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# Resonances, instabilities, and structure selection of driven Josephson lattice in layered superconductors

## Abstract

We investigate dynamics of Josephson vortex lattice in layered high Tc superconductors at high magnetic fields. It is shown that the average electric current depends on the lattice structure and is resonantly enhanced when the Josephson frequency matches the frequency of the plasma mode. We find the stability regions of moving lattice. It is shown that a specific lattice structure at given velocity is uniquely selected by the boundary conditions: at small velocities periodic triangular lattice is stable and looses its stability at some critical velocity. At even higher velocities a structure close to a rectangular lattice is restored.

Transport properties of layered superconductors, such as Bi2Sr2CaCu2Ox (BSCCO), in magnetic field parallel the layers are determined by the dynamics of Josephson vortex lattice (JVL).  Moving JVL generates travelling electromagnetic wave in the medium. Similar to the Eck resonance in a single junction, one expects a strong resonance emission when the velocity of the lattice matches the plasma wave velocity. In the current-voltage (I-V) dependence this resonance is seen as a strong enhancement of current at fixed voltage. In contrast to a single junction, JVL in layered superconductors has soft degrees of freedom related to the phase shifts between different layers. This leads to a rich variety of dynamic states observed in numerical simulations. In particular, a periodic lattice corresponds to a constant phase shift between neighboring layers, ranging from $`0`$ for the rectangular lattice to $`\pi `$ for the static triangular lattice. Moving lattice generates electromagnetic wave with the $`c`$-axis wave vector selected by the lattice structure. Since the velocity of a plasma wave propagating along the layers depends on this wave vector , *the resonant velocity of the lattice depends on its structure*.

In this Letter we investigate the stability of moving JVLs and the evolution of structure as a function of its velocity for large size samples. We show that a specific lattice structure at given velocity is uniquely selected by the boundary conditions. At small velocities a periodic lattice is stable. The phase shift between neighboring layers smoothly decreases with the increase of velocity, starting from $`\pi `$ for a static lattice. At some critical velocity the lattice becomes unstable. At even higher velocities a periodic lattice with the phase shift smaller than $`\pi /2`$ is restored again.

Consider a layered superconductor in a magnetic field applied along the layers ($`y`$ axis) with transport current flowing across the layers ($`z`$ axis). The dynamics of such a system is described by the inductively coupled sine-Gordon equations for the gauge-invariant phase differences $`\theta _n`$. Introducing the reduced time $`\tau =\omega _pt`$ and in-plane coordinate $`u=x/(\gamma s)`$, we express currents $`j_{x,n}`$, $`j_{z,n}`$ and electric fields $`E_{z,n}`$ via $`\theta _n`$ and the reduced magnetic fields $`h_n=H_n2\pi \gamma \lambda _{ab}^2/\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ as

$`j_{z,n}=j_J\left(\mathrm{sin}\theta _n+\nu _{ab}\theta _n/\tau \right),E_{z,n}E_p\theta _n/\tau ,`$ (1)
$`j_{x,n+1}j_{x,n}=j_{ab}\left(1+\nu _{ab}{\displaystyle \frac{}{\tau }}\right)\left({\displaystyle \frac{\theta _n}{u}}{\displaystyle \frac{h_n}{l^2}}\right),`$ (2)
where $`\omega _p`$ is the Josephson plasma frequency, $`\gamma `$ is the anisotropy factor, $`s`$ is the interlayer spacing, $`j_J`$ is the Josephson current, $`E_p\mathrm{\Phi }_0\omega _p/(2\pi cs)`$, $`l=\lambda _{ab}/s`$, and $`j_{ab}c\mathrm{\Phi }_0/(8\pi \lambda _{ab}^2\gamma s)`$. $`\nu _c=4\pi \sigma _c/(\epsilon _c\omega _p)`$ and $`\nu _{ab}=4\pi \sigma _{ab}\lambda _{ab}^2\omega _p/c^2`$ are the dissipation parameters, which are determined by the quasiparticle conductivities $`\sigma _c`$ and $`\sigma _{ab}`$ and are connected as $`\nu _c/\nu _{ab}=\sigma _c\gamma ^2/\sigma _{ab}`$. Using the above relations we derive from the Maxwell equations the coupled equations for $`\theta _n`$ and $`h_n`$

$`{\displaystyle \frac{^2\theta _n}{\tau ^2}}+\nu _c{\displaystyle \frac{\theta _n}{\tau }}+\mathrm{sin}\theta _n{\displaystyle \frac{h_n}{u}}`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (3)
$`\left(_n^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{l^2}}\right)h_n+{\displaystyle \frac{\theta _n}{u}}+\nu _{ab}{\displaystyle \frac{}{\tau }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\theta _n}{u}}{\displaystyle \frac{h_n}{l^2}}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (4)
where $`_n^2h_nh_{n+1}+h_{n1}2h_n`$. Equivalent forms of these equations have been derived in Refs. . In the case of negligible in-plane dissipation ($`\nu _{ab}=0`$) they can be reduced to equations containing only $`\theta _n`$. Taking parameters typical for underdoped BSCCO at $`T50`$K: $`\gamma =500`$, $`\lambda _{ab}=240`$ nm, $`s=15`$ Å, $`\sigma _{ab}=210^4`$ $`[\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{cm}]^1`$, and $`\sigma _c=210^3`$ $`[\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{cm}]^1`$, one obtains estimates: $`\nu _{ab}0.1`$ and $`\nu _c0.002`$, which we will use in numerical computations. For these parameters the dissipation in a wide range of electric and magnetic fields is mainly determined by the in-plane channel.

We consider the situation when all junctions are filled by JVs. This is always the case at high magnetic field $`B`$ above $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/5.5\gamma s^2`$  or at high currents, when all junction are driven into the resistive state. Neglecting self-field of the transport current, we represent a solution to Eqs. (3) and (4) for the resistive state in the form

$`\theta _n(\tau ,u)`$ $`=`$ $`\omega _E\tau +k_Hu+\varphi _n(\tau )+\stackrel{~}{\theta }_n(\tau ,u)`$ (5)
$`h_n(\tau ,u)`$ $`=`$ $`h+\stackrel{~}{h}_n(\tau ,u).`$ (6)
Here the Josephson frequency $`\omega _E`$ is determined by the electric field, $`\omega _E=E_z/E_p`$, and the wave vector $`k_H`$ is determined by the magnetic field, $`k_H=2\pi H\gamma s^2/\mathrm{\Phi }_0=h/l^2`$. $`\stackrel{~}{\theta }_n(\tau ,u)`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{h}_n(\tau ,u)`$ are the oscillating phase and magnetic field induced by Josephson coupling, $`\stackrel{~}{\theta }_n,\stackrel{~}{h}_n\mathrm{sin}(\omega _E\tau +k_Hu+\alpha _n)`$. Solution (5) corresponds to the lattice moving with velocity $`\omega _E/k_H`$. The structure of the lattice is determined by the phase shifts $`\varphi _n`$. Without Josephson coupling the system is degenerate with respect to arbitrary phase shifts $`\varphi _n`$. Josephson coupling eliminates this degeneracy. It either leads to slow dynamics of phase shifts $`\varphi _n`$ or selects a certain steady state structure. The equations for $`\varphi _n(\tau )`$ can be obtained using an expansion with respect to Josephson coupling and averaging over fast degrees of freedom. This procedure will be described in detail elsewhere.

For periodic JVL one has $`\varphi _n=\kappa n`$. In such a state the chains of JVs in the neighboring layers are shifted by the fraction $`\kappa /2\pi `$ of the lattice constant (see inset in Fig. 1). In particular, $`\kappa =0`$ corresponds to a rectangular lattice, and $`\kappa =\pi `$ corresponds to a triangular lattice (ground state at $`\omega _E=0`$). In first order with respect to Josephson current, the oscillating phase $`\stackrel{~}{\theta }_n`$ is given by $`\stackrel{~}{\theta }_n=\mathrm{I}m\left[𝒢(\kappa )\mathrm{exp}\left(i(\omega _E\tau +k_Hu+\kappa n)\right)\right]`$ with

$`𝒢(\kappa )=\left(\omega _E^2i\nu _c\omega _E{\displaystyle \frac{k_H^2\left(1+i\nu _{ab}\omega _E\right)}{2(1\mathrm{cos}\kappa )+\left(1+i\nu _{ab}\omega _E\right)/l^2}}\right)^1.`$To second order we obtain the average reduced Josephson current $`i_Ji_J(\kappa ,k_H,\omega _E)=\mathrm{sin}\theta _n(\tau ,u)`$. In the case of not very large in-plane dissipation $`\nu _{ab}\omega _E2l^2(1\mathrm{cos}\kappa )+1`$, it has the resonant dependence on the Josephson frequency $`\omega _E`$ (electric field)

$`i_J={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _E\nu (\kappa )}{\left(\omega _E^2\omega _p^2(\kappa )\right)^2+\left(\omega _E\nu (\kappa )\right)^2}},`$where $`\omega _p(\kappa )=k_H\left(2\left(1\mathrm{cos}\kappa \right)+\frac{1}{l^2}\right)^{1/2}`$ is the plasma frequency at the wave vector $`\kappa `$ and

$`\nu (\kappa )\nu _c+{\displaystyle \frac{2\left(1\mathrm{cos}\kappa \right)k_H^2\nu _{ab}}{\left(2\left(1\mathrm{cos}\kappa \right)+1/l^2\right)^2}}`$is the dissipation parameter of the plasma mode. When the frequency $`\omega _E`$ matches the corresponding plasma wave frequency $`\omega _p(\kappa )`$, a resonance enhancement of the current is expected. The moving lattice generates a travelling electromagnetic wave with the Poynting vector $`𝐏`$. For the in-plane component of $`𝐏`$ we obtain

$`P_x{\displaystyle \frac{P_{ab}\omega _E\omega _p^2(\kappa )/k_H}{\left(\omega _E^2\omega _p^2(\kappa )\right)^2+\left(\omega _E\nu (\kappa )\right)^2}},P_{ab}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_0^2\omega _p}{32\pi ^3\lambda ^2s\gamma }}.`$ (7)
For typical BSCCO parameters at low temperatures ($`\lambda =200`$ nm, $`\gamma =500`$, $`\omega _p/2\pi =150`$ GHz) we obtain $`P_{ab}125`$W/cm2.

