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# Performance of TCP/UDP under Ad Hoc IEEE802.11

### Abstract

TCP is the De facto standard for connection oriented transport layer protocol, while UDP is the De facto standard for transport layer protocol, which is used with real time traffic for audio and video. Although there have been many attempts to measure and analyze the performance of the TCP protocol in wireless networks, very few research was done on the UDP or the interaction between TCP and UDP traffic over the wireless link. In this paper, we tudy the performance of TCP and UDP over IEEE802.11 ad hoc network. We used two topologies, a string and a mesh topology. Our work indicates that IEEE802.11 as a ad-hoc network is not very suitable for bulk transfer using TCP. It also indicates that it is much better for real-time audio. Although one has to be careful here since real-time audio does require much less bandwidth than the wireless link bandwidth. Careful and detailed studies are needed to further clarify that issue.

## 1 Introduction

There is a huge growth in the wireless communication industry as can be shown by the huge increase in the number of cellular phones, wireless LAN’s and the personal digital assistants. The convenience that portable computers bring will tend to displace desktop computers. The same can be said about wireless phones and in the future, smart appliances, which will become commonplace. Wireless phone popularity is mainly due to freedom of movement, that comes from the ability to use wireless phones from virtually anywhere. Voice is the first, and still the major driving force behind wireless technology, but the trend is to provide more services to the user including connection to the Internet either through the wireless phone or some other wireless device.

TCP, transfer control protocol, is the standard protocol for reliable delivery of data over the Internet. TCP relies on IP, Internet Protocol, for routing and data transmission. IP provides best-effort service, which is intrinsically unreliable. This makes Internet Protocol very simple, which is one of the reason for its popularity and the rapid growth of the Internet. IP is the de facto standard protocol for inter-networking. TCP is designed to go hand in hand with IP protocol, which resulted in it becoming the dominant reliable transport protocol. There has been a lot of research on how to make TCP work well in a wireline network

Wireless communication is usually done in one of 2 different ways, cellular communication or ad-hoc communication. In cellular communication, pre-established base stations are distributed to cover the are. Each base station is responsible of managing the mobile users in each cell. Mobile users communicate via the base station in the cell they are in.

The other alternative is known as ad-hoc networks. In ad-hoc networks, there is no fixed infrastructure such as base stations or predefined geographical cells. Mobile users are roaming in a specified area, and they communicate by sending (receiving) messages to (from) each other. If two users are close enough to each other they can communicate directly. If the users are far apart then the rest of the users can forward packets to and from these two users in order to be able to communicate. That means every mobile user serves as a relay or a router in order for all the nodes to be able to communicate. Several routing protocol were proposed for ad hoc networks

Wireless medium is a difficult medium for communication. In free space, a typical wireless channel is susceptible to the problems of path loss, shadowing, multipath fading and interference. Usually the bit rate error for wireless channels is higher than wireleine channels, and its bandwidth is less. that makes using the wireless link with a protocol that was specifically designed for a wireline networks a bit challenging.

There has been a lot of research trying to measure and analyze the performance of TCP over wireless links for both cellular, and ad-hoc networks. However, for applications like audio or video, usually that will be carried out using UDP instead of TCP. Very few studies were carried out on the performance of UDP on wireless links, or in the interaction between TCP and UDP traffic over wireless links. In this paper, we present simulation results of the interaction between TCP and UDP traffic (both real-time and bulk) over ad-hoc networks using IEEE802.11 as a wireless link .

The organization of the paper is as follows, In section 2 we review some of the previous attempts in measuring TCP performance over wirless networks. In section 3, we present our network setup and the error model we will use throughout experiement. Section 4 presents some results on a string of wirless nodes, while section 5 presents results for a mesh topology. Section 6 is a conclusion.

## 2 Previous Work

There is a large volume of literature on the performance of TCP in wireless environment. Research on improving the performance of TCP over wireless networks can be classified into two categories. improvements at the link layer and improvements by making modifications to TCP. We will very briefly mention some of the previous work and classify it.

Snoop protocol  is designed to be TCP aware, and to mask unreliability of wireless layer. Snoop is implemented as a layer in TCP/IP architecture stack. It is located just below TCP layer. Snoop can be located at both the access point and the mobile nodes. It is not necessary to use it at mobile nodes, which makes it easier to implement, but transfer of data from mobile host to wired node will not benefit from snoop. Snoop at the access point is only able to improve TCP performance of connections from wired host to mobile hosts.

Explicit Feedback (EF)  is a mechanism used by the access point to inform TCP sender (located in the wired network) that wireless channel is currently experiencing a lot of errors and that it should not invoke congestion avoidance procedure on lost segment timeouts. This requires modifications at both the access point and the TCP sender. The explicit feedback messages are sent to the sender after every failed transmission to a mobile node from the access point. In  access point is assumed to send acknowledgments to senders on the wired network for every segment it receives. These acknowledgments indicate to the TCP sender the segment reached the access point and if it does not receive the acknowledgment for it, then the sender can assume that the loss occurred due to corruption over wireless medium, and congestion avoidance should not be initiated.

The last hop acknowledgment scheme assumes that losses over wireless network happen only due to corruption and that wireless network is the last hop on the TCP segment path (which is the case for cellular networks). The acknowledgment from the access point is called last hop ACK (LHACK). In the case that TCP sender does not receive LHACK, then congestion in the wired network caused packet to be dropped and therefore TCP sender should start congestion avoidance procedure.

In  , TCP segment inter-arrival times at TCP receiver are used to distinguish between congestion and wireless losses. It is assumed that TCP segments will queue at the access point in the case when TCP receiver is on a wireless node. Queuing occurs here because of small wireless bandwidth as compared to wired bandwidth. TCP receiver looks at inter-arrival time between every segment. If the inter-arrival time between two segments is a multiple of a segment transmission time over wireless network, but the two segments arrived out-of-order, then TCP receiver assumes that all segments between last in-order received segment and the segment just received are lost due to congestion in the wired network. This scheme assumes that due to queuing at the access point, all segments will be sent back-to-back to the wireless node. It also assumes that there is no congestion in the wireless link and that only bulk transfers are used. In the case that segments are lost because of congestion, the queue at the access point will have gaps in sequence numbers, but inter-arrival times at the mobile node will be the same for all packets. From these gaps, TCP receiver can conclude that congestion is the cause of the losses. On the other hand, if losses occurred in wireless part then the inter-arrival times will not be a multiple of segment transmission times. From this, TCP receiver can conclude that the losses occurred because of wireless error and it does not initiate congestion avoidance.

Mobile-TCP  is another solution that is designed mostly for problems of disconnections. Mobile-TCP informs TCP-sender (on wired network) that a disconnection occurred. If TCP sender detects a loss (duplicate acknowledgments or timeout) it will perform retransmissions but without reducing its send window. Once disconnection ends, TCP sender is informed to resume normal operation.

## 3 Experiment Setup

In this paper, a series of simulations is performed to determine the perofrmance and the interaction between TCP carrying bulk traffic and UDP carrying real-time audio traffic in wireless links. We used the ns-2 simulator  with the wireless extension form the Monarch project at CMU . The main perofrmance criteria for bulk transfer is the throughput. While the main performance criteria for real-time audio is cell loss ration. These sets of simulations are similar. The cell loss in UDP traffic is mainly due to two different factors. A cell (frame) is lost if it will be tranmsitted up to the maximum number of times and always is delivered in error. Or if the cell is delayed due to queueing or multiple transmission up to the maximum delay limit, in this case it is not useful anymore and will not be transmitted and is dropped by the sender. to those in , although they only used bulk transfer with TCP without FEC. In all the setups DSDV is used as the routing protocol.

The model of errors in a wireless channel is Gilbert-Elliot , which captures bursty nature of errors in radio channels. It is a time-based two state Markov chain, where a “good” state has a low error probability ($`10^6`$) and a “bad” state has a high error probability ($`10^2`$) (same as in ). The average length of the states is exponentially distributed with mean duration for “good” state of 0.1 second and 0.0333 seconds for the “bad” state. In two-sate Markov chain, “good” state is always followed by a “bad” state and vice versa. Each node uses the error model independently, which means that each nodes sees the radio channel differently. The original error model for wireless channel in ns2 has been modified to correct an error in its operation. The model failed to make any state transitions when the channel was idle regardless of the passage of time. The consequence of this is that states lasted for very long time.

In order to deal with errors, we used Reed-Solomon FEC in order to detect and errors when the channel is in the bad state. The choice of the code was such that the channel will have the same BER in the good state and the bad setate with FEC. That results in decresing the efficiency of the TCP by 40% due to the overhead of the FEC. Thus we eliminated the bad state on the expense of a reduced bandwidth.

We used two different topologies, first we used a linear string of 8 nodes where every node can communicate with its two neighbors only (one neighbor in case of the end nodes). Then we used a mesh topology where every node can communicate with its four neighbors in the row and column directions. For a complete results description, the reader is referred to .

## 4 String

### 4.1 Single bulk TCP transfer

Using a string topology we examine the performance of a multi-hop TCP connection. In this configuration, every node is only able to communicate with its immediate neighbor, so routing is needed to reach nodes that are not within transmission range. The source node initiates a bulk TCP transfer to one of the other nodes. The measure of performance is throughput. All nodes are assumed to be stationary so routing has no effect on the throughput, thus TCP performance depends mainly on MAC protocol performance. We look at TCP throughput for connections between nodes 0-1, 0-2, 0-3, 0-4, 0-5 and 0-6. we ran the simulation using FEC, without FEC, and without any errors (ideal channel) for comparison.

In figures 1 we notice that a larger segment size produces better reults than a smaller one. Also, RTS/CTS is almost having a negative impact on the peformance, and the system performs better without collision avoidance.

In figures 2 and 3 it can be seen that as number of hops increases, the use of larger window size results in increase in throughput. With large window size, TCP can have more segments to transmit at each node without waiting to receive the ACK for the transmitted segments (many will be lost and the TCP will perform slow start). It is therefore recommended to allow TCP to use larger window size at all times. Furthermore in figure 1, we can see that with errors, plain TCP connections are barely able to transfer packets more then 4 hops away. With increased window and large packet size as in figures 3 and 3, plain TCP is able to complete transfers, but at a very low throughput.

