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## Appendix A Singlet $`q=0`$

We here expose the degeneracy calculation of the fundamental singlet $`S^0`$ in the $`Z_6`$ theory. According to the technique of Weyl reflections, the corresponding module should be three times degenerate at level $`2/3`$.

Extensive use of commutation relations shows that the unreduced module has three states at level $`2/3`$:

$$A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^0,A_0^2A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^0,A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^0.$$
(A.1)
Note that the second of these states exploits the zero mode $`A_0^2`$ at level $`2/3`$. We have checked that repeated actions of the various zero modes at level $`2/3`$ do not produce additional independent states.

In order to have the required three degeneracies, we impose the complete degeneracy of the states (A.1). This results in the following three independent conditions:

$`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1\left(A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^0\right)`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (A.2)
$`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1\left(A_0^2A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^0\right)`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (A.3)
$`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1A_0^1\left(A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^0\right)`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (A.4)
The first condition, Eq. (A.2), can be rewritten through

$$A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^0=\frac{10\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^0}}{3c}\mathrm{\Phi }^0,$$
(A.5)
fixing $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^0}=0`$; this was expected since the most relevant singlet must be the identity operator $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{(1,1,1)}`$. The second condition, Eq. (A.3), further implies the vanishing of some matrix elements at level $`1`$:

$$A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1=A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1=0.$$
(A.6)
Finally, the third condition, Eq. (A.4), can be written as

$$A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^0=0.$$
(A.7)
Exploiting the commutation relation

$$\left(A_{\frac{5}{3}}^2A_{\frac{5}{3}}^2\frac{7}{3}A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2+A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2\right)\mathrm{\Phi }^0=\frac{16\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^0}}{3c}\mathrm{\Phi }^0,$$
(A.8)
this means that we have $`A_{\frac{5}{3}}^2A_{\frac{5}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^0=0`$ as well.

## Appendix B Doublet $`q=\pm 1/2`$

According to the reflection method, the doublet $`D^{\pm 1/2}=\mathrm{\Phi }_{(2,1,1)}`$ of the $`Z_6`$ theory is doubly degenerate at level $`1/3`$ and degenerate once at level $`1`$.

We begin by investigating the $`q=3/2`$ sector at level $`1/3`$. There is just a single state:

$$A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}A_{\frac{1}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2},$$
(B.1)
and we require it to be completely degenerate. This amounts to imposing the condition $`A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}=0`$, which, by the use of commutation relations, can be rewritten as

$$\left(\frac{1}{9}+\frac{10}{3c}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}}A_0^1A_0^1\right)\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}=0.$$
(B.2)
This fixes the zero-mode eigenvalue, defined by $`A_0^1\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}h\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}`$, as

$$h^2=\frac{1}{9}+\frac{10}{3c}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}}.$$
(B.3)
Imposing also the conjugate degeneracy in the $`q=3/2`$ sector at level $`\frac{1}{3}`$, we can now reduce the module by setting $`A_{\frac{1}{3}}^{\pm 1}\mathrm{\Phi }^{\pm 1/2}=0`$. The reduced module is then completely empty at level $`1/3`$.

The next available level is level $`1`$, and we here examine the sector $`q=1/2`$ (the case $`q=1/2`$ is equivalent, by charge conjugation symmetry). In the reduced module, there are only two independent ways of descending to this position, and we consider a linear combination of the corresponding two states:

$$\chi _1^{1/2}=aL_1\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}+bA_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}.$$
(B.4)
We impose degeneracy of $`\chi _1^{1/2}`$ by demanding that $`L^1\chi _1^{1/2}=A_1^1\chi _1^{1/2}=0`$. In terms of the matrix elements defined by

$`\mu _{11}\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}`$ $``$ $`L_1L_1\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2},`$ (B.5)
$`\mu _{12}\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}`$ $``$ $`L_1A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2},`$ (B.6)
$`\mu _{21}\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}`$ $``$ $`A_1^1L_1\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2},`$ (B.7)
$`\mu _{22}\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}`$ $``$ $`A_1^1A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2},`$ (B.8)
the degeneracy constraint can be written

$$\mu _{11}\mu _{22}\mu _{12}\mu _{21}=0.$$
(B.9)
The four matrix elements are easily evaluated:

$`\mu _{11}`$ $`=`$ $`2\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}},`$ (B.10)
$`\mu _{12}=\mu _{21}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1h,`$ (B.11)
$`\mu _{22}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}h^2+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{9}}+{\displaystyle \frac{10}{3c}}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}}.`$ (B.12)
Inserting this in Eq. (B.9)—and using also Eq. (B.3) for $`h^2`$—we obtain the physical solutions

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}}=\frac{1}{48}\left(25c\pm \sqrt{(c5)(c125)}\right).$$
(B.13)
The calculation can readily be generalised from the $`Z_6`$ theory to the case of $`Z_N`$ with $`N6`$ even. The complete degeneracy in the $`q=\pm 3/2`$ sector takes the form $`A_{1+4/N}^{\pm 1}\mathrm{\Phi }^{\pm 1/2}=0`$ and leads to

$$h^2=\frac{N2}{N^2}+\frac{4(N1)}{Nc}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}}.$$
(B.14)
Following Ref.  we now assume that $`N/23`$ further degeneracies can be imposed at the levels predicted by the Weyl reflections, without fixing $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}}`$, and in such a way that the reduced module will be completely empty at all levels strictly between 0 and 1. The correctness of this assumption can be explicitly checked for the first few values of $`N`$.

Turning to level 1, we once again impose the degeneracy of the state (B.4). The matrix elements (B.10)–(B.11) are unchanged, whereas

$$\mu _{22}=\frac{N4}{N}h^2+\frac{N+2}{N^2}+\frac{4(N1)}{Nc}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}}.$$
(B.15)
Solving Eq. (B.9) we obtain the solutions

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^{1/2}}=\frac{1}{2N(N2)}\left((N1)^2c\pm \sqrt{\left(c(N1)\right)\left(c(N1)^3\right)}\right).$$
(B.16)
generalising Eq. (B.13). This corresponds to the dimension of the operator $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{(2,1,1,\mathrm{},1,1)}`$.

## Appendix C Doublet $`q=\pm 1`$

In the $`Z_6`$ case, which we consider first, the method of Weyl reflections indicates the existence of a doublet $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{(1,2,2)}`$ with one degeneracy at level $`1/3`$ and two degeneracies at level $`1`$. We here show that this is the doublet $`D^1`$.

First, to obtain a consistent doublet module, we need to make sure that $`A_0^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=0`$. In particular, this implies $`A_0^1A_0^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=0`$, and using the commutation relation $`\{\mathrm{\Psi }^1,\mathrm{\Psi }^1\}\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$ we obtain

$$A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\left(\frac{1}{9}+\frac{10}{3c}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}\right)\mathrm{\Phi }^1.$$
(C.1)
Note that this consistency requirement does not count as a degeneracy within the reflection method.

At level $`1/3`$, the $`q=3`$ sector is now empty. This follows from $`\{\mathrm{\Psi }^1,\mathrm{\Psi }^1\}\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$:

$$A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_0^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\frac{1}{2}\lambda _2^{1,1}A_{\frac{1}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^1=0.$$
(C.2)
On the other hand, the two states at level $`1/3`$ in the $`q=0`$ sector can be used to form a singular state:

$$\chi _{\frac{1}{3}}^0=aA_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1+bA_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,$$
(C.3)
for some constants $`a`$ and $`b`$. Imposing the constraints $`A_{\frac{1}{3}}^{\pm 1}\chi _{\frac{1}{3}}^0`$, and defining the matrix elements

$`\mu _{1,1}\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$ $``$ $`A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,`$ (C.4)
$`\mu _{1,1}\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$ $``$ $`A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,`$ (C.5)
the degeneracy condition takes the form

$$\mu _{1,1}=\pm \mu _{1,1}.$$
(C.6)
The matrix element $`\mu _{1,1}`$ is fixed by Eq. (C.1), and $`\mu _{1,1}`$ follows from $`\{\mathrm{\Psi }^1,\mathrm{\Psi }^1\}\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$:

$$A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\lambda _2^{1,1}A_0^2\mathrm{\Phi }^1\lambda _2^{1,1}h\mathrm{\Phi }^1,$$
(C.7)
where $`h`$ is the zero-mode eigenvalue. The degeneracy criterion then reads

$$\lambda _2^{1,1}h=\pm \left(\frac{1}{9}+\frac{10}{3c}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}\right).$$
(C.8)
In the corresponding reduced module there is now only one state at level $`1/3`$:

$$A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1.$$
(C.9)
At level $`1`$, we can now choose to impose a further degeneracy either in the $`q=1`$ sector or in the $`q=2`$ sector (the cases $`q=1`$ and $`q=2`$ are equivalent by $`Z_N`$ charge conjugation). Extensive use of the commutation relations reveals that among the many possible ways of descending to level 1 (including the use of zero modes at level 1), only a few are independent. More precisely, in the $`q=1`$ sector only the two states

$$L_1\mathrm{\Phi }^1\text{ and }A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1$$
(C.10)
are linearly independent. Likewise, in the $`q=2`$ sector we have the two independent states

$$A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1\text{ and }A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1.$$
(C.11)
We first consider the possibility of degenerating a linear combination of the states (C.10) in the $`q=1`$ sector. Setting

$$\chi _1^1=aL_1\mathrm{\Phi }^1+bA_{\frac{2}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,$$
(C.12)
we require $`L_1\chi _1^1=0`$ and $`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1\chi _1^1=0`$. (The constants $`a`$ and $`b`$ are not related to those in Eq. (C.3).) In terms of the matrix elements

$`\mu _0\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$ $``$ $`L_1L_1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,`$ (C.13)
$`\mu _1\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$ $``$ $`L_1A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,`$ (C.14)
$`\mu _2\left(A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1\right)`$ $``$ $`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1L_1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,`$ (C.15)
$`\mu _3\left(A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1\right)`$ $``$ $`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,`$ (C.16)
the degeneracy criterion reads

$$\mu _0\mu _3\mu _1\mu _2=0.$$
(C.17)
The evaluation of the first three matrix elements is straightforward:

$`\mu _0`$ $`=`$ $`2\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1},`$ (C.18)
$`\mu _1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{9}}+{\displaystyle \frac{10}{3c}}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}\right),`$ (C.19)
$`\mu _2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}.`$ (C.20)
The last one follows from the commutation relation

$$\left(A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1\frac{1}{3}A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1+A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\right)A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\frac{10}{3c}\left(\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}+\frac{1}{3}\right)A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,$$
(C.21)
which gives

$$\mu _3=\frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{1}{9}+\frac{10}{3c}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}\right)\lambda _2^{1,1}h+\frac{10}{3c}\left(\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}+\frac{1}{3}\right).$$
(C.22)
Inserting this in Eq. (C.17) one obtains a quadratic equation for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}`$, whose solutions depend on the sign chosen in Eq. (C.8). With the plus sign, we obtain the physically acceptable solutions

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}=\frac{1}{30}\left(25c\pm \sqrt{(c5)(c125)}\right),$$
(C.23)
whilst the minus sign leads to the unacceptable solutions

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}=\frac{1}{210}\left(25+2c\pm \sqrt{4c^2460c+625}\right).$$
(C.24)
Instead of imposing a degeneracy at level 1 in the $`q=1`$ sector, one could have chosen to degenerate a linear combination of the states (C.11) in the $`q=2`$ sector. Note that the symmetry of the unreduced module is such that the $`q=1`$ and $`q=2`$ sectors are equivalent. However, in the construction of the doublet module we have broken that symmetry by placing the summits in the $`q=1`$ sector. There is thus a priori no reason to expect that these two sectors should be equivalent as far as the submodules are concerned. And indeed we have seen that at level $`1/3`$ there are zero states in the $`q=3`$ sector and two states in the $`q=0`$ sector (of which one has been degenerated).

