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# References

1. The Michelson-Morley experiment  is generally believed to represent the proof that the Earth’s absolute motion cannot be detected in a laboratory experiment. However, the fringe shifts observed in the original experiment (and in the subsequent one of Morley and Miller ) although smaller than the expected magnitude corresponding to the orbital motion of the Earth, were not negligibly small. While this had already been pointed out by Hicks , Miller’s refined analysis of the half-period, second-harmonic effect observed in the experimental fringe shifts showed that they were consistent with an effective, observable velocity lying in the range 7-10 km/s (see Fig.4 of Ref.). For instance, the Michelson-Morley experiment gave a value $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}8.8`$ km/s for the noon observations and a value $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}8.0`$ km/s for the evening observations.

The aim of this paper is twofold. On one hand, for the convenience of the reader, we shall explicitly illustrate some steps that are not immediately evident in the Michelson-Morley original paper and re-calculate the values of $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ for their experiment.

On the other hand, by using Lorentz transformations, the small observed velocity will be shown to correspond to a real Earth’s velocity, in the plane of the interferometer, $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}200`$ km/s. This value, which is remarkably consistent with 1932 Miller’s cosmic solution , suggests that the fringe shifts are determined by the typical velocity of the solar system within our galaxy (and not, for instance, by its velocity $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}336`$ km/s with respect to the centroid of the Local Group). In this sense, this paper provides a consistent and self-contained treatment of the Michelson-Morley type of experiments.

2. We have analyzed the original data obtained by Michelson and Morley in each of the six different sessions of their experiment. No form of inter-session averaging has been performed. As discovered by Miller, in fact, inter-session averaging of the raw data may produce misleading results. For instance, in the Morley-Miller data , the morning and evening observations each were indicating an effective velocity of about 7.5 km/s (see Fig.11 of Ref.). This indication was completely lost with the wrong averaging procedure adopted in Ref.. The same point of view has been advocated by Munera in his recent re-analysis of the classical experiments .

To obtain the fringe shifts of each session we have followed the well defined procedure adopted in the classical experiments as described in Miller’s paper . Namely, starting from the seventeen entries, say $`E(i)`$, reported in the Michelson-Morley Table , one first has to correct for the difference $`E(1)E(17)`$ between the first entry and the seventeenth entry obtained after a complete rotation of the apparatus. In this way, assuming the linearity of the correction effect, one adds 15/16 of the correction to the 16th entry, 14/16 to the 15th entry and so on, thus obtaining a set of 16 corrected entries

$$E_{\mathrm{corr}}(i)=\frac{i1}{16}(E(1)E(17))+E(i)$$
(1)
Finally, the fringe shift is defined from the differences between each of the corrected entries $`E_{\mathrm{corr}}(i)`$ and their average value $`E_{\mathrm{corr}}`$ as

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda (i)=E_{\mathrm{corr}}(i)E_{\mathrm{corr}}$$
(2)
We have fitted the amplitude $`\overline{A}_2`$ of the second-harmonic component in a Fourier expansion ($`\theta =\frac{i1}{16}2\pi `$)

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda (\theta )}{\lambda }=\underset{n}{}\overline{A}_n\mathrm{cos}(n\theta +\varphi _n)$$
(3)
Following Miller’s indications, we have included terms up to $`n=5`$, although the results for $`\overline{A}_2`$ are practically unchanged if one excludes from the fit the terms with $`n=4`$ and $`n=5`$. Our values of $`\overline{A}_2`$ for each session are reported in Table 1.

The Fourier analysis allows to determine the azimuth of the ether-drift effect, from the phase $`\varphi _2`$ of the second-harmonic component, and an observable velocity from the value of its amplitude. To this end, we have used the basic relation of the experiment

$$2\overline{A}_2=\frac{2D}{\lambda }\frac{v_{\mathrm{obs}}^2}{c^2}$$
(4)
where $`D`$ is the length of each arm of the interferometer.

Notice that, as emphasized by Shankland et al. (see page 178 of Ref.), it is the quantity $`2\overline{A}_2`$, and not $`\overline{A}_2`$ itself, that should be compared with the maximal displacement obtained for rotations of the apparatus through $`90^o`$ in its optical plane (see also Eqs.(23) and (24) below). Notice also that the quantity $`2\overline{A}_2`$ is denoted by $`d`$ in Miller’s paper (see page 227 of Ref.).

Therefore, for the Michelson-Morley apparatus where $`\frac{D}{\lambda }210^7`$ , it becomes convenient to normalize the experimental values of $`\overline{A}_2`$ to the classical prediction for an Earth’s velocity of 30 km/s

$$\frac{2D}{\lambda }\frac{(30\mathrm{k}\mathrm{m}/\mathrm{s})^2}{c^2}0.4$$
(5)
and we obtain

$$v_{\mathrm{obs}}30\sqrt{\frac{\overline{A}_2}{0.2}}\mathrm{km}/\mathrm{s}$$
(6)
Now, by inspection of Table 1, we find that the average value of $`\overline{A}_2`$ from the noon sessions, $`\overline{A}_2=0.017\pm 0.003`$, indicates a velocity $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}=8.7\pm 0.8`$ km/s and the average value from the evening sessions, $`\overline{A}_2=0.014\pm 0.003`$, indicates a velocity $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}=8.0\pm 0.8`$ km/s. Since the two determinations are well consistent with each other, we conclude that the Michelson-Morley experiment provides an observable velocity

$$v_{\mathrm{obs}}=8.4\pm 0.5\mathrm{km}/\mathrm{s}$$
(7)
This is also in agreement with the results obtained by Miller himself at Mt. Wilson. Differently from the original Michelson-Morley experiment Miller’s data were taken over the entire day and in four epochs of the year. However, after the critical re-analysis of Shankland et al. , it turns out that the average daily determinations of $`\overline{A}_2`$ for the four epochs are statistically consistent (see page 170 of Ref.). In this case, if one takes the average of the four daily determinations, $`\overline{A}_2=0.044\pm 0.005`$, one obtains a value which is just $`1/13`$ of the classical expectation for an Earth’s velocity of 30 km/s (see page 170 of Ref.) and an effective $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ which is exactly the same as in Eq.(7).

The problem with Miller’s analysis was to reconcile such low observable values of the Earth’s velocity with those obtained from the daily variations of the magnitude and azimuth of the ether-drift effect with the sidereal time. In this way, in fact, on the base of the theory exposed by Nassau and Morse , one can determine the apex of the motion of the solar system. By requiring consistency among the four different determinations obtained in the four epochs of the year (see Fig.23 of Ref.), Miller could restrict kinematically the cosmic Earth’s velocity in the range 200-215 km/s (see page 233 of Ref.) with the conclusion that ”…a velocity $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}208\mathrm{km}/\mathrm{s}`$ for the cosmic component, gives the closest grouping of the four independently determined locations of the cosmic apex”.

At the same time, due to the particular magnitude and direction of the cosmic component, Miller’s predictions for its projection in the plane of the interferometer had very similar values (see Table V of Ref.), say

$$v_{\mathrm{earth}}203\pm 8\mathrm{km}/\mathrm{s}$$
(8)
Therefore, after Miller’s observations, the situation with the ether-drift experiments could be summarized as follows (see page 236 of Ref.). On one hand, ”the observed displacement of the interference fringes, for some unexplained reason, corresponds to only a fraction of the velocity of the Earth in space”. On the other hand, the theoretical solution of the Earth’s cosmic motion involves only the relative values of the ether-drift effect and ”..does not require a knowledge of the cause of the reduction in the apparent velocity nor of the amount of this reduction”. A check of this is that, after plugging the final parameters of the cosmic component in the Nassau-Morse expressions, ”..the calculated curves fit the observations remarkably well, considering the nature of the experiment” (see Figs. 26 and 27 of Ref.).

In spite of this beautiful agreement, the unexplained large discrepancy between the typical values of $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}`$, as given in Eq.(7), and the typical calculated values of $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}`$, as given in Eq.(8), has been representing a very serious objection to the consistency of Miller’s analysis.

It has been recently pointed out, however, by Cahill and Kitto  that an effective reduction of the Earth’s velocity from values $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}=𝒪(10^2)`$ km/s down to values $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}=𝒪(1)`$ km/s can be understood by taking into account the effects of the Lorentz contraction and of the refractive index $`𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}`$ of the dielectric medium used in the interferometer.

In this way, the observations become consistent  with values of the Earth’s velocity that are comparable to $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}365`$ km/s as extracted by fitting the COBE data for the cosmic background radiation . The point is that the fringe shifts are proportional to $`\frac{v_{\mathrm{earth}}^2}{c^2}(1\frac{1}{𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}^2})`$ rather than to $`\frac{v_{\mathrm{earth}}^2}{c^2}`$ itself. For the air, where $`𝒩_{\mathrm{air}}1.00029`$, assuming a value $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}365`$ km/s, one would expect fringe shifts governed by an effective velocity $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}8.8`$ km/s consistently with our value Eq.(7).

