text:
# Self-stabilised fractality of sea-coasts through damped erosion

## Abstract

Erosion of rocky coasts spontaneously creates irregular seashores. But the geometrical irregularity, in turn, damps the sea-waves, decreasing the average wave amplitude. There may then exist a mutual self-stabilisation of the waves amplitude together with the irregular morphology of the coast. A simple model of such stabilisation is studied. It leads, through a complex dynamics of the earth-sea interface, to the appearance of a stationary fractal seacoast with dimension close to $`4/3`$. Fractal geometry plays here the role of a morphological attractor directly related to percolation geometry.

preprint: APS/123-QED

Coastline morphology is of current interest in geophysical research eric , and coastline erosion has important economic consequences penning . Also, the recent concern about global warming has increased the demand for a better understanding of coastal evolution. At the same time, although the geometry of seacoasts is often used as an introductory archetype of fractal morphology in nature mandelbrot67 ; barton , there has been no explanation about which physical mechanism could justify that empirical observation. In the field litteraturecoastalevolution  one can read: ”As a matter of some urgency, researchers concerned with coastal evolution should consider the alternative models, even if there are few supporting data. The ideas of … stochastic development, … and criticality, all deserve investigation.” The present work propose a minimal, but robust, model of evolution of rocky coasts towards fractality.

The model describes how a stationary fractal geometry can arises spontaneously from the mutual self-stabilization of coast morphology and sea eroding power sapo1 . If, on one hand, erosion generally increases the geometrical irregularity of the coast, on the other hand this increase creates a stronger damping of the sea and a consequent diminution of its eroding power. The increased damping argument relies on the studies of fractal acoustical cavities, which have shown that viscous damping is augmented on a longer, irregular, surface sapo2 ; sapo3 . In the following, a minimal two-dimensional model of erosion is introduced which leads to the spontaneous evolution of a smooth seashore towards fractality as shown in Fig. 1.

Rocky coasts erosion is the product of marine and atmospheric causes davis . There exist many different erosion processes: wave quarrying, abrasion, wetting and drying, frost shattering, thermal expansion, salt water corrosion, carbonation, hydrolysis. A simplified picture is used here by assuming that the different processes can be separated into two categories: “rapid” mechanical erosion (namely wave quarrying) and “slow” chemical weakening. The justification is that mechanical erosion generally occurs rapidly, mainly during storms, after rock has been altered and weakened by the slow weathering processes. We first study the supposedly rapid erosion mechanisms. Then we show that the full complex dynamics, involving fast and slow processes, build a dynamic equilibrium that preserves the fractal shape of the coast.

The sea, together with the coast, is considered to constitute a resonator. It is assumed that there exists an average excitation power of the waves $`P_0`$. The “force” acting on the unitary length of the coast is measured by the square of the wave amplitude $`\mathrm{\Psi }^2`$. This wave amplitude is related to $`P_0`$ by a relation of the type $`\mathrm{\Psi }^2P_0Q`$ where $`Q`$ is the morphology dependent quality factor of the system; the smaller the quality factor, the stronger the damping of the sea-waves. There are several causes to waves damping. Since the different loss mechanisms occur independently, the quality factor satisfies a relation of the type

$$\frac{1}{Q}=\frac{1}{Q_{coast}}+\frac{1}{Q_{other}},$$
(1)
where $`Q_{coast}`$ is the quality factor due to the viscous dissipation of the fluid moving along the coast and the nearby islands and $`Q_{other}`$ is related to other damping mechanisms (e.g. bulk viscous damping). Studies of fractal acoustical cavities sapo2 ; sapo3  have shown that the viscous damping increases roughly proportionally to the cavity perimeter. Therefore, one can, in first approximation, assume that $`Q_{coast}`$ is inversely proportional to the coast perimeter $`L_p(t)`$ whereas $`Q_{other}`$ is independent of the coast morphology. In other words, the sea exerts a homogeneous erosion force $`f(t)`$ on each coast element proportional to $`\mathrm{\Psi }^2(t)`$:

$$f(t)=\frac{f_0}{1+\frac{gL_p(t)}{L_0}},$$
(2)
where $`L_p(t)`$ is the total length of the coast at time $`t`$ (then $`L_p(t=0)=L_0`$). The factor $`g`$ measures the relative contribution to damping of a flat shore as compared with the total damping. Since $`g`$ represents the importance of coast dissipation with respect to the other mechanisms, which are thought to be dominant, computations are performed under the condition $`g1`$. The quantity $`f_0`$ is the renormalized value of $`P_0`$ such that $`f(t)<1`$ at all $`t`$.

The mechano-chemical properties of the rocks constituting the coast, which are linked to structure and composition defining their “lithology”, are unknown and exhibit some dispersion. The “resisting” random earth is then modelled by a square lattice of random units of width $`L_0`$. Each site represents a small portion of the earth. The sea acts on a shoreline constituted of cells, each one characterised by a random number $`x_i`$, between $`0`$ and $`1`$, representing its lithology. The erosion model should also take into account the fact that a site surrounded by the sea is relatively weakened as compared with a site surrounded by earth or other coast sites. Hence, the resistance to erosion $`r_i`$ of a site depends on both its lithology and the number of sides exposed to the action of the sea. This is implemented through the following weakening rule: sites surrounded by three earth sites has a resistance $`r_i=x_i`$. If in contact with $`2`$ sea sites the resistance is $`r_i=x_i^2`$. And, if site $`i`$ is attacked by $`3`$ or $`4`$ sides, it has zero resistance. The iterative evolution rule is simple: at time $`t`$, all coast sites with $`r_i<f(t)`$ are eroded, and then $`L_p(t)`$ and $`f(t)`$ are updated together with the resistances of the earth sites in contact with the sea. Then, from one step to the next, some sites are eroded because they present a “weak lithology” while some strong sites are eroded due to their weaker stability due to sea neighbouring. An example of local evolution is shown in Fig. 2.

In the first steps of the dynamics, the erosion front keeps quite smooth and it roughens progressively as shown in Fig. 1 upper row. During the process, finite clusters are detached from the infinite earth, creating islands. At any time, both the islands and the coastline perimeters contribute to the damping. As the total coastline length $`L_p(t)`$ increases, the sea force becomes weaker. At a certain time step $`t_f`$, the weakest point of the coast is stronger than $`f(t_f)`$ and the dynamics stops. This shows that erosion reinforces the coast by preferential elimination of its weakest elements until the coast is strong enough to resist further erosion. The time evolution of $`f(t)`$ is shown in Fig. 3. The fact that the process spontaneously leads to a total stop of erosion for a *non-zero* wave power is remarkable. It is a direct consequence of random percolation stauffer  as discussed below. At time $`f(t_f)`$ the coastline is fractal (see Figs. 1 and 4 ) with dimension $`D_f=1.332(3)`$, very close to 4/3, up to a characteristic width $`\sigma `$. This width $`\sigma `$ is defined as the standard deviation of the final coastline depth $`(yY)^2^{1/2}`$ (where $`Y=y`$ is the average erosion depth). Fig. 4 shows the box-counting determination of the fractal dimension. The fact that $`D_f4/3`$ confirms the relation with percolation, as $`4/3`$ is the dimension of the so-called accessible percolation cluster grossman . Note that this value is also close to the observed fractal dimension for many seacoasts, as the United States eastern shore barton .

A more detailed study of the coast width $`\sigma `$ suggests that the model falls in the universality class of Gradient Percolation (GP) sapo4 . As shown in Fig. 5, the coast width $`\sigma `$ follows a scaling law with respect to $`g`$

$$\sigma g^{\alpha _\sigma }$$
(3)
with $`\alpha _\sigma 4/7`$.

This law is characteristic of GP where sites are occupied at random with an occupation probability that varies in space along one fixed direction between 1 and 0 with a constant gradient $`g`$, and $`\sigma `$ is the width of the frontier of the infinite cluster. The fact that here $`g`$ is proportional to a gradient of occupation probability is explained by the following argument. At time $`t`$, the erosion power is $`f(t)`$ while the sea has eroded the earth up to an average depth $`Y(t)`$, an increasing function of $`t`$. Inverting this function, $`f`$ can be written as $`f(t(Y))`$. There exists then a spatial gradient of the occupation probability by the sea. For small enough $`g`$ one can write $`|df/dY|=|(g/L_0)(dL_p(Y)/dY)|`$. The quantity $`dL_p(Y)/dY`$ is a function of $`g`$ but to the lowest order it is a constant independent of $`g`$ since even with $`g=0`$, there will be an erosion due to randomness and a consequent perimeter evolution $`L_p(t)`$. Then to lowest order, the real gradient $`df/dY`$ is linear in $`g`$, which can then be called the “scale gradient”. Note that the formation of a fractal interface due to the spontaneous appearance of a gradient has already been observed in the corrosion of an aluminium film balasz ; sapo5 .

Of course, the real dynamics of the coasts are more complex than the “rapid” process considered above. They result from the interplay with the slow weathering processes, generally attributed to carbonation or hydrolysis. These processes act on longer, geological, time scales. In order to simulate this evolution, the lithology parameter $`x_i`$ of all the coast sites is decreased by a small fraction $`ϵ`$, i.e. $`x_i^{}=(1ϵ)x_i`$ with $`ϵ1`$ after the erosion has stopped at $`t_f`$. One or a few coast sites then become weaker than $`f(t_f)`$ and the rapid erosion dynamics starts again up to a next arrest time. This procedure is then iterated. At each restart of erosion, a finite portion of the earth is eroded. The repeated effect of the “slow” weathering mechanisms gives a fluctuating behavior of $`f(t)`$ and generates a coastline erosion drift with fluctuations or avalanches, but it does not alter the fractal features of the coast (see Figure 1 lower row). In that sense fractal geometry plays the role of a statistical attractor. In the language of coastal studies haslett , the system state evolves through a dynamical equilibrium where small perturbations (even without special trigger events) may stimulate large fluctuations and avalanche dynamics. This is due to the underlying criticality of percolation systems. In the authors’ mind, it is this stationary regime which corresponds to the geomorphologic observations of fractal seacoasts.

The above simple model presents limitations, but the simplifications that keep the system in the universality class of percolation are unimportant. The use of different weakening rules would eventually modify the dynamics but not the final fractal dimension. The time separation between rapid erosion and slow chemical weakening is somewhat arbitrary as both mechanisms can occur simultaneously without changing the coast fractality. Also a better model for damping should take care of a wave frequency dependence as well as it should consider the existence of localization by the frontier of the waves along the irregular coast sapo2 . This would modify Eq. (2) and change the time evolution. However, since percolation possess the universality properties of phase transitions stauffer , the fractal dimension of the coast should not depend on these factors. In the context of corrosion dynamics gab1 , this has been shown through arguments from dynamical field theory of absorbing states gab2 . If large-scale modifications or correlations exist in the lithology properties, then the resulting geometry would be more complex. But our main result, namely the existence of irregular coasts as a result of a self-stabilisation mechanism, would remain correct even though the geometry would be more complex than that of critical percolation. We believe that it is in those terms that can be interpreted the results of several detailed study of the self-similarity properties of sea-coasts goodchild ; andrle .

