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# The cosmic gamma-ray background in the MeV range

## 1 Introduction

All–sky surveys at various wavelengths reveal the presence of a background of diffuse emission whose origin is diverse and appears unclear at some specific energies. In the X–ray domain, it has been recognized that AGNs and Seyfert galaxies provide most of the emission (Madau, Ghisellini & Fabian 1994; Comastri et al. 1995). That emission covers from a few keV till several hundred keV. At very high energies, in the hundred MeV till TeV range blazars seem to be responsible for the observed fluxes (Zdziarski 1996; Sreekumar et al. 1998).

The measurements provided by the APOLLO 15/16 missions in the MeV range suggested a possible change in the energy slope of the background towards a flatter spectrum in the 1 to 5 MeV region (Trombka et al. 1977). The significance of that excess over a smooth power–law connection of low and high–energy data was only 1.5 $`\sigma `$. However, at just that energy range 1–5 MeV AGNs and blazars were known not to emit particularly strongly. Since those first empirical results came out, it became relevant to identify the astrophysical sources adding in that energy interval to the diffuse extragalactic background because in the lack of astrophysically ordinary contributions to that emission, other more exotic considerations would be raised -i.e. for some dark matter candidates annihilation with other particles or decay might occur and give a significant integrated signal in the gamma–ray domain (see, for instance, Kamionkowski 1995; Ellis 2000). Some of the theoretical candidates to explain that MeV emission were already proposed, but the final comparison with the data had to wait till the reanalisis of the Apollo data and the measurements done by HEAO-A4 (Kinzer et al. 1997), the Solar Maximum Mission (Watanabe et al. 1999a), and more recently the availability of the diffuse $`\gamma `$–ray background measurements by COMPTEL (Kappadath et al. 1996; Weidenspointer 2000).

The measurement of the extragalactic $`\gamma `$–ray background in its present stage has, therefore, taken a great deal of training in the understanding of the response of the instruments on board of the different observatories . The analysis of HEAO–A4, SMM and COMPTEL data has just released a consistent picture where the slope of the emission in the hard X-ray domain decreases with increasing energy from a few hundred keV range and meets a softer shape at about 10 MeV implying smaller fluxes than suggested by the early data, but revealing the need of an intense extragalactic source in that MeV window.

Already, in the late sixties, Clayton & Silk (1969) had suggested that Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) would give rise to a diffuse $`\gamma `$–ray background in the MeV range. The level of that background emission is discusssed in various works (The et al. 1993; Watanabe et al. 1999b). In the work of Watanabe et al. (1999b) supernovae are seen to provide considerable emission, but the flux level, according to these authors, could be too low as compared with the observed measured level. Alternatively, there have been attempts to attribute the origin of that diffuse background to blazars. As the known population of blazars does not emit strongly enough in the MeV regime (McNaron–Brown et al. 1995), in order to explain the observations, speculation has arisen on a new population of blazars, i.e., “MeV blazars” (Bloemen et al. 1995; Blom et al. 1995a,b). As another possibility to explain this $`\gamma `$–ray flux, Stecker et al. (1999) have come up with the suggestion that the nonthermal electron tail of Seyfert galaxies would be responsible for originating the MeV emision by hardening the soft X–ray photons arising from the accretion of material around the galactic black hole. Even stronger constraints have been raised on the possibility that the known population of blazars would account for the gamma–ray background in an energy range above the MeV (for some recent alternatives to the blazar hypothesis see Loeb and Waxman 2000; Dar & de Rujula 2000).

In relation to the background predictions, the element which introduces the largest uncertainty for any suggested source is the number of events up to high redshift -i.e. rate or luminosity function. In the case of supernovae, as it will be shown here, it is possible to give a precise answer on their contribution by comparing the gamma–ray observations with the number of SNe Ia exploding up to high redshifts. We are starting to have a clear idea of the efficiency of stars in producing SNe Ia up to high z, and we can make predictions for the cosmic $`\gamma `$–ray background with good reliability.

## 2 The star formation rate and supernovae

The number of supernova explosions at high z is a direct function of the star formation history and of the efficiency in producing supernovae along cosmic time. For the $`\gamma `$-ray background, we are mostly concerned with the efficiency in getting supernovae from low and intermediate–mass stars in binary systems, i.e., Type Ia supernovae. Type II supernovae coming from massive stars do not provide significant emission in the $`\gamma `$–ray domain.

Much has been learnt recently on the evolution of the star formation process. The original attempt from Madau et al. (1996) of deriving star formation rates from the UV emission density at high z in the Hubble Deep Field revealed an increasing star formation towards higher z. The star formation history reconstructed by Madau, Pozzetti & Dickinson (1998) peaks at z$``$ 1.5 with a range of 0.12–0.17 M yr-1 Mpc-3 to fall again at higher z. Soon that decrease at z $`>`$ 1.5 was questioned by other different approach: the derivation of the star formation history from Lyman break galaxies (Steidel et al. 1998). Steidel et al. (1998) found that the spectroscopic properties of the galaxy samples at z $``$ 3 and z $``$ 4 are indistinguishable, as are the luminosity function shapes and the total UV luminosity density between z $``$ 3 and $``$ 4. From that work it is suggested that the star formation rate does not decrease at z $`>`$ 2 but levels off. That conclusion of a star formation rate at z $`>`$ 2 higher than the one obtained by Madau et al. (1996) is also supported from results at long wavelengths. The study of star formation with the submillimeter SCUBA array by Hughes et al. (1998) reveals significant dust enshrouded star formation at high z. The star formation rate density over the range 2 $`<`$ z $`<`$ 4 would be at least five times higher than that inferred from the UV emission of the HDF galaxies. Blain et al. (1998) reconstruct the star formation histories compatible with the observations at various wavelengths incorporating the SCUBA results and the derivations from chemical evolution at high z. Some of the compatible star formation histories peak at a z closer to 2 (rather than 1 or 1.5). Figure 1 shows the star formation histories that are going to be explored in this work. In general, preference from several approaches is being buildt up for a peak at z $``$ 1–1.5 (Madau et al. 1998; Steidel et al. 1998; Blain et al. 1998). It has been pointed out against a peak in the star formation at z $``$ 2 (Hughes et al. 1998), that the submillimeter results have the advantage of unveiling star formation enshrouded by dust, but they suffer from the lack of real redshift identification of the observed emission.

Further evidence on star formation pointing to a larger star formation rate at high z than that inferred from UV–optical observations comes from measurements of the extragalactic background light (EBL) by ISO (Rowan–Robinson et al. 1997; Flores et al. 1998; Elbaz et al. 1999) and the FIRAS and DIRBE experiments on board of COBE (Dwek et al. 1998; Fixsen et al. 1998). The COBE results suggest at least a SFR twice as high at z $``$ 1 than that determined by Madau et al. (1998).

There are as well open issues on how the star formation history evolves between the local value and that at z close to 1. The $`\gamma `$–ray emission of astrophysical sources from z $``$ 0 to z $``$ 2 will be indeed more relevant than the emission at z beyond 2 for setting the absolute flux of the background observed. The strong dilution factor linked to the square of the distance and the cosmological factors 1+z entering in the flux observed at earth from sources at very high z, add up to make the emission at very high z irrelevant for our detection capabilities as compared with the flux at z lower than 2. Most of the $`\gamma `$–ray photons received should come from supernovae that explode at z $``$ 1.5. Their progeniitor systems were formed, however, at a much larger z. This makes relevant as well for the calculations the level of the SFR at z $`>`$ 2. Determination of how much flux is received from SNeIa is grounded here in observations. In the next paragraph, we address the efficiency of SNeIa production in relation to the star formation rate determinations from the local universe to z$``$ 1.

## 3 Efficiency of SNe Ia production

In parallel to the studies of star formation at high z, the research on how many SNe Ia result from star formation activity at high z has now made a step forward. Since the first supernova measurement at high z by the Supernova Cosmology Project (SCP) (Pain et al. 1996), searches of SNe Ia centered at various z have provided the evolution of that rate up to z $``$ 0.55 (Hamuy & Pinto 1999; Hardin et al. 1998; Pain et al. 1999). Results are summarized in Table 1.

