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# Electrical resistivity of the Ti4O7 Magneli phase under high pressure

## I INTRODUCTION

The study of electronic properties in metals which their charge carriers could be associated with bipolarons has recently raised some interesting discussions in the quest to determine the microscopic origin of high Tc superconductivity Chakra98 ; Alex99 ; Chakra99 . Alexandrov and Mott Alex94  had claimed that many of the experimental properties of high temperature superconductors can be explained considering a Bose condensation of their bipolaronic charge carriers. Chakraverty et al. Chakra98  argue that the condensation temperature for this type of bosonic superconductors can not be much higher than 10 K. The possibility of a superconductivity related to bipolarons was previously studied theoretically by several authors Alex81 ; Iguchi88 ; Micnas90 , but up to now there is not a clear experimental proof of the existence of a superconducting state based on a Bose condensation of bipolarons.

On the other hand, characteristic transport properties of a bipolaronic metal are not well established experimentally. Theoretical studies Alex97  asserted a logarithmic divergence of the resistivity at low temperatures, in the case of bipolaronic carriers scattered by shallow potential wells related to disorder. This type of divergence was particularly observed in the anisotropic low-temperature normal-state resistivity of underdoped La2-xSrxCuO4 single crystals, where superconductivity was suppressed with a 60 T pulsed magnetic field Ando95 ; Ando96 .

In order to contribute to this debate and to gain some insight in transport properties related to (bi)polaron diffusion, we considered the study of a material with a conduction related to these quasi-particles. The low temperature electrical conduction of the Ti4O7 Magneli phase can be assign to bipolaron diffusion as was revealed by electrical resistivity, magnetic susceptibility, specific heat, ESR and crystal structure studies Schlenker74 ; Chakra76 ; Lakkis76 ; Schlenker79 ; Schlenker80 ; LePage84 . This compound shows metal-non metal transitions (3 phases and 2 resistive transitions, with related specific heat jumps) which are probably associated to the fact that it has one 3d electron per two cation sites, and two valence states for the Ti (3+ and 4+). The crystal structure of Ti4O7, shown in Fig. 1 , is built up by infinite (TiO6) octahedra in two dimensions, forming a rutile slab, having a finite width of n octahedra along the $`C`$ crystallographic direction. The slabs are delimited by the shear planes, referred as the (121) planes of the rutile structure. The octahedra share corners, faces or borders, determining 4 different crystallographic sites for the Ti.

For the low temperature phase (LTP) ($`TT_{bl}`$, with $`T_{bl}`$ $``$ 130 K (on cooling) or 140 K (on heating) being the bipolaron localization temperature) an insulator behavior is found, where the Ti3+ are well localized in chains of Ti3+-Ti3+ pairs, forming a non magnetic bond and creating a local distortion of the lattice. This pair, stabilized by the lattice deformation is known as a bipolaron Anderson75 . For the intermediate temperature phase (ITP) ($`T_{bl}<TT_{bf}`$, with $`T_{bf}`$ 150 K, being the bipolaron formation temperature) bipolarons become thermally diffused and there is a correlative increase of the electrical conduction. In the high temperature phase (HTP) ($`T>T_{bf}`$), the 3d electrons become delocalized; a sudden increase of the magnetic susceptibility (Pauli paramagnetism) is observed while the conduction becomes metallicSchlenker80 .

It was tempting to extend towards lower temperatures the existence window of the ITP. On one hand, to favor the conditions for a possible bipolaron condensation that would yield a superconducting state. On the other hand, the study of transport properties of such a material can reveal new features, besides the ones that were predicted theoretically Alex97  but not confirmed experimentally.

V impurities were previously introduced for this purpose Schlenker79 ; Schlenker80 ; Schlenker85 . They create local structural distortions which generate long range interactions that stabilize the ITP. Indeed, the Ti3+ \- Ti3+ distance is lower in the V doped sample and the temperature of the metal-insulator transition is depressed. Unfortunately this induces at the same time the increase of the background disorder which produces a glassy conduction.

By applying an external pressure, structural distortions can be generated in order to extend the IT phase, but without the disadvantage of introducing impurities. In accordance to this, it was shown that the formation and localization of bipolarons can be both depressed applying pressures up to 40 kbar Acha96 . The rate of depression of the localization temperature is higher than the formation one. The temperature width for bipolaron diffusion is then enhanced and their transport properties can be studied down to low temperatures.

In this paper we report DC resistivity measurements (R) as a function of temperature ($`T`$) and pressure ($`P`$) of Ti4O7 twinned crystals, for 4 K$`<T<`$300 K and $`P`$ up to 220 kbar. An anisotropic electrical transport was observed and analyzed for the whole pressure regime. Pressure depress the localization and the formation transitions yielding to a conducting regime down to low temperatures. A metallic behavior with interacting carriers effects and signs of the proximity of a quantum critical point is obtained when current is applied parallel to the principal axis of crystals, while a logarithmic divergence on the resistivity on decreasing temperature is observed for currents applied with components in a perpendicular direction.

## II Experimental

Ti4O7 powder was made by heating finely ground mixtures of TiO2 (rutile) and Ti metal in an evacuated silica tube at 1150 C during one week, as previously described SAndersson57 . Small single crystals (0.1 $`\times `$ 0.1 $`\times `$ 0.3 to 0.6 mm3) could be extracted from these powders. Bigger twinned crystals (1 $`\times `$ 1 $`\times `$ 3 mm3) were obtained by a chemical transport reaction using Iodine as a transport agent. For this, about 1g of freshly prepared Ti4O7 powder and 0.1g of iodine were introduced in a silica tube, which was then sealed under vacuum. The tube was placed in an horizontal furnace and heated to 950 C during two weeks. The tube charge was held in the hottest zone, and some well formed, blue-black crystals were deposited in a colder region.

X-ray powder diffraction experiments were conducted to check the purity of the obtained material. A Siemens Kristalloflex D-5000 diffractometer operating with CuK alpha radiation at a scan rate of 0.1 degrees/min was used. Single crystal X-ray diffraction experiments were performed on several as-grown specimens. The crystals were stucked on a glass capillary and mounted in a four-cycle Enraf-Nonius CAD4 diffractometer. The diffraction data were collected using the 2$`\theta \omega `$ scan method with a scan rate of 1 degree/min. at room temperature. The diffractometer was operated at 40 kV/20 mA; a graphite - monochromatized MoK alpha beam ($`\lambda `$ =0.71069) was used.

Samples were also characterized at ambient pressure by measuring their ac susceptibility as a function of temperature. Using a mutual inductance bridge, with an excitation signal frequency of 119 Hz, and 1 Oe of magnetic field amplitude, an overall sensitivity of 10-8 emu can be attained.

Resistivity under high pressure was measured using a hydrostatic and a quasi-hydrostatic experimental setup depending on the pressure range focused. For pressures bellow 10 kbar, a hydrostatic piston cylinder self-clamped cell was used, while for higher pressures, starting from 15 kbar and up to 220 kbar, we applied the Bridgman configuration with sintered diamond anvils. In the former case, a 50-50 mixture of kerosene and transformer oil was used as the pressure transmitting medium and manganine as a manometer. In the latter case, pyrophillite was used as a gasket and steatite as the pressure medium that favors quasi-hydrostatic conditions. Lead was used inside the cell as a manometer by monitoring its superconducting transition temperature. The pressure gradient was estimated from the width of this transition and corresponds to a 5-10% of the applied pressure, for pressures $``$ 100 kbar, and saturates at a maximum value of 10 kbar for higher pressures. We use a conventional 4 terminal DC technique to measure resistivity under high pressure at different temperatures. Electrical contacts were made using thin Pt wires, fixed to the sample using silver paste for the hydrostatic cell, and solely by pressure for the Bridgman setup.

We have measured over 8 different parallelepiped twinned crystals of typical dimensions 0.1x0.1x0.6 mm3 under high pressure, which have given clearly reproducible results. Depending on crystal, the electrical current was applied parallel $`(a)`$ or non-parallel $`(b)`$ to its principal axis. These different contact configurations are represented in Fig. 2. They were initially chosen for the high pressure cell setup convenience. Due to the large contact size respect to the small dimensions of the crystals, it was meaningless to modify our contact setup in order to apply the Montgomery method Montgomery71  for a satisfactory determination of the anisotropic resistivities. Although the obtained estimated resistivity values are within the range of those previously reportedLakkis76 ; Schlenker80 ; Bartho69 , they only correspond to effective values, computed considering the conducting area perpendicular to the principal axis direction, for the $`(a)`$ and $`(b)`$ configurations. From the structural point of view, according to a previous workBartho69 , Ti4O7 crystals have their longest dimension along the $`B`$ crystallographic axis and show a metallic like conductivity at room temperature. According to this, the $`(a)`$ contact configuration should be testing essentially the conduction along the $`B`$ crystal direction, while the $`(b)`$ configuration must include conductivity contributions of other crystallographic directions. Nevertheless, by simulating an anisotropic resistance network, we also checked that effectively the particular resistivity dependencies with temperature obtained were not just a consequence of the variation of the anisotropic resistivity ratio with temperature. Thus, our approach, albeit certainly inexact, still remains as an effective way of determining the general temperature behavior of the resistivity of these small and anisotropic samples under high pressure.

## III RESULTS

We have analyzed the X-ray diffraction powder patterns in order to study the structure of the samples. The refined cell parameters and angles of the triclinic unit cell (space group A-1) agree well with literature values SAndersson59 . Lattice parameters were determined for small single crystals by least-squares refinement of the 2$`\theta `$ values of 25 very well-centered strong reflections between 20 and 45 degrees. Cell parameters and angles of the unit cell obtained for all crystals were analogous with those expected for Ti4O7.

Samples measured using the $`(a)`$ contact configuration show a metallic behavior at room temperature and a resistivity at ambient pressure of $``$ 2 m$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm, while using the $`(b)`$ contact configurations they display a semiconducting-like dependence and a resistivity of $``$ 10 m$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm. They develop the bipolaronic transitions, with a 77 K to 300 K resistivity ratio at ambient pressure of $``$ 108 and $``$ 106 depending on the contact configuration. These different values and dependencies for the resistivity of Ti4O7 can be observed comparing the data of previous papers Lakkis76 ; Schlenker80 , and have been interpreted as an intrinsic electrical transport property related to the anisotropic conduction of this material Inglis83 .

