text:
# physics/0201059 SINP/TNP/02-3 Thermodynamics of a classical ideal gas at arbitrary temperatures

## Abstract

We propose a fundamental relation for a classical ideal gas that is valid at all temperatures with remarkable accuracy. All thermodynamical properties of classical ideal gases can be deduced from this relation at arbitrary temperature.

The famous equation of state for an ideal classical gas is

$`PV=Nk_BT.`$ (1)
Interestingly, a classical gas obeys this relation at all temperatures as long as it is ideal, i.e., the Hamiltonian of the system does not depend on the co-ordinates of the particles at all. The proof is simple, and appears in most textbooks . We will also provide the proof later.

An equation of state, however, does not specify a system completely . For example, from the equation of state in Eq. (1), we cannot find the entropy of the system, and many other properties for that matter. Of course if we have a fundamental relation for the system, it contains all thermodynamic information about the system including the equations of state themselves . These are, for example, relations of the type $`S=S(U,V,N)`$ or $`U=U(S,V,N)`$, which express the entropy or the internal energy as a function of other extensive parameters of the system. Legendre transforms of these equations work just as well, like the Helmholtz free energy $`A`$ as a function of $`T`$, $`V`$ and $`N`$. However, it is often difficult to obtain such relations in closed forms which would be valid for any temperature. The Sackur-Tetrode relation, for example, is a fundamental relation of the form $`S=S(U,V,N)`$, but unlike the relation in Eq. (1), it is valid only if the gas is non-relativistic, i.e., if the temperature is small in the sense that $`\beta mc^21`$, where $`m`$ is the mass of the gas particles. Our aim in this article is to suggest a fundamental relation for the classical ideal gas that can be used at any temperature.

Since the gas is assumed to be ideal, the energy of any particle in the gas depends only on its momentum. At a momentum $`p`$, let us denote the energy of a particle by $`\epsilon (p)`$. The single-particle partition function in the canonical ensemble is then given by

$`Q={\displaystyle \frac{gV}{(2\pi \mathrm{})^3}}{\displaystyle d^3pe^{\beta \epsilon (p)}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{2\pi ^2\mathrm{¯}\lambda ^3}}Vf(\beta ),`$ (2)
where $`g`$ denotes the degeneracy due to internal degrees of freedom, $`\mathrm{¯}\lambda `$ is the Compton wavelength of the particle divided by $`2\pi `$,

$`\mathrm{¯}\lambda ={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}}{mc}},`$ (3)
and $`f(\beta )`$ is a dimensionless integral defined by

$`f(\beta )={\displaystyle \frac{1}{(mc)^3}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑pp^2e^{\beta \epsilon (p)}.`$ (4)
The canonical partition function for a system of $`N`$ particles is then given by

$`Z={\displaystyle \frac{Q^N}{N!}},`$ (5)
with the Gibbs correction factor for identical particles. This gives

$`\mathrm{ln}Z=N\left[\mathrm{ln}V+\mathrm{ln}f\mathrm{ln}N+1+\mathrm{ln}(g/2\pi ^2\mathrm{¯}\lambda ^3)\right],`$ (6)
where we have used Stirling’s formula for $`\mathrm{ln}N!`$. It is to be noted that $`f(\beta )`$ is the only component which is not exactly known at this point. Our aim would be to determine it.

For this, we start by evaluating some thermodynamic quantities. The pressure of the gas is given by

$`P={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\beta }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{ln}Z}{V}}\right)_{\beta ,N}={\displaystyle \frac{N}{\beta V}},`$ (7)
irrespective of the functional form of $`f(\beta )`$. This is Eq. (1), and this is why it is valid for any temperature.

Next we look at the energy density. This is given by

$`\varrho ={\displaystyle \frac{1}{V}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{ln}Z}{\beta }}\right)_{V,N}={\displaystyle \frac{N}{V}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{ln}f}{d\beta }}.`$ (8)
Thus, if we define a quantity $`w`$ by

$`P=w\varrho ,`$ (9)
Eqs. (7) and (8) show that

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{w}}=\beta {\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{ln}f}{d\beta }}={\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{ln}f}{d\mathrm{ln}\beta }}.`$ (10)
Using the definition of $`f(\beta )`$ from Eq. (4), we can then write

$`w={\displaystyle \frac{{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑pp^2e^{\beta \epsilon (p)}}{{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑pp^2\beta \epsilon (p)e^{\beta \epsilon (p)}}}.`$ (11)
It is easy to see that if $`\epsilon (p)p^\lambda `$, this formula gives $`w=\lambda /3`$, which gives the correct results for the very low and very high temperature limits .

For arbitrary temperatures, we should use the relativistically correct formula for $`\epsilon (p)`$. For an ideal gas, there is no potential energy. The kinetic energy of a particle with momentum $`p`$ is given by

$`\epsilon (p)=\sqrt{m^2c^4+p^2c^2}mc^2.`$ (12)
Putting this into Eq. (11) and making a change of variable, we can write

$`w={\displaystyle \frac{{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑yy^2\mathrm{exp}\left(\xi \sqrt{1+y^2}\right)}{\xi {\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑yy^2\left(\sqrt{1+y^2}1\right)\mathrm{exp}\left(\xi \sqrt{1+y^2}\right)}},`$ (13)
where $`\xi `$ is a dimensionless variable for the inverse temperature:

$`\xi =\beta mc^2.`$ (14)
The integrations can be performed numerically for any value of $`\xi `$. The results are shown by the solid line in Fig. 1.

The shape of the curve is very similar to a hyperbolic tangent curve. We can try a fit of the form

$`w={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}\mathrm{tanh}\left(\alpha \mathrm{ln}(\xi /b)\right),`$ (15)
with two parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`b`$ which are both positive. This has the correct behavior for both extremes: $`w=1/3`$ for very high temperatures ($`\mathrm{log}\xi \mathrm{}`$) and $`w=2/3`$ for very low temperatures ($`\mathrm{log}\xi +\mathrm{}`$). For reasons described below, we must take $`\alpha =\frac{1}{2}`$, which means that our fit is of the form

$`w={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}{\displaystyle \frac{\xi b}{\xi +b}}.`$ (16)
The choice for the parameter $`b`$ will be made later, in Eq. (29). However, in order to give a preview of the goodness of this fit, we anticipate the value and show the resulting fit as points in Fig. 1. As the figure suggests, the fit is very good for all temperatures. In fact, the agreement between the fit and direct numerical calculation is considerably better than 1% everywhere.

It has to be remarked that $`\epsilon (p)`$, and consequently $`\varrho `$, do not include the contribution from the rest mass energy of the particles. However, it is trivial to obtain a relation between $`P`$ and the energy density $`\rho `$ which includes the mass energy as well. Obviously,

$`\rho =\varrho +mc^2n,`$ (17)
where $`n=N/V`$ is the number density of particles. Using Eq. (1), we can write it as

$`\rho =\varrho +\xi P`$ (18)
for a classical ideal gas. If we then define an equation of state in the form

$`P=\omega \rho ,`$ (19)
the constant $`\omega `$ will have a very simple relation with $`w`$ which can be obtained by dividing both sides of Eq. (18) by $`P`$:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega }}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{w}}+\xi .`$ (20)
We now go back to the fit of Eq. (16), and notice that from Eq. (10), we can now determine $`\mathrm{ln}f`$. In fact, using the fit, we can write

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{ln}f}{d\mathrm{ln}\xi }}=3{\displaystyle \frac{\xi +b}{2\xi +b}},`$ (21)
noting that $`d\mathrm{ln}\beta =d\mathrm{ln}\xi `$, since $`mc^2`$ is constant. Thus,

$`\mathrm{ln}f`$ $`=`$ $`3{\displaystyle \frac{d\xi }{\xi }\frac{\xi +b}{2\xi +b}}`$ (22)
$`=`$ $`K3\mathrm{ln}\xi +{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\mathrm{ln}(2\xi +b),`$
where $`K`$ is an integration constant.

To determine this constant, we may use of the form for $`\mathrm{ln}f`$ for large $`\xi `$. In this case, small momentum values dominate the integrand, so that we can approximate $`\epsilon (p)`$ by $`p^2/2m`$. Once this is done, the integration in Eq. (4) can be exactly performed and one obtains

$`f(\xi 1)\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{2}}}\xi ^{3/2}.`$ (23)
On the other hand, for $`\xi 1`$, Eq. (22) gives

$`\mathrm{ln}f(\xi 1)K{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\mathrm{ln}\xi +{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\mathrm{ln}2.`$ (24)
Notice that this has the correct $`\xi `$-dependece as the non-relativistic formula of Eq. (23). This is the reason why we had to take $`\alpha =\frac{1}{2}`$ in Eq. (15). Moreover, this also allows us to determine $`K`$, viz.,

$`K={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{ln}\pi 2\mathrm{ln}2.`$ (25)
Putting this value of $`K`$ into Eq. (22), we obtain

$`\mathrm{ln}f`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{ln}\pi 2\mathrm{ln}23\mathrm{ln}\xi +{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\mathrm{ln}(2\xi +b).`$ (26)
The remaining constant $`b`$ can be determined by using the asymptotic value of $`f`$ for small $`\xi `$. In this case, large momentum values dominate the integrand so that we can put $`\epsilon (p)=cp`$. Once this approximation is made, the integration in Eq. (4) can be performed analytically and we obtain

$`f(\xi 1)2\xi ^3.`$ (27)
On the other hand, Eq. (26) gives

$`\mathrm{ln}f(\xi 1){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{ln}\pi 2\mathrm{ln}23\mathrm{ln}\xi +{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\mathrm{ln}b.`$ (28)
Comparing the two expressions, we obtain

$`b={\displaystyle \frac{4}{\sqrt[3]{\pi }}}.`$ (29)
This finally completes the fit that we sought for. The fit is shown in Fig. 2, along with the values obtained by direct numerical integration.