As it has been pointed out (Ruiz–Lapuente, Burkert & Canal 1995, 1997; Madau, Della Vella & Panagia 1998; Sadat et al. 1998; Dahlen & Fransson 1998; Yungelson & Livio 1998, 1999), the better knowledge of the SNe Ia rates at all redshifts allow us to identify the stellar systems leading to Type Ia explosions.

Here we combine the knowledge of the SNe Ia rates at all redshifts with that of the average star formation rate (discussed in the previous section) in order to investigate whether the efficiency in producing Type Ia SNe has changed along cosmic time. Such numbers, when compared with theoretical predictions, not only shed light on the supernova progenitor issue but allow us to give a clear answer on the level of the cosmic $`\gamma `$-ray background provided by supernovae of Type Ia.

A very useful quantity to introduce is the “efficiency” in producing SNe Ia out of star formation, defined as the rate of SNe Ia at a given z per comoving volume (SN yr-1 Mpc-3) divided by the star formation rate at the same z (in M yr-1 Mpc-3). This value is independent of the cosmology assumed and refers to the number of SNe Ia per unit mass that has gone into star formation.

$$_{SNeIa}(z)=\mathrm{}_{Ia}(z)yr^1Mpc^3/\dot{\rho }_{}(z)M_{}yr^1Mpc^3$$
$`(1)`$
Any change in this efficiency for producing SNe Ia tells us about the timescale of the explosion as well as about the evolutionary effects in the production of Type Ia supernovae. The effect of the delay between star formation and explosion is illustrated in Figure 2. A short timescale of the order to $``$ 108 yr gives rise to a constant “efficiency” along z, whereas a timescale of a few 109 yr produces an accumulation of events towards low z. Suggested metallicity effects reducing the number of type Ia explosions at z $`>`$ 1 (Kobayashi et al. 1998) would also be reflected in the efficiency mentioned above by a drop in that quantity.

Little direct evidence is so far available on the nature of the binary system which is responsible for Type Ia SN explosions. We know that the exploding star is a carbon–oxygen white dwarf (C+O WD) and that there is no compact object left by the explosion. Stellar evolution arguments tell us as well that those explosions take place in binary systems. But so far, it has not been possible to point clearly to a unique type of binary system as responsible for the Type Ia phenomenon (Ruiz–Lapuente, Canal & Isern 1997 and references therein). Two candidate systems seem favored. One of them is a pair of C+O WDs in a binary system that merge as their orbit shrinks due to the emission of gravitational wave radiation (Iben & Tutukov 1984; Webbink 1984). This system is refered as to double degenerate system. The other one is a WD which accretes material from a Roche–lobe overfilling non-WD companion (WD plus Roche–lobe filling subgiant or giant). The system looks as an Algol-type binary. It contains only a WD and therefore is a single–degenerate system (Whelan & Iben 1973; Branch et al. 1995; Hachisu et al. 1995; Ruiz–Lapuente, Canal & Burkert 1995,1997; Hachisu et al. 1995; Li & van den Heuvel 1997; Yungelson & Livio 1998).

The peak or characteristic time of those explosions is different: merging of WDs happens typically a few times 108 yrs after star formation whereas the accretion of material from a non-WD companion involves less massive companions which take longer to leave the main sequence to become subgiants and giants. This second evolutionary path to SNe Ia takes about a few times 109 yrs. Therefore, there should be a reservoir for SNe Ia in those stars that evolve through a few Gyrs in cosmic time until they explode. The overall expected number of SNe Ia as related to star formation gives also an idea on the proportion of binaries that end up as Type Ia supernovae.

Another factor entering in the evolution with z of the efficiency of Type Ia supernovae is the role that metallicity plays in enhancing or supressing the production of Type Ia supernovae from their parent stars. If metallicity effects do not play any important role in SNe Ia, the number of SNe Ia per unit mass in forming stars should remain insensitive to the progressive enhancement in metals of the interstellar medium along cosmic history. However, in the Algol–type scenario, it has been suggested that metallicity plays an important role as the material transfered onto the WD forms a strong wind close to the WD surface which prevents the accretion rates from becoming very large (Hachisu, Kato & Nomoto 1996). The role of this wind is claimed to be very sensitive to metallicity, and calculations predict that the number of SNeIa at low metallicity (z $`>`$ 1) should drastically decrease (Hachisu, Kato & Nomoto 1996). A drop at z $`>`$ 1 would thus confirm the metallicity effects suggested by Hachisu et al. (1998) and Kobayashi et al. (1998).

An important question is whether the efficiency in producing SNe Ia has changed along cosmic time. Results from several low–z Type Ia supernova searches and low–z star formation rate measurements do allow to address this issue. Gallego et al. (1995) estimated the local star formation rate from H$`\alpha `$ emission galaxies. The value derived from their search is $`\dot{\rho }_{}=\mathrm{3.7\; 10}^2`$ $`M_{\mathrm{}}`$ h2 Mpc-3. More recently, several authors have found values at least twice as large than the previous estimate for the local star formation rate (Gronwall 1999; Tresse & Maddox 1998; Serjeant et al. 1998). Treyer et al. (1998) from a UV-selected galaxy redshift survey find a local dust–corrected star formation rate of 4.3 $`10^2`$ M h2 Mpc-3. If we take the rate obtained by Hamuy & Pinto (1999) from SNe Ia in the Calan/Tololo survey (SNe Ia $``$ 2.2 10-5 SNe Ia yr-1 Mpc-3), and divide it by the local star formation rate, we obtain a local efficiency of SNe Ia out of star forming mass of about 1.09 10-3 M$`{}_{\mathrm{}}{}^{1}h_{65}^{2}`$. The efficiency seems to be similar up to z $``$ 0.55, if we take the rates by Pain et al. (1999) (see Table 1). Possibly such high efficiency extends up to z $``$ 1, since Aldering, Knop and Nugent (1999) anounce a similar rate of SNeIa per comoving volume at z $``$ 1.

An efficiency of SNe Ia out of star forming mass of $`_{SNeIa}=1.41\pm \mathrm{0.35\; 10}^3M_{\mathrm{}}^1h_{65}^2`$, as derived taking into account rates measurements at various z (see Ruiz–Lapuente & Canal 2000), means that less than 1000 M going into star formation give 1 Type Ia supernova (720 $`\pm `$ 250 M give 1 SNIa). There is a delay between star formation and supernova explosion that makes this estimate move up or down according to the timescale and star formation history. But most star formation histories would average out the effect since the time distribution of SNe Ia is broad. Thus, the above number derived from observations is physically meaningful. We can work out the efficiency of Type II SNe explosions and compare it with the previous result. Assuming that all stars with M $`\stackrel{>}{}`$ 10 M do produce gravitational collapse supernovae, and the Salpeter IMF, there is one gravitational collapse supernova per 135 M in forming stars, and thus the proportion of SNe Ia to SN II/Ibc supernovae is roughly one to five.

The above ratio of Type Ia over Type II SNe is basically in agreement with chemical evolution arguments (Timmes et al. 1995). At z $``$ 0 one expects an increase of the efficiency for the two main candidates to SNe Ia as a result of their explosion timescale (significant formation of SNe Ia progenitor systems occurred at high–z and they only exploded now). The trend 3.5 Type II/Ib to 1 Type Ia in the local sample of spiral galaxies (Cappellaro et al. 1997) would be in agreement with those expectations. As it is argued in Ruiz–Lapuente $`\&`$ Canal (2000), the high efficiency in producing Type Ia supernova explosions out of star formation favors the single–degenerate scenario for Type Ia supernovae.

## 4  Gamma–ray emission

Before integrating along cosmic time all the $`\gamma `$–ray contribution from SNe Ia, we must examine the evolution of the emission with time as the supernova ejecta expand and become optically thin. Whereas the optical luminosity of supernovae peaks within three weeks after explosion, the $`\gamma `$–ray emission achieves a maximum around two and a half months after explosion for Type Ia SNe and several months later for Type II/Ibc SNe. The exact moment of the peak depends on the kinetic energy, total mass of the supernova envelope and distribution of the radioactive material. As the Compton scattering optical depth of the ejecta decreases due to the thining out of the material, the $`\gamma `$–ray spectra of Type Ia and Type II/Ibc SNe start to show more prominent lines and less continuum emission. The lines reveal the fractions of radioactive isotopes along with their mean half life.

