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# Reducing and constraining the intrinsic galaxy alignment contamination to weak lensing measurements

## 1. Introduction

A key assumption for cosmic shear studies is that galaxy ellipticities are randomly orientated on the sky. It is possible, however, that gravitational interactions during galaxy formation could in fact produce intrinsic shape correlations between nearby galaxies, mimicking to an extent weak lensing shear correlations. This effect will limit the accuracy of cosmological parameter estimation from weak lensing studies, but to what extent is still uncertain. In this conference proceedings, we review models for intrinsic galaxy alignments, estimated from numerical simulations, and summarise an optimal galaxy pair-weighting method, detailed in Heymans & Heavens (2003), which significantly reduces the contamination of weak lensing measurements by intrinsic galaxy alignments. We propose a simple optimised scheme for multi-colour surveys and show its effect for the Sloan photometric survey design and the RCS survey design.

Current analytical and numerical estimates for the amplitude and correlation length of intrinsic galaxy alignments, although in broad agreement on their effect on weak lensing studies, differ in the details by an order of magnitude or more, (see contribution by King in this volume). Intrinsic galaxy alignments are potentially very interesting, providing information for galaxy formation, and possibly galaxy evolution, if evolution with redshift is observed in the intrinsic alignment signal. It is therefore desirable to determine the extent of intrinsic galaxy alignments observationally. At low redshifts, where weak lensing shear correlations are negligible, galaxy ellipticity correlations have been observed in the SuperCOSMOS survey, (Brown et al. 2002), and in the Tully catalogue (Pen, Lee & Seljak 2002). With deeper multi-colour surveys, for example COMBO-17 (Brown et al. 2003), intrinsic galaxy alignments can be observationally constrained by comparing ellipticity correlations before and after their removal with the application of a close pair downweighting scheme, or by using correlation function tomography (King & Schneider 2003). An additional observational constraint that we focus on here arises from observed aperture mass B modes in weak lensing measurements, which serve as a good diagnostic for the presence of non-lensing sources within the data.

## 2. Estimating intrinsic galaxy alignments from numerical simulations

Assuming that luminous matter forms galaxies in all dark matter halos above some minimum mass limit, it is possible to acquire a three dimensional catalogue of galaxy shapes from a large N-body dark matter numerical simulation. The shape of each luminous galaxy can be modelled as a thin disc placed perpendicular to the angular momentum vector of its parent dark matter halo, (Heavens, Refregier & Heymans 2000, HRH), or by assuming that the galaxy ellipticity, $`e`$, is equal to that of its parent dark matter halo, (Croft & Metzler 2000; HRH; Jing 2002). The resulting calculated three dimensional ellipticity correlations, $`\eta (r)=<e(𝐱)e^{}(𝐱+𝐫)>`$, for galaxy pairs separated by distance $`r`$, show significant alignment, $`ee^{}0.01`$, between galaxies pairs closer than a few tens of Mpc. This result alone shows that in numerical simulations, there is a preferred angular momentum direction for nearby dark matter halos. Projecting $`\eta (r)`$ into two dimensions yields an angular ellipticity correlation function $`C_I(\theta )`$, which can be directly compared to weak lensing shear correlation functions.

$$C_I(\theta )=\frac{𝑑z_a𝑑z_b\varphi _z(z_a)\varphi _z(z_b)\left[1+\xi _{gg}(r_{ab})\right]\eta (r_{ab})}{𝑑z_a𝑑z_b\varphi _z(z_a)\varphi _z(z_b)\left[1+\xi _{gg}(r_{ab})\right]},$$
(1)
where $`\varphi _z`$ is the survey selection function, and $`\xi _{gg}(r)`$ is the two-point correlation function, which takes into account galaxy clustering.

For shallow surveys, for example the Sloan photometric survey with median redshift $`z_m0.2`$, it is generally agreed that correlations from intrinsic galaxy alignments will far exceed the correlations expected from weak gravitational lensing. For deeper surveys with $`z_m1.0`$, assuming weak evolution in galaxy clustering, contamination can contribute up to 10% of the lensing signal.

## 3. An optimal method to remove the contamination from intrinsic galaxy alignments

If an accurate estimate of the intrinsic ellipticity correlation strength did exist, then it would be possible to subtract it, leaving ellipticity correlations induced purely by lensing. In the absence of a good estimate for the intrinsic correlation function it is obvious that one can reduce the contamination from intrinsic alignments by down-weighting nearby galaxy pairs. This is done at the expense of increasing the shot noise contribution from the distribution of individual galaxy ellipticities and therefore it is best to apply an optimised weighting scheme.

Given accurate galaxy redshifts, the optimal weighting for a galaxy pair p, derived in Heymans & Heavens (2003), is given by;

$$W_p=1\frac{J_p\mathrm{\Lambda }_1}{1+\mathrm{\Lambda }_2}$$
(2)
where

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_n\underset{q}{}J_q^2,$$
(3)
$$J(r)\frac{fI(r)}{\sigma _{\mathrm{pair}}},$$
(4)
$`\sigma _{\mathrm{pair}}`$ is the shot noise error, and $`fI(r)`$ is the predicted intrinsic ellipticity correlation from a galaxy pair at separation r, multiplied by a fractional error $`f`$, which takes into account the uncertainty in the intrinsic alignment model. In practice, to guarantee the removal of any intrinsic alignment signal, the conservative approach is to set $`f=1`$ and choose the strongest plausible intrinsic alignment model for $`I(r)`$.

We apply this scheme to the Sloan spectroscopic survey design comparing two intrinsic alignment models from HRH, and Jing (2002). Figure 1 shows that this optimal weighting scheme can largely remove the contamination by intrinsic alignments leaving almost pure shot noise. The shallow depth of this spectroscopic sample however, still prevents its use for weak lensing studies as the remaining shot noise exceeds the expected weak lensing signal.

## 4. Application to multi-colour surveys

The optimal weighting scheme is only applicable to spectroscopic surveys. More often surveys have estimates of galaxy distances from photometric redshifts, $`\widehat{z}`$, with associated errors, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_z`$. These errors are much larger than the scale over which galaxy shapes are intrinsically correlated. We therefore propose a semi-optimal weighting scheme dependent on estimated redshifts such that for a pair of galaxies with estimated redshift $`\widehat{z}_a`$ and $`\widehat{z}_b`$ we assign a zero weight if $`|\widehat{z}_a\widehat{z}_b|<\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }_z`$ and a weight of one otherwise. $`\alpha `$ is chosen to minimise the total error on the shear correlation function and will depend on the angular scale, and survey specification. With good photometric redshifts, this simple procedure does almost as well as the theoretical optimum where all galaxy distances are known, and is similar to a method simultaneously proposed by King & Schneider (2002).

We apply this scheme to the Sloan photometric survey design, SDSS, with $`z_m=0.2`$, where the photometric redshifts are taken to be accurate to $`\mathrm{\Delta }_z=0.025`$. We also apply this scheme to the RCS (Hoekstra et al. 2002a), with $`z_m=0.56`$, where the photometric redshifts are taken to be accurate to $`\mathrm{\Delta }_z=0.3`$. Figure 2 shows the correlations we expect to find for each survey from HRH derived intrinsic alignments and the best reduction that can be achieved with this method. The most startling result comes from the SDSS where, due to the wide sky coverage and accurate photometric redshift information it is possible to reduce intrinsic alignment systematic errors that are 80 times the lensing signal, to a random error, introduced by shot noise, that is only 10% of the lensing signal. For the RCS survey, even with fairly inaccurate photometric redshifts it is still possible to remove a significant systematic error, exceeding the lensing signal at angular scales $`\theta <10`$ arcminutes. This results in a 20% random error arising from shot noise. Deeper surveys have also been investigated, resulting in 10% systematic errors being reduced to less than 1% random errors.

## 5. Aperture mass B modes. An observational constraint for intrinsic galaxy alignments

A good diagnostic for determining the level of systematic errors present in weak lensing measurements, is to decompose the shear correlation signal into E and B modes. This was first proposed by Crittenden et al. (2002), and is now a standard statistical test for the presence of non-lensing contributions to weak lensing measurements. Weak gravitational lensing produces curl-free distortions (E-type), and contributes only to the B-type distortions at small angular scales, $`\theta <1^{}`$, due to source redshift clustering (Schneider, Van Waerbeke & Mellier, 2002). A significant detection of a B-type signal in weak lensing surveys is therefore an indication that ellipticity correlations exist either from residual systematics within the data and/or from intrinsic galaxy alignments which are thought to have no preferred distortion pattern. It is therefore possible to use observed B modes as upper limits for the B mode contribution from intrinsic galaxy alignments, provided all data systematics produce positive ellipticity correlations.

The decomposition for the RCS survey has been carried out using the aperture mass statistic, $`M_{ap}`$, (Hoekstra et al. 2002b), which can be directly calculated from angular ellipticity correlation functions, (Crittenden et al. 2002; Schneider et al. 2002). Assuming that intrinsic galaxy alignments have no preferred tangential or radial alignment it is possible to calculate the expected intrinsic alignment aperture mass B mode from the angular projection of an intrinsic alignment model, $`C_I(\theta )`$.

$$M_{(\mathrm{IA})}^2=\frac{1}{2}_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{d\vartheta \vartheta }{\theta ^2}\left[\xi _+(\vartheta )T_+\left(\frac{\vartheta }{\theta }\right)\right]$$
(5)
where $`\xi _+(\theta )=\frac{1}{4}C_I(\theta )`$ and a useful analytic expression for $`T_+(x)`$ is given in Schneider et al. (2002).

Figure 3 shows the intrinsic alignment contribution from an HRH model, to the aperture mass B mode, calculated assuming no evolution in galaxy clustering. Comparing this result with the observed RCS B mode, considered as an upper limit, clearly rejects this type of model, providing evidence that the assumptions made for estimating intrinsic galaxy alignment models from numerical simulations are too simplistic, or that assuming no evolution in galaxy clustering is incorrect.

