text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Let $`f(x)`$ be a function $`f:𝐙/n𝐙𝐂,n𝐍`$. Then its Fourier transform from the time domain into its frequency domain is given by the discrete Fourier transform

$$\widehat{f}(\omega )=\underset{x=0}{\overset{n1}{}}f(x)\mathrm{exp}(2\pi i\frac{\omega x}{n}).$$

Here $`\omega x`$ is the perfect pairing (in the case the scalar product) on the product of the time and of the frequency domains. It is well known also that the solution of a linear differential equation with constant coefficients is related by the Fourier transform to a solution of the polynomial equation. The Fourier-Mukai transform is a strong generalization of mentioned and some another approaches. Let $`A`$ be an abelian variety, $`\widehat{A}`$ its dual abelian variety and $`𝒫`$ the Poincaré divisor on $`A\times \widehat{A}`$. Let $`D^b(A)`$ and $`D^b(\widehat{A})`$ be derived categories of bounded complexes of sheaves on $`A`$ and $`\widehat{A}`$ respectively. A Fourier-Mukai transform was defined by Mukai as an exact equivalence

$$:D^b(A)D^b(\widehat{A})$$

between derived categories of above mentioned bounded complexes. For this transform analogies of the Fourier Inversion Theorem and the Parseval Theorem are valid. Works by B. Bartocci, U. Bruzzo, D. Ruipérez and A. Maciocia have generalized this approach to another classes of sheaves and varieties. Now by a Fourier-Mukai transform

$$:D^b(Y)D^b(X)$$

an exact equivalence between bounded derived categories of coherent sheaves on two smooth projective varieties $`X`$ and $`Y`$ is understood. It is known that the derived categories of coherent sheaves on some projective varieties are equivalent to the derived categories of representations of $`n`$vertices quivers. For instance, the derived category of coherent sheaves on $`𝐏^\mathrm{𝟐}`$ is equivalent to the derived category of representations of $`3`$vertices quivers with relations. There is a very interesting connection between Fourier-Mukai transforms and mirror symmetry. A quiver can be interpreted as a directed graph. We investigate some computational aspects of Fourier-Mukai transforms. This paper is a continuation of.
The organization of the article is as follows. In Section 2 we recall from the computational point of view some facts about Abelian varieties. In Section 3 we very shortly consider parameterization of Abelian varieties and some moduli spaces. In Section 4 we give follow to Mukai the definition of the Fourier-Mukai transform. In Section 5 we present our computer algebraic method for computation of cutsets of some quivers and its implementation.

## 2 Abelian varieties

Let $`𝐂^g`$ be a complex vector space of the dimension $`g`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ a lattice in $`𝐂^g`$ with a bases $`\{𝐚_1,\mathrm{},𝐚_{2g}\}`$. For a lattice vector $`𝐚=(a_1,\mathrm{},a_{2g})\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ its length is denoted by $`|𝐚|`$. The factor $`𝐂^g/\mathrm{\Lambda }=A`$ is the commutative compact topological group (complex torus). Recall the case $`g=1.`$

###### Example 1

Elliptic curves.
Let $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\{𝐚,𝐛\},𝐚,𝐛𝐂,𝐚/𝐛𝐑`$. Then $`E=𝐂/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is an elliptic curve. In the case every such lattice defines an elliptic curve. What is the simplest representation of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$?

###### Lemma 1

Basis reduction in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$.
In any such lattice $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ there exists (under the rotations) one and only one basis with conditions:
(i) $`|𝐛||𝐚|`$;
(ii) length of the projection $`𝐛`$ on $`𝐚\frac{1}{2}|𝐚|`$;
(iii) the angle$`(𝐚,𝐛)<\pi /2`$ (acute angle).
So we can reduce a basis of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ to the form $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\{1,\tau \},`$ where $`Im\tau >0,\frac{1}{2}Re\tau \frac{1}{2},|\tau |1`$.

Let

$$h=\left|\begin{array}{cc}a& b\\ c& d\end{array}\right|,deth=1,a,b,c,d𝐙.$$

Two lattices $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\{1,\tau \},\mathrm{\Lambda }^{^{}}=\{1,\tau ^{^{}}\}`$ are equivalent if $`\tau ^{^{}}=\frac{a\tau +b}{c\tau +d}.`$ In the case there is a birational isomorphism between elliptic curves $`E=𝐂/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`E^{^{}}=𝐂/\mathrm{\Lambda }^{^{}}`$.

If $`g>1`$ then there are groups $`A=𝐂^g/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ which are not Abelian varieties. The complex torus $`A`$ is an Abelian variety if and only if there exist $`𝐑`$bilinear antisymmetric form $`F(x,y)`$ such that the form $`F(x,ix)`$ is a positive definite Hermitian form that takes integer values at points of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. The form $`F(x,y)`$ is called the polarization on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and a pair $`(\mathrm{\Lambda },F)`$ is called the polarized Abelian variety. For computational purposes a good idea is to reduce the bases of the lattice to a some simple form. It is well known the bases reduction of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ in the case $`g=1`$ (Example 1).

### 2.1 On basis reduction in lattices (the case $`g>1`$)

Let a lattice $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\{𝐚_1,\mathrm{},𝐚_{2g}\},𝐚_i=(a_{i1},\mathrm{},a_{i2g}),`$ has coordinates with the condition $`a_{ij}𝐐.`$
There are Minimum basis problem, Shortest lattice vector problem and LLL lattice reduction.
The method of a solution of the Minimum basis problem is based on the theory of successive minima, developed by Minkowski. By the method we try to find short linear independent vectors one after one. The solution of the Shortest lattice vector problem is based on Minkowski’s theorem on convex body. Probably that both the methods are $`NP`$hard.
In some applications the concept reduces means something like nearly orthogonal. The $`L^3`$ algorithm accept as input any basis $`𝐚_1,\mathrm{},𝐚_{2g}`$ of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, and it gives a reduced basis $`𝐛_1,\mathrm{},𝐛_{2g}`$ of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. In general, a lattice may have more then one reduced basis. The ordering of the basis vectors is not arbitrary. The algorithm has a very good theoretical complexity (polynomial-time in the length of the input parameters).

## 3 Parameterization of Abelian varieties and moduli spaces

Let $`(\mathrm{\Lambda },F)`$ be a polarized Abelian variety. Denote by $`M^{tr}`$ the transposition of a matrix $`M.`$ There is a canonical form of Abelian varieties. In the form the lattice of the Abelian variety has the representation