The radioactivity of SNe Ia is provided mostly by the decay $`{}_{}{}^{56}Ni^{56}Co^{56}Fe`$, which gives rise to $`\gamma `$–ray photons in several lines and positron emission. The strongest lines of $`{}_{}{}^{56}\mathrm{Co}`$ decay are at 0.847 and 1.238 MeV followed in strength by the lines at 2.599 and 1.771 MeV and others (Browne et al. 1978). The $`{}_{}{}^{56}\mathrm{Ni}`$ decay has its strongest lines at 158 and 812 keV. As this isotope, 56Ni, has a shorter mean half life (6.1 days) than its product decay 56Co (78.8 days), the latter is responsible for the SNe radioactivity through most of the SN life, i.e., its Comptonized lines give rise to the continuum emission for a few years. 57Co (a less abundant product of the explosive nucleosynthesis) has a mean half life of 271 days, and its emission is relevant for Type II SNe as it powers the bolometric light curve of those SNe for years.

When surveying the gamma–ray sky and integrating to obtain the diffuse emission, we detect the emission from supernovae in various phases, including those corresponding to the time when supernovae have already faded away in the optical. At a given moment, we see in the $`\gamma `$–ray domain, from every volume of the sky, the SNe Ia that were exploding at the epoch corresponding to the redshift of that volume, and also those that exploded in that same volume up to almost two years before. We add up the emission of the supernovae at different phases.

The calculation of the $`\gamma `$–ray spectra in this work is done through Monte Carlo computations following the $`\gamma `$-ray emission arising in different regions of the supernova envelope. The numerical algorithm includes as main matter–radiation interaction processes Compton scattering, pair production and photoelectric effect. The formation of positronium and its two and three photon decay is included as well. Monte Carlo calculations of a similar kind were done for fast deflagration models (Ruiz–Lapuente et al. 1993) and for the deflagration model W7 by Nomoto, Thielemann & Yokoi (1984). Results on this standard Type Ia supernova model were compared with calculations by Burrows & The (1990) and Shigeyama et al. (1993), giving agreement among the predictions.

SNe Ia, since they synthesize most of the 56Ni in the universe, are the most important contributors to the $`\gamma `$–ray background. SN II and SN Ibc contribute in a lesser extent because of their lower proportion of radioactive nuclei of medium range lifetime and their larger ejected mass and smaller expansion velocities. Type II SNe and Type Ibc SNe produce a much more Comptonized $`\gamma `$–ray spectrum. They give rise to emission shifted to the hard X–ray domain.

It is already known that Type Ia supernovae show a degree of diversity in the amount of 56Ni synthesized in the explosion (Ruiz–Lapuente & Filippenko 1992; Ruiz–Lapuente & Lucy 1992). The spread in brightness at maximum of those SNe Ia is linked to the 56Ni mass as well as to the effect of the opacity of the supernovae envelope (Arnett 1999; Pinto & Eastman 2000). The distribution of Type Ia supernovae is centered, however, in “normal” events with a frequency of about 83–67 $`\%`$ according to local studies (Branch, Fisher & Nugent 1993; Li et al. 2000). Those are well reproduced by the explosion of a C+O WD which synthesizes about 0.6 M of 56Ni. The deflagration explosion model W7 by Nomoto, Thielemann & Yokoi (1984), that yields that amount of radioactive Ni, has the characteristics in velocity structure, and element distribution that reproduces well the prototype SNeIa. Therefore, we use that model to compute the $`\gamma `$-ray emission. Recently, some support for deflagration explosion models has come from 3–D hydrodynamic calculations of SNe Ia explosions which favor such burning mode against detonations and pulsated delayed detonations (Reinecke, Hillebrandt & Niemeyer 2000). The $`\gamma `$–ray emission of the modeled SNIa (model W7) resulting of an integration of the spectrum over 600 days (a longer integration would not add up significantly to the total emitted flux) can be seen in Figure 3 (see as well Figure 4).

The result of integrating over 600 days the spectrum of a Type II/Ibc collapse supernova can be seen for comparison in Figure 4. The model used for the Type II supernova is a Type II core collapse that produced 0.175 M of 56Ni and ejected an envelope of 14 M (Eastman 1998). Figure 5 shows the relative contribution of SNe II and SNe Ia. In all the figures on $`\gamma `$–ray background calculations compared with observations, we have included the diffuse $`\gamma `$–ray background produced by both SN types. We found, however, the SN II contribution to be negligible in the MeV range as compared with that provided by SNe Ia explosions. The corresponding Type II SNe rates as compared to Type Ia SNe rates are shown in Figure 6.

We have computed as well the integrated emission for a Type Ia supernova coming from a faster deflagration of a C+O WD (Ruiz–Lapuente et al. 1993). The explosion synthesizes a larger amount of 56Ni. The flux level would be higher than for model W7 at a 10 $`\%`$ level. The early emission would reveal stronger 56Ni lines and a higher flux in the keV range than model W7. This is an imprint of SNe Ia explosions with 56Ni extending close to the surface (a mixed W7 or other model with a larger spread of the radioactive material over the supernova envelope would be stronger in the X–ray range as well). However, as overluminous SNe Ia are in the overall sample compensated by the existence of the population of underluminous SNe Ia with a similar proportion in rates (Li et al. 2000), and those subluminous SNe Ia give a lower $`\gamma `$–ray flux, the simplification of using just a model for “normal” Type Ia SNe, on the overall, seems justified.

## 5 Integration

In order to calculate the contribution of SNeIa to the $`\gamma `$–ray background spectrum in the MeV range, we first compute standard SNeIa $`\gamma `$–ray emission spectra for different times, from explosion to almost complete extinction of the produced radioactivities (about 2 years after explosion). As explained in the preceding paragraph, we compute the spectra from the widely used W7 model (Nomoto, Thielemann, & Yokoi 1984) (see again Figure 3, where the fluxes correspond to a distance of 10 Mpc). A time–averaged spectrum is used as the standard source for the background calculation.

If we call $`f(E)`$ the source flux at energy $`E`$, the background flux $`F(E)`$ from the whole sky is obtained by addition of the contributions from the SNeIa at different redshifts $`z`$:

$$F(E)=_0^{z_{lim}}SNR(z)f\left[E(1+z)\right]d_L(z)^2(1+z)𝑑z$$
$`(2)`$
where $`SNR(z)`$ is the SNeIa rate (corrected for time–dilation) in the volume element between $`z`$ and $`z+dz`$ (calculated as in Ruiz–Lapuente & Canal 1998, for the different SNeIa scenarios and SFRs), $`d_L(z)`$ is the luminosity distance corresponding to each of the three model Universes considered here, and the $`(z+1)`$ term accounts for compression of the energy bins. We have adopted a value $`z_{lim}`$ = 2.5 after checking that the contributions from SNeIa at higher redshifts is negligible. Figure 7 shows the integrated contribution up to various z from SNe Ia $`\gamma `$–rays. Of course, $`F(E)`$ from (2) has to be multiplied by a constant adjusted to the distance for which the source spectrum has been calculated. The luminosity distance $`d_L`$ is given by:

$$d_L=\frac{(1+z)}{H_0|\mathrm{\Omega }_k|^{1/2}}sinn\left\{|\mathrm{\Omega }_k|^{1/2}_0^{z_1}\left[(1+z)^2(1+\mathrm{\Omega }_Mz)z(2+z)\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }\right]^{1/2}𝑑z\right\}$$
$`(3)`$
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_k=1\mathrm{\Omega }_M\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, and $`sinn`$ stands for $`sinh`$ if $`\mathrm{\Omega }_k>0`$ and for $`sin`$ if $`\mathrm{\Omega }_k<0`$ (both $`sinn`$ and the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_k`$ terms disappear from (3) if $`\mathrm{\Omega }_k=0`$, leaving only the integral times $`(1+z)/H_0`$, normalized to c=1) (Weinberg, 1972; Carroll, Press, & Turner 1992). We will see, however, that the resulting $`\gamma `$–ray background spectra are only weakly sensitive to the model Universe adopted. Everywhere we take $`H_0=65kms^1Mpc^1`$.

