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# Tetrahedral Symmetry in Ground- and Low-Lying States of Exotic 𝑨∼𝟏𝟏𝟎 Nuclei

## Abstract

Recent calculations predict a possible existence of nuclei with tetrahedral symmetry: more precisely, the mean-field hamiltonians of such nuclei are symmetric with respect to double point-group $`T_d^D`$. In this paper, we focus on the neutron-rich Zirconium isotopes as an example and present realistic mean-field calculations which predict tetrahedral ground-state configurations in 108,110Zr and low-lying excited states of tetrahedral symmetry in a number of $`N66`$ isotopes. The motivations for focusing on these nuclei together with a discussion of the possible experimental signatures of tetrahedral symmetry are also presented.

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A highly relevant field of investigation of nuclei with unusual combinations of the proton and neutron numbers is the search for manifestations of exotic symmetries. In our previous work we reported JDu02 , that of all the various possible non-spherical shape symmetries, tetrahedral and octahedral ones may lead to the largest single-particle shell gaps. Indeed, these can be comparable to, and sometimes even larger than the well-established spherical shell gaps. These properties, far from being restricted to nuclei within a given range of mass or isospin, should in fact be present throughout the nuclear chart. The underlying considerations are based on a very general analysis of the point groups of symmetries of the nuclear mean-fields. They have been confirmed independently via the macroscopic-microscopic method of Strutinsky JDu02  and the self-consistent Hartree-Fock techniques TYM98 .

The purpose of this Rapid Communication is to support the search for tetrahedral nuclei by providing realistic calculations in some selected study cases.

The neutron-rich Zirconium (Z=40) isotopes provide such an appropriate case. Our previous work predicted that, among others, nucleon numbers $`Z=N=40`$ and $`Z=N=70`$ correspond to large shell gaps for tetrahedral shapes and thus can be thought of as ‘tetrahedral magic numbers’ JDu02 ; JDu02a . Although the yrast line of the $`N=Z=40`$ system 80Zr has been experimentally studied above spins of 10$`\mathrm{}`$ SMF87 , the detailed information concerning in particular the electro-magnetic transitions (see below) which is required for probing the tetrahedral symmetry has not yet been achieved. On the neutron-rich side, Zirconium isotopes up to the $`N=70`$ system 110Zr have been synthesised using the projectile fission technique at GSI, MBe94 . The production of such nuclei opens up the possibility of studying their properties via isomer spectroscopy following projectile fragmentation (e.g. ZPo00 ) and projectile-fission (e.g. MNM01 ) or beta-delayed gamma-ray spectroscopy (e.g. PFM03 ). To date however, such studies have not yet been performed in the very heavy Zirconium isotopes and the most neutron rich $`Z=40`$ isotope where information on excited states is available is 104Zr64, which was studied as a fragment from spontaneous fission of Cm sources in JHH97 .

In this article we suggest that the heavy Zr isotopes are amongst the best candidates to test the hypothesis of nuclear tetrahedral symmetry: 110,112Zr are indeed predicted by Hartree-Fock calculations to have $`T_d^D`$-symmetric ground-state configurations, and both non-self-consistent approaches and Hartree-Fock calculations agree on the prediction of low-lying excited $`T_d^D`$-symmetric minima for a chain of isotopes near 110Zr. As outlined above, these nuclei are viable for future experimental study.

In the basis of spherical harmonics, the distance of a point on the nuclear surface relative to the centre of the nucleus can be expressed by

$$R(\theta ,\phi )=r_0A^{1/3}c(\alpha )\left[1+\underset{\lambda ,\mu }{}\alpha _{\lambda \mu }Y_{\lambda \mu }(\theta ,\phi )\right],$$
(1)
where $`\alpha _{\lambda \mu }`$ refer to multipole deformations. In Eq. (1), $`\alpha \{\alpha _{\lambda \mu }\}`$ represents the complete set of deformations and $`c(\alpha )`$ accounts for nuclear volume conservation. Several ensembles of deformation parameters $`\alpha \{\alpha _{\lambda \mu }\}`$ can generate a geometry characteristic of the group $`T_d^D`$. The simplest case occurs when all deformations except $`\alpha _{32}`$ are equal to 0. This simplest form of the tetrahedral deformation is also likely to be favoured in nature since other realizations of the tetrahedral symmetry involve much higher order of multipoles, $`\lambda 7`$, cf. Ref. JDu02a .

The group $`T_d^D`$ is characterized by two non-equivalent two-dimensional irreps, and one four-dimensional one. This is an unique feature in nature, since, apart from the spherical symmetry, only the groups $`T_d^D`$ and $`O_h^D`$ (the latter, octahedral symmetry is discussed in Ref. JDu02a ) produce single-particle degeneracies higher than 2, cf. Refs. JFC84 ; GFK63 . This high degeneracy pattern, together with a relatively low number of irreps favours the appearance of large shell gaps. In our previous work JDu02 , we reported that such gaps are predicted in a number of different mass regions, and presented various examples of potential tetrahedral minima.

In the current work, realistic nuclear structure calculations are performed within the standard Woods-Saxon mean-field approach with the universal parameterization. Figure 1 shows the single-particle energies for exotic nuclei with $`A110`$ as functions of the lowest order tetrahedral deformation obtained from this hamiltonian. The most striking result in Fig. 1 is the presence of a large tetrahedral shell gap at $`Z=40`$, comparable to the spherical $`Z=50`$ gap. Indeed this gap is larger by $`3`$ MeV than the spherical one at $`Z=40`$.

To calculate the total energy of the nucleus, we employ the microscopic-macroscopic method whose realization closely follows that of Refs. JDu87  and TRW95 . In this approach, the total energy of the nucleus is given by:

$$E=E_{macro}+E_{micro};E_{micro}=\delta E_{shell}+\delta E_{pair},$$
(2)
where $`E_{macro}`$ is the liquid drop energy, here calculated as in Ref. KP002 ; the latter realization includes in particular the nuclear surface-curvature contributions.

The quantum correction $`\delta E_{shell}`$, accounts for the nuclear shell structure. It is calculated according to the standard Strutinsky prescription VMS67 , and supplemented with the pairing correlation energy, $`\delta E_{pair}E_{pair}E_{pair=0}`$, obtained within the pairing-selfconsistent Hartree-Fock-Bogolyubov (HFB) formalism as in Ref. MdV83 . The $`E_{pair}`$ term refers to the energy of the system in the presence of pairing, calculated by using the Particle Number Projection (PNP) technique (before variation), and $`E_{pair=0}`$ is the analogous term obtained by setting the pairing correlations to zero. The average pairing strength constants have been obtained in the usual way by fitting to the known nuclear masses of nuclei in the studied region.

The deformation space used includes a priori all possible $`\alpha _{\lambda \mu }`$ up to $`\lambda =12`$, with $`\lambda \mu +\lambda `$. However, the number of multipoles effectively used was significantly reduced since the effect of high-$`\lambda `$ was found to be negligible (by a direct verification).

The potential energy landscapes of Fig. 2, top, confirm the earlier calculations by TRW95 ; FRX02 ; skalski ; PMo95 , all of which predict that at its ground-state, the 110Zr nucleus has a significant prolate deformation with an axial hexadecapole deformation $`\alpha _{40}`$ of about 0.10. The calculation for the top frame of Fig. 2 has been performed according to the general procedure discussed above, but the deformation space included only the quadrupole $`(\beta _2,\gamma )`$ and axial hexadecapole $`\alpha _{40}`$ deformation (in the following we employ the standard Hill-Wheeler parameterization for quadrupole deformations). Beside the prolate ground-state, we note the presence of a very flat oblate pattern together with a small spherical minimum. However, the inclusion of the tetrahedral degree of freedom has a strong impact on this energy landscape. While the prolate minimum remains, the minimum at $`\beta _2=0`$ is lowered in energy by more than 1 MeV and corresponds to a tetrahedral configuration with $`\alpha _{32}0.14`$. In the calculations this minimum appears as pure i.e. all other deformations turn out to be zero as the result of the minimization.

The often employed technique of calculations using a mesh of deformation points (as in Fig. 2) has the drawback of taking into account only a very partial projection (usually less than 4 deformations) out of the full deformation space. In order to remove this limitation, we have adopted a strategy based on a dynamical minimization of the total energy: for fixed values of a given deformation parameter (in our case the elongation along the $`z`$-axis, $`\beta _2`$), the total energy was minimized with respect to many other deformation variables using the standard Variable Metric Method described in WHP94 . In our calculations the deformation space is composed of the entire set of octupole $`\{\alpha _{3\mu };\mu =0,1,2,3\}`$ and hexadecapole $`\{\alpha _{4\mu };\mu =0,1,\mathrm{},4\}`$ degrees of freedom, in addition to the $`\gamma `$ angle, i.e. 11 deformation parameters in total. As mentioned above, the effect of higher order multipoles has been investigated and is neglegible in the present context.

