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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Clarifying the mechanism of core-collapse supernova explosion is fascinating. It is a challenging problem which demands extensive research efforts in physics and astrophysics. Towards the final answer, one has to conduct sophisticated numerical simulations treating all ingredients of microphysics and macrophysics. Recently, numerical simulations solving hydrodynamics together with the Boltzmann equation for the neutrino transfer have become available in spherical symmetry . In these simulations, the basic equations of hydrodynamics and neutrino transfer have been solved directly together with the careful implementation of microphysics. This recent progress, removing one of uncertainties due to approximate neutrino transfer, has shed light again on the importance of the microphysics such as neutrino interactions and properties of dense matter.

An important microphysics ingredient for supernova simulations is the equation of state (EOS) of dense matter. It determines the stellar structure, the hydrodynamics and the reaction rates through the determination of pressure, entropy and chemical compositions. Although study of dense matter for supernova research apparently has a long history, there are only a few studies to cover the whole range of density, electron fraction and temperature in supernova environment. Because one has to simulate the whole phenomena starting from collapsing iron cores to cooling neutron stars, it is necessary to provide thermodynamical quantities in a wide range of density, composition and temperature in a usable and complete form for numerical simulations. Such efforts to provide the EOS have been done so far by a limited number of groups. The EOS formulated in terms of nuclear parameters by Baron, Cooperstein and Kahana  has been used to study the influence of the EOS on the explosion. Hillebrandt and Wolff  have taken the Skyrme Hartree-Fock approach to provide the data table of EOS for supernova simulations. This EOS table has been used in some simulations , but is not currently used. Lattimer and Swesty  have utilized the compressible liquid-drop model to provide the EOS as a numerical routine for supernova simulations. This EOS has been used in many simulations of supernova explosion these years. However, it has been difficult to assess the dependence of the supernova phenomena on the EOS since available EOS’s based on different nuclear models are limited (See, however, ).

Recently, a new complete EOS for supernova simulations has become available . The relativistic mean field (RMF) theory with a Thomas-Fermi approach has been applied to the derivation of the supernova EOS. The RMF theory has been successful to reproduce the saturation properties, masses and radii of nuclei, and proton-nucleus scattering data . The effective interaction used in the RMF theory is checked by the recent experimental data of unstable nuclei in neutron-rich environment close to astrophysical situations.

We stress that the RMF theory is based on the relativistic Brückner-Hartree-Fock (RBHF) theory . The RBHF theory, which is a microscopic and relativistic many body theory, has been shown to be successful to reproduce the saturation of nuclear matter starting from the nucleon-nucleon interactions determined by the scattering experiments. This is in good contrast with non-relativistic many body frameworks which can account for the saturation only with the introduction of extra three-body interactions. The effective lagrangian of the RMF theory has been extended to take account of the behavior of the RBHF theory . It is also noteworthy that relativistic frameworks automatically satisfy the causality, which is the condition that the sound velocity should not exceed the light velocity, while the causality is often violated in non-relativistic frameworks.

Having a new set of EOS table, numerical simulations of hydrodynamics with neutrino transfer are awaited to investigate the influence of the relativistic EOS on the supernova dynamics as well as supernova neutrinos. Before we proceed to such elaborate numerical simulations, which require large computational efforts, we would like to examine the properties of the relativistic EOS in dynamical situation during supernova explosion which may not be apparent in a common practice of calculations of neutron star structure. It will also be helpful to provide the basic information on the behavior of relativistic EOS during collapse and bounce for forthcoming detailed simulations. For this purpose, we perform hydrodynamical calculations of adiabatic collapse with the relativistic EOS table dropping off the treatment of neutrino transfer. We adopt presupernova models by Woosley-Weaver  and Nomoto et al.  as realistic initial models. We fix the electron fraction at the initial value, which maximizes the shock energy at bounce, as working models of explosion. With these “trial models”, we examine the properties of dense matter such as compositions obtained from our EOS during core collapse and bounce. We evaluate the energy of shock at breakout as one of measures of the EOS for a series of presupernova models. For comparison, we perform the hydrodynamical calculations with the Lattimer-Swesty EOS and explore the difference of the properties of dense matter and the shock energy.

In addition to getting the information mentioned above, we would like to test whether the relativistic EOS table works well in numerical simulations during core collapse and explosion. This is because some EOS tables so far have been causing troubles in numerical simulations due to lack or inconsistency of data. The relativistic EOS table has been calculated in a wide regime of environment (density, proton fraction and temperature) to provide all necessary quantities of dense matter, which are tabulated for numerical simulations  of various astrophysical phenomena such as supernovae and neutron star mergers.

This paper is arranged as follows. In section 2, after a brief introduction of collapse-driven supernova explosions, we explain our hydrodynamical calculations which are used for the study of the relativistic EOS. In section 3, we present our numerical results. We first show the initial profiles of presupernova core derived with the relativistic EOS table (section 3.1). In section 3.2, we display the profiles of thermodynamical quantities from the relativistic EOS during collapse and bounce. We compare the results with the case using the Lattimer-Swesty EOS. In section 4, we also discuss the effect of the relativistic EOS on the Ledoux criterion of convection. Summary will be given in section 5.

## 2 Hydrodynamical simulation

### 2.1 Treatment of core-collapse and explosion

The collapse-driven supernova explosion originates from massive stars with $`M10M_{}`$ (for reviews, see , for example). At the end of the thermonuclear stellar evolutions, the iron core is formed at the center of a presupernova star. This iron core becomes gravitationally unstable and starts collapsing due to the photo-dissociation and electron captures, which reduce the pressure to support the core. The gravitational collapse proceeds homologously in the inner part of the iron core and supersonically in the outer part of the iron core. When the central density exceeds the nuclear matter density, the inner core bounces back due to a hard core component of nuclear force. Due to this bounce, a shock wave is formed and it propagates outward. The shock wave goes through the outer core region, consuming its energy to dissociate irons into nucleons and to push back the falling material against the gravitational attraction.

If the shock wave reaches the surface of the iron core without stalling on the way, it blows off the mantle outside the iron core to cause a supernova explosion. This simple scenario of hydrodynamical explosion is called “prompt explosion”. If the shock wave stalls inside the outer core region, some extra mechanism is necessary to revive the stalled shock. For example, the neutrino heating behind the shock might save the failed shock wave and give a successful supernova explosion in a relatively long time scale around 100 msec. This type of supernova mechanism is called “delayed explosion”.

Although prompt explosion is a simple scenario, it is generally believed that the explosion does not occur in this way for a major fraction of progenitors (see recent studies in ). In the past, Baron et al. have found that the prompt explosion occurs for the combination of soft EOS’s and general relativistic hydrodynamics . However, later studies by Myra and Bludman  have shown that those explosions obtained in an approximate leakage scheme do not occur in a better treatment of neutrino transport (multigroup flux-limited diffusion approximation) with an appropriate treatment of neutrino interactions such as neutrino-electron scattering. Further systematic investigations by Bruenn and Swesty et al.  have confirmed that no prompt explosion occurs except for extreme range of parameters of EOS and presupernova stars. Because of the difficulty of prompt explosion, especially for massive stars such as SN1987A, the delayed mechanism is believed to be the cause of the explosion. However, detailed processes to revive the stalled shock have been under debates .

