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# Centrifugal Acceleration in Pulsar Magnetosphere

## 1. Introduction

It is important to understand the charged particle dynamics in the pulsar magnetosphere to unravel the radiation mechanism of pulsars. The particles are constrained to move strictly along the field lines, owing to the super-strong magnetic field that the gyration of the particles are almost suppressed. The equation of motion for a charged particle moving along the rotating field line is given by Gangadhara (1996). Here we extend this work to obtain an analytical expression for particle trajectory and Stokes parameters. The pulsar rotation effects such as aberration and retardation can create asymmetric pulse profiles

## 2. Dynamics of a Charged Particle

The equation of motion of a charged particle along a rotating magnetic field line is given by (Gangadhara 1996)

$$\frac{d}{dt}\left(m\frac{dr}{dt}\right)=m\mathrm{\Omega }^2r,\gamma =\left(1\frac{\dot{r}^2}{c^2}\frac{r^2\mathrm{\Omega }^2}{c^2}\right)^{1/2}$$
(1)
where $`m=m_0\gamma `$ is the relativistic electron mass, $`m_0`$ is the rest mass, c is the speed of light, $`\gamma `$ is the Lorentz factor, $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{}=\mathrm{\Omega }\sqrt{1b^2/r^2}`$ is the effective angular velocity of the particle, and $`b=d_0\mathrm{cos}\theta _0.`$ We have solved this equation and obtained the analytical solution:

$$r=\frac{c\sqrt{1+D^2}}{\mathrm{\Omega }}cn(\lambda \mathrm{\Omega }t),$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{cn}(\lambda \mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{t})`$ is the Jacobian Elliptical cosine function (Abramowitz $`\&`$ Stegun),

$$D=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }d_0\mathrm{cos}\theta _0}{c},\lambda =\underset{0}{\overset{\varphi _0}{}}\frac{d\zeta }{\sqrt{1k^2\mathrm{sin}\zeta ^2}},\varphi _0=\mathrm{arccos}\left(\frac{r_0\mathrm{\Omega }}{c}\right),$$

$`r_o`$ the initial particle injection point, $`d_o`$ the distance between magnetic pole and rotation axis in the projected 2D plane, $`\theta _o`$ the initial injection angle with respect to meridional plane, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ the angular velocity of the pulsar, k is an integration constant, $`\zeta `$ is a dummy variable, $`\theta `$ is the angle that the line of sight makes with the 2D plane. Using the expression for the ’r’ an approximate value for $`\rho `$, the radius of curvature of the particle in the lab frame, is found out to be $`\rho \sqrt{1+D^2}r_L/2`$ where $`r_L`$ is the light cylinder radius.

For a pulsar with period of 1 s, we estimated the components of the electric field of radiation and hence the Stokes parameters. In Fig. 1a, we have plotted the intensity $`I`$, linear polarization $`L,`$ and in Fig. 1b circular polarization $`V`$ is plotted. Due to aberration-retardation phase shift the profile is asymmetric about the center $`(\varphi =0)`$ of the profile. It also shows that leading part of the profile is stronger than trailing part. Since line of sight stays above or below the plane of particle trajectory, circular polarization becomes one sense, as observed in many pulsars.

## References

Abramowitz & Stegun, 1972, A hand book of mathematical functions, Dover Publications.

Gangadhara, R. T., 1996, A&A, 314, 853

Peyman, A., Gangadhara, R. T., 2002, ApJ, 566, 365


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# Stabilized two-dimensional vector solitons

## Abstract

In this letter we introduce the concept of stabilized vector solitons as nonlinear waves constructed by addition of mutually incoherent Townes solitons that are stabilized under the effect of a periodic modulation of the nonlinearity. We analyze the stability of this new kind of structures and describe their behavior and formation in Manakov-like interactions. Potential applications of our results in Bose-Einstein condensation and nonlinear optics are also discussed.

Since the introduction of the concept of soliton as solitary water waves with robust asymptotic behavior after mutual collisions, many other physical systems have been found with similar dynamics, always described by nonlinear wave equations Akh . For solitons of Nonlinear Schrödinger equations (NLSE), the main interest in the early investigations was related with practical applications in optical telecommunications, nowadays well established KIV . The recent interest on solitons in the field of Bose-Einstein Condensation (BEC) in alkali gases with negative scattering length bright1 ; bright2 ; bright3 ; bright4 , shows the timeliness of the topic and its central place in modern physics.

Despite the success of the concept of soliton, these structures arise mostly in 1+1-dimensional configurations. In the NLSE case this is mainly due to the well known collapse property in multi-dimensional scenarios Sulem . In the Optical context, collapse means that a laser beam with power higher than a critique threshold, will be strongly self-focused to a singularity when propagates in a Kerr-type nonlinear medium, whereas for lower powers it will spread as it propagates. This behavior has also been observed in experiments with matter waves collapse .

Since collapse prevents the stability of multidimensional “soliton bullets” in systems ruled by NLSE, a great effort has been devoted to search for systems with stable solitary waves in multidimensional configurations bullets . A new way to generate stabilized two-dimensional solitary waves has been recently proposed for optical systems Berge ; IsaacLayered . The idea is to prevent collapse by using a spatial modulation of the Kerr coefficient (the nonlinearity) of the optical material so that the beam becomes collapsing and expanding in alternating regions and is stabilized in average. The idea has been extended to the field of matter waves in Refs. Ueda ; pisaBoris . Finally, in Ref. Gaspar  some general results are provided.

In the present paper we will extend this analysis to the case of mutually incoherent beams with unexpected and surprising results. This is, to our knowledge, the first theoretical evidence of two-dimensional stabilized vector solitons (SVS), a new kind of nonlinear waves which can be constructed in two ways: by direct combination of several Townes solitons or as a result of Manakov interactions Manakov  between Townes solitons. In both cases, the stabilization against collapse is obtained by the effect of a peridodic modulation of the nonlinearity.

The model.- Let us consider a $`n`$-component system modelled by equations of the type

$$i\frac{u_j}{t}=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Delta }u_j+g(t)\left(\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}a_{jk}|u_k|^2\right)u_j,$$
(1)
where $`j=1,\mathrm{},n`$, $`u_j:^+\times ^2,\mathrm{\Delta }=^2/x^2+^2/y^2,a_{jk}`$ are the nonlinear coupling coefficients and $`g(t)`$ is a periodic function accounting for the modulation of the nonlinearity.

Eqs. (1) are the natural extension of the Manakov system Manakov  to two transverse dimensions and an arbitrary number of components. In Optics, for spatial solitons $`t`$ is the propagation coordinate and $`u_j`$ are $`n`$ mutually incoherent beams. One-dimensional Manakov-type models have been extensively studied in nonlinear optics, mainly due to the potential applications of Manakov solitons in the design of all-optical computing devices todos . In BEC these equations (with an additional trapping term) describe the dynamics of multicomponent condensates, $`u_j`$ being the wavefunctions for each of the atomic species involved PRLdual ; Nature .

In the scalar case ($`n=1`$), it is well known that, if $`g`$ is constant, there is a stationary radially symmetric solution of Eq. (1) (the so-called Townes soliton): $`u(𝐫,t)=\mathrm{\Phi }(r)e^{i\lambda t}`$. This solution is unstable meaning that the value of the norm $`N^{1/2}=(|\mathrm{\Phi }|^2)^{1/2}`$ is critical in the sense that any generic slight perturbation of the initial condition will yield to collapse or spreading of the distribution. We must also notice that, due to the scaling invariance of the cubic NLS, a family of Townes solitons can be generated by making $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\lambda (r,t)=\lambda \mathrm{\Phi }(\lambda r,\lambda ^2t)`$.

It has been shown in Gaspar  that an adequate modulation of the nonlinearity, will asymptotically stabilize a Townes soliton yielding to a rapidly oscillating stabilized Townes soliton (STS), which we refer hereatfer as $`\mathrm{\Phi }_S`$. In this paper, we take $`g(t)=g_0+g_1\mathrm{cos}\mathrm{\Omega }t`$ but we expect that most of our results with similar periodic functions will be qualitatively the same Gaspar .

Stabilized Vector Solitons (SVS).- For a given set of parameters $`a_{jk}`$ it is possible to use stabilized Townes solitons to build explicit solutions of Eqs. (1). These solutions are constructed by taking $`u_j=\mathrm{\Phi }_{S_j}\alpha _j\mathrm{\Phi }_S,j=1,\mathrm{},n`$ for any set of coefficients $`\alpha _j`$ satisfying

$$a_{j1}\alpha _1^2+\mathrm{}+a_{jn}\alpha _n^2=1,j=1,\mathrm{},n.$$
(2)
It is not obvious that these new solutions will be stabilized by a periodic modulation $`g(t)`$ of the nonlinearity. Writing $`u_j=\mathrm{\Phi }_{S_j}+\delta _j`$ the equations for $`\delta _j`$ contain cross-modulation terms which could lead to growth of these small perturbations. To test that the stabilization is possible in a wide range of configurations, we have considered several important examples. First, we have studied the most relevant case $`n=2`$ and integrated numerically Eqs. (1) with different initial data of the form $`u_j=\alpha _j\mathrm{\Phi }_S`$ satisfying (2) and found that these new vector solitons remain stabilized as shown in Fig. 1. From now on we will name these structures as Stabilized Vector Solitons (SVS). We will see below how they emerge in collisions of mutually incoherent STSs, which correspond to the so-called Manakov interactions Manakov .

We have studied other situations such as a symmetric superposition of four STS ($`n=4`$) with $`\alpha _j=1/\sqrt{4}`$ and found similar results. Thus, these structures exist in a wide range of parameters and configurations.

Manakov interactions of STS.- Depending on the mutual velocity of the two interacting STS, we have divided the regime of collisions in two different ones: fast and slow collisions. As we will see below, one of the main results of our work is the possibility of obtaining SVS after slow collisions of STS.