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=(E_g,Z),$$

where $`E_g`$ is the identity matrix and $`Z=X+iY`$ is a complex $`g\times g`$ matrix with conditions: a) $`Z=Z^{tr},X=X^{tr},Y=Y^{tr}`$ ($`X,Y`$ are reals); b) $`Y>0`$ is the matrix of a positive quadratic form. The set $`\{Z\}=𝐇_g`$ of the matrices is called the Siegel upper half-space. Let

$$J=\left|\begin{array}{cc}0& E_g\\ E_g& 0\end{array}\right|$$

be the symplectic matrix. Let

$$M=\left|\begin{array}{cc}A& B\\ C& D\end{array}\right|,MGL(2g,𝐙),M^{tr}JM=J,$$

be the modular group. The modular group acts on $`𝐇_g`$ by the formula

$$Z^{}=(AZ+B)(CZ+D)^1.$$

If matrices $`X`$ and $`Y`$ have integer coefficients, then all data with the exception of complex the unity $`i`$ are defined over $`𝐙.`$ Therefore they and their factors $`modp`$ for prime $`p`$ are well-adapted for computers. Moduli spaces  are used for specification and investigation of classes of objects which could be algebraic curves (or, more generally, schemes), sheaves, vector bundles, morphisms and others. Recall that the algebraic curve over complex numbers could be viewed as a Riemann surface with branches. What is moduli? Classically Riemann claimed that $`3g3`$ (complex) parameters could be for Riemann surface of genus $`g`$ which would determine its conformal structure (for elliptic curves, when $`g=1,`$ it is needs one parameter). Parameter varieties is a class of moduli spaces. These varieties are very convenient tool for computer algebra investigation of objects that are parameterized by the parameter varieties. If we investigate a class of algebraic varieties over integers, then the first step of the investigation in many cases is the analysis of the varieties over prime finite fields. We have used the approach for investigation of rational points on families of hyperelliptic curves . Expansion of the group law of an Abelian variety near $`0`$ defines a formal group of the dimension one in the case of elliptic curves  and of the dimension $`g>1`$ for $`g`$dimensional Abelian varieties . Results about formal group over finite fields and over $`\rho `$-adic fields  can be useful for investigation of the groups over $`𝐙.`$ The paper  demonstrates computational advantages of the localization under computation of cohomologies.

## 4 Elements of category theory and the Fourier-Mukai transform

### 4.1 Equivalence of Categories

Let $`𝒞`$ be a category, $`Ob𝒞`$ its class of objects, and for $`a,bOb𝒞,𝒞(a,b)`$ the class of morphisms (arrows) from $`a`$ to $`b.`$ An arrow $`u:ab`$ is the equivalence in $`𝒞`$ if there is an arrow $`u^{}:ba`$ such that $`u^{}u=1_a`$ and $`uu^{}=1_b`$. A $`\mathrm{𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟}`$ from a category $`𝒞`$ to a category $`𝒦`$ is a function which maps $`Ob(𝒞)Ob(𝒦),`$ and which for each pair $`a,b`$ of objects of $`𝒞`$ maps $`𝒞(a,b)𝒦((a),(b)),`$ while satisfying the two conditions:
$`id_a=id_a`$ for every $`aOb(𝒞),`$
$`(fg)=(f)(g).`$

Let $`unct(𝒞,𝒟)`$ be the category of functors from $`𝒞`$ to $`𝒟`$ with natural transformations as morphisms. An equivalence in $`unct(𝒞,𝒟)`$ is the equivalence between categories $`𝒞`$ and $`𝒟`$. The following theorem is a particular case of the theorem from.

###### Theorem 1

A functor $`:𝒞𝒟`$ is the equivalence if, and only if
a)$``$ is fully faithful, and
b) any $`YOb𝒟`$ is isomorphic to an object of the form $`(X)`$ for an object $`XOb𝒞`$ .

### 4.2 The Fourier-Mukai transform

Let $`A`$ be an abelian variety and $`\widehat{A}`$ the dual abelian variety which is by definition a moduli space of line bundles of degree zero on $`A`$.The Poincaré bundle $`𝒫`$ is a line bundle of degree zero on the product $`A\times \widehat{A}`$, defined in such a way that for all $`a\widehat{A}`$ the restriction of $`𝒫`$ on $`A\times \{a\}`$ is isomorphic to the line bundle corresponding to the point $`a\widehat{A}.`$ This line bundle is also called the universal bundle. Let

$$\pi _A:A\times \widehat{A}A,$$

$$\pi _{\widehat{A}}:\widehat{A}\times A\widehat{A},$$

and $`𝒞_A`$ be the category of $`O_A`$modules over $`A,MOb𝒞_A,`$

$$\widehat{S}(M)=\pi _{\widehat{A},}(𝒫\pi _A^{}M).$$

Then, by definition, the Fourier-Mukai transform $``$ is the derived functor $`R\widehat{S}`$ of the functor $`\widehat{S}.`$ Let $`𝒟(A),𝒟(\widehat{A})`$ be bounded derived categories of coherent sheaves on $`A`$ and $`\widehat{A}`$ respectively.

###### Theorem 2

(Mukai.) The derived functor $`=R\widehat{S}`$ induces an equivalence of categories between two derived categories $`𝒟(A)`$ and $`𝒟(\widehat{A}).`$

## 5 Cutset method and its implementation

A quiver can be interpreted as a directed graph. Here we consider quivers without multiple edges and loops. The solution of some problems requires to cut all cycles or constract a spanning-tree of a directed graph. Rooted graph $`G`$ is the graph that each node of $`G`$ is reachable from a node $`rG.`$ By the cutset of a graph we shall understand an appropriated subset of nodes (called cutpoints) such that any cycle of the graph contains at least one cutpoint. DFS is the abbreviation of Depth First Search method. During DFS we numbering nodes and label (mark) edges. By Tarjan  the DFS method has linear complexity. The main function Cutsetdg of the package CUTSETDG computes Cutset (a subset of vertices which cut all cycles in the graph) of arbitrary rooted directed graph. It uses 3 functions: Adjarcn, Cutpoints and Unicut. For this program the author developed rather simple and efficient algorithm that based on DFS-method. The function is the base for Cutset methods for systems of procedures. The package is implemented by the Allegro Common Lisp language .

###### Note 1

It is not difficult to modify the Cutset algorithm for processing directed graphs with multiple edges.

Package CUTSETDG
Title: Cutset of a rooted directed graph
Summery: This package implements computation of a cutset of a rooted directed graph. The graph have to defined by adjacency list.
Example of Call: (Cutsetdg ’a) where ”a” is a root of exploring graph.
The Common Lisp text of the package CUTSETDG

```
;; Name: Cutsetdg
;;
;; Title: Cutset of a rooted directed graph
;;
;; Author: Nikolaj M. Glazunov
;;
;; Summery:
;; This package implements computation of a cutset
;; of a rooted directed graph. The graph have to defined by adjacency
;; list
;;
;; Example of Call:   (Cutsetdg ’a)
;; where "a" is a root of exploring graph
;;
;; Allegro CL 3.0.2
;;

(DEFUN Cutsetdg (startnode)

;; startnode is a root of exploring graph
;; DFS - Depth First Search method for connected graph
;; st - stack
;; v - exploring node
;; sv -  son of the exploring node
;; inl - inverse edges list
;; df -  DFS-numbering of the node (property)
;; Outarcs - adjacency list of Output arcs of the node (property)
;; 1, 2  - lables

    (SETF (GET startnode ’df ) 1)   ;DFS-numbering is equal 1
   (SETF (GET startnode ’Outarcs)
            (Adjarcn  (LIST startnode))) ;;startnode obtained the a-list
                                 ;; property Outarcn (Output arcs of the
                                 ;; node)
    (PROG ( st v sv inl  cuts)
         (PUSH startnode st)
   1   (SETQ v (CAR st)) ;;explored node received value from stack of nodes
   2      (COND ((NOT (EQ  NIL (GET v ’Outarcs)))
                    (SETQ sv (CAAR (GET v ’Outarcs)))
                        (COND ((EQ NIL (GET sv ’df))
                            (SETF (GET sv ’df) (+ 1 (GET v ’df)))
       ;; modification of the edge of son’s adj-list
       (SETF (GET sv ’Outarcs)
            (Adjarcn  (LIST sv))) ;; node sv obtained the adj-list property
                                 ;; Outarcs (adjacency Outarcs)
          (SETF (GET v ’Outarcs) (REMOVE (LIST sv v) (GET v ’Outarcs)
                              :TEST ’EQUAL))
                           (PUSH sv st)
                            (GO 1)
            )
              (T
                 (COND ((AND (> (GET v ’df) (GET sv ’df))
                            (NOT (EQUAL v sv)))
              (SETQ inl (CONS (CAR (GET v ’Outarcs)) inl))
              (SETF (GET v ’Outarcs) (REMOVE (LIST sv v) (GET v ’Outarcs)
                              :TEST ’EQUAL))
                        (GO 2)
                        )
              (T
               (SETF (GET v ’Outarcs) (REMOVE (LIST sv v) (GET v ’Outarcs)
                              :TEST ’EQUAL))
                (GO 2)
                )
                       )
                )
                   )
                 )
                              (T
                (POP st)
         (COND     ((NOT (NULL st))
                      (GO 1)
              )
                     (T                 ;; end
                   (SETQ cuts (Unicut (Cutpoints inl)))
                (RETURN cuts)
                )
              )
                ))
     )
   )
(DEFUN Adjarcn (PATH)
      (MAPCAN #’(LAMBDA (E)
              (COND ((MEMBER (CAR E) (CDR E)) NIL)
                   (T (LIST E))))
          (MAPCAR #’(LAMBDA (E)
                            (CONS E PATH))
             (CAR  (GET (CAR PATH) ’NEIGHBORS)))))
(DEFUN Cutpoints (inl)
        (MAPCAR ’CAR inl))
(DEFUN Unicut (cpl)
     (COND ((NULL cpl) NIL)
           (T (CONS (CAR cpl)
                (Unicut (REMOVE (CAR cpl) cpl)))
             )
     )
     )

