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# Untitled Document

Variations of the Core Luminosity and Solar Neutrino Fluxes

Attila Grandpierre, Konkoly Observatory, Hungary email: Grandp@konkoly.hu The aim of the present work is to analyze the geological and astrophysical data as well as presenting theoretical considerations indicating the presence of dynamic processes present in the solar core. The dynamic solar model (DSM) is suggested to take into account the presence of cyclic variations in the temperature of the solar core. Comparing the results of calculations of the CO2 content, albedo and solar evolutionary luminosity changes with the empirically determined global earthly temperatures, and taking into account climatic models, I determined the relation between the earthly temperature and solar luminosity. These results indicate to the observed maximum of $`10^{}`$ change on the global terrestrial surface temperature a related solar luminosity change around $`45`$ % on a ten million years timescale, which is the timescale of heat diffusion from the solar core to the surface. The related solar core temperature changes are around 1 % only. At the same time, the cyclic luminosity changes of the solar core are shielded effectively by the outer zones since the radiation diffusion takes more than $`10^5`$ years to reach the solar surface. The measurements of the solar neutrino fluxes with Kamiokande 1987-1995 showed variations higher than 40 % around the average, at the Super-Kamiokande the size of the apparent scatter decreased to 13 %. This latter scatter, if would be related completely to stochastic variations of the central temperature, would indicate a smaller than 1 % change. Fourier and wavelet analysis of the solar neutrino fluxes indicate only a marginally significant period around 200 days (Haubold, 1998). Helioseismic measurements are known to be very constraining. Actually, Castellani et al. (1999) remarked that the different solar models lead to slightly different sound speeds, and the different methods of regularization yield slightly different sound speeds, too. Therefore, they doubled the found parameter variations, and were really conservative assuming that errors add up linearly. This conservative error estimation gives $`\delta u/u=1.7`$ %, $`\delta \rho /\rho =7`$ % at $`r=0.06\times R_{}`$, and so the $`\delta T/T=9`$ %, since $`\delta T/T\delta \rho /\rho +\delta P/P.`$ At $`r=0.04\times R_{}`$, $`\delta u/u=2.2`$ %, $`\delta \rho /\rho =10`$ %, $`\delta T/T=13`$ %. At $`r=0,`$ $`\delta u/u=3.5`$ %, therefore $`\delta \rho /\rho =16`$ % and so $`\delta T/T=20`$ %. So even with the usual, not conservative error estimation, roughly dividing these conservative errors by 4, with $`\delta u/u=0.4`$ %, we still get an allowed range cca. 2 % temperature change at $`r=0.06\times R_{}`$ and higher in the more central regions.

In solar core varying cyclically on a decade timescale, the longer timescale nuclear reactions cannot build up equilibrium. In such a short timescale the variations of the local temperature regulates the proton-proton chain instead of the global luminosity constraint that is applicable only on evolutionary timescales. Therefore, the temperature dependences of the pp cycle neutrinos will be different from the ones determined by solar model calculations with the luminosity constraint: instead of the usual

$$ppT^{1/2},\mathrm{Be}T^8,\mathrm{B}T^{18}.$$

we determined by the nuclear reaction rates formulas

$$ppT^{4.2},\mathrm{Be}T^{1/2},\mathrm{B}T^{13.5},$$

for $`\tau <10^2`$ years. These latter relations have high significance at estimating the uncertainties of the solar central temperatures without assuming the luminosity constraint. Although the purely astrophysical solutions seem to be ruled out, this is not the case for a model in which astrophysical effects are included besides the neutrino oscillations. Therefore a combined, DSM+MSW model is suggested to calculate the observed solar neutrino fluxes. At present we have three types of neutrino detectors, and they offer us the data as the total rates (3 measurements), zenith angle dependences, energy spectra and day-night variations, all together 6 kind of data. The highest statistical significance is found in the total rates data. The evaluation of these 6 data sets is not straightforward. For example, the combined fits to the rates+spectra+D/N changes give a bad fit to the total rates, indicating the need to include the astrophysical factors besides the MSW effect. The DSM suggest that the core dynamics is induced by intermittent events of dissipation of rotational energy in the solar core, in relation to angular momentum dissipation arising from the relative motion of the Sun and the mass center of the Solar System. Energetic estimations show the plausibility of the suggested mechanisms. The DSM may serve as a useful tool to describe the observed neutrino fluxes, shifting the allowed ranges of the MSW parameters into a more acceptable region. The role of the astrophysical factors in the solar neutrino problem is behind the fact why the “smoking guns” of neutrino oscillations are not found yet.


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# A Hubble Space Telescope Survey of X-ray Luminous Galaxy Clusters: Gravitationally Lensed Arcs and EROs

## 1. Introduction

Gravitational lensing by galaxy clusters is a powerful tool for studying the distribution of mass in galaxy clusters at $`z>0.2`$ (e.g. Kneib et al. 1996 – K96; Smith et al. 2001a – S01a) and the properties of high-redshift ($`z1`$–6) galaxies (e.g. Smith et al. 2002a – S02a; Smail et al. 2001; Ellis et al. 2001). For this reason, significant effort was invested during the 1990’s in developing the lens inversion techniques required to interpret robustly cluster lensing observations (K96). During this period cluster lensing studies necessarily concentrated on a small number of well studied clusters.

Our survey builds on the pioneering work of the 1990’s and applies the K96 lens inversion technique to an objectively selected sample of clusters. Ideally we would select our cluster sample based on direct measurements of their mass. However, in the absence of large scale weak lensing surveys, we rely on X-ray luminosity as a crude indicator of cluster mass for the purpose of sample selection. We therefore select 12 X-ray luminous clusters ($`L_\mathrm{X}8\times 10^{44}`$ erg s-1, 0.1–2.4 keV) in a narrow redshift slice at $`z=0.17`$–0.26, with line of sight reddening of $`E(BV)0.1`$ from the XBACs sample (Ebeling et al. 1996).

We describe the first three published results from our survey: detailed modeling of the density profile of A 383 (S01a); a search for gravitationally lensed Extremely Red Objects (EROs) (S02a); and near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy of a dusty ERO uncovered in S02a’s survey (Smith et al. 2001b – S01b).

## 2. The Distribution of Matter in the Core ($`r<20`$kpc) of Abell 383

A 383 was one of the first clusters to be observed by *HST* as part of our survey, revealing numerous previously unidentified multiple images including a “giant” tangential arc and two radial arcs (Fig. 1 & S01a). Such radial arcs are extremely rare and provide a unique opportunity to measure the slope of the cluster density profile, in contrast to tangential arcs which are much more common and simply constrain the mass enclosed by the arc.

Figure 1. – Left: The central $`50^{\prime \prime }\times 50^{\prime \prime }`$ of A 383, combining our WFPC2/F702W frame with $`K`$–band data from UKIRT (see §3). The large blue arc below-right of the image-centre is a “giant arc” consisting of several images of the same background galaxy, including one spectroscopically confirmed to lie at $`z=1.01`$. The radial arcs (see text) lie in the very centre of the cluster and are hidden by the cluster cD galaxy in this frame. Right: The radial arcs in A 383, as seen with HST enhanced by subtracting a median-smoothed frame from the science frame. The bright emission at the bottom of this frame is the residual light from the cD galaxy after subtracting off the smoothed frame. Each tick mark represents $`1^{\prime \prime }`$.

Keck spectroscopy of the brightest feature of the giant arc reveals it to be an image of a star forming galaxy at $`z=1.01`$. We use this spectroscopic redshift to calibrate a model of the mass distribution in this cluster and then investigate the slope of the cluster density profile using the radial arcs. Specifically, we investigate the degeneracy between the various model parameters that describe the cluster-scale dark matter halo and the central galaxy in this cluster. We conclude that a central galaxy mass component is required to explain the lensing properties of the cluster and that the de-projected slope of the inner region of the density profile ($`10<r<50`$kpc) is $`\alpha =1.30\pm 0.04`$ where $`\rho r^\alpha `$. The central slope of A 383’s density profile therefore appears to be intermediate between the predictions of Navarro, Frenk & White (1997) ($`\alpha =1`$) and the higher resolution simulations of Ghigna et al. (1999) ($`\alpha =1.6\pm 0.1`$) (S01a).

Future analysis of A 383 will fully map the systematic uncertainties in our lens model, including those arising from the adoption of different parametrized mass profiles. We are also constructing lens models for the other clusters in our sample, and will study the sub-structure and correlations between cluster properties e.g. $`L_X`$, $`T_X`$ and mass (Smith et al. 2002b). In conjunction with ongoing *XMM-Newton* observations, this will be a powerful dataset with which to quantify the distribution of matter in massive clusters at $`z0.2`$.