Considering our experimental sensitivity of 10-8 emu for the ac susceptibility, various small Ti4O7 crystals were assembled together in order to detect their small signal change when they undergo the bipolaron formation transition at $`T_{bf}`$. Despite the poor signal to noise ratio obtained, the measured ac susceptibility, presented in Fig. 3, shows effectively a sudden reduction at $`T_{bf}`$ 150 K and a small value for lower temperatures, in accordance with previous results Lakkis76 .

In Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 we can see $`\rho (T)`$ at different applied pressures ($`P`$) for the $`(a)`$ and $`(b)`$ configurations, respectively. Both transition temperatures ($`T_{bf}`$ and $`T_{bl}`$) decrease with increasing pressure, although the $`T_{bl}`$ transition can be seen only in the hydrostatic pressure setup as it is steeply decreased by a small pressure ($`T_{bl}0`$ for $`P`$ 4 kbar).

The localization transition temperature ($`T_{bl}`$) shows an hysteretical behavior (not shown for clarity) which is consistent with the one previously reportedLakkis76 ; Schlenker79 . A remanence of the metallic state can be noticed in the low temperature range of the data of Fig. 5 as a positive d$`\rho `$/d$`T`$.

Now, if we focus our attention on the $`(a)`$ configuration results (shown in Fig. 6), we observe a poor metallic conduction for pressures $`P`$ 38 kbar ($``$ 2 m$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm at room temperature), similar to those observed for other transition-metal oxides McWhan69 ; Mott97 . The high temperature behavior is sublinear while the low temperature resistivity shows some signs of interacting carriers effects, as can be noticed in the inset of Fig. 6 as an approximate $`T^2`$ dependence of the resistivity. Evidences of a superconducting transition were not observed down to 1.2 K over this pressure range. For temperatures lower than $``$ 4 K a residual resistivity $`\rho _0`$ 20-60 $`\mu \mathrm{\Omega }`$ cm is obtained, which is reduced with increasing pressure.

Taking into account the possible proximity of a quantum critical point (QCP)Sondhi97 , induced by the fact that $`T_{bf}`$, which defines a paramagnetic metallic to non-magnetic insulator transition, probably tends to 0 for a critical pressure $`P_c`$ in the 34-37 kbar range, we evaluated the coefficient $`A`$ and the exponent $`N`$ of the resistivity expression $`\rho =\rho _0+AT^N`$ as a function of pressure. For each pressure, a constant $`N`$ value is obtained for temperatures in the range 2 K $`T`$ 40 K. Results are displayed in Fig. 7 and in Fig. 8.

For $`P`$ $``$ 34-37 kbar a divergence of the $`A`$ parameter and the exponent $`N`$ $`<`$ 2 are observed. With increasing pressure, the $`N`$ value increases, probably related to the relative increase of the phonon contribution to the electronic scattering determined by the $`A`$ coefficient diminution over one order of magnitude.

In Fig. 9 we show our results using the $`(b)`$ contact configuration. A very poor conduction is observed (10-100 m$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ cm, probably depending on sample’s twins and on current density, as it will be shown later) with a low $`P`$ dependent behavior for pressures up to 230 kbar. Below 40 K a Ln(1/T) dependence is observed, with a saturation regime at low temperatures. Both the saturation resistance and the logarithmic slope decrease with increasing pressure. A non-ohmic behavior was also detected in this region (see Fig. 12), but these studies will be published elsewhere.

Although our crystals are twinned, their electrical transport characteristics were strictly determined by the chosen current configuration setup ($`(a)`$ or $`(b)`$). As a consequence, this indicates a particular correlation in the growing directions of twins in these crystals. Considering this, the resistivity shown for the $`(a)`$ configuration should be essentially related to a mean value of the metallic resistivity tensor in the $`B`$ axis direction, while the semiconducting-like resistivity related to the $`(b)`$ configuration should be dominated by the resistivity tensor in the $`C`$ crystallographic direction, where the shear planes must act as a source of additional scattering.

## IV DISCUSSION

Pressure modifies bipolaron ordering (localization) and formation transition temperatures ($`T_{bl}`$ and $`T_{bf}`$) in a similar way as V incorporation does in the (Ti1-xVx)4O7 compoundSchlenker80 . A phase diagram, shown in Fig. 10, was drawn including the electrical transport characteristics observed for the $`(a)`$ and $`(b)`$ contact arrangement, where the $`T_{bl}`$ transition was measured when cooling the sample. For comparison, results of the V-doped samples are also plotted but, in this case, the $`T_{bl}`$ transition was determined by heating the sample. To do so, an arbitrarily empirical scaling was established between the V content and the applied pressure, as was determined for other systems McWhan73 , forcing the V linear dependence of the bipolaron formation temperature, $`T_{bf}`$(%V), to match the linear $`T_{bf}`$($`P`$) dependency for low pressures ($`P`$ 5 kbar).

Although the similarity of the results is probably based on the fact that both V incorporation and pressure decrease the Ti-Ti distance, generating a local chemical compression of the structure, there are some clear differences. The effect of pressure on band structure and lattice modes seems to be more significant than rigid band filling and impurities centers for the appearance and ordering of bipolarons: The decrease and suppression of $`T_{bl}`$ is more pronounced by applying an external pressure than by V incorporation. This also states for $`T_{bf}`$ in the case of pressures $`P>`$ 5 kbar. Besides, when $`T_{bl}`$ vanishes by the V-generated structural distortions, $`T_{bf}`$ is smoothly reduced to $``$ 145 K. Contrary to this, pressure decreases $`T_{bf}`$ down to $``$ 60 K, where it become difficult to distinguish the associated resistive change. This is due to the fact that the activation energy, $`E_a`$, that characterizes the electrical conduction of this intermediate phase, is steeply reduced by pressure, as it can be seen in Fig. 11.

As $`E_a`$ is expected to be the hopping energy of the bipolarons, which is assumed to be half their binding energy Chakra76 ; Schlenker85 , this pressure-induced sheer drop of $`E_a`$ is indicating an excess of conduction probably related to hopping of single polarons. Within this picture, pressure reduces the binding energy of bipolarons yielding to an electrical conduction mediated by bipolarons and by single thermally excited polarons. In this context, the metallic behavior observed in Fig. 5 at low temperatures can be associated with the coexistence of the high temperature paramagnetic metallic phase and the low temperature bipolaronic insulator. For small pressures, this phase separation can be related to the existence of small metallic regions where the bipolaronic transition is not favored, probably as a consequence of local structural distortions which inhibit the formation of bipolarons. As pressure increases, the decrease of $`E_a`$ no longer favors the binding of bipolarons, leading to a an increasing metallic conduction.

### IV.1 $`(a)`$ Contact configuration

The approximated $`T^2`$ dependence of the resistivity in the $`(a)`$ contact configuration for pressures P$``$40 kbar (see the inset of Fig. 6) reveals a large $`T^2`$ term which is consistent with a picture of a highly correlated electron liquid. A rough estimation of the $`\gamma `$ coefficient of the electronic specific heat can be done considering the empirical relationship between the $`A`$ and the $`\gamma `$ parameter established by Kadowaki and Woods Kadowaki86 . A $`\gamma `$ 100 mJ/(mol K2) ($`P`$=40 kbar, $`N`$=2) points out the magnitude of the electron-electron interaction. The strong enhancement of the $`A`$ quantity would then be correlated with the approach to the metal-insulator transition developed at $`T_{bf}`$. For the temperature range considered, electron-phonon contributions can not be minimized and the $`N`$ parameter can be a mean value fixed by the weighted contributions of the electron-phonon and the electron-electron scatterings. The increase of the $`N`$ value with increasing pressure can then be assigned to the reduction of the electron-electron contribution suggested by the diminution of the $`A`$ parameter.

Nevertheless more detailed measurements are needed near the possible critical pressure $`P_c`$ to determine if the divergence of the $`A`$ parameter and, more important, the tendency to have an $`N<2`$ are evidences that are suggesting a non-Fermi liquid behavior (NFL), instead of the proximity of a metal-insulator transition. Then, this possible NFL behavior would be probably related to the vicinity of a QCP Moriya95  for a critical pressure $`P_c`$ in the 34-37 kbar range. The QCP can be associated to the fact that $`T_{bf}`$($`P_c`$)=0 K, setting up a phase transition between a non-magnetic (bipolaronic-insulator) and a Pauli paramagnetic (polaronic-metal) material at T=0 K. A similar behavior was observed in BaVS3 under pressure Forro00 .

### IV.2 $`(b)`$ Contact configuration

An interpretation of our results obtained for the $`(b)`$ contact configuration must consider the logarithmic divergence when decreasing temperature.

A logarithmic divergence in the resistivity can be found in dilute magnetic alloys, or Kondo systems, where the conduction electrons are scattered with magnetic impurities. Our Ti4O7 samples are clearly not a Kondo system, as magnetic impurities are not supposed to be present, as was confirmed by its low paramagnetic susceptibility at low temperatures, shown in the Fig. 3. Moreover, no appreciable magnetic field effects on the resistivity were observed, as it is shown in Fig. 12, contrary to what we will expect for a Kondo system.

The logarithmic temperature dependence of the resistivity can also led us to consider the framework used to describe electrical conduction in 2D systems Lee85 , although, from the structural point of view, the oxygen octahedra chains form a 3D interconnected network, so that a bidimensional behavior can not be necessarily expected. In the case of a 2D conduction, a magnetic field dependence of the resistivity should be obtained, which was not observed experimentally as it is shown in Fig. 12, although higher magnetic field are necessary to obtain a conclusive result. Also, to our knowledge, there are not bulk samples that show an electric conduction characteristic of localized 2D systems.