```

### Acknowledgements

I would like to thanks the organizers of the conference SymmNMPh’2003 and NATO ASI ”Computational Noncommutative Algebra and Applications” and for providing a very pleasant environment during the conferences and NATO ASI for support.


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# The late UVOIR light curve of SN 2000cx

## 1 Introduction

Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) are believed to be the destructive thermonuclear explosions of white dwarfs. Their light curves are during the first couple of years powered by the radioactive decay of freshly synthesized 56Ni, releasing $`\gamma `$-rays and positrons in the ejecta. At phases later than about 200 days, virtually all gamma-rays escape freely from the ejecta, and the luminosity is then provided by the kinetic energy deposited by the positrons.

Whether or not the positrons are able to slip out of the ejecta depends on the strength and geometry of the magnetic field (e.g., ps98 ; m99 ; m01 ). While a weak and radially combed magnetic field might allow positron escape, thus providing a steep light curve, a strong, tangled magnetic field would efficiently trap all the positrons, and drive the light curve to the radioactive decay rate.

As a first step to investigate whether or not observations of the positron phase can establish conclusions about positron escape, we have conducted a photometric study at late phases of the SN Ia 2000cx, and modeled its light curve in detail. Here we present some preliminary results from that study. The final analysis will be reported elsewhere.

## 2 Observations of SN 2000cx

SN 2000cx was discovered on 17.5 July 2000 ym00  far from the nucleus of the S0 galaxy NGC 524, and became the brightest supernova observed that year. This made it a very good target for late time photometry. The early evolution has been extremely well covered li01 ; cand03 .

We have observed the field of SN 2000cx in the optical, (U)BVRI, regime during four epochs between 360 and 480 days past maximum light. These observations were obtained with the FORS instruments at the ESO VLT. The data were reduced in a standard way using IRAF.

Near-infrared observations were obtained using the ISAAC instrument at the VLT. Data were obtained in the J and H (and K) bands at three epochs close to the optical observations. The data were reduced within Eclipse and IRAF.

Magnitudes where measured using aperture photometry and zeropoints in the standard system were obtained by observations of standard stars.

A detailed description of the observations and the data reductions will be given elsewhere. Very late observations using the HST will be included in a future study.

## 3 Modeling

We have performed detailed modeling of the emission from SNe Ia in the nebular phase, 250 - 1000 days after explosion, in order to interpret our observations of SN 2000cx. The code is an updated version of the code described by Kozma & Fransson kf98a .

The decay of 56Co dominates the energy input at the epochs we are modeling. The gamma-rays emitted in the decays give rise to fast electrons which deposit their energy by heating, ionizing, or exciting the ejecta. In our calculations we assume full and immediate positron deposition within the regions containing the newly synthesized iron.

As input to our calculations we use the density structure, abundances and velocity structure from model W7 n84 ; t86 . UV-scattering is not included and as it may be important for the ionization structure we have made model calculations with and without including photoionization.

## 4 Results

In Fig. 1 the light curves for the $`B`$\- to $`H`$-bands are shown for both observations and models. We find a general good agreement between observations and models, with a steeper slope in the $`BVR`$\- (V band declines 1.4 mag. per 100 days) and virtually constant light curves in the $`JH`$-bands.

The curves for the model without photoionization (dotted) drops quickly after 400-600 days. This is due to a lower temperature in the ejecta for this model. For the $`BVRI`$-bands the model including photoionization (dashed-dotted) appears to give a better fit to the observations. However, since the differences in the light curve are mainly a temperature effect, other processes might give the same result. For example, clumping of the ejecta would allow low density regions to be hotter, keeping the light curves from dropping.

### 4.1 Bolometric luminosity

The wide coverage of broad band magnitudes allows an attempt to construct a uvoir ’bolometric’ lightcurve. We estimated the bolometric lightcurve by simply integrating the flux from (U)B to H(K) at all epochs. The result is shown in Fig. 2.

## 5 Discussion

As the trapping of the $`\gamma `$-rays decreases, the kinetic energy of the positrons will start to dominate the energy input to the ejecta. Our model assumes full trapping of the positrons. In this case the bolometric light curve should flatten out and approach the decay rate of 56Co in the positron dominated phase. However, late observations of SNe Ia in different pass bands indicate that the light curve continues to fall more rapidly also at epochs later than 250 days. This has been interpreted as due to positron escape capp97 ; m99 ; m01 ; ps98 .

However, since the observations of late light curves are sparse, in particular in the near-IR, it is generally not possible to construct true bolometric light curves. For example, Cappellaro et al. capp97  had to assume that the late bolometric light curve follows the V-band. This assumption is not necessarily valid. As the input heating decreases and the ejecta expands the temperatures will decrease, and color evolution could mimic the effect of positron escape.

In Fig. 2 we compare the bolometric light curve to the V-band light curve for our two model calculations. Even with full positron trapping we find an increasing deviation between the bolometric and V-band light curve with time. Especially for the model without photoionization the drop in the V-band is rapid around 400-500 days.

The emission in the various bands behave quite differently, due to the evolution of temperature and ionization structure within the ejecta. This makes it hazardly to assume that any particular band reflects the true bolometric luminosity. Also in the observations do we find that the slope of the bolometric and V-band light curves differs (Fig. 2 lower panel). A comparison to a true bolometric light curve would increase this effect.

We therefore find it difficult to draw any conclusions about the degree of positron escape in SNe Ia without having a detailed and consistent knowledge of the temperature and ionization evolution of the ejecta. Time dependent bolometric corrections can instead be a likely explanation for these observations.

Acknowledgements.

