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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Recent results from Super-Kamiokande on solar and atmospheric neutrino oscillations indicate a strong positive hint for the existence of tiny neutrino masses. It has been inferred that the solution of the atmospheric neutrino anomaly requires a small squared mass difference between $`\nu _\mu `$ and $`\nu _\tau `$ with almost maximal mixing ($`m_{23}^2(1.55)\times 10^3eV^2`$, and $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{23}>0.88`$). Oscillation to sterile neutrinos is also ruled out. In case of the solar neutrino oscillation, the small mixing angle MSW solution, the vacuum oscillation solution and also the oscillation to sterile neutrino, have been ruled out, leaving the only possible option of the large angle MSW solution. Although the solar mixing angle is relatively large, the maximal mixing is not allowed ($`m_{12}^2(2.515)\times 10^5eV^2`$, and $`0.25<\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{12}<0.65`$).

The above observations lead to at least three possible interpretations of the observed $`m_{ij}^2=|m_{\nu i}^2m_{\nu j}^2|,`$ in terms of neutrino mass eigenvalues,viz., hierarchical, reverse hierarchical and quasi-degenerate. If the neutrino masses originate from the see-saw mechanism , then it is most natural to assume the existence of a physical neutrino mass hierarchy, though the other possibilities are not ruled out . For the hierarchical case the relation $`m_{\nu 3}>m_{\nu 2}>m_{\nu 1}`$ implies $`m_{23}^2=|m_{\nu 3}^2m_{\nu 2}^2|m_{\nu 3}^2`$, $`m_{12}^2=|m_{\nu 2}^2m_{\nu 1}^2|m_{\nu 2}^2`$, and this fixes the ratio of the two neutrino masses $`m_{\nu 2}/m_{\nu 3}\lambda ^2`$ where $`\lambda 0.22`$ is the Wolfenstein parameter. However it does not fix the other two neutrino mass ratio $`m_{\nu 1}/m_{\nu 2}`$ from the observations. There are theoretical speculations that this ratio may range from $`\lambda ^2`$ to $`\lambda ^4`$, and approaches zero for massless $`m_{\nu 1}`$. We can see interesting features in common among the masses of all the fundamental fermions including neutrinos:

$$m_b:m_s:m_d=1:\lambda ^2:\lambda ^4;$$

$$m_t:m_c:m_u=1:\lambda ^4:\lambda ^8$$

$$m_\tau :m_\mu :m_e=1:\lambda ^2:\lambda ^6;$$

$$m_{\nu 3}:m_{\nu 2}:m_{\nu 1}=1:\lambda ^2:\lambda ^p,p>2$$

where $`p`$ is arbitrary as neutrino mass $`m_{\nu 1}`$ is not yet fixed from the observations.

In the theoretical front the main ambiguities in the see-saw mechanism for generating small left-handed Majorana neutrino masses, lie in the choice of the texture of the Dirac neutrino mass matrix $`M_\nu `$. Grand unified $`SO(10)`$ models (with or without SUSY) being employed, in principle predict the textures of the Dirac mass matrices $`M_u,M_d,M_e`$ along with $`M_\nu `$, and their group theoretical relations. The most general grand unified $`SO(10)`$ model (referred to as case A) generally predicts the relation of the Dirac mass matrices $`M_u=M_\nu M_d=M_e`$ where $`M_u`$ stands for the mass matrix of the up-type quark sector. In another class of left-right symmetric models and their extension to SUSY $`SO(10)`$ models (referred to as case B) one obtains the relation $`M_\nu =M_e\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ where $`M_e`$ is the charged lepton mass matrix and $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =V_u/V_d`$. These two cases A and B are again subject to further ambiguities arising from the texture of the right-handed Majorana mass matrix $`M_R`$.

In the conventional quadratic see-saw mechanism the tiny left-handed Majorana neutrino mass eigenvalues $`m_{\nu _i}`$ vary as Dirac mass eigenvalues $`m_i^2`$ when the right-handed Majorana neutrino masses are assumed to be degenerate $`M_{N_i}=M_N`$. This is true for pure diagonal cases, and the neutrino mass ratios are simply obtained as $`m_{\nu 2}/m_{\nu 3}=(m_c^2/m_t^2)\lambda ^8`$ , and $`m_\mu ^2/m_\tau ^2\lambda ^4`$ for two types of $`SO(10)`$ GUT models in cases A and B respectively. Such quadratic relations to Dirac masses fail to conform with the observations. Alternatively, if the eigenvalues of $`M_{N_i}`$ follow the same hierarchy as $`m_i`$ in case of non-degenerate right-handed neutrino mass, then it could be possible that $`m_{\nu _i}`$ vary linearly as $`m_i`$ ( hence the name linear seesaw formula). This can be understood from the fact that $`m_i=h_iV_u`$ and $`M_{N_i}=f_iV_R`$, and one may take $`f_i/h_i=(1,1,1)`$ for $`i=1,2,3,`$ at the symmetry breaking scale $`M_R`$ where the see-saw mechanism is operative. The neutrino mass ratio $`m_{\nu 2}/m_{\nu 3}`$ are given as $`(m_c/m_t)\lambda ^4`$ in case A, and $`(m_\mu /m_\tau )\lambda ^2`$ in case B respectively. It is quite clear that the linear see-saw mass relation with charged leptons in case B agrees quite well with the neutrino mass relation of the MSW solution whereas the linear see-saw relation with up-quarks in case A predicts too low neutrino mass ratio. This indicates the ratio $`f_i/h_i`$ needs to be modified for the case A. These shortcomings had remained for long time untill recently Babu and Barr addressed this problem in a class of $`SO(10)`$ models where $`M_R`$ has a hierarchy similar to $`M_\nu `$, and the texture of $`M_\nu `$ is related to the texture of $`M_u`$ through a multiplicative factor due to Clebsch coefficients in analogy with Georgi-Jarlskog mechanism in $`SU(5)`$ GUT. Such modification could rescue  the linear see-saw neutrino mass relations in case A , thus keeping the linear see-saw mass relations for both cases A and B at equal footing. However such analysis is true for nearly diagonal textures, and the lepton mixing parameters are inherently absent. The desired lepton mixing angles ($`\theta _{12},\theta _{23}`$) for both solar and atmospheric neutrino oscillations can in principle be generated through a number of ways. In case of the linear see-saw formula with up-quarks (in case A) it is easier to get large $`\theta _{23}`$ and small $`\theta _{12}`$ as in ref.. This is due to the fact that the large atmospheric mixing and small solar mixing can be imparted from the texture of charged lepton mass matrix, but it is difficult to generate large MSW solar mixing angle from charged lepton sector.

In this paper we study the generation of the effective linear see-saw neutrino mass relations using generalised textures of $`M_R`$ and $`M_\nu `$ in both cases A and B, and also generate large solar and maximal atmospheric mixings. We then discuss the stability criteria of the linear see-saw neutrino mass relations and mixing angles under quantum corrections at low energies.

## 2 Models for the effective linear see-saw mass relation

The left-handed Majorana neutrino mass matrix is given by the see-saw formula

$$m_{LL}^\nu =M_\nu M_{RR}^1M_\nu ^T$$
(1)
and the MNS mixing matrix by

$$V_{MNS}=V_{eL}V_{\nu L}^{}$$
(2)
where $`V_{\nu L}`$ and $`V_{eL}`$ are defined through the diagonalisation $`m_{LL}^{diag}=V_{\nu L}m_{LL}^\nu V_{\nu L}^{}`$, and $`M_e^{diag}=V_{eL}M_eV_{eR}^{}`$ respectively.

We first discuss case B where there is a class of SUSY $`SO(10)`$ model which predicts the relation

$$M_\nu =M_e\mathrm{tan}\beta $$
(3)
In the basis where the charged lepton mass matrix is diagonal $`M_e=Diag(m_e,m_\mu ,m_\tau )`$, the MNS mixing matrix in Eq.(2) is entirely from the texture of $`M_R`$ only through the see-saw formula (1). The light Majorana neutrino mass matrix in Eq.(1) is then given by

$$m_{LL}^\nu =\mathrm{tan}^2\beta M_eM_{RR}^1M_e$$
(4)
Using the texture of the right-handed neutrino mass matrix

$$M_R\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\eta & \delta & 0\\ \delta & ϵ^2& bϵ\\ 0& bϵ& 1\end{array}\right)v_R$$
(5)
the light Majorana neutrino mass matrix in Eq.(4) becomes

$$m_{LL}^\nu \left(\begin{array}{ccc}\frac{ϵ^2}{\eta }(1b^2)m_e^2& \frac{\delta }{\eta }m_em_\mu & \frac{\delta }{\eta }bϵm_em_\tau \\ \frac{\delta }{\eta }m_em_\mu & m_\mu ^2& bϵm_\mu m_\tau \\ \frac{\delta }{\eta }bϵm_em_\tau & bϵm_\mu m_\tau & (ϵ^2\frac{\delta ^2}{\eta })m_\tau ^2\end{array}\right)$$
(6)
This can generate small angle MSW solution with the proper choice of parameters in $`M_R`$ in Eq.(5). Here we are interested to generate large mixing angle MSW solution and maximal atmospheric mixing along with the right order of linear see-saw neutrino mass ratio. We take the values of the following parameters in Eq.(6):

$$\delta /\eta =1/\lambda ;b=(1+k),$$

$$ϵ=\lambda ^2;\delta =\lambda ^6,\eta =\lambda ^7$$

and obtain the neutrino mass matrix (6) of the form,

$$m_{LL}^\nu \left(\begin{array}{ccc}2k\lambda ^5& \lambda & (1+k)\lambda \\ \lambda & 1& 1+k\\ (1+k)\lambda & 1+k& 1+\lambda \end{array}\right)$$
(7)
For a specific choice of the value of $`k=0.18`$, Eq.(7) gives the neutrino mass ratio $`m_{\nu 2}/m_{\nu 3}=0.0341\lambda ^2`$, and the following MNS matrix,

$$V_{MNS}=V_{\nu L}^{}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0.9210& 0.3623& 0.1436\\ 0.3607& 0.6530& 0.6660\\ 0.1475& 0.6651& 0.7320\end{array}\right)$$
(8)
which in turn gives large angle solar and maximal atmospheric mixing parameters ( $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{12}=0.464`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{23}=0.991`$) respectively. The neutrino mass ratio can still be increased with the choice of higher value of $`k=0.2`$.