First we have studied collisions of “fast” STSs after which the solitons emerge with only moderate modifications of their amplitude and width as is shown in Fig. 2. It can be seen \[Fig. 2(b)\] that during the collision, the soliton becomes spatially asymmetric. An internal asymmetric breathing mode of small amplitude is excited which decays at longer times (not shown in the figure) to the “normal” symmetric breathing mode shown by STSs.

These behaviors can be accounted for by a finite-dimensional reduction of Eqs. (1) by means of the time-dependent variational approach. Notice that Eqs. (1) can be obtained from the Lagrangian density

$$\begin{array}{c}=\frac{i}{2}\left(u_1\frac{u_1^{}}{t}+u_2\frac{u_2^{}}{t}+\text{h.c.}\right)+\frac{1}{2}|u_1|^2+\frac{1}{2}|u_2|^2\hfill \\ \hfill +\frac{g(t)}{2}\left(a_{11}|u_1|^4+2a_{12}|u_1|^2|u_2|^2+a_{22}|u_2|^4\right).\end{array}$$
(3)
We choose a simple ansatz accounting for head-on symmetric collisions of equal stabilized solitons moving with opposite speeds and centered on $`(\mathrm{},0)`$ and $`(\mathrm{},0)`$

$`u_1`$ $`=`$ $`Ae^{(x\mathrm{})^2/2\omega _x^2y^2/2\omega _y^2+i\beta _xx^2+i\beta _yy^2}e^{ivx},`$ (4a)
$`u_2`$ $`=`$ $`Ae^{(x+\mathrm{})^2/2\omega _x^2y^2/2\omega _y^2+i\beta _xx^2+i\beta _yy^2}e^{ivx}.`$ (4b)
Although gaussians do not have the right asymptotic decay as STSs, our choice simplifies the calculations and is enough for our present objectives. The standard variational method Boris  leads to the equations (for $`a_{jk}=1`$)

$`\ddot{\mathrm{}}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{}{\displaystyle \frac{Ng(t)}{\pi w_x^3w_y}}e^{2\mathrm{}^2/w_x^2},`$ (5a)
$`\ddot{w}_x`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega _x^3}}+{\displaystyle \frac{Ng(t)}{2\pi \omega _x^2\omega _y}}\left[1+e^{2\mathrm{}^2/w_x^2}\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{4\mathrm{}^2}{\omega _x^2}}\right)\right],`$ (5b)
$`\ddot{w}_y`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{w_y^3}}+{\displaystyle \frac{Ng(t)}{2\pi w_xw_y^2}}\left(1+e^{2\mathrm{}^2/w_x^2}\right),`$ (5c)
together with the complementary relations $`\beta _j=\dot{w}_j/2\omega _j`$, $`(j=x,y)`$, $`v=\dot{\mathrm{}}2\mathrm{}\beta _x`$, and the conservation law $`N(t)=\pi |A|^2\omega _x\omega _y=\pi |A(0)|^2\omega _x(0)\omega _y(0)`$. The different terms in Eqs. (5) account for the phenomenology shown in Fig. 2 and other “fast collisions” studied. For example, they contain the asymmetric interaction (notice the differences between Eqs. (5b) and (5c)) due to the fact that both solitons approach along the $`x`$ axis and thus become more elongated along that direction as seen in Fig. 2(b). We have numerically integrated Eqs. (5) for fast collisions taking as initial data stabilized gaussian functions IsaacLayered ; Gaspar  and have found results similar to those shown in Fig. 2.

The regime of slow collisions is in the range $`|v_2v_1|3`$. In this case the collisions of STSs lead to the formation of two vector solitons as shown in Fig. 3(a,b). It is remarkable and one of the main results of the paper that the collision mechanism allows the complex coherent rearrangement necessary for the formation of the vector solitons. The fraction of “mass” interchanged by the incoming solitons is a function of the only relevant parameter for direct collisions $`|v_2v_1|`$ (due to the Galilean invariance) as shown in Fig. 4(a). In the range $`0.2<|v_2v_1|<3`$ we observe formation of two vector solitons which seem to be either unstable or performing high amplitude oscillations for higher speeds and stable in the lower range of speeds (approximately $`0.2<|v_2v_1|<1.2`$). If the speed is decreased further we observe two outgoing vector solitons with complex transient dynamics and nontrivial dependence of the fraction transferred as a function of $`|v_2v_1|`$.

Finally, if the initial speed of the colliding solitons is very small or zero, we have observed a quasi-bound state of two SVSs which shows several recurrent collisions as shown in Fig. 5. From our simulations we cannot conclude if this is a true bound state or it finally decays to vector solitons. In Fig. 4(b) we summarize the results of our numerical exploration of STS collisions.

We want to point out that Eqs. (5) provide a reasonably good description of the phenomena described here as far as the ansatz given by Eqs. (4) can describe these complex dynamical behaviors. An example: for very low speeds the variational equations predict the formation of an oscillating bound state of two STSs. Although this is not the real behavior (a bound state of two SVSs is formed) we get bound states.

The formation of vector solitons from stabilized scalar solitons is a nontrivial phenomenon since there is a delicate balance of both components which must be satisfied in order to avoid destabilization either to collapse or expansion of these structures. It is curious that the system is able to interchange just the right amount of energy to keep both solitons bounded. In fact, the collision mechanism described here can be seen as a way to generate appropriate stabilized vector solitons up from STSs which could be otherwise difficult to obtain. This is another proof of the structural stability of these new physical objects.

It is also remarkable that no collapse phenomena is observed in our simulations, rather instead most of the collisions observed lead to remarkably robust scalar or vector solitons. This is very different from what happens in coherent collisions of STSs which lead to collapse.

*Conclusions.-* In this paper we have described a new type of vector solitons, the stabilized vector solitons (SVS). We have studied their stability and shown how they arise in Manakov collisions of STSs. Other phenomena seen in collisions of STSs have been described and analyzed such as “quasi”-bound state formation and excitation of asymmetric oscillation modes.

We must stress that the limit $`n\mathrm{}`$ of our model could be used to study nonlinear propagation of totally incoherent light. In BEC a detailed investigation of the above system could have implications in the study of decoherence effects in BECs.

G. D. M. and V. M. P-G. are partially supported by Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología (MCyT) under grants BFM2000-0521 and BFM2003-02832 and Consejería de Ciencia y Tecnología de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha under grant PAC-02-002. G. D. M. acknowledges support from grant AP2001-0535 from MECD. H. M. is partially supported by MCyT under grant TIC-2000-1105-C03-01.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Precision tests have shown a remarkable agreement between experimental data and predictions from the Standard Model, especially in the electroweak sector . However, the Standard Model does not explain the huge value of the Planck scale ($`M_{\text{Pl}}`$) with respect to the electroweak scale ($`M_{\text{EW}}`$): $`M_{\text{Pl}}/M_{\text{EW}}10^{16}`$. It has recently been pointed out that this hierarchy problem can be solved if gravity propagates in more dimensions than the Standard Model particles.

Arkani-Hamed, Dimopoulos and Dvali (ADD) proposed a model  in which gravity propagates freely in $`n`$ extra, compact spatial dimensions. In their model, the electroweak scale is the only fundamental scale, and the apparent large Planck scale follows directly from the existence of extra dimensions. From a generalization of the gravitational potential in $`4+n`$ dimensions, they find for the radius $`R`$ of these extra dimensions: $`R\frac{1}{M_\text{S}}(M_{\text{Pl}}/M_\text{S})^{2/n}`$, where $`M_\text{S}`$ is the fundamental scale in $`4+n`$ dimensions, and $`M_{\text{Pl}}`$ is the apparent 4-dimensional Planck scale. Taking $`M_\text{S}M_{\text{EW}}`$, $`R1\text{mm}`$ for $`n=2`$ and $`R1\text{nm}`$ for $`n3`$. It is remarkable that from direct gravitational measurements, only $`n2`$ has been excluded at present . Note that in the ADD approach, the size of the extra dimensions is “large” with respect to $`1/M_{\text{EW}}`$.

Randall and Sundrum (RS) propose a 5-dimensional model  in which the 4-dimensional metric is multiplied by an exponential “warp” factor $`e^{2kr_c\varphi }`$, where $`k`$ is the 5-dimensional Planck scale. The fifth dimension appears as a finite interval $`0\varphi \pi `$ whose size is given by $`r_c`$. Even if $`r_c`$ is small, a large hierarchy can be generated by this exponential factor. In other words, the size of the extra dimension in the RS model is relatively small compared to the size of the extra dimensions in the ADD approach.

In both models, effects of the extra dimensions could become visible in collider experiments at the TeV scale.

### 1.1 Experimental Signatures

In hadron-hadron collisions, real gravitons can be produced in association with a jet or a photon . The graviton propagates in the extra dimensions and is therefore invisible in a detector. It will manifest itself as missing transverse energy ($`/E_\text{T}`$).

Virtual graviton exchange will modify the cross section for di-lepton and di-photon production. The exact experimental observation is different for the two models. In the RS model, the size of the extra dimension is small and thus the separation between the Kaluza-Klein modes (quantized energy levels in the finite extra dimension) of the graviton is large. Therefore, the graviton will be produced resonantly. However, in the ADD model the separation between the graviton Kaluza-Klein modes is small (as small as $`2\text{ keV}`$ for $`n=4`$ ) due to the size of the extra dimensions. This will lead to an overall modification of the cross section at high di-lepton or di-photon invariant mass.

