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# HST/STIS Imaging of the Host Galaxy of GRB 980425/SN1998bw 1footnote 11footnote 1Based on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope (HST), obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract No. NAS5-26555 and on observations made with ESO Telescopes at the Paranal Observatory under programme ID 63.O-0065.

## 1 Introduction

There is evidence that at least some gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are related to supernovae (SNe). GRB 980425, GRB 970514 and GRB 980919 are consistent with being in temporal as well as spatial coincidence with SN1998bw, SN1997cy and SN1999E, respectively (Galama et al., 1998; Germany et al., 2000; Turatto et al., 2000; Thorsett & Hogg, 1999). The associations between GRB 970514 and SN1997cy, and between GRB 980919 and SN1999E, could be by chance. However, this is very unlikely for GRB 980425 since the temporal and spatial constraints are much tighter than for the two other possible GRB/SN associations (Galama et al., 1998). Furthermore, there is evidence for a contribution from SNe to the light-curves of GRB 970228 and GRB 980326 (Dar, 1999; Reichart, 1999; Bloom et al., 1999; Castro-Tirado & Gorosabel, 1999; Galama et al., 2000). However, less than 0.2% of SNe release detectable gamma-ray emission (Kippen et al., 1998; Woosley et al., 1999), and SN1997cy, SN1998bw and SN1999E were extremely bright and peculiar SNe. This association between GRBs and peculiar SNe suggests that GRB 980425 (and possibly also GRB 970514 and GRB 980919) were members of a rare class of GRBs and may not be indicative of normal GRBs. However, the temporal and spatial properties of the gamma radiation from GRB 980425, except for the low total luminosity, were not unusual (Galama et al., 1998; Pian et al., 2000).

In this Letter we present Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) clear and long-pass images of the host galaxy of SN1998bw as part of a large survey aimed at studying the morphology of GRB host galaxies and the locations of the GRBs within the host galaxies. SN1998bw occurred in a spiral arm of the face-on SB galaxy ESO 184–G82 (Holmberg et al., 1977). The redshift of ESO 184–G82 is 0.0085 (Tinney et al., 1998). The aims of this Letter are to characterize the region in ESO 184–G82 where SN1998bw occurred, and to measure or constrain the brightness of SN1998bw at a late epoch more than two years after the event.

We use a Hubble parameter of $`H_0=100h^1`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 and assume $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$ throughout this Letter. For this cosmology a redshift of $`z=0.0085`$ corresponds to a luminosity distance of $`25.65h^1`$ Mpc and a scale of $`122h^1`$ proper parsecs per arcsecond.

## 2 Observations and Data Reductions

The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) was used to obtain STIS/CCD images of ESO 184–G82 between 21:47 UT and 23:42 UT on 11 June 2000 (Holland et al., 2000b). A log of the HST observations is given in Table 1. The total exposure times were 1240 seconds in the 50CCD (clear, hereafter referred to as CL) aperture and 1185 seconds in the F28X50LP (long pass, hereafter referred to as LP) aperture222The 50CCD aperture has a central wavelength of 5850 Å and a width of 4410 Å. The F28X50LP aperture has a central wavelength of 7230 Å and a width of 2720 Å (STIS Handbook v4.1). The CCD gain was set to $`1\mathrm{e}^{}/\mathrm{ADU}`$ and the read-out noise was 4.46 ADU/pixel. The data was processed through the standard STIS pipeline and combined using the dither (v1.2) software (Fruchter & Hook, 2000) as implemented in IRAF333Image Reduction and Analysis Facility (IRAF), a software system distributed by the National Optical Observatories (NOAO). (v2.11.1)/STSDAS (v2.0.2). We used “pixfrac” $`=0.6`$ and a final output scale of $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}0254`$/pixel. These observations were taken as part of the Cycle 9 program GO-8640: Survey of the Host Galaxies of Gamma-Ray Bursts. The URL for the survey is http://www.ifa.au.dk/~hst/grb\_hosts/index.html (Holland et al., 2000a).

## 3 Results

The drizzled CL image is shown as Fig. 1. ESO 184–G82 is a barred spiral galaxy of Hubble type SBc (Rautiainen, 2000). The magnitude of the galaxy is $`B=15.19\pm 0.05`$, $`R=14.28\pm 0.05`$ (Lauberts & Valentijn, 1989), which corresponds to $`L_B=0.02L_B^{}`$ using $`M_B^{}=21.2+5\mathrm{log}_{10}(h)`$ (Marinoni et al., 1999).

The galaxy is clearly in a stage of active star formation. Fig. 1 shows that the optical appearance of the galaxy is dominated by a large number of high surface brightness star forming regions especially in the southern spiral arm where the SN occurred. When comparing the CL and LP images a large number of red giants can be seen within or near the star forming regions (two examples are seen in Fig. 2).

As also noted by Holmberg et al. (1977) ESO 184–G82 is member of a group of galaxies consisting of the three galaxies ESO 184–G80, ESO 184–G81 and ESO 184–G82. Furthermore, there is an previously unclassified Sb galaxy $`1.\mathrm{}1`$ south of ESO 184–G82 and a fainter bulge-dominated galaxy $`1.\mathrm{}7`$ south of ESO 184–G82. Hence, the star formation activity could be enhanced by interaction (see § 4).

### 3.1 Astrometry

The most precise determination of the absolute position of SN1998bw on the sky is based on the radio observations made with the Australian Telescope Compact Array April 28 1998 (Wieringa et al., 1998). This position is RA $`=`$ 19:35:03.31, Dec. $`=`$ $``$52:50:44.7 (J2000.0) with an error of $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}1`$. However, SN1998bw was very faint at the time of the STIS observations, and there are no other sources in the STIS Field of View (FOV) for which positions have been determined with equally high precision. In order to determine relative astrometry between SN1998bw and other objects in the STIS FOV we therefore retrieved images obtained with the ESO-VLT Antu telescope with the FORS1 instrument from the ESO archive. These images were taken at an epoch (1999 April 18) when the SN was still clearly visible. The journal of archive data is given in Table 2 (Leibundgut et al., 2000; Sollerman et al., 2000).

The precise location of the SN in the STIS CL image was derived from the ground based VLT images in the following way. The STIS images revealed several bright blue objects within $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}5`$ of the position of the SN. These objects were covered under the point-spread function (PSF) in the VLT images, which had a seeing of about $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}9`$. This affected the centroid determination of the SN somewhat, giving rise to a colour dependent position error of $`1.5`$ drizzled STIS pixels ($`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}038`$). By smoothing, scaling, and transforming the STIS CL and LP images, the contribution from the host galaxy, including the clusters in the proximity of the SN, could be subtracted completely from the VLT $`V`$ and $`I`$ images. Astrometry, based on these two subtracted images, gave accurate and internally consistent positions, based on six and eleven reference stars. The fits are six-parameter affine fits, with weights calculated from a noise model. The errors are the standard deviations of the residuals in the fit, properly normalized by weights and degrees of freedom. The final error of the weighted position was estimated to be about $`0.7`$ drizzled pixels in the CL image, or about $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}018`$. In the drizzled LP the error is slightly smaller.

In order to check this position daophot II (Stetson, 1987, 1999) with extensions (daomatch and daomaster) was applied to the drizzled STIS LP image and the ground based VLT $`R`$ image, respectively. Subsequently the two auxiliary programs daomatch and daomaster were used to derive a four-parameter transformation (offset, scale and orientation) from the positions of five isolated stars judged to be free of superposed nebulosities. The transformed position of the SN is within $`0.5`$ pixels of the value derived from our more formal astrometric procedure.

### 3.2 The Environment of the SN

As also noted by Leibundgut et al. (2000) and Sollerman et al. (2000) the SN is superposed on an H II region. The diameter of this region is approximately between $`2\mathrm{}`$ and $`3\mathrm{}`$, corresponding to a physical diameter of between $`250h^1`$ and $`350h^1`$ pc at $`z=0.0085`$. Fig. 2a shows a region with a size of $`1\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}0\times 1\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}0`$ centered on the position of the SN as determined in Sect. 3.1. At the exact position of the SN is the object marked by an arrow in Fig. 2a. The object is also seen in the LP image shown in Fig. 2c. In the following we will refer to this object as the SN. Also seen are six objects (in the following refered to as s1–s6) consistent with being point sources. In the CL image there appears to be an arc-like structure extending from the SN towards s6.

### 3.3 Photometry and PSF-Subtraction

We estimated the total AB magnitude of the SN, the other point sources (s1–s6) visible in Fig. 2 and the arc-like structure, on both the CL and LP images in the following way. For the photometry of the point sources we use daophot II. We determined the PSF in the same way as described in § 4 of Holland & Hjorth (1999). We used allstar (Stetson & Harris, 1988) with a fitting radius of $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}071`$ and a sky annulus of $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}076`$$`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}178`$ to fit a PSF to the object and determined aperture corrections by measuring the magnitudes of several stars in apertures with radii of $`1\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}108`$ (CL) and $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}963`$ (LP). Tables 14.3 and 14.5 of the STIS Instrument Handbook show that these radii correspond to $`100`$% of the encircled energy for a point source. We used the STIS zero points given in (Gardner et al., 2000) to convert the count rates to CL and LP magnitudes. We transformed the CL and LP magnitudes to Johnson $`V`$ and Kron–Cousins $`I`$ magnitudes using the calibrations of (Rejkuba et al., 2000). They used 33 stars with $`0.8<VI<2.0`$ and found that the RMS residuals of their calibrations were $`\sigma _V=0.24`$ and $`\sigma _I=0.17`$.

As seen in Fig. 2b and Fig. 2d all seven objects, including the probably SN remnant in the error ellipse, are well subtracted by the PSF. The results of our PSF-photometry are given in Table 3. The uncertainties in the $`V`$ and $`I`$ magnitudes are dominated by the uncertainties in the transformations from CL and LP. The $`\mathrm{\Delta }X`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }Y`$ values are the coordinates on the drizzled STIS CL image of each object relative to the SN remnant. The colours of s2 and s4 are consistent with red giant stars whereas the other four point sources have blue colours consistent with massive main-sequence stars.