## 3. The Surface Density of Extremely Red Objects at $`K<22`$

We also use these clusters as “gravitational telescopes” to investigate properties of distant galaxies. In particular we probe the formation epoch of massive elliptical galaxies. Photometrically selected evolved galaxies at $`z>1`$ are a promising tool with which to tackle this issue. However, the definition of this population (Extremely Red Objects – EROs) in terms of a simple optical/NIR color selection criterion (e.g. ($`RK`$)$`5.3`$) produces a heterogeneous sample of galaxies, containing both active, dusty systems (e.g. Dey et al. 1999) and passive elliptical galaxies (e.g. Soifer et al. 1999). Attempts to study EROs in a systematic manner and so disentangle this mixture have also been severely hampered by their intrinsic faintness ($`R>23`$, $`K>18`$).

Our survey overcomes this problem, exploiting the magnifying power of massive galaxy cluster lenses to enhance the sensitivity of the observations (S02a). We combine our optical HST data (§2) with deep ground-based NIR data and construct a sample of 60 gravitationally lensed EROs with $`(RK)5.3`$ (26 which have $`(RK)6.0`$) down to $`K22`$ in the source plane (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. – Left: Composite $`(RK)`$$`K`$ color-magnitude diagram for the ten cluster fields used in our search for gravitationally lensed EROs (S02a). Selection criteria of $`(RK)5.3`$ and $`(RK)6.0`$ are indicated by dashed lines. Right: Number counts of EROs with $`(RK)5.3`$ after correcting for gravitational lensing. The surface density at $`K21.6`$ is $`2.5\pm 0.4`$ arcmin-2. The slope of the number counts changes at $`K19.5`$ (see text).

We use detailed lens models (K96, S01a, S02b) to correct our ERO sample for gravitational amplification (S02a), and show the corrected surface density of EROs in Fig. 2. These results agree with recent wide-field surveys ($`K<19.5`$), but reveal a shallower slope at $`K>19.5`$. Together with color and morphological information, we interpret this as indicating that EROs are dominated by elliptical galaxies at $`K<19.5`$, and are dominated by dusty systems at $`K>19.5`$.

We also compare our number counts with Cole et al.’s (2000 – C00) semi-analytic model of galaxy formation (Fig. 2). C00 use a well motivated prescription of galaxy formation physics to reproduce many of the properties of the local galaxy population (e.g. local $`K`$–band luminosity function). Despite success at low-redshift, C00 under-predict the observed ERO counts by approximately an order of magnitude (Fig. 2). This deficit of EROs implies that C00’s model produces insufficient stars and/or dust in the early Universe.

Our future program will test S02a’s hypothesis that the break in the ERO number counts is caused by a transition in the nature of EROs at $`K19.5`$.

## 4. ERO J164023 – A Dusty Starburst-Seyfert Galaxy at $`z=1.05`$

We are also undertaking a program of NIR spectroscopy of our ERO sample. Observations with NIRSPEC on Keck-II (S01b) reveal that ERO J164023 ($`K=17.6`$, $`(RK)=5.9`$) is a dusty disk galaxy at $`z=1.05`$. S01b estimate that this galaxy suffers extinction of $`A_V5`$, suggesting that it may be similar to HR10 (Dey et al. 1999), one of only two other dusty EROs for which NIR spectroscopy is available. However, unlike HR10, this galaxy displays evidence (anomalous H$`\alpha `$/\[NII\] line ratio) of weak nuclear activity, indicating that this may be a composite starburst-Seyfert system. Dust-reddened EROs therefore appear to include composite systems (S01b) in addition to the starburst (Dey et al. 1999) and AGN (Pierre et al. 2001) systems that were previously known.

## 5. Summary

We are conducting a survey of 12 X-ray luminous galaxy clusters at $`z0.2`$ with *HST* and large ground-based telescopes. One of these clusters, A 383, contains two radial arcs which are used to constrain the inner slope of the cluster density profile (S01a). We find that the cluster scale dark matter halo appears to possess a central cusp. However, the logarithmic slope of this cusp is not well reproduced by either of the rival theoretical predictions of dark matter density profiles. S02a also exploit the magnifying power of our cluster lens sample to construct a sample of 60 gravitationally lensed EROs as faint as $`K22`$. Comparison of our observed ERO number counts with predictions from C00’s semi-analytic model of galaxy formation reveals that this models under-predicts the observed ERO number counts by an order of magnitude. NIR spectroscopy reveals that one ERO in our sample is a dusty starburst-Seyfert galaxy at $`z=1.05`$ (S01b).

### Acknowledgments.

I acknowledge all of my collaborators and am especially grateful to Ian Smail and Jean-Paul Kneib. I also acknowledge a Postgraduate Studentship from PPARC.

## References

Cole S., Lacey C.G., Baugh C.M., Frenk C.S., 2000, MNRAS, 319, 168 (C00)

Daddi E., Cimatti A., Pozzetti L., et al., 2000, A&A, 361, 535

Dey A., Graham J.R., Ivison R.J., Smail I., et al., 1999, ApJ, 519, 610

Ebeling H., Voges W., Bohringer H., Edge A.C., et al., 1996, MNRAS, 281, 799

Ellis R.S., Santos M.R., Kneib J.-P., Kuijken K., 2001, ApJL, 560, 119

Ghigna S., Moore B., Governato F., Lake G., et al., 1999, ApJ, 544, 616

Kneib J.-P., Ellis R.S., Smail I., et al., 1996, ApJ, 471, 643

Navarro J., Frenk C.S., White S.D.M., 1997, ApJ, 490, 493

Pierre M., Lidman C., Hunstead R., et al., 2001, A&A, 372L, 45

Smail I., Ivison R.J., et al., 2001, MNRAS, in press (0112100)

Smith G.P., Kneib J.-P., et al., 2001a, ApJ, 552, 493 – S01a

Smith G.P., Treu T., Ellis R.S., et al., 2001b, ApJ, 562, 635 – S01b

Smith G.P., Smail I., et al., 2002a, MNRAS, 330, 1, in press (0109465) – S02a

Smith G.P., Kneib J.-P., Smail I., et al., 2002b, in preparation – S02b

Soifer B.T., Matthews K., Neugebauer G., et al., 1999, AJ, 118, 2065

Thompson D., Beckwith S.V.W., Fockenbrock R., et al., 1999, ApJ, 523, 100


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# Numerical Models of the ISM

## 1. Introduction

Two of the most influential models of the interstellar medium (ISM) to date are the two- and three-phase models of Field, Goldsmith & Habing (1969) and of McKee & Ostriker (1977, hereafter, MO). These models relied on the then known atomic and radiative heating and cooling processes to provide a self-consistent picture of the ISM in which the concepts of thermal and pressure equilibria played a fundamental role. Another important model was the time-dependent model of the ISM by Gerola, Kafatos & McCray (1974), which was presented as an alternative to the pressure equilibrium two-phase model of Field et al. (1969) but assumed radically different conditions: a constant-density medium under the influence of stochastic, local heating events that should cause strong local fluctuations of pressure and temperature, because the cooling and recombination times are comparable or shorter than the time between exposure of a given gas parcel to one of those heating events. Note that the MO model also recognized the existence of local fluctuations in the pressure, although it was still based on the premise of “rough pressure balance”.

Nevertheless, both the equilibrium and the time dependent models left out a number of important aspects in the ISM physics. The multiphase equilibrium models essentially neglected the possibility of large pressure fluctuations in the ISM. The time dependent model instead included this possibility as a fundamental premise, but still neglected the fact that such fluctuations should induce motions, which should in general be turbulent and cause strong density fluctuations. The turbulence involves gas motions at all scales which not only provide ram “pressure”, but also mixing, and can produce compressions rather than “support” (e.g., Elmegreen 1993; Ballesteros-Paredes, Vázquez-Semadeni & Scalo 1999a).

Moreover, both the time-dependent and the MO models omitted other sources of pressure in the ISM, such as magnetic fields and cosmic rays. The pressure from these agents is in fact significantly larger than the thermal pressure (e.g., Boulares & Cox 1990). Elmegreen (1991, 1994) has performed a combined instability analysis including self-gravity, cooling and heating, and magnetic fields, but the full nonlinear behavior can only be dealt with by means of numerical simulations of the gas dynamics in the Galactic disk. In this review, I will summarize a variety of results in this area, pioneered by Bania & Lyon (1980), concerning the spatial distribution both on the Galactic plane and perpendicular to it (§2), the one-point and correlation statistics of the physical fields (§3), the comparison between “synthetic” observations of the simulations and actual observations of the ISM (§4), and several dynamical aspects, including the role of thermal and ram pressures, the virial balance of clouds, the nonlinear Q parameter and the star-gas connection (§5). I conclude (§6) with an attempt to present a comprehensive scenario, which should constitute the first step towards a full dynamical theory of the ISM that can take over where the time-dependent and the MO models left off.

