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# References

MZ-TH/99-65

December 1999

$`t\overline{t}`$ cross section near the production threshold in NNLO of NRQCD
A.A.Pivovarov

Institut für Physik, Johannes-Gutenberg-Universität,

Staudinger Weg 7, D-55099 Mainz, Germany

and

Institute for Nuclear Research of the

Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 117312, Russia

## Abstract

The cross section near the $`t\overline{t}`$ production threshold in $`e^+e^{}`$ annihilation and $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions is discussed. The NNLO results within NRQCD are briefly overviewed.

Prepared for Quarks-2000 Seminar, Pushkin, Russia

May 13-21, 2000

1. Introduction.

The hadron production near heavy quark threshold will be thoroughly studied experimentally at future accelerators, e.g. . The motion of the heavy quark-antiquark pair near the production threshold is nonrelativistic to high accuracy that justifies the use of the nonrelativistic quantum mechanics as a proper theoretical framework for describing such a system . Being much simpler than the comprehensive relativistic treatment of the bound state problem with Bethe-Salpeter amplitude , this approach allows one to take into account exactly such an essential feature of the near-threshold dynamics as Coulomb interaction . For unstable heavy quarks with a large decay width it is possible to compute the cross section near threshold point-wise in energy because the large decay width serves as an infrared cutoff and suppresses the long distance effects of strong interaction .

2. $`t\overline{t}`$-system near threshold

The $`t\overline{t}`$-pair near the production threshold is just a system that satisfies the requirement of being nonrelativistic. Therefore the description of $`t\overline{t}`$-system near the production threshold $`\sqrt{s}2m_t`$ ($`\sqrt{s}`$ is a total energy of the pair, $`m_t`$ is the top quark mass) is quite precise within NRQCD. Reasons for this accuracy are related to the large mass of the top:

* The top quark is very heavy $`m_t=175\mathrm{GeV}`$  and there is an energy region of about $`810`$ GeV near the threshold where the nonrelativistic approximation for the kinematics is very precise. The velocity is small (for $`E`$ of interest in the range $`|E|2÷5\mathrm{GeV}`$)

$$v=\sqrt{1\frac{4m_t^2}{s}}=\sqrt{1\frac{4m_t^2}{(2m_t+E)^2}}\sqrt{\frac{E}{m_t}}0.10÷0.151.$$
(1)
Relativistic effects are small and can be taken into account perturbatively in $`v`$ (even in $`v^2`$).
* the strong coupling constant at the high energy scale is small $`\alpha _s(m_t)0.1`$ that makes the mapping of QCD onto the low energy effective theory (NRQCD), which is perturbative in $`\alpha _s(m_t)`$, numerically precise.
* The decay width of top quark is large, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_t=1.43`$ GeV; infrared (small momenta) region is suppressed and PT calculation for the cross section near the threshold is reliable even point-wise in energy.

The above properties could make the $`t\overline{t}`$ system near threshold flat and not interesting for physical study, however, there is a feature of quark-antiquark interaction that becomes dominant in this kinematical regime and brings a nontrivial structure into the dynamics. Because $`\alpha _sv`$ and the ratio $`\alpha _s/v`$ is not small, the Coulomb interaction is enhanced. The ordinary perturbation theory for the cross section (with free quarks as the lowest order approximation) breaks down and all terms of the order $`(\alpha _s/v)^n`$ should be summed. The expansion for a generic observable $`f(E)`$ in this kinematical region has the form

$$f(E)=f_0(\alpha _s/v)+\alpha _sf_1(\alpha _s/v)+\alpha _s^2f_2(\alpha _s/v)+\mathrm{}$$
(2)
where $`f_i(\alpha _s/v)`$ are some (not polynomial) functions of the ratio $`\alpha _s/v`$, $`f_0(\alpha _s/v)`$ is a result of the pure Coulomb approximation (or a kind of its improvement). The expansion in $`\alpha _s`$ in eq. (2) takes into account the perturbative QCD corrections to the parameters of NRQCD and relativistic corrections (in the regime $`v\alpha _s`$). One can study the $`t\overline{t}`$ system near threshold in the processes $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}`$  and $`\gamma \gamma t\overline{t}`$ . These processes have the following features:

* $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}`$: the production vertex is local (the electromagnetic current in case of photon and/or weak current in case of $`Z`$-boson), the basic observable is a production cross section which is saturated by S-wave (for the vector current), NNLO analysis is available.
* $`\gamma \gamma t\overline{t}`$: the production vertex is nonlocal (T-product of two electromagnetic currents), both S- and P-waves can be studied for different helicity photons, the number of observables is larger (cross sections $`\sigma _S`$, $`\sigma _P`$, S-P interference). Because of nonlocality of the production vertex the high energy coefficient (necessary for mapping the QCD quantities to NRQCD ones) is more difficult to obtain. Some calculations were done in NLO  and the full analysis of the cross section is available in NLO of NRQCD only . The low energy part of the process can be studied in NNLO without a strict normalization to full QCD (see  for relativistic corrections).

3. Theoretical description.

I shall discuss only $`e^+e^{}t\overline{t}`$ process mediated by the photon because NNLO analysis, which contains the most interesting features, is possible. The basic quantity is the vacuum polarization function

$$\mathrm{\Pi }(E)=iTj_{em}(x)j_{em}(0)e^{iqx}𝑑x,q^2=(2m_t+E)^2.$$
(3)
Near the threshold (for small energy $`E`$) NRQCD is used. The cross section is saturated with S-wave scattering. In this approximation the polarization function near the threshold to the NNLO accuracy in NRQCD is given by

$$\mathrm{\Pi }(E)=\frac{2\pi }{m_t^2}C_h(\alpha _s)C_𝒪(E/m_t)G(E;0,0).$$
(4)
The pole mass definition is used for $`m_t`$ (e.g. ), $`\alpha _s`$ is the strong coupling constant. The choice of normalization points for coupling constants entering different parts of the theoretical expression (4) will be discussed later. $`C_h(\alpha _s)`$ is the high energy coefficient which has been known in the NLO since long ago  (before the explicit formulation of NRQCD). $`G(E;0,0)`$ is the nonrelativistic GF, $`E=\sqrt{s}2m_t`$. The leading term of the cross section in the effective theory representation is given by a correlator of currents with dimensionality 3 in mass units. The quantity $`C_𝒪(E/m_t)`$ describes the contributions of higher dimension operators within the effective theory approach. These contributions have, in general, a different structure than the leading term. However, to the NNLO of NRQCD the contribution of higher dimension operators can be written as a total factor $`C_𝒪(E/m_t)`$ for the leading order GF, $`C_𝒪(E/m_t)=14E/3m_t`$. The polarization function near the threshold (4) contains expansions in small parameters $`\alpha _s`$ and/or $`v`$, cf. eq. (2). The leading order approximation of the low energy part is the exact Coulomb solution for the Green’s function. The more detailed description of the ingredients of the representation in eq. (4) is:

* the nonrelativistic Green’s function $`G(E;x,x^{})`$ is given by $`G(E)=(HE)^1`$ where

$$H=\frac{p^2}{m_t}+V(r)$$
(5)
is the nonrelativistic Hamiltonian describing dynamics of the $`t\overline{t}`$-pair near the threshold. The most complicated part of Hamiltonian (5) to find is the heavy quark static potential $`\stackrel{~}{V}_{pot}(q)`$ entering into the potential $`V(r)`$. The static potential $`\stackrel{~}{V}_{pot}(q)`$ is computed in perturbation theory

$`\stackrel{~}{V}_{pot}(q)=C_F{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s}{q^2}}\left(1+\alpha _s(b_1\mathrm{ln}\mu /q+a_1)+\alpha _s^2(b_1^2\mathrm{ln}^2\mu /q+b_2\mathrm{ln}\mu /q+a_2)+\mathrm{}\right).`$ (6)
Here $`b_1=2\beta _0`$, $`b_2=2(\beta _1+2\beta _0a_1)`$,

$$(4\pi )\beta _0=\frac{11}{3}C_A\frac{4}{3}T_Fn_f=\frac{23}{3}$$
(7)
is the first coefficient of the $`\beta `$-function,

$$(4\pi )^2\beta _1=\frac{34}{3}C_A^2\frac{20}{3}C_AT_Fn_f4C_FT_Fn_f=\frac{116}{3}$$
(8)
is the second coefficient of the $`\beta `$-function. The static potential can be written in the form

$$\stackrel{~}{V}_{pot}(q)=C_F\frac{\alpha _V(q)}{q^2}$$
(9)
that gives a definition of the effective charge $`\alpha _V`$ related to the $`\overline{\mathrm{MS}}`$-scheme coupling constant

$$\alpha _V(\mu )=\alpha _s(\mu )(1+a_1\alpha _s(\mu )+a_2\alpha _s(\mu )^2).$$
(10)
Coefficients $`a_{1,2}`$ are known. The numerical value for $`a_1`$ reads

$$a_1=\frac{1}{4\pi }\left(\frac{31}{9}C_A\frac{20}{9}T_Fn_f\right)=\frac{1}{4\pi }\left(\frac{43}{9}\right).$$

