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# Earliest detection of the optical afterglow of GRB 030329 and its variability

## 1 Introduction

The overall behavior of GRB afterglows has been successfully explained by the standard fireball model (e.g. Piran et al. 1999). It is expected that the deviation from a simple power-law in the afterglow light curve will provide wealth of information on the environment and physical parameters of GRBs. For example, observations of early GRB afterglows confirmed that “breaks” exist in the light curves of a number of GRBs. Such breaks may be understood in the framework of the standard fireball model either as a “jet-break” where the bulk Lorentz factor of the relativistic jet decrease to the inverse of jet opening angle (Sari, Piran $`\&`$ Halpern 1999, Rhoads 1999), or the “cooling-break” where the high energy electrons start to lose most of their energy rapidly by synchrotron emission which emit the observed optical photons (Sari, Piran $`\&`$ Nakar 1998). While there are number of convincing cases for jet-breaks, identification of a cooling-break in the optical light curve has been difficult since it requires detection of a subtle change in the power-law index ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha 0.25`$). In order to study afterglow light curves in detail, continuous coverage and a high signal-to-noise ratio are required.

The situation has been dramatically improved since the advent of High Energy Transient Explorer-2 (HETE-2). HETE-2 can determine the positions of GRBs onboard, and notify ground-based observers of the GRB coordinates within 1$``$10 minutes after the burst (Ricker et al. 2002). For example, the locations of GRB 021004 (e.g., Fox 2002) and GRB 021211 (e.g., Fox $`\&`$ Price 2002) were disseminated within less than a minute after the bursts, which prompted detailed studies of GRB afterglows in the very initial phases while they are bright.

GRB 030329 was detected by the HETE-2 satellite on 29 March 2003 at 11:37:14.7 UT. Position was determined by the ground analysis, and the location was reported to GCN at 73 minutes after the burst (Vanderspek et al. 2003). A very bright($`R13`$ mag) optical transient (OT) was reported at $`\alpha =10^h44^m50^s.0`$, $`\delta =+21^{}31^{}17.8^{\prime \prime }(J2000.0)`$ (Peterson $`\&`$ Price 2003, Torii 2003) inside the SXC error circle. This is the brightest GRB ever detected by HETE-2 with the 30$``$400 keV fluence of $`1.2\times 10^4`$ erg cm-2, and precise and continuous follow-up observations were carried out by dozens of telescopes distributed around the world. Optical spectroscopic observations have determined its redshift as $`z`$ = 0.1685 (Greiner et al. 2003), which is one of the closest ever known and is possibly related to the exceptional brightness of this afterglow. Moreover, spectra taken after several days reveal the evolution of broad peaks in the spectra characteristic of a supernova. The spectral similarity to SN 1998bw (e.g., Galama et al. 1998, Iwamoto et al. 1998) and other energetic supernovae such as 1997ef provides strong evidence that GRB 030329 is associated with core-collapse supernovae (Dado, Dar $`\&`$ Rujula 2003, Hjorth et al. 2003, Stanek et al. 2003, Kawabata et al. 2003). In order to investigate the kinetic energy of GRB and the immediate vicinity of its progenitor, the early light curve is important. In this letter, we report the earliest detection of the optical afterglow of GRB 030329 starting 67 minutes after the burst.

## 2 Observation and photometry

Our observation was performed at Tokyo Institute of Technology using a 30cm-telescope (Meade LX-200) and an unfiltered CCD camera (Apogee AP6E) equipped with a front-illuminated 1024$`\times `$1024 CCD chip (Kodak KAF-1001E). The dark current images were subtracted from the obtained CCD images and then flat fielding was applied for all images. We used IRAF/noao/digiphot/apphot/phot packages to analyze the data.

We started observing the preliminary SXC position at 12:44:13 UT on 29 March 2003, 67 minutes (0.047 days) after the burst 111As a HETE-2 Ops graduate student R. Sato took the initiative and “ran up to the roof to start observing” while the location data were still preliminary.. The magnitude of GRB afterglow at the very beginning was $`R_c12.4`$ mag. This is the earliest detection of the afterglow of GRB 030329 ever reported in literature.

We continued observations for the rest of the night covering $`t0.050.30`$ days, and performed observations on the following two nights covering the period of $`t0.931.21`$ days and $`t2.032.08`$ days, respectively, where $`t`$ refers to the time since the burst onset. The exposure time of each CCD frame was 10 sec ($`0.047<t<1.21`$ days; when the after glow was relatively bright) or 30 sec (2.03 days$`<t`$). The magnitude of the comparison stars were calibrated using three stars in the same field of view, which has been calibrated in detail by Henden. Then we determined the magnitude of the OT in each frame relative to the weighted average of 15 bright comparison stars.

Since the peak sensitivity of our camera is very close to the $`R_c`$ band, we have calibrated magnitude of the OT by converting our magnitude system ($`R_{inst}`$) into the $`R_c`$ system assuming the color correction with the color $`(VI)`$ = 0.74 mag (Zeh et al. 2003) ($`a(r)=(R_{inst})0.1514\times (VI)`$, where a(r) is the zero-point between the instrumental system and the standard magnitude). The statistical error is $`0.0170.02`$ mag. Although the zero-point errors were found to be $``$ 0.03 mag for the reference stars by Henden (2003), we found our data were consistently brighter than the $`R`$-band filtered observations (e.g., Burenin et al. 2003). We therefore introduced additional zero-point correction (+0.11 mag) to match the light curves in the overlapped interval. The resulting light curve of the GRB 030329 afterglow in the $`R_c`$ band is shown by combining data from other observations (see Fig 1).

The light curve in the first day cannot be fitted with a single power-law function. We therefore tried to fit the light curve by two different forms of broken power-law functions. One is given by Beuermann et al.: $`F(t)[(t/t_b)^{\alpha _1^{}n^{}}+(t/t_b)^{\alpha _2^{}n^{}}]^{1/n^{}}`$, where $`t_b`$ is the break time, and $`n^{}`$ provides a measure of the relative width and the smoothness of the break. The other is a “double-broken power-law” function with two breaks with the following form:

$$F(t)\{\begin{array}{cc}t^{\alpha _1}\hfill & \text{ ( }t<t_{\mathrm{b1}}\text{ ) }\hfill \\ \text{[}(t/t_{b2})^{\alpha _2n}+(t/t_{b2})^{\alpha _3n}\text{]}^{1/n}\hfill & \text{ ( }t>t_{\mathrm{b1}}\text{ ) }\hfill \end{array}$$
(1)
where $`t_{\mathrm{b1}}`$ and $`t_{\mathrm{b2}}`$ are the break times and $`n`$ provides a measure of the relative width and the smoothness of the break. Here we excluded the “bump” at $`t0.080.09`$ days, which is discussed in section 3.3.

We found that the former is not acceptable with a reduced $`\chi ^2`$ of 1.72 (285 d.o.f) whereas the latter improves the fit significantly (the reduced $`\chi ^2`$ 1.06 with 283 d.o.f) (see Fig 2).

As a result, it is well described by a broken power-law of the form; $`\alpha _1=0.88\pm 0.01`$ ($`0.047<t<t_{\mathrm{b1}}`$ days), $`\alpha _2=1.18\pm 0.01`$ ($`t_{\mathrm{b1}}<t<t_{\mathrm{b2}}`$ days), $`\alpha _3=1.81\pm 0.04`$ ($`t_{\mathrm{b2}}<t<1.2`$ days), where $`t_{\mathrm{b1}}0.26`$ days and $`t_{\mathrm{b2}}0.54`$ days, respectively, and $`n=18.8\pm 5.1`$. Here, $`\alpha _1`$ is determined by essentially the full Tokyo Tech data. The earliest phase of the light curve is well fitted by the single power-law with its index $`\alpha _1`$. $`\alpha _2`$ and $`\alpha _3`$ are determined by measurements reported by Burenin et al. and GCN (see caption in Fig 1).

## 3 Discussion

### 3.1 Light curve at $`0.05<t<0.26`$ days

We have presented a light curve of the early phase of the optical afterglow of GRB 030329 starting 67 minutes after the burst. This is the earliest detection of GRB 030329 ever reported (Peterson $`\&`$ Price 2003, Torii et al. 2003, Uemura et al. 2003).

