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# Probing Colour Separate States in 𝑒⁺𝑒⁻ annihilation at 𝑍⁰ pole

## Abstract

Hadronic events in $`e^+e^{}Z^0`$ are generated by a Monte-Carlo model including the production of colour separate states. These events are compared with those produced by the JETSET with default set of parameters where the colour connections are colour singlet chains. By selecting two-jet-like events and a sensitive observable, we find that these two kinds of colour connections lead to significant differences in the hadronic states.

Hadronic processes in high energy collisions are generally described by two distinct phases: the perturbative phase and the non-perturbative hadronization one. The perturbative phase is well described by perturbative QCD (PQCD) while the hadronization phase is non-perturbative and cannot be described from first principle. Therefore a natural problem arises as to how to link these two phases, i.e. how to connect the partonic system produced by the PQCD evolution with the hadronization models, to give the final state hadrons. This problem is also beyond the capability of PQCD.

The parton cascade and hadronization models lund ; webber  assume the string or cluster chain connections. They correspond to the partonic states where a color charge of one parton is specifically connected to its anti-color in an accompanying parton. This approximation implies $`N_C\mathrm{}`$, thus with infinitely many colors the probability that two (or more) partons have the same color is zero friberg . The present hadronization models work well, which shows that the large $`N_c`$ limit reflects some feature of the real world.

However the colour structure of a multi-parton state is copious and complex at finite $`N_C`$ wangqunprd ; wangq ; wangqunold . This implies that the colour connections of a multi-parton system can be of many kinds. The ordinary one, which is used in the string and the cluster model lund ; webber , is just what we called the colour singlet chain (CC) state. The PQCD calculations show that, when projected onto the colour space of the final partonic state, such kind of colour states never appear with probability 1 at finite $`N_C=3`$. Its probability is shown to even decrease as the parton number of the partonic system increases wangqunprd ; jinyi . Another kind of the colour connection is the colour separate (CS) state with several groups of gluons forming the colour singlet clusters each of which can hadronize independently friberg ; wangq ; tsj ; lonnblad . Such a possibility can be demonstrated by a simple example in $`e^+e^{}q\overline{q}+ng`$ when two gluons have ’opposite’ colours (e.g. $`\overline{r}b`$, $`\overline{b}r`$), they can form a colour singlet cluster by a closed string. When the parton number is large 111as calculated by JETSET, the average numbers of gluons are: $`\sqrt{s}=91\mathrm{GeV}`$, $`n6;\sqrt{s}=200\mathrm{GeV},n9;\sqrt{s}=1\mathrm{TeV},n17`$., it is inevitable that more and more gluons have chances to form the CS states wangq ; wangqunold . These two kinds of colour connections at the hard-soft interface correspond to different string/cluster configurations wangqunprd ; wangq  and may lead to differences in hadronic states through the subsequent hadronization process. In this sense the probability for any kind of colour connections depends on the non-perturbative QCD (NPQCD) mechanism. The cross sections of the CC and CS states calculated in the PQCD framework wangqunprd ; wangq ; wangqunold ; jinyi  are not the final answer.

To study the effects of the CS states on the hadronic events, we need phenomenological models. The straightforward way is to modify the event generators, e.g. JETSET, by putting the CS states as one way of the colour connections. One can use the modified generators to give the hadronic states to see if there are any deviations from those produced by JETSET with the default colour connections (i.e. the CC connections). Recently we proposed a CS model wangq  based on JETSET 7.4 by replacing the default colour connections with the CS-allowed connections. Hereafter we also use CS and CC to refer to the modified JETSET and the default JETSET respectively. The simulated results show that there are no significant differences between the observables for the CS and CC unbiased events wangq ; shaofenglan . This result is not hard to understand considering that for unbiased events the observables describing global properties are mainly determined by PQCD and they are not much sensitive to the hadronization details. This property is nothing but the so-called local parton-hadron duality bo . Therefore we have to look for possible sensitive observables defined for a specific set of events. We know that the baryon-antibaryon rapidity correlation is sensitive to the hadronization models si . It has been investigated if this correlation is also sensitive to the way of colour connections. But the answer is negative shaofenglan . Considering that in a CS state only the phase space region around the glueball cluster and the two string pieces in its neighbourhood is much different from that of the corresponding CC state, the sensitive observables may exist in a specified window of the phase space.

Based on the above analysis, in this paper we propose to select two-jet-like events in $`e^+e^{}Z^0\mathrm{hadrons}`$ as an effective probe of the CS states.

We use the CS model in Ref. wangq . In the model, we proposed a method to estimate the rate of the CS states for a group of partons produced in a hadronic event in high energy electron-positron collisions. We implement this model into a Monte-Carlo program based on JETSET 7.4. In the program we replace the default way of colour connections for the partonic system in JETSET 7.4, i.e. the CC connections, with the CS-allowed connections. The CS clusters formed by two or more gluons in a CS state also hadronize in the usual way as closed strings lund . We use the T-measure to weight the CS states wangq ; shaofenglan .

In this paper, a two-jet-like event at the partonic level is refered to that with an energetic back to back quark-antiquark pair and some associated soft gluons whose energies are smaller than a definite value $`E_0`$. In this case the thrust axis is approximately along the quark’s momentum. Therefore in this paper we define the longitudinal and transversal directions with respect to the thrust axis. In the following numerical analysis, we require that the energies of all gluons including those appearing in the intermediate stage of the parton shower process are less than 2.5 GeV. This is to eliminate the possibility that the energetic gluons would significantly change the shape of a two-jet-like event.

We know that the larger the number of gluons in an event, the more possible does the CS state occur. To enlarge the effect, we only consider those events where the initial quark pair produced by the electroweak process is of $`u`$, $`d`$ or $`s`$ type because the number of gluons in heavy quark events is suppressed.

For these events two different ways of colour connections really lead to differences in the hadronic states. Figs. 1 are the rapidity and thrust distributions of the hadronic states. One can see that the CS events have more particles with small rapidity and have smaller thrusts than the CC ones. The reason for this is that the formation of the closed strings in the CS events brings more momentum from the longitudinal to the transversal direction compared to the CC events. This point can be further strengthened by the polar angle and the transversal momentum distributions for the hadrons inside the rapidity window $`|y|<0.8`$, see Figs. 2. The average transversal momentum of the hadrons in the CS events are larger than those in the CC events. There is a similar trend for the charged particle that there are more charged particles in the CS events than in the CC ones inside the central rapidity region.

Furthermore we define the following observable:

$$SP_t=\underset{i}{}|\stackrel{}{p}_{ti}|,|y_i|<y_0.$$
(1)
where the $`\stackrel{}{p}_{ti}`$ and $`y_i`$ are the transversal momentum and rapidity of a final state hadron in an event respectively. In the numerical calculation we take $`y_0=0.8`$. This observable is introduced to accumulate the above differences of the CS and CC events. Fig. 3 (a) showes $`SP_t`$ is a sensitive observable to the way of the colour connections at the hard-soft interface.

To make sure the observable $`SP_t`$ is really sensitive only for the two-jet-like events we have to check if colour connections affect the $`SP_t`$ distribution for unbiased events. The answer is yes, see Fig. 4 (a). But $`SP_t`$ is the sum of the transversal momenta which depend on the parameter $`\sigma `$ in JETSET lund , which measures the average transversal momentum of the quark pair in the string breakings. Though $`\sigma `$ has been fitted by experimental groups newrc , the dependence of $`SP_t`$ on $`\sigma `$ has never been measured. Here we change $`\sigma `$ to see the dependence of $`SP_t`$ on $`\sigma `$. Fig. 4 (b) shows that when $`\sigma `$ is changed from the default value 0.36 to 0.29, the difference in the $`SP_t`$ distribution for the unbiased events between the CS and CC events are nearly smeared. In contrast, the global properties of the unbiased events are not sensitive to this parameter.

It is then critical to check for the two-jet-like events if the observable $`SP_t`$ is sensitive to the parameter $`\sigma `$. Comparing Fig. 3 (b) with (a), we see that the shape of the distribution is more or less affected by this parameter, but for whatever values of $`\sigma `$ the difference of $`SP_t`$ between the CS and CC events are always significant.

The proposal in the above is at the partonic level which is an ideal situation. The events selected by requiring that the energy of each gluon must be smaller than a certain value cannot be realized in experiments since partons cannot be seen directly. Now we extend it to the real case, i.e. selecting the two-jet-like events according to the criteria defined at the hadronic level. We notice from Fig. 5 that the $`p_t`$ distribution of final state hardons (in our case pions, protons and kaons) for these events is significantly different from that for the unbiased events in the small $`p_t`$ region. Hence in this work we require that the transversal momentum of the hadron is smaller than 0.5GeV/c.