The EOS plays essential roles in supernova dynamics both in direct and indirect manners. A softer EOS gives more compact cores at bounce with larger binding energy and provides larger energy to shock wave. The dependence of supernova explosion on the softness of EOS has been studied by changing incompressibility of nuclear matter  (See also  in a different context). Smaller incompressibility is indeed found to be preferable.

The composition of dense matter is also another important factor of explosion. The abundances of proton, neutron, alpha particle and nucleus determine the reaction rates of electron captures, neutrino scatterings and others. The species of nucleus in dense matter is essential for evaluation of the electron capture rate on nuclei. When the electron captures on nuclei are suppressed in the high density regime, the free proton fraction is important to determine the electron capture rate on protons (see, however,  on the importance of electron captures on nuclei). Those electron capture rates control the neutrino emissivity during the collapse, resultant trapped lepton fraction and the size of inner core. A larger inner core leads to a larger initial shock energy and a smaller outer core through which the shock wave must propagate. Therefore, it is preferable for shock propagations if the EOS provides the composition which suppresses electron captures. For the determination of composition, the description of nuclear interaction for nuclei and matter is essential. As for the free proton fraction, it is closely related to the symmetry energy. The influence of the free proton fraction on supernova explosion has been studied . It has been found that larger symmetry energies provide smaller free proton fractions, which lead to a larger electron fraction.

In the current study, we investigate the properties of the relativistic EOS using the collapse and bounce of the supernova cores. Since the new EOS table is derived in the relativistic many body framework unlike the previous EOS sets for supernova simulations, we would like to know the basic properties of the new EOS in a dynamical context. Since the current EOS table is based on the data of unstable nuclei and the symmetry energy part of nuclear interactions is better constrained, the composition of dense matter may be different from those in the previous EOS sets. Since we employ simplified adiabatic collapse with no neutrino transfer, we do not intend to discuss the supernova mechanism itself. Instead, the current study will provide the basic information of the relativistic EOS table in the physical situations close to the realistic supernova explosion and will serve as a guide to proceed to more sophisticated numerical simulations.

We adopt the implicit numerical code for the general relativistic and spherically symmetric hydrodynamics . The implicit time differencing is advantageous to carry the hydrodynamical calculations for a long time. The code uses a Lagrangian baryon mass coordinate (baryon mass enclosed within a certain radius) as a radial coordinate. We refer to the article by Yamada  for details of the numerical treatment of hydrodynamics. This numerical code is specifically designed for the study of supernova explosion to treat both the hydrodynamics and the neutrino transfer. The Boltzmann solver of neutrino transfer is recently implemented in the numerical code . Detailed simulations of gravitational core collapse based on this fully implicit and general relativistic code with neutrino transfer will be presented elsewhere.

### 2.2 Equation of state of dense matter

We adopt the table of the relativistic EOS, which is recently derived for supernova simulations  in the relativistic nuclear many body framework. Based on the relativistic Brückner-Hartree-Fock theory, which is successful to reproduce the nuclear matter saturation, the relativistic mean field (RMF) theory is constructed to describe nuclear matter and nuclei . The same RMF framework has been applied to the systematic study of about 2000 nuclei, including deformed ones, up to the drip line in the nuclear chart and the nuclear data such as masses and radii are successfully reproduced . Having thus being checked by the data of stable and unstable nuclei, the RMF framework has been used to study the properties of dense matter in supernovae . The RMF framework with the parameter set TM1, which was determined as the best one to reproduce the properties of finite nuclei , provides the uniform nuclear matter with the incompressibility of 281 MeV and the symmetry energy of 36.9 MeV at the saturation density. We remark that the behavior of nuclear matter at high density in the RMF framework is similar to the one in the relativistic Brückner-Hartree-Fock theory due to the inclusion of the non-linear terms in the RMF lagrangian. The maximum neutron star mass calculated for the cold neutron star matter in the RMF with TM1 is 2.2 $`M_{}`$. The RMF framework has been extended with the Thomas-Fermi approximation to describe not only the homogenous but also inhomogeneous matter in supernovae, which contains neutrons, protons, alpha particles and heavy nuclei as a representative species. The properties of dense matter (energy, pressure, entropy, chemical potential and so on) at various densities, proton fractions and temperatures are calculated to construct the numerical data table for simulations. The table covers the wide range of density ($`10^{5.1}10^{15.4}`$ g/cm3), electron fraction ($`0.00.56`$), and temperature ($`0100`$ MeV), which is required for supernova simulations. The relativistic EOS table is available upon request to one of the authors, K. Sumiyoshi. The electron/positron and photon contributions as non-interacting particles are added to the nuclear contribution of the EOS. The relativistic EOS table has been applied to numerical simulations of r-process in the neutrino-driven winds  and in supernova explosions . A proto-type of the EOS table has been used in the numerical simulations of the proto-neutron star cooling .

For comparison, we adopt also the EOS by Lattimer and Swesty , which has been used for recent supernova simulations. The EOS is based on the compressible liquid drop model for nuclei together with dripped nucleons . The bulk energy of nuclear matter is expressed in terms of density, proton fraction and temperature with nuclear parameters. The values of nuclear parameters are chosen to be the ones suggested from nuclear mass formulae and other theoretical studies mostly with the Skyrme I force. Among various parameters, the symmetry energy is set to be 29.3 MeV, which is smaller than the value in the relativistic EOS. As for the incompressibility, there are three choices with different values of 180, 220, 375 MeV. We use, for comparison, the EOS with 180 MeV, which has been often used for supernova studies.

### 2.3 Initial models

We adopt the presupernova models of massive stars provided by Woosley (WW95)  and by Nomoto (N97)  (see also ). From WW95, we have used 11, 12, 13, 15, 18 and 20 $`M_{}`$ models among the models ranging from 11$`M_{}`$ to 40$`M_{}`$. From N97, we have used the models with Helium cores of 3.3, 4, 5 and 6 $`M_{}`$, which correspond to the progenitor mass of 13, 15, 18 and 20 $`M_{}`$, respectively. In Table 1, we list the models we have used for the calculations. We utilize the central core part which covers the Fe core and the outer layer with the density down to about 106 g/cm3. The masses of the calculated central core and the Fe core are listed also in Table 1. We take density, electron fraction, temperature and radius as a function of baryon mass coordinate from the original data and derive other quantities using the relativistic EOS table. The number of the baryon mass grid points is 100. The grid size decreases linearly from the center to the surface to provide enough grid points around the surface. As for the outer boundary condition, we fixed density, internal energy, entropy and electron fraction of the most outer grid point at the original values in the initial model. The original configuration of the central core of the presupernova models is already marginally unstable to gravitational collapse. When we start the numerical calculation with the constructed initial configuration, the inner core starts collapsing immediately. We have checked that, if we increase slightly the electron fraction in the original models, the core remains stable and does not start collapsing. Therefore, the profile of electron fraction in the models has just marginal values to trigger the gravitational collapse.

## 3 Numerical results

### 3.1 Initial Composition

Before we proceed to the results of hydrodynamics, we discuss the composition of the central core derived with the relativistic EOS table. The composition just prior to the collapse is interesting since it affects the trapped lepton fraction through weak interactions. The trapped lepton fraction in turn determines the size of the inner core and the available explosion energy. The species of nuclei in the central core are important to evaluate the electron capture rates on nuclei in the hot and dense matter. After the electron capture on nuclei is blocked due to the nuclear shell effects, the electron capture on free protons becomes important. Therefore, the mass fraction of free protons is also important quantity to determine the evolution of electron (lepton) fraction during the collapse stage .