The cross section for di-lepton or di-photon production in the presence of extra dimensions can be written as

$$\frac{\text{d}^2\sigma }{\text{d}M\text{d}\mathrm{cos}\theta ^{}}=f_{\text{SM}}+f_{\text{int}}\eta _G+f_{\text{KK}}\eta _G^2,$$
(1)
with $`\eta _G=/M_\text{S}^4`$. The parameter $`M`$ is the invariant mass of the two particles and $`\theta ^{}`$ is the scattering angle in the centre-of-mass frame. The term $`f_{\text{SM}}`$ describes the Standard Model cross section, $`f_{\text{int}}`$ the interference of the graviton-induced amplitude with that of the Standard Model processes, and $`f_{\text{KK}}`$ describes the pure graviton exchange term. Different formalisms exist for the dimensionless parameter $``$:

$``$ $`=`$ $`1,(\text{GRW }\text{[5]});`$ (2)
$``$ $`=`$ $`\{\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{log}(\frac{M_\text{S}^2}{M^2})\hfill & n=2\hfill \\ \frac{2}{n2}\hfill & n>2\hfill \end{array},(\text{HLZ }\text{[6]});`$ (5)
$``$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\lambda }{\pi }}=\pm {\displaystyle \frac{2}{\pi }},(\text{Hewett }\text{[7]}).`$ (6)
In the remainder of this paper, experimental searches for graviton emission and exchange at the Tevatron $`\text{p}\overline{\text{p}}`$ collider will be presented. During Run I, the $`\text{p}\overline{\text{p}}`$ centre-of-mass energy was $`1.8\text{ TeV}`$ whereas during the ongoing Run II, it has been increased to $`1.96\text{ TeV}`$, with higher instantaneous and integrated luminosities. In addition, a brief overview of prospects at the LHC pp collider ($`\sqrt{s}=14\text{ TeV}`$) is given. This is discussed in more detail in .

## 2 Experimental Results

### 2.1 Graviton Emission in the ADD Model

The CDF collaboration has searched for graviton emission in the jets + $`/E_\text{T}`$ channel, based on an integrated luminosity of $`84\text{pb}^1`$ collected during Run I. The main background in this channel is $`\mathrm{Z}`$ \+ jets production, where the $`\mathrm{Z}`$ boson decays invisibly in a neutrino-antineutrino pair. As can be seen from the $`/E_\text{T}`$ distribution in Fig. 1, the data agree well with expectation in the absence of extra dimensions.

This leads to lower limits on $`M_\text{S}`$ of 1 TeV, 770 GeV, 710 GeV for $`n=2,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}6}`$, respectively222All limits are given at 95% confidence level.. These results are very similar to the previously established DØ limits in this channel . A similar search by the CDF collaboration in the $`\gamma `$ \+ $`/E_\text{T}`$ channel gives no excess above the expectation from the Standard Model and thus lower limits on $`M_\text{S}`$ of 549 GeV, 581 GeV, 602 GeV for $`n=4,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}6},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}8}`$, respectively. The sensitivity in the jets + $`/E_\text{T}`$ sample is higher due to the larger cross section.

At the LHC, with $`100\text{fb}^1`$ of integrated luminosity, discovery of extra dimensions in the jets$`+/E_\text{T}`$ channel is possible up to high mass scales. As shown by the ATLAS collaboration , significant signals can be found up to values of $`M_\text{S}`$ of 9.1 TeV, 7.0 TeV, 6.0 TeV for $`n=2,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}`$.

### 2.2 Graviton Exchange in the ADD Model

Both the CDF and DØ collaborations have searched for virtual graviton exchange in the ADD model. CDF analyzed the invariant mass spectrum of photon pairs from an integrated luminosity of approximately $`95\text{pb}^1`$, collected during Run I. The selected sample agrees well with the expectation from Standard Model induced di-photon production and from misidentified di-photon events. A similar agreement was found in a di-electron sample, leading to lower limits on $`M_\text{S}`$ in the Hewett convention (see Eq. (6)) given in Table 1.

The DØ collaboration presented results on di-muon events in 30$`\text{pb}^1`$ of integrated luminosity in Run II. Background to graviton exchange in this decay mode is mainly caused by Standard Model di-muon production, estimated from a Monte Carlo simulation, and by heavy quark decay, estimated from the data itself. Similarly, di-photon and di-electron events were studied in 120$`\text{pb}^1`$ of integrated luminosity in Run II. Background from Standard Model di-photon and di-electron production was estimated from Monte Carlo simulations, and background from misidentified QCD events was derived from the data sample. In both channels, a good agreement between data and background estimates was observed in distributions of both the invariant mass and the scattering angle.

A 10-15% higher sensitivity to graviton exchange is expected from fitting the data in the $`M`$ versus $`\mathrm{cos}\theta ^{}`$ plane  instead of in $`M`$ only. This is illustrated in Fig. 2. In the di-muon sample, such a two-dimensional fit (see Eq. (1)) yields $`\eta _G=0.02\pm 1.35\text{ TeV}^4`$ and in the combined di-photon, di-electron sample $`\eta _G=0.0\pm 0.15\text{ TeV}^4`$. This translates into lower limits on $`M_\text{S}`$ given in Table 2.

### 2.3 Graviton Resonance Production in the RS Model

The CDF collaboration has performed a search for graviton resonance production in the di-muon and di-electron decay channels, using an integrated luminosity of 72$`\text{pb}^1`$ collected during Run II. The invariant mass distribution found in this data in both channels agrees well with the expectation from the Standard Model, as shown in Fig. 3 for the di-electron channel. This leads to lower limits on the RS graviton, given in Table 3. The ATLAS collaboration expects a sensitivity up to a mass of 2 TeV in 100$`\text{fb}^1`$ of integrated luminosity at the LHC .

## 3 Conclusion and Outlook

To explain the large difference between the Planck scale and the electroweak scale, models have been proposed in which gravity propagates in more than four dimensions. The effects of these higher dimensional models were searched for at the Tevatron, and were not found, yet. Lower limits on the higher dimensional Planck scale were set, reaching over 1 TeV in current Tevatron Run II data. The combined di-photon and di-electron sample of DØ provides the most stringent limits on the ADD model. In the near future, more data from Run II at the Tevatron will become available, increasing the sensitivity to extra dimensions. After 2007, the experiments at the LHC will take over and explore and possibly discover extra dimensions up to multi- TeV scales.


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# Condensation in ideal Fermi gases

## 1 Introduction

Huge progress have been made in the last decade in cooling trapped Fermi or Bose gases down to the Fermi degeneracy temperature or to the onset of the Bose-Einstein condensation, respectively (see for example Refs.  and citations therein). Tuning experimental parameters, like the trap frequency or the magnetic fields applied, one can change the strength of the interaction between the particles and the density of the gas. This freedom, which allows for more accurate comparison between theory and experiment, led to a burst of scientific research in the field. The quantum effects in these gases (fermionic degeneracy and Bose-Einstein condensation) are usually observed at temperatures around or below 1 $`\mu `$K. Such temperatures can only be achieved by evaporative cooling , but the time scale for the cooling process depends strongly on the elastic collision rate of the particles, which determines the thermalization rate . In the case of fermions, at temperatures below the Fermi temperature, the scattering probability falls dramatically due to the Pauli blocking mechanism, which makes cooling very slow. In contrast to this, in the case of bosons, the presence of the Bose-Einstein condensate enhances the cooling rate due to the assisted scattering of hot particles out of the trap, and the cooling process can continue until almost all the gas is condensed. In analogy to the bosonic case, the existence of a condensate in the Fermi system would create the possibility of producing a highly degenerate Fermi gas by removing (evaporating) the particles above the condensate. Moreover, the Fermi condensate might have the same role of enhancing the cooling rate, as the Bose-Einstein condensate. It is well known that a Fermi gas with BCS interaction undergoes a phase transition to a condensed, superconducting phase . In this paper I shall show that a condensate may exist even in ideal Fermi gases.

At low temperatures, there will be a number $`N_0`$ of fermions that occupy the lowest single-particle states. If I number the single particle states from $`0`$ to $`\mathrm{}`$, starting from lowest energy level and going up-wards, then the first unoccupied state is numbered $`N_0+1`$. (The order of the degenerate levels is not important for macroscopic systems.) If $`N_0`$ is a macroscopic number, then I will say that it forms a condensate (see figure 1).

Usually, at low temperatures the particles below the Fermi level are said to be on the “Fermi ground state” (see for example Refs. ). The only distinctive physical property of the Fermi energy is that at (very) low temperatures, the particle and hole populations are symmetric with respect to it. Due to the analogy between the Bose-Einstein condensate (see Ref. ) and the Fermi condensate I suggest that the Fermi condensate may be better suited for the role of Fermi ground state.

In Appendix B of Ref.  I showed that a condensate forms in an interacting system (with constant density of states), with general microscopic exclusion statistics properties . At the condensation temperature the system undergoes a first order phase transition. In  I showed how the condensation in the corresponding noninteracting system changes the character of this phase transition.

## 2 Condensation

Let me consider a Fermi system at temperature $`T`$ and chemical potential $`\mu `$. Its grandcanonical partition function is

$$𝒵=\underset{m}{}\mathrm{exp}\left[\beta (U_m\mu N_m)\right],$$
(1)
where the sum is taken over all the microstates $`m`$, of internal energy $`U_m`$ and particle number $`N_m`$; as usual, $`\beta (k_\mathrm{B}T)^1`$. If the system is ideal, then $`N_m=_{i=0}^{\mathrm{}}n_{i,m}`$ and $`U_m=_{i=0}^{\mathrm{}}n_{i,m}ϵ_i`$, where by $`ϵ_i`$ I denote the energy of the single particle states. I take $`ϵ_0=0`$ and $`ϵ_iϵ_{i+1}`$, for any $`i0`$, as mentioned in the Introduction section. On each single particle state there are $`n_{i,m}=0`$ or 1 particles. Introducing the expressions for $`U_m`$ and $`N_m`$ into equation (1), I can rewrite $`𝒵`$ in the well-known form,

$$𝒵=\underset{i=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\underset{n_i=0}{\overset{1}{}}\mathrm{exp}[\beta (ϵ_i\mu )n_i]=\underset{i=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left\{1+\mathrm{exp}[\beta (ϵ_i\mu )]\right\}.$$
(2)
The logarithm of $`𝒵`$ is related to the grandcanonical thermodynamic potential,

$$\beta \mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{log}𝒵=\underset{i=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (\mu ϵ_i)}\right].$$
(3)
The probability of the microstate $`m`$ is $`w_m=𝒵^1\mathrm{exp}\left[\beta (U_m\mu N_m)\right]`$.