These events have similar properties to those selected at the partonic level. This can be seen in Figs. 6, 7, 8. These results show that the CS two-jet-like events have more particles in the small-rapidity region compared to the CC ones. The average thrust for the CS two-jet-like events is smaller than the CC ones. The comparison with Ref. wangq  shows that the differences in the global properties between the CS and CC two-jet-like events are more obvious than the unbiased events, as is exhibited in Fig. 7. The most essential fact is that $`SP_t`$ is still a sensitive observable for the way of colour connections. One can see this in Fig. 9 which shows there are significant differences between the CC and CS two-jet-like events.

Note that our definitions for the two-jet-like events and the observable $`SP_t`$ look similar to those in Ref. eden  at first sight. Actually they are different from many aspects. Ref. eden  needed the events with small number of gluons to address the issue of quark jet hadronization, while in this work we prefer those events with large number of gluons to make the probability of forming the CS states as large as possible. Ref. eden  took the sum of $`\stackrel{}{p}_t`$ to demonstrate correlation properties for different models, while we use the sum of the $`magitude`$ of $`\stackrel{}{p}_t`$ to enlarge the differences between the events of different colour connections.

In this paper we extend our previous work on the CS states by proposing a possible method to probe these types of states in the hadronic process of electron-positron annihilation via $`Z^0`$. We find that there would be substantial differences in the distribution of $`SP_t`$ in the two-jet-like events for the CS-allowed and for the normal colour connections. Other distributions, such as those of the central rapidity, the $`p_t`$ and the charged particle multiplicity inside a central rapidity window, etc., also show detectable differences for the CS and the CC two-jet-like events. In average there is one two-jet-like event in every one thousand hadronic events at the $`Z^0`$ pole. Since large number of events have been accumulated at LEP I, one can expect to get a good statistics in selecting the two-jet-like events to probe the presence of the CS states. We should mention that the two-jet-like events defined in this paper and the observable $`SP_t`$ have never been used before. The future comparison with data for this type of events and the $`SP_t`$ distribution would also provide an alternative way of testing different hadronization models.

We thank G. Gustafson, Z.-T. Liang and X.-N. Wang for insightful discussions. This work is supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC).


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# I Introduction

## I Introduction

We have previously studied the effects of T=0 two body matrix elements on energy levels.  In this work we will focus on the transition rates. In the former work we used an FPD6 interaction to get the energy levels of 44Ti, 46Ti, and 48Ti as well as a second interaction wherein the T=0 matrix elements were set to zero while the T=1 matrix elements we left unchanged. In a single j shell calculation of 44Ti we found that the energy levels of the yrast even spins J=2-12 were very little affected by this apparently severe change. The odd spin T=0 states (not yet found experimentally) were lowered in energy somewhat when this approximation was made. In this single j shell calculation many degeneracies appeared e.g. the J=$`9_1^+`$ and 10$`{}_{1}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+}`$ states. The reason for these degeneracies was explained in the first two references.

In a full fp calculation the even spin spectrum spread out a bit more - leaning slightly toward a rotational spectrum when the T=0 matrix elements were reintroduced (ie full FPD6 interaction) but only slightly. It thus appeared that keeping only the T=1 matrix elements led to a reasonable spectrum and the T=0 matrix elements were only needed for fine tuning.

In the previous work we focused on excitation energies. We now examine the M1 and G-T transition strengths in the same nuclei to see whether these strengths are more sensitive to T=0 matrix elements than are the energy levels. For completeness we also look at some M3 transition strengths.

## II The Calculation

Whereas in our previous works we considered only one modification of the basis FPD6 interaction here we consider two. We denote our three interactions as follows:

Interaction A Set all T=0 two body matrix elements of FPD6 to zero; keep all T=1 matrix elements of FPD6 unchanged.

Interaction B Set all T=0 two body matrix elements of FPD6 to a constant; keep all T=1 matrix elements of FPD6 unchanged.

Interaction C Unmodified FPD6 interaction.

It should be mentioned that there is no difference in the results for the spectrum of the states of a given isospin in a single j shell calculation between interaction A and B. Of course the ground state energy (binding energy) will be affected as will the relative energies of states with different isospins.

However when configuration mixing is included there will be a difference in the spectrum of states of a given isospin. There is a difference between setting the T=0 matrix elements equal to a constant and introducing a constant T=0 interaction $`c(\frac{1}{4}t(1)t(2))`$. With the latter there will be no change in the spectrum of states of a given isospin when we change the value of c even in a large space calculation. We get the same answer whether c is positive, negative or zero (again the binding energy will be affected).

With the above constant T=0 interaction matrix elements of the form $`<[j_1,j_2]^{J,T=0}V[j_3,j_4]^{J,T=0}>`$ will vanish if $`(j_3,j_4)(j_1,j_2)`$. However for interaction B it will be a constant, the same constant as for the diagonal matrix elements.

We can regard the results for going from A to B to C as respectively studying the effects of

a) no T=0 interaction

b) An average T=0 interaction

c) fluctuations in the T=0 interaction with possible T=0 pairing

## III Results

In tables I-VI we give the summed strength B(M1) for the three interactions A, B and C. We display results for total B(M1), B(M1)spin, and B(M1)orbital.

The respective g factors are
B(M1); g$`_{s_\pi }`$= 5.586, g$`_{s_\nu }`$= -3.826, g$`_{l_\pi }`$= 1, g$`_{l_\nu }`$= 0
B(M1)spin; g$`_{s_\pi }`$= 5.586, g$`_{s_\nu }`$= -3.826, g$`_{l_\pi }`$= 0, g$`_{l_\nu }`$= 0
B(M1)orbital; g$`_{s_\pi }`$= 0, g$`_{s_\nu }`$= 0, g$`_{l_\pi }`$= 1, g$`_{l_\nu }`$= 0

The six tables are as follows
I. 44Ti J=0 T=0 $``$ J=1 T=0
II. 44Ti J=0 T=0 $``$ J=1 T=1
III. 46Ti J=0 T=1 $``$ J=1 T=1
IV. 46Ti J=0 T=1 $``$ J=1 T=2
V. 48Ti J=0 T=2 $``$ J=1 T=2
VI. 48Ti J=0 T=2 $``$ J=1 T=3

The first case 44Ti J=0 T=0 $``$ J=1 T=0 is atypical because of the single j result that the M1 rates are zero. This is easily understood as arising from the fact that an isoscalar M1 operator $`\stackrel{}{\mu }`$ can be replaced by g$`\stackrel{}{J}`$ in a single j shell, and the total angular momentum operator $`\stackrel{}{J}`$ cannot induce M1 transitions.

In this table we introduce the parameter t which is the number of nucleons excited from the f7/2 shell (t should not be confused with isospin T). Thus t=0 corresponds to a single j shell calculation (f$`{}_{}{}^{4}{}_{7/2}{}^{}`$ in 44Ti) while t=4 would correspond to all four nucleons free to roam the entire f-p shell. Since the B(M1)’s are very small and this case atypical we shall not pursue a discussion of it.

We next consider the transition J=0 T=0 $``$ J=1 T=1 in 44Ti. We will now find a pattern of behavior more typical of what happens in the other nuclei. For the single j shell case (t=0) interactions A and B give identical results. This was explained earlier. Here we have performed calculations tuning t up to t=4 and we discuss this calculation.

Comparing interactions A and C (for t=4) we find that the reintroduction of the T=0 matrix elements causes the spin B(M1) to decrease from 9.296 $`\mu _n^2`$ to 3.267 $`\mu _n^2`$. The orbital B(M1) increases by about a factor of two from 1.121 $`\mu _n^2`$ to 2.144 $`\mu _n^2`$. These results are consistent with previous works where it was noted that in the SU(4) limit the orbital B(M1) is large and the spin B(M1) is zero. The SU(4) limit is a case of high collectivity with the other extreme being the single j shell limit. It is clear that reintroducing the T=0 matrix elements into the calculation will cause nuclear collectivity to increase.

For the heavier nuclei we only go up to t=2 so it is instructive to compare the t=2 and t=4 calculations in 44Ti. We will focus on interaction C. Relative to t=1 we get a reduction in the t=2 calculation of B(M1)spin from 8.438 $`\mu _n^2`$ to 4.680 $`\mu _n^2`$. When we go to t=4 the trend continues with B(M1)spin further reduced to 3.267 $`\mu _n^2`$. On the other hand the orbital strength increases from 1.317 $`\mu _n^2`$ to 1.926 $`\mu _n^2`$ to 2.144 $`\mu _n^2`$ as we go from t=1 to t=2 to t=4. This means excitation energies also go steadily up. These results are consistent with the fact that as we increase the configuration mixing we increase the collectivity. We should keep in mind that for the heaviest titanium isotopes where we limit calculations to t=2 we might be underestimating the collectivity and the difference in t=2 and t=1 calculations would continue to grow if we enlarged the space further.

