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# Embedded Star Formation in the Eagle Nebula

## 1 Introduction

Dramatic optical pictures of M16 taken with WFPC2 on HST (Hester et al., 1996) show three large columns or elephant trunks of molecular gas and dust that are shaped by the stellar wind and radiation pressure from high luminosity young stars a few arc minutes away. The columns are designated I, II, and III going north to south. The morphology of the columns clearly indicates that the initial high mass star formation in a molecular cloud region plays a large role in subsequent star formation by altering the density structure of the gas and dust in the surrounding region. Large areas of low density are cleared of material while regions of higher density form elongated structures extending radially away from the cluster of newly formed stars. The elongated trunk structures are repeated on a smaller scale with “fingers” and “eggs” of material throughout the larger structure.

It has generally been assumed that new star formation is occurring inside the trunk and egg structures and that gravitational attraction of the protostellar condensations is retaining the material against the action of the radiation pressure and stellar wind from the nearby young stars. Earlier infrared observations by Hillenbrand et al. (1993) indeed revealed significant previous star formation that was not easily visible by optical means, although they limited their quantitative analysis mainly to objects with detectable visible flux. They determined that there are stars up to 80 M in the visible OB association and that there are intermediate mass stars still above the main sequence, assuming their distance of 2 kpc which we will adopt in our analysis. The embedded sources discussed here are clearly visible in their image, but were not remarked upon individually as they were not detected in the optical image. They also do not appear in their table of embedded infrared sources. The non-stellar morphology of the sources is not clearly apparent in their published image, although there is nebulosity near the source locations. There is also evidence for both sources (which we label M16ES-1 and M16ES-2 for M16 Embedded Source 1 and 2) in the WFPC 2 F547M images. M16ES-2, visible as a diffuse reflection nebulosity, was first described by Hester (1997).

Although at lower resolution and much brighter limiting magnitude, M16ES-1 and 2 are clearly visible in the near infrared image of M16 by McCaughrean (1997), however, they are not commented on in the text. In this black and white rendering of a portion of a much larger 3 color (J,H,K) image the transparency of large sections of the columns is clearly apparent. McCaughrean (1997) comments that at the limiting magnitude of the image only 10% of the eggs labeled by Hester et al. (1996) appear to contain forming stars or chance coincidences with background sources.

Work done on the optical emission line images of the region (Hester et al., 1996) demonstrated the influence of photoevaporation on the morphology of the gas and dust. In the absence of any other effects, photoevaporation will eventually destroy the region leaving only those stars that managed to form before the destruction. The observations discussed in this paper are part of a program to study the detailed morphology of the embedded star formation in the trunks and to study the effects of embedded star formation on the subsequent evolution of the region. A detailed analysis of the sources in the region is in preparation (Smith et al., 2002; Hester, 2002).

## 2 Observations

The observations utilized the NICMOS camera 3 during the HST NICMOS camera 3 campaign of January 1998. During the campaign the HST secondary mirror was adjusted slightly to achieve the best camera 3 focus. Observations were taken in columns I and II at four different positions to cover areas also observed with WFPC2. A fifth position in column III was also observed later with the higher resolution camera 2. The camera 3 images are in the F110W, F160W, and F222M wide and medium band filters, while the camera 2 images are in the F110W, F160W and F205W filters. All observations are four point dithered with a total of 768 seconds of integration in the F222M and F205W filters and 704 seconds in the F110W and F160W filters. The pixel size of camera 3 is 0.2 arc seconds which gives a 51 by 51 arc second field of view for each of the 4 camera 3 observations. Camera 2 has a pixel size of 0.075 arc seconds for a 15 by 15 arc second field of view.

In addition to the continuum images, the position at the head of column I was also imaged in molecular hydrogen and atomic hydrogen. The line and continuum narrow band filters, F187N and F190N, isolate the atomic hydrogen Paschen $`\alpha `$ line while the F212N and F215N filters isolate the H2 S(1) line. Again four dither positions were utilized with 96 and 160 second integrations for each position in Paschen $`\alpha `$ and H2 respectively.

## 3 Data Reduction

The NICMOS images were reduced utilizing IDL based procedures developed for image production in the Hubble Deep Field (Thompson et al., 1999). The individual dither position images for each filter were then aligned and the median image calculated via an additional IDL software interactive procedure called IDP3 (Lytle et al., 1999). The associated continuum images were subtracted from the line filter images to produce the final Paschen $`\alpha `$ and H2 emission line images.

## 4 Infrared Morphology

Figure 1 is a color image of the infrared observations with the RGB colors corresponding to the F222M, F160W and F110W (2.2, 1.6, and 1.1 µm) filters respectively. This image shows that, rather than being dense columns of gas and dust, there are only a few regions of the elephant trunks that contain high concentrations of dust. The heads of columns I, II and III contain dense dust capstones, however, most of column I has a low dust column density. The limited spatial coverage precludes a similar statement from our data for column II but there is an obvious thinning of dust away from the column head. Inspection of the McCaughrean (1997) image confirms that this thinning continues until another capstone dust region occurs to the southeast. Below the dust region at the top of the column I there is a large region of low dust density and then several areas of higher dust density to the southeast. Each of these have similar geometries which point back toward the OB cluster. The high density dust regions in both columns have sub-structures that appear to point back to the embedded sources at the top of the columns. This suggests that, although the overall geometry of the columns is controlled by the radiation and stellar wind from the O star complex, the geometry of the smaller dense regions may be affected by local sources. Section 8 discusses this possibility.

Although there is a very high density of stellar sources, not evident in the optical images, the darkness of the high density regions indicates that the majority of the stellar sources lie behind the columns. Since the position of M16 is very close to the direction of the galactic center, many of the fainter sources may be stars in the galactic plane, not associated with the M16 complex. An extensive foreground screen of dust, not directly associated with the columns, obscures the stars from view at optical wavelengths.

Fig. 2 shows the camera 2, higher resolution, image of the tip of column III. The tip of column III is concave and 2 bright stars reside in that region. These stars are too bright to be distant background stars but the density of stars of similar brightness in the images indicates that is a non-negligible chance that their location in the concave region of the tip could be just chance coincidence. The possibility that the two stars recently formed in the tip of the column is discussed in Section 9. Following the lead of our nomenclature for the embedded sources we label the two stars M16S-1 and M16S-2.

The location of high density dust regions at the leading faces of the columns and the morphology of those regions is supportive of the idea that shocks, driven in advance of the ionization front are important in compressing the columns. The location of the two embedded sources at the very leading edge of the columns further supports this concept. The sparsity of high density dust regions also supports the suggestion (Hester et al., 1996) that photoevaporation is disrupting as well as triggering active star formation.

The lack of dense dust in the columns below the two embedded sources and their associated dust structures is consistent with the radio, sub-mm, and infrared maps presented by White et al. (1999) and the near infrared images of McCaughrean (1997). These maps and images show strong emission at the locations of the embedded sources but very little emission along the columns until another area of strong emission to the southeast, beyond the extent of our images. CO maps by White et al. (1999) indicate that there is molecular gas along the whole length of the columns but that its density is far less than at the location of the sources. The combination of the near infrared images and the longer wavelength observations show that only limited areas of the columns are capable of sustaining current star formation, which explains the observation of Pilbratt et al. (1998) that the star formation rate in the columns, based on the mid-infrared flux, appears to be very low. The eastward color gradient in the background from dark to red in fig. 1 is due to thermal emission in the F222M band increasing from the relatively dust free region above the columns to the dustier area of the columns.

Fig. 3 shows the individual infrared continuum images along with the well known optical image. Comparison of the infrared images with the optical indicates that most of the dust structures observed in the optical are identifiable in the infrared image. In particular each “finger” structure observed in the optical appears to have a capstone of dense dust. The blue nebulosity near the heads of the columns and along the edges of the dust regions in fig. 1 is probably emission from hydrogen Paschen $`\beta `$ and possibly He I 10830. Both of these lines are in the passband of the F110W filter. Two clearly non stellar amorphous sources (M16ES-1 and M16ES-2) lie at the tops of columns I and II and appear to be emerging from the high dust density regions. The positions of these sources, based on the World Coordinate System (WCS) of the images are given in Table 1. We have not performed astrometry on the stars in the images, so these positions are only as accurate as the guide star positions. A typical uncertainty on guide star positions is $`\pm 1\mathrm{}`$.

It is not clear whether the sources are clusters of stars or reflection nebulosities created by single sources. The lack of Paschen $`\alpha `$ emission at the position of M16ES-1 indicates that it must either be a cluster of relatively low mass stars or an object (or objects) that has not yet reached the main sequence (Sec. 7). We will assume that both sources are star formation sources, based solely on their association with the high density dust regions. Sections 5 and 6 discuss these sources more thoroughly.

In addition to the two amorphous embedded sources near the tops of the columns, at least three other point-like sources are visible at the tips of fingers and at the top of a nearby dense dust region. One finger source is at the tip of a very thin finger, M16-E42 (Hester et al., 1996), in the southwest corner of the lower image of column I. It is also visible in the optical image of the same area in Fig. 3. The thin finger is easily visible in the optical and F110W images but is difficult to detect in the longer wavelength images. Another finger source is just to the north of the first finger source, is at the top of the adjacent broader finger of dust (M16-E39). This point-like source is visible in all of the infrared images but not in the optical. Although unlikely, we can not rule out that it is a chance superposition of a background star given the high density of stars in the region. Finally there is a very bright point source on the shoulder of a dust region just northeast of the the very bright star in the WFPC image that falls just off the NICMOS images. This source is at the location of a photoionized surface (M16-E33). All of these sources will be discussed more thoroughly in a future publication (Hester, 2002).