Figure 3 shows the minimized-energy cross-sections for the ground-states in several isotopes of Zirconium as function of the quadrupole deformation $`\beta _2`$. For each isotope three minima appear: one at an elongation of $`\beta _20.350.40`$, another one around $`\beta _20.25`$, and a third one at $`\beta _20`$. The latter corresponds to a finite tetrahedral deformation of about $`\alpha _{32}0.14`$. The curves plotted in Fig. 3 may provide an estimate of the height of the barriers between the tetrahedral minima and the other deformed minima. In the case of 110Zr, this barrier amounts to up to $``$ 1.5 MeV with respect to the oblate minimum.

Self-consistent Hartree-Fock-Bogliubov calculations have also been performed for these nuclei, using the SLy4 force Cha97  and the HFODD code (version 2.07) of hfodd , and are reported in Table 1. The same energy profiles as shown in Fig. 3 are predicted, with the noticeable exception that the tetrahedral minimum in 110Zr and 112Zr lies lower in energy than the now secondary prolate minimum. Both Fig. 3 and Table 1 show that the influence of the shell effects leading to the tetrahedral symmetry diminishes when going away from the ’tetrahedral magic gap’ $`N=70`$. For the lighter isotopes like 104Zr and 106Zr, the tetrahedral minimum lies very high in energy and is extremely shallow.

An important aspect associated with the preceding discussion is to find a possibly unambigous experimental signature of the discussed symmetry. Here we would like to construct a criterion based on the rotational properties of a nucleus with the tetrahedral symmetry. A discussion of other possible experimental signatures can be found in JDu02a . We use a generalisation of the rotor hamiltonian often used in molecular physics, cf. e.g. Har93 . We define

$$\widehat{}=\widehat{I}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}2}}/(2𝒥_0)+h_{32}(\widehat{T}_{3,+2}\widehat{T}_{3,2}),$$
(3)
where the first term which is proportional to the square of the nuclear angular momentum operator assures that the energy vs. spin dependence is approximately quadratic. The second, tensor term, is responsible for the tetrahedral symmetry of the hamiltonian (3). The constant $`𝒥_0`$ represents the effective moment of inertia. By construction, operators $`\widehat{T}_{3,\pm 2}`$ are spherical tensors of rank $`\lambda =3`$ with the ’magnetic’ components $`\mu =\pm 2`$; they are appropriately symmetrized functions of angular momentum operators $`\{I_x,I_y,I_z\}`$. The imaginary coefficient $`h_{3,2}`$ is a parameter of the model. According to the rotor formalism such a parameter must be independent of operators $`\{I_x,I_y,I_z\}`$, but it may be a scalar function of the spin quantum number $`I`$. Here we use $`h_{3,2}=c_{3,2}/I^2`$, with an imaginary constant $`c_{3,2}`$. This is a convenient parametrisation that allows to keep the third order term dominated by the usual, approximately quadratic energy dependence on spin. In the following we use $`c_{3,2}=i\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.03}`$; it turns out that the exact value of this constant has a very minor influence on the electro-magnetic transition rates, the latter representing the main concern in this part of the discussion.

The solutions of the Schrödinger equation with hamiltonian (3) for an even-even nucleus are characterized by integer spins and thus transform with the help of the irreducible representations of the ’simple’ $`T_d`$ group (as opposed to the ’double’ $`T_d^D`$-group of symmetry that applies for the nucleons (spinors) mentioned earlier). The group $`T_d`$ has four irreducible representations, three of them, denoted $`C1`$, $`C2`$ and $`C3`$ are one dimensional, the fourth one, $`T1`$, is three-dimensional. Because of the latter, in the strict symmetry limit the rotational spectra must contain three-fold degenerate levels (cf. Fig. 4). However, it is well known that quantum systems manifest zero-point motion oscillations: in the nuclear case the most important oscillations of this type are expected to be of quadrupole nature. We have estimated, using collective model techniques with the Bohr Hamiltonian that the expectation value of the quadrupole deformation in 110Zr is $``$ 0.05, depending somewhat on the details of the model. To simulate the zero-point motion effect in the following we therefore perform the calculations using a small quadrupole triaxial ”contamination” term introducing three moments of inertia $`J_x`$, $`J_y`$ and $`J_z`$ which slightly deviate from $`J_0`$. These are calculated using uniform density ellispoidal shapes with quadrupole deformations $`\beta =0.05`$, $`\gamma =30^\text{o}`$ and $`\alpha _{32}=0.15`$.

The zero-point motion mechanism simulated in this way has a very small influence on the degeneracy (deviations of the order of 2 keV) but it has a tremendous impact on the electro-magnetic transition probabilities. In particular, at the exact symmetry limit the only transitions allowed are $`E3`$ ones; in the calculations with the zero-point motion effect included, the quadrupole transitions are stronger by 5-6 orders of magnitude and the non-stretched B(E2)s are usually slightly stronger than the stretched ones.

In the adiabatic approximation, the nuclear hamiltonian is a sum of the rotor and the intrinsic energy term (cf. Eq. (4-3) of Ref.ABo75 ) and it follows that the eigen-energies are also sums of two corresponding terms, while the transition rates depend on the electric moments calculated with the help of the intrinsic hamiltonian. The latter were calculated here using an uniform charge distribution with the tetrahedral deformation of 0.15 and small quadrupole deformations cited above. Results in Fig. 4 illustrate only the rotor part of the spectrum. Consequently when reading them one has to bear in mind that the energies of e.g. even-spin sequence and of the odd-spin sequence may be shifted with respect to one another by an amount that needs to be taken from the interpreted measured spectrum. The results of this kind could also be used as a guidance for a band starting at $`I=3`$ (transitions corresponding to $`I3`$) or for the bands with all parities negative.

Moreover, it should be emphasized, that the reduced transition probabilities for $`(II+1)`$-transitions are usually some percentage stronger than those for $`(II1)`$-transitions, so that if e.g. the odd-spin sequence is shifted upwards, the inter-band transitions of the type $`56`$, $`45`$, etc. are to be expected. In short: the information and prediction content of the diagrams of the Fig. 4 type is much richer than what the first-glance reading may suggest.

The partial transition pattern illustrated in Fig. 4 distinguishes clearly between the decay modes of a tetrahedral quantum rotor and the one of an ellipsoidal symmetry. In the latter case, only the stretched E2-transitions are present, connecting exclusively the band-members of the same $`D_2`$-symmetric rotor irreducible-representations, as discussed in Chap. IV of Ref.ABo75 . But even in the case of a strong triaxial minimum competing ($`\gamma 30^o`$) the reduced probabilities for the non-stretched E2-transitions are nearly two orders of magnitude weaker compared to the stretched ones. Moreover, they connect only the states of the same D2-symmetry (same common irreps) \- while in the case of the Td-symmetry, the $`(C_iC_i)`$-transitions are forbidden, cf. caption to Fig. 4. These differences provide an excellent ’yes-no’ criterion, provided that a sufficient number of experimental transitions have been identified.

In the illustration of Fig. 4 we have selected a configuration composed of the lowest lying rotational levels of the same parity with spins $`I5`$; a more complete analysis will be presented elsewhere.

In summary: Low-lying tetrahedral configurations in Zr isotopes with $`64N72`$ are obtained with both the HFB and Strutinsky techniques. The only noticeable difference between these very different realizations of the mean-field comes from the relative position of the tetrahedral minimum relative to the ground-state. HFB calculations with the SLy4 interaction predict a tetrahedral ground-state in 110-112Zr. The barrier heights which separate the tetrahedral minima from their prolate counterparts have also been estimated and we emphasize that this region of the nuclear chart is potentially accessible for exploration using isomer and $`\beta `$-delayed $`\gamma `$-ray spectroscopy following projectile fission.

The spectral properties expected to accompany the tetrahedral symmetry in nuclei have been briefly discussed in terms of the electro-magnetic transitions in a quantum rotor with tetrahedral symmetry. The predicted decay pattern is very characteristic: it includes a competition between stretched and non-stretched E2-transitions and excludes the possibility of connecting some well defined groups of levels. This decay pattern is clearly distinct from known transition patterns of both the axial or nearly-axial rotors as well as strongly tri-axial rotors whose spectra contain principally the E2-transition cascades. Since in the discussed nuclei the tetrahedral-symmetry minima are in competition with the ones of quadrupole type deformation, the electro-magnetic decay criteria formulated offer a clear-cut distinction.

We believe that the predicted structure of the nuclear potential energy and the corresponding minima strongly encourages the search for the first experimental evidence of existence of these highly exotic nuclear symmetries.

Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful to J. Dobaczewski for letting them use the latest version of the HFODD code prior to its publication. This work is partially supported by EPSRC (UK), and the exchange programme between IN2P3 (France) and Polish Nuclear Physics Laboratories.