A more radical change in the geometry is expected if sediments transport is taken into account. In our simplified model, the sediments are supposed to be transported offshore and disappear, while in the real erosion process these sediments are partially transported along the coast. However our approximation is justified by some examples, like the North Coast of Oregon (USA), a leading hedge coast dominated by erosion with very limited coastal deposits haslett .

One should also mention that it has been found very recently that the GP power laws apply even when the front is too narrow to be fractal sapo6 . This extends considerably the range of application of GP to rocky coasts which are irregular, but not to a fractal range.

This work has presented a minimal model for the formation of fractal rocky coast morphology. This model bears on the reciprocal evolution of the erosion power and the topography of the coast submitted to that erosion: The more irregularly eroded the coast is, the weaker the average sea erosion power. Note that this seems to be an empirically known effect used to build efficient break-waters that are based on hierarchical accumulations of tetrapods piled over layers of smaller and smaller rocks, in close analogy with fractal geometry manual . The retroaction leads to the spontaneous formation of a fractal seacoast with a fractal dimension $`D_f=4/3`$. The fractal geometry plays here the role of a morphological attractor: whatever its initial shape, a rocky shore will end fractal when submitted to such type of erosion, forgetting its initial morphology. Note that our model suggests that, on the field, the islands which have resisted to an erosion under a force larger that the final force $`f(t_f)`$, are stronger that the coast itself. This could be verified on the historical data of known seacoasts and neighbouring islands evolutions. The model reproduces at least qualitatively some of the features of real coasts using only simple ingredients: the randomness of the lithology and the decrease of the erosion power of the sea. It is worth to be noted that the use of simple geophysical ingredients leads to an evolution towards a self-organized fractality directly related to percolation theory.

A.G. wish to acknowledge the Departement of Physics of the University of Rome “La Sapienza” (Italy) for supporting this research.


format: text

text:
# Spin nematics in the bilinear-biquadratic S=1 spin chain

## Abstract

We report the existence of an extended critical, nondimerized region in the phase diagram of the bilinear-biquadratic spin-one chain. The dominant power law correlations are ferroquadrupolar i.e. spin nematic in character. Another known critical region is also characterized by dominant quadrupolar correlations, although with a different wave vector. Our results show that spin nematic correlations play an important role in quantum magnets with spin $`S1`$ in regions between antiferromagnetic and ferromagnetic phases.

The recent experimental demonstration OrzelGreiner  of the transition to a Mott insulating state of atoms in an optical lattice from a superfluid state has opened the way to novel realizations of effective quantum lattice models with widely tunable control parameters. Quantum magnetic systems can be realized by spinor atoms in an optical lattice, e.g. 23Na with a total $`S=1`$ moment. Confining $`S=1`$ atoms to an optical lattice there are two scattering channels for identical atoms with total spin $`S=0,2`$ which can be mapped to an effective bilinear and biquadratic spin interaction Yip ; Demler :

$$H=\underset{i,j}{}\left[J\left(\text{S}_i\text{S}_j\right)+J_q\left(\text{S}_i\text{S}_j\right)^2\right],$$
(1)
where we adopt the standard parametrization $`J=\mathrm{cos}\theta `$ and $`J_q=\mathrm{sin}\theta `$. In one dimension, the bilinear-biquadratic spin-one model has a rich phase diagram (see Fig. 1), which includes the well-known Haldane gap phase HaldaneConjecture , a dimerized phase DimerizedPhase , a ferromagnetic phase and - as we will show in this Letter - two critical spin nematic phases. In a pioneering paper ChubukovPRB  Chubukov suggested the existence of a gapped, nondimerized phase with dominant spin nematic correlations close to the ferromagnetic region of the phase diagram. Subsequent numerical work FathNematic  could however not substantiate this claim and it was therefore believed that the dimerized phase would extend up to the ferromagnetic phase boundary. Recent quantum Monte Carlo calculations KawashimaPTP  and field theoretical work IvanovKolezhuk  suggest that this picture might need to be reconsidered, especially in the light of possible experimental verifications in Bose-Einstein condensate systems Yip .

In dimensions higher than one, the bilinear-biquadratic spin-one model is well understood in the relevant parameter regime. It exhibits a spin nematic phase with a finite spin quadrupole moment in the groundstate PapaUnusualPhases ; HaradaKawashimaPRB .

In this Letter we propose a novel scenario for the phase diagram of the one-dimensional model in between the dimerized and the ferromagnetic phases. In particular, we substantiate the existence of an extended critical, nondimerized region with dominant spin nematic correlations using extensive numerical simulations. We further characterize a second extended critical phase between the Haldane and the ferromagnetic phase, as also having prevalent quadrupolar correlations, albeit with a different wavevector.

The outline of this paper is as follows. In the first part we present various numerical results providing evidence for an extended critical phase without spontaneous dimerization for $`\theta (3\pi /4,0.67\pi ]`$. We show that the quintuplet gap vanishes over this whole interval and that the transition between the dimerized and the critical phase is of a generalized Beresinski-Kosterlitz-Thouless (BKT) type. The absence of finite dimerization is discussed. We further determine conformal field theory parameters, such as scaling dimensions and the central charge for the critical region. Finally we address the second extended critical phase $`\theta [+\pi /4,+\pi /2)`$, which we exhibit to have prevailing quadrupolar correlations at wavevectors $`\pm 2\pi /3`$.

Numerical techniques —  Our results constitute the synthesis of different computational methods: i) Exact diagonalization (ED) of periodic chains up to 18 sites, using both static and dynamic observables, ii) Large scale Density Matrix Renormalization Group (DMRG) SRWDmrg  calculations using the finite size algorithm on systems up to 512 sites while keeping 1000 states, iii) Strong coupling series expansions SinghGelfand  around the dimerized limit up to 10th order.

Closing of the Gap —  We first track the evolution of the energy gap to the first excitation using DMRG calculations on long open chains. A phase transition is signaled by the closing of the gap. The lowest excited state on open chains carries spin two for $`\theta (3\pi /4,\pi /2]`$ FathNematic . Our results shown in Fig. 2 are clearly consistent with a finite gap of the $`S=2`$ excitation for $`\theta 0.65\pi `$. However, for $`\theta <0.65\pi `$ the extrapolated gap is very small (of the order of $`10^3`$ for $`\theta =0.7\pi `$) which suggests the existence of a phase transition around $`0.67\pi `$ below which the gap is zero. The data shows no evidence for a reopening of the $`S=2`$ gap in the interval $`\theta (3\pi /4,0.67\pi ]`$, at variance with the initial proposal ChubukovPRB . In order to investigate the closing of the gap by different means we have calculated strong coupling series expansions of the $`S=2`$ single particle gap starting from the dimerized limit up to 10th order in the interdimer coupling $`\lambda `$ for fixed $`\theta `$. A direct evaluation of the quintuplet gap shows a closing of the gap around $`\theta =0.67\pi `$ which is illustrated in the left panel of Fig. 3. Using DLog Padé approximants we have determined the critical interdimer coupling $`\lambda _c(\theta )`$ where the gap closes, see upper right panel of Fig. 3. Consistent with previous estimates by Chubukov ChubukovPRB  we find that the gap closes for the uniformly coupled ($`\lambda =1`$) chain around $`\theta 0.67\pi `$.

Having substantiated the closure of the gap in both DMRG and series expansions with indications of an extended gapless region $`3\pi /4<\theta <0.67\pi `$, we now consider the existence of a generalized BKT phase transition. To determine the critical point we use phenomenological level spectroscopy. We calculate the level crossing $`\theta _c^L`$ of the lowest singlet excitation at $`k=\pi `$ with the lowest spin-2 level at $`k=0`$ for different system sizes $`L`$ with ED and extrapolate $`L\mathrm{}`$. The results are shown in Fig. 4. The extrapolation is performed with $`1/L`$ and $`1/L^2`$ corrections, fitting only the largest four system sizes. The extrapolated critical point is $`\theta _c=(0.67\pm 0.02)\pi `$, in good agreement with estimates obtained by other techniques Yip ; ChubukovPRB . The coefficient of the $`1/L`$ correction is small, and fitting without this term yields slightly larger values $`\theta _c>0.67\pi `$.

Dimerization and quadrupolar correlations — Dimerization in the phase diagram of the spin-one chain has been firmly established by exact results obtained for the $`\theta =\pi /2`$ point DimerizedPhase . It should be noted that although the system is dimerized, it is rather poorly described by a simple product wavefunction of alternating singlets, as can be seen from the small gap and the large correlation length over the whole dimerized phase. The dimerization order parameter DimerOP  considered here is: $`(\text{S}_{i1}\text{S}_i\text{S}_i\text{S}_{i+1})`$. The second kind of correlations expected to be important in this region of the phase diagram PapaUnusualPhases ; HaradaKawashimaPRB  are the quadrupolar spin fluctuations $`𝒞_{\text{quad}}(r)[(S_0^z)^22/3][(S_r^z)^22/3]`$.

We have calculated the standard static structure factor (SF) and the generalized nonlinear susceptibility (GNS) NonlinearSusc  for both kinds of correlations. We present ED results regarding the dimerization in the left panel of Fig. 5. The SF and the GNS both diverge as $`L\mathrm{}`$ for $`\theta =\pi /2`$, where long range dimer order is established DimerizedPhase . Similar behavior is found for $`\theta 0.67\pi `$. For $`\theta (3\pi /4,0.67\pi )`$ however, we find that the SF and the GNS are both decreasing with system sizes, indicating the absence of static dimerization in this gapless region. In the right panel we display the corresponding quantities for the $`k=0`$ (ferroquadrupolar) mode of the quadrupolar correlations. Here the behavior is different: while there are only short range correlations deep in the dimerized phase, the ferroquadrupolar correlations increase drastically with system sizes for $`\theta (3\pi /4,0.67\pi )`$. Since quadrupolar long ranged order is forbidden at $`T=0`$ in this 1D model – apart from $`\theta =3\pi /4,+\pi /4`$, where the order parameter commutes with the Hamiltonian – we therefore expect a power-law behavior. Note that exactly at $`\theta =3\pi /4`$ the system is a $`SU(3)`$ ferromagnet and shows ferromagnetism and ferroquadrupolar long range order at the same time BatistaOrtizGubernatis .

Finally we want to discuss the relation of the proposed scenario to the numerical results presented in Ref. FathNematic  where an intermediate phase as proposed by Chubukov ChubukovPRB  could not be found. We agree with the authors on the absence of a gapped, nematic-like phase. However, we think that the numerical results in FathNematic  are compatible with the existence of an intermediate critical, nondimerized phase, though the authors have not explicitly considered such a phase.