We would like to make a comment about our choice of the parameter $`b`$. We have chosen it so as to fit the low-$`\xi `$ end perfectly. However, the resulting fit is worst (though still better than 1%) for intermediate values of $`\xi `$, which shows clearly in Fig. 1. If we take a slightly smaller value of $`\xi `$, the middle part fits much better. Of course it also means that the agreement for small $`\xi `$ gets a bit worse. To be precise, if instead of the value $`b`$ given in Eq. (29) we choose some other value $`b^{}`$ for the parameter under consideration, the values of $`\mathrm{ln}f`$ mismatches by an amount $`\frac{3}{2}\mathrm{ln}(b/b^{})`$ for $`\xi 1`$. But since the value of $`f(\beta )`$ itself is very large for small values of $`\xi `$, the fractional error is very small. A choice like $`b=e`$, the base of natural logarithms, makes the overall fit much better, to better than $`0.5\%`$, for the entire range of temperatures. If we go further down, say $`b=8/3`$, the fit becomes very good in the middle but considerably worse at the ends.

We can put our fit for $`f(\xi )`$ into Eq. (6). This gives

$`\mathrm{ln}Z=N\left[\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{gV}{N\mathrm{¯}\lambda ^3}}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{2\xi +b}{4\pi \xi ^2}}\right)+1\right],`$ (30)
where $`b`$ is given in Eq. (29). The Helmholtz free energy of the classical ideal gas is then given by

$`A={\displaystyle \frac{N}{\beta }}\left[\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{gV}{N\mathrm{¯}\lambda ^3}}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{2\xi +b}{4\pi \xi ^2}}\right)+1\right].`$ (31)
If we recall the definition of $`\xi `$ from Eq. (14), we realize that this is an expression for the free energy as a function of the volume, temperature and total number of particles. This is thus a fundamental relation which can be used at any temperature. All thermodynamic properties of an ideal gas can then be deduced from this relation at arbitrary temperature.

This is the result. Of course it is not exact; it is a fit to the numerical results. But it is a very good fit, and the usefulness of such an expression cannot be overemphasized. In most practical situations, a closed analytic expression is much easier to use than numerical integrations. Our expression for the Helmholtz free energy in Eq. (31) provides such an analytic expression which can be used at any temperature to obtain all thermodynamic properties of a classical ideal gas with suitable manipulations.

We can of course write the fundamental relation in alternative but equivalent ways. For example, we can write the fundamental relation for the entropy $`S`$ by expressing it as a function of $`U`$, $`V`$ and $`N`$. For this, we use Eq. (31) to obtain

$`{\displaystyle \frac{S}{Nk_B}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{Nk_B}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{A}{T}}\right)_{V,N}=\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{gV}{N\mathrm{¯}\lambda ^3}}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{2\xi +b}{4\pi \xi ^2}}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{5\xi +4b}{2\xi +b}}.`$ (32)
At this point, the right hand side is a function of $`V`$, $`N`$ and $`T`$ (through $`\xi `$). To put it in the form of a fundamental relation, we must eliminate $`\xi `$ and bring in the internal energy $`U`$. This can be done through the fit of Eq. (30), which gives

$`U=\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{ln}Z}{\beta }}\right)_{V,N}=3Nmc^2{\displaystyle \frac{\xi +b}{\xi (2\xi +b)}}.`$ (33)
Recalling the definition of $`\xi `$ from Eq. (14), it can be easily checked that this gives $`U=3N/2\beta `$ in the non-relativistic limit ($`\xi 1`$), and $`U=3N/\beta `$ in the ultra-relativistic limit ($`\xi 1`$). In the general case, we can solve Eq. (33) to obtain

$`\xi ={\displaystyle \frac{3Nmc^2bU+\sqrt{(3Nmc^2bU)^2+24bUNmc^2}}{4U}}.`$ (34)
Putting this back into Eq. (32), we obtain the expression for entropy as a function of the external variables $`U`$, $`V`$ and $`N`$. As stated before, this is also a fundamental relation. The non-relativistic limit should now be acknowledged as $`UNmc^2`$, where Eq. (34) gives $`\xi =3Nmc^2/2U`$, which is large. Putting this solution into Eq. (32), we obtain

$`{\displaystyle \frac{S}{Nk_B}}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{gV}{N\mathrm{¯}\lambda ^3}}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{U}{3\pi Nmc^2}}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{5}{2}}`$ (35)
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{ln}\left[\left({\displaystyle \frac{m}{3\pi \mathrm{}^2}}\right)^{3/2}{\displaystyle \frac{gVU^{3/2}}{N^{5/2}}}\right]+{\displaystyle \frac{5}{2}},`$
which is the Sackur-Tetrode relation . In the other extreme, when $`UNmc^2`$ and so $`\xi =3Nmc^2/U1`$, we obtain

$`{\displaystyle \frac{S}{Nk_B}}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{ln}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{(3\pi \mathrm{}c)^3}}{\displaystyle \frac{gVU^3}{N^4}}\right]+4,`$ (36)
if we use the value of $`b`$ from Eq. (29). This result can also be obtained analytically by using $`\epsilon =cp`$.

I thank R. K. Moitra for the suggestion of including the expression for entropy in the paper.


format: text

text:
# Spectral atlas of dwarf novae in outburst

## 1 Introduction

Dwarf novae are a type of cataclysmic variable that undergo outbursts during which they increase in brightness by 2–8 mags. The outburst recurrence time varies widely from system to system and can be as short as a few days (ER UMa systems) and as long as tens of years (WZ Sge systems). The most likely mechanism for dwarf nova outbursts is a thermal instability within an accretion disc (Osaki 1974). There are still many unknowns in the disc instability theory. For example, although we know that the viscosity in the disc plays a fundamental role in driving the outburst, we do not know what its origin is. In 1986 Sawada, Matsuda & Hachisu suggested that the disc viscosity could be due to shocks in the disc tidally excited by the donor star. In 1991, Balbus & Hawley discovered a strong magneto-hydrodynamical instability of accretion discs which can indeed produce considerable effective viscosity. But it is not yet certain which, if either, of these is dominant.

There are several extensive studies on dwarf novae in the literature (Warner 1995 and references therein) but they concentrate mainly on their quiescent states. Only $``$30 per cent of known Northern hemisphere dwarf novae have published outburst spectra and the number for Southern hemisphere systems is even smaller. The main aim of this paper is to fill this gap by presenting spectra of 48 dwarf novae during their outburst state. We carry out comparisons between the spectra of the different dwarf novae and search for possible correlations between the features seen in the spectra and fundamental parameters of the systems such as their inclination, the mass of their components, their orbital periods and the outburst phases at which they were observed. Comparisons between the spectra are possible because the data were taken with comparable setups during a long term programme using service time.

Another reason for compiling this atlas is to look for spectra similar to that of IP Peg, U Gem and WZ Sge, systems that have been confirmed to show spiral structure in their discs during outburst. By confirmed we mean that spiral structure has been detected in more than one set of data, either taken during a different outburst or during the same outburst at a different time (IP Peg: Steeghs et al. 1997, Harlaftis et al. 1999, Morales-Rueda, Marsh & Billington 2000; U Gem: Groot 2001, Steeghs private communication; WZ Sge: Kuulkers et al. 2001, Baba, Sadakane & Norimoto 2001). The principal feature of their spectra, compared with those of other dwarf novae, is that they show strong lines in emission instead of absorption. Of the $``$30 per cent of dwarf novae with outburst spectra published, only half of these show any emission, and even then it is often in the form of emission lines buried in absorption troughs. There could easily be systems with strong emission lines in outburst that have yet to be identified. Of most interest is the presence of He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å in emission as this line is very important from the irradiation point of view. If these asymmetric structures seen in the discs of IP Peg, U Gem and WZ Sge are the result of tidally thickened sectors of the disc being irradiated by the white dwarf, boundary layer and/or inner disc during the outburst (as suggested by Smak 2001 and Ogilvie 2001) we expect them to be seen most clearly in He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å.

## 2 Observations

The data presented in this paper were taken by different support astronomers during service time. All the spectra but two were obtained with the Intermediate Dispersion Spectrograph (IDS) mounted on the 2.5 m Isaac Newton telescope (INT) on La Palma. The spectra of IR Gem and IY UMa were taken with the blue arm of ISIS on the 4 m William Herschel telescope (WHT). Two different IDS setups were used for the observations. The first setup consisted of the 235 mm camera with the R1200B grating. The second setup used the 500 mm camera and the R632V grating. The observations were taken with one of the two CCDs available with the IDS, either the thinned EEV10 (2Kx4K) or the Tek (1Kx1K). Both setups produced almost the same wavelength dispersion (35 and 31 Å mm-1 respectively). In both cases we covered $`\text{H}\gamma `$ and He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å and a few He i lines. The two spectra taken with the WHT used the blue arm of ISIS with the R1200B grating and a EEV CCD covering the same wavelength region as the INT spectra with a wavelength dispersion of 33 Å mm-1. Exposure times were generally 600 s. Table 1 gives a list of the dwarf novae observed.