To investigate the stability of JVL we perturb the lattice solution as $`\varphi _n(\tau )=\kappa n+\mathrm{Re}[u_q\mathrm{exp}(\alpha (q)\tau +iqn)]`$ and derive from Eqs. (3,4) the eigenvalue $`\alpha (q)\alpha (q,\kappa ,k_H,\omega _E)`$

$$\alpha (q)=\frac{1}{4}\frac{𝒢(\kappa +q)+𝒢^{}(\kappa q)2Re\left[𝒢(\kappa )\right]}{\nu _c+\frac{1}{4i}\left[(\kappa +q,\kappa )^{}(\kappa +q,\kappa )\right]}$$
(8)
with

$`(q,q_1)\left(2\omega _E+i\nu _c+{\displaystyle \frac{ik_H^2\nu _{ab}}{2(1\mathrm{cos}q)+\frac{1+i\nu _{ab}\omega _E}{l^2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{2(1\mathrm{cos}q_1)}{2(1\mathrm{cos}q_1)+\frac{1+i\nu _{ab}\omega _E}{l^2}}}\right)𝒢(q)𝒢(q_1).`$

The lattice is stable if there is no exponentially growing solution in the whole $`q`$-interval, i.e., $`Re[\alpha (q)]0`$, for $`0q\pi `$. The onset of instability is characterized by the wave vector $`q_i`$ of the most unstable mode. There are three special cases: the long-wave instability $`q_i=0`$, the short-wave instability $`q_i=\pi `$, and the instability with $`0<q_i<\pi `$. One can also distinguish absolute and convective instabilities. The spectrum $`\alpha (q)`$ has an important symmetry property $`\alpha (q=\pi ,\kappa =\pi /2)=0`$. This means that a stable region cannot cross the line $`\kappa =\pi /2`$ and *it is impossible to evolve continuously from the static triangular lattice to the fastly moving rectangular lattice without intersecting an instability boundary*. The triangular lattice always looses its stability before reaching the resonance $`\omega _E=k_H/2`$, at the frequency $`\omega _\mathrm{\Delta }(k_H)`$ which is determined by a simple analytical equation
$`\omega _\mathrm{\Delta }^2\frac{k_H^2}{4}=\omega _\mathrm{\Delta }(\nu _c+\frac{k_H^2\nu _{ab}}{4})\left(\sqrt{1+\nu _{ab}^2\omega _\mathrm{\Delta }^2}\nu _{ab}\omega _\mathrm{\Delta }\right).`$

To explore the stability of JVL we calculated numerically $`Re[\alpha (q)]`$ (8) throughout the $`\omega _E\kappa `$ plane and found the lines at which either $`Re[\alpha (q)]=0`$ at finite $`q`$ or $`Re[d^2\alpha (q)/dq^2]=0`$ at $`q=0`$. The stability diagram for representative parameters $`\nu _c=0.002`$, $`\nu _{ab}=0.1`$, and $`k_H=8`$ is shown in Fig. 1. For these parameters we found three stability regions at moderate $`\omega _E`$: (i)the low-velocity region located below the resonance line and at $`\pi /2<\kappa <\pi `$, (ii)the high-velocity region located along the resonance line with $`\kappa `$ approaching $`0`$ with increase of $`\omega _E`$, and (iii)the region located above the resonance line and at $`\pi /2<\kappa <\pi `$ (this region disappears at higher fields). At the boundary of the first region the lattice experiences a long-wave instability for $`\kappa >2.04`$. At smaller $`\kappa `$ the instability occurs at finite wave vector $`q=q_i`$ and $`q_i`$ grows continuously with decrease of $`\kappa `$.

Selection by the system of a specific wave number $`\kappa `$ from the continuous spectrum is not directly related to stability of the corresponding periodic structure. For the static case the structure is selected by the minimum energy condition. Such a condition is absent in the dynamic case. In this case a specific JVL structure can be determined by the boundary. To demonstrate this, we consider a semi-infinite stack of junctions with $`n=1,2\mathrm{}`$ separated by a sharp boundary from the medium with arbitrary electromagnetic properties. To derive equations for the phase shifts $`\varphi _n`$ for such system we have to find a solution of the linear equations without Josephson coupling taking into account the boundary conditions. For plasma wave with given frequency $`\omega =\omega _E`$ and wave vector along the layers $`k=k_H`$ the oscillating phases ($`\stackrel{~}{\theta }_n`$) and magnetic fields ($`\stackrel{~}{h}_n`$) in the junctions can be written as

$$\stackrel{~}{\theta }_n,\stackrel{~}{h}_n\mathrm{exp}(iq_+n)+\mathrm{exp}(iq_+n),\text{ at }n1$$
(9)
where $`q_+q_+(k,\omega )`$ is (complex) wave vector given by

$$\mathrm{cos}q_+=1\frac{k^2\left(1+i\nu _{ab}\omega \right)}{2\left(\omega ^2i\nu _c\omega \right)}+\frac{1+i\nu _{ab}\omega }{2l^2},$$
(10)
with $`Im[q_+]>0`$. The properties of the boundary are completely characterized by the complex amplitude of reflected wave $`(k,\omega )`$, which has to be found by matching the solution (9) with electromagnetic oscillations in the medium at $`z<0`$. In general, $`(k,\omega )`$ can be a complex number with arbitrary absolute value. Only in the simplest case of vanishing dissipation and propagating wave ($`Im(q_+)=0`$), $`(k,\omega )`$ determines a conventional reflection coefficient, $`R(k,\omega )=\left|(k,\omega )\right|^2`$, and has property $`\left|(k,\omega )\right|<1`$. A large class of boundaries, including boundary with free space, is well described by the ideal reflection $`=1`$. Averaging with respect to oscillating phases and field we derive the following equation for the steady state phase shifts $`\varphi _n`$

$$\frac{1}{2}\underset{m=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}Im\left[G(n,m)\mathrm{exp}\left(i\left(\varphi _n\varphi _m\right)\right)\right]=i_J,$$
(11)
where

$`G(n,m)`$ $`=`$ $`G_0(nm)+G_0(n+m),`$ (12)
$`G_0(n)`$ $``$ $`G_0(n;k_H,\omega _E)=`$ (14)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\delta _n}{\omega _E^2i\nu _c\omega _E}}{\displaystyle \frac{k_H^2\left(1+i\nu _{ab}\omega _E\right)}{\left(\omega _E^2i\nu _c\omega _E\right)^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{exp}iq_+|n|}{2i\mathrm{sin}q_+}}.`$
The second term in Eq. (12) describes the surface contribution and vanishes at $`n,m\mathrm{}`$. The solution, corresponding to the lattice in the bulk, has the form $`\varphi _n=\kappa n+u_n`$, where $`u_n`$ is the surface deformation, $`u_n0`$ at $`n\mathrm{}`$. Substituting this ansatz into Eq. (11) we obtain a nonlinear degenerate system of equations for $`u_n`$. The solution for $`u_n`$ exists only for special values of $`\kappa `$, i.e., the bulk structure is selected by the boundary conditions. For such selected states $`z`$ component of the Poynting vector $`P_z`$ is always directed from the boundary towards the bulk of the sample.  A similar pattern selection mechanism is relevant for various nonequilibrium systems. At small $`\omega _E`$ the system becomes linear with respect to $`u_n`$ and its solvability condition can be found analytically. In the case $`=1`$ we obtain deformation of the lattice at small velocities $`\kappa \pi \left(\nu _{ab}+7\nu _c/k_H^2\right)\omega _E`$. In finite system with identical boundaries the configuration is typically symmetric because each boundary selects the same wave number. The waves collide in the middle forming a phase defect.

To find the steady state configurations at all velocities we solved Eq. (11) numerically taking $`=1`$ and using the same parameters ($`\nu _c=0.002`$, $`\nu _{ab}=0.1`$). The dependence $`\kappa (\omega _E)`$ obtained from these solutions for $`k_H=8`$ is shown in Fig. 1 together with the stability regions. At small velocities the lattice experiences smooth evolution of structure with the lattice wave vector $`\kappa `$ decreasing from $`\pi `$ at zero velocity to smaller values until it hits the instability boundary. At higher velocities the stable lattice with $`\kappa <\pi /2`$ is restored. The structure continues to evolve smoothly towards the rectangular configurations with increase of velocity. Near the line $`\kappa =\pi /2`$ we observe transition to the double-periodic lattice $`\varphi _n=\pi n/2+(1)^nv`$, which becomes stable at high fields.

Fig. 2 shows evolution of the current-voltage dependence and the in-plane Poynting vector (7) with increase of magnetic field. Up to magnetic field $`H\sqrt{\sigma _{ab}/(\gamma ^2\sigma _c)}\mathrm{\Phi }_0/(\pi \gamma s^2)`$ ($`k_H16`$), the current-voltage dependencies have two stable branches, corresponding to moving periodic lattices, separated by broad instability region where periodic JVL can not exist. In this regime two lattice solutions exist within a finite range of currents. Such coexistence is facilitated by the high in-plane dissipation, which causes strong dependence of the JVL velocity on its structure. Within the coexistence region one can expect a family of intermediate states, in which the system is split into two (or more) domains moving with different velocities separated by a phase defect (dynamic phase separation, see Fig. (3)). The phase-separated states give the most natural interpretation of the multiple I-V branches observed by Hechtfischer et al., who studied transport properties of JVL in BSCCO mesas at high magnetic fields. This interpretation can be verified by measuring the spectrum of microwave irradiation emitting by the stack. Instead of a single peak located at the Josephson frequency corresponding to the average voltage, the spectrum of irradiation should contain two peaks corresponding to the “fast” and “slow” states.