As the presence of bipolaronic carriers in the high pressure phase of Ti4O7 ($`P`$ 40 kbar) can not be completely rejected, we can also consider that the logarithmic divergence observed in the $`(b)`$ contact configuration can be related to a diffusion of bipolarons, scattered by random shallow potential wells Alex97  in that particular direction. This disorder can be generated by oxygen vacancies or by the intergrowth of another members of the series TinO2n-1 which usually occurs along the crystallographic $`C`$ axisLePage84 . In this case, resistivity can be expressed at low temperatures (neglecting localization effects) by the following equation:

$$\rho (T)BLn(\frac{E_0}{k_BT})$$
(1)
where $`B`$ is a constant, $`E_0`$= $`\pi ^4\mathrm{}^2`$ / 128 mB a$`{}_{}{}^{2}{}_{min}{}^{}`$, mB is the bipolaronic mass and amin is the minimum size of the distribution of potential wells, which should be near the interatomic spacing. The decrease of the logarithmic slope with pressure (see the inset of Fig. 9) can be interpreted, within this theoretical approach, as a reduction of the product a$`{}_{}{}^{2}{}_{min}{}^{}`$ mB, which is consistent with a pressure-induced reduction of the interatomic spacing and of the electron-phonon coupling which produces a decrease of the bipolaron’s mass.

Another possible interpretation of the observed logarithmic divergence in the resistivity at low temperatures is related to the electrical conduction in many metallic glasses Cochrane75 ; Harris83 , where it is assumed that the conduction electrons interact with atoms placed in a double potential well, which can tunnel from one position to the other. This tunneling between the two state configurations or two level systems (TLS), which may be assisted by the electrons, generates a new source of scattering for the conduction process. This effect is usually not sensitive to the application of a magnetic field, unlike for the Kondo alloys. Resistivity can be described by the following empirical expression:

$$\rho (T_{eff})=C[1DLn(T_{eff})]$$
(2)
where

$$T_{eff}^2=T^2+(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{k_B})^2$$
(3)
$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the TLS energy separation and $`C`$ and $`D`$ are suitable constants.

Although this model was initially criticized Black78 ; Black79  as it predict a contribution to the resistivity one order of magnitude less than the experimental one, further investigations opened the possibility of an incremental effect of this contribution when many body problems are taken into account Black81 .

The microscopic origin of TLS in Ti4O7 can be possibly related to the different Ti site occupancy at low temperatures, or to the dynamic equilibrium between two superstructures, revealed in previous studies LePage84 . Also, it had been shown that paired-electrons behave as TLS at low temperatures Fox82 ; Phillips87 . There is no obvious theoretical distinction between the motion of electrons accompanied by local displacements of ions and the atomic motion proposed in the tunneling model, so that the origin of the TLS can be intrinsically related to bipolaronic diffusion.

## V CONCLUSIONS

An anisotropic electrical conduction with particular features was revealed using different contact arrangements in Ti4O7 twinned crystals under high pressure. Although a superconducting state was not achieved down to our minimum experimental temperatures, a rich phase diagram was obtained, as shown in Fig. 10. Both formation and localization transition temperatures are depressed increasing pressure. The possible proximity of a pressure-induced QCP was established in the metallic-like conduction contact arrangement, as well as a conducting regime with clear signs of a highly correlated electron liquid, for pressures over 40 kbar. A logarithmic divergence in the resistivity with decreasing temperature was observed using the non-parallel contact setup ($`(b)`$ contact configuration). In this latter case, a valid explanation of the transport characteristics observed for the whole temperature range studied seems to be closely related to an electrical transport based on polarons (or excited bipolarons) scattered by TLS.

## VI acknowledgement

This work was partially supported by CONICET of Argentina (PEI 146/98) and Fundación Antorchas (A-13462/1). We also are indebted to J. Lorenzana, P. Lee, J. Souletie and M. Rozenberg for fruitful discussions. We also acknowledge technical assistance from C. Chiliotte, D. Giménez, E. Pérez Wodtke and D. Rodríguez Melgarejo.


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# Temperature probes in binary granular gases

## I Introduction

Granular gases luding , i.e. gases of particles interacting through dissipative collisions, represent an important paradigm for the study of non-equilibrium stationary states. Due to the dissipative nature of the interactions, granular gases have to be considered as open systems and therefore concepts from equilibrium thermodynamics cannot be applied, at least in a straightforward way. However, by analogy with molecular gases, a “granular temperature” $`T_g`$ can be defined in terms of the kinetic energy per particle. If the system is driven by an external energy input a stationary state is reached: $`T_g`$ fluctuates around a given value, while a flux of energy from the driving source goes into the system and is dissipated through inelastic collisions. Experiments, theory and simulations have recently shown that in a mixture of different grains, as soon as the inter-particle collisions dissipate energy, the equipartition of energy among the mixture components is lost Duparcmeur ; Losert ; Menon ; Wildman ; Garzo ; Clelland ; MontaneroHCS ; Equipart ; Puglisi2 ; Pagnani ; Vibrated  even in the tracer limit Martin . Although in sharp contrast with the behaviour of molecular gases at equilibrium, this violation is not surprising because in a generic open system the equipartition of energy is not expected. However, it is natural to ask whether $`T_g`$ could have some different “equilibrium” meaning, or if it is just a measure of velocity fluctuations. A hallmark of equilibrium phenomena is the well-known fluctuation dissipation theorem, relating the response of a system to a perturbation to the corresponding correlation function measured in the unperturbed system: the response of an observable $`B`$ at time $`t`$ to an impulsive perturbation $`h_A`$ at time $`t=0`$ can be obtained as

$$\frac{\delta B}{\delta h_A}=\frac{1}{T}\frac{}{t}B(t)A(0)$$
(1)
where $`A`$ is the observable conjugated to $`h_A`$ and $`T`$ is the equilibrium temperature of the system (brackets denote averaging over thermal history). A recent investigation has shown that, for non-equilibrium monodisperse driven granular gases, this relation is still obeyed if the equilibrium temperature is replaced by the granular temperature FDT\_granular .

A natural question then arises: what happens to the relation (1) in a mixture which displays more than one granular temperature ? In this Letter, we will address this question in the case of a binary mixture subject to a homogeneous driving. It turns out that each species obeys an FDT relation with its own granular temperature deviations  as proportionality factor. This result is particularly relevant to experiments where a tracer, immersed in the granular gas and acting as a probe (and in particular as a thermometer), may have different physical properties with respect to the surrounding gas Nature . In equilibrium measurements, the temperature does not depend on the thermometer. For granular materials, instead, the thermometer measures its own temperature, in general different from that of the surrounding gas.

## II Model

We consider a volume $`V`$ containing a mixture of $`N=N_1+N_2`$ inelastic hard spheres (IHS) in dimension $`d=2`$, $`N_1`$ and $`N_2`$ being the number of particles in component $`1`$ and $`2`$ of the mixture, respectively. The spheres have diameters $`\sigma `$ (identical for the two species) and masses $`m_{s_i}`$ (where $`1iN`$ and $`s_i`$ is the species index, $`1`$ or $`2`$, of particle $`i`$). In a collision between spheres $`i`$ and $`j`$, characterized by the inelasticity parameter called coefficient of normal restitution $`\alpha _{s_is_j}`$, the pre-collisional velocity of particle $`i`$, $`𝒗_i`$, is transformed into the post-collisional velocity $`𝒗_i^{}`$ such that

$$𝒗_i^{}=𝒗_i\frac{m_{s_j}}{m_{s_i}+m_{s_j}}(1+\alpha _{s_is_j})(\widehat{𝝈}𝒗_{ij})\widehat{𝝈}$$
(2)
where $`𝒗_{ij}=𝒗_i𝒗_j`$ and $`\widehat{𝝈}`$ is the center to center unit vector from particle $`i`$ to $`j`$ ($`\alpha _{s_is_j}=\alpha _{s_js_i}`$ so that the total linear momentum $`m_{s_i}𝒗_i+m_{s_j}𝒗_j`$ is conserved). The granular temperature of species $`s`$ is given by its mean kinetic energy $`T_s=m_sv_s^2/d`$.

The loss of energy due to collisions can be compensated in various ways. In experiments the energy is typically supplied at the boundaries, leading the system to a heterogeneous stationary state Menon ; Rouyer ; Losert ; Wildman . In order to avoid the complication of strong temperature heterogeneities, we will use a homogeneous driving in the form of a “thermostat”: in this mechanism (which recently has attracted the attention of many theorists Williams ; Puglisi ; Twan ; Twanetal ; Montanero ; Cafiero ; Moon ), the particles are submitted, between collisions, to a random force in the form of an uncorrelated white noise (e.g. Gaussian) with the possible addition of a viscous term. The equation of motion for a particle is then

$$m_i\frac{d𝒗_i}{dt}=𝑭_i+m_i𝑹_i\zeta 𝒗_i$$
(3)
where $`𝑭_i`$ is the force due to inelastic collisions, $`\zeta `$ is the viscosity coefficient and $`R_{i\alpha }(t)R_{j\beta }(t^{})=\xi _0^2\delta _{ij}\delta _{\alpha \beta }\delta (tt^{})`$, where Greek indexes refer to Cartesian coordinates deterministic .

At the level of Boltzmann kinetic equation, the temperature ratio of a binary granular mixture subject to stochastic driving of the form given above has been obtained in Equipart  for the case $`\zeta =0`$ and in Pagnani  for $`\zeta 0`$.

## III Methods

We have used two different simulation methods: the Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) Bird ; mueller  which neglects pre-collisional correlations and therefore enforces the molecular chaos hypothesis (factorization of the two-particles distribution functions) and Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations. The DSMC algorithm can be used to simulate the homogeneous Enskog-Boltzmann equation, i.e. any particle can collide with any other in the whole volume $`V`$, or to simulate an a priori non-homogeneous system, by dividing the space into small cells (of linear size smaller than the mean free path) and enforcing molecular chaos in every single cell. On the other hand, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations integrate the equations of motion of the IHS: in this case we consider $`N`$ hard spheres in a square box of linear size $`L=\sqrt{V}`$, with periodic boundary conditions, random initial velocities, and we use an event-driven algorithm to study their dynamics. All the investigation methods used have shown similar results. We have used sizes $`N=500`$ to $`N=5000`$, and averaged over up to $`10000`$ realizations of the dynamics.