The images were debiased and flat-fielded using bias and tungsten lamp exposures respectively. The optimal extraction algorithm of Horne (1986) was used to extract the spectra. The data were wavelength calibrated using a CuAr arc lamp. The arcs were extracted using the profile determined for their corresponding stellar image to avoid possible systematic errors due to tilted spectra. We observed one flux standard with each of the setups: BD+284211 (Oke 1990) with the first setup on 2000 August 15, BD+332642 (Oke 1990) with the second setup on 2000 April 10, and HD19445 (Oke & Gunn 1983) with the WHT on 2000 January 18. These were used to correct the data from instrumental response and extinction.

## 3 Results

Figs. 1 to 8 present the spectra of 48 dwarf novae during their outburst state. Above the spectra there is another panel showing the VSNET (Variable Star NETwork), VSOLJ (Variable Star Observers League in Japan) or AAVSO (American Association of Variable Star Observers) lightcurve with an arrow pointing at the time when our spectra were taken. For those systems where there are very few data points in the light curves we have also plotted a horizontal dashed line indicating the magnitude of the quiescent state as given by Downes, Webbink & Shara (1997). Of all the dwarf novae presented, only a few were observed on the same night as the standards used for their flux calibration: FO Aql, LX And, IR Gem, IP Peg, GK Per, V893 Sco, NY Ser, IY UMa and SS UMi. For the other 39 systems we used the standard taken with the same setup as the targets to calibrate their fluxes. In these cases the slope of the continuum should be taken with caution. Most of the spectra show a blue continuum characteristic of cataclysmic variables. An exception to this is SS Aur that seems to show a red excess in the continuum. We do not believe this to be real but the result of incorrect flux calibration. We have not been able to track down the problem in this case. After flux calibration, we divided each spectrum by a constant obtained by averaging the values of the continuum in regions free of lines. We plot all the spectra from zero to show the relative line strengths.

Table 3 gives the measured equivalent width (EW) and full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the lines present in the spectra as well as the inclination and masses of the compact object and the donor star when known, as taken from Ritter & Kolb (1998) unless otherwise indicated. To measure EWs we considered the absorption lines to extend from $``$3500 $`\text{km}\text{s}^1`$ to 3500 $`\text{km}\text{s}^1`$ for the Balmer lines and from $``$3000 $`\text{km}\text{s}^1`$ to 3000 $`\text{km}\text{s}^1`$ for the He i lines. For emission lines with no sign of absorption we considered the line to comprise from $``$1000 $`\text{km}\text{s}^1`$ to 1000 $`\text{km}\text{s}^1`$ of the rest wavelength. In the case of He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å we tried to avoid contamination by the nearby Bowen blend and He i$`\lambda `$4713 Å by choosing the line limits by eye in each case. In the particular case of IY UMa only the EW of $`\text{H}\beta `$ is reliable as $`\text{H}\gamma `$ and He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å are heavily contaminated by nearby lines. FWHMs were measured by fitting a Gaussian function to the emission or absorption line. The FWHM, the offset from the rest wavelength, and the peak of the Gaussian were free parameters of the fit. In the case of absorption lines with emission cores, the FWHM of the absorption component were measured by masking the central emission. In those cases, two values for FWHM are given, one for the absorption line and another for the central emission. In the case of emission lines with absorption cores, the absorption was also masked before the Gaussian fit was attempted but only the emission FWHM is given.

For comparison we have also included the spectra of GK Per during its 1996 outburst (Morales-Rueda, Still & Roche 1999) and that of IP Peg, during its August 1994 outburst (Morales-Rueda et al. 2000). The spectrum of IP Peg is very different from that of the rest of the dwarf novae, the most striking difference being the strong He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å line in emission.

### 3.1 Notes on particular objects

SS Aur. As noted above, the red continuum seen in the spectra of this system is probably the result of poor flux calibration.

SS Cyg. We took two spectra of this dwarf nova during the same outburst, one near maximum, the other in the descent to quiescence. The spectra at these two times show some major differences. At maximum the continuum increases significantly. As a result of the disc becoming optically thick, we see absorption lines with an emission core. The strength of the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å line is significantly larger relative to the strength of the Balmer and He i lines compared to the quiescent state. In contrast, the spectrum taken near quiescence shows a lower continuum with Balmer and He emission lines. SS Cyg is one of the systems claimed to have spiral asymmetries during outburst (Steeghs et al.  1996).

U Gem. The spectrum shows Balmer absorption lines with faint emission cores. He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å appears strong in the spectrum and double peaked presumably due to the high inclination of the system. There is also some emission in the Bowen blend. In a recent study of U Gem during outburst Groot (2001) finds spiral structure in the accretion disc. Spectra taken on 2001 April 30, and May 4, 5, 9 and 10 when U Gem was in outburst (first three nights) and decaying to quiescence (last two nights) show the presence of spiral structure in He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å and less clearly in $`\text{H}\beta `$ while the system was in outburst. The He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å emission line disappears almost completely from the spectrum on May 9 and 10, when the system was half way down to its quiescent state (Steeghs, private communication). This indicates that the origin of He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å is either irradiation caused by a thickening of the accretion disc during outburst, as suggested by Ogilvie (2001), or the spiral asymmetries themselves.

Other features worth mentioning about the spectrum of U Gem are the bumpy structures seen to the blue of He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å. These are seen in other spectra of this sample, i.e. KT Per, TY Psc, V516 Cyg. These features are real and correspond to multiple He i and Fe ii lines. Some of them have been marked in the spectrum of U Gem for clarity.

AW Sge, NY Ser, DI UMa. These spectra are particularly noisy as these dwarf novae are still quite faint during outburst and our standard exposure time did not achieve the intended signal to noise. The signal-to-noise ratio of these spectra does not allow us to conclude whether He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å is present in emission or not but they clearly show Balmer lines in absorption, perhaps with central emission. They probably resemble the spectra of RU Peg or V1159 Ori more than that of IP Peg.

IY UMa. This spectrum shows strong Balmer and He i lines in emission with absorption cores (the opposite to what we have seen up to now). There is strong emission in He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å and the Bowen blend. Although from the light curve we can see that our spectrum does not coincide with amateur observations, we are certain that IY UMa was in outburst when we observed it as its quiescent level is magnitude $``$17. The rapid variations seen in the light curve are due to eclipses.

### 3.2 He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å in emission

Out of the sample of CVs observed we find, apart from IP Peg, 12 dwarf novae that show He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å in emission: SS Aur, HL CMa, TU Crt, EM Cyg, SS Cyg, EX Dra, U Gem, HX Peg, GK Per, KT Per, V893 Sco, IY UMa, and possibly 7 other systems were He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å is present but very faint: FO And, V542 Cyg, BI Ori, TY Psc, VZ Pyx, ER UMa, and SS UMi.

## 4 Discussion

In this section we look for correlations between the quantities we can measure in our spectra (i.e. EW, FWHM, outburst phase) and fundamental parameters of the dwarf novae, like their masses and orbital periods.

### 4.1 FWHM versus EW

For high inclination dwarf novae, the FWHM of the lines scales as $`\mathrm{sin}i`$ (where $`i`$ is the inclination of the system). This is due to Doppler broadening of the lines. It is not clear that this is true for low inclination systems. At low inclinations other mechanisms may dominate over Doppler broadening, e.g. thermal broadening, intrinsic broadening. It is not possible to establish at what range of inclinations the FWHM of the lines is directly proportional to $`\mathrm{sin}i`$ because we are not capable of measuring $`\mathrm{sin}i`$ with any certainty for systems that are not eclipsing.

Keeping this in mind we search for correlations between the FWHM of the lines and their strength, as given by their EW. Fig. 9 shows the FWHM versus EW for $`\text{H}\gamma `$ (top panel) and He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å (bottom panel).

There is some indication of positive correlation of FWHM with EW. This apparent correlation would indicate that high inclination systems (those with higher FWHM) show stronger emission lines. It is worth mentioning that three of the systems where He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å is strong in emission during outburst and where spiral structure has been detected, i.e. IP Peg, EX Dra and U Gem, are edge-on systems and one expects radiative transfer effects to favour seeing emission in such cases.

### 4.2 Line emission versus the masses of the components of the system

Another property to be explored is the He ii/Balmer ratio which one might expect to depend upon white dwarf mass on the basis that accretion onto higher mass white dwarfs will produce more photons capable of ionising He ii. In Fig. 10 we have plotted those two quantities for those systems where the mass of the white dwarf has been measured. There is no correlation apparent. In most cases the measurements of the masses of the compact objects have been performed by measuring the white dwarf radial velocity semi-amplitude and combining it with the radial velocity semi-amplitude of the companion star. Assuming a mass for the donor star depending on its spectral type, a value for the mass of the compact object is obtained. It is worth mentioning that this method is known to produce very uncertain results and that the uncertainties in the mass determinations could completely mask any such a relationship if it existed.

When we explore the correlation between the EW of the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å line versus the mass of the compact object, the mass of the donor star, and the mass ratio of the system we reach the same conclusion: there is no correlation between the masses of the components of the binaries and the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å EW. It is worth emphasising again that the values for the white dwarf masses are very uncertain. Also we should not forget that the EWs of the lines can change significantly for one system during the outburst, e.g. the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å EW of U Gem during its April/May 2001 outburst changes from -1 to 4 Å throughout the outburst (Steeghs private communication). The EW values plotted here are measured at a particular time during outburst that is not the same for all the systems plotted which again may mask any correlations.