In conlusion, we investigated stability and boundary structure selection of the driven JVL. We found two major stability regions, separated by unstable region: the low-velocity region correspondsto moving structure close to triangular lattice and the high-velocity region corresponds to an almost rectangular lattice.

AEK thanks R. Kleiner, N. F. Pedersen, M. Tachiki, and K.Gray for helpful discussions. This work was supported by the U.S. DOE, Office of Science under contract # W-31-109-ENG-38. AEK also would like to acknowledge support from the JST (Japan) and to thank the National Research Institute for Metals for hospitality.


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# Highly anisotropic commensurability oscillations in two-dimensional holes at the GaAs/AlGaAs (311)A interface

## Abstract

Measurements of commensurability oscillations in GaAs/AlGaAs two-dimensional (2D) hole systems grown on GaAs (311)A substrates reveal a remarkable anisotropy: the amplitude of the measured commensurability oscillations along the \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] direction is about 100 times larger than along \[01$`\overline{1}`$\]. For 2D electron systems at similar interfaces, however, we observe nearly isotropic oscillations, suggesting that the anomalous anisotropy is intrinsic to GaAs 2D holes at the (311)A interface.

GaAs/AlGaAs heterojunctions and quantum wells, grown on GaAs (311)A substrates and modulation-doped with Si, are of considerable current interest. These structures can contain very high mobility two-dimensional hole systems (2DHSs), and have already shown a number of novel phenomena including signatures of magnetic-field-induced Wigner crystallization and metal-insulator transition at zero magnetic field. These systems are also known to exhibit an in-plane transport anisotropy; the mobility along the \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] direction is typically larger than along \[01$`\overline{1}`$\] by a factor of 2 to 5. Here we report the observation of commensurability oscillations (COs) revealing a surprisingly large anisotropy in the amplitude of the COs measured along these two directions in this system. We recall that COs refer to the oscillations in the magnetoresistance of a 2D carrier system whose density has a lateral periodic modulation. In a simple, semiclassical model, the oscillations can be related to the classical cyclotron orbit diameter of the carriers becoming commensurate with a multiple integer of the period a of the potential. The anisotropy of the COs we observe in the 2DHSs is too large to be explained by a simple argument based on mobility anisotropy.

Our samples were grown by molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) on GaAs (311)A substrates, and have low-temperature mobility in the range of 1.7$`\times `$105 cm2/V s to 1.6$`\times `$106 cm2/V s. The sample structure is shown schematically in Fig. 1. Arrays of 1000Å-thick PMMA strips were defined perpendicular to the two arms of an L-shaped Hall bar pattern which was made by electron-beam lithography and 5000Å-deep wet etching. The two arms of the Hall bar were aligned along the \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] and \[01$`\overline{1}`$\] directions. The periods of PMMA strips range from 2000Å to 3000Å and their widths equal half of their periods. A front gate was made by evaporating 50Å of Ti and 2000Å of Au. We measured the longitudinal magnetoresistance as a function of perpendicular magnetic field $`B`$, at T $``$ 0.5K using a standard low-frequency lock-in technique.

We studied 2DHSs confined in both triangular and square quantum wells. The low-$`B`$ magnetoresistances measured along the \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] and \[01$`\overline{1}`$\] directions are represented by $`R_{[\overline{2}33]}`$ and $`R_{[01\overline{1}]}`$, respectively. Both $`R_{[\overline{2}33]}`$ and $`R_{[01\overline{1}]}`$ are measured with the current running perpendicular to the direction of the PMMA strips (see Fig. 1). We find an enormous amplitude anisotropy in the COs measured along the \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] and \[01$`\overline{1}`$\] directions. In the triangular well sample, as shown in Fig. 2, we observe strong COs along \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] while essentially no COs are visible along \[01$`\overline{1}`$\]. Significant anisotropy in COs is also observed in the square well sample. As shown in Fig. 3(a), $`R_{[\overline{2}33]}`$ exhibits strong COs for 0.1 $`<|B|<`$ 1T while $`R_{[01\overline{1}]}`$ shows much weaker oscillations. In Fig. 3(b), where $`R_{[\overline{2}33]}`$ and $`R_{[01\overline{1}]}`$ are normalized by $`R_{[\overline{2}33]}`$ ($`B=`$0) and $`R_{[01\overline{1}]}`$ ($`B=`$0), respectively, shows that $`R_{[01\overline{1}]}`$ does have some oscillating features but their amplitude is about 100 times smaller than along \[$`\overline{2}`$33\].

Surface corrugations, consisting of alternating GaAs and AlGaAs channels along \[$`\overline{2}`$33\], are present in MBE-grown GaAs (311)A surfaces. Formation of these channels has previously been reported to lead to enhanced interface roughness scattering along \[01$`\overline{1}`$\], causing the mobility along \[01$`\overline{1}`$\] to be smaller than along \[$`\overline{2}`$33\]. Previous studies also indicate that the mobilities along \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] and \[01$`\overline{1}`$\] differ only by a factor of 2 to 5. This difference is obviously far less than the nearly 100 times difference observed in the amplitudes of COs along \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] and \[01$`\overline{1}`$\] in our square well sample, and cannot explain the dramatic anisotropy observed in COs.

We also studied the COs in a two-dimensional electron system (2DES) at the GaAs/AlGaAs (311)A interface. The 2DES was grown under similar MBE growth conditions: The substrate temperature during the growth of the GaAs/AlGaAs interface and the AlGaAs spacer was kept the same as in the 2DHS case and was reduced only when the dopants were introduced . The interface morphology of the 2DES sample should therefore closely resemble that of the 2DHS samples. The mobility measured in this sample along \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] is about 2 times greater than along \[01$`\overline{1}`$\]. The COs measured along \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] and \[01$`\overline{1}`$\] in the 2DES are shown in Fig. 4. It is clear that the amplitude of the COs in the 2DES case differ only by a factor of about 2, much less than the nearly 100 times difference observed in the 2DHSs. From the positions of the critical field (marked by the vertical arrows in Fig. 4) for the positive magnetoresistances measured along \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] and \[01$`\overline{1}`$\], we estimate that the magnitude of the potential modulation is about the same along these two directions. These values are reasonably consistent with the amplitude difference of COs observed along \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] and \[01$`\overline{1}`$\] in Fig. 4.

To understand the data more quantitatively, it is useful to examine the strength of the potential modulation along \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] and \[01$`\overline{1}`$\]. Beton et al show that 2D carriers subjected to a one-dimensional periodic potential exhibit a low-field positive magnetoresistance. This is because the carriers, affected by the electrical force generated by the periodic potential, stream along the equipotentials (perpendicular to the current flow), and lead to an increase in the resistance. This positive magnetoresistance extends up to a critical $`B`$ field (marked by the vertical arrows in Fig. 3(b)) above which the magnetic force is greater than the electrical force and the streaming orbits are suppressed. Therefore, the critical $`B`$ field can be a measure of the strength of the potential modulation. From this model, we estimate that the strength of the potential modulation along \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] is about twice larger than along \[01$`\overline{1}`$\] for the 2DHS sample. This is not sufficient to explain the remarkable COs amplitude anisotropy found in the 2DHS. The modulation strength for the 2DES sample is about the same for the two directions.

In summary, we investigated COs in 2DHSs and a 2DES grown on GaAs (311)A substrates under similar MBE growth conditions and found an anomalous anisotropy in the COs’ amplitudes measured along \[$`\overline{2}`$33\] and \[01$`\overline{1}`$\] in the 2DHSs, but not in the 2DES. Our study suggests that the anomalous anisotropy is intrinsic to the 2DHSs grown on GaAs (311)A substrates.

This work was supported by the NSF and the ARO.


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## Abstract

We propose that for non-localizable energy distribution the relevant energy condition is determined by the gravitational field energy which is negative for positive non-gravitational energy. That is negativity of the non-localized energy is the ”positive” energy condition. This would have direct application and relevance for a black hole on the brane which would be sitting in a trace free stresses induced by the Weyl curvature of the bulk.

Negative Energy Condition and Black Holes on the Brane
Naresh Dadhich

IUCAA, Post Bag 4, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411007, India.

PACS Numbers: 04.50.+h, 04.60., 04.70.-s, 98.80.Cq

In view of the developments in the string theory, the study of gravity in dimensions higher than the usual four has been in vogue for quite a while. The recent results indicate that extra dimensions need not be compact, they could be large and even infinite . In the Randall - Sundrum (R - S) model , the 4-D Universe is a 3-brane acting as a domain wall between the two semi infinite 5-D negative $`\lambda `$ regions. That is, the actual Universe is embedded in the 5-D bulk satisfying the appropriate boundary conditions. All non-gravitational matter fields remain localized in the brane while free gravitational field and gravitational waves also propagate off the brane in the 5-D bulk. The free field in the bulk backreacts on the brane to induce a trace free stress tensor through the 5-D Weyl tensor evaluated at the brane. The Einstein field equation for the brane has been formulated by Shiromizu, Maeda and Sasaki .

In the absence of energy distribution on the brane, the stress tensor on the brane would have only the trace free Weyl term which need not a priori satisfy the usual positive energy conditions. The energy density of the induced stresses could as well be negative. The effective stress tensor on the brane could thus legitimately include negative energy. It turns out that for a static black hole on the brane, the induced energy from the free gravitational field in the bulk must be negative to contribute positively to the hole’s gravity (attractively). In this context we would like to argue that the proper energy condition should be that the induced energy must be negative to contribute attractively in unison with the hole. This should be true in general but we shall establish this explicitly for a static source.