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# 𝐻^±𝑊^∓𝑍 contribution to the static quantities of the 𝑊 boson in the context of Higgs-triplet theories

## I Introduction

The trilinear gauge boson couplings $`W^\pm W^{}\gamma `$ and $`W^\pm W^{}Z`$ are representative of the nonabelian structure of the standard model (SM). It is thus interesting to study any anomalous (one–loop) contribution to them as it is important to test the quantization procedures used for these nonabelian gauge systems. In this context, the CP–even static electromagnetic properties of the $`W`$ boson, which are parametrized by two form factors, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$, have been the subject of considerable interest in the literature as is expected that future particle colliders be sensitive to this class of effects Diehl . The SM contributions to $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ were calculated in Ref. Bardeen  for massless fermions, and the top quark contribution was presented in Top . The sensitivity of these quantities to new physics effects has also been analyzed in some SM extensions, such as the two–Higgs–doublet model (THDM) THDM , supersymmetric theories SUSY , left–right symmetric models Roberto , $`SU(3)\times SU(3)\times U(1)`$ modelsTT , and models with composite particles Rizzo  and an extra gauge boson $`Z^{}`$ Sharma . $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ have also been parametrized in a model independent manner by using the effective Lagrangian technique EL . In this work we present the calculation of the contribution from the $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ coupling to the static quantities of the $`W`$ boson. Charged Higgs bosons appear in many extensions of the SM, such as the popular THDM. In the search for a charged Higgs boson, the $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ coupling might play an important role, although it is expected to be very suppressed in a Higgs–doublet model. In fact, although the $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ coupling can have a renormalizable structure, it can only be generated at the one-loop level in multi–Higgs–doublet models HWZ . Nevertheless, it can be induced at the tree–level in theories with Higgs triplets or higher representations, though it could be severely constrained by the $`\rho `$ parameter. This is true in some Higgs–triplet models which do not respect the $`SU(2)`$ custodial symmetry HHG ; GM . It is possible however to construct a model including Higgs triplets that does respect such a custodial symmetry G ; CG ; GVW , thereby relaxing the constraints from the $`\rho `$ parameter. The phenomenology of the $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ coupling has been investigated in the context of the CERN $`e^+e^{}`$ LEP–II collider, the next linear collider LC , and hadronic colliders HC . Such studies focus mainly on discriminating a charged Higgs bosons arising from a model with Higgs triplets from that induced by a Higgs–doublet model. The main goal of this work is to study the impact of the $`H^{}W^{}Z`$ vertex on the static electromagnetic properties of the $`W`$ boson. We will show that the respective contributions to $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ may be of the same order of magnitude as those arising from other renormalizable theories which include neutral o charged Higgs bosons, such as the SM or the THDM.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Sec. II we present the calculation of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ form factors. Sec. III is devoted to discuss the numerical results. Finally, the conclusions are presented in Sec. IV.

## II $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ contribution to the on–shell $`W^\pm W^{}\gamma `$ vertex

Using the momenta depicted in Fig. 1, the most general CP–even Lorentz structure for the on–shell $`W^\pm W^{}\gamma `$ vertex can be written as

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\alpha \beta \mu }=ie\left(A\left(2p_\mu g_{\alpha \beta }+4(q_\beta g_{\alpha \mu }q_\alpha g_{\beta \mu })\right)+2\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa (q_\beta g_{\alpha \mu }q_\alpha g_{\beta \mu })+\frac{4\mathrm{\Delta }Q}{m_W^2}p_\mu q_\alpha q_\beta \right).$$
(1)
In the SM, both $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ vanish at the tree–level, whereas the one–loop corrections are of the order of $`\alpha /\pi `$. These parameters define the magnetic dipole moment $`\mu _W`$ and the electric quadrupole moment $`Q_W`$ of the $`W`$ boson:

$`\mu _W`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e}{2m_W}}(2+\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa ),`$ (2)
$`Q_W`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{e}{m_W^2}}(1+\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa +\mathrm{\Delta }Q).`$ (3)
It is worth discussing the origin of the $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ vertex. It has the following renormalizable structure which is dictated by Lorentz covariance

$$is_Hgm_Zg_{\mu \nu },$$
(4)
where $`s_H`$ is a model–dependent quantity which may be very suppressed in models containing only Higgs doublets HWZ . As pointed out before, in models with a scalar sector including doublets and triplets, $`s_H`$ may be considerably enhanced since the $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ vertex is induced at the tree–level. However, not any scalar sector including triplets or higher representations is viable due to the fact that large deviations from the tree–level relation $`\rho =1`$ may arise. One possibility is to invoke a tree–level custodial $`SU(2)`$ symmetry respected by the Higgs sector, which guarantees that $`\rho =1`$ at the tree–level. In this case, the existence of a tree–level–induced $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ vertex with strength $`s_H`$ of the order of unity is possible. Several models of this class have been proposed in the literature, but we will focus on that introduced by Georgi et. al. G , and later considered in CG  and GVW . The Higgs sector of such a model consists of a complex doublet with hypercharge $`Y=1`$, a real triplet with $`Y=0`$, and a complex triplet with $`Y=2`$ G ; GVW . In this model $`s_H`$ is the sine of a doublet–triplet mixing angle and is given by

$$s_H=\sqrt{\frac{8w^2}{v^2+8w^2}},$$
(5)
where $`v`$ is the vacuum expectation value (VEV) of the Higgs doublet and $`w`$ is that of both Higgs triplets GVW . As is evident from the above expression, there are two extreme scenarios which have direct implication on the $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ vertex. One scenario corresponds to the case in which the spontaneous symmetry breaking (SSB) of the electroweak sector is entirely determined by the Higgs doublet, i.e., $`vw`$, implying that $`s_H0`$, which means that the $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ vertex is strongly suppressed. The more promising scenario for having $`s_H`$ of order $`O(1)`$ corresponds to the case where $`wv`$, which means that the SSB of the theory is dictated by the Higgs triplet. This scenario is very appealing and so it will be considered below.

We turn now to present the calculation of the contribution from the $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ vertex to $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$. This contribution is given by the Feynman diagram shown in Fig. 2. In the unitary gauge, the respective amplitude can be written as

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\alpha \beta \mu }=2eg^2m_Z^2s_H^2\frac{d^Dk}{(2\pi )^D}\frac{(k+p)_\mu (g_{\alpha \beta }\frac{1}{m_Z^2}k_\alpha k_\beta )}{[k^2m_Z^2][(k+pq)^2m_{H^\pm }^2][(k+p+q)^2m_{H^\pm }^2]}.$$
(6)
Once the Feynman parameters technique is applied, we obtain the following expressions for the electromagnetic form factors of the $`W`$ boson

$`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ $`=`$ $`6as_H^2{\displaystyle _0^1}𝑑x{\displaystyle _0^{1x}}𝑑y\left((12xy)\mathrm{log}{\displaystyle \frac{2m_Z^2(1xy)}{}}\right),`$ (7)
$`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ $`=`$ $`12as_H^2{\displaystyle _0^1}𝑑x{\displaystyle _0^{1x}}𝑑y{\displaystyle \frac{m_W^2(1xy)xy}{}}.`$ (8)
with $`a=g^2/(96\pi ^2)`$ and $`=m_Z^2\left(m_W^2+m_Z^2m_{H^\pm }^2\right)(x+y)+m_W^2(x+y)^2`$. After some calculation one ends up with the explicit solution

$`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ $`=`$ $`as_H^2\left(A_1(x_h,x_z)+A_2(x_h,x_z)\mathrm{log}\left({\displaystyle \frac{x_z}{x_h}}\right)+A_3(x_h,x_z){\displaystyle \frac{f(x_h,x_z)}{\delta (x_h,x_z)}}\right),`$ (9)
$`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ $`=`$ $`as_H^2\left(B_1(x_h,x_z)+B_2(x_h,x_z)\mathrm{log}\left({\displaystyle \frac{x_z}{x_h}}\right)+B_3(x_h,x_z){\displaystyle \frac{f(x_h,x_z)}{\delta (x_h,x_z)}}\right),`$ (10)
where the $`A_i`$ and $`B_i`$ functions are given by

$`A_1(x,y)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(1+6(x^2y^2)^2+3(7y^23x^2)\right),`$ (11)
$`A_2(x,y)`$ $`=`$ $`3\left((x^2y^2)^32(x^2y^2)^2+y^2(x^2y^2)+x^2\right),`$ (12)
$`A_3(x,y)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\left((x^2y^2)^43(x^2y^2)^3y^2(x^2y^2)^2+3(x^4y^4)x^2(1+4y^2)\right),`$ (13)
$`B_1(x,y)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}2(x^2y^2)^2+3x^2y^2,`$ (14)
$`B_2(x,y)`$ $`=`$ $`2\left((x^2y^2)^32x^2(x^2y^2)+x^2\right),`$ (15)
$`B_3(x,y)`$ $`=`$ $`(x^2y^2)^4+3x^4(x^21)+y^4(x^2+y^2)x^2y^2(5x^21)+x^2.`$ (16)
In addition, we introduced the definitions $`x_h=m_{H^\pm }/m_W`$ and $`x_z=m_Z/m_W`$, along with