Figure 1 displays the mass fraction of particles (upper panel), the proton, neutron and mass numbers of nuclei (lower panel) as a function of baryon mass coordinate in the central core of 15$`M_{}`$ model of WW95. The values with the relativistic EOS and the Lattimer-Swesty EOS  are shown by thick and thin lines, respectively. The quantities of the Lattimer-Swesty EOS are obtained by giving the same profiles of density, temperature and electron fraction (See Fig. 4 for the initial profile of density).

In the upper panel, the initial profile of electron fraction is also shown. The central value of electron fraction in the initial model is 0.42. It can be seen that the mass fractions are substantially different between the relativistic EOS and the Lattimer-Swesty EOS. The mass fractions of alpha particle and neutron in the relativistic EOS are larger than those in the Lattimer-Swesty EOS. The free proton fraction is about one order of magnitude smaller than the numbers obtained with the Lattimer-Swesty EOS. Having a smaller fraction of free proton is favorable for the explosion since the electron capture is largely reduced, leading to a stronger prompt-shock .

The reduction of free proton fraction comes from an effect of the large symmetry energy. A larger symmetry energy provides a larger difference between chemical potentials of protons and neutrons. A lower chemical potential for protons leads to a smaller free proton fraction and a higher chemical potential for neutrons gives a larger free neutron fraction. Note that the symmetry energy of the relativistic EOS (36.9 MeV) is larger than that of the Lattimer-Swesty EOS (29.3 MeV). The value of the symmetry energy is constrained mainly by nuclear masses, but there is still an allowable range. Systematic measurements of the radii of neutron-rich nuclei may further constrain the size of the symmetry energy since the thickness of neutron skins is sensitive to the symmetry energy. We stress that the symmetry energy of the relativistic EOS has been checked by the nuclear structure calculations of the radii of neutron-rich nuclei in the RMF framework  together with the recent experimental data of neutron skins .

It has been known that the relativistic many body frameworks provide a larger effect of the symmetry energy on nuclei and uniform nuclear matter than the non-relativistic many body frameworks . The relativistic many body frameworks provide stronger density dependence of the symmetry energy. Accordingly, the proton fraction in the cold neutron star matter in the relativistic many body frameworks is larger than that in the non-relativistic frameworks . A large proton fraction can lead to the rapid cooling of neutron stars due to the direct URCA process . At the same time, the thickness of neutron skins of neutron-rich nuclei is enhanced in the relativistic frameworks. It has been shown that the systematics of neutron skins of isotopes and the EOS of asymmetric matter are related to each other and the behavior of asymmetric matter can be probed by systematic measurements of unstable nuclei . A precise measurement of neutron radius of 208Pb in future would provide more information on the EOS of asymmetric matter . It is interesting to see if these differences of the nuclear properties coming from the new relativistic frameworks have influence on the supernova explosion through the change of compositions and reaction rates.

It is remarkable that heavy nuclei beyond A=60 appear in a wide region of the core. It is also interesting to see that the neutron number exceeds 40 in the central region, where electron capture might be suppressed according to the shell blocking  (see, however, ). Compared with the results in the Lattimer-Swesty EOS, the species of nuclei is about 10% heavier. The slightly larger value of binding energy of nuclear matter in the relativistic EOS table (B=16.3 MeV) than in the Lattimer-Swesty EOS (B=16.0 MeV), and/or the different treatments of nuclear surface, neutron skin and translational energy affect the determination of species, which should be studied further carefully. These findings of heavier nuclei may suggest that the detailed study of electron capture rates in A=60 region and beyond is important for the outcome of the core collapse. In recent shell-model calculations  of weak-interaction rates for nuclei in the mass range A=45-65 in the stellar environment, electron capture rates are significantly smaller than the standard set of Fuller, Fowler and Newman . Calculations of presupernova evolution of massive stars with improved rates for weak interactions  provide larger electron fractions, leading to a possible increase of explosion energy. This trend of suppression of electron capture on nuclei might be a key toward successful explosions and it strengthens the motivation to study core collapse in detail by the improved EOS and weak interactions.

One has to be cautious, however, that there is a negative feedback in the deleptonization during collapse. If the electron fraction is large in the initial stage, the free proton fraction becomes large and electron captures on free protons drives back the electron fraction small. Resulting trapping lepton fractions turn out similar even from the different electron fractions in progenitors . This is because the free proton fraction depends steeply on the electron fraction. For example, the free proton fraction becomes smaller by a factor of 10 if we decrease the electron fraction by $`\mathrm{\Delta }Y_e=0.03`$ from the value ($`Y_e=0.42`$) at the center of initial model. We have looked into the case of the Lattimer-Swesty EOS and have found that the dependence of the free proton fraction on the electron fraction is similar in this region. To get the same value with the Lattimer-Swesty EOS for the free proton fraction, a larger value by $`\mathrm{\Delta }Y_e0.02`$ can be possible in the relativistic EOS. If the electron captures would proceed up to a certain value of the free proton fraction, the resulting lepton fraction might be larger by about 0.02, which might lead to a slightly larger inner core, in the relativistic EOS. Whether this difference of the free proton fraction influences the core collapse remains to be seen in more detailed calculations.

We note here that the current comparison is made by adopting the temperature profiles from the presupernova models instead of the entropy profiles. One has to be careful about the choice of thermodynamical inputs (temperature or entropy) to discuss the composition of matter since the composition is sensitive to temperature. Extensive comparisons with the Lattimer-Swesty EOS during the core collapse and bounce are currently being made and will be published elsewhere.

### 3.2 Profiles during core collapse and bounce

Figures 2 and 3 demonstrate successful and unsuccessful explosions in hydrodynamical calculations starting from the initial configurations of the 15 and 20 $`M_{}`$ presupernova models of WW95. In the cases of 11, 12 and 15 $`M_{}`$ models, a shock wave launched at the core bounce goes through the outer core, leading to a successful prompt explosion. On the other hand, in the cases of 13, 18 and 20 $`M_{}`$ models, a shock wave stalls after the bounce due to photo-dissociation and infalling material. We list up the size of iron core in Table 1. It is natural to see that the success of prompt explosion is clearly correlated with the size of iron core. The size of iron core is small (1.32$`M_{}`$) in all the successful cases, whereas it exceeds 1.4$`M_{}`$ in the unsuccessful cases. Interestingly, the 13 $`M_{}`$ model has an iron core of 1.41 $`M_{}`$, being different from neighboring 11 and 15 $`M_{}`$ models and does not show a prompt explosion. In the cases of N97 models, the explosion is successful for 13, 15 and 18 $`M_{}`$. The size of iron core is again small (1.18, 1.28 and 1.36 $`M_{}`$ for 13, 15 and 18 $`M_{}`$ models, respectively) in these cases . The case of 20 $`M_{}`$ model does not show a prompt explosion. The size of iron core in this case is 1.40 $`M_{}`$, which suggests that the threshold is around $`1.4M_{}`$.