This would also explain why the experiments of Illingworth  (performed in an apparatus filled with helium where $`𝒩_{\mathrm{helium}}1.000036`$) and Joos  (performed in the vacuum where $`𝒩_{\mathrm{vacuum}}1.00000..`$) were showing smaller fringe shifts and, therefore, lower effective velocities.

In Ref. the argument has been completely reformulated by using Lorentz transformations (see also Ref.). As a matter of fact, in this case there is a non-trivial difference of a factor $`\sqrt{3}`$. When properly taken into account, the Earth’s velocity extracted from the absolute magnitude of the fringe shifts is not $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}365`$ km/s but $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}201`$ km/s thus making Miller’s prediction Eq.(8) completely consistent with Eq.(7). For the convenience of the reader, we shall report in the following the essential steps.

3. We shall start from the idea that light propagates in a medium with refractive index $`𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}>1`$ and small Fresnel’s drag coefficient

$$k_{\mathrm{medium}}=1\frac{1}{𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}^2}1$$
(9)
Let us also introduce an isotropical speed of light ($`c=\mathrm{2.9979..10}^{10}`$ cm/s)

$$u\frac{c}{𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}}$$
(10)
The basic question is to determine experimentally, and to a high degree of accuracy, whether light propagates isotropically with velocity Eq.(10) for an observer $`S^{}`$ placed on the Earth. For instance for the air, where the relevant value is $`𝒩_{\mathrm{air}}=1.00029..`$, the isotropical value $`\frac{c}{𝒩_{\mathrm{air}}}`$ is usually determined directly by measuring the two-way speed of light along various directions. In this way, isotropy can be established at the level $`10^7`$. If we require, however, a higher level of accuracy, say $`10^9`$, the only way to test isotropy is to perform a Michelson-Morley type of experiment and look for fringe shifts upon rotation of the interferometer.

Now, if one finds experimentally fringe shifts (and thus some non-zero anisotropy), one can explore the possibility that this effect is due to the Earth’s motion with respect to a preferred frame $`\mathrm{\Sigma }S^{}`$. In this perspective, light would propagate isotropically with velocity as in Eq.(10) for $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ but not for $`S^{}`$.

Assuming this scenario, the degree of anisotropy for $`S^{}`$ can easily be determined by using Lorentz transformations. By defining $`𝐯`$ the velocity of $`S^{}`$ with respect to $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ one finds ($`\gamma =1/\sqrt{1\frac{𝐯^2}{c^2}}`$)

$$𝐮^{}=\frac{𝐮\gamma 𝐯+𝐯(\gamma 1)\frac{𝐯𝐮}{v^2}}{\gamma (1\frac{𝐯𝐮}{c^2})}$$
(11)
where $`v=|𝐯|`$. By keeping terms up to second order in $`v/u`$, one obtains

$$\frac{|𝐮^{}|}{u}=1\alpha \frac{v}{u}\beta \frac{v^2}{u^2}$$
(12)
where ($`\theta `$ denotes the angle between $`𝐯`$ and $`𝐮`$)

$$\alpha =(1\frac{1}{𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}^2})\mathrm{cos}\theta +𝒪((𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}^21)^2)$$
(13)
$$\beta =(1\frac{1}{𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}^2})P_2(\mathrm{cos}\theta )+𝒪((𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}^21)^2)$$
(14)
with $`P_2(\mathrm{cos}\theta )=\frac{1}{2}(3\mathrm{cos}^2\theta 1)`$.

Finally defining $`u^{}(\theta )=|𝐮^{}|`$, the two-way speed of light is

$$\frac{\overline{u}^{}(\theta )}{u}=\frac{1}{u}\frac{2u^{}(\theta )u^{}(\pi +\theta )}{u^{}(\theta )+u^{}(\pi +\theta )}=1\frac{v^2}{c^2}(A+B\mathrm{sin}^2\theta )$$
(15)
where

$$A=𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}^21+𝒪((𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}^21)^2)$$
(16)
and

$$B=\frac{3}{2}(𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}^21)+𝒪((𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}^21)^2)$$
(17)
To address the theory of the Michelson-Morley interferometer we shall consider two light beams, say 1 and 2, that for simplicity are chosen perpendicular in $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ where they propagate along the $`x`$ and $`y`$ axis with velocities $`u_x(1)=u_y(2)=u=\frac{c}{𝒩_{\mathrm{medium}}}`$. Let us also assume that the velocity $`v`$ of $`S^{}`$ is along the $`x`$ axis.

Let us now define $`L_P^{}`$ and $`L_Q^{}`$ to be the lengths of two optical paths, say P and Q, as measured in the $`S^{}`$ frame. For instance, they can represent the lengths of the arms of an interferometer which is at rest in the $`S^{}`$ frame. In the first experimental set-up, the arm of length $`L_P^{}`$ is taken along the direction of motion associated with the beam 1 while the arm of length $`L_Q^{}`$ lies along the direction of the beam 2.

In this way, the interference pattern, between the light beam coming out of the optical path P and that coming out of the optical path Q, can easily be obtained from the relevant delay time. By using the equivalent form of the Robertson-Mansouri-Sexl parametrization  for the two-way speed of light defined above in Eq.(15), this is given by

$$\mathrm{\Delta }T^{}(0)=\frac{2L_P^{}}{\overline{u^{}}(0)}\frac{2L_Q^{}}{\overline{u^{}}(\pi /2)}$$
(18)
On the other hand, if the beam 2 were to propagate along the optical path P and the beam 1 along Q, one would obtain a different delay time, namely

$$(\mathrm{\Delta }T^{})_{\mathrm{rot}}=\frac{2L_P^{}}{\overline{u^{}}(\pi /2)}\frac{2L_Q^{}}{\overline{u^{}}(0)}$$
(19)
Therefore, by rotating the apparatus and using Eqs.(16) and (17), one obtains fringe shifts proportional to

$$\mathrm{\Delta }T^{}(0)(\mathrm{\Delta }T^{})_{\mathrm{rot}}(2B)\frac{(L_P^{}+L_Q^{})}{u}\frac{v^2}{u^2}$$
(20)
or

$$\mathrm{\Delta }T^{}(0)(\mathrm{\Delta }T^{})_{\mathrm{rot}}\frac{3(L_P^{}+L_Q^{})}{u}k_{\mathrm{medium}}\frac{v^2}{u^2}$$
(21)
(neglecting $`𝒪(\kappa _{\mathrm{medium}}^2)`$ terms). This coincides with the pre-relativistic expression provided one replaces $`v`$ with an effective observable velocity

$$v_{\mathrm{obs}}=v\sqrt{k_{\mathrm{medium}}}\sqrt{3}$$
(22)
Finally, for the Michelson-Morley experiment, where $`L_P^{}=L_Q^{}=D`$, and for an ether wind along the $`x`$ axis, the prediction for the fringe shifts at a given angle $`\theta `$ has the particularly simple form

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda (\theta )}{\lambda }=\frac{u\mathrm{\Delta }T^{}(\theta )}{\lambda }=\frac{u}{\lambda }(\frac{2D}{\overline{u^{}}(\theta )}\frac{2D}{\overline{u^{}}(\pi /2+\theta )})=\frac{2D}{\lambda }\frac{v^2}{c^2}(B)\mathrm{cos}(2\theta )$$
(23)
that corresponds to a pure second-harmonic effect. At the same time, it becomes clear the remark by Shankland et al. (see page 178 of Ref.) that its amplitude

$$\overline{A}_2\frac{2D}{\lambda }\frac{v^2}{c^2}(B)=\frac{D}{\lambda }\frac{v_{\mathrm{obs}}^2}{c^2}$$
(24)
is just one-half of the corresponding quantity entering Eq.(20).

4. Now, if upon operation of the interferometer there are fringe shifts and if their magnitude, observed with different dielectric media and within the experimental errors, points consistently to a unique value of the Earth’s velocity, there is experimental evidence for the existence of a preferred frame $`\mathrm{\Sigma }S^{}`$. In practice, to $`𝒪(\frac{v_{\mathrm{earth}}^2}{c^2})`$, this can be decided by re-analyzing  the experiments in terms of the effective parameter $`ϵ=\frac{v_{\mathrm{earth}}^2}{u^2}k_{\mathrm{medium}}`$. The conclusion of Cahill and Kitto  is that the classical experiments are consistent with the value $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}365`$ km/s obtained from the COBE data.