### 4.2 Audio

Here, we consider combination of real-time audio and bulk transfer. The objective is to investigate the interaction between real-time audio using UDP, and bulk transfer using TCP. First, we consider audio only, we simulate and measure the loss percentage for a call from node 0 to the seven other nodes. Table 1 shows the loss percentage for a call from node 0 to nodes 1..7. As expected the loss ratio increases with the number of hops (even for a single call), and more than few hops results in increasing the loss rate beyond the generally accepted 1-2%. We also notice that smaller UDP packet size leads to a better loss rate. We believe that although a smaller UDP packet means more packets, however it also means that by not waiting to collect a large packets, we can tranmsit cells with minimum delay thus reducing the probability of time out and discarding the cell in case of multiple retramsissions.

Next, we run two experiments with multiple voice connections. The first experiment, we run two way audio connection between nodes 0-7, 1-6, 2-5, and 3-4. In the second, we run 0-1, 2-3. 4-5, and 6-7. The first configuration produces the maximum overlaps between these four connections, while the later produce the minimum overlap. Tables

Table 2 shows the loss ratio for the first configuration, while Table 3 shows the loss ratio for the second configuration. We notice that for multiple audio connections a UDP packet size of 300 bytes produces the best results.

Table 4 shows both the throughput of one TCP connection and one audio connection between nodes 0 and 7. We notice that with a large packet size the TCP throughput is 0. We also notice that although a larger window size increases the TCP throughput, it also increases the loss ratio for UDP packets.

### 4.3 Multiple concurrent bulk TCP transfers

In a modified string experiment there is a connection between every two neighboring nodes in a string. In addition there is a connection between the last and the first node that spans all nodes in the string. This topology is used to investigate fairness between single and multihop transfers and how hidden terminal problem affects them.

Performance of one-hop TCP connections is much better when compared to the one multi-hop connection (figure 4). This setup shows how a multihop connection fails in the presence of many single hop transfers. Furthermore, since all nodes are active at the same time, the performance of single hop connections is also affected, since a single node cannot communicate with two different nodes simultaneously.

In the figures 4, 4, where RTS/CTS is not used, it can be shown that large packet sizes result in larger total throughput. It is interesting to note that FEC at 60% efficiency is more fair to middle connections (2-3 and 3-4) when compared to a situation either with or without errors. Because of errors, a single connection is never able to fully capture the channel as is the case without errors. This results in reduced overall throughput, and better fairness. Use of RTS/CTS (figures 4, and 4) reduces throughput and does not improve fairness. In all cases, the single multihop connection is able to transfer data, but at a very low rate (about 1 kbps).

## 5 Mesh

Mesh topology is an example of a more realistic topology than a string from the previous section. Every node in a mesh is connected to either two (corners), three (sides) or four (inner) other nodes. Mesh topology allows us to see how TCP performs in a more realistic ad environment. There are two types of traffic passing through the mesh. Along all the vertical paths are bulk TCP connections. For example in a 6x6 mesh, the nodes are numbered in a row major fashion, with the bottom row numbered 0,1,2,..5, and the top row numbered 30-35. We established 6 TCP connections, with source nodes 30 to 35 and destination nodes 0 to 5 respectively (6 connections from the top row to the bottom row). They are numbered 1 to 6 respectively. Along the horizontal paths are constant bit connections. In a 6x6 mesh, the connections originate in nodes 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30 and terminate in 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 35. (these are 6 horizontal connections between nodes in the left-most column and the corrersponding nodes in the righ-most column). Constant bit sources are similar to bulk sources in that they too have unlimited supply of packets. The difference is that constant bit (CBR) sources send packets at regular intervals. CBR sources use TCP as transport protocol. Packet size is fixed in all the simulations to 1000 bytes. The rate at which the CBR sources generate packets is one of 23.3kbps or 233.3kbps. CBR sources represent interference traffic, by introducing constant load on the network. With 23.3kbps sources, a CBR source sends one TCP segment every 1.5 seconds, and with 233.3kbps it is 0.05 seconds. Therefore network load increases with higher CBR source rate.

Figure 5 shows results for mesh of size 6x6. Here we can see that in the presence of errors and without FEC, TCP is barely able to transfer any packets, with throughput close to zero. This is because with 6 hops, probability that a packet reaches destination is very small. Here use of FEC helps considerably in that is allows all connection to transfer data. Again larger packet sizes show better throughput. As load increases, without FEC, some middle TCP connections fail completely for small packet sizes. With FEC, throughput of bulk connections is reasonable in the sense that it is about 20% to 50% on average of the throughout without any errors. In some cases, throughput of bulk connections with FEC is even better than their throughout would without any errors. This is because wireless errors also affect the throughput of interfering traffic and lower it considerably, so that bulk TCP connections experience less interference from CBR traffic.

A similar simulation in  differs in that static routing is used, wheres here DSDV is used. The consequence of this is that it is possible for DSDV to incorrectly determine that a node is unreachable due to wireless errors and it re-routes packets using a different route. It is therefore possible that the bulk and CBR traffic do not flow always along horizontal or vertical direction only.

## 6 Summary and Conclusions

In this paper we investigated the perofrmance of bulk traffic using TCP and real-time audio traffic using UDP over an ad-hoc networ using IEEE802.11. Our results indicates that 802.11 is suitable only for small ad-hoc networks with number of hops 2-3. A bigger network results in a much degraded perofrmance for both TCP and UDP.


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# Spectroscopy of Molecular Hydrogen Emission From KH 15DData presented herein were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W.M. Keck Foundation.

## 1 Introduction

KH 15D is a weak-lined T Tauri star (K7V) in NGC 2264 ($`d=760`$ pc), which shows deep (3.5 mag) periodic eclipses, each lasting for about 20 days, a large fraction of the 48.36 day period (Herbst et al., 2002; Herbst & Hamilton, 2003). The eclipses occur abruptly, indistinguishable from obscuration by a ‘knife edge’ (Herbst et al., 2002). During eclipse, the lack of reddening in the spectrum (Hamilton et al., 2001), and polarization which varies only weakly with wavelength (Agol et al., 2003), imply that the obscuring matter must be comprised of large particles. A consensus view to date is that the eclipses are caused by structure in a protoplanetary disk, fortuitously edge-on to our line of sight. Candidate structures include a density wave (Herbst et al., 2002), a vortex (Barge & Viton, 2003), or a warp in the disk induced by planet-disk interactions (Agol et al., 2003; Winn et al., 2003). The considerable recent interest in KH 15D derives from the diagnostic potential inherent in the eclipse geometry, and the serendipity of finding a protoplanetary system whose structure suggests that planetary formation is actively occurring.

Although the eclipses in KH 15D are evidently caused by large solid particles, observations of the gaseous component may help to deduce the nature of the system. Hamilton et al. (2003) observed double-peaked atomic hydrogen emission lines, indicative of a bipolar outflow. In this Letter we report the spectroscopic discovery of $`2\mu `$m molecular hydrogen lines in emission, also showing a double-peaked structure indicative of outflow. This H2 emission has been independently discovered by Tokunaga et al. (2003), by imaging in a narrow-band filter. Molecular hydrogen emission is commonly observed from pre-main sequence objects (Bachiller, 1996), where it can be excited by fluorescence (Black & van Dishoeck, 1987) or by shocks (Shull & Beckwith, 1982), and has been well-studied in many cases. H2 observations should therefore help to relate KH 15D to other pre-main sequence systems.

## 2 Observations

We observed KH 15D using the NIRSPEC spectrometer on the Keck II telescope (McLean et al., 1998). Observations on 19 & 26 August 2002 UT used NIRSPEC’s low spectral resolution mode, with slit widths of $`0.76`$ and $`0.57`$ arc-sec respectively, giving $`\lambda /\delta \lambda 1100`$ and $`2000`$. KH 15D was in eclipse on 19 August (phase $`=0.17`$, emergence was just beginning; zero phase is center of eclipse), and out of eclipse on 26 August (phase $`=0.32`$). Noise from the sky background was higher than usual on both nights because the object was observed at high airmass ($`2`$) in pre-dawn conditions, with a rapidly brightening sky. (KH 15D observations were supplementary to our main program.) Sky subtraction was facilitated by nodding the telescope to well separated ‘a’ and ‘b’ positions along the slit. The position angle of the slit (measured positive eastward from north), and total integration time used, were $`75^{}`$ & $`600`$ seconds, and $`134^{}`$ & $`400`$ seconds, on 19 & 26 August, respectively.

On 2 September 2002 UT, KH 15D was out of eclipse (phase$`=0.46`$). We observed it using NIRSPEC’s high-resolution cross-dispersed mode, giving $`\lambda /\delta \lambda 23,000`$, with a $`0.43`$ arc-sec slit width (2 pixels), in position angle $`66^{}`$. Total integration time was $`1600`$ seconds. These high resolution observations were made under better sky conditions (airmass $`1.7`$), and also used nodding for sky subtraction. For both the low and high resolution spectra, we observed a neon emission lamp for wavelength calibration and a continuum lamp for flat-fielding.

## 3 Spectral Analysis

### 3.1 Low Resolution Spectra

Sky and dark current subtraction was accomplished to first order by subtracting the ‘b’ frames from the ‘a’ frames, after division by the flat-field lamp frame. A second-order sky correction was accomplished by subtracting a residual sky spectrum from the average difference frame. The residual sky spectrum was determined on the average difference frame by summing a region located spatially between the ‘a’ and ‘b’ positions of the star on the slit. The KH 15D spectrum was obtained in a standard extraction, by summing both the ‘a’ and ‘b’ spectra over a region of $`\pm 2`$ arc-sec along the slit, after correction for the tilt of the slit. The wavelength scale was determined by fitting Gaussian profiles to 14 neon emission lines in calibration spectra taken immediately following the KH 15D spectra. The neon rest wavelengths (from the NIRSPEC manual) were expressed as a quadratic function of the fitted line positions (in pixels), with coefficients determined by least squares. The precision of the wavelength calibration, estimated from the scatter in the quadratic fits, is $`0.0002\mu `$m (0.5 pixels). Figure 1 shows the low-resolution spectra in and out of eclipse, with the wavelength scale transformed to the stellar frame. Our velocity transformations assume a heliocentric stellar radial velocity of $`+10`$ km sec-1, intermediate between the two values cited by Hamilton et al. (2003). Both Figure 1 spectra have been flat-fielded, and normalized to a unit intensity near $`2.1\mu `$m. We did not observe a standard flux source, but we were able to use the KH 15D stellar continuum to estimate an absolute line intensity (see below).