We are grateful to K. Nomoto for providing the W7 model, and to S. Nahar for iron recombination rates. We thank B. Leibundgut, C. Fransson, P. Lundqvist, N. Suntzeff and the SINS team, as well as P. Milne for discussions on this project. The observations are based on observations collected at the European Southern Observatory (67.D-0134 and 68.D-0114). JS trip to Valencia was paid by Wallenbergsstiftelsens jubileumsfond.

## Index


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# The Inner Density Cusp of Cold Dark Matter Halos

## 1. Introduction

The pioneering efforts of Frenk et al (1988), Dubinski and Carlberg (1991), and Crone et al (1994), among others, led to the identification of a number of key features of the structure of dark matter halos assembled through hierarchical clustering. One important result of this early work concerns the remarkable similarity (“universality”) in the structure of dark matter halos of widely different mass. This was first proposed by Navarro, Frenk & White (1996, 1997; hereafter NFW), who suggested a simple fitting formula to describe the spherically-averaged density profiles of dark matter halos,

$$\rho (r)=\frac{\rho _s}{(r/r_s)(1+(r/r_s))^2}.$$
(1)
A second result concerns the absence of a well defined central “core” of constant density in virialized CDM halos: the dark matter density grows apparently without bounds toward the center of the halo.

Subsequent work has generally confirmed these trends, but has also highlighted potentially important deviations from the NFW fitting formula. In particular, Fukushige & Makino (2001), as well as Moore and collaborators (Moore et al 1998, 1999), have reported that NFW fits to their simulated halos (of much higher mass and spatial resolution than the original NFW work) underestimate the dark matter density in the inner regions ($`r<r_s`$). These authors interpreted the disagreement as indicative of inner density “cusps” steeper than the NFW profile and advocated a simple modification to the NFW formula (referred to hereafter as the M99 profile) with asymptotic central slope $`\beta _0=1.5`$.

The actual value of $`\beta _0`$ is still being hotly debated in the literature (Jing & Suto 2000, Klypin et al 2001, Taylor & Navarro 2001, Power et al 2003, Fukushige, Kawai & Makino 2003, Hayashi et al 2003, Navarro et al 2003), but there is general consensus that CDM halos are indeed “cuspy”. This has been recognized as an important result, since the rotation curves of many disk galaxies, and in particular of low surface brightness (LSB) systems, appear to indicate the presence of an extended region of constant dark matter density: a dark matter “core” (Flores & Primack 1994, Moore 1994).

Unfortunately, rotation curve constraints are strongest just where numerical simulations are least reliable. Resolving CDM halos down to the kpc scales probed by the innermost points of rotation curves poses a significant computational challenge that has been met in very few of the simulations published to date. Indeed, rotation curves are generally compared with extrapolations of the simulation data that rely heavily on the applicability and accuracy of fitting formulae such as the NFW profile to regions that may be compromised by numerical artifact.

The theoretical debate on the asymptotic central slope of the dark matter density profile, $`\beta _0`$, has also led at times to unwarranted emphasis on the very inner region of the rotation curve datasets, rather than on an proper appraisal of the data over its full radial extent. De Block et al (2001), for example, attempt to derive constraints on $`\beta _0`$ from the innermost few points of their rotation curves, and conclude that $`\beta _00`$ for most galaxies in their sample. However, their analysis focuses on the regions most severely affected by non-circular motions, seeing, misalignments and slit offsets, and other effects that limit the accuracy of circular velocity estimates. It is perhaps not surprising, then, that other studies (van den Bosch et al 2000, Swaters et al 2003) have disputed the conclusiveness of these findings. The disagreement is compounded by the results of the latest cosmological N-body simulations (Power et al 2003, Hayashi et al 2003, Navarro et al 2003), which find scant evidence for a well defined value of $`\beta _0`$ in simulated CDM halos. Given these difficulties, focusing the theoretical or observational analysis on $`\beta _0`$ seems unwise. We shall try here to improve upon previous work by comparing directly the results of our simulations with the full radial extent of the rotation curves of LSB galaxies.

I report here results from a major computational effort pursued by an international collaboration bringing together computational cosmology groups in Victoria (Canada), Seattle (USA), Durham (UK), and Garching (Germany). We have now completed a series of about 20 simulations of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM halos spanning roughly five decades in mass, from dwarf galaxies with circular velocities $`V_c50`$ km s-1 to galaxy cluster systems with $`V_c1500`$ km s-1. This series follows a thorough convergence study where the role of all relevant numerical parameters has been assessed in detail (Power et al 2003). As a result, we are able to identify in each simulated halo a minimum convergence radius ($`r_{\mathrm{conv}}`$) beyond which the mass profile is reliably reproduced: circular velocity estimates are accurate to better than $`10\%`$ for $`r>r_{\mathrm{conv}}`$. Each of the simulated halos has several million particles within the virial radius, allowing for the mass profiles to be traced reliably down to within $`1\%`$ of the virial radius.

## 2. CDM Halo Density Profiles: Universality and Cusp Structure

Figure 1 shows the density and circular velocity profiles of nineteen $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM halos simulated in our series. The “universality” in the density profile shape is displayed by scaling each profile to $`r_2`$, the radius where the logarithmic slope is $`\beta =d\mathrm{log}\rho /d\mathrm{log}r=2`$. The left panel of Figure 1 shows that there is little difference in the scaled density profiles of CDM halos differing by up to five decades in mass. The same applies to the $`V_c`$ profiles, which in the right panel of Figure 1 have been scaled to the peak in the circular velocity curve. The fitting formulae proposed by NFW or M99 are fixed curves in these scaled units, and are seen to more or less “bracket” the most extreme shapes of the mass profiles of the simulated halos.

Figure 2a shows the radial dependence of $`\beta `$ in the simulated halos, and confirms that neither the NFW profile nor the M99 profile capture fully the structural diversity of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM halos. The profiles are clearly shallower near the center than the asymptotic value of $`\beta _0=1.5`$ proposed by M99. At the same time, $`\beta (r)`$ deviates from the NFW prediction inside $`r_2`$: density profiles become shallower less rapidly than expected from the NFW formula. Thus, NFW fits tend to underestimate systematically the density just inside $`r_2`$ (see Figure 1a). Fitting formulae with steeper cusps (such as the M99 profile) might indeed do better in that region; however, so will any other modification of the NFW formula where the logarithmic slope inside $`r_2`$ depends more weakly on radius than NFW’s , regardless of $`\beta _0`$.

Conclusive proof that the cusps cannot diverge as steeply as $`r^{1.5}`$ is provided by the total mass inside the innermost resolved radius, $`r_{\mathrm{conv}}`$ (the minimum radius plotted for all profiles shown in this paper). This is because the mean density interior to any radius, $`\overline{\rho }(r)`$, together with the local density at that radius, $`\rho (r)`$, provide a robust limit to the asymptotic central slope, $`\beta _0<\beta _{\mathrm{max}}(r)=3(1\rho (r)/\overline{\rho }(r))`$ (under the plausible assumption that $`\beta `$ is monotonic with radius). The radial dependence of $`\beta _{\mathrm{max}}`$ is shown in figure 2b, and shows that, except for possibly one dwarf system, no simulated halo can have a cusp as steeply divergent as $`\beta _0=1.5`$.

