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# Correlated disordered interactions on Potts models

## I Introduction

The effects of disorder on the critical properties of statistical models have been the subject of much work in the last decades. In the context of random interactions, Harris Harris  derived a heuristic criterion to gauge the relevance of uncorrelated disorder to the critical behavior, which is predicted to remain unchanged if the specific-heat exponent $`\alpha `$ of the underlying pure system is negative. If $`\alpha >0`$, disorder becomes relevant and, in the language of the renormalization group (RG), one expects a flow to a new fixed point (characterized by a nonzero-width fixed distribution of the random variables).

It later became clear that the Harris criterion must be generalized in a number of situations Lubensky ; ddy ; andelman ; Muk ; efrat2001 , since $`\alpha `$ is not always identifiable with $`\varphi `$, the crossover exponent of the width of the distribution of the disorder variables. In particular, random variables correlated along $`d_1`$ of the $`d`$ spatial dimensions give rise to the scaling relation Lubensky ; andelman

$$\varphi =\alpha +d_1\nu ,$$
(1)
where $`\nu `$ is the correlation-length exponent of the pure system. Using a real-space RG approach based on numerical calculations berker , Andelman and Aharony andelman  investigated various $`q`$-state Potts models with random exchange constants, finding qualitative differences between the cases $`dd_1>1`$ (which yields finite-temperature fixed distributions) and $`dd_1=1`$ (which embodies the McCoy-Wu model McCoy and Wu  and yields an “infinite-disorder” zero-temperature fixed point). An intuitive illustration of the special role of the $`dd_1=1`$ case is that, for any infinitesimal concentration of zero bonds (with a suitable assignment of the random interactions), the system would break into non-interacting $`(d1)`$-dimensional structures, and the RG flows would be redirected to the pure fixed point of the corresponding system in $`d1`$ dimensions.

In the present paper, we use a (perturbative) weak-disorder Derrida and Gardner ; Muzy and Salinas  real-space RG scheme to analyze the critical behavior of $`q`$-state Potts models with correlated disordered exchange interactions on various hierarchical lattices, whose exact recursion relations are equivalent to those produced by Migdal-Kadanoff approximations for Bravais lattices. Using this weak-disorder scheme, we obtain analytical results by truncating the recursion relations for the moments of the disorder distribution (which are supposed to remain sufficiently small under the RG iterations). All calculations are performed in the vicinity of $`\varphi =0`$, in a region where disorder is relevant. Depending on the diference between the dimensionality of the system ($`d`$) and the number of dimensions in which disorder is correlated ($`d_1`$), we distinguish two possibilities: (i) For $`dd_1=1`$, the weak-disorder scheme produces a nonphysical fixed-point probability distribution, characterized by a negative variance, which suggests the existence of a nonperturbative (“infinite-disorder”) fixed-point; (ii) For $`dd_1>1`$, the scheme yields a physically acceptable perturbative fixed-point distribution. Although obtained by an alternative approach, the main results of this paper are in agreement with the numerical findings of Andelman and Aharony andelman .

The outline of the paper is as follows. We first rederive Eq. (1), and obtain a criterion for relevance of correlated disorder involving the number of independent random variables in the unit cell of the lattice and the first derivative of the recursion relations at the pure fixed point. This is done in Sec. II. In Sec. III, we consider $`q`$-state Potts models on various hierarchical lattices with $`dd_1=1`$. Using a weak-disorder scheme, we obtain a new (random) fixed point for $`q`$ larger than a characteristic value $`q_0`$, where disorder becomes relevant. As in a previous publication Muzy and Salinas , this fixed point is located in a nonphysical region of the parameter space, suggesting that a nonperturbative fixed point must be present. In Sec. IV we study a similar problem with $`d_1=1`$ and $`d=3`$. In this case we obtain a physically acceptable, finite-disorder fixed point, for $`q>q_0`$, as in the fully disordered model studied by Derrida and Gardner Derrida and Gardner  (although in our case the usual Harris criterion is not satisfied). In Sec. V, we consider an Ising model ($`q=2`$) on a diamond lattice with $`b=2`$ bonds and $`l`$ branches (where $`l`$, instead of $`q`$, is the control parameter), which constitutes another example of a $`dd_1=1`$ system. As in Sec. III, weak disorder again predicts a nonphysical random fixed point. In the final section we give some conclusions.

## II Criterion for relevance of correlated disorder

Following Andelman and Aharony andelman , we consider a $`d`$-dimensional bond-disordered model in which the disorder variables are correlated along $`d_1`$ spatial directions. We assume that, under renormalization with a length rescaling factor $`b`$, the model satisfies a recursion relation $`R(x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_n)`$, connecting $`n=b^{dd_1}`$ independent (and identically distributed) random variables to a renormalized variable $`x^{}`$. (In this paper, these variables are related to reduced exchange couplings.) Defining the deviations $`\epsilon _ix_ix_c`$, where $`x_c=R(x_c,x_c,\mathrm{},x_c)`$ is the critical fixed point of the pure system, we expand $`R`$ in a Taylor series about $`x_c`$ to write

$$\epsilon ^{}x^{}x_c=\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{R}{x_i}|_{x_c}\epsilon _i+\frac{1}{2}\underset{i,j=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{^2R}{x_ix_j}|_{x_c}\epsilon _i\epsilon _j+\mathrm{},$$
(2)
$$\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}=\underset{i,j=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{R}{x_i}|_{x_c}\frac{R}{x_j}|_{x_c}\epsilon _i\epsilon _j+\underset{i,j,k=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{R}{x_i}|_{x_c}\frac{^2R}{x_jx_k}|_{x_c}\epsilon _i\epsilon _j\epsilon _k+\mathrm{},$$
(3)
and similarly for the higher powers of $`\epsilon ^{}`$. Averaging over the random variables we get

$$\epsilon ^{}=\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{R}{x_i}|_{x_c}\epsilon +\frac{1}{2}\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{^2R}{x_i^2}|_{x_c}\epsilon ^2+\underset{ij}{}\frac{^2R}{x_ix_j}|_{x_c}\epsilon ^2+\mathrm{},$$
(4)
$$\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}=\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\left(\frac{R}{x_i}|_{x_c}\right)^2\epsilon ^2+\underset{ij}{}\frac{R}{x_i}|_{x_c}\frac{R}{x_j}|_{x_c}\epsilon ^2+\mathrm{},$$
(5)
and corresponding expressions for the higher moments of the deviations. Since $`\epsilon `$ is a measure of the distance to the fixed point, it plays the role of temperature. On the other hand, $`\epsilon ^2`$ is a measure of the strength of disorder.

The critical behavior of the model is related to the eigenvalues of the matrix

$$M_{rs}=\frac{\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{r}}{\epsilon ^s},$$
(6)
evaluated at the fixed point. It is clear that the set of recursion relations for the moments of the deviations always has a pure fixed point $`\epsilon =\epsilon ^2=\mathrm{}=0`$. At that point, it can be shown Efrat  that $`M_{rs}`$ is a triangular matrix, and that its two largest eigenvalues are given by

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_1=\frac{\epsilon ^{}}{\epsilon }|_{\mathrm{pure}}=\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{R}{x_i}|_{x_c}$$
(7)
and

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_2=\frac{\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{\epsilon ^2}|_{\mathrm{pure}}=\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\left(\frac{R}{x_i}|_{x_c}\right)^2.$$
(8)
Assuming that, for all $`i`$ and $`j`$,

$$\frac{R}{x_i}|_{x_c}=\frac{R}{x_j}|_{x_c}w,$$
(9)
and invoking the usual scaling hypotheses

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_1=b^{y_t}\text{and}\mathrm{\Lambda }_2=\mathrm{\Lambda }_1^\varphi =b^{\varphi y_t},$$
(10)
which define the thermal exponent $`y_t`$ and the crossover exponent $`\varphi `$, we get

$$\varphi y_t=2y_t\left(dd_1\right).$$
(11)
Then, using the hyperscaling relation

$$\alpha =2\frac{d}{y_t}=2\frac{d\mathrm{ln}b}{\mathrm{ln}(nw)},$$
(12)
we obtain

$$\varphi =\alpha +\frac{d_1}{y_t}=\frac{dd_1}{d}\alpha +2\frac{d_1}{d},$$
(13)
which clearly shows that the Harris criterion ($`\varphi =\alpha >0`$) is not satisfied in the presence of correlated disorder. As $`1/y_t`$ is usually identified with the correlation-length exponent $`\nu `$, this last result is equivalent to Eq. (1). It also shows that, for $`d_1>0`$, the crossover expoent is larger than $`\alpha `$, which indicates that correlated disorder induces stronger (geometrical) fluctuations than uncorrelated disorder.

The general criterion for relevance of disorder is $`\varphi >0`$, that is,

$$\alpha >2\frac{d_1}{dd_1}.$$
(14)
From Eqs. (7)-(9), this is equivalent to

$$nw^2>1.$$
(15)
This last result was also derived in a different context by Mukherji and Bhattacharjee Muk  and generalizes a criterion pointed out by Derrida *et al.* ddy .