The coefficient $`a_2`$ is given by

$$(4\pi )^2a_2=\left(\frac{4343}{162}+4\pi ^2\frac{\pi ^4}{4}+\frac{22}{3}\zeta (3)\right)C_A^2\left(\frac{1798}{81}+\frac{56}{3}\zeta (3)\right)C_AT_Fn_f$$

$$\left(\frac{55}{3}16\zeta (3)\right)C_FT_Fn_f+\left(\frac{20}{9}T_Fn_f\right)^2,$$

or in a more concise form,

$$a_2=\frac{1}{(4\pi )^2}\left(\frac{7217}{162}+36\pi ^2\frac{9\pi ^4}{4}\frac{62\zeta (3)}{3}\right)=\frac{1}{(4\pi )^2}155.842\mathrm{}$$

In QCD we have $`C_A=3`$, $`C_F=4/3`$, $`T_F=1/2`$, and $`n_f=5`$ for the energy region of the $`t\overline{t}`$-pair production. The effective coupling $`\alpha _V`$ is nothing but a running coupling constant in some special subtraction scheme. The coefficient $`a_2`$ allows one to find the effective $`\beta `$-function $`\beta _V`$ for the evolution of the coupling $`\alpha _V`$ in the NNLO. Therefore the effective coupling constant for the static potential is now fully determined at the NNLO.
* High energy coefficient $`C_h(\alpha _s)`$ is given by the expression

$$C_h(\alpha )=14\frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }+C_F\left(\frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }\right)^2\left(\pi ^2\left(\frac{2C_F}{3}+C_A\right)\mathrm{ln}\frac{\mu _f}{m_t}+c_2\right).$$
(11)
In NNLO, there appears a new term proportional to the logarithm of the factorization parameter $`\mu _f`$ that separates long and short distances (or large and small momenta) within the effective theory approach. The finite ($`\mu _f`$ independent) coefficient $`c_2`$ is known

$$c_2=\left(\frac{39}{4}\zeta (3)+\frac{4\pi ^2}{3}\mathrm{ln}2\frac{35\pi ^2}{18}\right)C_F\left(\frac{151}{36}+\frac{13}{2}\zeta (3)+\frac{8\pi ^2}{3}\mathrm{ln}2\frac{179\pi ^2}{72}\right)C_A$$

$$+\left(\frac{44}{9}\frac{4\pi ^2}{9}+\frac{11}{9}n_f\right)T_F.$$

The coefficient of NLO in eq. (11) is $`\mu _f`$ independent – the factorization procedure (a separation of scales) is insensitive to the border. An explicit dependence of high and low energy quantities on the factorization scale $`\mu _f`$ is a general feature of effective theories which are valid only for a given region of energy. A physical quantity, which is given by a proper combination of results obtained in different energy regions within respective effective theories, is factorization scale independent e.g. . In NRQCD this feature reveals itself in $`\mu _f`$ dependence of Green’s function and of the high energy coefficient $`C_h`$. To see how this dependence emerges one can consider the contribution of a generic NNLO (three-loop) diagram into the cross section. In full QCD one can in principle compute it for an arbitrary numerical value of the invariant $`s=(2m_t+E)^2`$ but it is a rather complicated function of the ratio $`s/m_t^2`$. It is difficult to obtain such a function analytically (numerical study was done in ). However, the analytical result for the diagram in the threshold limit simplifies and leads to a logarithmic singularity in energy $`E`$ (for the moment we forget about Coulomb singularities)

$$\alpha _s^2\mathrm{ln}(E/m_t),E0.$$
(12)
Within the effective theory approach this singularity splits between GF (the low energy singularity $`\mathrm{ln}(E/\mu _f)`$) and the high energy coefficient $`C_h(\alpha _s)`$ (the mass singularity $`\mathrm{ln}(\mu _f/m_t)`$)

$$\alpha _s^2\mathrm{ln}(E/m_t)=\alpha _s^2\left(\mathrm{ln}(E/\mu _f)+\mathrm{ln}(\mu _f/m_t)\right).$$
(13)
In both limiting cases ($`E=0`$, or calculation at threshold, and calculation within low-energy theory for the GF) the resulting integrals are simpler than the original integral for the diagram and can be done analytically. For one massive particle the calculation of diagrams is technically simpler and the complete expressions in full theory are available for some physical quantities . The corresponding effective theory near the static limit is HQET which is also simpler than NRQCD. In this case one can analyze the cancellation of factorization scale dependence between matching (high energy) coefficients  and the low energy (HQET) amplitudes explicitly.

Collecting the above ingredients together allows one to have NNLO accuracy for $`\mathrm{\Pi }(E)`$ near the threshold.

4. Solution for the low energy part.

The main dynamical object used to describe the $`t\overline{t}`$ system near the threshold is the nonrelativistic Green’s function $`G=(HE)^1`$. The Hamiltonian is represented in the form

$$H=H_C+\mathrm{\Delta }H,H_C=\frac{p^2}{m}C_F\frac{\alpha _s}{r}$$
(14)
with

$$\mathrm{\Delta }H=\mathrm{\Delta }V_{pot}\frac{H_C^2}{4m_t}\frac{3C_F\alpha _s}{4m}[H_0,\frac{1}{r}]_+\frac{4\pi \alpha _s}{m_t^2}\left(\frac{C_F}{3}+\frac{C_A}{2}\right)\delta (\stackrel{}{r}).$$
(15)
Constructing the Green’s function is straightforward and can be done analytically within perturbation theory near Coulomb Green’s function $`G_C(E)`$ or numerically (for complex values of $`E`$ only that can be used to describe the production of particles with nonzero width) . Results are presented basically as an expansion in consecutive orders

$$G=G_0+\mathrm{\Delta }G_1+\mathrm{\Delta }G_2$$
(16)
to check the convergence of the approximations. Here:

* LO: Coulomb approximation, $`G_0=G_C`$
* NLO: $`\mathrm{\Delta }G_1O(\alpha _s)`$ corrections from the static potential $`V_{pot}(r)`$
* NNLO: $`\mathrm{\Delta }G_2O(\alpha _s^2)`$ corrections from $`\alpha _s^2`$ terms in the static potential $`V_{pot}(r)`$ and from the second iteration of the $`O(\alpha _s)`$ term in $`V_{pot}(r)`$, relativistic $`v^2`$ corrections.

The relativistic $`H_C^2`$ and anticommutator corrections in eq. (15) can be taken into account by the shift of the parameters of the Coulomb Green’s function $`EE+E^2/4m_t`$ and $`\alpha _s\alpha _s(1+3E/2m_t)`$. In this respect the modified Coulomb approximation can be used as the leading order approximation. The analytical solution for Green’s function is perturbative

$$G=G_CG_C\mathrm{\Delta }HG_C+G_C\mathrm{\Delta }HG_C\mathrm{\Delta }HG_C\mathrm{}$$
(17)
The $`\overline{\mathrm{MS}}`$-scheme for the static potential $`V_{pot}(r)`$ has been used in the solution. The numerical results obtained by the different authors are rather close to each other .

5. Features of the physical result.

The top quark width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_t`$ plays a crucial role in the calculation of the $`t\overline{t}`$ production cross section near the threshold . At the calculational level the width can be taken into account by a shift of the energy variable $`E`$. Operationally one can proceed as follows. The mass operator of the top quark is approximated by the expression $`M=m_ti\mathrm{\Gamma }_t/2`$. Then the kinematical variable $`s4m_t^2`$ relevant to the near-threshold dynamics is substituted with $`s4M^2`$ ($`\sqrt{s}=E+2m_t`$) and one finds

$$s4M^2=4m_t(E+i\mathrm{\Gamma }_t)+E^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }_t^2.$$

Neglecting higher orders in $`E`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_t`$ one obtains a recipe for taking into account the width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_t`$ by the shift $`EE+i\mathrm{\Gamma }_t`$. The dispersion relation for the vacuum polarization function $`\mathrm{\Pi }(E)`$ has the form

$$\mathrm{\Pi }(E)=\frac{\rho (E^{})dE^{}}{E^{}E}.$$

With the shift recipe one finds

$$\sigma (E)\mathrm{Im}\mathrm{\Pi }(E+i\mathrm{\Gamma }_t)=\mathrm{Im}\frac{\rho (E^{})dE^{}}{E^{}Ei\mathrm{\Gamma }_t}=\mathrm{\Gamma }_t\frac{\rho (E^{})dE^{}}{(E^{}E)^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }_t^2}.$$
(18)
Because the point $`E+i\mathrm{\Gamma }_t`$ lies sufficiently far from the positive semiaxis (and the origin) in the complex energy plane the cross section eq. (18) is calculable point-wise in energy. For the $`b\overline{b}`$ system where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_b`$ is small the situation is different and only moments of different kinds, for instance,

$$_{4m_b^2}^{\mathrm{}}\frac{\rho (s)ds}{s^n}$$

are meaningful in the near-threshold Coulomb PT calculations. The hadronic cross section $`\sigma (E)`$ was obtained by many authors (as a review see, ).