Burenin et al. (2003) reported follow-up observations of GRB 030329 as early as 6 hours after the burst, using BVRI filters. In each of the filters, they observed a gradual flux decay which can be accurately described as a power-law $`F_\nu `$ $``$ $`t^{1.19}`$. They also found a characteristic break in the light curve $`t_{\mathrm{brk}}`$ $``$ 0.57 day, after which the afterglow flux started to decline faster. The power-law slopes of the light curves changed from $``$1.19 to $``$1.9 for $`tt_{\mathrm{brk}}`$. Notably, this break is nicely consistent with our second break ($`t_{\mathrm{b2}}`$) within error bars, where the power-law slopes changes from $`1.18\pm 0.01`$ to $`1.81\pm 0.04`$ after the break of $`t_{\mathrm{b2}}0.54`$ days (see above). The first break ($`t_{\mathrm{b1}}`$) is not discussed in Burenin et al, since they started their observations just around this break ($`t_{\mathrm{b1}}0.26`$ days).

Price et al. (2003), Burenin et al. (2003), and Tiengo et al. (2003) found that the results of their observations are consistent with the model where the afterglow emission is generated during the deceleration of the ultra-relativistic collimated jet. They found that the break in the power-law light curve, at $`t0.50.6`$ days, can be interpreted as the jet-break, i.e., the break which occurs when the angular structure of the ultra-relativistic collimated jet becomes observable (Sari, Piran $`\&`$ Halpern 1999, Rhoads 1999). This interpretation is supported by the fact that the break occurred simultaneously in different colors. Furthermore, a change in power-law slope from $``$1.19 to $``$1.9, is approximately consistent with that generally observed in jet-break. Therefore, our major concern in this paper is to understand the nature of the first break, $`t_{\mathrm{b1}}`$, and examine the consistency between the above scenario in the frame work of standard GRB fireball theories (Piran et al. 1999).

### 3.2 Break at $`t0.26`$ days

There are two possible break frequencies in the spectra, $`\nu _\mathrm{m}`$ and $`\nu _\mathrm{c}`$, where $`\nu _\mathrm{m}`$ is the synchrotron frequency, $`\nu _\mathrm{c}`$ is the cooling frequency above which electrons lose their energy rapidly by synchrotron radiation (Sari, Piran $`\&`$ Narayan 1998). Since $`\nu _\mathrm{m}`$ and $`\nu _\mathrm{c}`$ are the functions of time, a break in the light curve could be observed when $`\nu _\mathrm{c}`$ and/or $`\nu _\mathrm{m}`$ crossed over the observed frequency $`\nu _\mathrm{R}`$. Therefore, we examined six possible cases to understand the first break ($`t_{\mathrm{b1}}`$), according to the relation between $`\nu _\mathrm{m}`$, $`\nu _\mathrm{c}`$ and $`\nu _\mathrm{R}`$. In the standard GRB scenario, $`\nu _\mathrm{c}`$ $``$ $`\nu _\mathrm{m}`$ is often called “fast cooling” since all electrons cool rapidly, whereas $`\nu _\mathrm{c}`$ $``$ $`\nu _\mathrm{m}`$ is referred to “slow cooling” since only the high energy population of electrons cool efficiently. We will also extend our discussion to discriminate between “a homogeneous interstellar medium (ISM) model” (e.g., Sari $`\&`$ Piran 1999) and “a pre-existing stellar wind model” (e.g., Chevalier $`\&`$ Li 1999) for the GRB environment. The relationships between observed spectral index and model predictions are compared in Table 1.

We first consider the case where both $`\nu _\mathrm{c}`$ and $`\nu _\mathrm{m}`$ are above the observed optical frequencies ($`\nu _\mathrm{R}<\nu _\mathrm{m}<\nu _\mathrm{c}`$ or $`\nu _\mathrm{R}<\nu _\mathrm{c}<\nu _\mathrm{m}`$: case (3) and (6) in Table 1). In these two situations, observed flux at $`\nu _\mathrm{R}`$ should increase with time, which strongly conflicts with the observed declining light curve. On the contrary, if the both cooling frequency $`\nu _\mathrm{c}`$ and the minimum frequency $`\nu _\mathrm{m}`$ are below the optical band ($`\nu _\mathrm{c}<\nu _\mathrm{m}<\nu _\mathrm{R}`$ or $`\nu _\mathrm{m}<\nu _\mathrm{c}<\nu _\mathrm{R}`$: case (1) and (4) in Table 1), the predicted optical spectral index would be $`\beta =p/2`$, where $`p`$ is the electron spectral index. Since the photon spectral index of this afterglow was $`\beta =0.66`$ at $`t=0.26`$ days (Burenin et al. 2003), we expect $`p=1.32`$, which is unusually flat for an electron population accelerated in a GRB. Furthermore, power-law index in the light curve should be $`\alpha =\frac{23p}{4}0.49`$, which is again inconsistent with $`\alpha _10.88`$ obtained with our data.

Case (5) $`\nu _\mathrm{c}<\nu _\mathrm{R}<\nu _\mathrm{m}`$ in Table 1 is also ruled out since the predicted power-law index $`\alpha =0.25`$ (Sari, Piran $`\&`$ Narayan, 1998) is too flat compared to the observed value of $`\alpha _10.88`$. Therefore, we argue that the possible solution is $`\nu _\mathrm{m}<\nu _\mathrm{R}<\nu _\mathrm{c}`$ for the time region of $`tt_{\mathrm{b1}}`$. In this case, however, if the burst occurred in pre-existing stellar wind, the optical decay slope is predicted to be $`\alpha =\frac{3\beta }{2}\frac{\delta }{82\delta }1.49`$, with $`\delta =2`$ for a wind model (Panaitescu, Meszaros $`\&`$ Rees 1998), which is quite steeper than that observed, and hence we can rule out wind-interaction model. In summary, $`\nu _\mathrm{m}<\nu _\mathrm{R}<\nu _\mathrm{c}`$ and ISM model (case (2) in Table 1) is the only possible solution to reproduce both the temporal/spectral index of the optical afterglow of GRB 030329 at $`0.05<t<0.26`$ days.

In such a slow cooling case, time variation of afterglow flux is given by $`Ft^{3(p1)/4}`$ for $`\nu <\nu _\mathrm{c}`$ and $`Ft^{(3p2)/4}`$ for $`\nu _\mathrm{c}<\nu `$, respectively (Sari, Piran $`\&`$ Narayan 1998). By assuming $`\alpha _1`$ = 0.88, the electron spectral index is estimated as $`p=2.17`$. Note that, this electron spectral index agrees well with those of electrons accelerated in relativistic shock waves (e.g., Dado, Dar $`\&`$ Rujula 2003). Furthermore, we expect that power-law slope of the light curve would change from 0.88 to 1.13 for $`\nu _\mathrm{c}<\nu `$. Again, this is approximately consistent with the observed spectral index after $`t_{\mathrm{b1}}`$, where $`\alpha _2=1.18\pm 0.01`$. Therefore, we conclude that the first break in the optical afterglow light curve at $`t_{\mathrm{b1}}`$ is the most probably cooling-break where the cooling frequency crosses down the observed optical frequency.

Under this assumption, we can determine important physical parameters for the GRB emission. For example, we can estimate $`ϵ_B`$ and $`ϵ_e`$, where $`ϵ_B`$ and $`ϵ_e`$ are the fractions of the shock energy given to magnetic field and electrons at the shock (Sari, Piran $`\&`$ Narayan 1998). In case of slow cooling, $`t_m<t_R<t_c`$ would be expected. Since we started our observation 0.047 days after the burst, we can limit the range of $`t_m`$ as $`t_m<t_{obs}=0.047`$ days. For $`t_c=t_{\mathrm{b1}}=0.26`$ days, $`t_m<0.047`$ days, $`E=10^{52}`$ erg, $`n=1`$ cm-3, $`\nu =0.5\times 10^{15}`$ Hz, we obtain

$$ϵ_B0.05\left(\frac{t_c}{0.26}\right)^{\frac{1}{3}}\left(\frac{E_{52}}{1.0}\right)^{\frac{1}{3}}\left(\frac{n_1}{1.0}\right)^{\frac{2}{3}}\left(\frac{\nu _{15}}{0.5}\right)^{\frac{2}{3}}$$
(2)
$$ϵ_e<0.20\left(\frac{ϵ_B}{0.05}\right)^{\frac{1}{4}}\left(\frac{t_m}{0.047}\right)^{\frac{3}{4}}\left(\frac{E_{52}}{1.0}\right)^{\frac{1}{4}}\left(\frac{\nu _{15}}{0.5}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}$$
(3)
We can also constrain the peak time of reverse shock $`t_A`$ days after the burst (Sari $`\&`$ Piran 1999).