### 4.1 Extinction and Density in the Columns

It is useful to get an estimate of the extinction and density of the material in column I. Sophisticated treatments of extinction utilizing J, H, and K near infrared colors such as NICE (Lada, Alves and Lada, 1999) and NICER (Lombardi and Alves, 2001) have been developed. Unfortunately our images have significant emission in two of our bands, Pa $`\beta `$ and He 10830 in the F110W band and thermal emission in the F222M band which complicates these analyses. Instead we use a simpler technique that compares the average magnitude of the stars in the F160W image both in and out of the columns. We will consider two regions in column I, a region in part of the dark capstone of column I and a mid-column region where the column appears quite transparent. Two reference regions above the columns are chosen to be clear of the dust associated with the columns. The position of all of the regions are shown in Fig. 3. We utilized the DAOPHOT photometric analysis program (Stetson, 2001) to measure the magnitudes of the stars in the image down to a Vega magnitude of 19. For the two regions a and b above the columns the average magnitudes are 17.26 and 17.13 for 173 and 102 stars respectively. In the intra-column region c the average magnitude was 17.58 for 91 stars. The average uncertainty in magnitude for the regions is 0.12 magnitudes. From this we conclude that the intra column region has an extinction of $`0.4\pm 0.2`$ magnitudes at 1.6 µm.

If the dust in column I follows the same extinction law as the dust near the star VI Cyg No. 12 the ratio of extinction at 1.6 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ to V is 0.175 (Rieke and Lebofsky, 1985) giving a visual extinction of 2.3 $`\pm `$ 1.2 magnitudes. The empirical relation between X-ray absorption and optical extinction (Seward, 1999) gives $`N_H/A_V=1.9\times 10^{21}`$ atoms cm-2 mag-1. This leads to a column density of hydrogen in the region of (4.4 $`\pm `$ 2.2) $`\times 10^{21}`$ hydrogen atoms cm-2. If we assume that the columns depth is roughly equal to its width we get a depth of about $`8\times 10^{14}`$ cm and a hydrogen density of (5.5 $`\pm `$ 2.8) $`\times 10^6`$ H atoms cm-3. If the hydrogen in primarily molecular the number density of molecules will be 1/2 this value. This density is the same as for a high density molecular cloud but the extinction is low because of the small column depth.

In the dark region d of column I we do not detect any stars. Aperture photometry of individual stars indicates that stars at a F160W magnitude of 23 are readily detectable. Even if we limit the background stars in the dark area to the average magnitude of 17.2, the lower limit on the extinction at 1.6 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ is 6 magnitudes. The extinction is most likely more than this value as there are probably stars several magnitudes brighter than 17.2 behind the area. Using the same arguments as above, the visual extinction in the dark area is at least 34 magnitudes and the hydrogen column density at least $`6.5\times 10^{22}`$ H atoms cm-2. This is of course a lower limit and the actual extinction and density are most likely many times the numbers used here.

## 5 Photometry and Luminosity of the Sources

Precision photometry of the embedded sources is difficult due to the extended morphology and underlying emission. We chose a circular aperture of 2 arc seconds radius for our photometry. Although there is emission outside of this radius it appears that most of the flux is inside the area. We estimate the underlying emission by averaging over a circular annulus of inner and outer radii of 3 and 6 arc seconds centered on the embedded source. Both of these procedures will tend to underestimate the flux if the source flux extends beyond the 2 arc second radius or if source flux also lies in the annulus used for background flux calculation. The results of this simple photometry are given in Table 1. Note that although the F160W and F222M filters correspond closely to the usual H and K bands, the F110W filter is much bluer than the usual J band.

We can use the mid and far infrared observations compiled by White et al. (1999) to estimate the luminosities of the embedded sources. Both have strong radio, SCUBA, MSX, and ISOCAM sources centered on their locations. To estimate the luminosities, we take the long wavelength fluxes in Fig. 3 of White et al. (1999) and integrate under the curves to get the long wavelength luminosity. To estimate the shorter wavelength luminosity we use our measured photometry and the mid-IR fluxes from the MXS data base maintained at IPAC (M16ES-1 only). We then extend the mid-IR flux to 200 microns by drawing a straight line in the log wavelength versus log flux plot to intersect the long wavelength plot at 200 microns and again integrate under the curves. This probably underestimates the flux between 14 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ and the far-IR giving a lower limit on the luminosity. The luminosities determined in this manner are 200 (+50, -25) and 20 (+10,-5) L for M16ES-1 and 2 respectively. Each of these luminosities could be for a single object or for a cluster of objects if the nonstellar images are due to a group of forming stars as opposed to a reflection geometry. Unfortunately the ISOCAM fluxes of Pilbratt et al. (1998) do not list the integrated fluxes at the sources. They only list the fluxes of point-like objects away from the positions of the embedded sources. The ISOCAM images from that work, presented by White et al. (1999), clearly show strong extended emission at the locations of both embedded sources.

## 6 Morphology of the Embedded Star Formation Region

M16ES-1 and M16ES-2 appear non-stellar in all of the infrared images. M16ES-1, however, may have a strong point-like component. The F110W image in Fig. 3 clearly shows a dust bar that runs across the location of M16ES-1. The main component of M16ES-1 in the F222M image is at the western edge of the bar. The peak of emission is almost point-like with an extension to the northwest. This hints that the extended nature of the emission may be primarily due to reflection off nearby dust structures. In all filters there is nebulosity to the north of M16ES-1 which is most likely a combination of reflected light from M16ES-1 and the emission from gas ionized by the O stars. All three of the NICMOS continuum filters contain emission lines in their bandpasses. M16ES-2 is less extended with nebulosity extending toward the east. The intensity of the nebulosity relative to the source increases with decreasing wavelength. Hester (1997) suggests that M16ES-2 is currently emerging from its surrounding dust cloud via photoevaporation. At a low stretch the image of M16ES-2 appears to be double with surrounding nebulosity. Polarimetry with a revived NICMOS will be able to separate a point source or sources from the reflected components.

## 7 Emission Line Morphology

Fig. 4 shows the emission in hydrogen Paschen $`\alpha `$, hydrogen H$`\alpha `$, the H2 S(1) line at 2.12 µm, and the 2.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ continuum at the position of M16ES-1. The other locations do not have line images. These figures show the locations of the ionized and molecular gas as well as the area of high dust concentration. The H2 image shows the extent of the molecular gas which conforms well with the dust regions shown by the 2.2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ continuum image. The exception is the area just above the embedded source where the structure seen in the H2 image is absent. This is probably due to hydrogen Brackett $`\gamma `$ emission, which falls in the F222M filter band, hiding the structure. The strong atomic hydrogen emission above the embedded source (in the direction of the O star cluster) is due to a local HII region ionized by the radiation from the O star cluster. The ionized gas is the result of photo-evaporation of gas from the head of the column as described in Hester et al. (1996), although it is possible that M16ES-1 may also have a role in moving gas into this ionized region. Both the H$`\alpha `$ and the Paschen $`\alpha `$ images show emission where the ionizing radiation from the cluster strikes the surface of the dust and molecular cloud. The mechanisms for this surface emission are detailed by Hester et al. (1996).

The absence of Paschen $`\alpha `$ emission at the location of M16ES-1 indicates that it is not a source of ionizing radiation. This observation rules out M16ES-1 as a single ZAMS star. At a luminosity of $`200L_{\mathrm{}}`$ it would be a B6-B7 star on the main sequence producing an HII region with a $`\mathrm{log}N_e^2V=53.9`$ (Thompson, 1984). This would produce detectable flux in Paschen $`\alpha `$. Its absence indicates that either the source is made up of multiple, lower luminosity objects or that it is an object or objects that has not yet reached the ZAMS. We cannot comment similarly on M16ES-2 as there is no Paschen $`\alpha `$ image for that source.

Above the embedded source the morphology of the H2 emission is quite different from the ionized hydrogen emission. The lack of molecular material in this region confirms that most of the gas in the area has been ionized by the O star cluster stars. Below the embedded source the H2 emission follows the same structure as the atomic hydrogen emission, defining the surface of the dust and molecular cloud. This suggests that the H2 emission may be due to photo-excitation (Black and van Dishoeck, 1987) rather than by shock excitation. Unfortunately, with only an image in one line, we can not discriminate between the two emission processes, however, near infrared Fabry-Perot images of the heads of the columns (Allen et al., 1999) indicate that the majority of the H2 emission is from fluorescent photo-excitation.

## 8 Local Source Geometry

The infrared images of the dust clouds associated with M16ES-1 and 2 show dust tendrils that point directly toward the embedded sources. This strongly suggests that, although the general structure of the M16 columns is determined by the O star cluster, local dust and molecular structures are being influenced by the embedded sources. The concentration of the dense dust capstones into a cone of approximately 60 degrees in width on the side away from the O star cluster attests to the strong influence of the cluster radiation on the dust structure. To assess the roles of each, we can make some elementary estimations based on the relative luminosities and distances of the O star cluster and the embedded sources. Taking the cluster luminosity as $`2\times 10^6L_{\mathrm{}}`$ from the O star luminosity and the M16ES-1 luminosity as $`200L_{\mathrm{}}`$, along with a distance between the cluster and the source of 2 parsecs, we find that at distances less than 0.02 parsecs the radiation pressure from the embedded source exceeds that from the cluster. Here we have assumed that the absorption efficiency of the gas and dust is independent of the spectrum of the radiating source. At the distance of M16, 0.02 pc is about 2 arc seconds on the sky which is less than the size of the dust tendrils in dense dust regions. This probably means that the embedded sources only influence the local structure in regions where the gas and dust are well shielded from the OB association radiation, such as the tendrils seen behind the capstone dust areas. On larger scales the radiation pressure from the O star cluster prevails, and the material enters the general trail of material swept up by the cluster radiation field.

## 9 Column III Sources

The crescent area at the top of column III contains two stars, MS16S-1 and MS16S-2, both with F205W Vega system magnitudes of 13.2. The northern star (Star 1 in Fig. 2) has a slightly redder color with an F110W Vega magnitude of 17.3 as opposed to 17.0 for the southern star (Star 2). Table 1 gives the full set of magnitudes for the two stars. We assume the red color of these stars is due to the foreground screen of dust that covers the entire extent of the three column structure. Given the similarity of the two stars it is appropriate to ask if they are physically associated, whether they formed in column III and whether the crescent shape of the tip of column III represents a cavity produced by a combination of the radiation pressure from the two stars and the much stronger radiation pressure from the OB association. If the stars are at the 2 kpc distance of M16 their 2 $`\mathrm{\mu m}`$ absolute magnitude is 1.7, assuming no extinction at 2 µm. This would place them at about spectral type A3 on the main sequence with luminosities on the order of 30 L. If there is extinction at 2 µm, as there surely must be, the two stars will have luminosities greater than 30 L.