In the case of the fully disordered system analyzed by Derrida and Gardner Derrida and Gardner , for which $`d_1=0`$, the requirement in Eq. (14) turns out to be equivalent to the usual form of the Harris criterion ($`\alpha >0`$).

## III Potts models with correlated disorder: $`dd_1=1`$ case

The successive generations of a hierarchical lattice are obtained by replacing an existing bond in the previous generation by a unit cell of new bonds in the next generation. In Fig. 1(a), we show the first two stages of the construction of the simple diamond lattice (with $`b=2`$ bonds and $`l=2`$ branches). The necklace hierarchical lattice, with $`b=2`$ bonds and $`l=2`$ branches, is illustrated in Fig. 1(b).

We now consider a $`q`$-state Potts model, given by the Hamiltonian

$$_P=\underset{(i,j)}{}J_{ij}\delta _{\sigma _i,\sigma _j},$$
(16)
where the sum is over nearest-neighbor sites on a hierarchical lattice, the spin variables $`\sigma _i`$ assume $`q`$ values, $`\delta `$ is the Kronecker symbol, and $`\left\{J_{ij}>0\right\}`$ is a set of independent and identically distributed random variables. Instead of considering a fully disordered arrangement of interactions, we look at correlated disorder, either along layers (see Figs. 2(a) and 2(c)) or along branches (see Figs. 2(b) and 2(d)) of the hierarchical structure.

Introducing the more convenient variable $`x_i=\mathrm{exp}(\beta J_i)`$, where $`\beta `$ is the inverse absolute temperature, it is straightforward to decimate the internal degrees of freedom to obtain (Migdal-Kadanoff) recursion relations. In this section we consider the following models:

1. random layered diamond lattice, Fig. 2(a), whose recursion relation is

$$x^{}=R_\mathrm{A}(x_1,x_2)=\left(\frac{x_1x_2+q1}{x_1+x_2+q2}\right)^2;$$
(17)
2. random branched diamond lattice, Fig. 2(b), with recursion relation

$$x^{}=R_\mathrm{B}(x_1,x_2)=\left(\frac{x_1^2+q1}{2x_1+q2}\right)\left(\frac{x_2^2+q1}{2x_2+q2}\right);$$
(18)
3. random layered necklace lattice, Fig. 2(c), with recursion relation

$$x^{}=R_\mathrm{C}(x_1,x_2)=\frac{x_1^2x_2^2+q1}{x_1^2+x_2^2+q2};$$
(19)
4. random branched necklace lattice, Fig. 2(d), with recursion relation

$$x^{}=R_\mathrm{D}(x_1,x_2)=\frac{x_1^2x_2^2+q1}{2x_1x_2+q2}.$$
(20)

Notice that in all these models disorder is correlated along only one spatial direction ($`d_1=1`$), while the effective dimension is $`d=2`$. According to Eq. (14), we then expect disorder to be relevant for $`\alpha >2`$.

We now write $`x^{}=x_c+\epsilon ^{}`$ and $`x_i=x_c+\epsilon _i`$, to perform Taylor series expansions about the critical point of the uniform systems, given by $`x_c=R(x_c,x_c)`$. For all of these models, with $`n=2`$ independent values of the exchange parameters (along either layers or bonds), it is straightforward to write the recursion relation

$`\epsilon ^{}`$ $`=`$ $`w\left(\epsilon _1+\epsilon _2\right)+m\left(\epsilon _1^2+\epsilon _2^2\right)+f\left(\epsilon _1\epsilon _2^2+\epsilon _1^2\epsilon _2\right)`$ (21)
$`+`$ $`p\epsilon _1\epsilon _2+c\epsilon _1^2\epsilon _2^2+k\left(\epsilon _1^3+\epsilon _2^3\right)+a\left(\epsilon _1^4+\epsilon _2^4\right)`$
where $`w`$, $`m`$, $`p`$, $`f`$, $`c`$, $`k`$ and $`a`$ are model-dependent Taylor coefficients (that depend on the topology of the particular models illustrated in Fig. 2; see Sec. II).

The weak-disorder approximation Derrida and Gardner ; Muzy and Salinas  consists in assuming that

$$\epsilon \epsilon ^2\lambda ,$$
(22)
$$\epsilon ^3\epsilon ^4\lambda ^2,$$
(23)
and in general

$$\epsilon ^{2p1}\epsilon ^{2p}\lambda ^p,$$
(24)
where $`\mathrm{}`$ is a quenched average and $`\lambda `$ is a suitable small parameter. Within this approximation, we can use Eq. (21) to write recursion relations for the moments of the deviation, up to second order in $`\lambda `$,

$`\epsilon ^{}`$ $`=`$ $`2w\epsilon +p\epsilon ^2+2m\epsilon ^2+2f\epsilon \epsilon ^2`$ (25)
$`+`$ $`c\epsilon ^2^2+2k\epsilon ^3+2a\epsilon ^4,`$
$`\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}`$ $`=`$ $`2w^2\epsilon ^2+2w^2\epsilon ^2+4w(m+p)\epsilon \epsilon ^2`$ (26)
$`+`$ $`(2m^2+4fw+p^2)\epsilon ^2^2+4wm\epsilon ^3`$
$`+`$ $`(4wk+2m^2)\epsilon ^4,`$
$`\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{3}`$ $`=`$ $`3w\epsilon \epsilon ^2+3(m+p)\epsilon ^2^2`$ (27)
$`+`$ $`w\epsilon ^3+3m\epsilon ^4,`$
and

$$\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{4}=3w^2\epsilon ^2^2+w^2\epsilon ^4.$$
(28)
It is easy to see that there is always a non-random fixed point,

$$\epsilon =\epsilon ^2=\epsilon ^3=\epsilon ^4=0,$$
(29)
associated with the critical behavior of the pure model. As we pointed out in the previous section, this fixed point becomes unstable with respect to disorder for $`2w^2>1`$. This can also be seen by an inspection of the asymptotic behavior of Eq. (26), which shows that, up to order $`\lambda `$, the renormalized second moment depends only on $`\epsilon ^2`$, with the coefficient $`2w^2`$. Thus, we expect the onset of a random fixed point at a critical value $`q_0`$ of the number of Potts states. From the expression

$$x_c=R(x_c,x_c)$$
(30)
for the pure fixed point, we can express $`q`$ as a function of $`x_c`$ and, using the condition $`2w^2=1`$, determine the critical value $`x_c(q_0)`$. For both diamond structures displayed in Figs. 2(a) and 2(b), we have

$$q=\left(\sqrt{x_c}1\right)\left(x_c1\right),$$
(31)
and $`x_c(q_0)=2.15127\mathrm{}`$, which leads to $`q_0=0.53732\mathrm{}`$. For both necklace structures in Figs. 2(c) and 2(d), we have

$$q=\left(x_c1\right)\left(x_c^21\right),$$
(32)
with $`x_c(q_0)=1.46672\mathrm{}`$, which also leads to $`q_0=0.53732\mathrm{}`$. Disorder is predicted to be relevant for $`q>q_0`$.

We now introduce the small parameter

$$\lambda =x_c\left(q\right)x_c\left(q_0\right)\frac{dx_c}{dq}|_{q_0}(qq_0)\frac{dx_c}{dq}|_{q_0}\mathrm{\Delta }q,$$
(33)
to investigate a $`q`$-state Potts model in the immediate vicinity of the characteristic value $`q_0`$. It should be pointed out that, as the symmetry of the order parameter is one of the factors expected to determine the universality class of the models, $`\mathrm{\Delta }q`$ is the appropriate parameter to consider. However, $`\lambda `$ is more convenient for the algebraic manipulations. From inspection of Eqs. (25)-(28), we see that, up to first-order terms in $`\lambda `$, coefficients $`w`$ and $`m`$ are written as

$$w=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{2}+w_1\lambda \text{and}m=m_0+m_1\lambda .$$
(34)
It is straightforward to calculate $`w_1=0.13325\mathrm{}`$, for the diamond structures, and $`w_1=0.39088\mathrm{}`$, for the necklace structures. Also, we have $`m_0=0.19088\mathrm{}`$ and $`m_1=0.19865\mathrm{}`$, for model A; $`m_0=0.01849\mathrm{}`$ and $`m_1=0.00758\mathrm{}`$, for model B; $`m_0=0.48935\mathrm{}`$ and $`m_1=1.22433\mathrm{}`$, for model C; and $`m_0=0.02711\mathrm{}`$ and $`m_1=0.02027\mathrm{}`$, for model D. In order to obtain the remaining coefficients, it is enough to keep the zeroth order term in $`\lambda `$ (see the values, up to five digits, in Table 1).

We are finally prepared to obtain, up to lowest order in $`\mathrm{\Delta }q`$, the non-zero values of the moments at the random fixed point. By substituting the weak-disorder assumptions, Eqs. (22) and (23), into Eqs. (25)-(28), and then imposing consistency between equal powers of $`\mathrm{\Delta }q`$, we obtain the leading terms for fixed values of the moments as listed in Table 2.