The low resolution spectrum during eclipse shows 5 emission lines due to H2, as noted on the Figure. Even the weakest of these lines, 2-1 S(1), is real, which we judged by inspecting the average difference frame prior to spectral extraction. On the difference frame, emission in the strongest line, 1-0 S(1), has a spatial distribution along the slit which is peaked at the stellar position to within $`0.2`$ arc-sec (1 pixel). This bright emission can be traced beyond the stellar point spread function (PSF) by at least $`\pm 4`$ arc-sec. There is evidence for faint S(1) emission (intensity $`0.2`$ of the KH 15D peak) at one other position along the slit, $`16`$ arc-sec distant from KH 15D.

Intensities for the H2 lines were determined by fitting Gaussian profiles. The widths of the fitted Gaussians were all constrained to equal the best-fit width for the 1-0 S(1) line, since the lines are not spectrally resolved. Errors in the line intensities (areas under the Gaussian fits) were estimated using a Monte-Carlo procedure: we repeated the fits many times on ‘synthetic’ lines having the same line parameters and noise levels as in the real data. All of the line intensities and errors are normalized to unit intensity for the 1-0 S(1) line, and are tabulated in Table 1. We used the very high spectral resolution atlas of Livingston & Wallace (1991), convolved to the $`25`$ km sec-1 widths of the lines (see below), and measured the telluric absorption at the Doppler-shifted position of each line. At the observed geocentric Doppler shift and line width, none of the KH 15D lines are coincident with significant telluric lines, hence any telluric corrections are negligible, even at 2 airmasses.

The weakness of the 2-1 S(1) line is indicative of thermal excitation, since models of fluorescent emission predict an intensity for this line of $`0.5`$ relative to the 1-0 S(1) line (Black & van Dishoeck, 1987). It is clear from Figure 1 that the intensity of 2-1 S(1) is substantially less than half of the 1-0 S(1) line. To determine the excitation temperature, we computed ln$`(I/gA)`$ where $`I`$ is the Table 1 line intensity, $`g`$ is the upper level statistical weight, and $`A`$ is the Einstein A-value. For optically thin emission, ln$`(I/gA)`$ is proportional to the energy of the emitting level, with constant of proportionality $`=1/T`$. We adopted the line parameters tabulated by Fernandes et al. (1997), and calculated $`T2800\pm 300K`$ by least squares. The relative intensities expected from thermal excitation at $`T=2800K`$ are tabulated in Table 1 for comparison. The differences between these values and the observed intensities are somewhat greater than our estimated observational errors, but not so discrepant as to contradict thermal excitation.

### 3.2 High Resolution Spectra

Figure 1 shows that the emission line contrast is greatly reduced out of eclipse, similar to the effect seen in atomic emission lines by Hamilton et al. (2003). In the presence of shot noise from the stellar continuum, observation of the emission lines outside of eclipse is problematic at low spectral resolution. But the contrast for unresolved emission lines is proportional to spectral resolution, and we have been able to measure the 1-0 S(1) line in high resolution spectra outside of eclipse.

Our high resolution spectra were extracted from an average difference image in a manner similar to the low-resolution spectra. However, the high-resolution spectra did not require a second order sky subtraction, and we used night sky emission lines for wavelength calibration. A velocity (wavelength) precision of $`1.8`$ km sec-1 (0.4 pixels) was achieved by using four night sky lines, two on each side of the 1-0 S(1) line, with vacuum wavelengths from Rousselot et al. (2000). We adopted the precise vacuum wavelength ($`2.1218356\mu `$m) of the 1-0 S(1) line from Bragg et al. (1982). Similar to the low resolution in-eclipse spectra, our high resolution spectra also show the emission extending well beyond the stellar PSF by $`4`$ arc-sec. We extracted three high-resolution spectra from the average difference frame, and these spectra are shown in Figure 2. The first spectrum (upper portion of Figure 2) was extracted by summing along the slit within $`\pm 0.9`$ arc-sec of the star. Two other spectra were extracted over the interval $`1.12.3`$ arc-sec from the star to the east and west (lower spectra in Figure 2).

We examined the total intensity of the line seen in Figure 2 (top spectrum, near the star), compared to the line intensity seen near the star during eclipse. Using the stellar continuum as a reference, and adopting an eclipse depth of 3.1 mag at the epoch of the Figure 1 spectrum (phase$`=0.17`$; Herbst et al. (2002)), we compute the intensity expected in Figure 2 (out of eclipse) by scaling the Figure 1 (in eclipse) line intensity. Since the emission is extended, we allow for the different solid angles (slit widths times distance summed along the slit). On this basis we expect to see a line intensity about $`25\%`$ less than is actually observed in Figure 2. This is certainly within the errors of the observations, and we conclude that the 1-0 S(1) line intensity is approximately constant, and is not eclipsed. The variation in H2 emission line contrast can be accounted for (within the errors) solely by changes in the stellar brightness.

The line profiles seen in Figure 2 show two components. Relative to the reference frame of the star, a blueshifted component appears at $`63`$ km sec-1, and a redshifted component at $`+2`$ km sec-1. Within the errors, the redshifted component is consistent with zero velocity. Although the total intensity in the emission is peaked at the stellar position, the relative intensity of the blue- and redshifted components changes abruptly there. East of the star, the blueshifted component dominates, whereas the redshifted component prevails to the west. The components are relatively narrow, FWHM $`25`$ km sec-1.

We have estimated the absolute line intensity for the Figure 2 spectrum coincident with the stellar position, adding both components. Using the $`V`$ magnitude reported by Hamilton et al. (2001), and the $`VK`$ color normal to a K7 dwarf from Bessel & Brett (1988), we deduce a $`K`$ magnitude for the star of 12.9, outside of eclipse. Adopting the zero-magnitude flux from Bessel & Brett (1988), we calculated the line intensity using the stellar continuum as a photometric standard. Since the star is a point source, whereas the emission is extended, we corrected for stellar slit-losses. Fitting a Gaussian to the spatial profile of the star (along the slit), we derive $`0.8`$ arc-sec seeing (FWHM). Assuming image symmetry, a 2-D calculation indicates $`21\%`$ loss at the slit ($`0.43`$ arc-sec slit width). We thereby derive a line intensity of $`1.4\times 10^{16}`$ ergs cm-2 sec-1. Following the calculation outlined by Bary et al. (2003) for optically thin emission, this implies a mass $`10^{10}M_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ of hot H2, and a column density of $`6\times 10^{14}`$ molecules cm-2. This is comparable to the hot H2 mass in the near vicinity of several weak-lined T-Tauri stars cited by Bary et al. (2003), except that we argue for shock-heating by outflow in KH 15D, not UV fluorescence or heating by X-ray flux. Note that the inferred mass is proportional to the square of the source distance, and we have adopted $`d=760`$ pc. Note also (see below) that Tokunaga et al. (2003) have imaged an extended jet of S(1) emission, and the mass we derive here applies only to the immediate vicinity of the star (within $`\pm 0.9\times 0.43`$ arc-sec2).

## 4 Discussion

Tokunaga et al. (2003) have imaged KH 15D in a narrow band filter centered on the 1-0 S(1) line. They find a prominent jet starting in close coincidence with the star, and extending many arc-sec to the north. They have considered whether the jet is physically associated with KH 15D or is a chance superposition (H2 emission is common in star-forming regions like NGC 2264). Independent of our spectroscopy, they conclude that the association of the jet with KH 15D is probably physical. We find that: 1) our low resolution spectrum during eclipse shows bright S(1) emission centered on the stellar position to $`0.2`$ arc-sec (Sec. 3.1), and 2) our high resolution spectrum resolves the line into two velocity components, whose relative intensities change aburptly at the stellar position (Sec 3.2). Therefore our results strongly support the conclusion that S(1) emission is physically associated with KH 15D.

Recently, quiescent H2 1-0 S(1) emission has been detected near several T-Tauri stars (Weintraub et al., 2000; Bary et al., 2003). This quiescent emission shows narrow line profiles, just as we see in KH 15D. We considered the possibility that the KH 15D emission originates from quiescent gas, with Doppler shifts resulting from Keplerian orbital motion. We cannot exclude that some fraction of the emission, especially in the red component, arises from quiescent emission. Nevertheless, because the KH 15D emission is spatially extended and shows evidence of outflow, it seems more closely related to the shock-heated H2 which has been observed in hundreds of young stellar objects, including classical T-Tauri stars (Bachiller, 1996; Herbst et al., 1997).

Interpretation of our KH 15D observations requires knowing the stellar radial velocity, and the heliocentric radial velocity we adopt for the system ($`+10`$ km sec-1) may be in error if the star is a binary. Nevertheless, the double-peaked profiles we observe in the close vicinity of the star suggest outflow. However, a simple picture of a symmetric bipolar jet emergent normal to a single edge-on disk is hard to reconcile with our observations, and with the Tokunaga et al. (2003) imaging. In such a simple interpretation, the line-of-sight shock velocity in the 1-0 S(1) line would have to be at least half of the difference between the red- and blueshifted components, i.e. $`30`$ km sec-1. For a disk inclination of $`84^{}`$ (Hamilton et al., 2003), the flow would be inclined by only $`6^{}`$ to the plane of the sky, so the total shock velocity would have to exceed $`250`$ km sec-1. This is well above the velocity where shocked H2 is observed in other objects (H2 becomes dissociated at high shock velocities, Shull & Beckwith (1982)). Therefore the outflow revealed in molecular hydrogen is likely to be inclined significantly to the plane of the sky. Similar arguments would not apply to lines formed very close to the star, where a bipolar outflow may not be collimated. However, the emission we observe is spatially resolved from the star, occurring at distances where bipolar outflows are often highly collimated to a single axis.

Tokunaga et al. (2003) find only one bright jet of line emission extending to the north. Since our slit was oriented primarily east-west (PA $`=66^{}`$), we have observed approximately (but not precisely) perpendicular to the jet axis. Our spectra will reveal the flow pattern in the jet to the extent that the total angle between our slit and the velocity vector differs from $`\pi /2`$. We believe that our brightest emission component (blueshifted ‘east’ spectrum in Figure 2) samples the Tokunaga et al. (2003) jet, whereas the red components are consistent with either a possible fainter counter-jet (not yet detected by imaging), or quiescent emission near the stellar velocity.