The radius of the crescent in the tip of column 3 is about 10 arc seconds which is equal to 0.1 pc at the distance of M16. It is doubtful that stars with a combined luminosity of 60 L would produce a cavity of 0.1 pc but they would certainly reduce the density in the immediate region around them. The radiation from the OB association would then have an easier time photoevaporating that region, creating the observed crescent cavity. This may be one mechanism for dividing the main column into many substructures. If M16S-1 and 2 are indeed stars that formed at the tip of the column we are seeing a snapshot of three stages of star formation in the columns, going from embedded in column I, to emerging in column II, to completely emerged in column III.

## 10 Conclusions

There are at least two currently active areas of star formation in the columns of M16. Both are near the tops of the columns which face the cluster of luminous O stars. Although the optical images show significant extinction throughout the columns, the infrared images show that the density of dust and molecular gas is quite low, except at the location of the embedded sources and at isolated areas along the columns to the southeast. Far infrared images show another strong emission area to the southeast, beyond the extent of our images. It appears that this region of M16 is in its last stage of star formation and the dissipation of the columns may soon follow as the material in the few dense clumps is exhausted. This explains the relatively low rate of star formation commented on by Pilbratt et al. (1998). An alternative is that further star formation will be triggered in the columns as the photocompressed region moves down the length of each column.

The dust and molecular gas in the columns away from the dust structures has a high enough density to be opaque to optical emission but not enough to produce high amounts of current star formation. CO emission along the columns indicates that the amount of dust is sufficient to shield some molecular gas from dissociation. The dense gas and dust at the locations of the two embedded sources act as capstones, shadowing much of the column from the ionizing radiation of the O star cluster. The O star cluster, however, has a significant angular extent, and ionizing radiation does fall on the surface of the columns. The detailed interaction with the surface is described by Hester et al. (1996).

The lack of ionizing radiation from M16ES-1 indicates that it is either a cluster of relatively low mass stars or an object or objects that have not yet evolved to the Zero Age Main Sequence. The line emission in atomic hydrogen is due to photo-ionization and photo-excitation by radiation from the O star cluster. The morphology of the dust near the embedded sources suggests that they have a role in determining the local structure. The elementary calculations of Sec. 8 indicate that the sources have sufficient strength to affect their surroundings, but only in regions well shielded from the radiation from the OB association. The restriction of the dust regions to a relatively narrow cone that points in the direction of the O star cluster shows that the cluster radiation plays the primary role in the dust and gas dynamics at the site of the embedded sources.

High resolution camera 2 images show two bright stars of very similar magnitude and color within the concave depression in the tip of column III. These may be a chance superposition of local background stars on this location. The stars, however, may have formed in the tip of the column. If so the stars may have reduced the density in their surroundings enough to allow the photoevaporation from the O star cluster to be much more efficient in this area, forming the current concave depression in the column tip. The three columns would then show a sequence of star formation stages from embedded in column I, emerging in column II, and fully emerged in column III.

## 11 Acknowledgements

This work is supported in part by NASA grant NAG 5-3042. This letter is based on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy under NASA contract NAS5-26555. We would like to acknowledge the very helpful comments of the referee Glenn White.


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# On the circularly polarized optical emission from AE Aquarii

## 1 Introduction

Measurements of circularly polarized emission from the close binary system AE Aqr have been reported by three independent groups of authors. Cropper (c86 (1986)) estimated the circular polarization in the optical to be at the level of $`0.05\%\pm 0.01\%`$. Similar value (0.06%) have been derived by Stockman et al. (stock92 (1992)). Beskrovnaya et al. (bibs (1996)) reported a value for the nightly mean of the circular polarization in the $`V`$ and $`V+R`$ passbands to be $`p_{\mathrm{mean}}=0.06\%\pm 0.01\%`$.

The possible origin of the circularly polarized emission from AE Aqr was first discussed by Bastian et al. (bdc88 (1988)) in the framework of the oblique rotator model (Patterson p79 (1979)). Within this model (which was widely accepted before 1994), AE Aqr is considered as an intermediate polar in which the radiation of the white dwarf is powered by the accretion of plasma onto its surface with the rate of $`10^{16}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Assuming the observed polarized emission to be generated in the shock at the base of the accretion column due to the cyclotron mechanism, Bastian et al. (bdc88 (1988)) estimated the magnetic field strength of the white dwarf to be in excess of $`10^6`$ G.

This result, however, turned out to be one of the first serious arguments against the accretion-powered white dwarf model of AE Aqr: If the surface field strength of the white dwarf in AE Aqr is indeed $`B_{}`$ 1 MG, its magnetospheric radius,

$$R_\mathrm{m}\mathrm{7.7\hspace{0.17em}10}^9\kappa _{0.5}\dot{M}_{16}^{2/7}M_{0.8}^{1/7}R_{8.8}^{12/7}\left(\frac{B_{}}{10^6\mathrm{G}}\right)^{4/7}\mathrm{cm},$$
(1)
is larger than the corotation radius,

$$R_{\mathrm{cor}}=\mathrm{1.5\hspace{0.17em}10}^9M_{0.8}^{1/3}P_{33}^{2/3}\mathrm{cm},$$
(2)
by more than a factor of five. Here $`\dot{M}_{16}`$ is the mass accretion rate expressed in units of $`10^{16}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1`$, $`\kappa _{0.5}=\kappa /0.5`$ is accounting for the geometry of the accretion flow111The value of this parameter lies within the interval $`0.5\kappa 1`$, where $`\kappa =0.5`$ corresponds to the disk geometry of the accretion flow and $`\kappa =1`$ – to the spherical geometry (see e.g. Ghosh & Lamb gl79 (1979)), and $`M_{0.8}`$, $`R_{8.8}`$ and $`P_{33}`$ are the mass, radius, and the spin period of the white dwarf expressed in units of $`0.8M_{\mathrm{}}`$, $`10^{8.8}`$ cm and 33 s, respectively (for the system parameters see Table 1 in Ikhsanov i00 (2000)). Under these conditions, the white dwarf is in the centrifugal inhibition regime and a steady accretion process onto its surface does not occur.

The hypothesis that the accretion power is not responsible for the emission of the white dwarf in AE Aqr got serious grounds after 1994. It was recognized that the intensity of radiation emitted from the polar caps of the white dwarf does not correlate with the flaring in the system (Eracleous et al. erac94 (1994)). Furthermore, the X-ray spectrum of AE Aqr is soft and essentially differs from the hard X-ray spectra of intermediate polars (Clayton & Osborne co95 (1995)). Finally, the discovery of the rapid spin down of the white dwarf (de Jager et al. jmor94 (1994)) and the conclusion that no developed Keplerian accretion disk exists in the system (Wynn et al. wkh97 (1997); Welsh et al. whg98 (1998)) have left no doubts that AE Aqr is not compatible with the oblique rotator model and that no intensive plasma accretion onto the surface of the white dwarf occurs (for discussion see Ikhsanov i01 (2001)). Therefore, the basic assumptions used by Bastian et al. (bdc88 (1988)) for the interpretation of the circularly polarized emission of AE Aqr are unacceptable and the origin of the polarized radiation in this system remains an unresolved problem.

In this paper we are investigating the validity of the suggestion that the observed circularly polarized radiation originates from the white dwarf or its vicinity.

## 2 Contribution of the white dwarf to the circularly polarized radiation

It is presently well established that the optical radiation from AE Aqr comes from at least three different sources: the K3–K5 main sequence companion, the white dwarf, and the extended region which is associated with the stream of material lost by the normal companion and ejected from the system due to propeller action by the white dwarf. The latter source manifests itself in the Balmer continuum and broad single-peaked emission lines. This source is observed to be highly variable and is assumed to be responsible for the unusual flaring behaviour of the system in the optical/UV (Eracleous & Horne eh96 (1996), Wynn et al. wkh97 (1997), Ikhsanov i00 (2000)). In contrast, investigations of the normal companion (Welsh et al. whg95 (1995)) and the white dwarf (Eracleous et al. erac94 (1994)) give no evidence for either significant variations of their brightness or any correlation between the intensity of radiation coming from these components and the flaring in the system.

### 2.1 The contribution of the white dwarf to the optical radiation of AE Aqr

The visual light of AE Aqr is dominated mainly by the red dwarf: up to 95% during quiescent state of the system (van Paradijs et al. pka89 (1989), Bruch bruch91 (1991) and Welsh et al. whg95 (1995)). The contribution of the extended source to the optical radiation of AE Aqr has been estimated by Eracleous & Horne (eh96 (1996)) to amount to about 3%–4% during quiescence and up to 40% during the flaring state of the system. Thus, the optical radiation from the white dwarf proves to be a rather small fraction of the total optical radiation detected from the system, namely, about 1%–2% during the quiescent state and smaller than 1% during the flaring state.

This conclusion is in a good agreement with the model of the white dwarf atmosphere reconstructed by Eracleous et al. (erac94 (1994)) from observations of AE Aqr with the Hubble telescope. Using the maximum entropy method, the authors constrained the average surface temperature of the white dwarf to the interval $`10000\mathrm{K}T_{\mathrm{int}}16000\mathrm{K}`$ and the temperature of the hot polar caps at the magnetic pole regions to $`24000\mathrm{K}T_{\mathrm{max}}28000\mathrm{K}`$ (the projected area of the hot spots is $`\mathrm{4.3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{16}\mathrm{cm}^2`$; the distance to AE Aqr is adopted to be 100 pc). In the framework of this model, the contribution of the hot polar caps to the optical radiation of the system is about 0.1%–0.2% (that is just the observed amplitude of the 33 s coherent oscillations, Patterson p79 (1979), de Jager et al. jmor94 (1994)) and the total contribution of the white dwarf is smaller than 2%. This indicates that the optical radiation coming from the hot polar caps of the white dwarf is diluted by a factor of $`k_{\mathrm{cap}}=5001000`$ and the radiation of the white dwarf as a whole – by a factor of $`k_{\mathrm{wd}}=50100`$.