We measured the surface brightness of the arc-like structure in the following way. We subtracted the point sources in Table 3 and smoothed the resulting images with a Gaussian with a full-width at half-maximum of three pixels. We then fit-by-eye a line through the arc and measured the mean countrate along this line. The sky was estimated from empty regions of the CL and LP images. The results of this procedure are $`\mu _V=21.9\pm 0.3`$ and $`\mu _I=20.3\pm 0.3`$, yielding $`VI=1.6\pm 0.4`$. This structure might be the source of the H$`\alpha `$ emission seen in late spectra of SN1998bw (Sollerman et al., 2000)

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 The Afterglow of GRB980425/SN1998bw

GRB 980425/SN1998bw occurred in the southern spiral arm of the sub-luminous ($`L_B=0.02L_B^{}`$), barred SBc galaxy ESO 184–G82. This galaxy is in a stage of strong star formation. In this way ESO 184–G82 resembles the LMC, which is also sub-luminous, barred and dominated by regions with strong star formation. We note that ESO 184–G82 is $`0.3h^2`$ as luminous as the LMC. For $`H_0=50`$$`80`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 (de Bernardis et al., 2000) ESO 184–G82 has a luminosity of $`0.5`$$`1.2L_{\mathrm{LMC}}`$.

There are two possible explanations for why ESO 184–G82 is undergoing strong star formation. These explanations may be related. Firstly, ESO 184–G82 has a bar. Whereas the presence of a bar in spiral galaxies does not, in general, correlate with the global star formation rate (Kennicutt, 1998) the bar strength has been found to correlate strongly with the global star formation rate of the galaxy (Aguerri, 1999). Secondly, although we only have a measured redshift for ESO 184–G82 (Tinney et al., 1998), the galaxy is probably member of a group of at least five galaxies simply based on the low likelihood of a chance projection. The nearest neighbour is an Sb galaxy at a projected separation of only $`8.3h^1`$ kpc. Moreover, ESO 184–G82 shows indications of being morphologically disturbed. Interaction induced star formation is therefore a likely explanation.

The SN occured in a star-forming region with several bright, young stars within a projected distance of $``$100 pc. In this respect, it is similar to most core-collapse SNe that typically are located within young stellar associations in spiral arms (Barth et al., 1996; Van Dyk et al., 1999).

The magnitude of the emission at the position of the SN 778 days after the discovery of the GRB is $`1`$ magnitude brighter than one would expect from a simple radioactive decay model (Sollerman et al., 2000). The emission in both the CL and LP image is well-fitted by a PSF at a position that is consistent with the precise position of the SN determined in § 3.1. The residuals remaining after subtracting the scaled PSF are consistent with noise. This suggests that the majority of the observed emission could in fact be from the SN. We tested our ability to resolve a star cluster in ESO 184–G82 by adding artificial clusters with Michie–King (Michie, 1963; King, 1966) profiles and the same flux as the SN remnant to the CL image as described in (Holland et al., 1999). We found that star clusters with core radii of $`r_c0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}013`$ ($`=1.6h^1`$ pc) appeared as extended objects and are not well fit by the PSF. This suggests that, if the SN did occur in a star cluster, the underlying star cluster is either physically very small and thus can not be distinguished from a point source, or that the underlying star cluster is very faint. If the emission is really dominated by the fading SN, as can only be confirmed by follow-up observations with the HST, this would imply a significant flattening of the light curve, possibly explained by interaction with circumstellar material or accretion on a black hole (Leibundgut et al., 2000; Parat et al., 2000; Sollerman et al., 2000), or the effect of the positron decay (Nakamura et al., 2000).

### 4.2 Implications for GRB-Research

These data provide a very solid confirmation of the hypothesis that at least some GRBs are strongly related to star formation (Paczyński, 1998). However, some GRBs, such as GRB 970508, show evidence that there was no SN like SN1998bw associated with them. Therefore, either GRBs are associated with non-standard-candle SNe, or only some GRBs are associated with SNe and the others have a different progenitor. Graziani et al. (1999) have used Bayesian methods to estimate that no more than $`5`$% of the GRBs that have been detected by BATSE were produced by known SNe Ib–Ic. However, (Galama et al., 1998) conservatively estimate the probability that the coincidence between GRB 980425 and SN1998bw is chance to be $`10^4`$. This suggests that GRB980425/SN1998bw was a member of an unusual class of GRBs/SNe.

GRB 980425 had a isotropic-equivalent energy of $`10^{48}`$ erg (Pian et al., 2000), making it $`10^4`$ less energetic than the other GRBs for which distances (and thus isotropic-equivalent energies) have been determined. If GRB 980425 had occurred at $`z=1`$ (the median redshift of the GRBs with measured redshifts) it would not have been detected. As of 30 June 2000 redshifts and total isotropic energies have been determined for only ten GRBs, with nine having energies between $`2\times 10^{51}`$ erg and $`3\times 10^{54}`$ erg, and one having an energy of $`10^{48}`$ erg. If we assume that this ratio holds for the entire BATSE 4B Catalogue (Paciesas et al., 1999) then the observed number of high-energy ($`E10^{51}`$ erg) GRBs with known redshifts (nine) implies that a high-energy GRB will occur at $`z0.01`$ only once every $`\mathrm{20\hspace{0.17em}000}`$ years. Therefore, it is not surprising that we have not observed any high-energy GRBs with $`z0.01`$. GRBs with isotropic-equivalent energies of $`10^{48}`$ may be common at $`z1`$, but are undetectable with current instruments.

We thank J. Sollerman and our anonymous referee for several useful comments that improved our manuscript on several important points. We also thank and P. Rautiainen for determining the Hubble type of ESO 184–G82. This work was supported by the Danish Natural Science Research Council (SNF).


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# Large Lepton Flavor Mixings in 𝑆𝑈(6)×𝑆𝑈(2)_𝑅 Model

## Acknowledgements

Authors would like to thank valuable discussions at the research meeting on neutrino physics held at Fuji-yoshida on 21st to 24th, August, 2000. The authors are supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for scientific Research from Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, Japan (No. 12047226).


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# Properties and evolution of disk galaxies in a hierarchical formation scenario

## References

Avila-Reese, V., Firmani, C., & Hernández X. 1998, ApJ, 505, 37

Avila-Reese, V, & Firmani, C. 2000a, RevMexA&A, 36, 23

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Courteau, S., & Rix, H-W. 1998, ApJ, 513, 561

Firmani, C., & Avila-Reese, V. 2000, MNRAS, 315, 457

Steinmetz, M., & Navarro, J.F. 1999, ApJ, 513, 555

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# Suppression of Quarkonium Production in Heavy Ion Collisions at RHIC and LHC

## 1 Introduction

At fixed target energies the hadronisation time $`t_f`$ for $`Q\overline{Q}`$ pair is small as compared to the nuclear radii, at collider energies this time is much larger than the size of the nucleus. Thus, at fixed target energies, the interaction of heavy quarkonium with the surrounding medium can be described effectively as hadronic  even within the hadronisation time. However, at collider energies a description of the process in terms of hadron degrees of freedom becomes questionable since a bound state of the heavy quark pair is formed far outside of the nucleus.

One major effect at collider energies is the transverse momentum broadening of $`Q\overline{Q}`$ pairs travelling through a medium. This changes the overlap integral between the $`Q\overline{Q}`$ pair and the wave functions of the heavy quarkonia. It is important that soft interactions of heavy quarks with nucleons do not change the longitudinal momentum of heavy quarks which may appear sensitive to the interaction with comovers which are neglected in this paper. Nuclear effects in the momentum distribution within the heavy quark pair due to the radiation of gluons which is sensitive to the properties of the QCD-matter produced in a nucleus-nucleus collision at collider energies  will be estimated separately in the section six.

The typical time scales for the creation of a hidden heavy flavour state are investigated in section two, in the third section a model is developed to calculate the influence of nuclear effects on the production of states with hidden heavy flavor in the midrapidity region at collider energies. In the fourth section this model will be used to predict heavy quarkonium products in $`AB`$ collisions at RHIC and LHC and in section five and six quarkonium suppression due to nuclear effects on the parton distribution functions and parton energy loss are evaluated.

## 2 Coherence Lengths

There are different time scales relevant for the production of quarkonium states:
1) the time needed to produce a heavy quark pair in a hard collision,
2) the time needed for a $`Q\overline{Q}`$ pair to form a bound state.

The production time of a $`Q\overline{Q}`$ pair in its rest frame is given by $`\tau _p=\frac{1}{m_Q}`$. This is 0.13 fm/c for $`c\overline{c}`$ and 0.05 fm/c for $`b\overline{b}`$. The Lorentz factor of the pair at midrapidity in the rest frame of the target is $`\gamma =\frac{\sqrt{s}}{2m_N}10`$, 20, 100 and 3000 for a Quarkonium state in the midrapidity region at SPS, Fermilab, RHIC and LHC energies. Thus, at SPS and Fermilab fixed target energies $`\gamma c\tau _p`$ is smaller than the average internucleon distance in nuclei $`r_{NN}1.8`$ fm. Thus, the production of heavy quark pairs is incoherent. However, at RHIC the production distance of $`c\overline{c}`$ pairs is already as large as the diameter of a gold nucleus, and for $`b\overline{b}`$ pairs $`c\tau _p>1.8`$ fm, but this is still small as compared to the nuclear radius. At LHC both production distances exceed the diameter of a lead nucleus by an order of magnitude.

The hadronisation time $`t_H`$ resp. the coherence length $`l_c`$ of heavy Quarkonium is $`l_c=ct_H=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Delta }E}\frac{\gamma }{\mathrm{\Delta }M}`$ with:
$`\mathrm{\Delta }E=\sqrt{p^2+(M_{Q\overline{Q}}+\mathrm{\Delta }M)^2}\sqrt{p^2+M_{Q\overline{Q}}^2}\frac{(M_{Q\overline{Q}}+\mathrm{\Delta }M)^2M_{Q\overline{Q}}^2}{2p}\frac{M_{Q\overline{Q}}\mathrm{\Delta }M}{p}=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }M}{\gamma }.`$
Here $`p`$ is the momentum of the Quarkonium in the rest frame of the target, $`M_{Q\overline{Q}}`$ is the mass of the $`Q\overline{Q}`$-pair and $`\mathrm{\Delta }M=\psi ^2(k)\frac{k^2}{M_Q}\mathrm{d}^3k/\psi ^2(k)\mathrm{d}^3k`$, where $`\psi (k)`$ is the wavefunction of the Quarkonium state in momentum space. That means $`\mathrm{\Delta }M`$ is the average kinetic energy of the $`Q\overline{Q}`$-pair in the bound state and $`l_c/\gamma =0.44(0.34)`$ fm for the $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$ ($`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$).

Thus, for charm and bottom production at RHIC and LHC $`l_c>2R_A`$ ($`R_A`$ is the nuclear radius), $`l_c<2R_A`$ for fixed target at Fermilab ($`\gamma 20`$) and at SPS energies. The applicability of the approach developed in this paper requires that $`l_c>2R_A`$ which is fulfilled at RHIC and LHC (and at large $`x_f`$ at Fermilab fixed target energy range, where $`\gamma 100`$ also can be reached).