Actually, there is no indication in the profiles for a well defined value for $`\beta _0`$, as profiles keep getting shallower down to the smallest resolved radius. A simple power law approximates the radial dependence of $`\beta (r)`$ better than the NFW or M99 profiles;

$$\beta _\alpha (r)=d\mathrm{ln}\rho /d\mathrm{ln}r=2\left(r/r_2\right)^\alpha ,$$
(2)
which corresponds to a density profile of the form,

$$\mathrm{ln}(\rho _\alpha /\rho _2)=(2/\alpha )[\left(r/r_2\right)^\alpha 1].$$
(3)
The thick dot-dashed curves in Figure 2 show that eq.2 (with $`\alpha 0.17`$) does indeed reproduce fairly well the radial dependence of $`\beta (r)`$ and $`\beta _{\mathrm{max}}(r)`$ in simulated halos. Furthermore, adjusting the parameter $`\alpha `$ allows the profile to be tailored to each individual halo, resulting in much improved fits over those obtained with the NFW or M99 formulae. The best-fit values of $`\alpha `$ (in the range $`0.1`$ \- $`0.2`$) show no obvious dependence on halo mass: the average $`\alpha `$ is $`0.172`$ and the dispersion about the mean is $`0.032`$ for the nineteen halos in our series (see Navarro et al 2003 for further details).

## 3. CDM halos and LSB rotation curves

A number of authors have reported disagreements between the shape of rotation curves of low surface brightness (LSB) galaxies and the circular velocity profiles implied by fitting formulae such as that proposed by NFW (Moore 1994, Flores & Primack 1994, McGaugh & de Blok 1998, de Blok et al 2001). Many of these galaxies are better fit by circular velocity curves arising from density profiles with a well defined constant density “core” rather than the cuspy ones inferred from simulations, a result that has prompted calls for a radical revision of the CDM paradigm on small scales (see, e.g., Spergel & Steinhardt 2000). However, before accepting the need for radical modifications to CDM it is important to note a couple of caveats that apply to the LSB rotation curve problem.

* Strictly speaking, the observational disagreement is with the fitting formulae, rather than with the actual structure of simulated CDM halos. As noted in the previous section, there are small but systematic differences between them, so it is important to confirm that the disagreement persists when LSB rotation curves are contrasted directly with simulations.
* It must be emphasized that the rotation curve problem arises when comparing rotation speeds of LSB disks to spherically-averaged circular velocities of dark matter halos. Given that CDM halos are expected to be significantly non-spherical, some differences between the two are to be expected. It is therefore important to use the full 3D structure of CDM halos to make predictions regarding the rotation curves of gaseous disks that may be compared directly to observation.

Figure 3a illustrates the LSB rotation curve problem highlighted above. This figure shows the rotation curves of four LSB galaxies (points with error bars) selected from the sample of McGaugh et al (2001). The data points have been fitted using a simple formula, $`V_{\mathrm{rot}}(r)=V_0(1+(r/r_0)^\gamma )^{1/\gamma }`$ (Courteau 1997). Here $`V_0`$ and $`r_0`$ are dimensional scaling parameters, whereas $`\gamma `$ is a dimensionless parameter that characterizes the shape of the rotation curve. This three-parameter formula provides excellent fits to all galaxies, as witnessed by the quality of the (solid line) fits shown in figure 3a.

To emphasize visually the shape discrepancy, the rotation curves in figure 3a have been scaled to $`r_{0.3}`$ and $`V_{0.3}`$: the radius and velocity, respectively, where the slope of the curve is dln$`V_{\mathrm{rot}}`$/dln$`r=0.3`$. The four galaxies have different values of $`\gamma `$, and have been chosen to illustrate to whole range of rotation curve shapes in the McGaugh et al and Swaters et al datasets. Roughly two-thirds of their LSBs have $`0.5<\gamma <2`$; the rest have $`2<\gamma <5`$ (see top panel of Fig.3b).

The dashed lines in figure 3 show the $`V_c`$ profile of an NFW halo, which is fixed in these scaled units. Clearly, as $`\gamma `$ increases, the difference in shape between the NFW profile and the rotation curve becomes more acute. Galaxies with $`\gamma <2`$ are roughly consistent with NFW, whereas $`\gamma >2`$ rotation curves are clearly inconsistent. Can the deviations from NFW discussed in figures 1 and 2 be responsible for this discrepancy?

To address this question we have fitted all simulated halos with the same ($`V_0,r_0,\gamma `$) formula used for the observational data. Each halo is fitted at various times during its late evolution so as not to impose any restrictions on the dynamical state of the halo; temporary departures from equilibrium associated with recent accretion events are thus taken into account ‘naturally” in this procedure. The $`\gamma `$ distribution of halos peaks at about $`\gamma 0.6`$ and is restricted to values that rarely exceed $`2.5`$ (see bottom panel of Fig.3b). Halos whose fitted $`\gamma `$ best match each of the galaxies in Figure 3a are shown with faint solid lines in that figure.

Full details of this exercise are presented in Hayashi et al (2003), but the main conclusion is that it is possible to find halos whose $`V_c`$ curves match all galaxies with $`\gamma <2`$, with scaling parameters $`r_0`$ and $`V_0`$ in reasonable agreement with observed values. CDM halos are thus actually consistent with the majority of LSB rotation curve data. Indeed, the rotation curve problem may be thought of as restricted to the few galaxies with $`\gamma >2`$; these rotation curves rise and turn too sharply to be consistent with the $`V_c`$ profiles of simulated halos (see the bottom right panel of figure 3a).

Do these galaxies rule out the presence of a cusp in the dark matter density profile? As noted above, before concluding so we must take into account possible systematic differences between rotation speed and circular velocity in gaseous disks embedded within realistic, triaxial halos. This is a complex issue that involves a number of parameters, such as the degree of triaxiality, the role of the disk’s self-gravity, size, and orientation, etc.

For the sake of simplicity, we have decided to begin addressing this issue by evolving a massless, isothermal gaseous disk at the center of mildly triaxial (1:0.9:0.8) halos (Hayashi et al, in preparation). The triaxiality in the potential induces a radially-dependent inclination which may fluctuate, in the case we consider here, by $`5`$ to $`10`$ degrees from one radius to another. The effect on rotation curves of departures from circular symmetry and from coplanar orbits derived from long-slit spectra is complex, but the shape of the rotation curve, in particular, is affected. On some projections, rotation curves appear to rise and turn rapidly, and they would be (erroneously) taken to imply the existence of a constant-density core in simple models that impose spherical symmetry. Fits to the rotation curves using the ($`V_0,r_0,\gamma `$) formula often have $`\gamma >2`$, consistent with galaxies where NFW profiles provide a particularly poor fit to the rotation curve data. This suggests that deviations from spherical symmetry in the mass structure of CDM halos might reconcile rotation curve shapes that seem to favor the presence of constant density cores with cusps in the dark matter density profiles.

## 4. Concluding Remarks

Although it appears possible to reconcile dark matter cusps with LSBs by appealing to asphericity in CDM halos, it would be premature to argue that the problem has been fully solved. After all, it may come as no surprise that one is able to reproduce LSB rotation curves, given the number of extra “free” parameters afforded by relaxing the assumption of spherical symmetry. It is therefore important to build a more compelling case for this interpretation of rotation curve data, so as to render it falsifiable. We are in the process of identifying corroborating trends that may be used either to support or to rule out this interpretation, as the case may be. In particular, we would like to characterize better the $`\gamma >2`$ systems: are such rotation curves in general asymmetric? Is rotation around the minor axis expected? Can one verify the triaxial-halo interpretation in full velocity maps? In this sense, identifying a “make or break” prediction will be as important as the success of aspherical halos in reproducing the rich variety of shapes of LSB rotation curves. Only once this is accomplished shall we be able to conclude that LSB rotation curves do not preclude the presence of dark matter density cusps, freeing the CDM paradigm of one of its most vexing challenges on small scales.