### 4.3 Line emission versus orbital period

In Fig. 11 we present the EW of the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å line measured from each dwarf nova spectrum presented in this paper versus its orbital period (Ritter & Kolb 1998). As there is a correlation between the dwarf nova type and its orbital period, we have used different symbols for U Gem, SU UMa and Z Cam systems. It is clear that there is no correlation between the orbital period of the CV and the strength of the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å emission. The orbital periods of 9 of the dwarf novae presented in this study are unknown and therefore have not been included in this plot.

### 4.4 EW and FWHM versus outburst phase

We already mentioned in section 4.2 that the EW of one particular line might change considerably throughout the outburst. By introducing the concept of outburst phase, $`\varphi _{\mathrm{out}}`$, (time since the start of the outburst divided by the length of the outburst) we can use our sample of dwarf novae to study whether there is any relationship between the EW and FWHM of the lines and the outburst phase at which they were observed. The outburst phases for the dwarf novae observed are given in Table 2. The top panel of Fig. 12 presents the FWHM and EW measured for $`\text{H}\gamma `$ and He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å. Two values for the FWHM of $`\text{H}\gamma `$ are presented, one was measured when the line was in absorption and the other when the line was in emission or when the absorption line showed an emission core. The bottom panel of Fig. 12 shows also the FWHM and EW for both lines but this time versus the average times between outbursts. We calculated these by using VSNET ligthcurves that span over years. One of the dwarf novae, GK Per, has not been included in this bottom figure because its outburst recurrence time is $``$1095 days (3 years) and expanding the scale that much would not allow us to see the other points.

It is clear from the plots that there is not any clear correlation between the FWHM and EW of the lines and the outburst phase or the average time between outbursts.

## 5 Conclusions

We present the first comprehensive sample of dwarf nova spectra during outburst. We study the possible correlations between the lines present in the spectra and fundamental parameters of the systems. We find that there is no correlation between the strength of the lines and the masses of the components of the system or the periods of the binaries. There seems to be some correlation between the strength of the lines and the inclination of the system as represented by the FWHM of the lines. We do not find any correlation between the FWHM or the EW of the lines and either the time of the outburst at which the dwarf novae were observed or the outburst recurrence time measured for each system.

Of the 48 dwarf novae outburst spectra presented we find that 20 systems, 13 of them very clearly, and the other 7 possibly, show He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å in emission. If models presented by Smak (2001) and Ogilvie (2001) are correct, these are good candidates to show spiral structure in their accretion discs during outburst. These results are even more encouraging because four of these candidates: SS Cyg, EX Dra, U Gem and IP Peg, have been seen to show hints of spiral structure in their discs already (Steeghs et al. 1996; Joergens, Spruit & Rutten 2000, Steeghs, Harlaftis & Horne 1997, Groot 2001). Based on recent outburst spectra of U Gem (Steeghs, private communication) we suggest that in fact the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å emission is either the result of irradiation or produced by the spiral structures themselves. If its origin is irradiation we expect the He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å intensity to change with disc thickness. If the origin of He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å is the structures themselves, we should see them in all dwarf novae that show He ii$`\lambda `$4686 Å emission. Time resolved spectroscopy of the other candidates found in our sample will allow us to confirm or dismiss the presence of spiral asymmetries in their accretion discs.

### Acknowledgements

LM-R was supported by a PPARC post-doctoral research grant. The Isaac Newton telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. The authors would like to thank the Variable Star Network, VSNET, and the Variable Star Observers League in Japan, VSOLJ, for making their data available as most of the light curves presented in this paper were produced using their observations. In this research, we have used, and acknowledge with thanks, data from the AAVSO International Database, based on observations submitted to the AAVSO by variable star observers worldwide. The reduction and analysis of the data was carried out on the Southampton node of the STARLINK network. We also wish to thank the referee and D. Steeghs for useful comments and L. González Hernández for computer support.


text:
# References

January 2002

Dynamical masses of quarks in

quantum chromodynamics
N.V. Krasnikov and A.A. Pivovarov

Institute for Nuclear Research of the

Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 117312, Russia

## Abstract

Using Dyson-Schwinger equations we obtain an ultraviolet asymptotics for the dynamical mass of quark in QCD

$$m_D(p)=\frac{\overline{q}q}{3}\frac{\overline{g}^2(p^2/\mu ^2,g_R^2)}{p^2}\left(\frac{\overline{g}^2(p^2/\mu ^2,g_R^2)}{g_R^2}\right)^d.$$

We also determine a numerical value for the $`\pi `$ meson decay constant $`f_\pi `$.

Electronic version of the paper published in Russ. Phys. J. 25, 55 (1982).

As is well known, strong interactions at high energies are approximately invariant with respect to the chiral symmetry group $`SU_L(N)SU_R(N)`$ ($`N`$ is the number of different quark species). The Lagrangian of QCD – the most popular field-theoretical model of strong interactions – has the chiral symmetry group $`SU_L(N)SU_R(N)`$ in approximation of massless quarks. The success of current algebra and PCAC hypothesis shows that the chiral symmetry $`SU_L(N)SU_R(N)`$ is spontaneously broken down to $`SU(N)`$ symmetry. The spontaneous violation of the chiral symmetry reveals itself in nonvanishing vacuum expectation values $`\overline{q}q`$ and also in the appearance of dynamical mass for originally massless quarks.

The problem of dynamical mass generation in massless theories has a long history. First, in refs.  it has been shown in some concrete models that the generation of the dynamical mass can take place in quantum field theory. However, the consistent study of the problem of dynamical mass generation requires going beyond perturbation theory. It is obvious that this problem is rather nontrivial in the field theory because of the absence of the consistent methods different from perturbation theory.

The purpose of the present paper is to investigate a possibility of generation of the dynamical mass of quarks in QCD. Using the Dyson-Schwinger equations we show that one can reliably determine the dependence of the dynamical mass of quarks $`m(p)`$ on the momentum $`p`$ in the ultraviolet domain due to the property of asymptotic freedom of strong interactions. In the following we will work in Euclidean space-time and in the transverse gauge (Landau gauge). The use of this gauge is convenient since the propagator of the massless quark is not renormalized in the leading logarithmic approximation.

The Dyson-Schwinger equation for the quark propagator $`G(p)`$ has the form

$$G^1(p)=S^1(p)+\frac{g^2}{(2\pi )^4}d^4k\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mu ^a(p,k)G(k)D_{\mu \nu }(pk)\gamma _\nu (\lambda ^a/2).$$
(1)
Here $`S(p)`$ is the propagator of free quarks, $`\lambda ^a/2`$ are the generators of the fundamental representation of the group $`SU(N)`$. Equation (1) is written for bare quantities. After performing the renormalization we find

$$Z_2^1G_R^1(p)=S^1(p)+\frac{g_R^2}{(2\pi )^4}d^4k\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mu ^{aR}(p,k)G_R(k)D_{\mu \nu }^R(pk)\gamma _\nu (\lambda ^a/2),$$

where $`Z_2`$ is the renormalization constant of the quark propagator. At the lowest order in $`g_R^2`$ in the Landau gauge the renormalization constant of the quark propagator is equal to one $`Z_2=1+O(g_R^4)`$. Therefore in the leading logarithmic approximation we can set $`G^1(p)=m(p)\widehat{p}`$. For the quantity $`m(p)`$ we obtain the equation of the form

$$m(p^2)=\frac{4}{(2\pi )^4}d^4k\frac{m(k^2)\overline{g}^2((pk)^2)}{(m^2(k^2)+k^2)(pk)^2}$$

where

$$\overline{g}^2(p^2)=\overline{g}^2(p^2/\mu ^2,g_R^2)=g_R^2/\left(1+(112N/3)\frac{g_R^2}{16\pi ^2}\mathrm{ln}\frac{p^2}{\mu ^2}\right)$$

is the effective quark-gluon coupling constant. We split the region of integration into two sub-domains determined by the requirements $`k^2>p^2`$ (sub-domain (I)) and $`k^2<p^2`$ (sub-domain (II))

$$d^4k=_{k^2>p^2,(I)}d^4k+_{k^2<p^2,(II)}d^4k.$$

Then, taking into account that

$$x\frac{d}{dx}\overline{g}^2(x)=\frac{332N}{48\pi ^2}(\overline{g}^2(x))^2$$

we obtain the equality $`\overline{g}^2[(pk)^2]=\overline{g}^2(k^2)`$ up to the terms of the next order in $`g^2`$ in the sub-domain (I) where $`k^2>p^2`$ and the equality $`\overline{g}^2[(pk)^2]=\overline{g}^2(p^2)`$ with the same accuracy in the sub-domain (II) where $`p^2>k^2`$.