We therefore consider the singular vector

$$\chi _1^2=aA_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1+bA_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,$$
(C.25)
subject to the constraints $`A_1^1\chi _1^2=0`$ and $`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2\chi _1^2=0`$. Defining the matrix elements

$`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_0\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$ $``$ $`A_1^1A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,`$ (C.26)
$`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_1\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$ $``$ $`A_1^1A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,`$ (C.27)
$`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_2\left(A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1\right)`$ $``$ $`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,`$ (C.28)
$`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_3\left(A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1\right)`$ $``$ $`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,`$ (C.29)
the degeneracy criterion is

$$\stackrel{~}{\mu }_0\stackrel{~}{\mu }_3\stackrel{~}{\mu }_1\stackrel{~}{\mu }_2=0.$$
(C.30)
Once again, the evaluation of the first three matrix elements is straightforward:

$`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{9}}+{\displaystyle \frac{10}{3c}}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1},`$ (C.31)
$`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_1`$ $`=`$ $`\lambda _2^{1,1}h^2+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{5}}\lambda _1^{1,2}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{9}}+{\displaystyle \frac{10}{3c}}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}\right),`$ (C.32)
$`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_2`$ $`=`$ $`h+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{5}}\lambda _1^{1,2}.`$ (C.33)
Evaluating $`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_3`$ is considerably more involved, calling for the use of numerous commutation relations (see Appendix D). The result is

$$\stackrel{~}{\mu }_3=h^2+\frac{\lambda _1^{1,2}}{\lambda _2^{1,1}}\left(\frac{1}{45}+\frac{8\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}}{3c}\right)+\frac{\lambda _3^{1,2}\lambda _2^{1,3}}{2\lambda _2^{1,1}}\left(h+\frac{\lambda _1^{1,2}}{5}\right)\frac{\lambda _1^{1,2}}{5}\left(h+\frac{3\lambda _1^{1,2}}{5}\right).$$
(C.34)
Inserting these matrix elements—and the values of the various structure constants—in Eq. (C.30), one finds that the physically acceptable solutions for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}`$ are once again given by Eq. (C.23).

According to the reflection technique, there should be a second degeneracy at level 1, apart from the one that we have imposed either in the $`q=1`$ or in the $`q=2`$ sector (with identical results). This second degeneracy will not have any consequence for the determination of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}`$ or of $`h`$, but will ensure that the ghost state at level $`1`$ has a valid doublet structure. In other words, it imposes a constraint on the module of the ghost operator at level 0; this is analoguous to the constraint $`A_0^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=0`$, discussed above Eq. (C.1), which we have imposed on the module of the physical operator $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{(1,2,2)}`$.

The result (C.23) can be generalised to the case of $`Z_N`$ with $`N>6`$ even, as follows. We begin by imposing the full degeneracy of the first descendent $`q=2`$ state, which is $`A_{1+6/N}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$. The constraint $`A_{16/N}^1A_{1+6/N}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$ then leads to the fixation of the matrix element

$$A_{2/N}^1A_{2/N}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\frac{2(N4)}{N^2}+\frac{4(N1)}{Nc}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}.$$
(C.35)
This generalises Eq. (C.1), but note that here it counts as a genuine degeneracy, rather than just a consistency requirement, as was the case for $`N=6`$.

Imposing next a degeneracy in the $`q=0`$ sector at level $`2/N`$ will fix the zero mode eigenvalue:

$$\lambda _2^{1,1}h=\pm \left(\frac{2(N4)}{N^2}+\frac{4(N1)}{Nc}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}\right).$$
(C.36)
This is completely analogous to Eq. (C.8).

Taking our cue from Appendix B (and from Ref. ) we now assume that $`N/24`$ further degeneracies can be imposed at the levels predicted by the Weyl reflections, without fixing $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}`$, and in such a way that the reduced module will be completely empty at all levels strictly between 0 and 1 in the sectors $`q0`$. However, note that the criterion (C.36) still leaves one state at level $`2/N`$ in the $`q=0`$ sector.

Finally we demand the degeneracy of

$$\chi _1^1=aL_1\mathrm{\Phi }^1+bA_{1+2/N}^1A_{2/N}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1$$
(C.37)
cf. Eq. (C.12). Defining $`\mu _1`$, $`\mu _2`$ and $`\mu _3`$ as the obvious generalisations of Eqs. (C.14)–(C.16), the commutation relations lead to

$`\mu _1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2(N2)}{N}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{2(N4)}{N^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{4(N1)}{Nc}}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}\right),`$ (C.38)
$`\mu _2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2(N2)}{N}},`$ (C.39)
$`\mu _3`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{N4}{N}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{2(N4)}{N^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{4(N1)}{Nc}}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}\right)\lambda _2^{1,1}h+{\displaystyle \frac{4(N1)}{Nc}}\left(\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{N}}\right).`$ (C.40)
The condition (C.17) then yields the physically acceptable solution

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}=\frac{1}{N(N1)}\left((N1)^2c\pm \sqrt{\left(c(N1)\right)\left(c(N1)^3\right)}\right),$$
(C.41)
generalising Eq. (C.23). This corresponds to the dimension of the operator $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{(1,2,1,\mathrm{},1,1)}`$ for $`N>6`$, and to $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{(1,2,2)}`$ for $`N=6`$.

## Appendix D Calculation of $`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_3`$

We wish to evaluate the matrix element $`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_3`$ defined by Eq. (C.29). In the following we shall make extensive use of various commutation relations; which relations are being used can be inferred from the presence of the corresponding structure constants. We first have:

$`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_3\left(A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1\right)`$ $``$ $`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$ (D.1)
$`=`$ $`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2\left(A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{5}}\lambda _1^{1,2}A_1^1\right)\mathrm{\Phi }^1.`$
The first term of the right-hand side of Eq. (D.1) also enters in:

$$\left(A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2\right)A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\frac{1}{3}\lambda _3^{1,2}A_1^3A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^1,$$
(D.2)
where we have used that $`A_{\frac{4}{3}}^1A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^1=0`$. To simplify Eq. (D.2) we shall use that

$$\lambda _2^{1,1}A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^1=A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1.$$
(D.3)
The second term on the left-hand side of Eq. (D.2) contains the piece $`A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$, which also enters in:

$$\left(A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2\right)A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\frac{1}{5}\lambda _1^{1,2}A_1^1A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,$$
(D.4)
where we have used that $`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^1A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=0`$.

Eq. (D.4) calls for the evaluation of $`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$, which is also required to get the second term on the right-hand side of Eq. (D.1). We have

$$\left(A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_1^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_0^2\right)\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\frac{3}{5}\lambda _1^{1,2}A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,$$
(D.5)
where we have used that $`A_0^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=0`$. Thus

$$A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=hA_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1+\frac{3}{5}\lambda _1^{1,2}A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1.$$
(D.6)
Acting on this with $`A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1`$ we find

$$A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=h^2\lambda _2^{1,1}\mathrm{\Phi }^1+\frac{3}{5}\lambda _1^{1,2}\left(\frac{1}{9}+\frac{10}{3c}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}\right)\mathrm{\Phi }^1,$$
(D.7)
which is the second term on the left-hand side of Eq. (D.4).

To obtain the right-hand side of Eq. (D.4) we use that

$$A_1^1A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\left(\frac{2}{9}+\frac{10}{3c}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}\right)\mathrm{\Phi }^1.$$
(D.8)
Rearranging Eq. (D.4), and inserting Eqs. (D.7)–(D.8), one finds that

$$A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\left(h^2\lambda _2^{1,1}+\frac{3}{5}\left(\frac{1}{9}+\frac{10}{3c}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}\right)\lambda _1^{1,2}+\frac{1}{5}\left(\frac{2}{9}+\frac{10}{3c}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}\right)\lambda _1^{1,2}\right)\mathrm{\Phi }^1.$$
(D.9)
Using Eq. (D.3), and doing some simplification, we arrive at

$$A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\left(h^2+\frac{\lambda _1^{1,2}}{\lambda _2^{1,1}}\left(\frac{1}{45}+\frac{8}{3c}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{\Phi }^1}\right)\right)\mathrm{\Phi }^1,$$
(D.10)
which is essentially the second term on the left-hand side of Eq. (D.2).

It remains to get the right-hand side of Eq. (D.2). Using again (D.3), we have

$$A_1^3A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\frac{1}{\lambda _2^{1,1}}A_1^3A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,$$
(D.11)
which can be simplified through

$$\left(A_1^3A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_1^3\right)A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\frac{1}{2}\lambda _2^{1,3}A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1$$
(D.12)
To make this explicit, we need $`A_1^3A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$ and $`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$. The first of these reads

$$A_1^3A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\lambda _2^{1,3}A_0^2\mathrm{\Phi }^1=h\lambda _2^{1,3}\mathrm{\Phi }^1,$$
(D.13)
whilst the second is obtained from

$$\left(A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_1^1A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_0^2\right)\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\frac{3}{5}\lambda _1^{1,2}A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1,$$
(D.14)
yielding

$$A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_1^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1=hA_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1+\frac{3}{5}\lambda _1^{1,2}A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1.$$
(D.15)
Inserting these bits and pieces in Eqs. (D.11)–(D.12) we get

$$A_1^3A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^1=\frac{1}{\lambda _2^{1,1}}\left(\frac{3}{2}h\lambda _2^{1,3}A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1+\frac{3}{10}\lambda _2^{1,3}\lambda _1^{1,2}A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1\mathrm{\Phi }^1\right).$$
(D.16)
Finally, we inject Eqs. (D.10) and (D.16) in Eq. (D.2) in order to isolate $`A_{\frac{2}{3}}^2A_{\frac{1}{3}}^1A_{\frac{4}{3}}^2\mathrm{\Phi }^1`$. Inserting this, and also Eq. (D.6), in Eq. (D.1) we infer the value of $`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_3`$ given in Eq. (C.34).

## Appendix E Disorder operators

The general properties of the disorder operators (fusion rules, analytic continuation, etc.) are discussed in detail in Appendix B of Ref. .

The decompositions of $`\{\mathrm{\Psi }^k\}`$ into mode operators have the same form as in Eqs. (2.102)–(2.104) of Ref. :

$`\mathrm{\Psi }^k(z)R_a(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(z)^{\mathrm{\Delta }_k+\frac{n}{2}}}}A_{\frac{n}{2}}^kR_a(0),k=1,2,\mathrm{},{\displaystyle \frac{N}{2}}.`$ (E.1)
$`\mathrm{\Psi }^k(z)R_a(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{(1)^n}{(z)^{\mathrm{\Delta }_k+\frac{n}{2}}}}A_{\frac{n}{2}}^1𝖴^kR_a(0),k=1,2,\mathrm{},{\displaystyle \frac{N}{2}}`$ (E.2)
$`A_{\frac{n}{2}}^kR_a(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi i}}{\displaystyle _{C_0}}dz(z)^{\mathrm{\Delta }_k+\frac{n}{2}1}\mathrm{\Psi }^k(z)R_a(0),`$ (E.3)
where $`a=1,2,\mathrm{},N`$ is the index of the disorder operator, and $`𝖴`$ is a $`N\times N`$ matrix which rotates this index, $`𝖴R_a(0)=R_{a1}(0)`$. In Eq. (E.3), the action of the parafermionic modes $`A_{\frac{n}{2}}^k`$ has been expressed in terms of contour integrals which are defined by letting $`z`$ turn twice around the operator $`R_a(0)`$ at the origin. The representation (E.3) has been used to determine the commutation relations between the modes, given in Eqs. (2.105)–(2.107) of Ref. .

The decomposition of the local products $`\mathrm{\Psi }^k(z)R_a(0)`$ into half-integer powers of $`z`$ is due to the non-abelian monodromy of the disorder operator $`R_a(z,\overline{z})`$ with respect to the chiral fields $`\mathrm{\Psi }^{\pm k}(z)`$, with $`k=1,2,\mathrm{},N/21`$.

On the other hand, the monodromy of the disorder operator with respect to the parafermionic field with maximal charge $`\mathrm{\Psi }^{N/2}`$ turns out to be abelian. Thus, in the expansion of $`\mathrm{\Psi }^{N/2}(z)R_a(0)`$ only integer powers of $`z`$ are present, as can be seen by comparing the expansions (E.1) and (E.2), and taking into account that $`\mathrm{\Psi }^{N/2}\mathrm{\Psi }^{N/2}`$. In other words, we have $`A_{\frac{n}{2}}^{N/2}R_a(0)=0`$ for $`n`$ odd. This peculiarity marks a difference in the degeneracy structure of the fundamental disorder operators for the cases of $`N`$ even and odd.

