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# Galaxy Disruption Caught in the Act

## Abstract

Direct evidence of stellar material from galaxy disruption in the intra-cluster medium (ICM) relies on challenging observations of individual stars, planetary nebulae and diffuse optical light. Here we show that the ultra-compact dwarf galaxies (UCDs) we have discovered in the Fornax Cluster are a new and easy-to-measure probe of disruption in the ICM. We present spectroscopic observations supporting the hypothesis that the UCDs are the remnant nuclei of tidally “threshed” dwarf galaxies. Deep optical imaging of the cluster has revealed a 43-kpc long arc of tidal debris, flanking a nucleated dwarf elliptical (dE,N) cluster member. We may be witnessing galaxy threshing in action.

School of Physics, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia

University of Queensland, Queensland 4027, Australia
Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Hawaii, Hilo, HI 96720

Department of Physics, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
Sternwarte der Universit$`\ddot{a}`$t Bonn, Auf dem H$`\ddot{u}`$gel 71, 53121, Germany

1. Introduction
Recently a number of spectacular streams of low surface brightness material have been observed in galaxy clusters - evidence that galaxy disruption is an ongoing and important process in galaxy evolution. Material torn from galaxies is dispersed into the intra-cluster medium, contributing up to 10-20% of the cluster luminosity.

A small sample of ultra-compact dwarf galaxies were discovered during an all-object Fornax Cluster Spectroscopic Survey (FCSS) using the Anglo-Australian Telescope 2dF spectrograph (Drinkwater et al. 1999, ApJ, 511, L97). These old stellar systems are 10 times more luminous than the brightest globular clusters associated with the central Fornax Cluster galaxy NGC 1399, with intrinsic sizes of $``$100 pc and B-band magnitudes ranging from -13 to -11 (Karick et al. 2003, MNRAS, 344, 188). Truly intergalactic, they are not associated with any bright cluster galaxy. Our most favoured hypothesis for their origin is that they are the remnant nuclei of infalling nucleated dwarf elliptical (dE,Ns) galaxies which have been tidally “threshed” by large galaxies or by the cluster tidal field (Bekki et al 2001, ApJ, 552, L105).

2. Evidence for Galaxy Disruption
The internal velocity dispersions of the Fornax Cluster UCDs were measured using the VLT and Keck Telescopes (Drinkwater et al. 2003, Natur, 423, 519). The velocity dispersions range from 24-37 km s-1, considerably higher than those of Galactic GCs. The UCDs lie well off the globular cluster L $``$ $`\sigma `$1.7 relation (Fig 1) in a previously unoccupied region. The locations of the UCDs and the dE,Ns on the diagram strongly support the galaxy threshing model. A normal dE,N halo, accounting for $``$98% of the dE,Ns luminosity, is tidally stripped therefore reducing the total luminosity by a factor of 100 but barely changing the central velocity dispersion. Over time this disruption contributes diffuse stellar material to the ICM. The surviving nuclei are dispersed into intra-cluster space or added to the envelopes of brighter galaxies, where they can masquerade as stars. This process may explain the observed high “specific frequency” of GCs in central cluster galaxies.

We also obtained deep multicolour (u,g,r,i,z) imaging of the central 2 square degree region of the Fornax Cluster using the CTIO 4m MOSAIC Telescope ($`0.27^{\prime \prime }`$pix$``$27 pc). This revealed a 43 kpc-long plume of tidal debris 0.5 degrees from the cluster centre, flanking the dE,N cluster member FCC 252 (Fig 2). The diffuse stellar material has $`\mu _g`$=26.9 mag arcsec-2 and $`M_g`$$``$ -14, comparable to faint Local Group dwarf spheroidals (Mateo 1998, ARA&A, 36, 435). The proximity of the debris suggests we may be witnessing galaxy threshing in action. The stellar populations of the UCDs, dE,Ns and GCs associated with NGC 1399 will be determined from two-colour diagrams. This will provide a further test of the galaxy threshing hypothesis. We require higher resolution observations of FCC 252 and the debris to determine their possible tidal relationship.

Acknowledgements: We would like to thank our collaborator R. Jurek


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# Width distribution of contact lines on a disordered substrate

## Abstract

We have studied the roughness of a contact line of a liquid meniscus on a disordered substrate by measuring its width distribution. The comparison between the measured width distribution and the width distribution calculated in previous works, extended here to the case of open boundary conditions, confirms that the Joanny-de Gennes model is not sufficient to describe the dynamics of contact lines at the depinning threshold. This conclusion is in agreement with recent measurements which determine the roughness exponent by extrapolation to large system sizes.

The physics of elastic interfaces in random media is involved in a vast class of problems, such as domain walls in ferromagnetic Lemerle et al. (1998) or ferroelectric Tybell et al. (2002) systems, and propagation of cracks in solids Gao and Rice (1989). A notorious example of an elastic interface is provided by the contact line of a liquid meniscus on a disordered substrate Joanny and de Gennes (1984); Pomeau and Vannimenus (1985); Joanny and Robbins (1990); Ertaş and Kardar (1996).

In the past years, much effort has been devoted to shed light on both the equilibrium properties and the dynamics of this system Hazareezing and Mézard (1999); Golestanian and Raphaël (2001); Prevost et al. (2002), which is characterized by long-range interactions. Very recently, experiments with water or Helium moving on a substrate characterized by a well controlled disorder Prevost et al. (2002); Moulinet et al. (2002), have explored the depinning threshold. In this regime Nattermann et al. (1992); Narayan and Fisher (1993) the contact line, driven by an external force, moves very slowly. The study of the roughness of the interface, and in particular its scaling behavior, turns out to be a fundamental tool to test our understanding of the physics of systems in which the elasticity and the disorder compete in determining the shape of the interface.

In Fig. 1 we display an experimental sample: a glass plate with Chromium impurities (clear dots), partially covered by a water meniscus (dark region). The so-called contact line is separating the wet and dry regions. The contact line is defined by an internal coordinate $`x`$ and by the height $`h`$ along the motion direction. We observe that a single-valued height function $`h(x)`$ is sufficient to characterize the shape of the contact line. A sample of size $`L=500\mu \mathrm{m}`$ extracted from the image is also shown in Fig. 1; to analyze its geometric properties we are interested in the deviations from the mean height $`u(x)=h(x)h`$, with $`\mathrm{}=1/L_0^L𝑑x\mathrm{}`$. The mean square width is defined as $`w^2=u^2(x)`$. The roughness exponent $`\zeta `$ is introduced by considering an ensemble of lines of size $`L`$, where $`L`$ must be larger than the lengths which characterize the disorder. Averaging over this ensemble, we obtain $`\overline{w^2}L^{2\zeta }`$ Nattermann et al. (1992).

The theoretical evaluation of the exponent $`\zeta `$ has been up to now based on the assumption that the motion of the line at the threshold is quasi-static Narayan and Fisher (1993); this assumption was shown to be valid for most viscous fluids Moulinet et al. (2002). This means that the equation of motion of the height $`h(x)`$ can be derived from an energy function, which incorporates the potential energy due to the driving force $`f`$ and the disorder potential $`\eta (x,h)`$, as well as an elastic energy. According to this hypothesis, the equation of motion for $`h(x)`$ at zero temperature is:

$$\frac{}{t}h(x)=f+\eta (x,h)k𝑑x_1\frac{h(x)h(x_1)}{(xx_1)^2}.$$
(1)
The last term in Eq. 1 accounts for the long-range elastic force calculated by Joanny and de Gennes Joanny and de Gennes (1984). At the equilibrium, independent approaches within Eq. 1 led consistently to the value $`\zeta =1/3`$ Robbins and Joanny (1987); Hazareezing and Mézard (1999); Ertaş and Kardar (1996). At the depinning threshold, the determination of the roughness exponent stimulated a large debate Ertaş and Kardar (1996); Narayan and Fisher (1993); Tanguy et al. (1998); Ramanathan and Fisher (1998): finally, extended renormalization group calculations up to the two-loop order proved that $`\zeta `$ is larger than $`1/3`$ Chauve et al. (2001). This finding was confirmed by a numerical study by means of an exact algorithm, which is able to detect directly the blocked interface at the depinning threshold: the precise resulting value is $`\zeta =0.388\pm 0.002`$ Rosso and Krauth (2002).

In spite of the large amount of theoretical work devoted to the subject, experiments are very few (see Johnson and Dettre (1993) and references therein). The main difficulty consists in controlling the disorder; in Ref. Moulinet et al. (2002) this difficulty has been overcome by using photolithographic techniques. Small squares of Chromium (size: $`10\times 10\mu \mathrm{m}^2`$) were deposited randomly on a glass plate, such that the $`22\%`$ of the surface is covered. This procedure generates a disorder correlated on a scale $`\xi 10\mu \mathrm{m}`$, sufficiently large to prevent thermal fluctuations from playing any role. The correlation length $`\xi `$ is more than two orders of magnitude below the capillary length $`L_c`$ ($`2.5\text{mm}`$ in this system) where gravity begins to limit the fluctuations. When the experiment is carried out, the glass plate is withdrawn very slowly from the liquid bath at a fixed velocity ranging between $`0.2`$ and $`20\mu \mathrm{m}/\mathrm{s}`$. The liquid is pure water or an aqueous solution of glycerol with a viscosity up to $`20`$ times that of water. One observes that the shape of the contact line is independent of the velocity. This is a clear signature of the depinning limit Moulinet et al. (2002). From these measurements it has been obtained, for $`2\xi LL_c/2`$, $`\zeta =0.51\pm 0.03`$, in disagreement with all theoretical predictions Rosso and Krauth (2002).

The discrepancy between the theoretical and the measured roughness exponent suggest that a richer model, more complicated than the one described by Eq. 1, is needed to account for the critical behavior of the contact line at the depinning. However, as the range of accessible scales is less than two orders of magnitude, the rigorous determination of the exponent $`\zeta `$ is a very delicate experimental task. Thus, to reach more convincing conclusions, it is desirable to compare some other universal quantities characterizing the depinning threshold. In particular, special care must be devoted to evaluate finite size effects, which could affect drastically the final results. To this purpose, we study here the complete width distribution $`P(w^2)`$, and we compare our theoretical predictions, based on the solution of Eq. 1, to experimental data.

