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# Constraining the Birth Events of Neutron Stars

## 1. Introduction

The prediction by Baade & Zwicky (1934) that neutron stars would form in supernova explosions ranks among the most prophetic theoretical speculations in the history of astrophysics. An important aspect of the matter these two illustrious astronomers did not address was how such beasts could be observed. Certainly the properties of the rotation-powered pulsars discovered by Jocelyn Bell were unanticipated before 1967; the thermal X-ray emission detected from the surfaces of a handful of nearby young pulsars over a quarter of a century later (e.g. Finley, Ögelman & Kiziloglu 1992) was the first properly predicted neutron-star observational characteristic. But the unanticipated reared its head in the interim, and the detection of soft gamma-ray bursts from the supernova remnant N49 in the Large Magellanic Cloud in 1979 (Mazets et al. 1979; Cline et al. 1982), as well as the discovery, from a source in the remnant CTB 109, of slow X-ray pulsations that could be explained neither in terms of rotation-power nor in terms of any conventional accretion mechanism (Fahlman & Gregory 1981), suggested that the words “unexpected zoo” may be applicable to the observed young neutron star population. This diversity of appearance continues to grow: X-ray point sources with properties quite different from those described above include the variable point source in RCW 103 (Tuohy & Garmire 1980; Gotthelf, Petre & Vasisht 1999; Garmire et al. 2000), the slow and X-ray variable pulsar AX J1845$``$0258 in G29.6+0.1 (Vasisht et al. 2000), and the point source in Cas A, made famous by the spectacular first light Chandra X-ray Observatory image (Tananbaum 1999).

It is perhaps ironic that in spite of the many possible observational manifestations of young neutron stars, one of the greatest problems in the field has been that most Galactic supernova remnants appear empty. Observational selection effects must certainly play a role, but ever-lingering is the fact that an unknown but possibly substantial fraction of massive stars undergoing core collapse might produce black holes rather than neutron stars. The size of this fraction is observationally poorly constrained. Certainly the difficulty that supernova modelers encounter in producing shock waves that can expel the outer layers of a star following the bounce in core collapse does little to dispel the concern that the black hole fraction may be large (Burrows, Hayes & Fryxell 1995; Liebendörder et al. 2001; Janka 2001). Our ignorance of the neutron star equation of state and hence the maximum stable neutron star mass adds to this confusion (Baym & Pethick 1979). A radio pulsar is thought to be born between every 60 and 330 yr in the Galaxy (Lyne et al. 1998). This is in rough agreement with the best-estimate core-collapse Galactic supernova rate of one every $`47\pm 12`$ yr (Tammann, Löffler & Schröder 1994), although a significant paucity of pulsars is suggested, and the uncertainties on both quantities are large enough to leave plenty of room for suspicion.

In this review, we discuss first the associations between SNRs and classical rotation-powered neutron stars. (Henceforth, we refer to the latter simply as “pulsars”; non-rotation-powered pulsars, in particular anomalous X-ray pulsars, will be specifically identified.) Our emphasis is less on a critique of all proposed associations (since significant reviews of this nature already exist — see e.g. Kaspi 1998, 2000; Manchester 1998) and more on what fundamental astrophysical insights such associations provide. Indeed, pulsar/supernova remnant associations have been heralded as, in principle, constraining the neutron star initial spin period, velocity and magnetic field distributions, all important for the physics of core collapse. In addition, dating pulsars is valuable in constraining the equation of state by testing cooling models (e.g. Umeda et al. 1994) — associations with supernova remnants can in principle offer independent age determinations.

We subsequently consider associations between supernova remnants and non-rotation-powered neutron stars as well as compact remnants of an uncertain nature, not merely for completeness, but as a precursor to the final section, in which we present an attempt at a synthesis of all associations. The goal here is to address the larger issue of core-collapse-remnant demographics. Similar attempts have been made in the past (e.g. Helfand & Becker 1984; Helfand 1998), although the new observational capabilities in the high energy regime represented by Chandra and XMM-Newton have led, in the last two years, to a dramatic acceleration in our identification of the compact remnants of supernova explosions. Indeed, we conclude here that current data are consistent with the notion that the majority of core-collapse events in the Galaxy do leave neutron star remnants.

## 2. Rotation-Powered Pulsars and Supernova Remnants

### 2.1. Making Associations

Associations between pulsars and remnants are generally made from the positional coincidence of an apparently young pulsar with a remnant that has no other more plausible association. Ideally, distance estimates to the two sources should agree, although neither is generally determined with high precision; similarly for rotation measures when they are available. Given the independently observed high space velocities of pulsars (Lyne & Lorimer 1994), significant offsets of the neutron star from its birth place should be expected, particularly for older associations (Gaensler & Johnston 1995). These provide a possible test of an association if a proper motion measurement can be made (although arguments for alternative causes for such offsets are presented by Gvaramadze, these proceedings).

Here we highlight several recent results concerning rotation-powered pulsar/supernova remnant associations of particular relevance to the field as a whole.

### 2.2. Inferring Neutron Star Space Velocities: A Dangerous Hobby

PSR B1757$``$24 has long been held up as the poster pulsar for high space velocities inferred from supernova remnant associations, in this case the shell remnant G5.4$``$1.2 (Frail & Kulkarni 1991; Manchester et al. 1991). The pulsar position, just outside the remnant boundary, suggests that the neutron star has overtaken the shell, which, unlike the pulsar, suffers deceleration from swept up interstellar material. The morphology of a small, flat-spectrum nebula protruding from G5.4$``$1.2, G5.27$``$0.90, strongly suggests ram-pressure confinement of the pulsar wind, lending significant support to this picture. Additional evidence for the pulsar having passed through the shell is the fact that the pulsar side of the remnant is brightest, and that the shell spectral index decreases monotonically along the shell with distance from the pulsar (Frail, Kassim & Weiler 1994).

The pulsar characteristic age, $`\tau _cP/2\dot{P}`$ (where $`P`$ is the spin period and $`\dot{P}`$ its rate of change) is 16 000 yr for PSR B1757$``$24. Of course, $`\tau _c`$ is only a good age estimator if the pulsar’s initial spin period is much shorter than that observed today, and if simple magnetic dipole braking is applicable throughout the life of the pulsar (see Eq. 1 below). Nevertheless, using $`\tau _c`$ as a reasonable estimate of the true age, and assuming the pulsar was born at the shell’s geometric center, implies a pulsar proper motion of $`70`$ mas yr-1, or a transverse velocity of $`1800`$ km s-1 for a distance of 5 kpc. This would make PSR B1757–24 the fastest pulsar known.

However, Gaensler & Frail (2000) measured the proper motion to be $`<25`$ mas yr-1 at the 5$`\sigma `$ level. They interpret this result as suggesting that the system is much older than $`\tau _c`$ implies; they argue that the pulsar’s braking index $`n`$, assumed to be 3 in standard vacuum magnetic dipole braking, must be less than 1.83, and possibly even less than 1.33. Evidence exists for such low braking indices (e.g. Lyne et al. 1996; Zhang et al. 2001). Unfortunately X-ray observations of the remnant, which in principle could help independently constrain its age via the shock temperature, yield only an unconstraining upper limit, given the large absorption toward the source (see Kaspi et al., these proceedings).

Of course, the chance superposition of the pulsar and G5.4$``$1.2 cannot be ruled out, nor can an offset between the pulsar birth place and the shell center because of the space velocity of the progenitor (see Gvaramadze, these proceedings). In any event, the pulsar/supernova remnant picture in general is clearly complicated by the surprisingly low proper motion for PSR B1757–24. Inferring velocity estimates from possible associations appears to be a dangerous hobby.

Unaddressed by Gaensler & Frail (2000) is the interesting question of why a pulsar of apparently average velocity should exhibit so spectacular and unique a radio wind nebula. Recent Chandra observations of the system have detected X-ray emission coincident with the radio nebula, supporting the ram-pressure confined wind interpretation (see Kaspi et al., these proceedings). One possibility is that a condition for the formation of a bright ram-pressure confined pulsar wind nebula is strong rear confinement, as offered by the high pressure interior of a supernova remnant shell.

### 2.3. Neutron Star Initial Spin Periods

The age of a pulsar, $`\tau `$, can be calculated, assuming a constant braking index, $`n`$, from birth, by integrating the standard spin-down expression $`\dot{\nu }\nu ^n`$ (where $`\nu 1/P`$) to yield

$$\tau =\frac{P}{(n1)\dot{P}}\left[1\left(\frac{P_0}{P}\right)^n\right],$$
(1)
where $`P_0`$ is the spin period at birth. Clearly, for $`n=3`$ and $`P_0P`$, one recovers the conventional definition of characteristic age. Only the Crab pulsar has, until now, had a solid initial spin determination, $`P_0=19`$ ms, thanks to the fact that $`n`$ has been measured and the year of the system’s birth is known independently. Interesting constraints on other initial spin periods exist. For PSR J0537$``$6910, $`P=16`$ ms. Given that its host remnant N157B has an approximate age of 5 kyr, this suggests $`P_016`$ ms for $`n=3`$, and $`P_0<10`$ ms for $`n\stackrel{<}{_{}}2`$ (Marshall et al. 1998). PSR B1951+32 in CTB 80 has $`\tau _c=107`$ kyr, comparable to the dynamical shell age (Koo et al. 1990); this suggests $`P_039`$ ms for $`n=3`$. Other systems provide higher and therefore less interesting upper limits on initial spin period. A variety of pulsar population synthesis models have therefore assumed a mean value of $`P_020`$ ms in their simulations (e.g. Narayan & Ostriker 1990; Lorimer et al. 1993; Cheng & Zhang 1998; McLaughlin & Cordes 2000).