However, in our expression Eq.(22) determining the fringe shifts there is a difference of a factor $`\sqrt{3}`$ with respect to their result $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}=v\sqrt{k_{\mathrm{medium}}}`$. Therefore, using Eqs.(22) and (7), for $`𝒩_{\mathrm{air}}1.00029`$, the relevant Earth’s velocity (in the plane of the interferometer) is not $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}365`$ km/s but rather

$$v_{\mathrm{earth}}201\pm 12\mathrm{km}/\mathrm{s}$$
(25)
in excellent agreement with the value Eq.(8) calculated by Miller.

Therefore, from this excellent agreement, we deduce that the magnitude of the fringe shifts is determined by the typical velocity of the solar system within our galaxy and not, for instance, by its velocity relatively to the centroid of the Local Group. In the latter case, one would get higher values such as $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}336`$ km/sec, see Ref..

Notice that such ambiguity, say $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}200,300,365,\mathrm{}`$ km/s, on the actual value of the Earth’s velocity determining the fringe shifts, can only be resolved experimentally in view of the many theoretical uncertainties in the operative definition of the preferred frame where light propagates isotropically. At this stage, we believe, one should just concentrate on the internal consistency of the various frameworks. In this sense, the analysis presented in this paper shows that internal consistency is extremely high in Miller’s 1932 solution.

We are aware that our conclusion goes against the widely spread belief that Miller’s results were only due to statistical fluctuation and/or local temperature conditions (see the Abstract of Ref.). However, within the paper the same authors of Ref. say that ”…there can be little doubt that statistical fluctuations alone cannot account for the periodic fringe shifts observed by Miller” (see page 171 of Ref.). In fact, although ”…there is obviously considerable scatter in the data at each azimuth position,…the average values…show a marked second harmonic effect” (see page 171 of Ref.). In any case, interpreting the observed effects on the base of the local temperature conditions cannot be the whole story since ”…we must admit that a direct and general quantitative correlation between amplitude and phase of the observed second harmonic on the one hand and the thermal conditions in the observation hut on the other hand could not be established” (see page 175 of Ref.). This rather unsatisfactory explanation of the observed effects should be compared with the previously mentioned excellent agreement that was instead obtained by Miller once the final parameters for the Earth’s velocity were plugged in the theoretical predictions (see Figs.26 and 27 of Ref.).

This does not exclude the presence of some systematic effect in the Miller’s data. In fact, as mentioned above, Miller’s value $`\overline{A}_2=0.044\pm 0.005`$, that perfectly agrees with Eq.(7), was only obtained after the critical re-analysis of Shankland et al. (see page 170 of Ref.).

On the other hand, additional information on the validity of the Miller’s results can also be obtained by other means, for instance comparing with the experiment performed by Michelson, Pease and Pearson . These other authors in 1929, using their own interferometer, again at Mt. Wilson, declared that their ”precautions taken to eliminate effects of temperature and flexure disturbances were effective”. Therefore, their statement that the fringe shift, as derived from ”..the displacements observed at maximum and minimum at sidereal times..”, was definitely smaller than ”…one-fifteenth of that expected on the supposition of an effect due to a motion of the solar system of three hundred kilometres per second”, can be taken as an indirect confirmation of Miller’s results. Indeed, although the ”one-fifteenth” was actually a ”one-fiftieth” (see pag.240 of Ref.), their fringe shifts were certainly non negligible. This is easily understood since, for an in-air-operating interferometer, the fringe shift $`(\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda )_{\mathrm{class}}(300)`$, expected on the base of classical physics for an Earth’s velocity of 300 km/s, is about 500 times bigger than the corresponding relativistic one

$$(\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda )_{\mathrm{rel}}(300)3k_{\mathrm{air}}(\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda )_{\mathrm{class}}(300)$$
(26)
computed using Lorentz transformations (compare with Eqs.(21) and (22) for $`k_{\mathrm{air}}𝒩_{\mathrm{air}}^210.00058`$). Therefore, the Michelson-Pease-Pearson upper bound

$$(\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda )_{\mathrm{obs}}<0.02(\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda )_{\mathrm{class}}(300)$$
(27)
is actually equivalent to

$$(\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda )_{\mathrm{obs}}<24(\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda )_{\mathrm{rel}}(208)$$
(28)
As such, it poses no strong restrictions and is entirely consistent with those typical low effective velocities detected by Miller in his observations of 1925-1926.

A similar agreement is obtained when comparing with the Illingworth’s data  as recently re-analyzed by Munera . In this case, using Eq.(22), from the observable velocity $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}=3.13\pm 1.04`$ km/s  and the value $`N_{\mathrm{helium}}1.000036`$, one deduces $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}=213\pm 71`$ km/s, in very good agreement with Eq.(8).

The same conclusion applies to the Joos experiment . His interferometer was placed in an evacuated housing and he declared that the velocity of any ether wind had to be smaller than 1.5 km/s. Although we don’t know the exact value of $`N_{\mathrm{vacuum}}`$ for the Joos experiment, it is clear that this is the type of upper bound expected in this case. As an example, for $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}208`$ km/s, one obtains $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}1.5`$ km/s for $`N_{\mathrm{vacuum}}1.000009`$ and $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}0.5`$ km/s for $`N_{\mathrm{vacuum}}1.000001`$. In this sense, the effect of using Lorentz transformations is most dramatic for the Joos experiment when comparing with the classical expectation for an Earth’s velocity of 30 km/s. Although the relevant Earth’s velocity is $`208`$ km/s, the fringe shifts, rather than being $`50`$ times bigger than the classical prediction, are $`1000`$ times smaller.

5. We shall conclude with a brief comparison with present-day, ‘vacuum’ Michelson-Morley experiments of the type first performed by Brillet and Hall  and more recently by Müller et al. . In a perfect vacuum, by definition $`𝒩_{\mathrm{vacuum}}=1`$ so that $`v_{\mathrm{obs}}=0`$ and no anisotropy can be detected. However, one can explore  the possibility that, even in this case, a very small anisotropy might be due to a refractive index $`𝒩_{\mathrm{vacuum}}`$ that differs from unity by an infinitesimal amount. In this case, the natural candidate to explain a value $`𝒩_{\mathrm{vacuum}}1`$ is gravity. In fact, by using the Equivalence Principle, any freely falling frame $`S^{}`$ will locally measure the same speed of light as in an inertial frame in the absence of any gravitational effects. However, if $`S^{}`$ carries on board an heavy object this is no longer true. For an observer placed on the Earth, this amounts to insert the Earth’s gravitational potential in the weak-field isotropic approximation to the line element of General Relativity

$$ds^2=(1+2\phi )dt^2(12\phi )(dx^2+dy^2+dz^2)$$
(29)
so that one obtains a refractive index for light propagation

$$𝒩_{\mathrm{vacuum}}12\phi $$
(30)
This represents the ‘vacuum’ analogue of $`𝒩_{\mathrm{air}}`$, $`𝒩_{\mathrm{helium}}`$,…so that from

$$\phi =\frac{G_NM_{\mathrm{earth}}}{c^2R_{\mathrm{earth}}}0.710^9$$
(31)
and using Eq.(17) one predicts

$$B_{\mathrm{vacuum}}4.210^9$$
(32)
For $`v_{\mathrm{earth}}208`$ km/s, this implies an observable anisotropy of the two-way speed of light in the vacuum Eq.(15)

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\overline{c}_\theta }{c}|B_{\mathrm{vacuum}}|\frac{v_{\mathrm{earth}}^2}{c^2}210^{15}$$
(33)
in good agreement with the experimental value $`\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\overline{c}_\theta }{c}=(2.6\pm 1.7)10^{15}`$ determined by Müeller et al..


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# Hot Dust in Radio-Loud Active Galactic Nuclei

## 1 Introduction

The widely accepted paradigm for the power source of AGNs is a massive black hole. In this picture, accretion of dust and gas powers the AGN. Beamed radiation escapes from the central engine and affects the surrounding gas and dust. The effect on gas can directly be observed in close-by AGNs through the spatial separation of ionized and neutral gas (e.g. Tadhunter and Tsvetanov 1989, Prieto and Freudling 1993). The impact of this radiation on dust, if present, is expected to be similarly dramatic. The intense radiation field in the immediate vicinity of the central engine prevents dust from forming and evaporates any dust approaching that region. In this region, PAHs cannot exist. At somewhat larger distances from the nucleus, the radiation field heats the dust to just below its evaporation temperature. Dust at such distances will have temperatures of about 1500K. Cold dust ($`T50K`$) should exist only at distances greater than several hundred pc to a few kpc. At intermediate distances, a region should exist were large quantities of dust are significantly heated by the AGN to temperatures of a few hundred Kelvin and should therefore be detectable at MIR wavelengths.