Setting $`p^2=x`$ we obtain after integrating over the angular variables

$$m(x)=\frac{1}{4\pi ^2}_x^{\mathrm{}}\frac{\overline{g}^2(z)m(z)dz}{m^2(z)+z}+\frac{1}{4\pi ^2}\frac{\overline{g}^2(x)}{x}_0^x\frac{m(z)zdz}{m^2(z)+z}.$$
(2)
After some transformations of eq. (2) one finds

$$\frac{d}{dx}\left(\frac{4\pi ^2x^2(dm/dx)}{\overline{g}^2(x)}\right)=\frac{m(x)x}{m^2(x)+x}.$$

Taking into account that

$$(332N)\overline{g}^2(x)=48\pi ^2/\mathrm{ln}(x/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)$$

and changing the variable $`x/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2=\mathrm{exp}(t)`$ we obtain

$$\frac{d^2\mathrm{\Sigma }(t)}{dt^2}+(1+1/t)\frac{d\mathrm{\Sigma }(t)}{dt}+d\frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }(t)}{t}(1+\mathrm{\Sigma }^2(t)\mathrm{\Lambda }^2\mathrm{exp}(t))^1=0$$
(3)
where $`d=12/(332N)`$, $`m(x)\mathrm{\Sigma }(t)`$ with $`t=\mathrm{ln}(x/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)`$.

We are looking for a solution of eq. (3) which is bounded at $`t\mathrm{}`$, therefore in the asymptotic regime one can neglect the nonlinearity of the equation. The linear equation has the solution

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }(t)=\mathrm{exp}(t/2\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}t)\left(\stackrel{~}{C}_1W_{d+1/2,0}(t)+\stackrel{~}{C}_2W_{d1/2,0}(t)\right)$$

where $`W_{\lambda ,\mu }(z)`$ are Whittaker functions with the asymptotic behavior for large $`z`$

$$W_{\lambda ,\mu }(z)|_{|z|\mathrm{}}=\mathrm{exp}(z/2)z^\lambda [1+O(1/z)].$$
(4)
Using eq. (4) we obtain the asymptotics of two linearly independent solutions of eq. (3):

$$m_1(x)|_x\mathrm{}C_1\mathrm{ln}^d(x/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)$$

and

$$m_2(x)|_x\mathrm{}(C_2/x)\mathrm{ln}^{d1}(x/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2).$$

For the determination of the constants $`C_1`$ and $`C_2`$ we use the comparison with perturbation theory. We require smallness of the nonperturbative corrections in the asymptotic domain in the form

$$m(p^2)\overline{m}(p^2)=\overline{o}(\overline{m}(p^2)),p^2\mathrm{}$$

where $`\overline{m}(p^2)=m_R\left(\overline{g}^2(p^2)/\overline{g}^2(\mu ^2)\right)^d`$ is the usual expression for the effective quark mass in the renormalization group analysis. Then

$$C_1=m_R\mathrm{ln}^d(\mu ^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)$$

and

$$m(p^2)=m_R\left(\overline{g}^2(p^2)/\overline{g}^2(\mu ^2)\right)^d\frac{C}{p^2}\overline{g}^2(p^2)\left(\overline{g}^2(p^2)/\overline{g}^2(\mu ^2)\right)^d.$$
(5)
The second term in this expression describes the ultraviolet asymptotics of the dynamical mass of the light quark. For the determination of the constant $`C`$ we use the perturbation theory with phenomenological account for the nonperturbative effects through $`\overline{q}q0`$.

In the second order of the perturbation theory with the nonvanishing vacuum expectation value of the bilinear quark operator $`\overline{q}q`$ one has

$$\mathrm{tr}G(p)=\frac{4\overline{q}q}{3}g_R^2/(p^2)^2,$$

on the other hand the use of the explicit form of the mass operator from eq. (5) gives

$$\mathrm{tr}G(p)=4Cg_R^2/(p^2)^2.$$

Comparing these two expressions we obtain

$$C=\overline{q}q/3.$$
(6)
With the expression for the dynamical mass given in eq. (5) where the constant $`C`$ is fixed by the relation from eq. (6) we compute the pion decay constant $`f_\pi `$ defined through

$$0|A_\mu ^a(0)|\pi ^b(\stackrel{}{k})=ik_\mu f_\pi \delta ^{ab},k^2=m_\pi ^2,$$

where $`|\pi ^a(\stackrel{}{k})`$ is the one-particle pion state, $`A_\mu ^a(0)`$ is the isotopic vector axial current. The representation for the pion decay constant $`f_\pi `$ was found in ref.  and used earlier for a similar calculation in ref.

$$f_\pi ^2=\frac{3}{(2\pi )^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑x\frac{x\left(m(x)\frac{x}{2}\frac{dm(x)}{dx}\right)m(x)}{(x+m^2(x))^2}.$$
(7)
For determining the numerical values one has to know the magnitude of the vacuum expectation value $`\overline{q}q`$. The methods of current algebra allow one to relate $`\overline{q}q`$ to the current masses of light quarks that leads to the estimate $`\overline{q}q=(250\mathrm{MeV})^3`$. Then the relation from eq. (7) gives $`f_\pi =77\mathrm{MeV}`$. Using the experimental value $`f_\pi =93\mathrm{MeV}`$ one can turn the problem around and determine $`|\overline{q}q|=(310\mathrm{MeV})^3`$. Note that in this way one cannot determine the sign of the vacuum expectation value $`\overline{q}q`$.


text:
# A Statistical Analysis of Hadron Spectrum: Quantum Chaos in Hadrons

thanks: Present address.

## Abstract

The nearest-neighbor mass-spacing distribution of the meson and baryon spectrum (up to 2.5 GeV) is described by the Wigner surmise corresponding to the statistics of the Gaussian orthogonal ensemble of random matrix theory. This can be viewed as a manifestation of quantum chaos in hadrons.

Quarks are glued into colorless objects called hadrons, forming a large and complex hadron spectrum. This spectrum is the main source of information about the quark-gluon interactions in the confinement regime, and hadron spectroscopy has been receiving a lot of attention both theoretically and experimentally.

In the study of complex spectra in general, statistical methods proved to be useful. One of the early successes of statistical analysis was Wigner’s celebrated discovery of the fact that fluctuation properties of complex nuclear spectra are described by the Random Matrix Theory (RMT) Wigner ; Dyson ; Porter65 ; Mehta67 ; Brody:1981 . It was later realized that these properties, referred to as Wigner-Dyson properties, have a great deal of universality and appear in spectra of many physical systems, ranging from quantum dots Alh00  to lattice gauge theories Ver95 ; Ver00 ; Berg:2000be ; Bittner:2001aq .

In this Letter we show that the experimentally measured hadron spectrum has at least some Wigner-Dyson properties as well. Once this is established the link to the underlying dynamics is made via the Bohigas–Giannoni–Schmit (BGS) conjecture BGS83 , which states that the Wigner-Dyson properties are generic to spectra of the systems with a quantum analog of chaotic dynamics — the “quantum chaos” (see, e.g., Gut90 ; CaC95 ).

Recent theoretical work in lattice QCD Ver95 ; Ver00 ; Berg:2000be  and quantum-mechanical Yang-Mills models Salasnich:1997cw ; Bittner:2001aq  has already addressed the statistical properties of QCD spectrum as well as the quantum chaos aspects. Our findings will provide certain empirical support of these results and, hopefully, motivate further studies in this direction.

We look at the experimentally measured mass spectrum of hadrons up to 2.5 GeV taken from the Particle Data Group (PDG) Summary Tables pdg . More specifically, we consider $`N`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ baryons up to $`N`$(2200), and all the mesons listed in the Summary Tables up to $`f_2(2340)`$. In doing so we exclude the poorly known “one-star baryons.” We have only verified that they do not have a significant impact on our results.

The spectrum can be organized into multiplets, see Fig. 1, characterized by a set of definite quantum numbers (QNs): isospin, spin, parity, strangeness, baryon number, and, in the case of mesons, charge conjugation. Using these data we would like to examine the probability distribution of spacing (mass-splitting), $`S_i=m_{i+1}m_i`$, between nearest-neighbor hadrons within one multiplet (same QNs). We thus do not need to consider channels with only a single state below 2.5 GeV.

Each multiplet provides a number of spacings which are gathered into a common array of spacings. We actually will be considering three arrays: $`\{S_i\}_B`$, $`\{S_i\}_M`$, and $`\{S_i\}_H=\{\{S_i\}_B,\{S_i\}_M\}`$ containing the spacings of, respectively, the baryon, the meson, and all multiplets. As usual, the mean spacing, $`S=(1/N)_{k=1}^NS_k`$ is scaled out and we deal with dimensionless arrays:

$`\{s_i\}_B`$ $`=`$ $`\{S_i\}_B/S_B,`$
$`\{s_i\}_M`$ $`=`$ $`\{S_i\}_M/S_M,`$ (1)
$`\{s_i\}_H`$ $`=`$ $`\{S_i\}_H/S_H=\{\{S_i\}_B/S_H,\{S_i\}_M/S_H\}.`$
The mean spacing values $`S_{B,M,H}`$ are computed in Table I.

Histograms of the resulting spacing distributions, $`p(\{s_i\}_B)`$, $`p(\{s_i\}_M)`$, and $`p(\{s_i\}_H)`$ are presented in Fig. 2. The curves in the figure show the Poisson-like distribution \[$`p(s)=\mathrm{exp}(s)`$\], and the Wigner surmise \[$`p(s)=\frac{\pi }{2}s\mathrm{exp}(\frac{\pi }{4}s^2)`$\]. They represent two extreme regimes: uncorrelated spectrum vs. a strongly correlated one.

The figure clearly shows that the experimental distribution is of the Wigner-surmise type. We have checked that if one does not discriminate the QNs (“mixed QNs”) the spacing distribution is Poissonian, so only states with the same QNs are correlated.