The basic criterion for energy conditions is that they should ensure the usual behaviour for matter which we observe in the real life experience directly or indirectly. For instance, gravitational field produced by any kind of energy distribution must be attractive is one such condition. This is the case for non-gravitational energy distribution. However it translates for the gravitational field energy that it is negative. The field energy is non-localizable so could also be non-gravitational energy distribution like the electric field energy. Now the question is, what norm should be applicable to such a distribution; positive with the non-gravitational energy or negative with the field energy? We would argue that the latter is the case and would define the proper energy condition for non-localizable energy is that it be negative. That is, it would contribute attractively only when it is negative. That is, positive energy is repulsive.

This has direct relevance and application for the induced energy on the brane from the bulk. It has zero trace and hence it cannot be localized. It must follow the norm of the field energy. It must therefore be negative to produce attractive gravity on the brane. This will in turn determine the sign of the “tidal” charge.

Let me first give a couple of known examples of positive energy producing repulsive effect. Both for the charged and the Schwarzschild - de Sitter black holes, the electric field as well as the cosmological constant produce positive energy density, which produces repulsive gravity. It should not therefore come as surprise, however such an explicit statement is perhaps being made for the first time. Very recently, Vollick  has argued that energy density induced by the 5-D vacuum solution onto the brane would be negative. Negative energy has been considered in quantum field theory for long time . It has also been argued that it should also satisfy certain inequalities  restricting the duration of occurrence when observed. It turns out that more negative the density is shorter would be its life time.

Consider a simple but intuitively and physically illuminating situation. Let an isolated particle of mass $`M`$ sit in a non-gravitational energy distribution which falls off to zero asymptotically. That is, the total energy at infinity is $`M`$, while the energy contained inside some radius $`R`$ would be $`ME(r>R)`$. In this, the energy lying exterior to $`R`$ has been subtracted out from the energy at infinity, $`E(\mathrm{})=M`$. The Newtonian potential would then be given by,

$$\varphi (R)=\frac{ME(r>R)}{R}$$
(1)
and the acceleration would be

$$a=\varphi ^{}=\frac{ME}{R^2}\frac{E^{}}{R}.$$
(2)
Since $`E`$ decreases with $`r`$, the second term would be positive implying repulsive gravity unless of course, $`E`$ itself is negative. Thus the energy distribution surrounding a mass point must have negative energy to produce attractive gravity in unison with the mass point. This clearly illustrates the important point that energy distribution engulfing the particle would act attractively in unison only when it is negative. We could apply this argument straightaway to the Reissner - Nordström solution of a charged black hole . It is quite illuminating to see that the electric field energy would produce repulsive effect.

We shall now establish this result for a static source in general relativity (GR) and also formulate the proper energy condition for non-localized energy. In GR non-gravitational matter/energy as well as the gravitational field energy has gravitational charge. The difference in their action is that the former imparts a pull through the gradient of potential on the test particle while the latter warps/curves the space around the gravitating body . However the two must work in resonance. That is the space warping must be in line with the pull.

For a static source, the spacetime metric is given by

$$ds^2=Adt^2+Bdr^2+r^2(d\theta ^2+sin^2\theta d\varphi ^2)$$
(3)
where $`A`$ and $`B`$ are functions of the radial coordinate $`r`$. The gravitational potential sits in $`A`$ and imparts gravitational attraction on test particle which is given by $`A^{}/2A=M/r^2`$. On the other hand the space curvature has the following non-zero Riemann components,

$$R_{r\theta }^{r\theta }=R_{r\varphi }^{r\varphi }=\frac{B^{}}{2ABr}=M/r^3,R_{\theta \varphi }^{\theta \varphi }=\frac{11/B}{r^2}=2M/r^3$$
(4)
where the terms with $`M`$ refer to the Schwarzschild solution.

From the Einstein equation, we can write for the energy density,

$$\rho =\frac{B^{}}{B^2r}+\frac{1}{r^2}(1\frac{1}{B})$$
(5)
Note that the 3-space has the topology of $`S^2XR`$. From the point of view of radial motion, we can specialize to the equatorial plane. The metric for the Schwarzschild case, $`A=B^1=12M/r`$, would read as

$$(12M/r)^1dr^2+r^2d\varphi ^2$$
(6)
which has the negative curvature $`M/r^3`$. It can be embedded in the 3-flat space by writing

$$z^2=8Mr16M^2$$
(7)
which is a parabola and would generate a paraboloid of revolution (see Fig.1). Clearly it has negative curvature which would tend particles to roll down (or oppose motion leading to increasing $`r`$) to decreasing value of $`r`$ in unison with the attractive action of the potential. That is negative curvature here is the analogue of the attraction in the equation of motion.

Thus the norm for the curvature is set that it should be negative. The sign of the relevant curvature is determined by $`B^{}`$ which must be negative. From eq.(5), it is clear that negative density would contribute negatively to the curvature and consequently positively (in line with the potential) to the field. The positive density would contribute positively to the curvature, opposing the potential, thereby weakening the field though overall curvature may still be negative as is the case for the charged black hole.

Corresponding to the positive energy conditions for the matter fields, the “positive” energy condition for the non-localized energy distribution in line with the gravitational field energy is that it be negative. We have used the prototype Schwarzschild field to ellucidate the norm set by gravitational field energy. The positivity of energy could be equivalently be stated as negativity of the field energy which is further equivalent to negativity of space curvature in ($`r,\theta `$) plane.

This alternative formulation of the energy condition is particularly pertinent to the R - S brane world scenario . Here, the free gravitational filed reflected from the bulk onto the brane through the Weyl curvature of the bulk would give rise to trace free stress tensor on the brane. It would represent a non-localizable energy distribution and hence the only energy condition which is pertinent in this case is the one we have formulated above. That is, it be negative to warp/curve the space in harmony with the action of the gravitational potential.

This has direct relevance and application for black hole on the brane, which would always have some non-zero energy distribution around it coming from the bulk Weyl curvature. It is therefore important that the induced energy density must be negative if it were to contribute positively (attractively) to the hole’s field. This should really be the case because only the free field propagates in the bulk which would have negative energy and consequently it would reflect back negative energy density on the brane. Since the induced stresses are trace free, the energy distribution is non-localizable and hence it should follow the negativity norm of the gravitational field energy. Recently, a solution for a black hole on the brane has been proposed  which is described by the 4-D Reissner-Nordström metric for the charged black hole. Of course there is no electric charge, the corresponding parameter refers to the ”tidal” charge induced by the bulk Weyl curvature. This charge parameter would, in contrast to the electric charge case, be negative because the gravitational field energy in the bulk is negative and to satisfy the proper negative energy condition. This solution would be valid only near the horizon. The high energy corrections to the Schwarzschild solution should only introduce modification to the field without altering its basic character. The ”tidal” charge would therefore have to be negative. If it is not so, it would give rise to both the event as well as the Cauchy horizon which will change the singularity character of the static black hole. What is expected is a modification retaining the basic character of the spacetime. Thus the tidal charge parameter and the energy of the distribution immersing the hole must be negative.

All this discussion of negativity of energy would have direct application to the study of gravitational collapse on the brane. As the high energy corrections to GR according to the R-S model  would manifest in the induced traceless energy distribution on the brane which would be negative. It would therefore act in unison with the gravitational attraction and would strengthen the collapse. They would act in line with the cosmic censorship hypothesis for collapse on the brane. It would be interesting to investigate the cases on the brane that lead to a naked singularity in GR . Would the singularity still persist or not? The answer to this question would be of significance for the ultimate outcome of gravitational collapse.

Acknowledgements: This work was started at the Albert Einstein Institute, Golm and carried through to the universities of Wales, Cardiff, of the Basque Country, Bilbao and of Portsmouth, and Queen Mary and Westfield College, London. I wish to thank all these institutions and my hosts for warm hospitality. I would also like to thank T. Shiromizu, Roy Maartens and Sanjeev Dhurandhar for useful discussions.


text:
# Intrinsic finite-size effects in the two-dimensional 𝑋𝑌 model with irrational frustration

## Abstract

This study investigates in detail the finite-size scaling of the two-dimensional irrationally frustrated $`XY`$ model. By means of Monte Carlo simulations with entropic sampling, we examine the size dependence of the specific heat, and find remarkable deviation from the conventional finite-size scaling theory, which reveals novel intrinsic finite-size effects. Relaxation dynamics of the system is also considered, and correspondingly, finite-size scaling of the relaxation time is examined, again giving evidence for the intrinsic finite-size effects and suggesting a zero-temperature glass transition.

PACS numbers: 74.50.+r, 64.60.Cn, 74.60.Ge

The two-dimensional $`XY`$ model with uniform frustration has attracted much interest in connection with quite a few physical realizations such as periodic arrays of coupled Josephson junctions in uniform magnetic fields . Of particular interest is the case of irrational frustration, where the possibility of a structural glass phase without intrinsic random disorder has been a long-standing question. In the model with irrational frustration, the periodicity of the ground state should be incommensurate with the underlying array periodicity and the ground states are infinitely degenerate, suggestive of the absence of a finite-temperature transition. It was thus argued that there is no phase transition at finite temperatures in the thermodynamic limit , which was also favored by numerical simulations of the current-voltage ($`IV`$) characteristics . The latter, performed with resistively shunted junction (RSJ) dynamics, demonstrated that the $`IV`$ scaling is consistent with a zero-temperature vortex-glass transition proposed in Ref. . In other simulations, on the other hand, a metastable finite-temperature glass transition was proposed  and the similarity of the relaxation dynamics to the primary relaxation in a supercooled liquid was pointed out . Subsequent Monte Carlo (MC) simulations of the original $`XY`$ model  and of the corresponding Coulomb gas  then suggested the relevance of boundary conditions and dynamics in observing the reported glass effects, leaving the existence of a finite-temperature transition still inconclusive.