In order to perform a linear stability analysis about the fixed points, we have to calculate the eigenvalues $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_1`$ to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ of the matrix

$$M_{rs}=\frac{\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{r}}{\epsilon ^s}.$$

As it should be anticipated from universality, it turns out that the eigenvalues (and so the critical exponents) are the same for all models A to D. We always have two eigenvalues, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$, whose absolute values are smaller than unity. About the pure fixed point, we have

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_1^{(\mathrm{p})}`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}+0.31018\mathrm{\Delta }q,`$ (35)
$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_2^{(\mathrm{p})}`$ $`=`$ $`1+0.43866\mathrm{\Delta }q,`$ (36)
with a specific heat exponent

$$\alpha _\mathrm{p}=2+2.53141\mathrm{\Delta }q.$$

At the random fixed point we have

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_1^{(\mathrm{r})}`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}+0.83670\mathrm{\Delta }q,`$ (37)
$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_2^{(\mathrm{r})}`$ $`=`$ $`10.43866\mathrm{\Delta }q,`$ (38)
which lead to the exponent

$$\alpha _\mathrm{r}=2+6.82843\mathrm{\Delta }q.$$
(39)
From Eq. (36), we see that disorder becomes relevant for $`\mathrm{\Delta }q>0`$. Thus, as shown in Table 2, the weak-disorder expansion gives negative (and thus nonphysical) values of the second moment at the random fixed point for all models A to D. This suggests that the random fixed point in these systems (for which $`dd_1=1`$) is nonperturbative, in agreement with numerical calculations andelman  that predict an infinite-disorder fixed point. Another odd feature of the weak-disorder results is that the predicted value of the specific-heat exponent in the presence of disorder ($`\alpha _\mathrm{r}`$) is *larger* than the corresponding quantity ($`\alpha _\mathrm{p}`$) for the pure model, in disagreement with the general belief that disorder should weaken the transition.

## IV A Potts model with correlated disorder: $`dd_1>1`$ case

In order to examine the $`dd_1>1`$ case, we now consider a Potts model on a necklace hierarchical lattice andelman  shown in Fig. 3, with $`d=3`$ and $`d_1=1`$. The unit cell contains $`n=4`$ independent random variables and, in terms of the variables $`x_i\mathrm{exp}(\beta J_i)`$, the recursion relation is given by

$$R(x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4)=\frac{x_1x_2x_3x_4+q1}{x_1x_2+x_3x_4+q2}.$$
(40)
Following the same steps as in Sec. III, we have

$$q=\left(x_c1\right)\left(x_c^21\right),$$
(41)
$`q_0=4+2\sqrt{2}`$, and $`x_c(q_0)=1+\sqrt{2}`$. Performing again the weak-disorder expansion (and truncation), and taking the average over the disorder variables, we obtain the set of recursion relations

$`\epsilon ^{}`$ $`=`$ $`4w\epsilon +2(p_1+2p_2)\epsilon ^2+4m\epsilon ^2+4(f_1+2f_2)\epsilon \epsilon ^2`$ (42)
$`+`$ $`2(c_1+2c_2)\epsilon ^2^2+4k\epsilon ^3+4a\epsilon ^4,`$
$`\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}`$ $`=`$ $`12w^2\epsilon ^2+4w^2\epsilon ^2+8w(3m+p_1+2p_2)\epsilon \epsilon ^2`$ (43)
$`+`$ $`[12m^2+8w(f_1+2f_2)+2(p_1^2+2p_2^2)]\epsilon ^2^2`$
$`+`$ $`8wm\epsilon ^3+(8wk+4m^2)\epsilon ^4,`$
$$\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{3}=9w\epsilon \epsilon ^2+3(3m+p_1+2p_2)\epsilon ^2^2+w\epsilon ^3+3m\epsilon ^4,$$
(44)
and

$$\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{4}=9w^2\epsilon ^2^2+w^2\epsilon ^4.$$
(45)
It should be noted that, due to the smaller symmetry of the lattice, we now have a larger set of coefficients. Also, notice that in this case $`q_0`$ is determined from the condition $`4w^2=1`$. About the critical value $`q_0`$, and to leading order in $`\mathrm{\Delta }q`$, we have

$$w=\frac{1}{2}+\frac{17\sqrt{2}24}{4}\mathrm{\Delta }q$$
(46)
and

$$m=\frac{\sqrt{2}2}{8}+\frac{13394\sqrt{2}}{16}\mathrm{\Delta }q.$$
(47)
The values for the remaining coefficients are listed in Table 3.

The moments of the deviations at the random fixed point are written as

$`\epsilon `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{7}}\left(53\sqrt{2}\right)\mathrm{\Delta }q,`$
$`\epsilon ^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{7}}\left(4\sqrt{2}\right)\mathrm{\Delta }q,`$
$`\epsilon ^3`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{49}}\left(95\sqrt{2}128\right)(\mathrm{\Delta }q)^2,`$
$`\epsilon ^4`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{6}{49}}\left(94\sqrt{2}\right)(\mathrm{\Delta }q)^2.`$ (48)
Performing a linear stability analysis about the pure fixed point we obtain

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_1^{(\mathrm{p})}`$ $`=`$ $`2+\left(17\sqrt{2}24\right)\mathrm{\Delta }q,`$ (49)
$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_2^{(\mathrm{p})}`$ $`=`$ $`1+\left(17\sqrt{2}24\right)\mathrm{\Delta }q,`$ (50)
with a specific-heat exponent

$$\alpha _\mathrm{p}=1+\frac{3}{2}\frac{17\sqrt{2}24}{\mathrm{ln}2}\mathrm{\Delta }q,$$
(51)
while about the random fixed point we have

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_1^{(\mathrm{r})}`$ $`=`$ $`2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{7}}\left(9265\sqrt{2}\right)\mathrm{\Delta }q,`$ (52)
$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_2^{(\mathrm{r})}`$ $`=`$ $`1\left(17\sqrt{2}24\right)\mathrm{\Delta }q,`$ (53)
with

$$\alpha _\mathrm{r}=1\frac{3}{14}\frac{9265\sqrt{2}}{\mathrm{ln}2}\mathrm{\Delta }q.$$
(54)
These results show that once more disorder becomes relevant for $`\mathrm{\Delta }q>0`$, but now we obtain a positive (and thus physically acceptable) value of the second moment of the deviations at the random fixed point. We also have $`\alpha _\mathrm{r}<\alpha _\mathrm{p}`$. So, as in the fully disordered model ($`d_1=0`$) studied by Derrida and Gardner Derrida and Gardner , and in agreement with numerical calculations andelman , the weak-disorder scheme predicts a (perturbative) finite-disorder fixed point, with values of the critical exponents continuously approaching those of the pure model as $`\mathrm{\Delta }q0`$.

## V An Ising model with correlated disorder

The set of recursion relations given by equations (25) to (28), with a suitable redefinition of parameters, can also be used to analyze an Ising model on a more general diamond structure with $`b=2`$ bonds and $`l`$ branches, and correlated disordered ferromagnetic exchange interactions along the layers (see Fig. 4). For this structure we also have $`dd_1=1`$. While in the Potts models we have a natural parameter, $`q`$, for varying $`\alpha `$, we now change the topology of the lattice, by varying $`l`$, to obtain the same effect.

Using the standard Ising Hamiltonian,

$$_I=\underset{(i,j)}{}J_{i,j}\sigma _i\sigma _j,$$
(55)
with $`\sigma _i=\pm 1`$, and introducing the more convenient transmissivity variable $`t_i=\mathrm{tanh}\beta J_i`$, the decimation of the intermediate spins leads to the recursion relation

$$t^{}=R_l(t_1,t_2)=\mathrm{tanh}\{l\mathrm{tanh}^1(t_1t_2)\}.$$
(56)
As in Sec. III, we now write $`t^{}=t_c+\epsilon `$ and $`t_i=t_c+\epsilon _i`$, where

$$t_c=R_l(t_c,t_c)$$
(57)
is the critical transmissivity of the uniform model. We then perform quenched averages, and use the weak-disorder assumption, to obtain Eqs. (25) to (28).

The critical parameters for relevance of disorder, $`l_0=1.44976\mathrm{}`$ and $`t_c(l_0)=0.79951\mathrm{}`$, come from Eqs. (57) and (15). The small parameter $`\lambda `$ can be chosen as

$$\lambda =t_c\left(l\right)t_c\left(l_0\right)=\frac{dx_c}{dl}|_{l_0}(ll_0)\frac{dx_c}{dl}|_{l_0}\mathrm{\Delta }l.$$
(58)
Again we use $`\lambda `$ as a convenient parameter for algebraic manipulations, although $`\mathrm{\Delta }l`$ is the physically relevant variable. The Taylor coefficients in Eqs. (25) to (28) are given by $`w=\sqrt{2}/20.54522\lambda `$, $`m=0.496980.65422\lambda `$, $`a=0.11520`$, $`c=1.64903`$, $`k=0.12543`$, $`f=1.61924`$, and $`p=0.10953`$. We then calculate the leading values of the moments at the random fixed point,

$`\epsilon `$ $`=`$ $`0.64971\mathrm{\Delta }l,`$
$`\epsilon ^2`$ $`=`$ $`0.27076\mathrm{\Delta }l,`$
$`\epsilon ^3`$ $`=`$ $`0.30084(\mathrm{\Delta }l)^2,`$
$`\epsilon ^4`$ $`=`$ $`+0.21993(\mathrm{\Delta }l)^2.`$ (59)
A linear stability analysis leads to the eigenvalues $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_1^{(\mathrm{p})}=\sqrt{2}+0.71884\mathrm{\Delta }l`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_2^{(\mathrm{p})}=1+1.01659\mathrm{\Delta }l`$, for the pure fixed point, and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_1^{(\mathrm{r})}=\sqrt{2}+1.20537\mathrm{\Delta }l`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_2^{(\mathrm{r})}=11.01659\mathrm{\Delta }l`$, for the random fixed point. From these values, we see that disorder is relevant for $`\mathrm{\Delta }l>0`$, but we again have $`\epsilon ^2<0`$ in this case.

