{}pp`$, $`\pi ^+nn`$, and $`\pi ^0np`$, respectively. We start from the tensor asymmetry $`T_{20}`$ which is plotted in the left panels. For $`\gamma d\pi NN`$ at forward and backward pion angles, the asymmetry $`T_{20}`$ allows one to draw specific conclusions about details of the reaction mechanism. In comparison to the results for photon and vector target asymmetries we found here, that the contribution from the Born terms is very small both for charged and neutral pion production channels. It is also noticeable, that for charged channels the asymmetry $`T_{20}`$ has a relatively large positive values at pion forward angles while a small negative ones at backward angles are found. For the neutral pion production channel we see, that $`T_{20}`$ has a negative values at forward angles and a positive ones at backward angles. Only for energies above the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance we note, that it has a small negative values at extreme backward angles.

The tensor target asymmetry $`T_{21}`$ of $`\gamma \stackrel{}{d}\pi ^{}pp`$, $`\pi ^+nn`$, and $`\pi ^0np`$ is plotted in the middle panels of Figs. 4, 5, and 6, respectively. It is clear that $`T_{21}`$ differs in size between charged and neutral pion production channels. One notices, that for charged pion channels $`T_{21}`$ asymmetry is sensitive to the Born terms, in particular at forward pion angles. In the case of $`\pi ^0`$ channel one sees, that the contribution of the Born terms is much less important at all energies. In comparison to the results for photon and vector target asymmetries we found also here, that the contribution from the Born terms is small both for charged and neutral pion production channels. It is also noticeable, that in the case of charged pion channels the asymmetry $`T_{21}`$ has a relatively large positive values at pion forward angles. For the neutral pion channel we see, that $`T_{21}`$ has a negative values at forward angles. Furthermore, as in the case of vector target asymmetry, we found that $`T_{21}`$ is vanishes at $`\theta _\pi =0`$ and $`\theta _\pi =\pi `$.

In the right panels of Figs. 4, 5, and 6 we depict our results for the tensor target asymmetry $`T_{22}`$ for the reactions $`\gamma \stackrel{}{d}\pi ^{}pp`$, $`\pi ^+nn`$, and $`\pi ^0np`$, respectively. One readily notes the importance of Born terms at extreme forward pion angles. Like the results of the $`T_{20}`$ and $`T_{21}`$ asymmetries, the $`T_{22}`$ asymmetry is sensitive to the values of pion angle $`\theta _\pi `$. At $`\theta _\pi =60^{}`$ we see, that the Born terms are important for $`\pi ^0`$ production channel while these terms are very important for charged pion channels at extreme forward angles. Moreover, we found that $`T_{22}`$ is also vanishes at $`\theta _\pi =0`$ and $`\theta _\pi =\pi `$.

## IV Conclusion

I would like to conclude that the results presented here for polarization observables in the $`d(\gamma ,\pi )NN`$ reaction in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$(1232)-resonance region can be used as a basis for the simulation of the behaviour of polarization observables and for an optimal planning of new polarization experiments of this reaction. It would be very interesting to examine our predictions experimentally.

## Acknowledgments

I would like to express my gratitude to the organizing committee and the chairman of the NUPPAC’03 Conference for the warm hospitality and providing the pleasant environment for useful discussions. Very useful discussions with Professor H. Arenhövel are gratefully acknowledge.

FIGURES


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# Predicting Dust Distribution in Protoplanetary Discs

## 1. Introduction

The recent discoveries of extrasolar planets show our lack of knowledge about their formation, a multi-stage process taking us from dust grains to boulders to planetesimals to planetary embryos. Here we are primarily looking at the initial phase – from microns to metres.

In this paper we present the first three-dimensional numerical simulations that include the effects of hydrodynamical forces, self-gravity and gas drag upon an evolving dusty gas disk. We use the Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) (Gingold & Monaghan 1977; Lucy 1977; Monaghan 1992) technique which uses a collection of particles to approximate a fluid.

## 2. Parallel Tree and Multi-Phase SPH

We have written two slightly different SPH codes describing these multiphase fluids. One was developed by Robin Humble (Humble et al. 2004), the other was developed by Laure Barrière-Fouchet starting from James Murray’s code (Murray 1996). Gas and dust phases are represented by two distinct types of particles. The equation of motion is given by Maddison (1998).

The codes have been extensively compared and the main differences arise from the fact that Humble’s code allows higher resolution simulations and Barrière-Fouchet’s code seems to be able to simulate smaller size particles.

## 3. Discussion

For large ($`10`$m) and small ($`\mu `$m) dust sizes, the dust distribution is expected to stay close to the initial flared disk. Large grains (boulders) are weakly coupled to the gas, and if started in Keplerian motion, they will remain there. Conversely, tiny grains are so strongly coupled to the gas that they are essentially co-moving (on the timescales we are examining here).