## 3 Description of the Model Approach

We assume here that $`Q\overline{Q}`$ pairs are produced in $`AB`$ collisions predominantly in hard collisions. The basic quantity is the cross section of production of $`Q\overline{Q}`$ pair with light cone momenta $`z_i,k_i`$, which we parametrize as $`\frac{d\sigma (ABQ\overline{Q}+X)}{\mathrm{d}^2k_1\mathrm{d}z_1\mathrm{d}z_2\mathrm{d}^2k_2}=D_{AB}(z_1,z_2)\mathrm{exp}(B(AB)(k_1^2+k_2^2))`$. Here $`k_i\{i=1,2\}`$ are the transverse momenta of the $`Q`$ and the $`\overline{Q}`$ quark and $`z_i\{i=1,2\}`$ are the fractions of their longitudinal momenta. Such a factorization does not contradict the data in pp collisions .

To evaluate the suppression of hidden heavy flavour production resulting from the broadening of the transverse momentum distributions of $`Q`$ quarks due to final state interaction, we deduce first a relationship between the slopes for the various processes of heavy quark production. In the following we use the relative transverse momentum $`k_t=\frac{k_1k_2}{2}`$ and the total transverse momentum $`p_t=k_1+k_2`$ of the pair, writing $`\frac{d\sigma (ABQ\overline{Q}+X)}{\mathrm{d}^2k_t\mathrm{d}^2p_t\mathrm{d}z_1\mathrm{d}z_2}=D_{AB}(z_1,z_2)\mathrm{exp}\left(B(AB)\left(\frac{p_t^2}{2}2k_t^2\right)\right)`$.

To take into account possible nuclear effects on the longitudinal momentum distribution we make the ansatz $`D_{AB}(z_1,z_2)=D(AB)f_{AB}(p_z)\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{k_z^2}{C_{AB}^2}\right).`$ where $`p_z`$ and $`k_z`$ are the total and relative longitudinal momentum. We further assume that $`f_{AB}(p_z)=f_{pp}(p_z)`$, which means that we neglect parton energy losses of the pair, this effect will be discussed later on. The normalization condition follows from the QCD factorization theorem  for the total cross section: $`\frac{D(AB)}{B(AB)^2C_{AB}}=\frac{ABD(pp)}{B(pp)^2C_{pp}}`$ The differential cross sections are proportional to the square of the two body wave functions $`\varphi `$.

The production cross section of bound states of heavy quarks is proportional to the overlap integral of the two-body wave function and the wave function of the bound $`\psi (k_t)`$ state to get $`\frac{\mathrm{d}^3\sigma (ABQuarkonium+X)}{\mathrm{d}^2p_t\mathrm{d}p_z}\left|\psi (k_t,k_z)|\varphi _{AB}(k_t,p_t,k_z,p_z)\right|^2.`$ Here we neglected the difference between the current quark mass in the two body wave function and the constituent quark mass in the wave function of the bound state. With this one can evaluate the survival probability: $`S\frac{\sigma (A+BQuarkonium+X)}{AB\sigma (p+pQuarkonium+X)}`$. Our final result is then

$$S=\frac{B(AB)C_{AB}}{B(pp)C_{pp}}\left|\frac{\mathrm{d}^3k\psi (k)\mathrm{exp}(B(AB)k_t^2)\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{k_z^2}{2C_{AB}^2}\right)}{\mathrm{d}^3k\psi (k)\mathrm{exp}(B(pp)k_t^2)\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{k_z^2}{2C_{pp}^2}\right)}\right|^2$$
(1)
up to nuclear effects in the structure function.

Note that if one defines the survival probability as the ratio of the differential cross section $`\frac{\mathrm{d}^2\sigma }{\mathrm{d}^2p_t}`$ for nuclear and nucleon targets their $`p_t`$ dependence would be a factor $`\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{B(AB)B(pp)}{2}p_t^2\right)`$. That means that the $`p_t`$ dependence of $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$ suppression is due to the broadening of the transverse momentum distribution as a result of the final sstate interactions of the $`Q`$ quarks in the nuclear medium.

## 4 Predictions for Collider Energies

To adjust the parameters of eq. (1) we use the quarkonium wave functions of ref.  and the following data:

The E789-group (Fermilab) measured a value of $`B(pAu)=0.91\pm 0.12\mathrm{GeV}^2`$  with the fit function $`\frac{\mathrm{d}N}{\mathrm{d}k_t^2}(D,\overline{D})\mathrm{exp}(B(pAu)k_t^2)`$ in proton-gold collisions for the transverse momentum distribution of $`D`$ and $`\overline{D}`$ mesons. The same group found $`n=0.55\pm 0.01\mathrm{GeV}^2`$  with $`\frac{\mathrm{d}N}{\mathrm{d}p_t^2}(J/\mathrm{\Psi })\mathrm{exp}(np_t^2)`$, also in proton-gold for the transverse momentum distribution of $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$’s. Within the error bars these values of $`n`$ and $`B(pA)`$ satisfy the relation $`n=\frac{B(pA)}{2}`$ that was predicted in the previous section. With the fit  to the $`p_t`$ broadening of $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$’s this yields $`B(pp)=1.18(1.5)\mathrm{GeV}^2`$.

There are no data for the nuclear broadening of the longitudinal momentum distribution. We assumed isotropic production in the $`c\overline{c}`$ rest frame which yields $`C_{pp}^2=1/(2B(pp))0.42`$ GeV2. In fig. 1 the result of eq. (1) is plotted versus the transverse momentum broadening of the $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$’s: $`\mathrm{\Delta }p_t^2=2/B(pp)2/B(AB)`$. $`\mathrm{\Delta }p_t^2=0.48`$ GeV2 was found at Fermilab energies in $`pAu`$. $`C_{AB}^2=C_{pp}^2`$ is used as a first approximation. $`S1`$ for the $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$. That means there is practically no change due to the broadening of the transverse momentum distribution.

For the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ meson we use $`<p_t^2>=2.59`$ GeV2  and thus $`B(pp)=0.77\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ and $`C_{pp}^2=1/(2B(pp))0.65`$ GeV2. For the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ meson production we obtain even a slight enhancement.

Figure 1: The righthandside of eq.(1) vs. the transverse momentum broadening for the $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$ and the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ is plotted.

Ref.  reported that $`\mathrm{\Delta }p_t^2`$ is nearly a factor 5 larger for $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$’s than for Drell Yan pair production. In our model this is due to a color factor of $`\frac{9}{4}`$ because $`c\overline{c}`$ production is dominated by gluon-gluon fusion, while Drell Yan is due to quark-antiquark annihilation and due to the factor of two between the transverse momentum distribution of $`c`$ resp. $`\overline{c}`$ Quarks and the bound states evaluated above.

## 5 Nuclear Effects on the Gluon Distribution Functions

The term nuclear effects on the gluon distribution functions means that the ratio of the gluon distribution functions in a nucleus $`A`$ and a nucleon $`N`$ differs from 1, i.e $`\frac{G_A(x,Q^2)}{AG_N(x,Q^2)}<1`$ in the shadowing region, $`\frac{G_A(x,Q^2)}{AG_N(x,Q^2)}>1`$ for $`0.1x0.3`$ and for $`x>0.8`$. The Bjorken $`x`$’s of interest for the production of $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$’s $`x=0.0155`$ and $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$’s $`x=0.0473`$ are $`x(Q\overline{Q})=\frac{M_{Q\overline{Q}}}{\sqrt{s}}`$.

Up to now, the transition points between these regions are not well known. Especially for gluons, the error bars of the data are large. Also from a theoretical point of view they are not unambigious. Therefore, the calculation of these nuclear effects, at not too small $`x`$, is model dependent. To reduce this model dependence we use here two different recent approaches from ref.  (called $`EKS`$ in the following) and from ref.  ($`FS`$). (Nuclear shadowing in ($`FS`$) has been calculated in a nearly model independent way, but the region of enhancement requires modelling.)

In tab. 1 one can see that quarkonium production at RHIC is enhanced while it is shadowed at LHC. At LHC energies the predictions of both approaches become qualitative different. The latter one based on significantly larger cross section of diffraction in the gluon channel or equivalently on the $`9/4`$ enhancement of color dipole build of color octets. It predicts a stronger shadowing of gluons than the shadowing of quarks and of antiquarks, while in the $`EKS`$ model it is as strong as the shadowing for sea-quarks.

## 6 Suppression due to Parton Energy Loss

Parton energy loss shifts the partons to smaller x. We use here the parton energy loss model reviewed in ref. . $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ is the parton energy loss in a medium. For cold QCD-matter $`\mathrm{\Delta }E=4\text{ GeV}\left(\frac{L}{10\text{ fm}}\right)^2`$. For hot QCD-matter $`\mathrm{\Delta }E=60\text{ GeV}\left(\frac{L}{10\text{ fm}}\right)^2`$.

With $`L=R_{Au}=7`$ fm this yields $`\mathrm{\Delta }E=2\text{ GeV}`$ for cold matter and $`\mathrm{\Delta }E=30\text{ GeV}`$ for hot matter. For RHIC energies this value has to be divided by 100 since in  the parton energy loss was calculated in the rest frame of the target while we are interested in the midrapidity region. Therefore, an initial parton with $`x(J/\mathrm{\Psi })=0.017`$ in hot QCD-matter is needed to produce a $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$. For $`pA`$ collisions
$`\sqrt{s}`$ in GeV 60 140 200 6000    $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$ (FS) 1.11 1.05 1 0.65  $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$ (EKS) 1.16 1.01 0.96 0.84  $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ (FS) 1.09 1.04 1.09 0.83  $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ (EKS) 1.104 1.138 1.12 0.87    Table 1: $`\frac{G_A(x,Q^2)}{AG_N(x,Q^2)}`$ at different initial energies (see text).
this yields an suppression factor of $`\frac{G(0.017,3.1\text{ GeV})}{G(0.0155,3.1\text{ GeV})}=0.87`$ for the gluon distribution parametrization of Ref. . For the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ this factor is 0.94. For cold QCD-matter this is negligible, since $`x=0.0156`$ for the $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$. This yields a suppression factor of 0.99. For $`AB`$ collisions this values have to be squared, since both initial gluons can loose energy. Therefore, the suppression for the $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$ ($`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$) in hot matter in $`AB`$ collisions is 0.76 (0.88). This educated guess must suffice for the time being, because the parton energy loss is theoretical not well understood.