### Acknowledgments.

I am grateful to my collaborators, Eric Hayashi; Adrian Jenkins; Carlos Frenk; Simon White; Volker Springel; Chris Power; Thomas Quinn; and Joachim Stadel, for allowing me to report some of our results in advance of publication. This work has been supported by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, NSERC and CFI, and by fellowships from CIAR and from the J.S.Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.

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text:
# Recent Results from KamLAND

## 1 Reactor Antineutrino Experiments and Neutrino Oscillation

Nuclear reactors emit a calculable flux of electron antineutrinos ($`\overline{\nu }_e`$s) in all directions. For standard particle propagation, one expects a detector located a distance $`L`$ from the reactor to measure a flux that decreases as $`1/L^2`$. But if $`\overline{\nu }_e`$s are massive, they may ”oscillate” into undetectable flavors on the way to the detector, leading to an apparent ”disappearance” of the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$s.

Neutrinos are produced and detected in weak interactions, which couple to the weak eigenstates $`\nu _l`$, where $`l=e,\mu ,\tau `$. For massive neutrinos, the weak eigenstates may be expressed as a linear combination of three mass eigenstates $`\nu _i`$, $`i=1,2,3`$, with mass $`m_i`$:

$$\nu _l=\underset{i}{}U_{li}\nu _i.$$
(1)
$`U_{li}`$ is a $`3\times 3`$ unitary ”mixing” matrix and is analogous to the CKM matrix in the quark sector. As a neutrino propagates through vacuum with momentum $`p_\nu `$, the phase of each mass eigenstate will change at different rates according to

$$\nu _l(t)=\underset{i}{}U_{li}e^{iE_it}\nu _i,$$
(2)
where $`E_ip_\nu +\frac{m_i^2}{2p_\nu }`$. At times $`t>0`$ the neutrino will be in a superposition of the weak eigenstates. The probability of detecting flavor $`\nu _l^{}`$ at a distance $`Lt`$ from the source is then

$$P(\nu _l\nu _l^{})=Re\underset{i,j}{}U_{li}U_{il^{}}^{}U_{lj}U_{jl^{}}^{}e^{i\frac{m_i^2m_j^2}{2p_\nu }L}.$$
(3)
In neutrino oscillation experiments, it is common to simplify to two neutrino flavors, say $`\nu _e`$ and $`\nu _\mu `$, in which case $`U_{li}`$ is parameterized by a single mixing angle $`\theta `$. In this picture, the probability of a neutrino emitted as $`\nu _e`$ to be detected as $`\nu _e`$ is then

$$P\left(\nu _e\nu _e\right)=1\mathrm{sin}^22\theta \mathrm{sin}^2\left(\frac{\pi L}{L_{osc}}\right)$$
(4)
where $`L_{osc}=\frac{4\pi p_\nu }{\mathrm{\Delta }m^2}`$. Here, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2=\left|m_1^2m_2^2\right|`$ is taken to be the mass-squared difference between two ”effective” mass eigenstates relevant to $`\nu _e\nu _\mu `$ mixing. Note that $`P\left(\nu _e\nu _e\right)`$ is a sinusoidal function of L, hence the name ”neutrino oscillation”.

The situation becomes slightly more complicated for neutrinos propagating through matter. As first recognized by Wolfenstein, Mikheyev, and Smirnov, while all three weak states participate in neutral-current interactions with normal matter, only electron neutrinos have additional charge-current interactions with electrons in the material being traversed. This results in an effective index-of-refraction for $`\nu _e`$ different from that for $`\nu _{\mu ,\tau }`$ by

$$\mathrm{\Delta }n=\frac{2\pi N_e}{p_\nu ^2}f(0),$$
(5)
where $`N_e`$ is the number-density of electrons in the material, and $`f(0)`$ is the forward scattering amplitude. $`\mathrm{\Delta }n`$ changes the phase of the $`\nu _e`$-component relative to the other components by $`2\pi `$ over a distance $`L_0`$ given by

$$L_0=\frac{2\pi }{\sqrt{2}G_FN_e},$$
(6)
where $`G_F`$ is the Fermi constant. This phenomenon, called the MSW effect, alters the two flavor oscillation probability as follows:

$$P\left(\nu _e\nu _e\right)=1\mathrm{sin}^2\left(2\theta _m\right)\mathrm{sin}^2\left(\frac{\pi L}{L_m}\right)$$
(7)
$$\mathrm{tan}2\theta _m\mathrm{tan}2\theta \left(1+\frac{L_{osc}}{L_0}\mathrm{sec}2\theta \right)$$
(8)
$$L_mL_{osc}\left[1+\left(\frac{L_{osc}}{L_0}\right)^2+\frac{2L_{osc}}{L_0}\mathrm{cos}2\theta \right]^{\frac{1}{2}}$$
(9)
For neutrinos created in and propagating out of the sun, $`L_0200`$ km $`R_{sun}`$, and matter effects are significant. The result is that $`\nu _e`$ disappearance experiments that use the sun as a source, such as Homestake, GALLEX, SAGE, Kamiokande, Super-Kamiokande, and SNO, individually allow values of $`\mathrm{tan}^2\theta `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$ over many orders of magnitude. The overlap of allowed regions from multiple experiments with different thresholds leaves a few small patches, with values around $`\mathrm{tan}^2\theta 1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^210^4`$ eV2 highly favored. This region is called the ”Large Mixing Angle” (LMA) MSW solution. Prior to KamLAND, another patch at lower $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^210^7`$ eV2, known as the ”LOW” MSW solution, survived at the 99.73% C.L.

For neutrino experiments with artificial sources on the earth, matter effects are typically much less significant. This is because for matter with density similar to rock $`L_010^4`$ km, larger than the radius of the earth. Thus for these sources the modifications to the oscillation parameters can be viewed as perturbations on the vacuum parameters, and for short enough oscillation lengths can be neglected.

Artificial $`\nu `$ sources for oscillation experiments typically take one of two forms: neutrino beams or nuclear reactors. These two sources comprise a highly complementary experimental program in neutrino oscillation. Neutrino beams in general require very long baselines for good $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$ sensitivity, but the collimation of these sources lessens the severity of this obstacle considerably. Moreover, beams produce higher energy neutrinos and multiple flavors, allowing for not only disappearance but also appearance measurements. Reactors, on the other hand, are a non-collimated source, and produce exclusively electron (anti)neutrinos, restricting the experimenter to disappearance-only measurements and thus giving limited sensitivity to $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta `$. However, due to the lower energies of the neutrinos (1-10 MeV), reactor experiments are sensitive to very small $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$.

Note that both neutrino beams and reactors are ”laboratory-style” experiment, in which both the source and the detector are controlled. The physics of neutrino propagation can then be cleanly tested separately from the mechanisms involved in the production of the neutrinos.