The $`0.1`$mm to $`10`$cm interval is where all the (short timescale) interesting dynamics takes place. In the r-z plot of figure 1, significant deviation from the initially flared disk occurs. The Epstein drag is sufficiently strong that it is able to efficiently remove energy from the dust, and yet not so strong that the dust is tightly coupled to the gas.

## 4. Summary

We have taken the initial steps to understanding dusty disk dynamics with full 3D hydrodynamics. The Lagrangian nature of the code means that it is computationally trivial to add empirical grain growth models, to change equations of state, and to follow the grain temperature and density histories. This means it is potentially feasible to determine not just the location and mass of planetesimals, but also their likely composition.

## References

Gingold, R. A., & Monaghan, J. J. 1977, MNRAS, 181, 375

Humble, R., Maddison, S. T., & Murray, J. 2004, MNRAS, in preparation

Lucy, L. B. 1977, AJ, 82, 1013

Maddison, S. T. 1998, “Gravitational Instabilities in Protostellar Disks”, PhD Thesis, Monash University

Monaghan, J. J. 1992, ARA&A, 30, 543

Murray, J. 1996, MNRAS, 279, 402


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# The Nature of the Local Group

## 1. Introduction

The main motivation for studying the Local Group is that it is our nearest sample of galaxies. This would be a rather weak reason if we could not assume that the Local Group galaxies are a good, unbiased, representative sample of the galaxies in the rest of the universe. Only in such a case could the more accurate results that we can obtain for the Local Group members be extended to other galaxies. In fact, the Local Group contains members of most galaxy types: big design spirals (Andromeda, the Milky Way, M 33); luminous irregulars (the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds); dim irregulars (NGC 6822, IC 1613, Leo A, etc.); a possible blue compact dwarf (IC 10); a nucleated dwarf elliptical (M 32); dwarf ellipticals (NGC 205, NGC 147, NGC 185); dwarf spheroidals (Sculptor, Ursa Minor, etc.), and a highly stripped galaxy (Sagittarius dSph). The only important types of galaxies not present in the Local Group are ellipticals (non-dwarfs) and cDs (see van den Bergh 2000).

In this contribution, after an overview of Local Group properties, I will review a few general topics with a common characteristic: that the study of Local Group members should provide a significant improvement in our knowledge of the problem. The topics I have selected are the following:

$``$ Galaxy formation: the Milky Way

$``$ Galaxy destruction and tidal streams: the Sagittarius dSph galaxy

$``$ Age-metallicity laws: detailed chemical evolution

$``$ Quantitative determinations of star formation histories

$``$ Extended low surface brightness structures in dwarf galaxies

The properties of the Local Group and its galaxies have recently been reviewed in several meetings (The Local Group: Comparative and Global Properties (Layden, Smith, & Storm 1994); The Stellar Content of the Local Group Galaxies (Whitelock & Cannon 1999) and in the Canary Islands Winter School Stellar Astrophysics for the Local Group (Aparicio, Herrero & Sánchez 1998). Recent fundamental monographic reviews have been given by Grebel (1997), Mateo (1998), and van den Bergh (2000).

## 2. The Local Group: An Overview

The number of Local Group galaxy members has been increasing since Hubble (1936) introduced the term ”Local Group” itself. Hubble mentioned only ten galaxies as members of the Local Group: the Milky Way, the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC), Andromeda, M 32, NGC 205, M 33, NGC 6822, IC 1613, and IC 10 (which Hubble did not consider a secure member). Since then, galaxies have been discovered continuously and the rate of discover shows no sign of abating for the moment (see the enlightening figure 1.1 in van den Bergh 2000).

Deciding whether or not a galaxy is a Local Group member is not a straightforward task. Certainly the best criterion is dynamical: member galaxies should be gravitationally bound to the Local Group. But i) the mass of the Local Group is not reliably known and ii) the tangential velocity of galaxies cannot yet be measured (except for the very nearest ones). Using an estimate of the Local Group mass, Sandage (1986) found a dynamical solution implying that galaxies having velocities in excess of 60 km s<sup>-1</sup> relative to the Local Group barycenter should be unbound. The problem has been several times revisited. In particular, Karachentsev & Makarov (2001) determined the radius, $`R_0`$ of the zero velocity sphere, which separates the Local Group from the overall cosmological expansion, obtaining $`R_0=0.96\pm 0.05`$ Mpc. Lacking more accurate information, it is a reasonable and common choice to consider galaxies within this radius as probable members of the Local Group.