Given the focus on HI gas of the present conference, this review concentrates on hydro- and magnetohydrodynamic numerical simulations of the multi-temperature111In this review the common term “multi-phase” will be avoided and substituted by “multi-temperature”, since, as discussed in §5.1, numerical simulations do not in general support the existence of sharp phase transitions in interstellar gas. gas in the Galactic disk. Thus, the vast literature existing on numerical simulations of isothermal gas, aimed at the molecular-cloud regime, will necessarily be excluded. The reader is directed to the review by Vázquez-Semadeni et al. (2000) for a discussion of that area current up to 1999, and that by Mac Low & Klessen (2002) for the more recent results. Non-hydrodynamical models of the dynamical systems kind have also been excluded (see, e.g., the review by Shore & Ferrini 1995).

## 2. Spatial Distribution of the Gas

One of the first concerns of numerical simulations was to show that stellar energy injection through ionization heating, is indeed capable of carving “holes” containing hot ($`T10^6`$K) or warm ($`T10^4`$K) dilute gas, and of producing dense, cool ($`T100`$K) clouds, or in general, what has often been referred to as a “multiphase” medium. However, it is important to note that in all simulations, the temperature spans a continuum of values, and the so-called “phases” are generally defined simply in terms of ranges within this continuum. Studies both parallel and perpendicular to the Galactic plane were conducted. It is also important to note that a general feature of the dynamic, yet statistically-stationary regime into which simulations settle, and which is evident from animations, is that the “clouds” have no long-lasting identity, but instead are continually “morphing”222I first encountered this term in the context of audio production, to denote a continuous transition from one waveform into another. (i.e., changing shape, stretching, merging with other structures, and splitting apart; see §5.1; Shadmehri, Vázquez-Semadeni & Ballesteros-Paredes, this volume).

### 2.1. Two-Dimensional Structure on the Galactic Plane

Early attempts to show the generation of a multi-temperature medium, even at very low resolutions in two dimensions (2D) parallel to the Galactic plane, were those by Bania & Lyon (1980), Chiang & Prendergast (1985), and Chiang & Bregman (1988). In particular, Chiang & Prendergast also identified a “star-formation” instability, similar to a thermal instability (Field 1965; Field et al. 1969) around an equilibrium state in which star formation balances mass loss, and stellar heating of the gas balances radiative cooling (see §5). On the plane, self-gravity and later magnetic fields, the Coriolis force and shear were included (Vázquez-Semadeni, Passot & Pouquet 1995; Passot, Vázquez-Semadeni & Pouquet 1995), although still without supernova energy input, and without a thermal instability-inducing cooling function. Moreover, Ballesteros-Paredes et al. (1999a) suggested that, since clouds are really sites of larger-scale converging flows, they should often contain shocks within them, implying that the magnetic field can develop large fluctuations and even reversals. Supernova-like energy input at the highest-density sites was considered by Gazol-Patiño & Passot (1999), who found a filling factor of the hot gas at the midplane of typically a few percent, with occasional excursions of up to $``$ 20%. Gerritsen & Icke (1997) gave the radial profiles and mass fractions of the gas and star surface density on the plane, finding that the warm gas becomes the dominant gas component beyond 2 kpc from the center, and that between 2 and 7 kpc the mass fractions remain roughly constant, at $`75`$% for the warm gas, $``$ 15% for the cold gas, and $`10`$% for what they called the “lukewarm” gas, with temperatures intermediate between those of the cold and warm “phases”.

In general, in 2D simulations, the cloud morphology is extremely filamentary, the filaments arising where large-scale motions collide and shock. In turn, “knots” form at sites where the filaments collide (see also Wada & Norman 1999, 2001; Chappell & Scalo 2001). Wada & Koda (2001) furthermore find that in simulations with a weak bar-like gravitational potential, the pc-scale filaments and clumps may organize into large-scale spirals. Interestingly, the filamentary morphology appears to persist in the 3D simulations of Wada (2001). In these simulations, which do not include the magnetic field, the filamentary structure appears to be the consequence of tidal interactions between clumps formed by the combined gravitational and thermal instabilities. Inclusion of the magnetic field may provide another channel for forming filamentary density structures.

### 2.2. Vertical structure

Perpendicular to the disk, two main paths of numerical study have been pursued: one assumes that the stellar energy injection maintains a turbulent, convective regime in which the vertical structure of the disk is a consequence of both the buoyancy of the hot gas and the bulk motions induced in the cold medium by the injection of thermal and kinetic energy by the stellar sources. The time average of the instantaneous gas distribution is then reported as the resulting vertical distribution. Most of the simulations in this category have neglected the magnetic field. The other assumes perturbations about an initial magneto-hydrostatic equilibrium, as initially proposed by Parker (1966), and has studied the nonlinear evolution of the perturbations.

In the first category, Rosen & Bregman (1995) investigated the average filling factor and density profile of the various “phases” as a function of height above the midplane and of the energy injection rate from supernovae, finding that only injection rates comparable to the observed Galactic rate reproduce the observed vertical distribution of the various “phases”, implying that it is the stellar energy injection rate which is responsible for the vertical distribution. Also, they found that more than one exponential component is needed to model the average vertical density profile, and that their cold gas profile compares favorably to the observational profile of Dickey and Lockman (1990). Using 3D simulations, similar results have been obtained more recently by Gerritsen & Icke (1997), de Avillez (2000) and Wada (2001). The former authors used SPH simulations of the whole Galactic disk to find the scale heights for the cold and warm gas and for two stellar populations as a result of the stellar energy injection, while de Avillez found that, without stellar injection, the disk collapses vertically to a few tens of pc. Wada found that the supernova explosions form a plume-like halo.

In the second, magnetostatic category, recent simulations of the Parker instability in a thick disk have been performed by Santillán et al. (2000) in 2D, and by Kim, Ryu & Jones (2001) and Franco et al. (2001) in 3D. Santillán et al. and Kim et al. concluded that the Parker instability alone cannot be the main formation mechanism of giant molecular clouds in the general ISM, because of the low final density enhancements obtained. However, Franco et al. find that the instability can trigger the formation of such clouds inside spiral arms. The effect of the passage of a spiral arm has been modeled by Martos & Cox (1998), who suggested that it may induce a “hydraulic jump” in which the gas is pushed to higher altitudes as it it is shocked upon entering the arm and acquires a higher pressure. Martos et al. (1999) have furthermore suggested that this jump may trigger star formation at high altitude over the midplane (over 500 pc). However, the simulations of Martos & Cox explored only the isothermal and adiabatic cases (with a model term for the magnetic pressure – but see §3.1) and did not include self-gravity, neglecting the possible triggering of thermal and gravitational instabilities by the shock compression (c.f. §5.1). Exploring this scenario in the presence of those agents will be of great interest.

At a more local level, de Avillez & Mac Low (2001) have shown that mushroom-shaped structures arise naturally and rather frequently in their 3D simulations including supernova energy injection, as a consequence of the buoyancy of the hot gas in supernova remnants, and proposed that these may correspond to similar structures observed in recent HI surveys (e.g., Higgs 1999; Taylor 1999)

Three-dimensional simulations addressing the vertical structure of the Galactic disk including both the magnetic field and the energizing role of the massive stars have been scarce so far. Korpi et al. (1999) placed supernovae randomly in regions with densities higher than the average. They discussed the filling factor of the hot gas as a function of height above the plane, finding values $``$ 20–30% at the midplane, but this factor is highly sensitive to the degree of spatial correlation of the model supernova explosions, becoming larger as the supernovae are less correlated. This probably explains the larger values of the midplane filling factor they found compared to the values reported by Gazol-Patiño & Passot (1999), since the latter authors placed the SNe exclusively at density maxima, making them more strongly correlated. In the simulations of Korpi et al., the magnetic field is initially taken very small, and grows in time, but at the time at which these authors analyzed their simulations, the magnetic pressure was still much smaller than the equipartition value with the turbulent component ($`10^3`$). Thus, they did not discuss the relative roles of the stellar energy injection and the magnetic field in maintaining the disk thickness. This remains an open issue.

