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# Contribution to the Proceedings of the Seventh International Workshop on Topics in Astroparticle and Underground Physcis (TAUP 2001), 8–12 Sept. 2001, Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso, Italy, to be published in Nuclear Physics B (Proceedings Supplements). Physics with Supernovae

## 1 SUPERNOVA TYPES AND RATES

Supernovae are exploding stars . However, there are two entirely different classes, both of which are of current interest for astro-particle physics and cosmology. One physical class are the type Ia supernova (SN) explosions. A SN Ia is thought to occur when a carbon-oxygen white dwarf accretes matter from a companion star until it reaches its Chandrasekhar limit and begins to collapse, thereby triggering a nuclear explosion, powered by the fusion of carbon and oxygen to heavier nuclei. SNe Ia are spectroscopically characterized by the absence of hydrogen and the presence of silicon lines. The explosion disrupts the progenitor white dwarf entirely; what remains is an expanding nebula without a central compact object. While the exact SN Ia lightcurves depend on some parameters, they are surprisingly reproducible and thus lend themselves as cosmological standard candles. The main astro-particle interest in SNe Ia is their potential to explore the space-time geometry of the universe; the observed SN Ia Hubble diagram suggests the presence of “dark energy” or a cosmological constant .

The present lecture is exclusively about the other class of explosions which mark the evolutionary end of massive stars ($`M\begin{array}{c}>\hfill \\ \hfill \end{array}8M_{}`$). Such stars have the usual onion structure with several burning shells, an expanded envelope, and a degenerate iron core that is essentially an iron white dwarf. The core mass grows by the nuclear burning at its edge until it reaches the Chandrasekhar limit. The collapse can not ignite nuclear fusion because iron is the most tightly bound nucleus. Therefore, the collapse continues until the equation of state stiffens by nucleon degeneracy pressure at about nuclear density ($`3\times 10^{14}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$). At this “bounce” a shock wave forms, moving outward and expelling the stellar mantle and envelope. The explosion is a reversed implosion, the energy derives from gravity, not from nuclear energy. Within the expanding nebula, a compact object remains in the form of a neutron star or perhaps sometimes a black hole. The kinetic energy of the explosion carries about 1% of the liberated gravitational binding energy of about $`3\times 10^{53}\mathrm{erg}`$, 99% going into neutrinos. This powerful and detectable neutrino burst is the main astro-particle interest of core-collapse SNe; the Ia explosions do not produce significant neutrino emission. In core-collapse SNe only $`10^4`$ of the total energy shows up as light, i.e. about 1% of the kinetic explosion energy. Core-collapse SNe are dimmer than SNe Ia, and their lightcurves are different from case to case, the details depending on the structure of the progenitor star. Core-collapse SNe are not useful as standard candles.

If the progenitor star has retained a hydrogen envelope, hydrogen lines will appear in the lightcurve, qualifying the SN spectroscopically as type II, while type I are the ones without hydrogen lines. If the star has lost its hydrogen envelope (all stars suffer significant mass loss during their giant phase), but has retained helium, the helium lines in the SN lightcurve make it a type Ib. Without hydrogen and helium lines it is of type Ic, unless it shows silicon lines, which characterize a type Ia. Confusingly the spectroscopic types Ib, Ic and II form the physical class of core-collapse SNe.

Table 1 gives the observed SN rates for different galaxy types according to Refs. , some of them significantly smaller than the rates in an earlier review . The SN rate is expressed in the “Supernova unit,” defined as $`1\mathrm{SNu}=1\mathrm{SN}`$ per $`10^{10}L_{,B}`$ per 100 yrs where $`L_{,B}`$ is the solar luminosity in the blue spectral band. Therefore, 1 SNu corresponds roughly to 1 SN per galaxy per century. Moreover, $`h`$ is the Hubble constant in units of $`100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$. Early-type galaxies, where little star formation takes place, do not host core-collapse SNe as this type depends on the formation of massive stars which are short-lived on cosmological scales. About 2/3 of all SNe are core collapse, and of those the vast majority is type II (hydrogen lines). On the other hand, because SNe Ia are intrinsically brighter, the majority of observed SNe are of that type. About 2000 SNe have been observed, but many have not been classified—for an up-to-date catalogue see .

For the field of neutrino astronomy, the most crucial question is the SN rate in our own Milky Way because even the largest foreseen detectors will not reach beyond our galaxy and its satellites. The closest big galaxy, Andromeda (M31), is at a distance of about 0.7 Mpc. Even in a megatonne detector a SN in Andromeda would yield only about 30 events.

One approach to estimate the galactic SN rate is to apply the relevant average rate of Table 1 to the Milky Way. Assuming a morphological type Sb–Sbc, a blue luminosity of $`2.3\times 10^{10}L_{,B}`$, and a Hubble constant $`h=0.75`$ one finds $`2\pm 1`$ core-collapse SNe per century , about a factor of 2 smaller than the corresponding estimate in  or . Note that the morphological type of our galaxy is not well determined.

Another approach relies on the historical SN record, extrapolated to the entire galaxy. (Because of obscuration by dust, only SNe out to a few kpc have been observed.) The rate of core-collapse SNe is then estimted to be 3–4 per century , with a large Poisson uncertainty from the small number of observed cases (5 SNe during the second millenium).

Given the vagaries of small-number statistics, these estimates agree with each other, and with circumstantial evidence such as the estimated population of progenitor stars or the neutron-star formation rate. Except for SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud, no neutrino burst has been observed, even though large neutrino detectors have been in operation continuously since the Baksan Scintillator Telescope began operations in June 1980 . This non-observation is in agreement with the estimated SN rate and suggests that stellar collapse events without SN explosions are not frequent relative to normal SNe.

## 2 CORE-COLLAPSE SUPERNOVA <br>EXPLOSION MECHANISM

The bounce-and-shock explosion scenario of core-collapse SNe  is essentially a hydrodynamic phenomenon—see, for example, Ref.  which includes very intuitive animations. However, realistic numerical simulations have difficulties exploding for a physical reason. The shock wave at core bounce forms within the iron core. As it moves outward energy is dissipated by the dissociation of iron. The nuclear binding energy of $`0.1M_{}`$ iron is about $`1.7\times 10^{51}\mathrm{erg}`$ and thus of the same order as the SN explosion energy. Therefore, the shock wave stalls without driving off the stellar mantle and envelope. This behavior is illustrated in Fig. 1 which represents a state-of-the-art spherically symmetric collapse calculation . The figure shows the trajectories (radial position vs. time) of selected mass shells, and also shows the boundaries of the iron core and silicon shell as well as the shock trajectory. The shock wave stagnates at about 200 km while mass accretion continues—mass shells continue to cross the shock position. The shock wave never “takes off” to explode the star. Similar state-of-the-art results are reported by the Oakridge group .