The theoretical studies performed on systems without disorder such as stochastic models Foltin et al. (1994); Plischke et al. (1994); Rácz and Plischke (1994) or magnetic systems Bramwell and et al. (2000) have shown that it is possible to express $`P(w^2)`$ in a universal scaling form:

$$P(w^2)=\frac{1}{\overline{w^2}}\varphi (x=w^2/\overline{w^2}),$$
(2)
where $`x`$ is the renormalized width $`w^2/\overline{w^2}`$. In Eq. 2 the size dependence appears only through the average $`\overline{w^2}`$: the non-trivial scaling function $`\varphi (x)`$ is universal and characterizes a full class of systems. Recently Rosso et al. (2003), the same scaling properties have been proved for elastic interfaces in random media at the depinning threshold. The width distribution of these systems is, for all intents and purposes, given by a generalized Gaussian approximation of independent modes, which decay with a characteristic propagator $`G(q)q^{d+2\zeta }`$. Within this approximation, for interfaces of a fixed internal dimension and for the required boundary conditions, $`\varphi (x)`$ depends only on the roughness exponent $`\zeta `$.

In order to determine the experimental width distribution we have employed the same experimental setup as described in Ref. Moulinet et al. (2002); the contact line is imaged with a progressive scan CCD camera equipped with a microscope. Two different magnifications are used, corresponding to a pixel of size $`\mathrm{\Delta }x=6.10`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }x=2.14`$ $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$. After the analysis of the images we obtain a digitized line of $`760`$ pixels. Thanks to the good contrast and signal-to-noise ratio of the CCD, the final resolution is still one pixel. The experimental lines are cut into samples of size $`L=n\mathrm{\Delta }x`$, where $`n`$ is the number of pixels in the sample. From each line we extract an ensemble of $`(760n)`$ samples, whose width is simply given by $`w^2=1/L_{i=1}^nu_i^2`$. These operations are repeated over all the configurations detected by the camera. Clearly the values of $`w^2`$ are not independent222Let us evaluate the number of independent configurations that can be obtained in our experiment. Using, for example, the lower magnification the observed length of the line is $`4.7\mathrm{mm}`$. During an experiment the total displacement is of the order of $`15\mathrm{mm}`$. As the maximum width of the contact line is $`30\mu \mathrm{m}`$, the number of independent configuration is 500. As an example, for a size $`L=500\mu \mathrm{m}`$, $`\varphi `$ is then determined from typically $`5000`$ independent samples., but this procedure ensures that no information is lost.

The histogram derived by the data gives access to the universal function $`\varphi _{\text{exp}}(x)`$ which is plotted in Fig. 2 for various sizes $`L`$ and for various experimental conditions. For samples of size in the range $`300\mu \mathrm{m}<L<800\mu \mathrm{m}`$, the obtained function $`\varphi _{\text{exp}}(x)`$ is independent of the size, the viscosity and the velocity of the receding meniscus. In smaller samples ($`100\mu \mathrm{m}<L<300\mu \mathrm{m}`$), the distribution is sensitive to finite size effect related to the details of the way the disorder is created. Samples bigger than $`L=800\mu \mathrm{m}`$ cannot be treated due to the significant statistical noise.

At this stage, the universal function $`\varphi (x)`$ which we have extracted from experiments can be compared to the theoretical evaluation within the Gaussian approximation. Previous theoretical works Foltin et al. (1994); Plischke et al. (1994); Rácz and Plischke (1994); Rosso et al. (2003) deal with samples where the boundary conditions were periodic, which is obviously not the case of our experiment (see Fig. 1). In order to calculate $`\varphi (x)`$ in the Gaussian approximation for open boundary conditions, we generalize the discussion of Ref. Rosso et al. (2003). The main difference, as it is briefly discussed in Refs. Antal et al. (2001); Le Doussal and Wiese (2003), lays in the Fourier decomposition of the path $`u(x)`$. In the case of open boundary conditions, the general path of size $`L`$ takes the form:

$$u(x)=\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_n\mathrm{cos}(\stackrel{~}{q}_nx),$$
(3)
where $`\stackrel{~}{q}_n=\frac{\pi n}{L}`$. The probability associated with this path is:

$$𝒫[u]=𝒩\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e^{1/2a_n^2G_n^1},$$
(4)
where $`𝒩`$ is the normalization factor and, for large $`L`$, the exact disorder-averaged 2-point function $`G_n`$ takes the form $`G_nC/n^{1+2\zeta }`$. The expression for $`P(w^2)`$ follows from the generating functions of the moments:

$$W(z)=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑w^2P(w^2)e^{zw^2}.$$
(5)
Similarly to the case of periodic boundary conditions Rosso et al. (2003), we write

$`W(z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{G_n^1z+1}}\right)^{1/2}`$
The function $`\varphi (x)`$ is given by $`W(z)`$ through an inverse-Laplace transform:

$$\varphi (x)=_i\mathrm{}^{+i\mathrm{}}\frac{dz}{2\pi i}e^{zx}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(\frac{n^\alpha A}{z+n^\alpha A}\right)^{1/2},$$
(6)
with $`A=\frac{1}{2}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}\frac{1}{n^\alpha }`$ and $`\alpha =1+2\zeta `$. This complex integral can be written as a sum of all the tadpole contributions:

$$\varphi (x)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{(1)^n}{\pi }_{a_1(n)}^{a_2(n)}𝑑ze^{zx}\underset{m=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left|\frac{m^\alpha A}{z+m^\alpha A}\right|^{1/2},$$
(7)
with $`a_1=A(2n+2)^\alpha `$ and $`a_2=A(2n+1)^\alpha `$. The product in Eq. 7 converges slowly, and several thousand terms need to be computed. Once this is done, however, only a few terms in the external sum of Eq. 7 are sufficient to obtain $`\varphi (x)`$ with high precision.

In Ref. Rosso et al. (2003) it is discussed how the width distribution of an interface moving in a random medium, characterized by short range elastic interactions, is described in an excellent way by the distribution obtained within the Gaussian approximation. For sake of completeness, we show the scaling function $`\varphi _{\text{num}}(x)`$ computed from the numerical study of Eq. 1 at the depinning threshold. We use the algorithm from Ref. Rosso and Krauth (2002) and we calculate critical lines of size $`L=256`$ with periodic boundary conditions. $`\varphi _{\text{num}}(x)`$ is obtained with the same procedure employed to deal with experimental data, by using samples of size $`L=32`$. In this way, we find the scaling function corresponding to the case of open boundary conditions.

In Fig. 3 we summarize our results. As expected from Ref. Rosso et al. (2003), the function $`\varphi _{\text{num}}`$ derived from the numerical study of Eq. 1 is in perfect agreement with the function obtained in the Gaussian approximation with $`\zeta =0.39`$. The shape of $`\varphi _{\text{exp}}`$ is also in good agreement with the calculated function, but it is clearly shifted with respect to $`\varphi _{\text{num}}`$ and best approximated with $`\zeta =0.505`$.

To our knowledge, this kind of analysis is applied for the first time to experimental data. It offers the possibility to evaluate the roughness exponent from a unique value of $`L`$ and it can be useful if the accessible range of scaling is small. Moreover we have detected finite size effects that are invisible on the simple representation of $`\overline{w^2}(L)`$. Due to the reduction of range of scaling, the analysis of $`\overline{w^2}(L)`$ yields $`\zeta =0.52\pm 0.04`$, slightly larger than the previous determination Moulinet et al. (2002).

Our study confirms that a real contact line cannot be described by the Joanny-de Gennes model. The same type of equation of motion has been proposed to describe the propagation of crack fronts Gao and Rice (1989). In this case the experiments yield $`\zeta 0.50.6`$ Schmittbuhl and Måløy (1997); Deleplace et al. (1999). Dynamical mechanism have been introduced recently Bouchaud et al. (2002) to account for the anomalous value of $`\zeta `$ for crack fronts. On the other hand, for the contact line, a precise analysis of the motion justifies the quasi-static hypothesisMoulinet et al. (2002) and no such dynamical mechanism has to be considered. The study of the width distribution of crack fronts could help to understand if the two systems belong to the same universality class and to unravel the origin of the discrepancy between the theoretical and the experimental values of $`\zeta `$. In fact, in both cases, the derivation of the long-range elastic term in Eq. 1 is obtained by a development to first order in the deformation. This truncation avoids the existence in the equation of motion of non-harmonic corrections which, as it has been shown for the short-range elastic interactions Rosso and Krauth (2001), can drastically change the critical behavior of the interface. Moreover the presence of non-linear terms has already been introduced in Ref. Golestanian and Raphaël (2001) to understand the dynamics of a contact line in the high velocity limit. It would be very interesting to study the effect of these terms on the critical properties at the depinning transition. Unfortunately, up to now the numerical computation of this new equation of motion is impossible because of the presence of non-convex terms in the elastic energy.

We thank C. Guthmann, P. Le Doussal, J. Vannimenus and J. K. Wiese for useful discussions.


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# The very local Hubble flow: computer simulations of dynamical history

## 1 Introduction

As is well-known, the original Hubble diagram plots galaxy kinematics for the distances within 20 Mpc, after the correction of a systematic error in the determination of distances. Sandage (1999) confirms that the Hubble flow takes its origin at very small distances, 1.5–2 Mpc, from the center of the Local Group (see also Ekholm et al. 2001). A recent high precision mapping of the very local velocity field has covered the spatial scales between 1.5–2 and 3 Mpc (Karachentsev et al. 2000, 2002, 2003). High precision has become possible due to remarkable progress in accurate distance measurements for galaxies in the vicinity of the Local Group (LG), — mostly due to observations with the Hubble Space Telescope. The velocity field has been found by Karachentsev and co-workers to have a fairy regular kinematical structure with the linear velocity-distance relation and the expansion rate of $`72\pm 15`$ km/s/Mpc. The flow is rather cold: its one-dimensional mean random motion is about 30 km/s. The expansion flow on these spatial scales is referred to as the very local Hubble flow (hereafter VLHF).