The histogram plots represent the distributions in a rather qualitative way because due to the low statistics the picture is very sensitive to the choice of the grid. Accounting for the error bars makes it even less accurate. It is more instructive to consider integrated characteristics, such as the moments of distribution. For our empirical distribution the $`n`$-th moment is simply calculated as

$$s^n_{\mathrm{exp}}=\frac{1}{N}\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}s_i^n,$$
(2)
which obviously is not sensitive to the analysis artifacts such as the choice of energy grid.

At the same time let us consider a more general form of the Wigner surmise:

$$p_\mathrm{W}(s)=As^\beta \mathrm{exp}(Bs^2)$$
(3)
where $`\beta `$ is a parameter — the Dyson index; $`A`$ and $`B`$ are constants fixed by the normalization conditions: $`s^0_\mathrm{W}=1=s^1_\mathrm{W}`$, where, naturally, $`s^n_\mathrm{W}=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑ss^np_\mathrm{W}(s)`$. Depending on the value of $`\beta `$ expression (3) approximates the spacing distributions of the RMT for various types of Gaussian ensembles. The most common values are $`\beta =1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}`$, and $`4`$ which represent the orthogonal (GOE), unitary (GUE), and symplectic (GSE) ensembles, respectively.

Computing the first ten, or so, moments of all the relevant distributions we obtain Figure 3. The moments of the Poisson and Wigner distributions (shown by lines) are proportional to the Gamma-function \[e.g., $`s^n_P=\mathrm{\Gamma }(n+1)`$, and $`s^n_W=(2/\sqrt{\pi })^n\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{1}{2}n+1)`$, for $`\beta =1`$\]. Therefore they all increase rapidly with $`n`$ and we have used logarithmic scale to plot them.

Data points in the first three panels correspond to the empirical distributions shown by the histograms in Fig. 2, now with the PDG error bars properly accounted for111We account only for the the quoted mass-position error; the width is not viewed as one.. The Wigner surmise with $`\beta =1`$ fits these distributions extremely well: comparing the first ten moments, $`\chi ^2/\mathrm{point}`$ values for the three distributions are shown in the “None” row of Table 2.

In general, before combining the level statistics from two different spectra we would need to perform an unfolding of these spectra. Then the combined meson-baryon array of spacings could be constructed as $`\{s_i\}_H^{}=\{\{s_i\}_B,\{s_i\}_M\}`$. However, because the baryon and meson mean spacing come out so similar (Table I) this construction leads to practically same results as the one in Eq. (A Statistical Analysis of Hadron Spectrum: Quantum Chaos in Hadrons), the $`\chi ^2`$ value changes insignificantly, see “B vs M” row of Table 2. One can also perform the unfolding with respect to strangeness, which means one treats the spectrum of strange baryons and mesons as different from that of non-strange ones, and unfolds (i.e., normalizes to unit mean spacing) prior combining them. In this case the agreement with Wigner surmise has slightly improved as is seen from the “S=0 vs $`1`$” row of Table 2.

To recapitulate, the hadron level-spacing distribution is remarkably well described by the Wigner surmise for $`\beta =1`$. This indicates that the fluctuation properties of the hadron spectrum fall into the GOE universality class, and hence hadrons exhibit the quantum chaos phenomenon. One then should be able to describe the statistical properties of hadron spectra using RMT with random Hamiltonians from GOE that are characterized by good time-reversal and rotational symmetry.

The hadron-exchange models (e.g.PaT00 ) should also be able benefit from the RMT methods, in a way analogous to the stochastic theory of compound-nucleus reactions Brody:1981 ; VWZ85 . However, since unitarity is an essential ingredient of such models, a study of hadron width distribution is in order. Widths of compound nuclei have the Porter–Thomas distribution Porter65  that eventually allows one to define the unitary $`S`$-matrix completely within the RMT. We anticipate that the same approach will be applicable in the hadron-exchange reactions once the hadron-width distribution is determined.

It would be interesting to see how quantum chaos emerges in hadrons as a result of quark-gluon underlying dynamics. Lattice QCD studies in this direction are underway Ver95 ; Ver00 ; Berg:2000be . This problem could also be addressed in a quark-model framework. In particular, does a quark-model Hamiltonians which fits the physical spectrum indeed defines a chaotic classical system?

In conclusion, we have examined the nearest-neighbor level-spacing (mass-splitting) distribution, $`p(s)`$, of the experimental hadron spectrum. We focused on the lighter part of the hadron spectrum ($`m<2.5GeV`$), since it is more reliably known. The mean level-spacing seems to be the only relevant scale here, and after it is scaled out the distribution shows universal behavior. Unfortunately, the masses and quantum numbers are well known only for a few dozen hadron states, so achieving high statistics is out of the question. Nonetheless, the low-statistics analysis we have performed pinpoints the moments of the distribution accurately enough to claim that hadronic $`p(s)`$ fits the Wigner surmise with linear level repulsion ($`\beta =1`$). This indicates that the spectrum falls into the GOE universality class of random matrix theory. Invoking the BGS conjecture, this result is viewed as an empirical evidence of the “quantum chaos” phenomenon in hadrons.

###### Acknowledgements.

I thank Professor Iraj Afnan for valuable discussions, and Professors Daniel Phillips and Jac Verbaarschot for critical remarks on the manuscript. The work was supported by the Australian Research Council (ARC) and in part by DOE under grant DE-FG02-93ER40756.


text:
# Ram-Ppressure Effects on Dense Molecular Arms in the Central Regions of Spiral Galaxies by Intracluster Medium

## 1 Introduction

Ram-pressure by intracluster medium (ICM) causes the stripping of interstellar matter (ISM) from galaxies (Farouki, Shapiro 1980; Kritsuk 1984; Gaetz et al. 1987; Balsara et al. 1994; Sofue 1994; Quilis et al. 2000). It also produces a disturbed distribution of ISM in galaxies, such as head-tail H i structures as observed in Virgo galaxies (Cayatte et al. 1990; Vollmer et al. 2000, 2001; Phookun et al. 1993, 1995). The ram-pressure effect has, thus, been discussed mainly in relation to H i gas stripping and outer disk structures. However, little attention has been paid to its effect on the inner molecular disk and arms. Only a few authors have discussed the ram effect on the spiral structure (Tosa 1994) and molecular clouds (Kenney et al. 1990; Sofue 1994).

Kenney et al. (1990) have shown that Virgo galaxies often exhibit asymmetric inner molecular disks. A recent high-resolution CO-line survey of Virgo cluster galaxies such as NGC 4254 and NGC 4654 (Sofue et al. in preparation) has revealed that some of them show a significant asymmetry of the inner molecular disks and arms. It is not clear if such an inner deformation of dense gas disks can be produced by ram pressure effect, which is thought to be the cause of their deformed H i envelops. Since these two galaxies have no massive companion that can disturb such inner disks, and they both show a head-tail H i outer structure (Phookun et al. 1993, 1995), the inner deformation of molecular disks could also be due to the ram-pressure effect, while such an inner ram effect has not yetbeen investigated.

If the wind is very strong, such as assumed by Quilis et al. (2000) for the core of a rich cluster with an ICM density of $`3\times 10^3`$ atoms cm-3 and a wind velocity higher than $`2000`$ km s-1 , the ISM of any galaxies would be completely stripped. On the other hand, if the wind is mild, in such a case as for the Virgo cluster, where the ICM density is of the order of $`10^310^4`$ and the velocity is $`1000`$ km s-1 , outer H i envelopes are deformed to produce head-tail structures (Vollmer et al. 2000, 2001). In current simulations, such as those by Vollmer et al., which were aimed at gas stripping and tailing of the outer H i disks, the detailed behavior of the inner disk gas inside $`10`$ kpc was not well understood because of the resolution.

In the present paper, we consider a mild ICM wind, and discuss its effect on the inner disk gas based on 2D hydrodynamical simulations with higher resolution than those aimed at outer H i stripping, as above. If we simply apply the ram-stripping condition to an azimuthally structure-less gas disk, the ram pressure would hardly affect the inner disk. However, if we consider a spiral structure with an arm-to-interarm density contrast, it may happen that the ram-pressure can affect the low-density interarm gas. We consider here the possibility that the ram-pressure can affect the dense molecular gas within the central few kpc region of spiral galaxies through disturbances of the orbits of inter-arm gas, even if the ICM wind is not strong enough to strip the disk gas.

## 2 Ram-Pressure Force on the Arm and Interarm Gases

The component of the ram force parallel to the galactic plane exerted by an intergalactic wind on a gas element is given by

$$f_{\mathrm{ICM}}\rho _{\mathrm{ICM}}s\delta v^2\mathrm{cos}\alpha \mathrm{sin}\alpha ,$$
(1)
where $`\rho _{\mathrm{ICM}}`$ and $`\rho _{\mathrm{ISM}}`$ are the gas densities of ICM and ISM, respectively, $`s`$ is the surface area of the element, and $`\alpha `$ is the angle between the wind direction and the galactic plane (Farouki, Shapiro 1980; Kritsuk 1984; Sofue 1994; Tosa 1994). The motion of the undisturbed ISM element is governed by the gravitational force, which is approximately equal to the centrifugal force,

$$f_{\mathrm{ISM}}\rho _{\mathrm{ISM}}dsv_{\mathrm{rot}}^2/R,$$
(2)
where $`d`$ is the thickness of the gas disk, and $`R`$ is the galactocentric radius of the element. Now, the ratio of $`f_{\mathrm{ICM}}`$ to $`f_{\mathrm{ISM}}`$ is given by

$$\eta \frac{n_{\mathrm{ICM}}}{n_{\mathrm{ISM}}}\frac{R}{d}\left(\frac{\delta v}{v_{\mathrm{rot}}}\right)^2\mathrm{cos}\alpha \mathrm{sin}\alpha ,$$
(3)
where $`n_{\mathrm{ICM}}`$ and $`n_{\mathrm{ISM}}`$ are the number densities of hydrogen atoms of the ICM and ISM, respectively. If $`\eta `$ exceeds unity, the ram force can disturb the ISM motion, while if it is smaller than unity, the ISM motion is little affected.