$`\delta (x,y)`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{12(x^2+y^2)+(x^2y^2)^2},`$ (17)
$`f(x,y)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{log}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1(x^2+y^2)\delta (x,y)}{1(x^2+y^2)+\delta (x,y)}}\right).`$ (18)
In order to cross–check the above results, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ were calculated independently by a general method for reducing tensor form factors. This method, which is an extension of the Passarino–Veltman scheme Veltman2 , is described detailed in Ref. Stuart . In such a scheme one assumes that $`q^20`$ and applies the usual Passarino–Veltman reduction. The reason why one cannot put $`q^2=0`$ in Eq. (6) prior to applying the tensor reduction is that it would require the inversion of a kinematic matrix whose determinant is $`𝒟=4q^2\left(m_W^2q^2\right)`$, which evidently vanishes for $`q^2=0`$. Once the form factors for arbitrary $`q^2`$ are obtained, the limit $`q^20`$ is taken in order to yield the static quantities of the $`W`$ boson in terms of two–point Passarino-Veltman scalar functions $`B_0`$. Although the limiting procedure $`q^20`$ involves some additional complications since the application of L’Hôpital rule is required, one important advantage of this method is that it can be computer programmed, thereby eliminating the possibility of any mistake. After this scheme is applied, one is left with the following results:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa }{as_H^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}x_z^2\left(9+2x_z^2\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}x_h^2\left(1+4x_h^22x_h^2\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{24x_z^2}{\delta ^2(x_h,x_z)}}\left(1x_z^2x_h^2\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{3x_h^2}{\delta ^2(x_h,x_z)}}\left(1+x_z^2x_h^2\right)^3\mathrm{\Delta }B_1`$ (19)
$``$ $`3x_z^2\left(x_z^2x_h^2{\displaystyle \frac{4x_z^2}{\delta ^2(x_h,x_z)}}\left(1x_z^2+x_h^2\right)\right)\mathrm{\Delta }B_2,`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }Q}{as_H^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}+x_z^2\left(3+2x_z^2\right)x_h^2\left(1+4x_z^22x_h^2\right){\displaystyle \frac{4x_z^2}{\delta ^2(x_h,x_z)}}\left(1x_z^2x_h^2\right)`$ (20)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2x_h^2}{\delta ^2(x_h,x_z)}}\left(x_z^6+\left(1x_h^2\right)^33\left(1x_h^2+x_z^2\right)x_z^2x_h^2\right)\mathrm{\Delta }B_1`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2x_z^2}{\delta ^2(x_h,x_z)}}\left(\left(x_h^2x_z^2\right)\left(\left(1x_z^2+x_h^2\right)x_z^2+x_h^2\left(2+x_z^2x_h^2\right)\right)x_h^2\right)\mathrm{\Delta }B_2.`$
with $`\mathrm{\Delta }B_1=B_0(m_W^2,m_{H^\pm }^2,m_Z^2)B_0(0,m_{H^\pm }^2,m_{H^\pm }^2)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }B_2=B_0(m_W^2,m_{H^\pm }^2,m_Z^2)B_0(0,m_Z^2,m_Z^2)`$. These scalar integrals can be solved analytically or numerically evaluated FF . We compared numerically the latter results with those obtained from Eqs. (9)–(10) and observed a perfect agreement. In this way we make sure that our results are correct.

## III Discussion

The behavior of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa /(as_h^2)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q(as_H^2)`$ as a function of $`x_h`$ is shown in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively. From these figures we can observe that $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ is of the order of $`as_H^2`$ in the range $`2m_W<m_{H^\pm }<10m_W`$, whereas $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ is one order of magnitude below. One can also observe that $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ decreases more rapidly than $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ with increasing $`m_{H^\pm }`$. It is convenient to compare our results with those arising from other couplings involving Higgs bosons. For instance, the contribution from the SM $`W^\pm W^{}H^0`$ vertex was calculated in Ref. Bardeen , in which case $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa a`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q10^2a`$ for values of $`m_H`$ in the same range considered for $`m_{H^\pm }`$ in Figs. 3 and 4. Similar results were found in Ref. THDM  for the contributions coming from the THDM couplings $`W^\pm W^{}\varphi ^0`$ and $`H^\pm W^{}\varphi ^0`$, with $`\varphi ^0=H^0,h^0`$, and $`A^0`$. We conclude thus that the contribution of the $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ vertex to $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ may be as important as those contributions arising from other Higgs boson couplings provided that $`s_H1`$, i.e, when the SSB of the electroweak sector is dictated by the Higgs triplets.

We now would like to focus on the decoupling nature of the Higgs boson contributions to the $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ form factors. The sensitivity of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ to heavy physics effects as well as the decoupling nature of $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ was analyzed in a more general context in Ref. Inami . From Figs. 3 and 4 we can see that $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ decouples for a large Higgs scalar mass, whereas $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ does not. These results do not contradict the decoupling theorem, which establishes that those Lorentz structures arising from renormalizable operators can be sensitive to nondecoupling effects, whereas those structures coming from nonrenormalizable operators are suppressed by inverse powers of the heavy mass, thereby decoupling in the large mass limit. As far as $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ are concerned, the former always decouples for a large mass of a particle running in the loop since its Lorentz structure is generated by a nonrenormalizable dimension–six operator; on the contrary, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ may be sensitive to nondecoupling effects as the Lorentz structure associated with this quantity is induced by a renormalizable dimension–four operator. In this context, the decoupling properties of $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ have been discussed in the context of all of the renormalizable theories considered up to now in the literature Bardeen ; TT . For instance, in the SM the heavy Higgs mass limit yields $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa a`$ Bardeen . As far as the THDM is concerned, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa 2a`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q0`$ when $`m_{\varphi ^0}`$ becomes very large and $`m_{H^\pm }`$ is kept fixed, whereas $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa a`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q0`$ in the opposite scenario THDM . In addition, in the same model, both $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ vanish when both $`m_{\varphi ^0}`$ and $`m_{H^\pm }`$ are very large. In our case, we obtain that $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa (as_H^2)/2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q0`$ in the heavy charged scalar mass limit. These values follow readily from Eq. (7).

It is interesting to note that our results can also be used to obtain the contribution to the static quantities of the $`W`$ boson from the $`H^{}W^\pm Z^{}`$ coupling, with $`Z^{}`$ the extra neutral gauge boson appearing in theories with an extra $`U(1)`$. This contribution has yet been calculated in the context of an extra $`U(1)`$ superstring inspired theory Sharma . According to these authors, their results were obtained in the Landau gauge. We have compared numerically our results with those presented Eqs. (12) and (13) of Ref. Sharma  and found no agreement. As pointed out above, our results were cross–checked by making a comparison between the results obtained via the Feynman parameters technique and those obtained by the slightly modified version of the Passarino–Veltman scheme described in Refs. TT ; Stuart . These two methods are independent and allows us to make sure that our results are correct.

## IV Conclusion

The novel feature of a Higgs–triplet representation is the presence of a tree–level $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ vertex, whose strength may be of the order of the unity provided that the SSB of the electroweak sector is dictated by the VEV of the neutral components of the Higgs triplet. This class of models can be viable as long as a tree–level custodial $`SU(2)`$ symmetry is respected by the Higgs potential. The phenomenology of the $`H^\pm W^{}Z`$ coupling is thus be very appealing. Any direct or indirect evidence of the this coupling would be a clear signal of the existence of a scalar sector comprised by Higgs triplets. We have studied the impact of this vertex on the static electromagnetic properties of the $`W`$ gauge boson. We found that the respective contributions to the form factors $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q`$ are as important as those predicted by the SM coupling $`W^\pm W^{}H^0`$ or those arising from the THDM couplings $`W^\pm W^{}\varphi ^0`$ and $`H^\pm W^{}\varphi ^0`$.

We would like to point out that our results can also be used to evaluate the contributions from the $`H^\pm W^{}Z^{}`$ vertex to the magnetic moments of the $`W`$ boson, where $`Z^{}`$ is the neutral boson which appears in theories with an extra $`U(1)`$ gauge symmetry. We note that our results, (9) and (10), disagree with those presented in Ref. Sharma  for the contribution from the $`H^\pm W^{}Z^{}`$ coupling in an extra $`U(1)`$ superstring inspired theory. Finally, We emphasize that our results were cross–checked by making a comparison between the results obtained via the Feynman parameters technique and those obtained by the slightly modified version of the Passarino–Veltman scheme described in Ref. Stuart .

###### Acknowledgements.

Support from CONACYT and SNI (México) is acknowledged. The work of G. T. V. is also supported by SEP-PROMEP.


text:
# Adaptive walks in a gene network model of morphogenesis: insights into the Cambrian explosion

## I Introduction

Morphological complexity in metazoa experienced an extraordinary leap close to the Cambrian boundary (around 550 Myrs ago). Such event has been labeled the Cambrian explosion. When this radiation began, and how rapidly it unfolded, is still the subject of active research (Morris, 1998; Raff, 1994; Valentine *et al.*, 1999; Solé *et al.*, 2000). The early origins of the last common ancestor and the structure of its bodyplan are controversial issues (Erwin and Davidson, 2002). The Cambrian event established essentially all the major animal body plans and hence all the major phyla which would exist thereafter. A body plan can be described anatomically but also in terms of the spatiotemporal pattern of expression of some key genes (Arthur, 1997). In this context, the origins of evolutionary novelty emerges as an integrative field involving gene regulation, development and paleobiology (Arthur, 2002; Carroll, 2001). As Shubin and Marshall pointed out, untangling the web of ecological, developmental and genetic interactions is a difficult task and a key question is which changes occur first (Shubin and Marshall, 2000).