## 7 Discussion and Conclusion

* the relevant physics changes due to coherence length:
$``$ hadronic description at fixed target, partonic at colliders
* nuclear effects on the parton distribution functions yields:
$``$ anti-shadowing at RHIC, shadowing at LHC
* parton energy loss seems to be uneffective in cold QCD matter
* other possible effects not discussed here include:
$``$ interaction with comovers
$``$ long living phase of hot QCD-matter
$``$ $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$-production and $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ comes also from the decay of higher resonances
* $`pA`$ collisions are needed to distinguish between the different effects.

The authors wants to thank V. Guzey for discussions and technical support concerning nuclear effects in the parton distribution functions. LG wants to thank the Josef Buchmann Stiftung. LF acknowledges support by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.

## References


text:
# Black Hole Thermodynamics, Induced Gravity and Gravity in Brane Worlds

## Abstract

One of explanations of the black hole entropy implies that gravity is entirely induced by quantum effects. By using arguments based on the AdS/CFT correspondence we give induced gravity interpretation of the gravity in a brane world in higher dimensional anti-de Sitter (AdS) space. The underlying quantum theory is $`SU(N)`$ theory where $`N`$ is related to the CFT central charge. The theory includes massless fields which correspond to degrees of freedom of the boundary CFT. In addition, on the brane there are massive degrees of freedom with masses proportional to $`l^1`$ where $`l`$ is the radius of AdS. At the conformal boundary of AdS they are infinitely heavy and completely decouple. It is the massive fields which can explain the black hole entropy. We support our interpretation by a microscopic model of a 2D brane world in $`AdS_3`$.

1Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Bogoliubov Laboratory of Theoretical Physics,
141 980 Dubna, Russia

The title of this talk111This talk was given at the International Conference ”Quantization, Gauge Theory and Strings” dedicated to the memory of Professor E.Fradkin, Moscow, June 5-10, 2000. includes three different ideas. The first idea is that black holes possess thermodynamical properties which hint at microscopical degrees of freedom responsible for the black hole entropy. The second one is Sakharov’s idea  that the Einstein action can be entirely induced by vacuum polarization effects in quantum field theory on curved backgrounds. The rest part of the title is related to new alternative to compactification , which treats our world as a brane embedded in a space of higher dimension. If curvature of this space is negative the gravity localized on the brane is similar to the Einstein gravity . This alternative may help to solve the hierarchy problem and it predicts a new physics in accelerator experiments. The purpose of this talk is to present, by joining these three ideas, arguments in favor of induced gravity interpretation of gravity in brane worlds  and discuss features of the corresponding microscopic theory222Recently the induced gravity approach was also discussed in  for branes in extra Minkowski space. Here we consider higher dimensional space with negative curvature..

According to black hole thermodynamics black holes possess an entropy $`S^{BH}`$ which is related to the surface area of the horizon $`𝒜`$. The precise relation is given by the Bekenstein-Hawking formula $`S^{BH}=𝒜/(4G)`$ where $`G`$ is the Newton constant. This quantity appears in purely classical theory and it is, perhaps, one of the strongest arguments that the Einstein gravity is not fundamental but is an effective form of some underlying quantum theory which has microscopical degrees of freedom capable to explain $`S^{BH}`$. At the present moment the string/D-brane theory is the best candidate to this role and there is a number of computations that prove it correctly counts the black hole entropy (see  for a review). Unfortunately direct computations in the string theory are rather involved. That is why the above results concern extremal and near extremal black holes where one can use additional arguments and reduce the problem to statistical mechanics of some simple dual systems. Although these results are very important they are not quite satisfactory. First, the computations are not universal and, second, they say little about true degrees of freedom in the physical space-time of the black hole.

There are other explanations of $`S^{BH}`$. One of them , is based on Sakharov’s idea that the Einstein action can be entirely induced by quantum effects. The Bekenstein-Hawking entropy in induced gravity can be related to loss of information about states of a physical vacuum inside the black hole horizon (see  for recent discussion and references). This explanation is universal in a sense it is equally applicable to Schwarzschild, Kerr or Kerr-Newman black holes and does not depend on details of the models . The degrees of freedom which are responsible for $`S^{BH}`$ are those quantum fields (constituents) which induce the Einstein action. Their location is a narrow strip near the black hole horizon.

It should be emphasized that induced gravity models  are not necessarily an alternative to the string theory because the both pictures have common basic features. In the string theory the classical gravity and matter fields appear from a tree-level closed string diagram which, on the other hand, can be interpreted as a one-loop diagram of an open string . Thus, there is a possibility that gravity and black hole entropy in string theory are purely quantum loop effects .

To proceed let us consider a simple induced gravity model of . It consists of free massive scalar and spinor fields. Suppose that masses $`m_i`$ of all constituents are determined by a single scale $`M`$, i.e., that $`m_i=\alpha _iM`$ where $`\alpha _i`$ are dimensionless coefficients of the order of unity. The induced Newton constant $`G`$ can be computed exactly , $`G^1=\gamma M^2`$, where

$$\gamma =\frac{1}{6\pi }\left[\underset{s}{}(16\xi _s)\alpha _s^2\mathrm{ln}\alpha _s+2\underset{d}{}\alpha _d^2\mathrm{ln}\alpha _d\right]$$
(1)
and indices $`s`$ and $`d`$ are referred to scalars or spinors, respectively. The constants $`\xi _s`$ determine non-minimal couplings of scalar constituents which are required to make $`G`$ free from ultra-violet divergences. Without special tuning the coefficient $`\gamma `$ is of the order of $`\alpha _i`$ and to have the correct value for $`G`$ one has to assume that $`M`$ is of the order of the Planck mass $`M_{Pl}`$.

Suppose we replace each field in the considered model by a $`SU(N)`$ multiplet in adjoint representation. It is clear that in the new model $`G^1=\gamma (N^21)M^2`$ and at large $`N`$ one has to take $`MM_{Pl}/N`$. This simple observation shows that there may be two scales in the induced gravity, one determined by masses of fields and the other by their number. If $`N`$ is large, $`M`$ can be sufficiently small and this may help to avoid the hierarchy problem.

Consider now the brane world model suggested by Randall and Sundrum , more precisely, the scenario with single brane. We take the bulk cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=6/l^2`$ and assume that the brane divides the $`AdS`$ space into two identical parts. The correspponding action is333We work in the Euclidean theory.

$$I=\frac{1}{16\pi G_5}\sqrt{g}d^5x\left({}_{}{}^{(5)}R+12/l^2\right)+\frac{1}{4\pi G_5}\sqrt{h}d^4x(K+4\pi G_5\mu ),$$
(2)
Here $`g`$ and $`h`$ are determinants of the bulk and the brane metrics, respectively, $`\mu `$ is the brane tension. The extrinsic curvature $`K`$ appears in (2) due to the jump on the brane of normal derivatives of the bulk metric. The role of the gravitational equations in the brane world is played by the Israel equations

$$\frac{1}{4\pi G_5}(K_{\mu \nu }h_{\mu \nu }K)=\mu h_{\mu \nu }.$$
(3)
The solution of equations in the bulk can be written in the Fefferman-Graham form (see, for instance,  and references therein)

$$ds_5^2=\frac{l^2dr^2}{r^2}+h_{\mu \nu }(r,x)dx^\mu dx^\nu ,$$
(4)
where $`r>0`$ and $`h_{\mu \nu }(r,x)`$ satisfies certain constrains. $`h_{\mu \nu }(r,x)`$ is singular at $`r=0`$ which is a conformal boundary of (4). The constraints on $`h_{\mu \nu }`$ can be resolved at small $`r`$

$$h_{\mu \nu }(r,x)=\frac{l^2}{r^2}\left(g_{\mu \nu }(x)+g_{\mu \nu }^{(2)}(x)r^2+g_{\mu \nu }^{(4)}(x)r^4+\overline{g}_{\mu \nu }^{(4)}(x)r^4\mathrm{ln}r/l+\mathrm{}\right).$$
(5)
Here $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ is the metric of the conformal boundary, $`g_{\mu \nu }^{(2)}`$ is linear in the curvature of $`g_{\mu \nu }`$, $`\overline{g}_{\mu \nu }^{(4)}`$ is quadratic in the curvature and traceless. Definition of $`g_{\mu \nu }^{(4)}`$ in terms of $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ admits an ambiguity and in general the two quantities are independent. Other terms in (5) are determined in terms of $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ and $`g_{\mu \nu }^{(4)}`$.

Suppose now that $`r`$ is the coordinate in the extra dimension and the brane is located at a small fixed $`r`$. Hence, $`x^\mu `$ are the coordinates on the brane. It follows from (5) that

$$\frac{2}{l}(K_{\mu \nu }h_{\mu \nu }K)=\frac{6}{l^2}h_{\mu \nu }(R_{\mu \nu }\frac{1}{2}Rh_{\mu \nu })+2r^2\mathrm{ln}\frac{r}{l}\overline{g}_{\mu \nu }^{(4)}+U_{\mu \nu }.$$
(6)
Here $`h_{\mu \nu }(x)`$ is the metric on the brane which coincides with $`h_{\mu \nu }(r,x)`$ at fixed $`r`$, $`R`$ and $`R_{\mu \nu }`$ are 4D curvatures determined by $`h_{\mu \nu }`$. The tensor $`U_{\mu \nu }`$ is polynomial in curvatures of $`h_{\mu \nu }`$ and depends on $`g_{\mu \nu }^{(4)}`$. By using (6) and (3) we conclude that gravity on the brane is an Einstein gravity, plus square curvature terms, plus a correction $`U_{\mu \nu }`$. The four dimensional Newton constant is $`G_4=G_5/l`$. To eliminate a cosmological constant in the brane world one has to put $`\mu =3/(4\pi lG_5)`$.

The quantity $`U_{\mu \nu }`$ in (6) is important because it results in a modification of the Newton law on the brane at small distances. There is an elegant interpretation  of this correction based on AdS/CFT correspondence . In a generalized formulation, this correspondence relates a classical gravitational action on AdS and the effective action of a quantum conformal field theory on the boundary of AdS. It enables one to relate $`U_{\mu \nu }`$ to the renormalized stress energy tensor $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ of the CFT. More precisely, if $`U_{\mu \nu }`$ is expressed in terms of $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ and $`r`$ the quantity $`8\pi G_4T_{\mu \nu }(g)`$ is the limiting value of $`l^2/r^2U_{\mu \nu }(r,g)`$ when $`r`$ goes to zero.

This fact is crucial for our further interpretation: if gravity on the brane is really induced by quantum effects then an underlying theory reduces to a conformal boundary theory at vanishing $`r`$.