The normalized cross sections $`R^v(E)`$ for typical values $`m_t=175`$ GeV, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_t=1.43`$ GeV, $`\alpha _s(M_Z)=0.118`$ are plotted in Fig.1 . The curves have characteristic points which are usually considered as basic observables. They are: $`E_p`$ – the position of the peak in the cross section and $`H_p`$ – the height of the peak in the cross section. In the limit of the small $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_t`$ (at least for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_t`$ which is smaller than the spacing between the first two resonances) one would have $`E_pE_0`$ and $`H_p|\psi _0(0)|^2`$. For the actual value of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_t=1.43`$ GeV which is larger than the spacing being the first two resonances the peak position and height are not determined by the first resonance only. The convergence for $`E_p`$ and $`H_p`$ in consecutive orders of perturbation theory near the Coulomb solution is not fast in the $`\overline{\mathrm{MS}}`$-scheme. For the typical numerical values of the theoretical parameters $`m_t`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_t`$ and $`\alpha _s(M_Z)`$ one finds

$`E_p`$ $`=`$ $`E_0(1+0.58+0.38+\mathrm{})`$
$`H_p`$ $`=`$ $`H_0(10.15+0.12+\mathrm{})`$ (19)
(see also ). Important contributions that affect the quality of convergence are the local term ($`\alpha _sV_0\delta (\stackrel{}{r})`$ which is related to $`1/r^2`$ non-Abelian term ) and higher order PT corrections to $`V_{pot}(r)`$.

6. Possible improvements.

The slow convergence for the peak characteristics of the cross section has caused some discussion. The suggestions of the redefinition of the top quark mass have been made (as a review see , also ). The use of the pole mass as a theoretical parameter for the description of the cross section near the threshold is criticized on the ground of its infrared instability . It is usual that some effects of interaction can be taken into account by introducing the effective mass parameter for the particle . In this talk I only discuss some possible ways of optimizing the convergence for the Green’s function with the pole mass as a theoretical parameter. Note that actual calculations near the threshold have been performed within the pole mass scheme. For optimizing the convergence one can use methods of exact summation of some contributions in all orders and renormalization scheme invariance of PT series e.g. . The Hamiltonian can be written in the form

$$H=H_{LO}+\mathrm{\Delta }V_{PT}+\alpha _sV_0\delta (\stackrel{}{r}),V_0=\frac{4\pi }{m_t^2}\left(\frac{C_F}{3}+\frac{C_A}{2}\right)$$
(20)
where corrections are given by the perturbation theory corrections to $`V_{pot}(r)`$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }V_{PT}`$-part) and by the local term ($`\alpha _sV_0\delta (\stackrel{}{r})`$-part). These two contributions can be dealt with more accurately than in the straightforward approach. Indeed, the $`\delta (\stackrel{}{r})`$-part is a separable potential and can be taken into account exactly . The solution reads

$$G(E;0,0)=\frac{G_{ir}(E;0,0)}{1+\alpha _sV_0G_{ir}(E;0,0)}$$
(21)
with

$$G_{ir}(E)=(H_{LO}+\mathrm{\Delta }V_{PT}E)^1$$
(22)
being the irreducible Green’s function. Dealing with the PT expansion of the static potential in NRQCD is an important issue in getting stable results for the cross section near the threshold because the static potential is the genuine quantity which is computed in high order of PT in the strong coupling constant . The convergence in the $`\overline{\mathrm{MS}}`$ scheme is not fast which reflects the physical situation that the observables represented by the cross section curve (for instance, $`E_p`$ and $`H_p`$) are sensitive to different scales. The finite-order perturbation theory expansion of the static potential given in eq. (6) cannot handle several distinct scales with the same accuracy. Indeed, the PT expansion of the static potential is done near some (arbitrary) scale (or distance) which can be considered simply as a normalization point. The farther a given point lies from this normalization point the worse the precision of the PT expansion for the static potential at this point is. The PT expressions in the $`\overline{\mathrm{MS}}`$ scheme are not directly sensitive to physical scales because subtractions are made in a mass independent way (for instance, massive particles do not decouple automatically in the $`\overline{\mathrm{MS}}`$ scheme e.g. ). Therefore it is instructive to rewrite the static potential in more physical terms than just the $`\overline{\mathrm{MS}}`$-scheme parameters $`(\alpha _{\overline{\mathrm{MS}}},\mu )`$ (which would remind the reader of the momentum subtraction scheme where, for instance, the decoupling is explicit )

$`V_{pot}(r)`$ $`=`$ $`C_F{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _0}{r}}\left(1+\alpha _0b_1\mathrm{ln}r/r_0+\alpha _0^2(b_1^2\mathrm{ln}^2r/r_0+b_2^{}\mathrm{ln}r/r_0+c)+\mathrm{}\right).`$ (23)
Here $`r_0`$ and $`c`$ are the parameters of the renormalization scheme freedom in NNLO and $`\alpha _0`$ is the corresponding coupling in the $`\{r_0,c\}`$-scheme . They parameterize the center of the expansion (a normalization point) and the derivative (respective $`\beta `$-function) of the static potential. The parameters ($`r_0,c`$) can be chosen such in order to minimize the higher order corrections to a particular observable (e.g.  where NLO analysis has been done). In such a case $`r_0`$ can be understood as a typical distance to which a chosen observable is sensitive. Note that the best approximation of the static potential $`V_{pot}(r)`$ for different scales would be provided by the use of the running coupling constant $`\alpha _s(r)`$. The analytical calculation of the Green’s function becomes just impossible in this case. However, even for the numerical calculation of the Green’s function one cannot naively use the running coupling constant $`\alpha _s(r)`$ in the static potential $`V_{pot}(r)`$ for all $`r`$. With a generic running coupling constant, the IR singularity (Landau pole) can occur in $`\alpha _s(r)`$ at large $`r`$ which are formally necessary for computing the Green’s function. This singularity has little to do with usual divergences within the effective theory approach and cannot be removed by the standard renormalization tools. It can be dealt with if an IR fixed point appears in the evolution for the effective coupling constant (e.g. ) or with some other regularization e.g. . For the top quark production the contribution of this area (large $`r`$) into the cross section is small because of the large decay width of the top quark. In the finite-order PT analysis the parameters $`r_0`$ and $`c`$ can be chosen to minimize higher order corrections either to $`E_p`$ or to $`H_p`$ but not to both simultaneously because $`E_p`$ and $`H_p`$ are sensitive to different distances. Indeed, one finds the difference of scales minimizing corrections to the first Coulomb resonance in NLO to be

$$\mathrm{ln}(r_E/r_\psi )=\frac{1}{3}+\frac{\pi ^2}{9}.$$
(24)
Because of the large top quark width many states (resonances and continuum alike) contribute into the position and height of the peak in the cross section. Therefore the characteristic distance estimates are not so transparent (the NNLO peak position, for instance, is not exactly the ground state energy in zero width limit). The relation (24) can serve just as a basic guide. In practical analysis one can choose the particular numerical values for the parameters ($`r_0,c`$) which stabilize either $`E_p`$ or $`H_p`$.

7. Conclusion

To conclude, we have presented a cross section for the $`t\overline{t}`$ pair production near the threshold. The result is based on the solution to the Schrödinger equation for the nonrelativistic Green’s function. Some methods of resummation and convergence optimization are discussed.

Acknowledgments
This work is partially supported by Volkswagen Foundation under contract No. I/73611 and Russian Fund for Basic Research under contract 99-01-00091.