## 3. Statistics of the Physical Fields

Given the turbulent, yet statistically stationary nature of the ISM suggested by the numerical models, it is important to understand the statistical descriptors. In this section I discuss work related to various such descriptors.

### 3.1. The Mass Density Probability Distribution, the Density-Magnetic Field Correlation, and the Role of Magnetic Pressure

The density PDF was found by Vázquez-Semadeni (1994) to have a lognormal shape in numerical simulations of isothermal flows, which are reasonable approximations to the flow regime in molecular clouds. Passot & Vázquez-Semadeni (1998; see also Vázquez-Semadeni & Passot 1999) proposed that the origin of the lognormality is the constancy of the sound speed in isothermal flows. Indeed, in this case, the probability of a given density jump is determined simply by the distribution of velocity jumps in the flow, because the local Mach number, which determines the density jump, is independent of the local density, and depends only on the velocity difference across the shock. Thus, all density jumps belong to the same distribution, and, assuming each jump is independent of the previous and later ones (i.e., that shocks are independent from each other), the Central Limit Theorem can be applied to the logarithm of the density, since the density jumps constitute a multiplicative process. The width of the PDF is proportional to the rms Mach number. Those authors also found that in the more general case of polytropic flows, in which $`P\rho ^{\gamma _\mathrm{e}}`$, where $`P`$ is the (total) pressure, $`\rho `$ is the density, and $`\gamma _\mathrm{e}`$ is in general a parameter reflecting the net behavior of the pressure with density, the density PDF approaches a power law at high (resp. low) densities for $`\gamma _\mathrm{e}<1`$ (resp. $`>1`$). They understood this in terms of the dependence of the sound speed on density, which, when introduced in the previously-lognormal PDF, gives an asymptotic power law behavior on one side of the PDF (see Nordlund & Padoan 1999 for a related discussion).

In more ISM-like simulations in 2D, including magnetic fields, heating and cooling, the Coriolis force and shear, and localized stellar energy injection, Scalo et al. (1998) and Kritsuk & Norman (2001) have reported PDFs with power-law tails at high densities, suggestive of a total pressure which behaves as if having an effective exponent satisfying $`0<\gamma _\mathrm{e}<1`$, possibly due to the contribution of the magnetic field to the total pressure. However, in the purely magnetic, isothermal case, several workers (Padoan & Nordlund 1999; Ostriker, Stone & Gammie 2001; Passot & Vázquez-Semadeni 2002) have found that for cases with intermediate-to-large Alfvénic Mach numbers, the magnetic field appears quite uncorrelated with the density. Passot & Vázquez-Semadeni (2002) suggest that the lack of correlation implies that the magnetic field does not act as a restoring force, and thus does not efficiently act as a pressure, instead acting more as a forcing. This implies that modeling the magnetic pressure by means of a $`\gamma _\mathrm{e}`$ may be inadequate in the turbulent case. Padoan & Nordlund (1999) have suggested that the lack of correlation is a signature of the intermittency of the field, and pointed out that this is consistent with observations of the magnetic field strength in molecular clouds. Apparently, the lack of correlation is also seen observationally (e.g., Crutcher, Heiles & Troland 2002; Troland & Heiles, this volume).

In non-magnetic, multi-temperature simulations, Wada & Norman (2001) have reported PDFs with a lognormal tail at high densities, and a Gaussian one at moderately low densities. Wada (2001, private communication) has furthermore found a power-law range at very low densities. This could seem at odds with the results of Scalo et al. and Kritsuk & Norman, but upon closer inspection, there is little discrepancy, because most of the PDFs of Wada & Norman can be understood in terms of the various polytropic regimes to which the gas in their simulations is subject. In any case, a detailed study is in order.

The PDF of total projected (column) density has been discussed by Ostriker et al. (2001), Vázquez-Semadeni & García (2001) and Burkert & Mac Low (2001). Although these works were aimed at isothermal gas, the results from Vázquez-Semadeni & García should be readily extendable to the non-isothermal polytropic case. They suggested that the column density PDF should not have a unique functional form, but that instead it should transit from the shape of the underlying 3D density distribution (a lognormal for isothermal flows) to a Gaussian, as dictated by the Central Limit Theorem when the contributing sample is large enough. The former (resp. latter) case occurs in the limit of few (resp. many) independent “density” events along the line of sight (LOS), i.e., when the extension of the observed object along the LOS is smaller (resp. much larger) than the correlation length. Under this interpretation, the result of Ostriker et al. that the PDF is close to lognormal, suggests that molecular clouds may have sizes comparable to the turbulent correlation length, a result used by Burkert & Mac Low (2001) to suggest that molecular clouds receive their energy injection predominantly at the large scales. Observational results on the column density PDF for the HI gas are in need to shed light in this direction for this important component of the ISM.

### 3.2. The Kinetic Energy Spectrum and the Compressibility of the Gas

The kinetic energy spectrum is one of the most extensively discussed properties of turbulent flows. Simulations of weakly compressible hydrodynamic cases (e.g., Porter, Pouquet & Woodward 1992) and of magnetized incompressible regimes (Cho, Lazarian & Vishniac 2001) give a spectral slope close to the Kolmogorov value of $`5/3`$. In the magnetic case, this is consistent with the Goldreich & Sridhar (1995) theory. However, in highly compressible cases, no unique slope has been found, and in fact it appears to be dependent on the degree of compressibility of the flow, given by both the rms Mach number and the effective exponent $`\gamma _\mathrm{e}`$. Indeed, for isothermal cases, slopes between $`1.8`$ (Padoan & Nordlund 2000, 3D) and $`2`$ (Gammie & Ostriker 1996, 1+2/3 D) have been found; the latter value has also been reported for multi-temperature cases in 2D by Passot et al. (1995), and is the one expected for a velocity field dominated by shocks (e.g., Saffman 1968 \[sec. 6\]; Kadomtev & Petviashvili 1973). This value is consistent with the observed scaling linewidth-size relation for molecular clouds (see, e.g., Vázquez-Semadeni 1999; Vázquez-Semadeni et al. 2000) found by Larson (1981; see also Blitz 1993 for a summary of more recent results). Observational determinations of the energy spectrum in the HI gas are often suggestive of spectra closer to the Kolmogorov value (e.g., Minter & Spangler 1996; Stanimirovic & Lazarian 2001; Dickey et al. 2001), but sometimes they are not (e.g., Deshpande, Dwarakanath & Goss 2000). It is indeed quite possible that the warm neutral and ionized gas exhibit a behavior closer to incompressible Kolmogorov turbulence while the molecular gas is much more compressible, because the cooling time in the former is comparable or larger than the dynamical time, while it is much shorter in the molecular regime. This implies that the behavior in the diffuse gas may be closer to adiabatic (and therefore only weakly compressible) (Kritsuk & Norman 2001; Sánchez-Salcedo, Vázquez-Semadeni & Gazol 2002).

### 3.3. The Velocity Probability Distribution

An important statistical descriptor that has been discussed mostly in the context of molecular clouds, but that is in principle equally important in other regimes in the ISM, in particular the HI gas, is the PDF of the velocity (vector) field. In the case of incompressible turbulence, the velocity PDF is known to be nearly Gaussian, while that of the velocity gradient (or velocity difference across positions in a map) is closer to exponential (e.g., Frisch 1995). Observationally, only the line-of-sight component of the velocity is available, and only in projection, and so both line profiles (Falgarone & Phillips 1990; Falgarone et al. 1994) and PDFs of the line velocity centroids (Miesch & Scalo 1995; Lis et al. 1996, 1998; Miesch, Scalo & Bally 1999) have been proposed as estimators of the line-of-sight velocity PDF. Falgarone et al. (1994) showed that the line profiles of weakly compressible turbulence have similar moments to those of 12CO and 13CO observational data, while Lis et al. (1998) found that the line centroid difference PDFs of weakly compressible turbulence are also similar (non Gaussian) to those of CO data. From these results, this group has suggested that the regime in molecular clouds is only weakly compressible, and dominated by vortical motions.