Our analysis relies on two sets of independent measurements, i.e. two choices of the pair response-correlation to be measured. The first one consists in a measure of mobility and diffusivity. The mean-square displacement (MSD) for each species,

$$B_{1(2)}(t,t^{})=\frac{1}{dN_{1(2)}}\underset{j=1}{\overset{N_{1(2)}}{}}|𝒓_j(t)𝒓_j(t^{})|^2,$$
(4)
behaves as $`4D_{1(2)}(tt^{})`$ for large time differences. The mobility of a tracer particle is measured by applying a constant and small linearresponse  drag force $`𝝃=\xi 𝒆_x`$ to a given particle, labeled $`0`$, for times $`t>t^{}`$. Due to the viscosity induced by the collisions with other particles, the perturbed particle will reach at large times a constant velocity $`\mu `$, related to the response by

$$\chi _{1,2}(t,t^{})=\frac{1}{\xi }(𝒓_0(t)𝒓_0(t^{}))𝒆_x\mu t\text{at large t}.$$
(5)
By successively using as test particle one particle of each species, one obtains the two responses $`\chi _1`$ and $`\chi _2`$, and thus the mobilities $`\mu _1`$ and $`\mu _2`$. Two Einstein relations ($`\mu _i=2D_i/T_i`$) can then be checked, e.g. by plotting $`\chi _i`$ vs. $`B_i`$.

Another totally independent way of checking FD relations in granular gases has also been used in FDT\_granular : once a steady-state has been reached, the system is perturbed impulsively at a given time $`t_0`$ by a non-conservative force applied (non-uniformly) on every particle (we will take $`t_0=0`$ without loss of generality). The response is then monitored at later times. The force acting on particle $`i`$ is

$$𝐅(𝐫_i,t)=\gamma _i𝝃(𝐫_i,t)$$
(6)
with the properties $`\mathbf{}\times 𝝃0`$, $`\mathbf{}𝝃=0`$, where $`\gamma _i`$ is a particle dependent variable with randomly assigned $`\pm 1`$ values. A simple case is realized by a transverse perturbation $`𝝃(𝐫,t)=(0,\xi \mathrm{cos}(k_xx)\delta (tt_0))`$ linearresponse , where $`k_x`$ is compatible with the periodic boundary conditions, i.e. $`k_x=2\pi n_k/L_x`$ with $`n_k`$ integer and $`L_x`$ the linear horizontal box size. The staggered response function (i.e. the current induced at $`t`$ by the perturbation at $`t_0`$), and the conjugated correlation,

$`R(t,t_0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\xi }}{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\gamma _i\dot{y}_i(t)\mathrm{cos}(k_xx_i(t)),`$
$`C(t,t_0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\dot{y}_i(t)\dot{y}_i(t_0)\mathrm{cos}\{k_x[x_i(t)x_i(t_0)]\}`$
are related, at equilibrium, to the correlation by the FD relation $`R(t,t_0)=\frac{\beta }{2}C(t,t_0)`$, $`T=1/\beta `$ being the equilibrium temperature.

Ref. FDT\_granular  has shown the validity of this relation in the context of a monodisperse granular media heated by a thermal bath with temperature $`T_b`$, reaching in this way a stationary state with granular temperature $`T_g<T_b`$. In this case the FD relation holds by replacing $`T`$ with $`T_g`$. For a binary mixture, two sets $`(C_i,R_i)`$ ($`i=1,2`$) of correlation and response are measured separately, thus obtaining two plots $`C_i`$ vs. $`R_i`$.

There are different reasons to test various pairs of response and correlation functions. First, at equilibrium FDT links any couple of conjugated correlation and response function with the same temperature. Out of equilibrium, it is possible, a priori, that FDT could be valid for some observables and not for others. Moreover, mean square displacement and mobility correspond to the exploration of the long time regime, while $`C_i`$ and $`R_i`$ decay quickly (a few collisions per particle) and therefore yield the short time behaviour. FDT could be valid in some time regimes and not in others. It must also be stressed that the measure of diffusion and mobility requires large times, so that averaging over many realizations becomes computationally very demanding and less precision is numerically available. In MD simulations in particular we have measured only the relation between $`C_i`$ and $`R_i`$.

## IV Results

In all the simulations performed (MD and DMSC) the values of the temperature ratios $`T_1/T_2`$ obtained are in good agreement with Equipart . This is not surprising for homogeneous DSMC, while it is less obvious in MD (the agreement is mostly due to the low packing fraction $`n`$ used).

### IV.1 Fluctuation-Dissipation ratio for the different components

The measures of $`B_i(t)`$ and $`\chi _i(t)`$ allow us to check the linearity with $`t`$ at large times: $`B_i(t)4D_it`$ and $`\chi _i(t)\mu _it`$. Moreover, figures 1 and 2 clearly show that the Einstein relations are obeyed separately by the two components of the mixture, each with its own temperature: to the numerical accuracy one obtains $`\chi _i(t)=\frac{1}{2T_i}B_i(t)`$. Note that mobilities and diffusion coefficients of each species are different from their value in a monodisperse case. We have considered various values of inelasticities, mass ratios, number density ratios, and kinds of thermostat, obtaining that this result is robust with respect to all these variations. We also note that a recent study Dufty  has shown that the Einstein relation is not valid in its usual form in the case of an impurity immersed in an homogeneously cooling granular: the main reason is that extra terms arise due to the evolution of the granular temperature with time. Since we are here concerned with steady-states, these extra terms are not present in the case studied. The other source of deviations, namely the deviation from Gibbs state, leads to small deviations Dufty  that could be difficult to detect deviations .

We now turn to the measure of $`R_i(t)`$ and $`C_i(t)`$. Technical details of the numerical procedure to perform this measure are given in FDT\_granular . From the definitions of $`𝝃`$, $`C_i`$ and $`R_i`$, it is clear that $`R_i(0)=1/(2m_i)`$, and $`C_i(0)=v_i^2=T_i/m_i`$. On the other hand, $`lim_t\mathrm{}R_i(t)=lim_t\mathrm{}C_i(t)=0`$. Thus we have plotted in figure 3 the functions $`2m_iR_i(t)`$ vs. $`m_iC_i(t)`$. The FD relation $`R_i(t)=\frac{1}{2T}C_i(t)`$ is verified replacing $`T`$ by the partial granular temperature $`T_1`$ and $`T_2`$ of each component. The same result holds for different $`n_k`$ ($`n_k0`$ in order to satisfy the properties of the perturbing force (6)).

The MD simulations (whose results are reported in figure 3) are more realistic since they include excluded volume effects and collision-induced correlations (which break the Molecular Chaos hypothesis, see for example Twanetal ). However, at not too high packing fractions, we still observe the same results for FD relations. Larger packing fractions lead to strong heterogeneities in both density and granular temperature, giving rise to deviations from FD deviations .

### IV.2 Fluctuation-Dissipation ratio for the whole system

An interesting question concerns what happens to the Fluctuation-Dissipation ratio when measured for the whole system and not separately for the different components of the mixture. In other words one could ask whether one can define an effective temperature for the whole system and what is the relation of this temperature with the temperatures defined above for the two components of the mixture, or with the global temperature $`T=x_1T_1+x_2T_2`$ (where $`x_{1,2}=\frac{N_{1,2}}{N}`$).

A global measure would give, for the mean-square displacement

$$B(t)=x_1B_1(t)+x_2B_2(t),$$
(7)
and for the response

$$\chi (t)=x_1\chi _1(t)+x_2\chi _2(t).$$
(8)
Using the previously checked result that $`\chi _i(t)\mu _it`$ and $`B_i(t)4D_it`$, one obtains that $`B(t)4Dt`$ and $`\chi (t)\mu t`$, with $`D=x_1D_1+x_2D_2`$ and $`\mu =x_1\mu _1+x_2\mu _2`$. The Einstein relation for the global case thus reads:

$$\frac{2D}{\mu }=\frac{(x_1D_1+x_2D_2)T_1T_2}{x_1D_1T_2+x_2D_2T_1},$$
(9)
It is clear that the ratio $`\frac{2D}{\mu }`$ corresponds to the global granular temperature only when $`T_1=T_2`$, i.e. when equipartition is satisfied. In figure 4 we present evidences supporting this view.

Another way to consider the problem is to look at the ratio between $`R(t)=x_1R_1(t)+x_2R_2(t)`$ and $`C(t)=x_1C_1(t)+x_2C_2(t)`$. In this case the impossibility to define an effective temperature reflects itself in the non-constant ratio between $`C(t)`$ and $`R(t)`$, as we show in figure 5.

It should be remarked how these properties of the global Fluctuation-Dissipation ratio allow us to make the following prediction. Suppose to perform a global measurement of the Fluctuation-Dissipation ratio on a system of unknown composition. A global measurement on a monodisperse system would yield a well defined FD ratio and a well defined temperature equal to the granular temperature, independently of the observable used (see FDT\_granular ). On the other hand a polydisperse system would feature a typically non-constant FD ratio, function also of the observable (unless the system is completely elastic).

### IV.3 The single tracer case

Finally we investigate the special case $`N_2=1`$, i.e. the case of a single tracer, immersed in a granular gas of $`N=N_1`$ different particles, acting as a non-perturbing thermometer. Figure 6 reports the corresponding results. It turns out that, due to the inelasticity of collisions Martin , the tracer reaches a granular temperature different from that of the surrounding particles. Measuring a FD relation thus yields the granular temperature of the tracer but not that of the surrounding granular gas. The tracer is thus sensing a temperature whose value is the outcome of the complex interaction between the tracer itself and the granular gas. It is worth stressing how this happens even if the tracer almost does not perturb the granular. This leads to the non-conventional result that the “temperature” measured as a fluctuation-dissipation ratio deviations , in a driven granular gas, depends on the thermometer.