Unfortunately, detailed mapping of dust temperatures in AGN host galaxies is not feasible at present. Our knowledge of dust in 3C sources is therefore based on low spatial resolution photometry. Observations with the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) showed that 3C sources which are bright at $`\lambda =60\mu `$m are typically much fainter or not detectable at $`\lambda =12\mu `$m (Heckman et al., 1994, and references therein). This signature of cold dust is also seen in the more recent data presented by Meisenheimer et al. (2001). Heckman et al. (1994) find that the NLRGs are about a factor of 4 to 5 fainter in the MIR than BLRGs, but are similar to BLRGs at $`\lambda =60\mu `$m. These differences are qualitatively consistent with unification schemes since hotter dust is visible in BLRGs due to their viewing angle.

ISOCAM was more than an order of magnitude more sensitive than IRAS at MIR wavelengths. It was able to detect the hot dust component in 3C sources at much higher redshifts and therefore expand comparison of type 1 and 2 AGNs to a much wider range of luminosities. In this letter, we report first results from a program to investigate the hot dust component in 3C sources based on ISOCAM observations. A detailed discussion of our data reduction and modelling procedures as well as a full presentation of our data are deferred to a later paper (Siebenmorgen et al., 2003a, hereafter SFKH).

## 2 Observations and Data Reduction

### 2.1 The Sample

The goal of our program is to investigate dust emission in AGNs, and in particular to search for differences related to the orientation of the central engine. Constraining the SED emission of both hot and cold dust requires infrared photometry covering the full wavelength range from $`\mu `$m to mm wavelengths. We used the 3CR catalogue as our parent catalogue because its 178 MHz selection should be essentially unbiased in its inclusion of AGNs at different viewing angles. In addition, photometric measurements at far infrared (FIR) and mm wavelengths are available for large subsamples of the catalogue (e.g. Meisenheimer et al., 2001; Haas et al., 2003b). By complementing these available data with our new MIR measurements, we were able to construct SEDs from optical to mm wavelengths.

We have compiled our sample by cross-correlating the position of 3C sources with the list of ISOCAM observations available from the ISO post mission archive. We then extracted all ISOCAM images which potentially include 3C sources. Each reduced image was visually inspected and the pointing of the spacecraft was verified using stellar and other sources contained in the images. We report here on that subsample of our data for which the combined ISOCAM photometry, data from the literature and ISOPHOT photometry by Haas et al. (2003b) suffice to constrain the full infrared SED of our sources.

### 2.2 Data Reduction

ISOCAM images in the ISO archive have been obtained for a variety of programs and purposes and therefore vary in depth, resolution, used wavelength band and dither strategy. We re-processed the raw data using a common set of procedures aimed at obtaining the best possible calibration and homogeneity of our photometric measurements. We followed the ISOCAM handbook (Blommaert et al., 2001) and used the CIA software (Ott et al., 2000) to subtract darks, remove cosmic rays hits, remove the effect of flux transients, and finally flatfield, re-sample and co-add the individual exposures. The typical useful field of view of the images is about $`(1.5\mathrm{arcmin})^2`$ sampled with $`(3\mathrm{a}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{c})^2`$ pixels. Most of the detected 3C sources were not or only barely spatially resolved by ISOCAM. In those cases, apertures with a radius of 10 arcsec were used, and aperture losses were modelled using synthetic point spread functions (Okumura, 1998). For extended sources, we chose apertures which measure the spatially integrated flux of the source.

For most 3C sources, photometric information at optical, near-infrared and/or far-infrared, and mm wavelengths is available. We compiled SEDs between 0.5 and 1300 $`\mu `$m for all sources in our sample using data listed in the NASA Extragalactic Database (NED), the ISOPHOT measurement given in Haas et al. (2003b) and other recent papers (see SFKH). In compiling the SEDs, we only used photometric data which includes, like our own ISOCAM photometry, the integrated flux from the whole host galaxy. For each SED, we estimated the contribution of synchrotron radiation to the MIR fluxes by extrapolating the radio core flux. We found that the synchrotron radiation is a negligible contribution to the MIR flux for all SEDs used in this paper.

## 3 Results

We retrieved ISOCAM images for a total of 88 sources. The rms noise in the reduced images ranges from 0.5 to 5 mJy. We detected a total of 71 galaxies. The high detection rate indicates that hot dust is common in radio-loud AGNs, and that 3C sources are bright enough in the MIR so that they will be readily accessible to detailed studies by future instruments such as SIRTF.

A steep rise of the flux from optical wavelengths below 1$`\mu `$m to the MIR indicates the presence of a significant amount of dust at $`T300`$K for a large fraction of our sample. In order to estimate the contribution of stars to the MIR, we fitted 4000K black body spectra to the short wavelength part of the SEDs. This temperature deliberately was taken to be on the low side of the range of possible average stellar temperatures so that the MIR emission attributed to stars is an upper limit. Taking this stellar contribution into account, we found clear evidence of dust in 53 sources, i.e. 60% of our initial sample. The highest redshift source with a clear detection of hot dust is 3C324 at a redshift of 1.2. For a total of 27 sources, our data suffice to construct SEDs. The measured ISO fluxes for them are presented in table 1.

## 4 SED Modelling

Interpretation of the IR spectra requires detailed knowledge of the energy sources and the distribution and composition of gas and dust which absorbs and re-transmits the radiation. In the case of the AGNs discussed in this paper, the primary energy source is the central engine in the nucleus enshrouded by dust clouds. Dust close to the nucleus absorbs the radiation from the nucleus and re-radiates it. This emission depends mostly on the total power and spectrum of the central engine, and the distribution and properties of dust. While the composition of the dust can reasonably assumed to be similar to local dust and is therefore well constrained, its distribution around the power source of the AGN is largely unknown. It is generally assumed that the geometrical distribution of dust around AGNs is similar to a torus or warped disk (e.g., Urry and Pdovani, 1995). However, observations of dust features close to the nucleus of AGNs with the HST reveal a variety of morphologies (Martel et al., 2000). These observations and the fact that dust at distance much larger than the size of the putative torus shapes the MIR spectrum (Farrah et al., 2003) motivated us to adopt a simple approach to the modelling of dust SEDs in AGNs. Instead of choosing between possible geometrical configurations, we carried out spherical radiative transfer calculations with a central heating source. In this approach, the size of the model sphere depends on the viewing angle because of the intrinsic asymmetry of AGNs. We used a power law $`L\nu ^{0.7}`$ between $`\lambda =10`$Å and $`2\mu `$m as the input spectrum of the central sources. The exciting radiation field is therefore significantly harder than for star bursts leading to stronger photo-destruction of small grains (Siebenmorgen, R. et al., 2003b). Had we used a more distributed source of energy within the nucleus, the predicted PAH emission would have been much stronger.

We numerically solved the radiative transfer equations for a grid of models, varying the total luminosity of the central engine, the total extinction and the outer radius of the dust clouds. The dust in our model consists of carbon grains, silicate grains and PAHs. The initial density within the sphere is constant, but dust evaporation and PAH destruction are taken into account in a self-consistent way. We computed model SEDs for outer radii ranging from 0.125 to 16kpc, luminosities ranging from $`10^9`$ to $`10^{14}`$L, and visual extinction ranging from 1 to 128 magnitudes. The full set of models is available at http://eso.org/~rsiebenm/agn\_models.html. The parameters of the best fitting model for each observed SED are listed in table 1. In our modelling, all emission from the central engine is reprocessed by dust. The input power to our models is therefore identical to the total dust luminosity, which we use below to divide our sample into subsamples.

## 5 Discussion

### 5.1 Averaged SEDs

In order to investigate differences in dust emission for AGNs of type 1 and 2, we divided our sample into four different subsamples. Type 1 AGNs were subdivided into BLRGs and QSOs. Type 2 AGNs with dust luminosities fainter then $`10^{11}`$Lwere assigned to a low luminosity NRLG subsample, and those which are as bright or brighter than this limit to an equivalent high luminosity subsample. This luminosity limit was chosen so that the average dust luminosities of the high, respectively low luminosity NLRGs resemble those of the QSOs, respective BLRGs. This subdivision also led to samples comparable in redshift and extended radio emission. Specifically, the mean redshift and extended radio luminosity of the high-luminosity NLRGs ($`z=0.53\pm 0.4`$ and $`L_r=10^{27.5\pm 0.6}`$W/Hz/sr) match those of the QSOs ($`z=0.53\pm 0.2`$ and $`L_r=10^{27.1\pm 1.1}`$W/Hz/sr), and the redshifts and radio luminosities of the low luminosity NLRGs ($`z=0.06\pm 0.06`$ and $`L_r=10^{25.3\pm 0.7}`$W/Hz/sr) resemble those of the BLRGs ($`z=0.11\pm 0.06`$ and $`L_r=10^{25.9\pm 0.4}`$W/Hz/sr).

