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# Low temperature vortex liquid states induced by quantum fluctuations in the quasi two dimensional organic superconductor 𝜅-(BEDT-TTF)2Cu(NCS)2

## I Introduction

Vortices in the layered superconductors (i.e., high-$`T_\mathrm{c}`$ superconducting oxides, organic superconductors) have strong thermal fluctuations, which have been extensively studied. Blatter94A ; Nishizaki00  The material parameters of such layered superconductors, implying their short coherence length and large anisotropy of the effective mass, enhance the importance of the fluctuation effects on many supercondicting phenomena such as the thermodynamic and transport properties, and also on the vortex matter dynamics and its phase diagram. Quantum fluctuations on the superconductivity and the vortices are expected to become potentially important at low temperatures on the materials fairly affected by the thermal fluctuations. Ikeda96  Indeed the vortex liquid state resulting from the quantum melting at low temperature has been discussed as the quantum vortex liquid (QVL) from several theoretical approaches. Ikeda96 ; Blatter93 ; Blatter94B ; Chudnovsky ; Rozhkov ; Onogi ; Kramer  The favorable material parameters for the experimental observation of quantum fluctuation effects involve a large normal-state resistivity $`\rho _\mathrm{n}`$, a moderate upper critical field $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$ at zero temperature, and a small length scale $`s`$ for the fluctuations (i.e., short coherence length or short layer separation).

Besides oxides, the BEDT-TTF molecule based organic superconductors are also good candidates for the observation of these effects, where BEDT-TTF denotes bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafulvalene. The quasi two dimensional (Q2D) organic superconductors have relatively large effective normal resistance $`R_{\mathrm{eff}}=\rho _\mathrm{n}/s`$ in comparison with the quantum resistance $`R_\mathrm{Q}=\mathrm{}/e^2`$. For example, $`\kappa `$-(BEDT-TTF)2Cu(NCS)2, which is investigated in the present study, shows the resistance ratio $`QR_{\mathrm{eff}}/R_\mathrm{Q}`$ of the order of 10-1, rendering the quantum effects important. Blatter94A ; Blatter94B  Further the fairly large Ginzburg number $`Gi(1/2)(T_\mathrm{c}/H_{\mathrm{c2}}^2(0)\epsilon \xi ^3(0))^2`$ of the order of 10-1 in $`\kappa `$-(BEDT-TTF)2Cu(NCS)2 is in favor of the thermal and also the quantum fluctuations, Blatter94A ; Ikeda96  whereas $`Gi`$ in conventional superconductors is a small number of the order of 10-7, and in oxides, YBa2Cu3Oy (YBCO), of the order of 10-2. In the case of the strongly layered oxides, Bi2Sr2CaCu2Oy (BSCCO) possesses $`Gi`$ 100.

In addition to the material potential for the quantum fluctuations, it is practically important that a moderate $`H_{c2}(0)`$ 6 $``$ 7 T in the magnetic field perpendicular to the Q2D plane can be accessed fully by using standard superconducting magnets. Indeed the QVL state in $`\kappa `$-(BEDT-TTF)2Cu(NCS)2 has been found as a reversible magnetization region below $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$ even at $`T`$ 0 K. Sasaki98 ; Mola01

The transport properties in the QVL state are expected to show some characteristic phenomena such as an insulating behavior. Ikeda96 ; Ikeda96B  The experimental efforts, however, have not been enough to reveal the properties in the QVL state. Most of works have been performed on thin films of conventional superconductors because of meeting the requirement mentioned above. Ephron ; Kes ; Markovic ; Chervenak ; Okuma  The thin films, however, are not so clean that the wide vortex liquid region is not anticipated by the large random pinning force on the vortices. On the other hand, the organic superconductor obtained as a single crystal is so clean that the vortex phase diagram has been discussed on the resemblance with that of BSCCO, Nishizaki96 ; Lee  whereas their $`T_\mathrm{c}`$’s are different by one order of magnitude. Furthermore the cleanness of the materials enables us to obtain the electronic states in detail by measurements of the magnetic quantum oscillations, de Haas - van Alphen (dHvA) and Shubnikov - de Haas (SdH) effects in the normal Oshima ; Sasaki90 ; Harrison  and also the superconducting Sasaki98 ; Wel ; Clayton ; Sasaki02A  states.

In this paper, we report the transport properties of the title organic superconductor at low temperature, where the QVL state is expected. We are not concerned here with the debatable nature of the superconductivity reported in the $`\kappa `$-type of BEDT-TTF based organic superconductors, while those are currently discussed on the pairing symmetry and the gap structure Izawa ; Mueller02A  in connection with the electronic phase diagram in the normal state. Kanoda ; Sasaki02B ; Mueller02B

## II Experiment

High quality single crystals of $`\kappa `$-(BEDT-TTF)2Cu(NCS)2 were grown by an electrochemical oxidation method. The crystals measured have the shape of an elongated hexagonal plate with the typical size of $``$ 1.5 $`\times `$ 0.6 $`\times `$ 0.05 mm3. The in-plane and the out of plane resistivities were measured along the $`b`$ and $`a^{}`$ axes, respectively, by means of a conventional ac or dc four terminal method. The electrical terminals were made of evaporated gold films, and gold wires (10 $`\mu `$m) were glued onto the films with gold or silver paint. The contact resistance was about 10 $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ for each contact at room temperature, but it became less than 1 $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ at low temperature where the experiments were carried out. The results presented in this paper were obtained on three samples #1, #2 and #3 from different batches. We found that other three samples measured gave qualitatively similar results which were not presented in this paper. These samples were cooled slowly from room temperature to 4.2 K in 24 $``$ 48 hours in order to avoid the disorder of the terminal ethylene group of the BEDT-TTF molecules. The samples were directly immersed in liquid 3He or the dense 3He gas of the refrigerator within a 15 T superconducting magnet at the High Magnetic Field Laboratory for Superconducting Materials (HFLSM), IMR, Tohoku University. The sample #3 was measured by using the 3He/4He dilution refrigerator with a 14 T superconducting magnet at Walther-Meissner-Institute (WMI). For all measurements reported here, the magnetic field was applied parallel to the $`a^{}`$ axis, i.e., the perpendicular to the Q2D conducting $`b`$-$`c`$ plane.

## III Results and discussion

Figure 1 shows the magnetic field dependence of the resistivity (a) $`\rho _a`$ along $`a^{}`$ axis and (b) $`\rho _b`$ along $`b`$ axis of sample #1 with dc current $`I`$ of 10 and 100 $`\mu `$ A, respectively. An anomalous resistance hump is observed in $`\rho _a(H)`$ curves at temperatures between about 1.5 K and $`T_c`$ 10 K. The resistivity hump is larger than the isothermal normal resistivity in high magnetic field. In the corresponding temperature - magnetic field region, the in-plane resistivity $`\rho _b`$ does not show such anomaly. This hump anomaly has been reported on only the interlayer resistivity of this material and discussed in several ways. Pratt ; Ito ; Friemel ; Zuo ; Kartsovnik99  But a persuasive explanation has not been presented. Although the purpose of this paper is not on the resistivity hump, it may be a clue for understanding the problem that the phenomena occur in the thermal vortex liquid (TVL) state which is described latter.

The $`\rho _b`$ curve shows gradual decrease from the normal resistivity above $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$ with decreasing magnetic field. This gradual decrease of the resistivity demonstrates the dissipations due to the flux motion, resulting in the vortex liquid state. Further decreasing field, the resistivity becomes zero at which the long-range order of vortices starts to grow and the resulting vortex lattice (the vortex solid) is pinned by the random pinning potential like defects and impurities. Although the solid - liquid transition has been suggested to be a first-order vortex melting one at low field region ($``$ several ten mT), Inada  magnetic measurements in higher fields have obtained those only as the irreversible field $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$. Sasaki98 ; Nishizaki96  And the transition at the resistance onset is not so sharp as against the melting transition. It is not clear whether the zero resistivity at the field of tesla order comes in by the first-order melting or the second-order glass - liquid transition.