### 2.2 Pulse-averaged polarization

It is important to note that the reported $`p_{\mathrm{mean}}`$ is the average value of the circular polarization over a night. The errors of the individual measurements are too large to be of any significance (especially on the time scale of the white dwarf spin period, $`P=33`$ s). Moreover, the analysis of the polarimetric data obtained by Beskrovnaya et al. (bibs (1996)) has shown no signs of any periodicity. In this situation the idea that the polarized radiation detected from AE Aqr comes mainly from the white dwarf or its vicinity should be considered as an assumption rather than a well justified assertion. If, nevertheless, we adopt this assumption, it is necessary to take into account that the reported degree of 0.06% is not only the nightly mean but also the pulse-averaged value. In this context, the polarization of radiation coming from an individual magnetic pole should be larger than the reported value $`p_{\mathrm{mean}}`$.

As the white dwarf rotates, its northern and southern magnetic poles are successively seen. The contribution of each of the poles to the system radiation depends on the configuration of the white dwarf magnetic field, physical parameters of plasma in the pole regions, and the system geometry. Most of these parameters have been evaluated by Eracleous et al. (erac94 (1994)) from the analysis of the UV-spectrum and profiles of the 33 s coherent oscillations. According to their results, the longitudinal difference between the hot polar caps is $`180^\mathrm{°}`$, strongly suggesting a dipolar geometry of the magnetic field of the white dwarf. No evidence for any significant differences in the physical parameters of the plasma situated at the northern and southern poles has been found. Finally, assuming that the rotational axis of the white dwarf is almost perpendicular to the orbital plane, they evaluated the angle between the magnetic and the rotation axes as $`\beta 75^\mathrm{°}`$ and the orbital inclination of the system to be $`i60^\mathrm{°}`$ (see also Patterson p79 (1979)).

Under these conditions, radiation coming from the northern and southern magnetic poles is circularly polarized to approximately the same degree but in opposite directions: $`p_{\mathrm{int}}^\mathrm{n}p_{\mathrm{int}}^\mathrm{s}`$. This indicates that the contributions of the northern and southern poles to the mean value of the circular polarization observed from the system have opposite signs and hence partly compensate each other. The value of the non-compensated (i.e. pulse-averaged) polarization depends on the system geometry.

The observed value of the polarization of an individual pole reaches its maximum when the angle between the magnetic axis and the line of sight is minimal and decreases to zero when this angle increases to $`90^\mathrm{°}`$ (complete cancellation). In our case the minimum angle between the line of sight and the magnetic axis is $`45^\mathrm{°}`$ for the pole I and is $`15^\mathrm{°}`$ for the pole II (see Fig. 1). This indicates that the contribution of the pole II to the mean polarization detected from the system is larger than the contribution of the pole I. In the first approximation, the lower limit of the contribution of the pole I can be estimated by that part of the contribution of the pole II when the latter is observed within the following intervals of angles $`[90^\mathrm{°},45^\mathrm{°}]`$ and $`[90^\mathrm{°},45^\mathrm{°}]`$. Hence, the contribution of the pole II is not compensated only when the angle between the magnetic axis and the line of sight is $`\gamma 45^\mathrm{°}`$. In other words, the uncompensated circularly polarized emission is observable only during 1/4 of the white dwarf spin period and hence the intrinsic polarization of radiation coming from an individual pole is at least by a factor of $`k_{\mathrm{pa}}=4`$ larger than the observed value.

### 2.3 Intrinsic polarization

From the arguments of two previous subsections one can discard the possibility that the hot polar caps, situated in the magnetic pole regions of the white dwarf, are the sources of the circularly polarized optical emission detected from AE Aqr: If the observed polarized radiation were generated at the polar caps, the intrinsic polarization of the source, $`p_{\mathrm{caps}}=k_{\mathrm{caps}}\times k_{\mathrm{pa}}\times p_{\mathrm{mean}}`$, should be in excess of 100% independent of the polarization mechanism !

There is, however, an alternative possibility. Namely, one can assume that the circularly polarized radiation is generated in the white dwarf atmosphere due to the linear and quadratic Zeeman effect. In this case the effective area of the source is significantly larger than the projected area of the hot polar caps. Therefore the intrinsic polarization can be limited to the interval $`p_{\mathrm{wd}}=k_{\mathrm{wd}}\times k_{\mathrm{pa}}\times p_{\mathrm{mean}}12\%`$.

In order to test this possibility we estimated the expected value of the circularly polarized emission from a non-accreting white dwarf with the average surface temperature of 15 000 K, and two hot spots ($`T\mathrm{25\hspace{0.17em}000}`$ K) with the effective projected area of $`\mathrm{4.3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{16}\mathrm{cm}^2`$, situated at the magnetic pole regions. The code developed by Jordan (jordan92 (1992); see also Putney & Jordan pj95 (1995)) has been used to compute the polarization degree at different wavelengths for an angle of $`15^\mathrm{°}`$ between the magnetic axis and the line of sight, corresponding to the maximum value of the circular polarization. The results for two values of the surface magnetic field strength, 1 MG and 50 MG, are plotted in Fig. 2 and 2, respectively. As can be seen from these figures, the expected maximum value of the polarization in the $`V`$ and $`V+R`$ passbands does not exceed 3%, i.e. is at least by a factor of 4 smaller than required for the interpretation of the circular polarization observed from the system (the average polarization calculated within the interval $`\gamma <45^\mathrm{°}`$ is smaller than the presented maximum value at least by a factor of 3).

## 3 Discussion

We have shown that the white dwarf cannot be considered as the main source of the circularly polarized optical emission detected from AE Aqr. The basic argument is a very small value of the white dwarf contribution to the visual light of the system. As a consequence, the circularly polarized radiation emitted by the white dwarf is significantly diluted and the expected value of the pulse-averaged circular polarization proves to be essentially smaller than the observed value.

Why was this argument not taken into account in previous investigations ? The reason was the widely accepted but wrong assumption that the system radiation is powered by the accretion of material onto the white dwarf surface. Within this assumption, the contribution of the white dwarf to the system radiation proves to be overestimated by almost an order of magnitude and thus, the problem discussed in this paper simply does not arise. The incorrectness of this approach has been recognized only a few years ago, mainly due to the discovery of the rapid spin-down of the white dwarf (de Jager et al. jmor94 (1994)), detailed investigations of the optical/UV properties of the 33 s coherent oscillations (Eracleous et al. erac94 (1994)) and the reconstruction of the diskless mass transfer picture (Wynn et al. wkh97 (1997)).

One of the important consequences of our conclusion is that the observed circularly polarized emission from AE Aqr cannot be used to estimate the surface magnetic field strength of the white dwarf. In the light of modern views on the system, neither the lower limit suggested by Bastian et al. (bdc88 (1988)) nor the upper limit given by Stockman et al. (stock92 (1992)) to the magnetic field strength of the white dwarf can be used. In this situation, the value of the white dwarf magnetic field should be estimated using different methods (see e.g. Ikhsanov i98 (1998)).

Finally, we would like to note that except for the uncertain nightly mean value, no information about the properties of the circularly polarized emission from AE Aqr is currently available. In this situation, the justification of any alternative ideas about the origin of the polarized emission is very complicated and perhaps even impossible, until highly time resolved polarimetric observations with large signal-to-noise ratio are performed.

###### Acknowledgements.

We would like to thank Boris Gaensicke for useful comments. NRI acknowledge the support of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation within the Long-term Cooperation Program. Work on magnetic white dwarfs in Kiel was supported by the DFG under KO-738/7-1.


text:
# NON-LINEAR FIELD THEORY FOR LEPTON AND QUARK MASSES

## 1  Table 1

| N | electron masses | | | quark masses | | |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  |  | Barut’s | Ref. |  | Barut’s | Ref. | Ref. |
|  |  | formula |  |  | formula |  |  |
| 0 | e | 0.511 | 0.511 | u | 0.068 | 0 – 8 | 8 $`\pm `$ 2 |
| 1 | $`\mu `$ | 105.55 | 105.66 | d | 14.1 | 5 – 15 | 13 $`\pm `$ 4 |
| 2 | $`\tau `$ | 1786.1 | 1784.1 | s | 239 | 100 – 300 | 260 $`\pm `$ 80 |
| 3 |  | 10294. | ? | c | 1378 | 1300 – 1500 | 1350 $`\pm `$ 50 |
| 4 |  | 37184. | ? | b | 4978 | 4700 – 5300 | 5300 $`\pm `$ 100 |
| 5 |  |  |  | t | 13766 | ? | ? |
| 6 |  |  |  |  | 31989 | ? | ? |

Comparison of lepton and quark masses in MeV/c2 calculated with Barut’s formula (1) to measured lepton masses from Ref.2 and to quark masses given in Ref.2 and 3. The observation of a sixth quark of mass in the range of 160’000 to 190’000 MeV/c2 has been reported at the beginning of 1995 .

## 2  Figure 1

Theoretical mass of leptons and quarks as a function of sequential quantum number $`N`$. Open circles are hypothetical partons with masses larger than 9.6 GeV/c2. The lines through the points are guides for the eyes. $`M_e=511`$ keV/c2 and $`M_u=M_e/7.25`$ are input data. The uncertainty on quark masses are from Ref.2.


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# Lensing results from the Red-sequence Cluster Survey

## 1. Introduction

The Red-Sequence Cluster Survey111http://www.astro.utoronto.ca/$`\stackrel{~}{}`$gladders/RCS (e.g., Gladders & Yee 2000) is the largest area, moderately deep imaging survey ever undertaken on 4m class telescopes. The planned survey comprises 100 square degrees of imaging in 2 filters (22 widely separated patches imaged in $`R_C`$ and $`z^{}`$), and will provide a large sample of optically selected clusters of galaxies with redshifts $`0.1<z<1.4`$.