We now have to understand how may this theory look like at finite values of $`r`$ and what is the origin of the Einstein term in equation (6). We have two options: a) there is a one-to-one correspondence of physical degrees of freedom in the theory at finite $`r`$ to degrees of freedom of the boundary CFT and b) the underlying theory on the brane has extra degrees of freedom.

The first option is possible when theory at finite $`r`$ is treated as a regularized form of the CFT. In this case the parameter $`r`$ is related to the ultraviolet cutoff of the CFT (the so called IR/UV duality) and the local terms in (6) are generated by divergences of the effective action. In the canonical AdS/CFT they are eliminated by ”renormalization” of action (2).

There is, however, a number of objections against this point of view and the central argument is that a regularized theory always has unphysical properties. For instance, in the dimensional regularization one formally works with complex dimensionalities, in the Pauli-Villars scheme some fields have wrong statistics, a lattice regularization breaks the Lorentz invariance. There are also technical objections. Presumably, the dual CFT is $`𝒩=4`$ supersymmetric Yang Mills (SYM). This theory cannot result in the divergent cosmological constant and explain the origin of $`6l^2h_{\mu \nu }`$ in (6) 444To save the situation one may argue that at finite $`r`$ some degrees of freedom are massive and part of supersymmetries is broken. It cannot happen however because at $`r0`$ these massive fields would become infinitely heavy (see below) and the resulting boundary theory would have less degrees of freedom than the CFT.. There may be also difficulties in explaining the Einstein tensor in (6): when this theory is considered on a curved manifold it does not result in divergences of the Newton constant, at least at one loop.

We, thus, come to another option: the theory at finite $`r`$ is an ordinary QFT which includes extra physical degrees of freedom as compared to the boundary CFT. The extra fields are massive and induce the same local terms which appear in the 4D equations from Fefferman-Graham asymptotic. The structure of the local terms in the 4D Lagrangian can be easily understood from (2) and (5)

$$\frac{1}{G_5}\underset{n=0}{}l^{2n+1}(cR^{n+1}+bR^n^2R+\mathrm{})N^2\underset{n=0}{}l^{2(n1)}(cR^{n+1}+bR^n^2R+\mathrm{})$$
(7)
where $`b`$, $`c`$ are dimensionless coefficients. The quantity $`N^2=\pi l^3/(2G_5)`$ appears in the AdS/CFT as a coefficient by the conformal anomaly in the boundary CFT (a central charge) and is related to the gauge $`SU(N)`$ group. The form of gravitational couplings in (7) indicates that masses of the fields are of the order of $`l^1`$ while their number is proportional to $`N^2`$. These properties are typical to induced gravity models  where all fields are taken as adjoint $`SU(N)`$ multiplets.

To summarize, the underlying QFT looks as a $`SU(N)`$ gauge theory with both massive and massless degrees of freedom. When the curvature radius on the brane is much larger than $`l`$ the massive fields induce the Einstein gravity while the massless fields result in a correction in a form of non-local stress energy tensor $`U_{\mu \nu }`$, see (6). When one goes to the theory at zero $`r`$ the fates of massless and massive fields are different. Massless fields simply reduce to the boundary CFT. As for the massive fields, their masses on the boundary have to be rescaled in accordance with the definition of the boundary metric $`g_{\mu \nu }=r^2l^2h_{\mu \nu }`$. This leads at zero $`r`$ to infinitely large masses $`lr^1mr^1`$. Hence, the massive fields do not propagate on the boundary and all the theory reduces to the CFT.

It is clear that finding an induced gravity model for a 4D brane world explicitly is a complicated problem. So let us illustrate how this induced gravity scenario is realized in a simplified model of a two-dimensional brane world in $`AdS_3`$. In three dimensions the bulk action has the same form as (2) with cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=l^2`$ and Newton constant $`G_3`$. Consider one of solutions of bulk equations which can be found by following the analysis of

$$ds^2=\frac{l^2}{r^2}dr^2+\frac{1}{r^2}e^{2\sigma }\left((1+r^2a)^2d\tau ^2+(1r^2b)^2dx^2\right),$$
(8)
$$a=\frac{1}{4}l^2e^{2\sigma }(\sigma ^{})^2,b=\frac{1}{4}l^2e^{2\sigma }(2\sigma ^{\prime \prime }+(\sigma ^{})^2).$$
(9)
Here $`\sigma =\sigma (x)`$, $`\sigma ^{}=d\sigma /dx`$ and we suppose that now $`r`$ is dimensionless. Solution (9) corresponds to the boundary metric $`e^{2\sigma }(d\tau ^2+dx^2)`$. For simplicity we suppose that the brane is located at $`r=1`$ and its metric is

$$ds_b^2=e^{2\sigma }\left((1+a)^2d\tau ^2+(1b)^2dx^2\right).$$
(10)
(Metrics on branes located at arbitrary $`r`$ are obtained from (10) by trivial redefinition of $`\sigma `$.) The Israel equations (3) in two dimensions are reduced to the single independent equation

$$K_{\tau \tau }=4\pi \mu G_3e^{2\sigma }(1b)^2.$$
(11)
Together with (8),(9) it yields $`a=b=(z2)/(z+2)`$, where $`z8\pi \mu lG_3`$ is a parameter (definition (9) requires $`z<2`$). As a result, the ”dilaton” field $`\sigma `$ is described by the Liouville equation

$$e^{2\sigma }\sigma ^{\prime \prime }=\frac{4}{l^2}\frac{z2}{z+2}$$
(12)
and we can conclude that the brane-world geometry (10) is locally $`AdS_2`$ with the curvature radius $`l/(2z)`$. The Liouville gravity has a number of interesting properties, one of which is the existence of solutions which can be interpreted as $`AdS_2`$ black holes. The entropy of these black holes can be explained in the corresponding induced gravity model . It is for this reason, to have the Liouville gravity on the brane, we have chosen the bulk solution in form (8). Another alternative, a 2D de Sitter brane, was discussed in .

Let us construct now an effective gravitational action on the brane, i.e., a functional $`\mathrm{\Gamma }[h]`$ of the brane metric such that

$$\frac{2}{\sqrt{h}}\frac{\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }[h]}{\delta h_{\mu \nu }}=\frac{1}{4\pi G_3}(K^{\mu \nu }h^{\mu \nu }K).$$
(13)
It is more easy to ”integrate” this equation if one brings brane metric (10) to a conformal form

$$ds_b^2=e^{2\phi }(d\tau ^2+dy^2),$$
(14)
$$e^{2\phi }=e^{2\sigma }(1+a)^2,\left(\frac{dy}{dx}\right)^2=\left(\frac{1b}{1+a}\right)^2$$
(15)
and find dependence on $`\phi `$ from equation

$$\frac{\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }[\phi ]}{\delta \phi }=\frac{1}{4\pi G_3}e^{2\phi }K.$$
(16)
To integrate (16) is still a difficult task which can be accomplished if the ”dilaton coupling” is small, $`e^{2\phi }1`$. The latter means that the brane is close to the boundary. From (15) one gets

$$K=\frac{2}{l}\left[1+\frac{l^2}{2}\phi ^{\prime \prime }e^{2\phi }+\frac{l^4}{8}(\phi ^{})^2(2\phi ^{\prime \prime }+(\phi ^{})^2)e^{4\phi }+\mathrm{}\right],$$
(17)
where $`\phi ^{}=d\phi /dy`$. A solution to (16) is a series in $`e^{2\phi }`$

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }[\phi ]=\frac{l}{4\pi G_3}𝑑\tau 𝑑ye^{2\phi }\left[\frac{1}{l^2}+\frac{1}{2}(\phi ^{})^2e^{2\phi }+\frac{l^2}{24}(\phi ^{})^4e^{4\phi }+\mathrm{}\right].$$
(18)
As follows from (18) the brane action, expressed in terms of the metric $`h_{\mu \nu }`$ has a very non-local form. At small couplings only the first two terms in (18) are important and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ coincides with action of the Liouville theory with central charge $`c=3l/G_3`$. This fact is not surprising: reducing the coupling $`e^{2\phi }`$ is equivalent to moving the brane closer to the boundary where one recovers the boundary CFT, the Liouville theory in the given case.

If $`c`$ is large the discussed Liouville gravity can be entirely induced by a two-dimensional ultraviolet finite quantum field theory on a curved background with metric (14), see . The theory includes $`N`$ free massless scalar fields, where $`N=3l/G_3`$ and a number of massive scalar and spinor fields which induce the 2D cosmological term. It is not difficult to see how this model has to be modified to induce the non-Liouville terms in (18). The simplest way is to introduce ”non-minimal” couplings of massive scalar constituents to the dilaton, $`V_s(\phi )\varphi _s^2`$, and find out $`V_s(\phi )`$ perturbatively. In the leading order

$$V_s=e^{4\phi }\left[\alpha _s(\phi ^{})^4+\beta _s(\phi ^{\prime \prime })^2+O(e^{2\phi })\right],$$
(19)
where $`\alpha _s`$, $`\beta _s`$ are dimensionless constants, $`_s\alpha _s=_s\beta _s=0`$. By a special choice of $`\beta _s`$ one can cancel $`R^2`$-terms in the effective quantum action which are absent in (18). $`\alpha _s`$ can always be chosen to reproduce the coefficient by $`(\phi ^{})^4`$ in (18).

In this way one can compute $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`V_s`$ perturabatively order by order and find out a non-local microscopic quantum theory which describes gravity in the 2D brane world. This theory has the same features as we discussed above for the four-dimensional brane. First of all, though the central charge of the boundary Liouville theory is determined only by the number of the massless degrees of freedom, the presence of the massive fields is important for the same reasons as in four dimensions (to cancel divergences and induce a cosmological constant). There are other common features. For instance, in 2D the numbers of scalars and spinors, $`N_s`$ and $`N_d`$, are related to $`N`$ by the constraint $`N_s+N2N_d=0`$ needed to cancel the divergences. Thus, the most natural way to go to large $`N`$ is to suppose that $`N_sN_dN`$. A simple model with this property is where all fields are in the fundamental representation of $`SU(N)`$. If masses of the constituents are fixed by a scale $`M`$ the 2D induced cosmological constant $`\lambda `$ behaves as $`NM^2`$. On the other hand, in the brane world model $`\lambda 1/(lG_3)`$ (see (18)) and $`Nl/G_3`$, which means that $`Ml^1`$. Hence, as in four dimensions, masses of fields should be proportional to the inverse radius of $`AdS_3`$.