The standard scenario of SN explosions holds that the stagnating shock will be “re-juvenated” by energy deposition so that enough pressure builds up behind the shock to set it back into motion. This “delayed explosion scenario” was first proposed in the early 1980s by Bethe and Wilson . One source of energy deposition behind the shock wave is energy absorption from the nearly freely streaming neutrinos which originate from the neutrino sphere near the neutron-star surface. The required conditions for a successful shock revival have been studied numerically and analytically—see Ref.  for details and references. Continued mass accretion and convection below the shock wave also deposit energy and thus contribute to the shock revival.

The main recent progress in numerical SN calculation has been the implementation of efficient Boltzmann solvers so that an exact neutrino transport scheme can be self-consistently coupled with the hydrodynamic evolution . Such state-of-the-art spherically symmetric calculations do not lead to successful explosions. However, these calculations are not self-consistent in that the regions below the shock wave are convectively unstable. Likewise, convection may arise in the neutron star below the neutrino sphere. Forthcoming calculations will reveal if convection, perhaps coupled with more accurate neutrino interaction rates, will lead to successful explosions.

The Livermore group does obtain robust explosions . In their spherically symmetric calculations they include a mixing-length treatment of “neutron finger convection,” thereby enhancing the early neutrino luminosity and thus the energy deposition behind the shock . Their results agree with the findings of other groups that diffusive neutrino transport alone is not enough to trigger the explosion.

The delayed explosion scenario may involve new particles or new interactions. Of course, too much energy deposition in the SN mantle would make the explosions too energetic, providing limits on radiative neutrino decays . On the other hand, new particles could transfer additional energy from the inner core to the shock wave and thus trigger the explosion . An intriguing scenario involving resonant neutrino flavor oscillations would have required mass differences much larger than indicated by current oscillation experiments and thus is no longer viable .

It is not known at present if the standard delayed explosion scenario is the correct picture, or if new physical ingredients beyond the self-consistent inclusion of neutrino transport and convection are needed. Even if robust explosions are obtained in future 2- and 3-dimensional calculations, the long-standing problem of the large neutron-star velocities remains unresolved—for a recent review see .

The high-statistics neutrino light curve from a future galactic SN in a large neutrino detector would allow one to observe directly the collapse dynamics. For example, the early accretion-powered neutrino emission could be clearly distinguished from the subsequent neutron-star cooling phase . One of the most energetic astrophysical phenomena would be caught in the act, allowing one to unravel the underlying physics.

## 3 EXPECTED NEUTRINO SIGNAL

The expected neutrino fluxes and spectra are illustrated by the numerical results shown in Fig. 2. The $`\nu _e`$ lightcurve shows a conspicuous spike early on, representing the prompt neutrino burst which occurs when the shock wave reaches the region of neutrino trapping in the iron core. The dissociation of iron allows for the quick neutronization of a layer of the proto neutron star. Of course, most of the lepton number remains trapped and slowly escapes by neutrino diffusion.

The subsequent broad shoulder up to about 500 ms, best visible in the lower panel with linear scales, represents the accretion phase where material keeps falling in and powers the neutrino emission. After this phase the shock wave has driven off the stellar mantle. The subsequent long and flat tail represents the neutron star cooling by neutrino emission.

The duration of the accretion phase depends on how long it takes to revive the shock wave. In the Livermore simulation, an explosion is obtained by a phenomenological treatment of neutron-finger convection which boosts the early neutrino luminosity . In the absence of a confirmed robust explosion mechanism the exact duration of the accretion phase is not known—other simulations do not obtain explosions and thus do not get beyond the accretion phase.

After about 100 ms, the neutrino luminosities are virtually equal in each flavor. This equipartition of the emitted energy is almost perfect in this simulation. In the recent Oakridge simulation , which includes a state-of-the-art Boltzmann solver, the equipartition is also nearly perfect between $`\nu _e`$ and $`\overline{\nu }_e`$, but the $`\nu _x`$ luminosity is less than 1/2 after 50 ms out to 600 ms when this simulation terminates. Therefore, “equipartition” probably should be taken to mean “equal to within about a factor of two.”

The neutrino average energies obey the well-known hierarchy $`E_{\nu _e}<E_{\overline{\nu }_e}<E_{\nu _x}`$ which is explained by the different trapping processes, $`\beta `$ processes for the electron flavor and elastic scattering on nucleons for the rest. Therefore, the different flavors originate in layers with different temperatures. A physical understanding of the neutrino spectra can be developed without large-scale numerical simulations . While the flavor hierarchy of average energies appears to be generic, the differences are likely smaller than previously thought after all relevant processes have been included, notably nucleon bremsstrahlung and energy transfer by recoils . However, no state-of-the-art numerical simulation yet exists that includes all of the relevant microphysics.

In all numerical simulations the $`\nu _\mu `$, $`\overline{\nu }_\mu `$, $`\nu _\tau `$, and $`\overline{\nu }_\tau `$ are treated equally. However, the transport of neutrinos and anti-neutrinos is different even for the heavy flavors because the cross section for $`\nu NN\nu `$ is different from $`\overline{\nu }NN\overline{\nu }`$ because of weak magnetism . Moreover, the presence of muons is not entirely negligible, at least in the deep interior of the SN core so that muonic beta reactions are also possible. While this may not affect the spectra formation near the neutron star atmosphere, it is not assured that the $`\mu `$\- and $`\tau `$-flavored neutrino spetra are the same. In principle, then, neutrino transport in a SN core involves six different neutrino degrees of freedom. However, muons are not included in the available equations of state, and treating all flavors differently enhances the numerical CPU requirements.

The average neutrino energies increase for the first few seconds. This is a generic effect because the neutrino-emitting regions heat up by accretion and by the contraction of the neutron star. Of course, eventually the average energies must decrease when the neutron star cools.

Numerical neutrino light curves can be compared with the SN 1987A data where the measured energies are found to be “too low.” For example, the numerical simulation of Fig. 2 yields time-integrated values $`E_{\nu _e}13\mathrm{MeV}`$, $`E_{\overline{\nu }_e}16\mathrm{MeV}`$, and $`E_{\nu _x}23\mathrm{MeV}`$. On the other hand, the data imply $`E_{\overline{\nu }_e}=7.5\mathrm{MeV}`$ at Kamiokande and 11.1 MeV at IMB . Even the 95% confidence range for Kamiokande implies $`E_{\overline{\nu }_e}<12\mathrm{MeV}`$. Flavor oscillations would increase the expected energies and thus enhance the discrepancy . It has remained unclear if these and other anomalies of the SN 1987A neutrino signal should be blamed on small-number statistics, or point to a serious problem with the SN models or the detectors.

## 4 OBSERVING A FUTURE GALACTIC SUPERNOVA

Detectors for measuring the neutrino signal from a galactic SN have almost continuously operated since 1980 when the Baksan Scintillator Telescope (BST) took up operation. For a galactic SN at a distance of 10 kpc with neutrino fluxes and spectra roughly like those of Fig. 2, BST would register about 70 events. The neutrinos from SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud at a distance of 50 kpc were actually measured in Kamiokande , IMB , and BST  with a few events each. Today, much larger detectors are available, although BST keeps running. Super-Kamiokande would measure about 8000 events for a SN at 10 kpc. A simulated light curve based on the SN model of Fig. 2 is shown in Fig. 3.