G11.2$``$0.3 is a bright, highly symmetrical circular shell supernova remnant detected both at radio and X-ray wavelengths (Downes 1984; Morsi & Reich 1987; Green et al. 1988). Its age, inferred from its morphology and X-ray spectrum (Aoki 1995), has been estimated to be $`2000`$ yr. A possible association with a “guest star” reported by Chinese observers in 386 A.D. also suggests youth (Clark & Stephenson 1977).

However, Torii et al. (1999) reported that the 65-ms X-ray pulsar PSR J1811–1925 discovered within the remnant (Torii et al. 1997) has $`\tau _c=24`$ kyr. Assuming an association, they reconcile the age discrepancy by arguing that either $`P_065`$ ms, or that the pulsar’s braking index is an order of magnitude larger than the canonical value of 3. Chandra X-ray observations of the system pinpointed the pulsar position as lying very close to the remnant center, supporting its inferred youth (Kaspi et al. 2001b). Given that, of the five solid braking index measurements (Lyne, Pritchard & Smith 1988; Kaspi et al. 1994; Lyne et al. 1996; Camilo et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2001), not one has been reported as greater than 3, a value of $`30`$ for PSR J1811$``$1925 seems hard to swallow, making $`P_062`$ ms virtually inescapable. Nevertheless, phase coherent timing observations to verify this are planned. Furthermore, it should be possible to measure directly the expansion of the remnant in order to confirm its youth. Thus, it seems likely that the G11.2$``$0.3 system will provide only the second solid determination of a birth spin period for a neutron star; this system offers further proof that characteristic ages should be treated with extreme caution, particularly among apparently young pulsars.

Indeed, the latter point has broader implications. Of all pulsars known having $`\tau _c<100`$ kyr, $`25`$% have $`P<90`$ ms. The long birth spin period of PSR J1811$``$1925 thus suggests that this fraction of young pulsars could have characteristic ages that are gross overestimates of their true age. Of course, small braking indexes could offset the discrepancy.

Recently, Murray et al. (2002) have discovered PSR J0205+6449 in the Crab-like remnant 3C 58. The latter has long been thought to be associated with the historical event recorded in 1181 A.D. (Clark & Stephenson 1977). The 66-ms pulsar, however, has a characteristic age 5400 yr, far in excess of that implied by the historical identification. This led Murray et al. (2002) to suggest that, like the G11.2$``$0.3 system, the initial spin period of PSR J0205+6449 would have to be long (roughly 60 ms for braking indices in the range 1.5–3). However Bietenholz, Kassim & Weiler (2001) have suggested, on the basis of remnant expansion measurements, that the true remnant age is $`5000`$ yr, in agreement with the pulsar characteristic age, calling into question the hypothesized long initial spin period.

Spruit & Phinney (1998) have suggested that there could be a correlation between initial spin period and space velocity if the supernova asymmetry that imparts a “kick” to the neutron star does so in a single blow with an impulse that is not aligned with the neutron star center-of-mass. The G11.2$``$0.3 pulsar has a lower transverse velocity ($`v_t<110`$ km s-1) than those of the Crab pulsar ($`v_t=150`$ km s-1; Caraveo & Mignani 1999), PSR B1951+32 ($`v_t300`$ km s-1; Fruchter et al. 1988) and the N157B pulsar ($`v_t600`$ km s-1; Wang & Gotthelf 1998). All three certainly have shorter initial spin periods, however, arguing against a single, off-center impulse scenario. A proper motion for PSR J0205+6449 has yet to be measured, but is clearly of interest.

### 2.4. The Observability of Plerions and the Empty Shell Problem

PSR J1119$``$6127 is a young radio pulsar found in the Parkes multibeam survey (Camilo et al. 2000; see contributions by Manchester et al. and Crawford et al., these proceedings). The pulsar’s period $`P=408`$ ms and its rate of slow-down imply $`\tau _c=1700`$ yr, a spin-down luminosity $`\dot{E}=2.3\times 10^{36}`$ erg s-1, and, most notably, a very large implied surface dipolar magnetic field, $`B=4.1\times 10^{13}`$ G. The young age of the system is assured, as Camilo et al. (2000) have also measured the braking index $`n=2.91\pm 0.05`$.

Deep Australia Telescope Compact Array radio observations revealed a shell of emission with a non-thermal spectrum, centered on the pulsar position (Crawford et al. 2001). They name this supernova remnant shell G292.2$``$0.5, and note that its size supports the youth of the system. X-ray observations also detect the remnant, and are suggestive of an unusually hard X-ray spectrum (Pivovaroff et al. 2001).

Although there is tentative evidence for possible unpulsed X-ray emission associated with the pulsar, likely a synchrotron nebula, there is a noteworthy absence of any radio nebula. This makes the PSR J1119$``$6127 / G292.2$``$0.5 system an essentially unique example of an energetic, very young pulsar in a pure radio shell remnant. (PSR 0538+2817 in S147 \[see Table 1\] has estimated age 620 kyr and $`\dot{E}=5\times 10^{34}`$ erg s-1, so is not expected to have an observable synchrotron nebula.) Crawford et al. (2001) show, using a detailed model of synchrotron nebular evolution (Reynolds & Chevalier 1984), that the absence of an observed radio nebula could result from strong losses suffered by the source early in its evolution, as a consequence of its high magnetic field. This system thus suggests that many empty shell supernova remnants may harbor rotation-powered pulsars that produce no observable plerions, a notion that could ameliorate the “empty shell” problem.

However, the young PSR J1846$``$0258, recently discovered in the supernova remnant Kes 75 also has a very high magnetic field, $`4.8\times 10^{13}`$ G (Gotthelf et al. 2000), yet appears to power a radio synchrotron nebula whose flux is significantly underpredicted by the same line of reasoning used for PSR J1119$``$6127 (Crawford et al. 2001). A braking index for PSR J1846$``$0258 has yet to be measured however, so its true age is not known. If the Reynolds & Chevalier (1984) model can describe this system as well, then the pulsar should be significantly younger than PSR J1119$``$6127, in agreement with the claim of Gotthelf et al. (2000) that it is the youngest Galactic pulsar. Accordingly, $`n3`$ is expected. On the other hand, as discussed in § 2.2, low braking indexes could be common. For example, for $`n=1.8`$, PSR J1846$``$0258 would have age $``$1800 yr, larger than that of PSR J1119$``$6127, and hence in disagreement with the predictions of Reynolds & Chevalier (1984).

## 3. Alternative Neutron Star Manifestations

### 3.1. Anomalous X-ray Pulsars and Soft Gamma Repeaters

Anomalous X-ray Pulsars (AXPs) are a small class of pulsating X-ray sources which cannot be powered by rotation and which are highly unlikely to be powered by accretion. There are five confirmed members of this class, as well as one AXP candidate. For substantial discussions on AXPs, see the contribution by Gavriil & Kaspi in these proceedings, as well as a review by Israel, Mereghetti & Stella (2002). The Soft Gamma Repeaters (SGRs), of which there are four confirmed examples and a possible fifth, are sources which occasionally emit bursts of soft gamma-rays with an enormous fluence. They also show AXP-like pulsations in quiescence. Discussions of these sources have been presented by Hurley (2000).

Here we consider the AXPs and SGRs together because they bear a number of striking similarities that strongly suggest they are closely related (Thompson & Duncan 1996). In particular, both exhibit pulsations in the narrow range of periods from 5 s to 12 s, and both show long-term, rapid spin-down, with spin-down rates that imply short characteristic ages and ultra-high magnetic fields (assuming simple dipole braking, which may not be the case). In addition, they share similar X-ray spectra in quiescence, and have similar timing properties (Woods et al. 2000; Kaplan et al. 2001; Kaspi et al. 2001a).

The magnetar model, proposed for both types of objects, posits that the X-ray emission is powered by magnetic field decay, and that the soft gamma-ray bursts come from surface cracking and subsequent particle emission arising from magnetic stresses in the neutron star crust (Thompson & Duncan 1996). A competing model for the nature of AXPs invokes accretion from a supernova fall-back disk (Chatterjee, Hernquist & Narayan 1999). However, the faintness of optical/IR counterparts (Hulleman et al. 2000, 2001) and the recently announced detection of optical pulsations from one AXP (Kern & Martin 2001) are claimed to rule out this scenario conclusively, although details are yet to emerge.