It is seen from the expansion (E.1) that there are $`N/2`$ zero modes $`A_0^k`$ (with $`k=1,2,\mathrm{},N/2`$) associated with the parafermion $`\mathrm{\Psi }^k`$ which acts between the $`N`$ summits of the module:

$$A_0^kR_a=h_k𝖴^{2k}R_a.$$
(E.4)
This defines $`N/2`$ eigenvalues $`\{h_k\}`$ which characterise, in addition to the conformal dimension $`\mathrm{\Delta }_R`$, each representation $`R_a`$. Actually, as described in Ref. , there is a relation between the eigenvalues $`h_1`$ and $`h_2`$ which holds irrespectively of the details of the representation of a particular operator $`R_a`$:

$$2h_1^2=\lambda _2^{1,1}2^{\mathrm{\Delta }_23}h_2+2^{\mathrm{\Delta }_22}\left[\kappa (0)+\frac{16\mathrm{\Delta }_1}{c}\mathrm{\Delta }_R\right],$$
(E.5)
where

$$\kappa (n)=(2\mathrm{\Delta }_1+n1)(2\mathrm{\Delta }_1+n2)(2\mathrm{\Delta }_1+n1)(\mathrm{\Delta }_2+1)+\frac{(\mathrm{\Delta }_2+1)(\mathrm{\Delta }_2+2)}{4}.$$
(E.6)
As witnessed by the expansions (E.1)–(E.2), each disorder module has $`N`$ summits, labeled by the components $`R_a`$, and has only integer and half-integer levels. When $`N`$ is odd, for a given primary operator $`R_a`$ there are $`(N1)/2`$ states at level $`1/2`$:

$$\left(\chi _a^{(k)}\right)_{\frac{1}{2}}=A_{\frac{1}{2}}^k𝖴^{2k}R_a=𝖴^{2k}A_{\frac{1}{2}}^kR_a,k=1,2,\mathrm{},\frac{N1}{2}.$$
(E.7)
Imposing that all the states (E.7) be primary, and using Eq. (E.5), gives all the $`(N+1)/2`$ conditions required to fix the values of all the eigenvalues $`\{h_k\}`$ and of the conformal dimension $`\mathrm{\Delta }_R`$. We showed in Ref.  that the solutions of the resulting system of equations give the conformal dimensions of the fundamental disorder operators.

When $`N`$ is even, we have only $`(N2)/2`$ states at level $`1/2`$:

$$\left(\chi _a^{(k)}\right)_{\frac{1}{2}}=A_{\frac{1}{2}}^k𝖴^{2k}R_a=𝖴^{2k}A_{\frac{1}{2}}^kR_a,k=1,2,\mathrm{},\frac{N2}{2},$$
(E.8)
the “missing” state being $`A_{\frac{1}{2}}^{N/2}R_a=0`$, as we have seen above. Following the exemple of the case $`N`$ odd, we shall demand that all the states (E.8) be singular. We therefore require that

$$A_{+\frac{1}{2}}^k^{}(\chi _a^{(k)})_{\frac{1}{2}}=0$$
(E.9)
for each $`k^{}=1,2,\mathrm{},(N2)/2`$, and for each $`k=1,2,\mathrm{},(N2)/2`$. The degeneracy condition (E.9) and the relation (E.5) result in a system of $`N/2`$ independent equations. The number of equations is not sufficient to determine the $`N/2+1`$ unknown variables, i.e., the $`N/2`$ zero mode eigenvalues and the conformal dimension. Therefore—in contradistinction to case of $`N`$ odd—we shall have to require the module be degenerate also at the next available level, i.e., at level 1.

After imposing the condition (E.9), all the states (E.8) can be put equal to zero. After this reduction, the level $`1/2`$ will be completely empty. With this in mind, it is not difficult to verify that at level 1 we have to consider the state

$$\left(\chi _a^{(1)}\right)_1=aA_1^1𝖴^2R_a+bL_1R_a$$
(E.10)
and require the following conditions to be satisfied:

$$L_{+1}\left(\chi _a^{(1)}\right)_1=0,A_{+1}^1\left(\chi _a^{(1)}\right)_1=0.$$
(E.11)
In terms of the matrix elements $`\mu _{ij}`$ defined by

$`L_{+1}L_1R_a`$ $`=`$ $`\mu _{11}R_a,`$ (E.12)
$`L_{+1}A_1^1𝖴^2R_a`$ $`=`$ $`\mu _{12}R_a,`$ (E.13)
$`A_{+1}^1L_1R_a`$ $`=`$ $`\mu _{21}𝖴^2R_a,`$ (E.14)
$`A_{+1}^1A_1^1𝖴^2R_a`$ $`=`$ $`\mu _{22}𝖴^2R_a,`$ (E.15)
the degeneracy criterion reads

$$\mu _{11}\mu _{22}\mu _{12}\mu _{21}=0.$$
(E.16)
Using the commutation relations given in Eqs. (2.105)-(2.107) of Ref. , the matrix elements are readily computed:

$`\mu _{11}`$ $`=`$ $`2\mathrm{\Delta }_R,`$ (E.17)
$`\mu _{12}`$ $`=`$ $`\mu _{21}=\mathrm{\Delta }_1h_1,`$ (E.18)
$`\mu _{22}`$ $`=`$ $`\lambda _2^{1,1}2^{\mathrm{\Delta }_23}h_2+2^{\mathrm{\Delta }_22}\kappa (2)+2^{\mathrm{\Delta }_2+1}{\displaystyle \frac{2\mathrm{\Delta }_1}{c}}\mathrm{\Delta }_R\gamma h_1^2,`$ (E.19)
where we used the abbreviation:

$$\gamma =2\mathrm{\Delta }_1+4\frac{3}{2}\mathrm{\Delta }_2+\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Delta }_2^2.$$
(E.20)
By making extensive use of the commutation relations given in Ref. , the equations (E.5), (E.9) and (E.16) can be solved. They admit two solutions $`\mathrm{\Delta }_R`$ for the conformal dimension the fundamental operator $`R_a`$:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_R^{(1)}=\frac{1}{16}\frac{(N1)(p+N)}{p},\mathrm{\Delta }_R^{(2)}=\frac{1}{16}\frac{(N1)(p+2N)}{p+2}.$$
(E.21)
The above solutions have the same form as the corresponding solutions found in Ref.  for $`N`$ odd. They correspond respectively to:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{(1,1,\mathrm{},1,2,1)(1,1,\mathrm{},1,1,1)}\text{and}\mathrm{\Delta }_{(1,1,\mathrm{},1,1,1)(1,1,\mathrm{},1,2,1)}$$
(E.22)
with the boundary term

$$B_R=\frac{r1}{16}.$$
(E.23)
This explicit calculation of the degeneracies of the fundamental disorder operators confirms the assignment made in Eq. (22), and the value of the boundary term given in Eq. (29). Furthermore, the degeneracy structure is in perfect agreement with the one predicted by the method of reflections. Following this method it is easy to see that the module of the operator $`R`$ possesses $`(N2)/2`$ singular states at level $`1/2`$ (using the $`r1`$ simple reflections $`s_a`$ with $`a=1,2,\mathrm{},r2,r`$) and one singular state at level $`1`$ (obtained from the simple reflection $`s_{r1}`$).


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# Every AF-algebra is Morita equivalent to a graph algebra.

(Date: 3 June 2003)

## Abstract.

We show how to modify any Bratteli diagram $`E`$ for an AF-algebra $`A`$ to obtain a Bratteli diagram $`KE`$ for $`A`$ whose graph algebra $`C^{}(KE)`$ contains both $`A`$ and $`C^{}(E)`$ as full corners.

My thanks go to my indefatigable supervisor Iain Raeburn for his guidance throughout this work.

An elegant theorem of Drinen says that every AF-algebra $`A`$ is isomorphic to a corner in a graph algebra \[3, Theorem 1\], and hence is Morita equivalent to the graph algebra. The graph in question is a Bratteli diagram for $`A`$, but it needs to be a carefully chosen one; two constructions of such a diagram were described in , one attributed to Kumjian. Here we show that applying Kumjian’s construction to an arbitrary Bratteli diagram $`E`$ for $`A`$ gives a graph $`KE`$ whose $`C^{}`$-algebra contains both $`A`$ and $`C^{}(E)`$ as full corners, so that $`A`$ is Morita equivalent to the $`C^{}`$-algebra $`C^{}(E)`$ of the original Bratteli diagram $`E`$.

A *directed graph* $`E`$ consists of countable sets $`E^0`$ of vertices and $`E^1`$ of edges, along with functions $`r,s:E^1E^0`$ which map edges to their range and source vertices. The graph is *row-finite* if each vertex emits at most finitely many edges. Given a row-finite graph $`E`$, a *Cuntz-Krieger $`E`$-family* in a $`C^{}`$-algebra consists of a set of mutually orthogonal projections $`\{p_v:vE^0\}`$ and a set of partial isometries $`\{s_e:eE^1\}`$ satisfying the *Cuntz-Krieger relations*:

$$s_e^{}s_e=p_{r(e)}\text{ for }eE^1\text{ and }p_v=\underset{es^1(v)}{}s_es_e^{}\text{ whenever }s^1(v)\mathrm{}.$$

The graph algebra $`C^{}(E)`$ is the universal $`C^{}`$-algebra generated by a Cuntz-Krieger $`E`$-family $`\{s_e,p_v\}`$ \[4, Theorem 1.2\]. We denote by $`E^{}`$ the set of all finite paths in $`E`$; that is, sequences of edges $`\mu _1\mu _2\mathrm{}\mu _n`$ such that $`r(\mu _i)=s(\mu _{i+1})`$ for $`1i<n`$. We include the vertices as paths of length zero. Given $`\mu =\mu _1\mu _2\mathrm{}\mu _nE^{}`$, define $`s_\mu :=s_{\mu _1}s_{\mu _2}\mathrm{}s_{\mu _n}`$. It follows from \[4, Lemma 1.1\] that

$$C^{}(E)=\overline{\mathrm{span}}\{s_\mu s_\nu ^{}:\mu ,\nu E^{},r(\mu )=r(\nu )\}.$$

A *Bratteli diagram* is a directed graph $`E`$ such that:

* $`E^0`$ is the disjoint union of finite sets $`\{V_n\}`$,
* every edge with source in $`V_n`$ has range in $`V_{n+1}`$, and
* each $`vE^0`$ is labelled with a positive integer $`d_v`$ satisfying $`d_v_{er^1(v)}d_{s(e)}`$.

We say that $`E`$ is a Bratteli diagram for a sequence of $`C^{}`$-algebras $`A_1A_2\mathrm{}`$ if each $`A_n`$ is isomorphic to $`_{vV_n}M_{d_v}()`$ and the embedding of each $`M_{d_v}()A_n`$ in each $`M_{d_w}()A_{n+1}`$ scales the trace by $`\mathrm{\#}(s^1(v)r^1(w))`$. We say that $`E`$ is a Bratteli diagram for an AF-algebra $`A`$ if there exists a sequence of $`C^{}`$-subalgebras $`\{A_n\}`$ of $`A`$ such that $`A=\overline{A_n}`$ and $`E`$ is a Bratteli diagram for $`\{A_n\}`$.

###### Theorem 1.

Let $`E`$ be a Bratteli diagram for an AF-algebra $`A`$. Then there exists a Bratteli diagram $`KE`$ for $`A`$ such that $`C^{}(KE)`$ contains $`A`$ and $`C^{}(E)`$ as complementary full corners.

The projection $`p`$ defining the corner is the sum $`p=_{vS}p_v`$ where $`SKE^0`$; this sum converges strictly to a projection in $`M(C^{}(KE))`$ by \[1, Lemma 1.1\]. Crucial for us is the observation that for $`\mu ,\nu KE^{}`$,

$$ps_\mu s_\nu ^{}=\{\begin{array}{cc}s_\mu s_\nu ^{}\hfill & \text{if }s(\mu )S\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{otherwise}\hfill \end{array}$$

so that

$$pC^{}(KE)p=\overline{\mathrm{span}}\{s_\mu s_\nu ^{}:s(\mu ),s(\nu )S,r(\mu )=r(\nu )\}.$$

###### Proof of the theorem..

For $`n>0`$, denote by $`V_n`$ the set of vertices on the $`n`$th level of $`E`$, and let $`V_0=\mathrm{}`$. For each $`vE^0`$, let $`d_v`$ be the rank of the matrix algebra corresponding to $`v`$. For every vertex $`vE^0`$, calculate $`\sigma _v:=d_v_{er^1(v)}d_{s(e)}`$. We define $`KE^0=_{n=0}^{\mathrm{}}KV_n`$, where

$$KV_n:=\{\begin{array}{cc}V_n\hfill & \text{if }\sigma _v=0\text{ for all }vV_{n+1}\hfill \\ V_n\{w_n\}\hfill & \text{if }\sigma _v>0\text{ for some }vV_{n+1}\text{,}\hfill \end{array}$$

and define $`KE^1`$ to be $`E^1`$ together with, for every $`w_n`$ and $`vV_{n+1}`$, $`\sigma _v`$ edges from $`w_n`$ to $`v`$. Denote by $`S`$ the set $`KE^0\backslash E^0=\{w_n\}`$, and set $`d_w=1`$ for all $`wS`$. Constructing $`KE`$ in this fashion ensures that for all $`vKE^0`$, the number of paths beginning in $`S`$ and ending at $`v`$ is $`d_v`$. Note that if $`A`$ is unital, so $`\sigma _v=0`$ for all $`vE^0\backslash V_1`$, then we add only one vertex to $`E`$ and $`KE^0=E^0\{w_0\}`$.