I assume that for particles in an arbitrary trap and arbitrary number of dimensions, the density of states (DOS) has the expression $`\sigma (ϵ)Cϵ^s`$, where $`C`$ and $`s`$ are constants (I take $`s>1`$). For example if particles of mass $`m`$ are in a $`d`$-dimensional box of volume $`V`$, then $`C=V(2\pi )^{d/2}\mathrm{\Gamma }^1(d/2+1)d(m/\mathrm{}^2)^{d/2}`$ and $`s=d/21`$. I shall use the same procedure as in Ref. , to calculate the number of condensed particles. For this, let me calculate the probability that the lowest $`N_0+1`$ states are completely occupied, i.e. $`n_{0iN_0}=1`$ and $`n_{i>N_0}`$ may be either 0 or 1. The probability of such a configuration is

$`\stackrel{~}{w}_{N_0+1}`$ $`=`$ $`𝒵^1\mathrm{exp}\left[\beta {\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{N_0}{}}}ϵ_i\beta \mu (N_0+1)\right]{\displaystyle \underset{i=N_0+1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{n_i=0}{\overset{1}{}}}\mathrm{exp}[\beta (ϵ_i\mu )n_i]`$ (4)
$`=`$ $`𝒵^1\mathrm{exp}\left[\beta {\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{N_0}{}}}ϵ_i\beta \mu (N_0+1)\right]{\displaystyle \underset{i=N_0+1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left\{1+\mathrm{exp}[\beta (ϵ_i\mu )]\right\}.`$
Using the expression for $`\sigma `$ to transform the summation $`_{i=0}^{N_0}ϵ_i`$ into an integral and denoting $`𝒵_{\mathrm{ex}}(N_0,\beta ,\beta \mu )_{i=N_0+1}^{\mathrm{}}\left\{1+\mathrm{exp}[\beta (ϵ_i\mu )]\right\}`$, equation (4) becomes

$$\stackrel{~}{w}_{N_0+1}=\mathrm{exp}\left[\beta C\frac{ϵ_0^{s+2}}{s+2}+\beta \mu C\frac{ϵ_0^{s+1}}{s+1}\right]\frac{𝒵_{\mathrm{ex}}(N_0,\beta ,\beta \mu )}{𝒵}\frac{\stackrel{~}{𝒵}_{N_0}}{𝒵},$$
(5)
where $`ϵ_0`$ is given by the equation $`N_0=Cϵ_0^{s+1}/(s+1)`$ (is the level up to which all the states are occupied by $`N_0+1`$ particles), while $`𝒵_{\mathrm{ex}}(N_0,\beta ,\beta \mu )`$ is the partition function of the particles above the level $`ϵ_0`$. Note that $`_{N_0}\stackrel{~}{w}_{N_0}1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{𝒵}_{N_0=0}𝒵`$. $`\stackrel{~}{w}_{N_0+1}`$ is the probability that at least $`N_0+1`$ particles are condensed.

The quantity of direct relevance here is the probability to have exactly $`N_0`$ particle condensed. Such a configuration is obtained by removing the particle from the level $`ϵ_{N_0}=ϵ_0`$. Doing this in equation (4) or (5), I obtain the probability

$$w_{N_0}=\mathrm{exp}\left[\beta \left(C\frac{ϵ_0^{s+2}}{s+2}ϵ_0\right)+\beta \mu \left(C\frac{ϵ_0^{s+1}}{s+1}1\right)\right]\frac{𝒵_{\mathrm{ex}}(N_0,\beta ,\beta \mu )}{𝒵}\frac{𝒵_{N_0}}{𝒵}.$$
(6)
Note that $`w_{ϵ_0}\sigma (ϵ_0)w_{N_0(ϵ_0)}`$ is the probability density along the energy axis. Nevertheless, in what follows I shall work with $`w_{N_0}`$. If I denote the average of $`N_0`$ by $`\stackrel{~}{N}_0_{N_0}N_0w_{N_0}`$, then $`\stackrel{~}{N}_0`$ is macroscopic if (but, in principle, not only if) $`w_{N_0}`$ has a maximum at $`N_{0,\mathrm{max}}`$, so that in the thermodynamic limit $`N_{0,\mathrm{max}}/N>0`$, or $`ϵ_{0,\mathrm{max}}>0`$ \[where $`N_{0,\mathrm{max}}Cϵ_{0,\mathrm{max}}^{s+1}/(s+1)`$\]. Since $`𝒵`$ does not depend on $`N_0`$, the maximum of $`w_{N_0}`$ may be found by solving the equation $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/N_0=0`$, or $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0=0`$. First I calculate $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}`$ from equation (6):

$`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}`$ $`=`$ $`\left[\beta \left(C{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ_0^{s+2}}{s+2}}ϵ_0\right)+\beta \mu \left(C{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ_0^{s+1}}{s+1}}1\right)\right]`$ (7)
$`+C{\displaystyle _{ϵ_0}^{\mathrm{}}}ϵϵ^s\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ\mu )}\right],`$
where the integral represents $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{\mathrm{ex}}(N_0,\beta ,\beta \mu )`$. The derivative of equation (7) gives

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}}{ϵ_0}}`$ $`=`$ $`C\beta ϵ_0^{s+1}+\beta +C\beta \mu ϵ_0^sCϵ_0^s\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right]`$ (8)
$`=`$ $`Cϵ_0^s\left\{\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right]{\displaystyle \frac{\beta }{Cϵ_0^s}}\right\},`$
or, without assuming anything about $`\sigma `$, $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0=\sigma (ϵ_0)\left\{\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right][\sigma (ϵ_0)k_\mathrm{B}T]^1\right\}`$.

The interpretation of equation (8) is simple. First note that $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0`$ is continuous on the interval $`(0,\mathrm{})`$. If $`ϵ_0\mu `$, then $`\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right]`$ is of the order 1, so $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0<0`$, since in the thermodynamic limit $`[\sigma (ϵ_0)k_\mathrm{B}T]^11`$. Moreover, for $`\beta (ϵ_0\mu )1`$,

$$\frac{\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}}{ϵ_0}Cϵ_0^s\beta \left\{ϵ_0\mu \frac{1}{Cϵ_0^s}\right\},$$

and because $`s>1`$, $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0`$ becomes negative for large enough $`ϵ_0`$, as one would expect (the probability to have an infinite number of particles condensed is zero). To study in more detail the existence and the number of solutions, let me divide the problem into three cases: (1) $`s=0`$, (2) $`s<0`$, and (3) $`s>0`$.

### Case (1)

is the simplest and corresponds, for example, to a Fermi gas in a two-dimensional (2D) box. This case may be analyzed in connection with the Bose-Fermi thermodynamic equivalence in (2D), which was outlined in Section 2.2 of Ref. . The properties of ideal 2D Bose gases have been studied extensively in the past (see for example  and citations therein). For $`s=0`$ equation (8) becomes:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}}{ϵ_0}}|_{s=0}`$ $`=`$ $`C\left\{\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right]{\displaystyle \frac{1}{Ck_\mathrm{B}T}}\right\}.`$ (9)
If I take the thermodynamic limit simply as $`(Ck_\mathrm{B}T)^1=0`$, then $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0|_{s=0}<0`$ for all $`ϵ_0`$ and $`T`$, so there is no condensate. On the other hand, note that for $`\beta (ϵ_0\mu )1`$, $`\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right]\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}`$ and, because of the exponential dependence on $`\beta (ϵ_0\mu )`$, the term in curly brackets in equation (9) may become negative even for a macroscopic system. Since $`\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right]`$ is monotonically increasing with $`ϵ_0`$, while $`(Ck_\mathrm{B}T)^1`$ is a constant, equation (9) has maximum one solution, and this must be for $`0ϵ_0<\mu `$. I define the condensation temperature $`T_{\mathrm{c},2\mathrm{D}}`$ by the equation $`(\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0)_{T=T_{\mathrm{c},2\mathrm{D}},ϵ_0=0}=0`$. In the approximation $`\beta \mu 1`$ this condition gives:

$$\frac{\mu }{k_\mathrm{B}T_{\mathrm{c},2\mathrm{D}}}=\mathrm{log}[(k_\mathrm{B}T_{\mathrm{c},2\mathrm{D}})C].$$
(10)
For any $`T>T_{\mathrm{c},2\mathrm{D}}`$, equation (9) has no solution, while for $`TT_{\mathrm{c},2\mathrm{D}}`$ it has one and only one solution for $`ϵ_00`$, so the system is condensed. To see if equation (10) has any relevance for macroscopic systems, let me consider a 2D gas of electrons of Fermi energy $`ϵ_\mathrm{F}^{\mathrm{Al}}=11.7`$ eV (Fermi energy of electrons in Al). If I take the area of the 2D gas to be $`S=1\mathrm{m}^2`$ (surely a macroscopic system) and $`\mu =ϵ_\mathrm{F}^{\mathrm{Al}}`$, then

$$T_{\mathrm{c},2\mathrm{D}}^{\mathrm{Al}}3263\mathrm{K}.$$
(11)
At room temperature $`T_\mathrm{r}=300`$ K, keeping $`\mu =ϵ_\mathrm{F}^{\mathrm{Al}}`$, I obtain $`ϵ_{0,\mathrm{max}}^{\mathrm{Al}}10.7`$ eV, only about 1 eV smaller than $`\mu `$. If I take $`\stackrel{~}{N}_0N_{0,\mathrm{max}}`$, then the condensate fraction ($`\stackrel{~}{N}_0/N`$) is $`ϵ_{0,\mathrm{max}}^{\mathrm{Al}}/ϵ_\mathrm{F}^{\mathrm{Al}}0.91`$.

The condensation energy scales roughly with the chemical potential. For another example I take heavily doped silicon with the doping concentration of $`n=4\times 10^{25}\mathrm{m}^3`$ . For this concentration, the Fermi energy is $`ϵ_\mathrm{F}^{\mathrm{Si}}0.04`$ eV, which gives a condensation temperature of about 14 K. In this case, the condensate fraction at, say 100 mK (roughly the working temperature for the microcoolers or microbolometers), is over 99%.

