text:
# Untitled Document

quant-ph/0310149

Applications of Partial Supersymmetry

Donald Spector spector@hws.edu

Department of Physics, Eaton Hall

Hobart and William Smith Colleges

Geneva, NY 14456 USA

I examine quantum mechanical Hamiltonians with partial supersymmetry, and explore two main applications. First, I analyze a theory with a logarithmic spectrum, and show how to use partial supersymmetry to reveal the underlying structure of this theory. This method reveals an intriguing equivalence between two formulations of this theory, one of which is one-dimensional, and the other of which is infinite-dimensional. Second, I demonstrate the use of partial supersymmetry as a tool to obtain the asymptotic energy levels in non-relativistic quantum mechanics in an exceptionally easy way. In the end, I discuss possible extensions of this work, including the possible connections between partial supersymmetry and renormalization group arguments.

PACS 03.65.-w, 03.65.Fd, 11.30.Pb

10/2003

1. Introduction

Supersymmetry is, by now, a familiar mathematical construct for physicists as well as mathematicians. It has been invoked not simply as a possible phenomenological symmetry of nature, but as a tool with which one can analyze generic, even non-supersymmetric, physical theories, as well as to derive mathematical results. Examples of non-supersymmetric applications of supersymmetry range from the use of shape invariance to solve exactly soluble quantum Hamiltonians , the analysis of monopoles and other topological field configurations , and the calculation of gluon and graviton scattering amplitudes .

One of the hallmarks of supersymmetry is that it produces structures that afford exact control over at least some aspects of a physical theory, which in turn leads to the frequent effectiveness of supersymmetry as an analytical tool when a model can in some fashion be associated with a supersymmetric theory. Given the extensive usefulness of supersymmetry, any generalizations of supersymmetry are also potentially of great interest. A few years ago, in work on arithmetic quantum theories , I introduced a notion of partial supersymmetry, in which some, but not all, of the operators and states of a theory were paired in supersymmetric fashion, and then explored the use of partial supersymmetry to develop relations among arithmetic quantum theories.

In the present paper, I return to the subject of partial supersymmetry, and demonstrate that it has a broader range of applicability. First, I will state briefly what is meant by partial supersymmetry. Then I will use partial supersymmetry to study a theory with a logarithmic spectrum, a spectrum which is of interest for its role connecting quantum mechanics both to number theory  and to string theory . Partial supersymmetry will reveal the underlying structure of this theory. Moving from a specific application to a more general one, I will use partial supersymmetry as a tool to extract the asymptotic energy levels of quantum mechanical systems. While there are obviously already techniques to obtain asymptotic energy levels, the methods described in this section are significant both for their ease of use – indeed, there is probably no easier way to obtain the asymptotic spacing of energy levels in non-relativistic quantum mechanics – and for the way in which they reveal the symmetry structure underlying the fact that the asymptotic behavior can be exactly calculated. Finally, I discuss some possible interpretations of this symmetry, and consider additional applications.

2. Partial Supersymmetry

In this paper, we will for the most part work with one-dimensional non-relativistic quantum mechanics in the Schrödinger picture.

Consider a Hamiltonian $`H_0`$. The spectrum of this theory will consist of a set of states with energies $`E_0<E_1<E_2<E_3<\mathrm{}`$. For simplicity, we will consider the case with a purely discrete spectrum.

Now what happens if we extend this to the supersymmetric case?1 While strictly speaking, one might think of supersymmetry as only the requirement that $`H`$ can be written as the square of a hermitian operator, in order for supersymmetric quantum mechanics to make contact with conventional supersymmetric field theory, we also require a $`Z_2`$ grading analogous to $`(1)^F`$. In this case, the energies are bounded from below by zero. The states of positive energy come in degenerate pairs, while there may also be a supersymmetry singlet zero energy state. Thus the supersymmetric scenario leads to two sectors, either both with the same spectrum, or the situation in which one sector has states with energy $`E_0<E_1<E_2<E_3<\mathrm{}`$, and the other sector consists of states of energy $`E_1<E_2<E_3<\mathrm{}`$. Needless to say, the supersymmetry algebra implies results beyond simply level degeneracies, but we will not focus on those here.