Explosion energy amounts to 1.7 foe (foe = 1051 erg) for 11 and 12 $`M_{}`$ models and 1.5 foe for 15 $`M_{}`$ model of WW95, whereas 1.8, 1.7 and 1.7 foe for 13, 15 and 18 $`M_{}`$ models of N97, respectively. Here we define that the explosion energy is the energy of ejecta (gravitational mass minus baryon mass of ejecta) in the general relativistic formulation (see Appendix and ). We list up the explosion energy and the remnant mass for the cases of successful explosion in Table 1. These results confirm the correspondence between the iron core mass (not progenitor mass) and explosion energy. It has been argued that a smaller iron core mass results in a larger explosion energy since the amount of dissociation of iron nuclei becomes smaller for the similar size of unshocked cores  (see also ). We note here again that the electron fraction is fixed at the initial value, which maximizes the shock energy at bounce, in order to obtain working models of explosion. The explosion energy evaluated here is the maximum value attained with the relativistic EOS table and should be regarded as one of measures of the stiffness of EOS.

In more realistic simulations with the neutrino transfer, the shock energy is lost also by the cooling due to neutrino emissions and the pressure by falling material in addition to the dissociation of iron nuclei. Whether the stalled shock wave revives or not depends probably on the neutrino heating mechanism and the explosion energy may depend more on how the delayed explosion occurs.

It is instructive to display profiles of quantities during the core collapse and bounce. We show, in Figs. 46, the density, velocity and entropy as a function of baryon mass coordinate for various times. We choose the case of 15 $`M_{}`$ model of WW95 as a representative model and concentrate on the profiles of quantities calculated with this model for further discussions.

In Fig. 4, we display the density profiles when the central densities reach $`10^{11}`$, $`10^{12}`$, $`10^{13}`$, $`10^{14}`$ g/cm3 during the collapse (1–4) as well as the density profiles around and after the bounce (5–14). The initial density profile is also shown (0). The central density becomes high ($`2.1\times 10^{14}`$ g/cm3) at the stage (5) and a density jump propagates outward. The peak central density is $`4.0\times 10^{14}`$ g/cm3 at the stage (10), which corresponds to the bounce at the time 322 msec after the onset of the collapse. The central density decreases slightly to $`3.3\times 10^{14}`$ g/cm3 at the stage (14) at the time 12 msec after the bounce.

In the velocity profiles in Fig. 5, the development of shock structure is apparent. At the stages (1–4), the inner homologous collapse and the outer free fall can be seen. A pressure wave starts at the center (5) and develops at the stages (6–9). It becomes a shock wave at the border of the inner core at the stage (10). The positive velocity peak starts growing and the outward shock wave proceeds toward the surface of the iron core (11–14).

The profiles of entropy per baryon are shown in Fig. 6. Because it is an adiabatic collapse, the central entropy per baryon stays around $`1k_B`$ (1–5). The entropy is raised as the shock wave propagates and reaches above a few $`k_B`$ at the bounce (10). The shocked envelope with high entropy ($``$ 10 $`k_B`$) is formed at (11–14). During these sequences, the central temperature increases to $``$ 5 MeV during the collapse (1–5) and becomes as high as 10 MeV at the bounce (6–10). The temperature peak is formed at the outer core due to the shock passage and the temperature exceeds 20 MeV at the maximum (11–14).

We describe here shortly a numerical simulation with the Lattimer-Swesty EOS of which results are also shown for comparison. We run a hydrodynamical calculation starting from the same initial configuration of the 15 $`M_{}`$ model of WW95. A prompt explosion occurs with the explosion energy of 1.9 foe, which is larger than the case of the relativistic EOS. The peak central density is found to be $`5.3\times 10^{14}`$ g/cm3, which is also higher. Using the result of hydrodynamics with the Lattimer-Swesty EOS, we compare the compositions at the times having the same central densities during the collapse and at the times having the same position of the shock wave after the bounce.

The compositions during collapse and bounce are shown in Figs. 710. The notations are the same as in Fig. 1. The mass fractions during collapse are shown as a function of baryon mass coordinate at the times (1) and (2) (central densities: $`10^{11}`$, $`10^{12}`$ g/cm3) in Fig. 7, at the times (3) and (4) ($`10^{13}`$, $`10^{14}`$ g/cm3) in Fig. 8. During collapse (1–2) in Fig. 7 the mass fraction of nuclei decreases slightly and alpha particles, protons and neutrons become more abundant. The difference between the Lattimer-Swesty EOS and the relativistic EOS, which is seen in Fig. 1, is present in early stages of collapse. The difference becomes less drastic and the compositions become similar in later stages (3–4) in Fig. 8. The mass fraction of alpha particle remains larger than that in the Lattimer-Swesty EOS. Alpha particles are abundant in the outer part of the core ($`M_B>1.0M_{}`$) during core collapse and bounce. The mass fractions around bounce (7) and (9) are shown in Fig. 9. Neutrons and protons are dominant at the central region after bounce because of high density and temperature. This region grows due to dissociation of nuclei as the shock wave proceeds outward. The difference between the relativistic EOS and the Lattimer-Swesty EOS in the central region is small. The appearance of nuclei at $`M_B0.3M_{}`$ for the Lattimer-Swesty EOS at the stage (7) may be attributed to their treatment of the phase boundary.

The mass and proton numbers during collapse (1–3) and around bounce (4–9) are shown as a function of baryon mass coordinate in Fig. 10. The nuclei become heavier and more neutron-rich as the central density increases. This tendency is stronger in the relativistic EOS than in the Lattimer-Swesty EOS. We note that the neutron skin of nuclei is taken into account in the relativistic EOS but not in the Lattimer-Swesty EOS which may cause different mass number and neutron-richness. After bounce, huge nuclei appear in the relativistic EOS at the density around $`10^{14}`$ g/cm3. This is in contrast to the case of the Lattimer-Swesty EOS, which gives nuclei up to the mass number of 200. This is because of the different treatment of nuclear shape change and bubble phase just below the nuclear matter density. In the relativistic EOS table, those effects are not included like Lattimer et al.  (LLPR) whereas the Lattimer-Swesty EOS takes them into account and finds smaller nuclear masses than LLPR. The zig-zag behavior of mass number and proton number around $`M_B1.0M_{}`$ is due to the fact that the density-temperature trajectories go around the phase boundary between nuclei and gas, where the mass fractions change rapidly.

The adiabatic indices at around the bounce stages (7) and (9) are shown as a function of baryon mass coordinate in Fig. 11. The case of the Lattimer-Swesty EOS is shown by thin lines for comparison. The adiabatic index in the relativistic EOS is larger than that of the Lattimer-Swesty EOS in the central region where the density exceeds $`10^{14}`$ g/cm3. In the outer region, they are similar to each other except for some fluctuations due to the phase transition we mentioned above. This difference in the central region indicates that the relativistic EOS is stiffer at these densities than the Lattimer-Swesty EOS in terms of the adiabatic index. Since the central density is not far beyond the nuclear matter density, the behavior is mostly determined by the incompressibility. The value of the incompressibility of the relativistic EOS (K=281 MeV) is larger than the value (K=180 MeV) we adopted for the Lattimer-Swesty EOS.

The stiffness can be discussed in terms of the shock energy described above and the size of the inner core. We have examined whether the explosion energy can be explained in terms of the initial shock energy due to the bounce of the inner core and the dissociation of iron nuclei due to the shock passage in the outer core . As a reference, we list the size of inner core in Table 1. In Fig. 5, one can clearly see the structure with an unshocked inner core and an infalling outer core. Here, we define the inner core as the region inside the edge of positive velocity in the profile when the velocity turns from negative to positive in the central region (see the bounce stage 10). For both WW95 and N97 models, the inner core mass is about 0.9 $`M_{}`$ independent of the progenitor mass. The inner cores and remnant masses in the case of the Lattimer-Swesty EOS are also similar.