A possible interpretation of the uniqueness, tempo and mode of the Cambrian event in terms of generic features of complex evolving systems was suggested by Kauffman in terms of adaptive walks on rugged fitness landscapes (Kauffman, 1993, 1989). In a nutshell, the idea is that, given the fundamental constraints imposed by early developmental dynamics, early exploration of the universe of possible body plans took place quickly (once some underlying requirements were met) but then slowed down as the repertoire of possible bodyplans was filled out (Kauffman, 1989; Raff, 1994). Starting from some initial condition where low-fit multicellular organisms were present, a rapid exploration of the landscape was allowed to occur. This initial exploration led to an increase of diversity of improved alternative morphologies thereby establishing phyla. As the rate of finding fitter mutants that alter early developmental processes (which define body plans) slowed down, lower taxonomic groups became established.

The argument is completed by the assumption that mutants affecting early development have more profound effects than those affecting late development. In this scenario, by the Permian extinction (200 Myr later), when an estimated $`95\%`$ of species ($`82\%`$ of genera, see (Erwin, 1998)) went extinct, early developmental pathways would be expected to have become largely frozen in after the Cambrian event and no new phyla would be reachable. Fitter variants altering basic body plans would be very hard to find but not variants affecting late development. This would allow the radiation of new families and lower taxa. Fitness landscapes, first introduced by Wright in 1932, allow to describe changes in the fitness of a given species through time in a well-defined fashion (Palmer, 1991; Kauffman, 1993; Rowe, 1994; Stadler, 2002). In an idealized situation, we can imagine the landscape as a surface. Here the tops and bottoms of the landscape would indentify good and bad combinations of traits, respectively. This picture allows one to visualize the evolution of species as a hill climbing on the fitness surface.

A more precise definition is provided by describing each individual (or species) is defined as a set of $`N`$ binary variables $`S_i\{0,1\}`$ defining a set of characteristic traits (Kauffman and Levin, 1987; Kauffman, 1993). The total number of combinations is $`2^N`$ and each occupies a node of a $`N`$-hypercube $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_N`$. In figure 1 we show an example of this fitness landscape for $`N=3`$. Each string has a well-defined fitness value, which can be represented by means of a $`N`$-dimensional function $`\varphi =\varphi (S_1,\mathrm{},S_N)`$. If the number of epistatic interactions $`K`$ is zero, i. e. if different traits do not influence each other, then a smooth landscape is obtained, whith a single peak. But if different traits interact, then the landscape becomes rugged and multiple local fitness peaks are allowed to occur. The simplest evolution on a fitness cube occurs by means single, one-bit steps. In other words, a given species can perform a random adaptive walk from a given node towards one of its $`N`$ nearest neighbors if this leads to an increase in fitness (alternatively, a neutral change can also occur, and thus random drift is also allowed). A direct consequence of this assumption is that once a local peak is reached, no further changes are allowed.

There is a universal feature of adaptation on statistically correlated landscapes (Kauffman and Levin, 1987) which can be appropriately used to test these ideas. This can be formulated as follows: if $`S`$ is the cumulative number of assumed improvements (new body plans) originated and $`T`$ is the cumulative number of tries, then $`S`$ will grow with $`T`$ in a logarithmic fashion. Graphically, this means that $`S`$ grows rapidly at the beginning and then slows down. The cumulative number of tries can be approximated by the cumulative number of lower-level entities (e. g. genera) viewed as successive experiments in the generation of higher-level entities. The analysis of the cumulative increase of phylum originations against cumulative genera seems to confirm this prediction (Eble, 1998).

A further step in exploring the possible scenarios for an explosion of patterns in the evolution of development should consider the developmental program in an explicit way. One important factor not addressed by previous theoretical studies deals with the spectrum of possible spatial patterns of gene expression that can be generated from a given number of genes. This is a relevant question since combinatorial explosions can occur once complexity thresholds (in number of genes or their interactions) are reached. In previous studies, it has been shown that some particular types of combinations of gene-gene interactions involving cell-cell communication allow to easily generate a number of spatial patterns including stripes, gradients or spots (Salazar *et al.*, 2000, 2001; Solé *et al.*, 2002). These studies were performed on randomly wired networks and revealed a large fraction of spatial patterns that could be generated and their nature (Solé *et al.*, 2002). One question immediately emerges: what are the minimal complexity requirements in terms of number of pattern-forming genes- in order to reach a high diversity of phenotypes?

One possible approach to the problem is to consider an artificial evolution model were real organisms and their development are replaced by digital organisms (Wilke and Adami, 2002) with simplified developmental programs. Such an approximation is becoming more common in evolutionary studies. The success of some of these models in extraordinary in providing insight into the evolution of complex biological systems. As pointed out by Gould, such a range of success is a consequence of universal laws of change that are common to all complex systems (Gould, 2003). In this context, we can conjecture that digital developmental programs might also share generic properties with real, early development.

Previous theoretical studies have shown that the fact of randomly wiring gene networks within a tissue context allows a high diversity of patterns and that spatial patterns are easily obtained (Solé *et al.*, 2002). But no theoretical study has addressed the question of the potential diversity of (stable) patterns that can be obtained by tuning the number of genes involved in creating them, provided that some simple initial signal (an activated gene) is present at the beginning of development. Here we will explore this question by means of an simplified model of early development in which the number of different cell types is optimized. In this context, we specifically ask the following questions:

1. What are the consequences of searching for stable patterns of increasing complexity, being complexity measured in terms of the number of cell types?
2. What are the minimal requirements in terms of gene regulation complexity in order to be able to reach a wide spectrum of spatial patterns?
3. What type of spatial patterns are obtained?
4. How does the evolution of these patterns takes place in terms of the underlying fitness landscape?
5. Can a combinatorial explosion partially explain the tempo and mode of the Cambrian event?

As will be shown below, the model approach provides nontrivial, tentative answers to the previous questions.

## II Gene network model

A complete model of the gene activity pattern even at early stages of development would require a detailed description of the different levels of gene regulation and signaling (Arnone and Davidson, 1997). Such a description should take into account the continuous nature of mRNA and protein levels as well as other considerations related to the nature and distribution of cell signaling molecules and the stochastic nature of their dynamics. In this context, abstract models only taking into account a small amount of key features often capture the essential ingredients of gene regulation dynamics (Hasty *et al.*, 2001; Solé and Pastor-Satorras, 2002).

As a matter of fact, it has been recently shown that discrete, ON-OFF models of early development can actually provide complete enough information in order to reproduce the key traits of a developmental pattern (Bodnar, 1997; Mendoza *et al.*, 1999; Sanchez and Thieffry, 2001; Albert and Othmer, 2003). As discussed in (Albert and Othmer, 2003) within the context of the expression pattern of segment polarity genes in Drosophila, the observed patterns are determined by the topology of the network and the type of regulatory interactions between components. This is consistent with recent computer models indicating that a robust segment polarity module exists and that it is rather insensitive to variation in kinetic parameters (von Dassow *et al.*, 2000) (see also (Meir *et al.*, 2002; Gibson, 2002)). In other words, a complete description of both wild type patterns and various mutants is successfully reached by using simple Boolean networks. Here we take the same approach.

Several choices can be made in dealing with the structure of the wiring scheme to be used in the regulation network. One possibility is to restrict ourselves to a hierarchical cascade of interactions inspired in the topology of interactions of Drosophila. But it is known that even gap genes are not completely hierarchical (Gehring, 1998). Some of them may act to switch on others (figure 2a). Actually, this property characterizes other gene groups as well, reminding us that we are actually dealing with a complex network instead of a linear chain of steps (Arthur, 1997).

The model explored here is a gene threshold system, described by a set of $`N`$ genes per cell, interacting through a one-dimensional domain involving $`C`$ cells, as shown in figure 3. The set of genes involved represent those required to build the basic structure and are thus bauplan genes (as defined in (Tautz and Schmid, 1998)). Here gene states will be Boolean: genes are either active (1) or inactive (0). Two types of elements will be considered: $`G`$ genes and $`H`$ hormones, with $`N=G+H`$. Genes interact within the cell, whose state at a given time $`t`$ will be indicated as $`g_i^j(t)`$, with $`i=1,\mathrm{},G`$ as the gene number and $`j=1,\mathrm{},C`$ as the cell number (ordered from anterior to posterior). Generically labeled microhormones (Jackson *et al.*, 1986) involve some implicit local mediators communicating neighboring cells. These hormones can receive inputs from any of the first $`G`$ units, but they can only make output to genes in other cells. The state of these $`H`$ hormones will be accordingly indicated as $`h_i^j(t)`$.

Two matrices will be required in order to define the whole spectrum of links between different elements. These two matrices will be indicated by $`𝐀=(A_{ik})`$ and $`𝐁=(B_{ik})`$, defining interactions among the $`G`$ genes and between genes and hormones, respectively.

The basic set of equations of our gene network model are:

$`g_i^j(t+1)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Theta }\left[𝒢_i^j(t)+_i^j(t)\right]`$ (1)
$`h_i^j(t+1)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Theta }\left[𝒢_i^j(t)\right]`$ (2)
with

$`𝒢_i^j(t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{G}{}}}A_{ik}g_i^j(t)`$
$`_i^j(t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{G}{}}}B_{ik}\delta (h_k^{j+1}(t),h_k^{j1}(t))`$
where $`\delta (x,y)`$ is an “OR” function (that is, $`\delta (x,y)=1`$ if either $`x=1`$ or $`y=1`$ and zero if $`x=y=0`$). The function $`\mathrm{\Theta }(x)`$ is a threshold function (that is, $`\mathrm{\Theta }(x)=1`$ if $`x>0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Theta }(x)=0`$ otherwise), and is shown in figure 2C.