Now suppose the spectrum has a different structure. Consider the case that there are two sectors, one with energies $`E_0<E_1<E_2<E_3<\mathrm{}`$, and the other with energies $`E_1<E_3<E_5<\mathrm{}`$. In this case, every state in the second sector has a partner from the first sector with degenerate energy, but only every other state in the original sector has such a partner in the second sector. This situation, in which all of the states in one sector have partners, but only some of the states in the other sector do, and in which there is a regular pattern to which states do and do not have partners2 Without some regularity, after all, one should not expect an underlying structure., is the situation we shall term partial supersymmetry. In fact, the underlying structure should have implications beyond degeneracies, e.g., that some operators come in pairs, and others are singlets, as discussed in , but for the purposes of this paper, we will focus on the spectrum.

In the remainder of this paper, we will examine some situations in which partial supersymmetry can be found and utilized.

3. The Logarithmic Spectrum

Suppose we have a quantum mechanical Hamiltonian

$$H_L=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{d^2}{dx^2}+V_L(x)$$

which has the property that its energy spectrum is purely logarithmic,

$$E_n=ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(n),n=1,2,3,\mathrm{}.$$

Such a theory has proven of interest in  as a toy model of some features of string theory, in particular the appearance of a Hagedorn temperature . This theory and the related ones in which the spectrum is still logarithmic but there are degeneracies at various levels have also been useful as tools to draw connections between quantum mechanics and arithmetic number theory, invoking, for example, the observation that the physical quantum partition function for such a theory is the number theoretic Dirichlet series of the degeneracy function (with the non-degenerate case yielding the Riemann zeta function).

Here, our focus is not on the many uses of the logarithmic spectrum, but rather on the structure of the theory that has a logarithmic spectrum without degeneracies, and the way in which partial supersymmetry can reveal that structure. We will not in the present section discuss the form of the potential $`V_L(x)`$, but we will come back to that question later in this paper.

Return, then, to consideration of the Hamiltonian $`H_L`$. Suppose we now define a new Hamiltonian, $`\stackrel{~}{H}_L=H_L+ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(2)`$. On the one hand, adding a constant has no effect other than to shift the energies. On the other hand, in the case at hand, something interesting arises.

The spectrum of $`\stackrel{~}{H}_L`$ consists of the energies

$$\stackrel{~}{E}_n=ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(n)+ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(2)=ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(2n),n=1,2,3,\mathrm{}.$$

One notes that these levels are degenerate with the alternate levels of the original Hamiltonian $`H_L`$. Consequently, the combined system, consisting of the levels of $`H_L`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{H}_L`$, is partially supersymmetric.

We can write a Hamiltonian for the combined system very easily. Introducing fermionic creation and annihilation operators $`f_2^{}`$ and $`f_2`$, respectively, which satisfy the standard anticommutation relations

$$\{f_2,f_2\}=0=\{f_2^{},f_2^{}\}\{f_2^{},f_2\}=1,$$

we now define the combination Hamiltonian

$$H_C=H_L+ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(2)f_2^{}f_2.$$

This theory has two sectors, one with fermion number zero, which has the logarithmic energy spectrum of $`H_L`$, and one with fermion number $`+1`$, which has the even logarithmic energy spectrum of $`\stackrel{~}{H}_L`$.

As noted above, $`H_C`$ has a partial supersymmetry invariance. Consequently, we expect that within $`H_L`$, there will be contained a bosonic term partner to the fermionic addition in (3.1). Hence we anticipate that $`H_L`$ will contain a term of the form $`ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(2)b_2^{}b_2`$, which we shall denote with the notation

$$H_Lϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(2)b_2^{}b_2,$$

where we have introduced the bosonic creation and annihilation operators satisfying the standard algebra

$$[b_2,b_2]=0=[b_2^{},b_2^{}][b_2^{},b_2]=1.$$

Now there was nothing special about adding energy $`ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(2)`$ to the original Hamiltonian; one could instead have added $`ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(3)`$, for example, and then pairing this new system with the original $`H_L`$, we would have a system in which every third state of the original Hamiltonian has a degenerate partner. The associated partial supersymmetry in this case would then indicate that

$$H_Lϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(3)b_3^{}b_3.$$

Likewise, we would expect that for any other integer

$$H_Lϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(j)b_j^{}b_j.$$

However, this is too much. For example, once one has included a term $`ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(2)b_2^{}b_2`$ in $`H_L`$, this already produces a state with energy $`ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(4)`$, and so it is overcounting also to include in $`H_L`$ a term of the form $`ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(4)b_4^{}b_4`$. Likewise, once $`ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(2)b_2^{}b_2`$ and $`ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(3)b_3^{}b_3`$ are both present, this already produces a state with energy $`ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(6)`$, and so it is overcounting also to include in $`H_L`$ a term of the form $`ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(6)b_6^{}b_6`$.