The survey allows a variety of studies, such as constraining cosmological parameters from the measurement of the evolution of the number density of galaxy clusters as a function of mass and redshift, and studies of the evolution of cluster galaxies, blue fraction, etc. at redshifts for which very limited data are available at present.

The data are also useful for a range of lensing studies. Strong lensing by clusters of galaxies allows a detailed study of their core mass distribution. In addition, given the shallowness of the survey, the arcs are sufficiently bright to be followed up spectroscopically (Gladders, Yee, & Ellingson 2001). Thanks to the large magnifications of the arcs, the survey allows unprecedented studies of the properties of high redshift galaxies. Furthermore, in combination with detailed modeling of the cluster mass distribution, the geometry of the images can be used to constrain $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$.

In these proceedings we concentrate on some of the weak lensing applications. A detailed description of the data and the weak lensing analysis is presented in Hoekstra et al. (2002a). A careful examination of the residuals suggests that the object analysis, and the necessary corrections for observational distortions work well, which allows us to obtain accurate measurements of the weak lensing signal.

## 2. Measurement of Cosmic Shear

The weak distortions of the images of distant galaxies by intervening matter provide an important tool to study the projected mass distribution in the universe and constrain cosmological parameters (e.g., van Waerbeke et al. 2001). Compared to other studies, the RCS data are relatively shallow, resulting in a lower cosmic shear signal. However, the redshift distribution of the source galaxies, which is needed to interpret the results, is known fairly well.

We use the photometric redshift distribution inferred from the Hubble Deep Field North and South to compare the observed lensing signal to CDM predictions. For an $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3`$ flat model we obtain $`\sigma _8=0.81_{0.19}^{+0.14}`$ (95% confidence), in good agreement with the measurements of van Waerbeke et al. (2001). A detailed discussion of this measurement is presented in Hoekstra et al. (2002a).

## 3. Galaxy-Galaxy Lensing

Weak lensing is also an important tool to study the dark matter halos of field (spiral) galaxies. The weak lensing signal can be measured out to large projected distances. Hence it provides a powerful probe of the gravitational potential at large radii. Unfortunately, the lensing signal induced by an individual galaxy is too low to be detected, and one can only study the ensemble averaged signal around a large number of lenses.

The results presented here are based on 16.4 deg2 of CFHT data. We use galaxies with $`19.5<R_C<21`$ as lenses, and galaxies with $`21.5<R_C<24`$ as sources which are used to measure the lensing signal. The redshift distribution of the lenses is known spectroscopically from the CNOC2 field galaxy redshift survey (e.g., Yee et al. 2000), and for the source redshift distribution we use the photmetric redshift distribution from the HDF North and South. The adopted redshift distributions give a median redshift $`z=0.35`$ for the lens galaxies, and $`z=0.53`$ for the source galaxies.

We use a parametrized mass model with a (smoothly) “truncated” halo to study the properties of the dark matter halos surrounding the sample of lens galaxies. The results are presented in Figure 1. With the adopted redshift distribution we obtain $`\sigma ^2^{1/2}=111\pm 5`$ km/s. It turns out that the quoted value is close to that of an $`L^{}`$ galaxy, and our results are in fair agreement with other estimates.

In addition, for the first time, the average extent of the dark matter halo has been measured. Under the assumption that all halos have the same truncation parameter, we find a 99.7% confidence upper limit of $`s<470h^1`$ kpc. More realistic scaling relations for $`s`$ give lower values for the physical scale of $`s`$, and therefore the result presented here can be interpreted as a robust upper limit.

## 4. Measurement of Galaxy Biasing

The relation between the galaxy distribution and the dark matter distribution (i.e., galaxy biasing) is intimately linked to the details of galaxy formation. Most current constraints come from dynamical measurements that probe relatively large scales ($``$ a few Mpc). Weak lensing provides a unique and powerful way to study the biasing properties of galaxies on smaller scales.

Through weak lensing we can measure the bias parameter $`b`$ (which corresponds to the linear regression of the mass density contrast and the galaxy density contrast) and the galaxy-mass cross-correlation coefficient $`r`$ (which mixes non-linear and stochastic biasing) as a function of scale.

The RCS alone provides an accurate measurement of the ratio $`b/r`$, and the first results were published in Hoekstra et al. (2001). However, combining the RCS measurements with the results from the VIRMOS-DESCART survey (van Waerbeke et al. 2001), allows a determination of $`b`$ and $`r`$ separately. The results presented in Figure 2 are based on 45 deg2 of RCS data and 6.5 deg2 of VIRMOS-DESCART data.

We find that $`b`$ changes with scale for our sample of lens galaxies ($`19.5<R_C<21`$), which have luminosities around $`L^{}`$. For the currently favored cosmology $`(\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3,\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7)`$, we find $`b=0.71_{0.05}^{+0.06}`$ (68% confidence) on a scale of $`0.51h^1`$ Mpc, increasing to $`1`$ on larger scales. The value of $`r`$ hardly depends on the assumed cosmology, and we find that $`r1`$ on scales less than $`250h^1`$ kpc. Hence, we “find” a halo around every (massive) galaxy. However, on larger scales ($`0.5h^1`$ Mpc) $`r`$ is significantly lower than unity (we find a minimum value of $`r=0.57_{0.07}^{0.08}`$), thus suggesting significant stochastic biasing and/or non-linear biasing. On even larger scales ($`>2h^1`$Mpc) the value of $`r`$ is lower, but consistent with $`r=1`$. As $`r`$ is linked intimately to the details of galaxy formation, our results provide unique constraints on such models. A detailed discussion of these measurements can be found in Hoekstra et al. (2002b).

## References

Gladders, M.D., Yee, H.K.C. 2000, to appear in “The New Era of Wide-Field Astronomy” (astro-ph/0011073)

Gladders, M.D., Yee, H.K.C., Ellingson, E. 2001, AJ, in press

Hoekstra, H., Yee, H.K.C., & Gladders, M.D. 2001, ApJ, 558, L11

Hoekstra, H., Yee, H.K.C., Gladders, M.D., Barrientos, L.F. Hall, P.B., & Infante, L. 2002a, ApJ, submitted

Hoekstra, H., van Waerbeke, L., Gladders, M.D., Mellier, Y., & Yee, H.K.C. 2002b, ApJ, submitted

van Waerbeke, L., et al. 2001, A& A, 374, 757 (astro-ph/0101511)

Yee, H.K.C. et al. 2000, ApJS, 129, 475


text:
# A Semi-analytic Model of Halo Dynamics

## 1. Introduction

Substructure in CDM halos consists of hundreds of small, dense ‘subhalos’. The dynamical evolution of these satellites can be described using the analytic approach of Taylor & Babul (2001), which remains accurate to about 20% over many orbits. Combining this approach with extended Press-Schechter (EPS) merger trees, we have developed a new, semi-analytic (SA) model for the dynamical evolution of cluster or galaxy halos. This model predicts halo substructure identical to that seen in high-resolution numerical simulations. We have used the SA model to study the origin of the Local Group satellites, the stellar halo, and the thick and thin disk components of the Milky Way.

## 2. Results

The Origin of Local Group Dwarfs: By accounting for the effects of reionization and evolving mass-to-light ratios, it is possible to produce luminosity functions similar to that of the Local Group (Figure 1, left panel), provided reionization occurs at early epochs ($`z_{\mathrm{ri}}12`$).

The Origin of the Stellar Halo: Debris from disrupted satellites also forms a plausible stellar halo, with an $`r^{3.5}`$ density profile.

The Age of the Thin Disk: The disk of the central galaxy can be disrupted by direct collisions with large satellites. The model thus provides an upper limit to the age of stars still in disk orbits for each system. The mean ages of the model disks are 8–10 Gyr, similar to the age of the Milky Way’s disk.

The Origin of the Thick Disk: The disk can also be heated by small collisions or indirect encounters, without being completely disrupted. In many model systems, minor encounters at early times produce a heated component similar to the thick disk of the Milky Way (Figure 1, right panel).

## References

Quillen, A. C. & Garnett, D. R. 2001, ASP Conf. Ser. 230: Galaxy Disks and Disk Galaxies, 87

Taylor, J. E. & Babul, A. 2001, ApJ, 559, 716


text:
# Identification of Galactic Wind Candidates using Excitation Maps: Tunable-Filter Discovery of a Shock-Excited Wind in the Galaxy NGC 1482

## 1 Introduction

In an effort to better constrain the morphology, kinematics, and origin of the warm ionized gas on the outskirts of galaxies we have obtained deep emission-line images of several nearby starburst and active galaxies using the Taurus Tunable Filter (TTF) on the 3.9m Anglo-Australian and 4.2m William Herschel Telescopes (see Veilleux 2001 for more detail). In the course of this study, we discovered a remarkable emission-line structure in the early-type spiral galaxy NGC 1482. This galaxy has so far received relatively little attention in the literature. It is classified as a peculiar SA0/a in the Revised 3rd Catalogue (De Vaucouleurs et al. 1991) based primarily on the presence of a dust lane across the disk of the galaxy. Located at a distance of 19.6 Mpc (Tully 1988), it is an infrared-bright galaxy with log\[LIR/L\] = 10.5 (e.g., Soifer et al. 1989; Sanders, Scoville, & Soifer 1991), which is rich in molecular gas and dust (e.g., Sanders et al. 1991; Young et al. 1995; Chini et al. 1996) and is undergoing vigorous star formation (e.g., Moshir et al. 1990; Devereux & Hameed 1997; Thornley et al. 2000). In a recent emission-line imaging survey of early-type spirals, Hameed & Devereux (1999) noticed the presence in NGC 1482 of “filaments and/or chimneys of ionized gas extending perpendicular to the disk.” The present study expands on the results of Hameed & Devereux, using deeper emission-line maps at H$`\alpha `$ and \[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583 and complementary long-slit spectra. We find that the \[N II\]/H$`\alpha `$ excitation map of this galaxy is particularly useful at distinguishing between the star-forming disk and the entrained, shock-excited wind material. This excitation signature could be used in the future to more efficiently identify powerful galactic winds in the local and distant universe.