Next we discuss the generation of linear see-saw mass relation in case A. In this class of grand unified SO(10) models, all the five Yukawa matrices $`Y_f`$ where $`f=u,d,e,\nu ,R`$ are predicted by the theory. One can have the relation, $`Y_\nu =Y_uY_d=Y_e`$, subject to modification due to group theoretical Clebsch coefficients. We assume these relations are true in SUSY $`SO(10)`$ as well. The textures of these Yukawa matrices take the following forms:

$$Y_u\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& \lambda ^6& 0\\ \lambda ^6& \lambda ^4& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right),Y_d\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& 0& a\lambda ^3\\ a\lambda ^3& b\lambda /3& 0\\ 0& c& 1\end{array}\right),Y_e\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& a\lambda ^3& 0\\ 0& b\lambda & c\\ a\lambda ^3& 0& 1\end{array}\right)$$

$$Y_\nu \frac{3}{8}\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& \lambda ^6& 0\\ \lambda ^6& 8\lambda ^4& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right),Y_R\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& \lambda ^6& 0\\ \lambda ^6& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right)$$
(9)
The light see-saw Majorana mass matrix (1) is given by

$$m_{LL}^\nu \frac{9}{64}\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& \lambda ^6& 0\\ \lambda ^6& 16\lambda ^4& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right)$$
(10)
The choice of the coefficients $`(a,b,c)=(0.5,0.4,0.8)`$ in Eq.(9), gives good fits to charged lepton mass hierarchy ($`m_e/m_\mu =0.004,m_\mu /m_\tau =0.054`$), and $`m_{LL}^\nu `$ in Eq.(10) is nearly diagonal, and gives the linear see-saw neutrino mass ratios $`m_{\nu 2}/m_{\nu 3}=16(m_c/m_t)\lambda ^2`$ and $`m_{\nu 1}/m_{\nu 2}=\frac{1}{(16)^2}(m_u/m_c)\lambda ^8`$. In this model large atmospheric mixing angle is derived from charged lepton sector ($`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{23}=0.953`$). However the model predicts SMA MSW solution ($`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{12}=0.013`$). In order to generate large solar mixing angle we have to modify the texture of the charged lepton texture in Eq.(9). Following ref. one can construct the charged lepton texture which can give large solar mixing angle and maximal atmospheric angle. The most general charged lepton mass matrix in terms of the mass eigenvalues can be constructed using the relation, $`M_e=V_{eL}^{}M_e^{diag}V_{eL}`$ where we can have the input $`V_{eL}`$,

$$V_{eL}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0.93& 0.37& 0\\ 0.28& 0.70& 0.66\\ 0.24& 0.61& 0.75\end{array}\right)$$
(11)
Together with $`V_{\nu L}`$ extracted from $`m_{LL}^\nu `$ in Eq.(10), one gets the MNS mixing matrix

$$V_{MNS}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0.929& 0.373& 0\\ 0.282& 0.699& 0.660\\ 0.242& 0.609& 0.750\end{array}\right),$$
(12)
which gives $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{23}=0.984`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{12}=0.472`$ leading to maximal atmospheric mixing and large solar mixings respectively. The above two examples, each for cases A and B, show the consistency of the effective linear see-saw model with the large neutrino mixings for solar and atmospheric neutrino oscillations.

## 3 Stability under quantum corrections

We discuss in brief the stability criteria of the linear see-saw mass relations under quantum corrections. The stability conditions imply here that the ratio of two neutrino masses $`m_{\nu 2}/m_{\nu 3}`$ and also the two mixing angles $`\theta _{12}`$ and $`\theta _{23}`$ do not change much when one moves from the lowest right-handed neutrino mass threshold $`M_{R1}10^{13}GeV`$ scale down to top-quark mass scale. This has been found to be true for mixing angles in hierarchical case . In the diagonal charged lepton basis with $`m_{LL}^{diag}=Diag(m_{\nu 1},m_{\nu 2},m_{\nu 3})`$ and lepton mixing matrix (MNS) in Eq.(2),

$$V_{MNS}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}V_{e1}& V_{e2}& V_{e3}\\ V_{\mu 1}& V_{\mu 2}& V_{\mu 3}\\ V_{\tau 1}& V_{\tau 2}& V_{\tau 3}\end{array}\right)$$
(13)
the RG equation for the neutrino mass eigenvalues $`m_{\nu a}`$ for MSSM is worked out as  ($`t=\mathrm{ln}(\mu )`$)

$$\frac{d}{dt}m_{\nu _a}=\frac{1}{16\pi ^2}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{b=e,\mu ,\tau }(K+2h_b^2V_{ba}^2)m_{\nu _a},a=1,2,3$$
(14)
where

$$K=[\frac{6}{5}g_1^26g_2^2+6TrM_U^2],$$
(15)
Neglecting $`h_\mu ^2`$ and $`h_e^2`$ in Eq.(14), and integrating from the lowest right-handed neutrino mass scale $`t_{R1}=\mathrm{ln}(M_{R1})`$ down to top-quark mass scale $`t_0=\mathrm{ln}(m_t)`$, we get the mass ratio ( for $`a=2,3`$)

$$R_{23}(t_0)/R_{23}(t_{R1})\mathrm{exp}[2V_{\tau 32}^2I_\tau ]$$
(16)
where $`R_{23}=m_{\nu 2}/m_{\nu 3}`$ and $`I_\tau =\frac{1}{16\pi ^2}_{t_0}^{t_{R1}}h_\tau ^2𝑑t`$. In getting Eq.(16) we have taken $`V_{\tau 32}^2=(V_{\tau 3}^2V_{\tau 2}^2)0`$ approximately constant in the entire range of integration. For large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ region one can take roughly $`I_\tau 0.15`$, $`V_{\tau 3}=0.8`$ and $`V_{\tau 2}=0.6`$ as in Eq.(12), then the increase in $`R_{23}`$ while running from $`M_{R1}`$ scale down to at $`m_t`$ scale is nearly $`10\%`$, thus maintaining the neutrino mass hierarchy even at low energies. This is a desirable result and helps in attaining best-fit value at low energies. The stability of the atmospheric mixing parameter $`S_{at}=\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{23}`$ is clear from the evolution equation

$$16\pi ^2\frac{d}{dt}\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{23}=2\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{23}\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _{23}(h_\tau h_\mu )\frac{m_{\nu 3}+m_{\nu 2}}{m_{\nu 3}m_{\nu 2}}.$$
(17)
Since linear see-saw neutrino mass relation guarantees hierarchical relation $`m_{\nu 3}>m_{\nu 2}`$, the parameter $`S_{at}`$ increases at low energies as long as $`V_{\tau 2}`$ approaches $`V_{\tau 3}`$ and this helps in reaching maximal value at low energies. The same analysis holds true for the solar mixing as well.

## 4 Conclusion

To summarise, we have studied the ways to generate effective linear see-saw neutrino mass ratios in two clasees of $`SO(10)`$ models (cases A and B) where the texture of Dirac neutrino mass matrix is related to either up-quark or charged lepton mass matrix. In both cases we obtained LMA MSW solution and maximal atmospheric mixing while preserving linear see-saw neutrino mass relation. It will be useful to examine more examples in both cases for generating LMA MSW solution. The linear hierarchical neutrino mass ratio and the mixing angles in these models are found to be stable under radiative corrections. Such hierarchical linear relation is important in finding a common dynamical scheme for generating and understanding possible relations among the masses of all fundamental fermions in nature.


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# Phase shift effects on the second moment and skewness of the field profiles obtained by the muon spin relaxation technique

## I Introduction

In a $`\mu `$SR experiment  the spin-polarized muons are assumed to stop at random positions within the sample and precess along the local (internal) magnetic fields $`\stackrel{}{B}(\stackrel{}{r})`$. The procession frequency is $`\gamma _\mu B`$, where $`\gamma _\mu =135.5`$ $`MHz/T`$ is the gyromagnetic ratio of the muon. If the local fields which the muons feel are not unique i.e. there is a distribution of magnetic field $`f(B)`$, consequently the muons will precess with different frequencies, which causes a depolarization of the muons ensemble’s spins. The second moment of the field distribution $`f(B)`$ indicates how fast the muons depolarize thus is called the relaxation rate ($`\sigma `$ or $`\lambda `$). There are several ways to extract the relaxation rate: we can assume the proper form of the depolarization function $`P(t)`$ to fit the $`\mu `$SR spectra (histogram or asymmetry) in the time domain to extract the relaxation rate parameter in the fitting procedure; or we can calculate the second moment of the field distribution $`f(B)`$ to get the relaxation rate $`\sigma `$ since the Cosine Fourier Transformation (CFT) of $`\mu `$SR spectra indicates the magnetic field distribution inside the sample.  The second moment calculated from the discretized field distribution data depends slightly on the field channel width $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, there exists the following relations:

$`\sigma ^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{b^2f(b)𝑑b}{f(b)𝑑b}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{bf(b)𝑑b}{f(b)𝑑b}}\right)^2`$ (1)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{b^2f(b)db}{f(b)db}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{bf(b)db}{f(b)db}}\right)^2{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }^2}{12}}`$ (2)
$`=`$ $`\sigma _{data}^2{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }^2}{12}}`$ (3)
where $`\sigma `$ is the true relaxation rate and $`\sigma _{data}`$ is the relaxation rate calculated from the discretized field profile. Simulation shows that as long as the channel width $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is much smaller than the second moment of the field profile, $`\sigma _{data}`$ is a good estimate of $`\sigma `$.  For a $`\mu `$SR spectra in a 10 $`\mu `$s time window, the ideal minimum relaxation rate we can extract from data is 0.628 $`\mu `$s-1. If we consider the channel width effect mentioned above, the resolution of the relaxation rate will still be larger.
The local fields $`f(B)`$ can either be intrinsic, as they are for ordered magnets and spin glasses, or induced by an external field, as for the vortex lattice of a type II superconductor formed in the external magnetic fields. Usually the distribution $`f(B)`$ is dependent on the flux distribution associated with a single vortex line, as well as the arrangement and dynamics of the vortex lines. Note for single vortex, the magnetic field has a component normal to the vortex axis, however, the average transverse component vanishes due to the large amount of contributions from the entire FLL . For general calculation of the magnetic field distribution, see the monograph of Greer and Kossler .

## II Phase-shifted $`\mu `$SR spectra

In most cases, there is no difficulty to obtain the true field profiles through CFT from low transverse field $`\mu `$SR data. However, when the applied magnetic field is so high (several Tesla) that one precession period is only several times of the channel width, we need to study the effect of time-shifted or phase-shifted $`P(t)`$ (due to the instabilities of electronics or initial polarization) on the interpretation of $`f(B)`$. Assume $`P(t)=G_T(t)\mathrm{cos}(\omega _0t)`$ where $`G_T(t)`$ is the non-oscillating depolarization function part and can be exponential, stretched exponential, Gaussian or other types. Use the notations

$`P_c(\omega )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle G_T(t)\mathrm{cos}(\omega t)\text{ }𝑑t}`$ (4)
$`P_s(\omega )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle G_T(t)\mathrm{sin}(\omega t)\text{ }𝑑t}`$ (5)
We can easily derive the Fourier Transform (FT) of the time-shifted (or phase-shifted) $`P(t)`$ as follows:

$`P_{sc}(\omega )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle G_T(t+\delta t)\mathrm{cos}[\omega _0(t+\delta t)]\mathrm{cos}(\omega t)\text{ }𝑑t}`$ (6)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{cos}(\omega _0\delta t)}{2}}P_c(\omega _0\omega ){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(\omega _0\delta t)}{2}}P_s(\omega _0\omega )`$ (7)
$`P_{ss}(\omega )={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}(\omega _0\delta t)}{2}}P_c(\omega _0\omega ){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{cos}(\omega _0\delta t)}{2}}P_s(\omega _0\omega )`$ (8)
Note in the expression of $`P_{sc}(\omega )`$, the 1st term is symmetric about $`\omega _0`$, however, there is a sign change in the 2nd term when $`\omega `$ goes across $`\omega _0`$. This sign change was seen in our Bi2212 high transverse field $`\mu `$SR data  at various temperatures.
To construct the true field profile $`P_c(\omega _0\omega )`$ from the experimental data $`P_{sc}(\omega )`$ and $`P_{ss}(\omega )`$, we can do the following transformation,

$`P_{sc}(\omega )\mathrm{cos}(\omega _0\delta t)P_{ss}(\omega )\mathrm{sin}(\omega _0\delta t)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}P_c(\omega _0\omega )`$ (9)
The result of this phase correction on one of the field profiles in Bi2212 is shown in figure 1 where we can see the proper field profile is obtained.