We plot in Fig. 12 the profiles of the enclosed energy (i.e. $`(m_gm_b)`$ in Appendix) in the case of 15 $`M_{}`$ model of WW95. The upper and lower panels correspond to the stages (10) and (14), respectively. The upper panel (a) corresponds to the bounce when the shock wave with positive velocity just starts to show up and the lower panel (b) shows the situation after the shock wave have passed through the iron core.

While the enclosed energy of the inner core becomes large at first due to the compression and amounts to $`1.1\times 10^{52}`$ erg at $`M_B=0.87M_{}`$ in Fig. 12a, it decreases, in Fig. 12b, to $`5.7\times 10^{51}`$ erg as it approaches the final hydrostatic configuration due to decompression (see also Fig. 4). The difference of these energies is the initial shock energy of $`5.6\times 10^{51}`$ erg. The shock loses its energy due to the dissociation of irons when it passes through the outer iron core. The dissociation of irons between $`M_B=0.87M_{}`$ (the inner core mass, $`M_{inner}`$) and $`M_B=1.14M_{}`$ (the remnant mass, $`M_{remn}`$) requires the energy of $`4.3\times 10^{51}`$ erg. Due to this energy loss, the shock energy is reduced to $`1.3\times 10^{51}`$ erg, which corresponds to the final explosion energy transferred to the ejected material. In realistic simulations with electron captures, the inner core mass will be smaller than the present case in which the electron capture and the neutrino interaction are artificially suppressed. If the inner core mass were smaller by $`0.1M_{}`$ than the present case, the shock wave would lose more energy ($`1.6\times 10^{51}`$ erg, corresponding to $`0.1M_{}`$) during the propagation and, therefore, the prompt explosion should become more difficult.

We remark that the numerical data table of the relativistic EOS works properly in the hydrodynamical calculations without troubles such as overflows of range due to the lack of data or the inconsistency of thermodynamical properties. We have monitored the total energy during the numerical simulation and have checked that the total energy after the hydrodynamical calculation agrees with the initial total energy with enough numerical accuracy of $`10^6`$.

## 4 Outlook on further effects

It has been discussed that the delayed explosion through the revival of shock due to neutrino-heating might be a general mechanism of supernova explosion . The detailed processes in micro- and macro-physics can play significant roles to realize the explosion of this type. One has to treat carefully all interactions, which change lepton fractions in dense matter and lead to heating and cooling. We stress that the EOS of dense matter provides the information such as compositions and chemical potentials and is essential to determine those reaction rates. For example, the effective mass of nucleon is tabulated in the table. It might affect the neutrino opacity substantially . Detailed studies by the numerical simulations with neutrino transfer using the relativistic EOS table are under way .

We have to remark also that the current study is done under the spherical symmetry. Deviations from the spherical symmetry such as matter mixing have been suggested by the observations of light curve and line profiles of SN1987A. Multi-dimensional effects such as convection can play an important role in the explosion mechanism . However, where, when and how long hydrodynamical instabilities occur in the central region of a supernova and how it contributes to the explosion mechanism are a matter of long debates. On one hand, the convection has been shown to be essential for the successful delayed explosion through neutron fingers . On the other hand, it has been claimed that the neutron finger convection is unlikely to occur . Other recent studies have demonstrated that the whole proto-neutron star just born may be convective, which will be favorable for the explosion  (see, however, ). The diffusive processes in the convection have been also discussed recently in detail .

In the current study, we have aimed to see the properties of the relativistic EOS as a basis for further studies. Multi-dimensional simulations of supernova explosion with the relativistic EOS table is of great interest given the present results. In order to assess the influence of the relativistic EOS on multi-dimensional hydrodynamics, we focus on the convective instability inside the neutrinosphere and investigate the condition derived by the relativistic EOS.

The negative gradients of the entropy and/or the lepton fraction are often seen in a number of numerical simulations (see  for example) and can lead to the convective overturn. The convection can raise the hot and lepton-rich matter toward the neutrinosphere and enhance the neutrino luminosities to heat the region just behind the stalled shock. This extra heating can be crucial to revive the stalled shock leading to a successful delayed explosion.

Here, we discuss a role of EOS in the Ledoux criterion, the condition that the convection occurs without diffusive processes by the gradient of entropy and lepton fraction. This means that the EOS is also essential to judge whether convection occurs or not through the distributions of these quantities. The Ledoux criterion is expressed by,

$$\left(\frac{\rho }{Y_l}\right)_{\mathrm{P},S}\left(\frac{dY_l}{dr}\right)+\left(\frac{\rho }{S}\right)_{\mathrm{P},Y_l}\left(\frac{dS}{dr}\right)0,$$
(1)
where $`\rho `$, $`Y_l`$, $`S`$ are density, lepton fraction and entropy per baryon, respectively. The derivatives of density with respect to lepton fraction,

$$\left(\frac{\rho }{Y_l}\right)_{\mathrm{P},S},$$
(2)
and with respect to entropy,

$$\left(\frac{\rho }{S}\right)_{\mathrm{P},Y_l},$$
(3)
are usually assumed to be negative. Hence the negative gradient of entropy and/or lepton fraction inside stars leads to the convection. However, the derivative of density with respect to lepton fraction can change its sign in a certain environment . Note that the derivative of density with respect to entropy per baryon is always negative.

We investigate this point with the relativistic EOS. For this purpose, we consider the dense matter under thermal and beta equilibrium among neutrons, protons, electrons, positrons, three flavor (anti-)neutrinos and photons. Basic properties of this supernova matter have been reported in . Figure 13 displays the sign of derivative and the borders of the sign change for the cases of the entropy per baryon $`S=1`$, 2 and 4 by solid, dashed and dash-dotted lines, respectively. It is remarkable that the derivative is positive in the region with high density and low lepton fraction. This is in accord with the previous results by Lattimer and Mazurek  and other recent works . We note, however, that the positive sign region tends to be much wider than the previous results at high densities due to the effect of the larger symmetry energy. We stress here an important role of the nuclear symmetry energy, which is well constrained by the experiments of unstable nuclei, and is properly taken into account in the relativistic EOS.

The sign change happens because the nuclear interaction contributes to the pressure on top of the lepton contribution. The contribution of symmetry energy dominates in the neutron-rich (low lepton fraction) environment. An increase in lepton fraction not only leads to the increase in lepton pressure, but also leads to the decrease of baryonic pressure due to nuclear interactions. Therefore, the density must increase to keep the pressure constant in this positive sign regime. The convection is then stabilized by the negative gradient of lepton fraction. On the contrary, the positive gradient of lepton fraction can lead to convection if the entropy per baryon is constant. Therefore, an extra attention should be paid to the convective region itself in multi-dimensional simulations with the relativistic EOS.

## 5 Summary

We have studied the properties of the relativistic EOS during the core collapse and bounce in supernovae. The relativistic EOS table is newly derived based on the relativistic many body theory checked by the experimental data of unstable nuclei and is available for astrophysical simulations. To examine the properties of dense matter given by the relativistic EOS in dynamical situations of supernova explosion, we have utilized the general relativistic hydrodynamical calculations of gravitational collapse of iron cores.