$`t_A0.03\left({\displaystyle \frac{ϵ_B}{0.05}}\times {\displaystyle \frac{1}{0.1}}\right)^3\left({\displaystyle \frac{E_{52}}{1.0}}\right)^1\left({\displaystyle \frac{n_1}{1.0}}\times {\displaystyle \frac{\nu _{c,15}}{0.5}}\right)^2`$ (4)
The Lorentz factor depends on time, $`\gamma (t)(3E/256\pi nm_pc^5t^3)^{1/8}`$ (Piran 1999). And the magnetic field is calculated using $`ϵ_B`$ and the Lorentz factor by $`B=\gamma c\sqrt{32\pi ϵ_Bnm_p}`$. Assuming $`E=10^{52}`$erg, the Lorentz factor and the magnetic field strength at two characteristic breaks time are $`\gamma =9.7,B=0.86`$ gauss at $`t_{\mathrm{b1}}=0.26`$ days and $`\gamma =7.4,B=0.64`$ gauss at $`t_{\mathrm{b2}}=0.54`$ days, respectively.

The values of $`ϵ_B`$ and $`ϵ_e`$ estimated in the preceding chapter are in good agreement with the averages of these parameters for GRBs calculated by Panaitescu $`\&`$ Kumar (2001), which are $`\mathrm{log}ϵ_B=2.4\pm 1.2`$ and $`ϵ_e=0.062\pm 0.045`$.

### 3.3 Bump at $`t0.080.09`$ days

Finally, we comment on a small “bump” of the light curves at $`t0.080.09`$ days ($`t_{\mathrm{bump}}`$) with an amplitude of $`0.1`$ mag. Uemura et al. (2003) reported a change of slopes from 0.74 to 0.95 days at $`t=0.085`$ days. However our earliest data at $`t<0.08`$ days has a slope steeper than 0.74. The light curve at $`t>0.09`$ days lies on the extrapolation of this earliest segment. We consider this feature as a bump rather than a break.

Short time variabilities, i.e., “bumps and wiggles”, may be associated with the forward/reverse shock structures along the afterglow emitting regions (Kobayashi $`\&`$ Zhang 2003), repeated energy injection from the central engine, or fluctuation in the density of the interstellar medium (Nakar, Piran $`\&`$ Granot 2003).

First, we can rule out a case with the forward/reverse shock structure, since it predicts the light curve should not have the same power-law index before and after the bump. A case with repeated energy injection is also ruled out since after the injection the light curve after the bump should have the same power-law decay slope, but with a larger normalization. Therefore, we conclude that the bumps in the light curve is likely due to the fluctuation in the external density of the interstellar medium (Nakar, Piran $`\&`$ Granot 2003).

We can estimate the distance from the central engine $`R(t)`$ (Piran 1999) and the density variation (Nakar, Piran $`\&`$ Granot 2003) at $`t_{\mathrm{bump}}`$.

$$R(t)2.2\times 10^{17}\left[3\left(\frac{E_{52}}{1.0}\right)\left(\frac{t(\mathrm{sec})}{7300}\right)/\pi m_pc\left(\frac{n_1}{1.0}\right)\right]^{\frac{1}{4}}\mathrm{cm}$$
(5)
$$(n/n_0)1.1\times [(F_\nu /F_0)/1.1]^{4/(1+p)}$$
(6)
We find that density is enhanced about 10$`\%`$ at the distance of $`2.2\times 10^{17}`$ cm.

## 4 Summary

We observed extremely bright optical afterglow of GRB 030329 from 67 minutes after the burst. Our observational results show that the shocked electrons are in the slow cooling regime with an electron index of 2.17 in this burst, and that the burst occurred in a uniform ISM, that is, GRB 030329 can be understood very well in the predicted “standard” model. We conclude the first break changes the power law index by $`0.3`$, consistent with the cooling-break in the frame work of the standard external shock model.

We are grateful to the other members of the HETE-2 Ops Team for providing the location of GRB 030329. We are also grateful to R. Burenin and his collaborators for kindly providing us the numerical values of the filtered data and to K. Torii for giving useful advises on photometry. This work is supported by the Grants-in-aid for Scientific Research Program from the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of Japan to NK.


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# ■("IUB–TH-038"@"") Functional Complexity Measure for Networks

## 1 Introduction

Complexity measures have been proposed as measures for computational, statistical, or structural complex features in various contexts, for a review see . A complexity measure for patterns, for example, arising in chaotic systems has been proposed in . It is a measure theoretic concept and applies to ensembles of patterns. It is natural in the sense that it reflects the intuitive notion of a complex pattern being neither completely random nor completely regular, but having some structure instead. Complexity of hierarchical systems has been studied in . The complexity measure there has the property of isolating the most diverse trees as the ones with maximal complexity. Intuitively one would expect that the complexity of a hierarchy is related to its diversification, i.e. to the number of non-isomorphic subtrees found at that level. The proposals of  reproduce this expectation.

Our measure of complexity refers to more general systems described by networks with underlying graphs that have not necessarily a tree-like structure. Also we do not address the variety and the complexity of patterns which may be produced from nets with simple topologies by adjusting the dynamical couplings attached to the edges. We are interested in the functional complexity of networks, natural and artificial ones, whose design is often optimized in view of a variety of possible functions. In particular the concept of functionality applies to networks in life science and in information science. Network motifs have been studied as characteristic building blocks for complex networks . As a result, motifs shared by ecological food webs are specifically different from genetic networks. More generally, it has been found in  that motifs in networks of information processing are typically distinct from networks of energy transporting. Information processing may refer to nets as diverse as those of gene regulation, neurons and electronic circuits, for example. The overall conclusion is that frequently repeated motifs should represent certain functions.

Our proposal of a complexity measure is in a similar spirit. We believe that the functional diversity of a network is determined by the topological ”diversity” of the corresponding graph which results from rewiring the lines (we use “lines” rather than “edges”) or breaking up the vertices (nodes) into pieces in all allowed ways. To make these concepts well defined, we use the framework of DLCE-graphs which have been proposed in  in a very different context. The former context was a bookkeeping of all analytic contributions to a given order in a generalized high-temperature expansion. Differently from the graphs that are mostly considered in connection with dynamical networks, DLCE-graphs have two types of vertices along with two types of connectivities, and, in general, more than one line connecting two vertices. In a superimposed dynamics, dynamical variables are associated with both, the vertices and the lines. We make use of a special operation on these graphs, later called the resolution of vertices.

In section 2 we define DLCE-graphs including some notions of a multiple-line graph theory as it was introduced in . In section 3 we propose the measure of functional complexity and illustrate its use with some examples. Section 4 adds a summary of the physical background where DLCE-graphs were studied first. This section may be skipped by the reader who is not interested in the expansions where these graphs naturally occur. Section 5 gives the summary and a short outlook.

## 2 DLCE-graphs and Networks

Motivated by spin glass dynamics on lattices (with regular, random or other network topologies) we introduce so-called DLCE-graphs. DLCE stands for Dynamical Linked Cluster Expansions. These are systematic high temperature expansions generalized to systems where the spins and their couplings both have their own dynamics and interact with each other. For further background on DLCE we refer to section 4 and . Since the underlying dynamics of DLCE and the corresponding graphical expansion are quite generic, we generalize the usual definition of graphs to DLCE-graphs also in this context.

