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# Can differences in the nickel abundance in Chandrasekhar mass models explain the relation between brightness and decline rate of normal Type Ia Supernovae?

## 1 Introduction

The use of Type Ia Supernovae (SNe Ia) to probe cosmological parameters relies on the possibility to calibrate the absolute magnitude of individual SNe from the observed luminosity evolution (for a review see, e.g. , Branch 1998). Pskovskii (1977) first suggested that brighter SNe Ia decline more slowly than dimmer ones. This was later confirmed by Phillips (1993). Using modern data for a small sample of well observed local SNe Ia he showed that the relation exists in the $`B`$, $`V`$ and $`I`$ bands, but it is steepest in $`B`$. The relation between maximum $`B`$ brightness and the number of magnitudes the $`B`$ band declines in the first 15 days after maximum, a quantity called $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{15}(B)`$, is commonly referred to as the Phillips’ relation. Hamuy et al. (1995, 1996b) confirmed the relation using a bigger sample of objects, although their slopes were flatter than Phillips’ original values.

Riess et al. (1995) used a more sophisticated approach based on the analysis of the entire early light curve, which allows the SN maximum brightness to be determined by comparison with a set of template light curves of objects whose distance and reddening are assumed to be known. However, the absolute magnitude - light curve shape relation is not yet calibrated exactly, as is shown by the differences among recent work (Riess et al. 1995, 1998).

Although the relation between SN Ia brightness and decline rate has been used extensively, its physical bases are not yet understood. Several groups have published synthetic light curves obtained from explosion models which differ in many of their properties (progenitor WD mass, mode of the explosion). These light curves span a wide range of maximum brightness and decline rates, and although there are models that appear to reproduce some of the observations, a fully consistent picture is still lacking. In this paper we explore the possibility that a series of Chandrasekhar-mass explosion models, which differ essentially in the amount of 56Ni they synthesize, can explain the observed range of light curves and spectra of at least spectroscopically normal SNe Ia.

## 2 Basic Light Curve Physics

SNe Ia synthesize significant amounts of radioactive 56Ni, and their light curves are powered by the deposition in the expanding SN ejecta of the $`\gamma `$-rays and positrons produced by the decay chain 56Ni$``$ 56Co$``$ 56Fe.

The shape of the light curve of a SN Ia near maximum depends essentially on the fact that optical photons emitted upon the deposition and thermalization of the $`\gamma `$-rays and positrons do not immediately escape from the SN. These photons must in fact first propagate through the optically thick SN ejecta, where they interact with spectral lines and free electrons until they are redshifted into a region of the spectrum where the opacity is low and they can escape. Since the opacity is dominated by line processes, these regions correspond to wavelengths where line opacity is low. This gives rise to the very characteristic SN Ia spectrum, with broad absorption features and few P-Cygni emissions, which correspond to these ’opacity windows’ (e.g. Pinto & Eastman 2000, Mazzali 2000).

Since it takes photons a finite time to emerge from the ejecta in what is essentially a random walk process, very soon after the explosion the SN luminosity is lower than the energy input into the ejecta. Maximum light occurs when the instantaneous rates of deposition of hard radiation and emission of optical light are roughly equal (Arnett 1982). As time goes on, the delay between energy deposition and emission of optical radiation becomes smaller and smaller. At late times, in the so-called nebular phase, $`\gamma `$-ray deposition becomes less efficient, and a significant contribution to the light curve is made by the positrons, which are supposed to deposit in situ if a weak magnetic field is present in the ejecta. Positrons carry only about 3.5% of the total decay energy.

The properties of the peak of a SN Ia light curve have been studied analytically by Arnett (1982, 1996). The basic features are:

1. The brightness of the light curve at maximum is proportional to the mass of synthesized 56Ni.
2. The width of the light curve $`\tau _{\mathrm{LC}}`$ depends on the ejected mass, the kinetic energy of the explosion and the optical opacity as follows:

$$\tau _{\mathrm{LC}}\kappa _{\mathrm{opt}}^{1/2}M_{\mathrm{ej}}^{3/4}E_\mathrm{K}^{1/4}.$$
(1)

Here $`M_{\mathrm{ej}}`$ is the ejected mass (i.e. the WD mass, since SNe Ia are not supposed to leave a remnant behind), $`E_\mathrm{K}`$ is the kinetic energy of explosion and $`\kappa _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ is the grey opacity to optical photons.

## 3 Observational facts and interpretation

That SNe Ia do indeed synthesize different amounts of 56Ni is an established observational fact. Spectroscopically ‘normal’ SNe Ia produce roughly 0.5 M, but extreme cases range from 0.1 M for SN 1991bg (Filippenko et al. 1992) to about 1 M for SN 1991T (Spyromilio et al. 1992). These extreme cases are spectroscopically peculiar SNe. However, even among ‘normal’ SNe Ia a distribution of properties is observed (Nugent et al. 1995, Fisher et al. 1995), which is quite likely the result of different synthesized 56Ni masses (Mazzali et al. 1998, Contardo et al. 2000). Can these differences in the mass of 56Ni influence not only the peak brightness, but also the width of the light curves?

One possibility is to assume that all SNe Ia are self-similar events, but that the progenitor masses, hence $`M_{\mathrm{ej}}`$, are different, so that all other parameters (56Ni mass, $`E_\mathrm{K}`$) scale accordingly. This could explain the observations in a rather straightforward manner. However, this interpretation implies that sub-Chandrasekhar events, and possibly super-Chandrasekhar ones (e.g. SN 1991T, Fisher et al. 1999) are very common, since such events would be necessary to explain not only spectroscopically peculiar events, but also the faint end of the ‘normal’ SN Ia sequence (see e.g. Cappellaro et al. 1997). This is currently not a favourite scenario among the ‘explosive’ community, since sub-Chandrasekhar explosions that have the correct element distribution are difficult to design (e.g., Hillebrandt & Niemeyer 2000).

Another possibility is a change of $`E_\mathrm{K}`$ only. However, $`E_\mathrm{K}`$ is produced in almost equal amounts by burning a given mass to NSE (i.e. mostly to 56Ni), or by incomplete burning to Intermediate Mass Elements (IME) such as Si and S. Therefore, one can expect that those SNe which synthesize more 56Ni are not likely to have a much higher $`E_\mathrm{K}`$ than SNe which produce less 56Ni, unless the total mass burned (to NSE or to IME’s) is also larger. Since in most models the WD is almost completely burned to either 56Ni or to IME’s, ($`1.2`$–1.3 M for a Chandrasekhar mass white dwarf, Nomoto et al. 1984, 1994, Woosley & Weaver 1994) there is not much room for a large $`E_\mathrm{K}`$ variation if the mass of the progenitor WD is constant. Also, the width of the light curve depends only weakly on $`E_\mathrm{K}`$.

So, if we want to restrict ourselves to Chandrasekhar-mass explosions, a variation in the opacity $`\kappa _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ is the most promising direction to follow.

Many models exist of Chandrasekhar-mass explosions. Models differing in the details of burning and flame propagation can produce different amounts of 56Ni (usually in the range 0.4 – 0.8 M) and display different light curves (see, e.g., Höflich et al. 1995, 1998 and references therein). Different masses of 56Ni lead naturally to different SN brightnesses.

Among the possible physical reasons that could make a SN Ia explosion synthesize different amounts of 56Ni are a different value of the deflagration speed (caused by a different buoyancy force) or of the density at which the burning wave makes a transition from a deflagration to a detonation (DDT). Umeda et al. (1999) suggested that a different C/O ratio in the progenitor WD may cause a variation in the deflagration speed or in the deflagration-to-detonation transition density $`\rho _{\mathrm{DDT}}`$.

Iwamoto et al. (1999, see also Brachwitz et al. 2000) computed the explosion hydrodynamics and the nucleosynthesis for three representative cases of $`\rho _{\mathrm{DDT}}`$. In their models, the explosion starts as a slow deflagration, leading to the synthesis of a small amount ($`0.1`$ M) of Fe-group isotopes (54Fe, 56Fe, 58Fe, 58Ni). The exact ratios of these isotopes depend on the value of the electron fraction $`Y_e`$, which in turn depends on the central density and composition of the WD and on the flame speed. Meanwhile the WD expands, electron capture decreases and as the burning proceeds further out radioactive 56Ni is mostly synthesized. Eventually, the deflagration enters the region of incomplete Si burning and explosive O burning, where the transition to a detonation occurs. In the detonated region, both 56Ni and IME’s are produced. The amount of 56Ni produced in the detonated layer (after DDT) is sensitive to $`\rho _{\mathrm{DDT}}`$. For a higher value of $`\rho _{\mathrm{DDT}}`$, the detonated regions reach higher temperatures because of smaller specific heats, and so more 56Ni is produced and the SN Ia is brighter. The WS15 series of models: DD1, DD2 and DD3 of Iwamoto et al. (1999) synthesize 0.56, 0.69 and 0.77 M of 56Ni, respectively, for values of $`\rho _{\mathrm{DDT}}`$ ranging from 1.7 to $`\mathrm{3.0\hspace{0.33em}10}^7`$g cm-3. The three models WS15 have the same slow deflagration speed (1.5% of the sound speed), thus the amount of 56Ni synthesized in the deflagration zone is the same and the difference in the masses of 56Ni synthesized is due entirely to the different $`\rho _{\mathrm{DDT}}`$.