The extent and complexity of H2 emission from KH 15D is reminiscent of T Tauri itself, a known binary system. Consistent with its binary nature, T Tauri shows two nearly perpendicular outflow systems (Herbst et al., 1997). Our observations are not yet sufficient, in terms of spatial sampling, to say whether KH 15D shows a single, or multiple, velocity systems. Mapping spectroscopy of KH 15D in the 1-0 S(1) line is needed to clarify the kinematics of this interesting object.

## 5 Acknowledgements

We thank Tim Brown for help with the observations, and the Keck support staff, particularly Randy Campbell and Grant Hill, for assistance with NIRSPEC. We are grateful to Alan Tokunaga and colleagues for communicating and discussing their imaging results, and to an anonymous referee for several helpful comments. Portions of this work were supported by NASA’s Origins of Solar Systems program. The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Mauna Kea has always had within the indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.


text:
# Casimir energy-momentum tensor for a brane in de Sitter spacetime

## 1 Introduction

De Sitter (dS) spacetime is the maximally symmetric solution of Einsten’s equation with a positive cosmological constant. Recent astronomical observations of supernovae and cosmic microwave background  indicate that the universe is accelerating and can be well approximated by a world with a positive cosmological constant. If the universe would accelerate indefinitely, the standard cosmology leads to an asymptotic dS universe. De Sitter spacetime plays an important role in the inflationary scenario, where an exponentially expanding approximately dS spacetime is employed to solve a number of problems in standard cosmology. The quantum field theory on dS spacetime is also of considerable interest. In particular, the inhomogeneities generated by fluctuations of a quantum field during inflation provide an attractive mechanism for the structure formation in the universe. Another motivation for investigations of dS based quantum theories is related to the recently proposed holographic duality between quantum gravity on dS spacetime and a quantum field theory living on boundary identified with the timelike infinity of dS spacetime .

The one of most striking macroscopic manifestations of quantum properties is the Casimir effect. The presence of reflecting boundaries alters the zero-point modes of a quantized field, and results in the shifts in the vacuum expectation values of quantities quadratic in the field, such as the energy density and stresses. In particular, vacuum forces arise acting on constraining boundaries. The particular features of these forces depend on the nature of the quantum field, the type of spacetime manifold, the boundary geometries and the specific boundary conditions imposed on the field. Since the original work by Casimir in 1948  many theoretical and experimental works have been done on this problem (see, e.g.,  and references therein). Many different approaches have been used: mode summation method, Green function formalism, multiple scattering expansions, heat-kernel series, zeta function regularization technique, etc. Recently new methods are developed for the Casimir energy calculations in given background fields .

The Casimir effect can be viewed as a polarization of vacuum by boundary conditions. The interaction of fluctuating quantum fields with background gravitational fields give rise to another type of vacuum polarization (see, for instance, ). Here we will study an example where both types of polarizations are present. Namely, we evaluate the vacuum expectation values for the enrgy-momentum tensor of a conformally coupled scalar field on background of $`D+1`$-dimensional dS spacetime when a curved brane is present (for investigations of the Casimir energy in braneworld models with dS branes see Refs. ). As a brane we take $`D`$-dimensional hypersurface which is the conformal image of a plate moving with constant proper acceleration in the Rindler stacetime. We will assume that the field is prepared in the state conformally related to the Fulling–Rindler vacuum in the Rindler spacetime. To generate the vacuum expectation values in dS bulk, we use the conformal relation between dS and Rindler spacetimes and the results from  for the corresponding Rindler problem with mixed boundary conditions. Previously this method has been used in  to derive the vacuum stress on parallel plates for a scalar field with Dirichlet boundary conditions in de Sitter spactime and in Ref.  to investigate the vacuum characteristics of the Casimir configuration on background of conformally flat brane-world geometries for massless scalar field with Robin boundary conditions on plates.

The present paper is organized as follows. In the next section the geometry of our problem and the conformal relation between dS and Rindler spacetimes are discussed. The results are presented for the vacuum expectation values of the energy-momentum tensor for a scalar field induced by a plate uniformly accelerated through the Fulling–Rindler vacuum. In Section 3, by using the formula relating the renormalized energy-momentum tensors for conformally related problems in combination with the appropriate coordinate transformation, we derive expressions for the vacuum energy-momentum tensor in dS space. The main results are rementioned and summarized in Section 4.

## 2 Conformal relation between dS and Rindler problems

Consider a conformally coupled massless scalar field $`\phi (x)`$ satisfying the equation

$$\left(_l^l+\zeta R\right)\phi (x)=0,\zeta =\frac{D1}{4D},$$
(1)
on background of a $`D+1`$–dimensional dS spacetime. In Eq. (1), $`_l`$ is the operator of the covariant derivative, and $`R`$ is the Ricci scalar for the corresponding metric $`g_{ik}`$. In static coordinates $`x^i=(t,r,\theta ,\theta _2,\mathrm{},\theta _{D2},\varphi )`$ dS metric has the form

$$ds_{\mathrm{dS}}^2=g_{ik}dx^idx^k=\left(1\frac{r^2}{\alpha ^2}\right)dt^2\frac{dr^2}{1\frac{r^2}{\alpha ^2}}r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_{D1}^2,$$
(2)
where $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_{D1}^2`$ is the line element on the $`D1`$–dimensional unit sphere in Euclidean space, and the parameter $`\alpha `$ defines the dS curvature radius. Note that $`R=D(D1)/\alpha ^2`$. We will assume that the field satisfies the mixed boundary condition

$$\left(A+Bn^l_l\right)\phi (x)=0,xS,$$
(3)
on the hypersurface $`S`$, $`n^l`$ is the normal to this surface, $`n_ln^l=1`$ (the form of the hypersurface will be specified below, see Eq. (8)). The results in the following will depend on the ratio of Robin coefficients $`A`$ and $`B`$. However, to keep the transition to the Dirichlet and Neumann cases transparent we will use the form (3). Our main interest in the present paper is to investigate the vacuum expectation value (VEV) of the energy–momentum tensor for the field $`\phi (x)`$ induced by the hypersurface $`S`$. The presence of boundaries modifies the spectrum of the zero–point fluctuations compared to the case without boundaries and results in the shift in the VEV’s of physical quantities, such as vacuum energy density and stresses. This is the well known Casimir effect.

To make maximum use of the flat spacetime calculations, first of all let us present the dS line element in the form conformally related to the Rindler metric. With this aim we make the coordinate transformation $`x^ix^i=(\tau ,\xi ,𝐱^{})`$, $`𝐱^{}=(x^2,\mathrm{},x^D)`$ (see Ref.  for the case $`D=3`$)

$`\tau ={\displaystyle \frac{t}{\alpha }},\xi ={\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{\alpha ^2r^2}}{\mathrm{\Omega }}},x^2={\displaystyle \frac{r}{\mathrm{\Omega }}}\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}\theta _2,\mathrm{},`$
$`x^{D2}={\displaystyle \frac{r}{\mathrm{\Omega }}}\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{sin}\theta _2\mathrm{}\mathrm{sin}\theta _{D3}\mathrm{cos}\theta _{D2},`$ (4)
$`x^{D1}={\displaystyle \frac{r}{\mathrm{\Omega }}}\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{sin}\theta _2\mathrm{}\mathrm{sin}\theta _{D2}\mathrm{cos}\varphi ,x^D={\displaystyle \frac{r}{\mathrm{\Omega }}}\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{sin}\theta _2\mathrm{}\mathrm{sin}\theta _{D2}\mathrm{sin}\varphi ,`$
with the notation

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=1\frac{r}{\alpha }\mathrm{cos}\theta .$$
(5)
Under this coordinate transformation the dS line element takes the form

$$ds_{\mathrm{dS}}^2=g_{ik}^{}dx^idx^k=\mathrm{\Omega }^2\left(\xi ^2d\tau ^2d\xi ^2d𝐱^2\right).$$
(6)
In this form the dS metric is manifestly conformally related to the Rindler spacetime with the line element $`ds_\mathrm{R}^2`$:

$$ds_{\mathrm{dS}}^2=\mathrm{\Omega }^2ds_\mathrm{R}^2,ds_\mathrm{R}^2=g_{ik}^\mathrm{R}dx^idx^k=\xi ^2d\tau ^2d\xi ^2d𝐱^2,g_{ik}^{}=\mathrm{\Omega }^2g_{ik}^\mathrm{R}.$$
(7)
By using the standard transformation formula for the vacuum expectation values of the energy-momentum tensor in conformally related problems (see, for instance, ), we can generate the results for dS spacetime from the corresponding results for the Rindler spacetime. In this paper as a Rindler counterpart we will take the the vacuum energy-momentum tensor induced by an infinite plate moving by uniform proper acceleration through the Fulling–Rindler vacuum. We will assume that the plate is located in the right Rindler wedge and has the coordinate $`\xi =a`$. Observe that in coordinates $`x^i`$ the boundary $`\xi =a`$ is presented by the hypersurface

$$\sqrt{\alpha ^2r^2}=a\left(1\frac{r}{\alpha }\mathrm{cos}\theta \right)$$
(8)
in dS spacetime. As a boundary $`S`$ in Eq. (3) we will take this hypersurface. In Fig. 1 we have plotted the section of dS spacetime for fixed $`(t,\theta _2,\mathrm{},\theta _{D2},\varphi )`$. The corresponding surface is embedded into $`3D`$ Euclidean space with coordinates $`(x,y,z)=(\frac{r}{\alpha }\mathrm{cos}\theta ,\frac{r}{\alpha }\mathrm{sin}\theta ,z)`$ and is defined by the equation

$$x^2+y^2+z^2=1,z0.$$
(9)
In coordinates $`(x,y,z)`$ the boundary (8) is defined by the intersection of the surface (9) with the cylinder

$$\left(x\frac{a_\alpha ^2}{1+a_\alpha ^2}\right)^2+\frac{y^2}{1+a_\alpha ^2}=\frac{1}{(1+a_\alpha ^2)^2},a_\alpha =\frac{a}{\alpha }.$$
(10)
The corresponding curves on the surface (9) are plotted in Fig. 1 for values $`a_\alpha =0.5,1,2`$. In the limit $`a_\alpha 0`$ the curves tend to the dS horizon presented by the circle $`(r/\alpha =1,z=0)`$. For all avlues of $`a_\alpha `$ the hypersurfaces (10) touch the dS horizon at $`(r,\theta )=(\alpha ,0)`$.