Therefore, genes are influenced either by genes or hormones and hormones are influenced just by genes, and the influences $`𝒢_i^j`$ and $`_i^j`$ add up to determine if genes will be active or inactive by the comparison to a threshold (in this case 0), as shown in figure 2B. The OR function, or $`\delta (x,y)`$, is used here as a substitute for the diffusion of microhormone to the neighbours, since a microhormone will be seen as active in cell $`j`$ if either of its neighbours is active.

For cells at the boundaries we have the special terms:

$`_i^1(t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{G}{}}}B_{ik}h_k^2(t)`$
$`_i^C(t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{G}{}}}B_{ik}h_k^{C1}(t)`$
indicating that cells at the poles just have one neighbour.

Finally, we need to define an initial condition. The simplest choice that can be defined involves the activation of a single gene at the anterior ($`j=1`$) pole, as well as the symmetric case in which the signal is present at the two poles ($`j=1`$ and $`j=C`$). Specifically, we set $`g_i^j(0)=h_i^j(0)=0`$ for all $`j=1,\mathrm{},N_C`$, except $`g_1^1(0)=1`$ in the single pole case, and an additional $`g_1^{N_C}(0)=1`$ in the symmetric case. These choices correspond to maternal signals confined to the embryo’s extremes. Such initial change will propagate to the rest of the tissue provided that the network is sensitive to it.

As an example of the dynamics, the temporal evolution of one sample organism with one-pole maternal signal is shown in figure 4.

## III Adaptive walks

Using the above mentioned gene network model of pattern formation, we now explore how pattern complexity emerges through a simple evolutionary algorithm where a population of $`P`$ organisms evolve through adaptive walks. Such type of algorithm has been successfully used in different contexts (see for example (Niklas, 1994, 1997)).

In order to define the evolution algorithm, we need to first define a fitness function. Here we restrict ourselves to measuring the number of different cell types. The number of cell types is a good measure of complexity which is known to increase through metazoan evolution (Valentine *et al.*, 1994; Carroll, 2001). Increases in cell type number provide a high potential for further evolution of anatomical and functional complexity, essentially through division of labor and the formation of specialized tissues (Maynard-Smith and Szathmáry, 1995). It is clear that the diversity of organisms involving a small number of cell types is fairly limited and thus a first step towards the evolution of complex organisms requires an expansion of their diversity of cell types. Actually, as discussed by Erwin and Davidson, regulatory processes underlying cell-type specification are very old and display conserved plesiomorphic features Erwin and Davidson (2002). Morphogenetic processes would have evolved independently and added at later stages.

We consider, then, the number of cell types $`n_{ct}`$ as our complexity measure and formulate the following question. What are the consequences for the diversity of spatial patterns that can be generated if we increase the number of cell types?

Starting from a homogeneous population of $`P`$ identical organisms, we perform adaptive walks on the fitness landscape. At each generation in the algorithm, we sequentially choose each organism and introduce a single change in its gene network. Three types of changes can occur, with probability $`\frac{1}{3}`$, all of them affecting the dependencies between genes:

* addition of new links,
* removal of previously present links, and
* randomization of links’ weights.

In this way the complexity of the network can be tuned independently for each organism.

After the change, the developmental pattern generated by the organism is simulated. The number of different cell types $`n_{ct}^t`$ is computed using this new pattern and it is compared with the previous one, $`n_{ct}^{t1}`$. If $`n_{ct}^tn_{ct}^{t1}`$ the change is accepted and the new organism replaces the old one. Otherwise the change is rejected and the old organism is kept. The fact that we keep the new organism if $`n_{ct}^t=n_{ct}^{t1}`$ (the exact developmental pattern might be different), introduces a certain amount of neutrality that may reduce the probability that an organism gets trapped because it cannot find any changes that give it a higher number of cell types. As an additional requirement, the stability of the final pattern is enforced by rejecting those organisms which do not reach a stable state in $`I`$ iterations. This is a strong constrain, since puts a hard limit on the attainable patterns, but it also seems sensible, for developmental processes are very robust and only display transient oscillations.

The size of the space of possible patterns $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is rather high, since the number of combinations of the activation of genes in each cell gives rise to a potential number of patterns of

$$|\mathrm{\Gamma }|=2^{(H+G)C}.$$
(3)
Actually, the tissue context exponentially expands the allowed space $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_c`$ of cell types reachable by isolated cells, which has a size $`|\mathrm{\Gamma }_c|=2^{(H+G)}`$ (i.e. we have $`|\mathrm{\Gamma }|=|\mathrm{\Gamma }_c|^C`$). Even for a small number of cells and a small amount of genes, the resulting space is hyperastronomically large. For example, if we take $`G+H=4`$ (which is one particularly interesting case, as shown below) we have $`|\mathrm{\Gamma }|=2^{60}10^{17}`$.

In order to explore the potential repertoire of structures that can be generated, we will focus in the set of stable spatial patterns $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_g`$ associated to each single gene (independently of others), from the set of possible spatial patterns, with $`|\mathrm{\Gamma }_g|=2^C`$. This is equivalent to consider the raw capacity to generate specific patterns without regarding any gene as more important than any other. Therefore, a population of organisms at any given generation has a corresponding set of patterns, $`𝒫`$, the ones taken from all the patterns that the genes in each organism generate individually in the developmental process. Any pattern in this list occurs in some specific genes in some organisms, across the different cells, and with a different frequency, which we also measure.

## IV Results

As an overall trend, simulations proceed in the direction of increasing the number of patterns $`|𝒫|`$, as the average number of cell types grows generation by generation. Given that every organism in the population performs its own adaptive walk, one would expect the behavior of the average of the population would reflect some of the structure of the landscape. For instance, should there be any special local peaks in which an organism could get trapped, one would find many organisms there. As we will see, this is not the case.

A graph of $`|𝒫|`$ and the number of cell types achieved after 15000 generations for different numbers of genes and hormones is shown in figure 5. As the number of genes increases, the number of patterns discovered increases, with a tendency to saturate at high $`G`$. Since the total number of possible patterns is, for $`C=9`$, $`|\mathrm{\Gamma }_g|=2^9=512`$, it is clear that the population almost finds all the possible patterns for high $`G`$. This is even more evident if we look at the number of cell types, which reaches a value of almost 9, the maximum. From this curves it is also clear the simple change from one to two microhormones makes the system much less constrained and therefore more patterns are found.

As mentioned earlier, given a population, many organisms generate some patterns more than once. In fact, the distribution $`F(r)`$ of patterns generated has an interesting structure, as shown in figure 6. Here patterns are sorted out by their rank $`r`$ (i. e. by their order from the most to the least frequent). Some patterns, especially those with a small number of active cells at the anterior pole, are very frequent. Some others, on the contrary, are very scarce. The distribution follows approximately the form of a power law, i. e. $`F(r)r^\alpha `$, with $`\alpha `$ close to one.

The frequent patters are, roughly, those that start the repeting process that generates a wave across the organism but remain active only near the anterior pole. Since less combinations exist for that type of patterns, more organisms will generate the same ones. The rare patterns seem to be those that are the result of the construction process and may vary considerably in its exact values, since many more different combinations exist. In figure 4, the pattern generated by $`g_2`$ would be an example of a “starter”, and thus more frequent, and the $`g_1`$ would be an example of a possible rare one.

Given a fixed $`G`$ and $`H`$, two other parameters affect the number of patterns one obtains. On the one hand, the maximum number of iterations to attain a stable pattern, $`I`$, and, on the other, the number of organisms in the population, $`P`$. If $`I`$ is smaller, less patterns are discovered since those patterns that may stabilize in a higher number of iterations are filtered out. If $`P`$ is larger, the landscape is explored more extensively, and more patterns are discovered. Two figures demonstrate this dependence: figure 7 shows two different runs with different population sizes all other parameters being equal, showing how the bigger population attains a bigger number of patterns; figure 8 shows the exact dependency.

The most surprising results, however, involve the repertoire of spatial patterns for small-sized gene networks. The basic set of patterns obtained is shown in figure 9 for $`C=15`$ cells, where the results from the two types of initial activations (one pole at left, two poles at right) are shown. As we can see, the repertoire is fairly limited, even if we use $`G=3`$ genes and $`H=1`$ hormones. Most patterns are rather homogeneous, displaying a small gradient or single stripes, although some patterns with wider stripes are also observable, thus indicating that the richness of dynamical patterns transiently generated by coupled genes can stably propagate even with only one hormone.

The situation, however, dramatically changes once we cross a complexity threshold. If $`H=2,G=2`$, a very large number of patterns becomes available. In figure 10 the resulting stable patterns are shown under the same simulation conditions. Now we can see that the number of different patterns, $`|𝒫_1|`$=239 and $`|𝒫_2|`$=154 for one and two maternal signals, respectively, is comparable to the number of organisms involved. The diversity is also remarkable: many different orderings in the stripe and gap distributions are obtained, suggesting that a very high universe of combinations is compatible with a high diversity of cell types.