Field theoretical description — In order to discriminate between potential conformal theories describing the phase transition and the extended gapless region, we calculate relevant field theory parameters, i.e. the scaling dimensions (SD) $`x`$ of several fields and the central charge $`c`$ (Fig. 6). The calculation of these parameters has been performed with ED and relies on finite size scaling properties of groundstate and excited states energies CFTreferences . Leading logarithmic corrections have been taken into account. The SD of the $`k=\pi `$ singlet field ($`x_s`$) and the $`k=0`$ quintuplet field ($`x_q`$) are both close to $`3/8`$ at the onset of criticality near $`\theta 0.67\pi `$. $`x_s`$ significantly increases, while $`x_q`$ decreases and seems to approach $`0`$ as $`\theta 3\pi /4`$, compatible with quadrupolar long range order precisely at $`\theta =3\pi /4`$ BatistaOrtizGubernatis . Our results for the effective central charge are unexpected. The central charge $`c`$ does not seem to be constant throughout the critical region. The smallest value is found at the onset ($`c3/2`$), and then seems to increase monotonously. While this behavior can not directly be ruled out on field theoretical grounds, it is rather uncommon. It remains to be understood whether $`c`$ is really continuously increasing or whether we are facing a crossover phenomenon. The critical theory at $`\theta 0.67\pi `$ we however believe to be well characterized by a level two $`SU(2)`$ Wess-Zumino-Witten model given both the scaling dimensions ($`3/8`$) and the central charge ($`3/2`$). Further support for this claim comes from the indirect calculation of $`x_s`$ within our series expansions. There the critical exponent $`\gamma `$ of the $`S=2`$ gap is related to the scaling dimension $`x_s`$ by $`\gamma =1/(2x_s)`$. In the lower right panel of Fig. 3 we show the critical exponent calculated by DLog Padé approximants to the 10th order series. In the vicinity of $`\theta 0.67\pi `$ the various approximants reveal only small spreading. Within the precision of a 10th order calculation the exponents comply with a scaling dimension of $`x_s=3/8`$ (dashed line).

The period 3 phase — The existence of an extended critical phase with soft modes at $`k=\pm 2\pi /3`$ has first been reported in FathPeriodTrippling  and further analyzed and interpreted in XiangTrimerized ; MuellerKarbach ; ItoiKato . Our results presented in the first part raise the question whether this critical region is of spin nematic character as well. Further hints come from the field theoretical work of Itoi and Kato ItoiKato , which shows that throughout the critical region the spin 2 mode at $`k=\pm 2\pi /3`$ has correlation-enhancing logarithmic corrections. This is consistent with the earlier observation, that the lowest level at $`k=\pm 2\pi /3`$ carries spin 2 FathPeriodTrippling . We have calculated the static spin structure factor ($`S=1`$) and the spin quadrupolar structure factor ($`S=2`$) both at momentum $`2\pi /3`$. The results shown in Fig. 7 display nicely that the quadrupolar correlations become more important than the corresponding spin-spin correlations as one leaves the $`SU(3)`$ symmetric point. Although all correlation exponents (dimer, spin, quadrupolar) are equal to $`\eta =4/3`$, logarithmic corrections render the quadrupolar correlations dominant in this phase. Note that this phenomenon is similar to the $`S=1/2`$ antiferromagnetic Heisenberg chain, where both spin-spin and dimer-dimer correlations have equal correlation exponents $`\eta =1`$, but the logarithmic corrections choose the spin-spin correlations to decay more slowly.

For completeness we show selected field theory parameters for this critical region in the inset of Fig. 7. The results are in good agreement with field theoretical predictions ItoiKato  and support the applicability of the used ED techniques to determine field theory parameters.

Conclusions and Outlook — To summarize, we have shown that spin nematic correlations play an important role in the phase diagram of the $`S=1`$ bilinear-biquadratic chain. Applying a combination of numerical techniques we reconsidered Chubukov’s proposal ChubukovPRB  of a gapped, nondimerized and nematic-like phase between the dimerized and the ferromagnetic phases. Our numerical results provide evidence for a modified picture with a phase transition at $`\theta 0.67\pi `$ where the dimerized phase terminates. However, the phase in the window $`\theta (3\pi /4,0.67\pi ]`$ remains critical, i.e. gapless and nondimerized. The dominant correlations are spin-quadrupolar correlations at $`k=0`$. In the second critical region for $`\theta [+\pi /4,+\pi /2)`$ we also find dominant quadrupolar correlations at wavevectors $`k=\pm 2\pi /3`$. It will be interesting to compare our field theoretical parameters to future analytical calculations.

###### Acknowledgements.

We would like to thank F. Alet, N. Laflorencie, P. Lecheminant, F. Mila, D. Roggenkamp, M. Troyer and S. Wessel for valuable discussions. The authors acknowledge support from the Swiss National Science Foundation.


text:
# Optimized U-MOT for experiments with ultracold atoms near surfaces

Current address: \]Department of Physics, Ben Gurion University, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel

## Abstract

We present an integrated wire-based magnetooptical trap for the simplified trapping and cooling of large numbers of neutral atoms near material surfaces. With a modified U-shaped current-carrying Cu structure we collect $`>3\times 10^8`$ 87Rb atoms in a mirror MOT without using quadrupole coils. These atoms are subsequently loaded to a Z-wire trap where they are evaporatively cooled to a Bose-Einstein condensate close to the surface.

Recent progress in the field of trapping and manipulating atoms in micropotentials has significantly improved the possibilities of investigating the interaction of trapped atoms with material objects. Newly available techniques allow, for example, to bring cold neutral atoms close to surfaces and use them as highly sensitive local probes of electric and magnetic surface potentials. In this context, both the effects of thermally induced currents (Johnson noise) Henkel et al. (2003) and of disorder in surface structures Wang et al. (2003) have been studied theoretically. The first indications of such disorder potentials have already been observed experimentally Kraft et al. (2002); Jones et al. (2003) and some effects attributed to Johnson noise have been measured in various materials Harber et al. (2003).

Similarly, structuring surfaces allows to tailor potentials for the atoms with a resolution of the order of the atom–surface distance. This distance can be in the micron range, possibly below. In this way, integrated devices for the controlled manipulation of matter waves, so called atom chips, can be built. Atom chips combine the potential of microfabrication technology, i.e. to create nearly arbitrary structures for detailed and robust atom manipulation, with the ability of a controlled quantum evolution developed in atomic physics and quantum optics. They pave the path to many applications ranging from fundamental physics of mesoscopic atomic systems and issues of low dimensionality to implementations of quantum information processing Folman et al. (2002); Reichel (2002).

The starting point of many of these experiments is a cloud of ultracold atoms, ideally a Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC), close to the surface. The cloud has to be formed in situ or be transported to the experimental region. Here, we present an important simplification of this process that is particularly well suited for an efficient production of BEC samples near surfaces. We demonstrate that a large number ($`>3\times 10^8`$) of 87Rb atoms can be collected in a modified wire based magnetooptical trap (MOT) located just millimeters above the reflecting surface in a simple dispenser loaded setup under ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) conditions ($`<10^{11}`$mbar). This allows to subsequently transfer the atoms into a Z-shaped wire trap Cassettari et al. (1999); Reichel et al. (1999); Haase et al. (2001) that is used to cool atomic samples into the Bose-condensed phase Schneider et al. (2003).

A MOT requires laser light forces from all directions. Consequently, placing a MOT close to a surface implies that either the surface and the laser beam diameters have to be small enough relative to the height of the MOT above the surface or that the surface is transparent or reflecting. The problem of a material object (partially) obstructing the access of the six beams used in a conventional MOT has also been circumvented by producing the MOT Ott et al. (2001) or even the condensate Leanhardt et al. (2002) elsewhere and transfer it to the chip by means of dynamic magnetic fields Ott et al. (2001) or optical tweezers Leanhardt et al. (2002). The alternative is to directly load a mirror MOT Lee et al. (1996); Pfau et al. (1997); Reichel et al. (1999); Folman et al. (2000) only millimeters away from a reflecting surface that acts as a mirror. In this configuration, at least one of the MOT beams is reflected off the mirror. In the simple version used in many atom chip experiments Reichel et al. (1999); Folman et al. (2000); Jones et al. (2003), two of the regular six MOT beams are replaced by reflections of two beams impinging upon the mirror 111In our experiments with atom chips, the microstructures creating the potentials manipulating the atoms are directly fabricated into the reflecting gold surface used as the mirror. at an angle of 45. To ensure the correct quadrupole field orientation with respect to the helicities of the light beam pairs, the quadrupole field axis has to coincide with one of the 45 light beams. Up to now, this had to be considered a drawback since the coils usually employed to provide the field are bulky, dissipate a large amount of power, and deteriorate the optical access to the MOT itself and to the region where the experiments are carried out. As experimental setups are likely to grow more complex in the future, including quadrupole coils in the setup will present a major obstacle. Apparatus involving cryostats aiming at a significant reduction of thermal current noise in conducting surfaces Henkel et al. (2003) are just one example.

A known way of approximating a quadrupole field is to use a current carrying wire that is bent in a U-shape together with a homogenous bias field parallel to the wire plane and perpendicular to the central bar of the U Folman et al. (2002). Fig. 1b shows the field configuration obtained in comparison to a field created by external coils in the common anti-Helmholtz configuration (Fig. 1a). But a MOT based on a simple U-shaped wire cannot be used for an efficient collection of a large number of atoms (for example from the background Rb-vapor). This is caused by the fact that the U-wire field is only a true quadrupole field near the field center (point of vanishing field). Further out there is a a non-vanishing angle between the quadrupole axes and the field lines (Fig. 1d). This angle increases at larger distances from the field zero, i.e. the MOT center, and eventually the direction of the field vectors is even reversed. As the operation principle of a MOT relies on the correct orientation of the fields with respect to the polarization of the laser light in each beam, the effective capture region of the trap and thus the loading rate and the maximum number of atoms in the MOT are limited. Consequently, the U-MOT 222This simple type of U-MOT is typically used as an intermediate experimental stage because it can be aligned to surface patterns by construction and it allows a simple compression of the atomic cloud as it is lowered towards the surface by increasing the homogenous bias field. has to be loaded from a regular quadrupole coil MOT in order to collect a large number of atoms.

However, by altering the geometry of the U-shaped wire, a much better approximation of a quadrupole field can be obtained: The bent field lines in the case of a simple U-wire can be attributed to the fact that a thin wire produces a field whose field lines are circles. Consequently, the simplest way to overcome this is to fan out the current flow through the central part of the U by replacing the thin wire by a broadened plate. Inclining the bias field with respect to the plane formed by the outer leads of the U improves the field configuration further. If the plate is inclined and if the shape of the current flow through the plate is adjusted properly, the resulting field will approximate an ideal quadrupole field even more closely.