To the contribution of SNeIa to the $`\gamma `$–ray background spectrum, that from gravitational–collapse SNe (SNeII, SNeIb/c) has been added. When now computing the $`SNR(z)`$ used in (2), for the different SFRs, we assumed that all stars with initial masses $`M10M_{}`$ undergo gravitational collapse, with production of a SN II/Ibc. In the next section we present the results obtained for different SFRs.

## 6 Results

### 6.1 Supernovae and Cosmic Gamma–ray Background

The inspection by Watanabe et al. (1999b) of the supernova contribution to the $`\gamma `$–ray background left open the question as to whether supernovae are indeed responsible for this background. According to their work, in the case of: i) a SNIa timescale to explosion longer than 1 Gyr, and/or ii) the peak of star formation occurring at a redshift much larger than 1, an alternative explanation to Type Ia supernovae as the source of the diffuse cosmic $`\gamma `$–ray background would be needed. However, SNe Ia rates used by those authors are below that observed at high-z. Moreover, the constrains derived on the timescale of the SNe Ia to reach explosion after star formation do not hold when one looks to the derived efficiency for making SNe Ia out of star formation.

As they clearly point out, larger SFRs than the one used by them would take away the discrepancy and reproduce the observed $`\gamma `$–ray background. Their model of SF history sharply decreases at z $`>`$ 1 (they use a simplified SFR first introduced by Yungelson & Livio (1998) to model Madau’s early SFR rate) and it seems to underestimate the high-z star formation rate.

We find in the present work that there is a range of evolution of the SFR which would allow to account for both the measured Type Ia supernova rates and the observed cosmic $`\gamma `$–ray background. Figures 8–14 show the results from calculations done with different star formation rates. Both rates of SNe Ia per comoving volume and their corresponding integrated $`\gamma `$–ray background are displayed. The SNe Ia rates are calculated for the coalescence of WDs, and for the Algol–type scenario including metallicity effects (Hachisu et al. 1996; Ruiz–Lapuente & Canal 1998). Due to the good agreement of the efficiency of SNe Ia out of star formation on the later scenario, this is the one used for the extragalactic $`\gamma `$–ray background. Some SFR fall short both to explain the extragalactic $`\gamma `$-ray background and the cosmic SNe Ia rate (Figures 8 and 9), and other clearly exceed the level of SNe Ia contribution as compared with the optical rates and the $`\gamma `$–ray data. Among those overexceeding SFRs we show a sharply peaked star formation rate compatible, according to Blain et al. (1998), with all submillimeter and far–infrared data (gaussian peaked SFR referreed here to as Blain98b in Figure 1), having a maximum at z$``$ 2. It clearly overproduces cosmic $`\gamma `$–ray background as compared with the observations (Figure 10), and at the same time it predicts very high SNe Ia rates. On the other side, the early Madau et al. (1996) SFR falls short (as already discussed) and gives too low an increase of SNe Ia between the local and the high-z values. The same occurs with a model of SFR peaking at z $``$ 2 compatible with the SCUBA results (Hughes et al. 1998), as can be seen in Figure 9. Other models compatible with the SCUBA results showing a SFR roughly constant after z $``$ 1 (model Blain98 in Figure 1) give results compatible with the SMM and COMPTEL observations (Figure 11) Their associated SNe Ia rates nicely fall into the observed rates of SNe Ia measured at z $``$ 0.4 and 0.55 (Pain et al. 1996; 1999). The SFRs derived from the star formation history of Lyman break galaxies (Steidel et al. 1998) and the one from ISO (Dwek et al. 1998) go in the same sense for the predictions of rates and $`\gamma `$–ray background as the model by Blain et al. (1998). However, a slight increase of the absolute level of the SF would provide a better agreement with the observations (Figures 12 and 13). The SFR compatible with the EBL as detected through COBE also gives a reasonable fit to the data (Figure 14).

Two cosmologies have been used when integrating the $`\gamma `$–ray background: an open universe with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$=0.3, and a flat universe with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$=0.3 and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$=0.7. Both the integrated $`\gamma `$–ray background and the SNe Ia counts at z $``$ 1 are larger in a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$–dominated universe. The counts are, however, much more sensitive to the cosmological model (see Ruiz–Lapuente & Canal 1998).

### 6.2 Dust

The role of dust obscuring Type Ia SN at high–z can also be tested by comparing the extragalactic $`\gamma `$–ray background expected from SNe Ia and the observed SNe Ia counts at high z.

If dust plays a very important role obscuring Type Ia supernovae up to z $``$ 1 and leading us to miss their detection, we should see a discrepancy between the derived results from the optical searches and the level of the $`\gamma `$–ray flux. The $`\gamma `$–ray background, which is not disturbed by dust absorption, clearly points out that we can not have a much higher rate of SNe Ia than what we are observing optically. The reason is that with a much larger rate the $`\gamma `$–ray background from those SNe Ia would exceed the fluxes measured by SMM and COMPTEL (see Figures 8–14). It might however be the case that future SN searches at z$`>`$2 with NGST would reveal significant obscuration in the SN counts, more significant at those z than below 1.5. It looks as if the dust, being present at those z, would redden the supernovae by a magnitude increment which does not affect significantly the efficiency of the optical searches.

In order to quantify this effect, we have estimated the extinction by dust on the observed SNeIa counts. To that purpose we adopt the model of Pei, Fall, & Hauser (1999) and take their redshift distributions of gas density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_g`$ and of metallicity $`Z(z)`$. From that, we compute the dust distribution $`\mathrm{\Omega }_d(z)`$ adopting a mean dust–to–metals ratio $`d_m=0.45`$. The dust extinction and absorption coefficients, $`\kappa _e(\lambda )`$ and $`\kappa _a(\lambda )`$, as functions of wavelength $`\lambda `$, are those for LMC grains (Draine & Lee 1984; Pei 1992), and the characteristic optical depth of absorbers $`\tau _t(\nu ,z)`$, and the characteristic optical depth of small–scale dust clumps $`\tau _c(\nu ,z)`$, are computed accordingly. Once those optical depths are obtained, we estimate the mean fraction of photons absorbed by dust $`A_\nu `$, calculate the extinction for the central wavelength of the $`R`$–band (5500 Å) as a function of $`z`$, and translate it into a magnitude increase $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_R(z)`$.

To obtain an estimate of the effect on counts, we have computed the cumulative SNeIa counts (SNeIa per yr and per sq.deg.) as a function of limiting magnitude $`m_R`$ as in Ruiz–Lapuente & Canal (1998). Comparison of the expected counts with and without dust extinction is shown in Figure 15. The dashed line shows the smaller counts resulting from the decrease in $`z`$ for a given $`m_R`$ when dust extinction is taken into account. The effect is rather small and only noticeable for $`21.5m_R23.2`$. That reflects the double dependence of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_d`$ on metallicity $`Z`$ and on gas fraction $`\mathrm{\Omega }_g`$. At smaller $`m_R`$ (lower $`z`$), metallicity is high but there is little gas and thus $`\mathrm{\Omega }_d`$ (proportional to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_g`$) is small. At larger $`m_R`$ (higher $`z`$), there is more gas but then $`Z`$ is low, which also results in small $`\mathrm{\Omega }_d`$. The overall effect in a magnitude limiting SNe Ia search is that the fraction of SNe Ia missed due to dust obscuration in their host galaxies will not exceed a 5$`\%`$ in the redshift range (till z $``$ 1-1.5) relevant for this work. This might explain the extraordinary consistency between optical and $`\gamma `$–ray results.