An interesting property of the models presented by Iwamoto et al. (1999) is that the total mass of Fe-peak elements (mostly 56Ni) plus IME’s is roughly constant ($`1.281.30`$ M), so that all models also have about the same $`E_\mathrm{K}`$ ($`1.33\mathrm{1.43\hspace{0.33em}10}^{51}`$erg). Note that such a small range of $`E_\mathrm{K}`$ would introduce a change of only less than 2% in $`\tau _{\mathrm{LC}}`$. It is therefore safe to ignore these differences. Therefore both $`E_\mathrm{K}`$ and $`M_{\mathrm{ej}}`$ are eliminated from Eq.(1) and only the dependence of $`\tau _{\mathrm{LC}}`$ on $`\kappa _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ remains. This feature makes these models particularly appealing for an investigation of their photometric and spectroscopic properties. The idea is to verify whether such a spread in the properties of the models can explain the observed spread of properties of at least spectroscopically normal SNe Ia.

The question is how can a different 56Ni/IME ratio affect $`\kappa _{\mathrm{opt}}`$. There seem to be two ways that this can happen. One is that more 56Ni leads to more heating and therefore to a larger $`\kappa _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ (Khokhlov et al. 1993, Höflich et al. 1996). However, since most of the 56Ni is not mixed, an increase in the total production of 56Ni does not immediately translate into a higher temperature. The other possibility stems from the consideration that the opacity in the ejecta of a SN Ia is dominated by line opacity of low ionization species. Pauldrach et al. (1995) showed that the $`\tau _\mathrm{e}=1`$ surface in W7-type ejecta at an epoch of 25 days falls at $`v5000`$ km s-1, which is significantly less than the photospheric velocity at that epoch. In the conditions that apply in a SN Ia near maximum, the time a photon spends scattering in lines as it redshifts its way out of the expanding envelope is much shorter than the time spent travelling from one line to the next redder line (Pinto & Eastman 2000, Mazzali 2000). The crossing of each line in frequency space can thus be treated as a single scattering event, so that the opacity depends simply on the number of active lines, which in turn depends on which elements dominate the composition. In particular, low excitation ions of Fe-group elements (Fe i–Fe iii, Co i–Co iii, Ni i–Ni iii etc.) have many more lines (about a factor of 10) than low excitation ions of IME’s (Si i–Si ii, S i–S ii, Ca i–Ca ii etc.). It may therefore not be unreasonable to expect that the average opacity is higher in regions where the abundance of the Fe-group elements is higher. On average, one can therefore expect that SNe with a higher 56Ni/IME production ratio also have a higher opacity.

## 4 Explosion models

Since our aim was to test one basic aspect of the light curve, namely the dependence on the composition of the ejecta, we chose to simplify the input as much as possible. In particular, since the models published by Iwamoto et al. (1999) have similar density distributions (because they have similar $`E_\mathrm{K}`$, $`1.3\mathrm{1.4\hspace{0.33em}10}^{51}`$erg), we adopted the W7 (Nomoto et al. 1984) distribution as an average for all models. This is a reasonable approximation because $`\rho (v)`$ does not change greatly among different Chandrasekhar-mass explosion models, and W7 is a good representation of the typical $`\rho (v)`$. However, if the mass of 56Ni translates more or less directly into luminosity at maximum, the spread in 56Ni mass of the Iwamoto et al. (1999) models corresponds to a spread of maximum brightness of only about 0.35 mag. This is less than the observed spread of ‘normal’ SNe Ia ($`0.6`$ mag). Therefore, we constructed models which produce 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 M of 56Ni, respectively, corresponding to $`\rho _{\mathrm{DDT}}=1.3\mathrm{3\hspace{0.25em}10}^7`$g cm-3 (Iwamoto et al. 1999; Umeda et al. 1999).

In order to do this we followed the properties of the WS15 DD series of models by Iwamoto et al. (1999). In these models, 56Ni is synthesized outside of an enclosed mass of $`0.1`$ M, and it is the dominant element in the ejecta until the IME region is reached. Models with different masses of 56Ni are therefore characterized by a different outer extent of the 56Ni-dominated shell. Therefore we placed the interface between the 56Ni and the IME-dominated regions at the mass coordinate appropriate to reach the required value of the 56Ni mass. The abundance distribution of our parametrised models is shown in Fig.1. Using only two main contributions to the opacity, i.e. binning all elements into either Fe-group or IME, is also a step towards simplifying the models, and it is justified because none of the lighter ions have such a complicated level structure as any of the dominant Fe-group ions. It should be noticed that the distribution of 56Ni in velocity space in the simple models we constructed compares favourably with the velocity of the 56Ni sphere derived by Mazzali et al. (1998) when fitting the width of the Fe ii\] and Fe iii\] emission lines in normal SNe Ia at late times.

## 5 Calculations

In order to test the properties of these explosion models we adopt a 2-step approach. First we compute the bolometric light curves using a Monte Carlo code (Cappellaro et al. 1997). Our input models consist of a density-velocity distribution, and three basic contributions to the composition are singled out. In fact, for each of the shells into which the ejecta are divided in our calculation we input the initial 56Ni abundance, $`X_{{}_{}{}^{56}\mathrm{Ni}}`$, according to which $`\gamma `$-rays are injected in the appropriate shell following the decay law, and the total abundance of the Fe-group elements, $`X_{\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{gp}}`$, which includes 56Ni and its daughter nuclei but also stable isotopes such as 54Fe, 56Fe, and 58Ni. These contribute to the opacity but are not sources of $`\gamma `$-rays. The remaining fraction of a shell’s mass is attributed to IME’s.

As a first approximation, we initially adopted a formula for $`\kappa _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ which depends only on the relative abundance of Fe-group and IME. Since on average the number of active lines in an Fe-group is about 10 times larger than in an IME ion, we define the optical opacity as:

$$\kappa _{\mathrm{opt}}=0.25X_{\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{gp}}+0.025(1X_{\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{gp}})[\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{g}^1].$$
(2)
The opacity is assigned a value in each of the shells into which the ejecta have been divided. With this formula, $`\kappa _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ ranges from 0.25 cm2 g-1 in regions where Fe-group dominates to 0.025 cm2 g-1 in regions where Fe-group is absent, and has a value 0.1375 cm2 g-1 if the composition is 50% Fe-group and 50% IME. This is a reasonable representation of the value of $`\kappa _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ (see Khokhlov et al. 1993, Figure 24). However, the bolometric light curves computed with this formulation of the opacity peak too soon ($`15`$ – 16 days) and drop too rapidly: $`\mathrm{\Delta }m(15)(Bol)`$ for these light curves ranges from 0.75 mag for model Ni08 to 0.85 mag for model Ni04. Typical risetimes of local SNe Ia are about 19–20 days (Riess et al. 1999), and values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m(15)(Bol)`$ for normal SNe Ia range from 0.9 to 1.2 mag (Contardo et al. 2000).

The early rise and the slow decline of these synthetic light curves suggests that the opacity is underestimated before maximum and overestimated after maximum. Khokhlov et al. (1993) pointed out that the temperature has also a significant influence on the opacity, which is rapidly reduced as the temperature drops below 104 K, which is the effective temperature of observed normal SNe Ia around maximum. We therefore added a time-dependent term to the opacity equation to mimic the decrease of temperature, and hence of opacity, with time. We adopted the formula:

$$\kappa _{\mathrm{opt}}=\left[0.25X_{\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{gp}}+0.025(1X_{\mathrm{Fe}\mathrm{gp}})\right]\left(\frac{t_d}{17}\right)^{\frac{3}{2}}[\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{g}^1],$$
(3)
but we limited the time-dependent term on the right to a maximum value of 2. With this formulation, the value of $`\kappa _{\mathrm{opt}}`$ for a region where both Fe-group and IME have an abundance of 0.5 is 0.275 cm2 g-1 at 10 days and earlier, 0.137 cm2 g-1 at 17 days and only 0.06 cm2 g-1 at 30 days. This increased pre-maximum value should reflect both the higher temperature and density at those epochs and the greater relevance of the electron scattering opacity.