In this paper, we use the recent precision data (Karachentsev et al. 2002) to follow the VLHF dynamical history. We have performed a set of computer simulations for the present, past and also future of VLHF. This enable us to re-construct the ‘initial conditions’ for VLHF at the epoch of the Local Group formation 12.5 Gyr ago and found that the observed fairly regular state of the flow is a result of the dynamical evolution from a highly disordered and violent initial state. We found that the initial state of VLHF resembles a model of the Little Bang proposed by Byrd, Valtonen, McCall and Innanen (1994) for the early Local Group. This state is in general agreement as well with a new picture of the Local Group formation discussed recently by van den Bergh (2003); this picture involves also violent dynamics as a key physical factor of the process.

In Sec.2, a theory background is discussed which takes into account the dynamical effect of newly discovered cosmic vacuum; in Sec.3, the basic data we use are summarized; the simulations are presented and analyzed in Sec.4; conclusions are given in Sec.5.

## 2 The Hubble-Sandage paradox

The phenomenon of VLHF has not been predicted by the cosmological theory. Moreover, the existence of the cosmological expansion in the local volume contradicts widely accepted cosmological concepts. Indeed, it has commonly been believed that the very notion of the cosmological expansion is applicable to only very large spatial distances, and so only when one reaches the scale of great clusters of galaxies (100–300 Mpc) one should find the markers that participate in the cosmological expansion. An obvious reason for this is that the expansion with the linear velocity-distance relation is directly associated with the uniformity of the universe. And the matter distribution is uniform on the spatial scales larger than 100–300 Mpc. Observations reveal no uniformity in the nearby spatial distribution of galaxies, in the scale range from a few to 20 Mpc. Meanwhile, the cosmological expansion was originally discovered deep inside the cell of uniformity in the galaxy distribution.

A question arises: how the observed spatial non-uniformity of the galaxy distribution in the local volume may be compatible with the observed regular linear velocity field?

Sandage (1986; see also Sandage et al. 1972) was the first who discussed such a controversy, and, according to his recent conclusion, an “explanation of why the local expansion field is so noiseless remains a mystery” (Sandage 1999). It is also puzzling that the local rate of expansion is similar to the global one, if not exactly the same, within 10–15 percent accuracy (Sandage 1999).

The linear velocity-distance relation in local and global expansion flows and the almost (if not exactly) the same expansion rate (the Hubble parameter) in the both indicate that there is a common physical agent that affects the expansion flow from the distances of a few Mpc up to the observation horizon. It has been proposed (Baryshev, Chernin, Teerikorpi 2001; Chernin 2001, Chernin, Teerikorpi, Baryshev 2002; Chernin, Karachentsev, Teerikorpi 2003) that this physical agent is cosmic vacuum (or the cosmological constant, or dark energy) with its perfectly uniform energy density on all spatial scales. We have argued that this idea offers a possible solution to the Hubble-Sandage paradox that has existed in cosmology for more than 70 years.

Cosmic vacuum has been discovered in recent SN Ia observations (Riess et al. 1998; Perlmutter et al. 1999) confirmed by all the bulk of cosmological evidence (see for a fresh review Peebles and Ratra 2003). The vacuum density $`\rho _V`$ comprises up to 70-75 percent the total density of the Universe. The dynamical effect of cosmic vacuum is enhanced by the fact that, according to the Friedmann theory, the effective gravitating (actually, antigravitating) density of vacuum is $`\rho _V+3p_V=2\rho _V`$, where $`p_V=\rho _V`$ is the vacuum pressure.

Our suggestion above is invoked by Thim, Tammann, Saha, Dolphin, Sandage, Tolstoy and Labhard (2003) in a recent treatment of their new observations on the extreme quietness of the local (1–10 Mpc) expansion field. They also mention that the suggestion makes a continual precision mapping of the local velocity even more crucial.

## 3 Basic data on VLHF

In the dataset on the very local velocity field published by Karachentsev et al. (2002), there are 38 galaxies located within 3 Mpc. Two of them have no measured velocities yet; two other do not have estimated distances; six more have only low accuracy distances. Six of the rest with distances around 2.8 Mpc are located on the front side of the Canes Venatici cloud and apparently move from us toward the cloud center with an additional velocity of about 85 km s-1. With their exclusion, the collection of 22 galaxies (including one located in the center of the Canes Venatici cloud) is accepted as the observational basis for the computer simulations. These galaxies may reasonably be considered as ‘most typical representatives’ for the very local Hubble flow (VLHF). Their names, distances and velocities relative to the center of the Local Group are given in Table 1 (columns 2–4). Note that the galaxy distances, $`R`$, are known with typical accuracy of 10%. The galaxies are small in mass (dwarfs) and fairly separated from each other, as is seen from both distances and position angles; because of this, their interaction with each other is negligibly weak compared to the interaction with the two major galaxies of the Local Group (hereafter LG) and vacuum (see below). The 22 galaxies reveal together the Hubble velocity-distance linear relation, $`V=H_LR`$, with the time rate $`H_L=72\pm 15`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 and the one-dimensional velocity dispersion $`30`$ km s-1. For more detailed data on the VLHF galaxies and their analysis (including a discussion of the accuracy of the observations) see in Karachentsev et al. (2002).

## 4 Computer simulations

### 4.1 The model

We have developed a set of computer simulations in which individual galaxies of VLHF do not interact with each other; the observational reason for this is seen from what was said in the section above. We also take into account that the mass of LG (including dark mass) is strongly concentrated (Karachentsev et al. 2002) to the two major galaxies of the group. We assume that dark matter halo of the Milky Way (MW) and the Andromeda Galaxy (AG) are spherical. The adopted total mass of MW is $`1\times 10^{12}M_{\mathrm{}}`$ and the total mass of AG is $`1.5\times 10^{12}M_{\mathrm{}}`$. In this statement of the problem, a galaxy of VLHF is considered moving in the gravity field of the two major galaxies of LG (including their dark matter haloes) and the antigravity field of cosmic vacuum. Therefore the computer simulations are reduced to the integration of the Newtonian restricted tree-body problem on the cosmic vacuum background, for each of the 22 galaxies of the Table 1. The galaxy velocities are assumed to be radial, at the present state of the flow.

Cosmic vacuum is represented in the simulations by a ‘medium’ with a perfectly uniform energy density which is also constant in time, as it follows from the Friedmann model. The concordance figure (see again for a review Peebles and Ratra, 2003) for the vacuum energy density is $`\rho _V=(0.7\pm 0.1)\rho _c`$, where $`\rho _c=2\times 10^{29}h^2`$ g cm-3 is the critical density estimated with the ‘global’ Hubble constant $`h=H/100`$ km s-1 Mpc-1; $`h=0.65\pm 0.10`$. The present cosmic age is assumed to be 14 Gyr.

The simple Kahn-Woltjer model (Kahn and Woltjer 1959) for LG which assumes the straight linear relative motion of the two major galaxies of the group is re-computed with the account of the new data on the galaxy masses and the vacuum density. The present separation 0.7 Mpc and the relative velocity $`120`$ km s-1 are adopted. The two major galaxies, MW and AG, started their motion toward each other 12.5 Gyr ago. In our computer simulations, the trajectories of the VLHF galaxies are traced back in time to that moment in the past. The trajectories are also computed for about 6 Gyr in the future, up to the moment when MW and AG come into contact collision.

Antigravity of cosmic vacuum dominates dynamically (it is taken into account that its effective energy density is $`2\rho _V`$ — see Sec.2) during all the 12.5 Gyr history of the Local Group at the distances larger than 2 Mpc from the center of the group. This is one of the results of the computer three-body problem. The critical ‘zero-gravity surface’, i.e. the surface at which the radial component of the gravity and antigravity forces are exactly balanced, is showed in Fig. 1. It may be seen from the figure that the surface can be embedded completely between two concentric (centered to the center of the Local Group) spheres, one with the radius of 1.8 Mpc and the other 1.7 Mpc, at present. The two enveloping spheres have radii 2 Mpc and 1.6 Mpc in the past, 12.5 Gyr ago. Thus, the surface is nearly spherical, and it remains nearly unchanged during all the history of VLHF. Outside the zero-gravity sphere the potential is repulsive, and it can be considered as nearly spherically symmetrical and nearly static, with a good accuracy. This dynamical background determines the major features of the VLHF evolution, in our simulations.

The results of the simulations are presented in Table 1 and Figs. 2–4. In Table 1 (columns 5,6), the initial state of VLHF is described by the radial velocities and distances of the flow galaxies 12.5 Gyr ago. The dynamics of VLHF is illustrated by the VLHF phase portrait (Fig. 2) which consists of 22 evolutionary curves in the velocity-distance plot; these are the radial velocities and radial distances relative to the center of LG. The dynamical role of cosmic vacuum may be recognized from the comparison of the real phase curves with ‘imaginary’ phase curves that are computed for the same initial conditions 12.5 Gyr ago, but with no vacuum background. As one may see, a typical phase curve describes a decrease of the velocity with the growth of the distance from the LG center, at the first stage of the evolution. At the next stage, the velocity grows with distance under the action of the cosmic vacuum antigravity.

### 4.2 VLHF initial conditions: the Little Bang

The initial state of VLHF as is recognized from the simulations is drastically different from any naive expectations that could treat VLHF as a primeval cosmological flow that might be only slightly distorted initially. The radial velocities and radial distances of the galaxies at the initial moment 12.5 Gyr ago given in columns 5,6 of Table 1 suggest a conclusion that the initial state of VLHF has nothing in common with such a picture. The deviations from an imaginary ‘unperturbed’ initial flow that could exist on the same spatial scales at the same early time are very strong.