## 6. Conclusion

This contribution and the contribution by Lindsay King have shown that with some redshift information it is possible to separate galaxy ellipticity correlations induced by weak gravitational lensing from contaminating intrinsic ellipticity correlations, thereby removing an unknown systematic error from cosmic shear analysis. We have presented a new observational constraint from the aperture mass B mode statistic, prompting the need for a re-assessment of the assumptions made when estimating intrinsic galaxy alignments from numerical simulations. This constraint suggests that intrinsic alignments are a less significant contaminant at high redshifts than was previously predicted from numerical simulations. Intrinsic galaxy alignments can be directly constrained observationally at low redshifts, for example in the Sloan survey, although we have also shown here that this survey could now potentially be used as a weak lensing survey with the application of an optimised close galaxy pair down-weighting scheme. Deeper surveys with photometric information can also now be used to constrain intrinsic galaxy alignments, potentially providing valuable information for galaxy formation and evolution studies.

## 7. Acknowledgements

We thank Henk Hoekstra, Andi Burkert, Paul Allen, and Michael Brown for useful discussions.

## References

Brown, M., Taylor, A., Hambly, N., & Dye, S. 2002 MNRAS, 333, 501

Brown, M., Taylor, A., Bacon, D., Gray, M., Dye, S., Meisenheimer, K., & Wolf, C. 2003 MNRAS, 341, 100

Crittenden, R., Natarajan, R., Pen, U., & Theuns, T. 2002 ApJ, 568, 20

Croft, R., & Metzler, C. 2000 ApJ, 545, 561

Heavens, A., Refregier, A., & Heymans, C. 2000 MNRAS, 319, 649

Heymans, C., & Heavens, A. 2003 MNRAS, 339, 711

Hoekstra, H., Yee, H., Gladders, M., Barrientos, L., Hall, P., & Infante, L., 2002a ApJ, 572, 55

Hoekstra, H., Yee, H., & Gladders, M. 2002b ApJ, 577, 595

Jing, Y.P. 2002 MNRAS, 335, L89

King, L. & Schneider, P. 2002 A&A, 396, 411

King, L. & Schneider, P. 2003 A&A, 398, 23

Pen, U-L., Lee, J., & Seljak, U. 2002 ApJ, 543, L107

Schneider, P., Van Waerbeke, L., & Mellier, Y. 2002 A&A, 389, 741


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# An Intriguing X-ray Arc Surrounding the X-ray Source RX J053335-6854.9 toward the Large Magellanic Cloud

## 1 Introduction

The Röntgen X-ray Satellite (ROSAT) observations of the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) have revealed a wealth of diffuse and compact X-ray sources (Snowden & Petre, 1994; Haberl & Pietsch, 1999; Sasaki et al., 2002). Many large diffuse X-ray sources have sizes greater than 100 pc. Some of these diffuse sources are associated with superbubbles and supergiant shells, and others seem to originate from fields unbounded by interstellar structures identifiable at optical or radio wavelengths (Dunne et al., 2001; Points et al., 2001).

Among the large diffuse X-ray sources, we have identified two objects whose diffuse X-ray emissions have ring morphologies and are centered on point sources. These two objects are intriguing because they are not bounded by superbubbles and the relative locations of the point source and the diffuse X-ray emission appear to suggest a physical association. The first object, at 5h07m36s, $``$684752′′ (J2000), is projected in the vicinity of the superbubble N103 surrounding the star cluster NGC 1850. A detailed analysis of this object shows that the large X-ray ring, 150 pc in diameter, is most likely a supernova remnant (SNR) formed in the low-density halo of the LMC and the central point source might be an X-ray binary in the cluster HS122, but the relationship between the SNR and the X-ray binary is uncertain (Chu et al., 2000).

The second object, shown in Figure 1, is projected on the eastern rim of the supergiant shell LMC-3 (Goudis & Meaburn, 1978). Its $``$9$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 angular diameter corresponds to $``$140 pc, if it is in the LMC at a distance of 50 kpc (Feast, 1999). The ROSAT Position Sensitive Proportional Counter (PSPC) mosaic (Snowden & Petre, 1994) in Figure 1b shows semi-circular diffuse X-ray emission centered on the point source RX J053335$``$6854.9 at 5h33m36s, $``$685455′′ (J2000). The ROSAT High Resolution Imager (HRI) mosaic (Chu & Snowden, 1998) in Figure 1c, having a much higher angular resolution, shows diffuse X-ray emission in an east-north-west arc centered on the point source. RX J053335$``$6854.9 is coincident with a 14th mag stellar object in the Digitized Sky Survey (DSS). To determine the origin of the diffuse X-ray emission, we have analyzed the ROSAT observations in conjunction with optical images and high-dispersion, long-slit spectra of the underlying 104 K ionized interstellar gas. To determine the nature of the point source, we have examined both the photometric and spectral properties of its optical counterpart, and compared them with the spectral properties of the X-ray source. The results of our analysis are reported in this paper.

## 2 Observations

### 2.1 ROSAT X-ray Observations

ROSAT observations of RX J053335$``$6854.9 and its surrounding diffuse X-ray emission have been made with both the PSPC and the HRI detectors. The PSPC is sensitive in the energy range 0.1–2.4 keV and has a 45% spectral resolution with on-axis angular resolution of $``$25′′ at 1 keV. The HRI is sensitive at 0.1–2.0 keV; it has a negligible spectral resolution, but a high on-axis angular resolution of 5′′.

We have retrieved all ROSAT observations where RX J053335$``$6854.9 falls within 45 and 20 from the field center for the PSPC and HRI, respectively. These observations are listed with their exposure times, locations, original targets of the observations, and the offset of RX J053335$``$6854.9 from the field center in Table 1. Note that for all PSPC observations, RX J053335$``$6854.9 lies either close to or outside the circular window support structure of 40 diameter. For the former, the wobbling of the telescope moves the source in and out of the shadow of the window support ring and decreases the number of counts, while for the latter the detector sensitivity is reduced and the point spread function is degraded at large off-axis angles. Therefore, we used the PSPC observations to carry out only the spectral analysis and used the higher resolution HRI observations for morphological analysis and comparisons with optical images.

We have used the PROS111PROS/XRAY Data Analysis System, http://hea-www.harvard.edu/PROS/pros.thml software package within IRAF222Image Analysis and Reduction Facility, IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. for spatial and spectral analyses of these observations. To improve the S/N, we merged the PSPC observations centered on SN 1987A with exposure times $``$9 ks (see Table 1) to produce a 90 ks equivalent exposure, and extracted spectra from the combined data for further analysis. The other PSPC data were deemed to be less useful and were not used.

### 2.2 Optical Images

Optical images were taken at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) with a CCD camera on the Curtis Schmidt telescope. The observations were part of the Magellanic Cloud Emission-Line Survey (MCELS) by Smith et al. (1999). The detector was the SITe2048 #5 CCD. Its 24 $`\mu `$m pixel size corresponds to 2$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$3. Images were obtained with the following filters and exposure times: H$`\alpha `$ ($`\lambda _c`$ = 6568 Å, FWHM = 28 Å), 150 s; \[O III\] ($`\lambda _c`$ = 5023 Å, FWHM = 40 Å), 600 s; \[S II\] ($`\lambda _c`$ = 6738 Å, FWHM = 50 Å), 600 s; green continuum ($`\lambda _c`$ = 5130 Å, FWHM = 155 Å), 300 s; red continuum ($`\lambda _c`$ = 6852 Å, FWHM = 95 Å), 300 s. The H$`\alpha `$, \[S II\], and red continuum images were obtained on 1998 November 27, and the \[O III\] and green continuum images were obtained on 2000 December 30. The emission-line images of RX J053335$``$6854.9 and its vicinity are presented in Figure 2.

### 2.3 High-Dispersion Spectra

To determine the radial velocity of the optical counterpart of RX J053335$``$6854.9 and to examine the kinematics of the 104 K ionized gas underlying the diffuse X-ray emission, we obtained high-dispersion spectroscopic observations using the echelle spectrograph on the Blanco 4 m telescope at CTIO on 2002 June 24. The spectrograph was used with the 79 line mm-1 echelle grating and the long-focus red camera in the single-order, long-slit mode. This observing configuration provided a reciprocal dispersion of 3.4 Å mm-1 and covered the H$`\alpha `$ and \[N ii\] $`\lambda \lambda `$6548,6584 lines over a slit length of $``$3. The SITe2048 $`\mathrm{\#}6`$ CCD used has a pixel size of 24 $`\mu `$m, which corresponds to $``$3.7 km s-1 pixel-1 along the dispersion direction and $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}26`$ pixel-1 along the slit. The slit width was $`1\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}8`$ and the resultant instrumental FWHM was 15 km s-1. The angular resolution, determined by the seeing, was 2$`\mathrm{}`$. The slit was oriented at PA = $`345^{}`$ and the total integration time was 900 s.

## 3 Discussion: Physical Nature of the X-ray Sources

The X-ray point source RX J053335$``$6854.9 is projected within the LMC and apparently surrounded by the diffuse X-ray arc. Below we discuss the nature of the diffuse emission and the point source individually.

### 3.1 Physical Nature of the X-ray Arc

The circular boundary of the diffuse X-ray emission surrounding RX J053335$``$6854.9 suggests that the hot gas may have been energized by a supernova explosion at its geometric center. The angular radius varies from 4 on the east side to 5$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 on the west side. This diffuse X-ray emission region does not show morphological correspondence with optical emission. As shown in Figure 2, long ($`>`$ 20) optical filaments exist but are associated with the supergiant shell LMC-3 and do not delineate the X-ray emission region. From the morphology alone, the hot gas responsible for the diffuse X-ray emission does not appear to be associated with the cooler gas responsible for the optical emission.

It is unlikely that this diffuse X-ray source is associated with a SNR in the Galactic plane (within 500 pc), because its linear size ($`<`$2 pc) implies a very young age and it would have been much brighter. The probability is also small for this source to originate from a SNR in the Galactic halo, because massive stars do not reside in the halo and the low stellar density in the halo implies a very low Type Ia supernova rate. On the other hand, its projected location in the LMC is within a large-scale star-forming region where the supernova rate is expected to be high; therefore, it is most likely that a SNR in the LMC is responsible for this diffuse X-ray emission. The linear radius of the X-ray emission region, 60–82 pc, is larger than those of most SNRs, a few tens of pc in diameter, but is reasonable for SNRs formed in a low-density medium.

The physical conditions of the X-ray-emitting gas can be derived from the observed X-ray spectra, which are a convolution of the intrinsic spectra, the intervening interstellar absorption, and the PSPC response function. The contribution of the absorption and response function to the spectra is energy-dependent, therefore it is necessary to model the spectra in order to determine the temperature and emission measure of the X-ray sources. The diffuse emission appears to originate from hot ionized gas therefore we used the Raymond & Smith (1977) models of thin plasma emission and the Morrison & McCammon (1983) models of absorption to simulate the observed spectra, and determined the best fit by $`\chi ^2`$ minimization.