One way to resolve this is to attribute the observation of the finite transition temperature to intrinsic finite-size effects. In a finite system the effects of irrational frustration may not be distinguished from those of rational frustration, the value of which is given by a rational approximant sufficiently close to the irrational . Consequently, unlike the system in the thermodynamic limit, a finite system (with irrational frustration) tends to behave as if the value of the frustration were given by the rational approximant. Accordingly, the finite system may display such transition-like behavior as the specific heat peak (rounded off due to usual finite-size effects) at a finite temperature, even though the system in the thermodynamic limit undergoes a zero-temperature transition, as argued in Ref. . Here the approximant which properly describes a finite system depends on the system size , raising the interesting possibility of intrinsic finite-size effects in addition to the usual ones; this has not been probed in previous simulations, where, for simplicity, fixed rational approximants were mostly used instead of the actual irrational value of frustration.

In this Letter, we adopt the idea of the intrinsic finite-size effects to resolve the controversy on the phase transition in the two-dimensional irrationally frustrated $`XY`$ (IF$`XY`$) model. For this purpose, we use the exact irrational number up to the machine precision, and perform extensive MC simulations with improved entropic sampling  to compute the specific heat. The obtained data turn out to be inconsistent with the conventional scaling theory of either the first-order transition or the second-order one, revealing the presence of novel intrinsic finite-size effects. To confirm the existence of such intrinsic finite-size effects, we also study the relaxation dynamics of the system and construct the finite-size scaling theory of the relaxation time, on the basis of the zero-temperature glass transition together with the intrinsic finite-size effects. The size dependence of the relaxation time indeed agrees well with the scaling theory, providing strong evidence for the intrinsic finite size effects.

The Hamiltonian for the irrationally frustrated $`XY`$ model on an $`L\times L`$ square lattice is given by

$$H=J\underset{i,j}{}\mathrm{cos}(\varphi _i\varphi _jA_{ij}),$$
(1)
where the angle $`\varphi _i`$ corresponds to the phase of the superconducting order parameter at site $`i`$ and $`J`$ represents the Josephson coupling strength in the case of a Josephson-junction array. The plaquette sum of the bond angle $`A_{ij}`$ is constant over the whole lattice, $`A_{ij}=2\pi f`$, where the frustration parameter $`f`$ is set equal to the golden mean: $`f=\mathrm{\Omega }(\sqrt{5}1)/2`$.

To investigate the finite-size effects of this system, we consider systems of size $`L=5,8,13,21,`$ and $`34`$, the entropies of which are computed by means of extensive MC simulations with entropic sampling. The entropy obtained for each system allows one to calculate the specific heat of the system. Both periodic boundary conditions (PBC) and free boundary conditions (FBC) are used and the results are compared with each other, from which two types of finite-size effects are identified. In principle both boundary conditions should yield correct limiting behavior as the system size $`L`$ is increased, although for finite $`L`$ the PBC induces mismatch at the boundary. The values of $`L`$ are thus chosen in such a way that the mismatch present in the PBC is kept minimum. In the case of the golden mean, it can be achieved by choosing the Fibonacci numbers.

Figure 1 presents the temperature dependence of the obtained specific heat in the PBC for various system sizes. For $`L=34`$, in order to get reliable results, we have performed as many as $`7.5\times 10^{10}`$ MC steps per site using a Cray T3E supercomputer system. As $`L`$ gets increased, the peak is shown to grow and the transition region to narrow whereas the peak position shifts toward lower temperatures. The position of the specific heat peak in the system of size $`L`$, denoted by $`T_m(L)`$, is expected to approach the critical temperature $`T_c`$ as $`L`$ is increased. The well-known finite-size scaling theory of the second-order transition  gives the behavior

$$T_m(L)T_cL^{1/\nu },$$
(2)
to which the least-square fit of our data leads to $`T_c=0`$ and $`1/\nu =0.36`$. On the other hand, the peak height in Fig. 1, expected to grow as $`L^{\alpha /\nu }`$, gives the value $`\alpha /\nu 0.17`$, which, via the Josephson scaling relation ($`2\alpha =d\nu `$ with the system dimension $`d=2`$), leads to the value $`\nu 0.92`$; this is consistent with the value $`\nu 0.9`$ obtained in the numerical study of $`IV`$ characteristics . Thus the result of the fit manifests inapplicability of the conventional finite-size scaling theory. Further, it is also inconsistent with the scaling theory of the first-order transition , according to which $`1/\nu `$ in Eq. (2) is replaced by the system dimension $`d=2`$. It is thus concluded that the system does not display conventional finite-size effects associated with either a first-order transition or a second-order one. Still remains the possibility of a weakly first-order transition, in which case the system may appear to exhibit size dependence similar to that for a second-order transition . Such pseudo-divergent scaling behavior should disappear as the system size exceeds the correlation length of the system.

Deviation from these conventional (second-order, first-order, or weakly first-order) transitions can be observed most clearly in comparing the size dependences of the specific heat under PBC and under FBC. Periodic boundary conditions tend to suppress fluctuations, exhibiting the peak position at a temperature higher than the true critical temperature $`T_c`$. Under FBC, on the other hand, no such suppression exists and large fluctuations in general yield the peak at a lower temperature . Thus the ordinary finite-size effects are manifested by the shift of the peak position toward $`T_c`$ as the system size is increased, from higher temperatures in PBC and from lower temperatures in FBC, respectively. The results of test runs for the fully frustrated $`XY`$ model with $`f=1/2`$, shown in Fig. 2(a), indeed demonstrate such behavior of the ordinary finite-size effects: The data in both cases, PBC and FBC, follow Eq. (2) (up to the overall sign), and the least-square fit with the values of $`T_c`$ and $`\nu `$ in Ref.  yields the lines displaying nice scaling behaviors . On the other hand, Fig. 2(b) reveals quite different features of the finite-size effects in the IF$`XY`$ model. Here the peak position $`T_m(L)`$ in PBC is sensitive to the system size $`L`$, reducing rapidly with $`L`$, while it is not the case in FBC . In particular, unlike the case of rational frustration, the peak position in FBC does not shift toward higher temperatures, violating the conventional scaling given by Eq. (2).

Such peculiar behavior can be explained in terms of intrinsic finite-size effects present in addition to the ordinary ones : For the frustration given by the golden mean, the appropriate rational approximants are given by the ratios between adjacent pairs in the Fibonacci sequence, i.e., $`f_k=q_{k1}/q_k`$, where $`q_k`$ denotes the $`k`$th Fibonacci number. Among these rational frustration values $`f_k`$’s, those satisfying the following condition determine nature of the transition in the (finite) system of size $`L`$:

$$q_kL\left|ff_k\right|^1,$$
(3)
where $`f=\mathrm{\Omega }`$. While the first inequality in Eq. (3) simply implies that the system size should be sufficiently larger than the size of a unit cell, the second one, related with the charge neutrality condition, gives the criterion that the defects due to the mismatch $`ff_k`$ are negligible since the corresponding phase change across the system is $`2\pi L(ff_k)`$ . Accordingly, as the system size $`L`$ is increased, the mismatch should get smaller and the bigger Fibonacci number $`q_k`$ is needed to describe the transition at the size. The transition temperature as well as nature of the transition depends on the frustration parameter or on $`q_k`$  and thus on the system size.

It is therefore plausible to replace $`T_c`$ in Eq. (2) by $`T_c(L)`$, the transition temperature of the system of size $`L`$, which yields

$`T_m(L)T_c(L)`$ $`=`$ $`c_pL^{1/\nu }`$ (4)
$`T_m(L)T_c(L)`$ $`=`$ $`c_fL^{1/\nu }`$ (5)
with appropriate (positive) amplitudes $`c_p`$ and $`c_f`$ for PBC and for FBC, respectively. Here $`T_c(L)`$ is expected to decrease with the system size, approaching the true critical value $`T_c`$ in the thermodynamic limit . Since the precise limiting behavior is unknown, we assume the simple behavior

$$T_c(L)T_c=c_iL^a.$$
(6)
Note that in contrast to the ordinary finite-size effects, which depend crucially upon the boundary conditions, the intrinsic effects described by Eq. (6) change the transition temperature itself, regardless of the boundary conditions.

Equations (4) and (6) thus yield the appropriate scaling form for the IF$`XY`$ model: In PBC, both ordinary and intrinsic effects add up to give the finite-size scaling in the form

$$T_m(L)T_c=c_iL^a+c_pL^{1/\nu },$$
(7)
whereas in the case of FBC, the two effects give the convergence behavior in the opposite direction, leading to the form

$$T_m(L)T_c=c_iL^ac_fL^{1/\nu }.$$
(8)
Indeed using the value $`\nu =0.9`$, we can fit the peak position data both in PBC and in FBC to Eqs. (7) and (8) with $`T_c=0`$, respectively, to obtain the same value

$$a=0.28\pm 0.05.$$
(9)
The resulting scaling curves are displayed in Fig. 2(b), giving strong evidence for $`T_c=0`$.

To confirm this, we also study the relaxation dynamics of an $`L\times L`$ RSJ array under PBC in both directions . To obtain dynamical behavior, we integrate directly the equations of motion with the time step $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=0.05`$, starting from random initial configurations and taking averages over $`300`$ to $`30000`$ independent runs. In the limit $`t\mathrm{}`$, the energy function is expected to approach the equilibrium value at given temperature $`T`$, allowing us to estimate the relaxation time $`\tau `$ of the energy function. The obtained behavior of $`\tau `$ is shown in Fig. 3 for various sizes $`L=5,8,13,21,`$ and $`34`$. Notice that for $`T>0.25`$ the data do not depend appreciably on the system size, which explains why the size effects were not observed in Ref. . Still the scaling of $`IV`$ characteristics, not relying much on the system size in the temperature region probed, can give an accurate value of the exponent $`\nu `$ .