The expectation values of the energy-momentum tensor induced by the presence of an infinite plane boundary moving with uniform acceleration through the Fulling-Rindler vacuum were investigated by Candelas and Deutsch  for a conformally coupled $`4D`$ Dirichlet and Neumann massless scalar and electromagnetic fields. In this paper the region of the right Rindler wedge to the right of the barrier is considered. In Ref.  we have investigated the Wightman function and the VEV of the energy-momentum tensor for a massive scalar field with general curvature coupling parameter, satisfying the Robin boundary conditions on an infinite plane in an arbitrary number of spacetime dimensions. Both regions, including the one between the barrier and Rindler horizon, are considered. Recently, the total Casimir energy in this problem is investigated  by using the zeta function regularization technique. The expectation values of the energy-momentum tensor for a scalar field $`\phi _\mathrm{R}(x^{})`$ in the Fulling–Rindler vacuum can be presented in the form of the sum

$$0_R|T_i^k[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]|0_R=\stackrel{~}{0}_R|T_i^k[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]|\stackrel{~}{0}_R+T_i^k[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)},$$
(11)
where $`|0_R`$ and $`|\stackrel{~}{0}_R`$ are the amplitudes for the vacuum states in the Rindler space in presence and absence of the plate respectively, and $`T_i^k[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)}`$ is the part of the vacuum energy-momentum tensor induced by the plate. Note that the state $`|\stackrel{~}{0}_R`$ corresponds to the standard Fulling–Rindler vacuum. In the case of a conformally coupled massless scalar field, for the part without boundaries one has (see Ref.  for the case $`D=3`$ and Ref.  for an arbitrary $`D`$)

$$\stackrel{~}{0}_R|T_i^k[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]|\stackrel{~}{0}_R=\frac{a_D\xi ^{D1}}{2^{D1}\pi ^{D/2}\mathrm{\Gamma }(D/2)}\mathrm{diag}(1,\frac{1}{D},\mathrm{},\frac{1}{D}),$$
(12)
with the notation

$$a_D=_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{\omega ^Dd\omega }{e^{2\pi \omega }+(1)^D}\underset{l=1}{\overset{l_m}{}}\left[\left(\frac{D12l}{2\omega }\right)^2+1\right],$$
(13)
where $`l_m=D/21`$ for even $`D>2`$ and $`l_m=(D1)/2`$ for odd $`D>1`$, and the value for the product over $`l`$ is equal to 1 for $`D=1,2,3`$. For a scalar field $`\phi _\mathrm{R}(x^{})`$, satisfying the mixed boundary condition

$$\left(A_\mathrm{R}+B_\mathrm{R}n_\mathrm{R}^l_l^{}\right)\phi _\mathrm{R}(x^{})=0,\xi =a,n_\mathrm{R}^l=\delta _1^l,$$
(14)
with constants $`A_\mathrm{R}`$, $`B_\mathrm{R}`$, the boundary induced part in the region $`\xi >a`$ is defined by the formula

$$T_i^k[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)}=\frac{\delta _i^k}{2^{D2}\pi ^{(D+1)/2}\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{D1}{2}\right)}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑kk^{D1}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\omega \frac{\overline{I}_\omega (ka)}{\overline{K}_\omega (ka)}F^{(i)}[K_\omega (k\xi )],$$
(15)
where the functions $`F^{(i)}[g(z)]`$ for $`i=0,1`$ have the form

$`F^{(0)}[g(z)]`$ $`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}2\zeta \right)\left({\displaystyle \frac{dg(z)}{dz}}\right)^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\zeta }{z}}{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dz}}g^2(z)+\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}2\zeta +\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}+2\zeta \right){\displaystyle \frac{\omega ^2}{z^2}}\right]g^2(z),`$ (16)
$`F^{(1)}[g(z)]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{dg(z)}{dz}}\right)^2{\displaystyle \frac{\zeta }{z}}{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dz}}g^2(z)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{\omega ^2}{z^2}}\right)g^2(z),`$
and the functions $`F^{(i)}[g(z)]`$ for $`i=2,\mathrm{},D`$ are determined by the zero trace condition for the energy-momentum tensor,

$$F^{(i)}[g(z)]=\frac{1}{D1}\left\{F^{(0)}[g(z)]+F^{(1)}[g(z)]\right\},i=2,\mathrm{},D.$$
(17)
In Eq. (15), $`I_\omega (z)`$ and $`K_\omega (z)`$ are the Bessel modified functions and for a given function $`f(z)`$ we use the notation

$$\overline{f}(z)=A_\mathrm{R}f(z)+B_\mathrm{R}zf^{}(z).$$
(18)
The expression for the boundary part of the vacuum energy-momentum tensor in the region $`\xi <a`$ is obtained from formula (15) by replacements $`I_\omega K_\omega `$, $`K_\omega I_\omega `$.

## 3 Vacuum energy-momentum tensor in dS bulk

To find the VEV’s induced by the surface (8) in dS spacetime, first we will consider the corresponding quantities in the coordinates $`(\tau ,\xi ,𝐱^{})`$ with metric (6). These quantities can be found from the corresponding results in the Rindler spacetime by using the standard transformation formula for the conformally related problems :

$$0_{\mathrm{dS}}|T_i^k[g_{lm}^{},\phi ]|0_{\mathrm{dS}}=\mathrm{\Omega }^{D1}0_\mathrm{R}|T_i^k[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]|0_\mathrm{R}+T_i^k[g_{lm}^{},\phi ]^{(an)},$$
(19)
where the second summand on the right is determined by the trace anomaly and is related to the divergent part of the corresponding effective action:

$$T_i^k[g_{lm}^{},\phi ]^{(an)}=2g^{kl}\frac{\delta }{\delta g^{il}(x)}W_{\mathrm{div}}[g_{mn}^{},\phi ].$$
(20)
Note that in odd spacetime dimensions the conformal anomaly is absent and the corresponding anomaly part vanishes:

$$T_i^k[g_{lm}^{},\phi ]^{(an)}=0,\mathrm{for}\mathrm{even}D.$$
(21)
For an odd number of spatial dimensions the anomaly part in dS apacetime has the form

$$T_i^k[g_{lm}^{},\phi ]^{(an)}=\frac{b_D}{\alpha ^{D+1}}\delta _k^i,$$
(22)
with the numerical coefficient $`b_D`$. In $`D=3`$ one has $`b_3=1/960\pi ^2`$ .

The formulae given above allow us to present the dS VEV’s in the decomposed form similar to Eq. (11):

$$0_{\mathrm{dS}}|T_i^k[g_{lm}^{},\phi ]|0_{\mathrm{dS}}=\stackrel{~}{0}_{\mathrm{dS}}|T_i^k[g_{lm}^{},\phi ]|\stackrel{~}{0}_{\mathrm{dS}}+T_i^k[g_{lm}^{},\phi ]^{(b)},$$
(23)
where $`\stackrel{~}{0}_{\mathrm{dS}}|T_i^k[g_{lm}^{},\phi ]|\stackrel{~}{0}_{\mathrm{dS}}`$ is the expectation value in dS spacetime without boundaries and the part $`T_i^k[g_{lm}^{},\phi ]^{(b)}`$ is induced by the hypersurface (8). Conformally transforming the Rindler results one finds

$`\stackrel{~}{0}_{\mathrm{dS}}|T_i^k[g_{lm}^{},\phi ]|\stackrel{~}{0}_{\mathrm{dS}}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{D1}\stackrel{~}{0}_\mathrm{R}|T_i^k[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]|\stackrel{~}{0}_\mathrm{R}+T_i^k[g_{lm}^{},\phi ]^{(an)},`$ (24)
$`T_i^k[g_{lm}^{},\phi ]^{(b)}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{D1}T_i^k[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)}.`$ (25)
Under the conformal transformation $`g_{ik}^{}=\mathrm{\Omega }^2g_{ik}^\mathrm{R}`$, the $`\phi _\mathrm{R}`$ field will change by the rule

$$\phi (x^{})=\mathrm{\Omega }^{(1D)/2}\phi _\mathrm{R}(x^{}),$$
(26)
where the conformal factor is given by expression (5). Now by comparing boundary conditions (14) and (3) and taking into account Eq. (26), one obtains the relation between the coefficients in the boundary conditions:

$$A=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\left(A_\mathrm{R}+\frac{D1}{2}B_\mathrm{R}n^l_l\mathrm{\Omega }\right),B=B_\mathrm{R},xS.$$
(27)
To evaluate the expression $`n^l_l\mathrm{\Omega }`$ we need the components of the normal to $`S`$ in coordinates $`x^i`$. They can be found by transforming the components $`n^l=\delta _1^l/\mathrm{\Omega }`$ in coordinates $`x^i`$:

$$n^l=(0,\frac{a}{\alpha }(\mathrm{cos}\theta r/\alpha ),\frac{a}{\alpha r}\mathrm{sin}\theta ,0,\mathrm{},0).$$
(28)
Now it can be easily seen that $`n^l_l\mathrm{\Omega }=\sqrt{\alpha ^2r^2}/\alpha ^2`$ and, hence, the relation between the Robin coefficients in the Rindler and dS problems takes the form

$$A=\frac{aA_\mathrm{R}}{\sqrt{\alpha ^2r^2}}\frac{D1}{2}\frac{aB_\mathrm{R}}{\alpha ^2},B=B_\mathrm{R}.$$
(29)
Note that the Robin coefficient $`A`$ depends on the point of the hypersurface.