## IV The nucleus 46Ti

Since 44Ti is unstable no M1 excitation measurements have been performed on this nucleus. However the next nucleus that we consider 46Ti has been extensively studied via inelastic scattering by the Darmstadt group.

We first consider the summed strength for the T=1 $``$ T=1 M1 transitions. We immediately see big changes as we go from interaction A to C. At the t=0 level (f$`{}_{}{}^{2}{}_{7/2\pi }{}^{}`$f$`{}_{}{}^{4}{}_{7/2\nu }{}^{}`$) the A and B interactions yield very small values for all three M1’s. When the full interaction is reinstituted, the three B(M1)’s all increase by a nearly constant factor of about 4.6.

In the largest space calculation that we have done (t=2) B(M1) and B(M1)spin increase from A to C but the most dramatic increase is in the B(M1)orbital. The values there increasing from 0.1850 to 0.7095 $`\mu _N^2`$. This is almost a factor of four increase in the orbital (scissors mode) strength. So the T=0 matrix elements are vital for the enhanced B(M1).

One sees that most of this increase in orbital strength also occurs with the B interaction. This would suggest that it is mostly an average T=0 effect rather than being due to a fluctuation in the matrix elements or T=0 pairing.

Note that the B(M1)spin also gets some enhancement (4.996 $``$ 5.537) but it is not so dramatic. For the channel 01 $``$ 12 the B(M1)spin get substantially quenched (3.941 $``$ 1.717) as one goes from A to C, but again the orbital summed strength gets enhanced (0.3846 $``$ 0.5138 $`\mu _N^2`$). Note also that the mean energies of the modes go up substantially.

## V The Nucleus 48Ti

The behavior for 48Ti is similar to that of 46Ti. In going from the A to C interactions the values of B(M1)orbital increases substantially from 0.1931 to 0.5816 $`\mu _N^2`$ for J=0 T=2 $``$ J=1 T=2 and from 0.1555 to 0.2719 $`\mu _N^2`$ for J=0 T=2 $``$ J=1 T=3.

We still see the orbital enhancement is well described also by the interaction B. This implies again that it is mostly an average T=0 effect rather than being due to a fluctuation in the matrix elements or T=0 pairing.

Note that in the single j shell calculation (t=0) the A and B interactions give identical results for the three B(M1)’s but the mean energies are different. This is also true in 46Ti. Only when there is configuration mixing does the constant T=0 interactions A and B differ as far as the B(M1)’s are concerned.

## VI Gamow-Teller Transition

For the isovector B(M1) we have the relation

$$\frac{B(GT)_{(T,T)(T^{^{}},T+1)}}{B(M1)_{(T,T)(T^{},T)}}=constant\frac{\left(\begin{array}{ccc}T^{}& T& 1\\ T1& T& 1\end{array}\right)^2}{\left(\begin{array}{ccc}T^{}& T& 1\\ T& T& 0\end{array}\right)^2}$$
(1)
$`=\left\{\begin{array}{c}constant(1)\text{ if T}^{}=T\\ constant\frac{1}{(2T+1)}\text{ if T}^{}=T+1\text{ }\end{array}\right\}`$.

For G-T there is one channel that is never present for M1’s, J=0 T $``$ J=1+ T-1.

We present results for GT transitions in tables VII to IX. For 46Ti we see even at the t=0 level a big change in the rate when the full FPD6 is used for this channel. (0.828 $``$ 0.361). At the t=2 level the change is from 4.666 to 2.033 more than a factor of two reduction.

This large of a difference does not occur with the interaction B. This suggests that for this channel pairing effects (alternatively deviations from the average T=0 interaction) are important.

In tables X and XI we show the trends as the configuration space is increased from t=1 to t=2. We present the ratio of correspondence M1 and GT rates for \[t=2\]/\[t=1\].

We can see except for the anomolus T=0 $``$ T=0 transition in 44Ti, the obrital B(M1)’s get enhaced as the configuaration space increased. In all cases on the other hand, the spin B(M1)’s decrease as the configuration space is increased.

Looking at the corresponding numbers for GT ratios, we note that \[t=2\]/\[t=1\] ratios are the same as for the corresponding spin B(M1)’s except for the Tf=Ti case.In this case there is an isoscalar contribution to B(M1) as well as the dominat isovector contribution.

There is a relationship between $`A=B(GT)_{(T,T)}B(GT)_{(T+1),(T+1)}`$ and $`B=B(GT)_{(T,T)}B(GT)_{(T+1),(T1)}`$ i.e. $`B(GT)_{TiV(T+1)}`$ and $`B(GT)_{TiSc(T+1)}`$

The ratio A/B is equal to
$`\frac{\left(\begin{array}{ccc}(T+1)& T& 1\\ (T+1)& T& 1\end{array}\right)^2}{\left(\begin{array}{ccc}(T+1)& T& 1\\ (T1)& T& 1\end{array}\right)^2}`$=(2T+1)(2T+2) Thus
$`\frac{B(GT)_{{}_{}{}^{46}Ti^{46}Sc(T=2)}}{B(GT)_{{}_{}{}^{46}Ti^{46}V(T=2)}}=6`$ and $`\frac{B(GT)_{{}_{}{}^{48}Ti^{48}Sc(T=3)}}{B(GT)_{{}_{}{}^{48}Ti^{48}V(T=3)}}=15`$

In principle then one should get the 3(N-Z) sum rule without doing the (n,p) reaction on 46Ti. For example the 46Ti sum rule reads

$`B(GT)_{{}_{}{}^{46}Ti^{46}V(T=0)}+B(GT)_{{}_{}{}^{46}Ti^{46}V(T=1)}+B(GT)_{{}_{}{}^{46}Ti^{46}V(T=2)}B(GT)_{{}_{}{}^{46}Ti^{46}Sc(T=2)}=3(NZ)`$

We can write this as $`B(GT)_{{}_{}{}^{46}Ti^{46}V(T=0)}+B(GT)_{{}_{}{}^{46}Ti^{46}V(T=1)}5B(GT)_{{}_{}{}^{46}Ti^{46}V(T=2)}=3(NZ)`$

However in practice it is very difficult if not impossible to seperate the isospin components.

## VII Comments on M3 transitions

In tables XII to XVII we present the results for M3 transitions from the ground states of 44,46,48Ti. The tables are presented in the same format as those for M1’s in Tables I thru VI. One further note is that in table XVI on the lowest 1000 states are considered in the t=2 case for 48Ti.

The relative contribution of orbit to spin for B(M3) is much less than for B(M1).

In general going form interaction A to C causes the orbital M3 to be enhanced. For the spin case these are mixed results sometimes there is a quenching others an enhancement.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

To the best of our current understanding, inflation – an epoch of accelerated cosmological expansion – may have taken place when the expansion rate of the universe was $`H10^{14}`$ GeV (but there exist models at lower values of $`H`$) . Quantum vacuum fluctuations at this energy scale are generally held responsible for producing adiabatic perturbations that are reflected in the CMBR anisotropies. It is possible that nature has provided us with a rare glimpse at physics far beyond any other means of experimental access.

The increasing precision of observations linked, directly or indirectly, to the physics of inflation presents us with two important challenges. First, we must probe the sensitivity of cosmological predictions derived in the framework of semiclassical QFT on curved or non-stationary space-times with respect to possible quantum gravitational modifications. This approach has a long and fruitful tradition in the context of the so-called trans-Planckian problem of Hawking radiation (reviewed in ) and was indeed inspired by it. Much of the work discussed in Sec. 2 is based on fluid analogies of black hole horizons introduced by Unruh  which study the effects of a nonlinear dispersion relation on outgoing Hawking quanta. Since these are often described as “sonic black holes” I will refer to this line of research as “sonic inflation” in Sec. 2.

Secondly, and perhaps even more importantly, it is possible that such modifications leave an unambiguous and detectable footprint in the cosmological data. Its concrete quantification could eventually be based on string/M theory models (or directly on the holographic principle ), but one can begin this ambitious task by exploring field theoretic models that mimic some general feature of short distance physics (as an analogy, think of starting with the Euler equations and add the transport terms without knowing the microscopic theory). For example, it is possible to implement a cutoff that effectively limits the resolution of short distances into the standard formalism, and re-analyze the predictions of inflation. I discuss the current status of this program in Sec. 3.

All of these studies break local Lorentz invariance in order to define the notion of a locally measurable short distance scale. So far, there is no experimental indication that Lorentz invariance might be violated in nature . On the other hand, neither is there any experimental indication that it is unbroken at $`10^{14}`$ GeV, so one should remain open minded. As for physical motivation, there are speculations about broken Lorentz invariance in the contexts of string/D-brane interactions , brane cosmology , and quantum gravity phenomenology , to name a few. Violations or modifications of local Lorentz symmetry also play a vital role in varying speed of light (VSL) cosmologies, making it obvious to look at VSL from the viewpoint of short distance uncertainty; see Sec. 4 for a brief discussion.