Since $`E`$ is a Bratteli diagram for $`A`$, there is an increasing sequence of $`C^{}`$-subalgebras $`F_n`$ of $`A`$ such that $`A=\overline{F_n}`$ and $`E`$ is a Bratteli diagram for the sequence $`\{F_n\}`$. For those $`n`$ where $`KV_nV_n`$, we define a subalgebra $`F_n^{}`$ of $`A`$ by $`F_0^{}:=1`$ and

$$F_n^{}:=F_n(1_{F_{n+1}}1_{F_n})\underset{vV_n}{}M_{d_v}()\text{ for }n>0\text{.}$$

For all other $`n`$, define $`F_n^{}=F_n`$. The graph $`KE`$ is then a Bratteli diagram for the sequence $`\{F_n^{}\}`$. Since $`F_nF_n^{}F_{n+1}`$ for all $`n`$, we have $`\overline{F_n^{}}=\overline{F_n}=A`$; thus $`KE`$ is a Bratteli diagram for $`A`$.

Let $`\{s_e,p_v\}`$ be the universal Cuntz-Krieger $`KE`$-family generating $`C^{}(KE)`$. Define a projection $`pM(C^{}(KE))`$ by $`p:=_{vS}p_v`$. We aim to show that the corner $`pC^{}(KE)p`$ is isomorphic to $`A`$. Since two algebras with the same Bratteli diagram are isomorphic \[2, Proposition III.2.7\], we can achieve this by identifying a sequence of subalgebras of $`pC^{}(KE)p`$ for which $`E`$ is a Bratteli diagram and whose union is dense in $`pC^{}(KE)p`$. For each $`n>0`$ define $`D_n:=\mathrm{span}\{D^v:vV_n\}`$, where

$$D^v:=\mathrm{span}\{s_\mu s_\nu ^{}:\mu ,\nu KE^{},s(\mu ),s(\nu )S,r(\mu )=r(\nu )=v\}$$

for each $`vKE^0`$. Note that

$$pC^{}(KE)p=\overline{\mathrm{span}}\{s_\mu s_\nu ^{}:\mu ,\nu KE^{},s(\mu ),s(\nu )S,r(\mu )=r(\nu )\}=\overline{D_n}.$$

Given $`vE^0`$ and paths $`\mu ,\nu ,\alpha ,\beta `$ with source in $`S`$ and range $`v`$, observe that none of $`\mu ,\nu ,\alpha ,\beta `$ can extend any other since $`KE`$ contains no loops; \[4, Lemma 1.1\] then gives

$$s_\mu s_\nu ^{}s_\alpha s_\beta ^{}=\{\begin{array}{cc}s_\mu s_\beta ^{}\hfill & \text{if }\nu =\alpha \hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{otherwise.}\hfill \end{array}$$

Also, $`(s_\mu s_\nu ^{})^{}=s_\nu s_\mu ^{}`$, so

$$\{s_\mu s_\nu ^{}:\mu ,\nu KE^{},s(\mu ),s(\nu )S,r(\mu )=r(\nu )=v\}$$

is a family of matrix units. Since there are $`d_v`$ paths $`\mu `$ with $`s(\mu )S`$ and $`r(\mu )=v`$, $`D^v`$ is isomorphic to $`M_{d_v}()`$. Further, note that for distinct $`v,wV_n`$, no path ending at $`v`$ may extend one ending at $`w`$, so $`D^vD^w=0`$ and $`D_n=_{vV_n}D^v_{vV_n}M_{d_v}()`$. It remains only to check that the embedding of each $`D_n`$ in $`D_{n+1}`$ matches that described by $`E`$; specifically, for $`vV_n`$ and $`wV_{n+1}`$ we need that $`D^v`$ is embedded in $`D^w`$ with multiplicity $`\mathrm{\#}(s^1(v)r^1(w))`$. This follows from the Cuntz-Krieger relations at $`v`$: take paths $`\mu ,\nu `$ with source in $`S`$ and range $`v`$, decompose the matrix unit $`s_\mu s_\nu ^{}D^v`$ as

$$s_\mu s_\nu ^{}=s_\mu p_vs_\nu ^{}=s_\mu \left(\underset{es^1(v)}{}s_es_e^{}\right)s_\nu ^{}=\underset{es^1(v)}{}s_{\mu e}s_{\nu e}^{}$$

and note that $`s_{\mu e}s_{\nu e}^{}`$ is a matrix unit in $`D^w`$ precisely when $`er^1(w)`$.

Consider now the complementary corner

$$(1p)C^{}(KE)(1p)=\overline{\mathrm{span}}\{s_\mu s_\nu ^{}:\mu ,\nu KE^{},s(\mu ),s(\nu )E^0,r(\mu )=r(\nu )\}.$$

Since $`KE^1\backslash E^1`$ contains only edges from $`S`$ to $`E^0`$, paths beginning in $`E^0`$ never leave $`E^0`$. Thus $`(1p)C^{}(KE)(1p)`$ is generated by the Cuntz-Krieger $`E`$-family

$$\{s_e,p_v:eE^1,vE^0\}.$$

Further, $`E`$ contains no loops, so the Cuntz-Krieger uniqueness theorem \[1, Theorem 3.1\] implies that $`(1p)C^{}(KE)(1p)`$ is isomorphic to $`C^{}(E)`$.

Finally, we must show that $`p`$ and $`1p`$ are full. Note that for every $`vKE^0`$ there is a path beginning in $`S`$ and ending at $`v`$. Suppose that $`I`$ is an ideal in $`C^{}(KE)`$ containing $`pC^{}(KE)p`$; then $`I`$ certainly contains the projections $`\{p_w:wS\}`$. Given a vertex $`v`$ in $`E^0`$, choose a path $`\alpha `$ beginning at some $`wS`$ and ending at $`v`$. Then $`s_\alpha =p_ws_\alpha I`$, so $`p_v=s_\alpha ^{}s_\alpha I`$, every generator $`\{s_e,p_v\}`$ of $`C^{}(KE)`$ is in $`I`$, and $`I=C^{}(KE)`$. Now suppose that $`J`$ is an ideal in $`C^{}(KE)`$ containing $`(1p)C^{}(KE)(1p)`$, so for every $`vE^0`$ we have $`p_vJ`$. Given a vertex $`vS`$, note that every edge $`e`$ with $`s(e)=v`$ satisfies $`r(e)E^0`$; so for all $`es^1(v)`$, we know that $`p_{r(e)}=s_e^{}s_eJ`$, implying $`s_e=s_es_e^{}s_eJ`$ and $`s_es_e^{}J`$. Thus $`p_v=_{es^1(v)}s_es_e^{}J`$, the universal $`KE`$-family $`\{s_e,p_v\}`$ is contained in $`J`$, and $`J=C^{}(KE)`$. ∎


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# Ratchet Effects for Vortices in Superconductors with Periodic Pinning Arrays

## Abstract

Using numerical simulations we show that novel transport phenomena can occur for vortices moving in periodic pinning arrays when two external perpendicular ac drives are applied. In particular, we find a ratchet effect where the vortices can have a net dc drift even in the absence of a dc drive. This ratchet effect can occur for ac drives which create orbits that break one or more reflection symmetries.

Recently there has been considerable interest in using ratchet effects to control the motion of vortices in superconductors . In a ratchet, a net dc flow can arise under the application of a strictly ac drive . Typically, the symmetry breaking which can allow for this effect is produced by an asymmetric underlying substrate, such as a saw-tooth potential. However, ratchet effects can occur in systems with symmetrical substrates when some other form of symmetry breaking is introduced. One possible source of such a symmetry breaking is the applied ac drive itself. For example, it was recently shown that a particle moving in a two-dimensional (2D) periodic substrate can exhibit a ratchet effect when crossed ac drives are applied, where the ac drives cause the particle to move in orbits that have broken reflection symmetries . In this paper, we show that for vortices moving in a periodic pinning array at fields $`B/B_\varphi >1.0`$ (where $`B_\varphi `$ is the field at which each pinning site captures one vortex), a series of novel dynamical phases which ratchet the vortices can arise when two external perpendicular ac drives are applied. Our system can be realized in superconductors with periodic pinning arrays small enough that only one vortex can be captured per site, so that the additional vortices sit in the interstitial regions between the pinning sites .

We simulate a thin-film superconductor containing an $`N\times N`$ square pinning array with a lattice constant $`a`$. The equation of motion for a vortex $`i`$ is given by

$$𝐟_i=\frac{d𝐫_i}{dt}=𝐟^{vv}+𝐟_i^{vp}+𝐟_{AC}.$$
(1)
The force from the other vortices is $`𝐟_i^{vv}=_{ji}^{N_v}_iU_v(r)`$. The vortices interact logarithmically via $`U_v=\mathrm{ln}(r)`$. The force from the pinning sites is $`𝐟_i^{vp}`$. The pinning sites are modeled as parabolic traps with a range $`r_p`$, where $`r_p/a=0.1`$, and maximum pinning force $`f_p`$. For the results in this work, all external drive forces are much smaller than the pinning forces, so that vortices in the pinning sites remain immobile. The ac drive is applied in both the $`x`$ and $`y`$ directions:

$$𝐟_{AC}=f_x^{ac}(t)\widehat{𝐱}+f_y^{ac}(t)\widehat{𝐲}.$$
(2)
For all the ac drives, in the absence of a substrate there is no dc drift velocity and $`<f_{AC}>=0.0`$. In the initial configuration, all the pinning sites are filled with one vortex each, and the additional vortices are placed randomly in interstitial locations. We monitor the long time average vortex velocities.

We first consider the case of a system with $`B/B_\varphi =1.065`$, so that the interstitial vortices are far apart and in general do not interact. We apply an ac drive of the form $`𝐟_{AC}=A(\mathrm{sin}(\omega _Bt)+\mathrm{sin}^2(\omega _At))\widehat{𝐱}+B\mathrm{cos}(\omega _Bt)\widehat{𝐲}`$, where $`\omega _B/\omega _A=1.25`$. In this case a symmetry breaking arises from the shape of the orbits. In Fig. 1 we show $`<V_y>`$

for a system where $`A=0.49`$ is fixed and $`B`$ is varied. For $`B<0.24`$, the average vortex velocity is zero with the interstitial vortices moving in closed orbits. For $`B>0.24`$, there are a series of phases which have a net dc flux in the $`y`$-direction. This flux can be in either the positive or negative direction. In general most of the rectified phases give a drift velocity of $`0.024`$. We also find evidence for some rectifying phases that produce dc drifts that are fractional multiples of the maximum drift value. However, these phases appear only for very small regions of $`B`$. Additionally, as $`B`$ is further increased, we find regions where the interstitial vortices become repinned and $`<V_y>=0.0`$. Each of the rectifying regions corresponds to different dynamical phases where the vortices move in distinct periodic orbits.

In Fig. 2 we illustrate some of the dynamical phases for the system in Fig. 1. The positive rectifying phase at $`B=0.265`$ is shown in Fig. 2(a). Here a very intricate periodic pattern forms, with the vortices moving in a long time zig-zag pattern. In Fig. 2(b) the negative rectifying phase is shown for $`B=0.325`$. Here another distinct orbit forms with the vortex moving in lobes that slant alternately. In Fig. 2(c) we show another positive rectifying mode at $`B=0.39`$, where the orbit is similar to that in Fig. 1(b) but the net drift is in the opposite direction. In Fig. 2(d) we illustrate a non-rectifying orbit. Here the vortices move in complex periodic closed orbits without a net drift.

We next consider the case where $`B`$ is fixed to $`B=0.34`$ while $`A`$ is varied. In Fig. 3 we plot $`<V_y>`$ vs $`A`$. Here we find similar behavior to that in Fig. 1, with both positive and negative regions of net dc drift appearing along with pinned regions. In both Fig. 1 and Fig. 3, we find no ratchet effect for low values of $`A`$ or $`B`$.

In Fig. 4 we illustrate some of the dynamical orbits for the system in Fig. 3. In Fig. 4(a), we show the first rectifying phase which occurs at

$`A=0.256`$. Again, very intricate periodic vortex motions occur. In Fig. 4(b) we plot the positive rectifying phase that occurs at $`A=0.286`$, where the net dc motion is in the positive $`y`$-direction. The orbit consists of the vortex moving in loops around a pining site with a series of much smaller sub-loops. In Fig. 4(c) we show the pinned phase for $`A=0.289`$ that occurs just after the phase in Fig. 4(b). In Fig. 4(d) we illustrate a rectifying phase at $`A=0.792`$. Here the orbit is much wider in the $`x`$ direction, corresponding to the increased amplitude of the $`x`$ component of the ac drive. We find similar intricate orbits at the other rectifying phases, not shown here.