Let us consider the inner part of a galaxy at $`R5`$ kpc with $`d100`$ pc, rotating at $`v_{\mathrm{rot}}200`$ km s-1 . For an ICM wind with $`n_{\mathrm{ICM}}10^4`$ cm-3, $`V_{\mathrm{ICM}}10^3`$ km s-1 , and $`\alpha 45^{}`$, we obtain the ratio to be

$$\eta 0.6n_{\mathrm{ISM}}^1[\mathrm{H}\mathrm{cm}^3].$$
(4)
This relation implies that the ISM is stripped if $`n_{\mathrm{ISM}}1`$ H cm-3, since the force perpendicular to the galactic plane is of the same order. We stress, however, that the relation indicates that the orbits of the gas within the disk plane is significantly disturbed if $`n_{\mathrm{ISM}}1`$ H cm-3, even if the wind is not strong enough to strip the gas. This may indeed apply to the inter-arm ISM in the inner disk within a few kpc radius. On the other hand, high-density galactic shocked arms, where $`n_{\mathrm{ISM}}1`$ H cm-3, would be hardly disturbed. We, thus, anticipate that, even if the ICM wind is mild, not strong enough to strip the disk, the interarm gas in the inner disk would be significantly disturbed, which may result in deformed galactic shock waves. Since $`\delta v`$ is greater on the head-wind side of the rotation axis compared to the following-wind side, the deformed shock waves could be asymmetric with respect to the rotation axis.

Figure 1 illustrates the ram-deformation mechanism of the dense molecular arms, and how a lopsided spiral pattern is created. Since the density of the inter-arm gas (A and A in Fig. 2) is much lower than the average density of the disk, the ram force by the ICM wind (thin lines) easily disturbs the orbits of inter-arm gas (thick curved arrows). The gas on the distorted orbits encounters density waves (dashed spirals) at different places (B and B) from those expected for undisturbed orbits (dashed lines), and produces deformed dense molecular arms (thick spirals). In the next sections we discuss a numerical simulation of the ram deformation of spiral arms in order to understand whether this mechanism can indeed create deformed shocked arms, and how the deformed arms look like in realistic model disks.

— Fig. 1 —

## 3 Numerical Simulation

### 3.1 Basic assumptions

The ram-pressure acceleration per unit mass is given by

$$\stackrel{}{a}_{\mathrm{ram}}=Cn_{\mathrm{ICM}}\left|\stackrel{}{V}_{\mathrm{ICM}}\stackrel{}{v}_{\mathrm{rot}}\right|\left(\stackrel{}{V}_{\mathrm{ICM}}\stackrel{}{v}_{\mathrm{rot}}\right),$$
(5)
where $`n_{\mathrm{ICM}}`$ is the ICM density, $`\stackrel{}{V}_{\mathrm{ICM}}`$ is the ICM velocity with respect to the galaxy, $`\stackrel{}{v}_{\mathrm{rot}}`$ is the circular velocity of the clouds, and $`C`$ is evaluated to be on the order of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^1`$ (e.g., Tosa 1994).

We assume that the galactic disk is thin and faces the ICM wind everywhere, being not shielded by neighboring clouds. Because this assumption would not apply to an edge-on wind, we consider here a wind with a mild inclination. We consider the inner disk of a galaxy, where the gravitational potential is deep and the ISM is dense enough so that stripping does not occur, as discussed in the previous section, and we treat a 2D disk in a fixed rotating potential.

For the velocity of a galaxy in the ICM $`\stackrel{}{V}_{\mathrm{ICM}}`$ and the ICM density $`n_{\mathrm{ICM}}`$, we adopt three values for each parameter. The galaxy’s velocity, $`\stackrel{}{V}_{\mathrm{ICM}}`$, is taken to be 530, 1000, and 1500 km s-1 , where the first value is suggested by Phookun, Mundy (1995) for NGC 4654 in the Virgo cluster. The ICM density, $`n_{\mathrm{ICM}}`$ is taken to be $`1\times 10^4`$ cm-3, $`5\times 10^4`$ cm-3, and $`1\times 10^3`$ cm-3, where the first value is typical for the intergalactic density.

### 3.2 Numerical Method

For simplicity, we assumed that the interstellar gas is ideal, inviscid, and compressible. We used a freely downloadable and usable hydrodynamical code, VH-1 (Blondin, Lufkin 1993). This is a multidimensional hydrodynamics code for an ideal compressible fluid written in FORTRAN, developed by the numerical astrophysics group at the University of Virginia based on the Piecewise Parabolic Method Lagrangian Remap (PPMLR) scheme of Colella, Woodward (1984). The PPMLR has the advantage of maintaining contact discontinuities without the aid of a contact steepener, and is sufficiently good to be applied to a galactic-scale hydrodynamical simulation. The code does not take into account the gas’s self-gravity, artificial viscosity, variable gamma equation of state, and radiative heating and/or cooling. The self-gravity of the gas is not taken into account, because we consider a case where the gas mass is not so much as to contribute to the density wave potential by the stellar disk, and also because we do not intend to discuss such processes as clumping of gas and cloud formation in the arm and inter-arm regions. The interstellar gas can be assumed to be isothermal, as is assumed here, while if cooling is taken into account, the shocked gas arms would become much denser than those calculated below. However, all such neglection would not affect the physical essence of the present study, which was aimed at simulating ram-deformation of the orbits of inter-arm gas and resulting disturbed shocked arms, as illustrated in figure 1.

### 3.3 Gravitational Potential

We implicitly give a gravitational potential, which comprises the following two terms: (i) a static axisymmetric potential, and (ii) a nonaxisymmetric, rotating bar potential. The potential is expressed by

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(R,\varphi )=\mathrm{\Phi }_0(R)+\mathrm{\Phi }_1(R,\varphi ).$$
(6)
We adopt a “Toomre disk” (Toomre 1981) potential for the axisymmetric component as given by

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_0(R)=\frac{c^2}{a}\frac{1}{(R^2+a^2)^{1/2}},$$
(7)
where $`a`$ is the core radius and $`c=v_{\mathrm{max}}(27/4){}_{}{}^{1/4}a`$. Through our numerical simulation, we fixd the core radius and maximum circular velocity to be $`a=\sqrt{2}`$ kpc and $`v_{\mathrm{max}}=200`$ km s-1 .

The nonaxisymmetric potential was taken from Sanders (1977), assuming rigid rotation at a pattern speed, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{p}`$, which has the form

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_1(R,\varphi )=\epsilon \frac{aR^2}{(R^2+a^2)^{3/2}}\mathrm{\Phi }_0(R)\mathrm{cos}2\left(\varphi \mathrm{\Omega }_pt\right),$$
(8)
where $`\epsilon `$ is the strength of the bar of the order of $`\epsilon =0.15`$. Spiral shocked arms of gas are produced by this potential.

### 3.4 Initial Conditions

Initially, we set $`256\times 256`$ two-dimensional cells corresponding to 12.8 kpc $`\times 12.8`$ kpc field, while setting the field center at the coordinates origin. The initial number density was taken to be 5 cm-1 the inner disk at $`R8`$ kpc disk, and 1 cm-1 at $`R>8`$ kpc. The initial rotation velocity of each gas cell was set so that the centrifugal force would balance the gravitation. The bar pattern speed, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{p}`$, was taken to be 23 km s-1 , and the strength of the bar $`\epsilon `$ was taken to be 0.10.

## 4 Ram-Pressure Deformation of Dense Molecular Arms

### 4.1 Deformation of Inner Spiral Structure

Figure 1 shows the result of a simulation including ram-pressure effects for the various parameter combinations, as described in the previous section. Both the ISM and spiral pattern rotate counterclockwise, and the ICM wind blows from left to right. The simulation shows that the orbits of the diffuse inter-arm gas are easily disturbed by the ram force, which results in a significant displacement of galactic shock waves from their undisturbed symmetric positions, as illustrated in figure 1.

Highly asymmetric dense spiral arms in the central region are produced by this mechanism if the wind speed is higher than $`1000`$ km s-1 and the ICM density is greater than several $`10^4`$ H cm-3. A head-tail structure of dense gases slanted to the ICM wind, like NGC 4654 nucleus, can be produced by this mechanism, if $`n_{\mathrm{ICM}}\times V_{\mathrm{ICM}}^2`$ is greater than $`3\times 10^{12}`$ cm-1 s-2. One spiral arm on the downstream side is prominent, reproducing the lopsided arms, as observed in NGC 4254 and NGC 4654.