The measurement of the internal magnetic field distribution in the vortex of type II HTSC allows an investigation of the details of the static or dynamic flux structure , such as the effects of random pinning  and the dimensionality/melting of the vortex . To quantify and characterize the shape of the field distribution (field profile), skewness factor $`\alpha `$, the variation of which reflects the underlying changes of the vortex structure (the one-to-one mapping still needs to be studied further), is defined from the 3rd and 2nd moments of the field line shape as follows:

$`\alpha `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(B\overline{B})^3^{\frac{1}{3}}}{(B\overline{B})^2^{\frac{1}{2}}}}`$ (10)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(M_33M_1M_2+2M_1^3)^{\frac{1}{3}}}{(M_2M_1^2)^{\frac{1}{2}}}}`$ (11)
where $`M_n=B^nf(B)𝑑B.`$ and is the nth moment of $`f(B)`$.
Normally we obtain the field profile either from asymmetry plot or from individual histogram then calculate the second moment and skewness of the field profile to probe the possible phase transitions of the vortex matters. In the analysis of high transverse field $`\mu `$SR data on Bi2212, we often find that the phase parameter in the depolarization function changes with temperature and thus needs to be corrected precisely.

## III Calculation results

To evaluate the effects of the phase shift $`\varphi `$ on the second moment and skewness calculations of the field profile, we generate a depolarization function (asymmetry plot) $`P(t)=e^{\frac{\sigma ^2t^2}{2}}\mathrm{cos}(\omega t+\varphi )`$ where $`\sigma =2`$ $`\mu s^1`$, $`\omega =20`$ $`Mrad/s`$ ($`\omega `$ can be assumed much higher, the final results are similar). These parameters are chosen so that there are no evident visual changes in the field profiles when the phase shift $`\varphi `$ varies from 0 to 0.5 ($``$300). The calculated $`\varphi `$ dependent second moment (ideally the second moment should be $`2`$ $`\mu s^1`$) and skewness plot is shown in the figure 2.

We can see clearly that the second moment and skewness are very sensitive on the phase shift $`\varphi `$. A change of initial phase from 0 to 0.5 ($``$300) causes about 50 percent change on the relaxation rate and an increase of skewness from 0 to 2. This result requests us to extract the phase parameter accurately after fitting the $`\mu `$SR asymmetry plot. To correct this phase-shift effect, we can follow the modified CFT procedure as discussed in the previous section to obtain the true field profiles, which is also the case when we analyze the individual histogram.
We now study the asymmetry $`A(t)`$ which is used to obtain the field profile. We know $`A(t)`$ is usually composed by two histograms coming from two oppositely ($`\pi `$ out of phase) located positron detectors. However, in reality, especially for high precession frequency data, the two histograms are usually found not exactly $`\pi `$ out of phase. To consider this phase deviation $`\varphi `$ from $`\pi `$, we can do the following analytical analysis. As usual, we assume the phase-shifted histograms are (we assume Gaussian depolarization here, we can also use other depolarzation function instead)

$`N_U(t)`$ $`=`$ $`N_0e^{\frac{t}{\tau }}[1+A_0e^{\frac{\sigma ^2t^2}{2}}\mathrm{cos}(\omega t)]`$ (12)
$`N_D(t)`$ $`=`$ $`N_0e^{\frac{t}{\tau }}[1A_0e^{\frac{\sigma ^2t^2}{2}}\mathrm{cos}(\omega t+\varphi )]`$ (13)
The asymmetry $`A(t)`$ can be expressed as

$`A(t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{N_UN_D}{N_U+N_D}}`$ (14)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{A_0e^{\frac{\sigma ^2t^2}{2}}\mathrm{cos}(\omega t)+A_0e^{\frac{\sigma ^2t^2}{2}}\mathrm{cos}(\omega t+\varphi )}{2+A_0e^{\frac{\sigma ^2t^2}{2}}\mathrm{cos}(\omega t)A_0e^{\frac{\sigma ^2t^2}{2}}\mathrm{cos}(\omega t+\varphi )}}`$ (15)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{A_0e^{\frac{\sigma ^2t^2}{2}}\mathrm{cos}(\omega t+\frac{\varphi }{2})\mathrm{cos}(\frac{\varphi }{2})}{1+A_0e^{\frac{\sigma ^2t^2}{2}}\mathrm{sin}(\omega t+\frac{\varphi }{2})\mathrm{sin}(\frac{\varphi }{2})}}`$ (16)
$``$ $`A_0e^{\frac{\sigma ^2t^2}{2}}\mathrm{cos}(\omega t+{\displaystyle \frac{\varphi }{2}})\mathrm{cos}({\displaystyle \frac{\varphi }{2}}){\displaystyle \frac{A_0^2}{4}}e^{\sigma ^2t^2}\mathrm{sin}(2\omega t+\varphi )\mathrm{sin}\varphi `$ (17)
From equation 11, we can see that, to the first order, the relaxation function is composed of two depolarized harmonics with frequencies $`\omega `$ and $`2\omega `$. The asymmetry amplitude for the $`\omega `$ harmonic is $`A_0\mathrm{cos}(\frac{\varphi }{2})`$, which is reduced by a factor of $`\mathrm{cos}(\frac{\varphi }{2})`$ from the original amplitude $`A_0`$, there is a phase shift $`\frac{\varphi }{2}`$, which causes the changes on the second moment and skewness of the field profile as we have discussed before; since $`A_0`$ is usually less than 0.4, the asymmetry amplitude for the $`2\omega `$ harmonic $`\frac{A_0^2}{4}\mathrm{sin}\varphi `$ is much less than $`A_0\mathrm{cos}(\frac{\varphi }{2})`$, the amplitude of the $`\omega `$ harmonic. All these conclusions have been verified through further simulation.

## IV Conclusion

In order to obtain the proper field profiles through the Cosine Fourier Transform (CFT) on the $`\mu `$SR data and characterize them quantitatively and correctly, we need to extract the initial phase parameter precisely from individual histogram or asymmetry plot and correct the possible phase shift effect through a proposed data analysis procedure in order to obtain the correct second moment (or relaxation rate) and skewness of the field profile.


text:
# Search for Millisecond Periodicities in Type I X-ray Bursts of the Rapid Burster

## 1 Introduction

The past four years have seen dramatic advances in our understanding of low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXBs) thanks to precision-timing observations made with the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer satellite (RXTE; Bradt, Rothschild & Swank 1993). Quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) in the 200–1200 Hz frequency range have been detected in the persistent emission of many LMXBs. These QPOs often occur simultaneously separated by a frequency difference that remains roughly constant or decreases as the frequencies increase; these frequencies may reflect the relativistic motion of material at the inner edge of the accretion disk in these systems. For a recent review see van der Klis (2000).

Separately, nearly-coherent oscillations (NCOs) with $`Q`$ ($`\nu /\mathrm{\Delta }\nu `$) values of $`>`$300 have been detected during many type I X-ray bursts from six LMXBs, and there is strong evidence that these frequencies reflect the underlying neutron star spin period for these sources (Strohmayer et al. 1996; for a review see Strohmayer 1999). In particular, (1) the high coherence of the signals is a challenge to alternative models: $`Q>900`$ in a single burst from KS 1731$``$260 (Smith, Morgan, & Bradt 1997), and $`Q`$ values of $``$4000 have been demonstrated, by modeling of the frequency evolution during the burst, for bursts from 4U 1728$``$34 and 4U 1702$``$429 (Strohmayer & Markwardt 1999) and KS 1731$``$260 (Muno et al. 2000); (2) the long-term stability (to better than one part in 1000) of the NCO period in at least three sources has been demonstrated over a time scale of $``$1 year (Strohmayer et al. 1998b; Muno et al. 2000); (3) the strength of the oscillations varies throughout the burst as expected for a spin modulation: the oscillations are generally strongest on the leading edge and tail of the bursts and undetectable at the burst peak, when a large portion of the NS surface is in conflagration (Strohmayer, Swank & Zhang 1998a); and (4) pulse phase-resolved spectroscopy of a burst from 4U 1636$``$536 indicates that the flux modulation during the tail of the burst is accompanied by a modulation of the blackbody temperature of the spectrum, again as expected (Strohmayer et al. 1998a).

The Rapid Burster (MXB 1730$``$335, or RB hereafter; Lewin et al. 1976) is a recurrent transient LMXB, located in the Galactic plane at a distance of approximately 8.6 kpc (Frogel et al. 1995) in the highly reddened globular cluster Liller 1 (Liller 1977). It is the only LMXB known to produce both type I and type II X-ray bursts (Hoffman, Marshall & Lewin 1978). Whereas the type I bursts result from the explosive thermonuclear burning of accreted material on the surface of a neutron star, the type II bursts result from spasmodic accretion – the release of gravitational potential energy – presumably because of a recurrent accretion instability. For a review, see Lewin, van Paradijs, & Taam (1993).

Guerriero (1998) undertook a search for pulsations from the type I bursts, type II bursts, and persistent emission of the Rapid Burster, as observed through the first four outbursts of the source seen with RXTE. No significant detections were made, with upper limits for persistent signals of $``$3 per cent RMS variation in the range 20–2048 Hz. Given the unique nature of the Rapid Burster, we undertook to perform a more sensitive search. We used the knowledge that has been gleaned from other sources about the NCO phenomenon, focusing our search on the leading edge of the type I bursts, and on the higher energy photons only (see below, Sect. 2). Preliminary results of this work were reported by Fox & Lewin (1999a).

## 2 Observations and Analysis

As of January 2000, seven outbursts of the Rapid Burster have been observed with RXTE (Lewin et al. 1996a,b; Guerriero, Lewin & Kommers 1997; Guerriero et al. 1998; Fox & Lewin 1998; Fox et al. 1998; Fox & Lewin 1999b; the sixth outburst began in March 1999 and was not reported). RXTE All-Sky Monitor (ASM; Levine et al. 1996) data for these outbursts are available in “quicklook” and fully-processed form from the web sites of the ASM team333http://xte.mit.edu/XTE/asmlc/ASM.html and the High-Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center,444http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/xte/asm\_products.html respectively.

Alerted by the ASM, we are able to commence target of opportunity observations with the Proportional Counter Array (PCA; Jahoda et al. 1996) within one day of the start of an outburst, and to follow it throughout its month-long evolution (Guerriero et al. 1999).

Outburst profiles, as observed with the RXTE ASM, typically exhibit a sharp 1–3 d rise to a maximum flux of $``$400 mCrab (2–12 keV; the Crab produces 75 c s-1 in the ASM cameras), as time-averaged over the 90-second ASM dwells. The X-ray flux then declines quasi-exponentially over the next month with a time constant of $``$8 d (Guerriero et al. 1999). Note, however, that the sixth outburst in March 1999 deviated significantly from this pattern (Fox et al. 1999).