The best-fit model for the background-subtracted PSPC spectrum (see Figure 3a) gives a plasma temperature of $`kT`$ 0.3 keV, an absorption column density of $`N_\mathrm{H}=4\times 10^{20}`$ cm-2, and a normalization factor $`A=10^{10.7}`$ cm-5. This plasma temperature is within the range commonly seen in SNRs. The rms electron density can be determined from the normalization factor $`A=N_\mathrm{e}^2V/(4\pi D^2)`$, where $`N_\mathrm{e}`$ is the electron density of the plasma, $`V`$ is the volume of the X-ray-emitting plasma, and $`D`$ is the distance to the X-ray source. Assuming a filled hemispherical emitting volume with a 70 pc radius, the rms $`N_\mathrm{e}`$ is $``$0.03 cm-3, which is lower by at least an order of magnitude than most SNRs in the LMC. If the volume filling factor $`f`$ of the X-ray-emitting plasma is less than 1, the density would be $`f^{1/2}`$ times higher, but still lower than those of most SNRs. The total thermal energy of the hot gas is $`8\times 10^{49}`$ ergs. The unabsorbed X-ray flux for the diffuse emission is $`9\times 10^{13}`$ ergs cm-2 s-1, and the X-ray luminosity is $`3\times 10^{35}`$ ergs s-1 in the 0.5–2.0 keV band. Both the thermal energy and X-ray luminosity are similar to those observed in mature Magellanic Cloud SNRs $`10^4`$ yr of age (Williams et al., 1997, 1999).

The physical properties of the diffuse X-ray emission around RX J053335$``$6854.9 are fully consistent with those of a mature SNR in a low-density medium, much like the large X-ray ring around RX J050736$``$6847.8 (Chu et al., 2000). The low density of the ambient interstellar medium explains the large size and the absence of a detectable optical shell.

The association of the diffuse X-ray arc with a SNR is further supported by the high-velocity ionized gas detected in our echelle observation. The echellogram in Figure 4 shows two nebular components. The first component has a fairly uniform surface brightness and a nearly constant velocity, at $`V_{\mathrm{Hel}}`$ = 279$`\pm `$4 km s-1, along the entire slit length. This component originates from a large-scale diffuse ionized medium in the LMC. The second component is blue-shifted from the stationary component, and the velocity offset varies from $`<`$50 km s-1 at 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 south of RX J053335$``$6854.9 to $``$100 km s-1 at 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$8 north of RX J053335$``$6854.9. The high-velocity features are fainter than the large-scale diffuse component so that only the brightest feature, $`20^{\prime \prime }`$ south of the star, can be identified with a filament in the emission-line images (compare Figures 2 and 4). The spatial scale and magnitude of velocity offset of this nebular component are similar to those seen in SNRs in the LMC (Chu & Kennicutt, 1988). It is possible that this high-velocity nebular component is associated with the SNR responsible for the diffuse X-ray arc. While the SNR is in a low-density medium in general, there may exist small dense clouds which are shocked and give rise to the high-velocity nebular emission. The scarcity of the dense clouds in a low-density medium prevents the formation of a dense SNR shell structure.

### 3.2 Physical Nature of the Point Source

The X-ray point source RX J053335$``$6854.9 appears to be coincident with a 14th mag star shown in the DSS. The position of RX J053335$``$6854.9 measured from the HRI image (RH600640N00) is 5h33m36s.0, $``$685455′′ (J2000). The star has been cataloged in the Guide Star Catalog 2.2 as GSC2.2 S013200256362 at 5h33m35s.2, $``$685454′′ (J2000), in the 2 Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS) as PSC 05333511$``$6854544 at an almost identical position, and in the US Naval Observatory-A2.0 catalog as USNO-A2.0 0150-03257930 at 5h33m35s.3, $``$685454′′ (J2000). The apparent offset between the X-ray source and the optical star, 4$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5, can be accounted for by the uncertainty in the aspect solution of the ROSAT pointing. Therefore, we consider the X-ray and optical sources coincident.

The photometric measurements of the star given by the catalogs are: $`B=16.9`$ and $`R=14.4`$ in USNO-A2.0; $`B=16.56\pm 0.53`$ and $`R=14.47\pm 0.19`$ in GSC 2.2; and $`J=11.51\pm 0.02`$, $`H=10.88\pm 0.02`$, and $`K=10.68\pm 0.02`$ in 2MASS. The colors of this star, $`BR=2.1\pm 0.7`$, $`RK=3.8\pm 0.2`$, and $`JK=0.827\pm 0.04`$, are consistent with a red star with a spectral type of M2–M3 (Cox, 2000). As the distance to this star is unknown, it can be a supergiant in the LMC, a giant in the Galactic halo, or a dwarf in the solar neighborhood.

These three possibilities can be distinguished by the radial velocity ($`V_{\mathrm{Hel}}`$) of the star: $``$300 km s-1 in the LMC, moderate to high velocities in the Galactic halo, and low velocities in the solar neighborhood. We have extracted a sky-subtracted spectrum of this star from our echelle observation and plotted it in Figure 4c. The most prominent spectral feature of the star in this wavelength range is the H$`\alpha `$ emission line at $`V_{\mathrm{Hel}}0`$ km s-1, or $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}14`$ km s-1. This small radial velocity strongly argues for this star to be located in the solar neighborhood. Thus we further conclude that the star is a dwarf M2–M3 star with H$`\alpha `$ emission, one of those commonly called dMe stars. Adopting a dwarf luminosity class, the distance to the star is found to be 60–80 pc.

To determine whether RX J053335$``$6854.9 and the star are physically associated, we examine the X-ray spectral properties. The background-subtracted PSPC spectrum of RX J053335$``$6854.9 in Figure 3b displays a spectral shape typical for stellar coronal emission. As dMe stars are known to exhibit coronal activity, it is likely that RX J053335$``$6854.9 and this dMe star are physically associated. We have used the thin plasma emission model of Raymond & Smith (1977) to fit the PSPC spectrum. The best-fit model gives a plasma temperature of $`kT=0.26`$ keV and an absorption column density of $`N_\mathrm{H}=2\times 10^{19}`$ cm-2. The small absorption column density indicates a small distance. Adopting the distance of the dMe star, 60–80 pc, the X-ray luminosity of RX J053335$``$6854.9 is (2–3)$`\times 10^{28}`$ ergs s-1 in the 0.5–2.0 keV range. This X-ray luminosity is completely consistent with those expected from dMe stars (Rucinski, 1984). We therefore conclude that the X-ray point source RX J053335$``$6854.9 is physically associated with the dMe star.

## 4 Conclusions

ROSAT observations of the LMC have revealed a large diffuse X-ray arc in projection around the point source RX J053335$``$6854.9. The relative locations of the diffuse and point sources suggest that they might originate from a common supernova explosion. We have analyzed the physical properties of the diffuse X-ray emission and determined that it is most likely a SNR in a predominantly low-density medium. We have also analyzed the X-ray and optical observations of RX J053335$``$6854.9 and concluded that it is a dMe star in the solar neighborhood. Therefore, these two X-ray sources are physically unrelated. As dMe stars are the most prevalent stellar X-ray sources in the solar neighborhood (Schmitt, Fleming, & Giampapa, 1995), and as the cooling time for a SNR in a low-density medium is long, the probability for the superposition of a nearby dMe star with a large SNR in the LMC is not negligible.

The project was partially supported by the NASA grant NAG 5-8104. The optical images from the Magellanic Cloud Emission-line Surveys were obtained with support from the Dean B. McLaughlin fund at the University of Michigan and NSF grant AST-9540747. This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France, and the Digital Sky Survey produced at the Space Telescope Science Institute under U.S. Government grant NAG W-2166. We have also used data products from the 2MASS, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by NASA and NSF.


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# The Structure of Cold Molecular Cloud Cores

## 1. Introduction

Low-mass (0.2–2.0M) protostar formation occurs in cold, dense cores within molecular clouds. However, one of the major unknown factors in theories of star formation is a detailed observational determination of the initial conditions of the collapse phase that forms a protostar. There are many different theories of star formation, all predicting different outcomes. Many of the differences can be accredited to the fact that the theories start from different initial collapse conditions. The initial conditions of collapse are crucially important to all models of star formation (for a review, see André, Ward-Thompson & Barsony 2000).

Many studies of cold cores have been carried out to attempt to determine the initial conditions observationally. Molecular line surveys of dense cores by Myers and co-workers identified a significant number of isolated cores (e.g. Myers & Benson 1983; Benson & Myers 1989). Comparison of these surveys with the IRAS point source catalogue detected a class of core that had no associated infrared source. The lack of an embedded source led to the classification of these as ‘starless’ cores (Beichman et al. 1986).

Ward-Thompson et al. (1994) coined the term pre-protosellar cores to refer to those cores without embedded stars that appear to be sufficiently centrally condensed to be about to form stars. This term has subsequently been shortened to ‘pre-stellar cores’ for brevity. Pre-stellar cores are clearly a key stage on the road to star formation.

Some recent observations have even indicated that the Initial Mass Function (IMF) of stars may be determined at the pre-stellar core stage (Motte, André & Neri 1998; Motte et al. 2001). Figure 1 shows a plot of the mass distribution of the pre-stellar cores in the Orion B molecular cloud region (from Motte et al. 2001). The form of the distribution mimics the stellar IMF, apparently indicating that the masses of stars are actually determined very early in the star formation process, at the pre-stellar core stage. If this proves to be correct, then in order to understand the cause of the IMF, we must first understand the physics of pre-stellar cores.

## 2. Core morphologies

Figure 2 shows a series of images of the L1544 pre-stellar core at different far-IR and submm wavelengths. The core is barely visible at 90$`\mu `$m, but can be seen clearly at longer IR wavelengths. In the submm, the core appears somewhat fainter once again. This all indicates that the core is very cold (see below).

The morphology of L1544 can be seen from Figure 2 to be non-circular. In the higher resolution 850$`\mu `$m data it can even be seen to appear to break up into sub-structure. Nevertheless, many star formation collapse models still start from spherically symmetric initial conditions. However, some recent studies at least use elliptical averaging to characterise the cores (see below).