### 6.3 Other sources or supernovae?

Unlike the other candidate sources proposed to explain the $`\gamma `$–ray background in the MeV range –i.e. MeV blazars, Seyfert with MeV nonthermal tails-, Type Ia supernovae have an evolution of rate with z that has been measured (Table I). Knowing the SNe Ia rate at various z we only need to trust our expectations for the spectra in the $`\gamma `$–ray domain to be able to firmly establish our conclusions. The $`\gamma `$–ray predictions from models do not raise major questions concerning the physics needed to be included to calculate the spectra. That is basically the same physics needed to explain Type II SNe $`\gamma `$–ray emission, where the comparison with the $`\gamma `$–ray observations of SN 1987A proved successful (Sunyaev et al. 1988; Cassé & Lehoucq 1994; Nomoto et al. 1994). The SNIa explosion models have, in addition, been tested and compared with optical spectra. While detection of individual SNe Ia in the $`\gamma `$–ray domain has to await the launch of INTEGRAL and would only be possible in a certain extragalactic distance range (Kumagai & Nomoto 1997; Isern et al. 1999), here we outline the already available detection of SNe Ia in the form of their observed MeV background. Support for the identification of the underlying radioactivity responsible for the optical light curves in SNe Ia comes from accurate tests. The amount of radioactive material synthesized in a SNe Ia is confirmed, among others, by the observational calibration of the optical absolute luminosity of those explosions done by means of Cepheids (Sandage et al. 1998; Gibson et al. 1999).

Whereas it is worth exploring whether Seyfert galaxies present a nonthermal tail in the MeV range as that observed in “microquasar” sources, and the blazar emission at those energies should be investigated, we find that the shape and flux of the $`\gamma `$–ray background is at the level expected from Type Ia SNe. The reconstruction of the distribution with z of SNe Ia events provides the basis for this assertion.

### 6.4 Cosmic chemical evolution and the SFR

We have shown how the SNeIa fit to the cosmic $`\gamma `$–ray background in the MeV range probes the global star formation history up $`z1.5`$. It seemingly disfavors SFRs which rise only moderately from $`z=0`$ to $`z1.5`$ having a maximum star formation value at that z below 0.2 M yr-1 Mpc-3. That has important implications for the overall cosmic chemical evolution, and particularly, for the history of metal enrichment as well as for destruction of fragile primordial nuclides, namely deuterium. Cassé et al. (1998) discuss different galactic chemical evolution models and compare them with the data on the variation of the luminosity density, as a function of $`z`$, in different wavelength bands (UV, B, IR). They assume that the star formation history of our Galaxy is representative of the average galaxy that contributes to the luminosity density at high $`z`$, and they also find that, in order to fit the multi–color luminosity data for $`0z1`$, SFRs rising sharply (by factors $`10`$) along this redshift interval are required. Spiral galaxies like our own should give a dominant contribution to the UV luminosity density up to $`z1.5`$ (Marzke et al. 1994; Driver et al. 1999), and thus their star formation and chemical evolution histories should approximate well the global ones. As already pointed out above, Dwek et al. (1988) equally need high SFRs at high $`z`$ to reproduce the strong intergalactic IR background, and we have seen that their proposed $`\mathrm{SFR}(\mathrm{z})`$ gives a good fit to the cosmic $`\gamma `$–ray background.

Concerning the global evolution of metallicity with $`z`$, chemical evolution models typically predict a stronger evolution than that observed. This is the “missing metals” problem (Pagel 1998; see also Pettini 1999). Damped Lyman alpha systems, which were thought to be the progenitors of today’s spirals, do not show significant chemical evolution, but the most likely explanation is that Ly$`\alpha `$ systems trace a population different from the galaxies responsible for the bulk of star formation. At higher $`z`$, the metal contents of the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest, which may account for a large fraction of the baryons in the Universe, is one order of magnitude too low, but the missing metals can be in hot gas in galactic halos and proto–clusters. The role of the metal enrichment by SNe Ia at high z is another unknown in those studies, and hardly constrained so far. The present combined results of the rate of SNe Ia at high z as observed in the optical and in the $`\gamma `$–ray background places constraints which are worth considering in models of cosmic chemical evolution. The role of SNe Ia generously enriching the Universe in metals after z$``$ 1 can now be quantified and compared with the observations. Such a high enrichment should show up in a steep change of the abundance slope of metals produced in SNe Ia at z $``$ 1 (further discussion on this subject will be addressed in future work).

As to D, the abundances inferred from high–$`z`$ QSO absorbers show a strongly bimodal distribution, one value being “low” ($`\mathrm{D}/\mathrm{H}3\times 10^5`$: Tytler et al. 2000) and the other “high” ($`\mathrm{D}/\mathrm{H}10^4`$: Webb et al. 1999). Taken as the primordial values, since D is only destroyed by astration in the course of galaxy evolution, the “low” value (not much higher than the present one) would mean little destruction and thus scarce astration, corresponding to a stellar formation activity that would only moderately increase with lookback time, as considered often in models for our Galaxy. In contrast, the $`\mathrm{SFR}(\mathrm{z})`$ required to explain the cosmic $`\gamma `$–ray background as well as the observations mentioned in section 2, would destroy primordial D by a large factor ($`10`$). Overall consistency would thus require a “high” primordial D (which means a low baryon to photon ratio: $`\eta _{10}=23`$ in the standard BBN, higher values being possible in non–standard BBN), followed by its massive destruction by astration down to the present low values (Vangioni–Flam & Cassé 1995).

## 7 Conclusions

Both the spectral shape and the level of the overall $`\gamma `$–ray flux escaping from Type Ia supernova explosions up to z$``$ 1 match the measurements of the cosmic $`\gamma `$-ray background obtained with SMM and COMPTEL in the window covering the hard–X ray range till 3 MeV (Kappadath et al. 1996; Watanabe et al. 1999b).

The results have been checked against the empirical high-z SNe Ia rates obtained in searches designed for cosmological purposes. The analysis of the supernova rates both in the high–z and in the nearby universe allows us to depict the efficiency in producing SNe Ia. Once the SNIa efficiency from star forming mass is known at various z, both the SNe Ia rates per comoving volume and the absolute level of the $`\gamma `$–ray background constrain the SFR at high z. In this work we have found that a range of SFR histories is compatible with these observations. The best results are obtained for SFR reaching a maximum value of 0.3–0.4 M yr-1 Mpc -3 at z $``$ 1.5, and possibly keeping that value towards higher z (see Figure 10). Some of the reconstructed star formation histories compatible with the SCUBA measurements (Blain et al. 1998) are among those favored by this analysis. The SFR derived from the UV emission density at high z in the Hubble Deep Field by Madau, Pozzeti & Dickinson (1998) seems a factor 2 too low to explain the SNe Ia counts and the COMPTEL and SMM background observations in the MeV range. Other SFRs peaking with a maximum of star formation 3-4 times larger than the above value can be excluded on account of the overexceeding $`\gamma `$–ray background. The SFR derived from COBE (Dwek et al. 1998) gives results in background and rates compatible with the observations.

Beyond considerations on the SFR it is shown in this work that for a rate evolution of SNe Ia compatible with a number of empirical determinations in searches performed by the Supernova Cosmology Project (z $``$ 0.3), the EROS SN search (z $``$ 0.1), and others (Table 1), we obtain a $`\gamma `$–ray background that explains the spectral shape and flux level measured by COMPTEL and SMM (Kappadath et al. 1996; Watanabe et al. 1999b; Weidenspointer 2000). Earlier suggestions of a too low contribution by supernovae in the MeV range (Watanabe et al. 1999b) implied as well constrains on the delay time between formation and explosion of SNe Ia that are not substained in the present analysis. We found that while it is still early to constrain the timescale to explosion of SNe Ia, the efficiencies in producing SNe Ia supernovae out of star formation, as discussed here, provide a reliable basis for a $`\gamma `$–ray background calculation (see Ruiz-Lapuente & Canal 2000 for the physical constrains on the progenitors). It is clearly seen that a range of star formation histories compatible with current measurements (SCUBA,COBE) reproduce well both the SNe Ia rates and the $`\gamma `$–ray background.

In view of the presence of sources other than supernovae contributing to the background in the keV region and above 3 MeV, a finer spectral study of this cosmic $`\gamma `$–ray emision appears compulsory. There are several interesting goals for future $`\gamma `$–ray missions in the MeV range. Higher spectral resolution and more precise flux determination in the measurement of the extragalactic MeV background will be most important, since they will allow to check the consistency among cosmological model, history of star formation and Type Ia supernova efficiency which are being derived from the cosmological SNe Ia searches. As already noticed (Watanabe et al. 1999b), the individual $`\gamma `$–ray lines when integrating the supernova emission along z add up to an observable pattern of step structure in the background spectrum. Such pattern, unobserved in measurements up to the present achieved accuracy, should be detected when performing high precision measurements of the cosmic $`\gamma `$–ray background. Another question which can not be answered with the data available at this point is the shape in the junction of the spectrum between the region where SNe Ia provide the emission and blazars remain the main emitters. Next missions with coverage of the 3-10 MeV region could be critical in providing the accurate measurements assesing the blazar contribution in this transition range.