DLCE-graphs have two types of connectivity. Vertices are connected via lines and lines may be additionally connected via a different kind of vertex, here called beam. Therefore we have two kind of vertices. When we speak of vertices in the following, we mean the first type, and use “beams” for the second type. Two vertices may be connected via more than one line, but two lines may be connected at most via one beam, because each line belongs to exactly one beam. (In spin glasses the spins would live on vertices, the spin couplings on lines (there usually called links or bonds), and the self-interaction of the couplings induces the beams.) If a beam connects $`m`$ lines, we call the resulting structure an m-line. A one-line coincides with a ”usual” line. A multiple-line graph theory has been developed in . Here we introduce only notions that we later need for our applications. We distinguish between internal and external lines: internal lines get vertices attached to both of their ends. For external lines we distinguish two types, a so-called $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$-line with a vertex attached to only one endpoint, and a $`U`$-line with no vertices attached to its endpoints. (In connection with spin glasses the external $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$-and $`U`$-lines correspond to n-point correlation functions of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ (spin) or $`U`$ (coupling)-fields.) In a generic network the external lines correspond to input-or output channels, where both may have $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$-or $`U`$-variables attached, respectively.

Let us now define in detail the notion of a DLCE-graph and the topological equivalence of two such graphs. A DLCE-graph is a strucure

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }=(_\mathrm{\Gamma },_\mathrm{\Gamma },_\mathrm{\Gamma },E_\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(\mathrm{\Phi })},E_\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(U)},\mathrm{\Phi }_\mathrm{\Gamma },\mathrm{\Psi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }).$$
(1)
Here $`_\mathrm{\Gamma },_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ are three mutually disjoint sets of internal lines of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, beams of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, and vertices of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, respectively. $`E_\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(\mathrm{\Phi })},E_\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(U)}`$ are maps. $`E_\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(\mathrm{\Phi })}`$ assigns the number of external $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$-lines to every vertex $`v_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, $`E_\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(U)}`$ assigns the number of external $`U`$-lines to every beam. $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ are incidence relations that assign internal lines to their endpoint vertices and beams to their internal lines, respectively. In our former applications of DLCE, lines were treated as undirected. So we do here for simplicity, because the generalization is easily done. On the other hand it will be necessary, if later our graphs are considered as so-called motifs, which do make use of directed lines, cf. section 3. We consider $`\overline{_\mathrm{\Gamma }\times _\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ as the set of unordered pairs of vertices $`(v,w)`$ with $`v,w_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Then we have $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }:\overline{_\mathrm{\Gamma }\times _\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$. We say $`v`$ and $`w`$ are the endpoint vertices of $`l_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ if $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }(l)=(v,w)`$. Similarly $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }:_\mathrm{\Gamma },l\mathrm{\Psi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }(l)`$. $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ associates with each internal line the beam it belongs to. Vice versa, a beam connects $`m1`$ internal lines, in particular the case of $`m=1`$ is allowed where the notion of beam-connectivity becomes redundant. As stated above, a line with only one vertex attached is an external $`\varphi `$-line, a line with no vertices attached is an external $`U`$-line. A so-called $`\nu `$-line is shown in Fig.1.

In a concrete realization the incidence relations $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ may be realized as a tuple of matrices $`(\mathrm{\Phi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }(i,j),\mathrm{\Psi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }(k,l))`$, $`i,j\{1\mathrm{}n\}`$, $`k,l\{1\mathrm{}m\}`$, defined in the following way. Given a graph $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ with $`n`$ vertices, $`m`$ internal lines, $`L_\varphi `$ external $`\varphi `$-lines, $`L_U`$ external $`U`$-lines, $`r`$ beams and a labelling of vertices and internal lines. $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }(i,j)`$ is a symmetric $`n\times n`$-matrix with $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }(i,j)`$ equal to the number of internal lines connecting $`i`$ and $`j`$ for $`ij`$, $`i,j1\mathrm{}n`$. $`\mathrm{\Phi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }(i,i)`$ equals to the number of external $`\varphi `$-lines attached to vertex $`i`$. $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a symmetric $`m\times m`$-matrix with $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }(k,l)=1`$ if internal lines $`k`$ and $`l`$, $`kl`$, belong to the same beam, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }(k,l)=0`$ else, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\mathrm{\Gamma }(k,k)`$ equals to the number of external $`U`$-lines attached to line $`k`$. Notice that two vertices may be connected via more than one line, but two lines may be connected by at most one beam. (This asymmetry is a remnant of the dynamics for which DLCE have been originally proposed.) This tuple of matrices, representing the incidence relations, would be suited for computer implementations of DLCE-graphs. It allows for a computer aided algorithmic generation of graphs.

Now we can formulate in a purely algebraic way when two DLCE-graphs are topologically equivalent. Two DLCE-graphs

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_i=(_i,_i,_i,E_i^{(\mathrm{\Phi })},E_I^{(U)},\mathrm{\Phi }_i,\mathrm{\Psi }_i)i=1,2$$
(2)
are called topologically equivalent if there are three invertible maps

$`\varphi _{}:_1_2`$
$`\varphi _{}:_1_2`$
$`\varphi _{}:_1_2`$ (3)
between the set of vertices, internal lines, and beams of these graphs $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ such that

$`\mathrm{\Phi }_2\varphi _{}=\overline{\varphi }_{}\mathrm{\Phi }_1`$ (4)
$`\mathrm{\Psi }_2\varphi _{}=\varphi _{}\mathrm{\Psi }_1`$ (5)
and

$`E_2^{(\varphi )}\varphi _{}=E_1^{(\varphi )}`$ (6)
$`E_2^{(U)}\varphi _{}=E_1^{(U)}.`$ (7)
Here $``$ means decomposition of maps and

$`\overline{\varphi }_{}:\overline{_1\times _1}\overline{_2\times _2}`$
$`\overline{\varphi }_{}(v,w)(\varphi _{}(v),\varphi _{}(w)).`$ (8)
For example, (4) means that the following composition of maps are equivalent: first assign via $`\mathrm{\Phi }_1`$ the endpoint vertices to a given internal line $`l_1`$ of the first graph $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ and map them to the corresponding vertices in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ via $`\overline{\varphi }_{}`$, or, alternatively, first map the given internal line of the first graph $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ to the corresponding internal line $`l_2`$ of the second graph via $`\varphi _{}`$, and then associate the endpoint vertices with this line there via $`\mathrm{\Phi }_2`$. Similarly, in a shorthand notation, (5) refers to the maps $`\text{line}_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_1}\text{beam}_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_1}\text{beam}_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_2}`$ or $`\text{line}_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_1}\text{line}_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_2}\text{beam}_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_2}`$. Both orders are equivalent if the graphs are topologically equivalent. Eq.s (6), (7) state the equivalence of either assigning the external lines to a vertex of the first graph, or to the corresponding vertex of the second graph. Fig.2 shows eight topologically inequivalent graphs on the r.h.s. of the map, while two topologically equivalent graphs would result from the graph on the l.h.s. by attaching the beam either to the lower or to the upper two internal lines. (Only the latter graph is shown in the figure.) The eight graphs on the r.h.s. result from so-called admissible vertex resolutions of the graph located most left. Admissible vertex resolutions will be defined below.

The definition of connectedness of a DLCE-graph with two types of connectivity can be traced back to the notion of connectedness of an LCE-graph with only one type of connectivity, for details we refer to .

### Operations on DLCE-graphs

Apart from operations like adding or removing vertices, lines and beams, with or without the attached structures, two operations are of interest in this context, the resolution of vertices and the resolution of beams. Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be a DLCE-graph, $`v_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ a vertex with $`n`$ lines ending upon it, let $`\mathrm{\Pi }𝒫(_v)`$ be any partition of the set of lines $`_v`$ ending on $`v`$. We remove the vertex $`v`$ and draw for every $`P\mathrm{\Pi }`$ a new vertex $`v(P)`$ so that all lines $`lP`$ enter the vertex $`v(P)`$ rather than $`v`$ before its removal. This procedure is called a vertex resolution of $`v`$. For an example see Fig.3. Note that this resolution procedure amounts to a rewiring of lines.

It then depends on the dynamical constraints whether the resulting graph $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is allowed or not. For example, the graph may become disconnected and fragmentize into several pieces as a result of the resolution procedure. Such a resolution is forbidden if the considered graphs must be connected. More generally, a vertex resolution is called admissible if it satisfies all constraints from the dynamics or from the choice of observables (if the observable is the free energy density, the contributing graphs must be connected because of the logarithm of the partition function.)