The timing analysis presented here relies exclusively on the PCA data. Our observations used individually described, event-encoded data with a time resolution of 122 $`\mu `$s and 64 energy channels. For the usual spectral parameters of the RB, one PCA c s-1 $`3\times 10^{12}`$ ergs cm-2 s-1, 2–20 keV (Guerriero et al. 1999). When the outburst reaches a maximum (PE and type I bursts), count rates are $``$5000 PCA c s-1 corresponding to an isotropic luminosity of $`1.3\times 10^{38}`$ ergs s-1 (2–20 keV) at a distance of 8.6 kpc. The brightest type I burst peak luminosities, after PE subtraction, are similarly $``$$`10^{38}`$ ergs s-1 (see Table 1).

Type I X-ray bursts are distinguished from the type II bursts of the RB in that they show a pronounced cooling over the course of the burst; type II bursts, on the other hand, maintain a roughly constant temperature through the burst. Near the maximum of the RB outbursts, when the persistent emission is at its strongest, we have occasionally observed bursts with a slow rise, slow decay and relatively low peak flux – classified as b-profile bursts below – that we have difficulty identifying definitively as type I or type II. For the most part we have identified them as type I on the basis of spectral analyses (Guerriero et al. 1999); however, this identification is not certain in all cases.

In Figure 1 we present the profiles of four type I bursts from the Rapid Burster that indicate the variety of burst profiles that we observe. Table 1 identifies all of the bursts by profile class; note, however, that these identifications are merely gross characterizations, and in particular, the distinction between profile classes (a) and (b) is probably not well-defined at this point.

We note that an occasional type I burst from 4U 1728$``$34 is visible at $``$50 per cent collimation efficiency during direct pointings at the RB, but that these bursts exhibit spectra (fitted blackbody temperatures ($``$2 keV), peak count rates ($``$10,000 c s-1), and light curves ($``$10 sec decays) that readily distinguish them from the RB bursts.

Our analysis evolved historically and must be described as such. It began in 1998 after RXTE had observed five outbursts from the Rapid Burster. We compiled a list of all RB type I bursts that were observed with RXTE during these outbursts (Table 1, data through September 1998); note that no type I bursts were observed during the first outburst (April and May 1996). We selected one-second time segments from the start of each burst: an automated procedure found the first eighth-second bin to represent a 4.5$`\sigma `$ fluctuation above the background level, and these start times were then inspected visually and adjusted by a half-second or less by hand.

To maximize our sensitivity to pulsations modulating the burst flux alone (and not the background or PE), we rank-ordered the bursts in terms of Peak2/PE (Table 1), and selected the top 31 bursts for our sample, as these seemed the most attrative targets; the selected bursts are indicated in bold in Table 1. To increase signal-to-noise for a relatively hard pulsation we selected photons in the 5.5–16 keV bandpass, roughly the upper half of the energy range for the Rapid Burster spectrum.

We binned the light curves from these one-second intervals to $`2^{12}`$ sec time resolution, corrected times to the solar system barycentre, took the Fourier transform, and averaged the 31 resulting power density spectra – producing a single power density spectrum (PDS) of 1 Hz frequency resolution and Nyquist frequency 2048 Hz.

### 2.1 Search Procedure

The frequency of the NCOs often drifts by roughly 2 Hz during the bursts (Strohmayer et al. 1996), so we do not necessarily anticipate a one-bin excess in the PDS. Rather than search for the highest individual powers, then, we began by inspecting the running two-bin average of adjacent powers from the PDS. Then, in a check for broader signals, we rebinned the PDS by successive factors of two and, at each stage, performed a two-bin running-average search on the averaged powers.

Since the statistical distribution of Poisson noise powers is known (for raw powers it is the $`\chi ^2`$ distribution with two degrees of freedom; Leahy et al. 1983), we were able to compare the search results from different stages of this process and select those which are most significant in a global sense. In fact, averaging 31 PDSs already puts the powers in a near-Gaussian regime, and we adopted this approximation in ranking prospective triggers of different bin sizes.

We have performed Monte Carlo calculations to determine the absolute significance of any particular excess over the entire power-spectral search. We did this because, first, the running-average search procedure (with its multiple rebinnings and reexaminations of the PDS) results in a distribution of tested powers that does not have an analytical form; and second, because the burst rise injects strong low-frequency power and places sidebands on noise spikes, increasing the noise powers for an integral-power search such as ours.

### 2.2 Monte Carlo Method

Our Monte Carlo (MC) procedure used the actual burst data, scrambling the data on short time scales to destroy real high-frequency power while preserving the burst rise and low-frequency noise responsible for the amplification of noise spikes in the PDS. The 120 time bins from each 30 msec interval of a burst were randomly interchanged prior to performing the FFT. We then averaged the 31 “fake” PDSs from the individual bursts and performed our full search protocol, recording the highest three signals that were found. For the purposes of this paper, we performed an MC run of 100,000 trials.

There are two aspects of this procedure which, if ignored, will systematically affect the resulting statistics. First, real noise is present in our fake PDSs at low frequencies, $`<`$100 Hz, because of the nature of our scrambling procedure. We therefore ignore false triggers in the frequency range $`<`$60 Hz.

Second, the MC procedure destroys real broad-band power at high frequencies, which (if not accounted for) will systematically enhance powers in the real PDS relative to powers in the fake (MC) ones. We have therefore characterized the broad-band excess power that is present in the real data. Subtracting off the deadtime-corrected PCA Poisson level (Morgan, Remillard & Greiner 1997) from our real (averaged) PDS, and logarithmically rebinning, we find that we may fit the residuals with a power law of exponent $``$0.7 and total normalization 1.0 per cent rms over 1–2048 Hz. We corrected our real PDS powers by dividing by this background level before comparing our powers to the MC results.

### 2.3 Candidate Signal Identification

The average power density spectrum of the first one second of the 31 type I bursts (see Table 1) from the RB is presented in Fig. 2.

The two highest peaks, centred at 306.5 Hz and 155 Hz, respectively, extend noticeably above the noise level, and are placed in a near-harmonic relationship. Specifically, our Monte Carlo results indicate that a peak with the strength of the 306.5 Hz peak (or stronger) is present in 1.8 per cent of the simulated power density spectra, and that a peak with the strength of the 155 Hz peak, or stronger, is present in 15.3 per cent of the simulated PDSs. Note that although the single-bin 155 Hz power is the strongest in the PDS, the 306.5 Hz candidate signal is more significant because of the strong power in two adjacent bins. The chances of any PDS having two peaks, both stronger than the strength of our 155 Hz peak, is 1.2 per cent.

The near-harmonic frequencies of the two peaks may be evidence for a common physical origin. However, the 1 per cent difference in frequencies is uncomfortably large to result from the frequency drifts that have been observed in type I bursts from other sources (Strohmayer & Markwardt 1999; Muno et al. 2000) – though a connection can certainly not be excluded. The burst frequencies in other sources drift by less than 1 per cent, total, and exhibit the most pronounced evolution during the tails of the bursts. Moreover, the signal we observe here, if real, results from the contribution of several bursts, which would tend to diminish the observable effects of the frequency drift.

In the event that the two signals are related then their combined significance is still dependent upon post factum assumptions; we give an illustrative example. If we allow for a $`\pm `$3 per cent shift in the frequency of a harmonic or subharmonic relative to the main signal (conservative in that the actual shift is 1.1 per cent) then we would consider two frequency windows, 153–158 Hz and 594–632 Hz – centred on one-half and double the main 306.5 Hz signal frequency, respectively – as candidate windows for harmonic detection. The chance of observing a signal as strong as our 155 Hz signal (or stronger) within this range is roughly 0.38 per cent (15.3 per cent full-search probability multiplied by the size of this restricted range and divided by the size of the full 60–2048 Hz window). Multiplying the odds for the main signal (54:1) by the odds for this additional signal (259:1) would give a combined probability for the dual detection of $`7.0\times 10^5`$, corresponding to a 4.0$`\sigma `$ level of confidence.

### 2.4 Outbursts 6 and 7

After we had finished the analysis of the type I bursts of the first five outbursts as described above, and before we were ready to submit our results for publication, two additional outbursts of the RB occurred in March and September 1999, respectively. The few bursts from Outburst 6 were of generally low quality, but during Outburst 7 better bursts were collected and so we performed a full analysis on those 23 bursts (see Table 1). We found no evidence for modulation near 306 Hz, or at any other frequency. We can set 95 per cent confidence RMS upper limits of 8.1 per cent, 7.7 per cent, and 5.0 per cent, respectively, on the average 306 + 307 Hz power during the one second before the rise, the one second rise, and the one second after that.

We then analyzed all 61 type I bursts with fast-timing data (covering the first seven RXTE outbursts). As with our initial search, we found the strongest signal in the 306 + 307 Hz bin. The RMS variation in the average PDS is 7.0$`\pm `$1.1 per cent during the first one second of the bursts (5.5–16 keV energy band). Monte Carlo simulations indicate, however, that this signal is not significant: 19 per cent of the simulated datasets have signals of equal or greater significance. If the signal is not real, then it sets our quoted 95 per cent confidence upper limit for a narrow pulsation: 8.8 per cent rms on average. 95 per cent confidence upper limits on the average 306 + 307 Hz RMS modulation in the one second before and the one second after the first second, for the full burst set, are 5.7 per cent and 2.2 per cent, respectively.

### 2.5 Candidate Signal Follow-Up

Cumming & Bildsten (2000) have shown that the vertical thermal time during mixed hydrogen/helium burning is longer than the wrapping time from the expansion-induced differential rotation, and that the opposite is true for helium-rich bursts: the heat from these bursts can get out faster and, in addition, the shearing frequency is lower. This makes it easier for a periodic signal from some underlying asymmetry to escape from a helium-rich burst. Muno et al. (2000) have found that the “fast” bursts from KS 1731$``$260 – bursts with high peak fluxes, short decay times, and radius expansion, indicative of helium burning – occur in the same part of the X-ray colour-colour diagram, and all exhibit burst pulsations. The “slow” bursts, likely the result of mixed hydrogen/helium burning – with lower peak fluxes, longer decay times, and no radius expansion – do not show pulsations, consistent with this picture. Lewin et al. (1987) showed that the bursts from 1636$``$53 with radius expansion had substantially shorter rise times than those that did not exhibit radius expansion.

Inspired by the above, we restricted our attention to a set of 17 fast-rise bursts from all seven outbursts, and we recomputed an average PDS, and performed our signal search again. These bursts were selected on the basis of their “Merit” function (see Table 1), defined as (Peak2/PE)/Rise to take into account the expected strength of any burst signal, as well as the distinction between fast- and slow-rise bursts. Note however that we have no particular evidence that these bursts (or any bursts from the RB) resulted from helium-rich as opposed to hydrogen-rich burning; this question will be addressed in future work. We ignore Burst 3, a burst with low signal-to-noise that has high “Merit” only because of its unusually short rise time.

We find that the signal is strengthened significantly, with an average power in this burst sample of 4.13 for the two-bin 306.5 Hz average (mean of 34 powers). A signal of this strength or stronger is found in only 0.07 per cent of the Monte Carlo simulations of this dataset, corresponding to a 3.4-sigma level of confidence. The strength of the signal corresponds to an average 8.0 per cent RMS modulation of the burst flux during these intervals.