On the other hand, Miesch & Scalo (1995) and Miesch et al. (1999) have found that the PDFs of the line centroid themselves (not of the differences) in both archival HI data and in molecular-line observations of several star forming regions are also non-Gaussian, with nearly exponential tails, in sharp contrast with the Gaussian PDF for the velocity characteristic of incompressible or weakly compressible turbulence. Miesch et al. further pointed out that images of the largest-magnitude centroid velocity difference are less filamentary than expected for weakly compressible cases. From these results, this group concluded that the turbulence in molecular clouds is highly compressible. The rationale here is that the non-Gaussian velocity increment PDFs would be common to both the compressible and incompressible cases, and therefore not a good discriminator between the two, while apparently the non-Gaussian centroid PDFs are exclusive of the (proposed to be highly compressible) molecular cloud turbulence. The 2D numerical simulations of a pressureless gas with (small-scale) stellar energy injection of Chappell & Scalo (2001) support this view, giving exponential velocity PDFs. However, the 3D simulations of self-gravitating, isothermal turbulence forced at large scales of Klessen (2000) give nearly Gaussian velocity centroid PDFs. The reason for this discrepancy is unclear, and may reside in the different scales of energy injection in the two sets of simulations, or in the greater compressibility of the pressureless simulations (which may actually be a better model of the cool atomic gas in the ISM). Clearly, this remains an open issue, both numerically and observationally, especially concerning the HI gas in the ISM.

## 4. Synthetic Observations of the Models

An important application of numerical models of the ISM consists of “observing” them in a manner similar to how actual observations of the ISM are performed. Much of the work in this direction has been oriented towards the molecular cloud regime, and thus is out of the scope of this review, but the interested reader is referred to the recent work of Padoan, Mac Low, E. Ostriker, Stutzki and collaborators. Here we discuss some applications to the global ISM, and molecular-cloud work only when it has a direct impact on the global ISM.

One early result found by Burton (1971) and Adler & Roberts (1992), albeit somewhat ignored until recently, is that structures in position-velocity (PV) space often do not correspond to actual, connected structures in physical, 3D space, but simply to chance superpositions of disconnected structures along the LOS (see also Ballesteros-Paredes et al. 1999a; Pichardo et al. 2000; Ostriker et al. 2001; Ballesteros-Paredes & Mac Low 2001; Wada & Koda 2001). This effect is expected to be especially important in the HI gas, given that its emmision is mostly optically thin and widespread.

Pichardo et al. (2000) have recently found two other related results concerning the structure seen in velocity channel column density maps. First, as foreseen by Burton (1971), those authors found that the morphology in the channel maps shows a somewhat greater resemblance to that of the LOS-velocity field than to that of the density field. This result, together with that of Lazarian & Pogosyan (2000; see also Lazarian, Pogosyan & Esquivel, this volume), that the spectral index of the “emissivity” (strictly speaking, of the column density) in velocity channels of spectroscopic observations depends on both the spectral indices of the density and velocity fields, constitutes strong evidence that the structure of the LOS-velocity field plays an important role in determining the structure in velocity channel maps. The numerical simulations were also used by Lazarian et al. (2001) to test the predictions of Lazarian & Pogosyan (2000), confirming them to within 10%.

Second, Pichardo et al. found that the “emissivity” power spectrum in velocity channels continues to have substantial power even at scales small enough that both the density and the velocity spectra have started to decay, suggesting that the velocity segregation imposed on the column density by the spectroscopic observation procedure introduces some spurious small-scale power of its own, unrelated to the structure existing in the 3D physical space. Henney & Vázquez-Semadeni (2002) interpret this as the result of the formation of caustics (surfaces of large intensity in PV data cubes) due to the contribution of finite-extent regions along the LOS to vanishingly thin velocity channels. This effect may constitute an alternative or complementary explanation to the one proposed by Deshpande (2000) for the reported observations of structures at very small scales (10-100 AU) in HI absorption studies (see references in Deshpande’s paper), which was based on the suggestion that neighboring lines of sight contain contributions from even the largest scales (in the LOS direction), which account for the variability from one LOS to a neighboring one.

A different kind of synthetic observation of numerical simulations was given by Rosen, Bregman & Kelson (1996), who compared strip scans of the integrated “emission” (total column density) of cold and hot gas in different locations in their simulations to strip scans of HI and X-ray emission. They concluded that the best matches were provided from locations in hot bubbles, reinforcing the idea of the Sun being in such a location. They also found examples of both correlation and anticorrelation between the HI and X-ray emission, with a slight statistical preference for anticorrelations.

## 5. Dynamical Issues

One of the main advantages of the numerical simulations is that all the physical variables are known everywhere in space and at all times. This allows for a detailed study of the forces acting to create the structures, the degree to which the structures are transient or bound, and the feedback effects between the stars and the gas, among many other issues. Below, we discuss some of them, after noting that, in general, the regime suggested by the simulations is analogous to Kolmogorov turbulence, in the sense that it is the statistics of the flow that remain constant, even though the state is highly dynamical, and individual structures are transient. Note, however, that that is probably where the analogy ends, as interstellar turbulence is highly compressible (at least in cool and lukewarm regions), magnetized, and is forced over a wide range of scales, rather than only at the largest scales (see, e.g., Scalo 1987; Norman & Ferrara 1996; Vázquez-Semadeni et al. 2000). Moreover, in the compressible case, the turbulent cascade, if present, is likely to have “leaks” from all scales down to the dissipative scales via the shocks (Kadomtsev & Petviashvili 1973), contrary to the energy-conserving cascade of incompressible turbulence.

### 5.1. Dynamics and Thermodynamics of the ISM

One of the fundamental premises of the two- and three-phase models of Field et al. (1969) and MO was that of pressure balance in the ISM, so that cool, dense HI clouds are confined by the pressure of their warmer, more diffuse surroundings, even though in the MO model clouds form in the compresed layers of expanding supernova remnants. However, ever since the work of Bania & Lyon (1980), hydro- and magnetohydrodynamical numerical simulations have shown that many features of the ISM, including the thermal distribution, can be reproduced solely by the action of stellar kinetic energy injection on the ambient gas. In other words, it is important to determine whether (or when) the relatively low variability (a few orders of magnitude, compared to the variations by many dex of the density and temperature) of thermal pressure is the cause or the effect of the interstellar density and velocity structure.

A first piece of evidence was provided by the simulations of Chiang & Bregman (1988), Rosen & Bregman (1995), Vázquez-Semadeni et al. (1995) and Passot et al. (1995), which contained no thermally-unstable temperature range (although the Passot et al. simulations did contain a constant-pressure temperature range with thermal $`\gamma _\mathrm{e}=0`$), yet they produced realistic clouds and intercloud structures that formed as a consequence of turbulent compressions induced by the stellar energy input. The main differences with the MO model are that the clouds in the simulations do not only arise in shells around stellar sources, but instead the whole medium is in a turbulent state in which compressions are not necessarily the direct result of an expanding shell, and that, being formed by dynamical compressions, the clouds are continually changing shape, merging, getting stretched and disrupted (“morphing”), rather than being “confined” in any way. This is reflected in virial-balance analyses of numerical simulations, which show that the second time derivative of the moment of inertia of clouds in the simulations, far from being near zero, is generally much larger than the contributions from the thermal, kinetic, magnetic and gravitational energies, and instead has its major contribution from moment of inertia flux through cloud boundaries (Ballesteros-Paredes & Vázquez-Semadeni 1997; Shadmehri et al., this volume). Of course, simulations including self-gravity (Passot et al. 1995; Wada & Norman 1999, 2001) show the existence of gravitationally contracting large-scale structures (especially since a small $`\gamma _\mathrm{e}`$ reduces the Jeans length; Tohline, Bodenheimer & Christodolou 1988; Elmegreen 1991; Vázquez-Semadeni, Passot & Pouquet 1996), as well as of collapsing small-scale ones. Meanwhile, the internal structure of the giant cloud complexes is continually reshaped by the stellar energy injection. One could argue that the clouds are confined by turbulent pressure, but this would be misleading, as turbulence contains large-scale chaotic motions (at the scale of the whole cloud) which involve the distortion, and in general, transient character of the clouds (Ballesteros-Paredes et al. 1999a).

An important consequence of this turbulent scenario is that it raises the possibility of molecular clouds having formation times (of order a few Myr) shorter by factors of at least half an order of magnitude than previous estimates (e.g., Blitz & Shu 1980), assuming they form from turbulent accumulation of neutral gas (Ballesteros-Paredes, Hartmann & Vázquez-Semadeni 1999b; Elmegreen 2000). In the scenario of Ballesteros-Paredes et al. (1999b), molecular clouds form from larger-scale converging flows in the HI gas that therefore have larger velocity dispersions than those normally associated to the molecular gas (because larger scales have larger velocity dispersions in most turbulent flows). A key issue, however, is that most of the accumulation process may occur in the atomic phase, and only when the column density has reached high enough values does the molecular phase appear (Hartmann, Ballesteros-Paredes & Bergin 2001), eliminating concerns that in such short times not much accumulation can be achieved unless the density of the initial medium is already (too) large (Pringle, Allen & Lubow 2001). The short “formation” time scales refer only to the time after molecular gas appears.