## V Conclusions

In this paper, we have shown by numerical simulations that, in a binary granular gas, each component of the mixture obeys a FD relation with its own granular temperature, while a global measurement provides a suitable definition of temperature only when equipartition is satisfied. These FD relations can be measured by different correlation-response pairs. In particular, the case of a tracer, which can act as a “thermometer” since it does not perturb the granular, has been investigated, and leads to the unusual conclusion that the measure of the temperature through FD relations would depend on the interaction between the tracer and the granular gas. Notice that theoretical studies (see e.g. Equipart ) may then allow for an estimate of the gas temperature, knowing the temperature measured by the tracer. Further investigations are needed to explore the scenarios bringing to violations of the FD relations deviations . This point becomes particularly important when, with more realistic energy injection through boundaries, we could expect heterogeneities giving rise to position-dependent temperatures. It would be interesting to investigate how a tracer particle would sample this inhomogeneous gas and ask about the meaning of the corresponding measured temperature.

Acknowledgments We are grateful to A. Baldassarri, H. J. Herrmann and E. Trizac for many enlightening discussions.


text:
# Quantum and classical advantage distillation are not equivalent

((24 October 2003))

## Abstract

We report that, for the generation of a secure cryptographic key from correlations established through a noisy quantum channel, the quantum and classical advantage distillation procedures are not equivalent, when coherent eavesdropping attacks are duly taken into account. The quantum procedure can tolerate markedly more noise in the channel than the classical procedure.

One of the important problems in quantum cryptography is whether classical methods of key distillation are equivalent to quantum methods. This problem was recently investigated for a certain class of protocols in Refs. . It was concluded there that the quantum entanglement distillation  tolerates exactly the same amount of errors in a raw cryptographic key as classical advantage distillation . The analysis was carried out under the assumption that Eve performs the most general incoherent attack.

In this short note  we report that this equivalence is only apparent, in fact classical advantage distillation is not as powerful as quantum entanglement distillation. This is so because Eve has the option of coherent attacks which give her more information than what she can get from incoherent attacks. Roughly speaking, Eve exploits the classical information she gains from the public communication exchanged between Alice and Bob as part of the advantage distillation protocol.

Alice sends *qunits* to Bob, that is $`n`$-dimensional quantum systems, and the raw key sequence consists of the paired nit values for matching measurement bases. The security of the protocols of  for quantum cryptography can be expressed solely in terms of the probability $`\beta _0`$ that Alice and Bob get the same nit value if the bases match. (We are adopting the notation of Ref. .) For an ideal noiseless quantum channel, one has $`\beta _0=1`$, and $`\beta _0=1/n`$ obtains for a channel that has nothing but unbiased noise. Channels with some admixture of noise are characterized by $`\beta _0`$ values between those extremes.

The lesson of Refs.  is that classical advantage distillation can be performed successfully if

$$\beta _0>\frac{2}{2+(n1)}\beta _0^{(\mathrm{inc})}\text{(old threshold)}$$
(1)
which is also the threshold for quantum entanglement distillation . This result is valid *provided that* incoherent eavesdropping attacks supply as much information as possible. This assumption is not implausible, inasmuch as Gisin and Cirac , and Wang  argued that coherent eavesdropping attacks cannot be more powerful than incoherent ones.

In the context of advantage distillation, however, there is a self-suggesting coherent attack that truly outperforms the best incoherent attack. Instead of measuring her ancillas one by one, Eve performs a collective measurement on a naturally chosen subset. We analyzed this scenario in full and find that the threshold of (1) is too optimistic. Rather, the true threshold is given by

$$\beta _0>\frac{2}{2+(3\sqrt{5})(n1)}\beta _0^{(\mathrm{coh})}\text{(new threshold)}.$$
(2)
This is a substantially more stringent condition on $`\beta _0`$ than the one in (1) that is derived for incoherent attacks only; see Fig. 1.

We are indebted to Ajay Gopinathan, Christian Kurtsiefer, Yeong Cherng Liang and Christian Miniatura for sharing their insights with us. This work was supported by AStar Grant No. 012-104-0040.


text:
# The mass of charmonium in nuclear matter

## 1 Introduction

Understanding hadron mass changes in nuclear medium and/or at finite temperature can provide valuable information about the QCD vacuumbrown ; HL92 ; mosel . While the mass shifts for hadrons made of light quarks are sensitive to the restoration of the spontaneously broken chiral symmetry breakingHL92 ; shlee ; Hayashigaki00 ; Tsushima99 , those for the the heavy quark systems are sensitive to the changes of the non-perturbative gluon fields in nuclear matter. For the $`J/\psi `$, which consists of a charm and anticharm quark pair, both the QCD sum rules analysis Kli99 ; KL01  and the LO perturbative QCD calculation Peskin79 ; Luk92  show that its mass is reduced slightly in the nuclear matter mainly due to the reduction of the gluon condensate ($`\frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }G^2`$) in nuclear matter, which is expected to decrease by 6% at normal nuclear matter density. However, the changes are much larger for excited charmonium states, due mainly to larger color dipole size of these excited states.

In this report, we summarize the expected mass shift for charmonium states in nuclear matter and study the feasibility of observing such mass shift in the future accelerator project at GSIGSI-future .

The lowest dimensional QCD operators that characterizes the non perturbative nature of the QCD vacuum are the quark and gluon condensate. These condensate are estimated to have the following large non-perturbative expectation values in the vacuum SVZ ,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }}F_{\mu \nu }^2`$ $``$ $`1.5\mathrm{GeV}/\mathrm{fm}^3,`$
$`\overline{q}q`$ $``$ $`2\mathrm{fm}^3.`$ (1)
The gluon condensate can be written as the difference between the magnetic $`B^2=F_{ij}^2`$ and electric $`E^2=\frac{1}{2}F_{0i}^2`$ condensate, which respectively contribute to half of the zero temperature gluon condensate,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }}B^2={\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }}E^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }}F_{\mu \nu }^2.`$ (2)
The above relation follows naturally from the Euclidean formulation of QCD at zero temperature, such as in the lattice QCD, where the Euclidean space electric (magnetic) condensate is defined with a minus (plus) sign relative to its Minkowski space counterpartSVZ . Due to the symmetry in the time and space directions in the 4 dimensional Euclidean space, the Euclidean space electric condensate is expected to have the same expectation value as the magnetic oneDig ; Lee89 . Hence the relation among the Minkowski space condensate in Eq.(2) follows.

At nuclear matter, the non perturbative quark and gluon field configuration are expected to change appreciably, such that the average gluon and quark condensate values decrease by 6% and 30%, respectively. These model independent results are obtained from the linear density approximation and the nucleon expectation values of the quark and gluon condensate, which are respectively known from the experimentally measured pi-N sigma term and from taking the nucleon expectation value of the trace anomaly relationSVZ2 . The electric and magnetic part of the gluon condensate at nuclear matter can be estimated separately, by using the twist-2 gluon operator,

$`N(p)|𝒮𝒯F_\mu ^\alpha F_{\alpha \nu }|N(p)=\left(p_\mu p_\nu {\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}m_N^2g_{\mu \nu }\right)2A_2(g),`$ (3)
where $`A_2(g)`$ is the second moment of the gluon distribution in the nucleon and is around 0.45, when the renormalization scale is in the of order 1 to 2 GeV. Using this and the linear density approximation, we have,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }}E^2_{n.m.}`$ $`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{4}{9}}m_Nm_N^0+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}m_N^2{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }}A_2\right){\displaystyle \frac{\rho _{n.m.}}{2m_N}},`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }}B^2_{n.m.}`$ $`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{4}{9}}m_Nm_N^0{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}m_N^2{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }}A_2\right){\displaystyle \frac{\rho _{n.m.}}{2m_N}}.`$ (4)
Here, $`m_N^00.75`$ GeV is the mass of the nucleon in the chiral limitBM96 , which comes from taking the nucleon expectation value of the trace anomaly relation $`T_\mu ^\mu =\frac{9}{8}\frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }F_{\mu \nu }^2`$. As can be seen from Eq.(4), due to the additional factor of $`\frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }`$ in the second terms, the changes are dominated by the contribution from the first terms.

## 2 Charmonium mass shift from QCD

The mass shift of charmonium states in nuclear medium can be evaluated in the perturbative QCD when the charm quark mass is large, i.e., $`m_c\mathrm{}`$. In this limit, one can perform a systematic operator product expansion (OPE) of the charm quark-antiquark current-current correlation function between the heavy bound states by taking the separation scale ($`\mu `$) to be the binding energy of the charmonium Peskin79 ; BP79 ; OKL02 . The forward scattering matrix element of the charm quark bound state with a nucleon then has the following form:

$`T(q^2=m_\psi ^2)={\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{C_n}{(\mu )^n}}𝒪_n_N.`$ (5)
Here, $`C_n`$ is the Wilson coefficient evaluated with the charm quark bound state wave function and $`𝒪_n_N`$ is the nucleon expectation value of local operators of dimension $`n`$.

For heavy quark systems, there are only two independent lowest dimension operators; the gluon condensate ($`\frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }G^2`$) and the condensate of twist-2 gluon operator multiplied by $`\alpha _s`$ ($`\frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }G_{\alpha \mu }G_\nu ^\alpha `$). These operators can be rewritten in terms of the color electric and magnetic fields: $`\frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }E^2`$ and $`\frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }B^2`$. Since the Wilson coefficient for $`\frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }B^2`$ vanishes in the non-relativistic limit, the only contribution is thus proportional to $`\frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }E^2`$, similar to the usual second-order Stark effect. We shall thus calculate the mass shift of charmonium states due to change of the gluon condensate in nuclear medium by the QCD second-order Stark effect Luk92 .