## 3. Temperature structure

We can estimate the colour temperature variation across each core (after subtraction of the background level) by ratio-ing the images at 170 and 200 $`\mu `$m. This ratio can be converted into a colour temperature using the assumption of optically thin grey-body emission (see Ward-Thompson et al. 2002 for further discussion), namely:

$$(F_{\nu _1}/F_{\nu _2})=\frac{\nu _1^{3+\beta }(e^{[h\nu _2/kT]}1)}{\nu _2^{3+\beta }(e^{[h\nu _1/kT]}1)},$$

where the frequencies $`\nu _1`$ and $`\nu _2`$ correspond to wavelengths of 200 and 170 $`\mu `$m respectively, and $`F_{\nu _1}`$ and $`F_{\nu _2}`$ are the flux densities at each of these frequencies. T is the dust temperature, $`\beta `$ is the dust emissivity index, and $`h`$ and $`k`$ are the Planck and Boltzmann constants respectively. This is one of the simplest sets of assumptions that can be made, as it assumes that all of the dust in a given pixel is at a single temperature, T, and that it is exactly the same dust which is emitting at both wavelengths. We used $`\beta `$=2 to fit the data, as we found this to be the typical value for these cores (Ward-Thompson et al. 2002). Using these assumptions we constructed a series of colour temperature maps.

Figure 3 shows the colour temperature maps we constructed for two cores, L1544 and L1498. In both cases we see a temperature structure that features a gradient which is cooler at the centre than the edge. This tends to indicate that these cores show the behaviour one would qualitatively expect for externally heated cores, and they do not have a central protostar yet, as was suspected. Hence they are confirmed as pre-stellar in nature.

## 4. Density structure

Ward-Thompson et al. (1994) were the first to find that pre-stellar cores all appear to follow a form of density profile that is relatively flat in the centre and steeper towards the edge. This is now seen to be a characteristic property of pre-stellar cores. This profile cannot be explained as simply the result of the temperature profile discussed above, as has been claimed (the observed submm flux density profile is a multiple of temperature and density), since the same shape of profile is seen in mid-IR and near-IR absorption surveys (Bacmann et al., 2000; Alves et al., 2001).

Figure 4 shows the radial flux density profiles of two pre-stellar cores, L1544 and B133, azimuthally averaged in elliptical bins to account for the non-circularity of the cores. The profiles can be seen to be flat in their centres and steeper towards their edges (for further discussion see: Kirk 2002; Kirk et al. 2003). There have been several attempts to characterise this form of profile, in terms of two power-laws (Ward-Thompson et al. 1994), multiple power-laws (Henriksen et al. 1997), Plummer-type profiles (Whitworth & Ward-Thompson 2001), or Bonnor-Ebert profiles (Alves et al. 2001).

The latter interpretation of density structure in terms of Bonnor-Ebert profiles is interesting, because it might imply that the cores are in some form of pressure equilibrium. However, this result may be misleading. Some recent work has shown that even highly non-equilibrium cores can demonstrate a Bonnor-Ebert form of profile (e.g. Ballesteros-Paredes et al. 2003).

Furthermore, it can be difficult to differentiate between forms of profile based on a two-dimensional representation such as an astronomical image. Recent work by Harvey et al. (2003a) has shown that for some data-sets the profiles can often be fitted by many different forms of profile. This would tend to suggest that interpreting a particular profile in terms of a pressure-balanced equilibrium may be over-interpreting a limited amount of data.

Nonetheless, even if there may be ambiguity over exactly how to model the density profiles, some forms of profile can be ruled out. For instance both the singular isothermal sphere and the logotropic non-isothermal sphere models can be ruled out (Bacmann et al., 2000). The absolute value of the density at the centre and at the edge can also provide information to help differentiate between models.

For example, in some cases a purely thermal Bonnor-Ebert equilibrium model can be ruled because the central temperature predicted by the model is much higher than the observed temperature (e.g. André et al., 2003; Harvey et al., 2003b). This could either be indicating that the cores are already collapsing or that there is some additional form of support that is operating, such as the support of a magnetic field.

## 5. Magnetic fields

The orientation of the magnetic field (in the plane of the sky) in pre-stellar cores can be ascertained from submillimetre polarisation measurements of the cores. Figure 5 shows a polarised intensity map of the L183 pre-stellar core taken using SCUBA with its polarimeter SCUBAPOL (from Crutcher et al., 2003). The vectors in Figure 5 have been rotated by 90 to indicate the B-field direction that can be inferred from the measured polarisation.

It can be seen from Figure 5 that the B-field is not aligned with the short axis of the core, as would be predicted from quasi-static models in which collapse occurs preferentially along the field lines. Nonetheless the field appears moderately uniform across the core, apparently ruling out highly turbulent motions tangling the field lines.

A detailed study of the dispersion of the vector orientations (Crutcher et al., 2003) in this core concluded that the observations are consistent with magnetically-supported models of star formation in a weakly turbulent medium. A comparison with turbulent magneto-hydrodynamic simulations (e.g. Ostriker et al., 1999) leads to similar conclusions (for further discussion see Ward-Thompson et al., 2000). Hence to model the evolution of these cores it appears we need to consider both the magnetic field and turbulence.

## 6. Conclusions

We have given a brief summary of the current state of knowledge of the structure of cold molecular cloud cores, in which solar-mass stars are believed to form. We have concentrated on the properties of pre-stellar cores – those believed to be closest to protostellar collapse. The main points can be summarised as follows:

* Pre-stellar core morphologies are generally not spherically symmetric.
* Typical core temperatures are around 10K.
* Cores show a tendency to be cooler in their centres than at their edges.
* Core density profiles are flatter at their centres than at their edges.
* Core density profiles can typically be fitted by several different analytic profiles.
* Core density profiles alone cannot be used to determine the equilibrium status of pre-stellar cores.
* Core magnetic fields seem to be relatively uniform, but aligned with neither the core major nor minor axes.

The latter point could be indicating that both turbulence and magnetic fields play a role in the evolution of pre-stellar cores. We support the continued study of pre-stellar cores, as they represent our best opportunity for observing the initial conditions for protostellar collapse.

## References

André, P., Bouwman, J., Belloche, A., & Hennebelle, P. 2003, in press, in: ‘Chemistry as a diagnostic of star formation’, eds: Curry, C. L., Fich, M., astro-ph/0212492

André, P., Ward-Thompson, D., & Barsony, M. 2000, in: ‘Protostars and Planets IV’, p. 59, eds: Mannings, V., Boss, A. P., Russell, S. S., University of Arizona Press, Tucson

Alves, J. F., Lada, C. J., & Lada, E. A. 2001, Nature, 409, 159

Bacmann, A., André, P., Puget, J-L., Abergel, A., Bontemps, S., Ward-Thompson, D. 2000, A&A, 361, 555

Ballesteros-Paredes, J., Klessen, R. S., Vazquez-Semadeni, E. 2003, ApJ, 592, 188

Beichman, C. A., Myers, P. C., Emerson, J. P., Harris, S., Mathieu, R., Benson, P. J., & Jennings, R. E. 1986, ApJ, 307, 337

Benson, P. J., & Myers, P. C. 1989, ApJS, 71, 89

Crutcher, R. M., Nutter, D. J., Ward-Thompson, D., & Kirk, J. M. 2003, ApJ, in press, astro-ph/0305604

Harvey, D. W. A., Wilner, D. J., Myers, P. C., & Tafalla, M. 2003a, ApJ, in press, astro-ph/0307106

Harvey, D. W. A., Wilner, D. J., Lada, C. J., Myers, P. C., & Alves, J. F. 2003b, ApJ, in press, astro-ph/0308143

Henriksen, R., André, P., & Bontemps, S. 1997, A&A, 323, 549

Kirk, J. M. 2002, PhD Thesis, Cardiff University

Kirk, J. M., Ward-Thompson, D., & André, P. 2003, in prep

Motte, F., André, P., & Neri, R. 1998, A&A, 336, 150

Motte, F., André, P., Ward-Thompson, D., & Bontemps, S. 2001, A&A, 372, L41

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Ward-Thompson, D., Scott, P. F., Hills, R. E., & André, P. 1994, MNRAS, 268, 276

Whitworth, A. P., & Ward-Thompson, D. 2001, ApJ, 547, 317


text:
# Induced Radio and X-ray Emission From an Accretion Disk

## 1 Introduction

In the unified model of compact radio sources, radio emission from active galactic nuclei (AGNs) and pulsars is treated as thermal radiation from an accretion disk amplified by a maser mechanism (Prigara, 2003a). A maser amplification of thermal radio emission in continuum produces the high brightness temperatures of compact radio sources and a rapid variability of total and polarized flux density, that is characteristic for non-saturated maser sources. In particular, pulsars signals show a variability on every observable time scale up to nanoseconds (Edwards & Stappers, 2003; Vivekanand, 2001). The brightness temperatures of OH masers have the magnitude $`T_b10^{12}K`$, and those of water masers have the magnitude $`T_b10^{15}K`$ (Bochkarev, 1992). Compact extragalactic sources (AGNs) exhibit brightness temperatures in the range of 1010 K to 1012 K (Bower & Backer, 1998; Kellermann et al., 1998), so these temperatures have an order of magnitude of those of OH masers.

Maser amplification in continuum is closely connected with the stimulated origin of thermal radio emission. The induced origin of thermal radio emission follows from the relations between Einstein’s coefficients for a spontaneous and induced emission of radiation. However, the detailed mechanism of maser amplification has been unknown so far. In this paper we show that maser amplification is produced by the inversion of the high energy level population in a hot plasma.

The unified model of compact sources can be extended to account for emission in other bands. X-ray binaries have roughly two-component X-ray spectra with a thermal blackbody component and a power law spectrum (Falcke et al., 2003). The power law spectrum in the X-ray range has been also detected in some radio pulsars, X-ray pulsars and AGNs (Chakrabarty et al., 2001). The unified model predicts photon indices of the power law spectrum in the X-ray range which may be compared with the observed indices.

## 2 The gaseous disk model

It was shown recently (Prigara, 2003b) that thermal radio emission has a stimulated character. According to this conception thermal radio emission from non-uniform gas is produced by an ensemble of individual emitters. Each of these emitters is an elementary resonator the size of which has an order of magnitude of mean free path l of photons

$$l=\frac{1}{n\sigma }$$
(1)
where n is the number density of particles and $`\sigma `$ is the absorption cross-section.