In the end let us return to the problem of the black hole entropy. In a 2D brane world in the small dilaton coupling limit this entropy can be interpreted as the entropy of entanglement of massless constituents . This is, however, a feature of two dimensions. The degrees of freedom responsible for $`S^{BH}`$ in four dimensions are massive constituents . Massless constituents corresponding to the boundary CFT are analogous to a quantum gas around a black hole and their entropy should be identified with a quantum correction to $`S^{BH}`$. This differs our interpretaion from the point of view of .

Acknowledgements. The author is grateful to J. Buchbinder, N. Kaloper and G. Kunstatter for helpful discussions. This work is supported in part by the RFBR grant N 99-02-18146 and NATO Collaborative Linkage Grant CLG.976417.


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# Computing the Complete Gravitational Wavetrain from Relativistic Binary Inspiral

\[

## Abstract

We present a new method for generating the nonlinear gravitational wavetrain from the late inspiral (pre-coalescence) phase of a binary neutron star system by means of a numerical evolution calculation in full general relativity. In a prototype calculation, we produce 214 wave cycles from corotating polytropes, representing the final part of the inspiral phase prior to reaching the ISCO. Our method is based on the inequality that the orbital decay timescale due to gravitational radiation is much longer than an orbital period and the approximation that gravitational radiation has little effect on the structure of the stars. We employ quasi-equilibrium sequences of binaries in circular orbit for the matter source in our field evolution code. We compute the gravity-wave energy flux, and, from this, the inspiral rate, at a discrete set of binary separations. From these data, we construct the gravitational waveform as a continuous wavetrain. Finally, we discuss the limitations of our current calculation, planned improvements, and potential applications of our method to other inspiral scenarios.

\]

The inspiral and coalescence of binary neutron stars are among the most promising sources of gravitational radiation for the laser interferometer gravitational wave observatories LIGO, VIRGO, GEO, and TAMA, which should become operational in a few years. It is estimated  that LIGO/VIRGO will be able to detect the last 15 minutes of the inspiral (16,000 orbits) of a typical binary neutron star system. Detection and analysis of the signal will depend on matched filter techniques, which require theoretical templates of the waveforms.

The evolution of binary neutron stars proceeds in different stages. By far the longest is the initial quasi-equilibrium inspiral phase, during which the stars move in nearly circular orbits, while the separation between the stars slowly decreases as energy is carried away by gravitational radiation. The quasi-circular orbits become unstable at the innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO), where the inspiral enters a plunge and merger phase. The merger and coalescence of the stars happens on a dynamical timescale, and produces either a black hole or a larger neutron star, which may collapse to a black hole at a later time. The final stage of the evolution is the ringdown phase, during which the merged object settles down to equilibrium.

Two distinct approaches have commonly been employed in general relativity to study the inspiral phase. Much progress has been made in post-Newtonian (PN) studies of compact binaries (see, e.g. , and references therein). Most of these approaches, however, approximate the stars as point sources, which neglects important finite-size effects for neutron stars. Also, PN expansions may not converge sufficiently rapidly in the strong-field region near the ISCO. In an independent approach, relativistic quasi-equilibrium models of the inspiral phase of neutron star binaries have been constructed numerically (see, e.g.,  for corotating binaries and  for the more realistic case of irrotational binaries). Binaries have also been evolved using fully relativistic hydrodynamics , but computational constraints limit these evolutions to a few orbits.

In this paper, we propose a “hydro without hydro” method for using the “snapshots” generated by quasi-equilibrium codes to create a complete wavetrain . We use these snapshots to find the gravitational waveform at a given separation and construct an effective radiation reaction. From this, the inspiral rate is known, and the entire wavetrain can be constructed. We describe this method below. We then present the results of a prototype calculation, and discuss its implications.

The fundamental assumption in the quasi-equilibrium approximation is that the orbital timescale is much shorter than the gravitational radiation reaction timescale. The binary inspiral then proceeds along a sequence of quasi-equilibrium configurations in nearly circular orbits with constant rest mass $`M_0`$. This assumption significantly simplifies the problem, since the hydrodynamical equations can be integrated to yield a relativistic Bernoulli equation . A similar approximation is routinely adopted in stellar evolution calculations. There too, the evolutionary timescale is much longer than the hydrodynamical timescale, so that the star can safely be assumed to be in quasi-equilibrium on a dynamical timescale.

Constructing quasi-equilibrium binary configurations yields their total mass-energy $`M(r)`$ and their orbital angular frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{orb}}(r)`$ as a function of separation $`r`$. The ISCO of an evolutionary $`M_0=const`$ sequence, where the assumption of quasi-equilibrium breaks down, can be identified by locating a turning point along an $`M`$ versus $`r`$ curve (see, e.g., the cross in Fig. 1).

Given a relativistic quasi-equilibrium configuration, we can compute the emitted gravitational radiation by employing the binary data for the matter source terms in Einstein’s field equations. In particular, the gravitational fields can be evolved in the presence of these predetermined matter sources with a relativistic evolution code (“hydro without hydro”, ). There is no need to re-solve any of the hydrodynamic equations for the source, as we are assuming that the stars move in circular orbits and are little affected by the waves. We thus simply rotate the source terms on our numerical grid. Repeating this calculation for members of an evolutionary sequence at discrete separations $`r`$, we obtain the wave amplitude $`A(r)`$ and the orbit-averaged gravitational wave luminosity $`<dM/dt>(r)`$ at these separations. A fitting function can then be used to interpolate to any intermediate separation (see Fig. 1).

The inspiral is determined by computing the effective radiation reaction due to the radiation of mass-energy by gravitational waves. The energy loss $`<dM/dt>`$ forces the binary to a closer separation, as it “slides down” the quasi-equilibrium $`M`$ vs $`r`$ curve. The inspiral rate is thus

$$\frac{dr}{dt}=\frac{<dM/dt>}{(dM/dr)_{\mathrm{eq}}},$$
(1)
Solving this equation determines $`r`$ as a function of time $`t`$, which then allows us to express $`A(t)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{orb}}(t)`$ in terms of $`t`$. The complete quasi-equilibrium wavetrain can then be constructed from

$$r_sh(t)=A(t)\mathrm{sin}\left(_0^t\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{GW}}(t^{})𝑑t^{}\right),$$
(2)
where we expect $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{GW}}2\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{orb}}`$ due to the $`m=2`$ dominance of the radiation, and where $`r_s`$ is the distance between the source and the distant observer. The validity of our method and its ability to produce reliable wavetrains is most easily demonstrated in relativistic scalar gravitation, where the quasi-equilibrium wavetrain can be compared to an exact numerical solution .

In the following we present a prototype calculation which employs the quasi-equilibrium models of Baumgarte et.al. . These models assume maximal slicing $`KK_i^i=0`$, where $`K_{ij}`$ is the extrinsic curvature, and spatial conformal flatness, so that the spatial metric $`\gamma _{ij}`$ can be written as a product of the conformal factor $`\psi `$ and a flat metric $`f_{ij}`$, $`\gamma _{ij}=\psi ^4f_{ij}`$. The latter is believed to approximately minimize the gravitational wave content of the spacetimes  while introducing only small deviations from correct evolutionary sequences . The stars are modeled as corotating polytropes $`P=\kappa \rho _0^{1+1/n}`$ with polytropic index $`n=1`$. We non-dimensionalize our results by setting $`\kappa =1`$. In addition to the matter profile, these models provide the conformal factor $`\psi `$, the lapse function $`\alpha `$ and the shift vector $`\beta ^i`$.

We insert these quasi-equilibrium data into our relativistic evolution code, which is based on a conformal decomposition of the ADM equation . This decomposition conveniently splits the fundamental variables into longitudinal quantities ($`\psi `$ and $`K`$) and “wave-like” transverse quantities (the conformally related metric $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_{ij}`$ and the tracefree part of the extrinsic curvature $`\stackrel{~}{A}_{ij}`$). We also introduce “conformal connection functions” $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}^i`$ as independent auxiliary quantities, which improves numerical stability dramatically (cf. ).

We insert “by hand” the matter variables, the gauge variables ($`\alpha `$ and $`\beta ^i`$) and the longitudinal quantities ($`\psi `$ and $`K=0`$) for all times, appropriately rotated by $`d\varphi /dt=\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{orb}}`$ . The transverse variables ($`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_{ij}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{A}_{ij}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}^i`$) are evolved dynamically, adopting the quasi-equilibrium data $`\stackrel{~}{A}_{ij}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_{ij}=f_{ij}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}^i=0`$ as initial data. We found that we could reduce the numerical errors by explicitly splitting quasi-equilibrium “background” terms from dynamically evolved terms in the evolution equation for the $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}^i`$.

We evolve on a 120$`\times `$120$`\times `$60 zone grid, imposing equatorial symmetry across the z-axis. Each star is covered by roughly 8 points across a diameter. We impose approximate outgoing wave boundary conditions on the transverse variables at a separation of $`0.1\lambda _{\mathrm{GW}}`$ \- $`0.3\lambda _{\mathrm{GW}}`$, where $`\lambda _{\mathrm{GW}}`$ is a gravitational wavelength. We expect our outer boundary location to be one of the primary sources of error (see discussion below, and compare with  where the boundaries are similarly placed). We monitor the violation in the Hamiltonian and momentum constraints and find that they are all satisfied quite well and that the degrees of violation do not grow significantly with time. We doubled the resolution for one configuration, and found that $`A`$ changed by only $``$ 2%.

To extract gravitational waves, we match to even-parity Moncrief variables $`\psi _{lm}`$ (or Zerilli functions) at the outer part of the grid (see  for details). For simplicity, we focus on $`l=2`$, $`m=\pm 2`$ modes, which we expect to be dominant. We have checked that the contribution to the energy flux of the $`l=4`$, $`m=\pm 4`$ mode is very small ($`4`$%), and that of the $`l=2`$, $`m=0`$ mode negligible ($`<10^6`$). Assuming $`l=2`$, $`m=\pm 2`$ dominance, we have

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dM}{dt}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{32\pi }}\left((_t\psi _{22})^2+(_t\psi _{22})^2\right)`$ (3)
$`A`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{5}{16\pi }}\left(\overline{\psi }_{22}^2+\overline{\psi }_{22}^2\right)}`$ (4)
where $`\overline{\psi }_{2\pm 2}`$ denotes the amplitude of $`\psi _{2\pm 2}`$. We approximate the asymptotic value of $`\overline{\psi }_{lm}`$ by its value at the edge of our numerical grid. Due to our neglect of self-consistent transverse fields in the initial data, we find a transient noise in the waveforms during the first light-crossing time. After that time we observe the expected periodic waveforms originating from the periodic binary orbit.