We have also considered other parameters and different ac drive forms and find similar behaviors, indicating that the ratchet behaviors we observe are a very general feature of 2D systems driven with perpendicular complex ac drives.

In conclusion, we have shown that with perpendicular ac drives applied to vortices in periodic pinning arrays, a remarkably rich variety of dynamical phases can be achieved including ratchet effects. The ratchet effect arises in this system even though the periodic substrate is symmetrical due to a symmetry breaking by the ac drive itself. Our results open a new avenue for controlling flux motion in superconductors. For instance, it may be possible to exercise additional control over the ratchet effect by changing the periodicity of the pinning array within a single sample. If, under the same ac drive, one type of pinning causes the vortices to move in the positive direction, while another type of pinning causes them to move in

the negative direction, then it should be possible to create a fluxon focusing effect where vortices can be constricted in small regions. Conversely, it may be desirable to remove the flux from other regions, which is useful for certain applications such as flux sensitive devices.

This work was supported by the US Department of Energy under Contract No. W-7405-ENG-36.


text:
# The Selection of RR Lyrae Stars Using Single-epoch Data

## 1 Introduction

Studies of substructures, such as clumps and streams, in the Galactic halo can help constrain the formation history of the Milky Way. Hierarchical models of galaxy formation predict that these substructures should be ubiquitous in the outer halo, where the dynamical timescales are sufficiently long for them to remain spatially coherent (Johnston et al. 1996; Mayer et al. 2002, Helmi 2002). One of the best tracers to study the outer halo are RR Lyrae stars because

* They are nearly standard candles (dispersion of $`0.13`$ mag, Vivas et al. 2001) and thus it is straightforward to determine their distance, and
* They are sufficiently bright ($`M_V`$ = 0.7-0.8, Layden et al. (1996), Gould & Popowski 1998) to be detected at large distances (5-100 kpc for $`14<r<20.7`$).

RR Lyrae stars are typically found by obtaining well-sampled light curves. The QUEST survey is the largest such survey that is capable of discovering RR Lyrae stars in the outer halo. Using a 1m Schmidt telescope, the QUEST survey has so far discovered about 500 RR Lyrae stars in 400 deg2 of sky (Vivas et al. 2003). Nevertheless, Ivezić et al. (2000, hereafter I00) demonstrated that RR Lyrae stars can be efficiently and robustly found even with two-epoch data, using accurate multi-band photometry obtained by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). The QUEST survey later demonstrated (Vivas et al. 2001) that most ($`>`$90%) of the SDSS candidates are real RR Lyrae stars, and also confirmed the estimate of the sample completeness ($`35\pm 5`$%).

To extend the above surveys for RR Lyrae stars to a significant fraction of the sky (say, one quarter) is difficult. The QUEST survey will cover up to 700 deg2, while the SDSS survey, which should observe close to one quarter of the sky, will obtain only single-epoch data for most of the scanned area. However, here we demonstrate that the distinctive SDSS colors of RR Lyrae stars allow their selection using only a single-epoch of data. We utilize a complete sample of RR Lyrae stars discovered by the QUEST survey and design optimal selection criteria based on SDSS colors. The data and the selection method are described in Section 2, in Section 3 we select and analyze candidate RR Lyrae stars from SDSS Data Release 1, and summarize and discuss the results in Section 4.

## 2 The Selection of RR Lyrae Stars Using SDSS Colors

### 2.1  The SDSS and QUEST Data

The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS; York et al. 2000) is revolutionizing studies of the Galactic halo because it is providing homogeneous and deep ($`r<22.5`$) photometry in five passbands ($`u`$, $`g`$, $`r`$, $`i`$, and $`z`$, Fukugita et al. 1996; Gunn et al. 1998; Smith et al. 2002; Hogg et al. 2002) accurate to 0.02 mag (Ivezić et al. 2003a). The survey sky coverage of up to 10,000 deg2 in the Northern Galactic Cap will result in photometric measurements for over 100 million stars and a similar number of galaxies. Astrometric positions are accurate to better than 0.1 arcsec per coordinate (rms) for sources with $`r<20.5^m`$ (Pier et al. 2003), and the morphological information from the images allows reliable star-galaxy separation to $`r`$ 21.5m (Lupton et al. 2001).

Here we use SDSS imaging data which are part of the SDSS Data Release 1 (Abazajian et al. 2003, hereafter DR1). DR1 includes 2099 square degrees of five-band imaging data, to a depth of $`r22.6`$. SDSS equatorial observing runs 752 and 756 overlap with the QUEST observations in a 89 deg2 large region defined by $`1^{}<\delta _{2000}<0^{}`$, and 09h 44m $`<\alpha _{2000}<`$ 15h 40m. This region contains about 210,000 unique, stationary unresolved sources with $`14<r<20`$, with mean galactic coordinates ($`l=290^{}`$, $`b=53^{}`$). In the same region there are 162 RR Lyrae discovered by the QUEST survey, and described by Vivas et al. (2001, 2003). The RR Lyrae stars span a range of magnitudes of $`V1419.7`$. The discovery of these variables in this region of the sky was based on high quality light curves, each containing 25 to 35 different epochs. This sample of RR Lyrae stars has a high completeness ($`>90`$%) for the ab-type variables (fundamental mode pulsators). The completeness decreases for the low amplitude type c RR Lyrae stars to $`5575`$%, depending on the magnitude of the star.

When computing the efficiency of the selection algorithms described below, we exclude SDSS objects in the region $`0.58^{}<\delta <0.51^{}`$, which was not observed by QUEST because it fell on a gap between the columns of CCDs in the QUEST camera. All magnitudes have been corrected by interstellar extinction using the dust maps and transformations given by Schlegel, Finkbeiner & Davis (1998).

### 2.2  The SDSS Observations of the QUEST RR Lyrae

We searched for the 162 QUEST RR Lyrae in the SDSS DR1 database111 Available from http://www.sdss.org within a circle of radius 2 arcsec centered on the QUEST position, and found all of them. The distribution of distances between the QUEST and SDSS positions has a median of 0.5 arcsec, and root-mean-square scatter of 0.16 arcsec (the distributions of $`\alpha _{2000}`$ and $`\delta _{2000}`$ differences show offsets of 0.3 arcsec for each coordinate).

The SDSS processing flags (for details see DR1 and Stoughton et al. 2002) indicated that 9 stars may have substandard photometry (complex blends, cosmic rays, bad pixels), with probable errors sometimes as large as 0.05 mag. Since the selection algorithm discussed here relies on accurate color measurements, hereafter we consider the sample of 153 stars with impeccable photometry.

The histogram marked by solid circles in the bottom panel in Figure 1 shows the distribution of differences between the mean $`V`$ magnitude measured by the QUEST survey, $`V_{QUEST}^{mean}`$, and a single-epoch synthetic SDSS-based $`V_{SDSS}`$ magnitude, computed from (Fukugita et al. 1996)

$$V_{SDSS}r=0.44(gr)0.02.$$
(1)
Reassuringly, the mean value of the shown distribution is consistent with zero to within 0.02 mag. The distribution is skewed because RR Lyrae stars have asymmetric light curves (they spend more than 50% of their variability cycle fainter than their mean magnitude).

The top and middle panels show the correlations between the $`ug`$ and $`gr`$ colors measured by SDSS and the $`V`$ magnitude difference. As expected, RR Lyrae stars have bluer $`gr`$ colors when brighter, while there is no discernible correlation for $`ug`$ color, which may be due to shock wave related activity (Smith 1995). Note that the $`gr`$ color spans twice as large a range as does the $`ug`$ color.

The $`gr`$ color is correlated with $`V_{SDSS}V_{QUEST}^{mean}`$. The best-fit relation, shown in the middle panel by the dashed line is

$$gr=0.4(V_{SDSS}V_{QUEST}^{mean})+0.15.$$
(2)
This relation can be used to correct a bias in single-epoch SDSS measurements due to unknown phase, such that

$$V_{SDSS}^{RRLyr}=r2.06(gr)+0.355,$$
(3)
where all measurements have been corrected for ISM reddening. The histogram marked by open squares in the bottom panel in Figure 1 shows the distribution of $`V_{SDSS}^{RRLyr}V_{QUEST}^{mean}`$. The root-mean-square scatter is significantly decreased compared to the scatter in $`V_{SDSS}V_{QUEST}^{mean}`$ (0.12 mag. vs. 0.18 mag., as marked in the figure). This is a relation that produces unbiased RR Lyrae distances with a minimal scatter (0.12 mag.) from single-epoch SDSS measurements. It is remarkable that the scatter in mean magnitude estimated from single-epoch SDSS measurements is as small as the intrinsic uncertainty in RR Lyrae absolute magnitudes. We note that assuming a constant $`M_r`$ (instead of $`M_V`$) to determine distances results in practically no bias, but the scatter is increased to 0.20 mag. (for constant $`M_g`$ the bias is 0.23 mag. with a comparable scatter).

### 2.3 The Colors of RR Lyrae in SDSS Photometric System

Figure 2 shows the distribution of all point sources with $`r<20`$ in the SDSS color-magnitude and color-color diagrams as linearly spaced contours. In color-color diagrams, red is always towards the upper right. For a detailed description of stellar colors in the SDSS photometric system see Finlator et al. (2000) and references therein. The 153 QUEST RR Lyrae stars are shown as symbols. The symbol size corresponds to 3-5 times the photometric errors, depending on the scale of individual panels (for a detailed analysis of SDSS photometric errors see Ivezić et al. 2003a). That is, the scatter of points is due to intrinsic differences among RR Lyrae stars and the variation of colors with phase. Nevertheless, RR Lyrae stars span a very narrow range of SDSS colors. The color limits for the sample discussed here are

$`0.99<ug<1.28`$ (4)
$`0.11<gr<0.31`$ (5)
$`0.13<ri<0.20`$ (6)
$`0.19<iz<0.23`$ (7)
In particular, both the range ($`0.30`$ mag) and the root-mean-square scatter ($`0.06`$ mag) are the smallest for $`ug`$ color.

The RR Lyrae fraction is 1 in 1,300 amongst all SDSS stars with $`r<20`$. In a subsample selected using the above color cuts, the RR Lyrae fraction is 6%. We show next how this fraction can be increased to over 60% by optimizing the color selection boundaries.

### 2.4 The Optimization of the Color Selection

RR Lyrae stars are found furthest from the locus of other stars in the $`gr`$ vs. $`ug`$ color-color diagram. The relevant part of this diagram, outlined by the small rectangle in Figure 2, is shown magnified in Figure 3. The small dots show all SDSS point sources with $`14<r<20`$, and the symbols are confirmed RR Lyrae stars (solid circles are $`ab`$ type RR Lyrae stars and triangles correspond to the $`c`$ type stars). The photometric errors are comparable to the radius of the large circles, except for objects in the top left corner which have faint $`u`$ band magnitudes ($`21.5`$).

Most of the contamination in a sample of candidate RR Lyrae stars selected using simple color cuts listed above comes from the main stellar locus visible in the top left corner. The second most significant source of contamination is the A star locus running from the main locus towards the bottom right. This motivates a revised selection boundaries shown as the polygon outlined by solid lines. The edges with positive $`d(gr)/d(ug)`$ slope have a constant distance from the main stellar locus

$$D_{ug}=(ug)+0.67(gr)1.07,$$
(8)
and the edges with negative slope have a constant distance from the A star locus

$$D_{gr}=0.45(ug)(gr)0.12.$$
(9)
The QUEST RR Lyrae span the ranges $`0.05<D_{ug}<0.35`$ and $`0.06<D_{gr}<0.55`$, resulting in a selection efficiency (the fraction of RR Lyrae stars among the selected candidates) of 6%.

The selection efficiency can be further increased by increasing the lower limits on $`D_{ug}`$ and $`D_{gr}`$, $`D_{ug}^{Min}`$ and $`D_{gr}^{Min}`$, respectively (of course, the sample completeness then becomes less than 100%), and keeping the restrictions in colors $`(ug)`$, $`(ri)`$ and $`(iz)`$. For example, the dashed lines show a restricted selection boundary obtained with $`D_{ug}^{Min}=0.15`$ and $`D_{gr}^{Min}=0.23`$, which results in a completeness of 28% and 61% efficiency222The efficiency quoted here is obtained with $`r<20`$ and no limit on $`u`$. Since the faintest QUEST RR Lyrae star in the sample has $`u=21.2`$ and $`r=19.7`$, the selection efficiency could be increased by a factor of 1.2 by requiring $`u<21.1`$ and $`r<19.7`$..