In order to provide the basic information of the relativistic EOS before we proceed to detailed numerical simulations, we have followed the adiabatic collapse with the fixed electron fraction without neutrino transfer and have obtained model explosions. Because of the high electron fraction, which is fixed at the initial value, the inner core mass is large and the hydrodynamical explosion is obtained. We have examined the thermodynamical quantities and compositions of dense matter during collapse and bounce in these model explosions. We have compared the compositions with those in the Lattimer-Swesty EOS by performing the corresponding adiabatic collapse calculation. We have evaluated the explosion energy for a series of progenitor models as one of measures of the stiffness of EOS. We have also discussed that the relativistic EOS might have an influence on the condition of convection. We have seen that the numerical data table of the relativistic EOS works quite successfully in the numerical simulations.

We have found that the initial composition in presupernova cores is fairly different from that in the Lattimer-Swesty EOS. The difference of composition persists during early stages of collapse and becomes less significant at and after bounce. The mass fraction of protons at the early stages is much smaller than that in the Lattimer-Swesty EOS because of the large symmetry energy in the relativistic nuclear many body theory. The mass fraction of alpha particles is larger during the whole stage. The species of nuclei is found to be heavier and more neutron-rich during collapse and the mass number turns out to be quite large after bounce. Compositional differences may lead to changes in electron capture rates and neutrino interaction rates and might influence the dynamics of supernova explosion.

These differences of compositions should be examined further in numerical simulations of hydrodynamics with neutrino transfer by switching the two sets of EOS. Detailed simulations including the neutrino transfer with this new relativistic EOS table are called for to examine the role of the EOS in the delicate mechanism of supernova explosion. Such efforts of numerical simulations are currently being made .

## Acknowledgment

We would like to express special thanks to Hong Shen for her devoted achievement of the relativistic EOS table and to H. Ono for his great efforts on the tabulation of the Lattimer-Swesty EOS. We would like to thank Stan Woosley and Ken’ichi Nomoto for providing us with their numerical data of presupernova models. K. S. is grateful to M. Terasawa, G. Mathews, T. Kajino and I. Tanihata for fruitful collaborations on r-process nucleosynthesis in supernova explosions. K. S. also thanks S. Wanajo, A. Onishi, K. Oyamatsu and Thomas Janka for stimulating discussions. The numerical simulations have been performed on the supercomputers at RIKEN and KEK (KEK Supercomputer Projects No.01-75 and No.02-87). This work is partially supported by the Grants-in-Aid for the Center-of-Excellence (COE) Research of the ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture of Japan to RESCEU (No.07CE2002). This work is also supported in part by Japan Society for Promotion of Science, and by the Grant-in Aid for Scientific Research (12047230, 12740138, 13740165, 14039210, 14740166, 15740160) of the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture of Japan.

## Appendix

We summarize here the definitions of gravitational mass, baryon mass and explosion energy in general relativity. The notation mostly follows those in the reference . We take $`c=G=1`$ in the following equations.

The baryon mass elements in spherical symmetry is given by

$$dm_b=\frac{\rho _b}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}\pi r^2dr,$$
(A-1)
and the baryon mass coordinate is defined accordingly as

$$m_b=_0^r\frac{\rho _b}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}4\pi r^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}𝑑r^{}.$$
(A-2)
Here, $`\rho _b`$ is the baryon mass density and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the relativistic gamma factor defined by,

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }^2=1+U^2\frac{2m_g}{r}.$$
(A-3)
$`U`$ is the radial fluid velocity and $`m_g`$ is the gravitational mass defined below. The gravitational mass, $`dm_g`$, of the baryon mass elements, $`dm_b`$, is given by

$`dm_g`$ $`=`$ $`\rho _b(1+\epsilon )\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}\pi r^2dr,`$ (A-4)
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(1+\epsilon )dm_b,`$ (A-5)
where $`\epsilon `$ is the specific internal energy density. The gravitational mass is then given by

$`m_g`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{m_b}}{\displaystyle \frac{dm_g}{dm_b}}𝑑m_b,`$ (A-6)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^r}\rho _b(1+\epsilon )\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}\pi r^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}𝑑r^{}.`$ (A-7)
The gravitational mass of ejecta is evaluated by

$$M_g^{ejecta}=_{M_{remn}}^{M_{calc}}\frac{dm_g}{dm_b}𝑑m_b,$$
(A-8)
where the range of integral in baryon mass coordinate is from the remnant mass, $`M_{remn}`$, to the total baryon mass covered in the calculation, $`M_{calc}`$. The remnant mass is defined at the position in the baryon mass coordinate where the minimum of the enclosed energy ($`m_gm_b`$) occurs (see Fig. 12, for example). The explosion energy is calculated as

$$E_{exp}=M_g^{ejecta}M_b^{ejecta},$$
(A-9)
where the baryon mass of ejecta is

$$M_b^{ejecta}=M_{calc}M_{remn}.$$
(A-10)
## Table caption

The list of models with different progenitor masses ($`M_{proj}`$) of WW95 (a) and N97 (b). The sizes (in baryon mass) of iron core ($`M_{Fe}`$), core covered in calculation ($`M_{calc}`$) and inner core ($`M_{inner}`$) obtained in simulations are listed. The remnant mass ($`M_{remn}`$) and explosion energy ($`E_{exp}`$) are listed for successful cases.

Table 1a

| Model | $`M_{proj}`$ \[$`M_{}`$\] | $`M_{Fe}`$ \[$`M_{}`$\] | $`M_{calc}`$ \[$`M_{}`$\] | $`M_{inner}`$ \[$`M_{}`$\] | $`M_{remn}`$ \[$`M_{}`$\] | $`E_{exp}`$ \[$`10^{51}`$ erg\] |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| S11A | 11 | 1.32 | 1.42 | 0.87 | 1.15 | 1.7 |
| S12A | 12 | 1.32 | 1.36 | 0.86 | 1.08 | 1.7 |
| S13A | 13 | 1.41 | 1.62 | 0.87 | $``$ | $``$ |
| S15A | 15 | 1.32 | 1.56 | 0.87 | 1.14 | 1.5 |
| S18A | 18 | 1.46 | 1.84 | 0.89 | $``$ | $``$ |
| S20A | 20 | 1.74 | 2.20 | 0.88 | $``$ | $``$ |
| S15A-LS | 15 | 1.32 | 1.56 | 0.87 | 1.15 | 1.9 |

Table 1b

| Model | $`M_{proj}`$ \[$`M_{}`$\] | $`M_{Fe}`$ \[$`M_{}`$\] | $`M_{calc}`$ \[$`M_{}`$\] | $`M_{inner}`$ \[$`M_{}`$\] | $`M_{remn}`$ \[$`M_{}`$\] | $`E_{exp}`$ \[$`10^{51}`$ erg\] |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 3.3 | 13 | 1.18 | 1.38 | 0.83 | 1.06 | 1.8 |
| 4 | 15 | 1.28 | 1.41 | 0.83 | 1.08 | 1.7 |
| 5 | 18 | 1.36 | 1.62 | 0.85 | 1.13 | 1.7 |
| 6 | 20 | 1.40 | 1.67 | 0.84 | $``$ | $``$ |


format: text

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# Untitled Document

Baltic Astronomy, vol.12, XXX--XXX, 2003.