This process described above of which bosonic operators to include and exclude is readily recognized as an implementation of the Sieve of Eratosthenes , and so the only terms that should remain in $`H_L`$ are the ones associated with prime integers. Consequently, we conclude that we can re-write the Hamiltonian $`H_L`$ as

$$\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{d^2}{dx^2}+V_L(x)=\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(p_k)b_k^{}b_k,$$

where $`p_k`$ is the $`k^{th}`$ prime, and we have re-labeled the operators so that $`b_k^{}`$ and $`b_k`$ are associated with the integer $`p_k`$ rather than $`k`$.

While it is clear by direct calculation that the right side of (3.1) has a logarithmic spectrum, the above calculation demonstrates why a theory with a logarithmic spectrum should have a factorized representation of this form. The explanation rests in the series of partial supersymmetries which can be introduced into this problem.

Perhaps even more strikingly, the equality in (3.1) relates two quantum mechanical theories: one in $`R^1`$ and the other in $`R^{\mathrm{}}`$. This equivalence of two theories, both bosonic, in such drastically different dimensions is striking. A fuller understanding of this phenomenon, and the factorization to which it is related, is under investigation. We note in passing a potential similarity to the sectorization phenomenon in .

4. Asymptotic Energy Levels

In this section, we will see the broader utility of partial supersymmetry by using partial supersymmetry to obtain the asymptotic energy level spacing of quantum mechanical Hamiltonians in a general setting. While other methods exist to find these levels, the partial supersymmetry method introduced here is exceptionally easy from a calculational point of view, and obtains its effectiveness from the algebraic structure underlying the procedure. Again, as in the preceding section, we will see that partial supersymmetry can be used to obtain results about theories that are not intrinsically supersymmetric. At the end of this section, we use these asymptotic methods to return to the question of how the logarithmic spectrum of the previous section can be generated.

Suppose, then, that we have a theory — as before, non-relativistic quantum mechanics in one spatial dimension — with Hamiltonian $`H(g)`$ and with an energy spectrum given by $`E(g,n)`$, $`n=1,2,3,\mathrm{}`$. Suppose further that we find a transformation $`gg^{}`$ such that the energy levels of the new Hamiltonian $`H(g^{})`$ satisfy $`E(g^{},n)=E(g,2n)`$. In such a situation, $`H(g)`$ and $`H(g^{})`$ form a partially supersymmetric pair. Now suppose further that we find a temperature where the partition functions of both these Hamiltonians diverge, that is, a Hagedorn temperature. Then at such a temperature, we would see a signal of partial supersymmetry, namely that the ratio of the partition functions is $`1/2`$, as only the asymptotic density of states matters at a point where the partition functions diverge.

The key insight is that we can run this argument in reverse. Suppose we have a Hamiltonian $`H(g)`$ for which the partition function diverges at some temperature $`T_H`$ (inverse temperature $`\beta _H`$). Then given a transformation of the parameter $`gg^{}`$ such that at temperature $`T_H`$ the partition functions for $`H(g)`$ and $`H(g^{})`$ both diverge but satisfy

$$\frac{Z(g^{},T_H)}{Z(g,T_H)}=\frac{1}{2},$$

we can conclude that, asymptotically, the density of states of the second theory is half that of the first. This means that the asymptotic equality

$$E(g^{},n)E(g,2n)$$

holds, which means that, asymptotically, there is a partial supersymmetry. Now, in conjunction with some simple dimensional analysis, one can obtain the asymptotic level spacings in this theory.