## 2 Sonic inflation

The first thing an experimentalist notices as the wavelength of a fluid sound wave approaches the molecular scale is a change of the dispersion relation, typically dipping off from the linear behavior toward a slower growth of frequency $`\omega `$ with wavenumber $`\kappa `$. This fact, together with the observation that sound waves in a fluid with sonic horizon are mathematically equivalent to scalar fields in a black hole space-time, led Unruh  to introduce sonic black holes (or “dumb holes”) by replacing the linear dispersion relation in the mode equation of Hawking quanta with an artificial nonlinear one, chosen to mimic the fluid behavior. Interpreting the scale of the nonlinearity as the Planck scale, this framework has been used extensively to study the robustness of Hawking radiation with respect to trans-Planckian physics .

Similar to Hawking photons barely escaping to infinity, quantum fluctuations in an inflationary background undergo enormous redshifting before they reach super-horizon scales. Trans-Planckian effects in inflation can therefore be addressed in a nearly identical manner . Both scalar and tensor perturbation amplitudes are proportional to the solution of a harmonic oscillator equation,

$$\chi _k^{\prime \prime }+\omega ^2\chi _k=0,$$
(1)
for the mode $`\chi _k`$ of the comoving wavenumber $`k`$ as a function of conformal time $`\eta `$, evaluated at horizon crossing, $`k=aH`$ ($`a`$ is the scale factor of a flat FRW line element and $`H=a^{}/a^2`$). Normally, $`\omega ^2`$ is given by

$$\omega _0^2(\eta )=k^2\frac{a^{\prime \prime }(\eta )}{a(\eta )},$$
(2)
whereas it is written as

$$\omega _F^2(\eta )=[a(\eta )F(k/a(\eta ))]^2\frac{a^{\prime \prime }(\eta )}{a(\eta )},$$
(3)
in the modified form. $`F(k/a)`$ is a smooth function with the following properties:

1. $`F(k/a)`$ converges to the usual physical wavenumber $`\kappa =k/a`$ for $`\kappa \kappa _c`$. The critical wavenumber $`\kappa _c`$ marks the scale of deviations from standard physics and is presumably of order the Planck scale. It is usually assumed that $`F(k/a)=\kappa `$ at horizon crossing, but this need not be the case even if $`H<\kappa _c`$, depending on the shape of $`F`$ .
2. At around $`\kappa _c`$, $`F`$ veers off the linear path and increases, becomes constant, or decreases in what are usually called superluminous, Unruh, or subluminous dispersion relations .

With the exception of  where it is derived from $`\kappa `$-Poincaré algebra, $`F`$ is simply chosen by hand to fit these criteria. On a side note, it is even possible to create forms of $`F`$ that allow for an inflationary period without a scalar inflaton field .

As there are two dimensionful variables in this theory, $`H`$ and $`\kappa _c`$, the solutions are controlled by the dimensionless quantity

$$\sigma =\frac{H}{\kappa _c}$$
(4)
which is usually a small number. Another important role is played by the adiabaticity parameter,

$$𝒞(\eta )=\left|\frac{\omega ^{}}{\omega ^2}\right|,$$
(5)
describing the “smoothness” of $`F`$ with respect to the oscillations of $`\chi _k`$ and hence the accuracy of the WKB approximation.

As shown in  and confirmed in , $`𝒞\sigma `$ for all regular, monotonically growing functions $`F`$, while changes in the power spectrum due to nonadiabatic particle production are at most of order $`𝒞`$ (but may be much smaller). Consequently, if the critical wavenumber is identified with the Planck scale, the CMBR fluctuation amplitude indicates that $`\sigma 10^5`$ and such changes are undetectable. However, in some string or M theory models $`\sigma `$ may be several orders of magnitude larger .

Singular dispersion relations of the form $`F(\kappa )\kappa (1\kappa /\kappa _c)^n`$ with $`0<n<1`$ and those with $`F(\kappa \kappa _c)<H`$ exhibit nonadiabatic behavior . In the latter case, each mode undergoes another “horizon crossing” on very small length scales below which it is frozen by cosmic expansion. Ref.  argues that this effect produces an effective dark energy contribution for a certain class of dispersion relations (but see  who reach a different conclusion based on the analysis of the stress-energy tensor). A string theoretic derivation of this type of dispersion relation is offered in Ref. .

In order to find the initial conditions of the mode equation (1) one must choose a vacuum for the field. The adiabatic vacuum, constructed from the WKB solution of Eq. (1), can be considered a natural ground state . Backreaction of Planck scale particles forces the vacuum to be close to the adiabatic one in order to be consistent with slow-roll inflation . In this case, deviations of the power spectrum can be caused by nonadiabatic processes on subhorizon scales (see above) or if $`\omega _F\omega _0`$ at horizon crossing. Alternative vacua were investigated in . The authors of Ref.  gave the initial value problem a new twist by constructing a bouncing universe cosmology. They followed the mode evolution through the bounce where it picks up non-adiabatic corrections, showing that the spectrum may be affected even with adiabatic initial conditions.

A crucial question is whether the effects of nonlinear dispersion can be disentangled from features of the inflaton potential. As noted in  and further analyzed in , Planck scale effects might act differently on scalar and tensor perturbations and thereby violate the scalar-tensor consistency relation of slow-roll inflation. This violation could be the smoking gun for physics beyond the standard paradigm of inflation.

## 3 Short distance uncertainty

Instead of modifying the dispersion relation by hand one can use an observation made in various contexts in string theory and quantum gravity: on very general grounds, our experimental ability to probe short distances seems to be limited by the Planck or string scale . The cutoff presumably arises from complicated dynamics of the underlying fundamental theory but it can also be modeled by a nonlinear correction to the canonical commutation relation:

$$[𝐱,𝐩]=i\mathrm{}(1+\beta 𝐩^2)$$
(6)
as discussed in . The correction term results in a lower bound $`\mathrm{\Delta }x_{\mathrm{min}}\beta ^{1/2}`$ for distance measurements. Furthermore, Eq. (6) belongs to a class of only very few types of short-distance structures of space-time that are admitted under very general assumptions . Hilbert space representations of Eq. 6 were employed, for instance, for regularizing field theory  and, more recently, for analyzing the impact of short distance uncertainty on the predictions of inflation.

In Ref. , Eq. (6) was implemented in a scalar field theory (representing, e.g., the inflaton) on an FRW background. The action decomposes into modes of conserved quasi-wavenumber $`\stackrel{~}{k}`$ which converges to the usual comoving wavenumber $`k`$ for $`\stackrel{~}{k}/a\beta ^{1/2}`$. Each $`\stackrel{~}{k}`$-mode is generated at the time $`\eta _c`$ corresponding to its “Planck scale crossing”, defined by $`a(\eta _c)=\stackrel{~}{k}(e\beta )^{1/2}`$, and obeys an oscillator equation with mass and damping terms that are singular at $`\eta _c`$.

Refs.  analyzed the implications for the cosmic perturbation spectrum. As shown in Ref.  by transforming the $`\stackrel{~}{k}`$-mode equation to the form of Eq. (1), new effects assuming full adiabaticity shortly before horizon crossing are at most of order $`\sigma ^2`$. However, the numerical evaluation of $`𝒞`$ indicates that $`𝒞\sigma `$ during most of the subhorizon evolution so that, following the arguments in Sec. 2, O($`\sigma `$) effects on the spectrum cannot be strictly ruled out even if the mode is adiabatic immediately after its creation.

A numerical analysis of the $`\stackrel{~}{k}`$-mode evolution was performed in Refs. . The authors used initial conditions obtained from an analytical solution of the linearized mode equation near $`\eta _c`$ (also proposed in ) and found new features in the power spectrum whose amplitudes are linear in $`\sigma `$. These are apparently related to deviations from adiabaticity. Ref. , on the other hand, argues on the basis of low energy locality that the leading order effect must be O($`\sigma ^2`$).

Obviously, finding the leading order correction in $`\sigma `$ is of utmost importance for the observability of cutoff effects in the CMBR, given that $`\sigma `$ is probably $`10^3`$. A linear signal would make the detection of Planck scale physics in cosmological data a realistic goal for the intermediate future. But even O($`\sigma ^2`$) effects are potentially observable in certain classes of M theoretic models . Much of the remaining uncertainty stems from the ambiguity in the initial conditions of the $`\stackrel{~}{k}`$-mode equation. However, in contrast with the sonic inflation approach, we now have a specific prescription for the generation of individual $`\stackrel{~}{k}`$-modes, so there is hope that the model itself picks out a preferred vacuum. For completeness, note also that the generation of modes from a quantum gravitational “soup” plays a central role in Brout’s two-fluid model of inflation .