Among the primary motivations for the magnetar model was the coincidence of the first discovered SGR, SGR 0526$``$66, with the LMC supernova remnant N49 (Cline et al. 1982). Subsequent observations found the burster to be significantly offset from the remnant center, though still well within its projected boundary (Rothschild, Kulkarni & Lingenfelter 1994; Marsden et al. 1996). Attempts have been made to associate the three other well-localized SGRs with supernova remnants (Kulkarni et al. 1994; Hurley et al. 1999; Woods et al. 1999) but none has withstood the test of time convincingly (see Gaensler et al. 2001 for a review). This does not rule out SGRs being young neutron stars — of the ten known rotation-powered pulsars with characteristic ages under 10 kyr, two are coincident with no obvious supernova remnant. Finding associated remnants for SGRs is further complicated by their location in complicated regions of the Galactic plane associated with massive star formation (Vrba et al. 2000).

Two of the five confirmed AXPs, plus the AXP candidate, are located very near the centers of well established supernova remnants: 1E 2259+586 in CTB 109 (Fahlman & Gregory 1981), 1E 1841$``$045 in Kes 73 (Vasisht & Gotthelf 1997), and the possible AXP AX J1845$``$0258 in G29.6+0.1 (Gaensler, Gotthelf & Vasisht 1999). Although the age of 1E 2259+586 is much larger than that of CTB 109 (225 kyr versus $`20`$ kyr), this could be due to torques from Alfvèn wave and particle emission (Thompson & Blaes 1998), or because the magnetic field decays on a timescale of $`10^4`$ yr (Colpi, Geppert & Page 2000). In addition, possible spin-up events have been reported (e.g. Baykal & Swank 1996) suggesting that simple age estimates are unreliable. However, recent phase-coherent observations have detected only steady spin-down for this source over 4.5 yr (Gavriil & Kaspi 2002).

Marsden et al. (2001) have claimed, on the basis of putative associations with SNRs, that the regions in which AXPs and SGRs are embedded have higher than average ambient densities, allowing for interesting mass-infall rates, and hence accretion power. In our view, this claim has been effectively rebutted by Gaensler et al. (2001); in light of the other arguments against accretion, we regard this power source as unlikely. On the other hand, Gaensler et al. (2001) argue, on the basis of associations (and the lack thereof) with supernova remnants, that SGRs are a high-velocity population, and that, in spite of the many similarities described above, likely represent a different class of sources from the AXPs. However interesting such speculation may be, we consider the conclusion premature given that (i) some AXPs (and young pulsars) are unassociated with remnants, (ii) it may be harder to find associated remnants for SGRs because of their complex environments, (iii) the numbers of both source types are small, and (iv) there are evident risks inherent in a posteriori probability estimates.

### 3.2. “Radio-Quiet” Neutron Stars

The epithet “radio-quiet” has been applied to a number of neutron stars and neutron-star candidates in the last few years (see Brazier & Johnston 1999 for a recent review). We begin by making clear the term’s anthropocentric definition: objects from which we astronomers, on Earth, have yet to detect radiation in the wavelength range 1 m to 10 cm. A variety of reasons can be put forth to explain this failure: (1) the pulsar’s radio radiation is beamed (an uncontroversial assumption) and our line of sight does not intercept the beam; (2) the pulsar fails to emit any low frequency radiation because the radio emission mechanism is (a) shorted out by accretion, (b) inoperative because the magnetic field is too high (Baring & Harding 2001), (c) inoperative because the polar cap potential drop is too low (Chen & Ruderman 1993; Hibschman & Arons 2001), or (d) inoperative for reasons we don’t understand; (3) the radio emission is below current search thresholds; or, (4) the X-ray point source in question is not a neutron star. Each of the sources in this category discussed below can be explained by at least one of the above possibilities.

Geminga (PSR J0631+1746) is the first, and perhaps most famous case of a radio-quiet pulsar. The second brightest object in the 100-MeV sky, the source was finally identified as a rotation-powered pulsar when X-ray pulses were detected by ROSAT (Halpern & Holt 1992). The source’s $`P`$, $`\dot{P}`$, ratio of gamma-ray luminosity to spin down energy loss rate, space velocity, and other properties are typical of intermediate-age ($`10^{5.5}`$ yr) radio pulsars. Its proximity and radio flux density upper limit place its observable radio luminosity (from the 320 MHz flux density) a factor of ten below that of the least luminous pulsar known, and a factor of $`300`$ below the weakest pulsars of comparable age and $`\dot{E}`$ (McLaughlin et al. 1999). While other physical mechanisms may be responsible for the absence of radio emission (e.g. quenching of the low-altitude radio particle accelerator by pairs streaming back toward the surface from the outer-gap gamma-ray emission region; Halpern & Ruderman 1993), simple beaming remains a viable explanation.

The X-ray point source near the center of the southern supernova remnant PKS 1209–51/52 (G296.5+10.0) has also been known for more than twenty years (Helfand and Becker 1984), and reasonably stringent radio upper limits have been obtained for any pulsed flux from the source (Kaspi et al. 1996). Recently, Zavlin et al. (2000) have detected X-ray pulsations with a period of 0.424 s. While a period derivative has yet to be determined, the X-ray properties of the source mark it as – dare we say it – “prototypical of an emerging class” of X-ray sources in supernova remnants. It has an X-ray luminosity of $`10^{33.5}`$ erg s-1 and a soft X-ray spectrum which, if parameterized as a black body, yields a temperature of 0.25 keV. The original notion that sources such as this were cooling neutron stars has been challenged by the fact that the inferred emitting radius is only 1.1 km. However, when complex neutron star atmospheres are used to fit the spectrum (and lower the inferred temperature), the emitting radius can be raised to a plausible value (Zavlin, Pavlov, and Trümper 1998). There is, as yet, no complete model that both incorporates observed small pulsed fraction ($`8\%`$) and the spectral fits (Pavlov, this volume). The radio upper limit translates to a luminosity significantly below that of most other young sources, but a few objects with comparable periods have lower radio luminosities. The lack of a radio synchrotron nebula suggests a comparison with PSR J1119$``$6127 (§2.4) which has a similar period, age, and surrounding shell-type supernova remnant. If a high value of $`\dot{P}`$ is measured for this source, the analogy will be all the more compelling.

Three other point-like X-ray sources inside SNR shells have very similar X-ray properties to the PKS 1209–51/52 central source and, in common with this source and Geminga, all lack evidence for surrounding pulsar wind nebulae. These objects lie within the confines of RCW 103 (Tuohy & Garmire 1980), Puppis A (Petre, Becker, & Winkler 1996), and Cas A (Tananbaum 1999), the youngest known remnant in the Galaxy. All have X-ray temperatures of 0.3–0.6 keV and estimated X-ray luminosities within a factor of three of $`10^{33.5}`$ erg s-1, although the first of these has been reported to have varied by more than a factor of ten on a timescale of months (Gotthelf, Petre & Vasisht 1999; Garmire et al. 2000). In addition, the inferred blackbody radii for each source are 0.5 to 2 km (see Chakrabarty at al. 2001 for a detailed comparison of the X-ray properties of these objects with those of other young neutron star classes). While it is possible to envision scenarios in which a small hotspot rather than the whole neutron star is producing most of the X-ray emission (e.g. as a consequence of chemical abundance gradients in the stellar envelope \[Pavlov et al. 2000\] or as a result of accretion onto the poles of a weakly magnetized star \[Chakrabarty et al. 2001\]), such localized emission must, perforce, suffer rotational modulation, a phenomenon yet to be observed in these three objects, although deeper searches for pulsations continue.

A note of caution on the radio upper limits for these objects is occasioned by the recent result from Camilo et al. (2002) announcing the discovery of a radio pulsar in G292.0+1.8. They show that this young ($`<2000`$ yr) pulsar has a radio luminosity of only $`2`$ mJy kpc2, more than an order of magnitude below the least luminous young pulsar previously known; this value is a factor of ten below the upper limit on the Cas A X-ray point source (McLaughlin et al. 2001), and is similar to the current upper limits for the recently discovered rotation-powered pulsar in 3C 58 and the other three sources discussed here.

### 3.3. Binaries

The majority of all massive stars are in binaries. The preceding discussion of a score of remnants of such stars, however, has included only single systems. The canonical explanation for the fact that only two of over 1000 (unrecycled) pulsars has a binary companion is that, either through the loss of more than half the mass of the system, or as a consequence of an asymmetric kick at the time of the explosion, most binaries are unbound by a neutron star’s progenitor supernova. Population synthesis models of core-collapse explosions in binary systems can, with some tweaking, do a reasonable job of reproducing the observed population of high-mass X-ray binaries containing neutron stars as well as the single pulsar population.