A step-like structure is found in the $`\rho _b`$ curves on the way of the gradual transition in the vortex liquid region below 1 K. It means that a low resistance state appears before achieving the zero resistivity. The features of the resistivity and the resulting low resistance state is found to involve an applied current density dependence.

Figure 2 shows the magnetic field dependence of the in-plane resistivity $`\rho _b`$ of the sample #2 in the field perpendicular to the plane with different dc current density. The applied currents $`I`$ at 0.51, 0.93 and 1.69 K are 500, 200, 100, 50, 20, 10 and 5 $`\mu `$A, and 500, 100 and 10 $`\mu `$A at 4.25 K from top to bottom curves at each temperature. The current density $`J`$ corresponding to 500 $`\mu `$A is 1.53 A/cm2. The transition curves below about 1 K indicate large non-linear resistance behavior. In low current density, for example at 0.51 K, a steep resistance drop appears at $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ 6.5 T. The low resistance state following the resistance drop continues down to the field where the resistivity becomes zero. With increasing current density, however, the feature of the resistance drop becomes unclear and the region of the low resistance state shrinks. No such resistance drop at $`H_\mathrm{L}`$, and consequently no low resistance state are recognized at 1.69 K. It is noted that the observed current density dependence is not caused by the generation of heat at the sample and electrical contacts. Because the resistive onset field $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$ is not affected by changing current density, and also the resistive transition curves at 4.25 K, which are measured with the same current density range, coincide with each other.

The resistance drop at $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ and following low resistance state are more clearly seen in the temperature dependence of the resistivity at temperatures below 1 K. Figure 3 shows the temperature dependence of the in-plane resistivity $`\rho _b`$ of the sample #3. The resistivity measurements were performed by an ac current (77 Hz) of 20 $`\mu `$A ($`j=`$ 0.05 A/cm2). The current density used in the measurement is almost the same level of that in the two resistivity curves (10 and 20 $`\mu `$A) measured on the sample #2 in Fig.2. The resistance drop at $`T_\mathrm{L}`$ corresponding to $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ has relatively narrow transition width of about 200 mK, which is defined by the intersection points of the linear extrapolation lines to the resistance curve as depicted in Fig. 3. On the other hand, the zero resistivity transition seems to be gradual as is seen on the curve in 3.32 T and at $`T=`$ 0.6 $``$ 0.7 K. The gradual transition to the zero resistivity may show a second-order vortex liquid - glass transition although the transition curve can not be analyzed by the glass scaling law Fisher89 ; Fisher91  because of insufficient accuracy of the resistance measurements near zero resistivity. The transition curve at $`T_\mathrm{L}`$ shifts almost in parallel to lower temperature with increasing magnetic field, and the feature of the resistance drop can be seen up to nearby $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}(0)`$ 7 T. The low resistance state following the resistance drop persists down to about 100 mK at least. In addition the temperature dependence of $`\rho _b`$ in the low resistance state is relatively weak. Then we expect that the low resistance state could remain even at $`T`$ 0 K between $``$ 3.5 and $``$ 7 T. This finite resistivity is in agreement with the reversible magnetization Sasaki98  observed in the QVL state affected strongly by the quantum fluctuations. The quantum melting transition reflected on $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$ between the vortex solid and the QVL states at $`T`$ 0 K has been discussed quantitatively Sasaki98  in comparison with the several quantum melting theories. Ikeda96 ; Blatter93 ; Blatter94B ; Chudnovsky ; Rozhkov  Using the material parameters of the present organic superconductor, the quantum melting transition fields have been calculated to be 3.5 - 4.0 T at $`T=`$ 0 K by different theoretical ways.

It is expected that the quantum fluctuation effect may be seen in the resistance behavior. Ikeda96 ; Onogi  At lower temperature, $`\rho _b`$ above $`T_\mathrm{L}`$ shows a weak upward curvature, whereas the curve at 8.59 T, where the magnetic field is well above $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$, does not show such feature. This may indicate an insulating behavior predicted as strong quantum fluctuation effect at $`T`$ 0 K and near $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$. Ikeda96 ; Ikeda96B  Theoretically the resistivity at $`T=`$ 0 K is expected to take either zero or the normal state value. Ikeda96  It means that either the insulating behavior results in taking the normal state value, or the finite pinning in the real system does in achieving zero resistivity. The intermediate metallic behavior with weak temperature dependence of the resistivity curves from 4.57 T to 7.15 T shows the tendency of neither insulating nor taking zero value down to 0.1 K. This is similar to the observation of the metallic quantum vortex liquid state found in thick amorphous MoxSi1-x films at $`T`$ 0 K. Okuma  In order to confirm this point in the present organic superconductor, further experiments at lower temperatures and in finely tuned magnetic fields are required.

The experimentally obtained $`H_\mathrm{L}`$, $`T_\mathrm{L}`$ and the low resistance state with non-linear behavior apparently show that the vortex liquid state of this material is separated into two kinds of the vortex liquid; one is the thermally fluctuated vortex liquid (TVL) at high temperature and another the non-linear low resistance vortex slush Worthington  like state where the quantum vortex liquid (QVL) may be realized by the strong quantum fluctuation instead of the thermal one at low temperature.

Figure 4 shows the phase diagram of vortex system in the magnetic field perpendicular to the Q2D plane of $`\kappa `$-(BEDT-TTF)2Cu(NCS)2. In the main panel the hatched low-$`T`$, low-$`H`$ region is the vortex solid state (S), which is characterized by the zero resistance and the irreversible magnetization. The squares and circles are the irreversible field $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$ determined by the magnetic torque Sasaki98  and SQUID Nishizaki96  measurements, respectively. The filled circles are determined as the onset magnetic field of $`\rho _a`$ in Fig. 1(a). The resistivity level of 2 $`\times `$ 10-3 $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm is used for the criterion of the onset. The resistive onset magnetic fields for $`\rho _b`$ agree with those for $`\rho _a`$ by extrapolating the $`\rho _b`$ data to the same criterion level (6 $`\times `$ 10-4 m$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm) which is 10-3 times smaller than the normal state value. The pluses and crosses are the ordinary upper critical field $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$ obtained by the specific heat Graebner  and the magnetization Lang94 . The lower dotted curve of the ordinary $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$ on the pluses and crosses is expected to be lowered from the mean field $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$ (the upper dotted curve) due to fluctuations. Ikeda96  Above the $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$ line in the TVL region, the vortices do not have any long-range order resulting in the vortex liquid state. Most of the liquid state (TVL) above several hundred mT is considered to be formed by melting or decoupling the vortex pancake Nishizaki96 ; Lee  in the S state, which is mainly assisted by thermal fluctuations. In the very low magnetic field region below the dimensional crossover at several ten mT, the Abrikosov vortex line lattice exists. Lee ; Vinnikov  On the low magnetic field phases which are not included in Fig. 4, please refer to the previous reports. Nishizaki96 ; Lee

The broken line ($`T_\mathrm{L}`$ and $`H_\mathrm{L}`$) separates the vortex liquid state into two regions mentioned above. One is the TVL state at higher $`T`$, and another the non-linear low resistance state at lower $`T`$. This low resistance state persists down to at least 100 mK in $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}<H<H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$ at $`T`$ 0 K. The transport properties in the low resistance state below $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ resemble those observed in the vortex slush phase which has been found between the vortex liquid and glass phases of the high-$`T_\mathrm{c}`$ oxide superconductors having an intermediate range of disorder. Worthington ; Nishizaki00A  The vortex slush phase has the short-range order of the vortices, Worthington ; Ikeda01 ; Nonomura  which is characterized by the non-linear resistivity. Worthington ; Nishizaki00A ; Wen ; Shibata02  The transition between the vortex liquid and slush phases appears as a steep resistance drop but not to zero, and also a small magnetization jump. Nishizaki00A ; Shibata02  This transition is thought to be an incomplete first-order phase transition at the same transition field and temperature of the original one hidden by the disorder effect. In addition the second-order vortex glass transition line appears between the vortex slush and glass phases.