In this dynamic scenario, the relatively weak variability of the thermal pressure in the global ISM is simply a consequence of cooling and heating functions that imply a slow variation of the thermal-equilibrium pressure with density, while the density field is driven by the turbulence, which in turn is powered by the presence of many local heating stellar sources. Indeed, Vázquez-Semadeni et al. (1996) noticed that, if the cooling times are short compared to the dynamical times and the cooling can be approximated as a (possibly piece-wise) power law, the gas follows a nearly polytropic behavior in which $`P\rho ^{\gamma _\mathrm{e}}`$ for a power-law cooling function, with $`0<\gamma _\mathrm{e}<1`$ for $`100<T/\mathrm{K}<8000`$ (Scalo et al. 1998). Note that a thermally unstable range would have $`\gamma _\mathrm{e}<0`$. Certainly, the functional form of the pressure feeds back on the flow, but mainly to determine the response of the density field to the turbulent compressions, as evidenced by the dependence of density the PDF on $`\gamma _\mathrm{e}`$ (Passot & Vázquez-Semadeni 1998; see §3.1). Of course, the pressure near stellar injection sites is much larger than that on the average ISM, as essentially they may be regarded as either lying on a different equilibrium between the cooling and the local stellar heating (which is much larger than the diffuse background heating), or completely outside of thermal equilibrium, if the dynamical times are short enough. In the simulations of Passot et al. (1995), which included only OB-star ionization-like heating, the pressure in “HII” regions was $`10`$ times larger than the average. The simulations of Mac Low et al. (2001), which included supernova energy input, exhibited pressure variations of up to three orders of magnitude. However, the stellar heating is a relatively local phenomenon, which serves mostly as the forcing for the global ISM (Avila-Reese & Vázquez-Semadeni 2001), while the large fraction of the volume that is not under the direct influence of the sources has a pressure determined essentially by the turbulent density fluctuations through the applicable cooling and heating laws.

On the other hand, ISM simulations including a thermally unstable temperature range between the cold and warm “phases” show density PDFs without clear signs of bimodality, as would be expected for actual phase segregation (Vázquez-Semadeni, Gazol & Scalo 2000; Wada & Norman 2001; Kritsuk & Norman 2001), and temperature PDFs which, although bimodal, contain significant amounts of gas in the thermally unstable range (Gazol et al. 2001; Kritsuk & Norman 2001; see also Gerritsen & Icke 1997); the same effect is seen in the plots of Korpi et al. (1999), although they did not discuss it. The multimodality of the temperature PDF does not necessarily signal the existence of phases, but simply of heating and cooling processes which favor certain values of the temperature as a function of density. The simulations of Korpi et al. (1999), which include supernova heating, and thus hot ($`10^6`$ K) gas, have roughly flat density PDFs except for a pronounced peak at the density of the hot gas, indicative of the relatively large relative filling factor of this temperature range, but still do not show significant signs of “phase” segregation. For there to exist real phase segregation, a discontinuity must occur in one or more of the thermodynamic variables. However, in the simulations there are no such discontinuities (within the numerical resolution and smoothing of discontinuities), and instead the flow appears as a continuum, with the only discontinuities being dynamical shocks. An exception is the case of the simulations by Hennebelle & Pérault (1999, 2000) and Koyama & Inutsuka (2000), who studied the triggering of thermal instability by shocks passing through initially stable gas. However, these authors did not consider the case of a fully turbulent ISM in the presence of other forces besides the thermal pressure gradient. Instead, although further testing at higher resolution is still necessary, the simulations of the fully turbulent ISM strongly suggest that the “unstable” range is actually quite populated in the ISM. A number of observational works point in the same direction (e.g., Dickey, Salpeter & Terzian 1977; Heiles 2001, this volume), although these require further confirmation themselves (see Miville-Deschenes, Hennebelle & Pérault, this volume, for an opposing view).

The mechanism responsible for the at least partial inhibition of the thermal instability is not quite understood so far. Magnetic pressure possibly plays a role (but see §3.1), and velocity fluctuations may inhibit the instability if they have shorter time scales than the cooling time, a phenomenon which is most likely to occur at small spatial scales and/or low densities (Sánchez-Salcedo, Vázquez-Semadeni & Gazol 2002). It is interesting to note that a similar result has been recently reported for the Parker instability, which apparently can be partially or completely suppressed by the presence of fluctuations in the magnetic field (Kim & Ryu 2001). Also, simple continuous recycling from one phase to another may imply the existence of a persistent population of gas traversing the unstable regime, as suggested by Lioure & Chièze (1990).

A complementary point of view is that of Wada, Spaans & Kim (2000), who have recently proposed that the pure gravitational instability, aided by thermal instability, is capable of the formation of large low density regions (“voids”) in the global ISM, which, in their picture, correspond to (some of) the observed HI holes in galactic disks. This is not inconsistent with the previous view of shaping the interiors of giant cloud complexes through the turbulence powered by stellar energy injection. Indeed, the largest cloud complexes may be gathered together by large-scale processes such as gravitational instabilities or the passage of spiral density waves, necessarily leaving behind, by simple mass conservation, large cavities which in fact must occupy large volumes, due to their lower densities. On the other hand, the stellar energy input, which is most likely dissipated within relatively short distances from the injection sites (Avila-Reese & Vázquez-Semadeni 2001), can have mainly the role of shaping the complexes’ interiors. Wada et al. distiguished between stellar-carved cavities, which should be filled with hot gas, and instability-carved ones, which should be filled mostly with warm gas.

The nonlinear development of gravitational instability in magnetized galactic disks has been recently studied by Kim & Ostriker (2001a,b). These authors note that the amplification of non-axisymmetric perturbations in the presence of shear saturates in linear theory, and that thus any $`Q`$ threshold for nonaxisymmetric gravitational runaway must originate from nonlinear effects. In this context, they numerically estimate the threshold values of $`Q`$ in the nonlinear case. They also distinguish between the mechanisms operating behind the modified swing amplification and the magneto-Jeans instability.

An interesting point to note is that even in works without stellar energy injection, the outcome of the development of the various instabilities is often a chaotic, or turbulent, medium (Wada et al. 2000; Kim, Ryu & Jones 2001; Kim & Ostriker 2001a,b; Koyama & Inutsuka 2001; Kritsuk & Norman 2001), and so these large-scale instabilities can also be sources of the internal turbulence of the cloud complexes (see also Sellwood & Balbus 1999 for an analytic discussion of the magnetorotational instability powering turbulence in HI disks).

### 5.2. The Star-Gas Connection

In general, most simulations including non-random prescriptions for star formation (SF) show that it self-propagates and, when other agents such as self-gravity and cooling are also included, spontaneous SF occurs too (e.g., Chiang & Prendergast 1985; Vázquez-Semadeni et al. 1995). Moreover, as has been noted repeatedly, the stars in the simulations provide the energy feeding the gas motions, and a feedback cycle, analogous to that of Oort (1954), is established. However, the cycle is highly chaotic locally (Vázquez-Semadeni et al. 1995, Passot et al. 1995; Gazol-Patiño & Passot 1999; Wada & Norman 2001; see also Shore & Ferrini 1995), and depends on global quantities such as the mean magnetic field strength, and on stellar properties such as the energy deposited per stellar source (Passot et al. 1995; Gerritsen & Icke 1997; Gazol-Patiño & Passot 1999). Other properties of the SF process, such as the slope of the two-point correlation function describing the clustering of young stars, can also be accounted for by this type of numerical models (Scalo & Chappell 1999). Additionally, Chappell & Scalo (2001) have studied the ratio of present to past-average SF rate as a function of various parameters in their simulations, finding, among other results, that starbursts can only occur when the past-average rate is low or the system is small, that the broad distribution of this ratio in late-type systems can be understood as a result of either a small size or a small metallicity, which imply that larger expanding shell column densities are required for gravitational instability, and that exponential tails in the velocity distribution are due to multiple shell interactions, not individual stellar winds.

It is worth noting here that the “star formation instability” identified by Chiang & Prendergast (1985), which was one of the few attempts to investigate analytically the star-gas interplay within a hydrodynamic approach333Many attempts have been made in the context of the dynamical systems approach to ISM models; see, e.g., Shore & Ferrini 1995, has not been discussed in recent years, even though its effect may be present in all models with self-consistent prescriptions for star formation, possibly explaining its chaotic evolution. Another important connection that has not been considered in numerical models is the excitation of density and velocity perturbations in the gas by the gravitational effect of the stars (Kegel & Völk 1983). These issues certainly deserve further investigation.