The mass shift of charmonium states to leading order in density is obtained by multiplying the leading term in Eq.(5), by the nuclear density $`\rho _N`$. This gives,

$`\mathrm{\Delta }m_\psi (ϵ)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{9}}{\displaystyle 𝑑k^2\left|\frac{\psi (k)}{𝐤}\right|^2\frac{k}{k^2/m_c+ϵ}}`$ (6)
$`\times {\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }}E^2_N{\displaystyle \frac{\rho _N}{2m_N}}.`$
In the above, $`m_N`$ and $`\rho _N`$ are the nucleon mass and the nuclear density, respectively; $`\frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }E^2_N0.5`$ GeV2 is the nucleon expectation value of the color electric field obtained from Eq.(4) and $`ϵ=2m_cm_\psi `$. In Ref.Peskin79 , the LO mass shift formula was derived in the large charm quark mass limit. As a result, the wave function $`\psi (k)`$ is Coulombic and the mass shift is expressed in terms of the Bohr radius $`a_0`$ and the binding energy $`ϵ_0=2m_cm_{J/\psi }`$. This might be a good approximation for $`J/\psi `$ but is not realistic for the excited charmonium states as Eq.(6) involves the derivative of the wave function, which measures the dipole size of the system. We have thus rewritten in the above the LO formula for charmonium mass shift in terms of the QCD parameters $`\alpha _s=0.84`$ and $`m_c=1.95`$, which are fixed by the energy splitting between $`J/\psi `$ and $`\psi (3686)`$ in free spacePeskin79 . Furthermore, we take wave functions of the charmonium state to be Gaussian with the oscillator constant $`\beta `$ determined by their squared radii $`r^2=`$ $`0.47^2`$, $`0.74^2`$, $`0.96^2`$, and 1 fm2 for $`J/\psi `$, $`\chi _{0,1,2}`$, $`\psi (3686)`$, and $`\psi (3770)`$, respectively, as obtained from the potential models cornel . This gives $`\beta =`$ 0.52, 0.43, 0.39, and 0.37 GeV if we assume that these charmonium states are in the $`1S`$, $`1P`$, $`2S`$, and $`1D`$ states, respectively. Using these parameters, we find that the mass shifts at normal nuclear matter density obtained from the LO QCD formula Eq.(6) are -8, -40, -100, and -140 MeV for $`J/\psi `$, $`\chi _{0,1,2}`$, $`\psi (3686)`$, and $`\psi (3770)`$, respectivelyLK03 .

Although the higher twist effects on the charmonium masses are expected to be nontrivial, the result for $`J/\psi `$ is consistent with those from other non-perturbative QCD studies, such as the QCD sum rules Kli99 ; KL01  and the effective potential model Bro90 ; Was91 ; Navarra95 , which are all based on the dipole interactions between quarks in the charmonium and those in the nuclear matter. The QCD sum rule results can also be applied for the $`\chi _{0,1,2}`$ states, and the results from the leading order gluon condensate is summarized in Table. 1.

Higher twist effects can be estimated in some calculations. For QCD sum rules for $`J/\psi `$, the corrections coming from dimension 6 operators are less than 30% of the leading order resultsKL01 . The contributions from the $`D\overline{D}`$ meson loops in the $`\psi (3686)`$ and $`\psi (3770)`$ are also found to be less than 30% of the LO QCD resultLK03 .

All the results are summarized in table 1.

## 3 Observability

Since the mass shift of the heavy quark system reflects the changes of the Gluon field configuration in the vacuum, it would be interesting to observe such effects in experiment.

Consider an anti-proton with incoming four momentum $`(\omega ,0,k)`$ annihilating a proton at rest $`(m_N,0,0)`$ and creating a charmonium moving with velocity $`v`$. The required incoming momentum $`k`$ to create a charmonium state are summarized in Table I.

Hence, the required incoming energy of the anti-proton to produce the charmonium state range from 4 to 6 GeV. In these energy region, the absorption cross section $`\sigma _{\overline{p}p}50`$ mb. Hence, the anti-proton would be absorbed after travelling less than 1 fm in the nuclear matter. Moreover, once a charmonium state is created, their speed would be less than 0.9 c, which means that it will have to travel more than 10 fm/c to pass the diameter of a nucleus of A=125. Hence, considering the increased width of charmonium due to nuclear absorptionmartins , the charmonium is expected to decay inside the nucleus.

The cross section for the production of charmonium states and its subsequent decay into dileptons or $`J/\psi +\gamma `$ states are given by the following Breit-Wigner formula

$`\sigma _{BW}(E)={\displaystyle \frac{2J+1}{(2s_1+1)(2s_2+1)}}{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{k^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{B_{in}B_{out}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{Total}^2}{(EE_R)^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }_{Totalmedium}^2/4}},`$ (7)
where $`k`$ is the c.m. momentum, E is the c.m. energy, $`B_{in}`$ and $`B_{out}`$ are the branching fractions of the resonance into the entrance and exit channels. The $`2s+1`$ are the spin multiplicities of the incident spin states and $`J`$ the spin of the charmonium. Also $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{Totalmedium}=\mathrm{\Gamma }_{Total}+\mathrm{\Gamma }_{medium}`$.

If we substitute the medium mass shift and increase in width (due mainly to collision broadening), the cross sections are in the order of one to few hundred pbarn

The expected luminosity at the anti proton project at GSI is $`2\times 10^{32}\mathrm{cm}^2s^1`$. Therefore if the cross section is 1pb, it would corresponds to about 17 events per day.

Hence, the mass shift will be observable in the anti-proton project at the future accelerator facility at GSI.

I would like to thank C.M. Ko and A. Gillitzer for useful discussions.


text:
# Cosmic Connections

## 1 Connecting Quarks with the Cosmos

My task in this closing lecture is to preview possible future developments at the interface between particle physics on one side, and astrophysics and cosmology on the other side. Though these cosmic connections may benefit from some theoretical advice, they must rely on the firm facts provided by accelerator experiments, as well as non-accelerator experiments and astronomical observations. To guide the discussion, I structure this talk around a report with the same title as this section, published recently by the U.S. National Research Council , that poses eleven major cosmological questions for the new century:

$``$ 1: What is the dark matter?
$``$ 2: What is the nature of dark energy?
$``$ 3: How did the Universe begin?
$``$ 4: Did Einstein have the last word on gravity?
$``$ 5: What are the effects of neutrinos on the Universe?
$``$ 6: How do cosmic accelerators work?
$``$ 7: Are protons unstable?
$``$ 8: Are there new states of matter at high density and pressure?
$``$ 9: Are there additional space-time dimensions?
$``$ 10: How were heavy elements formed?
$``$ 11: Do we need a new theory of matter and light?

The last two questions primarily concern nuclear physics and plasma physics, respectively, and I do not discuss them here. A particle physicist’s answer to the fourth question about the completeness of general relativity is inextricably linked to the ninth question about extra dimensions. Likewise, the fifth and seventh questions about neutrinos and protons, respectively, are linked in grand unified theories. Therefore, I treat these questions in pairs.

## 1: What is the dark matter?

We have heard repeatedly at this institute that dark matter is necessary for the formation of structures in the Universe . The latest data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey , shown here by Kent , are very consistent with the power spectrum measured in the CMB and by previous sky surveys, weak lensing and the Lyman-$`\alpha `$ forest. At the level of galaxy clusters, as we heard here from Henry , some resemble train wrecks and are still forming today, whereas others have relaxed and are good probes of the dark matter content. Even before the combination of Type-1a supernovae and the CMB, cluster data indicated that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m1`$: current cluster data yield :

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_m=\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0.30}_{0.03}^{+0.04}$$
(1)
after marginalizing over $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b`$ and $`h`$. Moreover, as discussed here by Dekel , the motion of luminous matter in the neighbourhood of our galaxy provides a detailed profile of the local dark matter density.

Is this dark matter composed of particles or of larger objects such as white dwarfs or black holes? The recently-demonstrated concordance between the values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b`$ extracted from Big-Bang Nucleosynthesis and the CMB  confirms that the dark matter cannot be composed of baryons, excluding a dominant white dwarf component and implying that any substantial black hole component must have been primordial. Microlensing searches exclude the possibility that our own galactic halo is composed of objects weighing between $`<10^3`$ and $`>10^{+3}`$ times the mass of the Sun . Therefore, in the following, we concentrate on particle candidates for the dark matter.

Is this dark matter hot, warm or cold? The recent WMAP , 2dF  and SDSS data  are very consistent with the standard cold dark matter paradigm. In particular, the combination of WMAP with other data implies that

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{HDM}h^2<\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0.0076},$$
(2)
corresponding to $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_\nu m_\nu <0.7`$ eV. Moreover, the early reionization of the Universe recently discovered by WMAP  requires some structures to have started forming very early, which is evidence against warm dark matter.

However, there are problems with the cold dark matter paradigm. For one thing, the density profiles of galactic cores appear less singular than calculated in some cold dark matter simulations  \- but these may be changed by interactions with ordinary matter and by mergers and black hole formation . For another thing, there is little observational evidence for the halo substructures predicted by cold dark matter simulations - but the formation of stars may be dynamically inhibited in small structures near larger galaxies. Therefore, we continue to focus on cold dark matter candidates.

Generally speaking, these might have been produced by some thermal mechanism in the very early Universe, or non-thermally. A good example of the latter is the axion , which is my second-best candidate for cold dark matter. Recent data from the LLNL axion search, reported here by Nelson , excludes the possibility that a KSVZ axion weighing between 1.9 and 3.4 $`\mu `$eV could constitute our galactic halo.

Another example of non-thermally produced cold dark matter could be a superheavy particle produced around the epoch of inflation , called by Kolb  the ‘wimpzilla’. A natural example of a wimpzilla is a metastable ‘crypton’ from the hidden sector of some string model . If metastable, a wimpzilla could be the orgin of the ultra-high-energy cosmic rays discussed here by Ong .

The classic thermally-produced cold dark matter candidate is the lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP) , but another possibility proposed recently is the lightest Kaluza-Klein particle (LKP) in some scenarios with universal extra bosonic dimensions (UED) . The spectra in some UED models are strikingly similar to those in supersymmetric models, but with bosons and fermions switched around.

During this institute, there was an important update for the accelerator constraints on supersymmetry, with a re-analysis of the $`e^+e^{}`$ data used to estimate the Standard Model contribution to the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon, $`g_\mu 2`$ . These now bring the Standard Model prediction to within 2 $`\sigma `$ of the experimental value, leaving less room for a supersymmetric contribution .