Two systems of equal number of particles are called thermodynamically equivalent if they have the same entropies as function of temperature. All 2D ideal gases of equal DOS are thermodynamically equivalent, irrespective of their microscopic exclusion statistics , and this is due to the similarity between their excitation spectra . If I put in correspondence the Fermi system under investigation with the equivalent Bose system, and I denote by $`\mu _\mathrm{B}`$ the chemical potential of the later, then $`\mu _\mathrm{B}=\mu ϵ_\mathrm{F}`$ (where $`ϵ_\mathrm{F}`$ is the Fermi energy). The number $`N_0`$ of fermions in the condensate is equal to the number of bosons on the ground state, say $`N_{\mathrm{B},0}`$ . Moreover, in the canonical ensemble the condensate fluctuations are the same for the two, equivalent, Bose and Fermi gases.

### Case (2)

is maybe the most interesting. For $`s<0`$, $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0<0`$ in both limits. $`ϵ_00`$ and $`ϵ_0\mathrm{}`$, so eventual solutions of the equation $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0=0`$ come in pairs. To see that there is only one pair of solution note that that the derivative $`\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right]/ϵ_0=\beta /[\mathrm{exp}(\beta \mu \beta ϵ_0)+1]`$ increases with $`ϵ_0`$, so $`\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right]`$ is a function concave up-wards, while $`1/Cϵ_0^s`$ is a function concave down-wards ($`1<s<0`$). Therefore the two curves ($`\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right]`$ and $`\beta /Cϵ_0^s`$) may cut each-other either in exactly two points, or in zero points. Moreover, if I assume that they do cut and at $`ϵ_0\mu `$, or bigger, then $`k_\mathrm{B}T\{\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right]/ϵ_0\}=[\mathrm{exp}(\beta \mu \beta ϵ_0)+1]^1`$ is of the order one or bigger, while $`k_\mathrm{B}T[(1/Cϵ_0^s)/ϵ_0]=sk_\mathrm{B}T/[Cϵ_0^sk_\mathrm{B}T(ϵ_0/k_\mathrm{B}T)]1`$, in the thermodynamic limit. Therefore, $`\{\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right]\frac{\beta }{Cϵ_0^s}\}/ϵ_0>0`$ for $`ϵ_0\mu `$, or bigger. Since $`\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right]\frac{\beta }{Cϵ_0^s}>0`$, for $`ϵ_0\mu `$, I conclude that $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0=0`$ has no solutions for $`ϵ_0[\mu ,\mathrm{})`$, no matter what is the value, or sign of $`\mu `$. If $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0=0`$ has solutions, then $`\mu >0`$ and the solutions are in the interval $`ϵ_0(0,\mu )`$.

I define the condensation temperature by the equation

$$\underset{ϵ_0}{\mathrm{max}}\frac{\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}}{ϵ_0}|_{T=T_{\mathrm{c},\mathrm{s}<0}}=0.$$
(12)
For $`T>T_{\mathrm{c},\mathrm{s}<0}`$, equation (8) has no solution, so the system is not condensed. Particles on a one-dimensional (1D) interval have $`\sigma (ϵ)=Cϵ^{1/2}`$, so I shall take 1D electron systems as examples. If I take again the Fermi energy of Al for electrons on an interval of length $`l=1`$ m, I obtain $`T_{\mathrm{c},1\mathrm{D}}6242`$ K.

The interesting aspect about the $`s<0`$ case is that below the condensation temperature $`𝒵_{N_0}(ϵ_0)`$ has two maxima: one at $`ϵ_0=0`$ and one at $`ϵ_0=ϵ_{0,\mathrm{max}}>0`$. By comparing the areas below the peaks, one can conclude which maximum is the stable solution and which is the metastable one. Similar to the situation outlined in Appendix B of Ref. , this leads to a first order phase transition from an uncondensed, to a condensed phase, in 1D canonical Fermi systems.

### Case (3)

includes three-dimensional (3D) ideal systems, which correspond to $`s=1/2`$. If $`s>0`$, obviously $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0>0`$ at $`ϵ_0=0`$. Since $`\mathrm{log}\left[1+\mathrm{}^{\beta (ϵ_0\mu )}\right]`$ is monotonically increasing and $`(Ck_\mathrm{B}Tϵ_0^s)^1`$ is monotonically decreasing, while $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0`$ is negative at large $`ϵ_0`$, I conclude that exists one and only one finite $`ϵ_{0,\mathrm{max}}`$, and therefore a finite $`N_{0,\mathrm{max}}`$, at which $`w_{N_{0,\mathrm{max}}}`$ attains its maximum. For example for one cubic meter of Al, at room temperature, $`ϵ_{0,\mathrm{max}}11.2`$ eV and the condensate fraction is about 94 %.

An important example is taken from the experiments performed by D. Jin and collaborators  and I shall use parameters from Ref. . I describe $`N=6\times 10^6`$ atoms of 40K (I take both spin polarizations), confined in a 3D harmonic trap of (geometric) mean frequency $`\omega /2\pi =70`$ Hz ($`\mathrm{}\omega 2.9\times 10^{11}`$ eV). The DOS is $`\sigma (ϵ)=ϵ^2/(\mathrm{}\omega )^3`$ and the Fermi energy is $`ϵ_\mathrm{F}=(3N)^{1/3}\mathrm{}\omega 7.6\times 10^{11}`$ eV. With this parameters I calculate two values of $`ϵ_{0,\mathrm{max}}`$: $`ϵ_{0,\mathrm{max}}(T_1=1\mu \mathrm{K})2.6\times 10^{12}`$ eV and $`ϵ_{0,\mathrm{max}}(T_2=300\mathrm{nK})1.3\times 10^{11}`$ eV. Note that both, $`ϵ_{0,\mathrm{max}}(T_1)`$ and $`ϵ_{0,\mathrm{max}}(T_2)`$ are smaller than $`\mathrm{}\omega `$, so there is no condensate, although the equation $`\mathrm{log}𝒵_{N_0}/ϵ_0=0`$ has a solution. Eventually the possibility to obtain a highly degenerate Fermi gas is to agglomerate may particles in a trap and then to separate the condensate formed at the “bottom” of the trapping potential.

## 3 Conclusions

In this paper I discussed the formation of a condensate in ideal Fermi systems with the density of single particle states of the form $`\sigma (ϵ)=Cϵ^s`$ (where $`C`$ and $`s`$ are constants). I did this by calculating the probability $`w_{N_0}`$ of having exactly $`N_0`$ particles in the condensate. If $`s>0`$ (like in 3D boxes or traps), $`w_{N_0}`$ has a maximum for $`N_0>0`$, which indicates the formation of a condensate. The maximum persists at any temperature, but eventually $`N_0`$ becomes microscopical as $`T`$ increases. For a cubic meter of Al at room temperature, $`N_0/N0.94`$ (where $`N`$ is the total number of particles in the system). Unfortunately for the current experiments in harmonic traps, $`N_0`$ appears to be smaller than one, which means that there is no condensate. Maybe a high increase of particle number in the trap, without much concern for the temperature, would lead to the formation of a condensate, which may be afterwords separated by evaporating the uncondensed particles.

The case $`s=0`$ corresponds to 2D boxes or 1D harmonic traps. This is equivalent to a 2D Bose gas and the results of canonical calculations may be interchanged down to the microscopic scale, with proper redefinition of single particle energies (see Ref. ). After the interchange, the particles in the Fermi condensate become the particles onto the Bose ground state, which have been extensively studied .

Maybe the most interesting case is $`s<0`$. Here $`w_{N_0}`$ may have two maxima. One maximum is always at $`N_0=0`$ (no condensate), while the other maximum forms at finite $`N_0`$, for temperatures below a condensation temperature. The existence of the two maxima suggest a phase transition of order one in canonical Fermi systems and a reconsideration of the ensemble equivalence. In this category are included 1D Fermi systems.

## References


text:
# Accretion onto the neutron star in Be/X-ray binaries

## 1. Introduction

The Be/X-ray binaries represent the largest subclass of high-mass X-ray binaries. These systems consist of a neutron star and a Be star with a cool equatorial disk. The orbit is wide and usually eccentric. Most of the Be/X-ray binaries show only transient activity in the X-ray emission. These outbursts result from the transient accretion onto the neutron star from the circumsteller matter of the Be star. In this paper, we simulate the accretion flow around the neutron star in Be/X-ray binaries, using a 3D SPH code (Bate et al. 1995) and the mass-transfer rate from the Be-star disk obtained by Okazaki et al. (2002).

## 2. Non-steady accretion disk around the neutron star

In Be/X-ray binaries, the mass-transfer rate has strong phase dependence (Okazaki et al. 2002). Therefore, the structure of an accretion disk formed around the neutron star in these systems is also likely to be strongly phase dependent.

Figure 1 gives the radial disk structures and the snapshots of a developed accretion disk around the neutron star for $`7t/P_{\mathrm{orb}}<8`$. From the figure, we note that the material transferred from the Be-star disk to the neutron star forms a non-steady accretion disk around the neutron star. It is noted from the upper panels that the disk is nearly Keplerian at any phase and the accretion flow is highly subsonic except in the outermost part for a short period of time when the material of the Be-star disk is transferred to the neutron star.

The disk shrinks at periastron passage by a negative torque exerted by the Be star. In addition, the ram pressure of the supersonic infall of matter captured by the neutron star around periastron enhances the density in the outermost part of the accretion disk, making the disk outer edge sharp. Afterwards, the disk restores its radius by the viscous diffusion. Thus, our simulation confirms that the strucutre of the accretion disk in Be/X-ray binaries has a strong dependence on the orbital phase.

### Acknowledgments.

This work was supported in part by Nukazawa Science Foundation.