The basic properties of the synthetic bolometric light curves computed with this formulation of the opacity are summarized in Table 1. As expected, models which produce more 56Ni are brighter and decline more slowly. In Figure 2 the synthetic light curves are compared to the $`uvoir`$ light curves of 3 spectroscopically normal SNe which have different values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_B(15)`$: SN 1990N ($`\mathrm{\Delta }m_B(15)=1.07`$ mag); SN 1994D ($`\mathrm{\Delta }m_B(15)=1.31`$ mag) and SN 1992A ($`\mathrm{\Delta }m_B(15)=1.47`$ mag). The observed $`uvoir`$ light curves have been shifted along the y-axis to obtain a best overall match to the synthetic light curves, which are not meant to be detailed fits of these SNe. The $`uvoir`$ light curve of SN 1990N was computed using the Cepheid distance modulus $`mM=32.03`$ mag (Saha et al. 1997) and shifted upwards by 0.1 mag. The light curve of SN 1992A was taken from Suntzeff (1996), who used an SBF distance modulus $`mM=30.65`$ mag, and shifted upwards by 0.8 mag, resulting in a distance modulus $`mM=31.45`$ mag, which is consistent with the GCLF distance $`mM=31.35`$ mag published by Della Valle et al. (1998). Both of these SNe are therefore compatible with the ’long’ distance scale. Finally, the light curve of SN 1994D was computed using the recently published GCLF distance modulus $`mM=30.40`$ mag (Drenkhahn & Richtler 1999). However, this light curve had to be shifted upwards by as much as 0.75 mag to match the light curve of model Ni06, so that the distance used for the plot in Figure 2 is $`mM=31.15`$ mag. Although this appears to be inconsistent with the GCLF distance, we note that SN 1994D had an SBF distance modulus $`mM=30.86`$ mag (Hamuy et al. 1996a). Typically, GCLF distance are larger than SBF ones, so the distance we have used for Figure 2 may not be inconsistent with the ’long’ distance scale. Also, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_B(15)`$ of model Ni06 matches very closely the same quantity for SN 1994D (see Table 2).

Although the synthetic bolometric light curves match the $`uvoir`$ ones reasonably well, the decline of the bolometric light curves in the 15 days following maximum is smaller than the observed $`B`$-band decline. However, the observed $`B`$-band decline is faster than the observed $`V`$-band decline, and the observed SN Ia colour changes from $`BV0`$ at maximum to $`BV0.6`$ at two weeks after maximum, so the fast decline of the $`B`$ magnitude must be at least partially the result of a change towards the red of the colour of the spectrum. Note that all light curves reach maximum about 18 days after the explosion, although the brightest model reaches maximum somewhat later.

We used our Monte Carlo spectrum synthesis code (Mazzali & Lucy 1993, Lucy 1999, Mazzali 2000) to compute synthetic spectra for the three models. The code requires as input a hydrodynamical model of the explosion and values for the luminosity $`L`$ and the photospheric velocity $`v_{\mathrm{ph}}`$ at an epoch $`t`$. We can take both $`L`$ and $`v_{\mathrm{ph}}`$ from the light curve calculations. However, such calculations are known to give a poor representation of the photospheric velocity, in particular at times past maximum (Fig. 3). At those epochs codes overestimate the velocities, most likely because the approximation of a gray photosphere is not valid at all wavelengths (Khokhlov et al. 1993, Höflich et al. 1995, Iwamoto et al. 2000, Mazzali, Iwamoto & Nomoto 2000). Therefore, we can use $`v_{\mathrm{ph}}`$ values from the light curve calculations to compute synthetic spectra at maximum, but we have to rely on velocity information from observed spectra to compute spectra at 15 days after maximum. We also computed spectra at one week before maximum, for completeness, using both $`L`$ and $`v_{\mathrm{ph}}`$ from the light curve calculations. For each synthetic spectrum calculation, we used a ratio of Fe-group v. IME obtained by mixing the compositions of the layers above the photosphere in the particular explosion model. The relative abundances of the IME’s are based on the explosion model W7, and for the Fe-group the decay of 56Ni into 56Co and 56Fe was taken into account. Stable Fe-group elements are buried deep in the ejecta, and they do not influence the spectra.

The integrated photometry from the synthetic spectra was used to compute $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_B(15)`$. We obtained $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_B(15)`$ values ranging from 1.1 to 1.5 mag. These values are comparable to those of observed spectroscopically normal SNe Ia. The numbers for the three models are given in Table 2.

Finally, we compare our synthetic spectra for the epochs $`7`$ days, maximum and $`+15`$ days with the spectra of the same SNe used in Figure 2 for the light curve comparison. We use spectra taken at epochs as close as possible to those of the models. Figure 4 shows the pre-maximum spectra, Figure 5 the spectra at maximum light and Figure 6 the spectra at 15 days after maximum. The observed spectra have been corrected for redshift but not for reddening, which is however small. The values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_B(15)`$ for the various SNe are given in the figures. No attempt was made to obtain detailed fits to the spectra. The synthetic spectra appear to resemble the observed ones. It is remarkable that spectra obtained from such different models are actually not very different. This is because at a given epoch the photosphere is located at lower velocities in models that produce less 56Ni, at least after about day 10 (see Fig. 3), but since the luminosity is also lower in these models the effective temperatures in the three models are similar. This is consistent with the results of Nugent et al. (1995). Also, the abundances in the layers that form the spectra, especially at and before maximum, are not much affected by the deep layers, and so the spectra are relatively insensitive to the large differences in 56Ni mass.

## 6 Conclusions

Using a set of light curves and spectra computed for three representative models we have shown that the differences in the observed properties of SNe Ia all having Chandrasekhar-mass progenitors but producing different amounts of 56Ni reproduce the observed dispersion of properties of at least spectroscopically normal SNe Ia. Our calculation procedure is not fully self-consistent because the photospheric velocities obtained from the light curve calculations are not always reliable, especially after maximum, and we had to use estimates from observed spectra. Nevertheless, the results are encouraging. Calculations with a self-consistent code (e.g. Nugent et al. 1997) could give more reliable results.

The range of properties displayed by the models we have studied is sufficient to encompass the observed properties of spectroscopically normal SNe Ia. However, peculiar SNe Ia, such as SNe 1991T and 1991bg, seem to be well outside this range, especially from a spectroscopic point of view. For SN 1991T there is spectroscopic evidence that 56Ni was present also in the outer part of the ejecta (Mazzali et al. 1995), which would seem to require a different explosion model (e.g. Yamaoka et al. 1992). SN 1991bg, on the other hand, was so faint and its light evolution so fast that it may be difficult to explain it within the framework of Chandrasekhar-mass explosions. The fact that several SNe very similar to either SN 1991T or SN 1991bg have been observed but that there are essentially no examples of objects that might fill the gap in properties between these very extreme cases and the range of ‘normal’ SNe Ia may suggest that these may actually be individual subtypes. More observations of SNe Ia are necessary to address this issue.

Acknowledgements. It is a pleasure to thank Peter Höflich for useful discussions concerning the behaviour of the opacity. We are grateful to David Branch, the referee, for his remarks on an earlier version of this paper. This work has been supported in part by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (12640233, 12740122) and COE research (07CE2002) of the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, Culture, and Sports in Japan.


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# VLT-detection of two edge-on Circumstellar Disks in the 𝜌 Oph dark cloudBased on observations at the European Southern Observatory, Paranal (ESO Prop ID 63.I-0691), the NAOJ SUBARU telescope at Mauna Kea, Hawai‘i, the ESA Infrared Space Observatory, and the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under the NASA contract NAS5-26555.

## 1 Introduction

One of the focal points of current astronomical research is the search for circumstellar disks and a study of their transformation into planetary systems. The aim is to understand how the solar system evolved, and to determine how many other planetary systems might exist in the Galaxy.

The huge brightness difference of typically 106 to 1 between the central star and light scattered from the disk surface (Sonnhalter et al. 1995; Boss & Yorke 1996) makes it challenging to detect and resolve circumstellar disks in the optical and near-infrared. If the disk, however, is seen close to edge-on, it acts as a natural coronagraph and blocks out the light from the central star. The typical signature for such an alignment is a bipolar reflection nebula intersected by a central dust lane (Whitney & Hartmann 1992; Sonnhalter et al. 1995; Burrows et al. 1996). Edge-on circumstellar disk sources have been discovered in the Orion nebula (McCaughrean & O’Dell 1996) and in the Taurus T association (e.g., Burrows et al. 1996, Lucas & Roche 1997, Padgett et al. 1999, Koresko 1998, Stapelfeldt et al. 1998, Monin & Bouvier 2000).

It has already become apparent that different environments affect the evolution of circumstellar disks in various ways. In dense regions with many hot, luminous early type stars like, e.g., the Trapezium cluster in Orion or the starburst cluster NGC 3603, the harsh radiation environment leads to a rapid photoevaporation of circumstellar disks (O’Dell et al. 1993; McCullough et al. 1995; Störzer & Hollenbach 1999; Brandner et al. 2000). The low-density Taurus T association, on the other hand, is a more benign environment. Because of the high multiplicity among T Tauri stars in Taurus (Ghez et al. 1993, Leinert et al. 1993, Köhler & Leinert 1998), however, the majority of circumstellar disks might be affected by tidal truncation, like, e.g., HK Tau/c (Koresko 1998, Stapelfeldt et al. 1998) or HV Tau C (Monin & Bouvier 2000).