Let us discuss the correspondence between the non-linear low resistance state found in this material and the vortex slush phase with a short-range order of vortices. The inset of Fig.4 shows a schematic phase diagram of the layered superconductors. Blatter94A ; Tinkham  In the case of the 3D material, e.g., YBCO, the melting line (the dotted chain) points to $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$(0) because of less effect of fluctuations. In contrast to the 3D system, the melting line (the broken line) of the 2D material, e.g., BSCCO and the present organic superconductor, increases rapidly near the 2D melting temperature $`T_m^{2\mathrm{D}}`$, which is independent of magnetic field at the Berezinskii-Kosterlitz-Thouless (BKT) type dislocation-mediated melting transition Huberman , $`kT_m^{2\mathrm{D}}=d\epsilon _0/8\sqrt{3}\pi `$, where $`\epsilon _0=(\mathrm{\Phi }_0/4\pi \lambda )^2`$, $`k`$ is the Boltzmann’s constant, $`d`$ the layer spacing, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ the flux quantum and $`\lambda `$ the in-plane penetration depth. The magnetic field independent $`T_m^{2\mathrm{D}}`$ is expected at 1.5 - 2.5 K in the present organic superconductor with $`d`$ 15.2 Å Watanabe  and the in-plane $`\lambda `$ 5000 - 7000 Å. Lee ; Vinnikov ; Lang94 ; Lang92  In the real material the 2D melting line is expected to get away from $`T_m^{2\mathrm{D}}`$ and turn toward $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$(0) in high magnetic field.

The $`T_\mathrm{L}`$ ($`H_\mathrm{L}`$) line observed in this material seems to coincide with the above mentioned melting line $`T_\mathrm{m}^{2\mathrm{D}}`$, which corresponds to the dislocation mediated melting line Blatter94B , following the broken line in the inset. In practice, however, the quantum fluctuations and finite amount of disorders in the real system push the actual solid-liquid line ($`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$ and the solid line in the inset) down to lower magnetic fields, for example in the present material, down to about 4 T even at $`T`$ 0 K. Thus the $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ line is considered to have the similar nature of the remnant solid-liquid line at the original position where the short-range order of vortices starts to grow, but it does not develop to the long-range order with zero resistivity. In addition the resulting vortex liquid is considered to be QVL at low temperatures. The low resistance state is, therefore, concluded to be a novel quantum vortex slush state.

The $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ line seems to exceed the ordinary $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$ line at $`T`$ 0 K. This looks to be inconsistent with the above scenario of $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}=H_\mathrm{L}`$ at $`T=`$ 0 K. The Lindemann-type approach for the vortex melting theory leads the melting point always below the $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$ at $`T=`$ 0 K. Blatter94B  Recently Ishida and Ikeda Ishida01  argue the melting transition near $`T=`$ 0 K by their quantum Ginzburg-Landau approach. They suggest that the melting transition is possible to occur above the ordinary $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$ at $`T`$ 0 K in the clean system and the quantum dissipated three dimensional case. It must be theoretically important to investigate the relation among $`H_\mathrm{L}`$, $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$, the ordinary $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$, and the mean field $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$ at $`T`$ 0 K.

Turning now to investigate the vortex slush like state characterized by the non-linear transport behavior. Figure 5 shows the current density dependence of the in-plane resistivity $`\rho _b`$ of sample #2 in magnetic fields perpendicular to the Q2D plane at 0.51, 1.69 and 4.25 K. The current density $`J`$ \- resistivity $`\rho _b`$ characteristic curves are measured in intervals of about 0.17 T from 7.91 (top curve) to 3.20 T (bottom), from 5.05 to 1.85 T, and from 3.37 to 0.34 T at 0.51, 1.69, and 4.25 K, respectively. At the low temperature of 0.51 K (top panel), two regions of the constant $`\rho _b`$ as a function of $`J`$, that is, the linear $`E`$ \- $`J`$ behavior, at low current density is separated at $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ 6.5 T. One is the liner resistivity in high magnetic fields near $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$, and another linear resistivity appears around 6 T. In between these two regions, the steep drop of the linear resistivity at low $`J`$ is found as spreading the spacing between curves. Then below about 6 T, the linear resistivity stops dropping as fast. Only at lower magnetic fields approaching $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$, the downward curvature of the $`\rho _b`$ \- $`J`$ curve sets in and the linear part of the resistivity vanishes within the present experimental accuracy. This indicates that the low resistance state below $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ has non-zero linear resistivity at low $`J`$. At high $`J`$, the low resistance state becomes unclear and shows the non-linear $`E`$ \- $`J`$ behavior, which has been seen in Fig. 2. This non-linear behavior at high $`J`$ can be also explained in the vortex slush scheme. The vortex slush resistivity at low $`J`$ increases to the vortex liquid resistivity at high $`J`$ by moving the vortex lattice domains with short-range order due to the Magnus force. The domains pass over the pinning sites. For larger $`J`$, the vortex domains move like as vortex liquid, and hence a higher resistivity is induced. Actually as is seen in the top panel at 0.51 K, the smaller $`J`$ required for moving the domain, namely, where the $`\rho _b`$ \- $`J`$ curve starts to deviate from the constant, is necessary with coming close to the magnetic field $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ (or $`T_\mathrm{L}`$). At high temperature of 1.69 K (middle panel), where is just outside of the vortex slush like region, the linear resistivity at low $`J`$ shows continuous drop and then changes to the non-linear one with the downward curvature near $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$. Only the linear resistivity is observed within the applied $`J`$ in this experiments at 4.25 K (bottom panel).

As just described above, the observed $`E`$ \- $`J`$ response in the low resistance state is well explained by the concept of the vortex slush which has been proposed experimentally by Worthington et al. Worthington  and theoretically discussed by Ikeda, Ikeda01  although both studies have focused the attention on the oxide high-$`T_\mathrm{c}`$ superconductors. These studies have been examined also by the Monte Carlo simulations. Nonomura  While most of the characteristic feature is very well understood in the vortex slush concept, some points remain to be unclear. First, the linear resistivity in low $`J`$ in the vortex slush has been expected to come from thermal excitation, and then the exponential decrease of $`\rho `$ with $`T`$ has been predicted. Worthington  This exponential temperature dependence contradicts the observed weak temperature dependence as shown in Fig. 3. Second, the vortex slush state in the oxide high-$`T_\mathrm{c}`$ superconductors has been found only on the sample with the intermediate range of the disorders which have been controlled by the proton irradiation Worthington  and the oxygen concentration. Nishizaki00A ; Shibata02  The organic superconductor in the present study is generally considered to be a clean system but with a finite weak disorder. These must closely connect to the relation among the origin (thermal or quantum) of the excitations (fluctuations), those strength at the temperature, and a degree of the finite pinning strength. Theoretical approach for the quantum effect on the vortices is necessary for further understanding of the present phenomena.

Finally we would like to mention the $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ ($`T_\mathrm{L}`$) transition from the different aspects of the magnetic quantum oscillations. The dHvA oscillations have been observed not only in the normal state but also the vortex state below $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$. Wel ; Sasaki98 ; Clayton  The amplitude of the oscillations in the vortex state has been reduced by an additional damping effect with respect to the normal state damping. Maniv  The dHvA effect in the vortex liquid state of the present organic superconductor has been understood in the thermal fluctuation approach. Clayton ; Maniv  Recently SdH oscillations in the vortex liquid state have been reported. Sasaki02A  The SdH oscillations have been able to be observed down to 5 T at 0.5 K, where the resistivity becomes about 30 % of the normal state value. The additional damping of the SdH amplitude has appeared below about 7 T as well as the dHvA oscillations. In addition the novel second damping has been found only in the SdH effect below about 6 T at 0.5 K. The second damping suppresses the SdH oscillation amplitude rapidly as compared to the additional damping below $`H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$. In view of the vortex phase diagram in the present study, the magnetic field where the second damping starts to appear corresponds to the $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ line. The amplitude of the dHvA oscillations in the vortex state has been calculated to be perturbed by the phase coherence of the vortices. Maniv  In the vortex slush state the coherence may vary with the applied current. The current dependence of the phase coherence in the vortex slush state may explain that the amplitude of SdH oscillations is smaller than that of the dHvA one below the second damping field $``$ $`H_\mathrm{L}`$. It must be, however, necessary for further consideration on the different way of the amplitude damping of both the dHvA and SdH effects in the vortex liquid (QVL or TVL) and the vortex slush states in addition to the normal and the Abrikosov vortex lattice states.