We computed logarithmically averaged SEDs for each subsample to search for differences in their shapes. Specifically, the procedure we used was the following. First, we redshifted each observed SED to the restframe, and scaled it to the same interpolated flux at $`\lambda =25\mu `$m. Next, we computed logarithmic flux averages in wavelength bins. The averaged SEDs were then scaled so that their integrated fluxes equal the average of the integrated fluxes of all corresponding spectra. The same procedure without the wavelength binning was used on the model SEDs for each contributing source. The resulting averaged observed and model SEDs are shown in Figure 1. We have also used different averaging procedures and found that they did not alter the conclusions presented in this paper.

Figure 1 shows some clear and highly significant differences in the average SEDs of different AGN types. The dust emission peaks at $`\lambda 40`$ to $`50\mu `$m for QSOs and BLRGs, and around 70 to 100$`\mu `$m for NLRGs. This difference in the peak wavelength by a factor of about 2 between type 1 and 2 objects seems to be virtually independent of luminosity. The difference reflects different temperature distributions of large dust grains and can be understood within the framework of unified models. For type 1 AGNs where the BLR is visible, unobscured hot dust dominates the SED. By contrast, the NLRG’s large extinction obscures the BLR and pre-dominantly colder dust is visible.

### 5.2 Strength of PAH bands

A more specific test of the heating mechanism is the strength of PAH bands. As discussed in section 4, the PAH strength is a sensitive indicator of the heating source because PAHs are destroyed by hard ionizing radiation. Despite the low spectral resolution of the SEDs shown in figure 1, some indications of the PAH bands are visible in the SEDs of the type 2 AGNs, but not for the type 1 AGNs. This observation seems to confirm the destruction of PAHs near the central heating source.

We used ISOPHOT spectra of AGNs to investigate the strength of PAH bands as a function of AGN type in more detail. For that purpose, we assembled average spectra for each AGN type. Since radio loud and radio quiet AGNs have similar IR spectra (e.g. Sanders et al., 1989), we included both kinds of AGNs in those averages. We used the spectra presented by Haas et al. (2003a) to compute an average QSO spectrum. For the BLRGs, we used ISOPHOT spectra of 3C sources available from the ISO archive and the Seyfert I spectra from Clavel et al. (2000) . Finally, we used the average spectrum of Seyfert II galaxies presented by Clavel et al. (2000) as our average type 1 AGN spectrum. The flux of each averaged spectrum was scaled to the average of the corresponding AGN type in our 3C sample. These scaled spectra are presented in Figure 2.

The spectral index $`\alpha `$ was estimated by fitting $`F_\lambda \lambda ^\alpha `$ to the continuum of the averaged spectra. We found $`\alpha =0.91\pm 0.06`$ for the QSOs, $`\alpha =0.70\pm 0.03`$ for the BLRGs and $`\alpha =0.76\pm 0.05`$ for the Seyfert IIs. We note that due to the similarity between the 3C spectra of type 1 and Seyfert I spectra, the continuum slope as well as the PAH strength in our average spectrum of the BLRGs is indistinguishable from that of the average spectrum of Seyfert I galaxies shown in Figure 7 of Clavel et al. (2000).

A comparison of the three spectra in Figure 2 shows a clear difference between the PAH bands in spectra of AGNs of similar luminosity but different type. PAH bands in the spectra of type 1 AGNs are more than a factor of three stronger than in the corresponding type 2 spectra.

For comparison, we plotted the SED models shown in Figure 1 for the QSO, BLRG and low-luminosity NRLG on top of the spectra in Figure 2. One can immediately recognize a basic correspondence between the continuum shapes and PAH strength of the models with the spectra. The fact that models fitted to the overall SEDs correctly predict the strength of the PAH bands in independent samples of the same AGNs type suggests a basic similarity in the physics within each of the different types of AGNs.

The relatively weak PAH bands in type 1 AGNs can be understood in terms of the unified models. In type 1 spectra, a large fraction of the visible flux originates from the BLR region where only few PAHs survive. This region is obscured in type 2 AGNs and their spectra are hence dominated by cooler dust located at larger distances from the nucleus where PAHs are shielded from the photo-destruction. Type 1 and 2 AGNs spectra differ because of the different relative contribution of hot dust to the total emission. When comparing spectra of AGNs with the same total dust luminosity, the different relative contribution of cold dust leads to the observed differences in the total PAH emission.

## 6 Summary and Conclusion

We have detected hot dust in ISOCAM images of 3C galaxies out to redshift z$``$1.2. We found a clear correlation between the type of the AGN and the overall SEDs in the sense that SEDs of BLRG and QSOs are dominated by emission from dust which is about a factor of 2 hotter than the one in comparable NRLGs. MIR spectra show that PAH emission bands in spectra of type 1 AGNs are significantly weaker than the ones in spectra of type 2 AGNs with the same total dust luminosity. These trends are naturally predicted if dust in AGNs is predominantly heated by hard radiation from a central engine which destroys PAHs close to the nucleus and heats larger dust grains at intermediate distances.

Acknowledgments. We thank Martin Haas and Bernhard Schulz for providing digital versions of their ISOPHOT spectra.


text:
# Pressure effects on charge, spin, and metal-insulator transitions in narrow bandwidth manganite Pr1-xCaxMnO3

## I Introduction

In the manganite of Pr1-xCaxMnO3 (PCMO), the large size difference between the Pr/Ca and the Mn cations leads to a small tolerance factor and hence a small transfer integral between Mn atoms in the whole doping range.Tokura et al. (1996) The eg electrons are localized and the charge ordering (CO) phase is stabilized in a large doping range. In the low doping range (0.15$``$x$`<`$0.3) and at low temperatures, Pr1-xCaxMnO3 is a ferromagnetic insulator. It is believed to exhibit an orbitally ordered ground state similar to that in LaMnO3 and the cooperative Jahn-Teller distortion of MnO6 octahedra leads to (3x2 \- r2)/(3y2 \- r2)-type orbital ordering in ab-plane, while the Mn4+ ions are disordered and no charge ordering state is reported in this range.Zimmermann et al. (2001) In the range of 0.3$``$x$``$0.7, the compounds are antiferromagnetic insulating (AFI) at low temperatures and the charges and orbitals are ordered. The charge ordered state is sensitive to external fields and radiations. Application of magnetic fieldsTomioka et al. (1995) and high electric fields,Asamitsu et al. (1997) irradiation by x-raysKiryukhin et al. (1997); Cox et al. (1998) or visible lightMiyano et al. (1997); Mori et al. (1997) can all destroy the charge ordering and lead to a conducting state.

In compounds with a CO state, the lattice is strongly coupled to the spin and charge.Dediu et al. (2000) While charges are ordered, local distortion changes from dynamic Jahn-Teller distortion to a collective static distortionDediu et al. (2000) and the MnO6 octahedra buckle.Yoshizawa et al. (1995) Raman scattering in the x = 0.37 compound reveals that a strong coupling between the spin and lattice degrees of freedom induces the large variation of the mode frequency and anomalous line width broadening of the Ag(2) and Ag(4) phonons with temperature decrease.Gupta et al. (2002)

Under pressure, due to the bandwidth (W) increase, the CO state melts and a metallic state is induced. Moritomo et al.Moritomo et al. (1997) reported that pressure up to 0.8 GPa suppresses the CO of compound x = 0.35, 0.4, 0.5 and dTCO/dP increases with x. In the x = 0.3 compound, pressure above 0.5 GPa induces a metallic transition which is assigned to a charge ordered insulating (COI) to ferromagnetic (FM) metallic (FMM) transition. Magnetic field was found to be almost equivalent to pressure up to 1.5 GPa and the effect of magnetic field can be scaled to pressure. The CO state is more robust when x is near to the commensurate value 0.5, so in the x = 0.35 compound, the insulator-metal transition was not found under pressures up to 1.6 GPa.

In many manganites with a metal-insulator transition, the metallic state and ferromagnetic state are coupled, which is explained by the double exchange theory. When a external pressure is applied, the Curie temperature (TC) and the metal-insulator transition temperature (TMI) still coincide in the low pressure range ($`<`$1.6 GPa).Arnold et al. (1995); Neumeier et al. (1995) Because of the limit of high-pressure techniques in magnetic measurements, the question of whether the metallic state and ferromagnetic state are coupled at high-pressure is still open to date. It has been reported that the substitution of La atom with Gd and Y in the La-Ca-Mn-O manganites leads to a separation between TC and TMI.Terashita and Neumeier (2001); Mahendiran et al. (1996) The most important effect of the chemical substitution with the smaller Gd and Y ions is the bandwidth change. The decoupling of TC and TMI indicates that bandwidth plays a crucial role in the coupling of ferromagnetic and metallic states.