The $`\rho `$ Ophiuchi molecular cloud complex is the formation site of a proto-open cluster with a gaseous mass of around 550 M (Wilking & Lada 1983) and at least 100 stellar members (Comerón et al. 1993; Barsony et al. 1997; Kenyon et al. 1998). Its stellar density is intermediate between that of the Taurus T association and the Trapezium cluster. The absence of hot, luminous early-type stars ensures that circumstellar disks are not subject to photoevaporation. The $`\rho `$ Oph region appears to be a more typical representative of the dominant star formation mode in the Galaxy than the low density environment of the wide-spread Taurus T association with its high percentage of binary and multiple systems.

In an effort to identify spatially resolved circumstellar disks in various environments, we carried out a VLT/ISAAC survey of southern starforming regions (Zinnecker et al. 1999). The survey also aimed at establishing a sample of circumstellar disk sources which are suitable for detailed follow-up studies with the VLT-Interferometer and the Atacama Large Millimeter Array.

## 2 Observations and data reduction

### 2.1 VLT/ISAAC imaging

#### 2.1.1 Observations

Near-infrared J \[1.11–1.39 $`\mu `$m\], H \[1.50–1.80 $`\mu `$m\], and Ks \[2.03–2.30 $`\mu `$m\] broad-band images of young stellar sources in southern star forming regions were obtained on 28 April 1999 with the ESO VLT/UT1 (“Antu”) and the facility Infrared Spectrometer And Array Camera (ISAAC, Moorwood et al. 1998). The observations were carried out with the short-wavelength channel of ISAAC, which is equipped with a 1024$`\times `$1024 Hawaii Rockwell HgCdTe array. The pixel scale was 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$147 pixel-1 and the seeing was $``$0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$35 (FWHM) in Ks. Two fields were centered between Elias 29 and WL 19, and between WLY 43 and 44, respectively. Total exposure times were 240s in H and 120s in Ks for the Elias 29/WL 19 field, and 640s in J, 320s in H, and 150s in Ks for the WLY 43/44 field. Figure 1 illustrates the location of the two ISAAC pointings.

#### 2.1.2 Data reduction and analysis

Two bipolar reflection nebulosities intersected by dark lanes were detected. The objects closely resemble edge-on circumstellar disk sources in Taurus and Orion, and in the following we refer to them as “disk 1” and “disk 2”. A close-up of the two new edge-on disk sources, and a comparison to edge-on disks in Taurus is presented in Figure 2. Absolute positions were determined using 2MASS data products and relative offsets measured on the ISAAC frames. The photometric calibration is based on the observations of infrared standard stars, and photometric measurements from the 2MASS point source catalog. Coordinates and near-infrared photometry of the disk sources are summarized in Table 1.

### 2.2 SUBARU/CISCO imaging and spectroscopy

#### 2.2.1 Observations

Long-slit K-band spectra were obtained on 18 June 2000 (“disk 2”) and 16 July 2000 (“disk 1”) with the SUBARU telescope and the Cooled Infrared Spectrograph and Camera for OH suppression (CISCO, Motohara et al. 1998). CISCO is equipped with a 1024$`\times `$1024 Hawaii Rockwell HgCdTe array and has a pixel scale of 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$111 pixel-1. The slit-width was 1′′ and the slit was oriented north-south. Individual exposure times were 60s and 100s, yielding a total integration time of 240s and 400s for “disk 2” and “disk 1”, respectively. Deep dithered K’-band \[1.96–2.30 $`\mu `$m\] imaging data of disk 1 were obtained on 16 July 2000 (Figure 3). The seeing on the coadded 800s exposure is 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$4.

#### 2.2.2 Data reduction and analysis

The data reduction included sky subtraction, and a removal of the geometrical distortion of the 2D spectra. Telluric features were removed by dividing the spectrum of each disk by the spectrum of the standard star. As the observations were obtained under a relatively high airmass of 1.6 to 2.0, the removal of the telluric features was not perfect. The instrumental response was removed by applying an appropriate library spectrum (Pickles 1998). The resulting spectra are shown in Figure 4. No variation in the spectra across the objects was seen, giving further evidence that the objects are indeed reflection nebulosities.

### 2.3 ISO observations

The Ophiuchus region has been observed multiple times by ISO (Kessler et al. 1996). The regions including disks 1 and 2 were covered by pointed ISOCAM (Césarsky et al. 1996) observations and by larger scale raster scans with ISOCAM and ISOPHOT (Lemke et al. 1996). HH 30 was also observed by ISOCAM and ISOPHOT (PI: K.R. Stapelfeldt, see Stapelfeldt & Moneti 1999). Basic science data were retrieved from the ISO archive and reprocessed using the latest versions (as of June 2000) of the CIA and PIA software packages.

Disk 2 is detected in several ISOCAM observations towards WLY 2-43 at wavelengths between 4.5 $`\mu `$m and 11.3 $`\mu `$m. Large area raster scans of the regions including disk 1 and disk 2 (Abergel et al. 1996) suffer from memory effects due to brighter sources in the vicinity of the disk sources. It was therefore not possible to derive precise flux values from the large area scans. The ISOCAM fluxes of disk 2 and HH 30 are summarized in Table 2.

ISOPHOT maps at 60 and 100 $`\mu `$m detect and resolve Elias 2-29 and WLY 2-43. Disks 1 and 2, however, are located in the wings of the point spread function of the much brighter sources (FWHM for ISO is 20′′ and 35′′ at wavelengths of 60 $`\mu `$m and 100 $`\mu `$m, respectively), and were not detected as individual sources.

### 2.4 HST/NICMOS observations

HST/NICMOS observations of HH 30 were retrieved from the HST archive. The data had been obtained as part of GTO 7228 (PI E. Young). IRAS 04302+2247 was studied by Padgett et al. (1999). The NICMOS data were processed using the standard IRAF/STSDAS data reduction pipeline, and the most current calibration files.

## 3 Discussion

### 3.1 Disk 1 (OphE-MM3)

The position of disk 1 agrees to within 1′′ with the position of the millimeter continuum source OphE-MM3 (Motte et al. 1998). This millimeter source was detected as part of a detailed 1.3mm continuum survey of the Ophiuchus star forming region. Because of the lack of any known counterpart shortward of 1.3 mm, Motte et al. (1998) classify OphE-MM3 as a compact starless core. Motte et al. (1998) note that the millimeter continuum emission of OphE-MM3 is more centrally peaked and does not exhibit any inner flattening as other starless cores in their sample.

The near-infrared counterpart to OphE-MM3 is easily detected on the VLT/ISAAC observations in H and Ks. The high-spatial resolution VLT data reveal that the relative faintness of OphE-MM3 is due to the orientation of its circumstellar disk. The disk is seen close to edge-on, and appears as a central absorption band between the bipolar reflection nebulosity (Figure 2). The Ks-band peak surface brightness ratio between the southern and the northern half of the reflection nebulosity is 2.1 to 1. OphE-MM3 can also be identified as a 3$`\sigma `$ detection on the 2MASS K-band atlas data. Because of its proximity to the K=6$`\stackrel{m}{.}`$8 source Elias 2-29 (10$`\stackrel{}{.}`$49 south and 48$`\stackrel{}{.}`$08 east of OphE-MM3), and the increased local background due to diffuse near-infrared emission, however, it must have been overlooked in previous infrared surveys of the $`\rho `$ Oph region. The deeper SUBARU/CISCO K’-band images of OphE-MM3 reveal that the bipolar reflection nebulosity extends for $``$5′′ above and below the plane of the disk (Figure 3). The K-band spectrum of OphE-MM3 does not show any strong emission lines (Figure 4).

For young stellar objects, the mass in the disk and the infalling envelope can be derived from 1.3 mm continuum observations (Beckwith et al. 1990). Motte et al. (1998) measure a peak flux beam-1 of 60$`\pm `$10 mJy for OphE-MM3. Assuming the standard set of parameters, i.e., T=30 K, $`\kappa _{1.3\mathrm{mm}}`$=0.01 cm2g-1, a gas to dust ratio of $``$100, and a distance of 150 pc yields a mass of 0.015 M, i.e., about the same mass typically assumed for the “minimum solar nebula” (e.g., Yorke et al. 1993).