What makes this an especially easy method for computing the asymptotic spacing of energy levels is that, due to the correspondence principle, the one necessary calculation – determination of the (Hagedorn) temperature at which the partition function diverges – can be performed in the classical limit, as it is the behavior of the system at arbitrarily high energies that determines if and when the partition function diverges.

We present two examples to demonstrate this method, the second of which will connect us to the logarithmic spectrum of the previous section.

For the first example, consider the Hamiltonian

$$H=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{d^2}{dx^2}+gx^r,$$

where $`g`$ and $`r`$ are positive constants (and we can restrict to the positive $`x`$-axis if need be). We seek to find how the energy levels asymptotically depend on $`n`$. To find $`\beta _H`$, we calculate the classical partition function,

$$Z(g,m,\mathrm{},\beta )=\frac{1}{\mathrm{}}𝑑pe^{\beta p^2/2m}𝑑xe^{\beta gx^r},$$

which, it is simple to see, yields

$$Z(g,m,\mathrm{},\beta )=\frac{1}{\mathrm{}}\sqrt{\frac{2\pi m}{\beta }}\frac{c}{(\beta g)^{1/r}},$$

where $`c`$ is a dimensionless constant. Consequently, the partition function diverges as $`\beta _H0`$ or at infinite temperature.

It is easy to check that for $`g^{}=2^rg`$, the partition functions satisfy

$$\frac{Z(g^{},m,\mathrm{},\beta _H)}{Z(g,m,\mathrm{},\beta _H)}=\frac{1}{2},$$

and, consequently, we have that

$$E(2^rg,\mathrm{},m,n)E(g,\mathrm{},m,2n),$$

where “$``$” denotes asymptotic equality. In other words, the combination of these two theories has partial supersymmetry in the asymptotic limit. Now it is a simple exercise in dimensional analysis to see that

$$E(g,\mathrm{},m,n)=\left(\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{m}\right)^{\frac{r}{r+2}}g^{\frac{2}{r+2}}f(n),$$

for some function $`f(n)`$. Plugging the expression (4.1) into the partial supersymmetry relation (4.1), one readily determines that $`f(n)=n^{2r/(r+2)}`$, and thus that the asymptotic spacing of energy levels is given by

$$E(g,\mathrm{},m,n)\left(\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{m}\right)^{\frac{r}{r+2}}g^{\frac{2}{r+2}}n^{\frac{2r}{r+2}}.$$

One easily recognizes the familiar cases $`r=2`$ (the harmonic oscillator) and $`r\mathrm{}`$ (the infinite square well).

Note that it is certainly possible to obtain this result through other methods, such as WKB or Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization, but the method presented here is far simpler. Its power stems from the fact that we construct a partial supersymmetry that holds in the asymptotic limit, but since this is the only limit of concern here, this algebraic property is sufficient to obtain the desired result with a minimum of calculation.

We now turn to second calculation of asymptotic level spacing, and in so doing address the question of what potential $`V_L(x)`$ in (3.1) will lead to a logarithmic spectrum. Because of the nature of our techniques, it will only address this question asymptotically, but in so doing, will prove that a potential $`V_L(x)`$ exists.

Consider, then, a Hamiltonian

$$H=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{d^2}{dx^2}+ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(x).$$

First, we find the inverse temperature where the partition function for this Hamiltonian diverges. One finds

$$Z=\frac{1}{\mathrm{}}\sqrt{\frac{2\pi m}{\beta }}_{x_0}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑xe^{\beta ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(x)},$$

which is finite for $`\beta >1/ϵ_0`$ but diverges at $`\beta =1/ϵ_0`$. (Note the need for an infrared cutoff $`x_0`$ for this potential.) Consequently, this theory has a true Hagedorn temperature, a finite temperature at which the partition function diverges, $`T_H=1/\beta _H=ϵ_0`$.

Now consider the transformation $`V(x)V(x)+ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(2)`$. Under this transformation,

$$ZZ^{}=\frac{1}{2^{\beta ϵ_0}}Z$$

at an arbitrary temperature, and thus at the Hagedorn temperature

$$\frac{Z^{}}{Z}=\frac{1}{2}.$$

Consequently, at this temperature, we have an asymptotic partial supersymmetry, and so $`E^{}(n)`$ and $`E(2n)`$ are asymptotically equal.