The emission of each elementary resonator is coherent, with the wavelength

$$\lambda =l,$$
(2)
and thermal radio emission of gaseous layer is incoherent sum of radiation produced by individual emitters.

The condition (2) implies that the radiation with the wavelength $`\lambda `$ is produced by the gaseous layer with the definite number density of particles n .

The condition (2) is consistent with the experimental results by Looney and Brown on the excitation of plasma waves by electron beam (Chen, 1984; Alexeev, 2003). The wavelength of standing wave with the Langmuir frequency of oscillations depends on the density as predicted by equation (1). The discrete spectrum of oscillations is produced by the non-uniformity of plasma and the readjustment of the wavelength to the length of resonator. From the results of experiment by Looney and Brown the absorption cross-section for plasma can be evaluated.

The product of the wavelength by density is weakly increasing with the increase of density. This may imply the weak dependence of the size of elementary resonator in terms of the wavelength upon the density or, equivalently, wavelength.

In the gaseous disk model, describing radio emitting gas nebulae (Prigara, 2003a), the number density of particles decreases reciprocally with respect to the distance r from the energy center

$$nr^1.$$
(3)
Together with the condition for emission (2) the last equation leads to the wavelength dependence of radio source size:

$$r_\lambda \lambda .$$
(4)
The relation (4) is indeed observed for sufficiently extended radio sources. For example, the size of radio core of galaxy M31 is 3.5 arcmin at the frequency 408 MHz and 1 arcmin at the frequency 1407 MHz (Sharov, 1982).

## 3 Radio emission from the gaseous disk

The spectral density of flux from an extended radio source is given by the formula

$$F_\nu =\frac{1}{a^2}\underset{0}{\overset{r_\lambda }{}}B_\nu \left(T\right)\times 2\pi r𝑑r,$$
(5)
where a is a distance from radio source to the detector of radiation, and the function $`B_\nu \left(T\right)`$ is given by the Rayleigh-Jeans formula

$$B_\nu =2kT\nu ^2/c^2,$$
(6)
where $`\nu `$ is the frequency of radiation, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the temperature.

. The extended radio sources may be divided in two classes. Type 1 radio sources are characterized by a stationary convection in the gaseous disk with an approximately uniform distribution of the temperature T$``$const giving the spectrum

$$F_\nu const.$$
(7)
Type 2 radio sources are characterized by outflows of gas with an approximately uniform distribution of gas pressure P=nkT$``$const. In this case the equation (3) gives

$$Tr,$$
(8)
so the radio spectrum, according to the equation (5), has the form

$$F_\nu \nu ^1.$$
(9)
Both classes include numerous galactic and extragalactic objects. In particular, edge-brightened supernova remnants (Kulkarni & Frail, 1993) belong to the type 2 radio sources in accordance with the relation (8), whereas center-brightened supernova remnants belong to the type 1 radio sources.

The relationship between linear size and turnover frequency in type 2 radio sources (gigahertz-peaked spectrum sources and steep-spectrum sources) (Nagar et al., 2002) is a consequence of the wavelength dependence of radio source size. The turnover frequency is determined by the equation $`r_\nu =R`$, where R is the radius of a gaseous disk. The same equation determines a turnover frequency for planetary nebulae (Prigara, 2003a; Pottasch, 1984; Siodmiak & Tylenda, 2001).

## 4 The unified model of compact radio sources

The unified model of compact radio sources (Prigara, 2003a) invokes an accretion disk with convection and outflows. The density profile $`nr^{1/2}`$used in the unified model is standard for an outflow or the convection dominated accretion flow (CDAF) models (Nagar et al., 2001). Here r is the distance from the central energy source. The temperature profile is virial, i.e. $`Tr^1`$, only in active galactic nuclei (AGNs). In pulsars it has other forms. The fixed ratio of magnetic to gas pressure is inferred for AGNs, in pulsars the decouplement of magnetic and gas pressure is observed.

The unified model suggests the uniform maser amplification of thermal radio emission in continuum. In the model, the inferred brightness temperatures of radio pulsars are comparable to those of water vapor, OH and SiO masers. The unified model predicts the flat radio spectrum for a core emission from AGNs, the spectrum (9) for an outflow, and the intermediate ($`0<\alpha <1`$) values of the spectral indices for unresolved sources, depending on the relative contributions of an outflow and accretion disk. Here $`F_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$is the flux density and is the frequency.

The model includes also radiation-induced solitary waves in an accretion disk to explain the phenomena seen in pulsars (Prigara, 2004).

In the case of compact radio sources instead of the relationship (4) the relationship

$$r_\lambda \lambda ^2$$
(10)
is observed (Lo et al., 1993; Lo, 1982). This relationship may be explained by the effect of a gravitational field on the motion of gas which changes the equation (3) for the equation

$$nr^{1/2}$$
(11)
The mass conservation in an outflow or inflow of gas gives nvr=const, where v is the velocity of flow. In the gravitational field of a central energy source the energy conservation gives

$$v=\left(v_0^2+c^2r_s/r\right)^{1/2}$$
(12)
where $`r_s`$ is the Schwarzschild radius. Therefore, at small values of the radius the equation (6) is valid, whereas at the larger radii we obtain the equation (3).

It is well known that the delay of radio pulses from pulsars at low frequencies is proportional to $`\lambda ^2`$. This fact is a mere consequence of Eq.(10), if we only assume the existence of the radial density wave travelling across the radius with a constant velocity and triggering the pulse radio emission. In this treatment the pulsars also obey the $`\lambda ^2`$ dependence of compact source size. Note that the wavelength dependence of a pulse duration is a similar effect.

The spatial distribution of SiO, water, and OH masers (each of which emits in its own wavelength) in the maser complexes also is consistent with the $`\lambda ^2`$ dependence of compact source size (Bochkarev, 1992; Eisner et al., 2002).

To summarize, extended radio sources are characterized by the relation (4), and compact radio sources obey the relation (10).

## 5 Maser amplification in compact radio sources

Recently, the energy distribution of atoms in the field of thermal black body radiation was obtained (Prigara, 2003b) in the form

$$N/N_0=\sigma _a\omega ^2/\left(2\pi c^2\right)\left(exp\left(\mathrm{}\omega /kT\right)1\right),$$
(13)
where $`N_0`$ is the population of the ground state $`E_0`$, N is the population of the energy level $`E=E_0+\mathrm{}\omega `$, $`\sigma _a`$ is the absorption cross-section, $`\mathrm{}`$ is the Planck constant, and T is the radiation temperature.

This distribution is valid in the range $`\mathrm{}\omega /kT1`$, since in the limit $`\mathrm{}\omega /kT0`$ the line width is going to infinity, that indicates the violation of the one-particle approximation used by Prigara (2003b).

The function (13) has a maximum at $`\mathrm{}\omega _m=1.6kT`$. When the temperature exceeds the critical value of $`T_0=3\times 10^7K`$ (the inversion temperature), the population of the energy level E exceeds the population of the ground state $`E_0`$. Since the function (13) is increasing in the range $`\omega <\omega _m`$ , the inversion of the energy level population is produced also in some vicinity of $`\omega _m`$ (below $`\omega _m`$). This suggests the maser amplification of thermal radio emission in continuum by a hot plasma with the temperature exceeding the critical value $`T_0`$. Maser amplification in compact radio sources was assumed earlier by Prigara (2003a) based on the high brightness temperatures of AGNs. Since a hot plasma in an accretion disk is concentrated nearby the central energy source, maser amplification is characteristic for compact radio sources.

It is clear that, when the temperature of a plasma is below $`T_0`$, the radio flux is very small, and when the temperature exceeds $`T_0`$, radio emission is on. This an on-off cycle is detected in the radio pulsar PSR B1259-63 (Qiao et al., 2003). Similar is an on-off cycle in X-ray pulsars, e.g., the 35-day cycle in Her X-1. It implies that X-ray emission from X-ray pulsars is produced by the laser amplification in continuum which is quite analogues to maser amplification at radio wavelengths.

## 6 The photon indices of X-ray emission

X-ray binaries normally have the two most pronounced states (Falcke et al., 2003). The first one is the high/soft state dominated by the thermal blackbody emission from a thin disk. The second one is the low/hard state which is characterized by a dominant hard power-law spectrum whereas the thermal spectrum is weak or absent. The power-law spectrum is commonly attributed to an optically thin accretion flow or disk corona. However, there are other plausible origins of the power-law spectrum (Falcke et al., 2003).

The power-law spectrum in the X-ray range has also been detected in young classical pulsars, anomalous X-ray pulsars (AXPs) and soft gamma-ray repeaters (SGRs) (Chakrabarty et al., 2001). All these objects are believed to be isolated neutron stars. For AXPs and SGRs, the fallback accretion disk model has been proposed (Qiao et al., 2003). It is assumed that the accretion is fed by fallback material after the original supernova explosion.

To characterize the power-law spectrum, we introduce the photon index, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, defined such that photon number flux $`dN/dEE^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Since $`E=h\nu `$, where h is the Planck constant, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1`$ is the spectral index in the X-ray range.

Classical young pulsars have power-law X-ray spectra with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.11.7`$ in the 0.1-10 keV band, that corresponds to the spectral indices $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1=0.10.7`$. Thus, the spectral indices for these pulsars lie between 0 and 1, similar to the spectral indices of radio emission from supernova remnants (SNRs).

The X-ray spectrum of most AXPs is best characterized by a two-component spectrum consisting of a $``$0.5 keV blackbody emission and a steep ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }=34`$) power law spectrum, with comparable luminosities in both components (Chakrabarty et al., 2001). The spectral indices for AXPs are in the same range, $`2<\mathrm{\Gamma }1<3`$, as the spectral indices of radio emission from pulsars . The latter can be inferred by making use of the density profile of compact radio sources, similarly to the spectra (7) and (8).

Active galactic nuclei (AGNs) typically lie within a range of photon indices $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.22.2`$, so the spectral indices $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1=0.21.2`$ are close to those of classical young pulsars, i.e. lie in the same range as the spectral indices of radio emission from extended sources.