## IV Summary

We have reported the non-linear low resistance state in the vortex liquid state of the quasi-two dimensional organic superconductor $`\kappa `$-(BEDT-TTF)2Cu(NCS)2. The low resistance state appears below about 1 K, which is separated from the thermal vortex liquid state by the characteristic drop of the in-plane resistivity at $`T_\mathrm{L}`$ and $`H_\mathrm{L}`$. A possible origin of the drop of the resistivity is a hidden freezing transition which is obscured by strong quantum fluctuations.

The low resistance state at lower temperature persists down to $`T`$ 0 K in $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}<H<H_{\mathrm{c2}}`$. The finite resistivity remained at $`T`$ 0 K and the reversible magnetization demonstrate that the quantum vortex liquid state is realized there. The drop of the resistivity at $`T_\mathrm{L}`$ and $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ comes from the linear resistivity at low $`J`$ in the low resistance state. By applying high $`J`$ the linear resistivity changes to the larger vortex liquid resistivity with non-linear response. These transport phenomena are well understood in the vortex slush concept, which is characterized by a short-range order of the vortices. As a result, the low resistance state is considered to be a novel quantum vortex slush state. In order to confirm the quantum vortex slush in the low resistance state, it is important to investigate the thermodynamic properties at $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ and the way of the connection between the $`H_\mathrm{L}`$ and $`H_{\mathrm{irr}}`$ lines.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors thank R. Ikeda and T. Maniv for stimulating discussions. One of the authors (T. S.) acknowledges the support of a dilution refrigerator experiment at WMI by K. Neumaier and W. Hehn. A part of this work was performed at HFLSM, IMR, Tohoku University. This work was partly supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture of Japan.


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# High-𝑝_𝑇 Pion Quenching versus anti+Baryon Enhancement in Nucleus-Nucleus Collisions

## 1 INTRODUCTION

One of the unexpected results reported by PHENIX and STAR during the first year RHIC run at $`\sqrt{s}_{NN}=130`$ GeV was that in contrast to the strong $`\pi ^0`$ quenching for $`2\mathrm{GeV}<p_T<5\mathrm{GeV}`$, the corresponding charged hadrons were found to be suppressed by only a factor $`22.5`$. Even more surprisingly, the identified particle spectra analysis at PHENIX suggests that $`R_B(p_T)=\overline{p}/\pi ^{},p/\pi ^+\stackrel{>}{}1`$ for $`p_T>2`$ GeV. Thus, baryon and antibaryon production may in fact dominate the moderate- to high-$`p_T`$ hadron flavor yields .

These and other data point to novel baryon transport dynamics playing role in nucleus-nucleus reactions. An important indicator of this is the high valence proton rapidity density at midrapidity ($`y=0`$). More recent results corroborate the non-perturbative baryon production hypothesis through equally abundant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ production . It has also been observed that the mean transverse momentum $`p_T_B`$ for various baryon and antibaryon species is approximately constant and deviates from the common hydrodynamic flow systematics of soft hadron production in $`A+A`$ collisions. This provides strong motivation to explore alternative physical mechanisms that may give insight into the anomalous anti+baryon behavior at RHIC.

Identified particle analyses from the recent $`\sqrt{s}_{NN}=200`$ GeV RHIC run find similar puzzling features of moderate-$`p_T`$ baryon spectra that have to be understood in the context of even stronger quenching of neutral pions .

## 2 BARYON PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT MECHANISM

A topological non-perturbative baryon production and transport mechanism was originally proposed by Veneziano and Rossi in elementary nucleon-nucleon collisions . It has recently been successfully generalized and implemented for the case of nucleus-nucleus collisions . Its phenomenological applications are currently based on Regge theory, where a Regge trajectory $`J=\alpha (0)+\alpha ^{}(0)M^2`$ is specified by its intercept $`\alpha (0)`$ and slope $`\alpha ^{}(0)`$. It has been argued  that $`\alpha _J(0)0.5`$ and $`\alpha _J^{}(0)1/3\alpha _R^{}(0)`$. Regge theory gives exponential rapidity correlations, which in the presence of two sources (at $`\pm Y_{\mathrm{max}}`$) lead to net baryon rapidity density in central $`A+A`$ collisions of the form:

$$\frac{dN^{B\overline{B}}}{dy}=(Z+N)(1\alpha _J(0))\frac{\mathrm{cosh}(1\alpha _J(0))y}{\mathrm{sinh}(1\alpha _J(0))Y_{\mathrm{max}}}.$$
(1)
It is evident from Eq.(1) that the net baryon distribution integrates to $`2A`$ and in going to peripheral reactions scales as $`N_{part}`$. At RHIC energies of $`\sqrt{s}=130(200)`$ GeV, corresponding to $`Y_{\mathrm{max}}=4.8(5.4)`$, in central reactions $`dN^{B\overline{B}}/dy=d(p\overline{p})/dy+d(n\overline{n})/dy+d(\mathrm{\Lambda }\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }})/dy+\mathrm{}18(13.5)`$. The relative contribution of each baryon species can be evaluated from isospin symmetry and strangeness conservation (via comparison to midrapidity kaon production).

Hadronic transport in small-to-moderate $`p_T`$ is effectively controlled by the slope of the Regge trajectory. This would suggest that the baryon/meson mean inverse slopes in a phenomenological $`p_T`$-exponential ($`e^{p_T/T}`$) soft particle production model are related as $`T_B:T_M\sqrt{3}:\sqrt{2}`$. Soft pion production, however, is largely dominated by resonance decays, where the cumulative effect from the random walk in $`p_T`$ due to string braking is destroyed. This leads to the relation $`p_T_\pi :p_T_K:p_T_B1:(1÷\sqrt{2}):\sqrt{3}`$ (220 MeV : 275 MeV : 380 MeV) . One also notes that in the limit of pair production dominated by junction-antijunction loops (which we consider here) the transverse momentum distribution of antibaryons closely resembles that of baryons (with $`p_T_{\overline{B}}=p_T_B`$).

The high-$`p_T`$ part of the hadron spectra is computed from leading order PQCD augmented by the effects of initial multiple scattering (Cronin), nuclear shadowing, and parton energy loss. The most important modification to the perturbative scheme comes from the final state gluon bremsstrahlung computed here via the Gyulassy-Levai-Vitev (GLV) formalism . Its centrality dependence determines to a large extent (especially for pions) the centrality dependence of the baryon/meson ratios. Similar technique has been used to estimate the $`A`$-induced initial parton broadening .

## 3 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

We have studied the interplay between a novel baryon production and transport mechanism  (in rapidity $`y`$ and moderate $`p_T`$) and the suppression of particle spectra as a result of the medium induced non-Abelian energy loss of jets  in $`Au+Au`$ reactions at $`\sqrt{s}_{NN}=130`$ GeV. We find an enhanced baryon/meson ratio $`R_B(p_T)\stackrel{>}{}1`$ that decreases with centrality in a finite $`p_T`$ window as illustrated in Figs. 1 and 3. For $`p_T>5`$ GeV the ratios reduce below unity and follow the perturbative calculation. We have extended recent studies of the $`p_T`$-differential $`p/\pi ^+`$, $`\overline{p}/\pi ^{}`$ ratios  (Fig. 1) to $`K^{}/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`K^+/\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ (Fig. 3). Similar enhancement pattern if found at moderate $`2\mathrm{GeV}p_T5`$ GeV. Its centrality dependence is predicted to be weak. Figs. 2 and 4 show that in central reactions the predicted $`\overline{p}/p`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ ratios are $`p_T`$-independent up to $`p_T45`$ GeV. At larger transverse momenta they decrease and approach perturbative estimates . We propose that the non-perturbative baryon dynamics may extend to $`p_T5`$ GeV.