## 2 Observations

NGC 1482 was observed on the night of 2000 December 16 using the “blue” Taurus Tunable Filter (TTF; Bland-Hawthorn & Jones 1998) at the Anglo-Australian Telescope (AAT). This instrument was used in the “charge shuffling / band switching” mode to maximize sensitivity to faint flux levels. The basic idea is to move charge up and down within the detector at the same time as switching between two discrete wavelengths with the tunable filter. In this way, the on-band image is obtained nearly simultaneously as the off-band (continuum) image. For our observations, the charges were moved every minute and the chip was read out after a total integration time of 32 minutes (i.e. 16 minutes on-band and 16 minutes off-band). Four sets of observations were obtained of NGC 1482: two centered on redshifted H$`\alpha `$ for a total on-band integration time of 32 minutes, and two centered on redshifted \[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583 for the same duration. The continuum images for each set of observations were obtained in a straddle mode, where the off-band image is made up of a pair of images that “straddle” the on-band image in wavelength; this greatly improves the accuracy of the continuum removal since it corrects for slopes in the continuum and underlying absorption features (see also Maloney & Bland-Hawthorn 2001). The wavelength calibration was checked before and after each pair of observations and was found to be stable. The bandpass of the TTF was set to 14.6 Å throughout the observations. This bandpass was chosen to separate H$`\alpha `$ $`\lambda `$6563 emission from \[N II\] $`\lambda \lambda `$6548, 6583 emission, while still producing a monochromatic field of view of several arcminutes, much larger than the total extent of NGC 1482. Phase effects due to the angular Fabry-Perot interferometer response can therefore be safely ignored in the rest of the discussion. The MITLL2A CCD was used for these observations, providing a pixel scale of 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$37 pixel-1 and a field of view of 10$`\mathrm{}`$ $`\times `$ 10$`\mathrm{}`$. The observations were obtained under photometric and $``$ 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 seeing conditions.

On 2001 September 19 – 21, several complementary long-slit spectra were obtained of NGC 1482. The Dual-Beam Spectrograph (DBS) on the MSSSO 2.3m telescope was used at the Nasmyth f/17.9 focus with the 1200B and 1200R gratings. The CCD was a SITe 1752 $`\times `$ 532 $`\times `$ 15$`\mu `$ pixel device. At a plate scale 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$91 pix-1, a 2″ slit gave a resolution of 1.2 Å FWHM and a wavelength coverage of 4400 – 5400 Å and 6100 – 7050 Å. On one occasion, the slit was aligned along the minor axis of the galaxy (P.A. $``$ 13; De Vaucouleurs et al. 1991) passing through the nucleus. In all other cases, the slit was positioned along 103 and offset from 0 to $`\pm `$ 16″ from the major axis of the galaxy. The exposure times were typically 1200 seconds.

## 3 Results

Figure 1 shows the distribution of the H$`\alpha `$ and \[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583 emission in NGC 1482. Strong H$`\alpha `$ and \[N II\] emission is detected along the plane of the host galaxy (P.A. $``$ 103$`\mathrm{°}`$). In addition, an hourglass-shaped structure is seen in both H$`\alpha `$ and \[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583, extending along the minor axis of the galaxy at least $``$ 1.5 kpc above and below the galactic plane. This structure is more easily visible in \[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583 than in H$`\alpha `$. This is particularly apparent in the lower left panel of Figure 1, where we present a \[N II\]/H$`\alpha `$ ratio map of this object. The \[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583/H$`\alpha `$ ratios measured in the disk of the galaxy \[$``$ 0.3 (outer disk) – 0.6 (inner disk)\] are typical of photoionization by stars in H II regions, but the ratios in the hourglass structure are 3 – 7 times larger (\[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583/H$`\alpha `$ $``$ 1.0 – 2.3). This ratio of a collisionally excited line to a recombination line is fundamentally a measure of the relative importance of heating and ionization (e.g., Osterbrock 1989).

\[N II\]/H$`\alpha `$ ratios enhanced relative to H II regions are often observed in the extraplanar material of normal disk galaxies, including our own (e.g., Rand, Kulkarni, & Hester 1990; Veilleux et al. 1995a; Reynolds, Haffner, & Tufte 1999; Hoopes, Walterbos, & Rand 1999; Rossa & Dettmar 2000; Collins & Rand 2001; Miller 2002). Although photoionization by the hardened and diluted radiation field from OB stars in the disk is partially responsible for these peculiar line ratios (e.g., Sokolowski 1992; Bland-Hawthorn, Freeman, & Quinn 1997), a secondary source of ionization or heating is often needed to explain in detail the runs of line ratios in these galaxies (e.g., Reynolds et al. 1999; Collins & Rand 2001; Miller 2002). The extreme \[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583/H$`\alpha `$ ratios in the hourglass structure of NGC 1482 also require an additional source of heating. Ruling out photoionization by an AGN based on the lack of evidence for genuine nuclear activity in NGC 1482 (e.g., Kewley et al. 2000), the most likely explanation for these unusual line ratios is shock ionization. Interaction of an energetic large-scale outflow with the ambient material of a gas-rich host galaxy will cause shock waves with velocities of 100 – 500 km s-1. The shocks will produce a strong flux of EUV and soft X-ray radiation which may be absorbed in the shock precursor H II region (e.g., Dopita & Sutherland 1995). Arguably one of the best examples known of shock-excited nebulae associated with large-scale galactic winds is the kpc-scale superbubble in the galaxy NGC 3079 (e.g., Filippenko & Sargent 1992; Veilleux et al. 1994; Cecil et al. 2001). Large \[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583/H$`\alpha `$ ratios are observed throughout the bubble, reaching values of $``$ 3 at the base of the bubble where the widths of the emission lines exceeds 400 km s-1. H II region-like line ratios are observed everywhere else in the disk (Veilleux et al. 1995a).

The kinematics of the line-emitting gas derived from our long-slit spectroscopy of NGC 1482 confirm that the hourglass structure is due to a large-scale galactic wind and that the extreme line ratios are produced through shocks. Figure 2 shows the disturbed kinematics in the extraplanar material. Line splitting of up to $``$ 250 km s-1 is detected along the axis of the hourglass structure out to at least 16″ (1.5 kpc) above and below the galaxy disk. Normal galactic rotation dominates the kinematics of the gas within 5 – 6″ ($``$ 500 pc) from the disk. Maximum line splitting often coincides with regions of low emission-line surface brightness. These results can be explained if the extraplanar emission-line material forms a biconical edge-brightened structure which is undergoing outward motion away from the central disk. In this case, the blueshifted (redshifted) emission-line component corresponds to the front (back) surface of the bicone. The lack of obvious velocity gradient in the centroid of the line emission suggests that the main axis of the bicone lies close to the plane of the sky. The fact that the amplitude of the line splitting does not decrease significantly with distance from the galaxy indicates that the entrained material is not experiencing significant deceleration (i.e., it is a blown-out wind).

The mass involved in this wind can be estimated from the total H$`\alpha `$ emission outside of the disk. Defining the wind material as having \[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583/H$`\alpha `$ $``$ 1, we get a wind H$`\alpha `$ flux (luminosity) of $``$ 1.7 $`\times `$ 10-13 erg s-1 cm-2 ($``$ 8.0 $`\times `$ 1039 erg s-1) with an uncertainty of about $`\pm `$ 25 – 30%. The \[S II\] $`\lambda `$6731/$`\lambda `$6716 line ratios measured from our long-slit spectra indicate that the entrained material has a density $`n_e100`$ cm-3. The mass in entrained line-emitting material is therefore $``$ 3.6 $`\times `$ 105 $`n_{e,2}^1`$ M where $`n_{e,2}`$ is normalized to 100 cm-3 (assuming Case B recombination and an effective recombination coefficient for H$`\alpha `$ of 8.6 $`\times `$ 10-14 cm-3 s-1; Osterbrock 1989). A correction for possible dust extinction intrinsic to NGC 1482 will further increase this number (note that the extinction due to our Galaxy, E(B–V) = 0.04, is negligible; Schlegel et al. 1998). A simple kinematic model can be used to estimate a few key wind parameters. The bisymmetric morphology and kinematics of the wind nebula in NGC 1482 suggest that the entrained material lies on the surface of a cylindrically symmetric bicone. If most of the gas motion is tangential to the surface of the bicone and given that the axis of the bicone lies approximately in the plane of the sky, the radial outflow velocity $`V_{\mathrm{out}}`$ = $`\mathrm{\Delta }V`$ / (2 $``$ sin $`\theta `$), where $`\mathrm{\Delta }V`$ is the observed maximum line splitting and $`\theta `$ is the angle between the surface and the main axis of the bicone. Taking $`\mathrm{\Delta }V`$ $``$ 250 km s-1 and $`\theta `$ $``$ 30 based on the morphology of the wind (Fig. 1), we get $`V_{\mathrm{out}}`$ $``$ 250 km s-1. Given that $`\mathrm{\Delta }V`$ and $`\theta `$ are observed to be approximately constant throughout the wind nebula, the total kinetic energy involved in the outflow is $``$ 2 $`\times `$ 1053 $`n_{e,2}^1`$ ergs.

The dynamical timescale of the outflow can be estimated from the outflow velocity and radial extent: $`\tau _{\mathrm{dyn}}R/V_{\mathrm{out}}6\times 10^6`$ years. Combining the dynamical timescale and kinetic energy of the outflow, we derive a time-averaged kinetic energy injection rate of $``$ 1 $`\times `$ 1039 $`n_{e,2}^1`$ ergs s-1. This can be compared with the energy injection rate from star formation in NGC 1482 of $``$ 7 $`\times `$ 1042 $`f_{\mathrm{out}}`$ LIR,11 $``$ 2 $`\times `$ 1042 $`f_{\mathrm{out}}`$ erg s-1, where LIR,11 is the infrared luminosity in units of 1011 L and $`f_{\mathrm{out}}`$ is the fraction of the star-forming disk which is contributing to the outflow (Veilleux et al. 1994, eqn. 12). The broad base of the wind nebula near the galaxy disk (Fig. 1) suggests that the source of energy for the wind is distributed over a region of $``$ 2 kpc, i.e. $`f_{\mathrm{out}}`$ $``$ 50% of the total extent of the star-forming (H$`\alpha `$-emitting) portion of the disk. The starburst at the base of the wind nebula in NGC 1482 is therefore powerful enough to drive the outflow as long as $`n_e`$ $``$ 0.1 cm-3.