## References

Bate, M. R., Bonnell, I. A., Price N. M. 1995, MNRAS, 285, 33

Okazaki, A. T., Bate, M. R., Ogilvie, G. I., & Pringle, J. E. 2002, MNRAS, 337, 967


text:
# A Search for 6Li in Lithium-Poor Stars with Planets

## 1 Introduction

To explain the presence of massive extrasolar planets very close to their parent stars, current formation models often incorporate orbital migration (Lin et al., 1996; Murray et al., 1998) and/or planetary scattering (Weidenschilling & Marzari, 1996; Rasio & Ford, 1996). A possible consequence of these processes would be the ingestion of planets or protoplanetary material into the atmosphere of the star if migration is not halted. It is theorized that this deposition of planetary material could be detected as excesses of rare elements, most notably the 6Li isotope. Theoretical calculations (Forestini, 1994; Proffitt & Michaud, 1989) predict that 6Li is completely destroyed in the pre-main sequence phase of stellar evolution for solar-mass stars, and anomalously high ratios of 6Li to 7Li in normal main- sequence stars could be an important diagnostic of planet formation processes.

However, if stellar pollution does occur in some fraction of planetary systems, there are additional systematic characteristics which could influence the measured ratio of 6Li to 7Li in a star. According to stellar theory, the elimination of 6Li during formation of a star is due to exposure to high temperatures at depth from convective circulation. Once the convective zone retreats, any remaining lithium will be slowly depleted over the lifetime of the star. Therefore the current abundance ratio depends on the stellar age and the spectral type (which determines the size of the convection zone). Accordingly, the detection probability would increase for younger, more massive stars and decrease for older, less massive ones. Also, the preservation of polluting material from a planet relies on the accretion of the planet occurring after the convection zone has retreated from the core, which in turn depends on the planet formation timescale, the efficiency of migration mechanisms, and the size and density of the planet that is accreted. Therefore, in order to constrain models of migration and the efficiency of absorption of planetary material into the outer atmosphere of a star, it is important to analyze a large sample of both lithium-rich and lithium- poor planet-bearing stars with a range of different ages and atmospheric characteristics.

Israelian et al. (2001) was the first group to report measurements of the lithium isotopic abundance ratio in a planet-bearing star. They observed HD 82943, a star with several close-in giant planets, as well as the star HD 91889 for comparison. Analysis of the 6707 Å lithium resonance line yielded the predicted result for HD 91889 (6Li/7Li$`=0.002\pm 0.006`$), but for HD 82943 the ratio was determined to be 6Li/7Li$`=0.126\pm 0.014`$. This interesting result was challenged by Reddy et al. (2002, hereafter R02), who observed HD 82943 as well as seven other stars hosting extra-solar planets and six comparison stars with similar atmospheric parameters. After applying their analysis to the Sun as well as another planet-bearing star with very low lithium abundance (16 Cyg B), they decided that additional unidentified metal lines in the lithium region were necessary for accurate modeling, and subsequently concluded that no 6Li was necessary to accurately model their observations. They attributed the discrepancy with Israelian et al. (2001) to the additional metal lines incorporated in their line analysis.

Israelian et al. (2003, hereafter I03) performed a reanalysis of HD 82943, investigating the role of the unidentified lines by measuring several stars of different effective temperature to monitor the strength of the line. They concluded that the Ti lines used by R02 are only adequate at higher effective temperatures, and decided that the Si identification by Müller et al. (1975) was a better fit. Using Si instead of Ti, I03 derived a new isotope ratio of 6Li/7Li$`=0.05\pm 0.02`$.

The extensive yet inconclusive line analysis of recent work suggests that the detection of 6Li abundance enhancements in planet-bearing stars is fraught with obstacles. Analysis of the 6707 Å lithium region is difficult to begin with, due to a plethora of contributing blends from both metal lines and molecular CN. There are over 40 weak atomic lines identified within 2 Å around the lithium line, and there is evidence of many unknown sources of opacity. The effect of these lines is minimal when simply measuring the overall lithium abundance in lithium-rich stars. However, accurate line identifications become critical when attempting to detect the minute contributions from the weak 6Li isotope.

Observing stars with moderate to high lithium abundances mitigates some of these factors: the overall lithium feature and therefore the 6Li asymmetry are stronger, and contributions from weak blending lines become less important. However, since the measurement of anomalies in 6Li can only be judged through a measurement of anomalies in the ratio of 6Li to 7Li, a larger abundance of 7Li in the star means that the effect of adding 6Li through planet engulfment is reduced. Therefore an overabundance of 6Li that would change the overall ratio significantly in lithium-poor stars may not appear in lithium-rich stars. Conversely, if the deposition of planetary material into the outer layers of a star is significant during planetary migration, there may be correlations with overall lithium abundance and the presence of close-in giant planets (Sandquist et al., 2002). In addition, analysis of weak stellar lines with good quality data helps to illuminate underlying blending features and decreases the ambiguity between a valid detection of 6Li and an inaccurate line list. This point is especially salient since there are several different line lists postulated for the weak blending lines around the lithium line.

To this end, we have decided to concentrate on observing several bright planet- bearing stars with lower lithium abundances at very high S/N, and we have analyzed them using the various different viable line lists in order to discern the resulting differences in the quality of the synthetic profile fit and the final limits on the isotopic ratios. We have observed 47 Ursa Majoris and Upsilon Andromedae, two very bright lithium-poor stars with established detections of close-in extrasolar planets. To check our analysis techniques we have also analyzed HD 209458, a lithium-rich planet-bearing star that has been observed by R02, as well as several stars without known planets. We have achieved S/N per pixel of $`1000`$ for 47 UMa and $`\upsilon `$ And and lower S/N for HD 209458 and the two comparison stars. We have also created a more detailed line list than was previously used, especially with regard to the underlying CN band. By analyzing the solar spectrum and a carbon arc spectrum and applying accurate theoretical wavelengths, we have enhanced the CN line list dramatically, and we have added additional atomic lines as well.

A summary of observations and a description of the reduction procedure is given in §2. In §3.1 we give a summary of the sources for the stellar atmospheric parameters used for the construction of synthetic spectra, and the procedure used to find the broadening parameters for each of the stars. In §3.2 we discuss the adjustments made to correct for convective line shifts, and in §3.3 we describe the sources for the atomic and molecular line lists. The uncertainties underlying the critical blending lines in the lithium region are also discussed. In §4 and §5 we describe the profile-fitting procedure for the lithium line and the $`\chi ^2`$ analysis used to find the best-fit lithium isotopic ratio for each star. Effects from uncertainties in the convective wavelength shift and abundances of blending elements are discussed, and upper limits for the isotopic ratio for each star are calculated. Implications for the possibility of pollution of the stars due to planetary migration are discussed in §6. We conclude with a summary of the observations and results in §7.

## 2 Observations

Observations were taken with the High Resolution Spectrograph at the Hobby-Eberly Telescope (Tull, 1998) over a period of two years. The HRS is a fiber-coupled echelle spectrograph, using an R-4 echelle mosaic with cross-dispersing gratings. The camera images onto a mosaic of two 2K x 4K CCDs, with a gap between them that spans $`72`$ pixels. The spectrograph was used in high-dispersion mode, with an average resolving power of $`R=\lambda /d\lambda =115,000`$ measured from thorium-argon lines. In the high-dispersion mode of the HRS each resolution element is adequately sampled with 2 pixels per resolution element. The spectral coverage is between 4076 Å and 7838 Å.

Images typically had an integration time of 5 to 15 minutes depending on brightness, and a total integration time between 1 and 2 hours. A ThAr lamp was observed before and after each sequence of exposures. Due to lithium emission lines in the flatfield illumination lamp, it was necessary to use extremely high quality observations of rapidly rotating B stars as flat fields, with signal to noise at least twice that of the target star. These calibration stars were observed as near in time to the program stars as possible. Atmospheric absorption lines did not pose a problem in the lithium spectral region. The reduction process was repeated with the original flat fields and nearby continuum regions were used to check the quality of the final spectrum and to make sure no artifacts were introduced.

Reduction was performed using standard IRAF subroutines for one-dimensional spectra. Radial velocity variations due to changes in heliocentric position and the radial component of the Earth’s rotation between observations were corrected within IRAF, and the individual images were then corrected for additional minute shifts using the strong nearby Fe lines. Continuum normalization was performed by selecting continuum regions in each image without obvious absorption lines or bad pixels and fitting a high order polynomial to these sections. Images were then combined with appropriate rejection algorithms. The estimated S/N per pixel for each star is listed in Table 1.

## 3 Analysis

### 3.1 Stellar Parameters

Atmospheric parameters ($`T_{eff}`$,log g, and the microturbulence $`\xi _t`$) for both the stars with planets and the comparison stars were taken from the literature (see Table 1 for references). All of the stars with planets have been well studied, and the comparison stars are bright nearby stars that also have recent accurate measurements; uncertainties are on the order of 100K for $`T_{eff}`$, 0.1 for log g, and 0.1 for $`\xi _t`$. Due to the detailed nature of earlier analyses of these stars, and the fact that lithium abundance is relatively insensitive to these parameters, previous values were considered to be adequate. Model atmospheres from Kurucz (1995) were used with an updated version of the stellar analysis code MOOG (Sneden, 1973) to produce synthetic spectra for each of the stars. Values for the standard broadening parameters, stellar rotation ($`v\mathrm{sin}i`$) and a radial-tangential macroturbulence parameter ($`V_m`$), as well as radial velocity for each of the stars were derived using $`\chi ^2`$ fits to four nearby Fe I lines at 6703 Å, 6705 Å, 6713 Å, and 6715 Å. For each line, nearby atomic lines were found from the VALD-2 database (Kupka et al., 1999) and adjusted to fit the solar spectrum by Hinkle et al. (2000). For each star the continuum was also adjusted to match the continuum for the solar spectrum. The spectra were initially adjusted to match the solar spectrum in $``$10 regions that appear to be devoid of lines. These adjustments were then checked against the synthesized spectrum on either side of the lithium region, since the list of weak lines in this region is relatively complete. The adjusted spectra for the program stars are shown in Figure 1.