Super-Kamiokande is not operational at the time of this writing because of the destructive accident during re-filling on 12 November 2001. The exact capabilities for SN neutrino detection after repair are not known at present, but hopefully will not be dramatically worse. In the following, all statements concerning the Super-Kamiokande capabilities rely on the pre-accident literature.

Fortunately, there are other large detectors available. The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) would register about 800 events from our fiducial SN , where for now we ignore flavor oscillations. The Large Volume Detector (LVD) in the Gran Sasso Laboratory is a scintillation detector that would register about 400 events . A similar number of events would be expected in the KamLAND scintillation reactor neutrino experiment which recently began taking data . The Borexino solar neutrino experiment, that will soon be ready, is smaller and would register about 100 events . The AMANDA South Pole neutrino telescope also works as a SN neutrino detector in that the correlated noise of all photomultipliers caused by the Cherenkov light of the SN neutrinos produces a significant signal, especially when AMANDA is enlarged to the cubic-kilometer IceCube .

The dominant signal is usually the charged-current reaction $`\overline{\nu }_epne^+`$. SNO has a unique $`\nu _e`$ detection capability from the charged-current deuterium dissociation $`\nu _edppe^{}`$. Neutral-current reactions which are sensitive to all flavors include elastic scattering on electrons, the deuterium dissociation $`\nu dnp\nu `$ in SNO, the excitation of $`{}_{}{}^{16}\mathrm{O}`$ in water Cherenkov detectors, and the corresponding excitation of $`{}_{}{}^{12}\mathrm{C}`$ in scintillation detectors, notably in LVD and KamLAND, where the $`\gamma `$-rays from the subsequent de-excitation can be measured. Another recent suggestion is the elastic scattering on protons which can cause a measurable signal in low-threshold scintillation detectors .

Specific neutral-current detectors for SN neutrinos have been proposed on the basis of the reaction $`\nu +(A,Z)(A1,Z)+n+\nu `$ where the neutron will be measured. For example, lead or iron could be used as targets in the proposed OMNIS detector . This sort of detector would be complementary to Super-Kamiokande and SNO in that it is primarily sensitive to the heavy-flavor neutrinos.

At present one debates the possibility of building even larger detectors for the purpose of precision neutrino long-baseline oscillation experiments, for proton decay, and high-statistics solar, atmospheric and SN neutrino detection. A typical size could be a megatonne of water or scintillator. This option is discussed under the name of Hyper-Kamiokande in Japan , under UNO in the US , and is also debated in Europe . Such a detector could produce as many as $`10^5`$ events from our fiducial SN at 10 kpc.

The operation of large neutrino detectors is motivated by many physics goals so that it is not unrealistic to expect that another few decades will be covered by neutrino observatories sensitive to a galactic SN. Therefore, even though the galactic SN rate is low, the chance of observing one within a few decades is not small so that it is worthwhile to discuss the possible benefits from such an observation.

Arguably the most important gain would be the direct observation of stellar collapse where a high-statistics neutrino observation would map out the dynamics of a cataclysmic astrophysical event that could never be observed directly in any other way. Whether or not numerical SN simulations will soon converge on a theoretical standard model for the collapse and explosion mechanism, the importance of its independent verification or falsification by a detailed neutrino light curve can not be overstated.

Another benefit is the possibility of an early warning for the occurrence of a SN because the neutrino signal precedes the optical explosion by several hours. This project has been taken up by the Supernova Early Warning System (SNEWS), a network of detectors with SN neutrino capabilities . Unfortunately, the triangulation of the SN by the arrival time at various detectors is relatively poor. However, the electron recoil signal in Super-Kamiokande can locate the SN within a circle of radius $`7^{}`$$`8^{}`$ in the sky . A future megatonne detector probably could do much better.

## 5 FLAVOR OSCILLATIONS

Neutrino oscillations are now firmly established so that the SN neutrino fluxes and spectra expected in a detector can be very different from those emitted at the source. This is especially true if the solar neutrino problem is solved by the large-mixing angle (LMA) case, which is presently favored, and which can be confirmed or refuted by the KamLAND experiment in the immediate future . The relevant mass difference of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{12}^2=1`$$`10\times 10^5\mathrm{eV}^2`$ implies that matter effects are important in the SN and also in the Earth if the neutrinos happen to enter the detector “from below.” The large “solar” mixing angle $`\theta _{12}`$ implies that oscillations will be important in both the $`\nu _e`$ and the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ channel.

If the LMA case obtains, it is unavoidable that oscillation effects influence the SN 1987A signal interpretation, and that the detectors saw different spectra due to different Earth-crossing segments of the neutrino paths . While this effect can make the measurements slightly more consistent with each other, the unexpectedly soft neutrino energies become even more worrisome.

Assuming that the SN 1987A neutrino anomalies are caused by statistical flukes, we may gauge our expectations for a future SN by theoretical predictions based on numerical simulations. In any case, the signal of a future SN itself will determine if SN theory is correct with regard to the neutrino fluxes and spectra. Taking the numerical model of Fig. 2 for the source, the time-integrated spectra at Super-Kamiokande, SNO and LVD are shown in Fig. 4 as a function of the nadir angle which determines the Earth-segment of the neutrino path. The oscillation parameters were chosen for the LMA case with $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{12}^2=2\times 10^5\mathrm{eV}^2`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2=3.2\times 10^3\mathrm{eV}^2`$, $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{12}=0.87`$, and $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{23}=1.0`$. The unknown third mixing angle was chosen small as $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{13}=1.0\times 10^6`$. Figure 4 illustrates that rather dramatic modifications of the spectra can be expected for certain cases.

It is difficult to anticipate everything about future data. If a galactic SN is observed, what we can learn about neutrino oscillations depends on the detectors operating at that time and their geographical location. It will also depend on the true source properties regarding flavor-dependent spectra and fluxes, and what is already known about the neutrino oscillation parameters as input information at that time. Many authors have studied these questions . It appears that one may well distinguish between large and small values of the elusive $`\theta _{13}`$ and to distinguish between normal or inverted mass hierarchies, or even accurately pin down $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{12}^2`$. Therefore, a SN neutrino observation would complement the upcoming efforts of precision determination of neutrino oscillation parameters in long-baseline experiments .

While neutrino oscillations are crucial for SN neutrino observations, the smallness of the measured mass differences implies that oscillations are not important in the SN core, and also not in the SN atmosphere within the stalled shock wave because the matter-induced weak potential dominates over the mass differences for the flavor-dependent neutrino refractive index. In these regions and on the relevant time-scales the separate flavor lepton numbers are effectively conserved, in spite of maximal neutrino mixing .