In this article, chemical doping and external pressure methods are combined to investigate the metal-insulator transition and the relation between the ferromagnetic and metallic states, in addition to the observation on charge ordering. With the application of pressure in the range from ambient to $``$6.5 GPa, the magnetic and electronic properties of the small bandwidth PCMO system (x = 0.25, 0.30, 0.35) have been found to be greatly affected. At high pressures, pressure effects are far more complicated than in low pressure range ($`<`$2 GPa). In addition to the effects on the electronic states and charge ordering, the magnetic states are also modified by pressure. Under pressure, both the electronic transition and magnetic transition display critical behavior. The eg electron bandwidth and/or the band-filling mediate the behavior of the magnetic and electronic transitions under pressure. Only when the bandwidth and/or band-filling are large enough, can the magnetic and electronic transitions be coupled. For a critical bandwidth and/or band-filling, the relation between them also shows a critical behavior.

## II Samples and Experimental Methods

The samples were prepared by solid-state reaction. The procedure and details of making the samples were described elsewhere.Cui and Tyson (2003) The x-ray diffraction patterns taken at room temperature show that the samples are in a single crystallographic phase. The structure was refined to Pbnm symmetry using the Rietveld method. All samples have the O-type orthorhombic structure ($`b>a>\frac{c}{\sqrt{2}}`$). The samples were characterized by magnetization measurements \[Figs. 1, 1, and 1\]. The results agree with those published by other groups.Dediu et al. (2000); Yoshizawa et al. (1995); Tokura and Tomioka (1999) The details of the high-pressure resistivity measurement method and error analysis were described previously.Cui et al. (2003)

It has been extensively reported that the electrical transport of the PCMO system is highly nonlinear at low temperature.Asamitsu et al. (1997); Mercone et al. (2002); Guha et al. (2000a, b); Stankiewicz et al. (2000) Because this paper is focused on the pressure effects, to avoid the complexity induced by the electrical field, a low constant bias current in the Van der Pauw method was used to maintain the transport behavior in the ohmic regime as the instrument noise allows. The size of the samples used for high-pressure resistivity measurements is $``$$`250\times 250\mu m^2`$. For the PCMO compounds, the bias current of 10 $`\mu A`$ gives a electrical field in the order of $``$102 V/cm at liquid nitrogen temperature, similar to the ohmic case in Ref. Asamitsu et al., 1997 and far below the nonlinear region probed in Ref. Asamitsu et al., 1997; Mercone et al., 2002; Guha et al., 2000a, b; Stankiewicz et al., 2000. However, a recent reportMarkovich et al. (2003) indicates that the nonlinear behavior can persist even at lower electrical field, so that the resistivity and activation energy below the ferromagnetic transition are temperature dependent. In this article, the equivalent electrical field due the bias current is the same order as in Ref. Markovich et al., 2003. Although the measured I-V curves at temperatures below the magnetic transition are not completely ohmic in the measured temperature range, the applied current is still well below the negative resistive region. Moreover, the I-V curves become more ohmic under pressure due to the material becoming more metallic. Hence, the pressure dependent trend is not affected.

In PCMO system, from x = 0.1 to 0.4, the resistivity displays p-type semiconducting behavior, $`\rho =\rho _0\text{exp}(E_g/k_BT)`$, with the activation energies (Eg) being slightly above 100 meV at room temperature.Jirák et al. (1985) The activation energy can be determined numerically by calculating $`dln(\rho )/d(k_BT)^1`$ from resistivity data. Figure 1 gives the resistivity, magnetization, and activation energy Eg of the samples at ambient pressure as a function of temperature. The Eg of the samples is $``$125 meV and does not change with temperature in the paramagnetic phase near room temperature, showing semiconducting behavior, as reported by Jirák et al.Jirák et al. (1985)

On the Eg curves, upon cooling, there is an increase at $``$200 K, $``$220 K, $``$240 K for each sample, respectively. Apparently, the increase in x = 0.3 and 0.35 corresponds to the charge ordering. For the x = 0.25 sample, the charge ordering and orbital ordering state was predicted theoretically,Mizokawa et al. (2000); Hotta and Dagotto (2000) but it was not observed by the x-ray resonant scattering studies.Zimmermann et al. (2001) In our transport measurements, compared with the other two samples (x = 0.30, 0.35) with charge ordering state, the Eg arise at $``$200 K seems to correlate to the charge ordering transition. For the x = 0.35 sample, corresponding to a sharp peak at $``$215 K is the charge ordering state, as in a similar compound.Rivadulla et al. (1999) The peaks corresponding to charge ordering have different heights ($``$350 meV in x = 0.35, $``$170 meV in x = 0.3, and $``$140 meV in x = 0.25), indicating that the charge ordering is the most robust in x = 0.35 and the weakest in x = 0.25.

In the x = 0.25 and x = 0.3 samples, there is a sharp drop of Eg on cooling in the range of $``$100-140 K. The x = 0.25 compound is ferromagnetic insulating at low temperatures, while the x = 0.3 compound is ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phase-separated.Jirák et al. (1985); Frontera et al. (2000) Below the FM transition, the material is still insulating but with a much smaller energy gap than in paramagnetic phase, indicating that the ferromagnetically coupled spins enhance the electron transport. This is correlated with the magnetic semiconductor behavior, corresponding to a orthorhombic strain change.Markovich et al. (2003) By comparing the temperature dependence of resistivity, magnetization, and Eg \[Figs. 1 and 1\], the drastic reduction of Eg can be correlated with the ferromagnetic transition.Cui and Tyson (2003) The TC of the x = 0.25 compound at ambient pressure determined from the activation energy as a function of temperature is 124$`\pm `$4 K, consistent to that determined by magnetization measurements by other authors.Fisher et al. (2003) For the x = 0.35 sample, in the temperature range of $``$100-140 K on the Eg curve, there is a small bump, which may correspond to the CE-type AFI transition \[Fig. 1\]. In the measured temperature range, the low temperature magnetic state is antiferromagnetic, displaying in Eg as a slow change with temperature.

Due to the changes in the activation energy with temperature during the magnetic and charge ordering transitions, the high-pressure effects on charge and spin states can be observed simultaneously through resistivity measurement. In this article, the resistivity measurements have been performed more times than displayed at different pressures for each sample, but only the resistivity at several typical pressures are shown to avoid confusion. The pressure induced metal-insulator transition temperature is defined as the peak temperature of the resistivity. The magnetic transition temperature is defined as the point at which the activation energy changes fastest by referring the first derivative. For the charge ordering transition, with the present data, TCO cannot be extracted accurately, so the charge state change under pressure in the x = 0.25 and 0.3 samples are only qualitatively described. For the x = 0.35 sample, the Eg peak is defined as TCO. In this way, although TCO is lower than the temperature at which the charge ordering actually starts to appear on cooling, it still describes the charge state changes under pressure correctly.

## III Results and Discussions

### III.1 Pr0.75Ca0.25MnO3

In Fig. 2 is the resistivity of Pr0.75Ca0.25MnO3 at several pressures. With pressure increase, the low temperature insulating state is suppressed. Although there is a trace of transition, the resistivity only shows a shoulder below $``$3 GPa, above which the resistivity peak corresponding to the metal-insulator transition starts to become evident. The transition temperature increases with pressure. When the pressure is higher than a certain value, the trend reverses so that the low temperature state does not become more metallic, but insulating, with the transition temperature decreasing simultaneously. The metal-insulator transition temperature is shown as a function of pressure in Fig. 3. The resistivity in the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases follows the same trend as the transition temperature.

Eg vs. T plots are shown in Fig. 4. With pressure increase, Eg increase upon cooling is suppressed, indicating that the charge ordering state is suppressed. While the CO state is suppressed, Eg becomes temperature dependent in the paramagnetic phase in high-pressure range so that Eg increases on warming up and the temperature dependency of Eg becomes stronger with pressure increase. The behavior of the electron transport in the paramagnetic phase at high pressures cannot be fit to the known polaron hoping and variable range hoping models.Cui and Tyson (2003) The origin is still not understood.