To examine the finite-size effects in the relaxation time data, we construct the suitable scaling form of the relaxation time. In the presumed zero-temperature glass transition, the relaxation has an activated form, and the relaxation time diverges exponentially as the temperature approaches zero, taking the form

$$\tau =A\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{\Delta }E/T).$$
(10)
Here $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ is the typical barrier that a vortex should overcome to move across the correlation length $`\xi `$, and scales as $`\mathrm{\Delta }E\xi ^\psi `$ with the barrier exponent $`\psi `$. In the presence of intrinsic finite-size effects, which lead to the size-dependent transition temperature $`T_c(L)`$, the correlation length should display the scaling behavior

$$\xi =Lf(L^{1/\nu }[TT_c(L)])$$
(11)
with the appropriate scaling function $`f(x)`$ such that $`f(x0)\mathrm{constant}`$ and $`f(x\mathrm{})x^\nu `$. The corresponding finite-size scaling of the relaxation time thus takes the form

$$\mathrm{log}\tau =L^\psi g(L^{1/\nu }[TT_c(L)])$$
(12)
with the scaling function $`g(x)[f(x)]^\psi `$.

Figure 4 presents the scaling plot of the relaxation time $`\tau `$ of the IF$`XY`$ model, showing that the data indeed fit well to the finite size-scaling form in Eq. (12). The critical temperature $`T_c(L)`$ at each size $`L`$ has been estimated from the specific heat data. ¿From this scaling with $`\psi =0.54`$, we obtain the exponent $`\nu =0.89\pm 0.2`$, which is in good agreement with the results of the specific heat data and of the $`IV`$ characteristics in Ref. .

In summary, we have studied the finite-size scaling of the specific heat and the relaxation time in the two-dimensional irrationally frustrated $`XY`$ model. This has revealed intrinsic finite-size effects and a zero-temperature glass transition in the thermodynamic limit, thus resolving the controversy as to the existence of a finite-temperature transition. Since the analytic argument for the intrinsic effects is rather general , we believe the conclusion to be valid for any irrationals; this is indeed supported by the preliminary results for the silver mean case, the detailed investigation of which is left for further study. Finally, we point out that for generic values of frustration, a quasiperiodic array displays behavior similar to that of a periodic array with irrational frustration . This suggests the presence of intrinsic finite-size effects also in the quasiperiodic array, as manifested by the apparent glass behavior reported in Ref. .

MYC thanks D.J. Thouless for the hospitality during his stay at University of Washington, where part of this work was accomplished. SYP thanks D.R. Nelson, D.S. Fisher, and S. Teitel for useful discussions and acknowledges the fellowship from the Rotary Foundation. This work was supported in part by the NSF Grant DMR-9815932, by the Ministry of Education through the BK21 Program (MYC), and by the KRF Grant 99-005-D00034 (JSC).


text:
# Where is the 𝜋 resonance?

\[

## Abstract

We discuss the interplay of particle-particle and particle-hole spin-triplet channels in high-$`T_c`$ superconductors using a quasiparticle dispersion motivated by angle-resolved photoemission. Within a generalized RPA, we find a well defined antibound state of two holes, the $`\pi `$ resonance of Demler and Zhang, as well as a bound state of a particle and a hole, the spin exciton. We show that the energy of the $`\pi `$ resonance always exceeds $`2\mathrm{\Delta }`$, twice the maximum d-wave gap, therefore the neutron resonance observed in the cuprates around energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is most likely a spin exciton. At the same time, we speculate that the $`\pi `$ particle can exist at higher energies and might be observed in neutron scattering around 100 meV.

\]

Reflecting our poor understanding of high-$`T_c`$ superconductivity in general, theoretical debates continue on virtually every aspect of it. A good example is the resonance observed in inelastic neutron scattering at energies 25–43 meV in YBa2Cu3O7-y and Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ. Measurements using polarized neutrons indicate that the observed excitation is magnetic in nature. Theoretical proposals include a van Hove singularity in the Stoner continuum, a bound state (spin exciton) in the particle-hole channel, and an antibound state in the particle-particle channel ($`\pi `$ resonance). Deciding between these approaches is somewhat difficult since in all theories the resonance mode is an excited pair of quasiparticles with total lattice momentum $`𝐐=(\pi /a,\pi /a)`$ and spin $`S=1`$.

In this paper, we use available experimental data and a simple kinematic argument to demonstrate that a particle-hole bound state is the most likely explanation for the resonance. In a nutshell, our reasoning goes as follows. Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) directly measures the dispersion of fermionic quasiparticles $`ϵ_𝐤`$ in the superconducting state. From this, one can deduce information about the continuum of states of two quasiparticles with total momentum $`𝐐`$ and, in particular, determine its energy bounds. An analysis of ARPES data in Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ shows that the two-quasiparticle continuum starts at $`E_{\mathrm{min}}2\mathrm{\Delta }`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the maximum value of the superconducting gap at the Fermi surface. The commensurate neutron resonance in Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ resides at $`E_{\mathrm{res}}\mathrm{\Delta }`$, definitely below the lower edge of the continuum. The resonance then can only be a bound state of two quasiparticles, not an antibound state.

This argument—that the lower edge of the two-particle continuum is determined by $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and not by the chemical potential $`\mu `$ as in Ref. —is based on the analysis of the Fermi surface inferred from ARPES data (Fig. 1). We have verified that, for this Fermi surface, $`E_{\mathrm{min}}`$ is determined not by electrons along zone diagonals $`k_x=k_y`$, but rather by electrons near the hot spots (points at $`𝐤=𝐤_F`$ separated by $`𝐐`$). The latter are located close to $`(0,\pi )`$ and symmetry related points, and in the superconducting state have a gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }(𝐤_{\mathrm{hs}})\mathrm{\Delta }`$. This yields a threshold at $`E_{\mathrm{min}}2\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Note that this argument also invalidates the interpretation of the resonance as a van Hove singularity in the two-quasiparticle continuum.

Does it mean that the $`\pi `$ resonance does not exist? Not necessarily. In our model calculations, the spin exciton and the $`\pi `$ resonance are found to coexist at intermediate coupling strengths, similar to earlier findings. Furthermore, in a situation where the continuum of states with two holes is narrow and has a sharp upper edge, we find that the $`\pi `$ resonance is rather sharp. To which extent these conditions are satisfied in the cuprates is not clear because self-energy effects could wash out the upper edge of the continuum. We therefore can only speculate that the $`\pi `$ resonance might be discovered in neutron scattering at energies above $`E_{\mathrm{min}}`$ (60 meV in optimally doped Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ), more likely around 100 meV.

To proceed, we need a model treating all spin-triplet excitations (with charges 0 and $`\pm 2`$) on an equal footing. The simplest approach is an adaptation of Anderson’s treatment of phase fluctuations and plasmons in a superconductor to the spin-triplet channel. Precisely this method, known as generalized RPA, was used by Demler et al.. To make the approach self-consistent, we make a quasiparticle approximation with a dispersion fitted to peak positions in the ARPES data in the superconducting state of Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ. As the measured dispersion is flat near $`(0,\pi )`$, our calculation yields a strikingly narrow two-electron continuum with a width of about 10 meV. This narrowness is caused by the proximity of the hot spots to the van Hove points at $`(\pi ,0)`$.

This quasiparticle model is a “best case” scenario for the antibound state. This model assumes that one has a superfluid Fermi liquid, which appears to be consistent with transport and ARPES data, at least at low temperatures. Within this approximation, the upper edge of the two-hole continuum is sharp, which is favorable for the formation of the $`\pi `$ resonance. By making such an approximation, we essentially neglect the large incoherent part of the electron spectral function known to exist from photoemission. On the other hand, this incoherent part is absent below the energy scale $`\mathrm{\Delta }+E_{\mathrm{res}}`$ set by the spin resonance, so the fermionic incoherence affects the two-particle propagators only at energies above $`2\mathrm{\Delta }+E_{\mathrm{res}}`$. Thus the $`\pi `$ resonance can, in principle, live below this threshold. We make no attempt to explain why the quasiparticle dispersion is so remarkably flat near $`(\pi ,0)`$. A number of authors have pointed out that this flatness most likely results from a strongly $`\omega `$-dependent self-energy which renormalizes the bare dispersion. Also note that the extreme narrowness of the two-particle continuum is not a crucial part of our argument: we have observed similar behavior with a much wider (70 meV) two-particle continuum based on normal state dispersions.

We now proceed with the calculations. Consider a system of fermions with dispersion $`ϵ_𝐤`$ given in Ref.  and the nearest-neighbor interaction

$$H_1=\underset{ij}{}J\left(𝐒_i𝐒_j\frac{1}{4}n_in_j\right)+Vn_in_j.$$
(1)
The $`J`$ term gives rise to an attraction in the particle-particle d-wave singlet channel and in the particle-hole triplet channel, where it can induce a spin exciton. The $`V`$ term accounts for repulsion in the triplet pairing channel and gives rise to the $`\pi `$ resonance. In the conventional $`t`$$`J`$ model, $`V=0`$. Following Refs.  and , we consider a more general interaction and treat $`V`$ and $`J`$ as independent parameters.

Although we are interested in spin susceptibility, in a superconducting ground state an operator of spin has the same quantum numbers as an operator creating a spin-triplet pair. We therefore analyze the linear response for the set of three operators

$`S_+`$ $`=`$ $`N^{1/2}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}a_𝐤^{}a_{𝐤+𝐐},`$ (2)
$`\pi `$ $`=`$ $`N^{1/2}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}g_𝐤a_{𝐐𝐤}a_𝐤,`$ (3)
$`\overline{\pi }`$ $`=`$ $`N^{1/2}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}g_𝐤a_{𝐐𝐤}^{}a_𝐤^{}.`$ (4)
Here $`a_{𝐤,\sigma }`$ is an electron annihilation operator and $`g_𝐤=\mathrm{cos}(k_xa)\mathrm{cos}(k_ya)`$. Operators $`S_+`$, $`\pi `$ and $`\overline{\pi }`$ destroy a bosonic excitation with the same momentum $`𝐐=(\pi /a,\pi /a)`$ and spin $`S_z=1`$, but with different charges $`0`$ and $`\pm 2`$, respectively.