We chose to set the last two possibilities aside in our experiment, mainly because they lead to only marginal improvement compared to the wide U, and they are more difficult to implement. Fig. 1c shows the field vectors of the quadrupole field obtained with a modified planar U-shaped wire. The various parameters (geometry, wire current, and bias field) were optimized numerically to achieve typical field gradients (10–20G/cm) of a MOT at a height of 6–8mm above the the wire center (4–6mm above the chip surface) while maintaining small angular deviations of the field from an ideal quadrupole field throughout the maximal capture region given by a typical light beam diameter of 2cm. A comparison of the field configurations of the U-wire quadrupole field with the ideal field shows no significant differences in the planes not shown in Fig 1. Only the field gradients deviate from those obtained in a conventional quadrupole configuration: In the direction parallel to the central bar of the U-shaped wires, the gradients are weak while those in the transverse directions are of approximately equal magnitude. The gradient ratios for the regular (optimized) U-wire are $`1:4:5`$ ($`1:3:4`$), for the ideal quadrupole field $`1:1:2`$. Gradient ratios, however, are not critical for a MOT operation. In fact, this can even be an advantage because the aspect ratio of the MOT cloud is better matched to the magnetic microtraps. With our configuration, it turns out that moderate wire currents of 50–70A at small power consumptions ($`<1`$W) and small bias fields of 7–13G are sufficient to create a near to ideal quadrupole field at a variable height above the chip surface. The residual angles of the field vectors are small enough to lie within the tolerance of a MOT, as was tested by rotating the light polarizations in an external MOT experiment. The MOT remained unimpaired for elliptical polarizations corresponding to deviations of the field line direction of up to $`40^{}`$ from the ideal situation.

In our experimental implementation we use a U-wire structure that has been machined out of a single copper piece. This Cu structure is incorporated in a MACOR ceramics block holding an atom chip. Between chip and central part of the U, a small space was left to allow the placement of another copper structure that contains several Z-shaped wires for magnetic trapping for BEC production (Fig. 2b). In order to keep ohmic heat dissipation as low as possible while allowing currents of up to 100A, a wire cross section of at least 7mm2 is maintained all over the U-wire structure. The 3mm $`\times `$ 3mm leads are thicker than the plate (thickness $`\times `$ width $`\times `$ length = 0.7mm $`\times `$ 10mm $`\times `$ 18mm) to ensure a homogenous current density in the plate (Fig. 2c). Isolated by a thin (100$`\mu `$m) Kapton foil, the 1mm thick additional structure for purely magnetic trapping is positioned on top of the plate. The geometry of this structure resembles an H with two extra leads connected to the central bar. This allows to run currents through a variety of Z-shaped wires with a (center to center) length of the central bar ranging from 4mm to 10mm by choosing the proper connectors. The U- and the H-shaped structures were designed in such a way that their surfaces lie in a common plane so that an atom chip can be mounted directly on top of both structures. The copper structures are connected to high current vacuum feedthroughs by simple screw contacts, the chip wires are attached to pin connectors by a bonding technique.

The complete assembly with the current connections, the wire structures for the MOT and magnetic traps, and the atom chip (Fig. 2a) is built into a UHV chamber 333The vacuum system reaches a base pressure of below $`7\times 10^{12}`$mbar and is pumped by a combination of a Ti sublimation pump and a 300l/s ion pump. that was constructed to allow good optical access to the experimental region directly above the surface of the chip. This was realized by including optical quality quartz windows in an octogonally shaped stainless steel body. The distance from the outer surfaces to the experimental region is 4cm and 10cm for the directions perpendicular and parallel to the chip surface, respectively. As a source for rubidium atoms we use three dispensers that are connected in parallel. A high pumping speed in combination with a pulsed operation mode of the dispensers facilitates sufficient loading rates of the MOT of typically $`3\times 10^7`$ atoms/s while the rubidium background vapor is quickly reduced in the purely magnetic trapping phase of the experiment.

Typically, we operate the MOT at a U-wire current of 60A and a bias field of 13G, i.e. at magnetic field gradients of 5G/cm (20G/cm) along the axis of weakest (strongest) confinement. In order to confirm the effect of the improved quadrupole field on the MOT, we have measured the number of atoms in the MOT as a function of the angle between the bias field and the plane of the modified U-shaped wire. Fig. 3 shows the result and the corresponding quadrupole fields for specific angles. The dependence of the number of atoms on the quality of the approximation of a true wide range quadrupole field is clearly visible: the MOT contained the highest number of atoms ($`3\times 10^8`$) for the optimal quadrupole field that is obtained at a 13 inclination of the bias field. To compare the results of the U-MOT, we carried out test experiments with a conventional 6-beam MOT before introducing the atom chip assembly in the apparatus. Neither the loading rates nor the maximum number of trapped atoms exceeded those measured with the U-MOT under similar UHV conditions. Thus we conclude that a modified U-MOT can replace a conventional MOT completely.

After loading the U-MOT from the Rb background pressure, we turn off the dispensers while leaving both light and magnetic fields of the MOT on for 5 seconds. During this period, the dispensers are cooled efficiently through their Cu rod connectors (6mm diameter) while the pressure in the chamber is quickly reduced by the pumps. In the next step, the atoms are molasses cooled to $`30\mu `$K and optically pumped to the $`|F=2,m_F=2`$ state. This allows to transfer up to $`2\times 10^8`$ atoms to a magnetic trap (lifetime $`>30`$s) that is formed by the H-shaped integrated Cu-structure. In the configuration used, the current runs through the innermost possible Z-shaped path where the length of the central bar of the Z has a length of 4mm. This trap is operated with a current of 60A through the wire and a bias field of initially 41G. The bias field is rotated within the plane parallel to the Z-wire by approximately $`42^{}`$ in order to compensate the strong longitudinal field of the two leads of the Z-wire such that only a small Ioffe-field remains at the trap minimum position. The trap is compressed by increasing the bias field to 60G while forced evaporative cooling through a linear radio frequency sweep is applied. The trap frequencies are $`\omega _{tr}=2\pi \times 150`$Hz ($`\omega _{tr}=2\pi \times 1.5`$kHz) and $`\omega _{lo}=2\pi \times 35`$Hz ($`\omega _{lo}=2\pi \times 50`$Hz) for the uncompressed (compressed) trap along the transverse and longitudinal axes, respectively. During the compression, the transverse trap gradient is increased from 190G/cm to 450G/cm. After 15 seconds of evaporative cooling, a Bose-Einstein condensate of approximately $`10^5`$ atoms forms at a distance of $`400\mu `$m from the chip surface. The details of this process are very similar to the ones presented in Schneider et al. (2003); Kasper et al. (2003).

To conclude, we have introduced an important simplification of experiments with ultracold atoms near surfaces. The loading and cooling of atoms all the way to a BEC can be achieved by exclusively using integrated structures and small external homogeneous bias fields. To demonstrate this, we have designed and tested a simple Cu-structure that can be fitted underneath any reflecting thin (up to several mm thickness are tolerable) planar surface.

###### Acknowledgements.

We would like to thank S. Schneider and H. Gimpel for help in the experiments and T. Schumm for contributing to initial calculations and designs. The atom chip used as a mirror in our experiments was fabricated by S. Groth and I. Bar-Joseph at the Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel). This work was supported by the European Union, contract numbers IST-2001-38863 (ACQP) and HPRI-CT-1999-00069 (LSF) and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Schwerpunktprogramm ‘Quanteninformationsverarbeitung’.


text:
# A compact group which is not Valdivia compact

## 1. Introduction

Let $`\{X_\alpha :\alpha A\}`$ be a family of spaces, and let a point $`x_\alpha ^{}`$ be given in each $`X_\alpha `$. The sigma-product $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ of the family $`\{X_\alpha \}`$ with the base point $`\{x_\alpha ^{}\}`$ is the subset of the product $`X_\alpha `$ consisting of all points $`\{x_\alpha \}`$ such that the set $`\{\alpha A:x_\alpha x_\alpha ^{}\}`$ is countable. A compact space $`K`$ is Valdivia compact if it can be embedded in a Tikhonov cube $`I^A`$ in such a way that $`K\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is dense in $`K`$, where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is the sigma-product of intervals with the zero base point. The class of Valdivia compact spaces is a natural extension of the class of Corson compact spaces, which are defined as compact subspaces of sigma-products of intervals. A compact space is Corson compact if and only if it is Valdivia compact and countably tight. While Corson compact spaces are preserved by maps (we use the word “map” to mean a continuous map), this is not true for Valdivia compact spaces (however, if a Valdivia compact space is mapped onto a countably tight space $`X`$, then $`X`$ is Corson compact ).

The class of Valdivia compact spaces was introduced by Argyros, Mercourakis and Negrepontis in , they showed among others that these spaces admit ‘sufficiently many’ retractions, which gives a projectional resolution of the identity on their spaces of continuous functions, see . The name Valdivia compact was introduced by Deville and Godefroy in . Valdivia compacta have been extensively studied by Kalenda; we refer to his survey article . Kalenda proved in  that an open image of a Valdivia compact space is Valdivia provided it contains a dense set of $`G_\delta `$ points. The general question whether Valdivia compact spaces are preserved by open maps had remained open, see . In the present paper we answer this question in the negative.

To this end, we construct a compact connected Abelian group $`G`$ which is not Valdivia compact. Every compact Abelian group is a homomorphic image of a product of compact metrizable groups. Indeed, in virtue of the Pontryagin duality this assertion is equivalent to the following: every Abelian group embeds into a direct sum of countable groups. To see that this is true, note that every Abelian group embeds into a divisible group \[4, Thm. 24.1\], and every Abelian divisible group is a direct sum of countable groups \[4, Thm. 23.1\]. Noting that: (1) any continuous onto homomorphism between compact groups is open; (2) compact metric spaces are Valdivia; (3) Valdivia compact spaces are preserved by products – we conclude that open maps do not preserve Valdivia compactness.

Our compact group $`G`$ is the Pontryagin dual of an uncountable indecomposable torsion-free Abelian group $`A`$. The above argument can be made easier in this case: $`A`$ is a subgroup of the vector space $`A`$ over the field $``$ of rationals, hence $`G=A^{}`$ is a homomorphic image of a power of the compact metrizable group $`^{}`$.

The class of Valdivia compact spaces is contained in a wider class that was denoted by $``$ in . Recall the definition of this class. A map $`f:XY`$ is right-invertible if there exists a map $`g:YX`$ such that $`fg:YY`$ is the identity. A map $`f:XY`$ is right-invertible if and only if it is homeomorphic to a retraction.

The class $``$ is defined as the smallest class containing all compact metric spaces which is closed under inverse limits of continuous transfinite sequences whose bonding mappings are right-invertible (in that case the limit projections are right-invertible as well \[2, Proposition 4.6\]). An inverse sequence $`\{X_\alpha ;p_\alpha ^\beta :\alpha <\beta <\kappa \}`$ is continuous if for every limit ordinal $`\delta <\kappa `$ the space $`X_\delta `$ is naturally homeomorphic to $`\underset{}{\mathrm{lim}}\{X_\alpha ;p_\alpha ^\beta :\alpha <\beta <\delta \}`$. To see that Valdivia compact spaces are in $``$, note that every Valdivia compact space of uncountable weight is the inverse limit of a continuous transfinite sequence of Valdivia compacta of smaller weight whose all bonding maps are retractions, see  or \[9, Thm. 3.6.2\].

The compact group that we construct is not in the class $``$. Thus our example shows that the image of a product of compact metric spaces under an open map need not be in $``$. Our example has the smallest possible weight, namely $`\omega _1`$. It has been proved in  that a 0-dimensional open image of a Valdivia compact space is Valdivia if its weight does not exceed $`\omega _1`$.