## 4 Varying speed of light cosmology

Varying speed of light (VSL) cosmology is one of the few serious competitors of inflation . It solves the horizon problem by postulating an early cosmological epoch where, roughly speaking, information propagates faster than the current speed of light $`c`$. This involves some modification or violation of Lorentz symmetry whose form and implementation has been addressed in different ways (e.g., ). A number of possible explanations for a varying speed of light have been offered, motivated, e.g., by noncritical string theory , brane cosmology , and non-commutative geometry .

The framework of short distance uncertainty described in Sec. 3 provides a well-defined platform for searching for VSL effects. As shown in Ref.  (see also ), the reduction of the available phase space volume per quantum mode at short wavelengths causes the equation of state of ultrarelativistic particles to stiffen at very high densities. This leads to a stronger than usual deceleration of the scale factor which competes with a higher than usual propagation speed of the particles. The definition of the latter, however, is ambiguous: possibilities include the group and phase velocity in the high energy tail, the thermal average of the group and phase velocity, and the speed of sound. Of these three groups, only the first provides a possible solution to the cosmological horizon problem. Perhaps more worrisome is the fact that this solution involves applying Eq. (6) at super-Planckian densities where it is unlikely to fully represent the relevant physics.

To conclude, the field of short distance physics in the very early universe has opened a number of new ways to think about old problems, including the tantalizing (but still highly speculative) prospect of detecting Planck scale effects in cosmological observations. We can hope for interesting new developments by the time of Cosmo-02.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Achim Kempf for helpful comments and suggestions.


text:
# Fractal Von Neumann Entropy

## Abstract

We consider the fractal von Neumann entropy associated with the fractal distribution function and we obtain for some universal classes h of fractons  their entropies. We obtain also for each of these classes a fractal-deformed Heisenberg algebra. This one takes into account the braid group structure of these objects which live in two-dimensional multiply connected space.

The fractal von Neumann entropy associated with the fractal distribution function  was introduced in Ref.. We have defined universal classes $`h`$ of particles or quasiparticles which carry rational or irrational spin quantum number $`s`$. The fractal parameter or Hausdorff dimension $`h`$ runs within the interval $`1`$$`<`$$`h`$$`<`$$`2`$. Fractons as charge-flux systems are such particles which live in two-dimensional multiply connected space and satisfy specific fractal distribution function. The particles of each class are collected taking into account the fractal spectrum

$`h1=1\nu ,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}0}<\nu <1;h1=\nu 1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}1}<\nu <2;`$ (1)
$`etc.`$ (2)
and the spin-statistics relation $`\nu =2s`$, which is valid for such fractons . For example, consider the universal classes with distinct values of spin $`\{\frac{1}{2},\frac{3}{2},\frac{5}{2},\mathrm{}\}_{h=1}`$, $`\{0,1,2,\mathrm{}\}_{h=2}`$ and $`\{\frac{1}{4},\frac{3}{4},\frac{5}{4},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{3}{2}}`$, then we have the Fermi-Dirac distribution

$`n[1]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\xi +1}}`$ (3)
the Bose-Einstein distribution

$`n[2]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\xi 1}}`$ (4)
and the Fractal distribution

$`n\left[{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\right]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{\frac{1}{4}+\xi ^2}}}`$ (5)
with $`\xi =\mathrm{exp}\left\{(ϵ\mu )/KT\right\}`$.

Another result of our approach to fractional spin particles is that the classes $`h`$ satisfy a duality simmetry defined by $`\stackrel{~}{h}=3h`$, and as a consequence we extract a fractal supersymmetry which defines pairs of particles $`(s,s+\frac{1}{2})`$. Thus, the fractal distribution function is a quantum-geometrical description of the statistical laws of Nature, since the quantum path is a fractal curve and this reflects the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

The Fractal von Neumann entropy per state in terms of the average occupation number is given as

$`𝒮_G[h]`$ $`=`$ $`nK\left[(𝒴[\xi ]1)\mathrm{ln}(𝒴[\xi ]1)(𝒴[\xi ]2)\mathrm{ln}(𝒴[\xi ]2)\right]`$ (6)
$`=`$ $`K\left[\left[1+(h1)n\right]\mathrm{ln}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{1+(h1)n}{n}}\right\}\left[1+(h2)n\right]\mathrm{ln}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{1+(h2)n}{n}}\right\}\right]`$ (8)
where

$`n={\displaystyle \frac{1}{𝒴[\xi ]h}}`$ (10)
is the Fractal distribution function which appears as a simple and elegant generalization of the fermionic and bosonic distributions for particles with braiding properties. The function $`𝒴[\xi ]`$ satisfies the equation

$`\xi =\left\{𝒴[\xi ]1\right\}^{h1}\left\{𝒴[\xi ]2\right\}^{2h}.`$ (11)
We also have

$`\xi ^1=\left\{\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]\right\}^{h2}\left\{\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]\right\}^{h1}`$ (12)
where

$`\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]={\displaystyle \frac{𝒴[\xi ]2}{𝒴[\xi ]1}}`$ (13)
is the single-particle partition function. The free energy for the particles in a given quantum state is expressed as

$`[h]=KT\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴],`$ (14)
such that for fermions

$`[1]=KT\mathrm{ln}\left\{1+\xi ^1\right\}`$ (15)
and for bosons

$`[2]=KT\mathrm{ln}\left\{1\xi ^1\right\}.`$ (16)
Hence, we find the average occupation number

$`n[h]`$ $`=`$ $`\xi {\displaystyle \frac{}{\xi }}\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{KT}}\xi {\displaystyle \frac{}{\xi }}.`$ (17)
Using the thermodynamic relation $`𝒮=\left(\frac{}{T}\right)_{V,N}`$, we obtain another general expression for the entropy

$`𝒮_G[h]`$ $`=`$ $`K\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]{\displaystyle \frac{KT}{\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]}{T}}`$ (18)
$`=`$ $`K\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]{\displaystyle \frac{KT}{(𝒴2)(𝒴1)}}{\displaystyle \frac{𝒴}{T}},`$ (20)
where the energy is given by

$``$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{KT^2}{\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]}{T}}`$ (21)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{KT^2}{(𝒴2)(𝒴1)}}{\displaystyle \frac{𝒴}{T}},`$ (23)
since we have $`=+T𝒮`$.

Now, if you consider the density matrix $`\rho `$, the entropy is found to be

$`{\displaystyle \frac{𝒮}{K}}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{Tr}\rho \mathrm{ln}\rho `$ (24)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}𝒲(n)𝒫(n)\mathrm{ln}𝒫(n)`$ (25)
where

$$𝒲(n)=\frac{\left[G+(nG1)(h1)\right]!}{[nG]!\left[G+(nG1)(h1)nG\right]!}$$
(27)
is the statistical weight for the classes of fractons and $`N=nG`$ is the number of particles, $`G`$ is the number of states, $`n`$ is the average occupation number. The microstate probability is given by

$$𝒫(n)=p^{nG}q^{[n(h2)+1]G},$$
(28)
with $`p+q=1`$ and the total probability is unity

$$\underset{n}{}𝒲(n)𝒫(n)=1.$$
(29)
Differentiating this last expression with respect to $`p`$, we find

$$n\left[\frac{q}{p}+2\right]nh=1$$
(30)
and defining $`\left[\frac{q}{p}+2\right]𝒴[\xi ]`$, we obtain again the fractal distribution function. Considering now the Eq.(20) plus the Eqs.(27) and (28) we have another derivation of the Eqs.(6) and (6) for the fractal von Neumann entropy.