The direct searches for LSP dark matter were reviewed here by Spooner . As he mentioned, the long-running DAMA claim to have observed a possible annual modulation signal for cold dark matter scattering has recently been reinforced by new data from the same experiment that show the annual modulation persisting for seven years . However, several other experiments, including CDMS , EDELWEISS  and most recently ZEPLIN 1  exclude a spin-independent scattering cross section in the range proposed by DAMA. This range is also far above what one calculates in the CMSSM when one takes into account all the constraints . More worryingly, the ICARUS collaboration has recently measured a large annual modulation in the neutron flux in the Gran Sasso laboratory where DAMA is located .

What are the prospects for detecting dark matter at a particle accelerator? First at bat is the Fermilab Tevatron collider, which, as we heard here from Thomson , now aims at an integrated luminosity of 2 pb-1 by 2007 and 4 pb-1 by 2009. This will enable it to search for squarks and gluinos with masses considerably heavier than the present limits. Next at bat will be the LHC, which is scheduled to start making collisions in 2007. With a centre-of-mass energy of 14 TeV and a luminosity of $`10^{34}`$ cm-2s-1, it will be able to find squarks and sleptons if they weigh $`<2.5`$ TeV . If the squark and gluino masses are relatively low, measurements at the LHC may fix the supersymmetric model parameters sufficiently accurately to enable $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\chi h^2`$ to be calculated with an accuracy comparable to the uncertainty currently provided by WMAP . The LHC will also address many other issues of interest to cosmology, such as the origin of mass, which may be linked to the mechanism for inflation, the primordial plasma in the very early Universe, and the cosmological matter-antimatter asymmetry.

Most analyses of supersymmetric dark matter assume that the lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP) is the lightest neutralino, a mixture of spartners of Standard Model particles. However, another possibility, discussed here by Feng , is that the LSP is the supersymmetric partner of the graviton, the gravitino . This possibility is severely constrained by the concordance between Big-Bang nucleosynthesis and CMB . However, the possibility remains of a deviation from standard Big-Bang nucleosynthesis calculations and/or a distortion of the CMB spectrum.

## 2: What is the nature of dark energy?

The necessity of dark energy became generally accepted when data on high-redshift supernovae were combined with the CMB data favouring $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{tot}1`$ . This conclusion has been supported by recent data extending the previous supernova samples to larger redshift $`z`$, in particular , but how robust is this conclusion? As has already been mentioned, the pre-existing data on dark matter in clusters have long favoured $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{matter}0.3`$ which, combined with the CMB data, favour dark energy $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }0.7`$ independently from the supernova data . Moreover, as was discussed here by Kolb  and Pinto , there are good reasons to think that the Type-1a supernovae are indeed good standard candles. Also, as discussed here by Wright , radical alternatives to the standard $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM scenario such as modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND)  do not agree with the CMB data. So it seems that we have to learn to live with dark energy. Supporting evidence for dark energy comes from the recent observation of the integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect , a correlation between galaxy clusters and features in the CMB that appears only if there is dark energy causing the space between clusters to expand.

The next question is whether this dark energy is constant, or whether it is varying with time. The latter option offers the hope of understanding why the dark energy density in the Universe today is similar in magnitude to the density of matter, through some sort of ‘tracker solution’ . In this case, the dark energy would have non-trivial dynamics described by an equation of state that can be parametrized by $`w(z)p(z)/\rho (z)`$, where I emphasize that $`w(z)`$ depends in general on the redshift $`z`$. Discarding this possibility for the moment, the present cosmological data favour $`w1`$, corresponding to a cosmological constant, as discussed here by Kolb . The SNAP satellite project  aims at increasing substantially the available sample of high-$`z`$ supernovae, and offers the prospect of constraining $`w(z)`$ much more tightly. This may enable a clear distinction to be drawn between time-varying ‘quintessence’ models and a cosmological constant.

If the vacuum energy $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is indeed constant, the next step will be to calculate it. This is surely the ultimate challenge for any pretender for a full quantum theory of gravity, such as string/M theory. For some time, the efforts of the string community were directed towards proving that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$. However, this was never achieved, despite searches for a suitable symmetry or dynamical relaxation mechanism. Presumably a non-zero value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is linked to microphysical parameters such as $`m_W,m_t,m_{susy},\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}`$, etc., and the challenge is to find the right formula ∗\*∗\*$``$String theorists are also worried that, whether $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is constant or not, the existence of an event horizon appears inevitable. In this case, it is never possible to make exact predictions because of information loss across the horizon..

If, on the other hand, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is really varying, the next question is: what is the asymptotic value? Is it zero, a non-zero constant, or even $`\mathrm{}`$? Quintessence only postpones the problem.

## 3: How did the Universe begin?

By now, the standard answer to this question is: inflation . But this answer is far from being established. Simple models predict a near-scale-invariant spectrum of near-Gaussian perturbations with a model-dependent ratio of tensor and scalar modes. Some of these predictions are successful: for example, the spectral index of the scalar perturbations seen so far is consistent with being scale-invariant, with an accuracy of a few % when WMAP data are combined with data on large-scale structure . However, one can never ‘prove’ that a statistical distribution is Gaussian: one can apply various tests, but if they are passed, one can never be sure that the distribution will not fail some future test. And there are some puzzles in the WMAP spectrum, for example glitches around $`\mathrm{}100,200`$ and $`340`$, as discussed here by Wright . As for the possible tensor modes, the first CMB polarization measurements have been published by DASI and WMAP, whose sensitivity is close to expectations in some inflationary models, but far above some predictions, as discussed here by Winstein .

Assuming the validity of the basic inflationary paradigm poses a new series of questions. Was inflation driven by some simple field-theoretical mechanism, such as an $`m^2\varphi ^2`$ or $`\lambda \varphi ^4`$ potential, or was some more subtle (quantum-gravitational? stringy?) mechanism responsible? a‘string plasma’? The WMAP measurements strongly disfavour the simplest $`\lambda \varphi ^4`$ potential , but the $`m^2\varphi ^2`$ potential survives for now . If inflation was driven by some scalar inflaton $`\varphi `$, how can it be related to the rest of particle physics? The most suitable candidate in the present particle menagerie appears to me to be the supersymmetric partner of the heavy neutrino in a seesaw model of light neutrino masses . Even if inflation was driven by a scalar inflaton field, the CMB might reveal some traces of Planckian physics in the form of some effects suppressed by powers of $`m_P`$.

However, to answer the question in the title of this section, one must look beyond inflation, which presumably occurred when the energy density in the Universe was ($`10^{16}`$ GeV)4, back to when it approached the Planck energy density ($`10^{19}`$ GeV)4. At this epoch, perhaps the Universe was described by some form of string cosmology or pre-Big-Bang scenario . How to test such an idea? One possibility might be provided by gravitational waves  from this epoch.

## 4/9: Does completing Einstein’s theory of gravity require extra dimensions?

Einstein certainly did not have the last word on gravity. His General Theory of Relativity was one of the greatest physics achievements of the first half of the twentieth century, the other being Quantum Mechanics. Combining them into a true quantum theory of gravity was the greatest pieces of unfinished business of twentieth-century physics: in particular, how to make sense of the uncontrollable infinities encountered when gravitational interactions are treated perturbatively, and how to deal with the loss of information apparently inherent in non-perturbative gravitational phenomena such as black holes? Presumably the answers to these questions involve modifying either General Relativity, or Quantum Mechanics, or both.

The best/only candidate we have for a quantum theory of gravity is string/M theory, which relies heavily on the existence of extra dimensions. These include fermionic dimensions, in the form of supersymmetry with its accompanying superspace , as well as ‘conventional’ extra bosonic dimensions . If they are to aid in stabilizing the mass hierarchy, provide the cold dark matter and facilitate unification of the particle interactions, the fermionic dimensions should appear at the TeV scale, within reach of colliders . But what might be the scales of the extra bosonic dimensions? Consistency of string theory at the quantum level requires extra dimensions at the scale of $`10^{33}`$ cm, and unification of gravity with the other interactions suggests they might appear at $`10^{29}`$ cm . Colliders can probe distance scales down to $`10^{17}`$ cm, but there is no particular reason to expect that extra dimensions will show up at such a large scale.

What other signatures might there be for a quantum theory of gravity? One possibility might be gravitational waves, or there might be signatures in the CMB, as discussed earlier. It could even be that the inflation now being probed by the CMB was produced by some stringy effect. As also discussed earlier, the value of the vacuum energy should be calculable in a complete quantum theory of gravity. Other possible tests of models of quantum gravity include the propagation of energetic particles - which might be retarded by space-time foam, as could be probed by measurements of photons from AGNs or GRBs  \- or their interactions, as could be probed by UHECRs. Modifications of quantum mechanics could be probed by laboratory studies of K mesons, B mesons and neutrons . There are plenty of ways in which theories completing Einstein’s theory of gravity can be tested.

## 5/7: What are the effects of GUTs on the Universe?

The direct upper limits on neutrino masses: $`m_{\nu _e}<2.5`$ eV, $`m_{\nu _\mu }<190`$ keV, $`m_{\nu _\tau }<18`$ MeV , have left open the possibility that neutrinos might be an important contribution to the dark matter. However, the combination of WMAP data with previous astrophysical and cosmological data provides the more stringent upper limit :

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }_\nu m_\nu <\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0.7}\mathrm{eV}\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu h^2<\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0.0076},$$
(3)
implying that neutrinos can provide only a small fraction of the dark matter.

On the other hand, neutrino oscillation experiments tell us that neutrinos do have masses and mix . The minimal renormalizable model of neutrino masses requires the introduction of weak-singlet ‘right-handed’ neutrinos $`N`$. These will in general couple to the conventional weak-doublet left-handed neutrinos via Yukawa couplings $`Y_\nu `$ that yield Dirac masses $`m_D=Y_\nu 0|H|0m_W`$. In addition, these ‘right-handed’ neutrinos $`N`$ can couple to themselves via Majorana masses $`M`$ that may be $`m_W`$, since they do not require electroweak summetry breaking. Combining the two types of mass term, one obtains the seesaw mass matrix :

$`(\nu _L,N)\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& M_D\\ M_D^T& M\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\nu _L\\ N\end{array}\right),`$ (8)
where each of the entries should be understood as a matrix in generation space. The Dirac masses $`M_D`$ and large singlet-neutrino masses $`M`$ arise naturally in GUTs, but could appear even without all the GUT superstructure such as new gauge interactions.