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# A BROAD FeK𝛼 EMISSION LINE IN THE X-RAY SPECTRUM OF THE QUASAR 3C 273

## 1 INTRODUCTION

The Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics (ASCA – Tanaka, Inoue, and Holt 1994) found that the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ fluorescent emission line in Seyfert 1 galaxies is often very broad and the data are consistent with an interpretation of an origin from cold matter in an accretion disk rotating around a central black hole (see Fabian et al. 2000 and references therein). The line profile is sculpted by characteristic gravitational and Doppler energy shifts. Currently, study of the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ emission line is the only way to probe matter within a few to tens of gravitational radii of a black hole. These emission features become less common in active galactic nuclei (AGNs) with a 2–10 keV intrinsic luminosity exceeding $`10^{45}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (or synonymously, quasars). On the few occasions that an $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line is detected in high-luminosity AGN it appears to be narrow (FWHM $`<10,000`$ km/s) with a peak energy indicative of highly-ionized matter. This trend is discussed in Nandra et al. (1997a,b), Reeves et al. (2000) and George et al. (2000) and references therein.

The bright, high-luminosity ($`L(210\mathrm{keV})0.82\times 10^{46}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$; $`H_0=50\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$ and $`q_0=0`$ throughout) radio-loud quasar 3C 273 ($`z=0.158`$) has been extensively studied in all wavebands (e.g. see von Montigny et al. 1997; Türler et al. 1999 and references therein). In particular, X-ray studies have found a featureless nonthermal continuum, with the occasional detection of an $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ emission line. Proportional counter experiments such as those on EXOSAT and Ginga could not constrain the width of the line and, for a narrow line assumption, found equivalent widths of $`1050`$ eV when it was detected (e.g. Turner et al. 1990; Williams et al. 1992). Subsequent observations with ASCA again found some weak detections with an equivalent width of the order of tens of eV (Yaqoob et al. 1994; Cappi et al. 1998; Reeves et al. 2000). Observations with BeppoSAX told a similar story (Grandi et al. 1997; Orr et al. 1998; Haardt et al. 1998).

In these ASCA and BeppoSAX studies, the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line in 3C 273 has been assumed or claimed to be narrow. However, on two occasions (1996 July and 1998 June), during coordinated ASCA, RXTE and BeppoSAX multi-mission cross-calibration campaigns, we found that the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line was in fact broad. This is not inconsistent with previously published results because when the equivalent width of the line is small it is very difficult to constrain the intrinsic width. Results from the 1996 July and subsequent ASCA observations have not yet been published. As for the BeppoSAX results (Grandi et al. 1997; Haardt et al. 1998), recalibration of the MECS aboard BeppoSAX has recently brought the narrow width of the line into question (Grandi, private communication). In this Letter we re-examine the old ASCA data, and present results from three new ASCA observations, plus two simultaneous RXTE observations, in order to investigate the nature of the elusive $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ emission line in this source and we conclude that it is broad, just like that found in Seyfert 1 galaxies.

## 2 THE DATA AND SPECTRAL FITTING RESULTS

Between 1993, June and 2000, January, there were a total of six ASCA campaigns on 3C 273, resulting in twelve pointed observations. Two observations have simultaneous RXTE data (1996 July and 1998 June). Table 1 shows an observation log, exposure times and count rates for these observations. We utilize all four instruments aboard ASCA (SIS and GIS), fitting the same model to all detectors simultaneously with only the relative normalizations independent. All the SIS data were taken in 1-CCD mode. The ASCA data were analysed using the methods described in detail in Yaqoob et al. 1998. Note that observation B was a calibration observation performed in four parts, placing the source sequentially on each of the four SIS chips over a period of $`5`$ days. Observation C was a multiple ‘snapshot’ science campaign carried out over $`11`$ days. Preliminary spectral fitting showed that we could not obtain useful constraints on the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line parameters from the separate pointings due to insufficient signal-to-noise so we combined the spectra from individual pointings for each of the data sets “B” and “C”. For RXTE we used only the Proportional Counter Array (PCA) data, which were reduced using methods described in Weaver, Krolik, & Pier (1998), except that we used a later version of the spectral response matrix (V 7.01) and background model (‘L7\_240\_FAINT’). Only data from PCU 0,1 and 2, layer 1 were used in this analysis. Note that cross-calibration studies show that in the 2–10 keV band PCA fluxes are systematically at least 20% higher than ASCA whereas ASCA and BeppoSAX fluxes agree to a few percent 111ASCA GOF calibration memo at
http://lheawww.gsfc.nasa.gov/ yaqoob/3c273/3c273\_results.html. We will rely on the ASCA fluxes for consistency since we discuss only two RXTE observations.

Since we are only interested in the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line properties for this work, we only utilize data in the 1.5–10 keV band for ASCA and 3–10 keV band for the PCA (the latter does not have a useful response below 3 keV). First, we fitted each data set with a simple power-law plus Galactic absorption ($`N_H=1.79\times 10^{20}\mathrm{cm}^2`$; Dickey & Lockman 1990), but omitting data between 4–8 keV (the Fe-K line region). Visual inspection of the data/model residuals over the whole energy range then revealed, in most cases, a hump peaking around 5.5 keV (observed frame), presumably due to an $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ emission line. The most dramatic of these was for observation D, for which the SIS, GIS and PCA data/model ratios are shown in Figure 1. It can be seen that the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line is very broad, extending from $`47`$ keV similar to the broad $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ lines in Seyfert 1 galaxies. We emphasize that this is not a result of instrument calibration problems. The line is broad as measured by five independent instruments, out of which three instrument groups (SIS, GIS and PCA) were calibrated independently in the relevant energy band. We show below that even the PCA, despite its poor energy resolution resolves the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line at 90% confidence. Before discussing quantitative measurements of the line parameters we show in Figure 2 similar data/model ratios resulting from co-adding all the SIS0 and SIS1 data in Table 1. This constitutes all the SIS data for 3C 273 taken over the entire lifetime of ASCA, amounting to an exposure time of $`258`$ ks. The broad $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line can be seen with very high signal-to-noise. It is not meaningful to perform more detailed spectral fitting on the co-added spectra because it is known that the spectral index of the continuum is variable over long timescales (Turner et al. 1990) so we will not utilize the co-added spectrum further. Note that in Figure 2, at the highest energies (above $`8`$ keV), the SIS1 data are systematically higher than SIS0. This is a known calibration uncertainty which shows up in other sources when the signal-to-noise is high 222ASCA GOF calibration memo at
http://lheawww.gsfc.nasa.gov/ yaqoob/ccd/nhparam.html.

We then fitted each of the eight data sets (six ASCA and two RXTE ) with a simple power-law model (including Galactic absorption) and a Gaussian to model the line, utilizing all the data in the selected energy bands (ASCA: 1.5–10 keV, PCA: 3–10 keV). There were a maximum of three free parameters associated with the line; the line center energy ($`E_c`$), intrinsic Gaussian width ($`\sigma _{\mathrm{Fe}}`$), and intensity ($`I_{\mathrm{Fe}}`$). We found that all except observations D/ PCA and E/ ASCA had insufficient signal-noise to constrain both the center energy and intrinsic width simultaneously so we fixed $`\sigma _{\mathrm{Fe}}`$ at 0.8 keV (consistent with the best fitting values from observations D/ PCA and E/ ASCA ). In cases where the line was particularly weak we also had to fix $`E_c`$ (at 6.67 keV, from the best-constrained measurement which was from observation E/ASCA ). The spectral fitting results are shown in Table 2, which also shows the values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$ compared to the case when no $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line was included in the model. Clearly, the line is detected with a very high level of confidence ( for the two worst cases it is $`>98.2\%`$ and $`>99.975\%`$ for observations B and F respectively). Note that in observations D/ASCA and E/PCA the line is actually resolved at the 90% confidence level. The best-fitting line energies from ASCA are all $`6.6`$ keV, and the weighted mean, from the ASCA observations that could constrain the energy, is $`6.62\pm 0.20`$ keV. The statistical uncertainty is still sufficiently large that all ionization states of Fe except H-like are allowed.

Previous work has shown that a Compton-reflection continuum, common in Seyfert 1 galaxies, is particularly weak in 3C 273 (e.g. Turner et al. 1990; Grandi et al. 1997). Nevertheless, we tested whether Compton-reflection could affect the deduced width of the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line. Using the ASCA data with the best-determined line width (observation E), we added a Compton-reflection continuum to the power-law plus Gaussian model. For the most conservative constraints we assumed the primary X-ray continuum illuminates a Compton-thick disk viewed face-on. The only additional free parameter is the effective covering factor of the disk, $`R`$, as a fraction of of the solid angle $`2\pi `$. The best-fitting value of $`R`$ was 0.0, with a 90% confidence upper limit of 0.20 (four interesting parameters, or $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2=7.779`$). Thus, the best-fitting line parameters remained unchanged, with the bounds on the line width slightly larger, ($`\sigma _{\mathrm{Fe}}=0.80\pm 0.51`$ keV). Thus, Compton reflection does not affect our conclusion about the broadness of the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line. We used the PCA data for observation E to obtain even tighter constraints on Compton-reflection. Using the same model, and extending the PCA data up to 20 keV, we obtained $`R=0.0`$ with an upper limit of 0.094 (90% confidence, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2=6.251`$; recall that the line width had to be fixed for the PCA/E data).