The entropies for fermions $`\{\frac{1}{2},\frac{3}{2},\frac{5}{2},\mathrm{}\}_{h=1}`$ and bosons $`\{0,1,2,\mathrm{}\}_{h=2}`$, can be recovered promptly

$`𝒮_G[1]=K\left\{n\mathrm{ln}n+(1n)\mathrm{ln}(1n)\right\}`$ (31)
and

$`𝒮_G[2]=K\left\{(1+n)\mathrm{ln}(1+n)n\mathrm{ln}n\right\}.`$ (32)
For fractons of the self-dual class $`\{\frac{1}{4},\frac{3}{4},\frac{5}{4},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{3}{2}}`$, we have

$`𝒮_G\left[{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\right]=K\left\{(2+n)\mathrm{ln}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{2+n}{2n}}}(2n)\mathrm{ln}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{2n}{2n}}}\right\}`$ (33)
and for two more examples, the dual classes $`\{\frac{1}{3},\frac{2}{3},\frac{4}{3},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{4}{3}}`$ and $`\{\frac{1}{6},\frac{5}{6},\frac{7}{6},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{5}{3}}`$,
the entropies read as

$`𝒮_G\left[{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}\right]=K\left\{(3+n)\mathrm{ln}\sqrt[3]{{\displaystyle \frac{3+n}{3n}}}(32n)\mathrm{ln}\sqrt[3]{{\displaystyle \frac{32n}{3n}}}\right\}`$ (34)
and

$`𝒮_G\left[{\displaystyle \frac{5}{3}}\right]=K\left\{(3+2n)\mathrm{ln}\sqrt[3]{{\displaystyle \frac{3+2n}{3n}}}(3n)\mathrm{ln}\sqrt[3]{{\displaystyle \frac{3n}{3n}}}\right\}.`$ (35)
We have also introduced the topological concept of fractal index asssociated with each class ( $`h`$ is a geometrical parameter related to the quantum path of the particles ) and defined by

$$i_f[h]=\frac{6}{\pi ^2}_{\mathrm{}(T=0)}^{1(T=\mathrm{})}\frac{d\xi }{\xi }\mathrm{ln}\left\{\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴(\xi )]\right\}$$
(36)
so we obtain for the bosonic class $`i_f[2]=1`$, for the fermionic class $`i_f[1]=0.5`$ and for some classes of fractons we have $`i_f[\frac{3}{2}]=0.6`$, $`i_f[\frac{4}{3}]=0.56`$, $`i_f[\frac{5}{3}]=0.656`$ . Thus for the interval of definition $`1`$$``$$`h`$$``$$`2`$, there exists the correspondence $`0.5`$$``$$`i_f[h]`$$``$$`1`$, which signalizes the connection between fractons and quasiparticles of the conformal field theories, in accordance with the unitary $`c`$$`<`$$`1`$ representations of the central charge.

On the other hand, fractons satisfy a fractal-deformed Heisenberg algebra which generalizes the fermionic and bosonic ones. The fractal-deformed Heisenberg algebra is obtained of the relation

$`𝐚(x)𝐚^{}(y)f[\pm h]𝐚^{}(y)𝐚(x)=\delta (xy),`$ (37)
between creation and annihilation operators. The factor of deformation is defined as

$`f[\pm h]=exp\left(\pm ıh\pi \right),`$ (38)
such that for $`h=1`$ and $`x=y`$, we reobtain the fermionic anticommutation relations $`\{𝐚(x),𝐚^{}(x)\}=1`$, and for $`h=2`$ and $`x=y`$, we reobtain the bosonic commutation relations $`[𝐚(x),𝐚^{}(x)]=1`$. If $`xy`$ and $`1`$$`<`$$`h`$$`<`$$`2`$, we have nonlocal operators for fractons

$`𝐚(x)𝐚^{}(y)=f[\pm h]𝐚^{}(y)𝐚(x).`$ (39)
The braiding relations have the hermiticities

$`𝐚(x)𝐚^{}(y)`$ $`=`$ $`f[+h]𝐚^{}(y)𝐚(x)`$ (40)
$`𝐚^{}(x)𝐚(y)`$ $`=`$ $`f[+h]𝐚(y)𝐚^{}(x)`$ (41)
$`𝐚(x)𝐚^{}(y)`$ $`=`$ $`f[h]𝐚^{}(y)𝐚(x)`$ (43)
$`𝐚^{}(x)𝐚(y)`$ $`=`$ $`f[h]𝐚(y)𝐚^{}(x)`$ (44)
$`𝐚(x)𝐚(y)`$ $`=`$ $`f[+h]𝐚(y)𝐚(x)`$ (46)
$`𝐚^{}(x)𝐚^{}(y)`$ $`=`$ $`f[+h]𝐚^{}(y)𝐚^{}(x)`$ (47)
$`𝐚(x)𝐚(y)`$ $`=`$ $`f[h]𝐚(y)𝐚(x)`$ (49)
$`𝐚^{}(x)𝐚^{}(y)`$ $`=`$ $`f[h]𝐚^{}(y)𝐚^{}(x),`$ (50)
where the plus sign of $`h`$ stands for anticlockwise exchange and the minus sign of $`h`$ for clockwise exchange.

The statistics parameter $`\nu `$ for the plus sign has the pattern

$`\{,+,,+,\mathrm{}\}_h`$ (51)
and the minus sign, gives us another one

$`\{+,,+,,\mathrm{}\}_h.`$ (52)
For example, consider the class $`h=\frac{3}{2}`$, then

$`\{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}},\pm {\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}},{\displaystyle \frac{5}{2}},\pm {\displaystyle \frac{7}{2}},\mathrm{}\}_{h=\frac{3}{2}},`$ (53)
i.e.

$`f[+h]=e^{ı\frac{1}{2}\pi }=e^{+ı\frac{3}{2}\pi }=e^{ı\frac{5}{2}\pi }=e^{+ı\frac{7}{2}\pi }=\mathrm{}`$ (54)
and

$`f[h]=e^{+ı\frac{1}{2}\pi }=e^{ı\frac{3}{2}\pi }=e^{+ı\frac{5}{2}\pi }=e^{ı\frac{7}{2}\pi }=\mathrm{}.`$ (55)
As we can see, in each class, the particles with different values of statistics parameter ($`\nu =2s`$) have unambiguously distinct braiding properties to obey the fractal distribution function determined by the parameter $`h`$.

The phase of the wave function ( consider two-particle system ) changes by $`+\pi \nu `$ ( anti-clockwise exchange ) and $`\pi \nu `$ ( clockwise exchange ) in response to which way we braid in interchanging $`x`$ and $`y`$. On the one hand, the violation of the discrete symmetries of parity and time reversal is verified for such fractons, i.e.

$`e^{\pm ı\pi \nu }e^{ı\pi \nu }.`$ (56)
We have applied these ideas in some systems of the condensed matter such as fractional quantum Hall effect and Luttinger liquids. Besides this we have also considered some connection with conformal field theories . Another direction of research is the connection between Number Theory and Physics as explicited by our formulation. There exists other possibilities of application, for example, we are considering the study of entanglement states for fracton quantum computing.

In conclusion, we have considered in this Letter, the fractal von Neumann entropy associated with the fractal distribution function for some universal classes $`h`$ of fractons. The derivation of the Eqs.(5) and (6) obtained in Ref. using the Eq.(20) suggested in Ref. and adapted to our formulation is another result of this paper. We have also determined the fractal-deformed Heisenberg algebras for these classes of fractons which obey specific fractal distribution function. A next step is to consider the construction of the nonlocal operators for fractons taking into account an angle function as discussed in.


text:
# Dust and hydrogen molecules in the extremely metal-poor dwarf galaxy SBS 0335-052

## 1 Introduction

How dust forms and evolves in primordial galaxies needs to be considered before we can understand the chemical and thermodynamical evolution of a metal-poor interstellar medium (ISM). Dust grains absorb stellar light and reemit it in far infrared (FIR)111For SBS 0335-052, large energy is emitted in mid-infrared because the dust temperature is high (Dale et al. 2001). But in this Letter, we use the term “FIR emission” for the thermal emission from dust grains.. Indeed, the FIR spectral range represents a unique opportunity to study the dust properties and distribution, and dedicated space missions are planned in these wavelength bands (ASTRO-F222http://www.ir.isas.ac.jp/ASTRO-F/index-e.html, SIRTF333http://sirtf.caltech.edu/, Herschel444http://astro.estec.esa.nl/First/, etc.). Dust grains also drastically accelerate the formation rate of molecular hydrogen (H2), expected to be the most abundant molecule in the ISM. Hydrogen molecules emit vibrational-rotational lines, thus cooling the gas. The cooling rate of a galaxy consequently depends strongly on the dust content and its effect on H2 abundance.

The production of dust is expected at the final stages of stellar evolution, and Type II supernovae (SNe II) are the dominant source for the production of dust grains in young star-forming galaxies. The formation in stellar winds from evolved low-mass stars can also contribute considerably, but the cosmic time is not long enough for such stars to evolve at high redshift ($`z`$). However, dust is also destroyed by SN shocks (Jones, Tielens, & Hollenbach 1996). The detailed modelling of dust evolution in star-forming regions therefore requires an accurate treatment of both types of processes.

Here we have developed a model for the evolution of dust content in primordial galaxies. To compare our model with observations, we need age information and the FIR energy distribution. For high-$`z`$ primordial galaxies, present experiments cannot determine these quantities accurately enough. Nevertheless, because of their low metallicity and active star formation, blue compact dwarf galaxies (BCDs) may be viable candidates for nearby primeval systems. We have focused on the evolution of dust content in one of these, SBS 0335-052, since this object may be experiencing its first burst of star formation ($`\text{age}10^7`$ yr; Vanzi et al. 2000).