## V Discussion

Any simple model of pattern formation does necessarily introduce shortcuts that limit the range of conclusions that can be safely reached. Our model does not include a large number of relevant features, from cell division to biologically realistic regulatory mechanisms. But again, as stressed in previous sections, some key, large scale features of complex systems do not depend on the specific details involved at lower levels (Solé and Goodwin, 2001). This is fairly well exemplified by Boolean models of Drosophila development.

Our results can be summarized as follows (providing a tentative list of answers to the list of questions presented in the first section):

1. Using the number of cell types as a complexity measure, our model indicates that the whole spectrum of spatial patterns is potentially reachable, provided that the population of digital organisms is large enough. Maximal diversity of cell types is positively correlated with the diversity of spatial patterns generated. This suggests that increasing cellular diversity is consistent with highly flexible pattern-forming mechanisms.
2. If a single hormone is involved, complex patterns can be obtained by increasing the network complexity. A much more rapid increase is obtained by using two hormones. Actually, the combination of two genes + two hormones leads to a combinatorial explosion of spatial patterns. As a consequence, our results indicate that, provided the number of organisms is large enough, any pattern seems to be available.
3. The spectrum of spatial patterns of gene expression is dominated by gap-like structures, stripes and all kind of combinations between them. It is remarkable that all classes of spatial structures are easily identified as matching the spatial distribution of maternal, gap and pair-rule gene expression patterns. Some genes (as it occurs in real development) are only transiently activated and thus appear in the end as absent.
4. The population climbs the underlying landscape in such a way that the rate of finding local peaks increases in a logarithmic fashion. This implies that a rapid diversification is followed by a further slowdown, in agreement with a rugged fitness landscape.
5. The jump in pattern diversity experienced at $`H=G=2`$ indicates that thresholds in network complexity, even at small-gene numbers exist and can lead to combinatorial explosions. Such explosions would open a whole spectrum of available structures. Reaching such a threshold might require the formation of a minimal regulatory network and might also require other prerequisites dealing with body size, cellular interactions and tissue specialization. However, once in place, the whole universe of patterns can be made suddenly available.

The previous results support the idea that the Cambrian event (and perhaps other rapid diversification events) might result from changes in the pattern of gene regulation. Of course the model does not consider ecological or other factors that might have played a key role. Instead, we concentrate in the study of the generative potential of such a simple model and in the universe of possible spatial patterns that can be generated. As a result, we obtain a surprising jump once a threshold of genetic complexity is reached. Although the whole repertoire of patterns might need some exploratory effort to be reached, most patterns are easily found and once a large fraction of them has been obtained, further innovation occurs at a slower pace.

The main message of this paper is that rapid diversification events in terms of generation of evolutionary novelty in developmental processes can take place through combinatorial explosions. Although it can be argued that the model is too simple, the exploration of continuous counterparts of these results give very similar outcomes (particularly the thesholds of network complexity). Additionally, the continuous models allow to increase the repertoire of patterns and the same applies to discrete models using Boolean (instead of threshold) functions. In other words, the choices made here actually limit the diversity of patterns that can be generated.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors would like to thank the members of the complex systems research group for useful discussions. This work was supported by a grant BFM2001-2154 (RVS) and the Generalitat de Catalunya (PFD, 2001FI/00732) and The Santa Fe Institute.


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# Demonstration of a 1/4 cycle phase shift in the radiation-induced oscillatory-magnetoresistance in GaAs/AlGaAs devices

## Abstract

We examine the phase and the period of the radiation-induced oscillatory-magnetoresistance in GaAs/AlGaAs devices utilizing in-situ magnetic field calibration by Electron Spin Resonance of DiPhenyl-Picryl-Hydrazal (DPPH). The results confirm a $`f`$-independent 1/4 cycle phase shift with respect to the $`hf=j\mathrm{}\omega _c`$ condition for $`j1`$, and they also suggest a small ($``$ 2$`\%`$) reduction in the effective mass ratio, $`m^{}/m`$, with respect to the standard value for GaAs/AlGaAs devices.

Measurements 1  of GaAs/AlGaAs devices including a 2-Dimensional electron system (2DES) have recently shown that vanishing resistance can be induced by photo-excitation at liquid helium temperatures, in a weak-magnetic-field large-filling-factor limit.1 ; 2 ; 3  The possibility of identifying a new physical mechanism for inducing vanishing resistance in the 2DES has motivated much theoretical interest in this phenomenon,4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9  which shares features of the zero-resistance states in the quantum Hall situation, minus Hall quantization.10 ; 11

Experiments suggest that this novel effect is characterized, in the Hall geometry, by a wide magnetic field, $`B`$, interval where the diagonal resistance, $`R_{xx}`$, becomes exponentially small upon photo-excitation in the low temperature, $`T`$, limit.1 ; 2 ; 12  Measurements have also indicated that increasing the radiation frequency, $`f`$, linearly shifts distinguishing features to higher $`B`$.13 ; 14  Thus, one might define from $`f`$ a field scale $`B_f=2\pi fm^{}/e`$, where $`e`$ is the electron-charge, and $`m^{}`$ is an effective mass.1  According to theory, the observed periodicity reflects the interplay between the photon energy, $`h\text{f}`$, and integral ($`j`$) cyclotron energies, $`j\mathrm{}\omega _c`$, and $`B_f`$ is defined by $`hf=\mathrm{}\omega _c`$.4 ; 6 ; 8  Hence, in the expression for $`B_f`$, $`e`$ is a known constant, $`f`$ can be measured accurately, and $`m^{}`$ can be taken, initially, to be the standard value for $`m^{}`$ in GaAs/AlGaAs, although it could involve corrections.

A problem of interest is to identify the $`B`$ intervals that exhibit vanishing resistance at a fixed $`f`$, and to connect them in a simple way to $`B_f`$ because the relation between the two scales $`(hf,j\mathrm{}\omega _c)`$, which is set by $`B`$, is likely to be essential in the underlying physics. In earlier work, we had reported that resistance minima occur about $`B=[4/(4j+1)]B_f`$ and resistance maxima transpire about $`B=[4/(4j+3)]B_f`$, with $`j`$=1,2,3… 1  This ”minima about $`B=[4/(4j+1)]B_f`$” result might also be loosely reformulated as a ”1/4 cycle phase shift” with respect to the $`hf=j\mathrm{}\omega _c`$ condition.15

Our ”minima about $`B=[4/(4j+1)B_f]`$” result seems incongruent, however, with a report which identified radiation induced resistance minima with $`\omega /\omega _c=j+1/2`$, i.e., $`B_f/B=j+1/2`$, and resistance maxima with $`\omega /\omega _c=j`$, i.e., $`B_f/B=j`$, where $`\omega =2\pi \text{f}`$.14  Briefly, that study of low mobility specimens exhibited $`T`$-insensitive $`R_{xx}`$ oscillations, a large non-vanishing resistance at the minima even at the lowest $`T`$, and the absence of a phase shift.14  A subsequent study of high mobility specimens identified resistance maxima with $`\omega /\omega _c=j`$, as it placed resistance minima on the high magnetic field side of $`\omega /\omega _c=j+1/2`$.2

A recent reformulation16  asserts that the phase of the $`R_{xx}`$ oscillations in ref.2  are consistent with a 1/4 cycle phase shift,1  but only at low-$`B`$, i.e., $`j4`$. Although this reinterpretation has helped to bring overlap between theory,4 ; 6 ; 8  and recent experiment,1 ; 2 ; 12 ; 13 ; 16  there continues to be a phase-variance in the regime of low $`j`$, $`j4`$, between our initial report announcing these novel zero-resistance states \[ZRS\], and the report by Zudov et al., confirming the same.1 ; 2

Phase characterization in this context requires an accurate measurement of $`B`$ since the observed oscillations are referenced to $`f`$, which sets $`B_f`$. In the laboratory, the transport set-up typically includes a high-field superconducting magnet, and $`B`$ is often determined from the magnet coil current, $`I`$, via a calibration constant. At low-$`B`$, $`B0.5T`$, this approach to $`B`$-measurement can be unreliable due to nonlinearity and hysteresis in the $`BI`$ characteristics of the field-coil, and $`B`$ offsets due to trapped flux and/or current-offsets in the magnet power supply. An in-situ Hall probe can be applied to correct this problem. However, even this approach is prone to field measurement errors arising from misalignment-voltages in the Hall sensor or changes in the Hall constant.17  To reduce such uncertainties, we have carried out microwave transport studies of the 2DES with in-situ $`B`$-field calibration by Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) of DiPhenyl-Picryl-Hydrazal (DPPH). The results demonstrate a $`f`$-independent 1/4 cycle phase shift in the radiation-induced oscillatory-magnetoresistance, and they suggest a small reduction in the mass ratio characterizing this phenomena, with respect to the standard value for $`m^{}/m`$, $`m^{}/m=0.067`$.18