As can be seen from Table 2, the smallest and largest measurements of $`I_{\mathrm{Fe}}`$ are for observations A and F respectively and do not overlap at the 90% confidence level, yet these observations have 2–10 keV fluxes which differ by only $`10\%`$. Observations A and F also have the smallest and largest EW respectively, which are also mutually exclusive at the 90% confidence level. However, a clear trend in the line variability is not apparent from these data; studies with XMM will clarify this issue.

Since the broad $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ emission line (Figures 1 and 2) is similar to that seen in many Seyfert 1 galaxies (e.g. Nandra et al. 1997a; Reynolds 1997) we fitted the ASCA data with a model in which the line photons are emitted in a disk rotating around a central Schwarzschild black hole (e.g. Fabian et al. 1989). The parameters are $`\theta _{\mathrm{obs}}`$ (inclination angle of the disk normal relative to the observer), $`r_i`$ (inner radius), $`r_o`$ (outer radius), $`q`$ (power-law index characterizing the line emissivity as $`r^q`$), $`I_\mathrm{D}`$ (intensity), and $`E_D`$ (line energy in the disk rest frame). The fits were insensitive to $`r_i`$ and $`r_o`$ so they were fixed at $`6r_g`$ and $`1000r_g`$ respectively ($`r_gGM/c^2`$). The data could not constrain $`q`$ so we fixed it at 2.5, a value consistent with the mean found from a sample of Seyfert galaxies (e.g. Nandra et al. 1997a). Unfortunately there is too much interplay between $`E_D`$ and the other line parameters so we fixed $`E_D`$ at 6.4 keV, corresponding to a cold disk. Thus there are at most two free parameters in this model of the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line ($`I_D`$ and $`\theta _{\mathrm{obs}}`$). Moreover, we found that only observations D and E could constrain $`\theta _{\mathrm{obs}}`$, so for the other fits we fixed $`\theta _{\mathrm{obs}}`$ at the best-fitting value for observation D. The results are shown in Table 3. Both observations D and E give a consistent value for $`\theta _{\mathrm{obs}}`$ of $`60^{}`$, with a lower bound of $`45^{}`$ (the upper value is not bounded). This is somewhat surprising because quasars such as 3C 273 are thought to be observed face-on (or near face-on). To investigate whether a higher rest-frame energy of the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line can lower the inclination angle, we repeated the spectral fits with the rest energy fixed at the extreme value of 6.97 keV (corresponding to H-like Fe) and obtained $`\theta _{\mathrm{obs}}=46_{27}^{+15}`$ and $`22_{22}^{+28}`$ degrees for observations D and E respectively. However, the fits are slightly worse, with $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$ between 2–3. Thus we cannot unambiguously constrain the inclination angle and require better data, from XMM for example. Note that EW values from the disk model (for both values of the rest-frame energy) are virtually the same as those obtained from the Gaussian model. It should also be pointed out that in no case does the disk-line model formally provide a better fit than the Gaussian model (but the differences in $`\chi ^2`$ are not significant).

## 3 CONCLUSIONS

From an analysis of the entire database of ASCA observations of 3C 273 and two simultaneous RXTE observations, we have shown that the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line in this quasar is very broad. The line is resolved in two of the observations with a mean Gaussian width of $`0.8\pm 0.3`$ keV, corresponding to a FWHM of $`0.3\pm 0.1c`$. The 2–10 keV intrinsic luminosity ranged from $`0.82\times 10^{46}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The smallest and largest equivalent widths we measured are $`43_{34}^{+34}`$ eV and $`133_{53}^{+52}`$ eV respectively (quasar frame) but the data do not allow us to identify any clear trend of line variability and its relation to the continuum luminosity. The broad $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line is similar to the relativistic $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ lines commonly found in Seyfert 1 galaxies, which are thought to be shaped by gravitational and Doppler shifts in the vicinity of a black hole. The EW of the lines in Seyfert 1 galaxies is higher however, typically $`200300`$ eV. The $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ emission line was previously thought to be narrow (FWHM $`<10,000`$ km/s) or absent in AGN with a 2–10 keV luminosity exceeding $`10^{45}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Thus, 3C 273 is now the highest luminosity quasar in which a broad $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line has been found. When modeled by a Gaussian, the weighted mean peak energy of the line is $`6.62\pm 0.20`$ keV, indicative of He-like Fe, although the 90% confidence errors allow all lower ionization states. If we model the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line in 3C 273 as originating in an accretion disk around a black hole, we obtain a disk inclination angle $`>44^{}`$ if the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line originates in cold matter. If the line-emitting region is highly ionized the disk inclination angle is allowed to be smaller, including near face-on for H-like Fe. The disk model also predicts that the $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line should be accompanied by a Compton-reflection continuum, but we constrained the magnitude of the latter to be less than 10% of that expected from a face-on, semi-infinite, Compton-thick disk centrally illuminated by the primary X-ray continuum. The EW during some of the observations is too large compared to that predicted for the observed reflection continuum (e.g. see George & Fabian 1991). Time lags longer than several days between line and continuum and/or an over-abundance of Fe could reduce this discrepancy. Time-resolved spectroscopy with XMM is needed to make further progress.

The authors thank the ASCA mission operations team at ISAS, Japan, and all the instrument teams for their dedication and hard work in making these ASCA observations possible. The authors also thank Paola Grandi for several years of fruitful collaborative work on 3C 273 and ASCA/BeppoSAX cross-calibration, T. Dotani for helpful comments, Keith Jahoda for supplying up-to-date response matrices for the PCA, and the RXTE GOF for help with data analysis issues. Finally, we thank an anonymous referee for making some important suggestions. This research made use of the HEASARC archives at the Laboratory for High Energy Astrophysics, NASA/GSFC.

## Figure Captions

Figure 1
The $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line from the 1996 July campaign of 3C 273 (Obs D). The data were fitted with a simple power-law plus Galactic absorption, omitting the 4–8 keV data (see text for details). Shown are the ratios of data compared to this model for RXTE PCA (top inset), ASCA SIS0 (filled circles) ASCA SIS1 (crosses), ASCA GIS2 and GIS3 (filled circles and crosses, respectively, in bottom inset). The line is clearly broad, just like the profiles commonly found in Seyfert 1 galaxies.

Figure 2
All the data for 3C 273 taken by ASCA over the entire mission (1993–2000) and added together, separately for SIS0 and SIS1. The total exposure time is $`258`$ ks. Shown are the data/model ratios when the co-added spectra were fitted with a power law, omitting the 4–8 keV band. The broad $`\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{K}\alpha `$ line is a very prominent feature. Since the statistical errors are so small, systematic problems with the SIS+XRT response show up as a hard tail in SIS1 relative to SIS0.


text:
# Galactic Superwinds at Low and High Redshift

## 1. Introduction

By now, it is well-established that galactic-scale outflows of gas (sometimes called ‘superwinds’) are commonplace in the most actively star- forming galaxies in both the local universe (e.g. Heckman et al 2000; Dahlem, Weaver, & Heckman 1998; Lehnert & Heckman 1996) and at high redshift (Franx et al 1997; Pettini et al 1998). They are powered by the energy deposited in the interstellar medium by massive stars via supernovae and stellar winds. Over the history of the universe, outflows like these may have polluted the intergalactic medium with metals (e.g. Nath & Trentham 1997) and dust (Aguirre 1999), heated and polluted the intracluster medium (e.g. Ponman, Cannon, & Navarro 1999), and may have established the mass-metallicity relation and radial metallicity gradients in galactic spheroids (e.g. Carollo & Danziger 1994). However, the cosmological relevance of superwinds can not be reliably assessed without first understanding their physical, dynamical, and chemical properties.

In this contribution, I will summarize the basic theoretical ideas concerning the energetics and dynamical evolution of superwinds and describe the likely physical origin of the emission and absorption they produce (section 2). I will then review the observed properties of superwinds: their demographics (section 3, their estimated outflow rates (section 4), and their likely fate (section 5). Finally, I will briefly describe the potential implications of superwinds for the evolution of galaxies and the inter-galactic medium (section 6).