The theory of thermal emission from a gas with account for stimulated radiation processes gives the two possibilities to explain these values of photon indices in the X-ray range. The first one is to apply the above theory to the X-ray emission from a hot, optically thin in a classical sense disk corona. If the temperature of a gas is sufficiently high, then the Rayleigh-Jeans formula (6) is still valid, and the only difference with the radio band is the order of magnitude of the density, n, required by the equations (1) and (2) to produce X-ray emission. In this scheme, the power law spectrum can be produced either by the hot inner disk corona ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }=34`$) or by the hot filaments in the thick outer disk with outflows ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }=12`$).

Another possibility is the inverse Compton scattering of radio photons from an accretion disk by the hot disk corona or the hot filaments. However, the incoherent Compton scattering is not relevant in this case, because it does not conserves the spectral indices. In fact, the final spectrum is determined mostly by the spectral energy distribution of electrons and weakly depends upon the original radio spectrum. We should assume, instead, the coherent Compton scattering to reproduce the original spectral indices of radio emission (cf. (Rees, 1982)). It is plausible, that both these processes, the emission of thermal radiation and the inverse Compton scattering, contribute to the observed spectra.

The coherent inverse Compton scattering of radio photons from an accretion disk is supported by a strong (one-to-one) correlation between radio oscillation events and series of spectrally hard states in GRS 1915+105 (Klein-Wolt et al., 2002). Another observational evidence for the inverse Compton scattering in the hot disk corona is that the spectral indices of radio emission from X-ray binaries correspond to the emission from an outer disk. The radio emission from the inner part of an accretion disk, which has been detected in pulsars, in X-ray binaries is absent. It suggests that this emission is converted into X-ray emission via inverse Compton scattering.

## 7 Conclusions

In this paper, we elucidate the mechanism of maser amplification in compact radio sources, which has been suggested earlier based on the high brightness temperatures of these sources. Maser amplification is produced by the inversion of the high energy level population in a hot plasma.The inversion of the level population can produce also laser amplification in optical (e.g., the high variable shifts and intensities of the weak emission lines in Sco X-1 can be attributed to the weak laser sources) and X-ray bands. An on-off cycle in radio and X-ray pulsars may be explained by the periodic changes of the emitting gas temperature from higher to lower than the inversion temperature values.

The photon indices of the power law spectra in the X-ray range are obtained similar to the spectral indices of radio emission in the unified model of compact radio sources. The only difference is the higher density of an emitting gas. However, the detected correlation between radio and X-ray emission in X-ray sources suggests that another mechanism (the coherent inverse Compton scattering of radio photons) also contributes to the observed spectra.

Acknowledgements. The author is grateful to D.A.Kompaneets, Y.Y.Kovalev, V.N.Lukash, B.E.Stern, and N.A.Tsvyk for useful discussions.


text:
# Vortex States of a Superconducting Film from a Magnetic Dot Array

\[

## Abstract

Using Ginzburg-Landau theory, we find novel configurations of vortices in superconducting thin films subject to the magnetic field of a magnetic dot array, with dipole moments oriented perpendicular to the film. Sufficiently strong magnets cause the formation of vortex-antivortex pairs. In most cases, the vortices are confined to dot regions, while the antivortices can form a rich variety of lattice states. We propose an experiment in which the perpendicular component of the dot dipole moments can be tuned using an in-plane magnetic field. We show that in such an experiment the vortex-antivortex pair density shows broad plateaus as a function of the dipole strength. Many of the plateaus correspond to vortex configurations which break dot lattice symmetries. In some of these states, the vortex cores are strongly distorted. Possible experimental consequences are mentioned.

\]

Type II superconductors, with their high critical currents and fields, lend themselves to technological applications. However, vortices appear in these superconducting systems when magnetic fields or currents are made sufficiently large. Motion of the vortices spoils the perfect conductivity important in applications; it is therefore important to find ways to pin flux quanta. Systematic studies of vortex pinning have been carried out in experiments on regular nanoscale arrays where a lattice of defects is superimposed on a thin superconducting film. “Antidot” arrays, in which pinning centers consist of holes or depressions in the substrate, were first to be studied . Subsequently, magnetic dot arrays have been created, usually by the deposition of mesoscopic magnetic dipoles on top of the superconducting film . In the case of the nanoscale magnetic dot arrays, a number of experimental and theoretical studies have focused on scenarios in which each unit cell is penetrated by a finite amount of net magnetic flux. In this work, we consider arrays of dipoles for which there is no net perpendicular applied field. Even without any applied net flux, we show that rich vortex phenomena occur as one changes the strength of the dot dipoles. We propose an experimental scenario to observe these effects, in which an in-plane applied magnetic field is used to tilt the dipole moments. The thin film geometry prevents the horizontally directed field from disturbing the superconducting state, and tilting the moments makes possible the adjustment of the effective strength of the magnetic dots.

In our work, we focus on the case in which the dipoles prefer an orientation perpendicular to the superconducting film. The supercurrents which the magnetic dots induce move in a clockwise direction. The resulting cancellation of the field from the array magnets is a partial realization of the Meissner effect. With the induced currents, there is an associated cost in kinetic energy; hence, for sufficiently strong dipoles, it is energetically favorable to have a vortex in the vicinity of the dot, since this allows the vortex’s counterclockwise currents to partially cancel the induced currents. However, due to the zero flux condition, vortices cannot form in isolation; vortices and antivortices must be generated in pairs.

Some work has concentrated on isolated magnets, where the entire system has cylindrical symmetry . A few studies in the framework of the London theory have focused on a single pair of flux quanta in one unit cell, using periodic boundary conditions . Depinning has been studied in the Ginzburg-Landau framework, but for antidots rather than magnetic dots . Because vortices must be put in by hand in the London theory, is it not straightforward to go beyond simple situations (generally one vortex-antivortex pair in a single unit cell). However vortices appear naturally in a Ginzburg-Landau treatment, making tractable more complicated situations, such as those involving multiple flux quanta pairs in a unit cell, where often one must allow for superlattice structures. In this work, to avoid assuming the same vortex configuration for each unit cell, we study a large ($`4\times 4`$) supercell with periodic boundary conditions. In what follows, $`\rho _{pair}`$ denotes the number of vortex-antivortex pairs per unit cell. We find that as the strength of the dot magnets is varied (by tilting dipole moments via an in-plane magnetic field), $`\rho _{pair}`$ exhibits sharply defined plateaus. Remarkably, the vortex pair density is not always a monotonic function of the dipole strength. We will see that there are stable vortex states which break orientational and/or mirror symmetry. Phase transitions which can be abrupt or continuous occur as the dipole strength is varied. In the abrupt case, hysteresis phenomena are found, consistent with their being first order transitions. Surprisingly, some of these occur within a plateau. As will be discussed, second order transitions define shifts between plateaus in which $`\rho _{pair}`$ either increases or decreases via the annihilation or creation of a vortex-antivortex pair. A gradual deformation of the vortex and antivortex cores is associated with the creation or destruction of a flux quantum pair. Since London theory does not take into account variations of the Cooper pair density, and therefore cannot correctly describe vortex cores, Ginzburg-Landau theory is essential to describe these novel states.

Methods and Results– To study our system in the Ginzburg-Landau framework, we solve the nonlinear partial differential equations which one finds on extremizing the Ginzburg-Landau internal energy given by

$$E_{GL}=d\mathrm{\Delta }\xi ^3\left[\begin{array}{c}\left|\psi ^{}\left(\stackrel{}{}/i\stackrel{}{A}\right)\psi \right|^2\left|\psi \right|^2\\ +\frac{\kappa ^2}{2}\left|\psi \right|^4+(\stackrel{}{B}\stackrel{}{B}_{ext})^2\end{array}\right]d^3x.$$
(1)
In Eq. 1, dimensionless units are used; as a result, all linear dimensions are expressed in terms of the superconducting coherence length $`\xi `$. The constant $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the condensation energy per unit volume for a uniform bulk superconductor and the film thickness (in units of $`\xi `$) is given by $`d`$. Since $`d\xi `$, we view the superconducting substrate as a film of negligable thickness. Hence, one would not expect an in-plane magnetic field imposed to tilt the dipole moments of the dot magnets to affect the superconducting state in the film. We assume the mesoscopic magnetic dipoles above the substrate to have a square cross section. While there is a range of magnet thicknesses, we have chosen our dots to be cubic in shape with $`2.0\xi `$ as the length of a side. In our case, the mesoscopic magnetic cubes form a square array whose lattice constant is $`6.25\xi `$. We specify the dipole moment of the magnets by calculating the positive flux passing through each unit cell. Given in units of the fundamental flux quantum, this quantity provides a natural measure of the dot dipole strength.

In solving the Ginzburg-Landau equations for our geometry, we have replaced continuum variables with their discrete versions on a mesh fine enough to ensure convergence with respect to the discretization (to achieve this, we allow at least 5 grid points per coherence length). Our scheme of discretization is a gauge theoretic formalism (discrete versions of the standard continuum gauge symmetries are imposed) where currents and vector potentials $`A_{ij}^x`$ and $`A_{ij}^y`$ occupy the lattice bonds, while order parameter values $`\psi _{ij}`$ reside on lattice nodes. We treat the mesoscopic magnetic dots as square loops of current with a thickness equal to the width of the dot base; the magnetic field and vector potential generated by the magnetic dipoles are then easily calculated. Though we handle the $`x`$ and $`y`$ (in-plane coordinates) discretely, the $`z`$ direction is treated exactly, in the continuum limit.

Via a conjugate-gradient technique, we solve the Ginzburg-Landau equations in an iterative manner. In this method, one first linearizes the Ginzburg-Landau equations about an initial guess. The solution obtained by solving the resulting linear equations is then used as an input for the next iteration. We simulate in our calculation an experiment in which the effective magnetic dot strengths are varied continuously (to realize this in the laboratory, one could as noted above apply an in-plane magnetic field to tilt the dipole moments of the dot magnets, thereby varying their effective strength). In “rightward sweeps”, we slowly increase the dipole strength. Sweeps range from dipoles too weak to generate any vortex-antivortex pairs to magnetic dots strong enough to destroy the superconductivity altogether. In a rightward strength (toward stronger dipoles), the results of each calculation are used as the initial guess of the next calculation, in which the Ginzburg-Landau equations are solved for slightly stronger magnetic dots. “Leftward” sweeps are conducted in a very similar way, with each successive calculation using weaker dipoles than the previous one. The sweeps in opposite directions complement each other by highlighting hysteresis effects, thereby revealing which transitions are first order.