As a warmup exercise, consider first a hypothetical (Fermi liquid) non-superconducting ground state. The triplet channels (24) are decoupled by virtue of a charge U(1) symmetry. The Fourier transform of the bare pair susceptibility

$$\chi _\pi ^0(t)=i\theta (t)[\pi (t),\pi ^{}(0)]|_{V=J=0}$$
(5)
is shown in Fig. 2(a). As anticipated, the two-hole continuum ($`\omega <0`$) is strikingly narrow: its upper edge is at $`|E_{\mathrm{max}}|10`$ meV. The $`\omega ^{1/2}`$ divergence near $`E_{\mathrm{max}}`$ is a van Hove-type singularity associated with the $`(\pi ,0)`$ points. Observe that, at $`|\omega |>|E_{\mathrm{max}}|`$, $`\chi _\pi ^0(\omega )`$ is purely real. On the other hand, the bare spin susceptibility $`\chi _S^0(\omega )`$ \[shown in the insert of Fig. 2(a)\] is complex for all frequencies.

Within the generalized RPA approximation, the full susceptibilities are given by

$$\chi _\pi (\omega )=\frac{\chi _\pi ^0(\omega )}{1V\chi _\pi ^0(\omega )},\chi _S(\omega )=\frac{\chi _S^0(\omega )}{1+2J\chi _S^0(\omega )}.$$
(6)
Note the opposite signs of the interaction terms: attractive in the particle-hole channel, repulsive in the particle-particle channels. Because $`\chi _\pi ^0(\omega )=1/V`$ has a solution for any $`V>0`$ \[Fig. 2(a)\], the full $`\pi `$ susceptibility $`\chi _\pi (\omega )`$ acquires a pole above the upper edge of the continuum. This pole is the $`\pi `$ resonance. In contrast, no pole occurs in the RPA response for $`S_+`$. This is a consequence of the fact that the particle-hole continuum \[and, hence, $`\mathrm{Im}\chi _S(\omega )`$\] extends to the lowest energies.

We now turn to the superconducting state. To facilitate the RPA treatment, we assume that the superconducting state is of the BCS type with a $`d`$-wave gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }(𝐤)=\mathrm{\Delta }(\mathrm{cos}k_xa\mathrm{cos}k_ya)/2`$. We treat $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ as another input parameter in the problem. In principle, the gap has to be computed self-consistently, but for our purposes this is not necessary as we are not concerned with response functions in the singlet channel at small momenta.

Since in a superconductor charge is defined modulo 2, all three operators (2-4) now carry identical quantum numbers and one can use any superposition of these. It is customary to choose

$$A_0=S_+,A_1=\frac{\pi \overline{\pi }}{\sqrt{2}},A_2=\frac{\pi +\overline{\pi }}{\sqrt{2}}.$$
(7)
The operators $`A_1`$ and $`A_2`$ describe fluctuations of the phase and the amplitude of the $`\pi `$ mode, respectively.  The bare susceptibilities $`\chi _{qq^{}}^0(\omega )`$ are defined, similarly to Eq. (5), as the Fourier transforms of

$$\chi _{qq^{}}^0(t)=i\theta (t)[A_q^{}(t),A_q^{}(0)]|_{V=J=0}.$$
(8)
They can be written as components of a $`3\times 3`$ matrix $`\widehat{\chi }^0`$. At $`T=0`$, we have

$$\chi _{qq^{}}^0(\omega )=\frac{1}{N}\underset{𝐤}{}\left(\frac{\varphi _q\varphi _q^{}}{\omega E_𝐤E_𝐤^{}}\frac{(1)^{q+q^{}}\varphi _q\varphi _q^{}}{\omega +E_𝐤+E_𝐤^{}}\right),$$
(9)
where $`E_𝐤^2=ϵ_𝐤^2+\mathrm{\Delta }_𝐤^2`$, $`𝐤^{}=𝐐𝐤`$, and $`\varphi _q`$ are components of the vector

$$\varphi =(2^{1/2}p(𝐤,𝐤^{}),g_𝐤n(𝐤,𝐤^{}),g_𝐤l(𝐤,𝐤^{})),$$
(10)
where $`l`$, $`n`$ and $`p`$ are the BCS coherence factors

$`l(𝐤,𝐤^{})`$ $`=`$ $`u_𝐤u_𝐤^{}+v_𝐤v_𝐤^{},`$ (11)
$`n(𝐤,𝐤^{})`$ $`=`$ $`u_𝐤u_𝐤^{}v_𝐤v_𝐤^{},`$ (12)
$`p(𝐤,𝐤^{})`$ $`=`$ $`u_𝐤v_𝐤^{}+v_𝐤u_𝐤^{}.`$ (13)
The momentum sums are evalulated directly by including a small broadening $`\omega \omega +i\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in the energy denominators. Note that, due to strong particle-hole asymmetry implied by our dispersion, off-diagonal terms in $`\widehat{\chi }^0`$ are by no means small.

Within the generalized RPA scheme, the full susceptibilities $`\chi _{qq^{}}(\omega )`$ are given by the matrix RPA equation

$$\widehat{\chi }(\omega )=\widehat{\chi }^0(\omega )+\widehat{\chi }(\omega )\widehat{V}\widehat{\chi }^0(\omega ).$$
(14)
where $`\widehat{V}=\mathrm{diag}(2J,V,V)`$ in the basis (7). Recall that both $`J`$ and $`V`$ are assumed to be positive. We next discuss the behavior of response functions in various situations.

$`J0`$, $`V=0`$. This is the situation considered in most studies. Although the BCS condensate now mixes all components of $`\chi _{qq^{}}^0(\omega )`$, the full spin susceptibility $`\chi _{00}(\omega )=\chi _S(\omega )`$ is still given by the standard RPA expression, Eq. (6). This effective decoupling is due to the fact that the $`J`$ term in (1) yields no interaction in the particle-particle triplet channel. Despite a formal similarity with the normal state result, the form of $`\chi _{00}^0(\omega )`$ changes dramatically in a d-wave superconducting state: the Stoner continuum develops a hard gap

$$E_{\mathrm{min}}(𝐐)=\mathrm{min}(E_𝐤+E_{𝐐𝐤})=2|\mathrm{\Delta }(𝐤_{\mathrm{hs}})|2\mathrm{\Delta }.$$
(15)
The imaginary part of $`\chi _{00}^0(\omega )`$ jumps from 0 to a finite value at $`2\mathrm{\Delta }(𝐤_{\mathrm{hs}})`$. By Kramers-Kronig relation, this discontinuity causes a logarithmical divergence of $`\mathrm{Re}\chi _{00}^0(\omega )`$. Therefore, for arbitrary $`J`$, the full $`\chi _{00}(\omega )`$ has a resonance pole at $`\omega <2\mathrm{\Delta }`$.

In the absence of the triplet-pair coupling $`V`$, there is no $`\pi `$ resonance above the continuum. At the same time, the $`\pi `$$`\pi `$ correlation function contains a resonance below the continuum, which is nothing but the spin exciton mixing into all other triplet channels. Indeed, for $`V=0`$, the solution of Eq. (14) can be written in the following form:

$$\chi _{qq^{}}(\omega )=\chi _{qq^{}}^0(\omega )2\chi _{q0}^0(\omega )J^{\mathrm{RPA}}(\omega )\chi _{0q^{}}^0(\omega ),$$
(16)
where $`J^{\mathrm{RPA}}(\omega )=J/[1+2J\chi _{00}^0(\omega )]`$. The spin-exciton pole in the RPA vertex $`J^{\mathrm{RPA}}(\omega )`$ shows up in all full susceptibilities.

$`J=0`$, $`V0`$. In this limit, there is no bound state in the particle-hole ($`q=0`$) channel because $`J=0`$. The $`\pi `$ resonance in the particle-particle channel, which already existed in the normal state, is pushed to a higher energy when the superconducting gap opens up. We stress once again that the lower boundary of the two-hole continuum $`E_{\mathrm{min}}`$ is produced by fermions with momenta near hot spots, hence $`E_{\mathrm{min}}2\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Certainly, an antibound state in the particle-particle triplet channel is located above $`2\mathrm{\Delta }`$. How much above $`2\mathrm{\Delta }`$ depends on the width of the two-electron continuum and the coupling strength.

The bare $`\pi `$$`\pi `$ response function in a superconducting state is presented in Fig. 2(b). It has two step-like discontinuities at $`E_{\mathrm{min}}`$ and $`E_{\mathrm{max}}`$, which are seen in both hole-hole ($`\omega <0`$) and particle-particle ($`\omega >0`$) spectra. The location of the $`\pi `$ resonance in a superconductor is, however, not simply given by (6), but is a solution of the secular equation

$$det\left[\left(\begin{array}{cc}\chi _{11}^0(\omega )\hfill & \chi _{12}^0(\omega )\hfill \\ \chi _{21}^0(\omega )\hfill & \chi _{22}^0(\omega )\hfill \end{array}\right)\frac{1}{V}\right]=0.$$
(17)
All four matrix elements $`\chi _{qq^{}}^0`$ for $`q=1,2`$ have the same thresholds as $`\chi _{\pi \pi }^0`$ in Fig 2(b). We solved this equation numerically and found that the $`\pi `$ resonance indeed moves to an energy higher than $`2\mathrm{\Delta }`$. For $`V=40`$ meV, the resonance moves from 22 meV in the normal state \[Fig. 2(a)\] to 82 meV in the superconducting state with $`2\mathrm{\Delta }=70`$ meV \[Fig. 2(b)\]. Reasoning similar to that above implies that the $`\pi `$ resonance shows up in the spin channel.