Let us also mention that every compact group is a Dugundji space  and every 0-dimensional Dugundji space is Valdivia . It is unknown whether the class of Valdivia compacta is stable under retractions; in  an affirmative answer is given in the case where the retract has weight $`\omega _1`$.

## 2. Proof of the main theorem

###### Theorem 2.1 (Main Theorem).

There exists a compact connected Abelian group of weight $`\omega _1`$ which is not in the class $``$ and hence is not Valdivia compact.

We need some prerequisites.

###### Proposition 2.2.

Let a compact space $`X`$ be in the class $``$. For every countable Abelian group $`G`$ and every integer $`n0`$ the cohomology group $`H^n(X,G)`$ is covered by its countable direct summands.

The cohomology theory that we use is the Čech theory or any of its equivalents (Alexander – Spanier, sheaves, etc.), not the singular theory.

###### Proof.

The cohomology functor turns inverse limits of compact spaces into direct limits of Abelian groups and right-invertible maps into left-invertible homomorphisms, which are injective homomorphisms onto a direct summand. If $`X`$ is compact metric, the group $`H^n(X,G)`$ is countable. (To see this, consider first the case of compact polyhedra, and then represent $`X`$ as the limit of an inverse sequence of polyhedra.) It follows that the class $`^{}`$ of all compact spaces $`X`$ for which the proposition holds contains compact metric spaces and is stable under limits of continuous inverse sequences with right-invertible bonding maps and projections. Since $``$ is the smallest class with these properties, we have $`^{}`$. ∎

Let $`𝐓=\{z:|z|=1\}`$ be the circle group. For an Abelian group $`A`$ we denote by $`A^{}`$ its Pontryagin dual (= the group of all characters $`\chi :A𝐓`$, considered as a compact group, see e.g. \[6, Ch. 6\]).

The following proposition is well-known.

###### Proposition 2.3.

For every torsion-free Abelian group $`A`$ there exists a natural isomorphism $`\varphi :AH^1(X,)`$, where $`X=A^{}`$.

###### Proof.

The homomorphism $`\varphi `$ can be described as follows. Every $`aA`$ can be identified with a character $`\chi _a:X𝐓`$. Pick a generator $`uH^1(𝐓,)`$, and put $`\varphi (a)=H^1(\chi _a)(u)H^1(X,)`$.

If $`A=^n`$ and $`X=A^{}=𝐓^n`$, it is clear that $`\varphi `$ is an isomorphism. The general case follows by passing to limits: every torsion-free Abelian group is the direct limit of finitely-generated free groups; the Pontryagin duality turns direct limits of discrete groups into inverse limits of compact groups; and the cohomology functor turns inverse limits of compact spaces back to direct limits. ∎

Proof of Theorem 2.1. There exists a torsion-free Abelian group $`A`$ of cardinality $`\omega _1`$ which is indecomposable \[5, Sections 88 and 89\], that is, $`A`$ has no proper direct summands. Let $`X=A^{}`$. We claim that the compact group $`X`$ has the required properties.

The duals of torsion-free discrete groups are connected \[6, Theorem 24.25\], so $`X`$ is connected. According to Proposition 2.3, the cohomology group $`H^1(X,)`$ is isomorphic to $`A`$ and therefore indecomposable. Proposition 2.2 implies that $`X`$ is not in the class $``$. ∎

###### Corollary 2.4.

There exists a compact metric space $`K`$ and an open onto map $`f:K^{\omega _1}X`$ such that $`X`$ is not in the class $``$ and hence not Valdivia.

###### Proof.

We explained the construction in Section 1: Let $`A`$ and $`X=A^{}`$ be as in the preceding proof. Embed $`A`$ into $`A=^{(\omega _1)}`$. Passing to the duals, we get a homomorphism of compact groups $`K^{\omega _1}X`$, where $`K=^{}`$ (we consider $``$ as a discrete group). ∎


text:
# Non-Rotating BTZ Black Hole Area Spectrum from Quasi-normal Modes

## 1 Introduction

Any non-dissipative systems has modes of vibrations, which forming a complete set, and called normal modes. Each mode having a given real frequency of oscillation and being independent of any other. The system once disturbed continues to vibrate in one or several of the normal modes. On the other hand, when one deals with open dissipative system, as a black hole, instead of normal modes, one considers quasi-normal modes for which the frequencies are no longer pure real, showing that the system is loosing energy. In asymptotically flat spacetimes the idea of QNMs started with the work of Regge and Wheeler  where the stability of a black hole was tested, and were first numerically computed by Chandrasekhar and Detweiler several years later . The quasi-normal modes bring now a lot of interest in different contexts: in AdS/CFT correspondence -(according to the AdS/CFT conjecture , the black hole corresponds to a thermal state in the conformal field theory, and the decay of the test field in the black hole spacetime corresponds to the decay of the perturbed state in the CFT. The dynamical timescale for the return to thermal equilibrium is very hard to compute directly, but can be done relatively easily using the AdS/CFT correspondence), when considering thermodynamic properties of black holes in loop quantum gravity -, in the context of possible connection with critical collapse .
The quantization of the black hole horizon area is one of the most interesting manifestations of quantum gravity. Since its first prediction by Bekenstein in 1974 , there has been much work on this topic -. A characteristic feature of loop quantum gravity is the discrete spectrum of several geometrical quantities . In the three spacetime dimensions, the length operator plays a role analogous to the area operator in four dimensional spacetime. For the 3D Euclidean spacetime, the eigenvalues of the length are discrete , in the other hand the spectrum of the length in the 3D Lorentzian case is continuous .
Recently, the quantization of the black hole area has been considered  as a result of the absorption of a quasi-normal mode excitation. Bekenstein’s idea for quantizing a black hole is based on the fact that its horizon area, in the nonextreme case, behaves as a classical adiabatic invariant , . In the spirit of Ehrenfest principle, any classical adiabatic invariant corresponds to a quantum entity with discrete spectrum, Bekenstein conjectured that the horizon area of a non extremal quantum black hole should have a discrete eigenvalue spectrum. Moreover, the possibility of a connection between the quasinormal frequencies of black holes and the quantum properties of the entropy spectrum was first observed by Bekenstein , and further developed by Hod . In particular, Hod proposed that the real part of the quasinormal frequencies, in the infinite damping limit, might be related via the correspondence principle to the fundamental quanta of mass and angular momentum.
In this paper we would like to obtain the area spectrum of non-rotating BTZ black hole. Using the quasi-normal frequencies which has been derived by Cardos and Lemos in , also via Boher-Sommerfeld quantization for an adiabatic invariant as $`I=\frac{dE}{\omega (E)}`$, which $`E`$ is the energy of system and $`\omega (E)`$ is vibrational frequency, we leads to an equally spaced mass spectrum. We show that the results for the spacing of the area spectrum differ from black holes in $`3+1`$ dimension, in fact we have not found a quantization of horizon area.

## 2 Non-rotated BTZ black hole and quasi-normal modes

The black hole solutions of Bañados, Teitelboim and Zanelli  in $`(2+1)`$ spacetime dimensions are derived from a three dimensional theory of gravity

$$S=𝑑x^3\sqrt{g}({}_{}{}^{\left(3\right)}R+2\mathrm{\Lambda })$$
(1)
with a negative cosmological constant ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\frac{1}{l^2}>0`$).

The corresponding line element is

$$ds^2=\left(M+\frac{r^2}{l^2}+\frac{J^2}{4r^2}\right)dt^2+\frac{dr^2}{\left(M+{\displaystyle \frac{r^2}{l^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{J^2}{4r^2}}\right)}+r^2\left(d\theta \frac{J}{2r^2}dt\right)^2$$
(2)
with $`M`$ the Arnowitt-Deser-Misner (ADM) mass, $`J`$ the angular momentum (spin) of the BTZ black hole and $`\mathrm{}<t<+\mathrm{}`$, $`0r<+\mathrm{}`$, $`0\theta <2\pi `$.

In this paper we would like to consider the quasi-normal modes of the non-rotated (uncharged) BTZ black holes. The non rotated BTZ black hole can be obtain by putting $`J=0`$ in Eq.(2) as following

$$ds^2=(M+\frac{r^2}{l^2})dt^2+\frac{dr^2}{(M+\frac{r^2}{l^2})}+r^2d\theta ^2,$$
(3)
which has an horizon at

$$r_+=\sqrt{\frac{M}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}},$$
(4)
and is similar to Schwarzschild black hole with the important difference that it is not asymptotically flat but it has constant negative curvature. The temperature of the event horizon is given by

$$T_H=\frac{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }M}}{2\pi }.$$
(5)
The entropy of non-rotating BTZ black hole is as following

$$S_{bh}=4\pi r_+.$$
(6)
For BTZ black hole with $`J=0`$, the free energy is given by

$$F=M,$$
(7)
also the relation between energy and free energy is as following

$$E=F+T_HS_{bh}.$$
(8)
From Eqs.(4-8) one can obtain

$$E=M$$
(9)
The quasi-normal frequencies for non-rotating BTZ black hole have been obtained by Cardoso and Lemos in

$$\omega =\pm m2iM^{1/2}(n+1)n=0,1,2,\mathrm{}$$
(10)
where $`m`$ is the angular quantum number. Let $`\omega =\omega _Ri\omega _I`$, then $`\tau =\omega _I^1`$ is the effective relaxation time for the black hole to return to a quiescent state. Hence, the relaxation time $`\tau `$ is arbitrary small as $`n\mathrm{}`$. We assume that this classical frequency plays an important role in the dynamics of the black hole and is relevant to its quantum properties . In particular, we consider $`\omega _R`$ the real part of $`\omega `$, to be a fundamental vibrational frequency for a black hole of energy $`E=M`$. Given a system with energy $`E`$ and vibrational frequency $`\omega `$ one can show that the quantity

$$I=\frac{dE}{\omega (E)},$$
(11)
is an adiabatic invariant , which via Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization has an equally spaced spectrum in the semi-classical (large $`n`$) limit:

$$In\mathrm{}.$$
(12)
Now by taking $`\omega _R`$ in this context, we have

$$I=\frac{dE}{\omega _R}=\frac{1}{\pm m}𝑑M=\frac{M}{\pm m}+c,$$
(13)
where $`c`$ is a constant, therefore the mass spectrum is equally spaced

$`M=mn\mathrm{},m0`$
$`M=mn\mathrm{},m<0.`$ (14)
Then for mass spacing we have

$$\mathrm{\Delta }M=\pm m\mathrm{},$$
(15)
which is the fundamental quanta of black hole mass. As one can see the mass spectrum is equally spaced only for a fixed $`m`$. For different $`m`$ there are multiplets with different values of spacing which is given by Eq.(15). On the other hand, the black hole horizon area is given by

$$A=2\pi r_+.$$
(16)
Using Eq.(4) we obtain

$$A=2\pi \sqrt{\frac{M}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}.$$
(17)
The Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization law and Eq.(13) then implies that the area spectrum is as following,

$$A_n=2\pi \sqrt{\frac{nm\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}.$$
(18)
As one can see although the mass spectrum is equally spaced but the area spectrum is not equally spaced.