The detailed population synthesis by Portegies Zwart & Verbunt (1996) provides a useful example of such a calculation. They adopt a core-collapse supernova rate of 1.6 per century and a population in which 60% of the massive stars are single and 40% are in binaries. They include the effects of primordial binary eccentricities and mass transfer. In their models with no kick provided to the neutron star at birth, they predict 1 in 8 young neutron stars should have a companion. However, this scenario overproduces the number of Be star binaries and other binary pulsar systems by a large factor. With a natal kick of 450 km s-1, the predicted number of neutron stars with a binary companion at birth falls to 1 in 90 (and nearly 25% of these are Her X-1 type systems which, the authors acknowledge, are over-produced in all their models). This binary birthrate of roughly one system per 5000 yr means we should not expect more than half a dozen such systems in the Galaxy to be associated with their progenitor supernova remnants. In fact, we know of only two candidates for young neutron stars associated with supernova remnants which do have binary companions. Despite decades of study, however, both cases remain ambiguous.

Cir X-1 certainly contains a neutron star because it exhibits X-ray bursts (Tennant, Fabian & Shafer 1986), and is indubitably a binary with a 16.6 day period (Kaluzienski et al. 1976). However, it lies $`25^{}`$ from the center of G321.9$``$0.3, and requires a systemic space velocity of $`>580`$ km s-1 to explain its location. Tauris et al. (1999) explore the implications of this association. They find a minimum age for the remnant of 60 000 yr and a required impulse to the system of 500–1000 km s-1. While not energetically excluded, this is uncomfortably large compared to the observed velocities of most pulsars (i.e. had the neutron star alone received such a kick, its velocity would have been well in excess of 1000 km s-1). Thus, despite some morphological evidence for the association (Stewart et al. 1993; Fender et al. 1998), we regard the connection of the binary system with the supernova remnant as less than certain.

SS 433 is the other candidate system. In this case the binary nature of the source is also unambiguous, but opinion is divided as to whether W50 is a supernova remnant (Kirshner & Chevalier 1980) or a wind-blown bubble produced by the source’s relativistic jets (Königl 1983), and whether the compact object is a neutron star or a black hole. On the latter subject, opinion is divided, sometimes within the minds of individual authors (cf. Zwitter & Calvani 1989 and D’Odorico et al. 1991). Long considered unique in the Galaxy for its precessing relativistic jets, the recent discovery of the “micro-quasars” which show similar radio jets (Mirabel & Rodríguez 1999) is relevant; Safi-Harb, Durouchoux & Petre (2001) have placed SS 433 in this class which is apparently dominated by black hole accretors.

Even if one accepts both sources as examples of young binary neutron stars associated with supernova remnants, they represent less than 5% of the confirmed young neutron stars discussed above and in §4. As noted earlier, this is to be expected if neutron stars receive a substantial impulse at birth. As the observed population of pulsars in supernova remnants becomes more complete and more fully characterized, it will be able to provide a constraint on the range of kicks required to unbind most systems at the time of the first supernova event. A corollary of this high binary destruction rate is that many remnants should contain within their shells the discarded binary companions. Finding such objects and determining their space velocities would further constrain the kinematic consequences of pulsar birth.

## 4. A Status Report on Associations

### 4.1. The Census

Recognizing the variety of manifestations young neutron stars can exhibit and the ambiguities (cited above) involved in making definitive associations, we nonetheless attempt here a summary of our current state of knowledge. In Table 1, we provide a list of all remnants which at least two workers in the field (the authors) can agree exhibit some sign of an associated young neutron star. We utilize the standard SNR classifications of shell-like, composite and Crab-like. We divide the table into four categories representing various levels of certainty concerning the evidence: the detection of a young, rotation-powered pulsar within the confines of the remnant, the detection of an X-ray point source, the detection of a diffuse, non-thermal X-ray nebula indicating current particle acceleration accompanied by a radio synchrotron nebula, and the detection of a radio synchrotron nebula alone lacking high energy confirmation.

Seventeen years after the discovery of the first radio pulsar, only three rotation-powered neutron stars where known to be associated with Galactic supernova remnants (Helfand & Becker 1984). Seventeen years after that review, the number has grown to fifteen, with nearly half of these discovered in the past few years. Two additional examples are found in the Large Magellanic Cloud. In all but two cases, the neutron star is surrounded by a radio and/or X-ray pulsar wind nebula. Thus, in at least $`10\%`$ of the cataloged remnants in the Galaxy likely to have resulted from a core-collapse supernova111As argued below, $`50`$ cataloged Galactic remnants had SN Ia progenitors. (and a considerably larger fraction of the younger remnants — see below), we directly observe the “canonical” result: a rapidly spinning, magnetized neutron star losing energy via a relativistic wind which powers a surrounding nebula.

Quantitatively, however, this population does not follow the canon which posits the Crab pulsar as a prototype. We have known this implicitly for three decades: there should be at least half a dozen pulsars in the Galaxy within a factor of two of the Crab in age if we adopt the Lyne et al. (1998) lower birthrate limit of 1 per 330 yr, and more than a dozen for the best birthrate estimate. Yet the first X-ray surveys of the sky showed no such objects of comparable luminosity. Thus, the $`19`$ ms initial spin period, $`10^{12.5}`$ G field, relatively low velocity ($`150`$ km s-1), and confining filaments are at least not all typical. Indeed, the observed periods for the young neutron stars known today range over one and a half orders of magnitude: from 16 ms for the source in N157B to 424 ms for the X-ray pulsar in PKS 1209–51/52; even inferred spin periods at birth have at least a spread of a factor of ten (§2.3). Magnetic field strengths are likewise broadly distributed, from $`1\times 10^{12}`$ G for N157B to $`50\times 10^{12}`$ G for the pulsar in Kes 75. While the relationship among these observed parameters and the initial periods and magnetic field strengths is not at all well understood, it is likely that a considerable range in birth properties exists, and that the Crab represents an unusual combination that renders it far more conspicuous than most young neutron stars.

The second set of candidate young neutron stars contains the varied collection of X-ray point sources associated with supernova remnants (or putative remnants) discussed in §3. Two are AXPs, one is a soft gamma-ray repeater, and at least two are X-ray binaries (SS 433 — not obviously a neutron star — and Cir X-1). The remainder are X-ray point sources of an ambiguous nature, although those with known, pulsar-like periods (PKS 1209–51/52) or with surrounding X-ray and radio synchrotron nebulae (e.g. G54.1+0.3, G0.9+0.1) are highly likely to be confirmed as neutron stars in the near future.

Given the short ($`1`$ to 100 yr) lifetime of X-ray-emitting synchrotron electrons in the expected nebular magnetic fields ($`10^4`$ G), a centrally peaked diffuse X-ray source with a power-law X-ray spectrum inside a supernova remnant provides a compelling argument for the presence of a young pulsar even when no X-ray or radio point source is detected. Nine additional remnants exhibit such evidence. Deeper imaging observations with Chandra, and timing observations with XMM-Newton and radio telescopes may soon reveal pulsars within them, just as recent observations of 3C 58 (Murray et al. 2002), G106.6+2.9 (Halpern et al. 2001), and G292.0+1.8 (Camilo et al. 2002) have promoted these objects to the confirmed category. Less certain candidates are found among the eight objects which appear to have a flat-spectrum synchrotron component in their radio spectra. For many of these, the X-ray upper limits are weak or non-existent; future observations could readily confirm or refute the presence of an active young pulsar. Nonetheless, the final total for cataloged remnants with some reasonably sound evidence for a contemporaneous young neutron star is 48 (plus three in the LMC) — a substantial improvement over the handful known only a decade ago.

### 4.2. Selection Effects

The rapid rise in the last few years in the number of compact-object/SNR associations demonstrates that previous searches were simply lacking the sensitivity necessary to detect the various manifestations of young neutron stars. Yet an examination of the properties of the remnants in Table 1 shows clearly that our current sample remains substantially incomplete. In Table 2, we display the Galactic longitude- and latitude-dependence, as well as the angular size distribution, for the remnants exhibiting evidence for a compact object. The results demonstrate that striking selection effects remain in the sample. For example, only 10% (7/69) of the remnants within $`20^{}`$ of the Galactic Center show such evidence, whereas the fraction in the sector $`180^{}<l<300^{}`$ is 33%. Higher X-ray absorbing column densities, smaller angular diameters and greater distances are no doubt principal culprits militating against finding PWNe in remnants toward the inner Galaxy, as are dispersion smearing, multipath scattering, and the high surface brightness of the radio emission from the Galactic plane when conducting radio pulsar searches. The same factors bias the latitude distribution of the detected fraction: 13% for $`|b|<0.3^{}`$ versus 31% for $`0.3^{}<|b|<1.0^{}`$. The fraction at higher latitudes drops to 24%, but this may in part be due to the larger fraction of SN Ia’s found farther from the plane of the Galaxy.