## 2. The Conceptual Framework

The engine that drives the observed outflows in starbursts is the mechanical energy supplied by massive stars in the form of supernovae and stellar winds (cf. Leitherer & Heckman 1995). For typical starburst parameters, the rate of supply of mechanical energy is of-order 1% of the bolometric luminosity of the starburst and typically 10 to 20% of the Lyman continuum luminosity. Some fraction of this mechanical energy may be radiated away by dense shock-heated material inside the starburst. However, observations of superwinds imply that a significant fraction is available to drive the outflow (see below). Radiation pressure acting on dust grains may also play a role in driving the observed outflows (Aguirre 1999).

The dynamical evolution of a starburst-driven outflow has been extensively discussed (e.g. Chevalier & Clegg 1985; Wang 1995; Strickland & Stevens 2000). Briefly, the deposition of mechanical energy by supernovae and stellar winds results in an over-pressured cavity of hot gas inside the starburst. The temperature of this hot gas is given by:

$$T=0.4\mu m_H\dot{E}/k\dot{M}10^8l^1K$$

for a mass (kinetic energy) deposition rate of $`\dot{M}`$ ($`\dot{E}`$). The “mass-loading” term $`l`$ represents the ratio of the total mass of gas that is heated to the mass that is directly ejected by supernovae and stellar winds (e.g. $`l`$ 1).

This hot cavity will expand, sweep up ambient material and thus develop a bubble-like structure. If the ambient medium is stratified (like a disk), the ‘superbubble’ will expand most rapidly in the direction of the vertical pressure gradient. After the superbubble size reaches several disk vertical scale heights, the expansion will accelerate, and it is believed that Raleigh-Taylor instabilities will then lead to the fragmentation of the bubble’s outer wall. This allows the hot gas to ‘blow out’ of the disk and into the galactic halo in the form of a weakly collimated bipolar outflow (i.e. the flow makes a transition from a superbubble to a superwind). The terminal velocity of this hot wind is expected to be in the range of one-to-a-few thousand km s-1:

$$v_{wind}=(2\dot{E}/\dot{M})^{1/2}3000l^{1/2}km/s$$

The observational manifestations of superbubbles and superwinds are many and varied. The ambient gas (both the material in the outer superbubble wall and overtaken clouds inside the superbubble or superwind) can be photoionized by the starburst and shock-heated by the outflow. This material can produce soft X-rays and optical/ultraviolet emission and absorption lines. The predicted expansion speed of the outer wall of an adiabatic wind-blown superbubble is of-order 102 km s-1:

$$v_{Bubble}100\dot{E}_{42}^{1/5}n_0^{1/5}t_7^{2/5}km/s$$

for a bubble driven into an ambient medium with nucleon density $`n_0`$ (cm-3) by mechanical energy deposited at a rate $`\dot{E}_{42}`$ (units of 1042 erg s-1) for a time $`t_7`$ (units of 107 years). Clouds exposed to the ram pressure of the wind will be accelerated to terminal velocities of few hundred km s-1:

$$v_{cloud}600\dot{p_{34}}^{1/2}\mathrm{\Omega }_w^{1/2}r_{0,kpc}^{1/2}N_{cloud,21}^{1/2}km/s$$

for a cloud with a column density $`N_{cloud,21}`$ (units of 1021 cm-2) that - starting at an initial radius of $`r_0`$ (kpc) - is accelerated by a wind that carries a total momentum flux of $`\dot{p_{34}}`$ (units of 1034 dynes) into a solid angle $`\mathrm{\Omega }_w`$ (steradian).

The hot gas that drives the expansion of the superbubble/superwind may itself be an detectable source of X-rays, especially if a significant amount of mass-loading of the outflow occurs in or around the starburst (e.g. $`l>>`$ 1). Finally, cosmic ray electrons and magnetic field may be advected out of the starburst by the flow and produce a radio synchrotron halo and possibly an X-ray halo via inverse Compton scattering of soft photons from the starburst ( Seaquist & Odegard 1991; Moran, Lehnert, & Helfand 1999). From both a theoretical and observational perspective, it is clear that superwinds are a complex, multiphase phenomenon requiring a panchromatic observational approach.

## 3. Superwind Demographics

Lehnert & Heckman (1996) discussed the analysis of the optical emission-line properties of a sample of $``$50 disk galaxies selected to be bright and warm in the far-infrared (active star-formers) and to be viewed within $`30^{}`$ of edge-on (to facilitate detection of outflows along the galaxy minor axis). They defined several indicators of minor-axis outflows: 1) an excess of ionized gas along the minor axis (from H$`\alpha `$ images) 2) emission-line profiles that were broader along the galaxy minor axis than along the major axis 3) emission-line ratios that were more “shock-like” along the galaxy minor axis than the major axis (e.g. had stronger \[OI\]$`\lambda `$6300, \[NII\]$`\lambda `$6584, and \[SII\]$`\lambda `$ $`\lambda `$6717,6731 emission relative to H$`\alpha `$). They found that all these indicators became stronger in the galaxies with more intense star-formation (larger $`L_{FIR}`$, larger $`L_{FIR}/L_{OPT}`$, and warmer dust temperatures).

In summary, the optical emission-line evidence implies that superwinds are ubiquitous in galaxies with star-formation-rates per unit area $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{}`$ 10-1 M yr-1 kpc-2. Starbursts surpass this threshold, while the disks of ordinary spirals do not (Kennicutt 1998).

Dahlem, Weaver, & Heckman (1998) used $`ROSAT`$ and $`ASCA`$ to search for X-ray evidence for outflows from a complete sample of the seven nearest edge-on starburst galaxies (selected on the basis of far-IR flux, warm far-IR colors, edge-on orientation, and low Galactic foreground HI column). Apart from the dwarf galaxy NGC55, all the galaxies showed hot gas in their halos. The gas had temperatures of a few times 106 to 107 K, and could be traced out to distances of-order 10 kpc from the disk plane. The overall bulk properties of the X-ray halos (size, energy content, X-ray luminosity) were consistent with simple models of superwinds (see also Read, Ponman, & Strckland 1997).

Finally, we (Heckman et al 2000 - hereafter H2000) have completed a survey of the NaI$`\lambda `$5893 (“NaD”) absorption-line doublet in a sample of 32 far-infrared-selected starburst galaxies. In 18 cases, the line was produced primarily by interstellar gas, and in 12 of these its centroid was blueshifted by over 100 km/s relative to the galaxy systemic velocity. The outflows occurred in galaxies systematically viewed more nearly face-on than the others. The absorption-line profiles in these outflow sources spanned the range from near the galaxy systemic velocity to a typical maximum blueshift of 400 to 600 km s-1, which we argued represented the terminal velocity reached by ambient interstellar clouds accelerated along the minor axis of the galaxy by the hot superwind fluid.

At high-redshift, the only readily available tracers of superwinds are the interstellar absorption-lines in the rest-frame ultraviolet. Six of the seven star-forming galaxies at $`z=`$ 2.7 to 4.9 in the combined samples of Franx et al (1997), Pettini et al (1998), and Pettini et al (2000) showed interstellar absorption-lines that were blueshifted by a few hundred to over a thousand km s-1 relative to the estimated galaxy systemic velocity. Moreover, a “composite” spectrum formed from the sum of the spectra of 12 star-forming galaxies at $`z`$ 3 also showed interstellar absorption-lines blueshifted by several hundred km s-1 (Franx et al 1997). The high-redshift galaxies with outflows all easily exceed the threshold in $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{}`$ given above for local galaxies driving outflows (see Meurer et al 1997).

Very similar kinematics are observed in UV spectra of local starbursts (Heckman & Leitherer 1997; Kunth et al 1998; Gonzalez-Delgado et al 1998). $`FUSE`$ far-UV spectra recently obtained by our group shows that the outflows contain coronal-phase gas ($`T`$ few $`\times `$ 105 K), as probed with the OVI$`\lambda `$$`\lambda `$1032,1038 doublet (Heckman et al and Martin et al, in preparation).

## 4. Estimates of Outflow Rates

### 4.1. X-ray Emission

While it is relatively straightforward to demonstrate qualitatively that a superwind is present, it is difficult to reliably calculate the rates at which mass, metals, and energy are being transported out by the wind. Several different types of data can be used, each with its own limitations and required set of assumptions.

X-ray imaging spectroscopy yields the superwind’s “emission integral” (the integral over the emitting volume of the square of the gas density). Presuming that the X-ray spectra are fit with the correct model for the hot gas it follows that the mass and energy of the X-ray gas scale as follows: $`M_X(L_Xf)^{1/2}`$ and $`E_X(L_Xf)^{1/2}T_X(1+^2)`$. Here $`f`$ is the volume-filling-factor of the X-ray gas and $``$ is its Mach number. Numerical hydrodynamical simulations of superwinds suggest that $``$2 = 2 to 3 (Strickland & Stevens 2000). The associated outflow rates ($`\dot{M}_X`$ and $`\dot{E}_X`$) can then be estimated by dividing $`M_X`$ and $`E_X`$ by the crossing time of the observed region: $`t(R/c_s)`$, where $`c_s`$ is the speed-of-sound.