We then obtain the specific heat critical exponents

$$\alpha _\mathrm{p}=1.07163+2.51471\mathrm{\Delta }l$$
(60)
and

$$\alpha _\mathrm{r}=1.07163+5.56379\mathrm{\Delta }l.$$
(61)
For $`\mathrm{\Delta }l<0`$, which corresponds to $`\alpha <1.07163\mathrm{}`$, the pure fixed point is stable and the random model displays the same critical behavior as its pure counterpart. For $`\mathrm{\Delta }l>0`$, which corresponds to $`\alpha >1.0713\mathrm{}`$ (yielding again $`\alpha _\mathrm{r}>\alpha _\mathrm{p}`$), we anticipate a novel class of (random) critical behavior, but the fixed point must be nonperturbative, as suggested by the nonphysical character of the weak-disorder results.

## VI Conclusions

We have used a weak-disorder scheme and real-space renormalization-group techniques to look at the effects of correlated disorder on the critical behavior of some $`q`$-state Potts models with correlated disordered ferromagnetic interactions along $`d_1`$ out of $`d`$ spatial dimensions. We have written exact recursion relations on diamond and necklace hierarchical structures, which are equivalent to Migdal-Kadanoff approximations for the corresponding Bravais lattices.

The weak-disorder scheme leads to analytical results by truncating the recursion relations for the moments of the distribution function. We first used scaling arguments to rederive a general expression for the Harris criterion to gauge the relevance of disorder (and show that it is related to the number of independent random variables in the unit cell of the lattice and the first derivative of the recursion relations at the pure fixed point). We then performed a number of calculations to compare with numerical findings by Andelman and Aharony.

For $`q`$-state Potts models on various hierarchical lattices with ferromagnetic random exchange interactions correlated along $`d_1=1`$ out of $`d=2`$ dimensions, we obtained a new (random) fixed point for $`q`$ larger than a characteristic value $`q_0`$, where disorder becomes relevant. This fixed point, however, is located in a nonphysical region of parameter space, which suggests that a nonperturbative (infinite-disorder) fixed point must be present (as pointed out by the calculations of Andelman and Aharony). For a $`q`$-state Potts model on a diamond lattice with $`d_1=1`$ and $`d=3`$, we obtained a physically acceptable, finite-disorder fixed point, for $`q>q_0`$, as in the fully disordered model analyzed by Derrida and Gardner (although in our case the usual expression of the Harris criterion is not fulfilled). Also, we considered an Ising model ($`q=2`$) on a diamond lattice with $`b=2`$ bonds and $`l`$ branches (where $`l`$, instead of $`q`$, is the control parameter), which is another example of a $`dd_1=1`$ system. Again, the weak-disorder expansion predicts a nonphysical random fixed point.

To summarize the results of this paper, we point out that, in the vicinity of the point where disorder becomes relevant, the weak-disorder scheme always produces a perturbative random fixed point, but there are two distinct possibilities, depending on the difference between $`d`$ and $`d_1`$: (i) If $`dd_1=1`$, the perturbative fixed point is characterized by a negative variance, and is thus nonphysical, suggesting the existence of another, nonperturbative fixed point; (ii) If $`dd_1>1`$, the scheme predicts a physically acceptable perturbative fixed point. It should be mentioned that this same picture holds for fairly general hierarchical lattices, in particular those with noniterating bonds, as considered by Griffiths and Kauffman Grif . Furthermore, in the case of the quantum Ising model with bond disorder, which corresponds to the extreme-anisotropy limit of the two-dimensional McCoy-Wu model ($`dd_1=1`$), Fisher Fisher  was able to obtain a (presumably exact) fixed-point probability distribution with infinite variance. It is certainly interesting to investigate whether similar conclusions still hold for other models (as the problem of directed polymers in random environments Muk ) on either hierarchical or Bravais lattices.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was partially financed by the Brazilian agencies CNPq and Fapesp.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Recently it has been proposed that large extra spatial dimensions can explain the apparent weakness of the electroweak scale compared to gravity in $`3+1`$ dimensions. In such a scenario four dimensional world is assumed to be a flat hypersurface, called a ‘brane’, which is embedded in a higher dimensional space-time usually known as the bulk. The hierarchy problem is then resolved by assuming that TeV scale can be the fundamental scale in higher dimensions . This however requires the compactified radii of the extra dimensions are large. Such a large volume can substantiate the hierarchy in energy scales. The volume suppression $`V_d`$, the effective four dimensional Planck mass $`M_\mathrm{p}`$, and, the fundamental scale in $`4+d`$ dimensions $`M_{}`$ are all related to each other by a simple relation

$$M_\mathrm{p}^2=M_{}^{2+d}V_d.$$
(1)
This automatically sets the present common size of all the extra dimensions at $`b_0`$. For two extra dimensions, and, $`M_{}=1`$ TeV, the required size is of order $`0.2`$ mm right on the current experimental limit for the search of deviation in Newtons gravity . Recent astrophysical and cosmological bounds suggest $`M_{}`$ should be larger than $`500`$ TeV for two extra dimensions, and around $`30`$ TeV for three extra dimensions . Naturally, such a model has an important impact on collider experiments , and on cosmology (see for instance Ref.  and references therein). In this talk we address one of the most important question of cosmology and particle physics; how to realise the observed baryon asymmetry $`10^{10}`$ in nature ?

The generation of baryon asymmetry requires three well-known conditions; $`C`$ and $`CP`$ violation, $`B`$ and/or $`L`$ violation, and out of equilibrium decay or scattering processes . It is quite likely that the departure from thermal equilibrium is possible at early times when the expansion rate of the Universe is large. Certainly acquiring such a condition becomes more difficult at late times, especially if thermal equilibrium is reached at a temperature below the electroweak scale. Note that the size of the compact extra dimensions must be stabilised and the corresponding mass scale for two extra dimensions is of order $`10^2`$ eV. Above this scale the Kaluza-Klein (KK) modes of gaviton can be excited very easily, and as we reach higher in temperature we excite them more and more. We must note that the bulk is also very large which can dilute their number density, and you might suspect that we would never be able to feel their presence. However, this is not correct because these KK modes can decay into light fermions via Planck suppressed couplings. The readers must note that the KK modes once produced can never reach thermal equilibrium and their number density is frozen. Therefore, the KK modes when decay their decay products can have an energy scale proportional to their mass, which could be related to the largest temperature of the thermal bath produced in the early Universe.

One could envisage that the largest cross section of a heavy KK mode is possible at a centre of mass frame; $`\gamma +\gamma G`$, where $`\gamma `$ denotes the relativistic species and $`G`$ signifies the KK mode. The cross section goes as $`\sigma _{\gamma +\gamma G}(TR)^d/M_\mathrm{p}^2`$ , where $`R`$ is the effective size of the extra dimensions. Once the KK modes are produced their evolution can be traced and a simple overclosure of their density; $`n_\mathrm{G}/n_\gamma 1`$ limits the initial thermal bath of the Universe which we denote here by $`T_\mathrm{r}`$, usually known as the largest temperature during the radiation dominated era.

$$T_\mathrm{r}T_\mathrm{c}\left(\frac{M_{}^{d+2}}{M_\mathrm{p}}\right)^{1/1+d}.$$
(2)
where $`T_\mathrm{c}`$ is the normalcy temperature which states that the Universe better thermalises below this bound. For some preferred values $`M_{}𝒪(10)`$TeV for $`d=2`$, we obtain $`T_\mathrm{c}𝒪(10100)`$ MeV. This is an extremely strong constraint on thermal history of the Universe. It reiterates very strongly that the radiation dominated Universe simply can not prevail beyond this temperature. Above the normalcy temperature our Universe is inevitably dominated by the KK degrees of freedom. Therefore, any physical phenomena such as first order phase transition, out-of-equilibrium decay of heavy particles, if at all taking place beyond $`T_\mathrm{c}`$ must take the KK degrees of freedom into account. Note that for larger number of compact extra spatial dimensions the bound on normalcy temperature is relaxed quite a lot. Therefore, it is the two extra dimensions scenario which poses the most challenging problems for theorists and also to the experimentalists who are trying their luck in seeking any departure from the Newtons gravity below mm. scale .