In this Letter, we first model the dust content of a young galaxy whose age is less than $`10^8`$ yr (§ 2). Then, we compare the model predictions with the observed quantities of the extremely low-metallicity BCD, SBS 0335-052 (§ 3). Finally, we comment on implications for damped Ly$`\alpha `$ systems (DLAs).

## 2 MODEL DESCRIPTION

### 2.1 Evolution of Dust Mass in a Young Galaxy

We aim at modelling the evolution of dust content in a young galaxy whose age is less than $`10^8`$ yr. We focus on the comparison with the extremely metal-poor (1/40 $`Z_{}`$) BCD SBS 0335-052, one of the few possible local counterparts of a primordial galaxy in the nearby Universe (Vanzi et al. 2000). Because of its young age, the contribution of winds from late-type stars to dust formation is assumed to be negligible. We consider the dominant (brightest) star-forming complex, and assume that grains produced by SNe II are accumulated within this region. This assumption is consistent with high-resolution infrared imaging observations which reveal that the distribution of dust is as compact as the size of the star-forming region (Dale et al. 2001; Hunt, Vanzi, & Thuan 2001).

We start by considering a generic star-forming region in a galaxy. Our model is applicable to young ($`<10^8`$ yr) bursts. Because of its young age, the contribution of Type Ia supernovae to the total supernova rate is neglected. The rate of SNe II is given by

$`\gamma (t)={\displaystyle _{8M_{}}^{\mathrm{}}}\psi (t\tau _m)\varphi (m)𝑑m,`$ (1)
where $`\psi (t)`$ is the star formation rate (SFR) at $`t`$ (we define $`t=0`$ at the beginning of the star formation), $`\varphi (m)`$ is the initial mass function (IMF), $`\tau _m`$ is the lifetime of a star whose mass is $`m`$, and we assumed that stars with $`m>8M_{}`$ produce SNe II. In this Letter, we assume a constant SFR, $`\psi =\psi _0`$, and a Salpeter IMF ($`\psi (m)m^{2.35}`$; the mass range of stars is 0.1–60 $`M_{}`$) to obtain a first estimate. Our assumption of constant star formation is applicable if the time from the starburst is small. Indeed, the difference between the instantaneous burst and the constant star formation history is small on small timescales ($`10^7`$ yr, the age of SBS 0335-052; Vanzi et al. 2000).

In general, dust destruction by SNe can be important, but for SBS 0335-052 it is negligible for the following reason. The destruction timescale $`\tau _{\mathrm{SN}}`$ is estimated to be (McKee 1989; Lisenfeld & Ferrara 1998)

$`\tau _{\mathrm{SN}}={\displaystyle \frac{M_\mathrm{g}}{\gamma ϵM_\mathrm{s}(100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1)}},`$ (2)
where $`M_\mathrm{g}`$ is the total gas mass in a star-forming region, $`M_\mathrm{s}(100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1)=6.8\times 10^3M_{}`$ (Lisenfeld & Ferrara 1998) is the mass accelerated to 100 km s-1 by a SN blast, $`\gamma `$ is the SN II rate, $`ϵ0.1`$ (McKee 1989) is the efficiency of dust destruction in a medium shocked by a SN. We assume the relation between stellar mass and lifetime as shown in Inoue, Hirashita, & Kamaya (2000a). The SN II rate increases with time, and reaches a constant value, if the star formation rate is constant in time. Numerically, we find that $`\gamma (\mathrm{yr}^1)3\times 10^3\psi _0(M_{}\mathrm{yr}^1)`$ around the age of 5 Myr. We also assume that the star formation efficiency is the order of 5% as known empirically from observations (e.g., Inoue, Hirashita, & Kamaya 2000b). This means that $`M_\mathrm{g}/\psi _020t_{\mathrm{max}}`$, where $`t_{\mathrm{max}}`$ is the possible duration of the star-forming activity. Thus, we finally find that $`\tau _{\mathrm{SN}}t_{\mathrm{max}}`$. It is probable that $`t<t_{\mathrm{max}}`$ during the ongoing starburst, and we can safely conclude that the dust destruction can be neglected.

Therefore, the only contribution to total dust mass in the galaxy ($`M_\mathrm{d}`$) comes from the supply from SNe II. Then the rate of increase of $`M_\mathrm{d}`$ is written as

$`\dot{M}_\mathrm{d}=m_\mathrm{d}\gamma ,`$ (3)
where $`m_\mathrm{d}`$ is the typical dust mass produced in a SN II. Todini & Ferrara (2001) showed that $`m_\mathrm{d}`$ varies with progenitor mass and metallicity. There is also some uncertainty in the explosion energy of SNe II. The Salpeter IMF-weighted mean of dust mass produced per SN II for the 1) $`Z=0`$, Case A, 2) $`Z=0`$, Case B, 3) $`Z=10^2Z_{}`$, Case A, and 4) $`Z=10^2Z_{}`$, Case B are 1) 0.22 $`M_{}`$, 2) 0.46 $`M_{}`$, 3) 0.45 $`M_{}`$, and 4) 0.63 $`M_{}`$, respectively ($`Z`$ is the metallicity, and Cases A and B correspond to low and high explosion energy555The kinetic energies given to the ejecta are $`1.2\times 10^{51}`$ ergs and $`2\times 10^{51}`$ ergs for Case A and Case B, respectively., respectively). We adopt the average of the four cases, i.e., $`m_\mathrm{d}0.4M_{}`$, but the calculated dust mass is proportional to $`m_\mathrm{d}`$. Therefore, there is uncertainty in $`m_\mathrm{d}`$ and $`M_\mathrm{d}`$ by a factor of $`2`$. Since we are considering the first burst of star formation, we assume $`M_\mathrm{d}=0`$ at $`t=0`$. Because dust production rate is proportional to $`\gamma `$ which is proportional to the star formation rate $`\psi _0`$, $`M_\mathrm{d}`$ calculated by our model directly scales as $`\psi _0`$.

In Figure 1, we show the dust mass evolution for a star formation rate of $`1M_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$, a typical value for SBS 0335-052 (Hunt et al. 2001). In Figure 1, we also show the values of dust masses derived by Dale et al. (2001) and Hunt et al. (2001). The dust mass in Hunt et al. (2001) was calculated with a unit filling factor, and is considered to be an upper limit.

### 2.2 Dust Temperature and FIR Luminosity

Probably the most direct way to measure dust content is to observe its FIR emission. We now derive the evolution of FIR luminosity and dust temperature. Because of the large cross section of dust against ultraviolet (UV) light and the intense UV radiation field in a star-forming galaxy, we can assume that the FIR luminosity is equal to the absorbed energy of OB stellar radiation ($`\text{UV radiation}`$). First, we estimate the optical depth for the UV radiation as follows:

$`\tau _{\mathrm{dust}}\pi a^2Q_{\mathrm{UV}}n_\mathrm{d}r_{\mathrm{SF}}={\displaystyle \frac{9}{16\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{Q_{\mathrm{UV}}M_\mathrm{d}}{a\delta r_{\mathrm{SF}}^2}},`$ (4)
where $`a`$ is the grain radius (spherical grains are assumed), $`\pi a^2Q_{\mathrm{UV}}`$ is the typical absorption cross section for UV light, $`n_\mathrm{d}`$ is the number density of grains, $`r_{\mathrm{SF}}`$ is the radius of the star-forming region (a spherical star-forming region is assumed), and $`\delta `$ is the grain material density. We adopt $`a0.03\mu `$m (Todini & Ferrara 2001), $`Q_{\mathrm{UV}}1`$, and $`\delta =2`$ g cm-3 (Draine & Lee 1984). Then we obtain the energy absorbed by dust. We assume that all the absorbed energy is reemitted in the FIR. Thus, the FIR luminosity $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}`$ becomes

$`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}=L_{\mathrm{OB}}[1\mathrm{exp}(\tau _{\mathrm{dust}})].`$ (5)
$`L_{\mathrm{OB}}`$ is calculated assuming a mass–luminosity relation of OB stars ($`>3M_{}`$; we adopt the fit by Inoue et al. 2000a).

In Figure 2, we show the evolution of FIR luminosity for $`r_{\mathrm{SF}}=300`$, 100, and 30 pc (solid, dotted, and dashed lines, respectively). Dale et al. (2001) have estimated that $`r_{\mathrm{SF}}80`$ pc for SBS 0335-052. We reexamine this finding to check the consistency with the dust supply rate from SNe II. The observed FIR luminosity ($`5\times 10^8L_{}`$) for SBS 0335-052 is reached in 8, 3, and 1.2 Myr for $`r_{\mathrm{SF}}=300`$, 100, and 30 pc, respectively.