## 3 Conclusion

In this paper we have considered the non-rotating BTZ black hole, with the knowledge of the quasi-normal mode spectrum as given in , we have prescribed how their horizon area would be quantized? In  Birmingham et al have shown that the quantum mechanics of the rotating BTZ black hole is characterized by a Virasoro algebra at infinity. Identifying the real part of the quasi-normal frequencies with the fundamental quanta of black hole mass and angular momentum, they found that an elementary excitation corresponds exactly to a correctly quantized shift of the Virasoro generator $`L_0`$ or $`\overline{L_0}`$ in this algebra.
Via Boher-Sommerfeld quantization for an adiabatic invariant as $`I=\frac{dE}{\omega (E)}`$, which $`E`$ is the energy of system and $`\omega (E)`$ is vibrational frequency, we leads to an equally spaced mass spectrum. Similar to we have not found a quantization of horizon area. The result for the area of event horizon is $`A_n=2\pi \sqrt{\frac{nm\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}`$ which is not equally spaced, in contrast with area spectrum of black hole in higher dimension. This result is a bit difficult to interpret physically since the quasi-norma mode spectrum in $`2+1`$ is quite different from what it is in higher dimensions

## Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Prof. Gabor Kunstatter for reading the manuscript.


text:
# The “Supercritical Pile” Model of GRB: Thresholds, Polarization, Time Lags

## 1 Introduction

The discovery of GRB afterglows by $`BeppoSAX`$ and the ensuing determination of their redshifts Costa et al.  (1997), ushered a new era in GRB physics and in our understanding of their time development. While the issue of their distance and energetics was settled by these observations, a number of issues concerning the physics of the RBWs that give rise to the GRB phenomenon still remain open as novel issues have been raised with the advent of observations and accumulation of more GRB of known redshifts Lamb (2003). Among the older issues that still remain open is that of the narrow distribution of the GRB peak energy $`E_p`$ Mallozzi et al.  (1995), in view of its sensitive dependence on the RBW Lorentz factor ($`E_p\mathrm{\Gamma }^4`$) within the synchrotron model of GRB. Another such issue is that of conversion of the energy stored in relativistic protons in the RBW into electrons. The presence of protons was necessary in the early RBW models Rees & Mészáros (1992) for transporting and releasing the energy carried off by the GRB RBW to the distances demanded by observation ($`R10^{16}`$ cm). While more recent MHD models Vlahakis & Königl (2001); Lyutikov (2003) are immune from this requirement (though they still need a mechanism for dissipating the magnetic energy), sweeping and accumulating the ISM matter by these MHD flows will store a similar amount of energy into relativistic protons as do more conventional models, still demanding a mechanism for converting this energy to radiation. Models generally resolve this issue by assuming the equipartition of the total energy density between protons and relativistic electrons of arbitrary distributions, as demanded by the need to account for their observed spectral characteristics.

In our view, the most compelling argument in favor our model is that it can answer in a rather straightforward way both the issue of the the limited range in $`E_p`$ and that of conversion the energy stored into relativistic protons to radiation. At the same time, it has additional implications which seem to be in agreement with the mounting GRB phenomenology; these will be discussed in the following sections.

## 2 “Supercritical Pile”: The Thresholds

We assume the presence of a population of relativistic protons of form $`n(\gamma _p)=n_0\gamma _p^\beta `$ on the frame co-moving with the RBW, i.e. moving with Lorentz Factor (LF) $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ with respect to the observer (and also at zero angle to his/her line of sight; see Kazanas, Georganopoulos & Mastichiadis (2002) for details). We consider synchrotron photons from $`e^{}e^+`$ pairs of energy $`\gamma _e`$, $`ϵ_s=b\gamma _e^2`$ ($`b`$ is the value of the magnetic field in units of the critical value $`B_c410^{13}`$ G; all energies measured in units of the electron mass $`m_ec^2`$) reflecting off an upstream “mirror” and being re-intercepted by the RBW. Their energy will now be $`ϵ_s^{}=\mathrm{\Gamma }^2b\gamma _e^2`$. The threshold for $`e^{}e^+`$ pair production of these photons with a proton of Lorentz factor $`\gamma _p\gamma _e`$ $`b\mathrm{\Gamma }^2\gamma _e^3=2`$. Assuming that the proton and the electrons are drawn from the relativistic thermal post-shock particle population, $`\gamma _e\gamma _p\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, leading to the kinematic threshold condition

$$b\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{th}}^52\mathrm{or}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{th}}\stackrel{>}{}\left(\frac{2}{b}\right)^{1/5}$$
(1)
Assuming equipartition for the magnetic field for a GRB with total energy $`E=10^{52}E_{52}`$ erg, restricted to an angle $`\theta 1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ leads to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{th}}\stackrel{>}{}90(E_{52}/R_{16})^{1/12}`$ .

For this reaction network to be self-sustained, at least one of the reflected synchrotron photons must pair produce with the protons on the RBW (after its reflection by the “mirror”) to replace the electron that produced it. Therefore the plasma optical depth $`\tau `$ to the pair producing reaction $`p\gamma pe^{}e^+`$ must be at least as large as the inverse of the number of synchrotron photons produced by a given electron. An electron of energy $`\gamma `$ produces $`𝒩_\gamma \gamma /b\gamma ^2=1/b\gamma `$ photons, yielding $`\tau =n_{\mathrm{com}}\sigma _{p\gamma }\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{com}}\stackrel{>}{}1/𝒩_\gamma `$, where $`n_{\mathrm{com}},\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{com}}`$ are the comoving density and width of the RBW. Considering that the column density is a Lorentz invariant $`n_{\mathrm{com}}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{com}}=nR`$ and taking into account the kinematic threshold relation (Eq. 1) the dynamic threshold condition reads

$$\sigma _{p\gamma }\mathrm{\Delta }_{\mathrm{com}}n_{\mathrm{com}}=\sigma _{p\gamma }Rn\stackrel{>}{}b\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{or}\sigma _{p\gamma }Rn\mathrm{\Gamma }^4\stackrel{>}{}2.$$
(2)
This latter condition (and the physics behind it) are akin to those of those of a “supercritical” nuclear pile, hence the nomenclature of this model. For the typical values of $`n`$ and $`R`$ used in association with GRBs, i.e. $`n=1n_0`$ cm-3 and $`R=10^{16}R_{16}`$ cm and considering that $`\sigma _{p\gamma }\mathrm{5\hspace{0.17em}10}^{27}`$ cm2, the criticality condition yields $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\stackrel{>}{}375(n_0R_{16})^{1/4}`$ (Eq. 2 is slightly different from that given in Kazanas, Georganopoulos & Mastichiadis (2002); we would like to thank P. Mészáros for this correction which does not affect the results otherwise).

Assuming the width of the reflecting “mirror” to be thinner than the width of the RBW, blast waves with column densities higher than that implied by Eq. (2) will release the energy stored in relativistic protons explosively on times scales comparable to the RBW light crossing time scale; otherwise, the duration of the burst will be comparable to the time it takes the RBW to cross the width of the “mirror”. In this case, prominent emission is halted until the proton column has been built up significantly to conform to the dynamic threshold. For RBW with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ between those of Eqs. (2) and (1) and assuming the presence of a “mirror” $`\gamma `$ray emission continues as long as its LF is greater than that implied by the kinematic threshold (Eq. 1). Eventually, when the value of the LF drops below this value, $`\gamma `$ray emission stops and the RBW enters the stage of afterglow.

## 3 The GRB Spectra

Consider a RBW of Lorentz factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Because of the relativistic focusing of emitted radiation, we need only consider a section of the blast wave of opening half angle $`\theta =1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. The shocked electrons of the ambient medium (and pairs from the $`p\gamma e^+e^{}`$ process) produce, as discussed above, synchrotron photons of energy $`ϵ_sb\mathrm{\Gamma }^2`$. These, upon their scattering by the “mirror” and re-interception by the RBW, are boosted to energy $`ϵ=ϵ_s\mathrm{\Gamma }^2=b\mathrm{\Gamma }^4`$ (in the RBW frame). These photons will then be scattered by the following electron populations: (a) By electrons of $`\gamma 1`$, originally contained in the RBW and/or cooled since the explosion. (b) By the hot ($`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$), recently shocked electrons to produce inverse Compton (IC) radiation at energies correspondingly $`ϵ_1b\mathrm{\Gamma }^4`$ and $`ϵ_2b\mathrm{\Gamma }^6`$ at the RBW frame. (the SSC process will also yield photons at $`ϵ_{ssc}b\mathrm{\Gamma }^4`$, however it turns out that this is not as important and it is ignored here). At the lab frame, the energies of these three components, i.e. $`ϵ_s,ϵ_1,ϵ_2`$ will be higher by roughly a factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, i.e. they will be respectively at energies $`b\mathrm{\Gamma }^3,b\mathrm{\Gamma }^5`$ and $`b\mathrm{\Gamma }^7`$. Assuming that the process operates near its kinematic threshold, $`b\mathrm{\Gamma }^52`$, at the lab frame these components will occur at energies $`ϵ_s\mathrm{\Gamma }^2`$, $`ϵ_121`$ MeV and $`ϵ_2\mathrm{\Gamma }^2`$ 10 GeV $`(\mathrm{\Gamma }/100)^2`$. This model therefore, produces “naturally” a component in the $`\nu F_\nu `$ spectral distribution which peaks in the correct energy range. It also predicts the existence of two additional components at an energies $`m_ec^2\mathrm{\Gamma }^2`$ and $`m_ec^2/\mathrm{\Gamma }^2`$. The high energy emission has been observed from several GRBs Dingus (1995).

## 4 Other Issues

The simplicity by which this model deals with several outstanding issues of GRB suggest that one should attempt to test its viability by addressing additional GRB systematics and properties.

A. Time Lags. It has been observed that, in general, the light curves of soft photons lag with respect to those of the harder ones. A systematic study of these lags in a sample of GRBs with known redshift has determined that these lags range between $`0.010.1`$ sec, with their magnitude in inverse correlation to the GRB peak luminosity Norris et al.  (2000). The model we presented above can produce lags of the order of magnitude observed: According to the basic premise of our model the emission at $`E50500`$ keV is due to bulk IC scattering of synchrotron photons, by the “cold” electrons of the RBW, after been reflected the “mirror”. The eventual energy of these photons depends on the angle of their direction after scattering at the “mirror” with respect to the velocity vector of the RBW (this being highest for a “head-on” collision). Because the distance between the “mirror” and the RBW is of order $`R/\mathrm{\Gamma }^2`$, one can easily estimate that the path difference between the soft and hard photons are of the same order of magnitude i.e. $`\mathrm{\Delta }LR/\mathrm{\Gamma }^2`$. Therefore the corresponding time lags (assuming the observer to be along the direction of the velocity of the RBW) should be $`\mathrm{\Delta }t\mathrm{\Delta }L/c\mathrm{\Gamma }^2R/c\mathrm{\Gamma }^410^{2.5}R_{16}/\mathrm{\Gamma }_2^4`$ sec, in agreement with observations.