To illustrate the configurations which correspond to the phases shown in Fig. 2, we display Cooper pair densities in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. Vortices and antivortices are readily identified as regions of depleted Cooper pairs. Exploiting the fact that the order parameter phase is singular at the vortex cores makes it possible to distinguish vortices from antivortices; the line integral $`\stackrel{}{}\varphi 𝑑\stackrel{}{s}`$ yields $`+2\pi `$ ($`2\pi `$) if a (anti) vortex is surrounded by the integration contour, and is zero otherwise. In terms of currents and magnetic flux, this condition is $`\frac{\stackrel{}{J}}{\left|\psi \right|^2}𝑑\stackrel{}{s}+\mathrm{\Phi }_B=\pm 2\pi `$ for a vortex or antivortex, respectively. This tool for locating flux quanta permits the precise depiction of vortex configurations, and also conveniently yields $`\rho _{pair}`$.

Figure 1 is a plot of $`\rho _{pair}`$ and the Ginzburg-Landau internal energy for both sweeps to the right and to the left ($`E_{GL}`$ is given in units of $`d\mathrm{\Delta }\xi ^3`$). The discrepancy between opposite sweeps for $`\rho _{pair}`$ is readily evident. One can also see sudden downward jumps in $`E_{GL}`$ for both rightward and leftward sweeps. These jumps and the hysteresis effects in $`\rho _{pair}`$ are a result of the metastability of some of the vortex configurations, signifying that several of the transitions are first order. One can construct a “ground state energy” by selecting the lowest energy from sweeps to the right and to the left, with the preferred state being the vortex configuration corresponding to the lowest energy. In this manner, we have constructed a phase diagram for the system, shown in Fig 2. Figures 3 and 4 depict vortex configurations in salient cases. In the phase diagram, states are classified according to $`\rho _{pair}`$, the number of vortex-antivortex pairs. When necessary, as in the case of $`\rho _{pair}=2`$, phases are further classified according to the symmetry of the vortex configuration. metastable states are not lowest in energy and are therefore not preferred by the system.

In discussing the phase diagram of Fig. 2, we begin from the left (weak dipoles) and move to the right (toward stronger dipoles). The formation of vortex-antivortex pairs is energetically unfavorable for weak dipoles and, hence, $`\rho _{pair}=0`$ for the leftmost state. The next configuration corresponds to a single vortex-antivortex pair per unit cell with vortices in the vicinity of the dot centers and antivortices centrally located in the interstitial areas. With stronger dipoles, there is a first order transition to a configuration for which $`\rho _{pair}=2`$. As can be seen in Fig. 3(a), antivortices (small dark regions) are connected with the dot magnets by lobes of depleted Cooper pair density (light areas). These molecule-like complexes are aligned along the unit cell diagonals, thereby breaking $`\pi /2`$ orientational symmetry. As the dipole strengths are increased further, one finds a state which breaks both orientational and mirror symmetries \[see Fig. 3(b)\] . As the sudden symmetry breaking suggests, the transition is first order.

Even higher dipole strengths lead to a fractional state, for which $`\rho _{pair}=2.5`$. Figs. 3(b) and 3(c) reveal that the transition into this state is a gradual one. Ultimately mirror symmetry is restored, as seen in Fig. 3(c). As one continues the rightward sweep, one encounters a first order transition to a $`\rho _{pair}=3`$ state \[depicted in Fig. 3(d)\]. Again, in view of the significant dissimilarities between the states, this is not surprising. For even larger magnetic dot strengths, the vortex pair density exhibits a surprising nonmonotonicity by jumping suddenly to zero. Despite the abrupt change in $`\rho _{pair}`$, the shift to the $`\rho _{pair}=0`$ state occurs continuously, through the sequence shown in Fig. 4. First, the antivortices rearrange to form the $`\rho _{pair}=3`$ configuration depicted in Fig. 4(a). Next, the antivortices are pulled inward, forming the state shown in Fig. 4(b). The triangular structures in Fig. 4(b), each of which contains three vortex-antivortex pairs, then begin to transform. The vortices move outward from the dots to meet the antivortices, which move inward. Ultimately, the flux quantum pairs annihilate and the result is the $`\rho _{pair}=0`$ configuration shown in Fig. 4(c). The final transition, one which also occurs in a continuous manner, is to the $`\rho _{pair}=4`$ configuration shown in Fig. 4(d). In each unit cell four vortex-antivortex pairs form along nearest neighbor bonds. As the magnetic dipoles are made stronger, the pair separations increase, until the magnetic dipoles become so strong that the superconductivity in the thin film is lost.

This complicated evolution is driven by the competition between intra and interdot potentials for the antivortices. Evidently, for very strong dipoles, the antivortices feel not just the effects of a single magnet, but are affected by neighboring magnets as well, and the state deforms in such a way that the vortices instead reside on nearest neighbor bonds.

Conclusions and possibilities for experiment– We have found, even in the absence of any applied magnetic flux, that mesoscopic arrays of magnetic dots can exhibit nontrivial vortex phenomena, including configurations which break lattice symmetries, states with superlattice structure, and a fractional vortex configuration. To realize these states in the laboratory, we have proposed an experiment in which one may vary the effective strength of the dot magnets by using an in-plane magnetic field to tilt the dipole moment. In this way it should be possible to carry out the previously discussed sweeps in magnet strength, making it feasible to access experimentally the stable configurations shown in the phase diagram of Fig. 2 and even some of the states which we have classified as metastable.

Finally, we mention some possible experimental tests for the novel vortex phenomena discussed in this work. Critical currents are a useful probe; different $`j_c^x`$ and $`j_c^y`$ values would signal broken orientational symmetry. The existence of states that break the spatial symmetry of the lattice \[e.g., Fig. 3(b)\] suggests that Ising physics might be observed in this system at finite temperatures in thermodynamic quantities such as the specific heat. It is also interesting to speculate that the non-monotonic vortex density found in the vicinity of the four vortex pair states (Figs. 4) could lead to a peak in the critical current as a function of perpendicular dipole strength. In any case, our calculations strongly suggest that this system offers a rich phenomenology worthy of further theoretical and experimental investigation.

Acknowledgements– The authors would like to thank M.V. Milošević, I. Zutić, and S. Das Sarma for useful discussions. This work was supported by NSF Grant No. DMR01-08451.


text:
# Highly extinguished supernovae in the nuclear regions of starburst galaxies

## 1 Introduction: Obscured supernovae

Core-collapse (types II and Ib/c, hereafter CCSNe) supernovae are observed to occur in sites of recent star formation. Such regions contain large quantities of dust, especially the nuclear (central kiloparsec) regions of starburst galaxies. Consequently, SN search programmes working at optical wavelengths most likely miss a significant number of events in starburst galaxies. The distributions of the host galaxy extinctions for samples of nearby thermonuclear (type Ia) SNe, and CCSNe are shown in Fig.1. Although, most of the discovered SN events have extinctions below $`A_V`$ = 1, the extinction distributions of both types of SNe show tails extending to several magnitudes.

In particular, four nearby SNe with host galaxy extinctions of several magnitudes ($`A_V`$ $`>`$ 5)  have been discovered during the last couple of years. The type II SNe 2001ci  and 2002hh  were detected at optical wavelengths thanks to their small distances of only 14 and 6 Mpc respectively. The more distant type II SN 2001db  (37 Mpc) and type Ia SN 2002cv  (22 Mpc) were discovered in the near-infrared (IR). All these SNe have active host galaxies (either H II or LINER/Seyfert 2) according to NED111 The NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.. Three of them have projected galactocentric distances smaller than $``$2 kpc, and one, SN 2002cv, is located behind an optical dust lane. Recent optical spectra of SN 2002hh are shown in Fig.2. The effects of the high extinction ($`A_V`$ $``$ 6)  are clearly visible as a dramatic drop of the signal towards the shorter wavelengths (note also the lack of Hβ emission). However, an as yet unrevealed population of much more highly extinguished CCSNe is likely to exist in the nuclear (central kiloparsec) regions of starburst galaxies. In the nuclear regions ($``$ 600pc diameter) of the starburst galaxy M 82, large hydrogen column densities indicate extinctions  of $`A_V`$ = 30 ($`\sigma `$ $``$ 16) (Fig.1 right) towards the group of young supernova remnants (SNRs) observed at radio wavelengths. Furthermore, recent VLBA monitoring  has revealed a group of luminous radio SNe/SNRs within the nuclear regions ($``$100 and $``$200 pc diameter around the Eastern and Western nuclei respectively) of the nearest Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxy (ULIRG) Arp 220. The estimates for the explosion rates of such luminous radio SNe range between $``$0.5 and 2.0 yr-1 . However, it is likely that not all the CCSNe in Arp 220 have suitable CSM/ISM conditions to produce high radio luminosities i.e. many SNe which happen to explode in less extreme environments probably remain undetected in the radio. Therefore, near-IR monitoring campaigns of starburst galaxies having a range of IR luminosities should be carried out to complement the rate estimates from the radio observations. Near-IR SN searches were first attempted over a decade ago  but it is only now, with the introduction of large format (1024 x 1024) small pixel scale ($`<`$0.3”) near-IR detectors on 2-4 meter telescopes, that such searches have become realistically feasible.

## 2 Supernovae in nearby starburst galaxies

Since August 2001 we have been carrying out a near-IR search programme for CCSNe in the nuclear regions of nearby starburst galaxies . We use the INGRID near-IR camera at the William Herschel Telescope (WHT) on La Palma. We repeatedly image a sample of the 40 most-luminous nearby (d $`<`$ 45 Mpc) starburst galaxies in the Ks-band where the extinction is greatly reduced and the sensitivity of ground-based observations is still good. These galaxies have been selected such that their far-IR luminosities are comparable to or greater than those of the two prototypical nearby starburst galaxies, M 82 and NGC 253. Galaxies whose far-IR luminosity is expected to be powered by a population of old stars or an AGN have been excluded from the sample. One night of observations is carried-out every $``$3 months. 20-30 galaxy images per clear night are obtained. More details of the search can be found in the ’Nuclear SN search’ web pages at http://astro.imperial.ac.uk/nSN.html.