## 2 Calculating Reactor Antineutrino Fluxes

More than 99.9% of $`\overline{\nu }_e`$s emitted by nuclear reactors are produced in the decay chains of the fission products of only four isotopes: 235U, 238U, 239Pu, and 241Pu. The number of fissions of each of these isotopes over the data-taking period is estimated from a Monte Carlo simulation of the reactor core that tracks fuel burn-up and U/Pu production over reactor fuel cycles. The performance of such simulations has been verified by comparing the simulated fuel composition at the end of a fuel cycle with measurements of isotopic abundances in the actual spent fuel rods.

The inputs to the simulation include the initial fuel composition and periodic measurements of the secondary calorimetric power, the pressure and flow rate in the primary cooling system, and various other operational parameters. However, the results of the simulations depend very weakly on most of the inputs. Accuracy is required only for the fuel composition and the power, on which the fission rates depend linearly. The power is measured rather precisely: reactors are regulated to operate at about a standard deviation or so below their rated power outputs. The economic incentive to produce as much power as possible pushes this error to be small; uncertainties $`<1\%`$ are common.

The emitted $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ spectrum is then calculated by summing the spectrum emitted by each isotope weighted by the number of fissions of that isotope during the data taking period. For 235U, 239Pu, and 241Pu, $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ spectra are derived from $`\beta `$-spectra measurements., Extracting the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ spectra from the $`\beta `$-spectra is non-trivial; it involves complex bookkeeping of the decay chains for each daughter nucleus and summing the contributions. The spectra are normalized to the number of $`\overline{\nu }_e`$s emitted per fission, and have uncertainties of a few percent. For 238U, no measurements are available, so we must rely on a calculation of the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ spectrum. The uncertainty in the calculation is $``$10%, but since fissions from 238U make up only $``$10% of the signal, this results in a 1% uncertainty in the full $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ flux.

Reactor experiments typically detect $`\overline{\nu }_e`$s via inverse-$`\beta `$-decay, $`\overline{\nu }_e+pn+e^+`$, because the 2-particle final state distinguishes the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ from most other particles and dramatically reduces backgrounds. The positron carries away almost all of the energy of the incident neutrino, so that the detected positron spectrum is to a good approximation the incident neutrino spectrum folded with the detection cross section and shifted by a constant energy. The cross section has a threshold of 1.8 MeV, and has been calculated with uncertainties on the level of a percent.

The most recent generation of reactor experiments, Palo Verde and Chooz, showed that uncertainties on the level of a few percent can be achieved for these calculations. The fact that $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ disappearance has not been detected in reactor experiments with baselines up to $``$1 km- allows one to view these experiments as a verification the reactor flux calculations to within a few percent over most of reactor neutrino spectrum.

## 3 The KamLAND Experiment

KamLAND uses the entire Japanese nuclear power industry as a 180 GWth long-baseline source. The experiment is located underneath Mt. Ikenoyama in Gifu prefecture in central Japan. 80% of the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ flux comes from reactors at baselines of 140-210 km. This range of baselines makes KamLAND particularly sensitive to values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$ corresponding to the LMA MSW solution to the solar neutrino problem. Matter effects in rock can be neglected at this distance scale.

The results presented here are for 145.1 live-days of data taking between March and September 2002. Calculating the incident flux at KamLAND during this period requires summing the flux from every reactor in Japan. Reactor data, including instantaneous power and fuel burn-up, is provided by the Japanese power companies. The flux from reactors in Korea and the rest of the world is estimated from reported power generation, and makes up only a few percent of the overall flux.

As stated earlier, KamLAND detects $`\overline{\nu }_e`$s via inverse-$`\beta `$-decay, $`\overline{\nu }_e+pn+e^+`$, with the energy of the positron $`E_{e^+}`$ related to the energy of the incident $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ by essentially a constant offset of 1.8 MeV. The positron quickly deposits this energy in KamLAND’s liquid scintillator before annihilating with an electron, giving a prompt energy deposit of $`E_\nu 0.8`$ MeV. Meanwhile, the neutron thermalizes and eventually captures on a proton, releasing a 2.2 MeV gamma in the process. The characteristic capture time of $``$ 210 $`\mu `$s between the prompt and delayed events provides a powerful background reduction.

KamLAND’s liquid scintillator is composed of 80% dodecane, 20% pseudocumene, and 1.52 g/liter of PPO. One kton of scintillator is held inside a 6.5 m radius transparent balloon made of a 135 $`\mu `$m thick sandwich of nylon and ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer films. 1879 17- and 20-inch photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) mounted on the inner surface of an 18 m stainless steel sphere view events inside the scintillator. For the results reported here, only the 1325 17-inch tubes are used, corresponding to 22% coverage. A buffer of mineral oil between the PMTs and the balloon provide buoyancy for the balloon and shielding from radioactivity in the PMT glass. Outside the steel sphere is a water cherenkov outer detector (OD) serving as a muon veto. A chimney and deck at the top of the detector provide access for calibration devices to be deployed along the z-axis. A schematic of the detector is given in Figure 1.

An event is recorded whenever 200 or more PMTs report a signal within 125 ns. A delayed-event window is then opened for 1 ms with a lower threshold of 120 tubes. The pulses are digitized by Analog Transient Waveform Digitizers (ATWDs). There are two ATWDs per PMT to reduce dead time during digitization.

The visible energy and position of each event is reconstructed from the collected charge and the hit pattern. The reconstruction algorithms are developed and tested using uniformly distributed spallation products following muons and using calibration data along the z-axis with 68Ge, 60Co, and 65Zn gamma sources, and an AmBe neutron/gamma source. The calibration data are also used to estimate the conversion from visible energy to kinematic energy, taking into account particle-dependent non-linear effects due to quenching and cherenkov light production. The systematics on the energy scale is shown in the upper panel of Figure 2.

Antineutrino events are selected according to the following criteria: time correlation 0.5 $`\mu `$s $`<\mathrm{\Delta }t<`$ 660 $`\mu `$s; vertex correlation $`\mathrm{\Delta }R<`$ 1.6 m; prompt event energy $`E_p>`$ 2.6 MeV; delayed event energy 1.8 MeV $`<E_d<`$ 2.6 MeV; spherical fiducial volume $`R<`$ 5 m; cylindrical radius $`\rho >`$ 1.2 m. The cut on $`E_p`$ eliminates $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ backgrounds from geological U/Th sources. The cylindrical radius cut removes backgrounds from thermometers deployed along the z-axis to monitor the scintillator. The total efficiency of these cuts was determined to be 78.3 $`\pm `$ 1.6%, and the residual accidental backgrounds, estimated using an off-coincidence time correlation window 20 $`\mu `$s $`<\mathrm{\Delta }t<`$ 20 s, is negligible at $`<10^5`$ events per day. The size of the fiducial volume is determined by counting the ratio of uniformly distributed spallation products that pass the fiducial volume cut. The distribution for spallation neutron capture gammas is given in the bottom panel of Figure 2.

The correlated backgrounds passing the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ cuts are produced by cosmogenic spallation. An overburden of 2700 m.w.e. reduces the muon rate to $``$ 0.3 Hz. Muons are identified by their large energy deposit and outer detector activity, and the muon track is reconstructed from the PMT hit pattern. A 2 ms veto following muons eliminates backgrounds due to spallation neutrons and short lifetime spallation products. Long lifetime spallation products that mimic the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ signal, such as 8He and 9Li, are removed by a 2 second veto in a 3 m radius around the muon track, plus a 2 second veto over the entire volume following muons with very high energy deposits ($``$3 GeV). The residual correlated backgrounds, estimated from spallation event studies, time-since-last-muon distributions, and, for fast neutrons following muons not tagged by the OD, Monte Carlo simulations, is 1 $`\pm `$ 1 event in 145.1 days.