The same definition applies to the resolution of a beam. The set of all resolution patterns of a graph $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is obtained by combining any admissible resolution of vertices $`v_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and any admissible resolution of beams $`b_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in all possible ways such that the resulting graph satisfies all characteristic features it should. The reason why we choose DLCE-graphs rather than Feynman graphs (mentioned in  in a different context of networks or LCE-graphs  is the following. The notion of resolution of vertices appears quite naturally in DLCE-graphs because graphs may stay connected in spite of ”resolved” vertices due to the new feature of line-connectivity. We remark, however, that also in LCE-graphs one meets a similar resolution of vertices (although this notion is not introduced there) when calculating internal symmetry factors. Let us assume an underlying $`O(N)`$-symmetry of the system so that one of $`n`$ ”colors” (“flavors”, features) may propagate along each line. In calculating the internal symmetry factor one looks for all possible paths along which color 1, say, can propagate from the input channel through the graph to yield color 1 on the output channel, while a closed loop may carry any of the $`N`$ colors, and only one color can propagate along a line at the same time. As an example consider the LCE-graph of Fig.4.

Color 1 can propagate along the upper line, say $`l_1`$, leaving $`N`$ colors for the loop of the remaining lines, say $`l_2`$ and $`l_3`$, or along $`l_1,l_2,l_3`$, or $`l_1,l_3,l_2`$, or it could choose the intermediate or the lower line first, yielding $`3\times (N+2)`$ possibilities all together.

A resolution of vertices is furthermore encountered if the vertices correspond to knots, and we want to determine all trails or states of a given knot . At each crossing of the knot a propagating ”bit of information” would have to decide where to continue after the crossing.

Finally, in mesoscopic or macroscopic networks one may associate with the so-called resolution of vertices rules on “traffic” regulation in generic networks of transportation where these rules regulate the traffic at crossing points. The rules should be quite distinct depending on whether energy or information flow is concerned.

## 3 Proposal of the Complexity Measure

After introducing DLCE-graphs in the last section we are now prepared to propose a measure for functional complexity of networks. It is defined as

$$FCM:=\underset{i(1\mathrm{}N)}{\overset{}{}}PA(\mathrm{\Gamma }),$$
(9)
that is, as the total number of topologically inequivalent admissible resolution patterns $`PA`$ of the DLCE-graph $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of that network. The prime stands for the restriction to topologically inequivalent and admissible patterns. A resolution pattern is obtained by allowing for any $`r_v`$ $`(0r_vn_v)`$ resolutions of vertices and any $`r_b`$ $`(0r_bn_b)`$ resolutions of beams, $`n_v,n_b`$ denoting the total number of vertices and beams, respectively. It is admissible if it is compatible with the constraints imposed by the dynamics. Two resolution patterns are topologically equivalent if there exist the three invertible maps (3) between their associated graphs $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ which satisfy (4)- (2).

Examples for dynamical constraints are the following:

* After the resolution of vertices the resulting graph should stay connected.
* Vertices and/or beams have an even number of lines attached.
* There are no lines with coinciding endpoints (i.e. no self-lines or tadpoles).

Some further comments to our proposal are in order. In our definition of the complexity measure we count all admissible resolution patterns of graphs without assigning probabilistic weights. In the background of spin glasses the weight was given by an analytic expression proportional to some power $`n`$ of an expansion parameter $`\kappa `$ where $`n`$ equals the number of internal lines in the graph. In general the weights for resolution patterns will depend on the imposed dynamics.

Our conjecture is that the restriction to topologically inequivalent resolution patterns projects on the inequivalent functionalities. Let us consider again the example of the graph of Fig.4 with one input and one output channel and three topologically inequivalent resolutions. In Fig.4 a) a bit of information may be transported via the upper line through the network while another bit may be stored in the closed loop, in b) and c) one bit propagates through the graph in a different order, without a decoupled loop as in a).

Another example is provided by two motifs observed in foodwebs (Fig.5 a)) and in networks of gene regulation (Fig.5 b)).

According to our definition the directed three-chain from $`x`$ to $`z`$ with a disconnected (here redundant) string (Fig.5 b)) results as a resolution of a feedforward loop (Fig.5 a)) occurring in networks of gene regulation, neurons and electronic circuits. In this example the interpretation of different motifs as resolution patterns of a common underlying graph appears superficial, because it is more the specific difference rather than a common underlying structure one is interested in. In case of more intricate motifs as in genetic or artificial networks the notion of inequivalent admissible resolution patterns may be a sensible measure for the variety of functionalities of these networks.

## 4 Background of DLCE

DLCE-graphs have been proposed in a graphical representation of a systematic generalized high temperature expansion of $`\mathrm{ln}Z`$, where $`Z`$ is the partition function of a certain class of models characterized by an action (Hamiltonian) of the form

$$S(\varphi ,U,v)=\underset{x\mathrm{\Lambda }_0}{}S^0(\varphi (x))+\underset{l\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}_1}{}S^1(U(l))\frac{1}{2}\underset{x,y\mathrm{\Lambda }_0}{}v(x,y)\varphi (x)U(x,y)\varphi (y),$$
(10)
with couplings

$`v(x,y)=v(y,x)\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0}\text{for }(x,y)\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}_1,`$
$`\text{in particular}v(x,x)=\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0},`$
$`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}_1=\{l=(x,y)|v(x,y)0\}.`$ (11)
The field $`\varphi (x)`$ is associated with the sites $`x\mathrm{\Lambda }_0`$ where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_0`$ is the set of all lattice sites, the field $`U(l)`$ lives on the links (in this paper called lines) $`l\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}_1`$, we write $`U(x,y)=U(l)`$ for $`l=(x,y)`$. In applications to spin glasses the $`\varphi \pm 1`$ are the (fast) Ising spins and the $`U`$ $`𝐑`$ are the (slow) interactions. The action is split into two ultralocal parts, $`S^0`$ depending on fields on single sites, and $`S^1`$ depending on fields on single links $`l`$. For simplicity we choose $`S^1`$ as the same function for all links $`l\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}_1`$. The support of $`v(x,y)`$, here equal to $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }_1}`$, need not be restricted to nearest neighbors, also the precise form of $`S^0`$ and $`S^1`$ does not matter for the generic description of DLCE. $`S^0`$ and $`S^1`$ can be any polynomials in $`\varphi `$ and $`U`$, respectively. The only restriction in that context is the existence of the partition function.

The interaction term $`v(x,y)\varphi (x)U(x,y)\varphi (y)`$ contains a point-link-point interaction and generalizes the 2-point interactions $`v(x,y)\varphi (x)\varphi (y)`$ of usual hopping parameter expansions. The effective coupling of the $`\varphi `$ fields has its own dynamics governed by $`S^1(U)`$, the reason why we have called the new expansion scheme dynamical LCE. Dynamical linked cluster expansions are induced from a Taylor expansion of $`W(H,I,v)=\mathrm{ln}Z(H,I,v)`$ about $`v=0`$, the limit of a completely decoupled system. A prominent model which is contained as a special case is the Sherrington- Kirkpatrick model  with spin variables $`\varphi \{1,+1\}`$, real-valued $`U`$ and infinite range of connectivity. Because of the general feature that the couplings $`U`$ of the ”spin” degrees of freedom are not frozen to a specific pattern but have their own dynamics, we had to introduce the additional notion of multiple-line connectivity, so that additional graphs become connected via beams, connecting the internal lines, and contribute to $`\mathrm{ln}Z`$. $`\mathrm{ln}Z`$ is the generating functional of all DLCE-graphs in the vacuum. $`N`$-point correlation functions can be derived from $`\mathrm{ln}Z`$ in the usual way, leading to the distinction of internal and external lines, external $`\varphi `$-or $`U`$-lines, depending on the choice of $`\varphi `$-or $`U`$-correlation functions as observables. The dynamical constraints restricting the admissible vertex resolutions which are specific for the class of models (10) have been mentioned in the previous section. The weight of a DLCE-graph is an analytic expression contributing as one term in the expansion of $`\mathrm{ln}Z`$. Notions like the resolution of vertices were introduced in  in order to systematically generate all DLCE-graphs from the more simple LCE-graphs. In spite of resolutions, graphs may stay connected in this framework if the lines are connected via beams. The assignment of DLCE-graphs to generic networks in the present context is obviously quite different from the original one, but due to their generic structure not restrictive at all.