## 4 On the Use of Excitation Maps to Identify Starburst-Driven Wind Galaxies

The traditional method of identifying galaxy-scale winds in starburst galaxies is to look for the kinematic signature (e.g., line splitting) of the wind along the minor axis of the host galaxy disk. Edge-on disk orientation reduces contamination of the wind emission by the underlying disk material and facilitates the identification. This method is time-consuming since it requires deep spectroscopy of each candidate wind galaxy with spectral resolution of $``$ 100 km s-1. Line ratio maps like the one shown in Figure 1 represent a promising new way to detect galactic winds in starburst galaxies. The line ratio method only requires taking narrow-band images of candidate wind galaxies centered on two (or more) key diagnostic emission lines which emphasize the contrast in the excitation properties between the shocked wind material and the star-forming disk of the host galaxy. \[N II\] $`\lambda `$6583/H$`\alpha `$, \[S II\] $`\lambda \lambda `$6716, 6731/H$`\alpha `$, and \[O I\] $`\lambda `$6300/H$`\alpha `$ are the optical line ratios of choice for $`z0.5`$ galaxies (these ratios are enhanced in the wind of NGC 1482), while \[O II\] $`\lambda `$3727/H$`\beta `$ and \[O II\] $`\lambda `$3727/\[O III\] $`\lambda `$5007 could be used for objects at larger redshifts. The spatial resolution of these images must be sufficient to distinguish the galaxy disk from the wind material. Using NGC 1482 as a template, we find that high-\[N II\]/H$`\alpha `$ winds in edge-on starburst galaxies would still be easily detected out to a distance of $``$ 200 Mpc under 1″ resolution. Imagers equipped with adaptive optics systems should be able to extend the range of these searches by an order of magnitude.

This method relies on the dominance of shock excitation in the optical line-emitting wind component. Surveys of local powerful wind galaxies (e.g., Heckman, Armus, & Miley 1990; Bland-Hawthorn 1995; Veilleux et al. 1995b; Lehnert & Heckman 1996; Veilleux 2001) confirm that shocks generally are the dominant source of excitation in the wind material. These shock-dominated wind nebulae present line ratios which are markedly different from the star-forming disks of the host galaxies. The case of the superbubble in NGC 3079 has already been discussed in §3. At the other end of the excitation spectrum is the wind in M 82. The \[N II\]/H$`\alpha `$ map of the southern wind lobe of M 82 (Fig. 4 of Shopbell & Bland-Hawthorn 1998) presents two distinct fan-like structures with H II region-like ratios originating from the two bright star-forming regions in the disk of this galaxy. The line ratio technique would not be able to distinguish between line emission from this type of photoionization-dominated wind nebulae and contamination from a star-forming disk seen nearly face-on. Blind searches for galactic winds based on the excitation contrast between the disk and wind components would therefore favor the detection of winds in edge-on hosts where the wind component is not projected onto the disk component. This orientation bias would need to be taken into account to get a complete census of starburst-driven wind galaxies. AGN-driven winds may also contaminate samples selected from excitation maps if the spatial resolution is not sufficient to separate the active nucleus from the disk material.

The authors wish to thank R. B. Tully who brought to our attention the peculiar properties of NGC 1482. We also thank J. Bland-Hawthorn for help in using the Taurus Tunable Filter and for entertaining discussions. The authors acknowledge partial support of this research by a Cottrell Scholarship awarded by the Research Corporation, NASA/LTSA grant NAG 56547, and NSF/CAREER grant AST-9874973.


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# Exact results on spin glass models

## 1 Introduction

The mean-field theory of spin glasses is now well established. The spin glass phase that exists at low temperatures is known to be characterized by a complex phase space and slow dynamics. It is a target of active current investigations to settle whether or not the predictions of the mean-field theory apply to realistic finite-dimensional systems. It is generally difficult to clarify the properties of finite-dimensional systems by analytical methods, and numerical investigations are the main tools of research. The purpose of the present contribution is to overview the available exact/rigorous results on spin glass models in finite dimensions with several new additions to the list. We also prove coincidence of our exact results with the consequences of the spin wave theory for the random-phase $`XY`$/Villain model. This fact may shed a new light on the significance of existing renormalization group arguments for the two-dimensional random-phase $`XY`$/Villain model.

## 2 Ising spin glass

Let us first consider the Ising spin glass described by the Hamiltonian

$$H=\underset{ij}{}J_{ij}S_iS_j,$$
(1)
where $`S_i=\pm 1`$ and $`J_{ij}=\pm J`$, namely the $`\pm J`$ model. The Gaussian model can be treated similarly. This Hamiltonian is invariant under the gauge transformation

$$S_iS_i\sigma _i,J_{ij}J_{ij}\sigma _i\sigma _j,$$
(2)
where $`\sigma _i`$ is another Ising variable fixed arbitrarily at each site. Using this gauge invariance, we can derive many exact or rigorous results , some of which are listed below. Unless stated otherwise, the only condition for the following results to hold is that $`K=K_p`$, where $`K=\beta J(=J/k_BT)`$ and $`K_p`$ is a function of $`p`$ (the probability that the quenched random variable $`J_{ij}`$ is equal to $`J`$), $`\mathrm{exp}(2K_p)=(1p)/p`$. No restrictions exist on the lattice structure or the spatial dimensionality.

The average energy is obtained exactly as

$$[E]=N_BJ\mathrm{tanh}K$$
(3)
and the upper bound on the specific heat is

$$k_BT^2[C]J^2N_B\mathrm{sech}^2K,$$
(4)
where $`N_B`$ is the number of bonds in the system. The square brackets denote the configurational average. The gauge-invariant correlation function decays exponentially

$$[S_0\tau _{01}\tau _{12}\mathrm{}\tau _{r1,r}S_r]=\mathrm{tanh}^rK,$$
(5)
where $`\tau _{j,j+1}(=\pm 1)`$ is the sign of $`J_{j,j+1}`$, and the pairs of neighbouring sites $`(0,1),(1,2),\mathrm{},(r1,r)`$ connect sites 0 and $`r`$. The configurational average of the inverse correlation function is identically unity

$$\left[\frac{1}{S_iS_jS_k\mathrm{}}\right]=1,$$
(6)
and the correlation function satisfies

$$[S_iS_j]=[S_iS_j^2].$$
(7)
By taking the thermodynamic limit in the above correlation identity (7) and then considering the limit of infinite separation of the two sites $`i`$ and $`j`$, we conclude that the ferromagnetic order parameter is equal to the spin glass order parameter, $`m=q`$.

All these results suggest a very special role played by the line defined by $`K=K_p`$ on the phase diagram (Fig. 1), the Nishimori line.

In particular, the relation $`m=q`$ together with an inequality on the sign of local magnetization

$$M(K,K_p)=\left[\mathrm{sgn}S_i\right]M(K_p,K_p)$$
(8)
implies that the Nishimori line marks a crossover between the purely ferromagnetic region (where $`m>q`$ and $`M`$ is a decreasing function of $`T`$) and a randomness-dominated region (where $`m<q`$ and $`M`$ is an increasing function of $`T`$) within the ferromagnetic phase.

An important generalization of the relation $`m=q`$ is the functional identity $`P_m(x)=P_q(x)`$ under the same condition $`K=K_p`$ . Here, $`P_m(x)`$ is the distribution function of magnetization

$$P_m(x)=\left[\frac{_S\delta \left(x\frac{1}{N}_iS_i\right)e^{\beta H}}{_Se^{\beta H}}\right]$$
(9)
and $`P_q(x)`$ is the distribution of spin glass order parameter defined in terms of two real replicas

$$P_q(x)=\left[\frac{_S_\sigma \delta \left(x\frac{1}{N}_iS_i\sigma _i\right)e^{\beta H(S)\beta H(\sigma )}}{_S_\sigma e^{\beta H(S)\beta H(\sigma )}}\right].$$
(10)
The proof of the identity $`P_m(x)=P_q(x)`$ is relatively straightforward if we apply the gauge transformation to the expression (9) and use the condition.

Since the distribution function of magnetization $`P_m(x)`$ is always composed of at most two simple delta functions located at $`\pm m`$, the identity $`P_m(x)=P_q(x)`$ implies that the distribution of the spin glass order parameter $`P_q(x)`$ also has the same simple structure. This excludes the possibility that a complex structure of the phase space, which should be reflected to a non-trivial functional form of $`P_q(x)`$, exists on the Nishimori line $`K=K_p`$. Thus a spin glass (or mixed ferromagnetic) phase of the mean-field type, if it exists in finite dimensions, should lie away from the line in the phase diagram.

## 3 Random-phase $`XY`$ and Villain models

The same type of argument applies to the random-phase $`XY`$ model (gauge glass)

$$H=J\underset{ij}{}\mathrm{cos}(\theta _i\theta _jA_{ij})$$
(11)
with the phase distribution

$$P(A_{ij})e^{K_p\mathrm{cos}A_{ij}},$$
(12)
and the random-phase Villain (or periodic Gaussian) model with nearest-neighbour Boltzmann factor

$$e^{V(\theta _i\theta _jA_{ij})}=\underset{m=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e^{K(\theta _i\theta _jA_{ij}2\pi m)^2/2},$$
(13)
where the phase variable obeys

$$P(A_{ij})\underset{m=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e^{K_p(A_{ij}2\pi m)^2/2}.$$
(14)
We note here that the periodic distribution (14) is equivalent to a non-periodic Gaussian distribution (often used in the literature) because (13) is periodic in $`A_{ij}`$. The Villain model (13) is often used as a low-temperature effective model of the $`XY`$ model (11), in particular in the analysis of the Kosterlitz-Thouless transition in two dimensions. We shall see that the results for the Villain model indeed agree with those for the $`XY`$ model at sufficiently low temperatures.