## 6 STERILE NEUTRINOS

The existence of sterile neutrino degrees of freedom is a logical possibility that has received much attention. One possible role for such particles is to constitute the cosmic dark matter. Depending on their masses and their mixings with active neutrinos, they can be hot, warm, or cold dark matter . These particles would be emitted from SN cores so that the SN 1987A energy-loss argument (Sec. 8) provides some of the most important constraints on this conjecture.

If sterile neutrinos have masses in the eV range and mix with active flavors, they can modify the nucleosynthesis processes that take place in the neutrino-driven wind of a SN core after the explosion. The r-process nucleosynthesis of heavy elements requires a neutron-rich environment. The $`n/p`$ ratio is governed by the $`\beta `$ processes involving the $`\nu _e`$ and $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ flux. In standard SN calculations the required conditions for r-process nucleosynthesis are not achieved. However, if $`\nu _e\nu _{\mathrm{sterile}}`$ oscillations are efficient enough, the $`\nu _e+np+e^{}`$ reactions are quenched, reducing the proton fraction, and thus allowing enough neutrons to escape being trapped in $`\alpha `$ particles . Therefore, low-mass sterile neutrinos can play a crucial role in this environment.

## 7 NEUTRINO MASS SENSITIVITY

The ever accumulating evidence for neutrino oscillations and for neutrino mass differences in the 50 meV range and below has reduced the neutrino mass question to one unknown overall mass scale $`m_\nu `$ that could be much larger than the mass differences. Tritium end point experiments reveal $`m_\nu <2.8\mathrm{eV}`$ , the future sensitivity at KATRIN may reach the $`0.3\mathrm{eV}`$ level . The observed power spectrum of the galaxy distribution function and of the cosmic microwave background radiation reveals similar constraints and future sensitivities .

The SN 1987A signal duration gave a time-of-flight limit of $`m_\nu \begin{array}{c}<\hfill \\ \hfill \end{array}20\mathrm{eV}`$ , a refined recent analysis even claims $`m_\nu <6\mathrm{eV}`$ at 95% CL . The neutrino signal of a galactic SN observed in Super-Kamiokande would be sensitive to about 3 eV . If a black hole forms a few seconds after the original collapse, the quick termination of the neutrino burst imprints a structure on the neutrino light curve, corresponding to an $`m_\nu `$ dispersion sensitivity of about 2 eV . A further improvement is possible if the SN collapse emits a measurable gravitational wave signal that can serve as a zero-point for the neutrino time-of-flight delay. Independently of black-hole formation, a Super-Kamiokande mass sensitivity of around 1 eV has been claimed . Further improvements with a megatonne detector may be possible, but have not been investigated in detail.

Therefore, while the SN time-of-flight method would provide new and independent direct limits on the neutrino mass, this method does not seem competitive with future tritium endpoint and cosmological sensitivities. None of these methods seems able to reach the crucial 50 meV range characteristic of the neutrino mass differences.

## 8 LIMITS ON NEW PARTICLES

The neutrino signal of SN 1987A has been used to derive numerous limits on new particles or novel neutrino properties. One standard argument holds that the signal duration of about 10 s precludes that too much energy was carried away by axions, right-handed (sterile) neutrinos or other exotic channels. This classic “energy-loss argument” has been applied to constrain axion or Majoron interactions, neutrino dipole moments, active-sterile mixings, or right-handed currents . Most recently, it has been used to constrain the compactification scale of large extra dimensions by constraining the emission of Kaluza-Klein gravitons .

The SN 1987A energy-loss argument is problematic because far-reaching conclusions depend on a few late events in the Kamiokande II and IMB detectors. Evidently a high-statistics neutrino lightcurve from a future galactic SN would place such limits on firm experimental grounds.

Of course, not all SN particle-physics limits depend on the sparse SN 1987A data. For SN graviton emission in theories with large extra dimensions, the $`\gamma `$-rays from the subsequent decay of the Kaluza-Klein gravitons can leave observable signatures in the cosmic $`\gamma `$-ray background  or from young SN remnants and neutron stars .

## 9 NEW PHASES OF NUCLEAR <br>MATTER

Standard numerical SN simulations generally rely on a nuclear equation of state and neutrino opacities which are based on the assumption that nuclear matter at all relevant densities and temperatures is well described in terms of nucleons. However, the QCD phase diagram in the temperature-density plane may be far more complicated. One long-standing speculation holds that the true ground state of dense matter consists of quarks rather than nucleons, leading to various modifications of standard SN and neutron-star physics . More recently, the existence of an intruiging color-superconducting phase has been debated .

When the equation of state and/or the neutrino opacities suddenly change during the first few seconds after SN collapse due to a nuclear phase transition, an observable signature in the neutrino light curve could obtain. For example, instead of tapering off, the neutrino luminosity could show a second burst  or could suddenly terminate by a secondary collapse to a black hole . Evidently, a high-statistics neutrino light curve from a galactic SN would shed new light on the existence or non-existence of new phases of nuclear matter.

## 10 COSMIC RELIC NEUTRINOS <br>FROM PAST SUPERNOVAE

All supernovae which occurred since the birth of the universe contribute to a cosmic background of neutrinos in the energy range up to about 50 MeV. A simple estimate shows that the average neutrino luminosity of a galaxy from stellar collapse is roughly comparable to its optical photon luminosity. If the past SN rate is assumed to be constant at the present-day levels of Table 1, the SN relic neutrinos amount to an approximate flux of $`1\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$. However, when galaxies first formed they must have been much more active at star formation, leading to flux estimates of 5–$`50\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$  where the high number is thought to be a plausible upper limit. A positive detection of this flux would provide a new window to the universe at redshifts of a few.

Such flux levels are, in principle, detectable because they stick above solar and atmospheric neutrinos for $`20\begin{array}{c}<\hfill \\ \hfill \end{array}E_\nu \begin{array}{c}<\hfill \\ \hfill \end{array}50\mathrm{MeV}`$. The limit from the Kamiokande II detector is $`226\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ (90% CL) for energies 19–35 MeV . A preliminary Super-Kamiokande limit is $`39\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ , assuming the energy spectrum of , i.e. Super-Kamiokande has touched the upper range of theoretical estimates.

A further improvement of the sensitivity requires a new detector concept because Super-Kamiokande is limited by an irreducible background of “invisible muons,” i.e. sub-Cherenkov muons produced by atmospheric neutrinos. Their subsequent decays produce electrons or positrons in the energy window of the SN relic neutrinos.

## 11 CONCLUSIONS

Core-collapse supernovae are powerful neutrino sources. The observation of the SN 1987A neutrino burst has provided a crude confirmation of the idea that stellar collapse leads to a neutrino burst which carries away the gravitational binding energy of the collapsed object, but leaves many questions open.