Apart from the above mentioned problems there exists another major problem with a fast proton decay. The low fundamental scale induces proton decay via dimension $`6`$ baryon number violating operator in the theories beyond the Standard Model (SM). With such a low fundamental scale the usual coupling suppression is not sufficient. We will come back to this issue when we discuss the baryon number violating lepto-quark interactions which is also required for baryon asymmetry .

In nut-shell we require an inflationary model which automatically provides very low reheat temperature. Such a possibility is not remote, especially if we assume that the inflaton sector is a SM gauge singlet which resides in the bulk. After compactification the effective four dimensional theory provides a Planck suppressed couplings of the inflaton sector to the SM fields very naturally. Keeping inflaton field in the bulk also aids stabilising the extra dimensions, because at initial times the natural size of all the dimensions is inevitably the string scale; $`(\mathrm{TeV})^1`$. Therefore, not only our three dimensions must expand, but also the extra dimensions until they are trapped when their radii reach of order mm. for instance in the case of two extra dimensions. The stabilisation process is a dynamical one because the radion field which determines the size of the extra dimensions obtains a dynamical mass through its couplings to the trace of the energy momentum tensor of the bulk fields, see Ref. . Therefore, the radion mass during inflation gets a correction during inflation of order $`H`$; the Hubble parameter, which makes the radion field heavy and thus its dynamics is frozen and the radion rolls down to its true minimum very fast in effectively one Hubble time .

The inflaton sector living in the bulk eventually decays after the end of inflation, and since the couplings are Planck mass suppressed, the decay rate of the inflaton into the Higgses, for instance, given as

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\varphi \mathrm{HH}}\frac{g^2M_{}^3}{32\pi M_P^2},$$
(3)
where $`g`$ is the coupling constant, and $`M_{}`$ is the fundamental scale. While deriving the decay rate in Eq. (3), we have implicitly assumed that the mass of the inflaton is roughly the same order as the fundamental scale $`M`$, otherwise the decay rate of the inflaton would be even more suppressed for smaller mass scale of the inflaton. The estimated reheat temperature of the Universe is then given by

$$T_\mathrm{r}0.1\sqrt{\mathrm{\Gamma }M_\mathrm{p}}1(10)\mathrm{MeV},$$
(4)
just right above the temperature required for a successful Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Note that this result is independent of the number of extra dimensions. This is an another important lesson; once we assume that the inflaton resides in the bulk a low reheat temperature is a prediction of the model and then it becomes even more interesting to address the issue of baryogenesis.

At such a low temperature leptogenesis is certainly not possible because the SM sphaleron transitions which preserves $`BL`$ are not in equilibrium below $`100`$ GeV. Therefore, any prior lepton asymmetry can not be processed into a net baryon asymmetry. Besides this there is a catch in the leptogenesis scenario. A singlet right handed Majorana neutrino can naturally couple to the SM lepton doublet, and, the Higgs field in a following way: $`h\overline{L}HN`$. This leads to a potentially large Dirac mass term unless the Yukawa coupling $`h10^{12}`$, or, so. Moreover, now the see-saw mechanism fails to work, since, the largest Majorana mass we may expect can never be larger than the fundamental scale. Therefore, given a neutrino mass $`h^2H^2/M_{}h^2𝒪(1)`$ GeV, we still have to fine tune $`h^210^{10}`$, in order to obtain the right order of magnitude for the neutrino mass. Therefore, the right handed neutrinos if they at all exist are more likely to be residing in the bulk rather than on the brane. Due to the volume suppression, the bulk-brane coupling naturally provides a small coupling . In any case the decay rate of the right handed neutrino to the SM fields is suppressed by the smallness of $`h`$ that gives rise to a decay rate which is similar to Eq. (3). This makes extremely difficult to realise baryogenesis, because eventually when the right handed neutrino decays into the SM fields, the background temperature is of order of the reheat temperature $`𝒪(110)`$ MeV, and, at this temperature the sphaleron transition is not at all in equilibrium. The sphaleron transition rate is exponentially suppressed. So, a seemingly suitable lepton number might not even get converted to the baryons to produce the desired baryon asymmetry in the Universe. Indeed, a larger reheating temperature, at least $`𝒪(1100)`$ GeV is required for making this scenario viable, which is certainly not bad if the number of extra dimensions are more, because this would relax the normalcy temperature. However, the assumption of inflaton being a bulk field might have to be judged carefully, because being a bulk field the inflaton interaction to the SM fields is always volume suppressed which will automatically ensure a low reheat temperature as we have stressed earlier.

On the other hand in some cases it is possible that the maximum temperature of the Universe is larger than the final reheat temperature of the Universe. This may happen if the decay products of the oscillating inflaton are mainly relativistic species. If the decay products thermalise when the inflaton is still oscillating and dominating the energy density of the Universe, then it changes the usual scaling relationship $`Ta^1`$ between the temperature and the scale factor. The temperature reaches its maximum when $`a/a_\mathrm{I}1.48`$, where $`a`$ denotes the scale factor of the Universe and the subscript $`\mathrm{I}`$ denotes the era when inflation comes to an end. In our case the inflationary scale is determined by $`H_\mathrm{I}M_{}`$. After reaching the maximum temperature, it decreases as $`T1.3(g_{}(T_\mathrm{m})/g_{}(T))^{1/4}T_\mathrm{m}a^{3/8}`$, where $`T_\mathrm{m}`$ denotes the maximum temperature For $`M_{}𝒪(10)`$ TeV, the maximum temperature could reach $`T_\mathrm{m}𝒪(10^5)`$ GeV .

However, the above mentioned situation might not arise in our case because the inflaton coupling to the SM particles is extremely weakly coupled and the comparative decay rates of the inflaton to the Higgses and the SM fermions are equally favourable . Therefore, if there were no initial dominance of relativistic species other than the inflaton, then it is very likely that the thermalisation is happening very late and the final reheat temperature is the maximum temperature one could achieve. However, in an extreme case even if we assume that there exists some initial thermal bath which could allow sphaleron transitions to occur, then one might imagine that sphalerons could reprocess a pre-existing charge asymmetry into baryon asymmetry , which might be reflected in an excess of $`e_L`$ over anti-$`e_R`$ created during inflaton oscillations. This mechanism requires again $`(B+L)`$-violating processes are out of equilibrium before $`e_R`$ comes into chemical equilibrium, such that the created baryon asymmetry could be preserved. Nevertheless, it is important to notice that still decaying inflaton field certainly injects more entropy to the thermal bath, provided the inflaton dominantly decays into the relativistic degrees of freedom. So, an initially large baryon asymmetry has to be created in order to obtain the right amount of asymmetry just before nucleosynthesis. One can easily estimate the amount of dilution that the last stages of reheating era will produce. The entropy dilution factor is given by :

$$\gamma ^1=\left(\frac{s(T_\mathrm{r})}{s(T_\mathrm{c})}\right)=\left(\frac{g_{}(T_\mathrm{r})}{g_{}(T_\mathrm{c})}\right)\left(\frac{T_\mathrm{r}}{T_\mathrm{c}}\right)^3\left(\frac{a(T_\mathrm{r})}{a(T_\mathrm{c})}\right)^3,$$
(5)
where $`s`$ is the entropy and $`T_\mathrm{c}`$ denotes the electroweak temperature $`100`$ GeV. For a low reheat temperature as $`T_\mathrm{r}1`$ MeV, the above expression gives rise to $`\gamma ^110^{25}`$. While calculating the ratio between the scale factors, we have used $`Ta^{3/8}`$ and $`g_{}(T_\mathrm{c})g_{}(T_\mathrm{r})`$. Therefore, including the entropy dilution factor we concludes that the initial $`n_b/s`$ has to be extremely large $`10^{15}`$ in order to produce the required baryon asymmetry at the time of nucleosynthesis, which is $`n_b/s10^{10}`$. Such a large baryon asymmetry is an extraordinary requirement on any natural model of baryogenesis, which is almost impossible to achieve in any case.

There are couple of important lessons to be learned from the above analysis. First of all the large production of entropy during the last stages of reheating can in principle wash away any baryon asymmetry produced before electroweak scale. The second point is that it is extremely unlikely that leptogenesis will also work because one needs to inject enough lepton asymmetry in the Universe before the sphaleron transitions are in equilibrium. The only simple choice left is to produce directly baryon asymmetry, however, just before the end of reheating. The sole mechanism which seems to be doing well under these circumstances is the Affleck-Dine baryogenesis , which we shall discuss in the following section.

## 2 Affleck-Dine baryogenesis

A scalar condensate which carries non-zero baryonic, or/and leptonic charge survives during inflation and decays into SM fermions to provide a net baryon asymmetry. In our case the AD field; $`\chi `$, is a singlet carrying some global charge which is required to be broken dynamically in order to provide a small asymmetry in the current density. This asymmetry can be transformed into a baryonic asymmetry by a baryon violating interactions which we discuss later on. In order to break this $`U(1)_\chi `$ charge we require a source term which naturally violates $`CP`$ for a charged $`\chi `$ field, and during the non-trivial helical evolution of the $`\chi `$ field generates a net asymmetry in $`\chi `$ over $`\overline{\chi }`$ . This new mechanism has been recently discussed in the context of supersymmetric inflationary model . The $`\chi `$ field obtains a dynamical mass through its coupling to the inflaton sector which takes place after the end of inflation.