The VEV’s of the energy-momentum tensor in coordinates $`x^i`$ with line element (2) are obtained from expressions (24) and (25) by the standard coordinate transformation formulae. As before, we will present the corresponding components in the form of the sum of purely dS and boundary induced parts:

$$0_{\mathrm{dS}}|T_i^k[g_{lm},\phi ]|0_{\mathrm{dS}}=\stackrel{~}{0}_{\mathrm{dS}}|T_i^k[g_{lm},\phi ]|\stackrel{~}{0}_{\mathrm{dS}}+T_i^k[g_{lm},\phi ]^{(b)}.$$
(30)
By using relations (4) between the coordinates, for the purely dS part one finds

$$\stackrel{~}{0}_{\mathrm{dS}}|T_i^k[g_{lm},\phi ]|\stackrel{~}{0}_{\mathrm{dS}}=\frac{(\alpha ^2r^2)^{\frac{D+1}{2}}a_D}{2^{D1}\pi ^{D/2}\mathrm{\Gamma }(D/2)}\mathrm{diag}(1,\frac{1}{D},\mathrm{},\frac{1}{D})+\frac{b_D}{\alpha ^{D+1}}\delta _i^k.$$
(31)
This formula generalizes the result for $`D=3`$ given, for instance, in Ref. . As for the boundary induced energy-momentum tensor the spatial part is anisotropic, the corresponding part in coordinates $`x^i`$ is more complicated:

$`T_i^k[g_{lm},\phi ]^{(b)}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{D1}T_i^k[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)},i,k=0,3,\mathrm{},D,`$ (32)
$`T_1^1[g_{lm},\phi ]^{(b)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(\mathrm{cos}\theta r/\alpha )^2}{\mathrm{\Omega }^{D+3}}}T_1^1[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)}`$ (33)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1r^2/\alpha ^2}{\mathrm{\Omega }^{D+3}}}\mathrm{sin}^2\theta T_2^2[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)},`$
$`T_1^2[g_{lm},\phi ]^{(b)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(r/\alpha \mathrm{cos}\theta )\mathrm{sin}\theta }{r\mathrm{\Omega }^{D+3}}}\left\{T_1^1[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)}T_2^2[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)}\right\},`$ (34)
$`T_2^2[g_{lm},\phi ]^{(b)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1r^2/\alpha ^2}{\mathrm{\Omega }^{D+3}}}\mathrm{sin}^2\theta T_1^1[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)}`$ (35)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{(r/\alpha \mathrm{cos}\theta )^2}{\mathrm{\Omega }^{D+3}}}T_2^2[g_{lm}^\mathrm{R},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)},`$
where the expressions for the components of the boundary induced energy-momentum tensor in the Rindler spacetime are given by formulae (15)–(17) in the region $`\xi >a`$ and by similar formulae with the replacements $`I_\omega K_\omega `$ and $`K_\omega I_\omega `$ in the region $`\xi >a`$. In these expressions, $`\xi `$ has to be substituted from (4). As we see the resulting energy-momentum tensor is non-diagonal. It follows from (28) that the induced metric on the brane is also non-diagonal.

Now we turn to the investigation for the limiting cases of the general formulae for the vacuum energy-momentum tensor. First of all let us consider the near horizon limit, $`r\alpha `$, for a fixed $`\theta 0`$. In this limit one has $`\xi 0`$ and we can use the results from Ref.  for this limit of the Rindler part. As a result we obtain

$`T_0^0[g_{lm},\phi ]^{(b)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(D1)B_0\mathrm{sin}^{2(1D)}(\theta /2)}{4^D\pi ^{\frac{D+1}{2}}D\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{D1}{2}\right)a^{D1}(\alpha ^2r^2)\mathrm{ln}^2(\sqrt{\alpha ^2r^2}/a)}},`$ (36)
$`T_1^1[g_{lm},\phi ]^{(b)}`$ $`=`$ $`T_0^0[g_{lm},\phi ]^{(b)},`$ (37)
$`T_2^1[g_{lm},\phi ]^{(b)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\alpha }}\mathrm{cot}{\displaystyle \frac{\theta }{2}}T_1^1[g_{lm},\phi ]^{(b)},`$ (38)
$`T_3^3[g_{lm},\phi ]^{(b)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2T_1^1[g_{lm},\phi ]^{(b)}}{(D1)\mathrm{ln}(\sqrt{\alpha ^2r^2}/a)}},`$ (39)
where

$$B_0=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑yy^{D2}\frac{\overline{K}_0(y)}{\overline{I}_0(y)}.$$
(40)
As we see the boundary part is divergent at the dS horizon. Recall that near the horizon the purely dS part behaves as $`(\alpha ^2r^2)^{(D+1)/2}`$ and, therefore, in this limit the total vacuum energy-momentum tensor is dominated by this part.

The boundary induced parts (32)–(35) diverge on the boundary, corresponding to the limit $`\xi a`$. In this limit, by taking into account that $`T_1^1[g_{\mathrm{R}lm},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)}(\xi /a1)T_2^2[g_{\mathrm{R}lm},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)}`$, for $`r\alpha `$ we can omit the terms containing $`T_1^1[g_{\mathrm{R}lm},\phi _\mathrm{R}]^{(b)}`$ and obtain the following relations between the boundary induced components:

$$T_3^3^{(b)}\frac{T_0^0^{(b)}}{D1}\frac{\alpha ^2T_1^1^{(b)}}{a^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }\frac{r\mathrm{\Omega }^2T_2^1^{(b)}}{\mathrm{sin}\theta (\mathrm{cos}\theta r/\alpha )}\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }^2T_2^2^{(b)}}{(\mathrm{cos}\theta r/\alpha )^2},$$
(41)
where $`T_0^0^{(b)}(\xi a)^{1D}`$ and we can substitute in the coefficients of these relations $`\mathrm{cos}\theta =(\alpha /r)(1\sqrt{\alpha ^2r^2}/a)`$. Near the point $`(r,\theta )=(\alpha ,0)`$, where the boundary touches the horizon, the horizon and boundary divergencies are mixed: in the coefficients of Eqs. (32)–(35) one has $`\mathrm{\Omega }0`$ and from the Rindler parts factors $`(\xi a)^{1D}`$ come.

In the discussion above we have considered the vacuum energy-momentum tensor of the bulk. For a scalar field on manifolds with boundaries in addition to the bulk part the energy-momentum tensor contains a contribution located on the boundary. For arbitrary bulk and boundary geometries the expression of the surface energy-momentum tensor is given in Ref. . Special cases of flat, spherical and cylindrical boundaries in the Minkowski background are considered in Refs. . In the case of a conformally coupled scalar field the transformation formula for the surface energy-momentum tensor under the conformal rescaling of the metric is the same as that for the volume part. For our problem in this paper, the surface energy-momentum tensor is obtained from the corresponding Rindler counterpart by a way similar to that described above. The expression for the latter is given in Ref. .

## 4 Conclusion

In the present paper we have investigated the Casimir densities in dS spacetime for a conformally coupled massless scalar field which satisfies the Robin boundary condition (3) on a hypersurface described by equation (8). The coefficients in the boundary condition are given by relations (29) with constants $`A_\mathrm{R}`$ and $`B_\mathrm{R}`$ and, in general, depend on the point of the hypersurface. The latter is the conformal image of the flat boundary moving by uniform proper acceleration in the Minkowski spacetime. We have assumed that the field in dS spacetime is in the state conformally related to the Fulling-Rindler vacuum. The energy-momentum tensor in dS spacetime is generated from the corresponding results in the Rindler spacetime by using the standard formula for the energy-momentum tensors in conformally related problems in combination with the appropriate coordinate transformation. The Rindler energy-momentum tensor is taken from Ref. , where the general case of the curvature coupling parameter is considered. The VEV of the energy-momentum tensor for a brane in dS spacetime consists of two parts given in Eq. (30). The first one corresponds to the purely dS contribution when the boundary is absent. It is determined by formula (31), where the second term on the right is due to the trace anomaly and is zero for odd spacetime dimensions. The second part in the vacuum energy-momentum tensor is due to the imposition of boundary conditions on the fluctuating quantum field. The corresponding components are related to the vacuum energy-momentum tensor in the Rindler spacetime by Eqs. (32)–(35) and the Rindler tensor in the region $`\xi >a`$ is given by formulae (15)–(17). The results for the region $`\xi <a`$ are obtained from these formulae by replacements $`I_\omega K_\omega `$, $`K_\omega I_\omega `$. Unlike to the purely dS part, the boundary induced part of the energy-momentum tensor is non-diagonal and depends on both dS static coordinates $`r`$ and $`\theta `$. At the dS horizon both parts in the vacuum energy-momentum tensor diverge, with the leading divergence $`(\alpha ^2r^2)^{(D+1)/2}`$, coming from the purely dS part. Another type of divergence arise on the brane, where the boundary induced part dominates. Near the points where the brane touches the horizon, the divergences are mixed and are stronger. Note that in this paper we have considered vacuum densities which are finite away from the brane and dS horizon. As it has been mentioned in Ref. , the same results will be obtained in the model where instead of externally imposed boundary condition the fluctuating field is coupled to a smooth background potential that implements the boundary condition in a certain limit.

## Acknowledgement

The work of AAS was supported in part by the Armenian Ministry of Education and Science (Grant No. 0887).


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# There is no mass squared term in neutrino electric charge

## Abstract

We claim that the neutrino mass squared term cannot appear in the expansion of the neutrino electric charge over the neutrino mass parameter at the one-loop level of the standard model supplied with $`\mathrm{SU}(2)`$-singlet right-handed neutrino.

Neutrino electromagnetic properties is an interesting and longstanding problem. The most important static electromagnetic characteristics of neutrino are the electric charge and magnetic moment. It is obvious that a massless particle can possess neither electric charge nor magnetic moment. However, in the case of non-zero mass, due to the radiative corrections the neutrino static electromagnetic moments can have non-vanishing values.

Recently the massive neutrino electric charge $`Q_\nu `$ was estimated in  as follows,

$$Q_\nu =\frac{3eG_Fm_\nu ^2}{4\pi ^2\sqrt{2}},e=|e|,$$
(1)
so it was supposed that the non-vanishing neutrino electric charge could be proportional to the neutrino mass squared.

In this short note we argue that the estimation for the neutrino electric charge, given by eq.(1), is not correct. This statement is based on our investigations  of the massive neutrino electromagnetic form factors. In particular, we calculated the one-loop contributions to the massive neutrino electric charge and magnetic moment within the context of the standard model supplied with $`\mathrm{SU}(2)`$-singlet right-handed neutrino in arbitrary $`R_\xi `$ gauge. It is important for the present discussion that our recent studies  enables us to consider the dependence of the neutrino charge on the mass of neutrino. The neutrino electric charge can be represented as a series-expansion over the neutrino mass parameter $`b=(m_\nu /M_W)^2`$,

$$Q_\nu (a,b,\alpha )=Q_0(a,\alpha )+bQ_1(a,\alpha )+𝒪(b^2),$$
(2)
where $`m_\nu `$, $`M_W`$, and $`m_e`$ are the neutrino, $`W`$ boson, and charged lepton masses, respectively, and $`\alpha `$ is the $`W`$ boson gauge parameter. In  it was shown by the direct calculations that the both functions in eq. (2), $`Q_0(a,\alpha )`$ and $`Q_1(a,\alpha )`$, vanish for arbitrary values of $`a`$ and $`\alpha `$. Thus, at the one-loop level there are no mass squared contributions to the neutrino electric charge for any gauge.