## 5 Summary and Outlook

We have proposed a static measure which is sensitive to the topological diversity of a graph if we allow for splitting of vertices and induced rewiring of lines. To make this measure well defined we used the concept of DLCE-graphs because the resolution of vertices was a natural operation in the original framework where DLCE-graphs were used. Moreover DLCE-graphs cover more familiar graphs with only line-connectivity as special cases. The actual probability for a certain resolution pattern of a DLCE-graph depends on the imposed dynamics. In biological applications we expect this measure to be a good indicator for the functional diversity and therefore the flexibility of a network. The subgraph with the highest degree of complexity as defined here may be found on top of a hierarchical system. The various resolution patterns then amount to different functions the network is able to fulfill. Vice versa, interpreting different patterns, in particular motifs, as result of a common graphical substructure may serve as a classification of networks with respect to their various functionalities. Imposing concrete dynamics on networks with DLCE-graphs will allow to relate our complexity measure to others. For a given architecture of the DLCE-graph it then makes sense to ask how many distinct and independent specific tasks the network can perform at the same time. For computational tasks the functional complexity may then reflect the computational complexity.


text:
# Serendipity and the SDSS: Discovery of the Largest Known Planetary Nebula on the Sky

## 1 Introduction

The availability (Abazajian et al. 2003) of a significant fraction of the spectra and images from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) (York et al. 2000) provides a unique resource for the investigation of a wide variety of astrophysical phenomena. The quality and scale of the database are such that a number of serendipitous discoveries can be expected in the coming years. In this Letter we report the discovery, using SDSS spectra of unrelated objects, of the largest known planetary nebula (PN) on the sky.

## 2 Data

In the course of a search for SDSS spectra that show the signature of two objects, at different redshifts, the distinctive presence of the \[O III\] 4959,5007 doublet, at essentially rest–frame wavelength, in several adjacent spectra was noted. A more targeted search employed a simple 41–pixel ($`57`$Å) median filter to generate a “continuum” which was then subtracted from the original spectrum to produce a “difference” spectrum. Emission lines were identified in individual and composite difference–spectra using standard matched–filter techniques. The search revealed the presence of \[O III\] 4959,5007 in more than 100 spectra with the flux in the \[O III\] 5007 line ranging from $`1.6\times 10^{15}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{cm}^2`$ down to the limit of detectability of $`8\times 10^{17}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{cm}^2`$. Surface brightnesses, per square arcsecond, can be obtained from the fluxes measured in the spectra by dividing by the fibre area ($`7.1\mathrm{arcsec}^2`$).

The detections were confined to objects in a region several degrees across centered at approximately $`\alpha =10^h37^m`$ $`\delta =00\mathrm{°}18^{}`$ or $`159.3^{}`$,$`0.3^{}`$ (J2000). H$`\alpha `$, H$`\beta `$, \[N II\] 6548,6583 and \[S II\] 6718,6732 emission lines were also present in spectra in the same region. Figure 1 shows the spatial distribution of the spectra with detectable \[O III\] 4959,5007 ($``$), H$`\alpha `$ ($``$), and \[N II\] 6583 ($`\times `$). The hatched area, extending to a radius of $`1\mathrm{°}`$ from $`10^h37^m`$ $`00\mathrm{°}18^{}`$, indicates a region where composite spectra, derived using groups of 25 spectra without individual \[O III\] 4959,5007 detections, show unambiguous evidence of \[O III\] 4959,5007 emission. Positions of objects with SDSS spectra for which no individual detections were obtained are also indicated (.).

Figure 2 shows the wavelength regions containing \[O III\] 4959,5007 and H$`\alpha `$, \[N II\] 6548,6583 plus \[S II\] 6718,6732 for a composite, continuum–subtracted, spectrum made using all the galaxy and quasar spectra within $`0.5\mathrm{°}`$ of $`10^h37^m`$ $`00\mathrm{°}18^{}`$ (upper panels). Another composite, using objects from a more distant arc–shaped region to the south–west is also shown (lower panels). The arc–shaped region is defined by radial distance $`0.7\mathrm{°}1.3\mathrm{°}`$ from $`10^h37^m`$ $`00\mathrm{°}18^{}`$ and angular extent $`180\mathrm{°}\mathrm{PA}315\mathrm{°}`$ relative to the same position. The composite from the central region displays very strong \[O III\] 4959,5007 and, while H$`\alpha `$ and \[N II\] 6548,6583 are clearly visible, shows the relative weakness of the hydrogen lines. The composite spectrum from large radii to the south–west illustrates the fall–off in the strength of the \[O III\] 4959,5007 emission with radius and the marked variation in the H$`\alpha `$/\[N II\] 6548,6583 ratio with position. The spectra of stars were not included in the generation of the composite spectra. To avoid contamination of the composite spectrum from unrelated emission and absorption features, wavelength regions associated with strong emission and absorption features in the rest–frames of the galaxy and quasar spectra were excluded from the construction of the composite spectra.

Examination of the sky–subtracted sky spectra in SDSS plates 273 and 274, which contain the region, show no evidence for absorption at the location of any of the emission lines. The lack of absorption confirms that the emission line fluxes associated with the $`2\mathrm{°}`$ region, centered on $`10^h37^m`$ $`00\mathrm{°}18^{}`$, are not affected significantly by more extended emission on scales of $`5\mathrm{°}`$.

The resolution of the SDSS spectra ($`3.1`$Å) precludes a reliable determination of the radial velocity. The centroids of the \[O III\] 4959,5007, H$`\alpha `$ and \[N II\] 6583 emission lines in a composite of the 38 spectra showing the strongest \[O III\] 4959,5007 emission give a heliocentric radial velocity of $`5\pm 5\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. However, the amplitude is comparable to the wavelength accuracy of the SDSS spectra and variations of several tens of $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ are evident from spectrum to spectrum. In summary, the heliocentric velocity of the gas is consistent with a value of $`0\pm 20\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$.

The large angular extent and small radial velocity suggest a relatively local origin for the ionized gas. The Galactic coordinates, $`l=248,b=+48`$, further suggest that the gas is within a few hundred parsecs if the object lies within the Galactic disc. The weakness of the hydrogen lines and the lack of any bright early–type stars in the vicinity of the nebula rule out identification as an H II region.

## 3 Further Investigations

Narrow–band imaging of the \[O III\] 4959,5007 lines ($`\lambda _c=5008`$Å, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda =100`$Å) and the H$`\alpha `$+\[N II\] 6548,6583 lines ($`\lambda _c=6568`$Å, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda =95`$Å) was undertaken using the Wide Field Camera (WFC) on the Isaac Newton Telescope (INT) on the nights of 2003 May 1 and 21–27. Exposure times of $`9001200`$s (H$`\alpha `$) and $`3\times 900`$s \[O III\] were used, with shorter exposures of 600s for companion broad–band images in $`g`$ and $`r`$ passbands. An area of roughly a square degree was imaged in both \[O III\] and H$`\alpha `$. After processing through the INT WFC pipeline (Irwin & Lewis 2001) there was a clear detection of complex \[O III\] and H$`\alpha `$ nebulosity extending over the whole region, confirming the reality of the spectroscopic detections. The resulting continuum–subtracted, stacked \[O III\] and H$`\alpha `$ images are shown in Figure 3. The area visible in the images is indicated by the dashed outline in Figure 1. The centrally concentrated distribution of \[O III\] 4959,5007 emission is particularly striking. A distinctive feature present in the \[O III\] image is the arc–like structure visible at center–right.

In the $`<0.5\mathrm{°}`$ composite (Figure 2a,b) the \[O III\] $`\lambda `$5007/$`\lambda `$4959 ratio of $`3.6\pm 0.4`$ and the \[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583/$`\lambda `$6548 ratio of $`2.8\pm 0.3`$ are both consistent with their theoretical values, which depend only on atomic physics for the conditions pertaining in PN, suggesting the spectrum provides useful diagnostic information (although new spectra of the high surface brightness features are needed). H$`\beta `$, which is clearly present in individual spectra with the strongest emission line fluxes, is barely detectable in the $`<0.5\mathrm{°}`$ composite spectrum. The H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ ratio of $`7.5\pm 3.5`$ indicates some reddening (formally AV $`=`$ 0.9$`{}_{0.6}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+0.3}`$). Relatively weak underlying absorption in the Balmer lines would help explain the low H$`\beta `$ flux while making little difference to the strength of H$`\alpha `$. The nearly reddening independent ratios of \[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583/H$`\alpha `$ $`=`$ $`0.8\pm 0.2`$ and \[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583/\[S II\] $`\lambda `$6716 $`=`$ $`2.9\pm 1`$ are both within the ranges observed in nitrogen-rich PN. The \[O III\] $`\lambda `$5007/H$`\beta `$ ratio of $`38\pm 10`$ is very high, although not unprecedented in PNs (and is biased high by the selection process). Further support for the classification as a PN comes from the detection of \[Ne III\] 3869. The absence of detectable emission from lines of He I and He II is consistent with normal abundances and the S/N of the composite spectrum. In summary, the emission line properties of both composite and individual spectra are consistent with the properties of a PN with a relatively hot central star.