— Fig. 2 —

### 4.2 Deformed Molecular Arms

We then calculated the distribution of molecular fraction (Elmegreen 1993) corresponding to figure 1. The molecular fraction is defined by

$$f_{\mathrm{mol}}=\frac{\rho _{\mathrm{H}_2}}{\rho _{\mathrm{HI}}+\rho _{\mathrm{H}_2}}=\frac{2n_{\mathrm{H}_2}}{n_{\mathrm{HI}}+n_{\mathrm{H}_2}},$$
(9)
where $`\rho _{\mathrm{H}_2}`$, $`\rho _{\mathrm{HI}}`$, $`n_{\mathrm{H}_2}`$ and $`n_{\mathrm{HI}}`$ are the mass and number densities of molecular and H i gases, respectively. We used a method described by Sofue et al. (1995) and Honma et al. (1995) to calculate the galaxy-scale molecular fraction; they investigated molecular fronts in spiral galaxies using a phase-transition model proposed by Elmegreen (1993). In this model, the molecular fraction is determined by three parameters; the interstellar pressure, $`P`$, the UV radiation field, $`U`$, and the metallicity, $`Z`$. For $`U`$ and $`Z`$, we adopted an exponential function of galactocentric radius, and calculated $`f_{\mathrm{mol}}`$ for corresponding gas pressure, $`P`$, which is determined by the gas density in each cell.

Figure 3 shows the result of a numerical simulation of the molecular fraction. The inner few kpc region is dominated by molecular gas, where the molecular fraction is as large as $`7090`$%. Also, the molecular fraction increases suddenly at the galactic shocks, which are already deformed from symmetric arms. Thus, the simulation has revealed that highly deformed inner molecular arms can be produced by ram-pressure disturbances on the inter-arm low-density regions.

— Fig. 3 —

### 4.3 Comparison with Observations and Wind Velocities

We now compare the results with H i and CO-line observations of the Virgo galaxies, NGC 4254 and NGC 4654. The heliocentric radial velocity of NGC 4254, 2407 km s-1 , is about 1100 km s-1 different from that of NGC 4486 (M 87), the center of the Virgo cluster, 1282 km s-1 (de Vaucouleurs et al. 1991). Also, by comparing with the lopsided H i distribution of NGC 4254 (Phookun et al. 1993) and the ram pressure simulation on galaxies (Abadi et al. 1999), we can exclude the possibility of any face-on motion of NGC 4254. Assuming that NGC 4254’s orbit is inclined by $`45^{}`$ from the line of sight, we may estimate the velocity of motion of NGC 4254 in the Virgo cluster as being $``$ 1500 km s-1 . Then, the rotation velocity of NGC 4254 ($``$ 150 km s-1 ) is negligible compared to the wind velocity, so that the H i tail grows toward downstream. The location of a prominent spiral arm (Iye et al. 1982) and the direction of rotation are consistent with our numerical simulation. However, if we assume a slower wind velocity, e.g., on the order of, or smaller than, $``$ 750 km s-1 , the simulation cannot reproduce the observed features.

Our simulation for moderate ICM velocity, which predicts an off-center bar of dense gas tilted toward the ICM wind, is consistent with the observations of NGC 4654 in H i (Phookun, Mundy 1995) and CO (Sofue et al. in preparation). Our simulations show that spiral arm in the upstream side becomes stronger than that in the downstream side. Considering the location of the prominent optical arm (Frei et al. 1996) and an elongation of the observed molecular bar and H i tail, we find that the direction of motion of NGC 4654 is toward the northwest, with a significantly high velocity compared to the velocity dispersion of the Virgo cluster. Taking it into account that the rotation velocity of NGC 4654 is relatively slow, the velocity of NGC 4654 in the Virgo cluster would be greater than 1000 km s-1 , although the heliocentric radial velocity, 1054 km s-1 , is close to Virgo’s central velocity.

## 5 Discussion

We have considered the ram-pressure effects of a mild ICM wind on gaseous disks in cluster galaxies. Galaxies in the central region of the Virgo galaxies show H i deficiency, where the molecular gas fraction is higher than that of the galaxies in the outer region of the cluster (Kenney et al. 1990). This fact has been naturally explained by the ram-pressure stripping of the H i gas: the ram effects are negligible on the inner molecular disks, while it is crucial for the H i outer disk and envelops. On the other hand, it is also known that ram-affected Virgo galaxies show asymmetric CO gas distributions (Kenney et al. 1990; Sofue et al. in preparation).

In the present paper, we have shown that the orbits of the inter-arm ISM are disturbed by the ram pressure of the ICM wind, even if the wind is mild and not strong enough to strip the gas disk. The disturbed inter-arm ISM causes highly asymmetric molecular arms in the inner few kpc of the disk. The 3D simulation by Vollmer et al. (2000, 2001) for a similar wind condition shows that the inner disk within 10 kpc radius is not stripped, but suffers from perpendicular disturbances to the disk plane. Vertical displacements may result in off-plane molecular structure in the inner few kpc disk, in addition to the asymmetric arms as simulated here using the 2D scheme. Also, such 3D effects as the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability by the shearing motion between the disk and ICM (e.g. Mori and Burkert 2000) cannot be touched upon by the present 2D simulation. Therefore, detailed 3D simulations will be crucial to thoroughly understand the inner ram effect in more detail, while the present 2D results can tell us about some essential mechanism to cause the non-axisymmetric molecular structures in the inner disk.

However, in the cases of much stronger winds, the 2D assumption cannot be applied in any way, and 3D treatment of stripping is crucial. In fact, ram effect by a wind with a pressure much higher than that considered in this paper has been simulated by Quilis et al. (2000) with a 3D hydrodynamical simulation; they have shown that the ISM in a galaxy is completely stripped within one galactic rotation.

References

Abadi, M. G., Moore, B., & Bower, R. G., 1999, MNRAS, 308, 947

Balsara, D, Livio, M, & O’Dea, C P. 1994, ApJ, 437 83

Blondin, J. M., & Lufkin, E. A., 1993, ApJS, 88, 589

Cayatte, V., van Gorkom, J. H., Balkowski, C., & Kotanyi, C. 1990, AJ, 100, 604

Colella, P., & Woodward, P. R., 1984, Journal of Comp. Phys., 54, 174

de Vaucouleurs, G., de Vaucouleurs, A., Corwin, H. G. Jr., Buta, R. J., Paturel, G., & Fouqué P. 1991, Third Reference Catalog of Bright Galaxies (New York: Springer-Verlag)

Elmegreen, B. G. 1993, ApJ, 411, 170

Farouki, R. & Shapiro, S. L. 1980, ApJ, 241, 928

Frei, Z., Guhathakurta, P., Gunn, J. E., & Tyson, J. A., 1996, AJ, 111, 174

Gaetz, T. J., Salpeter, E. E., Shaviv, G. 1987 ApJ 316 530.

Honma, M., Sofue, Y., & Arimoto, N. 1995 A&A, 304, 1

Iye, M., Okamura, S., Hamabe, M., & Watanabe, M. 1982, ApJ, 256, 103

Kenney, J. D. & Young, J. S. 1988, ApJS., 66, 261

Kenney, J. D. P., Young, J. S., Hasegawa, T., & Nakai, N. 1990, ApJ, 353, 460

Kenney, J. D. P., & Koopmann, R. A. 1999, AJ, 117, 181

Kritsuk, A. G., 1984, Astrophysics, 19, 263

Mori, M., & Burkert, A. 2000, ApJ, 538, 559

Phookun, B., Vogel, S. N., & Mundy, L. G. 1993, ApJ, 418, 113

Phookun, B., & Mundy, L. G., 1995, ApJ, 453, 154

Quilis, V., Moore, B., & Bower, R. 2000, Science, 288, 1617

Sofue, Y. 1994, ApJ, 423, 207

Sofue, Y., Honma, M., & Arimoto, N., 1995, A&A, 296, 33.

Toomre, A. 1981, in The Structure and Evolution of Normal Galaxies, ed S. M. Fall & D. Lynden-Bell (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press), 111

Tosa, M. 1994, ApJ, 426, L81

Vollmer, B., Marcelin, M., Amram, P., Balkowski, C., Cayatte, V., & Garrido, O. 2000, A&A, 364, 532

Vollmer, B., Cayatte, V., Balkowski, C., & Duschl, W.J. 2001, ApJ, 561, 708

Figure Captions

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of the ram-deformation mechanism to cause asymmetric inner molecular arms. Orbits (thin dashed arrows) of low-density inter-arm gas (A and A) are disturbed by the ram pressure of the ICM wind (thin arrows). The gas on the distorted orbits (thick arrows) encounters density waves (dashed spirals) at different places (B and B) from those expected for undisturbed orbits (dashed spirals), and produces deformed dense gaseous arms (thick spirals).

Fig. 2. Snapshots of the density distribution in the ram-pressure models after $`1.3`$$`1.7\times 10^8`$ yr. The labels indicated the adopted parameters. Alphabets: ICM velocity, $`\stackrel{}{V}_{\mathrm{ICM}}=`$ (a) 530, (b) 1000, and (c) 1500 km s-1 . Roman numbers: ICM density $`n_{\mathrm{ICM}}=`$ (i) $`1\times 10^4`$, (ii) $`5\times 10^4`$, and (iii) $`1\times 10^3`$ cm-3. The color-density key is shown at the bottom, which is common to all snapshots. The rotation direction of gases and a bar potential is counterclockwise, and ICM wind brows from left to right. The strength of the bar $`\epsilon `$ is 0.10 in all models. Weak straight waves toward upper and right boundaries in b-(ii, iii) and c-(ii, iii) are artifact due to numerical reflection at the boundaries

Fig. 3. Same as figure 2, but showing the distribution of molecular fraction, $`f_{\mathrm{mol}}`$.