To examine how robust this conclusion may be, we have performed a special set of test simulations at which an additional transverse velocity is assumed that is 20–30 percent of the observed radial velocity of the galaxies at present. We also have repeated simulations with variations of the observed distances, $`R`$, within $`\pm 10\%`$. The result has demonstrated a good qualitative agreement with the basic conclusion about a highly perturbed initial state of the flow 12.5 Gyr ago, in both cases. The structure of the initial states in such test simulations differs from that of the basic simulation only in quantitative details.

The most striking fact is that a substantial fraction of the trajectories, 9 of 22, take start on the ‘other side’ of the MW-AG line of centers. The galaxies with these initial conditions move toward the center of the Local Group, initially, so that their initial velocities are negative, in Table 1. Their flow is a flow of contraction, not expansion, at that time. The galaxies with negative initial velocities gain considerable infall velocities near the center of the Local Group, that reach 180–300 km s-1. Then they pass the central region of the group and begin to move from the center (continuing their motion in the same direction in space). In this way, the initial contraction flow transforms into the expansion flow.

During this transformation, galaxies gain also an additional velocity, — now it is a positive velocity of recession. The acceleration of this nature is not due to antigravity of vacuum; this is exactly the same dynamical effect of gravitational acceleration that was studied in details for an early dynamics of LG in the model of the Little Bang (Byrd et al. 1994). Violent gravitational interactions of the VLHF galaxies with MW and AG and LG as a whole are also similar to another picture of the early LG described recently by van den Bergh (2003).

Together with 7 galaxies that move outward the center initially with high (around 200 km s-1) velocities (most probably, they were also accelerated earlier in the same manner), these 9 galaxies form a fast sub-flow of VLHF. A slow sub-flow of 6 galaxies starts its expansion with the velocities of 80–160 km s-1. The initial conditions for both fast and slow sub-flows occupy an area in the radial velocity space from $`277`$ to $`+231`$ km s-1 and an area in the radial distance space from 0.2 to 1 Mpc. Therefore, the initial spread of the velocities is measured by a figure of 650 km s-1 at that time. For comparison, at present the same 22 galaxies have velocities within a much narrower interval from 23 to 268 km s-1, and so the spread is measured by 245 km s-1.

There are no signs of the linear regularity in the velocity-distance relation, in the initial state of VLHF. For instance, the expansion rate (the ratio $`\dot{R}/R`$) estimated for individual trajectories prove to be in the interval from $`932`$ to 700 km s-1 Mpc-1, initially. So the initial spread of this quantity is measured by 1600 km s-1 Mpc-1(!). This is a clear quantitative measure of highly disordered nonlinear initial structure of the flow. It may be compared with the present-day state of VLHF, at which the expansion rate is observed from 22 to 87 km s-1 Mpc-1, and so the spread is only 65 km s-1 Mpc-1.

The phase portrait (Fig. 2) of the initial VLHF reveals complex dynamics that can be understood within the framework of the Little Bang (Byrd et al. 1994). According to this framework, the formation of the Local Group and nearby galaxies, including ones that constitute now VLHF, is due to violent dynamics involving close passings, contact collisions and merging of many sub-galactic units in the volume of 1–2 Mpc across. In this process, the major fraction of the material falls into two major potential wells formed by the dark matter concentrations in the volume, while the VLHF galaxies represent only debris that AG and probably MW as well ejected from their common potential well into outer volume. The physical mechanisms of ejection are studied in details by Byrd et al. (1994).

It seems most probable that only accelerated ejected fragments (dwarf galaxies and sub-galactic units) were able to survive as individual physical objects in this violent environment and escape from the LG potential well out of the zero-gravity sphere. If so, the Little Bang dynamics was mainly responsible for the origin of the VLHF galaxies and for the initial conditions of their motions. The quantitative results given by Byrd et al. (1994) indicate that the velocities and distances in the initial state of VLHF (see columns 5,6 of Table 1) are quite feasible for the ejected bodies, in the violent dynamics of the Little Bang.

Note that some concrete features of the original version of the Little Bang model need to be re-considered now in the light of new observational data. However the idea of the violent dynamics for the early LG is in quite good agreement with the current data. A recently published picture (van den Bergh 2003) for the LG origin demonstrates the naturalness of the initial violent dynamics in a clear way.

### 4.3 Evolution of the Hubble ratio

Fig. 3 shows the Hubble ratio, or the time rate, $`H_L=V/R`$, which is the individual velocity-distant ratio for the VLHF galaxies, as functions of time. The convergence of the bunch of the 22 trajectories to the universal time rate is obvious from the figure: this is the major trend of the VLHF evolution which makes VLHF be essentially a cosmological phenomenon.

Fig. 4 shows the same for the ‘imaginary’ (no vacuum) trajectories. As is seen from the plots, the role of vacuum increases systematically with time, while the role of LG gravity is only decreasing. Meanwhile the same trend as in Fig.3 reveals in Fig.4 as well: even in the model without vacuum, the individual expansion rates tend to converge to a common one for all the galaxy sample. (The difference is only in numbers, and the dynamical effect of vacuum gives a higher mean Hubble ratio at present.) The similarity is completely due to the initial conditions which are the same for both models and – which is seemingly more important – resulted in the backwards calculations from the rather smooth observed Hubble law. Indeed, there is, generally, no reason to expect that a regular linear flow would arise from arbitrary initial distributions of distances and velocities for bodies moving in the gravitational field of the Local Group without vacuum.

In an additional set of simulations, we tried an example of a ‘random’ initial velocity-distance distribution for bodies in the close vicinity of the LG. Some of the bodies were captured by the LG gravity, while the others escaped and moved away from the group. It was found that the flow of the escaped bodies revealed an evolution to the regular linear velocity-distance relation only in the presence of cosmic vacuum. This trend was most obvious for larger ($`>3`$ Mpc) distances from the center of the LG.

In the presence of vacuum, two effects are especially important. First, vacuum accelerates the motions of the VLHF galaxies by its antigravity. Second, acting as a time independent dynamical factor, vacuum tends to supply each individual galaxy of VLHF with one and the same expansion rate, independently of the galaxy initial kinematical states. Both physical effects are obvious from the consideration of the asymptotical state of the flow, in the limit of large times, when the role of gravity vanishes and antigravity controls the flow completely.

In this limit, the solution for any individual radial trajectory has a form: $`R(t)\mathrm{exp}(H_Vt);t\mathrm{}`$, where $`H_V=(\frac{8\pi G}{3}\rho _V)^{1/2}`$. Therefore each individual time rate $`H(t)_L`$ tends with time to $`V/R=\dot{R}/R=H_V=Const`$ for any trajectory. Both effects mentioned above lead finally to the formation of the flow with the linear velocity-distance law: $`\dot{R}=H_VR`$, where the common time rate for the VLHF galaxies is constant in space and time and determined by vacuum only: $`H_L=H_V`$.

As for the Hubble global flow, similar considerations show that its asymptotical expansion rate is also determined by vacuum only: $`H(t)`$ tends to $`H_V`$ when $`t\mathrm{}`$. Thus, asymptotically, VLHF and the global expansion flow become completely identical in their kinematical structure. This is the net ultimate result of the universal antigravity of cosmic vacuum on all spatial scales.

It seems especially remarkable that the present states of both VLHF and the global flow are not very far from the asymptotical state; this is seen, first of all, from the fact that the present-day observational value of $`H_L=72\pm 15`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 and the present-day observational value for $`H=65\pm 10`$ are both fairly close to the theoretical limit $`H_V=55\pm 10`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 (actually, all the three values are compatible with a common figure near, say, 60 km s-1 Mpc-1).

## 5 Conclusions

Until quite recently, the structure and dynamics of the galaxy flow around the Local Group have remained poorly known because of the lack of reliable data on distances to most of the nearby galaxies. The recent high accuracy measurements of these distances have led to the discovery of the real structure of the fairly regular very local ($`3`$ Mpc) Hubble flow (Karachentsev et al. 2000, 2002, 2003). Basing on these data, we have started herein detailed quantitative studies of the physical nature of the phenomenon. An approach we try is suggested by the recent discovery of cosmic vacuum (Riess et al. 1998, Perlmutter et al. 1999). We have argued earlier (see the references in Sec.2) that cosmic vacuum is a key dynamical factor not only in the Universe as a whole, but also in our close vicinity in space where VLHF is observed.

As a first step in concrete realization of this approach, we have performed computer simulations of the history of the flow, its present and future states. The results of the simulations and their analysis have revealed two basic aspects of the dynamics of VLHF:

A) The force field that controls VLHF during almost all its history is dominated by the antigravity of cosmic vacuum at distances 1.5–2 Mpc from the Local Group center of mass. The ultimate dynamical state of the flow is entirely determined by cosmic vacuum with its perfect uniformity. The perfectly regular antigravity force field introduces regularity to the flow. The dynamical effect of cosmic vacuum leads asymptotically to the universal and constant in time expansion rate $`H_V=(\frac{8\pi G}{3}\rho _V)^{1/2}=55\pm 10`$ km s-1 Mpc-1. The present state of the flow is not far from its asymptotical state because its observed Hubble rate is near the asymptotical value $`H_V`$.

B) The evolutionary history of VLHF starts at the epoch of the Local Group formation some 12.5 Gyr ago. At that time, the flow galaxies, together with the forming major galaxies of the group and many sub-galactic units, participated in violent nonlinear dynamics with collisions and merging. VLHF was formed by relatively small units that survive accretion by the major galaxies and managed to escape from the gravitational potential well of the Local Group. Our simulations show that a typical VLHF member galaxy gained escape velocity from the highly non-stationary gravity fields of the forming group and a velocity larger than some 200 km s-1 enabled it to reach the vacuum-dominated outer region. The simulations we produced do not describe the violent dynamics of the forming Local Group. However they give definite indications to the very existence of this dynamics. It is a special complex problem to re-construct the violent initial dynamics in the local volume in all its completeness; the Little Bang model (Byrd et al. 1994) and the picture presented by van den Bergh (2003) provide important insights to the problem and give the basic grounds for such a study.