The top panel in Figure 4 shows a detailed dependence of the completeness (solid lines) and efficiency (dashed lines) as functions of $`D_{gr}^{Min}`$ for three different values of $`D_{ug}^{Min}`$, as indicated. The largest possible selection efficiency using single-epoch data is about 65%. The remaining contaminants are probably dominated by quasars (Richards et al. 2001) and non-variable horizontal branch stars.

The restricted color criteria preferentially select type $`c`$ RR Lyrae stars because they have bluer $`gr`$ colors than $`ab`$ type stars (see Figure 3). The bottom panel in Figure 4 compares the completeness estimates for the two different types of RR Lyrae variables for a color cut with $`D_{ug}^{Min}=0.15`$. When $`D_{gr}^{Min}>0.16`$, type $`c`$ RR Lyrae stars have a higher selection efficiency. For example, in the region enclosed by the dashed lines in Figure 3, we recover 45% of all QUEST type $`c`$ RR Lyrae stars but only 25% of the more common types $`ab`$.

To summarize, the proposed selection criteria are

$`14<r<20`$ (10)
$`0.98<ug<1.30`$ (11)
$`D_{ug}^{Min}<D_{ug}<0.35`$ (12)
$`D_{gr}^{Min}<D_{gr}<0.55`$ (13)
$`0.15<ri<0.22`$ (14)
$`0.21<iz<0.25,`$ (15)
where $`D_{ug}^{Min}`$ and $`D_{gr}^{Min}`$ can be chosen using Figure 4 to yield desired selection completeness and efficiency, depending on a specific purpose.

## 3  Candidate RR Lyrae Stars in SDSS Data Release 1

We apply the color selection method discussed in the preceeding Section to SDSS Data Release 1. DR1 includes sky regions with known halo substructures traced by RR Lyrae, and can thus be used to test the performance of the method for discovering such structures. DR1 also includes areas for which variability data does not exist (either from QUEST, or from repeated SDSS scans), and which may exhibit previously uncharted substructure.

The condition $`D_{ug}^{Min}=0.10`$ and $`D_{gr}^{Min}=0.20`$ results in a sample of 3,643 candidate RR Lyrae stars selected from SDSS DR1 database. Here we require that the processing flags SATURATED and BRIGHT are not set, and use un-dereddened magnitudes for the $`14<r<20`$ condition (of course, the color selection must be done with dereddened magnitudes). A subsample satisfying $`D_{ug}^{Min}=0.15`$ and $`D_{gr}^{Min}=0.23`$ contains 896 stars. The completeness and efficiency, determined using Figure 4, for the first selection criteria are $`C=50\%,E=35\%`$, and for the second selection criteria $`C=28\%,E=60\%`$. The distribution of selected candidates on the sky is shown in Figure 5 (which closely outlines the SDSS DR1 area).

### 3.1  A Self-consistency Test

The mean density of RR Lyrae stars can be estimated from

$$\rho _{RRLyr}=\frac{N_sE_s}{A_{DR1}C_s},$$
(16)
where the area included in DR1 is $`A_{DR1}=2099`$ deg2, and $`N_s`$ is the number of selected stars using particular values of $`D_{ug}^{Min}`$ and $`D_{gr}^{Min}`$. The estimate $`\rho _{RRLyr}`$ should be nearly the same for both samples, and should agree with the value of $`\rho _{RRLyr}1.3`$ deg2, determined from the QUEST data for their first 400 deg2 of sky (Vivas et al. 2003). The values obtained here, 1.21 deg2 and 0.91 deg2, are in good agreement with each other, indicating that the selection method is robust (the training sample included data for a 24 times smaller area).

We estimate that SDSS DR1 contains $`2200`$ RR Lyrae stars, and that 1,170 are included in our sample of 3,643 candidates. The smaller, more restrictive, sample of 896 stars contains 540 probable RR Lyrae stars.

### 3.2  A Test of the Ability to Recover Halo Substructure

We analyze the spatial structure of selected candidates by examining their distribution in the $`r`$ vs. position diagrams, for narrow strips on the sky. The equatorial strip (Dec$`0^{}`$) contains several known clumps of RR Lyrae stars (I00, Vivas et al. 2001).

The distribution of QUEST RR Lyrae stars in the $`r`$ vs. RA diagram along the Celestial equator is shown in the top panel in Figure 6. The $`r`$ range from 14 to 20 corresponds to distances of 5 kpc to 70 kpc (recall that the strip width in the Dec direction for the QUEST subsample is 1 deg). Three especially prominent features are the clump associated with the Sgr dwarf tidal tail (RA $``$215, $`r`$ $``$19), Pal 5 globular cluster and associated tidal debris (RA $``$230, $`r`$ $``$17.4), and a clump at (RA $``$190, $`r`$ $``$17).

All these three features are recovered by the color-selected SDSS DR1 candidate RR Lyrae stars, whose $`r`$ vs. RA distributions are shown in in the middle and bottom panels in Figure 6. In particular, the feature at (RA $``$190, $`r`$ $``$17), detected at a $`5\sigma `$ level above the background by Vivas & Zinn (2002, 2003) using a complete sample of confirmed RR Lyrae stars is clearly visible.

The color-selected samples also recover the so-called “southern” clump at RA $``$30 and $`r`$ $``$17–18, (associated with the Sgr dwarf tidal tail, see the great circle marked by long-dashed line in Figure 5) that was discovered using A-colored stars by Yanny et al. (2000). Furthermore, the faint clump at RA $``$30 and $`r>19`$ is present in a sample of candidate RR Lyrae stars selected from repeated SDSS observations (Ivezić et al. 2003b). Given these successful recoveries of known structure, we conclude that the color-selected samples of candidate RR Lyrae stars are sufficiently clean and robust to study halo substructure out to distances of $``$70 kpc.

### 3.3  Is Sgr Tidal Stream the Most Prominent Halo Feature?

To reliably answer the question posed in the title of this subsection, one would need an all-sky survey of several halo tracers. While such data do not exist yet (the upcoming large scale synoptic surveys will eventually discover all halo RR Lyrae), a study of 2MASS data by Majewski et al. (2003) provided the first all-sky view of halo structure, traced by M giants. They did not find any features that would compete with the prominence of the Sgr tidal stream. Nevertheless, M giants are not as good standard candles as RR Lyrae stars, and are more sensitive to metallicity effects. It is therefore worthwhile to examine the distribution of candidate RR Lyrae stars in areas of sky that were not explored until now.

In Figure 7 we examine magnitude-angle diagrams for candidates selected using $`D_{ug}^{Min}=0.10`$ and $`D_{gr}^{Min}=0.20`$, along the great circle (within $`\pm 5^{}`$) marked by short-dashed line in Figure 5, and defined by node=95 and inclination=65, relative to the Celestial Equator (for more details about great circle coordinates see Pier et al. 2003). The structure seen in this Figure is not nearly as prominent as that shown in the middle panel of Figure 6, where the candidate RR Lyrae stars were selected by the same criteria. Two possible overdensities are visible at the longitude of $``$225 and $`r`$ $``$16, and the longitude of $``$150–165 and $`r`$ $``$19-20. The latter is supported by the distribution of candidate RR Lyrae stars selected from repeated SDSS observations (and is probably associated with the Sgr tidal stream, Ivezić et al. 2003c), while such data are not available in the region of the former overdensity. We are currently investigating the distribution of candidate variable stars selected by comparing POSS and SDSS measurements (Sesar et al. 2003, in prep.) in order to derive more reliable conclusions about the halo substructure in that region.

## 4  Discussion

The robust recovery of the known halo substructures with the color selection proposed here suggests that it will be possible to constrain the halo structure out to $`70`$ kpc from the Galactic Center in the entire area imaged by the SDSS, and not only in the multiply observed regions. This method may result in discoveries of more Sgr dwarf debris in currently unexplored parts of sky, which would be important to understand the evolution of the disruption of this galaxy. If events similar to the accretion and disruption of Sgr dwarf have occurred with other galaxies, this technique has a good chance of discovering their signatures. Therefore, before large-scale variability surveys, such as Pan-STARRS and LSST become available, the candidate RR Lyrae stars selected using SDSS colors can be used for statistical studies of the halo substructure. The selection efficiency of $``$60%, with a completeness of $``$30%, should be sufficient to uncover the most prominent features.

Observations for the QUEST RR Lyrae Survey were obtained at the Llano del Hato National Observatory, which is operated by CIDA for the Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología of Venezuela. Funding for the creation and distribution of the SDSS Archive has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, and the Max Planck Society. The SDSS Web site is http://www.sdss.org/. The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium (ARC) for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are The University of Chicago, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, The Johns Hopkins University, Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington. AKV and RZ were partially funded by the National Science Foundation under grant AST-0098428. ŽI thanks Princeton University for generous financial support of this research.


text:
# The spatial structure of the 𝛽 Pictoris gas disk Based on observations collected at the European Southern Observatory, Chile.

## 1 Introduction

The young, near-by main-sequence star $`\beta `$ Pictoris has been the subject of intense studies ever since it was discovered to harbour circumstellar cold dust (Aumann 1985), distributed along a linear shape (Smith & Terrile 1984), interpreted as a “debris disk” (Backman & Paresce 1993). These studies have been largely motivated by the possibility of observing an analogue to the solar system in its early stages, in the hope of finding clues to the mechanisms of planet formation. Asymmetries found in the disk from light scattered by the dust (Kalas & Jewitt 1995; Heap et al. 2000) have indeed been suggested to be the signature of perturbing planet(s) (Moulliet et al. 1997; Augereau et al. 2001), but so far no direct detection of a planet around $`\beta `$ Pic has been made. Asymmetries have also been detected in thermal emission from the dust (Liseau et al. 2003; Weinberger, Becklin, & Zuckerman 2003 with references therein). Recent papers reviewing the $`\beta `$ Pic disk are those by Artymowicz (2000), Lagrange, Backman & Artymowicz (2000) and Zuckerman (2001).

Circumstellar gas, seen in absorption against the star, was also found early on (Hobbs et al. 1985), thanks to the favourable edge-on orientation of the disk. Finding and characterising the gas content is important for understanding its relation to the dust and the general evolution of the disk (Artymowicz 2000). Gas is also useful as a probe of physical conditions in the disk, where density, composition, temperature and bulk velocities under favourable conditions can be directly estimated.

The gas found at relative rest to $`\beta `$ Pic, consisting of metals, raised the problem why it is not blown away from the system by the high radiation pressure. Lagrange et al. (1998) made some detailed calculations and found that the gas drag from a dense enough H I ring ($`n_{\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I}}10^5`$ cm-3) close to the star ($``$0.5 AU) could brake migrating particles sufficiently, provided they started out inside the ring. The picture was complicated by the announcement of H2 detected in emission by the Infrared Space Observatory (Thi et al. 2001), implying large quantities ($``$50 M) of molecular hydrogen, and the sub-sequent report of sensitive upper limits ($`N(\mathrm{H}_2)10^{18}`$ cm-2) of H2 from FUV absorption lines using $`\beta `$ Pic as a background source (Lecavelier des Etangs et al. 2001). In addition, Olofsson, Liseau, & Brandeker (2001, hereafter Paper I) found spatially resolved widespread gas emission from Na I in the disk, stretching out to at least 140 AU.

Here we present observations improved by a factor of two in both spatial and spectral resolution, as well as a greatly increased spectral coverage, compared to Paper I. We put emphasis on the observed spatial structure of the gas disk, derive an empirical density profile of Na I atoms and use a photoionisation code to construct disk models consistent with our observations. We discuss implications of the radiation pressure under various conditions derived from these models. Results from a detailed study of the observed chemical abundances will be discussed in a forthcoming paper.