Indeed, the images in the atlas of ancient PNs (Tweedy & Kwitter 1996) contain some strikingly similar structures. The centrally concentrated morphology evident in the distribution of \[O III\] 4959,5007 emission is common and large variations in emission line ratio, including strong \[N II\] and \[S II\] towards the outer edges of old PNs, due to interactions between the ejecta and the ambient interstellar medium, are often seen. The most unusual property of the structure reported here is the angular size, which, at $`>2\mathrm{°}`$ diameter exceeds that of Sh 2–216, also long considered the closest PN, with an angular size of $`1.6\mathrm{°}`$ (Fesen, Blair, & Gull 1981; Tweedy & Napiwotzki 1992).

Since there was no plausible ionizing source in the SDSS photometric catalogue, the APM sky survey catalogues were used for further investigation of potential ionizing sources of radiation. In a $`1.5\mathrm{°}`$ region centered on $`10^h37^m`$ $`00\mathrm{°}20\mathrm{}`$ one bright candidate ionizing source stood out at $`10^h37^m03.875^s`$ $`00\mathrm{°}08\mathrm{}19.59\mathrm{}`$ J2000 (Epoch 1982), with UKST plate magnitudes and colors of $`\mathrm{R}=13.06`$ and $`\mathrm{B}_\mathrm{J}\mathrm{R}=0.47`$ (see Figure 4). Using the UKST plate as a reference frame the refined APM POSS1 (Epoch 1952) position of this source is $`10^h37^m04.047^s`$ $`00\mathrm{°}08\mathrm{}20.53\mathrm{}`$ J2000, giving a high proper motion of $`86\pm 5`$, $`+31\pm 5\mathrm{mas}\mathrm{yr}^1`$. The color, magnitude and proper motion suggested the object was probably a hot WD at around $``$100 pc and a search, utilizing Simbad, reveals the source is PG 1034+001, a bright, $`V=13.23`$ (Landolt 1992), DO white dwarf. A very crude kinematic age of $`130,000`$yr, can be derived from the radius of the PN, $`1\mathrm{°}`$ at a distance of $``$150pc, and a typical expansion velocity of PN, $`20\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The WD is currently close to the center of the region over which detectable emission is present in the SDSS spectra. The WD is also in close proximity, $``$15′, to the region showing the strongest \[O III\] 4959,5007 emission, however, the proper motion vector for the WD indicates a position for the WD to the east of the present location at the time the PN was formed. If the arc–like feature visible in Figure 3 represents a shock, or a boundary, associated with material ejected at the time the PN was formed then a lower limit to the kinematic age for the PN can be estimated by extrapolating the motion of the white dwarf back to the origin of the radius of curvature of the arc. The resulting limit on the age, $`>50,000\pm 10,000`$yr is plausible but an understanding of the nature of the arc–like feature is necessary to validate the argument. An age of $``$100,000yr is consistent with all the evidence but measurement of the expansion velocity and a more complete mapping of the morphology of the emission will provide a much improved estimate.

## 4 Discussion

Given that all observations are consistent with a PN nature for the newly discovered nebulosity, we designate it Hewett 1. The proximity of the DO white dwarf PG 1034+001 (Wesemael, Green, & Liebert 1985) makes it probable that PG 1034+001 is responsible for the ionizing radiation. Werner, Dreizler, & Wolff (1995) derived a spectroscopic distance for PG 1034+001 of $`155_{43}^{+58}`$pc and confirmation of the association would make Hewett 1 one of the closest PNs known (Napiwotzki 2001), the $`2\mathrm{°}`$ diameter corresponding to a physical size of $`3.57.0`$pc for the likely distance range of $`100200`$pc. Again, Sh 2–216 provides the current benchmark, with a trigonometric distance of $`130_8^{+9}`$pc (Harris et al. 1997) and a physical size of $`3.5`$pc. A parallax determination for PG 1034+001 would establish whether Hewett 1 is even closer.

Notwithstanding targeted searches (Werner et al. 1997), very few PNs are known to be associated with non–DA (hydrogen poor) white dwarfs. Hewett 1 may be the first PN to be discovered associated with a DO white dwarf, although PG 0108+101 (Reynolds et al. 1987) and PG 0109+111 (Werner et al. 1997) have candidate nebulae, neither detection is regarded as secure. Since DO white dwarfs are thought to evolve from PG 1159 stars (see Dreizler & Werner 1996, and references therein), it will be of interest to compare the properties of Hewett 1 both to the PNs associated with PG 1159 stars (Napiwotzki 1999) and theoretical models (Górny & Tylenda 2000). The derivation of a reliable age for the PN associated with PG 1034+001 will be of particular interest for constraining the time scales associated with the late–stages of evolution of post-asymptotic giant branch stars and the origin of PG 1159 stars and helium–rich WDs.

EDS is grateful for the hospitality of the IoA during his sabbatical visit and we thank Alan McConnachie for assisting with the INT imaging observations. We are grateful to the anonymous referee who provided a detailed review of the original manuscript. This paper includes observations made with the Isaac Newton Telescope, operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. Funding for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, and the Max Planck Society. The SDSS Web site is http://www.sdss.org/.


text:
# Strong Limits on the Infrared Spectrum of HD 209458 b Near 2.2 𝜇m

## 1. Background

Our observations cover two predicted secondary eclipse events, and we obtained 1036 individual spectra of the HD 209458 system using the SpeX instrument at the NASA IRTF in September 2001. Our spectra extend from 1.9 to 4.2 $`\mu `$m with a resolution ($`\lambda /\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda `$) of 1500. A summary of the method of occultation spectrosocpy, as well as the details of the data analysis, can be found in Richardson, Deming, & Seager (2003).

## 2. Results and Discussion

The final difference spectrum, shown in Figure 1, represents the average candidate planetary spectrum, as calculated from the ‘in-eclipse’ minus the ‘out-of-eclipse’ spectra from the two nights during which a secondary eclipse was predicted to occur. The average spectrum represents data from 550 individual spectra of HD 209458, as well as an equal number of spectra of the comparison star HD 210483. The comparison star was used in our analysis to remove variability due to changes in the terrestrial atmsophere and to normalize the data to the stellar flux density. Also shown in Figure 1 is the baseline model for HD 204958 b calculated by Sudarsky, Burrows, & Hubeny (2003), which exhibits a peak near 2.2 $`\mu `$m. A least-squares analysis indicates this peak is not present in the candidate planetary spectrum as derived from the data.

We believe this result has significant implications for the structure of the planetary atmosphere. In particular, some models that assume the stellar irradiation is re-radiated entirely on the sub-stellar hemisphere predict this flux peak, which is inconsistent with our observations. Several physical mechanisms can improve agreement with our observations, including the re-distribution of heat by global circulation, a nearly isothermal atmosphere, and/or the presence of a high cloud.

## References

Richardson, L. J., Deming, D., & Seager, S. 2003, ApJ, 597, 581

Sudarksy, S., Burrows, A., & Hubeny, I. 2003, ApJ, 588, 1121


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# 26Al yields from rotating Wolf–Rayet star models

## 1 Introduction

Many papers, in the past, have explored the possibility that Wolf-Rayet stars, through their winds, might enrich the interstellar medium in 26Al. The idea was first suggested by Dearborn and Blake ref2  and was further explored by many authors (see the review by Prantzos and Diehl ref3  and references therein). These computations showed that indeed Wolf-Rayet stars appear to be significant 26Al sources. It is the hope that in the future, $`\gamma `$–ray astronomy, by measuring the 1.8 MeV luminosity of single objects, will be able to add new constraints on the stellar models and thus clearly identify the source of this element in the Galaxy. An upper limit for the 1.8 MeV luminosity exists only in the case of $`\gamma ^2`$Vel, the nearest known WR star (Oberlack et al. ref4 ). All the other constraints concern either the Galaxy as a whole or directions in the Galaxy with $`gamma`$–ray line luminosities arising from the cumulative effects of different populations whose relative contributions are still difficult to assess. There is however a few very young associations or groups of associations which are too young for having been much enriched by the supernovae. In those cases, a significant part of the 1.8 MeV luminosity likely originates from the decay of 26Al ejected by the winds of Wolf–Rayet (WR) stars. These regions are thus particularly interesting as they offer a unique probe of one single type of sources (Knödlseder et al. ref5 ; Plüschke et al. ref6 ).