The approach developed in this paper can be extended (and we will report the results later) to larger volumes around the Local Group. One can expect both a similarity to VLHF and some specific differences for the distances, say 10–100 Mpc which are still within the cell of uniformity of the galaxy spatial distribution. The observed bulk motion with 500–600 km s-1 velocity is one of the major features on these scales. The differences may be mostly in the initial conditions for the flow on these scales. But the similarity may definitely be due to cosmic vacuum with its universal antigravity. It is perfectly uniform cosmic vacuum that is suggested to be the major physical agent affecting the expansion flow everywhere (including the bulk motion — Chernin, 2001), from a few Mpc to the observation horizon.

Another interesting direction for further computational studies is provided by an opportunity of a more general form of cosmic antigravity which is due to dark energy with a time variable density. It was argued in Baryshev et al. (2001) that a variable dark energy, especially such ‘coupled’ with matter would better explain the small local velocity than the classical vacuum; this was because of the fact that the gravity dominated region was then smaller in the past. In this case, the model for VLHF would include a decreasing dark energy density which would make the flow dynamical background essentially non-stationary, – contrary to the model presented above.

The authors are grateful to Yury Efremov and Pekka Teerikorpi for critical comments and productive suggestions.


text:
# The constant background bag model of the hadron

## 1 The Dirac equation

For a study of the problems in a constant non-abelian background field it is convenient to introduce the constant non-commuting vector potentials111See  and references therein.. Let us choose the vector potentials $`A_\mu ^{(a)}`$ in the framework of the $`SU_c(3)`$ color symmetry group in the following way:

$$\begin{array}{c}A_0^{(a)}=\sqrt{\tau _1},A_j^{(a)}=\sqrt{\tau }\delta _{ja}\left(j=1,2,3\right)fora=1,2,3\\ A_\mu ^{(a)}=0fora=4,5,6,7,8,\end{array}$$
(1)
where $`\tau ,\tau _1`$ are constants and $`\delta _{ia}`$ is the Kronecker symbol. The corresponding field strength tensor $`F_{\mu \nu }^{(a)}=gf^{abc}A_\mu ^{(b)}A_\nu ^{(c)}`$ has the following chromoelectric $`(_j^{(a)})`$ and chromomagnetic $`(_j^{(a)})`$ components:

$$\begin{array}{c}_x^{(1)}=0,_x^{(2)}=g\sqrt{\tau \tau _1},_x^{(3)}=g\sqrt{\tau \tau _1};_x^{(1)}=g\tau ,_x^{(2)}=0,_x^{(3)}=0,\\ _y^{(1)}=g\sqrt{\tau \tau _1},_y^{(2)}=0,_y^{(3)}=g\sqrt{\tau \tau _1};_y^{(1)}=0,_y^{(2)}=g\tau ,_y^{(3)}=0,\\ _z^{(1)}=g\sqrt{\tau \tau _1},_z^{(2)}=g\sqrt{\tau \tau _1},_z^{(3)}=0;_z^{(1)}=0,_z^{(2)}=0,_z^{(3)}=g\tau .\end{array}$$
(2)
Here $`g`$ is the color interaction constant. All other color components of $`F_{\mu \nu }^{(a)}`$ are zero for $`a=4,5,6,7,8.`$ From (2) we see that the field (1) has equal magnitude of spatial components $`_j^2=_j^{(a)}_j^{(a)}=2g^2\tau \tau _1`$and $`_j^2=_j^{(a)}_j^{(a)}=g^2\tau ^2,`$ which are constant as well. So, in ordinary space the strength vectors of the chromomagnetic and chromoelectric fields are222We assume the chromoelectric field has negative projections in color space.:

$$\stackrel{}{}=\sqrt{3}g\tau \stackrel{}{n},\stackrel{}{}=g\sqrt{6\tau \tau _1}\stackrel{}{n},$$
(3)
where $`\stackrel{}{n}`$ is the unit radius vector in ordinary space.

The Dirac equation for a colored particle minimally coupled with the external color field (1) can be written as follows:

$$\left(\gamma ^\mu P_\mu M\right)\mathrm{\Psi }=0,$$
(4)
where $`P_\mu =p_\mu +gA_\mu =p_\mu +gA_\mu ^{(a)}\frac{\lambda ^a}{2}`$ , and the $`\lambda ^a`$ are Gell-Mann matrices describing the particle’s color spin. Equation (4) can be written in terms of the Majorana spinors $`\varphi `$ and $`\chi `$ ,

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi \\ \chi \end{array}\right),$$

in the more suitable form for us:

$$\left(\sigma ^jP_j\right)^2\psi =\left(P_0^2M^2\right)\psi ,$$
(5)
where the Pauli matrices $`\sigma _i`$ describe a particle’s spin. Here and afterwards $`\psi `$ means $`\varphi `$ or $`\chi .`$ The two spin components of the Majorana spinors $`\psi =\left(\begin{array}{c}\psi _1\\ \psi _2\end{array}\right)`$ transform under the fundamental representation of color group $`SU_c(3).`$ That means that each spin component of the wave function $`\psi _{1,2}`$ has three color components describing the color states of a particle:

$$\psi _{1,2}=\left(\begin{array}{c}\psi _{1,2}^{(1)}\\ \psi _{1,2}^{(2)}\\ \psi _{1,2}^{(3)}\end{array}\right).$$

Writing down the expressions of $`P_\mu `$ and $`A_\mu ^{(a)}`$ in equation (5) we get an explicit form:

$$\left(\stackrel{}{p}^2+M^2+\frac{3g^2\tau }{4}+g\tau ^{\frac{1}{2}}\lambda ^ap^a\frac{g^2\tau }{2}\sigma ^a\lambda ^a\right)\psi =\left(E^2g\tau _1^{\frac{1}{2}}\lambda ^aE+\frac{3g^2\tau _1}{4}\right)\psi ,$$
(6)
where $`E`$ is the energy of particle333Since the field (1) does not depend on time, the states are stationary.. Equation (6) turns into following system of differential equations for the color components $`\psi _{1,2}^{\left(a\right)}`$:

$`\{\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \left(A+g\tau ^{\frac{1}{2}}𝒫_3\frac{1}{2}g^2\tau \right)\psi _1^{(1)}+g\tau ^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(𝒫_1i𝒫_2\right)\psi _1^{(2)}& =\hfill & 0\hfill \\ \hfill \left(Ag\tau ^{\frac{1}{2}}𝒫_3+\frac{1}{2}g^2\tau \right)\psi _1^{(2)}+g\tau ^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(𝒫_1+i𝒫_2\right)\psi _1^{(1)}& =\hfill & g^2\tau \psi _2^{(1)}\hfill \\ \hfill \left(\stackrel{}{p}^2+M^2\right)\psi _1^{(3)}& =\hfill & E^2\psi _1^{(3)}\hfill \\ \hfill \left(A+g\tau ^{\frac{1}{2}}𝒫_3+\frac{1}{2}g^2\tau \right)\psi _2^{(1)}+g\tau ^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(𝒫_1i𝒫_2\right)\psi _2^{(2)}& =\hfill & g^2\tau \psi _1^{(2)}\hfill \\ \hfill \left(Ag\tau ^{\frac{1}{2}}𝒫_3\frac{1}{2}g^2\tau \right)\psi _2^{(2)}+g\tau ^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(𝒫_1+i𝒫_2\right)\psi _2^{(1)}& =\hfill & 0\hfill \\ \hfill \left(\stackrel{}{p}^2+M^2\right)\psi _2^{(3)}& =\hfill & E^2\psi _2^{(3)},\hfill \end{array}`$ (13)
where the operators $`A`$ and $`𝒫_j`$ denote $`A=\stackrel{}{p}^2+M^2+\frac{3}{4}g^2\left(\tau \tau _1\right)E^2,𝒫_j=p_j+\sqrt{\frac{\tau _1}{\tau }}E.`$ The equations in the system (7) mix the different states $`\psi _{1,2}^{\left(a\right)}`$ and we need separeted equations for each of these states. From the system (7) we find that equations for all states $`\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}`$ $`\left(i=1,2\right)`$ have the same form:

$$\left[\left(A\frac{g^2\tau }{2}\right)^2g^2\tau \stackrel{}{𝒫}^2\right]\left[\left(A+\frac{g^2\tau }{2}\right)^2g^2\tau \left(\stackrel{}{𝒫}^2+g^2\tau \right)\right]\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}=0,$$
(14)
which possesses rotational invariance. Since the operators $`A`$ and $`𝒫_i`$ commute, the operator in first square bracket commutes with the second one. This allows us to divide the (8) into two equations, both keeping rotational invariance:

$$\left[\left(A\frac{g^2\tau }{2}\right)^2g^2\tau \stackrel{}{𝒫}^2\right]\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}=0,$$
(15)
$$\left[\left(A+\frac{g^2\tau }{2}\right)^2g^2\tau \left(\stackrel{}{𝒫}^2+g^2\tau \right)\right]\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}=0.$$
(16)
Equations (9) and (10) can be solved separetaly and the set of solutions (8) will consist of the solutions of (9) and (10). Let us consider equation (9). Acting on this equation by the operator $`\stackrel{}{𝒫}^2`$ we get the same equation for the function $`\xi _{1,2}^{(i)}=\stackrel{}{𝒫}^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}`$ as for $`\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}`$, i.e.:

$$\left[\left(A\frac{g^2\tau }{2}\right)^2g^2\tau \stackrel{}{𝒫}^2\right]\xi _{1,2}^{(i)}=0.$$