The enhanced baryon and antibaryon production at moderate transverse momenta accounts for the difference in the suppression factor $`R_{AA}(p_T)`$ of inclusive charged hadrons and neutral pions  (see Fig. 5). We have demonstrated that when the non-perturbative baryon contribution becomes small $`R_{AA}(p_T)`$ is approximately equal for all hadron species. This is illustrated in Fig. 6 for $`p_T5`$ GeV. For the first RHIC run at $`\sqrt{s}_{NN}=130`$ GeV up to $`p_T10`$ GeV the suppression factor is found to have a value $`R_{AA}(p_T)0.3`$ and is almost independent of the transverse momentum .

We have performed PQCD calculations at the highest RHIC energy of $`\sqrt{s}_{NN}=200`$ GeV that also predict a constant suppression factor $`R_{AA}(p_T)`$. The detailed $`R_{AA}(p_T)`$ behavior is shown to be a consequence of the combination of Cronin effect, shadowing, energy loss, and the computable shape of the underlying jet distributions.


text:
# On the “non-perturbative analysis” of zero-temperature dephasing: I. Dyson equation and self energy.

## Abstract

We point out that the structure of the self-energy suggested in cond-mat/0208140 as a result of a “non-perturbative analysis” by “purely mathematical means” is incompatible with the very definition of the self-energy.

Recent paper GZnew  by Golubev and Zaikin, called a “reply” to our comment AAV , contains nothing new but attempts to justify and improve the calculation of the preexponential factors for some “path integrals” having nothing to do with the contributions identified in the second part of Ref. AAV . For this reason, we do not accept it as a response to our objections, and will not analyze the calculation of Ref. GZnew  here. However, since GZ misrepresent basic notions of field theory methods Dyson  rather than only their applications to disordered systems, we find it necessary to make several comments. Below, we will show that Eqs. (5) and (8) of Ref. GZnew  \[copied below as Eqs. (2) and (3)\], used by GZ to explain “why perturbative in the interaction techniques are insufficient for the problem in question”, contradict the construction of Dyson equation. For pedagogical reasons we recall ABC of Dyson self-energy first, and then analyse GZ arguments.

ABC of Dyson self-energy — According to Dyson Dyson , any propagator, such as an electron Green function $`G(\omega )`$, or a Cooperon in the present case, is connected to its bare form, $`G_0(\omega )`$, and a self energy $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(\omega )`$

$$G(\omega )=\frac{1}{G_0^1(\omega )\mathrm{\Sigma }(\omega )},$$
(1)
where $`\omega `$ is a schematic notation for energies and momenta of the particle or Cooperon. It should be emphasized that $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is not an “ambiguous” quantity defined by an expression $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=1/G_01/G`$ but rather is a well defined mathematical object – sum of all one-particle irreducible graphs, see Fig. 1 (a-c) for the lowest order contributions.

The significance of the introduction of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is the following: the expansion of Eq. (1) in powers of the interaction strength contains poles of higher and higher orders, $`G_0^n(\omega )`$.

In contrast, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(\omega )`$ includes one particle irreducible graphs only and does not contain contributions proportional to $`G_0^n(\omega )`$ – each of the contributions is a non-factorizable integral over internal momenta and energies. These integrations either eliminate or substantially reduce the singularities of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. In particular, when the integrals are ultraviolet (determined by large energies and momenta and proportional to some power of the high-energy cut-off) $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(\omega )`$ is finite at $`\omega 0`$, and its expansion in powers of the interaction coupling constant is a well defined asymptotic series.

The conventional scheme does not assume that one determines $`G(\omega )`$ by some means (non-perturbative analysis) and then evaluates $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(\omega )`$ through Eq. (1). Quite contrary, if $`G(\omega )`$ can be expanded in terms of the interaction strength, each of these terms should be also possible to obtain from the diagrammatic expansion for $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(\omega )`$. As long as the two approaches give different results, it is the ”non-perturbative analysis” rather than the diagrammatic expansion to be questioned.

Golubev-Zaikin’s self-energy – Let us discuss the self energy of the Cooperon, presented by GZ in Ref. GZnew :
(Eq. (5) of Ref. GZnew )

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }(\omega )=\frac{(\alpha +\beta T)^2i\omega \beta T}{2\alpha +\beta Ti\omega },$$
(2)
“where $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ are proportional to interaction strengthGZnew ”. Since $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(\omega )`$ from Eq. (2) at any finite $`\omega `$ can be expanded in terms of $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$, *it is perturbative and should be accessible by usual diagrammatic approach*. On the other hand this expansion is singular at $`\omega 0`$:
(Eq. (8) of Ref. GZnew )

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }(\omega )=\beta T+\frac{\alpha ^2}{i\omega }+\mathrm{},$$
(3)
note that each term in this expansion is proportional to a power of interaction constant. Once again, Eqs. (2) and (3) are the equations used by GZ to demonstrate that the “ perturbative in the interaction techniques are insufficient for the problem in question”.

In GZ scheme, $`\alpha `$ is determined by ultraviolet integral and proportional to the high energy scale $`1/\tau _e`$, which is supposed to be much bigger than $`T,1/\alpha `$ and any other scale in the problem footnote . The form of the second term in the right hand side of Eq. (3) implies that this term
(i) is the second order expansion in $`\alpha `$ of the self-energy, see Fig. 1(b-c);
(ii) contains the same pole as bare Green function (bare Cooperon);
(iii) is determined by factorizable product of the ultraviolet divergent integrals.

As we have already explained such answer is hardly feasible for a one particle irreducible self energy. In the second order of the perturbation theory, there is an object which has a chance to possess such a structure, see Fig. 1(d). However, it does not belong to the self-energy.

Conclusion — The equation for the self energy presented by GZ (i) has a well defined perturbative expansion in the interaction and (ii) contradicts the conventional diagrammatic methods. Therefore, the arguments of GZ about insufficiency of the perturbative expansion lack the substance.

Such a discussion could be only justified, provided that GZ explicitly evaluate the irreducible diagrams of topology of Fig. 1(b-c), and demonstrate that $`1/\omega `$ divergence appears in a double ultraviolet integral. We do not require a full scale second order calculation of all the diagrams with numerical coefficients, we would like to see at least one irreducible graph which is double ultraviolet and $`1/\omega `$ divergent at the same time.


text:
# Master equations for effective Hamiltonians

## 1 Introduction

Effective Hamiltonians are employed frequently in quantum optics. They appear most often in calculations involving multiphoton processes  or nonlinear optical effects . Notwithstanding that the authors who have taken recourse to these Hamiltonians are truly innumerable, owing to the great advantages they present in practice, the procedure of their derivation has hardly been given the attention which it merits. Even worse, sometimes they are regarded as phenomenological in nature and are not properly derived from the underlying microscopic theory. For example, in nonlinear optics it is customary to justify effective Hamiltonians on the basis of a quantized macroscopic theory of electrodynamics in a nonlinear dielectric medium , which is not entirely satisfactory, especially when one attempts to describe dispersive media .

Perhaps, the most common way of obtaining effective Hamiltonians is via adiabatic elimination . This approach was pioneered by Graham and Haken  for the parametric oscillator with a medium consisting of two-level atoms and the general strategy can be stated as follows: starting from the exact equations governing the interaction of a discrete set of field modes with an ensemble of atoms, one invokes the assumption that the atomic polarization is a fast variable controlled by the slow motion of the field amplitudes and follows its evolution adiabatically (damping is negligible in this time scale). Under this hypothesis the atomic degrees of freedom can be eliminated and the resulting equations appear to be suffering a nonlinear interaction that can be reinterpreted as the Heisenberg equations of motion for the field operator under the dynamics of an effective nonlinear Hamiltonian.