Back to longer wavelengths, future SN searches using the NGST should provide measurements of rates of SNe well beyond the critical peak at z$``$ 1–1.5 (Madau 1998; Dahlen & Fransson 1998). Those would not only be used to test the cosmological model in the way done up to now through optical SN searches by the Supernova Cosmology Project and the High–z Team Collaboration (Perlmutter et al. 1999; Schmidt et al. 1998), but they will provide as well additional tests on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ through the counts evolution with z (Ruiz–Lapuente & Canal 1998), and will be able to answer a large number of questions related to the star formation history in the Universe, its chemical evolution and the background light provided by its stellar explosions.

PRL thanks her colleagues of the Supernova Cosmology Project, and specially R. Pain, for exchanges on the observed high–z rates. The authors would like to thank as well R. Eastman for providing his core–collapse models.

## 8 Tables

## 9 Figure captions


format: text

text:
# Overview of the Status and Strangeness Capabilities of STAR

## 1 The Status of the STAR Experiment

The STAR detector at RHIC  is a large acceptance spectrometer with a very broad physics program, including precision measurements of a wide variety of strange particles. The STAR experimental configuration during the early years of RHIC operation is shown in Figure 1. For the first year of RHIC running, the active detectors are the Time Projection Chamber (TPC), the Zero Degree Calorimeters (ZDC) , the Central Trigger Barrel (CTB), and the Ring Imaging Cerenkov Counter (RICH). The solenoidal magnet has a maximum field strength of 0.5 Tesla but for the first year is run at 0.25 Tesla. For operation in the second year, STAR will install the Silicon Vertex Tracker (SVT), two forward TPCs (FTPC), a time-of-flight (TOF) patch, and 26 modules of the Barrel Electromagnetic Calorimeter (EMC), comprising 22% of the full barrel EMC which will be completed by 2003. Details on the acceptance of the various detector components relevant for strange particle reconstruction are given in the following section.

RHIC began operations for physics in the summer of 2000. Together with the other RHIC experiments, STAR observed collisions immediately. The quality of track reconstruction in the TPC is high and efforts to understand and quantify the tracking efficiency are underway. The performance of the STAR TPC is illustrated in Figure 2. The left panel shows the specific ionization (truncated mean dE/dx) in the TPC for Au+Au collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}=130`$ GeV, as a function of track momentum. The curves are the Bethe-Bloch parameterization of dE/dx. The bands for pions, kaons, protons, deuterons and electrons are visible. The relative dE/dx resolution is approaching the design goal of 8%. The left panel shows the momentum resolution of the TPC as a function of momentum for charged tracks from cosmic rays that have been independently reconstructed in the upper and lower halves of the TPC in a 0.5 Tesla magnetic field. The solid curve labelled “CDR” is the design goal, with the difference from measurement due in large part to known instrumental effects that have since been rectified.

The response of the STAR trigger detectors (ZDC and CTB) to Au+Au collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}=130`$ GeV is shown in Figure 3, under the condition that both ZDC signals are above a threshold.111The threshold is set to eliminate coincidences due to electronic noise but not those due to single neutrons at beam energy. The vertical axis is the summed pulse height of all CTB slats and horizontal axis is the summed pulse height of the two ZDCs. The ZDC measures forward-going neutrons ($`\theta <2`$ mrad) and its response contains contributions from both nuclear collisions and mutual Coulomb dissociation  (the latter process does not generate tracks at mid-rapidity and is not visible in the figure). For nuclear collisions, low ZDC response corresponds to a low number of spectator neutrons, which can occur for both very peripheral and very central collisions, whereas the CTB signal increases monotonically with increasing multiplicity at mid-rapidity. Thus, the most central nuclear collisions correspond to low ZDC and high CTB response (corresponding to high multiplicity at mid-rapidity). The trigger inefficiency for central collisions due to the coincidence condition applied to the ZDCs was measured to be much less than 1%.

The RICH is a proximity-focusing ring imaging Cerenkov counter for identifying charged hadrons at high momentum within an acceptance of 10 msr at yCM=0, and was developed as a joint project with the ALICE collaboration. Rings with the expected photon yields have been observed in the RICH for Au+Au collisions.

In summary, the STAR detector for the first year of RHIC operation is performing extremely well, and we expect many physics results from this first round of data taking.

## 2 Strange particle measurements accessible to STAR

By virtue of its large tracking acceptance and the ability to perform particle identification over a wide kinematic range, STAR is well suited to measuring a variety of strange particles. Table 1 lists the strange particles and resonances that are accessible to STAR and which have been studied in Monte-Carlo simulations. Based on the result of these simulations we discuss the expected reconstruction performance of the STAR detector for various strange particle measurements.

### 2.1 Charged kaon reconstruction

About 70% of the strange quarks produced in a heavy-ion collision at RHIC are carried by the kaons. Charged kaons can be identified in STAR using a number of different techniques. The measurement of the specific ionization of tracks in the TPC (dE/dx) gives an excellent separation of kaons from protons and pions up to a momentum of around 800 MeV/$`c`$ (Figure 2). Charge kaons can also be identified in the TPC via their decay (see Table 1). In principle, using this method it is possible to extend the measurement of kaons out to a transverse momentum of around 5 GeV/$`c`$.

The identification of charged kaons at mid-rapidity in the range $`1.1<p_T<3.0`$ GeV/$`c`$ is performed by the RICH. In year two, the charged kaon measurement will be augmented by the addition of a time-of-flight patch, which will replace part of the central trigger barrel and provide acceptance in the range $`0.3<p_T<1.5`$ GeV/$`c`$.

### 2.2 Hyperon reconstruction

Hyperons can be reconstructed in the central TPC from their charged decay products. $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ are found by considering all pairs of oppositely charged tracks in the TPC which are compatible with having originated from a vertex separated from the primary interaction. Neutral kaon decays, $`K_s^0`$, are also reconstructed in this way. Geometrical cuts are used to eliminate the majority of the combinatorial background. The most effective cuts are on the separation of the decay from the primary vertex and on the impact parameter of the parent and daughters to the primary vertex. An important cut for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ ($`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$) is on the specific ionization information (dE/dx), which selects tracks compatible with being protons (anti-protons).

Figure 4 shows the invariant mass and Podolanski-Armenteros plots  for 3000 HIJING central Au+Au events and approximately 16000 minimum bias events from the current run. In both cases, no dE/dx information has been used. The analysis of the HIJING simulations found a reconstructed yield of approximately 2 $`K_s^0`$ and 0.3 $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ ($`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$) per event. The same cuts, which were tuned to optimise the signal to noise ratio in the Monte-Carlo, were applied to the real data. A clear signal is observed. The background in the real data is larger than expected from the simulation and this has since been understood as due in part to an instrumental effect and an error in the way one of the cuts was defined, both of which have been corrected.

$`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ reconstruction has also been studied in STAR. Signal extraction in the year one configuration has been studied using events in which an enhanced $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ signal had been added. By limiting the acceptance to $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ with transverse momentum $`p_T>0.8`$ GeV/$`c`$, it was found that nearly all the combinatorial background could be eliminated. The cuts used were similar to those found useful for extracting $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`K_s^0`$. Figure 5 shows the result of applying these cuts to 7000 reconstructed HIJING events. Also shown is a hint of a peak in the experimental data obtained from 16000 minimum bias events from the current experimental run. In both cases, the sum of $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}^+`$ is shown.

In the second year of RHIC operation, the efficiency of hyperon reconstruction will be significantly enhanced by the addition of the Silicon Vertex Tracker. This detector comprises three layers of Silicon Drift Detectors at approximately 5, 10 and 15 cm radius from the nominal beam axis. (An additional layer of Silicon Strip Detectors at a radius 25 cm will be added in year three). Due to the superior two-track resolution of the SVT, it should be possible to extend the measurement of hyperons to lower transverse momentum, where the combinatorial background for tracks reconstructed in the TPC alone becomes prohibitive. It will also make possible the measurement of the rare $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ baryon.