This means the functions $`\xi _{1,2}^{(i)}`$ and $`\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}`$ differ only by a constant multiplier $`k^2:\xi _{1,2}^{(i)}=k^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}`$ or

$$\stackrel{}{𝒫}^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}=k^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}.$$
(17)
In other words, since the operator $`\stackrel{}{𝒫}^2`$ commutes with the square bracket operator in (9), they have the same set of eigenfunctions $`\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}.`$ The same claim is order for the operator $`\stackrel{}{p}^2:`$

$$\stackrel{}{p}^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}=^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}=k^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}.$$
(18)
Thus, we can solve (12) instead of (9). Obviously, (12) keeps the rotational invariance property of equivalent equation (9) and so is easily solved in a spherical coordinate system using the separation ansatz :

$$\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}\left(\stackrel{}{r}\right)=R(r)Y_l^m(\theta ,\phi ).$$
(19)
Here $`r=\sqrt{x^2+y^2+z^2},`$ $`l`$ and $`m`$ are the orbital angular momentum and chromomagnetic quantum numbers, $`\theta ,\phi `$ are the polar and azimuthal angles, respectively. The spherical functions $`Y_l^m(\theta ,\phi )`$ are expressed by means of the Legendre polynomials $`P_l^m\left(\mathrm{cos}\theta \right):`$

$$Y_l^m(\theta ,\phi )=\sqrt{\frac{\left(2l+1\right)}{4\pi }\frac{\left(lm\right)!}{\left(l+m\right)!}}P_l^m\left(\mathrm{cos}\theta \right)e^{im\phi },$$
(20)
and define the $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}s\mathrm{"}`$, $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}p\mathrm{"}`$, $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}d\mathrm{"}`$, $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}f\mathrm{"}`$, $`\mathrm{}`$ orbitals well-known in quantum mechanics. The equation for the radial part $`R(r)`$ is as used in many quantum mechanical problems possessing rotational invariance :

$$\frac{d^2}{dr^2}R(r)+\frac{2}{r}\frac{d}{dr}R(r)+\left(k^2\frac{l\left(l+1\right)}{r^2}\right)R(r)=0.$$
(21)
With the notations $`Q\left(r\right)=\sqrt{r}R(r)`$ (15) turns into Bessel’s equation for $`Q\left(r\right):`$

$$Q^{\prime \prime }\left(r\right)+\frac{1}{r}Q^{}\left(r\right)+\left(k^2\frac{\left(l+\frac{1}{2}\right)^2}{r^2}\right)Q\left(r\right)=0.$$
(22)
The function $`R(r)`$ must be finite on $`r0.`$ This means that for the solution of (15) we should choose the Bessel function of the first kind:

$$R_l(r)=\frac{C_l}{k\sqrt{r}}J_{l+1/2}\left(kr\right).$$
(23)
Thus, we conclude that states obeying (9) are the $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}s\mathrm{"}`$, $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}p\mathrm{"}`$, $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}d\mathrm{"}`$, $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}f\mathrm{"}`$, $`\mathrm{}`$ orbitals corresponding to the different values of the quantum numbers $`l`$ and $`m`$ and the motion of the constituent quarks in any color and spin state takes place on these orbitals, which are the same for all these states. In other words, the angle distribution of quarks inside bag is the same for any color and spin state and the same, for instance, as ones of electrons in atoms444Since constituents in this model are considered to be non-interacting with each other, for the two-particle case we have the angle distribution of quarks in mesons. This distribution will have the same shape as ones in two-electron atom. In this sense mesons like hydrogen atom, differing only by the radial distribution in the constant field approximation.. The radial distribution of these quarks is the same as ones of freely moving particles enclosed in a sphere . Since, the external field (1) does not depend on $`r,`$ we have obtained the same expression for the solutions $`\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}\left(\stackrel{}{r}\right)`$ as for a freely moving particle enclosed in a sphere, differing only by the expression of the $`k^2`$ constant.

## 2 The energy spectrum

Using (3) the operator $`\stackrel{}{𝒫}`$ can be written in the following form:

$$\stackrel{}{𝒫}=\stackrel{}{p}+\frac{E}{\sqrt{6}g\tau }\stackrel{}{}.$$

Then the action of $`\stackrel{}{𝒫}^2`$ operator will be

$$\stackrel{}{𝒫}^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}=\stackrel{}{p}^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}+\frac{2E}{\sqrt{6}g\tau }\left|\stackrel{}{p}\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}\right|\left|\stackrel{}{}\right|\mathrm{cos}\alpha +\frac{\tau _1}{\tau }E^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)},$$
(24)
where $`\left|\stackrel{}{p}\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}\right|`$ means the directional derivative :

$$\left|\stackrel{}{}\mathrm{\Phi }\right|=\sqrt{\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }}{x}\right)^2+\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }}{y}\right)^2+\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }}{z}\right)^2}.$$

Here $`\alpha `$ is the angle between the momentum vector $`\stackrel{}{}\psi `$ and the chromoelectric field vector $`\stackrel{}{}.`$ Since the particle periodically moves on orbitals the angle $`\alpha `$ varies in symmetric limits. That means the average value of $`\mathrm{cos}\alpha `$ during one period is zero. Actually, the term, which contain $`\mathrm{cos}\alpha `$ in (18) is proportional to the work done by chromoelectric field on the particle in its motion in this field. It is easily seen the net work of this field during one period is zero, while its momentary value is not zero555We observe the same situation as in an electron’s motion in the field of nucleus.. So, if we average (9) and (10) over the time during one period, the term proportional to $`\mathrm{cos}\alpha `$ will drop out. We shall find the average value of energy spectrum666For ”s” orbitals $`\mathrm{cos}\alpha `$=0, since the momentum and chromofield vectors are perpendicular on every moment in time. So, the momentary value of energy coincide with its average value for these orbitals.. Therefore, the average value of (18) during one period is equal to:

$$\stackrel{}{𝒫}^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}=^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}+\frac{\tau _1}{\tau }E^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}=k^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}+\frac{\tau _1}{\tau }E^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}=k^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}.$$
(25)
If we take (19) and (12) into account, we obtain from (9) the following equation for the constant $`k^2`$:

$$\left(k^2\right)^2+2k^2\left(M^2E^2+\frac{1}{4}g^2\left(\tau 3\tau _1\right)\frac{1}{2}g^2\tau \right)+\left(M^2E^2+\frac{1}{4}g^2\left(\tau 3\tau _1\right)\right)^2g^2\tau _1E^2=0,$$

from which one finds the relation between the constant $`k^2`$ and the energy spectrum $`E^2:`$

$$\left(k^2\right)_{1,2}=\left(\sqrt{E^2\left(1+\frac{\tau _1}{\tau }\right)M^2+\frac{3}{4}g^2\tau _1}\pm \frac{1}{2}g\tau ^{\frac{1}{2}}\right)^2E^2\frac{\tau _1}{\tau }.$$
(26)
Now we should impose the boundary condition meaning the confinement property of constituent quark on its wave function. Since (12) is the Laplace equation we can impose the Dirichlet boundary condition $`\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}\left(r=r_0\right)=0`$ or $`R_l(r_0)=0,`$ which means that we enclose the particle motion by a sphere with a radius $`r_0.`$ Here $`r_0`$ agrees with the half of hadron size. This boundary condition establishes the following relation between the values of $`k`$ and the zeros $`\alpha _l^{(N)}`$ of the Bessel function $`J_{l+1/2}\left(kr\right):`$

$$kr_0=\alpha _l^{(N)}$$
(27)
which means the quantization of the $`k`$ values. According to the relation (20) the energy spectrum of particle is quantized as well. Plugging (21) in (20), we find the first two branches of the quantized energy levels of the spectrum:

$$\left(E_l^{(N)}\right)_{1,2}^2=\left(\sqrt{\left(1+\frac{\tau }{\tau _1}\right)\left(\frac{\alpha _l^{(N)}}{r_0}\right)^2+M^2+\frac{1}{4}g^2\left(\tau 2\tau _1\right)}\frac{1}{2}g\tau _1^{\frac{1}{2}}\right)^2\frac{\tau }{\tau _1}\left(\frac{\alpha _l^{(N)}}{r_0}\right)^2.$$
(28)
In (22) and (21) $`N`$ labels the sequence of zeros of the Bessel function$`N=1,2,3\mathrm{}..`$ and is called the radial quantum number . So, the value of angular momentum $`l`$ determines the series of the energy spectrum of the particle and the radial quantum number $`N`$ determines the energy levels in this series. Thus, the finiteness condition imposed on the motion of the particle, because of its confinement property, of course, leads to the quantization of the energy spectrum.

As is seen from (21) the constant $`k`$ gets the same values for the various branches $`\left(k^2\right)_{1,2}:`$

$$k_l^{(N)}=\frac{\alpha _l^{(N)}}{r_0}.$$

The radius $`a`$ of the turning point of the particle could be found from (15) using the maximum condition on the radial function $`R^{}(a)=0`$ and is equal to:

$$a_l^{(N)}=r_0\frac{\sqrt{l\left(l+1\right)}}{\alpha _l^{(N)}}.$$

These radia, as the energy spectrum and $`k`$, are quantized and are determined by the quantum numbers $`l`$ and $`N`$ and do not depend on the field intensities. So, there is no difference in values of the radia with the case of motion in a pure chromomagnetic field .