Similar searches of the burst flux preceding and following the selected one second do not show significant signal power; the 95 per cent confidence upper limit on the excess average 306 + 307 Hz power during these intervals is 0.76 and 0.47, respectively. These correspond to average upper limits of 10 per cent and 2 per cent RMS, respectively, for modulation of the burst flux during these intervals.

Likewise, a search for power in the soft band (2.0–5.5 keV) photons from the first second of each burst does not show significant power: the 95 per cent confidence upper limit on the excess average 306 + 307 Hz power during these intervals is 0.69, corresponding to an average RMS upper limit of 4.3 per cent for modulation of the soft burst flux.

We performed a separate systematic search for pulsations near 307 Hz during the tails of all type I bursts (except for Burst 3, which is too weak for useful limits to be set). The search parameters here were chosen to maximize signal for the relatively weaker pulsations during the burst tails: we select higher-energy photons only (5.5–16 keV), divide the first 16 s of each burst into four 4 s segments, FFT and search for the highest power in the 304–310 Hz range. We found no significant power, and our mean per-burst 95 per cent confidence upper limits on the strength of any coherent power (0.25 Hz bins) in the tails of the bursts are 5 per cent–14 per cent RMS, relative to the 5.5–16 keV burst flux, depending on the strength of the burst. Given the weaker signal strengths that are generally observed during burst tails, and the large search space we necessarily considered, we do not consider this non-detection surprising.

Since our only finding, subsequent to the evidence uncovered in our initial search, was a strengthening of that evidence within an overlapping set of bursts, this result is subject to a posteriori effects and is of uncertain absolute significance.

## 3 Conclusions

We have performed a search for burst pulsations from the type I bursts of the Rapid Burster. The search was targeted to maximize the chances for detection of a signal like those found in other type I burst sources, where the maximum modulation amplitude occurs at the leading edge of a burst and the pulsations are spectrally hard compared to the burst and persistent emission. We find evidence at the $`>`$98 per cent confidence level for a modulation near 307 Hz which, if confirmed, will indicate a spin period for the Rapid Burster of 3.25 or 6.5 milliseconds, depending on whether the main burst signal is the fundamental or first harmonic of the spin frequency.

## Acknowledgments

We thank Deepto Chakrabarty, Tod Strohmayer and Fred Lamb for helpful discussions. W.L. gratefully acknowledges NASA support. L.B. was partially supported by NASA via grant NAG 5-8658 and by the National Science Foundation under grant no. PHY 94-07194. L.B. is a Cottrell Scholar of the Research Corporation.


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# References

ON ASYMPTOTIC SOLVABILITY

OF RANDOM GRAPH’S LAPLACIANS

A. Khorunzhy⋆,# and V. Vengerovsky

Institute for Low Temperature Physics, Kharkov, UKRAINE

#Faculté de Mathématiques, Université Paris-VII, FRANCE

Abstract We observe that the Laplacian of a random graph $`G_N`$ on $`N`$ vertices represents an explicitly solvable model in the limit of infinitely increasing $`N`$. Namely, we derive recurrent relations for the limiting averaged moments of the adjacency matrix of $`G_N`$ when $`N\mathrm{}`$. These relations allow one to study the corresponding eigenvalue distribution function; we show that its density has a infinite support in contrast to the case of the ordinary discrete Laplacian.

Key words: graph Laplacian, random graphs, random matrices, eigenvalue distribution, walks on trees

The spectral theory of graphs attracts more and more attention in mathematical physics (see e.g. ). It is widely believed that the spectral properties of graphs are related with their geometry that is an intriguing assertion from various points of view. However in general, without the knowledge of the graph structure, one can prove just abstract theorems with not large number of concrete results. In this connection, the study of the spectrum of random graphs, as the typical in certain sense objects, can be useful. We confirm this assumption by showing that the models related with large random graphs are explicitly solvable.

Given a set $`𝒱_N`$ of $`N`$ vertices $`v_1,\mathrm{}v_N`$, one can assume that some pairs of them are either joined by one undirected edge or are not joined. Then $`𝒱_N`$ and the set $`E_N`$ of existing edges determines the graph $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_N=(𝒱_N,E_N)`$. In this case the graph Laplacian $`\mathrm{\Delta }_N`$ acting on functions $`f(v),v𝒱_N`$ is determined by the formula

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_Nf\left(v_i\right)=\underset{j:v_jv_i}{}\left[f\left(v_i\right)f\left(v_j\right)\right],$$
$`\left(1\right)`$
where the sum runs over the vertices joined with $`v_i`$.

It is clear that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_N`$ has $`N\times N`$ real symmetric matrix and

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_N=V^{\left(N\right)}A^{\left(N\right)},$$

where $`A^{(N)}`$ is the adjacency matrix of the graph $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_N`$

$$A_{ij}^{\left(N\right)}=\{\begin{array}{cc}1,\hfill & \text{if }v_iv_j\text{,}\hfill \\ 0,\hfill & \text{otherwise,}\hfill \end{array}$$
$`\left(2\right)`$
and $`V^{(N)}`$ is the diagonal matrix such that $`V_{ii}^{(N)}=\mathrm{deg}(v_i)`$ is the number of edges attached to $`v_i`$. Note that $`A_{ii}^{(N)}=0`$ and that

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_N=P_N\left[A^{\left(N\right)}\right]^2P_NA^{\left(N\right)},$$
$`\left(3\right)`$
where $`P_N`$ is the orthogonal projection onto the diagonal. Often the set of eigenvalues $`\lambda _1\mathrm{}\lambda _N`$ of $`A_N`$ is called the graph’s spectrum . Firstly we concentrate on this problem and turn to the spectrum of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_N`$ at the end of this article.

Our principal goal is to describe results obtained for the adjacency matrix $`A^{(N,p)}`$ of a random graph $`G_N^{(p)}=(𝒱_N,E_N^{(p)}(\omega ))`$. We are related with the well-known model (see e.g. ), where $`\{G_N^{(p)}\}`$ represents the ensemble of graphs where each edge, independently from the others, is either present or absent with probabilities $`p/N`$, $`0<pN`$ and $`1p/N`$, respectively. Thus we get a real symmetric matrix $`A^{(N,p)}`$ with the entries $`\{A_{ij}^{(N,p)},ij\}`$ determined as a family of jointly independent random variables such that

$$A_{ii}^{(N,p)}=0\text{ and }A_{ij}^{(N,p)}=\{\begin{array}{cc}1,\hfill & \text{with probability }p/N\text{,}\hfill \\ 0,\hfill & \text{with probability }1p/N\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$
$`\left(4\right)`$
We are interested in asymptotic behaviour in the limit $`N\mathrm{}`$ of the moments

$$M_s^{(N,p)}=𝐄\left\{N^1\text{ Tr }A^s\right\},AA^{(N,p)},$$
$`\left(5a\right)`$
where

$$N^1\text{ Tr }\left[A^{(N,p)}\right]^s=\frac{1}{N}\underset{x_i=1}{\overset{N}{}}A_{x_1x_2}A_{x_2x_3}\mathrm{}A_{x_{s1}x_1}.$$
$`\left(5b\right)`$
We consider for simplicity the case of $`p=1`$. Our main result is that

$$\underset{N\mathrm{}}{lim}M_s^{(N,1)}=\{\begin{array}{cc}m_k,\hfill & \text{if }s=2k\hfill \\ 0,\hfill & \text{if }s=2k+1\hfill \end{array}$$

and $`m_k`$ can be found from equality

$$m_k=\underset{r=0}{\overset{k}{}}W_k\left(r\right)$$
$`\left(6a\right)`$
where the numbers $`W_k(r)`$, $`kr0`$ are given by the following recurrent relations

$$W_u\left(v\right)=\underset{i=1}{\overset{v}{}}\underset{j=vi}{\overset{ui}{}}\underset{l=0}{\overset{uij}{}}W_{uij}\left(l\right)\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{l+i1}{i1}\right)\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{v1}{i1}\right)W_j\left(vi\right),$$
$`\left(6b\right)`$
supplied with the initial condition $`W_j(0)=\delta _{j0}`$.

Derivation of (6) essentially uses the fact that $`A^{(N,p)}`$ (4) is the matrix whose entries are jointly independent (excepting the symmetry condition) random variables. For such class of matrices, the limits of moments (5) were studied first by E. Wigner . The ensemble considered in  is somewhat different from (4), and the method proposed there and then developed in  is applicable to (4) in the asymptotic regime $`p1`$ only.

The principal observation of  and  is that the sum over the sequences $`X_{2k}(x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_{2k1},x_1)`$ in (5a) can be replaced by the sum over the equivalence classes of the walks $`X_{2k}`$; these classes are labelled by the plane rooted trees $`\tau T_k`$ drawn in the upper half-plane with the help of $`k`$ edges.

In paper  the method of  and  was further improved up to the stage when $`p1`$ can be also included into consideration. Summimg up the arguments of  and , we claim that

$$m_k=\underset{q=0}{\overset{k1}{}}\underset{\tau T_{kq}}{}U(k;\tau ),$$
$`\left(7\right)`$
where $`U(k;\tau )`$ is the number of all possible different walks of $`2k`$ steps such that cover the tree $`\tau T_{kq}`$ according to the following

Riding rule: the walk starts and ends at the root and each edge of the tree is passed even positive number of times; when there is a choice where to move further, the walk chooses either one of the edges that has been already passed or the most left edge among those that have not yet been passed.

Let us call the walks of this type the even ordered walks covering the tree.

Demonstration of (6).

It is convenient to imagine that some particle moves in the upper half-plane. It starts at the root $`\rho `$, then makes $`2k`$ steps and returns to the root; each step either produces a new vertex or ends at the vertex that already exists and is connected by the present vertex by an edge. The condition is that each step made in one direction is repeated in inverse direction.

It is easy to see that there exists a tree $`\tau T_{kq}`$ (and the only one) that the walk of the particle represents one of the coverings of $`\tau `$ satisfying the riding rule.

Let us introduce the set $`𝒲_u(v)`$ of all possible walks of $`2u`$ steps that return to the root $`v`$ times and denote by $`W_u(v)=|𝒲_u(v)|`$ the number of such walks. With this definition in mind, it is not hard to derive (6) from (7).

Indeed, regarding the set of walks $`𝒲_u(v)`$, let us denote their first step by $`(\rho ,\alpha )`$ and consider those walks that pass this edge $`2i2`$ times. It is easy to see that $`\alpha `$ by itself can be regarded as the root of a subwalk that starts and ends at $`\alpha `$ and never visits $`\rho `$. Chronologically, this trajectory consists of possibly several pieces. Let us call their union the first subwalk. Similarly, the second subwalk starts and ends at $`\rho `$ and never visits $`\alpha `$.