### 3.2 Disk 2 (CRBR 2422.8$``$3423)

This source has been detected in previous near-infrared observations (CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 – Comerón et al. 1993; \[SKS95\] 162422.8-243422 – Strom et al. 1995; BKLT J162724$``$244103 – Barsony et al. 1997) and is included in the 2MASS point source catalog. CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 is located 12$`\stackrel{}{.}`$72 south and 31$`\stackrel{}{.}`$75 west of WLY 2-43. Similar to OphE-MM3, the VLT/ISAAC observations reveal CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 as a bipolar nebulosity intersected by a central dust lane. The source is detected on the ISAAC H- and Ks-band frames, but not in the J-band. The magnitudes derived from the VLT/ISAAC and 2MASS data are H=18$`\stackrel{m}{.}`$0 and Ks=13$`\stackrel{m}{.}`$3. The Ks-band magnitude is in good agreement to the measurements by Comerón et al. (1993) and Barsony et al. (1997). In Ks, the peak surface brightness ratio between the north-western and the south-eastern halves of the reflection nebulosity is 11 to 1. The larger brightness ratio indicates that the disk plane of CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 is farther from an edge-on inclination than the disk of OphE-MM3.

CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 has very red near-infrared colours (Table 1). The steeply rising continuum towards longer wavelengths is also apparent in the K-band spectrum (Figure 4). No signs of an underlying stellar photosphere or accretion and outflow signatures, like H2 or Br$`\gamma `$ emission lines, are present. There is also no evidence of a CO band at 2.3 $`\mu `$m. The featureless K-band continuum suggests that the observed K-band radiation is largely due to reprocessed photons from hot dust near the star.

Motte et al. (1998) identify CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 as an unresolved 1.3 mm continuum source with a peak flux beam-1 of 40$`\pm `$10 mJy. This corresponds to a mass of 0.01 M for the disk and the infalling envelope, again in good agreement with the mass of the “minimum solar nebula”.

### 3.3 LFAM 26 (CRBR 2403.7$``$2948)

The deep SUBARU/CISCO K’-band imaging reveals another source with a bipolar reflection nebulosity $``$40′′ to the north of disk 1 (Figure 3). This object has previously been detected at infrared and radio wavelengths (LFAM 26 – Leous et al. 1991; \[GY92\] 197 – Greene & Young 1992; CRBR 2403.7$``$2948 – Comerón et al. 1993; \[SKS95\] 162403.8-242948 – Strom et al. 1995). Motte et al. (1998) measure a peak flux beam-1 of 75$`\pm `$10 mJ at 1.3 mm. The disk/envelope around LFAM 26 thus appears to be the most massive among the three Ophiuchus sources discussed in this letter. The wide dust lane and the fact that a central point source is visible distinguishes this source from the two edge-on disks.

### 3.4 Comparison to HH 30 and IRAS04302+2247

The two best studied examples for edge-on circumstellar disks are HH 30 (Burrows et al. 1996, Stapelfeldt et al. 1998) and IRAS 04302+2247 (Lucas & Roche 1998, Padgett et al. 1999). With a 1.3 mm continuum flux of 35 mJy (Reipurth et al. 1983), the amount of circumstellar dust in HH 30 is comparable to CRBR 2422.8$``$3423, and somewhat less than in OphE-MM3. The disk and envelope of IRAS 04302$`+`$2247 (Fν = 150 mJy at 1.1 mm, Hogerheijde et al. 1997) is 3 to 4 times more massive.

The peak surface brightness ratio of the two parts of the bipolar reflection nebulosity of HH 30 in the HST/NICMOS F204M filter is 3.7 to 1, i.e., intermediate between OphE-MM3 and CRBR 2422.8$``$3423. The inclination angle of the disk of HH 30 with respect to the line of sight as derived by Burrows et al. (1996) is $``$10.

Figure 2 illustrates the morphology of four edge-on circumstellar disk sources. IRAS 04302$`+`$2247 is more extended and appears to be in an earlier evolutionary stage than the ‘bare-disk’ system HH 30. Similar to HH 30, the disk of OphE-MM3 exhibits a hint of flaring, whereas the central dust lane of CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 is flat. The extended reflection nebulosities outline the interface between an outflow cavity and the infalling circumstellar envelope (see, e.g., Wilkin & Stahler 1998). Like IRAS 04302$`+`$2247, OphE-MM3 and CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 are more deeply embedded and thus appear to be younger than HH 30, which has already lost most of its envelope material.

Figure 5 displays the spectral energy distribution (SED) of CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 and HH 30 for wavelengths between 1 $`\mu `$m and 1.3 mm. While both sources have very similar K band brightness and exhibit about the same 1.3 mm continuum flux, the overall shape of the SED is vastly different. The SED of CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 is rising steeply in the NIR, peaks at around 5 $`\mu `$m, and is slowly declining towards longer wavelengths. A sharp dip in the SED is apparent at 9.6 $`\mu `$m. The data confirm the classification of CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 as a Class I source as suggested by Motte et al. (1998). The SED of HH 30 peaks at around 2 $`\mu `$m and shows a shallow and very broad dip around 10 $`\mu `$m.

As a preparation for the ISO and SIRTF missions, Boss & Yorke (1996) carried out extensive radiative hydrodynamical simulations to study the effect of disk geometry and physical parameters like disk mass, stellar mass, dust opacity, or accretion rate on the SED of circumstellar disks.

The inclination of a disk to the line of sight has a strong impact on the overall SED. Close to edge-on, a disk source is almost entirely seen in scattered light out to wavelengths of 20 $`\mu `$m. Edge-on orientation also causes the ice band at 3 $`\mu `$m and the silicate feature at 10 $`\mu `$m to be seen in emisison. Millimeter fluxes are hardly affected by the disk’s inclination. For a less edge-on inclination the circumstellar envelope and the outer parts of the disk become optically thin in the mid-infrared, and continuum emission from the warm, inner disk is detected. As a consequence, the silicate feature can be seen in absorption. The simulations by Boss & Yorke (1996) also indicate that the silicate absorption feature becomes more pronounced with increasing disk mass, as a higher disk mass leads to a higher central plane temperature of the inner disk.

The simulations nicely explain the SED of the edge-on disk sources CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 and HH 30. HH 30 is seen so close to edge-on that only scattered light is detected out to a wavelength of 10 $`\mu `$m. Both the faintness of HH 30 and the limited spectral resolution of the ISOCAM bands might contribute to a non-detection of a silicate emission feature. The disk of CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 is oriented less edge-on, and the warm, inner disk can be detected in the mid-infrared. The sharp dip at 9.6 $`\mu `$m in the SED of CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 is due to silicates seen against the continuum emission from the warm, inner disk.

The observations thus confirm theoretical predictions on the effect of disk geometry and disk inclination on the spectral appearance of a young stellar object.

## 4 Summary

We have presented the first identification of edge-on circumstellar disks outside of the Orion and Taurus star forming regions. Compared to the majority of edge-on circumstellar disk sources in Taurus, the two edge-on disks in the Ophiuchus region appear to be at an earlier evolutionary stage, as they are still more deeply embedded in their circumstellar envelopes. The high-spatial resolution infrared data confirm that the difference in the spectral energy distribution of CRBR 2422.8$``$3423 and HH 30 is due to a slight difference in the inclination of the disks to the line of sight, as had been predicted previously by theoretical models.

###### Acknowledgements.

We would like to thank the SUBARU telescope and VLT staff members for their excellent work, and the referee Dr. K.R. Stapelfeldt for his critical and helpful comments. This publication makes use of data products from 2MASS, which is a joint project of UMass and IPAC/Caltech, funded by NASA and NSF. WB acknowledges support by the National Science Foundation and by NASA.


text:
# Regular charged black hole with a charged de Sitter core

## I Introduction

The Penrose cosmic censorship states that: if singularities predicted by General Relativity  occur, they must be dressed by event horizons . Hence, the search of the regular black hole solutions has been a focus of research interests lately . In fact, the study of global regularity of black hole solutions is important for the understanding of the final state of the gravitational collapse from some initially regular configurations.

Earlier work on regular black hole models can be found in References . These regular solutions are referred to as “Bardeen black holes” . In addition, regular black hole solutions to Einstein equations with various physical sources were reported in . The other approaches to avoid the singularities are the search of some more generalized theories, for example, the string/M–theory .

The Einstein equation reads

$$G_{\mu \nu }=8\pi T_{\mu \nu }$$
(1)
where $`G_{\mu \nu }\frac{1}{2}g_{\mu \nu }RR_{\mu \nu }`$ is the Einstein tensor and $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ is the matter stress-energy tensor. For example, $`T_{\mu \nu }=(\mathrm{\Lambda }/8\pi )g_{\mu \nu }`$ is the contribution from a cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. In the absence of the $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ associated with the other matter, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ must be a constant. This follows from the Bianchi identity: $`D_\mu G^{\mu \nu }=0`$.