REDSHIFT MEASUREMENTS OF FAINT DISTANT
GIANT RADIO GALAXIES AND OBSERVATIONAL
CONSTRAINTS ON THEIR JET POWER AND
DYNAMICAL AGE

K. Chyży1 M. Jamrozy2 S. J. Kleinman3 J. Krzesiński3 J. Machalski1 R. McMillan3 A. Nitta3 N. Serafimovich4 and S. Zola1

1   Astronomical Observatory, Jagellonian University, ul. Orla 171,
30-244 Cracow, Poland

2   Radio Astronomical Institute, Bonn University, Auf dem Hügel 71,
53-121 Bonn, Germany

3   Apache Point Observatory, Sunspot, NM, USA

4   Special Astrophysical Observatory, Russian Academy of Science, Russia

Received: xx October 2003

## Abstract

The redshifts of faint radio galaxies identified with giant radio source candidates selected from the sample of Machalski et al. (2001) have been measured. Given the redshift, the projected linear size and radio luminosity are then determined. The above, supplemented with the axial ratio of the sources (evaluated from the radio maps) allows to constrain their jet power and the dynamical age using the analytical model of Kaiser et al. (1997) but modified by allowing the axial ratio of the source’s cocoon to evolve in time.

1.   THE SAMPLE AND ITS OPTICAL SPECTROSCOPY

We continue a supplement of the sample of faint giant radio galaxy candidates of Machalski, Jamrozy & Zola (2001) with further optical and radio data. The redshifts obtained for the sample host galaxies brighter than about 18.5 mag in the $`R`$ photometric band are given there.

The optical low-resolution spectra of a number of identified galaxies fainter than $`R18.5`$ mag are obtained with the APO 3.5m telescope equipped with the two-side spectrograph DIS-II and covering the spectral range of 3750–5600 Å(blue side) and 5500–9000 Å(red side). A 1.5′′ wide slit providing a dispersion of 3.15 Å per pixel and spectral resolution of about 7 Å were used. The wavelength calibration was carried out using exposures to argon/neon/helium lamp, and the flux calibration by short exposures of a spectrophotometric standard star close to the observed galaxy. The limited exposures of about 30 min were taken which was sufficient to determine a redshift for galaxies with emission lines detected but not for galaxies with continuum emission and absorption bands only. Therefore, we have been able to determine redshifts for the radio galaxies J1604+3438, J1649+3114, J1712+3558 and J1725+3923. Preliminary spectra for J1330+3850 and J1513+3841 show no emission lines and their crude redshift is estimated from the shape of calibrated continuum compared by eye with the template spectrum of elliptical galaxies (e.g. Kennicutt 1992). Examples of the APO spectra are shown in Fig. 1a, b.

3.   JET POWER, DYNAMICAL AGE, AND OTHER PARAMETERS

For an observational constraint on physical parameters of the investigated faint giant sources we use results of the Machalski et al.’s (2003) analysis. Their analysis is based on the analytical model of Kaiser et al. (1997) \[hereafter KDA model\] allowing to fit these parameters for a source with given radio luminosity, size, volume, and age. Having the redshift $`z`$, linear size $`D`$, 1.4 GHz luminosity, and axial ratio $`AR`$ – we fit the jet power $`Q_{jet}`$ and density of the central core $`\rho _0`$ for a given source at different ages. A range of possible values of $`Q_{jet}`$ and the dynamical age of a source is limited by the range of $`\rho _0`$. The expected values of $`Q_{jet}`$ and $`\rho _0`$ for different ages of the investigated giants are plotted in Fig. 2a, b, c.

Given $`Q_{jet}`$ and $`\rho _0`$ enable one to calculate energy density ($`u_c`$) and pressure ($`p_c`$) in the cocoon, total source energy ($`E_{tot}`$), ratio of adiabatic to radiation losses, etc. given in Table 1.

Table 1. Physical parameters of the investigated Giant radio galaxies derived from the observational data and expected from the model

| Source | $`z`$ | $`D`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$t(0.95 C.I.) | lg $`Q_{jet}`$ | lg $`\rho _0`$ | $`E_{tot}`$ | $`\frac{2Q_{jet}t_{est}}{E_c}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  |  | \[Mpc\] | \[Myr\] | \[W\] | \[kg m-3\] | \[J\] |  |
| J0720+2837 | 0.2705 | 1.91 | 38–103 | 37.82 | $``$23.84 | 52.61 | 8.1 |
| J0912+3510 | 0.2489 | 1.84 | 45–180 | 38.01 | $``$23.80 | 53.01 | 5.8 |
| J1253+4041 | 0.2302 | 1.28 | 38–165 | 37.56 | $``$23.89 | 52.45 | 5.8 |
| J1330+3850 | (0.63) | 2.70 | 47–185 | 38.48 | $``$23.64 | 53.43 | 6.8 |
| J1445+3051 | 0.420 | 1.90 | 27–110 | 38.35 | $``$23.67 | 52.97 | 8.6 |
| J1451+3357 | 0.3251 | 1.41 | 39–155 | 38.07 | $``$23.82 | 53.07 | 4.9 |
| J1453+3309 | 0.249 | 1.57 | 41–170 | 38.21 | $``$23.71 | 53.28 | 4.7 |
| J1513+3841 | (0.50) | 1.49 | 41–160 | 37.94 | $``$23.81 | 52.94 | 5.2 |
| J1555+3653 | 0.2472 | 1.63 | 35–150 | 37.91 | $``$23.82 | 52.75 | 6.7 |
| J1604+3438 | 0.2817 | 1.06 | 24–105 | 37.92 | $``$23.83 | 52.68 | 5.7 |
| J1604+3731 | 0.814 | 1.50 | 13—54 | 38.93 | $``$23.48 | 53.24 | 9.3 |
| J1615+3826 | 0.1853 | 1.10 | 34–140 | 37.30 | $``$23.96 | 52.08 | 6.4 |
| J1649+3114 | 0.4373 | 1.40 | 33–135 | 38.29 | $``$23.69 | 53.25 | 4.9 |
| J1712+3558 | 0.3357 | 1.23 | 27–115 | 37.96 | $``$23.77 | 52.72 | 6.0 |
| J1725+2923 | 0.2898 | 1.45 | 30–130 | 37.94 | $``$23.70 | 52.70 | 7.1 |

The data in Table 1 may suggest that a dispersion of all physical parameters of the investigated sources is rather low. This is caused by our assumption of the mean value of $`\rho _0`$ for a particular source (intersection of the solid lines in Fig. 2a, b, c) used to determine the other physical parameters. None the less, the jet power of our giants is very likely between $`10^{38}`$ and $`10^{39}`$ W, but for an individual source the uncertainty of $`Q_{jet}`$ is about 10% only! However, the uncertainty of its dynamical age may be about 200% (cf. column 4 in Table 1) because the dispersion of $`\rho _0`$ is large.

A comparison of the values of some parameters in Table 1 with the corresponding values for already known giant radio galaxies as well as ‘normal-size’ FRII-type sources are presented in Fig. 3a, b, c. Parameters of the investigated sources confirm that giants achieve the lowest values of energy density and pressure in their cocoons.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. MJ acknowledges the financial support from EAS.