Moreover, we also shown in our paper  that for a particular choice of the gauge fixing parameter $`\alpha =1`$ (the ’t Hooft-Feynman gauge), the neutrino electric charge is exactly zero,

$$Q_\nu (a,b,\alpha =1)=0,$$
(3)
for any values of the mass parameters $`a`$ and $`b`$. It is obvious again that there is no room for the mass squared terms in the neutrino electric charge for arbitrary neutrino mass on the one-loop level.

In the paper  there is an attempt to establish the relation between the neutrino neutrality and masslessness on the basis of eq. (1) using the results of . Indeed, it was shown in  that the neutrino electric charge is vanishing. However, in the study of the neutrino electric charge in  it was assumed just in the beginning of the calculations that the mass of neutrino is zero. Thus, contrary to the last claim of , the present limits on the neutrino mass and possible neutrino non-zero electric charge does not provide any reason to introduce a new structure for electromagnetic gauge invariance .


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# Physical Processes in Star-Gas Systems

## 1 Introduction

This paper is a short progress report and outlook to show some examples, how physical and numerical modelling techniques of physical processes in star-gas systems are improved. The astrophysical aim is to understand nature and formation of objects, where time scales of the dynamics of the interstellar medium and dynamical processes in non-dissipative matter (stars or dark matter) are comparable. The range of objects interesting for us spans from dwarf galaxies to dense galactic nuclei. This paper is divided into two main sections, according to applications for dwarf galaxies and galactic nuclei. For each section a subset of authors is responsible as indicated.

## 2 A new chemo-dynamical code and application to dwarf galaxies

Authors: Berczik, Hensler, Theis, Spurzem

### 2.1 Introduction

We present a new 3D chemodynamical code, based on our and other previous models using smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH), including a two phase interstellar medium consisting of cool clouds and a hot intercloud medium as an additional feature. SPH has been invented as a consistent tool to model gasdynamical systems with gravity by using particles which are subject to non-gravitational forces (Lucy, 1977; Gingold & Monaghan, 1977; Monaghan, 1992) in addition to gravity, tailored to model in a statistically correct way e.g. pressure or radiation forces, viscous effect, heating and cooling. SPH calculations have been applied successfully to study the formation and evolution of galaxies. Its Lagrangian nature as well as its easy implementation together with standard $`N`$-body codes allows for a simultaneous description of complex systems consisting of dark matter, gas, and stars (Navarro & White, 1993; Mihos & Hernquist, 1996; Carraro et al., 1998; Thacker et al., 2000; Springel et al., 2001). The main features of this SPH variant are: single gas phase, star formation from SPH particles dependent on the mean mass density within each individual particle through their free-fall time, and stellar energy release and mass return to the same particle. This single-gas phase SPH treatment was successfully applied to the overall evolution of a Milky Way Galaxy model (Steinmetz & Navarro, 1999; Abadi et al., 2003; Berczik, 1999, 2000; Nakasato & Nomoto, 2003) in the sense that they could reproduce main structural and chemical signatures of the global galaxy and of the disk like e.g. its density profile and metallicity gradient (see also Nakasato, this volume).

In our (multi-phase gas) code we use a two component gas description of the ISM (Theis et al., 1992; Samland et al., 1997). The basic idea is to add a cold (102 \- 104 K) cloudy component to the smooth and hot gas (104 \- 107 K) described by SPH. The cold clumps are modeled as $`N`$-body particles with some “viscosity” (Theis & Hensler, 1993). This “viscosity” models the processes of the cloud-cloud collisions and also a drag force between clouds and hot gas component is implemented. The cloudy component interacts with the surrounding hot gas also via condensation and evaporation processes (Cowie et al., 1981; Köppen et al., 1998). See for a similar approach also Harfst, Theis, & Hensler (2003) and Harfst (this volume) and for another 3D chemodynamical model on galaxy formation which is not based on SPH, but on a mesh-based approach Samland & Gerhard (2003), Samland (this volume). Note also another recent multi-phase model by Semelin & Combes (2002), which globally resembles our approach, but in detail different approximations of physical processes are used. We would provide a more detailed comparisons of their and our models elsewhere (Berczik et al., 2004).

In the following list we summarize the ingredients of our present model:

* Hot Gas, treated by SPH, metallicity dependent cooling.
* Cloud System, sticky particles, using Larson’s $`M`$-$`R`$ relation.
* Evaporation of cloud material via thermal conduction in hot medium, condensation onto clouds via cooling of hot medium. Exchange of energy and momentum due to this between the components.
* Ram pressure momentum exchange between clouds moving with relative velocity to hot medium.
* Simple star formation prescription out of cold clouds (Schmidt’s law), with delay of star formation due to cloud’s collapse time to allow for self-regulation.
* Stellar particles each represent a single stellar population (SSP), metallicity dependent Padova stellar lifetimes used.
* Supernovae of type I and II, stellar winds and planetary nebulae feed mass and energy back into both the cloud system and the hot interstellar medium.

We use a 2nd order two step Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg predictor-corrector scheme, moving the particles according to the non-gravitational forces (SPH, interactions as listed above) and gravitational forces of all other particles. To calculate the self gravity we use the GRAPE5 computer system at the Astronomical Data Analysis Center of the National Astronomical Observatory, Japan. A more detailed description of the board and further links and publications about GRAPE can be found in
http://grape.astron.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/grape/

### 2.2 First Models of Dwarf Galaxies

We choose the dwarf galaxy as an interesting astrophysical object to apply our new code, because in this case even with a relatively “small” number of cold “clouds” ($``$ 104) we achieve the required physical resolution for a realistic description of individual molecular clouds ($``$ 105 M) as a separate “cold” particle. In the simulation we use Nhot = 104 SPH and Ncold = 104 “cold” particles. After 1 Gyr more then $`10^4`$ additional “stellar” particles are created.

We follow the evolution of an isolated star forming dwarf galaxy. The initial total gas content of our dwarf galaxy is $`210^9`$ M (80 % “cold” \+ 20 % “hot”) which is placed inside a fixed dark matter halo with parameters $`r_0=2`$ kpc and $`\rho _0=0.075`$ M/pc3 (Burkert, 1995).

With these parameters the dark matter mass inside the initial distribution of gas (20 kpc) is $`210^{10}`$ M. The initial temperatures for the cold gas were set to 103 K, for the hot gas to 105 K. For the initial gas distribution (“cold” and “hot”) we use a Plummer-Kuzmin disk with parameters $`a=0.1`$ kpc and $`b=2`$ kpc (Miyamoto & Nagai, 1975). The gas initially rotates in centrifugal equilibrium (in the total “dm” + “gas” gravitational field) around the z-axis.

Our model first exhibits a strong collapse initiated by cooling, cloud formation, and subsequently star formation sets in. In Fig. 1 the growth or loss rates of the different components are shown. The star formation rate (SFR) peaks to a value of 1 Myr-1 after 200 Myrs. Afterwards it drops down to 0.2 Myr-1 within several hundred Myrs. After 1 Gyr the stellar mass has already reached $`510^8`$ M.

The metal content of the diffuse gas and the clouds differs significantly over the whole integration time (see Fig. 2). Due to SNII and SNIa events the metallicity of the hot phase exceeds that of the clouds by almost one order of magnitude. The clouds mainly get their metals by condensation of the hot phase. This shows that the two phases of the interstellar medium exhibit dynamically and chemically a different behaviour and thus a correct physical treatment like ours is required for reliable modelling.

In Fig. 3 we present the evolution of the color indices in our model galaxy as an example what kind of data can be constructed for comparison with observational data. Our SSP model provides spectral information via six photometric channels from each star particle (representing its own SSP); the reader interested in more details about this or other features of our model is referred to (Berczik, 1999, 2000; Berczik et al., 2003, 2004).

## 3 Dense Star-Gas Systems in Galactic Nuclei

Authors: Amaro-Seoane, Freitag, Just, Spurzem

At the time of the first collapse and star formation epoch in galaxy formation large amounts of gas will reach the galactic centre (Eisenstein & Loeb, 1995; Zoltán & Loeb, 2001). They may create a huge outburst of star formation, and in part be responsible for the ultraluminous IR galaxies in the young universe. In addition to that, once stars have been formed, very large amounts of additional gas will be liberated by disruptive stellar collisions (Freitag & Benz, 2002). In some cases of massive galactic nuclei gas production rates as large as 50 M/yr have been observed in the numerical models. Present stellar dynamical models based on Monte Carlo or direct solutions of the Fokker-Planck equation do not include star-gas interactions. Thus they cannot follow the co-evolution of such a system, as is done in classical chemodynamical galaxy simulations. There is one exception, the so-called gaseous model of stellar dynamics (Louis & Spurzem, 1990; Langbein et al., 1990; Amaro-Seoane, Freitag, & Spurzem, 2004), which at least in principle could be coupled in an easy way to simulate joint gas and stellar dynamics. The reader interested in more detail and more references on the exotic star-gas interaction processes is referred to Langbein et al. (1990), where the terms are given in detail, and the history of previous literature on the subject is presented.