If the X-ray-emitting gas is assumed to be volume-filling ($`f`$ unity), the resulting values for $`\dot{E}_X`$ are then very similar to the rate of kinetic energy deposition by the starburst. This would imply that very little of this energy is lost due to radiative cooling. Similarly, the estimated values for $`\dot{M}_X`$ significantly exceed the rate at which massive stars directly return mass to the ISM: that is, the outflow has to be strongly “mass-loaded” with ambient interstellar gas ($`l`$ 5 to 10, typically). The implied outflow rates are then similar to the estimated star-formation rates (e.g. Martin 1999).

The high spatial resolution data provided by $`Chandra`$ is proving to be quite instructive in testing the assumptions described above. In particular, observations of the outflow in the prototypical starburst/superwind galaxy NGC253 (Strickland et al 2000) show that the X-ray emission in the outflow is limb-brightened and coincident with the H$`\alpha `$ filaments (Figure 1). We argue that the X-rays arise at the turbulent interface (mixing layer) between a very fast, hot, and tenuous wind fluid (whose X-ray emission is undetectably faint) and the walls of the hollow cavity carved by this wind. On morphological and physical grounds we argue that $`f`$ is of-order 10-1 for the observed X-ray-emitting gas. If this is true in general, it would mean that previous estimates of $`\dot{M}_X`$ and $`\dot{E}_X`$ are overestimated by a factor of $``$ 3. The majority of the outflow’s energy would reside in a largely invisible fluid (shades of dark matter!).

In order to estimate a rate at which metals are transported out, we have to know the metallicity of the hot gas. It seems clear that the bulk of the mass of the X-ray emitting material is provided by ambient material that has been heated in some way by the superwind. Thus, we would expect this material to have roughly solar abundances. This is at odds with some X-ray analyses (e.g. Ptak et al 1997), but my colleagues and I would argue that the current X-ray data are indeed consistent with rather normal $``$solar abundances (Weaver, Heckman, & Dahlem 2000; Strickland & Stevens 2000). The superior capabilities of the $`Chandra`$ and $`XMMNewton`$ X-ray observatories may be able to settle this matter.

### 4.2. Optical Emission

Optical data on the warm ($`T`$ 104 K) ionized gas can be used to determine the outflow rates $`\dot{M}`$ and $`\dot{E}`$ in a way that is quite analogous to the X-ray data. In this case, the outflow velocities can be directly measured kinematically from spectroscopy. They range from $`10^2`$ km s-1 in starbursting dwarf galaxies (Marlowe et al 1995; Martin 1998) to a few $`\times `$ 102 to 103 km s-1 in powerful starbursts (e.g. Heckman, Armus, & Miley 1990). Martin (1999) found the implied values for $`\dot{M}`$ are comparable to (and may even exceed) the star-formation rate.

In favorable cases, the densities and thermal pressures can be directly measured in the optical emission-line clouds using density- and temperature-sensitive ratios of emission lines. The thermal pressure in these clouds traces the ram-pressure in the faster outflowing wind that is accelerating them (hydrodynamical simulations suggest that $`P_{ram}=\mathrm{\Psi }P_{cloud}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ = 1 to 10). Thus, for a wind with a mass-flux $`\dot{M}`$ that freely flows at a velocity $`v`$ into a solid angle $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, we have

$$\dot{M}=\mathrm{\Psi }P_{cloud}\mathrm{\Omega }r^2/v$$

$$\dot{E}=0.5\mathrm{\Psi }P_{cloud}\mathrm{\Omega }r^2v$$

Based on observations and numerical models, the values $`v`$ 103 km s-1, $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ a few, and $`\mathrm{\Omega }/4\pi `$ a few tenths are reasonable. The radial pressure profiles $`P_{cloud}(r)`$ measured in superwinds by Heckman, Armus, & Miley (1990) and Lehnert & Heckman (1996) then imply that $`\dot{M}`$ is comparable to the star-formation rate (requiring $`l`$ = 5 to 10) and that $`\dot{E}`$ is comparable to the starburst kinetic-energy injection rate (implying that radiative losses are not severe).

Rigorously determined metallicities for the optical emission-line material are not available. However, comparisons of the observed spectra to shock or photoionization models imply that the abundances are consistent with those in the ambient ISM of the host galaxy (e.g. subsolar in dwarfs and roughly solar in the more massive galaxies).

### 4.3. Interstellar Absorption-Lines

The use of interstellar absorption-lines to determine outflows rates offer several distinct advantages. First, since the gas is seen in absorption against the background starlight, there is no possible ambiguity as to the sign (inwards or outwards) of any radial flow that is detected, and the outflow speed can be measured directly. Second, the strength of the absorption will be related to the column density of the gas. In contrast, the X-ray or optical surface-brightness of the emitting gas is proportional to the emission-measure. Thus, the absorption-lines more fully probe the whole range of gas densities in the outflow, rather than being strongly weighted in favor of the densest material (which may contain relatively little mass). Finally, provided that suitably- bright background sources can be found, interstellar absorption-lines have been used to study outflows in high-redshift galaxies where the associated X-ray or optical emission may be undetectably faint (see above).

The biggest obstacle to estimating outflows rates is that the strong absorption-lines are usually saturated, so that their equivalent width is determined by the velocity dispersion and covering factor, rather than by the ionic column density. In the cases where the rest-UV region can be probed with adequate signal-to-noise (Pettini et al 2000; Heckman & Leitherer 1997), the total $`HI`$ column in the outflow can be measured by fitting the damping wings of the Lyman $`\alpha `$ interstellar line, while ionic columns may be estimated from the weaker (less saturated) interstellar lines. In the H2000 survey of the $`NaD`$ line, we estimated $`NaI`$ columns in the outflows based on the $`NaD`$ doublet ratio (Spitzer 1968), and we then estimated the $`HI`$ column assuming that the gas obeyed the same relation between $`N_{HI}`$ and $`N_{NaI}`$ as in the Milky Way. These $`HI`$ columns agreed with columns estimated independently from the line-of-sight color excess $`E(BV)`$ toward the starburst, assuming a Galactic gas-to-dust ratio. From both the UV data and the $`NaD`$ data, the typical inferred values for $`N_{HI}`$ are of-order 1021 cm-2.

We can then adopt a simple model of a constant-velocity, mass-conserving superwind flowing into a solid angle $`\mathrm{\Omega }_w`$ at a velocity $`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$ from a minimum radius ($`r_{}`$ \- taken to be the radius of the starburst within which the flow originates). This implies:

$$\dot{M}30(r_{}/kpc)(N_H/10^{21}cm^2)(\mathrm{\Delta }v/300km/s)(\mathrm{\Omega }_w/4\pi )M_{}/yr$$

$$\dot{E}10^{42}(r_{}/kpc)(N_H/10^{21}cm^2)(\mathrm{\Delta }v/300km/s)^3(\mathrm{\Omega }_w/4\pi )erg/s$$

Based on this simple model, H2000 estimate that the implied outflow rates of cool atomic gas are comparable to the star-formation rates (e.g. several tens of solar masses per year in powerful starbursts). The flux of kinetic energy carried by this material is substantial (of-order 10-1 of the kinetic energy supplied by the starburst).

In the best-studied outflows it has been possible to get rough estimates of the metallicity of the cool atomic phase. In the high-redshift galaxy MS 1512-cB58, Pettini et al (2000) obtain $``$1/4 solar, while Heckman & Leitherer (1997) find 20 to 50% solar in the outflow in the dwarf starburst NGC1705. These measures are consistent with the theoretical expectation that the cool component of the outflow is mostly ambient interstellar gas accelerated by the wind.

A bigger surprise is that the $`NaD`$ survey of H2000 implies that a substantial amount of dust is being expelled along with the atomic gas. Figure 2 show the strong correlation between the depth of the blueshifted $`NaD`$ absorption-line (a measure of the covering factor of the absorbing gas) and the line-of-sight reddening. The implied dust outflow rates are substantial (of-order 10-2 of the mass outflow rate, or typically 0.1 to 1 M per year in powerful starbursts).

### 4.4. Summary of Outflow Rates

In summary, the various techniques for estimating the outflow rates in superwinds rely on simplifying assumptions (not all of which may be warranted). On the other hand, it is gratifying that the different techniques do seem to roughly agree: the outflows carry mass out of the starburst at a rate comparable to the star-formation rate and kinetic/thermal energy out at a rate comparable to the rate supplied by the starburst.