Let us assume that the second subwalk belongs to $`𝒲_j(vi)`$ and the first subwalk belongs to $`𝒲_{uij}(l)`$. Then (6b) follows, where in the product, the second factor represents the number of possibilities to perform $`i1`$ steps from $`\alpha `$ to $`\rho `$ under the condition that we arrive $`l`$ times to $`\alpha `$ by the first subwalk; the last passage $`\alpha \rho `$ is made after that the first subwalk is completed. The third factor in (6b) corresponds to $`i1`$ steps $`\rho \alpha `$ made after $`vi`$ arrivals to $`\rho `$ by the second subwalk.$`\mathrm{}`$

In the following remarks we briefly discuss the result obtained

1. The first conclusion relates the maximal eigenvalue of $`A^{(N,1)}`$. It is clear that the number of non-zero elements in a row is asymptotically Poissonian when $`N\mathrm{}`$. Thus, with non-zero probability, in $`(𝒱_N,E_N^{(1)})`$ there exists a vertex that has large number of edges attached to it. This explains why $`A^{(N,1)}\mathrm{}`$ (see also ) while the spectrum of the ordinary discrete Laplacians (or more generally, of the regular graphs) remains bounded.

The stress of the present article is that there is an infinite number of the eigenvalues of $`A^{(N,p)}`$ that tend to infinity as $`N\mathrm{}`$. We derive this conclusion from relations (6) and the representation

$$M_s^{(N,p)}=𝐄\lambda ^s\text{d}\sigma _{N,p}\left(\lambda \right),$$
$`\left(8\right)`$
where $`\sigma _{N,p}(\lambda )=\sigma (\lambda ,A^{(N,p)})`$ is the normalized eigenvalue counting function $`\sigma (\lambda )=\mathrm{\#}\{\lambda _j\lambda \}N^1`$.

Basing on (6b), one can easily show that $`W_k(r)(C_1k)^{2r}`$ where $`C_1`$ is some constant. Then we derive from (6a) the estimate

$$m_{2k}\left(C_2k\right)^{2k}$$

that implies the uniqueness of the limiting measure $`\sigma ^{(1)}=lim_N\sigma _{N,1}`$.

¿From another hand, it is not hard to derive the estimate

$$m_{2k}\left(k/2\right)^{k/2}\left(1+o\left(1\right)\right),k\mathrm{}.$$
$`\left(9\right)`$
Indeed, let us take the set $`𝒲_k(k)`$ and consider the walks that cover one particular tree $`\tau _{k/2}^{}`$ of $`k/2`$ edges, namely that has all $`k/2`$ edges attached to the root (here we assume $`k=2l`$ for simplicity). Among these walks there are those that pass each edge four times. It clear that the number of these walks is $`(k/2)!`$ that results in (9).

Inequality (9) implies that the measure $`\text{d}\sigma ^{(1)}`$ has an infinite support. This means that the mathematical expectation of the number of eigenvalues that go to infinity is of the order $`O(N)`$ as $`N\mathrm{}`$.

2. Let us note that one can easily apply our method to study the limits $`m_k^{(p)}`$ of moments (8) with arbitrary constant number $`p`$. In paper  the arguments have been presented showing that there exists a critical value $`p_c2`$ that separates two different pictures of the limiting spectra of $`A^{(N,p)}`$. This is supported by the facts from the random graphs theory stating that $`p_c^{}=1`$ is critical for existing of an infinite connected component in $`(𝒱_N,E_N^{(p)})`$ as $`N\mathrm{}`$ (see e.g. ). Our preliminary numerical studies of the moments $`m_k^{(p)}`$ show that $`\sigma ^{(p)}`$ is not sensitive up to the level that reflects the role of $`p_c`$ or $`p_c^{}`$.

3. It should be mentioned that the moments (7) we compute represent a special kind of the matrix integrals. If one considers the matrices $`A_N`$ (4) as having the Gaussian invariant distribution, then the corresponding moments (5) can be computed explicitly for fixed $`N`$ and the formulas obtained are related with the number of maps drawn on the surfaces of given genus (see e.g.  for an accessible introduction).

In this aspect, our model characterises another class of random matrices with independent entries that have explicitly countable integrals over them (see  for related recent results concerning their asymptotic properties).

4. Finally, let us indicate the way to find explicit relations for the moments of the random graph’s Laplacian. Regarding definition (3), we see that one faces the problem of computing the mixed moments

$$𝐄\left\{A^{r_1}(x_1,x_2)\left[A^2(x_2,x_2)\right]^{s_1}\mathrm{}A^{r_j}(x_j,x_1)\left[A^2(x_1,x_1)\right]^{s_j}\right\}.$$

One can apply again the method of  with the modification that the trees are constructed with the help of edges of two different colours and the edges of one of the class can be used as the leaves only. Certainly, in the case of finite $`p`$ the computations become more difficult than those of (6), but the general approach of  and the present article remains valid.

Note that the case of multiple edges can be also included into consideration by allowing $`A_{ij}`$ (4) to take positive integer values. Moreover, our method still works for the random graphs with independent random weigths on edges; then the adjacency matrix (2) takes the form $`B_{ij}=\mathrm{\Xi }_{ij}A_{ij}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Xi }_{ij},ij`$ are jointly independent random variables. All these questions will be considered in more details in separate publication.


text:
# “Self-tuning” and Conformality

## I Introduction

In the Brane World scenario the Standard Model gauge and matter fields are assumed to be localized on branes (or an intersection thereof), while gravity lives in a larger dimensional bulk of space-time . The volume of dimensions transverse to the branes is automatically finite if these dimensions are compact. On the other hand, the volume of the transverse dimensions can be finite even if the latter are non-compact. In particular, this can be achieved by using  warped compactifications  which localize gravity on the brane. A concrete realization of this idea was given in .

Recently it was pointed out in  that, in theories where extra dimensions transverse to a brane have infinite volume, the cosmological constant on the brane might be under control even if brane supersymmetry is completely broken. The key point here is that even if supersymmetry breaking on the brane does take place, it will not be transmitted to the bulk as the volume of the extra dimensions is infinite . Thus, at least in principle, one should be able to control some of the properties of the bulk with the unbroken bulk supersymmetry. One then can wonder whether bulk supersymmetry could also control the brane cosmological constant .

The question whether bulk supersymmetry can control brane cosmological constant was addressed in the codimension one brane world scenarios with an infinite volume extra dimension in . Thus, in  it was pointed out that if the bulk curvature is constant, bulk supersymmetry does not control the brane cosmological constant. However, as was pointed out in , bulk supersymmetry might control the brane cosmological constant if the bulk curvature is not constant. An example of such a setup was given in . Thus, in the setup of  non-constant bulk curvature is parametrized by a bulk scalar $`\varphi `$ which has a non-trivial profile in the extra dimension due to the fact that the corresponding scalar potential depends non-trivially on $`\varphi `$. As was argued in , bulk supersymmetry in this setup indeed controls the brane cosmological constant. However, as was argued in , the brane world-volume theory in this setup must be conformal in order to have consistent coupling between bulk gravity and brane matter.

In this paper we study a somewhat modified setup. In particular, we consider a model where the bulk scalar potential vanishes. In this case the model has a self-tuning property, that is, a flat solution exist for a continuous range of values for the brane tension. However, unlike the setup of , in the model we discuss in this paper the volume of the extra dimension is infinite, and, in particular, the background is free of any naked singularities. Moreover, since the volume of the extra dimension is infinite, bulk supersymmetry protects the self-tuning property. In particular, vanishing of the bulk scalar potential can be achieved without any fine tuning by imposing unbroken $`R`$-symmetry in the bulk.

However, the setup we discuss in this paper also has the property that consistency of the coupling between brane matter and bulk gravity requires that the brane world-volume theory be conformal. This property is due to the fact that the brane tension in this model is non-vanishing, and, as was recently pointed out in , one cannot gauge away the graviscalar in such backgrounds as the corresponding diffeomorphisms are explicitly broken by the presence of such a brane. (The brane tension in this model is negative, so the brane must be placed at a $`𝐙_2`$ orbifold fixed point to avoid ghosts in the brane world-volume theory.) If the brane world-volume theory is not conformal, one then expects various terms involving the graviscalar to be generated in the brane world-volume action at the quantum level. Such terms, however, lead to inconsistencies in the coupling between brane matter and bulk gravity.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. In section II we discuss the setup of this paper. In section III we study small fluctuations around the solution in the presence of brane matter sources, and discuss the requirement that the brane matter be conformal. Section IV contains concluding remarks.

## II The Model

Consider the model with the following action (more precisely, here we give the part of the action relevant for the subsequent discussions):

$$S=_\mathrm{\Sigma }d^{D1}x\sqrt{\widehat{G}}f+M_P^{D2}d^Dx\sqrt{G}\left[R\frac{4}{D2}(\varphi )^2\right].$$
(1)
For calculational convenience we will keep the number of space-time dimensions $`D`$ unspecified. In (1) $`M_P`$ is the $`D`$-dimensional (reduced) Planck scale. The $`(D1)`$-dimensional hypersurface $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$, which we will refer to as the brane, is the $`z=0`$ slice of the $`D`$-dimensional space-time, where $`zx^D`$. Next,

$$\widehat{G}_{\mu \nu }\delta _{\mu }^{}{}_{}{}^{M}\delta _{\nu }^{}{}_{}{}^{N}G_{MN}|_{z=0},$$
(2)
where the capital Latin indices $`M,N,\mathrm{}=1,\mathrm{},D`$, while the Greek indices $`\mu ,\nu ,\mathrm{}=1,\mathrm{},(D1)`$. The quantity $`f`$ is the brane tension. More precisely, there might be various (massless and/or massive) fields (such as scalars, fermions, gauge vector bosons, etc.), which we will collectively denote via $`\mathrm{\Phi }^i`$, localized on the brane. Then $`f=f(\mathrm{\Phi }^i,_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }^i,\mathrm{})`$ generally depends on the vacuum expectation values of these fields as well as their derivatives. In the following we will assume that the expectation values of the $`\mathrm{\Phi }^i`$ fields are dynamically determined, independent of the coordinates $`x^\mu `$, and consistent with $`(D1)`$-dimensional general covariance. The quantity $`f`$ is then a constant which we identify as the brane tension. The bulk fields are given by the metric $`G_{MN}`$, a single real scalar field $`\varphi `$, as well as other fields (whose expectation values we assume to be vanishing) which would appear in a concrete supergravity model (for the standard values of $`D`$). The scalar potential for the field $`\varphi `$ is assumed to be vanishing. Note that this can be achieved without fine-tuning as the bulk is supersymmetric.

To proceed further, we will need equations of motion following from the action (1). These are given by:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{8}{D2}}^2\varphi ={\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{\widehat{G}}}{\sqrt{G}}}\stackrel{~}{f}_\varphi \delta (z),`$ (3)
$`R_{MN}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}G_{MN}R={\displaystyle \frac{4}{D2}}\left[_M\varphi _N\varphi {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}G_{MN}(\varphi )^2\right]{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{\widehat{G}}}{\sqrt{G}}}\delta _{M}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu }\delta _{N}^{}{}_{}{}^{\nu }\widehat{G}_{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{f}\delta (z).`$ (4)
Here $`\stackrel{~}{f}f/M_P^{D2}`$, and the subscript $`\varphi `$ indicates derivative w.r.t. $`\varphi `$ (note that generally $`f`$ depends on $`\varphi `$, more precisely, on its value at $`z=0`$).