The dust temperature $`T_\mathrm{d}`$ is determined from the emissivity given by Draine & Lee (1984); i.e., $`Q_{\mathrm{abs}}(\lambda )=3\times 10^4(\lambda /100\mu \mathrm{m})^2`$, where $`Q_{\mathrm{abs}}(\lambda )`$ is the absorption efficiency (the definition is the same as Draine & Lee) as a function of wavelength $`\lambda `$. Then, we finally obtain the following relation:

$`T_\mathrm{d}=20\left({\displaystyle \frac{L_{\mathrm{FIR}}/L_{}}{2.5\times 10^2M_\mathrm{d}/M_{}}}\right)^{1/6}\mathrm{K}.`$ (6)
In Figure 3, we show the evolution of dust temperature. The predicted temperature ($`45`$–120 K) is higher than that observed in normal spiral galaxies ($`20`$ K), but such a high temperature ($`80`$ K; dot-dashed line; Dale et al. 2001) is observed in SBS 0335-052. However, the observed FIR luminosity and temperature are uncertain because the peak of FIR spectrum has not been detected yet. Thus, the three quantities (the size, FIR luminosity, and dust temperature) are simultaneously accounted for by our model. Such a high-dust temperature is also predicted for high-$`z`$ objects (e.g., Totani & Takeuchi 2001).

### 2.3 H2 Abundance

The abundance of H2 affects the cooling rate of gas. In particular, to obtain insight into the molecular cooling of a primordial system, nearby star-forming dwarf galaxies constitute an important “laboratory”. Thus, we next calculate the evolution of molecular hydrogen fraction.

We assume that molecules form on dust grains and are destroyed (dissociated) by the UV field (both processes occur on a much shorter timescale than the lifetime of OB stars; Kamaya & Hirashita 2001). Thus, we evaluate the two rates and assume equilibrium. We adopt the formation rate of H2 by Hollenbach & McKee (1979):

$`R=0.5n_\mathrm{H}(1f_{\mathrm{H}_2})n_\mathrm{d}\pi a^2\overline{v}S(T),`$ (7)
where $`n_\mathrm{H}`$ is the number density of hydrogen nuclei, $`f_{\mathrm{H}_2}`$ is the number fraction in molecules (i.e., $`f_{\mathrm{H}_2}n_\mathrm{H}/2`$ is the number density of H2), $`\overline{v}`$ is the mean thermal speed of hydrogen, and $`S(T)`$ is the sticking coefficient of hydrogen atoms. The latter is given by (Omukai 2000)

$`S(T)`$ $`=`$ $`[1+0.04(T+T_\mathrm{d})^{0.5}+2\times 10^3T+8\times 10^6T^2]^1`$ (8)
$`\times `$ $`[1+\mathrm{exp}(7.5\times 10^2(1/751/T_\mathrm{d}))]^1,`$
where $`T`$ is the gas temperature. We take $`a=0.03`$ $`\mu `$m (Todini & Ferrara 2001) and $`T=100`$ K. The gas temperature is at present poorly constrained both by absorption line and 21-cm H i observations; however it should represent a reasonable estimate for the temperature of the cold, H2-forming phase of the Galaxy ISM.

On the other hand, the dissociation rate $`In_{\mathrm{H}_2}`$ is estimated empirically by

$`In_{\mathrm{H}_2}`$ $`=`$ $`2\times 10^{11}\left({\displaystyle \frac{I_{\mathrm{UV}}}{2\times 10^3\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{cm}^2}}\right)`$ (9)
$`\times f_{\mathrm{H}_2}n_\mathrm{H}\mathrm{cm}^3\mathrm{s}^1,`$
where $`I_{\mathrm{UV}}=L_{\mathrm{OB}}\mathrm{exp}(\tau _{\mathrm{dust}})/r_{\mathrm{SF}}^2`$ is the UV radiation field attenuated by dust. We have assumed for normalization that the UV radiation intensity and dissociation rate at the solar neighbourhood are $`2\times 10^3\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{cm}^2`$ and $`2\times 10^{11}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (Jura 1974), respectively, and that $`In_{\mathrm{H}_2}`$ linearly scales with $`I_{\mathrm{UV}}`$. Equating the two rates, we obtain $`f_{\mathrm{H}_2}`$ as a function of age of burst. For a given amount of dust, $`f_{\mathrm{H}_2}`$ is independent of the hydrogen number density. Thus, we examine the dependence on $`r_{\mathrm{SF}}`$. Since we assume that $`M_\mathrm{d}=0`$ at $`t=0`$ and consider only the reaction on grains, the initial molecular fraction is assumed to be zero ($`f_{\mathrm{H}_2}=0`$ at $`t=0`$). If H2 formation in the gas phase is allowed, $`f_{\mathrm{H}_2}>0`$ at $`t=0`$. In this sense, our estimate of $`f_{\mathrm{H}_2}`$ is a lower limit.

The result is shown in Figure 4 for $`r_{\mathrm{SF}}=300`$, 100, and 30 pc (solid, dotted, and dashed lines, respectively). The molecular fraction rises because of the shielding of UV radiation by grains. Thus, the dust enrichment by SNe II causes a significant shielding of UV radiation field. Once the column density of H2 becomes larger than $`10^{14}`$ cm-2, the self-shielding effect becomes important (e.g., Draine & Bertoldi 1996). The value corresponds to $`f_{\mathrm{H}_2}3\times 10^9(n_\mathrm{H}/100\mathrm{cm}^3)^1(r_{\mathrm{SF}}/100\mathrm{pc})^1`$. The emission line diagnostics by Izotov et al. (1999) and Vanzi et al. (2000) indicate that $`n_\mathrm{H}500\mathrm{cm}^3`$ in the star-forming region of SBS 0335-052. With $`n_\mathrm{H}=500\mathrm{cm}^3`$, the self-shielding value of $`f_{\mathrm{H}_2}`$ is achieved at the age of 10, 5, and 2 Myr for $`r_{\mathrm{SF}}=300`$, 100, and 30 pc, respectively.

## 3 DISCUSSION

### 3.1 Physical Conditions of SBS 0335-052

For the dust mass, Dale et al. (2001) derived the value of $`M_\mathrm{d}=2400M_{}`$ from black-body fitting of the observed spectrum of SBS 0335-052. Hunt et al. (2001) derived an upper limit of $`10^5M_{}`$ from the extinction. A starburst of age $`3\times 10^6`$$`5\times 10^7`$ yr reproduces those values (Fig. 1). This range is consistent with the age observationally determined by Vanzi et al. (2000). For the dust temperature, it is necessary that the radius of the star-forming region be smaller than 100 pc to explain the 80 K component revealed by ISO (Dale et al. 2001), although the temperature may be overestimated because of the contamination of the emission from very small grains heated stochastically.

As observational information on the H2 abundance, near-infrared emission lines are available. The line intensity is dependent on the excitation mechanism and thus the quantity of H2 is poorly constrained. However, the detection of the H2 lines (Vanzi et al. 2000) implies that there is an effective mechanism that shields the UV-dissociative photons. The compactness as observed by Hunt et al. (2001) and Dale et al. (2001) may explain the existence of H2 for this object (Fig. 4) because of the shielding effects.

Finally, we conclude that if the star forming region of SBS 0335-052 is compact ($`r_{\mathrm{SF}}100`$ pc) and the gas density is large ($`n_\mathrm{H}10^3`$ cm-3), the young age, the dust amount, the FIR luminosity, dust temperature, and the H2 abundance are mutually consistent and explained by our models.

### 3.2 Implications for High-Redshift Galaxies

The main conclusion drawn in this Letter is that star formation activity in extremely metal-poor systems can suffer from extinction. Thus, FIR observations of primeval galaxies are important to observe such dust-enshrouded star formation activity.

Our results for the H2 abundance are interesting in connection with the recent observations of DLAs. There are several DLAs whose abundances of dust and H2 are observationally derived. Levshakov et al. (2000) assumed equilibrium between the photodissociation of H2 by the background UV radiation and formation on grains. They suggested that the small dust number density (as low as 10-3 times the Galactic value) can account for the observed small molecular fraction ($`f_{\mathrm{H}_2}4\times 10^8`$). We have shown that such a low molecular fraction can be due to the dissociation caused by recently formed OB stars. We also have suggested that if the region is compact and dense, the dust produced by SNe II can shield the UV radiation. This can produce a strong correlation between dust amount and H2 fraction. Indeed, a correlation between the two quantities has been observationally verified. Some DLAs whose depletion is large show molecular fractions up to 0.2 (Ge, Bechtold, & Kulkarni 2001). Such high values are possible when dust shielding of the UV radiation field is effective.

## Acknowledgments

We thank L. Vanzi, the referee, for helpful comments that improved this paper very much. We thank K. Omukai and T. T. Takeuchi for useful and frequent discussions. H. H. was supported by a Research Fellowship of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for Young Scientists.