Estimates of the rates at which metals and dust are carried out are more uncertain. It appears that the metallicity of a typical outflow is roughly solar, and that the dust-to-gas ratio in the cool atomic component of the outflow is similar to the Galactic value (e.g. dust $``$1% by mass).

## 5. The Fate of Superwinds

The outflow rates in superwinds should not be taken directly as the rates at which mass, metals, and energy escape from galaxies and are transported into the intergalactic medium. After all, the observable manifestations of the outflow are produced by material still relatively deep within the gravitational potential of the galaxy’s dark matter halo.

One way of assessing the likely fate of the superwind material is to compare the observed or estimated outflow velocity to the estimated escape velocity from the galaxy (see Martin 1999; H2000). For an isothermal gravitational potential that extends to a maximum radius $`r_{max}`$, and has a circular rotation velocity $`v_{rot}`$, the escape velocity at a radius $`r`$ is given by:

$$v_{esc}=[2v_{rot}(1+ln(r_{max}/r))]^{1/2}$$

In the case of the interstellar absorption-lines, H2000 argued that the observed profiles were produced by material ablated off of ambient clouds at the systemic velocity and accelerated by the wind up to a terminal velocity represented by the most-blueshifted part of the profile. In the case of the X-ray data, we do not measure a Doppler shift directly, but we can define a characteristic outflow speed $`v_X`$ corresponding to the observed temperature $`T_X`$, assuming an adiabatic wind with a mean mass per particle $`\mu `$ (see Chevalier & Clegg 1985):

$$v_X(5kT_X/\mu )^{1/2}$$

This is a conservative approach as it ignores the kinetic energy the X-ray-emitting gas already has (probably a factor typically 2 to 3 times its thermal energy - Strickland & Stevens 2000).

The results of comparing the outflow and escape velocities are shown in Figure 3 (see H2000), which suggests that the outflows can readily escape from dwarf galaxies, but possibly not from the more massive systems.

How far out from the starburst can the effects of superwinds be observed? In general, such tenuous material will be better traced via absorption-lines against background QSOs than by its emission (since the emission-measure will drop much more rapidly with radius than will the column density). To date, the only such experiment that has been conducted is by Norman et al (1996) who examined two sight-lines through the halo of the merger/starburst system NGC520 using HST to observe the MgII$`\lambda `$2800 doublet. Absorption was definitely detected towards a QSO with an impact parameter of 35 $`h_{70}^1`$ kpc and possibly towards a second QSO with an impact parameter of 75 $`h_{70}^1`$ kpc. Since NGC520 is immersed in tidal debris (as mapped in the HI 21cm line), it is unclear whether the MgII absorption is due to tidally-liberated or wind-ejected gas. We can expect the situation to improve in the next few years, as the $`Galex`$ mission and the $`SloanDigitalSkySurvey`$ provide us with $`10^5`$ new QSOs and starburst galaxies, and the $`CosmicOriginsSpectrograph`$ significantly improves the UV spectroscopic capabilities of HST.

While a wind’s X-ray surface brightness drops rapidly with radius due to expansion and adiabatic cooling, its presence at large radii can be inferred if it collides with an obstacle. In the case of M82, Lehnert, Heckman, & Weaver (1999) show that a ridge of diffuse X-ray and H$`\alpha `$ emission at a projected distance of 12 kpc from the starburst is most likely due to a wind/cloud collision in the galaxy halo. An even more spectacular example (Irwin et al 1987) is the peculiar tail of HI associated with the galaxy NGC3073 which points directly away from the nucleus of its companion: the prototypical superwind galaxy NGC3079 (60 $`h_{70}^1`$ kpc away form NGC3073 in projection). Irwin et al (1987) proposed that the HI tail is being swept out of NGC3073 by the ram pressure of NGC3079’s superwind.

## 6. Implications of Superwinds

As discussed above, we now know that superwinds are ubiquitous in actively-star-forming galaxies in both the local universe, and at high-redshift. The outflows detected in the high-z Lyman Break galaxies are particularly significant, since these objects may plausibly represent the sites where the majority of the stars and metals have been produced over the history of the universe (e.g. Adelberger & Steidel 2000). Even if the sub-mm $`SCUBA`$ sources turn out to be a distinct population at high-z, their apparent similarity to local “ultraluminous galaxies” suggests that they too will drive powerful outflows (cf. Heckman et al 1996). With this in mind, let me briefly describe the implications of superwinds for the evolution of galaxies and the inter-galactic medium.

Figure 3 shows that the estimated outflow speeds in superwinds are $`v_{wind}`$ $``$ 300 to 800 km s-1, and are independent of the rotation speed of the “host galaxy” over the range $`v_{rot}`$ = 30 to 300 km s-1. This strongly suggests that the outflows selectively escape the potential wells of the less massive galaxies. H2000 considered the simple model based on Lynden-Bell (1992) in which the fraction of starburst-produced metals that are retained by a galaxy experiencing an outflow is proportional to the galaxy potential-well depth for galaxies with escape velocities $`v_{esc}<v_{wind}`$, and asymtotes to full retention for the most massive galaxies ($`v_{esc}>v_{wind}`$). For $`v_{wind}`$ in the above range, such a simple prescription can reproduce the observed mass-metallicity relation for elliptical galaxies.

The selective loss of gas-phase baryons from low-mass galaxies via supernova-driven winds is an important ingredient in semi-analytic models of galaxy formation (e.g. Somerville & Primack 1999). It is usually invoked to enable the models to reproduce the observed faint-end slope of the galaxy luminosity function by selectively suppressing star-formation in low-mass dark-matter halos. A different approach is taken by Scannapieco, Ferrara, & Broadhurst (2000), who have argued that starburst-driven outflows can suppress the formation of dwarf galaxies by ram-pressure-stripping the gaseous baryons from out of the dark-matter halos of low-mass companion galaxies. The NGC3073/3079 interaction (Irwin et al 1987) may represent a local example.

H2000 also show that the simple Lynden-Bell (1992) model for a mass-dependent wind-driven loss of metals can (if applied to the population of elliptical galaxies and bulges in a cluster) deposit the required amount of observed metals in the intra-cluster medium. If the ratio of ejected metals to stellar spheroid mass is the same globally as in clusters of galaxies, we predicted that the present-day mass-weighted metallicity of a general intergalactic medium with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{igm}`$ = 0.015 will be $``$ 1/6 solar (see also Renzini 1997).

There is now a consensus that the inter-galactic medium has been significantly heated by a non-gravitational source (probably at rather early epochs). This “pre-heating” is required to explain the steep luminosity-temperature relation for the X-ray gas in galaxy clusters (e.g. Tozzi & Norman 2000), the existence of an entropy excess in the gas in the central regions of small clusters (Ponman, Cannon, & Navarro 1999), and the relative faintness of any contribution by the inter-galactic medium to the cosmic X-ray background (e.g. Pen 1999). The required amount of heating depends somewhat on the details and history of the heating process, but amounts to of-order 1 keV per baryon. It is interesting that this is just the amount produced by superwinds (assuming 100% heating efficiency!). A standard Salpeter IMF extending from 0.1 to 100 $`M_{}`$ produces about 1051 ergs of kinetic energy from supernovae per 80 $`M_{}`$ of low-mass stars ($``$ 1 $`M_{}`$). The present ratio of baryons in the intra-cluster medium to baryons in low-mass stars is $``$ 6 in clusters, so the amount of kinetic energy available in principle to heat the intra-cluster medium is then 1051 ergs per 480 $`M_{}`$, or $``$ 1 keV per baryon.

H2000 have summarized the evidence that starbursts are ejecting significant quantities of dust. If this dust can survive a trip into the intergalactic medium and remain intact for a Hubble time, they estimated that the upper bound on the global amount of intergalactic dust is $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{dust}`$ $``$ 10-4. While this is clearly an upper limit, it is a cosmologically interesting one: Aguirre (1999) argues that dust this abundant could in principle obviate the need for a positive cosmological constant, based on the Type Ia supernova Hubble diagram.

It seems clear that superwinds play a fundamental role in the evolution of galaxies and the inter-galactic medium.

#### Acknowledgments.

I would like to thank my principal collaborators on the work described in this contribution: L. Armus, M. Dahlem, R. Gonzalez-Delgado, M. Lehnert, C. Leitherer, A. Marlowe, C. Martin, G. Meurer, C. Norman, K. Sembach, D. Strickland, and K. Weaver. This work has been supported in part by grants from the NASA LTSA program and the $`HST`$, $`ROSAT`$, $`ASCA`$, and $`Chandra`$ GO programs.

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