## 6. Conclusions: the Emerging Scenario and the Work Ahead

In this review I have summarized a large body of results derived mainly from numerical simulations of the ISM, which have allowed workers to capture many of the complex dynamical aspects of ISM structure and evolution. The numerical models have suggested a much more complex ISM than a simple three-phase medium in pressure equilibrium. Instead, a turbulent continuum has emerged, apparently without sharp phase segregation, and in which turbulent ram pressure is mostly responsible for cloud formation within the large complexes, while strong thermal pressure imbalances due to local stellar energy injection are responsible for powering the turbulence through expanding shells, although otherwise the near constancy of the thermal pressure has little effect in confining density structures, since the absence of a pressure gradient does not imply that inertial motions cannot exist. The medium is not simply a collection of overlapping shells with clouds forming in their compressed layers, but instead is globally turbulent, with shells and all structures in general “morphing” and merging into the global turbulence. At the largest scales, combined gravitational, magnetic and thermal instabilities appear to contribute, together with spiral density waves and supershells, to the formation of the largest complexes and perhaps voids, as well as possibly feeding the turbulence from the largest scales.

The individual structures being transient, the appropriate description for the global structure is statistical. Some statistical measures of the flow (the density PDF and the energy spectrum) depend on the cooling ability of the flow, which in turn determines its compressibility. Since this in turn determines the ability to form gravitationally bound structures through compressions, and therefore stars which feed the turbulence, a full feedback loop clearly exists analogous to the old Oort (1954) cycle.

However, as this review probably makes evident, the body of results is highly scattered, and a coherent, global theory of the ISM is still lacking. Such a theory should be able to predict fundamental statistical indicators of the ISM such as its topological properties (i.e., the statistical distribution of the mass and other physical quantities), the rate of production of collapsing objects (the star formation rate and its efficiency) and the mixing rate of the processed chemical elements, as well as the thermal and radiative properties of the various temperature and density regimes, all as a function of simple input physics, such as the total available mass and angular momentum, the atomic processes determining the cooling rates, and the energy injection per source. Note that, in principle, even “parameters” such as the energy injection rate and the scale of injection, should be derivable from the theory (or model), because the sources in this case are linked to the flow dynamics, as is the case of large-scale instabilities and of the star formation rate. Many of the physical variables are expected to be highly fluctuating locally, and the prediction of both average (see, e.g., Blitz, this volume) and typical fluctuation values is crucial. Simulations including all relevant physical ingredients (self-gravity, disk rotation, magnetic fields, cosmic rays, stellar energy input, spiral density waves, chemistry) and that can perform the necessary radiative transfer, all at high enough resolution, are needed. So are careful experiments which allow disentangling the effects of all those ingredients, and of the average quantities versus those of the fluctuations. Consideration of the gravitational effect of the stars is also needed, which implies that hybrid gas+stars similations are needed. Then, continuous feedback to/from observations is essential through the production of synthetic observations of the numerical models. A long, exciting way still lies ahead to a comprehensive theory that grasps the dynamics, thermodynamics and statistics of the ISM with the same level of detail with which the time-dependent and the multi-phase models grasped the thermal and radiative issues.

#### Acknowledgments.

I gratefully acknowledge Pepe Franco, Alex Lazarian, Marco Martos, Thierry Passot and Keiichi Wada for a critical reading of the manuscript and useful comments and precisions. Very specially, I thank John Scalo, who pointed out various important topics, and helped in making sense of some others. This work has received partial financial support from CONACYT grant 27752-E to the author, and has made extensive use of NASA’s ADS service.

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text:
# LOCALLY PREFERRED STRUCTURE AND FRUSTRATION IN GLASSFORMING LIQUIDS: A CLUE TO POLYAMORPHISM?

## 1 Locally preferred structures in liquids

Polyamorphism is the coexistence of condensed phases of identical chemical composition that appear amorphous, i. e., with no obvious long-range order. This is to be distinguished from those situations such as concentration-driven transitions in multi-component liquids or from gas-liquid coexistence. This puzzling phenomenon, not to be confused with the long recognized polymorphism between phases of different symmetries (be they crystals, liquid crystals, plastic crystals, etc.), has recently attracted much attentionmish1 ; ang1 ; mcmil ; kiv ; kata ; yarg ; lacks ; muk . It has been observed in liquids at low temperature, usually in the vicinity of the glass transition. In this article, we suggest that the concept of locally preferred structure in liquids is central to understanding polyamorphism. A locally preferred structure can be loosely defined as an arrangement of molecules which, in a given region of the pressure-temperature phase diagram, minimizes some local free energy.

Most recorded examples of polyamorphism are tetrahedrally coordinated systems, such as H2O, Si02, or Ge02 mish1 ; ang1 ; yarg ; lacks ; muk ; mish2 , in which low-temperature coexistence of amorphous phases is observed under sufficiently high pressure. This phenomenon can be rationalized in terms of a competition between different locally preferred structures. This is best illustrated by the case of water, a system that has been thoroughly studied by Gene Stanley and his coworkers mish2 ; stan .

Following the picture put forward by Stanley and coworkers, liquid water has been characterized schematically by two kinds of locally preferred structures (LPS) that are favored in different regions of the pressure-temperature phase diagram. This can be seen by considering the arrangements of $`5`$-molecule clusters, also known as Walrafen pentamers mish2 ; stan . In one LPS, two neighboring pentamers are oriented relative to each other so as to form two linking hydrogen bonds; this is a low-energy, but open (large specific volume) structure, and due to the directional nature of the H-bonding, it has a low entropy. In the other arrangement, the two pentamers come closer to each other, but are no longer bonded: the structure is then better packed (small specific volume) and has a higher entropy, but at the expense of a higher energy. The former structure is locally favored at low pressure whereas the latter is locally preferred at high pressure. As it has been shown via a description of the intermolecular interactions in terms of an effective, spherically symmetric pair potential sadr , the competition between two such LPS’s may lead to a bona fide phase transition between a low-density liquid and a high-density liquid in the pressure-temperature diagram. Similar reasoning could apply to glassforming liquids such as SiO2 and GeO2 whose LPS is a $`4`$-coordinated cation at low pressure and a $`6`$-coordinated one at high pressure yarg . Another extreme example is also provided by the polyamorphism of liquid phosphorus, one liquid phase being characterized by a local organization formed by $`P_4`$ molecules and the other one being a polymeric-like phase of phosphorus atoms kata .

We suggest here that in some systems, in addition to the alternative LPS’s, there can also be a competition associated with the inability of a given LPS to tile space, i.e., with structural frustration. In this case the polyamorphism may incorporate a very poorly developed mesoscopic order and so might be described as ”apparent polyamorphism”. Such ”apparent polyamorphism” appears to be illustrated by triphenylphosphite (TPP).

## 2 Apparent polyamorphism in TPP

Triphenylphosphite (TPP) is one of the most fragile glassformers, i. e., one for which the increase of viscosity and relaxation time with decreasing temperature is most dramatic. A new metastable phase, denoted “glacial phase”, has recently been observed at atmospheric pressure kiv . This phase transforms to and from the supercooled liquid and is metastable with respect to the normal crystal kiv ; demirj ; van ; mizu .

Since its discovery, the glacial phase of TPP has been studied by many groups and by means of a variety of experimental techniques kiv ; demirj ; mizu ; joh ; ross ; desc ; alba ; senk ; schwi . A number of conjectures have been proposed concerning the structure of the glacial phase, and most of them describe the phase as amorphous. The reason for this is that in normal X-ray or neutron scattering, the structure of the glacial phase does not show well defined Bragg peaks as observed in crystalline materials. This is illustrated in Fig. 1, where we display the result of a series of neutron scattering experiments carried out both on the $`D7`$ spectrometer of the ILL in Grenoble (in the range of wave-vector $`Q`$ from $`0.1`$ to $`2.5`$ Å-1) and on the small-angle spectrometer PAXE at the LLB in Saclay (in the $`Q`$-range between $`0.01`$ and $`0.12`$ Å-1)alba . The static structure factor $`S(Q)`$ of the glacial phase is distinct from that of the liquid, the glass, and the crystal, and, although the peaks are somewhat sharper than those in the liquid and the glass, they are much broader than those of the crystal. However, what clearly distinguishes the structure factor of the glacial phase is an unusual feature at small $`Q`$’s, a feature that is visible in the experiment on D7 but shows up more clearly in the small-angle scattering data: in sharp contrast with the $`S(Q)`$’s of the other phases, the $`S(Q)`$ of the glacial phase has a pronounced shoulder for $`Q<0.2`$ Å-1, and, in addition, the scattered intensity keeps rising very steeply at the lowest $`Q`$’s in a manner that is compatible with the $`Q^4`$ Porod’s law observed in powders of crystalline materials: see Fig. 2

By analyzing the low-Q scattering data described above (and shown in Fig. 2) as the superposition of a Porod’s tail and of a broad peak centered at $`Q_P0.07`$ Å-1, standard arguments used in studying polycrystals indicate that the “apparently amorphous” glacial phase could be a powder of an unusual crystalline material characterized by a large unit cell of typical size ($`2\pi /Q_P=80`$ Å) and with small polydisperse crystallites of about $`100`$ to $`250`$ Åalba : this is sketched in Fig. 3. The premelting phenomenon reported in Ref.demirj  is also consistent with this picture of a crystalline structure with small crystallites. In such a “poorly crystallized” material, the small number of unit cells contained in the crystallites, the polydispersity of the crystallites, the rotational disorder, and strain effects could all combine to explain the absence of well defined Bragg peaks, thus resulting in a structure that at first glance looks amorphous.