Summarizing, the current list of Local Group members or possible members includes about 35 to 40 galaxies. Eight of these have been discovered or identified as Local Group members or possible members since 1990: Sextans (Irwin et al. 1990); Tucana (Corwin et al. 1985, discovery; Lavery 1990, identification as member); Antlia (Corwin et al. 1985, discovery; Whiting et al. 1997, identification as member); Sagittarius (Ibata et al. 1994); Andromeda V (Armandroff et al. 1998); Andromeda VI (also called Pegasus II, Grebel, & Guhathakurta 1999), Andromeda VII (also called Cassiopeia, Grebel, & Guhathakurta 1999) and Andromeda VIII (Morrison et al. 2003). The continuous discovery of Local Group galaxies includes Milky Way satellites, two of which (Sextans and Sagittarius) were discovered in the nineties. Figure 1 shows the rate of these discoveries. Nothing indicates that the discovery process is now finished.

Figure 2 shows a general perspective of the Local Group. Figure 3 is a zoom of the former showing the Milky Way and Andromeda subsystems in more detail. Figures 4 and 5 shows the Andromeda and Milky way subsystems as seen from the Milky Way and Andromeda, respectively. The concentration of dwarf spheroidal galaxies around the two big spirals is clear in all the cases as well as the distribution of irregulars filling the Local Group field.

## 3. Galaxy Formation: The Milky Way

The first case that we will snapshot in which the study of Local Group members is particularly enlightening is the Milky Way formation process. The formation timescale of the Milky Way has been the subject of debate for several years. The two milestone papers representing this debate are those by Eggen, Lynden-Bell, & Sandage (1962) and Searle & Zinn (1978). In the last decade, Chaboyer, Demarque, & Sarajedini (1996), from an analysis of the ages of a globular cluster sample, proposed that the formation of the Milky Way halo lasted 5 Gyr, or 30–40% of the age of the Galaxy. A more accurate analysis based on some 50 globular cluster, in which major attention was paid to the homogeneity of the data sample, is being carried on by Rosenberg and collaborators. Rosenberg et al. (1999) published a first set of results corresponding to the inner 20 kpc. A further extension of the work (Rosenberg et al. 2004) to the external halo (40 kpc) indicates that perhaps two separate globular cluster populations are present, one of them 20% younger than the other (Figure 6). Clusters are coeval (within the errors) in each group, the oldest one containing about 70% of the objects. Besides these two components a few still younger clusters exist. These are represented by only two objects in the Rosenberg et al. (2004) sample.

## 4. Galaxy Destruction and Tidal Streams: The Sagittarius dSph

The discovery of the Sagittarius dSph (Ibata et al. 1994) and of the fact that it is in an advanced state of tidal disruption have been of paramount relevance in the galaxy interaction research field. In particular, the Sagittarius dwarf is a living example of a fundamental process of galaxy evolution: the disruption and merging of dwarf galaxies in the potential well of giants, which is one of the predictions of the hierarchical galaxy formation scenario. The Sagittarius dwarf extends over a stream that completely enwraps the Milky Way in a polar orbit. The accuracy reached by several searches and positive and negative detections of the Sagittarius stream at different galactic latitudes is making it possible to develop an accurate orbital model for it and to constrain the Milky Way potential well. Figure 7 shows the orbital model for the Sagittarius stream by Martínez-Delgado, Gómez-Flechoso, & Aparicio (2003). The center of the galaxy marked in the figure corresponds to the globular cluster M 54. Other globular clusters are also marked. One of them, Pal 12, is particularly young.

## 5. Age-Metallicity Laws: Detailed Chemical Evolution

A knowledge of the chemical enrichment process is fundamental to a proper understanding of the evolution of galaxies. In the simple closed-box model, it only depends on the star formation rate (SFR) as a function of time. Determining the SFR is a complicated task, but things made are still more difficult because gas infall into and outflow from the intergalactic medium also play a quite fundamental role. Chemical enrichment laws are often assumed in astrophysical research, but they have only very recently obtained observationally. An example is the Fornax dSph galaxy (Pont et al. 2003). This galaxy is situated 138 kpc from the Milky Way. At this distance it is Possible i) to measure the metallicity of upper red giant branch (RGB) stars from the Ca II triplet and ii) to determine age of the same stars from a direct comparison with the isochrones of the corresponding metallicity. The latter (and perhaps the former) produces inaccurate absolute scales. But the internal accuracy is high. Figure 8 shows a metallicity–age plot for the star sample observed in Fornax. The dot distribution can be matched to metallicity laws derived from several enrichment scenarios. The one shown corresponds to the best solution for infall and outflow rates, assuming a simple case of constant SFR (Pont et al. 2003).