The high-statistics neutrino observation of a galactic SN would allow one to watch directly the stellar collapse, to confirm or refute the delayed explosion mechanism, and to search for signatures of new nuclear phases in the late-time behavior of the neutrino light curve. The neutrino burst precedes the optical explosion by a few hours, hence an early warning can be given to direct telescopes in the SN direction in the sky.

Many of the classic SN 1987A particle-physics limits are problematic because of the sparse data. A high-statistics observation would provide these important results with a firm experimental basis.

One would obtain new time-of-flight neutrino mass limits, but neutrino masses in the sub-eV range will likely remain elusive.

The detailed characteristics of the neutrino signal can discriminate between different neutrino mass and mixing scenarios. If the SN neutrinos propagate through the Earth before reaching the detector, spectacular regeneration effects can obtain in some cases. The SN 1987A signal interpretation already requires including the Earth effect if the “solar-neutrino mixing angle” is large.

In summary, the high-statistics neutrino observation of a future galactic SN guarantees a rich astrophysical, particle-physics, and nuclear-physics harvest. Of course, the SN rate is low, but still, the neutrinos from about a thousand galactic SNe are on their way. Hopefully one of these bursts will be intercepted at Earth by one or more large neutrino observatories.

## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In Munich, this work was partly supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft under grant No. SFB 375 and the ESF network Neutrino Astrophysics.


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# Inelastic X-ray scattering study of the collective dynamics in liquid sodium.

## I INTRODUCTION

Liquid metals are well known to exhibit remarkably pronounced inelastic features (Brillouin peaks) in their density fluctuations spectra up to very high $`Q`$ values (well beyond the hydrodynamic regime). For this main reason, in the last decades, the dynamic structure factor of these systems has been used as a benchmark for the comprehension of the mechanisms underlying the atomic motions at the microscopic level in liquids. In particular, in the special case of alkali metals, collective oscillatory modes persist down to wavelengths of the order of one or two interparticle distances, a feature which makes them ideal candidates to test different models for collective properties at finite wavevectors.

In the last thirty years many experimental investigations have been performed on these systems by means of inelastic neutron scattering (INS), which was, up to a few years ago, the only tool adequate to investigate the dynamic of condensed matter in the mesoscopic wavevector region. Indeed, since the very first inelastic neutron scattering experiments by Copley and Rowe  in liquid rubidium, many similar studies have been reported for similar systems: lithium , sodium , potassium , cesium  and again rubidium . In the most favorable cases (for example in cesium), important features such as the so called positive dispersion of sound, namely an upwards deviation from the low-$`Q`$, linear dispersion behavior, have been reported. Moreover, a description of the coherent dynamic structure factor has been given in terms of a single relaxation process (viscoelastic model). On the other hand, in some of the above mentioned systems, an accurate investigation of the collective properties is prevented by two drawbacks of INS technique, namely the presence of both coherent and incoherent contribution to the inelastic scattering cross section, and the occurrence of kinematic restrictions which confine the minimum accessible wavevector above a threshold value which is already outside the linear dispersion regime. This is particularly the case of lighter elements such as lithium and sodium.

Despite the lack of experimental information on the collective properties in these systems, significant advances have been done by means of computer simulation techniques, where the afore mentioned restrictions do not apply. Consequently, many numerical studies have been reported aiming at the study of the density fluctuation spectra of liquid metals . Moreover, by these numerical techniques one can access a wider set of correlation functions, while an inelastic scattering experiment basically probes the density autocorrelation function.

On the theoretical side, thanks to development of approaches such as the memory function formalism, the relaxation concept, the kinetic theory,  it has been built up a framework able to account for the behavior of the afore mentioned correlation functions. Along this line, a general picture of the dynamics of the density fluctuations in simple liquids gradually emerged. In particular it is now established that the decay of the density autocorrelation function occurs through mechanisms characterized by different time scales. In addition to a first mechanism related to the coupling of the density and the temperature modes (thermal relaxation), one must allow for the dynamical effects of the stress correlation function (viscous relaxation). This latter process is thought to proceed throughout two distinct relaxation channels, active over quite different time scales: a first rapid decay, customarily ascribed to the interaction of each atom and the ”cage” of its neighboring atoms, is followed by a slower process which yields a long lasting tail. This mechanism stems from slow, temperature-dependent rearrangements which eventually, in those systems capable to sustain supercooling, may cause a structural arrest (glass transition). This structural relaxation process has widely been studied within the mode coupling formalism. Recently, in the specific case of liquid alkali metals, remarkable attempts have been made to set up self consistent approaches which include all these mechanisms from the very start .

This theoretical framework has been tested on a number of numerical studies (see, for example, ). On the experimental side, however, the lineshapes extracted by INS in those systems where one may access a significant ($`QE`$) region did not allow to discriminate between different models including all the relevant relaxation processes .

Although trough of INS enormous advances in the comprehension of the collective properties of condensed matter have been reported, some basic aspects remain still unsettled. In particular, due to the previously mentioned features of INS, sufficiently accurate measurements of the coherent dynamic structure factor, $`S(Q,\omega )`$ have hardly been reported, with the result that a quantitative description of the relaxation dynamics in monoatomic fluids was mainly based on simulation data.

Only in the recent past, the development of new synchrotron radiation facilities opened the possibility of using X-rays to measure $`S(Q,\omega )`$ in the non-hydrodynamic region; in this case the photon speed is obviously much larger than the velocity of the excitations, and no kinematic restriction occurs. Moreover, in a monatomic system, the X-ray scattering cross section is purely coherent, and consequently can be directly associated with the coherent dynamic structure factor . After some early, pioneering data , IXS rapidly developed in the last decade, becoming fully operational with the advent of the third generation sources . The applicability of IXS to the study of collective and single particle dynamics of light liquid metals has been then exploited in several works performed at the beamline ID16 of the european synchrotron radiation facility (ESRF) in Grenoble , thus showing the complementarity of IXS and INS. More recently, IXS has been pushed to the top of its theoretical performance in terms of flux and resolution, and therefore new and more accurate IXS studies on liquid metals allowed to explore the relaxation processes underlying the microscopic dynamics in monoatomic fluids . In particular, it has been possible to detect experimentally and to quantify the presence of the relaxation scenario predicted by the theory of simple liquids. In detail, the data have been analyzed within a generalized hydrodynamic approach  and, following a memory function formalism  in the mesoscopic wavevector region, it has been possible to detect the presence of two viscous relaxation processes in addition to the thermal process . These results, obtained with a phenomenological ansatz for the memory function originally proposed in a theoretical work by Levesque et al. , has then been deeply discussed in order to clarify the physical origin of all these dynamical processes .

In this work, we report the results of a very high resolution determination of the dynamic structure factor in liquid sodium at the melting point at several fixed $`Q`$ values. Several approximation are adopted for the analysis of the experimental data, and the number and the role of the involved relaxation processes is discussed in detail. Finally, a comparison with similar experimental data on different liquid metals is presented.