B. Polarization. The recent results of high ($`80\pm 20\%`$) polarization of GRB 021211 Coburn & Boggs (2003) has raised the interest of the community in this particular aspect of GRBs. While models employing synchrotron radiation can produce at best polarization $`\stackrel{<}{}70\%`$ (for totally uniform field geometry), models producing the 100 - 1000 keV radiation by the inverse Compton process can potentially produce polarization approaching $`100\%`$ for particular orientation of the observer Dar & De Rujula (2003); Lazzati et al.  (2003); Eichler & Levinson (2003). This is a purely geometric effect: Thomson scattering of unpolarized radiation to an angle $`\theta =90^{}`$ with respect to the incident direction erases all electric field orientations but that perpendicular to the plane defined by the incident and scattering directions leading to $`100\%`$ polarization in this direction. Since in the lab frame this direction corresponds to an angle $`\theta =1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, the polarization should rise from $`0100\%`$ in going from $`\theta =0`$ to $`\theta =1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and drop again for larger angles. However, in our model we scatter not unpolarized radiation but the synchrotron radiation from the RBW, which is itself polarized. This leads to a non-zero polarization even for angles close to $`\theta =0^{}`$ thus enhancing the probability that we observe a high polarization signal.

C. General Considerations We would like to point out that the arguments presented above have completely ignored the possibility of particle acceleration at the RBW of GRBs (a fundamental requirement of most models). We have dealt with the conversion in pairs of the energy stored only in the thermal population of protons. A non-thermal component will ease the thresholds of Eqs. (1, 2) and allow high energy emission long after the end of the prompt GRB phase, as it appears to be the case in some GRBs Dingus (1995).


text:
# Relation between entanglement measures and Bell inequalities for three qubits

(November 2003)

## Abstract

For two qubits in a pure state there exists a one-to-one relation between the entanglement measure (the concurrence $`𝒞`$) and the maximal violation $``$ of a Bell inequality. No such relation exists for the three-qubit analogue of $`𝒞`$ (the tangle $`\tau `$), but we have found that numerical data is consistent with a simple set of upper and lower bounds for $`\tau `$ given $``$. The bounds on $`\tau `$ become tighter with increasing $``$, so they are of practical use. The Svetlichny form of the Bell inequality gives tighter bounds than the Mermin form. We show that the bounds can be tightened further if the tangle is replaced by an entanglement monotone that can identify both the W state and the Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger state.

Bell inequalities test for the quantum entanglement of a state by comparing the maximally measured value $``$ of a certain correlator with the maximal value allowed by local realism Bel64 . For a pure state of two qubits, the Bell-CHSH (Clauser-Horne-Shimony-Holt Cla69 ) parameter $`=2\sqrt{1+𝒞^2}`$ is directly related to the degree of entanglement (or concurrence) $`𝒞[0,1]`$ of the state Gis91 . This relation is useful because, on the one hand $``$ can be readily measured Asp81 , while on the other, $`𝒞`$ can be readily calculated Woo98 . In this paper we investigate to what extent this relation has a three-qubit analogue.

The three-qubit analogue of the concurrence $`𝒞`$ is the tangle $`\tau `$, introduced by Coffman, Kundu, and Wootters Cof00 . It quantifies the irreducible tripartite entanglement, through the formula

$$\tau =𝒞_{A(BC)}^2𝒞_{AB}^2𝒞_{AC}^2.$$
(1)
The indices $`A,B,C`$ label the three qubits; the tangle is invariant under permutation of these indices. The concurrence $`𝒞_{AB}`$ refers to the mixed state of qubits $`A`$ and $`B`$ obtained after tracing out the degree of freedom of qubit $`C`$, and $`𝒞_{AC}`$ is defined similarly. The concurrence $`𝒞_{A(BC)}`$ describes the entanglement of qubit $`A`$ with the joint state of qubits $`B`$ and $`C`$. The tangle $`\tau [0,1]`$ equals 0 if one of the qubits is separable from the other two. It equals 1 for the maximally entangled GHZ (Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger Gre89 ) state $`|\psi _{\mathrm{GHZ}}=(|000+|111)/\sqrt{2}`$.

The three-qubit analogue of the Bell-CHSH inequality is due to Mermin Mer90 . There exists no analytical formula that gives the maximal violation $`_\mathrm{M}`$ of the Mermin inequality for a given pure state of three qubits, but it is not difficult to perform the maximization numerically. For special one-parameter states of the form $`|\psi =\mathrm{cos}\alpha |000+\mathrm{sin}\alpha |111`$, Scarani and Gisin Sca01  found an approximate (but highly accurate) relation $`_\mathrm{M}\mathrm{max}(4\sqrt{\tau },2\sqrt{1\tau })`$ between $`\tau =\mathrm{sin}^22\alpha `$ and $`_\mathrm{M}`$.

For more general states there is a range of values of $`\tau `$ with the same $`_\mathrm{M}`$. We have investigated this range numerically and found that the data is well described by a simple pair of upper and lower bounds for $`\tau `$ for any given $`_\mathrm{M}`$. The bounds can be tightened in two ways: (1) By using an alternative form of the three-qubit Bell inequality, due to Svetlichny Sve87 ; (2) By using an alternative measure $`\sigma `$ of tripartite entanglement that we introduce in this paper, defined by

$$\sigma =\mathrm{min}\left(\frac{𝒞_{X(YZ)}^2+𝒞_{Y(XZ)}^2}{2}𝒞_{XY}^2\right).$$
(2)
The minimisation is over the permutations $`X,Y,Z`$ of the qubits $`A,B,C`$. We find the following bounds on $`\sigma `$ for a given maximal violation $`_\mathrm{S}`$ of the Svetlichny inequality:

$$|_\mathrm{S}^2/161|\sigma _\mathrm{S}^2/32.$$
(3)
(We use the symbol $``$ instead of $``$ as these bounds are inferred from numerical data, rather than derived analytically.)

Both $`\sigma `$ and $`\tau `$ are entanglement monotones (meaning that they can not be increased on average by local operations and classical communication). Their essential difference is that $`\sigma `$ can detect tripartite entanglement of both the W and GHZ types, while it is known that $`\tau `$ can only detect GHZ type entanglement Dur00 . We recall that local operations on the W state $`|\psi _\mathrm{W}=(|001+|010+|100)/\sqrt{3}`$ and the GHZ state $`|\psi _{\mathrm{GHZ}}`$ generate two distinct classes of irreducibly entangled tripartite states. While $`\tau =1=\sigma `$ for $`|\psi _{\mathrm{GHZ}}`$, for $`|\psi _\mathrm{W}`$ only $`\sigma =4/9`$ is non-zero. In fact, $`\sigma =0`$ if and only if one of the qubits is separable from the other two (2–1 separability). This latter property distinguishes the entanglement measure introduced here from the one introduced by Meyer and Wallach Mey02 , which is also nonzero for 2–1 separable states.

After this introduction, we now present our findings in more detail.

Pure states of three qubits constitute a five-parameter family, with equivalence up to local unitary transformations. This family has the representation Aci00

$`|\psi `$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{\mu _0}|000+\sqrt{\mu _1}e^{i\varphi }|100`$ (4)
$`+\sqrt{\mu _2}|101+\sqrt{\mu _3}|110+\sqrt{\mu _4}|111,`$
with $`\mu _i0`$, $`_i\mu _i=1`$, and $`0\varphi \pi `$. The labels $`A,B`$, and $`C`$ indicate the first, second, and third qubit, while $`X,Y,Z`$ refer to an arbitrary permutation of these labels.

The tangle (1) is given by

$$\tau =4\mu _0\mu _4.$$
(5)
The squared concurrences $`𝒞_{X(YZ)}^2=4\mathrm{Det}\rho _X`$ (with $`\rho _X=\mathrm{Tr}_{Y,Z}|\psi \psi |`$ the reduced density matrix) take the form

$`𝒞_{A(BC)}^2`$ $`=`$ $`4\mu _0(\mu _2+\mu _3+\mu _4),`$ (6)
$`𝒞_{B(AC)}^2`$ $`=`$ $`4\mu _0(\mu _3+\mu _4)+4\mathrm{\Delta },`$ (7)
$`𝒞_{C(AB)}^2`$ $`=`$ $`4\mu _0(\mu _2+\mu _4)+4\mathrm{\Delta },`$ (8)
with the definition $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\mu _1\mu _4+\mu _2\mu _32(\mu _1\mu _2\mu _3\mu _4)^{1/2}\mathrm{cos}\varphi `$. Each of the four quantities (5)–(8) is an entanglement monotone Dur00 ; Gin02 .

The quantity $`\sigma `$ defined in Eq. (2) can equivalently be written as

$`\sigma `$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}(\tau +\mathrm{min}𝒞_{Z(XY)}^2)`$ (9)
$`=`$ $`\tau +\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{min}(𝒞_{XZ}^2+𝒞_{YZ}^2),`$
as follows from the identity Sud01  $`\tau =𝒞_{X(YZ)}^2+𝒞_{Y(XZ)}^2𝒞_{Z(XY)}^22𝒞_{XY}^2`$. One sees that $`0\tau \sigma 1`$. Most importantly, since $`\tau `$ and $`\mathrm{min}𝒞_{Z(XY)}^2`$ are positive entanglement monotones, their sum $`\sigma `$ is an entanglement monotone as well Note2 . If one of the qubits ($`Z`$) is separable from the other two, then $`\tau =0=𝒞_{Z(XY)}\sigma =0`$. The converse is also true: If $`\sigma =0`$ then $`𝒞_{Z(XY)}=0`$ for some permutation $`X,Y,Z`$ of the qubits, so one qubit is separable from the other two.

Bell inequalities for three qubits are constructed from the correlator

$$E(𝒂,𝒃,𝒄)=\psi |(𝒂𝝈)(𝒃𝝈)(𝒄𝝈)|\psi .$$
(10)
Here $`𝒂,𝒃,𝒄`$ are real three-dimensional vectors of unit length that define a rotation of the Pauli matrices $`𝝈=(\sigma _x,\sigma _y,\sigma _z)`$. One chooses a pair of vectors $`𝒂,𝒂^{}`$, $`𝒃,𝒃^{}`$, and $`𝒄,𝒄^{}`$ for each qubit and takes the linear combinations

$``$ $`=`$ $`E(𝒂,𝒃,𝒄^{})+E(𝒂,𝒃^{},𝒄)+E(𝒂^{},𝒃,𝒄)E(𝒂^{},𝒃^{},𝒄^{}),`$
$`^{}`$ $`=`$ $`E(𝒂^{},𝒃^{},𝒄)+E(𝒂^{},𝒃,𝒄^{})+E(𝒂,𝒃^{},𝒄^{})E(𝒂,𝒃,𝒄).`$
Mermin’s inequality Mer90  reads $`||2`$, while Svetlichny’s inequality Sve87  is $`|^{}|4`$. We calculate the two quantities

$$_\mathrm{M}=\mathrm{max}||,_\mathrm{S}=\mathrm{max}|^{}|.$$
(13)
The maximization is over the six unit vectors $`𝒂`$, $`𝒃`$, $`𝒄`$, $`𝒂^{}`$, $`𝒃^{}`$, $`𝒄^{}`$ for a given state $`|\psi `$. The largest possible value is reached for the GHZ state ($`_\mathrm{M}=4`$ and $`_\mathrm{S}=4\sqrt{2}`$). The W state has $`_\mathrm{M}=3.05`$ and $`_\mathrm{S}=4.35`$. Any violation of the Svetlichny inequality implies irreducible tripartite entanglement Mit02 . In contrast, states in which one qubit is separable from the other two may still violate the Mermin inequality, up to $`=2\sqrt{2}`$.