We remind the readers that the inflaton energy density must govern the evolution of the Universe and the decay products of the inflaton is also responsible for reheating the Universe. This happens once the inflaton decays before $`\chi `$ decays into SM quarks and leptons. This decay of $`\chi `$ via baryon violating interaction generates a baryon asymmetry in the Universe which is given by

$`{\displaystyle \frac{n_b}{s}}{\displaystyle \frac{n_b}{n_\chi }}{\displaystyle \frac{T_\mathrm{r}}{m_\chi }}{\displaystyle \frac{\rho _\chi }{\rho _\mathrm{I}}}.`$ (6)
The final entropy released by the inflaton decay is given by $`s\rho _\mathrm{I}/T_\mathrm{r}`$. The ratio $`n_b/n_\chi `$ depends on the total phase accumulated by the AD field during its helical motion in the background of an oscillating inflaton field, which can at most be $`𝒪(1)`$. If we assume that the AD field is a brane-field, then the energy density stored in it can at most be: $`\rho _\chi m_\chi ^2M_{}^2`$. On the other hand the energy density stored in the (bulk) inflaton field is quite large $`\rho _\mathrm{I}M_{}^2M_\mathrm{p}^2`$, because the projected inflaton energy density on the brane has a Planck enhancement while its couplings to the SM particles has a Planck suppression. This simply means that the amplitude of the inflaton field is large initially, which otherwise would not have been possible if the inflaton were a brane field. Therefore, the final ratio

$$\frac{n_b}{s}\left(\frac{T_\mathrm{r}}{M_\mathrm{p}}\right)\left(\frac{m_\chi }{M_\mathrm{p}}\right)10^{34}\left(\frac{m_\chi }{M_{}}\right)10^{10},$$
(7)
for $`T_\mathrm{r}𝒪(110)`$ MeV. The conclusion of the above analysis is again disappointing, as it suggests that the AD baryogenesis also leads to a small $`n_b/s`$. One way to boost this ratio is to assume that the AD field resides in the bulk. In that case one naturally enhances the ratio $`\rho _\chi /\rho _\mathrm{I}`$, however, keeping in mind that it is still less than one in order not to spoil the successes of inflation. The projected AD energy density on the brane has now a Planck enhancement; $`\rho _\chi m_\chi ^2M_\mathrm{p}^2`$. This reiterates that the initial vacuum expectation value (vev) of the AD field is quite large, which were not possible in the earlier discussion where the AD field was a brane field. Therefore, the maximum baryon to entropy ratio

$`{\displaystyle \frac{n_b}{s}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T_\mathrm{r}}{M_{}}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \frac{m_\chi }{M_{}}}\right)10^{10}\left({\displaystyle \frac{m_\chi }{1\mathrm{G}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}}\right),`$ (8)
where we have evaluated the right hand side for $`T_\mathrm{r}10`$ MeV and $`M10`$ TeV. Although, the mass of the AD field requires some fine tuning, up to the $`CP`$ phase, the above ratio can reach the observed baryon to entropy ratio quite comfortably. Notice, that the actual predicted value also depends on the initial conditions on $`\chi `$ that may render $`m_\chi `$ more freedom. Say for instance, if the initial vev of $`\chi _0M_{GUT}`$, we get the right $`n_b/s`$ provided $`m_\chi M`$.

We have noticed earlier that due to the violation of $`U(1)_\chi `$ charge, the dynamics of the AD field generates an excess of $`\chi `$ over $`\overline{\chi }`$ fields. This asymmetry is transfered into baryon asymmetry by a baryon violating interaction, such as $`\kappa \chi QQQL/M^2M_\mathrm{P}`$, however, keeping $`BL`$ conserved. We also assume that $`\chi `$ interactions to SM fields conserve $`U(1)_\chi `$ symmetry, thus, the quarks and leptons must carry a non zero global $`\chi `$ charge while the Higgs field does not. This avoids $`\chi `$ decaying into Higgses, which otherwise will reduce the baryonic abundance and make the above interaction the main channel for its decay. While discussing the decay rate of $`\chi `$ field one has to take into account all possible decay channels which can be of the order of thousands due to family and color freedom. On the other hand, we assume that the inflaton is decaying mainly into Higgses. Final result is then given by

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_\chi \left(\frac{\kappa }{g}\right)^2\left(\frac{m_\chi }{M_{}}\right)^7\mathrm{\Gamma }_\varphi .$$
(9)
By taking $`\kappa /g𝒪(1)`$ we can insure that $`\chi `$ will decay along with the inflaton, provided that its mass is very close to the fundamental scale. This will certainly demand some level of fine tuning in the parameters. We would like to mention that this is perhaps the simplest scenario one can think of for generating baryon asymmetry right before nucleosynthesis takes place. It is worth mentioning that in our model the AD field will not mediate proton decay by dimension six operators as $`QQQL`$, as long as $`\chi `$ does not develop any vacuum expectation value. Notice, other processes mediating proton decay, such as instanton effects might still occur. While there is no known solution for such a potential problem yet, our mechanism is at least not adding any new source to proton decay. In the same spirit one may check those operators which induce $`n\overline{n}`$ oscillations. Again, effective $`\mathrm{\Delta }B=2`$ operators of dimensions 9; $`UDDUDD`$, and 11; $`(QQQH)^2`$, can not be induced by integrating out $`\chi `$.

### 2.1 The model

In this section we briefly discuss whether we can provide flesh to the above discussed scenario. Without going into much details we describe the AD potential which must have to come in conjunction with the inflaton sector <sup>*</sup><sup>*</sup>*In this paper we do not discuss the details of the inflationary model which can be found in Ref. .. The AD potential can be given by

$`V_{\mathrm{AD}}(\varphi ,N,\chi _1,\chi _2)=\kappa _1^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{M_{}}{M_\mathrm{p}}}\right)^2N^2(\chi _1^2+\chi _2^2)+{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _2^2}{4}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{M_{}}{M_\mathrm{p}}}\right)^2(\chi _1^2+\chi _2^2)^2`$
$`+\kappa _3^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{M_{}}{M_\mathrm{p}}}\right)^2\varphi N(\chi _1^2\chi _2^2),`$ (10)
where $`\kappa _1,\kappa _2,\kappa _3`$ are constants of order one, and $`\chi _1`$ and $`\chi _2`$ are the real and imaginary components of the complex field AD field $`\chi `$. For the stability of the potential $`\kappa _1\kappa _2\kappa _3`$. Here we have two other dynamical fields which we have denoted by $`\varphi `$ and $`N`$ which are coming from the inflaton sector. Note that the last term in the above equation which is responsible for breaking global $`U(1)_\chi `$. This could however be possible if both $`\varphi ,N`$ have non zero average vev. It might be possible to provide a scenario where initially the last term is vanishing where there is no apparent violation of a global charge. This can be realised in a particular inflationary model where the field is trapped in its own local minimum $`N=0`$ during inflation, while responsible for generating a large vev which could drive inflation. The role of other field $`\varphi `$ is to end inflation via instability through its coupling to the $`N`$ field which we have not written down. This is a perfect example of hybrid inflationary model where after the end of inflation both $`\varphi ,N`$ begin oscillations about their true minimum. Therefore, in our picture the first and last term is vanishing during inflation while the AD field is massless and its evolution is determined by the quartic term in the above equation. However, after the end of inflation when both $`\varphi ,N`$ oscillates all the terms including the last term in Eq. (2.1) turns on. This is an interesting example of breaking $`U(1)_\chi `$ symmetry dynamically towards the end of inflation.

Note that in Eq. (2.1), the effective couplings are Planck suppressed, this is due to the fact that the AD field is a bulk field. If we know the post-inflationary behaviour of $`\varphi `$ and $`N`$ fields, we shall be able to estimate the total asymmetry in $`\chi `$ distribution due to the source term which is responsible for $`CP`$ violation, given by the last term in the above equation. For a charged scalar field this is equivalent to $`C`$ violation also. The $`B`$ violation arises via the decay of $`\chi `$, because the decay products have $`\mathrm{\Delta }B0`$ as discussed in the earlier section, and we have a non-trivial helical oscillations in $`\chi `$ which accumulates net $`CP`$ phase which is transformed into asymmetric $`\chi `$. The net $`\chi `$ asymmetry; $`n_\chi `$ can be calculated by evaluating the Boltzmann equation:

$`n_\chi ={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\left(\dot{\chi }^{}\chi \chi ^{}\dot{\chi }\right).`$ (11)
With the help of equations of motion for $`\chi _1,\chi _2`$ for the potential Eq. (2.1) we can rewrite the above expression as

$`\dot{n}_\chi +3Hn_\chi =4\kappa _3^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{M_{}}{M_\mathrm{p}}}\right)^2N(t)\varphi (t)\chi _1(t)\chi _2(t).`$ (12)
The right hand side of the above equation is a source term which generates a net $`\chi `$ asymmetry through a non-trivial motion of $`\chi _1`$ and $`\chi _2`$ fields. We integrate Eq. (12) from $`t_0`$ which corresponds to the end of inflation up to a finite time interval .