## 2 Observations

The star $`\beta `$ Pictoris was observed with the echelle spectrograph UVES on the 8.2 m Kueyen telescope at the Very Large Telescope of ESO, Paranal, Chile. The observations were made in service mode to take advantage of the excellent seeing conditions occasionally provided by the site. Service mode means that the observers prepare observation blocks that are executed by the local telescope operators provided certain conditions (like air mass and seeing) are met. A total of 12 observation blocks during 2001–2002 (see Table 1) lasting about an hour each were successfully executed. The air mass and seeing at zenith were always below 1.5 and 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$6, respectively. The UVES spectrograph was used in standard dichroic modes, meaning that a dichroic mirror was used to split the light into two wavelength ranges, each using its own echelle grating and CCD detectors. Two types of gratings were used for each arm, together covering the wavelengths 3 300 Å to 10 400 Å with a spectral resolution ranging from $`R`$$``$80 000 in the blue to $`R`$$``$110 000 in the red. The blue arm was equipped with a single CCD of type EEV 44-82 and size 4 096$`\times `$4 096 pixels, while the red arm had a mosaic of two CCDs of sizes 2 048$`\times `$4 096 each, of the types EEV 44-82 and MIT-LL CCID-20. The spectroscopic slits were 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$4 and 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$3 wide in the blue and red arm, respectively. To adequately separate the echelle orders, slits were restricted to lengths between 8″ and 12″, depending on setting (see Table 1). Slits were positioned at 4 overlapping locations along the $`\beta `$ Pic dust disk, and at 4 locations orthogonal to the disk, reaching a distance of 17″ from the star in the disk plane, and a height of 6″ above the plane (see Fig. 1). From the data, we determined the positioning of the slits, with respect to $`\beta `$ Pic, to be better than $``$0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$2. Calibration data (flat-fields, bias frames, Th-Ar lamp wavelength calibration spectra, flux standard stars, etc.) were provided by the UVES calibration plan.

## 3 Data reduction

### 3.1 Pipeline reduction

The data were reduced using a modified version of the UVES pipeline 1.2, that runs in the ESO MIDAS environment. The pipeline automatically generates the appropriate calibration sets from the calibration data obtained as a part of the UVES calibration plan, and apply them to the science frames. The raw frames are bias subtracted, flat-fielded, background subtracted, order extracted, and wavelength calibrated. An error was corrected in the pipeline version 1.2, that associated a wavelength calibration to the wrong order when 2D extraction was selected without merging the orders.

The orders of the echelle grating are slightly inclined on the CCD with respect to pixel columns. Since the observations with the star on slit were performed under excellent seeing (the seeing measured in the spectra was $``$0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$7), this resulted in a very high flux gradient between the pixels on and off the star. By default, the orders are resampled linearly, but this caused the spectrum to show a periodic ’spiky’ pattern in the flux. We found that linear interpolation does not work properly due to the strong non-linear shape of the point spread function (PSF) at the pixel resolution. By modifying the order extracting routine to use a third order Catmull-Rom spline interpolation instead of linear, we found the spikes to be greatly reduced (though not completely eliminated).

The reduction procedure was complicated by the sheer load of data. With about 600 spectra, each 4 096$`\times `$4 096 pixels, plus calibration frames etc., the raw data were close to 50 GB.

The end product of the pipeline reduction consisted of individual orders separated into individual files with the spatial information along the slit preserved, and a wavelength calibration guaranteed to be better than 0.5 km s-1.

### 3.2 PSF subtraction

To trace the circumstellar gas emission as close as possible to the star, we had to subtract the scattered light from the star, in the cases where the star was in the slit. To do this, we estimated the stellar spectrum $`S`$ by centering a small aperture on the star. To allow for slow gradients, we took advantage of the fact that the gas emission lines are narrow (a few pixels) and produced a median filtered version $`M`$ of the stellar spectrum $`S`$, using a window of 30–60 pixels. We also obtained the median filtered spectrum $`m_i`$ at each spatial position $`i`$, using the same median filter window. The stellar PSF subtracted spectrum was then estimated as $`s_i=r_im_iS/M`$, where $`r_i`$ is the spectrum at position $`i`$. For the observations where the star was off the slit, we just subtracted the median filtered background scattered light (scattered both locally by the dust disk and in the atmosphere / telescope), $`s_i=r_im_i`$.

### 3.3 Flux calibration

To flux-calibrate the data, we made use of the master response curves provided by the UVES team. The master response curves are generated from long-time monitoring of the sensitivity trends of the instrument, and are provided for various standard settings and periods in time. The claimed absolute flux calibration is 10 %, but comparing with standard flux stars observed (with an open slit) the same nights as $`\beta `$ Pic we found the derived fluxes to deviate by as much as 40 % from tabulated values for these stars. We thus used the master response curves to correct only for the over-all sensitivity dependence on wavelength, and used the standard star spectra obtained in connection with the $`\beta `$ Pic observations to correct the absolute flux calibration. By looking at the variations of the derived absolute fluxes of disk emission lines observed several times, we estimate that the error on the absolute flux is about 5–10 %. Since we use a narrow slit (0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$3–0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$4), the slit losses from a point source like $`\beta `$ Pic are substantial and very seeing dependent. The error of the absolute flux from the star is therefore expected to be substantially higher. Our main concern, however, is the flux of the disk emission, which, due to its spatial extension, is much more stable with regard to seeing variations.

### 3.4 Heliocentric wavelength correction

The wavelength calibration obtained from the UVES pipeline does not correct for the velocity of the instrument relative to the centre of the Sun. To transform the observed spectrum to a heliocentric frame, we made use of the software program RV written by P. T. Wallace and C. A. Clayton111RV is available from http://star-www.rl.ac.uk. The obtained accuracy in the transformation is better than 0.01 km s-1, fully adequate for our purposes.

### 3.5 Line flux measurements

From the reduced, PSF subtracted and wavelength calibrated spectra, the disk emission lines were measured in several steps. First the lines were identified by correlating their measured wavelengths with the atomic line database provided by NIST222http://physics.nist.gov. This procedure was greatly simplified by the high accuracy of the wavelength calibration, better than 0.5 km s-1, corresponding to 0.01 Å at 6 000 Å. A median systematic velocity was then calculated for the brightest and most accurately measured emission lines, assuming all shared the same systematic radial velocity. For the brightest lines, the measured flux as a function of apertures centred on the systematic velocity was evaluated. A large aperture samples more signal, but also more noise. We were therefore interested in finding the best balance, in order to achieve the highest signal to noise ($`S/N`$). The apertures used to measure emission lines were consequently chosen as a function of line strength and background noise, with smaller apertures for fainter lines. We assumed that all lines from a particular ion share the same spatio-spectral profile, and scaled the flux measured in small apertures of fainter lines with the ratio between equally sized and maximum sized apertures placed on the sum of several bright lines. In this way we estimated the signal from a faint line without integrating up too much noise. The method is analogous to methods used in aperture photometry to measure star fluxes in, e.g., a CCD image.

For the slits placed orthogonally to the disk, we summed up all flux in the spatial direction, i.e. along the height of the disk (Table 2). The quantity thus derived has the unit of flux per arcsecond.

## 4 Results

We detected 88 spatially extended emission lines from the $`\beta `$ Pic gas disk, identified as emission from Fe I, Na I, Ca II, Ni I, Ni II, Ti I, Ti II, Cr I and Cr II. Table 2 shows a selection of the brightest lines. Following the brightest emission lines ($`S/N`$$``$50) from Na I and Fe I radially (Figs. 2 & 3), we observe a strong asymmetry between the north-east (NE) and the south-west (SW) parts of the disk, similar to the brightness asymmetry in the dust emission (Kalas & Jewitt 1995), but asymmetric to a much higher degree. The NE gas emission extends smoothly to the limits of our observations (17″, corresponding to 330 AU at the distance of $`\beta `$ Pic), whereas the SW emission is abruptly truncated at 150–200 AU. In the inner regions, the SW emission dominates over the NE part, in agreement with Fig. 2 of Paper I.

Determining the centre of emission from the orthogonal profiles, it becomes apparent that the inner part of the disk is slightly tilted with respect to the outer parts, in particular on the NE side (Fig. 4). We estimate this tilt to be 5°$`\pm `$2° (1$`\sigma `$), similar to the 4°–5° tilt observed by HST/STIS in the inner dust disk (Heap et al. 2000).

The scale height (FWHM) of the gas disk, estimated on observations deconvolved with a Gaussian of 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$7 to simulate the seeing, is $``$20 AU at 3″ (58 AU), similar to the dust disk scale height (Heap et al. 2000). At 6″ (116 AU), however, the gas disk is significantly thicker, $``$30 AU compared to $``$15 AU for the dust (see Fig. 5).

A very complex height profile is shown by the Ca II H & K lines (Figs. 5 & 6). Especially at 6″ distance from the star, the emission from the disk midplane is much fainter than the emission away from the midplane. In particular, the detected Ca II emission, at 6″ SW of the star, keeps increasing to the limits of the spectroscopic slit 4″ above the disk midplane, meaning that there is a significant number of Ca II ions at 77 AU height above the midplane at 116 AU distance from the star. From Fig. 6 it is evident that the radial velocities of these Ca II ions are small – on the order of a few km s-1. Implications of this fact are discussed in Sect. 5.2.

In order to determine the heliocentric velocity of $`\beta `$ Pic accurately, we averaged the heliocentric gas velocities as observed on each side at the distances 3″ and 6″ from the star. In this way, we can assess the system velocity independently from the lines observed in absorption, which are sensitive to possible radial velocities of the absorbers (caused by, e.g., radiation pressure). We determined the heliocentric radial velocity of $`\beta `$ Pic to be 20.0$`\pm `$0.5 km s-1, with the error mainly due to the uncertainty in wavelength calibration.

In the spectrum of the star, we measured the absorption profiles corresponding to observed ground state emission lines. Most lines were found to be at, or close to, the systematic velocity of $`\beta `$ Pic (Table 3).

## 5 Discussion

We proceed by inverting the observations of the projected disk to a radial density law for Na I, and then extend the result by calculating the ionisation structure to find an estimate on the total Na density. By making assumptions of the abundances we construct two models with distinct H densities, test how well the models compare with observations of H I and H2, and examine how the kinematics of ions in these models are affected by radiation pressure.

### 5.1 Sodium gas density profile

From the spatial emission profiles we estimate the density distribution of the observed gas by making the following assumptions:

1. The disk is axisymmetric and the density of the emitting medium is well described by

$$n(r,h)=n_0\left[\left(\frac{r}{r_0}\right)^{2a}+\left(\frac{r}{r_0}\right)^{2b}\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{exp}\left[\left(\frac{h}{\alpha r}\right)^2\right],$$
(1)
where $`r`$ and $`h`$ are the cylindrical coordinates describing the midplane distance and height over the midplane, respectively, $`n_0`$ is a normalising density, $`r_0`$ is the broken power-law break distance, $`a`$ and $`b`$ are power-law exponents of the inner and outer regions respectively, and $`\alpha `$ is related to the scale height $`H`$ of the disk at midplane distance $`r`$ as $`H/r=2\sqrt{\mathrm{ln}2}\alpha `$.
2. The inclination of the disk is close to zero, i.e. we see it edge-on.
3. The emission is optically thin and isotropic.
4. The emitting gas traces the full gas population of that ion.

The observed disk is, of course, not axisymmetric but quite asymmetric in appearance (Figs. 23 & 6). The difference between the NE and SW parts of the inner disk is not that dramatic, though, less than a factor of two in the region where most gas is located (30–120 AU). Thus the assumption of axisymmetry is probably not too bad.

We chose the Na I D1,2 lines for the inversion because (A) the $`S/N`$ is high ($``$50), (B) the line ratio between D2 and D1 is close to 2, implying that the emission is optically thin, and (C) we expect nearly all Na I atoms to be in their ground state (see Sect. 5.3), meaning the resonance D1,2 lines trace all of the Na I population. The parameters of Eq. 1 were fitted by constructing a numerical model, simulating observed spatial profiles as a function of the parameters and $`\chi ^2`$-minimising the difference between the model and the observations. In more detail, the model was initiated on a three dimensional grid of height $`\times `$ width $`\times `$ depth dimensions 40 AU $`\times `$ 800 AU $`\times `$ 2000 AU at 1 AU resolution. The central star was assumed to emit 4.5$`\times `$1030 erg s-1Å-1 at wavelengths close to the Na I D2 line, and $`A_{ji}=6.22\times 10^7`$ s-1 was used as the D2 transition Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission, in calculating the scattering cross-section. For each cell, a specific line luminosity was calculated, summed up along the line of sight and geometrically diluted to the distance of the observer at 19.3 pc. This ’ideal’ image of the disk was then convolved with a Gaussian of FWHM = 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$7, simulating the atmospheric seeing, and sampled along the various spectroscopic slit settings of Fig. 1 to fit the observations. In the fit we used the midplane radial emission distribution from 13 AU out to 323 AU of the NE, and the orthogonal profiles at 3″ and 6″ NE of the star. The derived parameters of Eq. 1 for Na I are:

$`n_0`$ $`=`$ $`(1.02\pm 0.04)\times 10^5\mathrm{cm}^3`$
$`r_0`$ $`=`$ $`117\pm 3\mathrm{AU}`$
$`a`$ $`=`$ $`0.47\pm 0.06`$
$`b`$ $`=`$ $`3.16\pm 0.04`$
$`H/r`$ $`=`$ $`0.28\pm 0.05,`$
where the quoted errors are 1$`\sigma `$ formal fitting errors obtained by making an additional number of fits to artificial data generated by adding random noise, at the estimated noise level, to the observed profile. We have over plotted the Na I fit into Fig. 3.