A striking conclusion of the work by Knödlseder et al. ref5  who studied the Cygnus associations, is that the theoretical 26Al yields seem to be underestimated by a factor of two. At first sight, this conclusion is surprising because the WR yields are based on models computed with enhanced, (nowadays considered to be overestimated) mass loss rates (Meynet et al. ref7 ). One would have thus expected that the too strong mass loss suffered by these models would give too high 26Al yields ! On the other hand, despite the uncertainties pertaining to the mass loss rates, there was good hope that the yields of these models would not be too far from reality in the sense that the enhanced mass loss rate models were able to account for many observable properties of WR stars as for instance the number ratio of WR to O type stars in zones of constant star formation rate (Maeder & Meynet ref8 ).

Recently, a new grid of WR stellar models at solar metallicity has been computed accounting for the effects of rotation and including new prescriptions for the mass loss rates. The new revised mass loss rates include the effects due to clumping in WR stellar winds and are about a factor two to three below those used in the enhanced mass loss rate models. Interestingly, despite using much lower mass loss rates, the rotating models can explain the observed number ratio of WR to O-type stars at solar metallicity. They can even reproduce the observed fraction of WR stars presenting at their surface both H and He-burning products, an observational fact which non–rotating models could not explain (with normal or enhanced mass loss rates). Finally they also well match the number ratio of WC to WN stars. Thus it appears that the necessity to enhance the mass loss rate in the old models was probably due to the neglect of rotation.

The aim of this paper is to study the yields in 26Al derived from these new rotating models (only the wind contribution is considered here).

## 2 Effects of rotation on the 26Al yields from WR stars

The physical ingredients of these models are exactly the same as in the models by Meynet & Maeder ref1 , except for one thing: we did not take into account the effects of the wind anisotropies induced by rotation. This is quite justified since it has been shown in the above reference that for the initial velocities considered here the effects are negligible. We consider here an initial equatorial rotation velocity on the ZAMS of 300 km s-1. This corresponds to a time averaged equatorial velocity during the Main Sequence phase of about 200 km s-1, a typical value for this kind of star. Figure 1 presents the evolution of the structure of four 60 M stellar models with different metallicities and initial rotational velocities. The evolutions of the central and surface abundances of 26Al are also indicated. Comparing the non–rotating models with the rotating ones, one can note two striking differences:

* As a result of rotational mixing the convective core in the rotating model is continuously supplied with fuel and CNO elements which act as catalysts of the H–burning reactions. Therefore, the decrease in mass of the convective core is slowed down and the lifetime on the Main Sequence is enhanced. This feature is more marked in the higher metallicity model, in which the greater CNO content reinforces the process just described above. This effect of rotation tends to favour 26Al production by WR stars. Indeed more extended convective cores reduce the extension of the region separating the core, where 26Al is produced, from the surface, where it is ejected into the interstellar medium by stellar winds.
* In the non–rotating models, the abundance in 26Al begins to increase at the surface when layers having been processed in the convective core appear at the surface as a result of mass loss. In the rotating model, the enrichment in 26Al of the surface occurs at a much earlier stage when the core is still surrounded by an important H–rich envelope. This may happen thanks to rotational mixing which brings up to the surface matter processed in the core. Thus the wind becomes 26Al enriched at a much earlier stage than in the non–rotating models and the total quantity of ejected 26Al increases.

In addition to these two effects which are well apparent in Fig. 1, at least two other effects contribute to enhance the 26Al yields in rotating models: 1) some amounts of 25Mg diffuse from the radiative envelope in the central H–burning regions where it is transformed by proton capture in 26Al, 2) the minimum initial mass of single stars passing through a WR episode is decreased. For all these reasons, the yields of the rotating models are enhanced with respect to those of non–rotating models computed with exactly the same physical ingredients. The enhancement factors are slightly superior to 2 for the 60 and the 120 M and amounts to 340 in the case of the 25 M stellar model. Note that the non–rotating 25 M never becomes a WR star, while its rotating counterpart goes through a WR phase (hence the huge enhancement factor).

On Fig. 2 the yields from the present rotating models are compared with those obtained from the enhanced mass loss rate models. One sees that the yields obtained in the new rotating models, both at solar metallicity and at twice the solar metallicity, are greater than those of Meynet et al. ref7 , the increase becoming more and more important when the initial mass decreases. More quantitatively, at solar metallicity, the yields for the rotating 25, 60 and 120 M stellar models are multiplied by a factor 12.7, 1.5 and 1.1 with respect to the yields of Meynet et al ref7  for the same masses. In order to give an idea of the effects of these enhancement factors on the quantity of 26Al ejected by a generation of stars, one can define an average yield, $`\overline{Y}_{26}`$, by $`\overline{Y}_{26}=\frac{_{M_{\mathrm{min}}}^{M_{\mathrm{max}}}Y_{26}(M)\varphi (M)dM}{_{M_{\mathrm{min}}}^{M_{\mathrm{max}}}\varphi (M)dM}`$, where $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$, $`M_{\mathrm{max}}`$ are the lower and upper bound respectively of the mass range considered, $`Y_{26}(M)`$ the yield in 26Al of the WR star of initial mass $`M`$ and $`\varphi (M)`$ the initial mass function (IMF) chosen here with a Salpeter slope (1.35). The value of this average yield computed in the mass range between 25 and 70 M is equal to $`5.1\times 10^5M_{}`$ when the stellar yields from the enhanced mass loss rate models are used. Computing the same average yield from the rotating model, one obtains a value of $`9.7\times 10^5M_{}`$, nearly twice as great as the one obtained from the enhanced mass loss rate models.

We mentionned above that observations of the Cygnus associations suggest that the theoretical 26Al yields might be underestimated by about a factor two. Indeed, Knödlseder et al. ref5  converting the observed 1.8 MeV flux measurements into an equivalent O7V star 26Al yield, obtain a value $`Y_{26}^{O7V}=(1.1\pm 0.3)\times 10^4M_{}`$ for the Cygnus region. This empirical mean yield per equivalent O7V star is about a factor two above the value deduced from their population synthesis model ($`Y_{26}^{O7V}=4.7\times 10^5M_{}`$) which, on the other hand, very well reproduces the ionizing luminosity of the Cygnus region. How would the use of the present models change the situation ? An appropriate quantitative assessement of this point requires a careful study that will be made in a forthcoming paper. Let us simply mention here that if rotation would only affect the 26Al yields, then the above difficulty would be greatly alleviated by the use of the present yields. However, rotation makes also the tracks slightly bluer and more luminous and thus rotation will also increase the ionising luminosity of the stars. Thus the definite answer to the above question remains largely open as long as no detailed population syntheis models are performed.

What is the fraction of the 2-3 M of 26Al believed to be present in the Milky–Way which has been ejected by the WR stellar winds ? On the basis of the enhanced mass loss rate models the WR contribution was estimated to be between 0.9 and 1.5 M depending on the value of the slope of the IMF (respectively 1.7 and 1.35). First estimates, using the present yields (Meynet et al. in preparation) indicate that the contribution of the WR stars might amount to values between 1.2 (1.7) and 2 M (1.35). Thus, rotation appears to reinforce the WR contribution to the observed 26Al in the Galaxy.

## 3 Conclusion

From the considerations above, we can retain the following conclusions:

* Rotation increases the contribution of the WR stars to the 26Al synthesis. A significant part of the increase results from the lowering of the minimum initial mass of the stars going through a WR episode.
* The increase of the 26Al yields due to rotation appears to be sufficient for significantly reducing the difficulty encountered in reproducing the 1.8 MeV luminosity of the Cygnus region. However it remains to see if these models can also reproduce the ionising luminosity observed from this region.