$`n_\chi a^3`$ $`=`$ $`4\kappa _3^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{M_{}}{M_\mathrm{p}}}\right)^2{\displaystyle _{t_0}^t}N(t^{})\varphi (t^{})a^3(t^{})\chi _1(t^{})\chi _2(t^{})𝑑t^{}.`$ (13)
The upper limit of integration signifies the end of reheating. We assume that the oscillations continue until the fields decay completely. Before we perform the integration, we notice that the integrand decreases in time. This can be seen as follows ; first of all notice that the approximate number of oscillations are quite large before the fields decay $`(M_\mathrm{p}/M_{})^2`$. This allows us to average $`\varphi `$ and $`N`$ oscillations. The typical time dependence of oscillating fields follow $`\varphi N\mathrm{\Phi }^2(t)1/t^2`$  In the hybrid inflationary model $`N(t)A_0(1+\mathrm{\Phi }(t)/3\mathrm{cos}(m_\varphi t))`$ develops a vev after the end of inflation, however $`\varphi (t)A_0\mathrm{\Phi }(t)/(3\sqrt{2})\mathrm{cos}(m_\varphi t)`$ does not, $`A_0`$ is the initial amplitude which is of order $`M_\mathrm{p}`$. Such a large amplitude is precisely due to the fact that the inflaton sector is in the bulk, and upon compactification the field can obtain a large vev with energy density $`\rho _\mathrm{I}M_{}^2M_\mathrm{p}^2`$.. Similarly, the $`\chi `$ oscillations provide $`\chi _1\chi _21/t^2`$ We must note that $`\chi `$ field must not develop any vev in order to avoid proton decay via lepto-quark interaction. Therefore $`\chi _1(t)\chi _2(t)(|\chi (0)|/t)\mathrm{cos}(m_\chi t)`$. another suppression in time. While taking care of the expansion, where the scale factor behaves like $`a(t)t^{2/3}`$ during the inflaton oscillations, the overall behavior of the integrand follows $`1/t^2`$. This suggests that the maximum contribution to $`\chi `$ asymmetry comes only at the initial times when $`t_01/H_0`$, where $`H_0M_{}`$ in our case. The right hand side of the above equation turns out to be

$$n_\chi \frac{2}{27}\kappa _3^2\frac{M_{}^2|\chi (0)|^2}{H_0}.$$
(14)
We have assumed that the total $`CP`$ phase, which is given by two factors: an initial phase determined arbitrarily during inflation and the final dynamical phase which is accumulated during the oscillations, is of order $`𝒪(1)`$. We are also assuming that the coupling $`\kappa _3𝒪(1)`$.

The final ratio of $`\chi `$ number density produced and the entropy is given by

$`{\displaystyle \frac{n_\chi }{s}}𝒪(1)\left({\displaystyle \frac{|\chi (0)|}{M_\mathrm{p}}}\right)^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{T_\mathrm{r}}{M_{}}}\right)`$ (15)
where we have used the fact that $`sa^3`$ in our case. This is the final expression for $`\chi `$ asymmetry produced during the helical oscillations of $`\chi `$ and this has to be compared with the observed baryon asymmetry $`n_B/s10^{10}`$. Note that the final expression depends on the amplitude of $`\chi _1\chi _2\chi (0)`$ at the time when $`U(1)_\chi `$ symmetry is broken, or, in our case when $`\varphi `$ and $`N`$ start oscillating around their minimum. For a particular example; $`T_\mathrm{r}10`$ MeV, and $`M_{}100`$ TeV, we require $`\chi (0)10^{16}`$ GeV in order to produce a right magnitude of baryon asymmetry. As we have discussed earlier the baryon asymmetry is injected into thermal bath along with the inflaton decay products. It is essential that the thermalisation takes place after AD field has decayed in order not to wash away the total baryon asymmetry.

## 3 Conclusions

In summary, we have presented a natural mechanism of baryogenesis in the context of low quantum gravity scale with large compact extra dimensions. Our mechanism is generic and it is independent of the fundamental scale and the number of compact extra dimensions. This mechanism does not rely on any extra assumption other than invoking a fundamental scalar field that lives in the $`4+d`$ dimensional space time. The baryogenesis scheme can work at any temperature lower than the electro weak scale because the mechanism does not depend on sphaleron transition and relies on baryon violating interactions, and therefore does not depend on leptogenesis. The presence of non-renormalizable couplings inevitably reheats the Universe with a temperature close to nucleosynthesis, which is really independent of the number of extra dimensions. While performing our calculation we have implicitly assumed that we had a successful model of inflation which could also provide the right amount of density perturbations. This seems to be still alluding. For a recent work we refer the readers Ref. . The main conclusion of Ref.  is that it is difficult to realise a hybrid model which could generate an amplitude for the density perturbations observed by COBE at a scale larger than the size of the horizon with a fundamental scale as low as $`100500`$TeV. It is necessary to push the fundamental scale up by $`23`$ orders of magnitude. This certainly relaxes the stringent bound on normalcy temperature for two extra dimensions. Therefore, opening up the chances of other mechanisms of baryogenesis to succeed. In any case the scenario which we have provided here is quite generic and works independent of any preferred fundamental scale and number of extra spatial dimensions.


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# A DISRUPTED CIRCUMSTELLAR TORUS INSIDE ETA CARINAE’S HOMUNCULUS NEBULABased on observations made at the Baade Telescope of the Magellan Observatory, a joint facility of The Carnegie Observatories, Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Arizona, and University of Michigan.

## 1 INTRODUCTION

An elegant expanding bipolar nebula known as the Homunculus surrounds the persistently peculiar star $`\eta `$ Carinae. The nebula contains several $`M_{}`$ of material, most of which was ejected during a major eruption about 160 years ago (see Davidson & Humphreys 1997). Hubble Space Telescope (HST) images at optical wavelengths (Morse et al. 1998) show interesting detailed structure in the polar lobes, as well as a ragged equatorial debris disk. Dust in the Homunculus absorbs most of the star’s UV and optical flux, and then re-emits roughly $`4\times 10^6L_{}`$ at infrared (IR) wavelengths, making $`\eta `$ Car one of the brightest sources in the sky at 10 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ (Westphal & Neugebauer 1969), despite its distance of 2.3 kpc (Davidson & Humphreys 1997). IR radiation is an especially useful way to study $`\eta `$ Car because it reveals structures inside the Homunculus that are mostly obscured at shorter wavelengths. Numerous investigations at IR wavelengths have shown a bright, elongated, and multiple-peaked core a few arcseconds across (e.g., Hyland et al. 1979; Mitchell et al. 1983, Hackwell et al. 1986; C.H. Smith et al. 1995; Rigaut & Gehring 1995; Smith et al. 1998; Polomski et al. 1999; Smith & Gehrz 2000). These features are usually interpreted as an inclined and limb-brightened circumstellar torus or disk. The sharpest mid-IR image of $`\eta `$ Car so far was presented by C.H. Smith et al. (1995), who used a special processing technique to produce a remarkable 12.5 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ image showing the detailed spatial structure of the core, consisting of several knots and loop structures. Smith et al. (1998) and Polomski et al. (1999) discussed multi-wavelength IR array images of $`\eta `$ Car, and summarized this object’s unique thermal-IR emission properties.

A controversey has recently arisen regarding the nature of the bright structures in the core of the Homunculus. Several previous observers had described the torus and showed that it had a color temperature higher than 250 K at wavelengths near 10 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ (e.g., Hackwell et al. 1986; C.H. Smith et al. 1995; Smith et al. 1998; Polomski et al. 1999). However, Morris et al. (1999) recently claimed to have discovered this feature, and their interpretation of a large-aperture 2 to 200 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ spectrum obtained with the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) led them to associate the torus with much cooler dust at 110 K. They proposed that this cool torus contained $`15M_{}`$ of material, and was formed when a companion star in a close binary system stripped the normal composition envelope off the primary star before the Great Eruption. They further suggested that the ejection of this massive torus caused the Great Eruption (by increasing the star’s $`L/M`$ ratio) and was directly responsible for the bipolar shape of the Homunculus Nebula. However, Davidson & Smith (2000) showed that the hypothesized compact torus inside the Homunculus would be too small to radiate the required luminosity with a brightness temperature of only 110 K. Hony et al. (2001) proposed instead that the inner dust was warmer, as already shown by earlier studies, but they interpreted structure seen in their images as a pair of overlapping rings with a geometry analogous to those around SN 1987a (e.g., Burrows et al. 1995). These hypothetical rings have a different polar axis than the Homunculus — so Hony et al. (2001) made the extraordinary claim that an interaction between three bodies had caused the orbital axis to change orientation by more than one radian during or after the Great Eruption in the mid-19th century when the Homunculus was ejected. This interpretation seems unlikely for several reasons, and here we present new IR data showing that interpreting the IR features inside the Homunculus as a pair of rings is less straightforward than Hony et al. suggest. Instead these features could comprise an equatorial disk of material as previously proposed, which appears significantly disrupted when observed at high spatial resolution.