The two Forward Time Projection Chambers (FTPC) will also be installed for the second year of RHIC operation. These are novel radial drift devices operating in the challenging tracking environment close to the beam, inside the inner field cage of the main TPC. A feasibility study has shown momentum resolution to be sufficient for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ reconstruction. This will add new acceptance in the range $`2.75<y_\mathrm{\Lambda }<3.5`$.

### 2.3 Resonance reconstruction

The reconstruction of strange particle resonances is also possible in STAR. Resonance production presents an important test of thermal production models and can be sensitive to the properties of the state of matter in which they are produced. The $`\varphi `$ meson is of particular interest as a probe of chiral symmetry restoration. STAR measures the $`\varphi `$ via the charged kaon channel, $`\varphi K^+K^{}`$. This measurement uses the TPC dE/dx information to select kaons and the background is determined by mixing positive and negative tracks from different events having approximately the same total multiplicity. Other resonances have also been studied. A simulation of 5000 HIJING events, for example, has shown that it is should be possible to reconstruct the $`K^0`$(892) from year one data.

## 3 Summary and Outlook

The STAR experiment has begun taking data for physics and is performing very well. STAR will measure integrated yields and particle ratios of strange particles in collisions ranging from p+p to Au+Au. Table 2 shows the expected reconstruction performance based upon the HIJING model’s prediction for the strange particle yields in central Au+Au collisions. Based upon these results, a measurement of all but the rarest multiply strange baryons should be possible in the first year of RHIC operation. Taking advantage of the complete azimuthal coverage of the STAR TPC, it might even be possible to perform $`K_s^0K_s^0`$ interferometry. With the addition of the SVT in year two, we will be able to measure the production of the $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ baryon and with increased efficiency at lower transverse momentum, it may also be possible to study $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ correlations.

## References


text:
# Indirect Violation of CP, T and CPT in the 𝐵_𝑑-system

## 1 Introduction

The time evolution of a neutral meson system is governed by an effective hamiltonian . The problem of indirect violation of discrete symmetries refers to the non-invariance of this hamiltonian under the corresponding operations.

For the kaon system, this study has been performed by the CP-LEAR experiment  from the preparation of definite flavour states $`K^0`$-$`\overline{K}^0`$. These tagged mesons evolve in time and their later decay to a semileptonic final state projects them again on a definite flavour state. The study of this *flavour-to-flavour* evolution allows the construction of observables which violate CP and T, or CP and CPT.

Contrary to what happens in the kaon case, for the $`B_d`$-system the width difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ between the physical states is expected to be negligible. In this system the T- and CPT-odd observables proposed for kaons, which are based on flavour tag, vanish. but, making use of CP tag, the $`B_d`$ entangled states can be used to construct alternative observables which are sensitive to T and CPT independently of the value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ .

## 2 The parameters

In the neutral $`B`$-meson system the physical states are a linear combination of $`B^0`$ and $`\overline{B}^0`$. If they are written in terms of CP eigenstates, one has to introduce two complex parameters, $`\epsilon _{1,2}`$, to describe the CP mixing.

$$|B_{\stackrel{1}{2}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1+|\epsilon _{\stackrel{1}{2}}|^2}}\left[|B_\pm +\epsilon _{\stackrel{1}{2}}|B_{}\right],$$
(1)
where $`|B_\pm \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(I\pm CP)|B^0`$. Then $`\epsilon _{1,2}`$ are invariant under rephasing of the meson states, and physical when the CP operator is well defined .

Alternatively, one may use the parameters $`\epsilon (\epsilon _1+\epsilon _2)/2`$ and $`\delta \epsilon _1\epsilon _2`$, whose interpretation in terms of symmetries is simpler.

Discrete symmetries impose different restrictions on the effective mass matrix, $`H=M\frac{i}{2}\mathrm{\Gamma }`$: CPT invariance requires $`H_{11}=H_{22}`$, T invariance imposes $`\mathrm{Im}(M_{12}\mathrm{CP}_{12}^{})=\mathrm{Im}(\mathrm{\Gamma }_{12}\mathrm{CP}_{12}^{})=0`$, and CP conservation requires both conditions to be simultaneously satisfied. Furthermore, in the exact limit $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }=0`$, customary for the $`B_d`$-system, both $`\mathrm{Re}(\epsilon )`$ and $`\mathrm{Im}(\delta )`$ vanish. Therefore we have four real parameters which carry information on the symmetries of the effective mass matrix

* $`\mathrm{Re}(\epsilon )`$ CP and T violation, with $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }0`$;
* $`\mathrm{Im}(\epsilon )`$ CP and T violation;
* $`\mathrm{Re}(\delta )`$ CP and CPT violation;
* $`\mathrm{Im}(\delta )`$ CP and CPT violation, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }0`$.

## 3 The entangled state: CP tag

In a $`B`$ factory operating at the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(4S)`$ peak, correlated pairs of neutral $`B`$-mesons are produced through $`e^+e^{}\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(4S)B\overline{B}`$. The special features of this system can be used to study CP  and CPT  violation in $`B`$ mesons.

In the CM frame, the resulting $`B`$-mesons travel in opposite directions, each one evolving with the effective hamiltonian. The $`B\overline{B}`$ state has definite $`L=1`$, $`C=`$ and $`𝒫=`$, being $`𝒫`$ the operator which permutes the spatial coordinates, so that the initial state may be written as

$$|i>=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|B^0,\overline{B}^0>|\overline{B}^0,B^0>\right)$$
(2)
The correlation between both sides of the entangled state holds at any time after the production. As a consequence, one can never simultaneously have two identical mesons at both sides of the detector. This permits the performance of a flavour tag: if at $`t=0`$ one of the mesons decays through a channel, such as a semileptonic one, which is only allowed for one flavour of the neutral $`B`$, the other meson in the pair must have the opposite flavour at $`t=0`$.

The entangled $`B\overline{B}`$ state can also be expressed in terms of the CP eigenstates $`|B_\pm `$ as

$$|i>=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|B_{},B_+>|B_+,B_{}>\right)$$
(3)
Thus it is also possible to carry out a CP tag, once we have a CP-conserving decay into a definite CP final state, so that its detection allows us to identify the decaying meson as a $`B_+`$ or a $`B_{}`$.

In Ref.  we described how this determination is possible and unambiguous to $`𝒪(\lambda ^3)`$, which is sufficient to discuss both CP-conserving and CP-violating amplitudes in the effective hamiltonian for $`B_d`$ mesons. Here $`\lambda `$ is the flavour-mixing parameter of the CKM matrix . The determination is based on the requirement of CP conservation, to $`𝒪(\lambda ^3)`$, in the $`(sd)`$ and $`(bs)`$ sectors. To this order, however, CP-violation exists in the $`(bd)`$ sector, and it can be classified by referring it to the CP-conserving direction. A $`B_d`$ decay that is governed by the couplings of the $`(sd)`$ or $`(bs)`$ unitarity triangles, or by the $`V_{cd}V_{cb}^{}`$ side of the $`(bd)`$ triangle, will not show any CP violation to $`𝒪(\lambda ^3)`$. We may say that such a channel is free from direct CP violation. Examples are $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }K_S`$, with $`\mathrm{CP}=`$, and $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }K_L`$, with $`\mathrm{CP}=+`$.

To extract information on the symmetry parameters we may study the time evolution of the entangled state (2) and its decay into a final configuration $`(X,Y)`$. In our notation, $`X`$ is the decay product observed on one side of the detector at a certain time, and $`Y`$ the product detected on the opposite side after a $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$.

We will only consider here decay channels $`X`$, $`Y`$ which are either flavour or CP conserving. Then the final configuration $`(X,Y)`$ corresponds to a certain transition at the mesonic level, i.e. the $`B`$ state tagged by the $`X`$ decay evolves for a period $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ and is then projected into a flavour or CP eigenstate by means of the $`Y`$ decay.

## 4 The asymmetries

By comparing the probabilities corresponding to different processes we build time-dependent asymmetries that allow the extraction of the relevant parameters. The observables can be classified into three types.