The maximization over the two unit vectors $`𝒂`$, $`𝒂^{}`$ can be done separately and analytically. The maximization over the remaining four unit vectors was done numerically. Before showing results for the full 5-parameter family of states (4), it is instructive to first consider the 3-parameter subfamily

$`|\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{cos}\theta _1|\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{1}{0}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{1}{0}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{1}{0}}\right)`$ (14)
$`+\mathrm{sin}\theta _1|\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{0}{1}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{cos}\theta _2}{\mathrm{sin}\theta _2}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\mathrm{cos}\theta _3}{\mathrm{sin}\theta _3}}\right),`$
with real angles $`\theta _i`$. These states are all in the GHZ class, so we avoid for the moment the complication introduced by the W class. The physical significance of states of the form (14) is that they are generated in optical Zei97  or electronic Bee03  schemes to produce three-particle entanglement from two independent entangled pairs. (Notice that the second and third qubit become separable upon tracing over the first qubit.)

The numerical data for the 3-parameter states, shown in Fig. 1, fills a region bounded by

$`\mathrm{max}(1\frac{1}{4}^2,0,\frac{1}{8}_\mathrm{M}^21)\tau ,\sigma \frac{1}{16}_\mathrm{M}^2,`$
(15)
$`|\frac{1}{16}_\mathrm{S}^21|\tau ,\sigma \frac{1}{32}_\mathrm{S}^2.`$ (16)
These bounds on $`\tau ,\sigma `$ do not have the status of exact analytical results (hence the symbol $``$), but they are reliable representations of the numerical data Note1 . Note that the same violation of the Svetlichny inequality gives a tighter lower bound on $`\tau ,\sigma `$ than the Mermin inequality gives, due to the fact that 2–1 separable states are eliminated Mit02 .

For the 3-parameter states (14) in the GHZ class there is no advantage in using $`\sigma `$ over $`\tau `$. Both entanglement measures are bounded in the same way by the Bell inequalities. That changes when we turn to the general 5-parameter states (4), which also contain states in the W class. We see from Fig. 2 that the bounds (15) and (16) still apply to $`\sigma `$. However, the tangle $`\tau `$ drops below the previous lower bound, due to the fact that it can not distinguish W states from separable states.

In conclusion, we have constructed an entanglement monotone $`\sigma `$ for three qubits which, unlike the tangle $`\tau `$, can detect entanglement of both the GHZ and W types. We have investigated numerically the relation between the entanglement measures $`\sigma `$, $`\tau `$ and the maximal violation of Bell inequalities (both of the Mermin and Svetlichny form). The upper and lower bounds reported here have already been put to use in the design of a protocol for the detection of tripartite entanglement in the Fermi sea Bee03 . Alternatively, if one wants to do better than a bound, one could use the interferometric circuit proposed recently for the tangle Car03 , which, with a small modification, can be used to measure $`\sigma `$ as well.

We thank W. K. Wootters for drawing our attention to the merits of the Svetlichny inequality. This work was supported by the Dutch Science Foundation NWO/FOM and by the U.S. Army Research Office (Grant No. DAAD 19-02-1-0086).


text:
# References

A NEW CONDITION TO IDENTIFY ISOTROPIC
DIELECTRIC–MAGNETIC MATERIALS DISPLAYING
NEGATIVE PHASE VELOCITY

Ricardo A. Depine1 and Akhlesh Lakhtakia2
1 Grupo de Electromagnetismo Aplicado, Departamento de Física
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires
Ciudad Universitaria, Pabellón I
1428 Buenos Aires, Argentina
email: rdep@df.uba.ar

2 Computational & Theoretical Materials Sciences Group
Department of Engineering Science & Mechanics
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA 16802-6812, USA
email: AXL4@psu.edu

ABSTRACT: The derivation of a new condition for characterizing isotropic dielectric–magnetic materials exhibiting negative phase velocity, and the equivalence of that condition with previously derived conditions, are presented.

Keywords: negative phase velocity, power flow

1. INTRODUCTION

Non–dissipative mediums with both simultaneously negative permittivity and permeability were first investigated by Veselago  in 1968. These mediums support electromagnetic wave propagation in which the phase velocity is antiparallel to the direction of energy flow, and other unusual electromagnetic effects such as the reversal of the Doppler effect and Cerenkov radiation. After the publication of Veselago’s work, more than three decades went by for the actual realization of artificial materials that are effectively isotropic, homogeneous, and possess negative real permittivity and permeability in some frequency range .

When dissipation is included in the analysis, a general condition for the constitutive parameters of an isotropic dielectric–magnetic medium to have phase velocity directed oppositely to the power flow, was reported about two years ago : Most importantly, according to that condition, the real parts of both the permittivity and the permeability need not be both negative.

In this communication, we derive a new condition for characterizing isotropic materials with negative phase velocity. Although this new condition looks very different from its predecessor , we also show here the equivalence between both conditions.

2. THE NEW CONDITION

Let us consider a linear isotropic dielectric–magnetic medium characterized by complex–valued relative permittivity and relative permeability scalars $`ϵ=ϵ_r+iϵ_i`$ and $`\mu =\mu _r+i\mu _i`$. An $`\mathrm{exp}(i\omega t)`$ time–dependence is implicit, with $`\omega `$ as the angular frequency.

The wave equation gives the square of the complex–valued refractive index $`n=n_r+in_i`$ as

$`n^2=ϵ\mu n_r^2n_i^2+2in_rn_i=\mu _rϵ_r\mu _iϵ_i+i(\mu _iϵ_r+\mu _rϵ_i).`$ (1)
The sign of $`n_r`$ gives the phase velocity direction, whereas the sign of the real part of $`n/\mu `$, i.e.,

$`\mathrm{Re}\left({\displaystyle \frac{n}{\mu }}\right)=n_r\mu _r+n_i\mu _i,`$ (2)
gives the directon of power flow . Therefore, for this medium to have negative phase velocity and positive power flow, the following conditions should hold simultaneously:

$`n_r<0,`$ (3)
$`n_r\mu _r+n_i\mu _i>0,`$ (4)
Equation (1) yields the biquadratic equation

$`n_r^4(\mu _rϵ_r\mu _iϵ_i)n_r^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}(\mu _iϵ_r+\mu _rϵ_i)=0.`$ (5)
This equation has only two real–valued solutions for $`n_r`$, viz.,

$$n_r=\pm \left(\frac{|ϵ||\mu |+\mu _rϵ_r\mu _iϵ_i}{2}\right)^{1/2}.$$
(6)
Noting that the relation

$`\mu _iϵ_i\mu _rϵ_r<\sqrt{(\mu _iϵ_i\mu _rϵ_r)^2+(\mu _iϵ_r+\mu _rϵ_i)^2}`$ (7)
holds for all values of the constitutive parameters $`ϵ_{r,i}`$ and $`\mu _{r,i}`$, we see that

$`0<|ϵ||\mu |+\mu _rϵ_r\mu _iϵ_i;`$ (8)
hence, the right side of (6) is always positive.

As the negative square root must be chosen in (6) in order to satisfy the condition (3), therefore

$`n_r={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}\left(|ϵ||\mu |+\mu _rϵ_r\mu _iϵ_i\right)^{1/2},`$ (9)
$`n_i={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mu _iϵ_r+\mu _rϵ_i}{\left(|ϵ||\mu |+\mu _rϵ_r\mu _iϵ_i\right)^{1/2}}}.`$ (10)
On using these expressions and (2) in the condition (4), a condition for power flow and phase velocity in opposite directons is finally derived as follows:

$`\mu _r\left(|ϵ||\mu |+\mu _rϵ_r\mu _iϵ_i\right)^{1/2}+\mu _i{\displaystyle \frac{\mu _iϵ_r+\mu _rϵ_i}{\left(|ϵ||\mu |+\mu _rϵ_r\mu _iϵ_i\right)^{1/2}}}<\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}.`$ (11)
This condition can be rewritten in the very simple form

$`ϵ_r|\mu |+\mu _r|ϵ|<0,`$ (12)
which is the chief contribution of this communication.

3. EQUIVALENCE WITH PREVIOUSLY DERIVED CONDITION

The general condition derived for the phase velocity to be oppositely directed to the power flow about two years ago  is as follows:

$`\left(|ϵ|ϵ_r\right)\left(|\mu |\mu _r\right)>ϵ_i\mu _i.`$ (13)
Although it looks very different, this condition, which can be rewritten as

$`ϵ_r|\mu |+\mu _r|ϵ|<|ϵ||\mu |+\mu _rϵ_r\mu _iϵ_i,`$ (14)
is completely equivalent to the new condition (12).

Clearly, if (12) is satisfied, then, taking into account the validity of (8), (14) also is. To show that the reverse is also true, we start from (14) and assume that (12) does not hold. As the left side of the inequality (14) is non–negative, squaring both sides does not change the sense of the inequality and we get

$`\left(ϵ_r|\mu |+\mu _r|ϵ|\right)^2<\left(|ϵ||\mu |+\mu _rϵ_r\mu _iϵ_i\right)^2.`$ (15)
Simplification of this inequality leads to

$`ϵ_i\mu _i\left(|ϵ||\mu |+\mu _rϵ_r\mu _iϵ_i\right)<\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}.`$ (16)
But causality dictates that $`ϵ_i0`$ and $`\mu _i0`$; hence, we must conclude that

$`|ϵ||\mu |+\mu _rϵ_r\mu _iϵ_i<\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0},`$ (17)
in contradiction with Eq. (8). Therefore, we must accept the validity of the condition (12). This completes the demonstration of the equivalence between conditions (12) and (13).

4. CONCLUDING REMARKS

We note in passing that both conditions (12) and (13) are also equivalent to the condition

$$ϵ_r\mu _i+\mu _rϵ_i<0,$$
(18)
reported very recently . This condition is due to R. Ruppin.

To conclude, we have here derived a simple new condition for the constitutive parameters of a linear isotropic dielectric–magnetic medium to have phase velocity opposite to the directon of power flow, and we have demonstrated its equivalence with previously derived conditions.

Acknowledgment. RAD acknowledges the support from Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) and Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica (ANPCYT-BID 802/OC-AR03-04457). AL thanks the Mercedes Foundation for support.