Figure 3 shows the distribution of the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ candidates’ prompt and delayed energies. The delayed 2.2 MeV gamma cleanly separates $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ from the accidental coincidences clustered at small energies. The one event with $`E_d`$ 5 MeV is consistent with neutron capture on carbon; such events are not considered in this analysis at a small cost in efficiency with negligible uncertainty.

The systematic uncertainties are listed in Table 1. The largest contribution to the systematics comes from the estimate of the fiducial mass ratio. The total uncertainty is 6.4%.

For no oscillations, in 145.1 live-days we expect 86.8 $`\pm `$ 5.6 events with 1 $`\pm `$ 1 of these coming from backgrounds. The observed number of events is 54, giving a ratio $`\frac{N_{obs}N_{BG}}{N_{noosc}}=0.611\pm `$ 0.085 (stat) $`\pm `$ 0.041 (syst). This ratio is plotted vs. baseline for KamLAND and previous reactor experiments in Figure 4. The shaded region corresponds to the LMA MSW solution to the solar neutrino problem, with which the reactor experiments are in excellent agreement. ”Standard” $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ propagation is excluded at $`>`$ 99.95% C.L.

The positron energy spectrum is histogrammed in Figure 5. An unbinned maximum likelihood fit was performed and included terms for changes in the overall rate and shape of the spectrum at different points in $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2\mathrm{sin}^22\theta `$ parameter space. The best fit solution is plotted as the shaded histogram, and corresponds to $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2=6.9\times 10^5`$ eV2 and $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta =1.0`$. The regions in parameter space allowed at 95% C.L. are drawn in Figure 6. Also shown is the exclusion region in $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2\mathrm{sin}^22\theta `$ parameter space based on the KamLAND rate alone. Assuming CPT invariance (i.e. that $`\nu `$ and $`\overline{\nu }`$ masses are identical), all neutrino oscillation solutions to the solar neutrino problem are excluded except LMA. The KamLAND result divides LMA into two regions of higher and lower $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$. The sensitivity in $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta `$ is rather poor. Values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$ between the inclusion regions in general predict large distortions in the energy spectrum that were not observed and are hence disfavored. Constant suppression of the non-oscillated spectrum is consistent with the data at 53% C.L. The inclusion region extends to high $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$ where spectral distortions can not be distinguished with current statistics and energy resolution. An upper limit can be placed on $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$ using the non-observation of $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ disappearance by Palo Verde and Chooz.

## 4 Future of the KamLAND Reactor Measurement

Figure 7 shows the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ flux at KamLAND from March 2002 through May 2003. In early 2003, Japanese utilities powered down their reactors for inspections and maintenance, resulting in a drop in the non-oscillated flux at KamLAND by about a factor of two. Such a drastic time variation will provide a more precise estimate of backgrounds, and depending on the ”true” values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta `$, may also provide a time-varying spectral shape that will further restrict the inclusion regions in parameter space.

The expected sensitivity of KamLAND for 5 years of data taking is shown in Figure 8 for two sets of parameters expected from KamLAND’s first results. KamLAND stands to provide exquisite sensitivity in $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$. However, further restrictions on $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta `$ will probably have to come from future solar neutrino experimental results.

## 5 Future of Reactor Experiments

With the latest generation of solar and reactor experiments dawns a new age in precision neutrino oscillation physics. The next step in this exciting field will be to improve on current measurements and to measure some of the remaining unknown parameters in full three-flavor mixing. In addition to the three masses $`m_i`$, there are 6 free parameters in the mixing matrix $`U_{li}`$. It is possible to parameterize $`U_{li}`$ as follows:

$$U=U_{LMA}\times U_{atmospheric}\times U_{13}\times U_{\beta \beta }.$$
(10)
$`U_{LMA}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\mathrm{cos}\theta _{12}& \mathrm{sin}\theta _{12}& 0\\ \mathrm{sin}\theta _{12}& \mathrm{cos}\theta _{12}& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right)`$ (14)
$`U_{atmospheric}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& \mathrm{cos}\theta _{23}& \mathrm{sin}\theta _{23}\\ 0& \mathrm{sin}\theta _{23}& \mathrm{cos}\theta _{23}\end{array}\right)`$ (18)
$`U_{13}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\mathrm{cos}\theta _{13}& 0& e^{i\delta _{CP}}\mathrm{sin}\theta _{13}\\ 0& 1& 0\\ e^{i\delta _{CP}}\mathrm{sin}\theta _{13}& 0& \mathrm{cos}\theta _{13}\end{array}\right)`$ (22)
$`U_{\beta \beta }`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& e^{i\frac{\alpha }{2}}& 0\\ 0& 0& e^{i\frac{\alpha }{2}+i\beta }\end{array}\right)`$ (26)
$`U_{atmospheric}`$ and the value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2`$ has been measured by the Super-Kamiokande experiment. $`U_{\beta \beta }`$ and the overall mass scale will require kinematical and neutrino-less double-$`\beta `$ decay measurements. KamLAND is playing a central role in determining $`U_{LMA}`$ as well as the value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{12}^2`$. Reactor experiments stand to play another role in neutrino oscillation, this time in the measurement of $`U_{13}`$.

Because $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{12}^2\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2`$, it must be the case that $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2`$. A new generation of reactor experiments has been proposed to search for $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ disappearance at baselines of 1 km corresponding to this value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$. To improve on the mixing angle sensitivity achieved by Palo Verde and Chooz, proposals for reactor $`\theta _{13}`$ experiments include a large detector to reduce the statistical error, and also a second detector positioned very close ($``$100 m) to the reactor. The near detector would precisely measure the incident flux, allowing many of the flux calculation systematics to drop out. This also requires that the detectors be made identical and/or moveable. Sensitivity down to $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}10^2`$ seems within grasp. Such experiments were first discussed by Mikaelyan and Sinev ; for a comprehensive list of references on this topic, please see the web site compiled by Heeger.

## 6 Conclusion

KamLAND has observed, for the first time, disappearance of electron antineutrinos in a laboratory-style experiment. Assuming CPT invariance, this result excludes solar neutrino oscillation solutions except LMA at $`>`$ 99.95% C.L. Recall that the LMA solution to the solar neutrino problem is a region in oscillation parameter space allowed from the overlap of many experimental results using different techniques and with different thresholds. Moreover, LMA is an MSW solution for neutrinos, in which matter effects inside the sun drive the oscillations. It is significant that KamLAND, which uses yet another detection technique and is sensitive to vacuum oscillations of antineutrinos, gives oscillation parameters in agreement with LMA. These experiments are different in so many aspects, yet the physics of neutrino oscillation ties them together in a beautifully consistent theoretical framework.

## 7 Acknowledgements

The KamLAND experiment is supported by the Center of Excellence program of the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, and the United States Department of Energy. The reactor data are provided courtesy of the following electric associations in Japan: Hokkaido, Tohoku, Tokyo, Hokuriku, Chubu, Kansai, Chugoku, Shikoku, and Kyushu Electric Power Companies, Japan Atomic Power Co., and Japan Nuclear Cycle Development Institute. Kamioka Mining and Smelting Company provided services for activities in the mine.