What then is the physical origin of this ”apparent” polyamorphism at atmospheric pressure?

## 3 Structural frustration

If one accepts the premise that there exists a LPS in a liquid (say, at atmospheric pressure so that competition between two different LPS’s is unlikely), one must worry about a competition between a tendency to extend the LPS and a global constraint. It has been suggested that structural frustration, i. e., the impossibility to tile the whole space by periodically replicating the LPS, might be ubiquitous in glassforming liquids sadoc ; nelson ; kivelson . One manifestation of frustration can be perceived in the fact that liquids restructure and undergo a strong first-order transition to a crystal whose local structure is different from the LPS; this transition occurs in order to avert the increasing strain that develops as the temperature decreases and the LPS grows. The frustration may also play a dominant role in glass formation.

The canonical example of structural frustration is provided by single-component systems of spherical particles interacting via simple pair potentials, and the phenomenon is best illustrated by comparing the situations encountered in $`2`$ and $`3`$ dimensions. In $`2`$ dimensions, the arrangement of disks that is locally preferred is a hexagon of six disks around a central one, and this hexagonal structure can be extended to the whole space to form a triangular lattice. In $`3`$ dimensions, as was shown long ago by Frank frank , the locally preferred structure of spheres is an icosahedron, but the $`5`$-fold rotational symmetry of the icosahedron is incompatible with translational periodicity, and formation of an icosahedral crystal is precluded. Frustration is thus absent in $`2`$ dimensions, but present in $`3`$ dimensions. As a result, crystallization is essentially continuous in the former case, and neither supercooling of the liquid nor glass formation are possible. On the other hand, crystallization of spheres in $`3`$ dimensions is a strongly first-order transition that involves a restructuring of the local order to form the face-centered-cubic (or the hexagonal-close-packed) order that can tile space periodically. Studies of structural frustration for spheres in $`3`$ dimensions have been further developed to describe metallic glasses sadoc ; nelson ; sachdev .

Two points are worth stressing: first, frustration can be relieved by ”curving” the regular 3-dimensional Euclidean space, so that an ideal world without frustration is generated where periodic tiling by the LPS (e.g., icosahedral order) is possible. Forcing the ideal order into the real world leads to the formation of defects (disclination lines in the example of spherical particles in 3 dimensions) and to the growth of a strain free-energy that opposes the extension of the LPS. Secondly, back in the Euclidean space ordered phases can still be formed which are different from the usual and more stable crystal in that their structure is partly based on the LPS. The system can indeed get around frustration and form “defect ordered phases” in which the defects themselves form periodic structures with long-range order, as in the Frank-Kasper phases sadoc ; nelson . In real metallic systems such phases are only observed in alloys made of two or more components, but a recent simulation study has shown that a one-component atomic liquid whose particles interact with a spherically symmetric potential that favors local icosahedral order can form a metastable ’defect-ordered phase’dzug ; this latter is a dodecagonal quasi-crystal that is essentially a layered phase with translational periodicity in one direction but quasi-periodic, icosahedral-like order in the transverse directions.

The example of spheres and their local icosahedral packing symmetry has been introduced only for illustration. More generally, one can envisage competition between the tendency to extend the LPS and the global constraint embodied in the structural frustration as an intrinsic feature of all liquids. A coarse-grained description should thus be sufficient, and it has been argued that a minimal model could be built, based on competing effective interactions acting on very different length scales kivelson : a short-ranged ordering interaction, that describes the tendency to extend the LPS and leads to a continuous transition to an ideal crystal in the absence of frustration, and a weak but long-ranged (1/r) frustrating interaction that generates a super-extensive strain free-energy opposing the growth of the ideal structure. It has been recently shown by means of model-calculations that such ingredients do indeed lead to a strong slowing down of the relaxations as the temperature is lowered, and that the characteristics of this slowing-down (super-Arrhenius activated temperature dependence of the primary relaxation time and non-exponential decay of the relaxation function) are similar to those observed in fragile glassforming liquidsgrouss . As in liquids, glassiness is self-generated and does not result from the introduction of quenched spin-glass-like randomness or of dynamical constraints. An important property of these models is that by varying the frustration strength, i. e., the relative amplitude of the long-ranged frustrating interaction, one can span the whole range of glassforming behavior, from strong (Arrhenius T-dependence) to very fragile (marked super-Arrhenius T-dependence); the less frustrated a system, the more fragile it is.

## 4 Frustration and defect-ordered phases

It has been shown that, generically, frustration does indeed lead to formation of low-T defect-ordered phases viot . The situation is schematically illustrated in Fig. 4a for the Coulomb frustrated Ising ferromagnet viot . In the frustration-temperature diagram, there is a line of first-order phase transition from the high-T disordered phase to the low-T defect-ordered phases. (Recall that the usual crystal, which is more stable than the liquid and the defect-ordered phases below the melting point, is not included in this picture.) The region of strong slowing-down is above the transition line. For the Ising model considered here for illustration, the defect-ordered phases at low frustration are lamellar phases whose period increases as frustration decreases: see Fig. 4a. Said differently, the size of the unit cell (here, as in the dodecagonal quasi-crystal, there is a one-dimensional periodic pattern and ideal order in the transverse directions) increases as frustration decreases, and thus, as discussed above, as fragility increases. The details, e. g., the microscopic characterization of the ideal order, may be model-dependent, but the overall trends are robust.

Transposing the above results to glassforming liquids, a liquid being characterized by a given value of the frustration strength, one may speculate that fragile glassformers would tend to form low-T defect-ordered phases with large unit cells: see Fig. 4b. It is possible that due to their large unit cells and the fact that they appear in the viscous liquid regime, these phases would be poorly crystallized, i. e., appear as powders with small polydisperse crystallites when formed upon decreasing the temperature. This leads us to suggest that the “apparently amorphous” glacial phase of fragile TPP is a frustration-induced defect-ordered phase with a large unit cell. Note that the possibility of observing such phases depends on a non-universal property, the relative position of the transition temperature $`T_{DO}`$ with respect to the glass transition temperature $`T_g`$. Only if $`T_g`$ is less than $`T_{DO}`$ can a defect-ordered phase be experimentally obtained, and this may be a rare situation.

## 5 Conclusion

We have proposed that characterizing liquids by their locally preferred structure (LPS) could help in understanding the observed phenomenon of polyamorphism. “True polyamorphism” would involve the competition between two (or more) distinct LPS’s, one favored at low pressure because of its low energy and one favored at high pressure because of its small specific volume, as in tetrahedrally coordinated systems. “Apparent polyamorphism” that we associate with the existence of a poorly crystallized defect-ordered phase with a large unit cell and small crystallites, could result from structural frustration, i. e., a competition between the tendency to extend the short-ranged LPS and a long-ranged global constraint that prevents tiling of the whole space by the LPS. The fragile glassformer triphenyl phosphite, in which a first-order transition is observed between the supercooled liquid and the mesoscopically structured glacial phase, may be one example of such “apparent polyamorphism”. Although some of these ideas have been previously considered, this is the first time that they have been incorporated within a consistent picture.

Finally, it is tempting to speculate that the low-density “amorphous” phase of water, a phase that shows none of the canonical low-T features of truly amorphous glasses (excess in the density of states at low frequency over the value expected from harmonic vibrations, and violation of the Debye $`T^3`$ law due to the presence of low-energy two-level systems) ang2 , could also be only apparently amorphous, thereby adding more to the “puzzling behavior of water at very low temperature”stan .