This is a physically appealing picture, but presents some serious drawbacks: first, it does not provide a general prescription for finding effective Hamiltonians since the particular details strongly depend on the model considered. Second, it could become very cumbersome, and explicit but enormously complicated expressions for the different orders of approximation can be found in many original publications . Third, the procedure is not uniquely defined: depending on the term eliminated, the outcome of the final Hamiltonian could be different .

For these compelling reasons, other methods of deriving effective Hamiltonians exist. For quantum optics, the ones devised in  and  are especially germane. A thorough review of alternative approaches may be found in . Roughly speaking, all the methods have in common that at some point in their implementation one applies a unitary (or canonical) transformation to the total Hamiltonian and keeps only terms up to some fixed order. Although sometimes the results can be rather complicated, important examples of application may be given .

Recently , we have provided a setting to support the theory of effective Hamiltonians by resorting to some elementary notions of group theory. The key point for that is the simple observation that most of the Hamiltonians in nonlinear quantum optics contain cubic or higher terms in creation and annihilation operators. Among others, typical examples are $`k`$th harmonic generation, $`k`$-wave mixing, and generalized Dicke models . The common mathematical structure underlying all these cases is a nonlinear or polynomial deformation of su(2), which arises as the dynamical symmetry algebra of the corresponding Hamiltonian. This nonlinear algebra has recently found an important place in quantum optics  because it allows us to handle problems in very close analogy with the usual treatment of an angular momentum. In particular, we get a decomposition of the Hilbert space into direct sums of invariant subspaces and the dynamical problem generated by the corresponding Hamiltonian can be reduced to the diagonalization of a finite-dimensional matrix.

Unfortunately it is impossible to obtain, in general, analytic expressions for the eigenvalues and eigenstates of those matrices. Therefore, from the dynamical viewpoint this algebraic structure does not solve the problem. However, to some extent it can help to remedy it: if one applies a “nonlinear rotation” from this su(2) deformed algebra to the original Hamiltonian, the transformed one is rather involved, but when some physical parameter (dictated by the model under consideration) becomes small, one obtain an effective Hamiltonian that is diagonal and represents correctly the dynamics for arbitrary states and even for long times.

In this paper we wish to go one step further showing a unique advantage of our method. We stress that all the aforementioned techniques implicitly assume that the fields vary much more slowly than atomic damping times. This means that the resulting effective Hamiltonian can be used to describe only short-time evolution; otherwise losses begin to play an important role and cannot be avoided .

On the contrary, our method allows one to take into account damping mechanisms in a natural way. Indeed, starting from the original microscopic model, we couple it to a reservoir and then follow a standard procedure : from the Liouville equation for the system coupled to the reservoir, we trace over the reservoir variables and, after a Markovian approximation, we end up with a master equation. This equation can be transformed by the same nonlinear rotation as before, obtaining in this way what we call an effective master equation. In this paper we investigate this method and present some relevant examples to illustrate the procedure.

## 2 Nonlinear rotations, effective Hamiltonians and effective master equations

To keep the discussion as self-contained as possible and to introduce the physical ideas underlying the method, let us start with the simplest case of some physical system whose Hamiltonian can be written as

$$H=H_0+H_{\mathrm{int}}$$
(2.1)
where $`H_0`$ describes the free dynamics and

$$H_{\mathrm{int}}=\mathrm{\Delta }X_3+g(X_++X_{}),$$
(2.2)
where $`g`$ is a coupling constant and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is a parameter usually representing the detuning between frequencies of different subsystems, although it is not necessary. The operators $`X_\pm `$ and $`X_3`$ satisfy

$$[X_3,X_\pm ]=\pm X_\pm ,[X_+,X_{}]=P(X_3),$$
(2.3)
where $`P(X_3)`$ refers to an arbitrary polynomial function of the diagonal operator $`X_3`$ with coefficients perhaps depending on some integrals of motion $`N_j`$. These commutation relations correspond to the so-called polynomial deformation of su(2). This kind of nonlinear algebras were discovered by Higgs  and Sklyanin  and have already played an important role in several aspects of quantum mechanics .

Now suppose that for some physical reasons (depending on the particular model under consideration) the condition

$$\epsilon =\frac{g}{\mathrm{\Delta }}1$$
(2.4)
is fulfilled. Then, it is clear that (2.2) is almost diagonal in the basis that diagonalizes $`X_3`$. In fact, a standard perturbation analysis immediately shows that the first-order corrections introduced by the nondiagonal part $`g(X_++X_{})`$ to the eigenvalues of $`X_3`$ vanish and those of second order are proportional to $`\epsilon 1`$. According to the technique developed in  , we apply the following unitary transformation to equation (2.2)

$$U=\mathrm{exp}\left[\epsilon (X_+X_{})\right],$$
(2.5)
which, in fact, is a small nonlinear rotation, in such a way that

$$H_{\mathrm{eff}}=UH_{\mathrm{int}}U^{}.$$
(2.6)
Using the standard expansion $`e^ABe^A=B+[A,B]+\frac{1}{2!}[A,[A,B]]+\mathrm{},`$ and after keeping terms up to order $`\epsilon ^2`$, we get

$$H_{\mathrm{eff}}=\mathrm{\Delta }X_3+\frac{g^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }}P(X_3).$$
(2.7)
The essential point is that we have got a Hamiltonian that is diagonal in the basis of eigenstates of $`X_3`$. In consequence, the evolution (as well as the spectral) problem is completely solved in this approximation. Note that because (2.7) has the form of an expansion in the small parameter $`\epsilon `$, its eigenvalues will coincide with those obtained using the standard perturbation theory in the same order of approximation. However, we stress that the method is fully operatorial and avoids the tedious work of computing the successive corrections as sums over all the accessible states.

To take into account damping mechanisms in the original model, we couple it to a reservoir and then follow a standard procedure: from the Liouville equation for the total system we trace over the reservoir variables and, after a Markovian approximation, we end up with a master equation of the form

$$\dot{\rho }=i[H_{\mathrm{int}},\rho ]+\underset{m}{}\gamma _m[C_m]\rho ,$$
(2.8)
where $`\gamma _m`$ are real parameters determined by the reservoir and $`[C_m]`$ is known as the Lindblad superoperator

$$[C_m]\rho =2C_m\rho C_m^{}\{C_m^{}C_m,\rho \}.$$
(2.9)
Here $`C_m`$ are eigenoperators of the system satisfying (in units $`\mathrm{}=1`$, which we shall use throughout all this paper)

$$[H_0,C_m]=\omega _mC_m,$$
(2.10)
and their explicit form depends on the model under consideration.

It seems natural to ask how this equation is transformed by the same small rotation leading to the effective Hamiltonian. Instead of discussing an abstract formalism, we shall illustrate the main ideas by resorting to some selected models that are representative enough in quantum optics.

## 3 Two-mode coupled oscillators

The model of two coupled time-dependent harmonic oscillators has been studied by many authors, who have applied it to various problems of quantum mechanics and quantum optics. For instance, it was used to describe quantum amplifiers and converters in . The explicit exact solutions and propagators of the Schrödinger equation, as well as solutions of the Heisenberg equations of motion, were considered in . Squeezing, photon statistics, and entanglement in the system of two coupled oscillators were studied in . The model has been used recently to illustrate the exchange of nonclassical properties  and the exchange of quantum states without energy transfer between two modes of the electromagnetic field .

The Hamiltonian for the model we are discussing is

$$H=\omega _aa^{}a+\omega _bb^{}b+g(a^{}b+b^{}a),$$
(3.1)
where $`a(b)`$ and $`a^{}(b^{})`$ are annihilation and creation operators for each of one of the interacting modes of frequency $`\omega _a`$ and $`\omega _b`$ and $`g`$ is the coupling constant.

Because the excitation number $`N=a^{}a+b^{}b`$ is an integral of motion we can recast (3.1) in the form (2.1) with

$`H_0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(\omega _a+\omega _b)N,`$
$`H_{\mathrm{int}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{2}}(b^{}ba^{}a)+g(a^{}b+b^{}a),`$
where the detuning is $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\omega _b\omega _a`$. But this is exactly of the form (2.2) when we introduce the operators

$`X_+=b^{}a,X_{}=ba^{},`$
(3.3)
$`X_3={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(b^{}ba^{}a),`$
which coincide with the standard generators of the su(2) algebra (without deformation).