In Fig. 4, corresponding to the ferromagnetic transition is the reduction of the activation energy. The transition temperatures extracted are displayed in Fig. 3 together with TMI. In this compound, the magnetic transition and electronic transition are significantly decoupled. Below $``$4 GPa, with pressure increase, the ferromagnetic state is suppressed, displaying as TC decreases while the electronic transition temperature TMI increases. This indicates that the conducting mechanism in the low temperature range is not double exchange and that a competing mechanism takes effect. In a lower pressure range ($`<`$1.2 GPa), Markovich et al. Markovich et al. (2003) reported that TC of Pr0.8Ca0.2MnO3 increases linearly with pressure from $``$130 K at ambient pressure to $``$132 K at $``$1.2 GPa. In Fig. 3, the behavior of TC of the x=0.25 compound below 1.2 GPa can not be determined due to the large error bars. However, it can be clearly seen that the rate of change of TC with pressure is much slower below 1.2 GPa than that above 1.2 GPa

In thin films, it was found that the metal-insulator transition and the magnetic transition are decoupled,Aarts et al. (1998); Rao et al. (1999) which may be ascribed to the strong disorder at TC. The disorder is overcome by magnetization increase while cooling, inducing a metallic state.Aarts et al. (1998) The TMI and TC decoupling also exists in bulk materials Pr0.7Ba0.3MnO3,Heilman et al. (2002) in which it is ascribed to the competition between the double exchange and the superexchange interactions between neighboring Mn-Mn spins. The strength of superexchange is a function of bandwidth W. In low pressure range, because of the large lattice distortion, W is small, superexchange may dominate and hence, the material is insulating. With pressure increase, due to the local distortion suppression (indicated by the charge ordering disappearance), W increases, and the insulating state is suppressed correspondingly. The superexchange between two neighboring Mn3+ can either be ferromagnetic or antiferromagnetic depending on the Mn-Mn distance.Goodenough (1955) With pressure increase, the Mn-Mn distance monotonically decreases, the ferromagnetic superexchange interaction between the Mn3+ cations is weakened so that TC decreases. On one hand, pressure suppresses the local distortion to enhance the metallic state; on the other hand, the decrease of Mn-Mn distance leads to TC decreasing. However, this is only the case below $``$4 GPa, above this pressure, TC increases with pressure. When pressure is above $``$4.5 GPa, the trends of both the magnetic and electronic transition temperature changes with pressure are reversed, indicating that the strength of the superexchange is a function of not only the Mn-Mn distance, but also possibly the structure (especially the local atomic structure of the MnO6 octahedra).

### III.2 Pr0.7Ca0.3MnO3

In Fig. 2, the temperature dependence of resistivity of Pr0.7Ca0.3MnO3 at several pressures is shown. At ambient pressure, the material is insulating in the whole temperature range. As reported, at a pressure above 0.5 GPa, an insulating to metallic transition is induced, which is ascribed to a COI to FMM transition.Moritomo et al. (1997); Hwang et al. (1995) With pressure increase, the transition temperature TMI is shifted to higher temperature and resistivity is suppressed. In the pressure range $``$3-4 GPa, the trend saturates. At higher pressure, TMI decreases and the resistivity increases. At $``$6.3 GPa, the material becomes insulating in the measured temperature range and the resistivity as a function of temperature almost reproduces the case at ambient pressure. TMI vs. pressure is plotted in Fig. 3.

Eg as a function of temperature at different pressures are plotted in Fig. 4. At ambient pressure, above $``$220 K, Eg is $``$125 meV, then increases on cooling, implying the charge ordering. The Eg arising on cooling disappears gradually with pressure increase and at $``$5.7 GPa, the CO state is completely suppressed so that the activation energy does not change with temperature and therefore, the material displays a semiconducting behavior above the magnetic transition. Same as in x = 0.25 sample, at high pressures, the activation energy becomes temperature dependent near to room temperature in the paramagnetic phase and increases upon warming up.

The magnetic transition temperatures extracted from the Eg curves are shown in Fig. 3 together with TMI. It is clearly seen that in the measured pressure range of $``$1.5-5GPa, TC and TMI coincide, suggesting that pressure destroys the charge ordering insulating state completely and induces a FMM state at low temperature. But in the low pressure range and above $``$5 GPa, the magnetic transition and metal-insulator transition are decoupled and the material becomes insulating at pressures near to ambient pressure and above $``$5 GPa.

In the medium pressure range, at optimum pressure, both the magnetic transition and metal-insulator transition temperature reach a maximum. This behavior is similar to that observed in the manganites with a larger bandwidth, in which it can be ascribed to the pressure induced Jahn-Teller distortion and Mn-O-Mn bond angle changes according to the double exchange theory.Cui et al. (2003); Congeduti et al. (2001); Meneghini et al. (2002)

In the low ($`<`$0.8 GPa) and high ($`>`$5 GPa) pressure range, the material is more insulating and TMI and TC are decoupled. Neutron diffraction suggests that this compound could be considered as FM and AFM phase-separated at low temperature.Jirák et al. (1985) The decoupling behavior may be similar to that in the x = 0.25 compound. The difference is that Pr0.75Ca0.25MnO3 is more distorted and has a smaller bandwidth so that under high-pressure TMI and TC never meet each other.

The charge ordering phase in the PCMO system is correlated with the lattice distortion and the buckling of the MnO6 octahedra.Yoshizawa et al. (1995) At TCO, a transition from dynamic Jahn-Teller distortion to collective static distortion takes place.Dediu et al. (2000) Therefore, the CO state disappearance under pressure indicates that the octahedra buckling and the static Jahn-Teller distortions are suppressed and only the dynamic distortion is present at pressure above the optimum pressure.

In the electronic and magnetic transition temperatures vs. pressure phase diagram \[Fig. 3\], in the high ($`>`$$``$5 GPa) and low ($`<`$$``$0.8 GPa) pressure range, the magnetic and electronic phase transitions are decoupled. The compound is insulating at the ambient and high-pressures. The decoupling of TC and TMI has some similarities to the x = 0.25 compound. It is possible that pressure induces a ferromagnetic insulating state in the high-pressure range.Cui and Tyson (2003)

### III.3 Pr0.65Ca0.35MnO3

Figure 2 shows the resistivity of the x = 0.35 sample under pressure. In the low pressure region, it appears that a metallic state is induced by pressure in the medium temperature range, and the TMI increases on pressure increase, while the low temperature state is still insulating. However, it is found that the low temperature insulating state is unstable in different loadings of sample. At the same pressure, the low temperature state can be either insulating or metallic from sample to sample. Figure 5 shows the resistivity of four different loadings of sample at two pressures with the same bias current. In these four samples, the low temperature state is much different even under almost the same pressures. One might guess that the difference in the low temperature state comes from the non-uniformity of the polycrystal sample due to the very small size. The four samples were cut from the same piece of size $``$$`2\times 2mm^2`$ which came from a pellet. In addition, the difference occurs only in the low temperature range. In the high temperature range, the resistivity of different samples at the same pressure completely overlap. Considering the nonlinear behavior of the electrical transport in the low temperature range, the difference between samples at same pressure can be ascribed to the electrical field effect. The electrical contacts used for the Van der Pauw resistivity measurement were made by attaching four gold wires to the corners of the sample with silver paste. In this way, the distance between the leads cannot be controlled precisely due to the tiny sample size, thus leading to the variable electrical field from sample to sample. This is proved by the measurements on one of the samples in Fig. 5 at $``$2 GPa and at different bias current (Inset of Fig. 5). When the bias current is decreased from 10 $`\mu A`$ to 5 $`\mu A`$, the resistivity in the low temperature range is increased. Therefore, electrical field and pressure jointly affect the low temperature state. At ambient pressure, the low temperature state is associated with the spin canted antiferromagnetic insulating state (CAFI).Tokura and Tomioka (1999) So under pressure, both the CE-type AFI state and the CAFI state are suppressed. Unfortunately, Because of the electrical field effect, it is impossible to quantify the pressure effect on the CAFI state in our experiment.

Different from the CAFI state, the metallic state and the paramagnetic state are not affected by the electrical field. With pressure increase, the low temperature insulating state is completely suppressed and the material becomes ferromagnetic metallic. This can be seen in the Eg vs. temperature curves \[Fig. 4\]. At high pressures at which the CAFI state is completely suppressed, the Eg as a function of temperature is the same as the other two samples with ferromagnetic phases. TMI and TC extracted from Eg vs. pressure are plotted in Fig. 3. Apparently, TC is coupled to TMI and follows the same manner as TMI in the measured pressure range. Similar to the other two samples, there is also a critical pressure for the metal-insulator transition temperature.

The pressure effect on the charge ordering is more evident in this sample. With pressure increase, charge ordering is suppressed and the transition temperature is shifted to low temperature and eventually the charge ordering transition disappears \[Fig. 4\]. The charge ordering transition temperature as a function of pressure is plotted together with TMI and TC in Fig. 3. Because the charge ordering transition temperature, corresponding to the Eg increases upon cooling, is hard to define in the Eg plots, the peak temperature of Eg is used to represent the charge ordering transition. In this way, TCO is lower than what it appears to be. From the Eg vs. temperature curves, it cannot be determined if Eg is temperature dependent in paramagnetic phase in high-pressure range. Same as in the x = 0.30 compound, the disappearance of the charge ordering also implies the suppression of the static Jahn-Teller distortion.