But the transformation on the potential has an utterly trivial effect on the energies: $`E^{}(n)=E(n)+ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(2)`$. Putting this all together, we see that, asymptotically, $`E(2n)E(n)+ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(2)`$. Note that a similar argument could be made with a shift in the potential by $`ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(k)`$ for any integer $`k>1`$. As a result of this shift identity, one has that

$$E(n)ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(n).$$

Therefore, the logarithmic potential $`ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(x)`$ produces, in the asymptotic regime, the logarithmic energy spectrum $`ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(n)`$, the spectrum that we studied in the previous section.

We make two observations here. First, this result for the logarithmic potential can be re-obtained and verified by standard methods. Second, we note that the asymptotic argument in this case is enough to ensure that there is some potential that will yield exactly the logarithmic spectrum. By modifying the small $`x`$ behavior of the potential in (4.1), one can get the lower energies to match up with the spectrum (3.1), while as long as the asymptotic behavior of the potential at large $`x`$ is unchanged, the spectrum will remain logarithmic at large $`n`$. Thus we have come full circle, using the partial supersymmetry analysis of asymptotic energy levels in quantum mechanics to shed light in turn on the theory with a logarithmic spectrum, the theory with which we started exploring the consequences of partial supersymmetry.

5. Conclusions

In this paper, I have demonstrated the usefulness of partial supersymmetry as a tool for the analysis of quantum mechanical systems. We have seen the kind of energy spectra that are the hallmark of partial supersymmetry. We have also seen that we can enhance theories so that they have such a spectrum, use the partial supersymmetry of the enhanced theory to analyze the original theory, and thus obtain results about theories that had no supersymmetry, partial or otherwise, to begin with.

Our two applications in this paper have been to understand the factorization into creation and annihilation operators that occurs when there is a purely logarithmic spectrum, and to obtain the asymptotic level spacings in non-relativistic quantum mechanics with only the simplest of calculations, since partial supersymmetry enables us to focus specifically on the asymptotic behavior of the spectrum without distractions. Note that partial supersymmetry shed light on the logarithmic case as well when using these asymptotic techniques.

There are two extensions under current investigation. One is the extension of these techniques to operators other than the Schrödinger operator of one-dimensional quantum mechanics. The other is the exploitation of algebraic aspects of partial supersymmetry at the operator level, not simply at the level of energy spectra.

In addition, it is important to note that there is an interpretation of this work that bears consideration. Notice that the section on the logarithmic spectrum and the section on the logarithmic potential (which asymptotically has a logarithmic spectrum) both involve a common transformation, $`HH+ϵ_0\mathrm{ln}(2)`$.

In the first case, the shift in the energy leads us to thin out the energy levels, removing every other one (though of course we know, also, that this transformation gives the original theory at shifted energies). Thus it represents a kind of renormalization group transformation, where we map every two states into one. In the second case, the shift in the energy can be understood as a shift in the infrared cutoff (consider the partition function (4.1)). Again, a shift in the infrared cutoff should ultimately have no physical effect on the theory, and understanding how quantities are affected by this shift in the cutoff is the job of the renormalization group. Thus we see that there is an intimate connection between the applications of partial supersymmetry considered here and the renormalization group, and understanding better this connection and its interpretation is work currently underway.

Finally, should we have been surprised that a supersymmetric method can be used to obtain asymptotic level spacings? I would argue not. It is well-known that supersymmetry can be used to obtain the energy levels in the known exactly soluble systems. The asymptotic limit of the quantum systems in question is exactly soluble (that is, the asymptotic behavior can be determined exactly to leading order), and thus it is reasonable to expect that there would be a supersymmetric way to find this asymptotic behavior. It turns out, however, that it is partial supersymmetry that is actually the relevant tool.

I thank Ted Allen for conversations.