A rough value for the radial velocity (within 0.03 km $`s^1`$) was found using estimated broadening parameters. A three-dimensional grid was then created by varying the Fe abundance in intervals of 0.02 dex and the $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ and $`V_m`$ in intervals of 0.02 km $`s^1`$, for which the minimum $`\chi ^2`$ value was found. Best-fit values for the broadening parameters and the radial velocity were found within 0.01 km $`s^1`$ for each line. A mean value for each parameter was then computed using the three best lines for each star, with an average uncertainty of 0.2 km $`s^1`$. Best fits to the individual Fe lines varied by as much as 0.5 km $`s^1`$, most likely due to a combination of unknown line blends and differences in line shape due to atmospheric effects (i.e. granulation, convective motion, etc.; see Asplund et al. (2000) for a detailed discussion). However, varying the broadening parameters showed that the computed synthetic spectra are insensitive to variations in $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ and $`V_m`$ within the $`\chi ^2`$ error limits, as was noted in previous studies. Final broadening parameters can be found in Table 2.

### 3.2 Convective Line Shifts

In accordance with Allende Prieto & García López (1998); Allende Prieto et al. (2002) and R02, additional radial velocity shifts due to convective motion were also applied to each line depending on equivalent width. Both Allende Prieto et al. (2002) and R02 measured comparable correlations between blue shifts in line center measurements and equivalent width for a large number of Fe lines from Nave et al. (1994) for the Sun and other stars of similar spectral type, noting shifts between -0.2 km $`s^1`$ and 0.8 km $`s^1`$. We have measured shifts for Fe lines in the solar spectrum of Hinkle et al. (2000) as well as our spectrum of 47 UMa, and we find the same overall correlations as previous studies (see Figure 2). However, the scatter around the mean is quite large, and individual line shifts often vary by up to 0.5 km $`s^1`$ from the linear relation. To compensate for convective shifts, we have applied an overall wavelength shift to each line correlated with the equivalent width, using the relations derived from the solar spectrum by Hinkle et al. (2000). In addition, wavelength shifts of important lines have been constrained through fits to the solar spectrum.

### 3.3 The Line List

The large number of weak blending lines in the 6707 Å region makes a detailed accurate line list critical to investigations of lithium abundance. Accurate laboratory wavelengths and oscillator strengths have been measured for the 6Li and 7Li lines themselves (Hobbs et al., 1999) but the identifications and properties of many nearby lines, both atomic and molecular, are quite uncertain. For this study we composed an initial line list from the Kurucz atomic database (Kurucz, 1995) and the Vienna Atomic Line Database (VALD-2, Kupka et al. (1999)), and additional lines were added from recent studies by Lambert et al. (1993) and King et al. (1997). However, line positions and oscillator strengths often differ between studies; King et al. (1997) highlighted several different possibilities for combinations of line strengths to fit both the solar spectrum and other lithium-poor stars, as did I03. An effort was made to include all identified atomic lines in the lithium region with significant opacity at solar temperatures. The contribution of molecular CN to the lithium region is also uncertain. An early analysis of the CN lines was performed by Grevesse (1968), who identified eight contributing lines. Except for updates in line strengths, this molecular line list has remained largely unchanged in later studies. Following work by Denn et al. (1991), we assembled an initial list of lines from work by Jorgensen & Larsson (1990), who calculated rough line positions and oscillator strengths, with modifications pointed out by de Laverny & Gustafsson (1998). Line positions were improved when possible using calculations by Kotler et al. (1980) that incorporate higher order perturbations, and accurate data from Davis (1987). Following Brault & Müller (1975), the theoretical data were then compared with a FTS spectrum of a carbon arc taken from the NSO digital database (Hill, 2003). The spectrum was scaled to match the depth of several unblended CN lines in the solar spectrum at 6702.531, 6703.942, 6704.016, and 6706.733 Å, and the rotational temperature estimated from the transition line ratios was found to be similar to that of the Sun. The line positions and strengths taken from the literature were then modified to fit the laboratory spectrum; the mean shift applied was 0.05 Å, and the mean change in log gf was 0.5 dex. The final CN line list is presented in Table 3. The line list fits the Li region in the solar spectrum well, recreating the line asymmetry in the nearby Fe I line and the blend with the dominant 7Li line.

The uncertainties in the immediate region of the Li doublet were treated using several different line list combinations in order to exhaust all viable possibilities. When the preliminary line list was compiled, it was readily apparent that additional opacity was needed in the region on the red side of the lithium lines. The salient region for lithium-poor stars is the section between 6707.75 and 6708.1 Å, where the red component of 7Li and the stronger blue 6Li component reside. The solar spectrum by Hinkle shows an obvious line at 6708.025 Å, with possible additional opacity sources at 6707.93, 6707.98, 6708.08 and 6708.1 Å. Including the opacity provided by these blending lines is critical in order to assess the strength of the 6Li lines. However, there is a notable paucity of lines listed in the literature for the region beyond 6707.75 Å. As noted by I03, the VALD-2 database contains a weak Ti I line at 6707.964 Å and a V I line at 6708.094 Å. There are also many ionized metal lines in that region, but most of these ionized transitions have very high excitation values that remove them from consideration. Since CN is now removed as a potential source of the unknown blending lines, we are left to postulate new unknown atomic lines in order to fit the solar spectrum.

Müller et al. (1975) first suggested a missing high-excitation Si I line at 6707.025 Å to account for the majority of opacity blueward of 6708.2 Å, and King et al. (1997) followed this example in their analysis of various Li-poor solar-type stars. R02 instead used two Ti I lines to account for the missing opacity, setting the excitation values at 1.88 eV in order to fit stars ranging in temperature from 5600 K to 6400 K (though the line is overestimated in hot stars). I03, after analyzing stars with temperatures from 4500 K to 6200 K, concluded that Ti I lines greatly overestimate the opacity in cool stars. They decided on the 6 eV Si line as the best possibility, but noted that a low- excitation Ti II line also appears to work well at all temperatures. They also noted that the V I lines at 6708.094 and 6708.28 Å used by R02 do not fit stars of non-solar temperature well.

Since we do not have a large sample of high-resolution spectra at a variety of temperatures with which to draw our own conclusions, we must utilize the best options presently available for our stars. After adjusting the log gf values of the basic line list to fit the solar spectrum, we concluded that additional lines were necessary at 6708.025 and 6708.29 Å. For the line at 6708.29 Å, it appears that a low-excitation V I line does not fit the width and shape of the line, and analysis of different stellar temperatures suggests a higher excitation line would be more appropriate. For lithium-poor stars the depth and shape of the line at 6708.29 Å is unaffected by changes in the lithium line itself, and therefore we can achieve the needed opacity with any line of the right shape whose abundance we can adjust with impunity. We chose to use a Mg I line with an excitation value similar to nearby neutral Mg lines. After adjusting the log gf to fit the solar spectrum, it appears the shape is adequate to fit all of our program stars well.

For the line at 6708.025 Å, a solution is less straight-forward. From analysis by I03 it appears that both neutral Ti lines and the Si I line can accurately fit the Sun, but all may overestimate the line strength in hotter stars and underestimate it in cooler stars (see Table 2 in I03 for a direct comparison of Si I and Ti I lines). In addition, I03 suggests that an ionized Ti line may also be possible; though they reject it due to the fact the line becomes extremely weak in hotter stars, the uncertainties in the data make it impossible to rule out this scenario, and we have decided to include it in our analyses. Since the true nature of these blends is still unclear, we have performed statistical analyses for all three possibilities after adjusting log gf values to fit the solar spectrum. The final line list, with the alternative line choices marked, is listed in Table 4.

## 4 6Li/7Li Measurements

The most probable 6Li/7Li ratio was determined by performing $`\chi ^2`$ fits for a variety of 6Li/7Li ratios and wavelength shifts in the lithium lines. The overall Li abundance was also kept as a free parameter to allow the line depth to vary. In addition, similar fits were performed after varying the abundance for the element responsible for the unknown blend at 6708.025 Å, in order to examine the effects of errors in abundance, excitation energy, or log gf value.

The overall radial velocity was first set using the nearby Fe I lines. As stated earlier, a linear correction was made to the line wavelengths in relation to their equivalent widths, but even so variations between calculated radial velocity values for different lines ranged between 0.01 km $`s^1`$ and 0.1 km $`s^1`$. This left a choice to be made between which lines to use for the final value. In cases where the full line shape of the Fe I line at 6707.45 Å could be recovered, the line was used to determine the overall radial velocity, due to the similarities in equivalent width with the target lines in the lithium region and the fact that this line was used to calibrate the solar spectrum. In cases where the Fe line was badly blended with the Li feature, an average value was calculated from the four strong nearby Fe I lines.

Abundances for the critical blending lines were taken from the extensive literature on planet-bearing stars, and then checked using reference lines near the lithium feature taken from the VALD-2 database (listed in Table 5). In all cases the average abundance calculated from the reference lines was in good agreement with the published values. However, due to inherent line list uncertainties and the fact that abundances calculated from different lines vary, separate $`\chi ^2`$ analyses were performed after varying the abundance of the element used for the 6708.025 Å feature by 0.5 dex.

As noted in previous studies, in all cases it was necessary to shift the lithium lines towards higher wavelengths in order to fit the blue side of the 7Li line. The best fit for the Sun was achieved with a shift of 0.007 Å, or 0.31 km $`s^1`$, and remained the same for each line list variation. Since the change in wavelength shift with equivalent width for lithium is unknown, the wavelengths of the lithium lines were kept as a free parameter in the $`\chi ^2`$ fits.

## 5 Results

Figures 6 \- 8 show computed synthetic profiles for each of the program stars compared with the observed spectrum, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$ vs 6Li/7Li for the best wavelength shift and the measured abundance for Ti and Si (where $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$ is calculated by varying the lithium isotope ratio and overall abundance while keeping all other variables constant). The broadening parameters, overall lithium abundance, and the best-fit 6Li/7Li ratio for each of the three line list scenarios are listed in Table 2. The errors in both log $`ϵ`$(Li) and 6Li/7Li are 1-$`\sigma `$ errors obtained from the Li profile fitting, and do not include errors in reference abundances or the broadening parameters. The values of $`\chi _{min}^2`$ for the analyses were between 0.9 and 1.3 for all the program stars.