There have been activities trying to treat the cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ as a dynamical quantity . The vacuum stress-energy tensor has the form $`T_{\mu \nu }=<\rho _{vac}>g_{\mu \nu }`$ in the semi-classical approach of the quantum field theory in curved space. In this approach, the cosmological term becomes $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=8\pi <\rho _{vac}>`$ which has been studied for more than two decades .

Note that the de Sitter-Schwarzschild solution found in Ref.  is a black hole solution with a de Sitter core near $`r=0`$. We will generalize this solution to the charged regular solution by assuming that the matter coupled to the gravitational system carries charge. We assume that the charged material has a uniform charge/mass ratio all over. Therefore, the $`r`$-dependence of the charged density $`d_e(r)`$ is the same as the $`r`$-dependence of the mass density $`\rho (r)`$ for the charged material. We will show that a regular charged black hole solution exists with a charged de Sitter core. We will also study the properties of this regular charged solution and its possible impact.

## II Spherically collapsing star

In the static and spherically symmetric space, the line element can be written in the form

$$ds^2=\mathrm{exp}[2A(r)]dt^2+\mathrm{exp}[2B(r)]dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }$$
(2)
where $`d\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the solid angle. One can write $`\mathrm{exp}[2B]=12N(r)/r`$ and show that the Einstein equation $`G_t^t=2T_t^t=2\rho (r)`$ reads

$$N^{}=4\pi r^2\rho .$$
(3)
It is known that the energy momentum tensor of the static and spherically symmetric star takes the following form

$`T_\theta ^\theta `$ $`=`$ $`T_\phi ^\phi =p(r).`$ (4)
with $`p`$ signifies the pressure contribution. For simplicity we will work on the case where

$`T_t^t`$ $`=`$ $`T_r^r=\rho (r),`$ (5)
which is classified as the type \[(II),(II)\] field according to the classification of Serge . The $`tt`$ and $`rr`$ components of the Einstein equation give immediately that $`A+B=0`$ once we choose the proportional constant to be zero. In addition, the conservation of energy momentum $`D_\mu T^{\mu \nu }=0`$ requires that

$$p=(r/2)\rho ^{}+\rho .$$
(6)
This equation tells us what the pressure term $`p`$ should look like with a given energy density $`\rho `$ in order to stabilize the space induced by the Serge’s type \[(II),(II)\] field we are interested. For example, $`p=\mathrm{\Lambda }/2Q^2/r^4,`$ if $`\rho =Q^2/r^4+\mathrm{\Lambda }/2`$. In addition, one has $`N=MQ^2/r+\mathrm{\Lambda }r^3/6`$ for constant $`M`$, $`Q`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ according to equation (3). Note that this is the Reissner-Nordstrom solution with a cosmological constant term.

Note that the $`U(1)`$ gauge field will provide a Lagrangian of the form

$$_F=F^2/8\pi .$$
(7)
This will contribute a traceless energy momentum tensor of the form

$$T_e^{\mu \nu }=g^{\mu \nu }F^2/16\pi F_\alpha ^\mu F^{\nu \alpha }/4\pi $$
(8)
to the Einstein equation. In addition, the $`U_1`$ electric charge conservation $`D_\mu F^{\mu \nu }=4\pi J^\nu `$ with a static source $`J^\mu =(d_e(r),\mathrm{𝟎})`$ gives the system a static Coulomb potential $`A_\mu =(\varphi (r),\mathrm{𝟎})`$ in the Coulomb’s gauge. One can show that the electric field is $`E_r=F_{tr}=Q(r)/r^2`$ for this spherically symmetric source. Here $`Q(r)=4\pi _0^rr^2𝑑r^{}d_e(r^{})`$ is the total charge surrounded by the $`r`$-sphere. Hence the energy momentum tensor for this charged material can be shown to be

$`\rho _e`$ $``$ $`T_{et}^t=T_{er}^r=Q^2/8\pi r^4`$ (9)
$`p_e`$ $``$ $`T_{e\theta }^\theta =T_{e\phi }^\phi =\rho _e.`$ (10)
Here we purposely denote the charge density as $`d_e`$ because the mass density happens to be the energy density of the matter sector while the energy density of the photon sector $`\rho _e`$ is not the same as the charge density $`d_e`$.

Note also that one should have

$$p_e=r_r\rho _e/2+\rho _e$$
(11)
if the photon energy momentum tensor is conserved, $`D_\mu T_e^{\mu \nu }=0`$, by itself. But, this is true only if the total charge $`Q`$ is a constant everywhere. Hence, the conservation of energy momentum tensor $`T_e^{\mu \nu }`$ is known to be in-consistent with the $`Q(r)`$-dependent static electric field given by $`E_r=Q(r)/r^2`$ for any $`r`$-dependent $`Q=Q(r)`$. In fact, the conservation law requires an $`1/r^4`$ energy density because

$$r_r\rho _e+2\rho _e=2\rho _e\text{ for }\rho _e=p_e=\mathrm{constant}\times 1/r^4$$
(12)
for a the Coulomb’s electric field with a constant $`Q`$. This easy to verify since the operator $`r_r`$ is nothing more than a power counting operator. Hence the conservation equation

$$r_r\rho _e=2p_e2\rho _e=4\rho _e$$
(13)
simply implies that $`\rho _e1/r^4`$. This is a problem one has to deal with in working with the charged solutions for a regular distribution of charged material. In fact, the resolution is to assign an additional pressure contribution to the matter sector.

Indeed, one can show that the total energy momentum conservation remain valid if the total pressure $`p`$ is given by

$$p=p_e+p_m=p_e+[\stackrel{~}{p}_m+QQ^{}/8\pi r^3]$$
(14)
for the $`r`$-dependent $`Q(r)`$ given earlier. Here $`\stackrel{~}{p}_m=r\rho _m^{}/2+\rho _m`$ is the matter pressure in the absence of the $`r`$-dependent $`Q`$. In other word, the system remains consistent if the matter pressure $`p_m`$ offers an extra contribution in order to counteract the contribution due to the $`Q(r)`$ term. Note that we only show that a stable static system requires an additional pressure for stability. Stable charged stars certainly can exit and this extra pressure simply signifies the contribution from a complicated interaction among the charged material.

Let’s imagine a charged material distribution of the following form

$`\rho _m`$ $`=`$ $`3M_0\mathrm{exp}[r^3]/4\pi ,`$ (15)
$`d_e`$ $`=`$ $`3Q_0\mathrm{exp}[r^3]/4\pi .`$ (16)
One can show that the total mass and total charge measured at a distance $`r`$ read $`M(r)=M_0(1\mathrm{exp}[r^3])`$ and $`Q(r)=Q_0(1\mathrm{exp}[r^3])`$ for this charged material. In fact, one can show that the energy of the whole system is

$`\rho =\rho _m+\rho _e=3M_0\mathrm{exp}[r^3]/4\pi +[Q_0^2/8\pi r^4](1\mathrm{exp}[r^3])^2.`$ (17)
Note that $`M_0`$ and $`Q_0qM_0`$ denote the total mass and total charge measured at spatial infinity. One has assumed that each charged matter $`X`$ carries mass $`m_X`$ and a fixed unit of charge $`Ze`$ such that $`q=NZe/M_0=Ze/m_X`$. Here $`NM_0/m_X`$ denotes the total number of the molecular and/or charged material $`X`$.

One can show that the matter pressure of this system is given by

$$p_m=3M_0\mathrm{exp}[r^3]/4\pi 9M_0r^3\mathrm{exp}[r^3]/8\pi +3Q_0^2\mathrm{exp}[r^3](1\mathrm{exp}[r^3])/8\pi r$$
(18)
with the last term signifies the counter term from the charged sector.

One can imagine that charged material carrying mass quanta and charge quanta tries to form a regular black hole with a charged de Sitter (cdS) core. If the uncharged matter can form a regular de Sitter-Schwarzschild black hole, the charged material should also be able to form a charged regular black hole. Hence we will try to study the possibility of finding such kind of regular black hole solution. Note that we have changed the scale $`r`$ to be dimensionless such that $`r`$ should be $`r/r_0`$ for a physical scale $`r_0`$ typically of the size of radius of the event horizon. In this approach, the charged material is bounded mostly inside the $`r_0`$-sphere.

Note that the weak energy condition, $`T_{\mu \nu }v^\mu v^\nu 0`$, for any time-like vector $`v^\mu `$ is violated as $`r0`$ for this solution. Indeed, one can show that

$$4\pi (\rho p)=Q^2/r^4+9M_0r^3\mathrm{exp}[r^3]/23Q_0^2\mathrm{exp}[r^3](1\mathrm{exp}[r^3])/2r0$$
(19)
Therefore, the weak energy condition also requires $`9M_0r^3Q_0^2r^20`$ for all $`r1`$. This inequality will break down for $`r<Q_0^2/9M_0`$. Hence the existence of such solution will require the existence of exotic matter .