The angular size dependence shows a possible age effect: 35% of remnants with a diameter $`D<5^{}`$ host a neutron star, whereas for remnants in the range $`10^{}<D<20^{}`$ the fraction falls to 13%. The fraction rises again to 25–30% for very large diameter remnants, most likely because these are nearby objects in which very faint pulsars and/or synchrotron nebulae can be detected.

In the most recent SNR catalog (Green 2000), 225 remnants are listed; a handful of additions have been suggested at this meeting. According to the best estimates of Galactic SN rates (van den Bergh & Tammann 1991), roughly 15% of all explosions are expected to be of Type Ia (and thus, in most, but not all scenarios, are not expected to leave a compact remnant). We can expect Type Ia remnants to be overrepresented in the current sample owing to their larger scale height; it is easier to detect remnants away from the tangle of radio-emitting H ii regions and diffuse non-thermal emission in the Galactic plane. Thus, we estimate that at least 40–50 remnants in the current compilation result from Type Ia explosions. In addition, it must be the case that some fraction of core-collapse explosions produce black holes, since we have extremely strong evidence for the existence of stellar-mass black holes in more than a dozen binary systems. We use ten as a conservative placeholder for the number of currently catalogued remnants which produced black holes. This leaves $`170`$ remnants in which we should expect to find a neutron star remnant. Table 1 shows that we already have such evidence in 48 cases or nearly one-third of the total, while Table 2 offers evidence that our current surveys are incomplete by at least a factor of two.

Thus, contrary to the situation just three years ago (Helfand 1998), we argue that there is no need to invoke either a large black hole production rate or the creation of invisible neutron stars in order to explain the statistics of neutron star supernova remnant associations.

## 5. Conclusions

As with any maturing astronomical field (or in life, for that matter), the simple pictures of youth grow with time more complicated and more frustrating — or richer, depending on one’s personal gestalt. The triumphalist picture of science as proceeding from an inspired insight (Baade and Zwicky 1934) to a more detailed model (Pacini 1967) to an experimental confirmation (Hewish et al. 1968) has always been a trifle simplistic. Supernovae do not always “represent the transition from an ordinary star into a neutron star”, and the ones that do evidently provide us with a host of possible manifestations. We have presented here a snapshot of our current state of knowledge concerning the genesis of neutron stars. The fact the we cite no fewer than 39 references from within the past twenty-four months suggests the subject is a vibrant one which is benefiting from significant improvements in observational sensitivity, primarily in the X-ray and radio bands. It took thirty years to find the first ten secure pulsar-remnant associations and less than three years to find the next five. The large number of candidates discussed above assures continuing rapid progress. The longstanding embarrassment of all those empty supernova remnants appears to be significantly ameliorated and is replaced by the challenge of overcoming the selection effects which hamper discoveries, and understanding the many ways in which young neutron stars manifest their presence. Such understanding might even lead to quantitative constraints on the conditions present in core-collapse explosions and the resulting nucleosynthetic yields which determine the chemical composition of the Galaxy.

#### Acknowledgments.

V.M.K. is a Sloan Fellow and CRC Chair. This work is supported by SAO grant GO0-1133A, and by NASA LTSA grant NAG5-8063 and NSERC grant Rgpin 228738-00 to V.M.K. and by SAO G00-1130X to D.J.H.

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# Signals for Noncommutative QED at High Energy 𝑒⁺𝑒⁻ Colliders

## Abstract

We examine the signatures for noncommutative QED at $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders with center of mass energies in excess of 1 TeV such as CLIC. For integrated luminosities of 1 ab-1 or more, sensitivities to the associated mass scales greater than $`\sqrt{s}`$ are possible.

preprint: SLAC-PUB-9129/ E3064

If the Planck scale is indeed of order a few TeV, some potential stringy effects may be observable at future colliders in addition to the existence of extra dimensions. One such possibility is that near the string scale space-time becomes noncommutative (NC), i.e., the co-ordinates themselves no longer commute: $`[x_\mu ,x_\nu ]=i\theta _{\mu \nu }`$, where the $`\theta _{\mu \nu }`$ are a constant, frame-independent set of six dimensionful parametersrev . This may occur in string theory in the presence of background fields. The $`\theta _{\mu \nu }`$ may be separated into two classes: (i) space-space noncommutivity with $`\theta _{ij}=c_{ij}/\mathrm{\Lambda }_B^2`$, and (ii) space-time noncommutivity with $`\theta _{0i}=c_{0i}/\mathrm{\Lambda }_E^2`$. The auxiliary quantities $`(\widehat{c}_E)_i=c_{0i}`$ and $`(\widehat{c}_B)_k=ϵ_{ijk}c_{ij}`$, with $`ijk`$ cyclic, can be defined, where $`\widehat{c}_{E,B}`$ are two, fixed, frame-independent unit vectors associated with the mass scales $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{E,B}`$. These NC scales are anticipated to lie above a TeV and NC effects will only become apparent as the these scales are approached. Since the commutator of the co-ordinates is not a tensor and is frame-independent, NC theories violate Lorentz invariance (but can be shown to conserve CPT), with the two vectors $`\widehat{c}_{E,B}`$ being preferred directions in space, related to the directions of the background fields. Since momenta still commute in the usual way, energy and momentum remain conserved quantities. Since experimental probes of NC theories are sensitive to the directions of $`\widehat{c}_{E,B}`$, experiments must employ astronomical coordinate systems and time-stamp their data so that, e.g., the rotation of the Earth or the Earth’s motion around the Sun does not wash out or dilute the effect through time-averaging.

It is possible to construct noncommutative analogs of conventional field theories following either the Weyl-Moyal (WM)moyal  or Seiberg-Witten (SW)sw  approaches, both of which have their own advantages and disadvantages. In the SW approach, the field theory is expanded in a power series in $`\theta `$ which then produces an infinite tower of additional operators. At any fixed order in $`\theta `$nonr , the theory can be shown to be non-renormalizable. The SW construction can, however, be applied to any gauge theory with arbitrary matter representations. In the WM approach, only $`U(N)`$ gauge theories are found to be closed under the group algebra and the matter content is restricted to the (anti-)fundamental and adjoint representations. Further restrictions on matter representations apply when a product of group factors is present, such as in the SMjab . These theories are at least one-loop renormalizable and appear to remain so even when spontaneously brokenrenorm .

These distinctive properties of NC gauge theories render the construction of a satisfactory noncommutative version of the Standard Model (SM), the NCSM, quite difficultmodels . However, NCQED is a well-defined theory in the WM approach and we explore here its implications for very high energy $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders following this prescription. This version of NCQED differs from ordinary QED in several ways: ($`i`$) the $`ee\gamma `$ vertex picks up a Lorentz violating phase factor and is given by $`e^{i\theta _{\mu \nu }p_i^\mu p_o^\nu /2}`$ where $`p_ii`$ and $`p_o`$ are the incoming and outgoing electron momenta; ($`ii`$) the NC theory predicts trilinear and quartic couplings between the photons that are, to leading order, linear and quadratic in the parameters $`\theta _{\mu \nu }`$, respectively, and are kinematics dependent; ($`iii`$) only the charges $`Q=0,\pm 1`$ are allowed by gauge invariance in NCQEDhaya . Thus quarks cannot be accommodated in the theory as it presently exists and an extension to a full NCSM is required. This implies that we can only examine the NC effects for the handful of processes which have external charged leptons or photons. Despite this limitation, NCQED provides a testing ground for the basic ideas behind NC quantum field theory and has had its phenomenological implications examined by a number of authorsncqed . As we will see, the hallmark signal at colliders for NCQED is the appearance of an azimuthally-dependent cross section in $`22`$ processes; the azimuthal dependence arises from the existence of the two preferred directions discussed above. We note that in NC gauge theories, the leading NC contributions can be shown to take the form of new dimension-8 operators whose scale is set by $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{E,B}`$.

A caveat to our analysis below is the question of how/if the SM couplings of the $`Z`$ boson to $`e^+e^{}`$ are modified in the NC case, as they contribute to Bhabha and Möller scattering. In truth, this lies outside the realm of the NCQED model and can only be addressed within a full NCSM. Here we will assume that these $`Z`$ couplings get rescaled by kinematic-dependent exponents in a manner identical to photons. Within the SW approach we know that this is indeed what happens for on-shell electrons, to leading order in $`\theta _{\mu \nu }`$, and we might expect it to remain true in higher orders.

Very high energy $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders such as CLIC will allow us to probe values of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{E,B}`$ up to several TeV provided sufficient luminosity, $`1`$ ab-1, is available. To demonstrate this claim we will examine three specific processes: Bhabha and Möller scattering, as well as pair annihilation. In all cases we assume the incoming $`e^{}`$ direction to be along the $`z`$axis.