## II The Experiment

In liquid sodium, the coherent and incoherent INS cross sections are almost equivalent, and the adiabatic speed of sound is about 2500 m/s. As a result, a study of the collective properties in the Q-region characterized by a linear dispersion (the first Brillouin pseudo-zone) is quite hard to perform . The use of IXS to these systems is, therefore, particularly advantageous and, as shown in ref. , the inelastic features of the dynamic structure factor can easily be detected even around the Q position of the first sharp diffraction peak ($`Q_m20`$ nm-1).

Data have been collected for liquid sodium at the new IXS beamline ID28 of ESRF (which is now fully operative), allowing an energy resolution of $`\mathrm{\Delta }E=1.5`$ meV FWHM. The experiment has been performed at fixed exchanged wavevector over a $`Q`$ region $`1.5÷15`$ nm-1. Each energy scan ($`50<E<50`$ meV) took about 300 minutes, and has been repeated for a total integration time of about 500 seconds/point. A five analyzers bench, operating in horizontal scattering geometry, allowed us to collect simultaneously photons at five different values of exchanged wavevector $`Q`$ for each single scan. As sample environment we used a setup similar to the one adopted in previous experiments performed on liquid lithium , namely an austenitic steel cell heated by thermal contact with a resistor connected to a voltage regulated supply. The sample length has been optimized by matching the absorption length of sodium at the working energy 21747 eV (corresponding to the Si (11 11 11) reflection in backscattering geometry) which is about 5 mm.

In Fig. 1, a selection of experimental spectra is reported. Since the incident flux on the sample varies with time, data have been normalized to the monitor. Moreover, since the five analyzers have different scattering efficiencies, to extract $`\stackrel{~}{S}(Q,\omega )`$ from the raw spectra the data have been put in absolute units using the knowledge of the lower order frequency momenta of the dynamic structure factor:

$`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\stackrel{~}{S}}^{(0)}={\displaystyle 𝑑\omega \stackrel{~}{S}(Q,\omega )}=\stackrel{~}{S}(Q)`$ (1)
$`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\stackrel{~}{S}}^{(1)}={\displaystyle 𝑑\omega \stackrel{~}{S}(Q,\omega )\omega }={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}Q^2}{2M}}`$ (2)
where the tilde indicates the true quantum dynamic structure factor, to distinguish it from its classical representation.

This procedure can be summarized as follows. The actual experimental spectrum $`I(Q,\omega )`$ is proportional to the convolution of the scattering law $`\stackrel{~}{S}(Q,\omega )`$ with the resolution $`R(\omega )`$:

$$I(Q,\omega )=E(Q)𝑑\omega ^{}\stackrel{~}{S}(Q,\omega ^{})R(\omega \omega ^{})$$
(3)
In terms of the first two spectral moments of $`I`$ and $`R`$: $`\mathrm{\Omega }_I^{(0)}`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_I^{(1)}`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_R^{(0)}`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_R^{(1)}`$, one easily deduces that

$$\stackrel{~}{S}(Q)=\frac{\mathrm{}Q^2}{2M}(\mathrm{\Omega }_I^{(1)}/\mathrm{\Omega }_I^{(0)}\mathrm{\Omega }_R^{(1)}/\mathrm{\Omega }_R^{(0)})^1.$$
(4)
Consequently, the normalized spectrum (still affected by the resolution broadening) reads:

$$I_N(Q,\omega )=\frac{\stackrel{~}{S}(Q)}{I(Q,\omega d\omega )}I(Q,\omega )$$
(5)
The reliability of this procedure will be discussed in the next section.

## III Data Analysis

The data analysis has been performed following a memory function approach, similar to the one adopted for lithium and aluminum data .

Within the generalized Langevin equation formalism, it is possible to express the classical dynamic structure factor in terms of a complex function, $`M(Q,t)`$, (memory function) related to the interaction details. In particular, $`S(Q,\omega )`$ can be expressed in terms of the real and imaginary part of $`\stackrel{~}{M}(Q,\omega )`$, the Fourier-Laplace transform of $`M(Q,t)`$ as :

$$\frac{S(Q,\omega )}{S(Q)}=\frac{\pi ^1\omega _0^2(Q)\stackrel{~}{M}^{}(Q,\omega )}{\left[\omega ^2\omega _0^2(Q)+\omega \stackrel{~}{M}^{\prime \prime }(Q,\omega )\right]^2+\left[\omega \stackrel{~}{M}^{}(Q,\omega )\right]^2}$$
(6)
where the quantity $`\omega _0^2(Q)=\frac{KTQ^2}{mS(Q)}`$ is related to the generalized isothermal sound speed through the relation $`c_t(Q)=\omega _0(Q)/Q`$.

In order to use the above expression to reproduce the experimental spectra, $`I_N(Q,\omega )`$, it has to be modified to be quantum-compliant with the detailed balance condition, and finally must be convoluted with the instrumental resolution $`R(\omega )`$. Utilizing one of the most common quantum transformation, one finds that

$$I_N^{th}(Q,\omega )=\frac{\mathrm{}\omega ^{}/KT}{1e^{\mathrm{}\omega ^{}/KT}}S(Q,\omega ^{})R(\omega \omega ^{})𝑑\omega ^{}$$
(7)
The above expression can finally be used as a fitting function to the experimental data to obtain the relevant relaxation parameters, i.e. relaxation times and strengths. In this procedure, the values of $`\stackrel{~}{S}(Q)`$ are extracted from the experimental data exploiting Eq. (4).

As memory function, $`M(Q,t)`$, we utilized a multiple exponential ansatz. In Ref. , indeed, it has been shown that in a similar system, namely liquid lithium: i) at least three distinct relaxation processes (one thermal and two viscous) are necessary to reproduce the IXS lineshape; and ii) a multi-exponential shape is an acceptable approximation of the actual memory function. Consequently, the total memory function reads

$`M(Q,t)`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\gamma 1\right)\omega _0^2(Q)e^{D_TQ^2t}`$ (8)
$`+`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2(Q)\left[A(Q)e^{t/\tau _\alpha (Q)}+(1A(Q))e^{t/\tau _\mu (Q)}\right]`$ (9)
The first term of the above equation comes from the coupling between thermal and density degrees of freedom, and depends on the thermal conductivity $`D_T`$ and the specific heat ratio $`\gamma `$. The remaining two contributions in Eq. (8) are the genuine viscous processes. Through the fitting procedure, the unknown parameters $`\tau _\mu ,\tau _\alpha `$ (the relaxation times), $`A(Q)`$ (the relative weight of the viscous processes), and $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2(Q)`$ (the total viscous strength), can be deduced.

In Fig. 2, we report the outcome of this fitting procedure, i.e. a comparison between $`I_N^{th}(Q,\omega )`$ and $`I_N(Q,\omega )`$. Both the results of a one and a two time ansatz are shown. As in the case of lithium and aluminum, a single relaxation time description (viscoelastic model) appears to yield a rather poor reproduction of the data. In particular, at low $`Q`$’s the simultaneous presence of two processes is crucial even to catch just the qualitative features of the spectra.