We constuct 14 different configurations along a sequence of constant total rest mass $`M_0=2\times 0.1`$ in our nondimensional units. The rest mass of the individual stars is about 55% of the maximum allowed rest mass of an isolated, nonrotating star. We parameterize the binary separation by the dimensionless quantity $`z_A`$, the ratio of the separation between the innermost points and the outermost points on the stars (see ). In terms of $`z_A`$, touching binaries correspond to $`z_A=0`$ and infinitely separated configurations to $`z_A=1`$. In the top panel of Fig. 1, we plot the ADM mass $`M`$ as a function of separation, and in the bottom panel the gravitational wave luminosity $`dM/dt`$ as inferred from our “hydro without hydro” integrations. Since we expect our quasi-equilibrium method to break down at the ISCO, we construct waveforms for configurations with $`z_A0.1`$, which is close to but safely outside the ISCO. In Fig. 2 we illustrate three of these configurations together with their extracted waveforms. In Fig. 3 we show the wave amplitude $`A`$ and the gravitational wave frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{GW}}`$ as a function of retarded time. The solid line is our numerical result, which we compare with the wavetrain of a Newtonian point mass system as computed from the quadrupole approximation (dotted line). The difference is caused by differences in the binding energy and the gravitational wave luminosity due to relativity, as well as the numerical limitations of our calculation (see discussion below). Finally, we construct the continuous gravitational wavetrain from $`A`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{GW}}`$, shown in Fig. 4.

In summary, we propose a new technique to construct gravitational wavetrains from inspiraling relativistic binaries and demonstrate the feasability of this technique by a numerical example. Our scheme is extremely efficient computationally. For the computational cost of 14 orbits, we produced the complete wavetrain covered by our sequence (214 cycles). There is no reason why one could not, with more points along the sequence, produce many more cycles of the inspiral.

It is clear, however, that several improvements must be implemented to produce more accurate and reliable wavetrains. Our outer boundary conditions are crude and imposed at too small a separation. To gauge the error of our simplistic wave extraction, we measured $`\overline{\psi }_{22}`$ at 0.23$`\lambda _{\mathrm{GW}}`$ and at 0.35$`\lambda _{\mathrm{GW}}`$ and found a difference of roughly 10%. Gravitational waves should be extracted in the wave zone $`r_s>\lambda _{\mathrm{GW}}`$, or more sophisticated boundary conditions and wave extraction should be applied (e.g. ). Furthermore, the assumption of corotation is not realistic; using irrotational sequences is more physical . Finally, one could consider iterating this method by adding the radial velocity to the source and incorporating the calculated transverse components of the field, as well as deviations from conformal flatness, and then recomputing the waves and inspiral.

The binary black hole inspiral problem could be approached in a similar way . This is a prospect we are currently investigating.

It is a pleasure to thank Masaru Shibata for stimulating discussions and useful suggestions. We would also like to thank REU students H. Agarwal, E. Engelhard, K. Huffenberger, P. McGrath, J. Mehl, and D. Webber for assistance on Figures 2 and 4. TWB gratefully acknowledges support through a Fortner Fellowship. Much of the calculation and visualization were performed at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at UIUC. This paper was supported in part by NSF Grants AST 96-18524 and PHY 99-02833 and NASA Grant NAG 5-7152 to UIUC.


text:
# Brane tunneling and the Brane World scenario

## 1 A warm up example

Consider first a warm up example: production of the particles by a homogeneous $`E`$ field.

For this case the effective action reads

$$S_{eff}=TLeEA$$
(4)
where $`L`$ is the length of the world-line of the particles produced, $`T`$ is a mass of the particle, (as usual, particle-antiparticle history looks like a closed world-line), and $`A`$ is the area surrounded by the world-line.

Notice, by the way, that upon the appropriate identification of the parameters, the same effective action describes false vacuum decay in (1+1) scalar field theory. Particles are substituted by kinks, electric field - by the energy difference between false and true vacua.

Extremal world-line for the action Eq.(4) is a circle of the radius $`\overline{r}=\frac{T}{eE}`$ therefore the probability P of the spontaneous process looks as follows

$$Pexp(\frac{\pi T^2}{eE}).$$
(5)
Notice that Minkowskian evolution is obtained from the Euclidean bounce by the analitical continuation.

## 2 Spontaneous production of branes

The above warm-up example is easily generalized to the case of the spontaneous production of branes in a homogeneous $`H`$ field . The effective action in the assumption of constant $`H`$ reads

$$S_{eff}=TAehV.$$
(6)
World-volume of the brane produced forms a closed hypersurface (like the world-line of the particle produced in the above example). $`A`$ in Eq.(6) is the area of the world-volume, $`V`$ \- volume of the region inside the brane. The Euclidean bounce is a $`p+1`$-dimensional sphere of radius $`\overline{r}=\frac{(d1)T}{eh}`$. The value of the effective action on the bounce yields the probability of the brane production:

$$Pexp(const\frac{T^d}{(eh)^{d1}}).$$
(7)
Analogously to the above example, The Minkowskian evolution can be obtained from the Euclidean bounce via the analytical continuation.

## 3 Induced brane production

Let us now consider the induced brane production . To this aim we have to introduce a new ingredient - brane junctions . Brane world-volumes can meet along the junction manifold. Angles at which the branes meet each other are fixed by the tension force balance condition. Of course at the junction the charge conservation condition is fulfilled. The fact of the key importance is that junctions are BPS configurations therefore they are classically stable and can be used in the quasiclassical considerations. The BPS property of the junction of the fundamental branes is more or less clear while the similar argument for the effective branes follows from the existence of the specific central charges in SUSY algebra. These central charges were found in WZ model in D=4  as well as N=1 SYM theory . The effective junctions have been also recognized in the M theory framework .

The setup for the induced brane production is as follows. There is external homogeneous field and there is external neutral brane which can have junctions with the charged branes to be produced. The question is what is the probability of such process.

Let us again begin with a warm up example - one particle induced decay in (1+1) . One has a massive particle in the false vacuum and the correspondig field has a zero mode on the wall which could separate false and true vacua. Then, if a bubble of the true vacuum inside the false vacuum is produced, it is more profitable for the particle to ride a part of its way in the form of zero mode on the wall of the bubble. The effective action describing this case,

$$S_{eff}=TLeEA+m\stackrel{~}{L},$$
(8)
differs from Eq.(4) only by the last term where $`m`$ is the mass of the extra particle, $`\stackrel{~}{L}`$ is the length of the extra particle world-line (only outside the bubble).

The bounce is now glued from the two segments of a circle of the same radius as in the case of the spontaneous decay. These two segments meet with the world-line of the particle (junction) at the angle $`\alpha `$ which is defined by the force balance condition, $`m=2T\mathrm{cos}\alpha `$.

The ”charge conservation” in the present case is equivalent to a trivial fact that when one passes through the bubble crossing its wall twice, one gets back to false vacuum. One then straightforwardly compute the probability of the false vacuum decay . There are two clear limiting cases. When mass of the particle is small compared to the mass of the wall, bounce is not disturted and the probability is the same as in spontaneous case. When mass of the particle is close to $`2T`$, bounce shrinks to a point and there is no exponential suppression in the induced vacuum decay.

Generalization to the case of branes has been developed in .

The bounce consists now from two segments of (d-1) dimensional sphere of the same radius as in the case of the spontaneous brane production, glued to the external brane along the junction manifold. The force balance condition reads $`\stackrel{~}{T}=2T\mathrm{cos}\alpha `$, where $`\stackrel{~}{T}`$ is the tension of the external neutral brane. Minkowskian evolution follows from the analytical continuation of the bounce. The calculation of the probability is straightforward and two clear limiting cases are the same as in the particle case.

Let us mention the interesting application of such process . Let us consider the noncommutative monopoles that is monopole solutions when the external B field is switched on. It is known that monopoles can be represented by D1 string ending on D3 branes . In the noncommutative case one can consider the exact solution to the classical equations of motion in U(1) theory . If there is a constant $`H=dB`$ then according to the process above the D1 string is exponentially unstable with respect to the decay into the dyonic strings. From the point of view of U(1) theory on D3 worlvolume it means that monopole in the case of nonconstant noncommutativity nonperturbatively decays into dyons.

## 4 A sketch of Brane World

Now let us make a digression to sketch an idea of the Brane World. This is an alternative to the idea of compactification. In the compactification approach extra dimensions are compact and small and thus cannot be seen at the moderate energies. In the Brane World, extra dimensions are infinite, but the matter , gauge fields  and gravity  are localized on a brane (domain wall or other topological defect in the extra dimensions).

The model considered in  involves two branes localized at different points on a circle (the 5th dimension is $`S^1`$ of arbitrarily large radius). One of the branes provides the physical worldvolume for d=4 (RS-brane), the other is a so-called regulator brane (R-brane). The gravity is localized on the RS brane. The drawback of the model is that R-brane has a negative tension (see e.g. discussion in ).

Many modifications of the construction in  were studied (see e.g.  and other references to the original paper ), most of them includes the negative tension brane.

Let us consider in more detail the construction in .

It includes three branes localized on a line (the 5th dimension is $`R^1`$), two negative tension R-branes and one RS-brane between them. Cosmological constant outside R-branes is zero, cosmological constant between R-branes and RS-brane is negative. Notice that in this model cosmological constant is not really a constant, it jumps on the R-branes. So, in fact, there is a hidden external field in the model, and R-branes are charged with respect to it. This motivates the following construction in .

## 5 Spontaneous creation of the Brane World

In  a spontaneous creation of the Brane world in a homogeneous external field was described. The process considered is a sort of inverse to the induced brane production in the external field. Its particle counterpart is the spontaneous creation of the charged pair with the additional neutral particle in the electric field. The calculation of its probability $`Pexp(S)`$ is straightforward and yields

$$S=\frac{2T_R^2}{eE}(\pi arcsin(1\frac{T_{RS}^2}{4T_R^2})^{1/2})+\frac{2T_RT_{RS}}{eE}(1\frac{T_{RS}^2}{4T_R^2})^{1/2}$$
(9)
The bounce now consists of two segments of the charged branes (R-branes) which are glued along the junction manifold with the neutral brane (RS-brane) which is inside the bubble.

Remarkably, Einstein equations can be explicitely solved for the quite complicated brane configuration. The metric consists of two AdS pieces sewed with each other on the RS-brane and with outside flat metric on the R-branes. RS-brane inherits AdS metric, which however can be done as flat as one wishes. Of course, the metric of the ”Euclidean” classical solution determines the “Minkowskian” evolution of the Universe. Importantly, the R-branes are not static, they accelerate as they should in the external field. RS brane remains at rest.