Experimental details have been reported elsewhere.1 ; 12 ; 13  Here, for $`f50`$ GHz, the samples were photo-excited with a digital-frequency-readout microwave generator, with a 1 ppm  uncertainty in $`f`$ in the CW mode.19  At higher frequencies, mechanical $`f`$-meters with an uncertainty of 0.4$`\%`$ above 100 GHz were used in conjunction with calibration tables to determine $`f`$.20  Thus, $`f`$ is thought to be better characterized below 50 GHz. ESR of DPPH was performed in the immediate vicinity of the 2DES at $`f10`$ GHz using a second digital-frequency-readout microwave source.21  The g-factor for the unpaired electron undergoing ESR on DPPH is 2.0036, which corresponds to 28.043 GHz/T.22

Fig. 1(a) shows the magnetoresistance $`R_{xx}`$ measured in a GaAs/AlGaAs device with microwave excitation at 30 GHz. Also shown is the ESR of DPPH at 2.01 GHz, which marks $`B_f=2\pi fm^{}/e`$ for $`f`$ = 30 GHz and $`m^{}/m`$ = 0.067. The data of Fig. 1 (a) indicate that the ESR field marker coincides neither with a minimum nor with a maximum in the $`R_{xx}`$ signal.1  Fig. 1(a) also indicates a strong resistance minimum below $`B_f`$, about $`4/5B_f`$, which is the $`j=1`$ member of $`B=(4/[4j+1])B_f`$. These data at 30 GHz also exhibit a deep minimum between $`B_f`$ and $`2B_f`$, which is identified here as the possible principal minimum for a two-photon process with a fundamental field $`2B_f`$, expected to form about $`2(4/5B_f)=8/5B_f`$. The data suggest a convergence to $`8/5B_f`$, as the minimum becomes deeper with increasing microwave power.

Fig. 1(b) shows $`R_{xx}`$ under photoexcitation at 50 GHz. This panel includes DPPH-ESR field markers which identify $`B_f`$, $`4/5B_f`$, $`B_f/2`$ and $`B_f/2.5`$, for $`f`$ = 50 GHz. These data show that, at $`\pm B_f`$, there is once again neither a maximum nor a minimum in the $`R_{xx}`$, as in Fig. 1(a). In addition, a zero-resistance state forms about the $`\pm 4/5B_f`$ field marker, and there is neither a maximum nor a minimum in $`R_{xx}`$ near the $`\pm B_f/2`$ marker.1  Thus, the data of Fig. 1 indicate that the $`R_{xx}`$ maxima do not coincide with $`B_f/j`$.1 ; 2 ; 14 ; 16  They also confirm the absence of intrinsic sweep-direction dependent hysteretic effects.

Fig. 2(a) exhibits $`R_{xx}`$ vs. $`B^1`$ at 50 GHz for several radiation intensities. This plot shows regular-in-$`B^1`$ $`R_{xx}`$ oscillations with a number of ”fixed points” where $`R_{xx}`$ is independent of the microwave power. According to the theory,8  the conductance under radiation should equal the dark conductance at $`B_f/B=j`$. We denote these as Integral Fixed Points (IFP). Experiment also indicates Half-Integral Fixed Points (HIFP) in the vicinity of $`B_f/B=j+1/2`$.12  The $`B`$-measurement of IFP’s by ESR of DPPH is shown in Fig. 2(b). Here, the ESR of DPPH at $`f_0`$ = 3.21 GHz marks the first IFP in the $`R_{xx}`$ data of Fig. 2(a). Fig. 2 (a) and (b) indicate that, when $`f_0`$ is selected to mark the first IFP, $`f_0`$/2 marks a $`B^1`$ that is slightly below the second IFP, suggesting a small correction. This correction is attributed here to the observed asymmetry between the resistance increase- and the resistance decrease- with respect to the dark value. That is, as the $`R_{xx}`$ increase under excitation can easily exceed, in magnitude, the $`R_{xx}`$ decrease, $`R_{xx}`$ peaks tend to span a wider $`B^1`$ interval than the $`R_{xx}`$ valleys. This tends to relocate the IFP to a slightly higher $`B^1`$ value, than where the condition $`2\pi f/\omega _c=j`$ actually holds true.

Another method for determining the period and the phase of the oscillations involves the application of a half-cycle plot, shown in Fig 2(c). Typically, the procedure assumes a cosine waveform. Thus, the $`R_{xx}`$ maxima and minima are labelled by integers and half-integers, respectively. These labels, denoted here by the index $`k`$, are plotted vs. extremal values of $`B^1`$, as in Fig. 2(c). A linear fit, $`k_{FIT}`$, then serves to determine the slope, $`dk_{FIT}/dB^1`$ = $`B_f`$, and the ordinate intercept. Here, in Fig. 2(c), the ordinate intercept at 1/4 demonstrates a 1/4 cycle phase shift of $`R_{xx}`$ with respect to the assumed (cosine) waveform.13  The residual difference, $`\mathrm{\Delta }k`$, between $`k`$ and $`k_{FIT}`$ for the extrema and fixed points, has been shown in Fig. 2(d). Fig. 2(d) confirms a small phase distortion, discussed above, at the lowest fixed points. It also confirms that the $`k`$ = 1 $`R_{xx}`$ maximum, which tends to be upshifted from $`B_f/B`$ = 3/4, is a special case,12  see also Fig. 3(a).

There are two parameters in the half-cycle analysis: the intercept and the slope. Yet, the root-parameter in the slope is $`m^{}`$ since $`B_f=2\pi fm^{}/e`$, and $`f`$ can be measured. The question then arises whether the measured $`m^{}`$ agrees with expectations.

In order to obtain a representative sampling of the phase and $`m^{}/m`$, we have carried out a half-cycle analysis of a data set obtained over a range $`f`$. For this work, both the extrema and the fixed points were subjected to a separate half-cycle analysis at each frequency, as illustrated in Fig. 3(a) for $`f`$ = 103 GHz. Since the analysis of the extrema has been discussed above, we note only that an analogous half-cycle analysis of the fixed points involves associating IFP’s with integers and HIFP with half-integers, and plotting the resulting index $`k`$ vs. $`B^1`$.

A linear least squares fit served to determine the slope and the ordinate intercept of the $`k`$ vs. $`B^1`$ plots, as in Fig. 3(a). The characteristic field, $`B_f`$, and $`m^{}/m`$ were extracted using $`B_f`$ = $`dk_{FIT}/dB^1`$, and $`m^{}/m`$ = $`eB_f/(2\pi fm)`$, where m is the electron mass. The resulting phase and $`m^{}/m`$ have been shown in Fig. 3(b) and Fig. 3(c). Fig. 3(b) shows that the average phase for the extrema is 0.24 ($`\pm `$ 0.015), which is 1/4 within uncertainty. On the other hand, Fig. 3(c) shows that the average phase for the fixed points is -0.015 ($`\pm `$ 0.012), which is approximately zero. Thus, the phase related results are broadly consistent with resistance minima at $`B_f/B=j+1/4`$, resistance maxima at $`B_f/B=j+3/4`$, IFP’s at $`B_f/B`$ = $`j`$, and HIFP’s at $`B_f/B`$ = $`j+1/2`$, for j = 1,2,3…12  The residual difference, $`\mathrm{\Delta }k`$ = $`kk_{FIT}`$, for the extrema and fixed points have been shown in Fig. 3(d) and Fig 3(e), respectively. Here, the scatter $`\mathrm{\Delta }k`$ spans a smaller band in Fig. 3(e) than in Fig. 3(d). Doublet formation on the $`k=2`$ maximum at large $`f`$ or low $`T`$, akin to ”spin splitting,” has been found to introduce scatter in Fig. 3(d).

So far as the mass ratios are concerned, Fig. 3(b) suggests $`m^{}/m`$ = 0.0659 ($`\pm `$ 0.0004), and Fig. 3(c) indicates that $`m^{}/m`$ = 0.0656 ($`\pm `$ 0.0006). These mass ratios are roughly 2$`\%`$ below the standard value, $`m^{}/m`$ = 0.067,18  and 1$`\%`$ below our previously reported result, $`m^{}/m`$ = 0.0663.1  Here, the difference between the average mass of Fig. 3 (b) and (c), and the standard value, appears to exceed the resolution limit of this experiment.

Mass corrections can originate from, for example, the polaron effect,23  where an electron polarizes the lattice and creates phonons, and the dressing of the electron by the phonon cloud leads to a mass change, usually a mass increase. An observed mass reduction could be related to some such renormalization effect, if the associated effect is somehow switched off in this context, so that the measurement comes to reflect a bare mass, which then looks like a mass reduction. A theoretical study appears necessary to examine such a possibility. Band non-parabolicity can lead to a dependence of $`m^{}/m`$ on the electron density, $`n`$, or the Fermi energy. Fig. 4 shows, however, that the $`R_{xx}`$ oscillation period remains unchanged as $`n`$ is varied by $``$ 15 $`\%`$ using the persistent photo-effect.

In summary, we have demonstrated a $`f`$-independent 1/4 cycle phase shift of the extrema in the radiation induced oscillatory-magnetoresistance with respect to the $`\omega /\omega _c=j`$ or $`B_f/B=j`$ condition for $`j`$1.4 ; 6 ; 8  We also find that $`m^{}/m`$ is 1 $`\%`$ smaller than previously reported,1  and about 2 $`\%`$ smaller than the standard value.18