Here we are interested in studying possible solutions to these equations which are consistent with $`(D1)`$-dimensional general covariance. That is, we will be looking for solutions with the warped metric of the following form:

$$ds_D^2=\mathrm{exp}(2A)\left[\stackrel{~}{g}_{\mu \nu }dx^\mu dx^\nu +dz^2\right],$$
(5)
where the warp factor $`A`$ and the scalar field $`\varphi `$, which are functions of $`z`$, are independent of the coordinates $`x^\mu `$, and the $`(D1)`$-dimensional metric $`\stackrel{~}{g}_{\mu \nu }`$ is independent of $`z`$. With this ansätz, we have the following equations of motion for $`\varphi `$ and $`A`$:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{8}{D2}}\left[\varphi ^{\prime \prime }+(D2)A^{}\varphi ^{}\right]=\mathrm{exp}(A)\stackrel{~}{f}_\varphi \delta (z),`$ (6)
$`(D1)(D2)(A^{})^2{\displaystyle \frac{4}{D2}}(\varphi ^{})^2{\displaystyle \frac{D1}{D3}}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}=0,`$ (7)
$`(D2)\left[A^{\prime \prime }(A^{})^2\right]+{\displaystyle \frac{4}{D2}}(\varphi ^{})^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{D3}}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{exp}(A)\stackrel{~}{f}\delta (z),`$ (8)
where a prime indicates derivative w.r.t. $`z`$. Next, $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ is independent of $`x^\mu `$ and $`z`$. In fact, it is nothing but the cosmological constant of the $`(D1)`$-dimensional manifold, which is therefore an Einstein manifold, corresponding to the hypersurface $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. Our normalization of $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ is such that the $`(D1)`$-dimensional metric $`\stackrel{~}{g}_{\mu \nu }`$ satisfies Einstein’s equations:

$$\stackrel{~}{R}_{\mu \nu }\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{g}_{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{R}=\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{g}_{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}.$$
(9)
Here we note that in the bulk (that is, for $`z0`$) one of the second order equations is automatically satisfied once the first order equation (7) as well as the other second order equation are satisfied. As usual, this is a consequence of Bianchi identities.

### A Bulk Supersymmetry and Brane Cosmological Constant

In the following we will be interested in solutions to the above equations of motion such that the volume of the $`z`$ dimension is infinite. Consistent solutions of this type exist for vanishing as well as non-vanishing brane cosmological constant $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$. We will, however, assume that the bulk is supersymmetric. In fact, as was pointed out in , if the volume of the extra dimension is infinite, bulk supersymmetry is intact even if brane supersymmetry is completely broken. Then, as was pointed out in , if the bulk curvature is not constantAs was pointed out in , if the bulk curvature is constant, then bulk supersymmetry does not control the brane cosmological constant., then bulk supersymmetry might control the brane cosmological constant. In the above model bulk curvature is not constant as long as the $`\varphi `$ field has a non-trivial profile. Then it is not difficult to check that bulk supersymmetry indeed controls the brane cosmological constant. In fact, this follows from the bulk Killing spinor equations (following from the requirement that variations of the superpartner $`\lambda `$ of $`\varphi `$ and the gravitino $`\psi _M`$ vanish under the corresponding supersymmetry transformations), which in such backgrounds reduce to:

$`\varphi ^{}=\alpha W_\varphi \mathrm{exp}(A),`$ (10)
$`A^{}=\beta W\mathrm{exp}(A),`$ (11)
where $`W`$ is the superpotential,

$$\alpha \eta \frac{\sqrt{D2}}{2},\beta \eta \frac{2}{(D2)^{3/2}},$$
(12)
and $`\eta =\pm 1`$.

Note that the system of equations (10) and (11) is compatible with the system of equations (6), (7) and (8) if and only if $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}=0`$, and

$$W=C\mathrm{exp}(ϵ\gamma \varphi ),$$
(13)
where $`C`$ is a constant, $`ϵ=\pm 1`$, and

$$\gamma \frac{2\sqrt{D1}}{D2}.$$
(14)
In fact, (13) is simply the statement that the scalar potential, which is given by the familiar expression $`V=W_\varphi ^2\gamma ^2W^2`$, vanishes in the model defined in (1).

Thus, bulk supersymmetry (note that a solution to (10) and (11) preserves $`1/2`$ of the supersymmetries compared with a flat solution) is preserved if and only if the brane cosmological constant vanishes. We therefore conclude that even if brane supersymmetry is broken, bulk supersymmetry, which remains unbroken as the volume of the transverse dimension is infinite, ensures that the brane cosmological constant still vanishes in the model defined in (1).

### B A Self-tuning Solution with Infinite Volume

In this subsection we would like to discuss a solution of (6), (7) and (8) with the self-tuning property. That is, this solution has vanishing brane cosmological constant, which, moreover, exists for a continuous range of values for the brane tension.

Thus, consider the following solution:

$`\varphi (z)=\kappa {\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{D1}}{2}}\mathrm{ln}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{|z|}{\mathrm{\Delta }}}+1\right]+\varphi _0,`$ (15)
$`A(z)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{D2}}\mathrm{ln}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{|z|}{\mathrm{\Delta }}}+1\right]+A_0,`$ (16)
where $`\kappa =\pm 1`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is a positive quantity, which is related to the brane tension via

$$\mathrm{\Delta }=4/\stackrel{~}{f}.$$
(17)
That is, in this solution the brane tension $`f`$ is assumed to be negative. Moreover, we have an additional condition on $`f`$ given by ($`ϵ`$ and $`\gamma `$ were defined in the previous subsection)

$$f_\varphi (\varphi _0)=\kappa \gamma f(\varphi _0).$$
(18)
Note that this solution is non-singular, and the volume of the extra dimension is infinite as the integral

$$𝑑z\mathrm{exp}(DA)$$
(19)
diverges. Moreover, this solution preserves $`1/2`$ of the original supersymmetries in the bulk. The brane cosmological constant in this solution is vanishing. Most importantly, such a solution exists for a continuous range of values for the brane tension (namely, for any negative brane tension) - indeed, changing the brane tension amounts to appropriately changing the parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Note that the immaterial integration constant $`A_0A(0)`$ is not determined and can be set to zero, and we will do so in the following. As to the integration constant $`\varphi _0\varphi (0)`$, it is fixed by (18). Thus, the condition (18) is not a fine-tuning, but rather fixes the value of the scalar field $`\varphi `$ on the braneHere one assumes that $`f(\varphi )`$ is such that there exists $`\varphi _0`$ such that (18) is satisfied. Otherwise, $`𝐙_2`$ symmetric solutions with $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}=0`$ do not exist..

The above solution has a $`𝐙_2`$ symmetry w.r.t. the reflection $`zz`$. The reason why we are focusing on this solution is that we must actually consider the orbifolded version of this solution so that the geometry of the $`z`$ dimension is $`𝐑/𝐙_2`$ (and not $`𝐑`$). The reason for this is that the brane tension is negative, and unless the brane is an “end-of-the-world” brane stuck at the $`𝐙_2`$ fixed point located at $`z=0`$, the brane world volume theory would suffer from ghosts. In the following we will therefore adapt the orbifolded version of this solution.

Here the following remark is in order. The self-tuning property of the above solution does not imply that there are no solutions with non-zero cosmological constant. In fact, it is not difficult to check that, even if we confine to $`𝐙_2`$ symmetric solutions (so that we can avoid ghosts by considering orbifolded versions thereof), solutions with $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}0`$ do exist. In particular, for such solutions the analog of the condition (18) contains the cosmological constant $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$. However, in the above setup what ensures vanishing of the brane cosmological constant is bulk supersymmetry, which is intact even if brane supersymmetry is completely broken as the volume of the extra dimension is infinite. The condition (18) then fixes $`\varphi _0`$.

Note that in the above discussion it is important that the volume of the transverse dimension is infinite. Had it been finite, there would be nothing there to protect the brane cosmological constant (except if supersymmetry is unbroken both on the brane and in the bulk). Thus, consider solutions of the above type in the cases where the brane tension is positive. Then $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ defined above is negative, and we have a naked singularity at a finite distance from the brane. Such solutions were originally discussed in , where the space in the $`z`$ direction was cut off at the singularities, so that the solution appears to have a finite volume. The self-tuning property, however, would be lost in finite volume cases. At any rate, as was pointed out in , cutting off the space at singularities arising in such solutions is not consistent§§§Some possibilities for resolving such singularities were discussed in ..

## III Bulk Gravity and Brane Matter

In this section we would like to study gravitational interactions between sources localized on the brane. To do this, let us start from the action (1), and study small fluctuations of the metric $`G_{MN}`$ and the scalar field $`\varphi `$, which we will denote via $`h_{MN}`$ and $`\phi `$, respectively, around the self-tuning solution with infinite volume discussed in the previous section.

In the following, instead of metric fluctuations $`h_{MN}`$, it will be convenient to work with $`\stackrel{~}{h}_{MN}`$ defined via

$$h_{MN}=\mathrm{exp}(2A)\stackrel{~}{h}_{MN}.$$
(20)
It is not difficult to see that in terms of $`\stackrel{~}{h}_{MN}`$ the $`D`$-dimensional diffeomorphisms

$$\delta h_{MN}=_M\xi _N+_N\xi _M$$
(21)
are given by the following gauge transformations (the capital Latin indices are lowered and raised with the flat $`D`$-dimensional Minkowski metric $`\eta _{MN}`$ and its inverse):

$$\delta \stackrel{~}{h}_{MN}=_M\stackrel{~}{\xi }_N+_N\stackrel{~}{\xi }_M+2A^{}\eta _{MN}\stackrel{~}{\xi }_Sn^S.$$
(22)
Here for notational convenience we have introduced a unit vector $`n^M`$ with the following components: $`n^\mu =0`$, $`n^D=1`$.

Note that, as was pointed out in , the presence of the non-zero tension brane explicitly breaks the full $`D`$-dimensional diffeomorphism invariance (22) to a smaller subset of gauge transformations given by (22) with the restrictions that

$$\stackrel{~}{\xi }_D(z=0)=0,\stackrel{~}{\xi }_\mu ^{}(z=0)=0.$$
(23)
There is, however, a further restriction on the unbroken gauge transformations coming from the fact that the brane is stuck at the orbifold fixed point. This restriction reads:

$$\stackrel{~}{\xi }_D^{}(z=0)=0.$$
(24)
It is then not difficult to see that if $`\rho (z=0)`$ is non-zero, then we cannot gauge it away even just on the brane, where $`\rho \stackrel{~}{h}_{DD}`$. However, we can gauge $`A_\mu \stackrel{~}{h}_{\mu D}`$ away everywhere as long as $`A_\mu (z=0)=0`$, which is indeed the case as we will see in the next subsection.