References

relax L. E. Gendenshtein, JETP Lett. 38 (1983) 356; F. Cooper, A. Khare, and U. Sukhatme, Phys. Rep. 251 (1995) 267. relax Z. Hlousek and D. Spector, Nuc. Phys. B397 (1993) 173; Z. Hlousek and D. Spector, Nuc. Phys. B442 (1995) 413. relax S. Parke and T.R. Taylor, Phys. Lett. 157B (1985) 81; F.A. Berends, W.T. Giele, and H. Kuijf, Phys. Lett. 211B (1988) 91. relax D. Spector, J. Math. Phys. (1998) 1919. relax D. Spector, Commun. Math. Phys.  127 (1990) 239; B. Julia, “Statistical Theory of Numbers,” in Number Theory and Physics, edited by J.M. Luck, P. Moussa, and M. Waldschmidt, Proceedings in Physics  47 (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990) 276. relax I. Bakas and M. Bowick, J. Math. Phys. 32 (1991) 1881. relax R. Hagedorn, Nuovo Cim. 56A (1968) 1027. relax Hardy, G. H. and Wright, E. M. An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers, 5th ed. (1979) Oxford, England: Clarendon Press. relax T.J. Allen, C.J. Efthimiou, and D. Spector, hep-th/0209204


format: text

text:
# Gas outflows in radio galaxies

## 1. Introduction

Fast nuclear gas outflows appear to be a relatively common phenomena in active galactic nuclei (AGNs). They have been detected - using optical, UV and X-ray observations - in Seyfert galaxies (see for some examples Crenshaw et al. 2000; Aoki et al. 1996; Capetti et al. 1999 and refs therein), quasars (see e.g. Turnshek 1986, Krongold et al. 2003 and refs therein), but also in starburst galaxies (Veilleux et al. 2002, 2003). These gas outflows can have different origins, such as being jet-driven (if the object is radio loud) or related to starburst and AGN winds.

Why should we expect gas outflows also in radio galaxies? In these objects all the potential drivers for powerful outflows (a highly luminous ionising AGN, relativistic jets and, often, a starburst) are present to varying degrees. In particular, the activity-inducing processes (e.g. merger, interaction) are believed to involve the injection of substantial amounts of gas/dust into the central nuclear regions. Thus, we can expect that in the first phase (or in a re-started phase) of activity, strong interactions with the relatively dense medium will occur. Indeed, gas outflows are now increasingly detected in radio galaxies and here we present a summary of the results we have obtained so far in our study of both the ionized, as well as the neutral, components of such outflows.

## 2. Outflows of ionized gas

The first clear example of an outflow of ionized gas that we have found is in the southern starburst radio galaxy PKS 1549–79 (i.e. a radio galaxy that spectroscopically shows a young stellar population component in addition to the old stellar component typical of elliptical galaxies). In PKS 1549–79, different redshift systems associated with both the low- and high-ionisation emission lines were found (Tadhunter et al. 2001). The high ionisation lines are broader, with FWHM$`>1000`$ km s-1 while the low-ionisation lines are narrower. The H I absorption detected in this object (Morganti et al. 2001) has the same redshift as the low ionisation gas, while the high ionisation gas appears blueshifted with respect to it. The H I absorption and the low ionisation gas are associated with a cocoon of material surrounding the tiny ($`200`$ pc in size) radio source. On the other hand, the high ionisation (and blueshifted) gas is believed to be associated with an outflow from a region close to the radio jet and disturbed by it. Taken together, all these results are consistent with the idea that PKS 1549–79 is a young radio source in which the cocoon of debris left over from the event that triggered the activity has not yet been swept aside by circumnuclear outflows. More recently, Bellamy et al. (2003) have detected broad Pa$`\alpha `$ in PKS 1549–79 confirming that this object indeed contains a quasar nucleus that is moderately extinguished, despite evidence that its radio jet points close to our line-of-sight.

An even more extreme case of gas outflow has been found in the radio galaxy 4C 12.50 (PKS 1345+12). This is a particularly interesting object as it is a prime candidate for the link between ultraluminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs, Sanders & Mirabel 1996) and radio galaxies (Evans et al. 1999). The radio source is confined to a region $`<0.1`$ arcsec ($`240`$ pc) and has all the characteristics of young radio sources ($`<<10^7`$ yr). The ISM of this radio galaxy is extremely rich: it is the brightest far-IR radio galaxy and has a high molecular gas mass (Evans et al. 1999). Long slit spectra were taken (using the WHT, see Holt et al. 2003 for details) in order to investigate the impact of the nuclear activity on the circumnuclear interstellar medium. The spectra show extended line emission up to $`20`$ kpc from the nucleus, consistent with the presence of an asymmetric halo of diffuse emission as observed in optical and infrared images.