Adjustments in the wavelength shift and abundance of blending elements were tested to measure the effects of uncertainties in both the overall analysis as well as the line list. Figure 9 shows the variation in $`\chi _{min}^2`$ with changes in the abundance of Ti and Si from the values taken from the literature for 47 UMa, with the lithium isotopic ratio represented by the size of the points. As the abundance of the blending element is decreased, the best fit value of 6Li/7Li increases in order to fit the line. For most stars the $`\chi _{min}^2`$ decreased slightly when the blending abundances were decreased between 0.0 and 0.15 dex below the published values. Decreasing the wavelength shift for the lithium line also increased the 6Li/7Li ratio needed to fit the line, though the sensitivity of the isotopic ratio to the wavelength shift was less than the sensitivity to the blending abundance (see Figure 10). Considering the uncertainties in the line strength of the blending line at 6708.025 Å and the convective shifts, we cannot rule out these variations in abundance and wavelength shift, and therefore the 6Li/7Li could be slightly higher than the values found using abundances from the literature. In Table 2, the best-fit 6Li/7Li value found with the blending abundance and lithium wavelength shift kept as free parameters is noted in parentheses next to the original value calculated with the blending abundance held at literature values.

The results of the $`\chi ^2`$ analyses for the three different choices for the blending feature at 6708.025 Å were very similar, with a maximum difference in the best-fit value of 0.02 dex. There did not appear to be systematic differences between the quality of fits achieved with the different line lists. The best-fit values for the lithium isotopic ratio for all the program stars were consistent with a non-detection of 6Li within errors: none of the stars had isotopic ratios above 0.0 for all three scenarios, and $`\upsilon `$ And was the only star with an isotopic ratio above 0.0 for two of the three line list scenarios. The maximum best-fit isotopic ratio found for any analysis was 0.02; the maximum 1- $`\sigma `$ upper limit was 0.05 for each of the two lithium-poor planet-bearing stars and 0.03 for HD 209458, the lithium-rich planet-bearing star. The two comparison stars had upper limits of 0.05 as well.

## 6 Discussion

The results found for all of the planet-bearing stars in this sample are consistent with the results of R02, who found no 6Li present in any of their program stars or their reference stars. In particular, the derived lithium ratios and upper limits for HD 209458 coincide exactly. R02 observed three stars with lithium abundances below 2.2 dex: HD 10697 (1.9 dex), HD 89744 (2.1 dex), and 16 Cyg B (0.7 dex). Both HD 10697 and 16 Cyg B have effective temperatures around 5600K, while HD 89744 has an effective temperature of 6338K. Though no plots of the $`\chi ^2`$ analysis were published, upper limits for the isotopic ratios of the three stars were 0.06, 0.03 and 0.03 respectively. Though R02 only performed their analysis using the Ti I line at 6708.025 Å, the fact the their results are concurrent with the results from all of our analyzes suggests that these limits are robust. Currently the nature of the blending line at 6708.025 Å is still uncertain, and therefore no strong conclusions can be drawn from the combined results of the lithium-poor stars in both studies, but it appears that the evidence supports a lack of significant enhancement of 6Li in most planet-bearing stars.

However, the value for the lithium isotopic ratio in HD 82943 is still a mystery; the revised value of 0.05$`\pm `$0.02 reported by I03, who used the Si I line in their analysis, is in conflict with the null result reported by R02 using the Ti I lines. But if the isotopic ratio of HD 82943 is found to be definitively different from all other stars studied to date, then a case may be made that this star has undergone an unusual recent pollution event.

The upper limits on the lithium isotopic ratio can be translated into an upper limit on the number of 6Li atoms in the convective zone of a star. Standard evolutionary models predict that the depth of the convective mixing layer is relatively stable after a star reaches the main sequence, and decreases with increasing stellar mass. The mass of the convective envelope of 47 UMa, with a mass of 1.03$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ and an effective temperature of 5800K, would be $`0.02\mathrm{M}_{}`$ (Pinsonneault et al., 2001; Murray et al., 2001), and a lithium abundance of log $`ϵ(Li)=1.67`$ and an isotopic ratio of 0.05 would be equal to $`3.7\times 10^{43}`$ atoms of 6Li. For a hotter, more massive star such as $`\upsilon `$ And the convective envelope is between 0.001$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ and 0.01$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$, depending on the age of the star and the models used. Using 0.005$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ as an estimate, a lithium abundance of log $`ϵ(Li)=2.19`$ and an isotopic ratio of 0.05 would also be equal to $`3.7\times 10^{43}`$ atoms of 6Li. Assuming an abundance for protoplanetary material similar to the meteoric values in our own solar system, one would expect $`N(Li)/N(H)=2\times 10^9`$ and 6Li/7Li = 0.08, and a quantity of material with the mass of Jupiter would have $`1.3\times 10^{44}`$ atoms of 6Li (Anders & Grevesse, 1989). This suggests that $`0.3`$ Jupiter masses of material would have to fall onto a star fully depleted in 6Li to immediately produce the upper limits on the isotopic ratio seen in these two stars. For HD 209458, the 1- $`\sigma `$ upper limit of 0.03 equates to $`8.9\times 10^{43}`$ 6Li atoms, which would be equivalent to 0.7 Jupiter masses of material.

If circumstellar material was deposited at some time in the past, or 6Li is not completely depleted in the PMS phase, the situation becomes more complex. Theoretical models of lithium depletion in the pre-main sequence and main sequence phases (Proffitt & Michaud, 1989; Piau & Turck-Chièze, 2002) of the evolution of solar-type stars suggest that the amount of lithium destroyed over the lifetime of a star depends critically on a variety of parameters such as metallicity, rotational mixing, opacities and the efficiency of convection. However, it is generally agreed that essentially all 6Li, and a large fraction of 7Li, is destroyed in the PMS phase in stars with masses less than 1.4$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$; for stars above this mass the convection zone does not extend to temperatures sufficient to destroy lithium efficiently. Once the star reaches the main sequence at an age of approximately 10 to 20 million years, the convection zone retreats and classical models predict a cessation of lithium destruction. However, this prediction is at odds with observations (Jones et al., 1999) which show a decrease in average lithium abundance with age on the main sequence. Main sequence Li depletion appears to be more severe in lower mass stars, except for a notable increase in depletion for stars between 1.2 and 1.5$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ (Boesgaard & Tripicco, 1986). This phenomena is most likely due to rotational or other macroscopic mixing processes that result in a larger surface mixing layer (Murray et al., 2001), and most likely 6Li is destroyed at a higher rate than 7Li similar to the timescales predicted for pre-main sequence depletion.

Previous calculations of the ages of our program stars using a combination of age indicators find ages of approximately 6.5 Gyr for 47 UMa and 3 Gyr for $`\upsilon `$ And (Lachaume et al., 1999), and R02 estimate an age of 4 Gyr for HD 209458; this would suggest that any planetary dynamics due to interactions with the protoplanetary disk that may have deposited giant planets or massive amounts of planetary material would most likely have occurred at much earlier times. If any 6Li was to be maintained in the convective envelopes of solar-mass stars such as 47 UMa, it would most likely be greatly decreased from the initial amount deposited onto the parent star; calculations by Montalbán & Rebolo (2002) suggest that 6Li would be depleted by more than an order of magnitude over 5 Gyr. However, higher-mass stars may be able to maintain 6Li in their small convective zones for much longer, though these timescales would be shortened for higher metallicity stars. This suggests that the upper limits on $`\upsilon `$ And may be more meaningful than those calculated for 47 UMa, and the slight possibility of a non-zero lithium ratio in $`\upsilon `$ And is not completely unrealistic.

In order to reduce the uncertainties in the synthetic line synthesis, several improvements in future observations and analysis can be employed. The most severe limitations on the accuracy of the isotopic abundance analysis are the uncertainties in the identity and abundance of the underlying blends around the 6Li lines and the uncertainties in the line shape and wavelength shift due to unknown convective and granular motions. To improve the line identifications, additional observations of metal-rich stars with a range of effective temperature combined with laboratory measurements of metal lines in the lithium region would allow a more complete assessment of the blending lines. I03 have begun this process, but a larger sample of stars with varying metallicities is needed. To reduce the ambiguities in the line shape and position, a more complex model of the stellar atmospheric processes must be used. Three-dimensional hydrodynamic models of convection, though currently computationally expensive and restricted in parameter space, are able to accurately predict the line shifts for lines in the solar spectrum (Asplund et al., 2000), and applications to non-LTE calculations of lithium have recently been performed (Asplund et al., 2003). Two-component granulation models (Borrero et al., 2003) are also effective in predicting line shifts and atomic parameters, and may be more effective since they can be easily integrated in to line synthesis applications.

## 7 Conclusion

We have performed a search for 6Li in several planet-bearing stars with low lithium abundances in order to investigate the possibility of pollution due to infalling planets or planetary material and explore the differences between line lists used in previous studies. In order to fit the nearby blending features in the lithium region, we have enhanced previous atomic and molecular line lists using a combination of lines from previously published line lists and semi- empirical fits to the solar spectrum and a laboratory carbon arc spectrum.

Analyses of the lithium regions of the three planet-bearing stars 47 UMa, $`\upsilon `$ And, and HD 209458 using $`\chi ^2`$ minimization find lithium isotopic ratios consistent with the absence of a detectable amount of 6Li. 1-$`\sigma `$ upper limits suggest that if any planetary material was recently deposited on the host stars, it must be less than half the mass of Jupiter. However, if material was deposited on the stars at much earlier times, destruction of the fragile isotope could have rendered any pollution undetectable.

We thank Chris Sneden, Guillermo Gonzalez, Chris Churchill and Caylin Mendelowitz for their help with the reduction and analysis, Robert Fields for his invaluable help in constructing the CN line list, and Richard Wade and Steinn Sigurdsson for the general knowledge they provided. We also thank the referee for helpful comments and suggestions. This work was supported by NASA grants NGA5-12115, NAG5-11427, and NAG5-13320, NSF grants AST-0138235 and AST-0243090 and the Penn State Eberly College of Science. The Hobby-Eberly Telescope is operated by McDonald Observatory on behalf of The University of Texas at Austin, the Pennsylvania State University, Stanford University, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, and Georg-August-Universität Göttingen.