### III.4 External pressure via. chemical doping

In the PCMO system, the small size of the Pr3+ ion induces larger lattice disorder than in the La-Ca-Mn-O system. The size difference between the Pr3+ ion and the Ca2+ ion is small (Ca2+ ion is only slightly bigger than Pr3+ ion).Shannon and Prewitt (1976) Therefore, the eg electron bandwidth increase due to x increase is not expected to be large. Hence, the system is insulating in the whole doping range at ambient pressure. However, when external pressure is applied, the maximum pressure-induced metal-insulator transition temperature TMI at the critical pressure P\* is much different \[$``$90 K for x = 0.25; $``$155 K for x = 0.3, and $``$180 K for x = 0.35 (Fig. 3)\]. This suggests that the bandwidth difference between the three samples may not be the only factor determining the pressure effects on the metal-insulator transition. On the other hand, the band-filling or the electrons in the eg band may also mediate the pressure effect in this system. Actually, the difference between the ground states in the x = 0.25, 0.30, 0.35 compounds has already shown the band-filling effects. When x is reduced from 0.5, the spin arrangement along the c-axis in the Pbnm symmetry changes from anti-parallel to parallel so that at x=0.3, the spin coupling along the c-axis is almost FM with the CE-type ordering being maintained in the ab-plane.Jirák et al. (1985); Yoshizawa et al. (1995) The extra electrons on the Mn4+ sites with a concentration of (0.5-x)/Mn site mediate the double exchange interaction along the c-axis.Jirák et al. (1985) The effect of the extra electrons on the Mn4+ sites on the magnetic structure is enhanced with decrease in x from 0.5. Thus, the minimum magnetic field destroying the CO state decreases with x decrease.Tomioka et al. (1996) However, when the CO state is melted and well above the critical magnetic field, the sample with higher x has a higher metal-insulator transition temperature.Tomioka et al. (1996) This is analogous to the pressure effect. Therefore, the pressure effect on the metal insulator transition in the PCMO system is also critically tuned by the band-filling.

The coupling of the magnetic and electronic transition under pressure is an interesting topic in this system. Because of the small bandwidth, when superexchange dominates, the material is insulating and TMI and TC may be decoupled due to the competition between double exchange and superexchange interactions.

In the x = 0.25 compound, superexchange is so strong that even under pressure TMI and TC never coincide \[Fig. 3\]. With pressure increase, TC decreases and TMI increases, indicating that superexchange is suppressed due to the bandwidth increase. Above the critical pressure, relative to the bandwidth, the ferromagnetic superexchange between Mn sites may dominate again and therefore, TC increases and TMI decreases. The x = 0.30 doping is a critical point. Under pressure, the relation between TMI and TC in this compound displays critical behavior: at low pressure near to ambient and high-pressure above $``$5 GPa where there are larger distortions and hence, smaller bandwidth, the compound is insulating and TMI and TC are decoupled. At the medium pressure, the bandwidth is large enough, superexchange is suppressed, and the ferromagnetic state is coupled to the metallic state \[Fig. 3\]. For the x = 0.35 sample, TMI and TC are coupled. Therefore, it can be concluded that bandwidth plays a crucial role in determining if the ferromagnetic and metallic state can be coupled under pressure. In addition, as discussed above, due to the effect of the band-filling on the double exchange interaction along the c-axis, probably the doping concentration x is also important to determine if the TC and TMI can couple. Moreover, it is also shown that no matter what bandwidth the sample has, pressure cannot always increase the transition temperatures, but there is a critical pressure above which the trend is reversed.

Charge ordering is another interesting feature in the PCMO system. The charge ordering state in x = 0.35 sample is the strongest one in the three samples. Under pressure, charge ordering states in all three samples are suppressed. In the high-pressure range, for the x = 0.25 and 0.30 compound, an insulating state with unknown conducting mechanism appears in paramagnetic phase. In this state, Eg increases on warming. It is speculated that dynamic Jahn-Teller distortion exists in this phase.

## IV Summary

To summarize, pressure can destroy the low temperature charge ordered insulating state and induce a metallic state in the PCMO system by increasing the bandwidth. Both the bandwidth and the band-filling may affect the pressure effects on the properties critically. The bandwidth competes with superexchange between the Mn sites, determining together with the band-filling if there is a possibility for the metal-insulator transition and magnetic transition to couple under pressure. When the ground state bandwidth and/or the band-filling is small, even under high pressure, the magnetic and electronic transition cannot be coupled. Compounds with larger bandwidth and/or band-filling have higher TMI at P\*. In all samples, the charge ordering states are suppressed, suggesting the suppression of the static Jahn-Teller distortions. Due to the strong interactions between charge, spin, and lattice, high-pressure structural measurements, especially at multiple temperatures, are desired to explain the pressure effects on the magnetic and electronic states.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was supported by National Science Foundation under grant No. DMR-9733862 and DMR-0209243.


text:
# 1 Relation between 𝐤 and 𝐤_𝑔.

Comment on “Total Negative Refraction in Crystals for Ballistic Electrons and Light”

The effect of negative refraction considered in Ref.1  resembles the analogous effect in left-handed materials (LHM) although the physics is different. In LHM the negative refraction is caused by a negative group velocity, whereas in the case considered in Ref.1  one deals with the special properties of wave propagation in uniaxial anisotropic media (UAM).

The dispersion relation (DR) for an electromagnetic plane wave in UAM has the form2 : $`\omega ^2/c^2=k_{}^2/\epsilon _{}+k_{}^2/\epsilon _{}`$, where $`k_{}`$ and $`k_{}`$ are the components of the wave vector $`𝐤`$ parallel and perpendicular to the uniaxis, and $`\epsilon _{}`$ and $`\epsilon _{}`$ are the corresponding dielectric tensor components in a principal coordinate system. It follows from the DR that $`𝐯_{ph}𝐯_g>0`$, whereas in LHM $`𝐯_{ph}𝐯_g<0`$, $`𝐯_{ph}`$ and $`𝐯_g`$ being the phase and group velocities, respectively. It also follows from the DR that the directions of the phase and group velocities are connected by the relation $`\mathrm{tan}\phi _g=(\epsilon _{}/\epsilon _{})\mathrm{tan}\phi `$, where $`\phi `$ and $`\phi _g`$ are the angles between the anisotropy direction $`𝐧`$ and the vectors $`𝐯_{ph}`$ (or $`𝐤`$) and $`𝐯_g`$, respectively. The relation between the directions of $`𝐯_g`$ and $`𝐯_{ph}`$ can be determined graphically. As an example we will consider the case of $`\epsilon _{}/\epsilon _{}>1`$. The end of the vector $`𝐤`$ lies on an ellipse in the $`(k_{},k_{})`$ plane (Fig.1). Let us introduce another ellipse, which is obtained from the first one by stretching it along the $`k_{}`$ axis $`\epsilon _{}/\epsilon _{}`$ times. The vector $`𝐤_g`$, whose end lies on the second (bigger) ellipse and has the same projection on the $`k_{}`$ axis as the vector $`𝐤`$, is parallel to $`𝐯_g`$. In such a way one can obtain the direction of the group velocity using the direction of the vector $`𝐤`$ and vice versa. For simplicity we consider here and below 2D geometry.

Using this method it is easy to consider the refraction of rays on the interface between two identical but arbitrarily oriented UAM (Fig.2). Keeping in mind that the direction of the ray coincides with the group velocity direction, one can determine the sectors $`A_1^{}B_1^{}`$ and $`B_1^{}C_1^{}`$ of the small ellipse, which correspond to rays with negative (sector $`A_1B_1`$ of the big ellipse) and positive (sector $`B_1C_1`$) angles of incidence. The end of the wave vector of the refracted ray lies on a similar but differently oriented ellipse and has the same projection on the interface plane as the wave vector of the incident ray. In this way one can determine the wave vector of the refracted ray and, using the graphical method, the refracted ray direction. Dividing the right ellipses to regions corresponding to negative (big ellipse sector $`A_2B_2`$ and small ellipse sector $`A_2^{}B_2^{}`$) and positive (sectors $`B_2C_2`$ and $`B_2^{}C_2^{}`$) angles of refraction, it is easy to see that rays with negative angles of incidence lying in the sector $`D_1B_1`$, transform to rays with positive angles of refraction (sector $`B_2D_2`$).

A general picture of refraction of arbitrary rays is presented in Fig.3. The incident ray $`b`$ and the refracted ray $`b^{}`$ lie on the same side of the normal to the interface that seems as negative refraction, but physically this effect has nothing in common with negative refraction in LHM.

Note, that a periodic structure composed of alternate layers with different permittivity $`\epsilon _1`$ and $`\epsilon _2`$ behaves as a UAM with respect to electromagnetic waves whose wavelength is much larger than the structure period.

Yu.P.Bliokh and J.Felsteiner
Department of Physics, Technion,
32000 Haifa, Israel.
PACS 78.20.Ci, 42.25.Gy, 73.40.-c, 73.50.-h