The first process we consider is Bhabha scattering which proceeds through both $`s`$ and $`t`$channel gauge boson exchanges. There are no new amplitudes to consider in this case, but each vertex picks up the kinematic dependent phase discussed above. As demonstratedncqed  in our earlier work, the NC modifications to the SM result only appear in the interference term in the squared matrix element and are sensitive only to finite $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_E`$. This NC effect appears through the cosine of the relative phase: $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{Bhabha}=\varphi _s\varphi _t=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Lambda }_E^2}[c_{01}t+\sqrt{ut}(c_{02}c_\varphi +c_{03}s_\varphi )]`$, where $`t`$ and $`u`$ are the usual Mandelstam variables. Independently of the particular values of $`c_{0i}`$, the resulting $`\mathrm{cos}\theta `$ distribution is modified; however, for $`c_{02}`$ and/or $`c_{03}`$ nonvanishing, the cross section also picks up a periodic azimuthal (i.e., $`\varphi `$) dependence as is shown in Fig. 1. While other new physics may lead to modifications of the $`\mathrm{cos}\theta `$ distribution, only Lorentz violation can induce a $`\varphi `$dependence in the cross section. Note that the $`\varphi `$ dependence becomes more pronounced as stiffer cuts on the scattering angle, which selects more central events where both $`u`$ and $`t`$ are large, are applied. We find that beam polarization is not particularly useful for NC searches in Bhabha scattering; the Left-Right Polarization asymmetry, $`A_{LR}`$, is found to be rather insensitive to NC effects showing, in particular, little azimuthal dependence. The reach for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{NC}`$ in this case is also presented in Figure 1 where we see that it is of order $`1.5\sqrt{s}`$.

The next reaction we examine is Möller scattering. As in the case of Bhabha scattering, the NC effects appear only in the cosine of the phase of the interference term between the two $`t`$ and $`u`$channel amplitudes : $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{Moller}=\varphi _u\varphi _t=\frac{\sqrt{ut}}{\mathrm{\Lambda }_B^2}[c_{12}c_\varphi c_{31}s_\varphi ]`$. Note that, unlike Bhabha scattering, Möller scattering is sensitive to a finite $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_B`$. If either $`c_{12}`$ or $`c_{31}`$ is nonzero, an azimuthal dependence is seen in the cross section as displayed in Fig. 2. (Note that there is no sensitivity to a nonvanishing $`c_{23}`$.) The oscillatory behavior is somewhat more pronounced here than in Bhabha scattering. Again, no additional sensitivity arises from the azimuthal dependence of $`A_{LR}`$. The reach for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{NC}`$ from Möller scattering is seen from Fig. 3 to exceed that for Bhabha scattering.

The last case we consider is pair annihilation. In addition to the new phases that enter the $`t`$ and $`u`$ channel amplitudes, there is now an additional $`s`$channel photon exchange graph involving the NC-generated three photon vertex discussed above. This new amplitude is proportional to the sine of the phase: $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{PA}=\frac{s}{2\mathrm{\Lambda }_E^2}[c_{01}c_\theta +c_{02}s_\theta c_\varphi +c_{03}s_\theta s_\varphi ]`$. As in Bhabha scattering, this modification to the SM result appears to lowest order as a dimension-8 operator that probes finite $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_E`$. As before, the $`\mathrm{cos}\theta `$ distribution is modified for all values of the $`c_{0i}`$, but a nonvanishing $`c_{02}`$ and/or $`c_{03}`$ is required to produce an azimuthal dependence. The resulting angular distributions are shown in Fig. 3 for the case $`c_{02}=1`$. Writing $`c_{01}=\mathrm{cos}\alpha `$ and $`c_{02}=\mathrm{sin}\alpha \mathrm{cos}\beta `$, and $`c_{03}=\mathrm{sin}\alpha \mathrm{sin}\beta `$, Fig. 4 displays the reach for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_E`$ for CLIC energies for several values of $`\alpha `$.

In summary, we have examined the effects of NCQED in several $`22`$ scattering processes at high energy $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders. We find that these effects produce an azimuthal dependence in the cross sections, providing a unique signature of the Lorentz violation inherent in these theories. The search reaches for the NC scale in a variety of processes are summarized in Table 1 for both $`\sqrt{s}=500`$ GeV and CLIC energies. We see that these machines have a reasonable sensitivity to NC effects and provide a good probe of such theories.


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# Untitled Document

A quasiparticle description of the equation of state in SU(3) lattice QCD
P. Shukla

Nuclear Physics Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre,
Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, India

The lattice QCD calculations suggest the appearance of a phase transition between the quark gluon dominated high temperature state and the hadronic state in the low temperature region, characterized by a large difference in the number of degrees of freedom. At temperatures much greater than the critical temperature, the weak coupling, allows the use of perturbative methods. Near the critical temperature strong nonperturbative effects dominate the deconfined state. Several models have been proposed to understand this phenomenon by assuming the appearance of massive quasiparticles, namely massive quarks and gluons. Such a quasiparticle picture has also been invoked in solid state physics and other fields to study phase transitions in which a large part of the interaction can be included into the effective masses of particles which move freely. In this work, we analyze recent lattice QCD results using a phenomenological equation of state with light quarks and massive gluons. Such a model would be a preferable starting point for phenomenological hadronization models and for a description of the strongly interacting matter near the phase transition.

Early lattice data on the pressure and energy density of pure SU(3) gauge theory (without dynamical quarks) were interpreted with a constant gluon mass, $`M_g=500`$ MeV, and a constant bag constant $`B^1/4200MeV`$ . Recent SU(3) lattice data were interpreted with an equation of state where both the gluon mass and bag parameter were temperature dependent . The lattice calculations which include dynamical quarks based on Wilson fermion formulations appeared recently, for $`N_f=2`$ , and $`N_f=4`$. Here $`N_f`$ is the number of flavours. This data has been used for the extraction of an equation of state for the QGP containing massive gluons and quarks . Here, the masses and the bag parameter obtained were temperature dependent.

The lattice data for $`N_f=2`$ and $`N_f=3`$ based on staggered fermion formulations have also appeared , which we analyze using following equation of state. The pressure in the case of a noninteracting gas of massive gluons and quarks can be written as

$`p_q=\left({\displaystyle \frac{21N_f}{2}}f(m_q/T)+16h(m_g/T)\right){\displaystyle \frac{\pi ^2}{90}}T^4B,`$ (1)
where $`m_q`$ and $`m_g`$ are the masses of quark and gluon, respectively and $`B`$ is the bag constant. The functions $`f(m_q/T)`$ and $`h(m_g/T)`$ are given by

$`f(m_q/T)`$ $`=`$ $`(360/7\pi ^4){\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑uu^2\mathrm{ln}\left(1+e^{\sqrt{u^2+(m_q/T)^2}}\right)`$
$`\mathrm{and}h(m_g/T)`$ $`=`$ $`(45/\pi ^4){\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑uu^2\mathrm{ln}\left(1e^{\sqrt{u^2+(m_g/T)^2}}\right)`$ (2)
The figure shows the lattice data  for pressure in the case of 2 and 3 flavour QGP along with a pure gluon plasma. The solid lines are the fit obtained with Eq. (1). The fit parameters are given in the table. A constant gluon mass and bag constant suffice to give a very good fit within the errors bars (15 %) of the data. In principle the quark mass should also be made as a parameter, for which the calculations are under way. The QGP produced at RHIC energies is expected to be of three flavour. Such a simple equation of state presented here can be very important for hydrodynamical calculations in the contexts of RHIC data.
$`N_f`$ $`m_g`$ $`B^{1/4}`$   (GeV) (GeV)    0 0.7 0.204  2 1.1 0.209  3 1.1 0.224

I acknowledge the useful discussions with Dr. A.K. Mohanty.

 T. S. Biro, P.Levai, and B. Muller, Phys. Rev. D 42, 3078 (1990).

 A. Peshier, B. Kampfer, O. P. Pavlenko, and G. Soff, Phys. Rev. D 54, 2399 (1996).

 P. Levai and U. Heinz, Phys. Rev. C 57, 1879 (1998).

 F. Karsch, E. Laermann, and A. Peikert, Phys. Lett. B478, 447 (2000).


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# Structural transformation induced by magnetic field and colossal magnetoresistance response above 313 K in MnAs

## Abstract

MnAs exhibits a first-order phase transition from a ferromagnetic, high-spin metal NiAs-type hexagonal phase to a paramagnetic, lower-spin insulator MnP-type orthorhombic phase at $`T_C=313`$ K. Here, we report the results of neutron diffraction experiments showing that an external magnetic field, $`B`$, stabilizes the hexagonal metallic phase above $`T_C`$. The phase transformation is reversible and constitutes the first demonstration of a bond-breaking transition induced by a magnetic field. At 322 K the hexagonal structure is restored for $`B>4`$ tesla. The field-induced phase transition is accompanied by an enhanced magnetoresistance of about $`17\%`$ at $`310`$ K. We discuss the origin of this phenomenon, which appears to be similar to that of the colossal magnetoresistance response observed in some members of the manganese perovskite family.