After continuation into Minkowskian space our Universe is a spacially finite, growing slice of AdS space. The spacial radius of R-brane is also growing, and we are eventually left with the picture of , or , type. A peculiar property of the process described is that RS-brane is not flat, it inherits $`AdS_4`$ metric so 4d cosmological constant problem remains unsolved. To cure this peculiarity, in  we have described the spontaneous creation of the Brane World with flat RS-brane.

## 6 Big Bang in $`AdS_5`$ with external field

The setup in  is as follows. There is $`AdS_5`$ with nonvanishing homogeneous top degree form field and charged test branes. The aim is to construct a tunneling into the Brane World such that the resulting RS-brane is a peace of the same flat section of $`AdS_5`$ as in . Thus our 4d Universe living on RS-brane is flat and spatially finite and we can take for granted from  the 4d localization of gravity on the RS-brane and the validity of 4d Newton law far enough in the future. RS-brane is restricted by junction manifold where RS-brane meets with the rapidly expanding R-branes.

Brane production in this setup has been studied in . The study essentially is reduced to the consideration of the minimal charged surfaces in AdS with the homogeneous field. These surfaces were (up to minor subtleties) described in . They are classified into three classes: undercharged ones (saturating a sort of BPS inequality between charge and tension of the brane), overcharged ones (breaking the BPS inequality) and BPS ones . Actually, only overcharged ones were in  given a tunneling interpretation, the others have infinite volume. Our innovation compared to  is to include junctions of those surfaces. Our bounce now is glued out of three peaces of branes \- of BPS one, of undercharged one and of overcharged one (see fig.5). The BPS brane plays the role of RS-brane, the others are R-branes. Notice that the overcharged branes inherit the metric of the sphere, the undercharged branes \- the one of AdS, and the BPS brane - the flat one, we shall discuss this point in more details later.

## 7 Charged surfaces in AdS

We now describe, essentially following , ”Euclidean” minimal charged surfaces, that is, solutions of test brane worldsheet equations relevant for tunneling.

Let us consider the metric of AdS as in ,

$$ds^2=R_{ads}^2\left(\mathrm{cosh}^2\rho d\tau ^2+d\rho ^2+\mathrm{sinh}^2\rho d\mathrm{\Omega }_{d2}^2\right),$$
(10)
where $`R_{ads}`$ is the anti-de Sitter radius, and assume that the curvature form $`H=dB`$ of the $`B`$-field is proportional to the volume form with a constant coefficient (flux density). Assuming the spherical symmetry of the brane worldsheet, one reduces the effective action to :

$$S=TR_{ads}^{d1}\mathrm{\Omega }_{d2}𝑑\tau \left[\mathrm{sinh}^{d2}\rho \sqrt{\mathrm{cosh}^2\rho +\left(\frac{d\rho }{d\tau }\right)^2}q\mathrm{sinh}^{d1}\rho \right]$$
(11)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{d2}=\frac{2\pi ^{\frac{(d1)}{2}}}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{d1}{2})}`$ stands for the volume of a unit d-2 sphere and $`q`$ is a constant made out of the flux density, brane charge and the brane tension. The condition $`q=1`$ is identified in  as the BPS one. The branes with $`q<1`$ will be referred to as undercharged ones and those with $`q>1`$ \- as overcharged.

Before describing them we would like to relate the metric Eq.(10) used in  to more canonical ones. Upon the change of variables,

$$\mathrm{tanh}\tau =\mathrm{tan}\theta $$
(12)
the metric Eq.(10) is put to the form

$$ds^2=R_{ads}^2\frac{d\tau ^2+d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\mathrm{\Omega }_{d2}^2}{\mathrm{cos}^2\theta }$$
(13)
Finally, upon the change of variables

$$z=e^\tau \mathrm{cos}\theta ,r=e^\tau \mathrm{sin}\theta $$
(14)
one obtains the following canonical form of AdS metric

$$ds^2=R_{ads}^2\frac{dz^2+dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_{d2}^2}{z^2}.$$
(15)
The minimal surfaces for the case $`q<1`$ look as follows:

$$\mathrm{cosh}\rho =\frac{\mathrm{sinh}\tau _m}{\mathrm{sinh}(\tau +a)}$$
(16)
where $`\mathrm{tanh}\tau _m=q`$.

In coordinates Eq(12) the undercharged surfaces take the form

$$\mathrm{cos}\theta =\frac{\mathrm{sinh}(\tau +a)}{\mathrm{sinh}\tau _m}.$$
(17)
Restriction of the $`AdS_5`$ metric Eq.(13) onto the undercharged surfaces Eq.(19) gives the metric of $`AdS_4`$.

In the case $`q>1`$ the relevant charged minimal surfaces look as follows:

$$\mathrm{cosh}\rho =\frac{\mathrm{cosh}\rho _m}{\mathrm{cosh}(\tau +b)}$$
(18)
where $`\mathrm{tanh}\rho _m=1/q`$. In coordinates Eq(12) the overcharged surfaces take the form

$$\mathrm{cos}\theta =\frac{\mathrm{cosh}(\tau +b)}{\mathrm{cosh}\rho _m}.$$
(19)
Restriction of the $`AdS_5`$ metric Eq.(13) onto the overcharged surfaces Eq.(19) gives the metric of the sphere $`S_4`$. The BPS case (q=1) can be obtained as a limit from either of the cases above. Corresponding surfaces look as follows :

$$\mathrm{cos}\theta =\frac{1}{z_0}e^\tau $$
(20)
where $`z_0`$ is a constant. Upon the inversion transformation one obtains

$$e^\tau \mathrm{cos}\theta =z_0$$
(21)
In terms of Eq.(15) these are the surfaces $`z=z_0`$ . Apparently, restriction of the AdS metric onto these surfaces gives flat Euclidean metric.

Only overcharged surfaces admit a tunneling interpretation , since undercharged and BPS ones reach the boundary of AdS space and thus have infinite volume and infinite effective action.

## 8 The solution

We shall now construct the bounce which describes the tunneling into the Brane World . It is glued out of three pieces - a piece of BPS brane located along $`z=z_0`$ section, Eq.(21), and playing a role of RS-brane in the Brane World, a piece of undercharged brane, Eq.(17), located above the BPS brane (in the fixed coordinates of the type of Eq.(15) and playing a role of one R-brane, and a piece of overcharged brane, Eq.(19), located below the BPS brane and playing the role of the other R-brane (see fig.5). All three pieces are glued along the junction manifold. The usual junction conditions are the charge conservation and the tension forces balance at the junction  . We shall assume that there is no junction energy contribution to the effective action, though this assumption is not crucial for the existence of solution.

Apparently, the configuration sketched above has a finite action since none of the constituting pieces reaches the AdS boundary , hence the tunneling goes with a finite probability which can be easily computed. Notice that analogously to constructions in  one needs a brane breaking BPS inequality in order to have a finite probability of tunneling. An example of this type of brane in string theory was given in .

Junction manifold is of the type $`\theta =const`$, $`\tau =const`$, and since overall rescaling of the solution is not important (the effective action is invariant under total rescaling, or, equivalently, under total shift in $`\tau `$-coordinate), we take it as follows:

$$\theta =\theta _c,\tau _c=0$$
(22)
¿From Eqs.(21),(17),(19) one immediately obtains

$`\mathrm{cos}\theta _c=z_0,`$
$`\mathrm{sinh}a=\mathrm{sinh}\tau _m\mathrm{cos}\theta _c`$ (23)
$`\mathrm{cosh}b=\mathrm{cosh}\rho _m\mathrm{cos}\theta _c.`$
The Eqs.(21),(17),(19), (22),(8) specify the geometry of the Big Bang bounce. However we still have to define charges of the branes involved and to verify that the junction conditions are fulfilled.

The charge conservation, with appropriate choice of orientation of the branes, reads

$$Q_0=Q_{}Q_+.$$
(24)
Hereafter subscripts ”0”,”-”, and ”+” indicate the BPS brane, the undercharged brane and the overcharged brane. All $`Q`$’s are assumed to be positive.

The force balance condition obviously reads (we take projections onto $`/\theta `$ and onto $`/\tau `$ directions):

$`T_0\mathrm{cos}\alpha _0+T_{}\mathrm{cos}\alpha _{}=T_+\mathrm{cos}\alpha _+`$
$`T_0\mathrm{sin}\alpha _0+T_+\mathrm{sin}\alpha _+=T_{}\mathrm{sin}\alpha _{}`$ (25)
where the angles are defined on fig.5. From geometry of the picture and using Eqs.(19),(17),(22), (8) one obtains

$`\alpha _0=\theta _c`$
$`\mathrm{tan}\alpha _{}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}\theta _c\mathrm{sinh}\tau _m}{\mathrm{cosh}a}}`$ (26)
$`\mathrm{tan}\alpha _+={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}\theta _c\mathrm{cosh}\rho _m}{\mathrm{sinh}b}}`$
According to the above definition of $`q`$ (see Eq.(11)) we take the following parametrization of the tensions of the three pieces of the bounce:

$$T_0=Q_0T,T_{}=\frac{Q_{}}{q_{}}T,T_+=\frac{Q_+}{q_+}T$$
(27)
where $`q_{}=\mathrm{tanh}\tau _m`$, $`q_+=1/\mathrm{tanh}\rho _m`$.

Substituting Eq.(27) into the force balance condition Eq.(8) and using the charge conservation condition Eq.(24) one obtains a linear system for the charges of R-branes:

$`Q_{}\left(\mathrm{cos}\theta _c+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{cos}\alpha _{}}{q_{}}}\right)Q_+\left(\mathrm{cos}\theta _c+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{cos}\alpha _+}{q_+}}\right)=0`$
$`Q_{}\left(\mathrm{sin}\theta _c{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}\alpha _{}}{q_{}}}\right)Q_+\left(\mathrm{sin}\theta _c{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}\alpha _+}{q_+}}\right)=0`$ (28)
Using Eqs.(8,(8) one can straightforwardly verify that determinant of this linear system is equal to zero, so the system is compatible and defines the ratio of charges of the R-branes at which the force balance condition Eq.(8) is satisfied. This completes our construction of the Big Bang bounce.

## 9 Conclusion

Our conclusions are as follows:
1. We have described induced brane production in the external field;
2. We have found the probability of the tunneling into the Brane World (a sort of Big Bang);
3. It was shown that there is no need for the negative tension branes to be included in the scenario with the external field;
4. The direct consequence of our approach is the 5d early Universe;
5. It was shown that the simple brane configuration in the $`AdS_5`$ with the external field yields the flat 4d Universe.

The work was partially supported by grants CRDF-RP1-2108 , INTAS-97-0103 (K.S) and INTAS-99-1705 (A.G.)