### 4.1 Flavour-to-flavour genuine asymmetries

If one detects semileptonic decays on both sides of the detector, then the transition at the meson level is of the kind *flavour-to-flavour*. The mesonic transitions for such a final configuration appear in Table 1, where $`\mathrm{}^\pm `$ represents the final decay product of a semiinclusive decay $`B\mathrm{}^\pm X^{}`$.

From these processes we can construct two non-trivial asymmetries, which are the analogous, in the $`B`$-system, to the traditional observables used for kaons. The first two processes in Table 1 are conjugated under CP and also under T, then we may construct a genuine asymmetry by comparing the corresponding intensities

$$A(\mathrm{}^+,\mathrm{}^+){\scriptscriptstyle \frac{\mathrm{Re}(\epsilon )}{1+|\epsilon |^2}}.$$
(4)
On the other hand, the last two processes in Table 1 are related by a CP or a CPT transformation. Therefore, the corresponding asymmetry,

$`A(\mathrm{}^+,\mathrm{}^{})`$ $``$ $`2\left[\mathrm{Ch}{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Delta }t}{2}}+\mathrm{cos}(\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t)\right]^1`$ (5)
$`\left[\mathrm{Re}({\scriptscriptstyle \frac{\delta }{1\epsilon ^2}})\mathrm{Sh}{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Delta }t}{2}}\mathrm{Im}({\scriptscriptstyle \frac{\delta }{1\epsilon ^2}})\mathrm{sin}(\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t)\right],`$
is also a genuine CP and CPT observable.

In both cases, the resulting asymmetry vanishes unless $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }0`$. Thus measuring a small value for these observables does not impose a straightforward bound on the size of symmetry violation, because the vanishingly small $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of $`B`$-mesons would hide any symmetry breaking effect.

### 4.2 CP-to-flavour genuine asymmetries

We may construct alternative asymmetries making use of the CP eigenstates, which can be identified in this system by means of a CP tag. If the first decay product, $`X`$, is a CP eigenstate produced along the CP-conserving direction, and $`Y`$ is a semileptonic channel, then the mesonic transition corresponding to the configuration $`(X,Y)`$ is of the type *CP-to-flavour*. The order of appearance of both final states matters, because for the reverted configuration, $`(Y,X)`$, we have a *flavour-to-CP* transition. In Table 2 we show the mesonic transitions, with their related final configurations, connected by genuine symmetry transformations to $`B_+B^0`$, i.e. $`(J/\mathrm{\Psi }K_S,\mathrm{}^+)`$.

Comparing the intensity of $`(J/\mathrm{\Psi }K_S,\mathrm{}^+)`$ with each of them we construct three genuine asymmetries. Next, we show the results to linear order in $`\delta `$ and in the limit $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }=0`$.

$`A_{\mathrm{CP}}`$ $`=`$ $`2{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{\mathrm{Im}(\epsilon )}{1+|\epsilon |^2}}\mathrm{sin}(\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t)`$ (6)
$`+{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1|\epsilon |^2}{1+|\epsilon |^2}}{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{2\mathrm{R}\mathrm{e}(\delta )}{1+|\epsilon |^2}}\mathrm{sin}^2\left({\scriptscriptstyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t}{2}}\right),`$
is the CP odd asymmetry, which has contributions from T-violating and CPT-violating terms. The first term, odd in $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$, is governed by the T-violating $`\mathrm{Im}(\epsilon )`$, whereas the second term, $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ even, is sensitive to CPT violation through the parameter $`\mathrm{Re}(\delta )`$.

$`A_\mathrm{T}`$ $`=`$ $`2{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{\mathrm{Im}(\epsilon )}{1+|\epsilon |^2}}\mathrm{sin}(\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t)`$ (7)
$`\left[1{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1|\epsilon |^2}{1+|\epsilon |^2}}{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{2\mathrm{R}\mathrm{e}(\delta )}{1+|\epsilon |^2}}\mathrm{sin}^2\left({\scriptscriptstyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t}{2}}\right)\right],`$
the T asymmetry, needs $`\epsilon 0`$, and includes CPT even and odd terms. Moreover, in the limit we are considering, turns out to be purely odd in $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$.

$$A_{\mathrm{CPT}}={\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1|\epsilon |^2}{1+|\epsilon |^2}}{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{2\mathrm{R}\mathrm{e}(\delta )}{1+|\epsilon |^2}}\frac{\mathrm{sin}^2\left({\scriptscriptstyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t}{2}}\right)}{12\frac{\mathrm{Im}(\epsilon )}{1+|\epsilon |^2}\mathrm{sin}(\mathrm{\Delta }m\mathrm{\Delta }t)},$$
(8)
is the CPT asymmetry. It needs $`\delta 0`$, and includes both even and odd time dependences, so that there is no definite symmetry under a change of sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$.

Measuring the presented asymmetries (6)-(8) with good time resolution, so to separate even and odd $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ dependences, should be enough to determine the parameters $`\frac{2\mathrm{I}\mathrm{m}(\epsilon )}{1+|\epsilon |^2}`$ and $`\frac{1|\epsilon |^2}{1+|\epsilon |^2}\frac{2\mathrm{R}\mathrm{e}(\delta )}{1+|\epsilon |^2}`$, which govern CP, T violation and CP, CPT violation, respectively, in the $`B_d`$ mixing.

Contrary to what happened in the case of flavour tag, the CPT and T asymmetries based on a CP tag do not vanish due to the smallness of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Instead, they provide a set of observables which could separate the parameters $`\delta `$ and $`\epsilon `$.

### 4.3 CP-to-flavour non-genuine asymmetries

The asymmetries defined in the previous paragraphs are genuine observables, since each of them compares the original process with its conjugated under a certain symmetry and is thus odd under the corresponding transformation. Nevertheless the measurement of all those quantities requires to tag both $`B_+`$ and $`B_{}`$ states. The last needs, from the experimental point of view, a good reconstruction of the decay $`BJ/\mathrm{\Psi }K_L`$, not so easy to achieve as for the corresponding $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }K_S`$ channel.

But it is also possible to construct useful asymmetries from final configurations $`(X,Y)`$ with only $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }K_S`$.

In Table 3 we show the different transitions we may study from such final states. From the comparison between $`(J/\mathrm{\Psi }K_S,\mathrm{}^+)`$ and each process in the table we can construct three asymmetries. The first one will correspond to the genuine CP asymmetry $`A(J/\mathrm{\Psi }K_S,\mathrm{}^{})=A_{\mathrm{CP}}`$. We find that, in the exact limit $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }=0`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ and T operations become equivalent, so that $`A(\mathrm{}^+,J/\mathrm{\Psi }K_S)A_\mathrm{T}`$ and $`A(\mathrm{}^{},J/\mathrm{\Psi }K_S)A_{\mathrm{CPT}}`$. But these asymmetries are not genuine. They do not correspond to true T- and CPT-odd observables, for the processes we are comparing are not related by a symmetry transformation. This implies that the presence of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }0`$ may induce non-vanishing values for them, even if there is no true T or CPT violation. But even if that is the case, it is possible to separate out the different parameters, if good enough $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ is provided .

## 5 Conclusions

We present an overview of the possibilities to explore indirect violation of CP, T and CPT in a neutral meson system from the quantities that $`B`$-factories can measure. The asymmetries analyzed here exploit their time dependences in order to separate out two different ingredients: on one hand CP and T violation, described by $`\epsilon `$, and on the other CP and CPT violation, given by $`\delta `$. Such a study is possible, even if $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }=0`$, if one goes beyond *flavour-to-flavour* transitions and makes use of CP tags.

We classify the observables into three different types:

* Genuine asymmetries for T or CPT violation, based on flavour-to-flavour transitions at the meson level, which need $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }0`$.
* Genuine observables, based on the combination of flavour and CP tags, which do not need $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.
* Making use of the equivalence between $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ and T reversal operations for $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }=0`$, we have also considered non genuine observables, involving only the hadronic decay $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }K_S`$.

This work has been supported by CICYT, Spain, under Grant AEN99-0692. M.C.B. is indebted to the Spanish Ministry of Education and Culture for her fellowship.