MnAs is a commercially available material, intensively studied, both theoretically and experimentally, since the beginning of the last century. Interest in this compound could come up again as a consequence of new ideas and conjectures formulated during the last decade in connection with the study of the colossal magnetoresistance (CMR) response in Mn perovskites Coey . Among these ideas is the invocation of a phase separation scenario for CMR manganese oxides and related materials Moreo1 , that might be of particular relevance in systems, like MnAs, where first-order phase transitions occur.

To our knowledge, MnAs was first studied by Heusler Heusler , and later by Hilpert and Dieckmann Hilpert1 ; Hilpert2 ; Hilpert3 , who discovered that the compound is ferromagnetic with a Curie temperature of $`T_C`$ 313 K. Serres Serres  and Guillaud Guillaud  found that a metal-insulator transition occurs at $`T_C`$. The abrupt loss of magnetization at $`T_C`$ led Meyer and Taglang Meyer  to assume a ferromagnetic-antiferromagnetic transition at $`T_C`$. However, a neutron-diffraction study by Bacon and Street Bacon  showed that this was not the case. At the same time, Willis and Rooksby Willis  measured a large (1.86$`\%`$) discontinuous density change at $`T_C`$ that had been previously detected by Smits, Gerding, and Ver Mast Smits . Bean and Rodbell Bean  used the volume change to describe the first-order loss of magnetization, which takes place with a latent heat of 1.79 cal/K Bates1 , in terms of a volume-dependent exchange interaction. De Blois and Rodbell deBlois  explored the change in $`T_C`$ with pressure to P=1 kbar in fields $`0<B<11`$ T. A second-order phase transition, with no volume change, was detected by calorimetric measurements at $`T_t`$ = 399 K Meyer ; Menyuk . Between $`T_C`$ and $`T_t`$, the magnetic susceptibility increases with temperature Serres ; Bates2 , transforming to a Curie-Weiss law above $`T_t`$. X-ray diffraction studiesWilson  revealed a change in the crystallographic arrangement at the first-order transition point, from the NiAs-type ($`B8_1`$) hexagonal structure to the MnP-type ($`B31`$) orthorhombic one. The orthorhombic distortion decreases with increasing temperature and the hexagonal $`B31`$ structure reappears above $`T_t`$. It was soon recognized that a cross-over from high to low spin states on the manganese site could occur on going from the $`B8_1`$ to the $`B31`$ structure JBG1  (Fig. 1). This conjecture led to a study of the MnAs1-xPx and MnAs1-xSbx systems that demonstrated the spin transition JBG2 . Studies of the influence of higher hydrostatic pressure on MnAs led to a modification of the Bean-Rodbell theory Menyuk ; JBG3 . The spin-state instability appears to be responsible for a giant magnetoelastic response reported recently by Chernenko et al. Chernenko .

Our neutron diffraction study of the stability of the orthorhombic $`B31`$ phase of MnAs in an applied magnetic field B was performed on the high-resolution powder diffractometer D2B of the Institute Laue-Langevin in Grenoble, France. Two kinds of polycrystalline samples were measured for this work, namely a commercial one provided by Western Inorganics and another synthetized in our laboratory by solid-vapor reaction. Mn and As powder (-325 mesh) were sealed in evacuated (P $``$10-5 torr.) quartz tubes and heated at 823 K for 24 hours. This process was repeated several times with intermediate grindings to obtain the pure compound. In the commercial sample we detected the presence of MnO impurities, but this has no influence on the structural results here discussed. For neutron diffraction experiments, two grams of MnAs were packed in a cylindric vanadium holder and inserted into a 5-tesla superconducting cryomagnet. The instrument is equipped with 64 collimated 3He detectors spaced at 2.5 intervals and covering a 2$`\theta `$ angular range from 5 to 165. A complete diffraction pattern was obtained by moving the detector bank 100 times in angular steps of 0.025. Data have been collected with incident neutrons of wavelength $`\lambda `$=1.5943(1) $`\AA `$ selected by Ge (3 3 5) monochromators.

At room temperature, below $`T_C=`$ 313 K, the diffraction pattern was that of the hexagonal $`B8_1`$ phase with lattice parameters in agreement with those reported by Willis and Rooksby Willis . Reflections belonging to the orthorhombic $`B31`$ structure described by Wilson and Kasper Wilson  appeared above $`T_C`$. As shown in Fig. 2, the differences between the diffraction patterns measured in zero field at 300 K and 322 K are readily apparent. However, with the sample held at 322 K, the application of a magnetic field B modifies substantially the diffraction profile. For a B= 5 T, the diffraction pattern at 322 K is essentially the same as that at 300 K in zero applied field. The hexagonal $`B8_1`$ structure is clearly restored fully by the application of a B= 5 T. As is clear from Fig. 3, the extent of the orthorhombic distortion decreases continuously as B increases, nearly vanishing by B= 4 T. These data do not show a sharp transition, but rather the coexistence of two phases with the growth of the ferromagnetic phase at the expense of the paramagnetic $`B31`$ phase as B increases. Growth of the ferromagnetic phase is possible because the $`B31`$ phase is derived from the $`B8_1`$ phase by a co-operative displacement of pairs of \[1, -1, 0\] rows toward one another to form stronger Mn-Mn bonds, across shared octahedral-site edges in zig-zag chains within the basal planes. These displacements also create shorter Mn-As bonds, which raises the antibonding states that $`\sigma `$-bond to the As atoms and triggers the transition to a low-spin state JBG3 .

Extrapolation of the Brillouin temperature dependence of the magnetization of the $`B8_1`$ phase to above the first-order transition at $`T_C`$ gives a fictitious Curie temperature $`T_C^{}`$ = 388 K. Since an applied magnetic field B stabilizes the high-spin, ferromagnetic phase relative to the $`B31`$ paramagnetic phase, a global insulator-metal $`B31`$-$`B8_1`$ transition might be induced by B in the interval $`T_C<T<T_C^{}`$. Alternatively, if $`B8_1`$ regions exist within a $`B31`$ matrix in the interval $`T_C<T<T_t`$, we can expect that below $`T_C^{}`$ the ferromagnetic $`B8_1`$ regions will grow in a magnetic field at the expense of the paramagnetic $`B31`$ matrix to beyond the percolation threshold. In either case, a CMR would occur between $`T_C`$ and $`T_C^{}`$. If the B field induces a global $`B31`$-$`B8_1`$ transition, it would give a CMR analogous to that found, for example, at the metamagnetic transition of the charge and orbital-ordered CE phase of the perovskite Nd0.5Sr0.5MnO3 Shinomura . If, on the other hand, the magnetic field nucleates and/or grows the $`B8_1`$ phase, it would give a CMR phenomenon analogous, for example, to that of the perovskite system (La0.7-xPrxCa0.3)MnO3 Hwang . However, whereas the CMR occurs in the manganese oxides at too low a temperature to be technically practical, it would occur in MnAs a little above room temperature and could easily be adjusted to operate at room temperature by small compositional changes.