We can use Eq. 1 with the above parameters to estimate the midplane column density of Na I, to compare with column densities estimated from Na I absorption in the stellar spectrum seen through the disk. If we integrate only over the radii where we are sensitive to Na I emission, that is, from 13 AU out to 323 AU, we obtain a column density of $`N(\mathrm{Na}\mathrm{I})=3.0\times 10^{10}`$ cm-2. Extrapolating Eq. 1 to all radii, that is, from zero radius out to infinity, we increase the Na I column density by 40 % to $`N(\mathrm{Na}\mathrm{I})=4.1\times 10^{10}`$ cm-2. This can be compared to our observed column density $`N(\mathrm{Na}\mathrm{I})=(3.4\pm 0.4)\times 10^{10}`$ cm-2. We conclude that most, perhaps all, of the Na I gas seen in absorption is situated in the extended gas disk seen in emission. We have no reason to doubt that originators of other ’stable’ gas absorption components also belong to this extended disk.

### 5.2 Radiation pressure

Ions in the $`\beta `$ Pic gas disk are subject to appreciable radiation pressure. To evaluate the significance, it is common to define the ratio between the forces of gravitation and radiation, $`\beta F_{\mathrm{rad}}/F_{\mathrm{grav}}`$. Since both the radiation and gravitational fields are inversely proportional to the square of the distance to the source, $`\beta `$ is constant throughout the $`\beta `$ Pic disk. For the observed atoms Na I and Fe I, $`\beta 1`$, meaning that if left alone, gravity would be largely irrelevant and these atoms would rapidly accelerate out of the system at high velocities. This is not observed (Table 3 and Fig. 6). To investigate what the effects of a braking medium are, we solve the equation of motion for a gas particle,

$$m\frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}t}=F_{\mathrm{grav}}+F_{\mathrm{rad}}F_{\mathrm{fric}},$$
(2)
where $`F_{\mathrm{fric}}`$ is the frictional force. Assuming $`F_{\mathrm{fric}}=Cv`$, where $`C`$ is the friction coefficient (proportional to the density of the braking medium), and that the distance an atom travels before reaching the terminal velocity is much shorter than the size of the disk, Eq. 2 may be solved to yield the terminal velocity (as $`t\mathrm{}`$)

$$v_{\mathrm{}}=\frac{\beta 1}{C}F_{\mathrm{grav}}.$$
(3)
Eq. 2 ignores magnetic forces, which should be of little importance for neutral atoms. If appreciable magnetic fields are present, however, ions with net charges may be significantly affected. We ignore this complication for the moment and assume that the magnetic fields are small enough to play a negligible role for the kinematics of the observed gas particles in the disk.

For $`\beta `$ Pic we estimate $`\beta _{\mathrm{Na}\mathrm{I}}=250`$ and $`\beta _{\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{I}}=18`$, while $`C`$ depends on the detailed density and temperature structure. We calculated terminal velocities as a function of radius for the two models of Sects. 5.3.1 & 5.3.2. Details of the solution to Eq. 2, with estimates of $`C`$ and $`\beta `$ for several ions, are found in Liseau (2003).

### 5.3 Ionisation structure

To estimate the gas density of all Na atoms in the disk, and also get an idea of the total gas density, we need to address the ionisation structure of the disk. We employed the one-dimensional photoionisation/PDR code Cloudy (Ferland et al. 1998) for the task. Cloudy consistently maintains the ionization and thermal balance, and solves the radiative transfer by making use of the Sobolev approximation. For a detailed description of the code we used, see Liseau et al. (1999).

Several assumptions have to be made in order to compute the ionisation structure, perhaps the most important being that of the chemical abundances of the atomic gas. Since we have no detailed information, we confine ourselves to study two cases of chemical abundances: solar composition and a strongly metal depleted model. At first we also considered a case with typical interstellar medium abundances, but dismissed it due to the very high degree of Ca depletion compared to solar values, in contradiction with observations. We have no a priori reason to expect any of these assumed abundances to reflect reality, but we believe they still serve as valuable reference cases.

Another important assumption is that of the stellar spectral energy distribution (SED). We assume the atmosphere of $`\beta `$ Pic to be well represented by an ATLAS 9 model (Kurucz 1992) with $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}=8000`$ K, $`\mathrm{log}g=4.5`$ (in cm s-2) and $`\mathrm{log}(Z/Z_{})=0.0`$, and the effective radius to be $`R=1.75R_{}`$, implying the luminosity $`L=11L_{}`$. Recent VLTI observations of $`\beta `$ Pic estimate the stellar radius to be $`(1.735\pm 0.128)R_{}`$ (Di Folco et al. 2003), and comparing the ATLAS 9 SED of $`\beta `$ Pic with observed data from the HST and FUSE archives, we find the agreement to be generally excellent (see Liseau 2003). Some deviations are found in the far-ultraviolet, where $`\beta `$ Pic seems to be a slightly atypical A5V star with possible chromospheric activity (Bouret et al. 2002).

#### 5.3.1 Solar composition disk

Assuming solar abundances throughout the disk, we can fit the radial Na I density of Sect. 5.1 to within 1 % by setting the radial density profile of hydrogen nucleii to

$$n(\mathrm{H})=2.25\times 10^3\left[\left(\frac{r}{r_0}\right)^{2.4}+\left(\frac{r}{r_0}\right)^{5.3}\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{cm}^3,$$
(4)
where $`r_0`$ is the same as in Sect. 5.1. The average fraction of neutral Na in the model is $`10^3`$, while hydrogen is entirely neutral. The hydrogen column densities are $`N(\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I})=8\times 10^{18}`$ cm-2 and $`N(\mathrm{H}_2)=3\times 10^{18}`$ cm-2, consistent with the observational upper limits of $`N(\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I})`$ a few $`\times 10^{19}`$ cm-2 (Freudling et al. 1995) and $`N(\mathrm{H}_2)3\times 10^{18}`$ cm-2 ($`3\sigma `$, Lecavelier des Etangs et al. 2001). The gas temperature of the model disk is low, $`T_{\mathrm{gas}}`$(100 AU) = 13 K, while the dust is significantly warmer, $`T_{\mathrm{dust}}`$(100 AU) = 50 K. With a radial density as in Eq. 4 and a vertical profile similar to the Na I gas, the total gas disk mass out to 1 000 AU becomes $``$0.1 $`M_{}`$.

Using the equations of motion of Sect. 5.2 to calculate the terminal velocity of elements subject to the gas drag of the hydrogen density law of Eq. 4 and temperature structure from Cloudy, we find that both Fe and Na, both with $`\beta 1`$, would reach radial velocities on the order of hundreds to thousands km s-1. That is in clear contradiction with the observed radial velocities reported in Table 3. The purported explanation of Paper I, that Na is ionised most of the time and therefore is subject to a small average radiation pressure, does not apply to Fe; indeed, both Fe I and Fe II experience a radiation pressure with $`\beta 1`$. We know of only one remaining plausible explanation: there is a braking agent keeping the gas from reaching high velocities.

#### 5.3.2 Metal depleted disk

To investigate the possibility of a more massive disk than implicated by solar abundances of Na I, we impose a radial density profile for hydrogen nucleii,

$$n(\mathrm{H})=10^6\left[\left(\frac{r}{r_0}\right)^{2.4}+\left(\frac{r}{r_0}\right)^{5.4}\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{cm}^3,$$
(5)
and tune the metal depletion to reproduce the Na I density profile. We found that an overall depletion factor of $``$10-3 (more precisely $`8.5\times 10^4`$) of the metals with respect to solar composition was required. Due to higher dust-gas interaction, the temperatures of the gas and the dust are similar over the disk, with $`T_{\mathrm{gas}}`$(100 AU) = 36 K and $`T_{\mathrm{dust}}`$(100 AU) = 51 K. The column densities of hydrogen are $`N(\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I})=6\times 10^{20}`$ cm-2 and $`N(\mathrm{H}_2)=3\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2, significantly higher than the observed upper limits reported by Freudling et al. (1995) and Lecavelier des Etangs et al. (2001). With a radial density as in Eq. 5 and a vertical profile similar to the Na I gas, the total gas disk mass out to 1 000 AU becomes $``$40 $`M_{}`$, similar to the mass recently inferred from possible emission in the pure rotational transitions of H2, $`J=2`$$``$$`0`$ (28 $`\mu `$m) and $`J=3`$$``$$`1`$ (17 $`\mu `$m), detected from $`\beta `$ Pic in ISO/SWS data (Thi et al. 2001). Due to the low gas temperature of our model, however, the predicted fluxes in the 17 $`\mu `$m and 28 $`\mu `$m lines are only $`F_{17}=6\times 10^{15}`$ erg s-1 cm-2 and $`F_{28}=2\times 10^{15}`$ erg s-1 cm-2, respectively, for ortho/para in thermal equilibrium. This is more than an order of magnitude lower than the fluxes $`F_{17}=7.7\times 10^{14}`$ erg s-1 cm-2 and $`F_{28}=7.0\times 10^{14}`$ erg s-1 cm-2 reported by Thi et al. (2001), and can be traced to their higher assumed gas temperature of 100 K.

Calculating the terminal velocities of the radiation pressure sensitive elements Fe and Na, we produce Fig. 7, where the terminal velocity is plotted against the radial distance. We find that the derived terminal velocities are consistent with observed radial velocities reported in Table 3.

### 5.4 Summary

We have found that in our thin disk, constructed by fitting a solar composition gas to the Na I observations, the predicted H I and H2 column densities are consistent with the observed limits. With these low densities, however, the radiation pressure is predicted to accelerate, e.g., Na I to radial velocities inconsistent with observations.

On the other hand, in our thick disk, constructed by fixing the H density to be consistent as the braking agent for the metals, the predicted column densities of H I and H2 are both above the observed upper limits, although the predicted H2 emission is still far below the claimed detection.

The situation is puzzling, but a possible solution may be found if a main braking agent different from hydrogen is in action. If, e.g., the observed gas is replenished from dust collisions rather than being primordial, as seems suggested by the close spatial correlation between gas and dust, then a more natural candidate might be oxygen or oxygen bearing species (P. Artymowicz, private communication). More detailed models are in preparation, but hopefully the upcoming Space InfraRed Telescope Facility will solve the issue unambiguously by better observational constraints.

## 6 Conclusions

Our main observational results are:

1. We have observed 88 spatially resolved emission lines coming from Fe I, Na I, Ca II, Ni I, Ni II, Ti I, Ti II, Cr I and Cr II in the $`\beta `$ Pictoris gas disk.
2. We trace the gas emission to the limits of our observations, from 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$7 (13 AU) out to 17″ (323 AU) radially to the NE in Na I, and 4″ (77 AU) above the disk plane at radius 6″ (116 AU) in Ca II.
3. The scale height of the gas at 6″ from the star is twice as high as the equivalent dust scale height.
4. There is a brightness NE/SW asymmetry in the gas emission reminiscent of the dust asymmetry, although much stronger.
5. The inner gas disk is tilted by $``$5°, similarly to the dust disk.
6. The heliocentric radial velocity of $`\beta `$ Pic is 20.0$`\pm `$0.5 km s-1.
7. The radial velocities of ions observed in absorption are close to or at the systematic velocity of $`\beta `$ Pic (to a few km s-1).
8. The estimated radial density from Na I in emission predicts a column density similar to the one observed in absorption, meaning that most, perhaps all, Na I is distributed in the observed disk. We have no reason to doubt that originators of other ’stable’ gas absorption components also belong to this extended disk.
9. Our disk models show that assuming hydrogen to be the braking agent for metals pushed out by radiation pressure in the $`\beta `$ Pic disk leads to contradictions with observations.

A more detailed study of the chemical composition of the $`\beta `$ Pic disk will be presented in a forthcoming paper.

###### Acknowledgements.

We would like to thank the staff at the VLT and UVES for their outstanding contributions in performing these demanding service observations, in particular Fernando Comerón for kindly rescheduling an erroneous observation block, and Andrea Modigliani for addressing errors in the UVES pipeline. We acknowledge the interesting discussions we have had with Pawel Artymowicz, Doug Lin, and Philippe Thébault. We thank the referee Alain Lecavelier des Etangs for a rapid and detailed report. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services, atomic line lists compiled by the National Institute for Standards and Technology, and the SIMBAD database.