At the position of the nucleus, complex emission line profiles are observed and Gaussian fits to the \[OIII\] emission lines (see Fig. 1 left) require three components (narrow, intermediate and broad), the broadest of which has FWHM$`2000`$ km s-1 and is blueshifted by $`2000`$ km s-1 with respect to the halo of the galaxy and the deep and narrow H I absorption. This component is interpreted as material in outflow. A large reddening and high density ($`n_\mathrm{e}>`$ 4200 cm-3) has also been found for the most kinematically disturbed component. 4C 12.50, like PKS 1549-79, appears, therefore, to be a young radio galaxy with nuclear regions that are still enshrouded in a dense cocoon of gas and dust. The radio jets are now expanding through this cocoon, sweeping material out of the nuclear regions (Holt et al. 2003).

## 3. Outflows of neutral hydrogen

Extremely intriguing is the discovery of a number of radio galaxies where the presence of fast outflows is associated not only with ionized but also with neutral gas. This finding gives new and important insights on the physical conditions of the gaseous medium around an AGN.

The best example found so far of this phenomenon is the radio galaxy 3C 293 (Morganti et al. 2003a). In this galaxy, very broad H I absorption has been detected against the central regions - this is in addition to the known and much narrower absorption; Haschick & Baan 1985, Beswick et al. 2002. The absorption profile, obtained using the new broad band (20 MHz) system available at the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope, has a full width at zero intensity of about 1400 km s-1 and most of this broad absorption ($`1000`$ km s-1) is blueshifted relative to the systemic velocity. The broad absorption is shallow (the optical depth is only $`0.15`$ %) and corresponds to a column density of the H I of $`2\times 10^{20}T_{\mathrm{spin}}/100`$ K cm-2. This is likely to be a lower limit to the true column density as the $`T_{\mathrm{spin}}`$ associated with such a fast outflow can be as large as a few 1000 K (instead of 100 K which is more typical of the cold, quiescent H I in galaxy disks). This absorption represents a fast outflow of neutral gas from the central regions of this AGN. New optical spectra (see Fig. 2b, from Emonts et al. in prep.) show that the optical emission lines also contain a broad component that is very similar to the broad H I absorption. This suggests that the H I and ionized gas outflows may be coming from the same physical region.

The radio galaxy 4C 12.50 also shows broad H I absorption (shown in Fig. 1b) when observed using a broad radio band. The absorption appears complex and extremely broad. The full range of velocities covered by the H I absorption is $`2000`$ km s-1, the broadest detected so far in H I. The peak optical depth of the broad component is only $`\tau 0.002`$ and the column density of the full system of shallow H I absorption (assuming a covering factor is 1) is $`1.7\times 10^{20}T_{\mathrm{spin}}/100K`$ cm-2.

### 3.1. Origin of the H I outflows

The central question is how neutral gas can be associated with such fast outflows. As discussed in Morganti et al. (2003a) for 3C 293, a number of possible hypotheses can be made about the origin of such outflows. They include, e.g., starburst winds (Veilleux et al. 2002), radiation pressure from the AGN (Dopita et al. 2002), jet-driven outflow and adiabatically expanding broad emission line clouds (Elvis et al. 2002).

The model that we favour is jet-driven outflow, although we cannot rule out that one of the other mechanisms is also at work at some level. This model assumes that the radio plasma jet hits a (molecular) cloud in the ISM. As a consequence of this interaction, the kinematics of the gas are disturbed by the shocks and the gas is ionized by it. Once the shock has passed, part of the gas may have the chance to recombine and become neutral while it is moving at high velocities. One problem with this model (considered in detail by Mellema et al. 2002) is that it may not be possible to accelerate the clouds of gas to the high velocities that we observe, as indicated by e.g. the simulations presented by van Breugel (these proceedings).

To understand which is the more likely mechanism, we now need high spatial resolution observations to find the exact position of the absorption. So far this information is available only for the Seyfert galaxy IC 5063 where it is providing evidence that the interaction between the radio jet and a molecular cloud is indeed the cause of the gas outflow.