We have solved (9) and found the corresponding two branches of the energy spectrum. In the same manner we can solve (10) too. For this equation the function $`\xi _{1,2}^{(i)}`$ denotes $`\xi _{1,2}^{(i)}=\left(\stackrel{}{𝒫}^2+g^2\tau \right)\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}`$ and the following equations are equivalent to (10):

$$\left(\stackrel{}{p}^2+g^2\tau \right)\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}=K^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)},\left(\stackrel{}{𝒫}^2+g^2\tau \right)\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}=K^2\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}.$$
(29)
The relation between the expressions of $`k`$ and $`K`$ is obvious $`K^2=k^2+g^2\tau ,K^2=k^2+g^2\tau `$ and the relation between $`K`$ and $`K^{}`$ is analogous to (19):

$$K^2=K^2+\frac{\tau _1}{\tau }E^2.$$
(30)
Taking (23) and (24) into account, we get from (10) an algebraic relation between $`k^2`$ and $`E^2`$:

$$\left(k^2+M^2+\frac{3}{4}g^2\left(\tau \tau _1\right)E^2+\frac{g^2\tau }{2}\right)^2g^2\tau \left(k^2+\frac{\tau _1}{\tau }E^2+g^2\tau \right)=0.$$
(31)
Of course, the solution of (23) is (13) with (14) and (17). The Dirichlet boundary condition $`R_l(r_0)=0`$ applies to (10) too. In the result of the quantization (21), from (25) we find the other two branches of the energy spectrum:

$$\begin{array}{c}\left(E_l^{(N)}\right)_{3,4}^2=\left(\sqrt{\left(1+\frac{\tau }{\tau _1}\right)\left(\left(\frac{\alpha _l^{(N)}}{r_0}\right)^2+g^2\tau \right)+M^2+\frac{1}{4}g^2\left(\tau 2\tau _1\right)}\frac{1}{2}g\tau _1^{\frac{1}{2}}\right)^2\\ \frac{\tau }{\tau _1}\left(\left(\frac{\alpha _l^{(N)}}{r_0}\right)^2+g^2\tau \right).\end{array}$$
(32)
As seen from (22) and (26), the energy spectrum of the quark contains the contribution of quark’s interaction with the background field and this energy spectrum is quantized due to the finiteness of motion of quark. Another difference with the existing bag models \[1-4\] is the branching of the energy spectrum, which is the result of the color and spin interaction of the particle with the background field and is not determined by these quantum numbers. We have four color and spin states $`\psi _{1,2}^{(i)}`$ of the quark and four energy branches $`(E_l^{(N)})_{1,2,3,4}`$, but we do not have one-to-one correspondence of these states and the branches. All these states could get energy from the any of these branches. This is the difference between the branching of spectrum and the splitting levels. In fact, here we have obtained the branching of energy spectrum instead of splitting levels. Such a branching takes place in a pure chromomagnetic field case  and is connected with the existence of conserved operator, which contains the color spin $`\frac{\lambda ^a}{2}`$ and the spin $`\frac{\sigma _j}{2}`$ operators. There is no need to introduce the color states in bag models, which do not deal with the color interaction of particle with the background, and so, this branching of energy spectrum does not occur in those models. Note that the energy levels in these branches are determined only by the quantum numbers $`l`$ and $`N`$, and so they are $`2l+1`$ fold degenerate in the quantum number $`m,`$ which occurs on motion in any central field.

The states $`\psi _{1,2}^{(3)}`$ correspond to the states of a colorless particle, and (12) for them $`\left(k^2=E^2M^2\right)`$ has the solution (13) with (15) and (17) too. The energy spectrum of these states is:

$$\left(E_l^{(N)}\right)_{5,6}^2=\left(\frac{\alpha _l^{(N)}}{r_0}\right)^2+M^2.$$
(33)
As an application of this model we can propose the central color field is the background field of gluon condensation in QCD vacuum. Then we can use the estimation for vacuum average values of chromoelectric and chromomagnetic field intensities of this condensation :

$$0g^2\stackrel{}{}^a\stackrel{}{}^a0\left(700Mev\right)^4,0g^2\stackrel{}{}^a\stackrel{}{}^a0\left(700Mev\right)^4.$$

Identifying these estimates with the field intensities in our model $`g^2\stackrel{}{}^2=6g^4\tau \tau _1`$and $`g^2\stackrel{}{}^2=3g^4\tau ^2`$, we see that constant $`\tau _1`$ should be taken equal to $`\tau _1=\frac{1}{2}\tau `$. This enable us to evaluate the $`g^2\tau `$ constant $`g^2\tau \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\left(700Mev\right)^2`$. Then the energy spectra (22) and (26) simplify as follows:

$$\begin{array}{c}\left(E_l^{(N)}\right)_{1,2}^2=2\left(\frac{\alpha _l^{(N)}}{r_0}\right)^2\left(\sqrt{\left(\frac{\alpha _l^{(N)}}{r_0}\right)^2\frac{1}{2}g^2\tau M^2}\frac{1}{2\sqrt{2}}g\tau ^{\frac{1}{2}}\right)^2,\\ \left(E_l^{(N)}\right)_{3,4}^2=2\left(\frac{\alpha _l^{(N)}}{r_0}\right)^2+2g^2\tau \left(\sqrt{\left(\left(\frac{\alpha _l^{(N)}}{r_0}\right)^2+g^2\tau \right)\frac{1}{2}g^2\tau M^2}\frac{1}{2\sqrt{2}}g\tau ^{\frac{1}{2}}\right)^2.\end{array}$$
(34)
In order to estimate quark’s energy using the spectra (28) and (27) we can set in them $`r_0=R1,7fm`$  or another estimation for hadron’s size. Since constituent quarks in the framework of this model are considered non-interacting with each other, the energy of any two- or three-quark system will be the sum of the energy of separate quarks. As an examination of this model, the total energy of the bag can be compared with the corresponding hadron state. It should be noted that the selection rule $`\mathrm{\Delta }m=0,\pm 1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }l=\pm 1`$ for quantum transitions between the energy levels, which exists in central field problems , occurs for this problem as well and is useful for a calculation of the energy emitted by the excited bag. There is not preferred rule on the energy branches for this calculation. A comparison of the energies emitted by bag and by the hadron could serve as a another verification of the role of the gluon condensate as constant central color field.

Acknowledgements

The author thanks IPM for financing his visit to this institute, where part of the present work has been done. He acknowledges Prof. F. Ardalan and members of string theory group for useful discussions in seminars and for hospitality. The author also thanks the referee of , whose report had stimulated the present research and Prof. S. Parvizi for reading the manuscript and for useful dicussion.


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# Radiation induced oscillatory Hall effect in high mobility GaAs/AlGaAs devices

## Abstract

We examine the radiation induced modification of the Hall effect in high mobility GaAs/AlGaAs devices that exhibit vanishing resistance under microwave excitation. The modification in the Hall effect upon irradiation is characterized by (a) a small reduction in the slope of the Hall resistance curve with respect to the dark value, (b) a periodic reduction in the magnitude of the Hall resistance, $`R_{xy}`$, that correlates with an increase in the diagonal resistance, $`R_{xx}`$, and (c) a Hall resistance correction that disappears as the diagonal resistance vanishes.

Vanishing electrical resistance has served to introduce new physical phenomena in condensed matter physics such as, for example, quantum Hall effects (QHE), which stemmed from studies of zero-resistance states at low temperatures $`(T)`$ and high magnetic fields $`(B)`$ in the 2-Dimensional Electron System (2DES).1 ; 2  Recently, the high mobility 2DES provided an unexpected surprise by exhibiting novel zero-resistance states upon irradiation by low energy photons. In this instance, vanishing diagonal resistance occurred about $`B`$ = $`(4/5)B_f`$ and $`B`$ = $`(4/9)B_f`$, where $`B_f`$ = $`2\pi fm^{}/e`$, $`m^{}`$ is an effective mass, $`e`$ is the electron charge, and $`f`$ is the radiation frequency, while the resistance-minima followed the series $`B`$ = $`[4/(4j+1)]B_f`$ with $`j`$=$`1,2,3`$3  Remarkably, vanishing resistance induced by microwave excitation of the 2DES did not produce plateaus in the Hall resistance, although the diagonal resistance exhibited activated transport and zero-resistance states, similar to QHE.3 ; 4  These striking features have motivated substantial theoretical interest in this phenomenon.5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10

It is well known from experimental studies of transport that changes in the diagonal conductivity, $`\sigma _{xx}`$, such as those induced by the radiation in this context, can produce small corrections, in the strong field limit, in the Hall resistivity, $`\rho _{xy}`$, via the tensor relation $`\rho _{xy}=\sigma _{xy}/(\sigma _{xx}^2+\sigma _{xy}^2)`$.11 . Durst and coworkers have also mentioned the possibility of an oscillatory Hall effect from their theoretical perspective.7  Experimental results reported here examine in detail a radiation-induced modification of the Hall effect, which occurred in Fig. 1(b) of the article from the year 2002 of ref. 3, and Fig. 1(b) of ref. 12. In particular, it is demonstrated that microwave excitation changes the slope of the Hall resistance, $`R_{xy}`$, vs. $`B`$ curve by $``$ $`1.5\%`$. Further, there appears to be an oscillatory variation in $`R_{xy}`$, where a reduction, in magnitude, of the Hall resistance correlates with an increase in the diagonal resistance, $`R_{xx}`$. It is also demonstrated that the correction to the Hall resistance disappears as $`R_{xx}0`$. Finally, the oscillatory variation in the Hall resistance is comparable, in magnitude, to the radiation induced change in the diagonal resistance, although the change, $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$, is small ($``$ 5$`\%`$) in comparison to $`R_{xy}`$.

Measurements were performed on standard devices fabricated from GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructure junctions. After a brief illumination by a red LED, the best material was typically characterized by an electron density, $`n`$(4.2 K) $``$ $`3`$ $`\times `$ $`10^{11}`$ cm-2, and an electron mobility $`\mu `$(1.5 K) $``$ $`1.5`$ $`\times `$ $`10^7`$ cm2/Vs. Lock-in based four-terminal electrical measurements were carried out with the sample mounted inside a waveguide and immersed in pumped liquid He-3 or He-4, as the specimens were excited with electromagnetic (EM) waves in the microwave part of the spectrum, $`27f170`$ GHz. In this report, we illustrate the characteristics of the radiation induced modification of the Hall effect and point out a similarity to the situation in the quantum Hall limit.