Recently it has been pointed out that the formation of clusters of intermediate mass black holes (Ebisuzaki et al., 2001) would be a possible way to create massive black holes in centres of star clusters or galaxies. This is nicely suggested also by new Chandra images of M82 by Fabbiano et al., see for a reference
http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/cycle1/0094true/
and recent stellar dynamical Monte Carlo models including stellar evolution and mergers have strengthened this idea (Rasio, Freitag & Gürkan, 2003; Gürkan, Freitag, & Rasio, 2003). In order to determine what initial and boundary conditions (e.g. from large scale galaxy formation) lead to the formation of supermassive black holes and what determines their further growth by star and gas accretion, and what will be the spectrophotometric appearance of such dense nuclei, we need to extend the classical chemodynamics into the regime of exotic processes in galactic nuclei. These are gas production by stellar collisions, star-gas drag under special conditions (covering very large ranges of Mach numbers), energy transport in the presence of energetic radiation which contributes to the hydrodynamic pressure significantly. The assumption of spherical symmetry on which the Monte Carlo and gas methods rely becomes highly questionable in the close vicinity of the black hole. One very recent remarkable attempt of Bromm & Loeb (2003) uses an SPH ansatz, but is not able to follow the multi-phase dynamics of the interstellar matter, as we can do with our CD-SPH model presented in the first section (see also S. Harfst, this volume, for a similar ansatz). One example of the new and complex phenomena is presented in Fig. 4, which shows the star-gas interaction. Fig. 4 shows a standard ram pressure force for a star moving supersonically in an ambient medium, as e.g. discussed in Bisnovatyi-Kogan & Syunyaev (1972), where the “drag” force is proportional to the square of velocity (Mach number) and linearly dependent on the geometrical stellar cross section (strictly, since the velocity dependence is quadratic, this is not a drag force, but it is often called so, therefore we put “drag” in quotation marks to remind the reader about this ambiguity). The standard “drag” force is compared with a non-standard one, which is valid also in the subsonic and transition regime (Ma $`1`$). The underlying formalism used is the analysis of fluctuations induced by a star moving through an ambient ISM and the feedback force they provide on the star’s motion. For small Mach numbers Ma$`>1`$ the resulting force is large and related to a kind of dynamical friction process, while for highly supersonic motion we reach the asymptotic limit of the standard formula. In the subsonic case the interaction force drops sharply, but still differs from the standard formula. The basic method of the analysis of such kind of dynamical “drag” between stars and the ISM is described in Just, Kegel, & Deiss (1986). The application to galactic nuclei will be presented in ongoing work (Just, 2004, in prep.). In galactic centres we expect that all ranges from subsonic to hypersonic (Mach numbers of a few thousand) will be realised.

## Acknowledgments

This work has been supported by Sonderforschungsbereich (SFB) 439 “Galaxies in the Young Universe at the Univ. of Heidelberg in sub-projects A5 (RS, AJ) and B5 (RS, PB). PB acknowledges kind hospitality at the Univ. of Kiel and to G. Hensler, Ch. Theis and collaborators, where part of this work has been performed. Numerical models have been computed with the GRAPE5 system at the Astronomical Data Analysis Center of the National Astronomical Observatory, Japan.


text:
# Acknowledgments

## Acknowledgments

A.C.T. acknowledges the financial support of XXIV ENFPC Organizing Comitee that allowed him to be part of the XXIV Brazilian National Meeting on Particles and Fields held in Caxambu MG, Brazil, September 30 – October 4, 2003. A.C.T. also acknowledges the kind hospitality of the Institut d’Estudis Espacials de Catalunya (IEEC/CSIC) and the Universitat de Barcelona, Departament d’Estructura i Constituents de la Matèria, where the present work began. The investigation of E.E. has been supported by DGI/SGPI (Spain), project BFM2000-0810, and by CIRIT (Generalitat de Catalunya), contract 1999SGR-00257.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Five different experiments have reported the observation of a narrow peak in the invariant mass spectra close to 1.54GeV/$`c^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}`$ with a width below 25MeV/$`c^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}`$. These peaks are considered as a signature of a five quark resonance, the so-called $`\theta ^+`$.

Three photo-production experiments  have observed the $`\theta ^+`$ decay to $`n`$K+ in three- or four- body final state. The neutron was reconstructed from the missing mass and energy.

The $`\theta ^+`$ decay to $`p`$K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ was observed in $`\nu _\mu ^{}(\overline{\nu }_\mu ^{})`$ collisions with nuclei . This analysis has combined data samples from different bubble chamber experiments with a large range of neutrino momenta.

Using a K+ beam, the same $`p`$K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ channel of the $`\theta ^+`$ decay was observed by the DIANA collaboration . The Monte Carlo simulation for this experiment is rather simple for the following reason: first - the beam momentum spectrum is explicitly shown in the publication, second - all particles in the final state ($`p`$ and K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$$``$$`\pi ^+`$$`\pi ^{}`$) were reconstructed and identified.

The result of the simulation for the DIANA experiment are presented in the section below. One section further the result of the experiment “independent” simulation shows the possible source of the narrow peak in the invariant mass spectrum.

## 2 Monte Carlo simulation.

The experimental momentum spectrum of the incident beam particle K+ (Fig. 1) is shown for two cases: the momentum spectrum for all events with the identified K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ (top) , and for events where both the K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ and the proton were identified  (bottom). The momentum spectra look very different, both in momentum range and in shape. For the events with $`p`$K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ in the final state the momentum profile has an asymmetric “bell”-like shape with the average momentum close to 470MeV/c.

The K+momentum spectrum was simulated according to the experimental distribution shown in Fig. 1b. The momenta of the outgoing particles are generated uniformly in the available Lorentz-invariant phase space. Two processes are simulated :

* three body final state - a nucleus play a role of the recoil particle:
K+Xe $``$$`p`$K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$Xe’
* two body final state - a charge-exchange reaction on the neutron of the Xe nucleus:
K+$`n`$ $``$$`p`$K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$
The momentum is shared by two particles only.

The $`p`$K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ invariant mass spectrum for three body final state simulation is shown in Fig. 2b . The comparison with the experimental distribution (“red” histogram) shows a reasonable agreement in positions, widths and shapes of both spectra.

The invariant mass spectrum for the two body final state $`p`$K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ is shown in Fig. 2c. In contrast to the three body final state $`p`$K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$Xe’ the mass distribution resembles narrow peak with a sharp maximum at 1.55GeV/$`c^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}`$.

The simple MC test with the K+ momentum spectrum of the gaussian shape (the mean at 450MeV/c and the width 15MeV/c) shows that the narrow momentum range of the incident K+ beam is the reason why the narrow peak is seen in the mass spectrum in case of two body final state (Fig. 3c). The shift of the K+ momentum distribution by 20MeV/c gives the proportional shift by 10MeV/$`c^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}`$ in the mass peak position (Fig. 3d) and puts the maximum at 1.54GeV/$`c^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}`$.

The simulation of the $`p`$K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ kinematic disagree with the observed invariant mass spectrum only in one point - peaks are shifted by 10-15MeV/c. This shift may come from the fact that in the MC the binding energy of the nucleus was not included in the simulation. There is an explicit indication in reference  that the K+ beam momentum was shifted by $`\pm 15`$MeV/c in different data sample, but there is no indication about the corresponding statistics, accumulated with a particular beam momenta. As result, the MC events were not weighted and that may also cause some kind of shift in the peak position. The difference in the width is not too important -the MC shows that with statistic of about 30 event, the narrow peak may be observed even if the original distribution is wide (Fig. 4). The narrow two-bin peak distribution, when at least 50% of entries belongs to two bins only, was observed in 2% cases - a non-negligible number.

## 3 The kinematic “reflection” at 1.54GeV/$`c^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}`$.

Since the mass region around 1.54GeV/$`c^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}`$has so much importance in the narrow peak search, another source of trouble must be pointed out.

In a data sample of $`V^0`$ candidates ($`V^0`$ is used as a generic name for K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ or $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$) the narrow peak in the mass spectrum may be created in the following way.

A $`V^0`$ decays in two particles of opposite charge. Since the type of the particle is not known in the experiment the different mass hypothesis have to be assigned to each track to explore all combinations. With pion and proton/anti-proton masses assigned to corresponding tracks, each $`V^0`$ may represent K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ or $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$.

The most convenient way to present the kinematic of the $`V^0`$ decays is an Armentero-Podolansky plot , shown in Fig. 5 , where the three ellipses correspond to K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$$``$$`\pi ^+`$$`\pi ^{}`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$$``$$`p`$ $`\pi ^{}`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$$``$$`\overline{p}`$$`\pi ^+`$decays. The ellipses have two overlap regions where this $`V^0`$ species are kinematically indistinguishable. Therefore, without an explicit cut on the corresponding mass hypothesis, there is always a cross contamination. For example K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ may be not a “true” K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ but a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ or $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ in these narrow kinematic regions.

In second step the $`V^0`$ is then combined with the same physical track which was already used to for the $`V^0`$ itself. Two class of combination may be defined:

* True K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ and the $`\pi ^+`$ of the K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ but considered as a proton (class 1).
* True $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ but considered as a K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ and a positive track of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ which is a true proton (class 2).

Figures 6 and 7 show the invariant mass distributions for the two classes of combinations defined above.

The standard cut used in all experimental analysis is a cut on the invariant mass of the $`\pi ^+`$$`\pi ^{}`$ combination around K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ mass ($`|m_{K_S^0}\pm m_{\pi ^+\pi ^{}}|<3\sigma `$). The usual mass resolution for two track combinations is limited to $`\sigma `$=2-4MeV/c. For class 1 this cut does not change the invariant mass distribution (true K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$), but for class 2 this cut removes combinations with small masses and retains combinations around 1.54GeV/$`c^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}`$(Fig. 8). Fig. 9 shows the combined (class 1 and class 2) mass spectrum.

It is hardly believable that a straight forward double track counting may happen in a real analysis. At least for DIANA this possibility is excluded by the nature of the experiment - in the bubble chamber all tracks are visible. The problem might be important for the electronic experiment if the cut on $`V^0`$ masses is not tight enough, thus the K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$ \- $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ cross contamination is not removed completely, and the pool of reconstructed tracks is not free from “clones” or “ghosts” - de-facto the same track reconstructed twice due to , for example, some noise in the tracking detectors. The kinematic of such “clones” is very close to each other thus simulating the situation discussed above, naturally with a slight variation in the mass position and the width of the peak.

## 4 Conclusion.

The result of the simple MC shows that the invariant mass spectrum of the $`p`$K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$combinations has a narrow structure close to 1.54GeV/$`c^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}`$ due to the narrow momentum range of the beam. If this is true, then further data analysis using the full moment range of the beam (see Fig. 1a) will cause the broadening of the observed peak and yield the answer about its nature.

The artificial peaks in the invariant mass spectra due to kinematic reasons are well known. The only surprise is that such an artifact precisely coincides with the value of 1.54GeV/$`c^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}`$.

The recent publication  shows that the $`nK^+`$ channel is not free from the kinematic reflections.

Finally the question about the pentaquark signature will be found in a very classical way - increasing the statistic involved in the analysis and hopefully in a different experimental conditions.

## Acknowledgments

The author acknowledge very useful discussions with J.Blouw, K.T.Knöpfle, M.Schmelling and B.Schwingenheuer.