$`J0`$, $`V0`$. The general case interpolates between the two limits. Fig. 3 presents our results for the spin susceptibility at various ratios of the coupling strengths $`V/J`$. Interestingly enough, for comparable couplings, we found that the response functions contain two peaks at different energies. One, above $`E_{\mathrm{max}}`$, is the $`\pi `$ resonance, the other, below $`E_{\mathrm{min}}`$, is the bound state in the particle-hole channel. As $`V`$ is increased, the high-energy resonance pulls away from the upper edge of the two-hole continuum and stregthens. At the same time, the low-energy resonance approaches the lower edge and enters into the two-electron continuum, where it broadens and finally becomes invisible. In the opposite limit, as $`V`$ gets progressively smaller, the $`\pi `$ resonance weakens, merges with the outer edge of the continuum and disappears.

Discussion. Direct comparison of neutron and ARPES data for Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ shows that the neutron resonance is located well below $`2\mathrm{\Delta }`$. We believe that the same holds true for YBa2Cu3O7-y. Because the lower continuum edge $`E_{\mathrm{min}}`$ is just below $`2\mathrm{\Delta }`$, the resonance almost certainly occurs below this edge. This point can be verified by analysing ARPES data at the hot spots. In a slightly overdoped Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ sample with $`T_c=87`$ K, the gap value at the hot spots is $`32\pm 3`$ meV, and $`E_{\mathrm{min}}58`$ meV. The neutron resonance at $`𝐐=(\pi /a,\pi /a)`$ in the overdoped Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ with similar $`T_c=83`$ K is observed at $`E=38`$ meV, i.e., well below $`E_{\mathrm{min}}`$. We thus conclude that the neutron resonance is an exciton-like bound state in the particle-hole channel, not an antibound state, such as the $`\pi `$ resonance.

It has been previously remarked that particle-hole mixing can mask the origin of the neutron resonance: a spin resonance mixes into triplet-pair channels and vice versa. We rely on a continuity argument to make the unambiguous identification of the experimental neutron peak, which is observed below the continuum edge $`E_{\mathrm{min}}2\mathrm{\Delta }`$, as expected for $`VJ`$. As the pair-triplet coupling $`V`$ is turned off, the low-energy peak stays below the edge and continuously evolves into the usual RPA spin resonance at $`V=0`$. On the other hand, there is no collective mode below $`E_{\mathrm{min}}`$ in the limit $`VJ`$, in which the $`\pi `$ resonance can be defined unambiguously. Moving the high-energy $`\pi `$ resonance across the continuum involves a discontinuous change. For this reason, the neutron resonance should not be associated with the $`\pi `$ resonance.

We feel that a more realistic analysis will not change this general conclusion because our argument does not rely on detailed dynamics of the resonances, but is based on measured kinematics of low-energy fermion excitations and on general properties of bound states. If one wishes to find the $`\pi `$ resonance in neutron scattering, the search should be confined to energies above the two-hole continuum. As its true upper edge is not known experimentally, we can only suggest that this energy exceeds $`2\mathrm{\Delta }`$. On the other hand, because of the large incoherent parts of the spectral function observed in ARPES data for energies beyond $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, there may be no true upper edge to the continuum, and it is quite possible that the $`\pi `$ resonance will be strongly damped, or perhaps even absent, in neutron data.

The authors thank Ar. Abanov, J. C. Campuzano, E. Demler, B. Jankó, and J. F. Zasadzinski for helpful discussions. A. C. and O. T. are grateful to ANL staff for hospitality during their stay at Argonne, and M. N. to the staff at the ITP. This work was supported by the DOE Office of Science under contract W-31-109-ENG-38 (Argonne), by the DOE Grant No. DE-FG02-90ER40542 (Princeton) and by the NSF grants DMR–9979749 (Wisconsin) and PHY94-07194 (ITP).


text:
# Starbursts and the Evolution of Gas-Rich Galaxies

## 1. Introduction

Intermediate scale disk galaxies with starbursts are relatively common in the nearby universe. About 5% of galaxies with $``$17 $`<`$ MB $`<`$21 have evidence for starbursts. Many of these occur in smaller galaxies, produce blue colors and strong emission lines, and are in gas rich systems, as indicated by their relatively large fractional HI content.

The more luminous nearby blue starbursts structurally and spectroscopically resemble the faint blue compact narrow emission line galaxies (CNELGs), which become common at redshifts of z$`>`$0.3 (e.g., Guzman et al. 1998). They are less well-matched to high redshift blue galaxies, which have a combination of high UV luminosities and huge star formation rates that are not common in nearby extreme starbursts. This difference probably reflects secular evolution in the lives of galaxies; for example, systems at high redshift may be subject to frequent, strong mergers that trigger hyperactive star formation (e.g. Conselice et al. 2001 in prep).

Nearby starbursts frequently show evidence for being dynamically cool, that is they contain strong spiral arms or bars, features that are found in rotationally supported galactic disks. Thus the processes that produced these starburst did not severely disrupt the disk, or the disk reformed during the starburst event. Local analogs to the CNELGs include profound starbursts arising from minor perturbations (see Figure 1).

## 2. Role of Interactions

Moderate interactions (glancing collisions between equals, minor mergers) are apparently the sources of many starbursts. Evidence for this includes subtle optical structural features such as wisps, faint tails, or moderately disturbed kinematics in starbursts, as well as the more ubiquitous signatures of disturbed HI. Furthermore, in some starbursts where an interaction is the likely trigger, the outer regions of the optical disk appear to be relatively symmetric and relaxed. Three possible explanations for this behavior are:

$``$ Starburst durations exceed the outer disk relaxation times, typically a few rotation periods, or $`0.3`$ Gyr.

$``$ Starbursts occur late during many interactions, perhaps as a result of infalling material from tidal tails (e.g., Mihos & Hernquist 1996).

$``$ Perturbations can produce starbursts with minimal impact on outer stellar disks; e.g., by stimulating gas inflows from extended HI disks.

Our investigations of nearby starbursts lead to several conclusions:

$``$ Blue starbursts are commonly associated with disk galaxies: Near face-on systems can transmit UV light through areas where the disk has been cleaned out by supershells, supernova, etc. (e.g. Conselice et al. 2000).

$``$ Low inclination disks can mimic the kinematics of low mass galaxies due to their narrow line widths (Homeier & Gallagher 1999). Some intermediate redshift CNELGs could be low inclination disks of moderate mass rather then extreme dwarf starbursts.

$``$ Undisturbed intermediate mass galaxies, such as extreme late-type and superthin spirals (e.g., Matthews et al. 1998) can be inefficient star-formers and thereby store interstellar gas, the fuel for starbursts, over cosmic time scales.

$``$ UV-bright regions of starbursts frequently occur in features associated with disks, such as rings or arms (e.g. Conselice et al. 2000) which may represent star forming environments not yet accessible to severely disturbed high luminosity starbursts in the distant universe.

We thank STScI-NASA, the NSF, and the Vilas Trust at the University of Wisconsin for support of various aspects of this research.

References

Conselice, C.J. et al. 2000, AJ, 119, 79
Guzman, R. et al. 1998, ApJ, 495, L13
Homeier, N. & Gallagher, J.S. 1999, ApJ, 522, 199
Matthews, L., van Driel, W., & Gallagher, J. 1998. AJ, 116, 1169
Mihos, C. & Hernquist, L. 1996, ApJ, 464, 641


text:
# Interstellar Gas and Star Formation Near the Peculiar Radio Galaxy NGC 4410A

## 1. Introduction

The large radio lobes of radio galaxies both affect and are affected by their environment. They may be distorted by motion through an intracluster medium or by an encounter with interstellar matter in the host galaxy or a companion galaxy. In addition, impacts between jets and interstellar matter may trigger star formation. To investigate the interplay between radio lobes and the interstellar matter in radio galaxies, detailed studies of the interstellar matter in nearby radio galaxies are essential. In this paper, we present a study of the interstellar matter in the nearby low luminosity radio galaxy NGC 4410A.

## 2. A Multi-Wavelength View of the NGC 4410 Group

NGC 4410A is part of a small group containing a dozen known members. NGC 4410A has a prominent bulge surrounded by a ring-like or loop-like structure (Figure 1a). East and southeast of the nucleus, luminous H II regions are detected (Figure 1b). There is an HI tail extending to the southeast of the NGC 4410A+B pair, coincident with a stellar tail (Figure 2). NGC 4410A was also detected in CO (1 $``$ 0), yielding M$`_{H_2}`$ $``$ 4 $`\times `$ 109 M$`_{}`$. NGC 4410A has two distorted radio lobes; the southeastern lobe is superposed on the optical/HI tidal tail. X-ray maps show a 2 long ‘tail’ coincident with the NGC 4410A+B/NGC 4410C stellar bridge.

## 3. Conclusions

The NGC 4410 group shows clear evidence for gravitational interactions between galaxies as well as evidence for an external force acting upon the radio lobes. The peculiar ring-like structure of NGC 4410A suggests that a near-head-on collision with NGC 4410B has occurred. We suggest that the distortion of the radio lobes was caused by ram pressure from the interstellar medium, due to the motion of this gas relative to the radio source during a gravitational interaction between galaxies. The X-ray extension may be due to shocked tidal gas or intragroup gas coincidently superposed on the stellar bridge. The star formation may have been induced by the collision or by a jet/interstellar medium impact.

Captions

1a) a red continuum image of NGC 4410A (right) and its companion NGC 4410B. 1b) an H$`\alpha `$+\[N II\] image of NGC 4410A+B. The field of view is $``$1.

2) A VLA D Array 21 cm HI map of the inner part of the NGC 4410 group, superposed on an R-band image from the SARA 0.9m telescope. The field of view is 6 $`\times `$ 5.