### 2.1 Preliminary results from the WHT search

The total number of Ks images obtained with the WHT so far is $``$110. Archival K-band data having an acceptable seeing and similar depth to our INGRID images provides a further 10 images. Thus, our total database currently contains repeat images for 33 starburst galaxies, on average 3.4 epochs per target. However, the SN detection efficiency (especially within the galaxy nuclear regions) falls rapidly as seeing quality declines. Therefore, for the analysis presented here we include only data having seeing better than FWHM = 1.1”. Within this constraint, about 60$`\%`$ of our INGRID images have acceptable seeing, reducing the number of targets with repeat images to 21. On average, this is $``$2.6 epochs of data per target.

#### 2.1.1 A possible SN in NGC 7714

Comparison of archival (UKIRT IRCAM3) data with our INGRID images yielded the discovery of a possible SN with $`m_K`$ = 17.3 only 1 kpc projected distance from the nucleus of the starburst galaxy, NGC 7714 . From the non-detection of this SN in the H-band we estimated a lower limit for the extinction towards the SN of Av $``$ 6. Radio confirmation of this event was also sought. At radio wavelengths CCSNe are often still luminous several years from the explosion, with the most luminous reaching their peak luminosities up to 4 years after explosion . Therefore, radio follow-up observations of nuclear SNe may still be feasible long after the SN has faded below near-IR detectability. We obtained VLA observations of NGC 7714 in the L and C-bands on 11 April 2002, but the possible SN was not detected. The 3$`\sigma `$ upper limits in the L and C-bands are 0.213 mJy and 0.147 mJy respectively (C. Stockdale, private communication). These upper limits indicate that the SN was probably fainter than the type IIn SN 1998S at radio wavelengths.

#### 2.1.2 Expected number of SN discoveries

We have made preliminary estimates of the expected number of SN discoveries from the data collected so far. To do this we used Monte Carlo simulations similar to those described in . We assumed that outside the innermost 100 pc region of our starburst targets all the SNe brighter than the possible SN in NGC 7714 ($`m_K`$ = 17.3) would have been detected in the images with seeing better than 1.1”. We used our K-band template light curves for linearly declining ”ordinary” CCSNe and ”slowly-declining” CCSNe , the amount and distribution of extinction found for the SNRs of M 82 (Fig.1 right) , and the CCSN rates calculated from the far-IR luminosities of the targets according to $`r_{\mathrm{SN}}`$ = 2.7 $`\times `$ 10-12 $`\times `$ $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}`$/L yr-1 . In Fig.3(left) the expected number of SN detections is plotted as a function of the intrinsic fraction of slowly-declining events. The results are plotted for a fixed extinction of $`A_V`$ = 10 towards the nuclear SNe, and for an extinction distribution similar to the SNRs of M 82. For one likely SN detection from the data collected so far, and an extinction of $`A_V`$ = 10 we obtain an upper limit ($`>`$90% confidence) of 30% for the slow-decliner fraction. However, assuming an M 82-like extinction distribution yields a most probable slow-decliner fraction of $``$10%. In Fig.3(right) the simulation results are plotted as a function of the extinction towards the nuclear SNe. Again, assuming one detected event and a slow-decliner fraction of 30% indicates a lower limit ($`>`$90% confidence) for the extinction of $`A_V`$ = 10. Assuming a slow-decliner fraction between 5% (observed outside the nuclear starburst regions) and 30% yields a most probable extinction, $`A_V`$, between $``$20 and $``$30 magnitudes (for one detected SN).

## 3 Supernovae in Luminous and Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxies

Maiolino et al.  and Mannucci et al.  used an arsenal of ground-based telescopes (ESO NTT at La Silla, TNG on La Palma, and AZ61 on Mount Bigelow) to obtain a total of $``$230 K-band observations of 46 Luminous Infrared Galaxies (LIRG) (1011 L $`<`$ $`L_{\mathrm{IR}}`$ $`<`$ 1012 L) between Oct. 1999 and Oct 2001. Their targets have distances ranging between $``$40 and $``$300 Mpc, with 28 of them being more distant than 100 Mpc. From these data they discovered two SNe, the type II SN 2001db (d $``$ 40 Mpc), and SN 1999gw (d $``$ 170 Mpc) with no spectroscopic typing. These SNe have projected galactocentric (K-band) distances of $``$1.5 kpc (8.5”) and $``$3 kpc (3.5”) respectively. In addition, during their search two more SNe were detected in their target galaxies but at optical wavelengths. These are the type Ia SN 1999gd (d $``$ 80 Mpc) and the type IIn SN 2000bg (d $``$ 100 Mpc) with the projected galactocentric distances of $``$7 and $``$8 kpc respectively. The extinctions towards the two optically detected SNe are most likely negligible. Furthermore, the discovery magnitude of SN 1999gw of $`m_{Ks}`$ = 17.45 ($`M_{Ks}`$ = -18.7) is very close to the peak magnitudes of both ’ordinary’ CCSNe  and ’Branch-normal’ type Ia SNe  indicating a likely small extinction towards this event (regardless of its type). However, SN 2001db has a host galaxy extinction of about $`A_V`$ = 5 . In summary, only one of the four detected SNe has a derived visual extinction of several magnitudes and is located (projected distance) fairly close to (but not within) its host galaxy nuclear regions. We also note that this SN occurred in the nearest (d $``$ 40 Mpc) of the 46 target galaxies.

In order to judge the efficiency of the reported Maiolino$`/`$Mannucci SN search for host galaxies of different distances, we carried out Monte Carlo simulations similar to those described in Section 2.1.2. We simulated two scenarios: (1) 100% of the SNe occur within the nuclear regions, and (2) 80% of the SNe occur within the nuclear regions, and 20% outside the nuclear regions. We adopted the reported  NTT/SOFI limiting magnitudes for SNe ’on-nucleus’ and ’off-nucleus’ (outside the central $``$2”, corresponding to $``$1 kpc at 100 Mpc distance) of $`m_K`$ = 16.9 and 19.3 respectively. We assumed an intrinsic fraction of slowly-declining CCSNe of 5%, and a fixed extinction of $`A_V`$ = 30 towards all the events. In Fig.4 the fraction of simulated SNe discovered is plotted as a function of the SN epoch. In galaxies at 40 Mpc distance, $``$15% of the SNe ’on-nucleus’ are detectable near maximum light whereas at 70 Mpc distance the SN detection efficiency falls to less than 1%, i.e., the survey was not sensitive to highly obscured SNe within the nuclear regions of target galaxies at $``$70 Mpc distance or further (only 2/46 of the targets were closer than this). However, if we allow 20% of the SNe to occur outside the central regions, about 6% of the SNe near maximum light can be recovered at distances as high as 100 Mpc (this includes 18/46 of the targets). Therefore, the average extinction of $`A_V`$ $``$ 30 derived by Mannucci et al.  can only be valid for SNe occurring outside the galaxy nuclear regions rather than for all SNe regardless of their location within the host galaxy. However, as none of the SNe which were detected outside the nuclear regions had such a high extinction, a more plausible reason for the lack of SN detections would be the concentration of almost all the SNe within the nuclear (central kpc) regions in the LIRG targets since this survey was not sensitive to highly obscured SNe in those regions. Also, the concentration of the luminous radio SNRs (or SNe) within the innermost nuclear regions in M 82, Arp 220, and other galaxies support a scenario where $``$100% of the SNe occur within the nuclear regions in starburst galaxies over a range of IR luminosities.

The large star formation rates (SFRs) within Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxies (ULIRGs) ($`L_{\mathrm{IR}}`$ $`>`$ 1012 L) imply CCSN rates which are an order of magnitude higher than in nearby starburst galaxies. Consequently it may be argued that ULIRGs provide the best laboratories for the detection and study of CCSNe in the extreme starburst environment. The serendipitous VLBI discovery of a dozen luminous radio SNe/SNRs  in the nuclear regions of the archetypal ULIRG Arp 220 has already demonstrated that nuclear CCSNe at very late phases can be detected at radio wavelengths. However, with the unprecedented spatial resolution of the Naos Conica (NACO) adaptive optics camera on the ESO Very Large Telescope (VLT) ($`\times `$15 better than previous ground-based studies , and $`\times `$3 better than HST/NICMOS) it is now possible to discover these SNe shortly after explosion when they are still bright at near-IR wavelengths. Therefore, we have started a Ks band survey for highly extinguished CCSNe within the nuclear regions of the nearest ULIRGs, using the VLT/NACO. We anticipate that the first SN discoveries will be made during the ESO Period 73, between April 2004 and September 2004.

## 4 Discussion

The WHT SN search data collected by us so far indicates that SNe within the nuclear (central kpc) regions of nearby (d $`<`$ 45 Mpc) starburst galaxies (mostly 1010 L $`<`$ $`L_{\mathrm{IR}}`$ $`<`$ 1011 L) probably suffer from extinctions higher than $`A_V`$ = 10, with the most likely average extinction between $`A_V`$ $``$20 and 30. The monitoring of a sample of more distant (mostly d $`>`$ 70 Mpc) and more luminous (1011 L $`<`$ $`L_{\mathrm{IR}}`$ $`<`$ 1012 L) targets recently reported by Mannucci et al.  indicates that either $`(\mathit{1})`$ $``$100% of the SNe in LIRGs occur within the nuclear (central kpc) regions, or $`(\mathit{2})`$ if 20% of the SNe occur outside the nuclear regions then the extinction towards these off-nuclear SNe is probably very high, $`A_V`$ $``$ 30. Only very few obscured SNe (with $`A_V`$ $``$ 5) have been detected so far. However, a number of infrared SN search campaigns have begun in the past few years. These include high resolution surveys by Maiolino et al. using HST/NICMOS and by ourselves using VLT/NACO. Therefore, the number of obscured SN discoveries is expected to increase substantially in the near future. This will eventually allow complete SN rates to be estimated for galaxies in the local Universe. In addition, the discovered SNe will be invaluable as probes of the extinction in the optically obscured parts of galaxies.

Acknowledgements
The NOT spectrum of SN 2002hh was observed and reduced by Jens Andersson, Maiken Gustafsson, Páll Jakobsson, Geir Øye, and Jesper Sollerman. The VLA observations of the possible SN in NGC 7714 were taken and analysed by Nino Panagia, Dick Sramek, Christopher Stockdale, Schuyler Van Dyk, and Kurt W. Weiler. The ’Nuclear SN search’ (WHT) team includes also Stuart Ryder, Nic Walton, and Bob Joseph. We also thank the people involved in our ’Supernovae in ULIRGs’ VLT project, in particular Petri Väisänen and Duncan Farrah.