### 3.2. The case of the Seyfert galaxy IC 5063

The southern Seyfert galaxy IC 5063 was the first AGN where a fast outflow of neutral hydrogen was detected (Morganti et al. 1998). VLBI observations have confirmed that the broad absorption is detected against the bright radio lobe (i.e. not against the nucleus) situated at $`1.3`$ kpc from the nucleus, as shown in Fig. 3a (see also Oosterloo et al. 2000).

Deep optical spectra have been taken with the ESO-NTT to compare the kinematics of the ionized gas with that of the neutral hydrogen component in order to study the mechanism that could drive this outflow. Preliminary results are presented in Morganti et al. (2003b). The data reveal extremely complex gas kinematics as can be seen in Fig. 3b. This includes the presence of an outflow of ionised gas (with velocities of several hundred km/s) at the location of the brighter radio lobe. The amplitude of this outflow is strikingly similar to that of the H I. Because of its location, we consider the interaction between the radio jet and the ISM to be the most likely mechanism for the extreme kinematics.

## 4. Conclusions

Our observations show that gas outflows of both ionized gas and neutral hydrogen are found in some radio galaxies. So far the indications are that these outflows are present in objects that are either in the early-stage of their evolution (like 4C 12.50) or, perhaps, in a phase of re-started activity (as we think it is the case for 3C 293). Moreover, another characteristic that appears to be common among these objects is the presence of a young stellar population component (Tadhunter et al. 2003).
Although it is difficult to attribute the outflow to a starburst wind (as the young stellar population is usually relatively old, 0.5-2 Gyr), the presence of such a young stellar component could be an indication that the galaxy is indeed in a particular stage of its evolution, where large amounts of gas/dust - likely from the merger that triggered the activity - are still present in the inner region and the radio jet is strongly interacting with it.
A more systematic search for fast gas outflows in radio galaxies is now in progress.

## References

Aoki K., Ohtani H., Yoshida M., Kosugi G. 1996, AJ, 111, 140

Bellamy M.J., Tadhunter C.N., Morganti R., Wills K.A., Holt J., Taylor M.D., Watson C.A. 2003, MNRAS in press (astro-ph/0308345)

Beswick R.J., Pedlar A., Holloway A.J. 2002, MNRAS 329, 620

Capetti et al. 1999, ApJ 516, 187

Crenshaw D.M. et al. 2000, AJ 120, 1731

Dopita M.A. et al. 2002, ApJ 572, 753

Elvis M., Marengo & Karovska, 2002, ApJ 576, L106 (astro-ph/0202002)

Evans A.S. et al. 1999, ApJ 521, L107

Haschick A.D. & Baan W.A. 1985, ApJ 289, 574

Holt J., Tadhunter C., Morganti R., 2003 MNRAS in press (astro-ph/0302311)

Krongold et al. 2003 (astro-ph/0306460)

Mellema G., Kurk J.D., Röttgering H.J.A. 2002, A&A 395, L13

Morganti R., Oosterloo T.A., Emonts B.H.C., van der Hulst J.M., Tadhunter C.N. 2003a, ApJLetter 593, L69

Morganti R., Oosterloo T., Holt J., Tadhunter C., van der Hulst J.M., 2003b ESO Messanger 113, 69 (http://www.eso.org/gen-fac/pubs/messenger/)

Oosterloo T.A., Morganti R., Tzioumis A., Reynolds J., King E., McCulloch P., Tsvetanov Z. 2000, AJ 119, 2085

Morganti et al. 2001, MNRAS 323, 331

Morganti R., Oosterloo T., Tsvetanov Z. 1998, AJ, 115, 915

Sanders D.B. & Mirabel I.F. 1996, ARA&A 34, 749

Tadhunter C.N., Wills K.A., Morganti R., Oosterloo T., Dickson R. 2001 MNRAS 327, 227

Tadhunter et al. 2003 MNRAS, submitted

Turnshek D.A. 1986, in Quasars, Swarup G., Kapahi V.K. (eds.) Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1986, p. 317

Veilleux et al. 2002 in Emission lines from Jet Flows, eds. Henney et al. RevMex AA 13, 222 (astro-ph/0101075)

Veilleux et al. 2003, in ”Neutral ISM in Starburst Galaxies”, eds. Aalto et al., PASP in press (astro-ph/0309119)