## 6. Quantitative Determinations of Star Formation Histories

Galaxies evolve along two main paths: dynamically, including interaction with external systems, and through the process of the formation, evolution, and death of the stars within them. The latter has the following relevant effects on the galaxy: i) the evolution of gas content, ii) chemical enrichment, and iii) the formation of the stellar populations. The star formation history (SFH), is therefore fundamental to understanding the galaxy evolution process. We define the SFH as composed of two simpler functions: the SFR as a function of time and the chemical evolution law. The explicit determination of the SFH requires direct information about age and metallicity of the stars belonging to successive stellar populations. The color–magnitude diagram (CMD) provides this kind of information for large star samples and is the best tool for deriving the SFH. But for this information to be useful, the CMD must be deep and accurate, which is only reachable in the Local Group or its neighborhood.

Deriving a quantitative, accurate SFH is, in any case, complicated and require a more or less sophisticated technique. The standard procedure involves three main ingredients: i) good data, from which a deep observational CMD, ideally reaching the oldest main-sequence turn-offs, can be plotted; ii) a stellar evolution library providing colors and magnitudes of stars as a function of age, mass, and metallicity, and iii) a method for relating the number of stars populating different regions of the observational CMD with the density distribution of stars in the CMD as a function of age, mass, and metallicity, as predicted by the stellar evolution models. The latter will provide the SFH of the system. A review of the procedures is given by Aparicio (2003).

The CMD depth is fundamental if an SFH extending to the early epoch of galaxy evolution as a star-forming system is required. For CMDs showing only the RGB and the upper main sequence and blue loops, only an integrated estimate of the SFR is possible for ages older than a few hundred million years. In figure 6 of the review by Aparicio (2003), the SFRs of the galaxies are plotted for which, at the time of writing the paper in 2001, a quantitative study of the CMD had been done using synthetic CMD techniques. In these cases the SFR was derived for the entire for the entire galaxy lifetime. Other, less accurate or less time extended SFRs are shown in figure 7 of the same paper.

With accurate enough data, the simultaneous derivation of the SFR and the CEL is possible, providing the full SFH as we have previously defined it. Figure 9 shows an example of that for the dwarf galaxy Phoenix (Hidalgo, Aparicio, & Martínez-Delgado 2004). A plot of this kind, in which the SFR and the CEL are plotted as a function of time, is customarily called a “population box” (Hodge 1989).

## 7. Extended Low Surface Brightness Structures in Dwarf Galaxies

Dekel & Silk (1986) proposed that the driving winds of supernovae (SNe) of the first stellar generation should have swept out most of the gas in dwarf galaxies. Those retaining some of it would eventually be able to produce new stellar generations, resulting in dIrrs. In such cases, dIrrs should still bear the traces of their first stellar generation, which would be seen today as an extended structure populated by very old low metallicity stars. Extended structures lacking young stars are being routinely discovered in dIrrs (e.g., Minniti, & Zjilstra 1996; Aparicio et al. 2000). However, it is not yet clear whether the stellar content of these structures is a really old, low metallicity primeval population or the superposition of successive old and intermediate-age populations that simply lack young stars. Recent results even indicate that these extended structures could contain a significant young population. Particularly interesting is the work by Komiyama et al. (2003) on the dwarf galaxy NGC 6822. This galaxy was known to have a gas component much more extended than the conspicuous optical component (Roberts 1972; de Blok & Walker 2000). These very extended gas structures are common in gas rich dwarf galaxies (see Roberts 1972 for several examples). Komiyama et al. (2003), from wide-field observations obtained with the Subaru Telescope, have obtained a map of young blue stars, as shown in their figure 4. The distribution of young stars matches the extended gas component reasonably well. Even more, the young stars seem to trace a very low surface brightness spiral arm structure. The high surface brightness body of NGC 6822, which had been considered the only stellar component of the galaxy turns out to be only its central component.

On another hand, dynamical models published by Mayer et al. (2001; see their figure 12) show that, evolving within a big galaxy potential well, high surface brightness galaxies (as dwarf irregulars) develop a low surface brightness spiral structure before becoming dwarf elliptical galaxies. This could indicate that galaxies like NGC 6822 could be in a transitional phase toward a dwarf elliptical morphology.

## 8. Final Considerations

In this paper I have reviewed only a few relevant topics related to Local Group astrophysics. There are, however, several fields of astrophysical research, ranging from stellar astrophysics to cosmology, that could benefit from study of Local Group. In his book The Realm of Nebulae, Hubble (1936) pointed out that the study of individual galaxies in the Local Group was important because 1) they were ‘the nearest and most accessible examples of their particular types’ and 2) they provided ‘a sample collection of nebulae, from which criteria can be derived for further exploration’ (I take these quotations from van den Bergh 2000). Hubble’s motivation continues to be valid today.

### Acknowledgments.

I am grateful to Drs Gallart, Pont, Hidalgo, Rosenberg, Martínez-Delgado, and Gómez-Flechoso for fruitful discussions and comments that have largely improved this paper, and to Drs Pont, Zinn, Gallart, Hardy, and Winnick for having made the data of one of their plots available to me (Figure 8 of this paper).

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