References
Kaiser C. R., Dennett-Thorpe, J., Alexander P. 1997, MNRAS, 292, 723
Kunnicutt R. C. 1992, ApJS, 79, 255
Machalski J., Jamrozy M., Zola S. 2001, A&A, 371, 445
Machalski J., Chyży K. T., Jamrozy M. 2003, (submitted for MNRAS, astro-ph/0210546)


text:
# Broad absorption line quasars have the same cool dust emission as quasars without BALs

## 1. Introduction

About 15% of optically-selected quasars show metal absorption systems with huge blue-shifted velocities of several thousand kms-1. These broad absorption lines (BALs) are attributed to outflows located close to the accretion disk. The similarity of the continuum and line emission of BAL and non-BAL quasars motivates the hypothesis that BAL quasars are not intrinsically different from other quasars. The presence of BAL features in a fraction of quasars can be explained by a difference in viewing angle if the sub-relativistic outflow at the origin of the BAL features is not isotropic (Weymann et al. 1991). The popular notion that the outflow is preferentially located close to the edge of the torus surrounding the supermassive black hole has found support in spectropolarimetric measurements (Goodrich & Miller 1995; Cohen et al. 1995). However, studies of radio-loud BAL quasars, in which the radio properties give some information on the orientation, appear at odds with this simple orientation model (Becker et al. 2000). The other main contender as an interpretation of the BAL phenomenon is the evolutionary scenario of Briggs et al. (1984) in which all quasars pass through a BAL phase for $``$ 15% of their active lifetimes. The small sizes of the radio lobes in radio-loud BAL quasars (Becker et al. 2000) is suggestive of the BAL phase co-inciding with an early stage of quasar activity – perhaps removing a shroud of gas and dust from the nuclear region.

The sub-millimeter emission from quasars comes from optically-thin, cool dust and is therefore orientation-independent. It is also likely heated by young stars in starbursts which will evolve over the lifetime of the quasar. It is therefore the prime wavelength in which to discriminate between the orientation and evolutionary explanations of the BAL phenomenon. If all quasars contain BALs, then BAL quasars would be expected to have the same sub-millimeter properties as non-BAL quasars. But if the BAL phenomenon is a phase that all quasars go through, and is connected with the termination of large-scale star-formation, then the sub-millimeter emission should differ between BAL and non-BAL quasars. It is assumed that $`H_0=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}70}\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{M}=0.3`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$.

## 2. A sub-millimeter survey of broad absorption line quasars

We have observed with the JCMT a sample of BAL quasars selected from the SDSS EDR BAL sample of Reichard et al. (2003). The sample was designed to be as similar as possible to BAL quasars which do not show broad absorption lines which had already been observed at either the JCMT (Priddey et al. 2003) or IRAM (Omont et al. 2003). Here we briefly summarize the BAL sample selection: redshift range $`2<z<2.6`$, RA range 10h \- 18h, C iv balnicity index BI (Weymann et al. 1991) $`>200\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, dereddened absolute $`B`$-band $`M_B<26.6`$. Full details of this project are given in Willott, Rawlings & Grimes (2003).

The entire sample of 30 BAL quasars was observed in photometry mode with the SCUBA bolometer array at the JCMT from February to June 2003. We achieved our aim of reaching an rms sensitivity at 850 $`\mu `$m lower than 3.33 mJy (i.e. $`3\sigma =10`$ mJy) for all the BAL quasars observed. This sensitivity matches that obtained in the observations of the non-BAL comparison sample. Eight BAL quasars were detected at the $`>2\sigma `$ level (four of which are securely detected at the $`>3\sigma `$ level). The detected quasars span a range of $`z`$, $`M_B`$ and balnicity index. Although one can use the observed sub-mm flux to obtain an estimate of the far-IR luminosity, there are many uncertainties in this calculation. Since the relationship between flux and luminosity does not change much over the redshift range we are interested in for realistic dust spectral energy distributions, we will use the flux rather than luminosity in further analysis.

## 3. Comparing the sub-millimeter fluxes of BAL and non-BAL quasars

We carried out a variety of statistical tests on the sub-mm flux distributions of the BAL and non-BAL quasar samples. The aim was to determine whether there is any difference between these two types of quasar. The tests included sample statistics, such as the median, mean and weighted mean flux of each sample. No evidence for a difference between BAL and non-BAL quasars was found in these tests. The mean 850 $`\mu `$m fluxes of the BAL quasars is $`2.56\pm 0.67`$ mJy and for the non-BAL quasars it is $`3.34\pm 0.64`$ mJy.

Due to the large number of 850 $`\mu `$m upper limits in both samples, we also use survival analysis statistical tests which can account for these limits (Feigelson & Nelson 1985; Isobe, Feigelson & Nelson 1986). To minimise the number of upper limits, we consider sources with snr $`>2`$ to be detections for these tests. We wish to determine whether the 850 $`\mu `$m flux distributions of the BAL and non-BAL quasars are different. Using a variety of tests (the Gehan, logrank and Peto-Prentice tests), the returned probabilities that the fluxes of the BAL and non-BAL samples are drawn from the same distribution lie in the range (54-99%). Again, we find no evidence that BAL and non-BAL quasars differ in their sub-millimeter fluxes.

In Fig. 1 we plot the sub-millimeter fluxes of the BAL and non-BAL quasars as a function of their absolute optical magnitude. Due to the fact that the non-BAL quasars come from samples with a brighter optical magnitude limit than the SDSS, the absolute magnitudes of the non-BAL quasars are brighter than those of the BAL quasars by about one magnitude. We have to be careful that a correlation between sub-millimeter flux (luminosity) and optical luminosity is not affecting our results. For example a positive correlation between optical and sub-millimeter luminosity combined with enhanced sub-millimeter luminosity in BAL quasars could have led to the observed result that the two samples have indistinguishable sub-millimeter flux distributions.

The question of whether there is a correlation between the sub-millimeter and optical luminosities has been addressed before (Priddey et al. 2003; Omont et al. 2003) and the consensus is that there is no measurable correlation. We use the survival analysis bivariate correlation tests to assess the signficance of any correlations in these datasets. We find no significant correlation in the BAL quasar sample, but a very significant anti-correlation in the non-BAL sample of 41 quasars. The reason that we have now detected this positive correlation between the sub-millimeter and optical luminosities may be that by combining the samples over a restricted redshift range we have disentangled luminosity and redshift effects.

For the purposes of our BAL quasar survey we wish to know if the existence of a correlation between $`S_{850}`$ and $`M_B`$ could affect our findings. The median absolute magnitude of the BAL sample is $`M_B=27.2`$ and for the non-BAL sample it is $`M_B=28.2`$. Therefore, we scale the observed sub-millimeter fluxes of the BAL sample by a factor of 1.5 (except for those with negative flux) to simulate the effects of a correlation with slope similar to that observed in the non-BAL sample (and plotted in Fig. 1). We repeated the two sample tests with these scaled BAL fluxes and the comparison sample of non-BAL quasars. The probabilities that the sub-millimeter fluxes of the BAL and non-BAL samples are drawn from the same distribution are 14% and 27%. This test shows that, even after allowing for the effects of a weak correlation between sub-mm flux and $`M_B`$, there is not a significant difference between BAL and non-BAL quasars.

Our observations and analysis have shown that quasars with broad absorption lines show the same sub-millimeter properties as quasars without broad absorption lines. What does this tell us about the nature of the BALs and the evolution of quasars? Since sub-millimeter emission is optically-thin there should be no orientation dependence of sub-millimeter emission. Our finding that the sub-millimeter emission is not related to the presence of a BAL is therefore consistent with the orientation hypothesis that all quasars contains BALs, but only a fraction of them are visible along our line-of-sight. Our results are inconsistent with a model in which the presence of BALs is associated with a special epoch in quasar/galaxy evolution co-inciding with a large dust mass and a high star-formation rate. However there are other evolutionary models which could be made consistent with our data. For a fuller description of this project and its implications the interested reader is referred to Willott et al. (2003).

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Willott, C. J., Rawlings, S., & Grimes, J. A. 2003, ApJ, in press, astro-ph/0308192