Now suppose that one of the modes, say mode $`b`$, is lossy, while mode $`a`$ is lossless. Coupling the quantum oscillator $`b`$ to a standard reservoir leads to the following master equation for the density matrix in the interaction picture

$$\dot{\rho }=i[H_{\mathrm{int}},\rho ]+\frac{\gamma }{2}[b]\rho ,$$
(3.4)
which has been thoroughly studied in the literature .

From now on we shall be mainly interested in the dispersive regimen, when

$$g\sqrt{(\overline{n}_a+1)(\overline{n}_b+1)}|\mathrm{\Delta }|,$$
(3.5)
where $`\overline{n}_a`$ and $`\overline{n}_b`$ are the average number of excitations in each mode. Then, we can apply the small rotation (2.5) up to second-order terms obtaining

$$H_{\mathrm{eff}}=\mathrm{\Delta }b^{}b+\frac{g^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }}(b^{}ba^{}a).$$
(3.6)
As stated before, our goal is to examine how the master equation transforms under the same small rotation. To this end, let us denote

$$\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}=U\rho U^{}.$$
(3.7)
Then, after some calculations, one gets that the new master equation becomes

$`\dot{\rho }_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ $`=`$ $`i[H_{\mathrm{eff}},\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}]`$ (3.8)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\gamma }{2}}\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{2\mathrm{\Delta }^2}}\right)[b]\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\gamma }{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }^2}}[a]\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}.`$
g5gg We can see here an effective transfer of decoherence for the lossy mode $`b`$ to mode $`a`$, which is of order $`g^2/\mathrm{\Delta }^2`$. Note that second-order corrections to $`H_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ are of the same order of magnitude, but they play no significant role because are diagonal.

If we further assume that mode $`b`$ is initially in vacuum we have no effective contributions from the normally-ordered terms like $`b^{}b`$ and the effective Hamiltonian reduces to

$$H_{\mathrm{eff}}=\frac{g^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }}a^{}a,$$
(3.9)
while the master equation reduces to

$$\dot{\rho }_{\mathrm{eff}}=i[H_{\mathrm{eff}},\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}]+\frac{\gamma }{2}\frac{g^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }^2}[a]\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}.$$
(3.10)
The transfer of decoherence between modes is here even more striking. Some efforts, especially with the method of stochastic unravellings , have been made to elucidate the physical contents of this kind of equations. We stress, however, that is not the scope of this paper to work out their solutions, but rather to show how they appear in the context of effective Hamtiltonians.

## 4 Second-harmonic generation

Second-harmonic generation is the simplest nonlinear optical process. It exhibits a rich spectrum of nonclassical features such as photon antibunching, squeezing, or collapses and revivals . Nikitin and Masalov  have shown that, at resonance, the quantum state of the fundamental mode evolves into a superposition of two macroscopically distinguishable states; i.e., a Schrödinger cat state. This point may be considered unrealistic, because the stringent experimental constraints of having perfect phase matching and low decoherence could be rather difficult to attain.

In  we have considered the dispersive limit of second-harmonic generation, which seems to be almost ignored in the literature. Without assuming perfect resonance, this process is described by the following model Hamiltonian

$$H=\omega _aa^{}a+\omega _bb^{}b+g(a^2b^{}+a^{}{}_{}{}^{2}b).$$
(4.1)
The excitation number $`N=a^{}a+2b^{}b`$, is also a constant of motion. If the detuning is taken now as $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\omega _b2\omega _a`$, the Hamiltonian (4.1) can be rewritten in the general form (2.1) with

$`H_0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}(\omega _b+\omega _a)N,`$
$`H_{\mathrm{int}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{3}}(b^{}ba^{}a)+g(a^2b^{}+a^{}{}_{}{}^{2}b).`$
The polynomial deformation of su(2) naturally emerges when we rewrite

$`X_+=b^{}a^2,X_{}=a^{}{}_{}{}^{2}b,`$
(4.3)
$`X_3={\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}(b^{}ba^{}a).`$
Let us next assume that we are in the dispersive limit

$$g(\overline{n}_a+1)\sqrt{\overline{n}_b+1}|\mathrm{\Delta }|,$$
(4.4)
and apply the small nonlinear rotation (2.5). The final result is

$$H_{\mathrm{eff}}=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{3}(b^{}ba^{}a)+\frac{g^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }}[4b^{}ba^{}a(a^{}a)^2].$$
(4.5)
This Hamiltonian is diagonal, which implies that there is no population transfer between the modes, as it would be expected in the far-off resonant limit. The first term does not affect the dynamics and just leads to a rapid oscillation of the wave function.

When the harmonic mode $`b`$ is initially in the vacuum, the two terms containing $`b^{}b`$ do not contribute. In addition, the linear term $`a^{}a`$ leads just to a $`c`$-number phase shift and can be also omitted. In consequence, (4.5) reduces to

$$H_{\mathrm{eff}}=\frac{g^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }}(a^{}a)^2,$$
(4.6)
which is nothing but the interaction Hamiltonian that governs the state evolution of the single-mode field $`a`$ in a Kerr medium. We emphasize that Kerr effect provides a nonlinearity of particular interest for generating field cat states . Apart from their intrinsic simplicity, Kerr-based schemes have the specific advantage of not relying on conditional measurements. However, the realistic values of Kerr coefficients are quite small, thus requiring a large interaction length. Then, losses become significant and may destroy the very delicate quantum superpositions. In short, although very appealing from the physical viewpoint, Kerr schemes are not generally considered to be realistic.

For this reason, the identification proposed in (4.6) could be more than an academic curiosity: second-harmonic generation is, for a variety of reasons , more robust than the Kerr effect as for noise-limiting factors. In consequence, this scheme could be an experimentally feasible proposal to generate optical cat states. However, it is clear that losses should be taken into account. While this is standard in a Kerr medium, for the case of the dispersive limit of second-harmonic generation is far from being known. In our approach, by transforming the standard master equation (under the same condition of harmonic mode $`b`$ initially in the vacuum) one easily gets that

$$\dot{\rho }_{\mathrm{eff}}=i[H_{\mathrm{eff}},\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}]+\frac{\gamma }{2}\frac{g^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }^2}[a^2]\rho _{\mathrm{eff}},$$
(4.7)
which, in fact, agrees with the standard form of dealing with decoherence effects in a Kerr medium, in which all the dissipation (up to order $`g^2/\mathrm{\Delta }^2`$) takes place via two-photon process.

## 5 Dicke model

Finally, let us consider the example of the well-known Dicke model describing the interaction of a single-mode field of frequency $`\omega _\mathrm{f}`$ with a collection of $`A`$ identical two-level atoms with transition frequency $`\omega _0`$. Making the standard dipole and rotating-wave approximations, the model Hamiltonian reads as

$$H=\omega _\mathrm{f}a^{}a+\omega _0S_3+g(aS_++a^{}S_{}),$$
(5.1)
where $`(S_\pm ,S_3)`$ are collective atomic operators forming an $`(A+1)`$-dimensional representation of su(2).

Now the excitation number reads as $`N=a^{}a+S_3`$, and once again we can recast (5.1) in the form (2.1) with

$`H_0`$ $`=`$ $`\omega _\mathrm{f}N,`$
$`H_{\mathrm{int}}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }S_3+g(aS_++a^{}S_{}),`$
the detuning being $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\omega _0\omega _\mathrm{f}`$. The operators defining the su(2) deformation are given by

$`X_+=aS_+,X_{}=a^{}S_{},`$
(5.3)
$`X_3=S_3,`$
and then the interaction part of the Dicke Hamiltonian looks exactly as in (2.2).