The low-mass eigenstates resulting from the diagonalization of (8) do not, in general, coincide with flavour eigenstates, leading to neutrino oscillations described by the matrix

$`V=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}c_{12}& s_{12}& 0\\ s_{12}& c_{12}& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& c_{23}& s_{23}\\ 0& s_{23}& c_{23}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{ccc}c_{13}& 0& s_{13}\\ 0& 1& 0\\ s_{13}e^{i\delta }& 0& c_{13}e^{i\delta }\end{array}\right).`$ (18)
Atmospheric neutrino oscillation experiments have established that $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{23}1`$ with $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^22.5\times 10^3`$ eV2 , which is also consistent with data from the K2K experiment . Solar neutrino experiments, particularly SuperKamiokande  and SNO , have established that $`\mathrm{tan}^2\theta _{12}0.5`$ with $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^27\times 10^5`$ eV2, which is also consistent with data from the KamLAND experiment . On the other hand, we have only an upper limit on the third mixing angle $`\theta _{13}`$, and no information on the CP-violating phase $`\delta `$ in (18).

The phase $`\delta `$ could in principle be measured by comparing the oscillation probabilities for neutrinos and antineutrinos and computing the CP-violating asymmetry :

$`P\left(\nu _e\nu _\mu \right)P\left(\overline{\nu }_e\overline{\nu }_\mu \right)`$ $`=\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}16}s_{12}c_{12}s_{13}c_{13}^2s_{23}c_{23}\mathrm{sin}\delta `$
$`\mathrm{sin}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{12}^2}{4E}}L\right)\mathrm{sin}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2}{4E}}L\right)\mathrm{sin}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2}{4E}}L\right),`$
using an intense neutrino super-beam, a $`\beta `$-beam or a neutrino factory .

What does all this have to do with the Universe? In total, the minimal seesaw model outlined above has 18 parameters, 9 of which are observable at low energies: 3 light neutrino masses, 3 real mixing angles and 3 CP-violating phases (the oscillation phase $`\delta `$ and two others that appear in neutrinoless double-$`\beta `$ decay. The other 9 parameters are associated with the heavy neutrino sector, and comprise 3 more masses, 3 more real mixing angles and 3 more CP-violating phases. CP violation in the neutrino sector offers the possibility of generating the baryon asymmetry of the Universe via heavy neutrino decays , which could generate a lepton asymmetry via

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(N\mathrm{}+H)\mathrm{\Gamma }(N\overline{\mathrm{}}+H).$$
(20)
Non-perturbative electroweak interactions would then transform part of this lepton asymmetry into the required baryon asymmetry.

The question then arises whether this baryon asymmetry is directly related to the CP-violating parameter $`\delta `$ that could be observed in neutrino oscillations. Unfortunately, the answer is no in general . Except in specific models , this leptogenesis mechanism is independent of the mixing angles and phases in the light neutrino sector. However, neutrino oscillation experiments can demonstrate the principles on which the leptogenesis mechanism is based.

There is another role that neutrino physics might have played in the early Universe: the inflaton could have been a heavy sneutrino . The WMAP data on the scalar spectral index, the tensor/scalar ratio, etc., are consistent with a simple $`m^2\varphi ^2`$ model for inflation with $`m2\times 10^{13}`$ GeV . This is comfortably within the range favoured by the seesaw model for a heavy (s)neutrino. Moreover, if inflation was driven by a sneutrino, leptogenesis would have followed automatically. In order to avoid over-producing gravitinos following inflation, the reheating temperature should not exceed a few $`\times 10^7`$ GeV, which constrains the inflaton sneutrino couplings as well as its mass.

How may one test such a scenario? Accelerators may play a role, since the sneutrino inflaton model makes some relatively precise predictions for processes violating charged-lepton number conservation . These are quite close to the present experimental upper limits, and we heard from Aihara  of a new upper limit $`B(\tau \mu \gamma )<3.2\times 10^7`$, with the prospect of further improvement as the B factories gather more data.

As we heard here from Prell , the B factory measurements of CP violation in $`B^0J/\psi K^0`$ decays agree well with the Standard Model: $`\mathrm{sin}2\beta =0.731\pm 0.056`$. On the other hand, data on $`B^0\varphi K^0`$ and other decays dominated by $`bs`$ penguin diagrams do not agree so well with each other or with the Standard Model . This is a place where the first deviations from the Standard Model of CP violation are expected in some scenarios, such as GUT extensions of the seesaw model . However, any such effect must respect the constraint imposed by the electric dipole moment of 199Hg . If a deviation does get confirmed by future data from B factories, CP violation in the quark sector might be reinstated as a candidate for baryogenesis, a role that the Standard Model of CP violation cannot play.

## 6: How do cosmic accelerators work?

Candidates for the origins of the cosmic rays include neutron stars, white dwarfs, supernova remnants, AGNs, GRBs, colliding galaxies and more, where the first two might be responsible for the lower-energy cosmic rays believed to originate within our galaxy, and the latter might be responsible for the higher-energy cosmic rays believed to come from outside our galaxy, as discussed here by Ong .

As we heard here from Kahn , the cosmic X-ray background is now getting much better understood, and seems to be largely due to discrete sources. As reported here by Teegarden , the INTEGRAL satellite has recently discovered a new class of X-ray sources for us to understand, even if they do not contribute to the cosmic rays.

Progress was reported here in observations of some of the prospective cosmic-ray sources. As discussed by Tanimori , CANGAROO observations of photons from RXJ1713.7-3946 provide eveidence of $`\pi ^0`$ production by accelerated protons. Meanwhile observations of AGNs indicate that they are probably powered by the accretion of matter onto black holes weighing $`10^610^9`$ solar masses, which produce jets of relativistic outflow. There is no strong evidence yet that they contribute to the observed cosmic-ray spectrum, though a correlation between the arrival directions of UHECRs and BL-Lac objects has been claimed .

As for GRBs, the evidence is strengthening that (at least some of) the longer-duration GRBs are associated with supernovae at high redshifts $`z1`$. However, the shorter-duration GRBs with harder spectra may have different origins.

We can expect light to be cast on $`\gamma `$-ray sources such as galactic objects, AGNs, and GRBs by the GLAST satellite , which should see $`10^4`$ sources each year. One of the interesting places to look for $`\gamma `$-ray emission is the core of the galaxy. In some models, the annihilations of supersymmetric relic particles in the core of the galaxy would produce $`\gamma `$ rays detectable by GLAST .

The origin of the UHECRs with energies $`>10^{20}`$ GeV remains an enigma. One would have expected these to be cut off by photo-absorption on CMB photons , so their observation by AGASA came as a suprise . However, more recently HiRes  has filed to reproduce the AGASA data, so it is unclear whether there is any excess to explain. Perhaps they are just the tail of conventional cosmic rays produced by some bottom-up mechanism. Alternatively, perhaps they are produced by the decays of netastable ultra-massive particles . As discussed here by Kolb , these might have been produced non-thermally around the epoch of inflation. There are stringy models with suitably long-lived metastable particles - ‘cryptons’ , and simulations of such a top-down decay mechanism are consistent with the UHECR spectrum reported by AGASA . It will be exciting to see whether the Auger project  now starting to take data in Argentina is able to reproduce the AGASA data.

In addition to photons and protons, one might also expect the Cosmos to send energetic neutrinos in our direction. Various projects to look for these - AMANDA, ANTARES, NESTOR and IceCube - are underway, and will have sufficient sensitivity to see some of the postulated extragalactic sources. They may also be able to see the neutrino produced by the photo-absorption reaction $`p+\gamma n+(\pi ^+\nu )`$ on the CMB. These detectors might also be able to observe energetic neutrinos from the annihilations of supersymmetric relic particles inside the Sun or Earth .

## 8: Are there new states of matter at high density and pressure?

Heading back towards the very early Universe, the first new state of matter that we expect to encounter is the quark-gluon plasma. Lattice gauge-theory simulations indicate a transition to this phase when the temperature exceeds about 170 MeV , which would have been the case when the Universde was less than a few $`\times 10^6`$ s old. There is recurrent speculation that the transition to hadronic matter might generate inhomogeneities with observable consequences. There have also been conjectures that the cores of (at least some) neutron stars might be made of quark-gluon matter, which could have implications for core-collapse supernovae, neutron-star mergers and GRBs.

Accelerator experiments, first at CERN and more recently at the BNL RHIC heavy-ion collider, produce in the laboratory dense and hot conditions under which the quark-gluon transition should occur. There have been tantalizing hints of quark-gluon matter, such as enhanced abundances of strange particles and the suppression of $`J/\psi `$ production. As we heard here from Gagliardi , the RHIC experiments have recently observed an exciting new effect that points towards the quark-gluon plasma. In high-energy proton-proton or-deuteron collisions, the production of a high-$`p_T`$ jet due to hard parton-parton scattering is accompanied by another jet in the opposite azimuthal direction. However, this balancing jet is absent in central Au-Au collisions . The quark-gluon plasma interpretation is that the parton that should have produced the opposite jet was quenched by scattering on the naked quarks and gluons in the plasma, dispersing its transverse energy. However, although this interpretation looks very natural, it cannot yet be regarded as established.

Heading further back to when the temperature of the Universe exceeded about 100 GeV and its age was $`<10^{10}`$ s, we believe that the Universe was dominated by an electroweak plasma in which the Higgs mechanism was switched off and Standard Model particles lost their masses. This picture is supported by lattice simulations, but only experiments at the LHC will provide us with all the information we need to calculate this phase transition reliably. If this electroweak phase transition was first order, it would have provided an opportunity for electroweak baryogenesis, an alternative to the leptogenesis scenario discussed earlier .

Heading even further back, in GUTs there could have been an analogous phase transition in the very early Universe when it was $`<10^{30}`$ s old. However, it is unclear what experimental signatures this might have produced. Also in the very early Universe, there may have been a transition to a ‘string plasma’ phase. perhaps this is what laid down the perturbations seen in the CMB?

## The most important question of all …

… is undoubtedly the one we have not yet had the ‘branes’ to ask.