Fig. 4 shows the enhanced magnetoresistance response of MnAs measured in the predicted temperature range, $`T_C<T<T_C^{}`$. Almost the same results were obtained for both samples used in this study. Although the absolute value of the magnetoresistance is not as large as in other compounds like La2/3Ca1/3MnO3 Jin , we call it a CMR to highlight the common origin with that in the manganites. Analogies between the behavior of MnAs in a magnetic field above $`T_C`$ and that of the manganese-oxide perovskites are noteworthy. In the manganese perovskites, the $`\sigma `$-bonding d electron of a high-spin octahedral site Mn(III) ion occupies a twofold-degenerate pair of e-orbitals. This e-orbital degeneracy is removed by a local distortion of the MnO6/2 octahedron; and at lower temperatures and high Mn(III) concentrations, the local distortions are ordered cooperatively so as to minimize the associated elastic energy. A recent study of LaMn1-xGaxO3 Zhou  has shown that in this single-valent system, dilution of the Mn (III) atoms suppresses the orbital ordering in local ferromagnetic regions; a vibronic superexchange is ferromagnetic whereas the orbitally ordered matrix is antiferromagnetic. In this system, application of B disorders the orbital order of the matrix to transform a spin glass to a ferromagnet Zhou . In the mixed-valent perovskite system La1-xSrxMnO3, an orthorhombic-rhombohedral structural phase transition is induced by an external magnetic field for x=0.17 Asamitsu ; this transition involves a change from \[1,-1,0\] to  of the axis of cooperative rotation of the MnO6/2 octahedra. A crossover from localized to itinerant behavior of the $`\sigma `$-bonding e-electrons occurs in the compositional interval $`0.1x0.17`$ Liu . In this interval, hole-rich ferromagnetic regions are segregated from a hole-poor paramagnetic matrix in the paramagnetic temperature range $`T_C<T300`$ K by cooperative oxygen displacements. The hole-rich regions are mobile, and they grow in a B to beyond a percolation threshold by B= 5 T to give the CMR phenomenon. In the interval $`0.1x0.15`$, the transition at $`T_C`$ is first-order; and in a narrow temperature range $`T_{OO}<T<T_C`$, the orbitals undergo a rearrangement to another type of order below $`T_{OO}`$. Near x=0.1, the interval $`T_{OO}<T<T_C`$ narrows, and the matrix remains orbitally ordered in zero magnetic field to give spin-glass behavior typical of ferromagnetic clusters having a $`T_C`$ greater than the Néel temperature of the matrix. However, the orbitals of the matrix become disordered in a modest B to give ferromagnetic order below a $`T_C`$. Recently, Mira et al. Mira1  have observed a second-order transition at a temperature $`T^{}>T_C`$ in the compositional interval where they had noted a first-order transition at $`T_C`$ Mira2 . In the range $`T_C<T<T^{}`$, a non-Curie-Weiss paramagnetism has been found by de Teresa et al. deTeresa , similar to the behavior of MnAs in the range $`T_C<T<T_t`$ Serres ; Guillaud . Moreo et al. Moreo2  have made a computational study to argue that in the mixed-valent manganese-oxide perovskites, hole-rich clusters that are metallic and ferromagnetic coexist with a paramagnetic, hole-poor insulating matrix; the ferromagnetic clusters grow in a magnetic field B. Goodenough JBG4  has invoked the virial theorem to make the same deduction for the manganese-oxide perovskites at the crossover from localized to itinerant behavior of the $`\sigma `$-bonding electrons. However, MnAs is single-valent, so the analogy with LaMn1-xGaxO3 is more appropriate even though this perovskite remains insulating in the ferromagnetic phase. In MnAs, the basal-plane orbitals on the Mn atoms are half-filled, and the electrons approach the crossover from localized to itinerant electronic behavior. In the paramagnetic $`B31`$ phase, the Mn atoms become displaced below $`T_t`$ so as to form stronger Mn-Mn bonds in the zig-zag chains and weaker Mn-Mn bonds between the chains. These displacements not only order the Mn-As bonding so as to induce the low-spin state, but they also represent an ordering of the in-plane Mn-Mn bonds that changes the translational symmetry so as to split the basal-plane band at the Fermi energy. Ferromagnetic interactions by the other d electrons are dominant, but these interactions are weakened by the transition to the low-spin state, which reduces the Mn-Mn separation and strengthens the in-plane Mn-Mn bonding. Since no bonding occurs between half-filled orbitals with parallel spins, stabilization of the high-spin ferromagnetic $`B8_1`$ phase suppresses in-plane Mn-Mn bonding and increases the in-plane Mn-Mn separation. Stabilization of the ferromagnetic phase in a B with removal of the in-plane Mn-Mn bonding is to be compared with suppression by a B of the orbital ordering at the Mn(III) ions in LaMn1-xGaxO3. This is the first crystallographic transition induced by a magnetic field that involves breaking of metal-metal bonds rather than orbital disorder.

We are pleased to thank the valuable aid provided by A. Hewat and the ILL technical staff during the neutron diffraction experiment and the operation of the cryomagnet in unusual conditions and J. S. Zhou, from the Texas Materials Institute for his help with the magnetoresistance measurements. F. R. thanks the Fulbright foundation and MECD from Spain for a postdoctoral fellowship. We also acknowledge the DGI of the Ministry of Science and Technology of Spain for financial support under project MAT2001-3749 JBG thanks the NSF for financial support.


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# HETE-II and the Interplanetary Network

## I Introduction

The FREGATE experiment aboard HETE-II is an excellent complement to the detectors in the IPN. It has good sensitivity to bursts, thanks to its large surface area and its steady background in equatorial orbit. Its time resolution in both triggered and untriggered modes is sufficiently high for cross-correlating precisely with other spacecraft. And finally, its energy range is well matched to those of other instruments in the network. However, before any experiment can be added to the network, its timing must be verified in flight. In this paper, we will first explain the procedure we have used to demonstrate that the HETE timing is accurate. Then we will show how the IPN can be used to improve the location accuracy of HETE bursts, and how the FREGATE data are useful to the IPN.

## II Timing

In principle, we expect the timing of the HETE spacecraft to be good, both because it is in low Earth orbit, and because it is derived from an onboard GPS receiver. While there are several ways to confirm the timing of any spacecraft in flight, the best is to triangulate burst sources with known positions, either soft gamma repeaters, or gamma-ray bursts for which optical or radio counterparts are found. In its first year of operation, FREGATE detected numerous bursts from SGR1806-20 and 1900+14; seven of them were observed in conjunction with other spacecraft in the IPN. The positions of both SGRs are known to arcsecond or sub-arcsecond accuracy, and therefore serve as timing calibration sources.

In figures 1 and 2 we show HETE/Ulysses annuli for bursts from each SGR. From these triangulations we conclude that HETE timing errors are indeed negligible, and moreover, that HETE is a sensitive SGR detector when it is pointed towards the Galactic plane. Since this occurs for several months around December and June, it is clear that HETE will serve as a monitor of the known SGRs, and may also detect new ones when they become active.

## III What HETE brings to the IPN

At present, the IPN consists of Ulysses, in heliocentric orbit, Mars Odyssey, now in orbit around Mars, and several missions close to Earth (Cline et al. 2002). Prior to the launch of HETE, the two principal GRB detectors close to Earth were the BeppoSAX Gamma- Ray Burst Monitor (GRBM) and the Konus experiment aboard the Wind spacecraft. BeppoSAX has a high duty cycle, but as it is in low-Earth orbit, it misses roughly half of all GRBs due to Earth occultation. The GRBM has a coarse location capability (10-20 o). The mission will end some time in 2002. Wind is nominally at the L1 Lagrange point, so no bursts are missed due to occultation, but the duty cycle is not as high as that of BeppoSAX, and this causes some events to be missed. Because of the placement of the two Konus detectors aboard the spacecraft, the experiment can be used to determine the ecliptic latitude of a burst to an accuracy of about 10o in many, but not all, cases. The Wind mission is now expected to be supported at least through 2002, at which time the launch of INTEGRAL should provide a replacement or near-Earth vertex for the IPN.

HETE complements these missions in three ways, as far as the IPN is concerned. First, it fill in the gaps by providing data on bursts missed by the other spacecraft. To date, about one burst per month has been detected by FREGATE and verified by Ulysses or Mars Odyssey, but has not been detected by Konus or by the GRBM. Second, it provides burst data in near-real time. The GRBM data are delayed by up to several hours, and the Konus data by half a day or more. Thus even when these experiments detect a burst, valuable time can be gained by receiving the HETE data and alerting the Ulysses and Mars Odyssey teams at JPL to expedite processing of the data in the small time window where the burst should occur. Finally, FREGATE data can be used to resolve the ambiguity in a 3 or 4 spacecraft localization. In the case where Ulysses, Mars Odyssey, and FREGATE observe a burst, FREGATE’s coarse localization capability can serve to indicate which of two alternate triangulation positions is the correct one. In the case where Ulysses, Mars Odyssey, FREGATE, and Konus observe a burst, the separation between FREGATE and Konus will often be just enough to generate a third, independent annulus of location which again resolves the ambiguity. It should also be noted that the time resolution of FREGATE in the untriggered mode is 0.164 s, which is a factor of about 5 to 20 better than the untriggered modes of the GRBM and Konus, which results in more accurate cross-correlations.

## IV What the IPN does for HETE

The IPN can assist the HETE mission in four ways. First, it can confirm candidate GRBs and SGR bursts. Typically, these are events which are observed only by FREGATE. 24 such bursts have been confirmed to date, or a rate of about two per month.

Second, it can refine WXM error circles. Figure 3 shows one example, GRB010613. This is an extreme case, in that both the WXM error circle and the IPN annulus are rather large. However, there are numerous examples of smaller BeppoSAX WFC error circles which were refined by the IPN (Hurley et al. 2001), and we expect most HETE-IPN bursts to be similar to them.

Third, it can transform ”one dimensional” WXM error boxes which are too large to search for counterparts into small error boxes which are suitable for optical and radio follow-up observations. A ”one-dimensional” WXM error box is one which results when a burst is detected and localized in only one of the two crossed WXM detectors, leading to a long, narrow error box. Figure 4 shows an example, GRB010921. Figure 5 shows an enlargement of the region where the IPN annulus intersects the WXM error box. This burst and its counterpart are described in detail elsewhere (Ricker et al. 2002, Park et al. 2002, Kulkarni et al. 2002).

Finally, the IPN can, in principle, transform one dimensional SXC error boxes into small error boxes in the same way that it transforms WXM error boxes. However, this has not yet been done for any burst, since none has been localized by the SXC in this way.

## V Conclusions

We have successfully integrated the HETE spacecraft into the third interplanetary network of gamma-ray burst detectors, and have demonstrated the value of HETE to the IPN and vice-versa. We are now looking forward to several more years of operations.

KH is grateful for IPN support under JPL Contract 958056, and for HETE-FREGATE support under MIT Contract SC-R-293291.