### A Equations of Motion

To proceed further, we need equations of motion for $`\stackrel{~}{h}_{MN}`$ and $`\phi `$. Let us assume that we have matter localized on the brane, and let the corresponding conserved energy-momentum tensor be $`T_{\mu \nu }`$:

$$^\mu T_{\mu \nu }=0.$$
(25)
The graviton field $`\stackrel{~}{h}_{\mu \nu }`$ couples to $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ via the following term in the action (recall that we have set $`A(0)=0`$):

$$S_{\mathrm{int}}=_\mathrm{\Sigma }d^{D1}x\left[\frac{1}{2}T_{\mu \nu }\stackrel{~}{h}^{\mu \nu }+\frac{8}{D2}\mathrm{\Theta }\phi \right],$$
(26)
where we have also included the corresponding coupling of $`\phi `$ to the brane matter. Next, starting from the action $`S+S_{\mathrm{int}}`$ we obtain the following linearized equations of motion for $`\stackrel{~}{h}_{MN}`$ and $`\phi `$:

$`\left\{_S^S\stackrel{~}{h}_{MN}+_M_N\stackrel{~}{h}_M^S\stackrel{~}{h}_{SN}_N^S\stackrel{~}{h}_{SM}\eta _{MN}\left[_S^S\stackrel{~}{h}^S^R\stackrel{~}{h}_{SR}\right]\right\}+`$ (27)
$`(D2)A^{}\left\{\left[_S\stackrel{~}{h}_{MN}_M\stackrel{~}{h}_{NS}_N\stackrel{~}{h}_{MS}\right]n^S+\eta _{MN}\left[2^R\stackrel{~}{h}_{RS}_S\stackrel{~}{h}\right]n^S\right\}=`$ (28)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{8}{D2}}\varphi ^{}\left[\eta _{MN}_S\phi n^S_M\phi n_N_N\phi n_M\right]M_P^{2D}\stackrel{~}{T}_{MN}\delta (z),`$ (29)
$`_S^S\phi +(D2)A^{}_S\phi n^S{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\varphi ^{}\left[2^R\stackrel{~}{h}_{RS}_S\stackrel{~}{h}\right]n^S=M_P^{2D}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}\delta (z),`$ (30)
where $`\stackrel{~}{h}\stackrel{~}{h}_M^M`$, $`\stackrel{~}{T}_{MN}T_{MN}+T_{MN}^{\mathrm{brane}}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}\mathrm{\Theta }+\mathrm{\Theta }^{\mathrm{brane}}`$. Here $`T_{MN}^{\mathrm{brane}}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Theta }^{\mathrm{brane}}`$ are the corresponding brane contributions (which are linear in $`\stackrel{~}{h}_{MN}`$ and $`\phi `$) coming from the first term in (1)If the brane world-volume theory is not conformal, then we can a priori expect additional contributions arising due to quantum corrections. We will discuss effects of such contributions in the next subsection, which will lead us to the conclusion that to maintain consistent coupling between bulk gravity and brane matter the brane world-volume theory should be conformal.. Thus, we have:

$`T_{\mu \nu }^{\mathrm{brane}}=\eta _{\mu \nu }\left[f_\varphi \phi +{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}f\rho \right],`$ (31)
$`T_{\mu D}^{\mathrm{brane}}=A_\mu f,`$ (32)
$`T_{DD}^{\mathrm{brane}}=0,`$ (33)
$`\mathrm{\Theta }^{\mathrm{brane}}={\displaystyle \frac{D2}{8}}\left[f_{\varphi \varphi }\phi +{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}f_\varphi \rho \right].`$ (34)
Note that a priori $`^\mu \stackrel{~}{T}_{\mu \nu }0`$.

It is not difficult to see that the r.h.s. of the $`(\mu D)`$ component of (27) does not contain any terms with the second derivative w.r.t. $`z`$. This then implies that, to have a consistent solution, we must have $`A_\mu (z=0)=0`$. As we have already mentioned, we can then gauge $`A_\mu `$ away everywhere, and we will adapt this gauge in the following. We then have the following equations of motion (the Greek indices are lowered and raised with the flat $`(D1)`$-dimensional Minkowski metric and its inverse):

$`\left\{_\sigma ^\sigma H_{\mu \nu }+_\mu _\nu H_\mu ^\sigma H_{\sigma \nu }_\nu ^\sigma H_{\sigma \mu }\eta _{\mu \nu }\left[_\sigma ^\sigma H^\sigma ^\rho H_{\sigma \rho }\right]\right\}+`$ (35)
$`\left\{H_{\mu \nu }^{\prime \prime }\eta _{\mu \nu }H^{\prime \prime }+(D2)A^{}\left[H_{\mu \nu }^{}\eta _{\mu \nu }H^{}\right]\right\}+`$ (36)
$`\left\{_\mu _\nu \rho \eta _{\mu \nu }_\sigma ^\sigma \rho +\eta _{\mu \nu }(D2)A^{}\rho ^{}\right\}{\displaystyle \frac{8}{D2}}\eta _{\mu \nu }\varphi ^{}\phi ^{}=M_P^{2D}\stackrel{~}{T}_{\mu \nu }\delta (z),`$ (37)
$`\left[^\mu H_{\mu \nu }_\nu H\right]^{}+(D2)A^{}_\nu \rho {\displaystyle \frac{8}{D2}}\varphi ^{}_\nu \phi =0,`$ (38)
$`\left[^\mu ^\nu H_{\mu \nu }^\mu _\mu H\right]+(D2)A^{}H^{}{\displaystyle \frac{8}{D2}}\varphi ^{}\phi ^{}=0,`$ (39)
$`^\mu _\mu \phi +\phi ^{\prime \prime }+(D2)A^{}\phi ^{}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\varphi ^{}\left[H^{}\rho ^{}\right]=M_P^{2D}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}\delta (z),`$ (40)
where $`HH_\mu ^\mu `$. Here we note that, as usual, not all of the above equations are independent.

The above system of equations can be analyzed much along the lines of , so we will skip the details and simply give the answer. Thus, after some straightforward (albeit tedious) computations one can show that for a consistent solution to the above equations to exist we must haveHere we note that this condition is analogous to that arising in the setup studied in . ($`\kappa =\pm 1`$ was defined in section II)

$$\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}=\frac{\kappa }{4\sqrt{D1}}\stackrel{~}{T},$$
(41)
where $`TT_\mu ^\mu `$. The corresponding solution is then given by:

$`\rho =H,\phi =\kappa {\displaystyle \frac{D2}{4\sqrt{D1}}}H,`$ (42)
$`H_{\mu \nu }(p,z)=M_P^{2D}\left[T_{\mu \nu }(p){\displaystyle \frac{1}{D2}}\eta _{\mu \nu }T(p)\right]\mathrm{\Omega }(p,z),`$ (43)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the solution to the following equation ($`p^2p^\mu p_\mu `$)

$$\mathrm{\Omega }^{\prime \prime }(p,z)+(D2)A^{}\mathrm{\Omega }^{}(p,z)p^2\mathrm{\Omega }(p,z)=\delta (z)$$
(44)
subject to the boundary conditions (for $`p^2>0`$)

$$\mathrm{\Omega }(p,z\pm \mathrm{})=0.$$
(45)
In the above expressions we have performed a Fourier transform for the coordinates $`x^\mu `$ (the corresponding momenta are $`p^\mu `$), and Wick rotated to the Euclidean space (where the propagator is unique).

Note that for the above solution we have $`T_{\mu \nu }^{\mathrm{brane}}=0`$, so that $`\stackrel{~}{T}_{\mu \nu }=T_{\mu \nu }`$. The tensor structure of the graviton propagator following from (43) is that of the $`D`$-dimensional massless graviton (and not of the $`(D1)`$-dimensional one), which is in accord with the fact that the volume of the extra dimension is infinite. As to the scalar degrees of freedom $`\rho `$ and $`\phi `$, they couple to the trace of the energy-momentum tensor on the brane, that is, the corresponding couplings are non-vanishing as long as the brane world-volume theory is not conformal.

### B Conformality

The fact that $`\rho `$ cannot be gauged away has important implications. Thus, suppose that the brane world-volume theory is not conformal. Then quantum corrections on the brane will generically generate various terms in the brane world-volume . These terms are a priori arbitrary except that they must respect the gauge symmetries of the system. On the brane these symmetries are given by the $`(D1)`$-dimensional diffeomorphism under which $`\rho `$ and $`\phi `$ do not transform. Thus, for instance, consider such terms that do not contain any derivatives. The most general corrections of this type can be written as follows:

$$S_1=M_{}^{D1}_\mathrm{\Sigma }𝑑x^{D1}F(\rho ,\phi ),$$
(46)
where $`F(\rho ,\phi )`$ is some dimensionless function of $`\rho `$ and $`\phi `$, and $`M_{}`$ denotes a mass scale in the brane world-volume theory which determines the size of quantum corrections (this can be the cut-off scale of the brane world-volume theory, or the mass scale of some heavy fields localized on the brane). Note that the $`\rho `$-independent part of $`F(\rho ,\phi )`$, that is, $`F(0,\phi )`$ corresponds to renormalizing $`f(\varphi )`$ in the first term in (1). Due to the self-tuning property of the solution we are discussing here, such a renormalization does not affect the qualitative features of the solution as long as the equation

$$\widehat{f}_\varphi (\varphi _0)=\kappa \gamma \widehat{f}(\varphi _0),$$
(47)
where $`\widehat{f}`$ is the renormalized counterpart of $`f`$, has a solution such that $`\widehat{f}(\varphi _0)`$ is negative. However, the $`\rho `$-dependent part of $`F(\rho ,\phi )`$, which is generically expected to be non-vanishing as long as the brane world-volume theory is not conformal, introduces an inconsistency into the system. Thus, note that the r.h.s. of (39) now contains a non-vanishing source term proportional to $`\delta (z)`$. Since the l.h.s. of this equation does not contain any second derivatives w.r.t. $`z`$, we conclude that we no longer have a consistent solution.

Thus, as we see, the fact that $`\rho `$ cannot be gauged away on the brane necessitates fine-tuning at the quantum level to preserve consistent coupling between bulk gravity and brane matter as long as the brane world-volume theory is not conformal. On the other hand, if we assume that the brane world-volume theory is conformal, the undesirable terms discussed above will not be generated. Indeed, in this case we have $`T=0`$, and

$`\rho =\phi =0,`$ (48)
$`H_{\mu \nu }(p,z)=M_P^{2D}T_{\mu \nu }(p)\mathrm{\Omega }(p,z).`$ (49)
This then implies that the coupling of the scalar field $`\phi `$ to the brane matter also vanishes: $`\mathrm{\Theta }=0`$. Quantum corrections then will not generate any dangerous terms (including those containing derivatives), and the background as well as the coupling between brane matter and bulk gravity should remain consistent at the quantum level.

## IV Remarks

The requirement that the brane world-volume theory be conformal has already appeared in a somewhat different context in . There too conformality is required to maintain consistent coupling between brane matter and bulk gravity. In  as well as in the model discussed in this paper it is important that the extra dimension has infinite volume (and also that the bulk is supersymmetric). Thus, as was recently pointed out in , similar inconsistencies are expected\**\**\**Some of the terms in the brane world-volume action that would lead to such inconsistencies in this context where discussed in , and such terms indeed seem to be present . to arise at the quantum level in, say, the original Randall-Sundrum model . There, however, the brane world-volume theory cannot be conformal as long as gravity is localized††††††As was pointed out in , gravity in such backgrounds is generically expected to be delocalized due to higher curvature bulk contributions..

It would be interesting to understand whether consistency of the coupling between brane matter and bulk gravity imposes any constraints on the brane world-volume theory in the cases of higher codimension brane world scenarios with infinite volume extra dimensions . In particular, if in some cases the brane world-volume theory must be conformal, it would be interesting to understand if there is a relation to .

###### Acknowledgements.

I would like to thank Gia Dvali and Gregory Gabadadze for discussions. This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation. I would also like to thank Albert and Ribena Yu for financial support.