As previously mentioned, once that the experimental values of $`\stackrel{~}{S}(Q)`$ are introduced in Eq. (6), the only free fitting parameters are the relaxation times and strength. A consistency check has however been obtained comparing these values of $`\stackrel{~}{S}(Q)`$ (sum rules) with the one calculated from $`\omega _0^2(Q)`$ left as free parameter in Eq. (6).

In Fig. 3 the results are shown, together with the experimental determination of $`S(Q)`$ from neutron diffraction data .

In Fig. 4 we show the two relaxation times, $`\tau _\alpha `$ and $`\tau _\mu `$ as obtained by the fitting procedure. The slower process is almost constant, with an abrupt increase below $`Q6`$ nm-1. Such an increase is probably an artifact, since it occurs as the timescale approaches the inverse of the resolution width, here reported as a dashed line. Consequently the determination of the $`\alpha `$ relaxation time below this $`Q`$ value is no longer reliable. The $`\mu `$ relaxation process shows instead a slightly decreasing $`Q`$ dependence. In the insets, we report $`\omega \tau `$ as function of $`Q`$ for the two processes, where omega is the dominant frequency of the density fluctuations at a given $`Q`$ (i.e. the frequency of the Brillouin component). The quantity $`\omega \tau `$ gives important indications about the role of the two processes. The faster one, indeed, has values of $`\omega \tau `$ always smaller than one, so that it is mainly responsible for the acoustic damping (Brillouin linewidth). Moreover, $`\omega (Q)\tau _\mu (Q)`$ shows an increase in the same wavevector region where the sound dispersion occurs (approximately, up to $`Q`$ values of one half of the position of the first sharp diffraction peak), so that an increase of the apparent peak position ruled by the strength of the fast process has to be expected. The $`\omega (Q)\tau _\alpha (Q)`$ is always larger than one. Consequently the alpha process mainly control the sharper portion of the quasielastic scattering, while it only gives a moderate contribution to the speed of sound over all the explored $`Q`$ range (the strength of the $`\alpha `$ process is negligible with respect to that of the fast relaxation).

The above mentioned increase of the speed of sound is illustrated in Fig. 5, where $`\omega _l(Q)`$, the maximum of the longitudinal current correlation spectrum $`J^L(Q,\omega )=\omega ^2/Q^2S(Q,\omega )`$ is reported in the main frame, and the associated sound speed $`\omega _l(Q)/Q`$ is reported in the inset. The positive dispersion turns out to be of the order of $`20\%`$, similarly to what is found in other liquid metals . In contrast with the results reported in Ref., we find that the isothermal value of the sound speed is not yet reached at the minimum wavevector probed in our experiment, i.e. 1.5 nm-1. At this low $`Q`$ resolution effects are particularly important: even with the present resolution (1.5 meV FWHM) the Brillouin components of the $`S(Q,\omega )`$ appear as shoulders of the quasielastic signal, therefore we believe that this discrepancy may be ascribed to the lower resolutions of the previous experiment that prevents an accurate determination of the actual lineshape at such small $`Q`$ value. Both the isothermal $`c_t(Q)`$ (low frequency)  and the infinite frequency $`c_{\mathrm{}}(Q)`$ values of the sound speed have been reported as obtained by the fit. This latter quantity is always higher than the maximum value reached by the apparent sound speed, consistently with the behavior of the relaxation times: as shown in Fig.4, the faster process (which is the one with the dominant strength) has a relaxation time which never exceeds the dominant timescale of the density fluctuation at the probed wavevector. This notwithstanding, the actual values of $`c_{\mathrm{}}(Q)`$ reported in Fig. 5 can partially be affected by the oversimplifications given by the assumption of exponential lineshape for the memory functions .

We conclude this investigation with the comparison of the $`S(Q,\omega )`$ of three different liquid metals. In Fig. 6 the IXS data on liquid sodium are compared with those of lithium and aluminium by introducing a set of length, mass and time units $`[l^{},m^{},t^{}]`$ for each system. Such a procedure can be considered meaningful as far as is valid a corresponding state principle. As length unit, $`l^{}`$, we have chosen $`l^{}=Q_m^1`$, the inverse of the position of the static structure factor S(Q). The time unit, $`t^{}`$, has been instead chosen as $`t^{}=\sqrt{\frac{m}{T_m}}l^{}`$, with $`T_m`$ the melting temperature and $`m`$ the atomic mass. In the upper panel the raw IXS signal, scaled on this units is reported. The $`Q`$ values have been selected among the available ones as closer as possible for three different regions of the dispersion curve. It is worth to point out that all the spectra are resolution broadened and, moreover, that the three experiments have been performed in different condition of resolutions. To bypass the instrumental resolution bias, one can compare the lineshape obtained by the fits, i.e. the classical deconvoluted dynamical structure factor that better reproduces the experimental data after the transformation of Eq. (7). The result of such a comparison is reported in the lower panel of Fig. 6. The aluminum spectra clearly have a different lineshape, while lithium and sodium are much more similar when scaled in their respective absolute units. This notwithstanding, the lineshapes of the two alkali systems do not coincide, implying that the principle of corresponding state is not entirely valid for these systems. One comes to the same conclusion even looking at some basic quantities such as the sound speed: the scaling factors between lithium and sodium, for example, are not the same if one looks at $`c_t(Q0)`$ or $`c_{\mathrm{}}(Q0)`$. Also the static structure factor $`S(Q)`$, rather of being universal quantity, depends on the considered system.

## IV CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, we presented a very high resolution experimental study of the collective dynamic structure factor in liquid sodium at the melting temperature. In order to account for all the spectral details, beside the usual thermal process coupling temperature and density, at least two additional viscous relaxation processes have to be invoked. The viscoelastic approximation do not give, indeed, a satisfactory description of our data. These results have finally been compared with those obtained in other liquid metals. Although the mechanisms ruling the dynamics turn out to lie in a general framework characterizing both alkali and non-alkali simple liquids, some important quantitative differences are found: in particular, a scaling law among alkali systems seems to be unapplicable, in contrast to some previous findings obtained by computer simulation data.

## V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the ESRF staff for the great experimental conditions and for the assistance during the experiment. One of the authors (T.S.) acknowledges R. Yulmetyev and M. Silbert for stimulating discussions.


text:
# Slow relative motion of IRAS galaxies at small separations: implications for galaxy formation models

## 1. Introduction

Large catalogs of galaxies with their redshift and angular positions are the major astronomical data sets which provide quantitative information on the distribution and formation of the universe. To properly decipher this information requires the use of statistical tools, and to assess their importance heavily relies on a quantitative comparison with theoretical models.