Fig. 1 (a) shows measurements of the diagonal ($`R_{xx}`$) and Hall $`(R_{xy})`$ resistances where, under microwave excitation at 50 GHz, $`R_{xx}`$ and $`R_{xy}`$ exhibit the usual quantum Hall behavior for $`B`$ $``$ 0.3 Tesla.1 ; 2  In contrast, for $`B`$ $`<`$ 0.25 Tesla, see inset of Fig. 1(a), a radiation induced signal occurs and the resistance vanishes over a broad B-interval about $`B`$ = 0.1 Tesla. Further high-resolution measurements are shown in Fig. 1 (b). Without EM-wave excitation, $`R_{xx}`$ exhibits Shubnikov-deHaas oscillations for $`B`$ $`>`$ 100 milliTesla (Fig. 1 (b)). The application of microwaves induces resistance oscillations, which are characterized by the property that the $`R_{xx}`$ under radiation falls below the $`R_{xx}`$ without radiation, over broad $`B`$-intervals.3 ; 4 ; 12  Indeed, $`R_{xx}`$ appears to vanish about $`(4/5)B_f`$.3  Although these zero-resistance-states exhibit a flat bottom as in the quantum Hall regime,1 ; 2  $`R_{xy}`$ under radiation does not exhibit plateaus over the same $`B`$-interval.

Yet, the $`R_{xy}`$ data of Fig. 1(b) show perceptible oscillations in the Hall resistance that are induced by the radiation.3 ; 12 ; 13  Indeed, an edgewise inspection of the data shows that there is an antisymmetric oscillatory component in $`R_{xy}`$, in addition to a small radiation-induced change in the slope of the Hall curve.12  In order to highlight these changes in the Hall effect, the radiation induced portion of the Hall resistance, $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}=R_{xy}^{excited}R_{xy}^{dark}`$, is shown along with $`R_{xx}`$ in Fig. 1(c). Here, $`R_{xy}^{dark}`$ is the Hall resistance obtained without (w/o) radiation, and $`R_{xy}^{excited}`$ is the Hall resistance with (w/) radiation. As this procedure for extracting the radiation induced Hall resistance involves the subtraction of two large signals, $`R_{xy}^{dark}`$ and $`R_{xy}^{excited}`$, and since $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ is only a few percent of the dark Hall signal, it is necessary to realize a stable low-noise experimental setup that minimizes parameter drifts with time in order to obtain noise-free reliable $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ data. The plot of Fig. 1(c) confirms a robust $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ signal. Indeed, the observed characteristics in Fig. 1(c), namely, a $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ signal that vanishes as $`B0`$, and odd symmetry in $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ under field reversal, help to rule out the possibility that $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ originates from a mixture of the diagonal resistance with $`R_{xy}`$, as a result of a misalignment of the Hall voltage contacts. Further, the observation of quantized Hall effect in Fig. 1(a) under radiation, and the radiation-intensity-independence of the period of the radiation induced oscillations, helps to rule out parallel conduction as the origin of non-vanishing $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$. These resistances scale to resistivities with a scale factor of one.

The data of Fig. 2 illustrate this same effect when the specimen is excited with microwaves at $`f`$ = 108 GHz. In Fig. 2(a), the Hall data without radiation have been offset with respect to the Hall data with radiation in order to bring out the oscillatory portion of the Hall effect. Once again, an edgewise inspection of the irradiated $`R_{xy}`$ data identifies an anti-symmetric oscillatory Hall resistance, while it also reveals a small reduction in the slope of the Hall resistance. A comparison of Fig. 2(a) with Fig. 2(b) shows clearly that $`R_{xy}`$ is reduced in magnitude over the B-intervals where $`R_{xx}`$ is enhanced by the radiation. On the other hand, as the diagonal resistance vanishes upon microwave excitation, as in the vicinity of $`B=(4/5)B_f`$, for example, the correction $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ also vanishes. The dotted line in the plot of $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ in Fig. 2(b) also confirms that there is an approximately 1.5$`\%`$ reduction in the slope of $`R_{xy}`$ that is induced by the radiation. The small field reversal asymmetry that is observable in the w/ radiation $`R_{xx}`$ data of Fig. 2 could be related to this radiation induced change in the slope of $`R_{xy}`$. All these features are also observable in Figs. 1(b) and 1(c). Our studies indicate that the radiation induced reduction in the slope of the Hall curve brings with it a corresponding small shift (at the per-cent level) in the positions of the extrema in the Shubnikov-de Haas (SdH) oscillations to higher magnetic fields. A straightforward interpretation suggests that the change in the $`R_{xy}`$ slope, and the shift of the SdH extrema, result from a radiation induced change in the cross-sectional area of the Fermi surface.

Figure 3 illustrates the frequency dependence, and the correlation between $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ and $`R_{xx}`$, at microwave frequencies $`f`$ = 30, 40, and 50 GHz. Here, and also in Fig. 4, the exhibited Hall resistances represent an antisymmetric combination of the signal obtained for the two directions, ($`+B,B`$), of the magnetic field. In each case shown in Fig. 3, it is observed that (a) the magnitude of $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ is approximately the same as the magnitude of $`R_{xx}`$, (b) an increase in $`R_{xx}`$ under microwave excitation leads to a decrease in the magnitude of $`R_{xy}`$, i.e., $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}0`$ for $`B0`$, (c) $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ shows a finite slope as $`B`$ 0, and (d) the correction $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ vanishes as the diagonal resistance vanishes in the vicinity of $`B=(4/5)B_f`$. These data also confirm that the characteristic field scale for the oscillatory Hall effect follows the microwave frequency in the same way as $`R_{xx}`$.

We exhibit the power dependence of the Hall resistance at a fixed microwave frequency in Figure 4. Fig. 4(a) shows $`R_{xy}`$ for various microwave intensities in units of dBm, with 0 dBm = 1 mW. Here, it is evident that increasing the radiation power produces progressively stronger variations in $`R_{xy}`$. This is confirmed by Fig. 4(b), which demonstrates that the minima in $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ become deeper with increased power, consistent with the results of Fig. 1(c), Fig. 2(b), and Fig. 3.

There appear to be some similarities between the Hall resistance correction reported here and the experimental observations under quantum Hall conditions. In the vicinity of integral filling factors in the quantum Hall situation, the measured Hall resistivity, $`\rho _{xy}`$, is expected to approach the quantum Hall resistance, $`R_H(i)=h/(e^2i)`$, in the limit of vanishing diagonal resistivity, i.e., $`\rho _{xx}0`$, at zero-temperature.14  At finite temperature, experiment has indicated corrections to the Hall resistivity that are proportional to the magnitude of the diagonal resistivity, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _{xy}=s\rho _{xx}`$, with $`s`$ a device dependent constant.14  That is, a finite (non-vanishing) $`\rho _{xx}`$ can lead to a reduction in the magnitude of $`\rho _{xy}`$. This is analogous to the effect reported here since an increase in $`R_{xx}`$ due to microwave excitation leads also to a decrease in the magnitude of the Hall resistance, i.e., $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}R_{xx}`$ in Fig. 3. And, as the $`R_{xx}`$ vanishes, so does the correction to the Hall resistance. Indeed, experiment suggests some device dependence to this radiation induced Hall resistance correction just as in the quantum Hall situation.14  Thus, one might suggest that increased backscattering due to the radiation,5 ; 7 ; 9  leads to an increased dissipative current over the $`R_{xx}`$ peaks, which loads the Hall effect, similar to suggestions in ref. 14.14  It might then follow that the suppression of the backscattered current over the $`R_{xx}`$ minima, eliminates also the correction to the Hall effect in our experiment.

The radiation induced change in the slope of the Hall curve appears to fall, however, outside the scope of this analogy, and this helps to identify the dissimilarities between the radiation-induced effect reported here and the quantum Hall situation: In the quantum Hall situation, the effect of finite temperature is to mainly increase the diagonal resistance, which leads to a decrease in the observed Hall resistance.14  In the case of the radiation induced resistance oscillations, the radiation, which plays here a role that is similar to the temperature in the quantum Hall situation, can serve to both increase and decrease the diagonal resistance. Theory would suggest the existence of both a downhill- and uphill- radiation induced current with respect to the Hall field.7  Naively, one might then expect both an enhancement and a diminishment of the magnitude of the Hall resistance if the quantum Hall analogy carried over to this case. Yet, we have found that the magnitude of $`R_{xy}`$ is mainly reduced by the radiation. The radiation induced change in the slope of the Hall resistance vs. $`B`$ seems to be essential to make it come out in this way. The results seem to hint at different transport pictures for the peaks- and valleys- of the radiation induced oscillatory magnetoresistance.

In summary, high mobility GaAs/AlGaAs devices that exhibit vanishing $`R_{xx}`$ under microwave radiation also show a radiation induced modification of the Hall effect. The modification is characterized by (a) a small reduction in the slope of the $`R_{xy}`$ vs. $`B`$ curve upon microwave excitation, with respect to the dark value, (b) a reduction in the magnitude of the Hall resistance that correlates with an increase in the diagonal resistance $`R_{xx}`$. The radiation induced changes in $`R_{xx}`$ and $`R_{xy}`$ are comparable in magnitude, although $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xy}`$ is small compared to $`R_{xy}`$, and (c) a Hall resistance correction that disappears as the diagonal resistance vanishes. These features seem to provide new experimental insight into this remarkable phenomenon.3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 ; 12 ; 13 ; 15


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

As stated in the abstract this resubmission of the paper which appeared in the Archive with the same title is done in order to disclaim the result we had previously claimed, due to the discovery of ill-fated inconsistencies that make the entire construction not stand on its feet.

The previously presented non–abelian extension of the rheonomic construction of $`D`$–brane actions based on the double first order formalism is wrong.

The rheonomic construction and the double first order formalism work perfectly well and are valuable tools to establish kappa supersymmetry in the abelian case.

What is wrong and inconsistent is the matrix extension of superspace and the consequent application of the geometric constructions to this matrix extended superspace.

As also stated in the abstract this resubmission is also done in order to express our gratitude to our friends Paul Howe and Ulf Lindstrom who have helped us to understand the internal subtle bugs of our construction with their constructive criticism expressed through private correspondence.