In §2 we present our new thermal-IR images, and in §3 we discuss the IR structures observed in these high-resolution images, as well as their consequences for previous interpretations of $`\eta `$ Car’s IR radiation. This will be a brief and descriptive analysis of the IR structures in the core of the nebula; a more thorough quantitative analysis of these data will follow in a later paper.

## 2 OBSERVATIONS

Thermal-IR images of $`\eta `$ Carinae were obtained on 2001 August 8 with the MIRAC3/BLINC instrument mounted on the Baade 6.5m telescope of the new Magellan Observatory. The images presented here were among the first thermal-IR data obtained with the Magellan telescopes. MIRAC3 is a mid-IR array camera built for ground-based astronomical imaging at Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, and the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (Hoffmann et al. 1998). It utilizes a Rockwell HF-16 128$`\times `$128 hybrid BIB array, and is an upgrade from the original MIRAC system (Hoffmann et al. 1994). Standard chop-nod sets of images were obtained using six narrow filters at the wavelengths listed in Table 1, which summarizes other observational parameters.

The new images have better spatial resolution than any previous images of $`\eta `$ Car at these wavelengths, and reveal new and important structures. However, $`\eta `$ Car was observed primarily as a test of MIRAC3’s image quality on the new Baade 6.5m telescope, and so proper observations for flux calibration before and after each observation were not performed. The standard star $`\gamma `$ Cru was observed just after $`\eta `$ Car on the same date at 4.8 and 18.0 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$, but the only acceptable calibration observations at remaining wavelengths were obtained a few nights later on 2001 August 14, using HD 169916 as the standard star. The 18.0 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ filter was used on both occasions, and the resulting calibration for the two observations agreed to within 10%. Despite these difficulties, the resulting relative fluxes between various filters agreed with those expected from the ISO spectrum of $`\eta `$ Car published by Morris et al. (1999), so the data are useful for investigating spatial variation in color temperature and other emission properties of the dust. The relative photometric accuracy is $``$10%, mainly due to uncertainty in the calibration system.

After sky subtraction, airmass correction, and gain correction, individual frames were combined with pixels subdivided by a factor of 2, for a final pixel scale of 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$061. Numerous frames were obtained for each filter, which allowed us to reject those with unsatisfactory seeing or focus. False-color representations of the final images in each of the six MIRAC3 filters are shown in Figure 1.

Only the 10.3 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ filter is severely affected by emission from silicates, so we can use the other filters to estimate the grain color temperature and emission opacity at each position in the nebula, after applying small corrections for wavelength-dependent spatial resolution (see Table 1). Figure 2$`a`$ shows a map of the 12.5 to 18.0 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ color temperature distribution, and the corresponding 18 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ emission optical depth is shown in Figure 2$`b`$. These maps were constructed using methods that are standard for mid-IR array imaging (for instance, Polomski et al. 1999 explain how to derive $`T_c`$ and $`\tau `$ maps). We assumed that the grains have an emissivity proportional to $`\lambda ^1`$, appropriate for amorphous silicates with $`a1\mathrm{\mu m}`$.

## 3 MORPHOLOGY OF THE BRIGHT INFRARED CORE

The diffraction limit of the Magellan i telescope’s 6.5m primary mirror has allowed us to produce high-quality IR images of the Homunculus Nebula without using extensive image enhancement routines. The images in Figure 1 give a much sharper picture of structures near the star seen previously in the 10 to 20 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ continuum (C.H. Smith et al. 1995; Hony et al. 2001), the near-IR continuum (Rigaut & Gehring 1995; Smith & Gehrz 2000), and near-IR Br$`\gamma `$ emission (Smith et al. 1998).

Several compact knots reside in the core; the best example is the bright spot $``$1$`\mathrm{}`$ SE of the star in the 8.8 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ image in Figure 1$`b`$. These knots could be part of an equatorial torus, but if so, they are not equidistant from the star (the hypothetical torus has some azimuthal asymmetry). Figure 2 suggests that, in general, the bright spots are found at the warm heads of protruding regions of relatively high density. The brightest knot, located less than 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 to the NW of the star, coincides with compact equatorial emission-line blobs seen in high-resolution optical studies (Hofmann & Weigelt 1988; Davidson et al. 1995).

Thin filaments that form arcs or loops appear to connect adjacent IR knots in the core. In some directions these features appear to break through the constraining dust torus (extended features are seen best at 18 and 24.5 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$), and coincide with prominent equatorial features in optical HST images (see Morse et al. 1998). However, the relationship between the IR (thermal dust emission) and optical (scattered light) structures is unclear. These arcs resemble some remarkable features seen recently in HST images of the red supergiant VY CMa (Smith et al. 2001a). The prominent arc 2$`\mathrm{}`$ SE of the star clearly connects with the limb-brightened rear wall of the receeding polar lobe in the 18 and 24.5 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ images. In fact, the dust optical-depth map in Figure 2$`b`$ suggests that the observed structures in the core are part of a torus that constitutes the intersection of the two polar lobes, as depicted schematically in Figure 3. Limb-brightening of the walls of both polar lobes also contributes to the observed structure; Figure 2$`b`$ shows a morphology expected for an overlapping pair of mostly hollow osculating spheres.

Hony et al. (2001) envisioned a pair of overlapping rings with a symmetry axis very different from the Homunculus as the physical explanation for features that resembled rings or loops in their 8 to 20 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ images. Our 24.5 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ image, which has slightly improved spatial resolution compared to their images, shows one loop-like feature that resembles the brighter of the two rings described by Hony et al. However, our images at shorter wavelengths show that with higher spatial resolution, the illusory loop breaks up into a set of compact knots and incomplete arcs. Thus, our images show that interpreting the complex IR morphology of the inner Homunculus as a pair of smooth rings is less definite than Hony et al. suggest. The geometry they propose cannot be reconciled with the fact that the brightest section of the purported rings is coincident with the optically identified “Weigelt blobs”, whose kinematics indicate that they are indeed equatorial (Davidson et al. 1995). Furthermore, recent results from optical HST spectroscopy of $`\eta `$ Car contradict Hony et al.’s claim that the orbital axis of the central system has precessed since the Great Eruption in 1843: Kinematics of ionized gas inside the Homunculus indicate that some material ejected around 1890 has the same bipolar axis as the Homunculus (Ishibashi et al. 2001), and reflected spectra of the central star show that its current polar axis is still aligned with the Homunculus (Smith et al. 2001b). Since the putative smooth double-ring structure may be an artifact of insufficient spatial resolution, Hony et al.’s suggestion that tidal interactions after the Great Eruption changed the polar axis of the hypothetical binary system remains unsubstantiated.

Another possible interpretation of the bright IR structures in the core of the Homunculus invokes a toroidal distribution of dust (at $``$3000 AU from the star), although the torus must have suffered significant disruption. Suppose an initial torus or disk existed around the star, and that stellar wind or ejecta then plowed into this material, as often invoked in hydrodynamic simulations of bipolar nebulae (Frank et al. 1995; Dwarkadas & Balick 1998). Dense knots in that torus would not be accelerated as quickly as material between them, forming the protruding dense knots and more extended arcs seen in our images (note that the knots are all closer to the star than adjacent arcs; see also Figure 3). The dense knots could be pre-existing density enhancements, or perhaps could result from Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities. In either scenario, the knots would be analogous to bright ends of dust pillars often seen in star forming regions, but on a much smaller size scale around $`\eta `$ Car. So far, 2-D numerical simulations do not predict such structures, but we expect that they may be seen in fully 3-D simulations. Alternatively, one can imagine more complicated mass-ejections with preferred directions that disrupt the torus. We cannot yet rule out this possibility. Based on our images, we cannot infer the age or exact origin of the equatorial structures; kinematic information is needed. Comparing the distribution of dust emission and ionized gas (for which kinematics are available) may help clarify the inner geometry of the Homunculus.

Our analysis of the new IR images presented here suggests that the bright structures in the core of the nebula are indeed part of a circumstellar equatorial torus or disk, as proposed previously by several authors. This could have important implications for shaping the bipolar Homunculus and its ragged equatorial debris disk. The nature and location of the excess far-IR flux seen in the ISO spectrum (Morris et al. 1999) remains unanswered; resolving this dilemma is important because it means that several $`M_{}`$ of material in the Homunculus may be unaccounted for, which would have important implications for the energy budget during $`\eta `$ Car’s Great Eruption. The temperature map in Figure 2$`a`$ suggests that some of the missing cool dust may actually reside in the polar lobes; we will address this separate problem in a future publication with a more thorough quantitative analysis.

N.S. is grateful for the support of a NASA/GSRP fellowship from Goddard Space Flight Center. R.D.G. is supported by the NASA SIRTF program and the U.S. Air Force. MIRAC is supported by National Science Foundation grant AST 96-18850, and BLINC was developed under a NASA/JPL grant for TPF. M.R.M. and E.E.M. gratefully acknowledge support through NASA contract 1224768 administered by JPL.