In a recent series of papers (Jing, Mo, & Börner 1998, hereafter JMB98; Jing & Börner 1998; Jing & Börner 2001), various statistical quantities from the Las Campanas Redshift Survey (LCRS) have been determined including the two-point correlation function (2PCF), $`\xi (r)`$, the power spectrum, $`P(k)`$, the pairwise peculiar velocity dispersion (PVD), $`\sigma _{12}(r)`$, and the three-point correlation function (3PCF), $`\zeta (r_{12},r_{23},r_{31})`$. In addition, a detailed comparison between these observational results and the predictions of current cold dark matter (CDM) models has been carried out with the help of mock samples constructed from N-body simulations. It has been found that both the real-space 2PCF and the PVD can be measured reliably from the LCRS, and that the observed 2PCF for LCRS is significantly flatter than the mass 2PCF in CDM models on scales $`<1h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. The observed PVD also turned out to be lower than that of the dark matter particles in these models. JMB98 introduced a cluster-underweight (CLW) biasing model to account for these discrepancies; CLW essentially assumes that the number of galaxies per unit dark matter mass in a massive halo of mass $`M`$ decreases as $`M^\alpha `$. If $`\alpha =0.08`$, the 2PCF and the PVD of the LCRS are well reproduced in a spatially-flat CDM model with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{0.6}\sigma _80.4`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ is the density parameter of the model and $`\sigma _8`$ is the current rms linear density fluctuation within a sphere of radius $`8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$.

In this contribution, we report on the measurements of the 2PCF and PVD of galaxies in another large redshift survey, the PSCz catalog, which has become publicly available recently (Saunders et al. 2000). Since galaxies in the PSCz survey are selected from the IRAS point source catalog, they are supposed to be preferentially dominated by late types in contrast to the LCRS galaxies. Thus the difference of those clustering statistics between LRCS and PSCz should be interpreted as an indication for the morphology-dependent biasing of galaxies, and we will focus on the implications of the observed quantities for galaxy formation theories. For the details of this work, we refer the readers to our recent paper (Jing, Börner, & Suto 2002).

## 2. Clustering of PSCz galaxies and a comparision with the CDM predictions

We measure the two-point correlation function and the pairwise velociity dispersion for the PSCz galaxies following exactly the procedure of JMB98. The projected 2PCF $`w(r_p)`$ are presented in Figure 1 with the filled triangles. The data can be well fitted by a power law of $`\xi (r)=(r_0/r)^\gamma `$ with $`r_0=3.70h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ and $`\gamma =1.69`$. The slope is shallower and the amplitude is lower than those for the LCRS (JMB98), reflecting the fact that the PSCz galaxies are preferentially in the field environments. The error bars are not plotted for clarity but are very close to the error bars predicted by the mock samples of the LCDM model with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0.3`$, $`\lambda _0=0.7`$ and $`\sigma _8=1.0`$ (the dotted lines). For the mock samples, we have applied the CLW bias with $`\alpha =0.25`$, which is found to be in good agreement with the PSCz data (the solid line); even the wiggly structure of the PSCz $`w(r_p)`$ below $`0.8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ is recovered.

To follow up this point a bit more, we have also constructed mock catalogs from the GIF simulation data (Kauffmann et al. 1999a,b). From the simulated catalogue, we select those galaxies with $`\mathrm{\Delta }V_{bg}V_bV_g1`$, where $`V_b`$ and $`V_g`$ denote the V-band magnitudes of the bulge and the whole galaxy. This encompasses about 80 percent of the galaxies in the GIF catalog. The resulting $`w(r_p)`$ again fits the observations quite well (Fig. 1) for $`r_p\stackrel{>}{}1h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. While the amplitude of $`w(r_p)`$ for the GIF simulation is a bit larger than the PSCz data for $`r_p\stackrel{<}{}1h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, it still lies close to the $`+1\sigma `$ error line of our CLW mock samples. So these semi-analytic models of galaxy formation which incorporate physical processes like star formation and supernova explosions in some global way have a similar effect of reducing the number of galaxies per unit dark matter mass as our simple bias prescription.

Figure 1 also displays the pairwise velocity dispersion for the self-similar infall model. The PVD is much lower than that for the LCRS: $`\sigma _{12}`$ just reaches $`300\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ at $`r_p=1h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, whereas $`\sigma _{12}(1h^1\mathrm{Mpc})=570\pm 80\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ for the LCRS (JMB98). This is again qualitatively consistent with the fact that spirals have smaller random motions than the galaxies that reside in big clusters. Comparing with the PVD for the CLW and GIF mock samples, we find that the model predictions in all cases significantly exceed the estimate for the PSCz. Only around $`r_p3h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ the disagreement is not serious, especially if the large error bars are taken into account. In fact, we may speculate that a CDM model with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0.2`$ may even produce quite a good fit to the data at larger $`r_p`$, since the amplitude of the PVD scales with $`\sigma _8\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{0.6}`$. Reducing the values of $`\sigma _{12}`$ accordingly, brings agreement on scales larger than $`3h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. There is, however, no way to reproduce the steep decrease towards small values ($`150\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) at $`r_p=0.2h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ of the PSCz data. The pairwise velocity dispersions are rather similar in the SCDM ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=1`$ and $`\sigma _8=0.6`$) and in the LCDM models.

## 3. Discussion and conclusions

We have analyzed the data set of the IRAS PSCz galaxies (Saunders et al. 2000), and computed the two-point correlation functions and the pairwise peculiar velocity dispersion for these galaxies. A power-law fit to the real-space 2PCF $`\xi (r)=(r_0/r)^\gamma `$ gives an exponent $`\gamma =1.69`$, and a amplitude $`r_0=3.70h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. We show that these results can be very well reproduced from mock samples constructed for the LCDM model with the CLW bias of $`\alpha =0.25`$. The bias needed for the PSCz galaxies is stronger than the LCRS galaxies, since IRAS galaxies tend to avoid high-density cluster regions. Mock smaples from the GIF simulation with an appropriate choice of galaxies give similar 2PCF.

The pairwise peculiar velocity dispersion measured from the PSCz has a much lower value, about $`300\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ at $`r_p=1h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, than the LCRS result at that separation of $`570\pm 80\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. All the simulation models which are consistent with the 2PCF of the PSCz predict significantly larger values for PVD, although the CLW bias reduces the PVD to within the $`1\sigma `$ limit of this value, at least near $`3h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ (if $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0.2`$). As discussed in the last section, the decrease of $`\sigma _{12}(r_p)`$ for $`r_p<1h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ for the PSCz data is significant, and cannot be reproduced by the current simple models. After our paper was submitted to the journal, we noted that the steep decline of the PVD at the small speraration was also found in a recent work of the SDSS team on clustering of blue galaxies (Zehavi et al. 2002). Thus, our results indicate that either the cosmogony model needs to be revised or the velocity bias is important for the velocity dispersion of the IRAS galaxies. We are investigating this issue with high-resolution SPH/N-body simulations.

### Acknowledgments.

The work is supported in part by the One-Hundred-Talent Program, by NKBRSF(G19990754) and by NSFC(No.10043004) to YPJ.

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