One way out is to assume the charge distribution grows as $`\mathrm{exp}[r^l]`$, namely, $`Q(r)=Q_0(1\mathrm{exp}[r^l])`$ for some $`l2`$. One can show that the inequality $`l2`$ is needed for a regular solution which demand all scale-invariant curvature-square terms like $`R^2`$ be finite everywhere. Hence one can show that the weak energy condition reads

$$4\pi (\rho p)=Q^2/r^4+9M_0r^3\mathrm{exp}[r^3]/2lQ_0^2\mathrm{exp}[r^l](1\mathrm{exp}[r^l])/2r0$$
(20)
Therefore, the weak energy condition becomes $`Q_0^2r^{2l4}+9M_0r^3/2lQ_0^2r^{l1}/20`$ when $`r1`$. This inequality can be made valid for all $`r1`$ if $`l=4`$ and $`M_04Q_0^2/9`$. Note that this is not the necessary condition for the weak energy condition. Therefore, smaller charge accumulated around the matter distribution can save the weak energy condition from breaking-down.

## III Black hole solution

Note that the charged black hole of this type can be shown to give the following metric solution

$$1/g_{rr}=g^{rr}=12M_0(1\mathrm{exp}[r^3])/r+Q_0^2(1\mathrm{exp}[r^l])^2/r^2[2lQ_0^2/r]_0^rr^{l2}𝑑r^{}\mathrm{exp}[r^l](1\mathrm{exp}[r^l]).$$
(21)
We will focus on the case where $`l=4`$ for the moment. Note that the last term can be integrated to give

$$[8Q_0^2/r]\{\mathrm{\Gamma }[7/4]/3\mathrm{\Gamma }[3/4,r^4]/4(\mathrm{\Gamma }[7/4]\mathrm{\Gamma }[3/4,2r^4])/2^{3/4}\}$$
(22)
described by the di-gamma function when $`l=4`$. Note that the last term can be shown to give $`8Q_0^2r^6/7`$ if $`r1`$. It is $`2lQ_0^2r^{2l2}/(2l1)`$ if $`r1`$ for arbitrary $`l`$. In fact, if the horizon is located in region $`r1`$, the metric $`g^{rr}`$ reads $`12M_0r^3Q_0^2r^6/7`$. This equation is different from the Reissner-Nordstrom solution by the sign of the last term related to $`Q_0^2`$. Hence there always exist two distinct event horizons for this regular charged black hole if the horizon exists deep inside the $`r_0`$-core, i.e. $`r/r_01`$.

But this is not the correct picture for a black hole. Matter should reside mostly inside the black event horizon where $`g_{rr}`$ diverges. Hence one expects that the radius of the event horizons should be greater than the typical size of the $`r_0`$-core. Therefore, the above naive picture does not hold for the region where $`r>1`$. In fact, numerical analysis indicates that there is an event horizon and a Cauchy horizon if $`M_0>0.625`$ in our normalized unit $`Q_0=1/\sqrt{2}`$. Numerical results are plotted in Fig. I.

Figure I is plotted only for reference with the total charge set equal to $`1/\sqrt{2}`$ and mass $`M_0`$ set as $`M_0=1,0.625`$. The lower thick curve denotes the $`g^{rr}`$-$`r`$ curve for the case $`M_0=1`$ with the last digamma term in Eq. (21). The lower thin curve goes for the case $`M_0=0.625`$ with the last digamma term in Eq. (21). Note that the lower thin curve indicates the case where extreme charged black hole exists. These are plotted with $`g^{rr}`$ given by Eq. (21). In addition, the upper thin/thick curves are the curves plotted only with $`g^{rr}`$ given by the first three terms in Eq. (21). This result indicates that the contribution of the di-Gamma functions can not be ignored. Note also that all curves approach $`g^{rr}1`$ at spatial infinity.

It is known that the event horizon disappears for the Reissner-Nordstrom solution when $`Q_0>M_0`$. The extreme black hole is, however, not present at the condition $`Q_0=M_0`$ in this case. In fact, the mass/charge distribution introduced here deforms the extreme condition into a very complicated condition. We are, unfortunately, unable to solve algebraically for the exact expression of the $`Q_0`$-$`M_0`$ relation for the condition of the extreme black hole. The numerical study shows, however, that the physical behavior of the black hole horizons is similar to the Reissner-Nordstrom black hole. Event horizon will disappear under a somewhat complicated $`Q_0`$-$`M_0`$ relation. Note also that one can show that all curvature tensor $`R_{\alpha \beta }^{\mu \nu }<\mathrm{}`$ for the regular charged black hole solution we just obtained. Therefore, this charged solution is indeed regular at $`r=0`$ since all $`R^2`$-invarinats are finite at $`r=0`$.

## IV conclusion

In summary, we have shown that there is a class of regular charged black hole with a charged de Sitter core similar to the de Sitter-Schwarzschild black hole for the type \[(2,2)\] charged matter. The associated conservation law of energy momentum tensor is quite different from the uncharged counterpart. One can show that the energy momentum tensor associated with the static and spherically symmetric photon field is not conserved by itself. The resolution is to assign an extra photon contribution to the pressure term associated with the matter field $`\stackrel{~}{p}_m`$. Possible impact and the numerical solutions of the charged black hole are also shown in this paper. The structure of this cdS solution could be important to the physics of the gravitationally collapsing material. In addition, a more general form of the matter distribution can also be shown to establish the stability of these models . This is the first regular exact solution with a charged de Sitter core in general relativity based on a physical distribution of charged material . It should be important to the understanding of the star evolution if the de Sitter-Schwarzschild solution is realized in nature.

It is known that the case when $`l=3`$ will lead to the demand of exotic matter that violates the weak energy condition when $`r`$ is small. This problem can be resolved by assuming a smaller charge distribution function, e.g. assuming $`l=4`$. We show explicitly that the weak energy condition remains valid for the choice of $`l=4`$ provided that $`M_0`$ is much larger than $`Q_0^2`$. For simplicity, we only discuss the case where $`l=4`$ in most of this paper. The generalization to arbitrary $`l`$ is straightforward.

No-hair theorem states that all static black holes are characterized uniquely by mass and charge, and have the Reissner-Nordstrom form. Similar to the regular solution obtained in Ref. , our solution also appears to violate the no-hair theorem. In fact, the existence of this sort of regular solution requires a mass and charge distribution of the form given by Eq.s (15, 16) along with a pressure given by Eq.s (18) and (10). This is quite different from the usual vacuum solution we have before. For example, the behavior of a test particle in-falling to the black hole will require additional knowledge about the constituent of the static $`star`$. Numerical result also indicates that the size of event horizon is of the same order of the size that most of the matter resides, i.e. $`r_HO(1)`$ while matter (charge) density decreases exponentially according to $`\mathrm{exp}[r^3](\mathrm{exp}[r^4])`$ . In addition, the regular solution we just obtained approaches the R-N solution asymptotically. Therefore, the only measurable quantities in asymptotic region are $`Q_0`$ and $`M_0`$. Hence one can fairly say that the no-hair theorem holds softly for this solution too. This is because all information beyond the event horizon is not reachable from exterior observer. Even it is not clear how one can arrange mass and charge the way we want in the core region, it is still a heuristic analysis to study regular models similar to the one studied in this paper.

Acknowledgments The author thanks J.J. Tseng for helps in running Mathematica. This work was supported in part by NSC under the contract number NSC89-2112-M009-043.


text:
# 1 Parameters of the phase curve for the comet Halley at different wavelengths. Errors are about 0.5^∘ for the angles and 0.25% for the polarization degree

.

MODELLING OF POLARIZATION PROPERTIES
OF COMETARY DUST GRAINS

D.A. Semenov and N.V. Voshchinnikov

Astronomy Department and Sobolev Astronomical Institute, St. Petersburg University,

St. Petersburg, 198504 St. Petersburg-Peterhof, Russia

.

ABSTRACT

Observational data for dusty comets are summarized and systemized. The dependence of the linear polarization on various parameters (the phase angle, wavelength, etc.) is analyzed. An ensemble of aligned spheroidal particles having various sizes and chemical compositions is used to fit the linear and circular polarization observed for the comet Halley.

1. INTRODUCTION

Except for a few space missions to comets our information about cometary dust grains comes from the analysis of their electromagnetic radiation. Like atoms and molecules, dust particles have their own spectra. Most spectral features are located in the infrared (IR) wavelength range.

The optical properties of dust grains depend not only on their chemical composition but also on their size distribution, shape, the degree and direction of alignment. This creates additional difficulties in interpretation of observations of cometary dust.

The luminosity of comets is tightly connected with the solar radiation. Dust grains scatter or absorb it, the absorbed energy is reradiated in the IR wavelength range. Here, we paid our attention to the scattered part of the solar radiation.

The electromagnetic waves are characterized by their intensity and polarization. For atomic and molecular emissions the degree of linear polarization may be theoretically predicted (Le Borgne and Crovisier, 1987). For a dust grain of unknown shape and composition, the polarization may be additional diagnostic tool for their investigations.