These models are invariant under the gauge transformation

$$\theta _i\theta _i+\varphi _i,A_{ij}A_{ij}+\varphi _i\varphi _j.$$
(15)
We simply list the results for the random-phase $`XY`$ model that have been obtained using gauge invariance , corresponding to (3), (4), (5), (6) and (7) for the Ising case,

$`[E]=N_BJ{\displaystyle \frac{I_1(K)}{I_0(K)}}`$ (16)
$`k_BT^2[C]J^2N_B\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{I_2(K)}{2I_0(K)}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{I_1(K)}{I_0(K)}}\right)^2\right)`$ (17)
$`\left[e^{i(\theta _0A_{01}A_{12}\mathrm{}A_{r,r1}\theta _r)}\right]=\left({\displaystyle \frac{I_1(K)}{I_0(K)}}\right)^r`$ (18)
$`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{e^{i_ja_j\theta _j}}}\right]=1`$ (19)
$`\left[e^{i(\theta _0\theta _r)}\right]=\left[\left|e^{i(\theta _0\theta _r)}\right|^2\right],`$ (20)
where $`I_j(K)`$ is the modified Bessel function and the $`a_j`$ are arbitrary numbers. All these equations hold on any lattice in any dimension as long as the condition $`K=K_p`$ is satisfied.

Correlation functions of bond variables can also be evaluated under the condition $`K=K_p`$:

$`\left[\mathrm{cos}(\theta _0\theta _1A_{01})\mathrm{cos}(\theta _r\theta _{r+1}A_{r,r+1})\right]=\left({\displaystyle \frac{I_1(K)}{I_0(K)}}\right)^2`$ (21)
$`\left[\mathrm{sin}(\theta _0\theta _1A_{01})\mathrm{sin}(\theta _r\theta _{r+1}A_{r,r+1})\right]=0,`$ (22)
where $`(01)`$ and $`(r,r+1)`$ are pairs of neighbouring sites. The second identity for the sine correlation is particularly interesting since it means the absence of spatial correlation between chirality degrees of freedom .

An identity between the distribution functions of ferromagnetic and spin glass order parameters can also be proved, $`P_m(z)=P_q(z)`$ for $`K=K_p`$, where the distribution function of the ferromagnetic order parameter is defined as

$$P_m(z)=\left[\delta \left(z\frac{1}{N}\underset{j}{}e^{i\theta _j}\right)\right]$$
(23)
and that of the spin glass order parameter is given using two replicas as in (10)

$$P_q(z)=\left[\delta \left(z\frac{1}{N}\underset{j}{}e^{i(\theta _j\varphi _j)}\right)\right],$$
(24)
where two replicas of the same system have dynamical variables $`\{\theta _j\}`$ and $`\{\varphi _j\}`$.

The random-phase Villain model can be treated in the same manner. The results corresponding to (16), (18), (19) and (20) are, under the condition $`K=K_p`$ and with the notation $`T=K^1`$,

$`\left[e^{i(\theta _0\theta _1A_{01})}\right]=e^{T/2}`$ (25)
$`\left[e^{i(\theta _0A_{01}A_{12}\mathrm{}A_{r,r1}\theta _r)}\right]=e^{rT/2}`$ (26)
$`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{e^{i_ja_j\theta _j}}}\right]=1`$ (27)
$`\left[e^{i(\theta _0\theta _r)}\right]=\left[\left|e^{i(\theta _0\theta _r)}\right|^2\right].`$ (28)
Correlations between bond variables satisfy, similarly to (21) and (22),

$`\left[\mathrm{cos}(\theta _0\theta _1A_{01})\mathrm{cos}(\theta _r\theta _{r+1}A_{r,r+1})\right]=e^T`$ (29)
$`\left[\mathrm{sin}(\theta _0\theta _1A_{01})\mathrm{sin}(\theta _r\theta _{r+1}A_{r,r+1})\right]=0.`$ (30)
It can also be proved that the functional identity $`P_m(z)=P_q(z)`$ holds if $`K=K_p`$. These relations for the Villain model agree with the corresponding results for the $`XY`$ model in the low-temperature limit.

It is clear that the Nishimori line $`K=K_p`$ plays key roles in the determination of the system properties also in the present continuous-variable system. This line is expected to mark the crossover between the pure ferromagnetic-like region and a randomness-dominated region within the ferromagnetic phase.

## 4 Spin wave theory

The random-phase $`XY`$ model has often been analyzed by the spin wave theory, particularly in two dimensions. In the spin wave theory one expands the cosine interaction (11) to second order of the argument, assuming that the argument is small at low temperatures

$$\mathrm{cos}(\theta _i\theta _jA_{ij})1\frac{1}{2}(\theta _i\theta _jA_{ij})^2.$$
(31)
It will be assumed that the quenched gauge variable $`A_{ij}`$ is also Gaussian-distributed with variance $`\sigma K_p^1`$.

An important difference between the spin wave theory (31) and the Villain model (13) is in periodicity. The latter model is periodic in the variables $`\theta _i,\theta _j`$ and $`A_{ij}`$ with period $`2\pi `$ as in the original $`XY`$ model (11) whereas the spin wave theory (31) neglects periodicity. Periodicity of the Hamiltonian (11) or the Boltzmann factor (13) is directly related with the existence of vortices, which leads to the Kosterlitz-Thouless transition in two dimensions . It is then expected that the spin wave theory fails to reproduce important characteristics of the $`XY`$/Villain model. Surprisingly this is not the case at least for the relations we have derived above using gauge transformation as shown below.

The spin-wave Hamiltonian is Gaussian, and everything can be evaluated explicitly in any dimension. The results corresponding to (25) to (30) are given below. Note that the following relations are valid for any $`T`$ and $`\sigma `$ in contrast to the results of the gauge theory which require $`T=\sigma (K=K_p)`$. The spatial dimension is arbitrary.

$`\left[e^{i(\theta _0\theta _1A_{01})}\right]=\mathrm{exp}\left\{(T\sigma )G_{01}{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma }{2}}\right\}`$ (32)
$`\left[e^{i(\theta _0A_{01}A_{12}\mathrm{}A_{r,r1}\theta _r)}\right]=\mathrm{exp}\left\{(T\sigma )G_{0r}{\displaystyle \frac{r\sigma }{2}}\right\}`$ (33)
$`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{e^{i_ja_j\theta _j}}}\right]=\mathrm{exp}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{T}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{i,j}{}}a_ia_jG_{ij}{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma }{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{i,j}{}}a_ia_jG_{ij}\right\}`$ (34)
$`\left[e^{i(\theta _0\theta _r)}\right]=e^{(T+\sigma )G_{0r}}`$ (35)
$`\left[\left|e^{i(\theta _0\theta _r)}\right|^2\right]=e^{2TG_{0r}}.`$ (36)
Here $`G_{0r}`$ is the lattice Green function. Its explicit form is, for example for the two-dimensional square lattice,

$$G_{0r}=\frac{1}{N}\underset{k}{}\frac{\mathrm{cos}𝒌𝒓1}{42\mathrm{cos}k_1\mathrm{cos}k_2}.$$
(37)
Correlations of bond variables can also be evaluated by the spin wave theory:

$`\left[\mathrm{cos}(\theta _0\theta _1A_{01})\mathrm{cos}(\theta _r\theta _{r+1}A_{r,r+1})\right]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}C_r+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}C_{r+}`$ (38)
$`\left[\mathrm{sin}(\theta _0\theta _1A_{01})\mathrm{sin}(\theta _r\theta _{r+1}A_{r,r+1})\right]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}C_r{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}C_{r+},`$ (39)
where $`C_{r\pm }`$ is, in the case of the square lattice,

$$C_{r\pm }=\mathrm{exp}\left\{\frac{\sigma T}{N}\underset{k}{}\frac{(1\mathrm{cos}k_1)(1\pm \mathrm{cos}𝒌𝒓)}{2\mathrm{cos}k_1\mathrm{cos}k_2}\sigma \right\}.$$
(40)
All these relations (32) to (39) reduce to the corresponding Villain results (25) to (30) if $`T=\sigma `$. This is a surprising conclusion because it means that, if $`T=\sigma `$, periodicity of the Villain model (or vortex degrees of freedom) has no effects at all on the quantities calculated above. The spin wave theory gives the exact solution and rigorous relations for the Villain model.

## 5 Conclusion

We have shown a number of exact/rigorous results for the Ising spin glass and random-phase $`XY`$ and Villain models. These models can be treated by the gauge theory, a method exploiting gauge invariance of the Hamiltonian or the Boltzmann factor. The exact solution for the energy and rigorous relations for the specific heat and correlation functions have been derived under the condition of $`K=K_p`$. The results for the $`XY`$ model have been shown to reduce to those for the Villain model in the low-temperature limit.

We have used the spin wave theory to calculate various correlation functions for the random-phase $`XY`$/Villain models. It has been found that the spin wave theory, which neglects periodicity of the system, gives the exact expressions for the quantities that have been treated by the gauge theory for the Villain model as long as the condition $`K=K_p`$ is satisfied. Thus the effects of periodicity, or the vortex degrees of freedom, completely disappear at least from these quantities if $`K=K_p`$.

It is of course expected that periodicity plays essential roles in the determination of the explicit exact form of the correlation function $`[e^{i(\theta _0\theta _r)}]`$ of the Villain model since, otherwise, the spin wave theory would be valid for an arbitrarily high temperature, implying that the low-temperature Kosterlitz-Thouless (in two dimensions) or the ferromagnetic (in higher dimensions) phase would extend to the infinite-temperature limit. Nevertheless, the present conclusion of the exact relations for the energy and other quantities by the spin wave theory is never trivial, in consideration of the fact that the Nishimori line $`K=K_p(T=\sigma )`$ seems to occupy no special status in the phase diagram according to the renormalization-group treatment of the two-dimensional Villain model . The renormalization group, rather, predicts that the line defined by $`T=2\sigma `$ separates the usual ferromagnetic region and the vortex-freezing region within the ferromagnetic phase. One possibility is that current renormalization group treatments miss some important aspects of the system, thus identifying the line $`T=2\sigma `$ as the crossover line instead of the line $`T=\sigma `$. Further investigations are necessary to clarify this point.