Usually Mie theory for spherical particles is used for fitting the cometary observations. This contradicts with several direct indicators of a non-sphericity of cometary grains: for instance, non-zero degree of the linear polarization at the phase angle $`\alpha ^{}=0^{}`$ (in this case the scattering angle $`\mathrm{\Theta }=180^{}\alpha ^{}=180^{}`$ and the Sun, the Earth and a comet are placed on one line).

In this paper, for the first time we interpret observations of the linear polarization for the comet Halley at dif-

.

ferent wavelengths using an ensemble of homogeneous oriented spheroids of various sizes, chemical compositions but a fixed shape. The degree of the circular polarization is also calculated.

2. OBSERVATIONAL DATA

2.1 Direct (in situ) measurements

The comet Halley was investigated by the Giotto and Vega 1, 2 spacecraftes. Chemical analysis of the cometary dust has shown that the grains mainly consist of silicates (chondrites) and carbonaceous materials. The dust experiments discovered the presence of both large and small particles in the cometary dust. We used the power law size distribution provided by the experiments

$$dnr^{2.5}dr,$$
(1)
where $`dn`$ is the number of particles in the size range $`[r,r+dr]`$ (Mazets et al., 1986).

2.2 Polarimetric observations

The observed degree of the linear polarization is determined by the two processes: scattering of the solar radiation by cometary dust and resonance fluorescence of molecules

$$P=\frac{P_{\mathrm{dust}}^{\mathrm{sca}}F_{\mathrm{dust}}^{\mathrm{sca}}+P_{\mathrm{mol}}^{\mathrm{em}}F_{\mathrm{mol}}^{\mathrm{em}}}{F_{\mathrm{dust}}^{\mathrm{sca}}+F_{\mathrm{mol}}^{\mathrm{em}}},$$
(2)
where $`P_{\mathrm{dust}}^{\mathrm{sca}}`$, $`F_{\mathrm{dust}}^{\mathrm{sca}}`$, $`P_{\mathrm{mol}}^{\mathrm{em}}`$, $`F_{\mathrm{mol}}^{\mathrm{em}}`$ are the degree of polarization and flux of the dust and gaseous components, respectively. In Eq. (2)

$$P=P(\alpha ^{},\lambda ,D,r_\mathrm{H}),$$
(3)
where $`\alpha ^{}`$ is the phase angle, $`\lambda `$ the wavelength, $`D`$ the aperture, $`r_\mathrm{H}`$ is the heliocentric distance of a comet.

The phase dependence of the polarization shows features common to all comets: it has negative branch at $`\alpha ^{}<20^{}`$, changes the sign at phase angle $`20^{}`$ (the inversion angle $`\alpha _0^{}`$) and reaches the maximum around $`90^{}`$ (see Fig. 1 in Jockers, 1998). The maximum degree of polarization is about $`25\%`$$`30\%`$ for the dusty comets and $`8\%`$$`15\%`$ for the gaseous ones.

The dusty comets are characterized by strong continuum, weak gas emissions and a high dust-to-gas ratio. The phase curves for these comets are similiar within the accuracy of observations. Before the appearance of the comet Hale-Bopp, the dusty comets were believed to follow a common phase curve of polarization. The group of the dusty comets includes the comets: 1P/Halley, C/Hale-Bopp (1995 O1), C/Hyakutake (1996 B2), etc. The phase curve of polarization observed for the comet Halley is typical of the comets of this type (see Figs. 1–3).

The gaseous comets have weak continuum, numerous emission lines observed almost everywhere in the visible spectrum and a low dust-to-gas ratio. The group of the gaseous comets includes the comets: P/Austin (1982 VI), Kobayashi-Berger-Milon (1975 IX), Tabur (1996 Q1), etc.

The degree of polarization grows with an increase of the wavelength from the visual to IR. The main observed parameters describing the polarization of the comet Halley are presented in Table 1.

We used the observational data from the following papers: the degree of polarization from Kikuchi et al. (1987), the positional angle of polarization and circular polarization from Dollfus and Suchail (1987).

Data obtained with approximately equal projected area of the aperture centered on the nucleus of the comet were utilized. This allows us to exclude the influence of variations of the degree and direction of polarization observed in outer parts of coma.

The dependence of the degree of the linear polarization from the heliocentric distance of a comet is masked by phase angle variations. For group of dusty comets the degree of the linear polarization is similiar at the same phase angles while their heliocentric distances can be different. Apparently, available observations do not allow us to study this effect.

The observations of circular polarizations of comets are very hard to do, so they can be done only episodically. The comet Halley is an exception: the observational data are availible for various phase angles.

2.3 Non-spherical particles in comets

Single light scattering by the oriented non-spherical particles produces phenomena which cannot be explained using the spherical particles, namely:

1. the non-zero circular polarization
(Metz and Haefner, 1987);
2. rotation of the position angle with time,
wavelength and in different parts of a comet
(Dollfus and Suchail, 1987);
3. non-zero degree of the linear polarization at
the phase angle $`\alpha ^{}=0^{}`$;
4. non-zero degree of the linear polarization of
stellar radiation observed during stellar occultations by a comet (Rosenbush et al., 1994).

3. MODEL

For calculations we used the numerical code based on the exact solution to the light scattering problem by the Separation of Variable Method (Voshchinnikov and Farafonov, 1993). The algorithm of calculations was as follows:

1. calculation of an array of scattering matrices;
2. the averaging over rotation;
3. the averaging over a size distribution function;
4. mixing of scattering matrices for different materials;
5. calculations of Stokes parameters and a comparison with observations.

Relative errors of the calculations were usually less than 0.1%.

The best model found has the following parameters:

$``$ mixture of 80% astronomical silicate (astrosil)
…….. and 20% amorphous carbon (AC1);

$``$ prolate (50%) and oblate (50%) spheroids;

$``$ aspect ratio $`a/b=2.0`$;

$``$ $`r_\mathrm{V}=0.050.25`$$`\mu `$m for AC1;111 $`r_\mathrm{V}`$ is the radius of the sphere whose volume is equal to that of a spheroid.

$``$ $`r_\mathrm{V}=0.050.55`$$`\mu `$m for astrosil;

$``$ $`\gamma =2.5`$;

$``$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }=75^{}`$;222$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the angle between alignment direction and direction of light propagation.

$``$ perfect rotational (Davies-Greenstein, DG)
…….. orientation.

The value of $`\gamma `$ and the chemical composition of grains were chosen on the basis of direct (in situ) measurements and ground-based observations. Other parameters were estimated by fitting the observed quantaties.

4. COMPARISON WITH OBSERVATIONS

The observed and calculated curves are plotted in Figs. 1–5. A good agreement with the observations is only for the negative branch of the polarization curve, when $`\alpha ^{}<30^{}`$ (Figs. 1–3). The degree of the calculated polarization is higher than observed at $`\alpha ^{}>40^{}50^{}`$ that is connected with the high polarization efficiency of the small amorphous carbon grains at these phase angles.

Deviations of the position angle of the linear polarization plotted in Fig. 4 show that the model satisfactorily explains the observations. The same can be said about the behaviour of the circular polarization presented in Fig. 5. A better agreement between the theory and observations of the circular polarization may be reached if one decreases the fraction of astrosil in the model.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to V.B. Il’in for careful reading of the manuscript. This work was financially supported by grants from the INTAS (grant 99/652) and Volkswagen foundation.

REFERENCES

Dollfus, A. and J.-L. Suchail, 1987: Polarimetry of grains in the coma of P/Halley. I. Observations. Astronomy abd Astrophysics, 187, 669-688.

Jockers, K., 1997: Observations of scattered light from cometary dust and their interpretation. Earth, Moon and Planets, 79, 221-245.

Kikuchi, S. et al., 1987: Polarimetry of Comet P/Halley. Astronomy and Astrophysics, 187, 689-692.

Le Borgne, J. and J. Crovisier, 1987: Polarimetry of molecular bands in comets P/Halley and Harley-Good. In ESA Proceedings of the 20th ESLAB symposium on the exploration of Halley’s comet, ESA-SP-278, 571-576.

Mazets, E. et al., 1987: Dust in comet P/Halley from Vega observations. Astronomy and Astrophysics, 187, 699-712.

Metz, K. and R. Haefner, 1987: Circular polarization near the nucleus of comet P/Halley. Astronomy and Astrophysics, 187, 539-542

Rosenbush, V. et al., 1994: Comets Okazaki-Levy-Rundenko (1989 XIX) and Levy (1990 XX). Polarimetry and stellar occultations. Icarus, 108, 81-91.

Voshchinnikov, N. and V. Farafonov, 1993: Optical Properties of Spheroidal Particles. Astrophysics and Space Science, 204, 19-86.