To keep our discussion as realistic as possible, let us consider the case in which the atomic system and the field interact in a lossy cavity, in such a way that photons leakage occurs say through a partially transmitting mirror with a decay rate given by $`\gamma `$. In the case of optical frequencies, thermal excitation from the environment of the continuum of modes outside the cavity is negligible and the dynamics is well described by the master equation

$$\dot{\rho }=i[H_{\mathrm{int}},\rho ]+\frac{\gamma }{2}[a]\rho .$$
(5.4)
This decay is also responsible for the rapid decay of any eventual quantum coherence generated within the cavity.

The dispersive limit may be stated now in the form

$$Ag\sqrt{\overline{n}+1}|\mathrm{\Delta }|,$$
(5.5)
where $`\overline{n}`$ is the average number of photons in the field. Then, the nonlinear rotation (2.5) transforms the Hamiltonian (5) into

$$H_{\mathrm{eff}}=\mathrm{\Delta }S_3+\frac{g^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }}[S_3^22(a^{}a+1)S_3C_2],$$
(5.6)
where $`C_2=A/2(A/2+1)`$ is the value of the Casimir operator for su(2). The Hamiltonian (5.6) was previously obtained in  by quite a different method (see also ) and, due to the presence of the nonlinear term $`S_3^2`$, has been considered as a candidate for the generation of atomic Schrödinger cats and squeezed states .

Transforming the master equation (5.4) by the operator (2.5) we obtain

$$\dot{\rho }_{\mathrm{eff}}=i[H_{\mathrm{eff}},\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}]+[a]\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}+\epsilon _1[a]\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}+\epsilon ^2_2[a]\rho _{\mathrm{eff}},$$
(5.7)
where

$`_1[a]\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ $`=`$ $`2(S_{}\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}a^{}+a\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}S_+)`$
$``$ $`a^{}S_{}\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}S_+a\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}a^{}S_{}\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}aS_+,`$
$`_2[a]\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ $`=`$ $`2S_{}\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}S_+S_+S_{}\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}S_+S_{}`$ (5.8)
$`+`$ $`2S_3a\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}a^{}+2a\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}a^{}S_32a^{}aS_3\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}2\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}S_3a^{}a.`$
In the rotating frame, the term $`_1`$ oscillates very rapidly and consequently can be eliminated by the corresponding transformation to a rotating frame of $`\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}`$. Surprisingly, the term $`_2`$ contains a resonant part that is time independent in the rotating frame. This term generates effective atomic dissipation, leading to a complete decoherence for times or the order of $`1/(\epsilon ^2\gamma ).`$

To further proceed, let us assume that initially the field is in vacuum, while the atom is in an arbitrary atomic state $`\rho _{\mathrm{at}}(0)`$. One could expect that in this dispersive limit, because there is no net energy transfer between the atoms and the field, the atomic system would not feel the field. One can check that

$$\dot{\rho }_{\mathrm{eff}}=i[H_{\mathrm{eff}},\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}]+2\frac{\epsilon ^2}{\gamma }(S_{}\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}S_+S_+S_{}\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}\rho _{\mathrm{eff}}S_+S_{}),$$
(5.9)
which shows the appearance of an effective atomic dissipation due to the low-amplitude atom-field transitions generated by corrections to the initial state due to the transformation by the nonlinear rotation $`U`$.

## 6 Concluding remarks

In this paper we have studied a systematic way of including damping in processes described by effective Hamiltonians. Against the widespread opinion that noise cannot be included in this kind of theories (and, therefore, they describe only short-time evolution) we have shown how to obtain an effective master equation of the Lindblad type that allows one to take into account the dissipation from first principles and not merely adding phenomenological terms.

Here we have considered three specific models of interest in quantum optics, altough it is easy to convince oneself that our results can be generalized to any system that can be described in terms of a polynomial deformation of the algebra su(2). We finally stress that we have have not discussed in detail the effects of this dissipation for each model under consideration, since our main goal has been only to provide the adequate framework to deal with such effects.


text:
# Facets of confinement and dynamical chiral symmetry breaking

## 1 Introduction

We will address these topics from the perspective of QCD’s Dyson-Schwinger equations (DSEs) bastirev . The DSEs are a keystone in proving renormalisability and provide a generating tool for perturbation theory. The latter point is very important in applications to low-energy phenomena because it means that the model-dependence which necessarily appears in continuum studies of nonperturbative QCD is restricted to the infrared; i.e, to momentum-scales $`\stackrel{<}{}1`$ GeV2. This feature has successfully been exploited in applications to the spectra pmspectra1 ; pmspectra2 , and strong pmpipi  and electroweak pmew  interactions of mesons. It also mitigates, to a useful extent, some of the problems with the approach; e.g., it helps in developing reliable truncations for the coupled system of DSEs.

Recent successes are founded on an accurate understanding of dynamical chiral symmetry breaking (DCSB), and its role in resolving the dichotomy of the pion mrt98  (as both a Goldstone mode and a massless bound state of massive constituents) and its relation to the long-range behaviour of the effective coupling between quarks hmr98 .

## 2 Dynamical chiral symmetry breaking

This is a purely nonperturbative phenomenon that can be studied via QCD’s gap equation:

$`S(p)^1=(i\gamma p+m)`$ (1)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{d^4q}{(2\pi )^4}g^2D_{\mu \nu }(pq)\frac{\lambda ^a}{2}\gamma _\mu S(q)\mathrm{\Gamma }_\nu ^a(q,p)},`$
wherein: $`m`$ is the current-quark bare mass; $`g`$ is the coupling constant; $`D_{\mu \nu }(pq)`$ is the dressed-gluon propagator; $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\nu ^a(q,p)`$ is the dressed-quark-gluon vertex; and the solution is the dressed-quark propagator

$$S(p)=\frac{1}{i\gamma pA(p^2)+B(p^2)}=\frac{Z(p^2)}{i\gamma p+M(p^2)}.$$
(2)
(Equation (1) is the unrenormalised equation: renormalisation will only be mentioned as necessary.)

As noted in the Introduction, one can use the gap equation to evaluate the fermion self-energy perturbatively and thereby obtain

$$B(p^2)=m\left(1\frac{\alpha }{\pi }\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{p^2}{m^2}\right]+\mathrm{}\right),$$
(3)
wherein the ellipsis denotes two- and higher-loop contributions. It is apparent that each term is proportional to the current-quark mass and vanishes as $`m0`$. Hence, in perturbation theory, if there is no quark mass to begin with, interactions do not generate one; i.e., DCSB is impossible in perturbation theory.

In the chiral limit, namely, $`m=0`$, Eq. (1) always admits the trivial solution $`B(p^2)0`$; i.e., the solution accessible perturbatively. However, as is characteristic of gap equations, when the integrated strength of the kernel exceeds some critical value, a $`B(p^2)0`$ solution is generated. This nonperturbative, dynamical generation of a quark mass from nothing is DCSB. The integrated strength of the kernel can be characterised by an interaction tension, $`\sigma ^\mathrm{\Delta }`$, for which the critical value is cdresi  $`\sigma _c^\mathrm{\Delta }2.5`$GeV/fm: this strength provides for DCSB but only just. An acceptable description of hadrons requires pmspectra1  $`\sigma ^\mathrm{\Delta }25`$GeV/fm, which is an order of magnitude larger.

### 2.1 Symmetry preserving truncation

It is apparent that the gap equation’s kernel is formed from a product of the dressed-gluon propagator and dressed-quark-gluon vertex. It may be calculated in perturbation theory but that is inadequate for the study of intrinsically nonperturbative phenomena. Consequently, to make sensible statements about DCSB, one must employ an alternative systematic and chiral symmetry preserving truncation scheme.

One must also focus on more than just the gap equation’s kernel. Chiral symmetry is expressed via the axial-vector Ward-Takahashi identity:

$`P_\mu \mathrm{\Gamma }_{5\mu }(k;P)`$ $`=`$ $`S^1(k_+)i\gamma _5+i\gamma _5S^1(k_{}),`$ (4)
$`k_\pm =k\pm P/2`$, wherein $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{5\mu }(k;P)`$ is the dressed axial-vector vertex. This three-point function satisfies an inhomogeneous Bethe-Salpeter equation:

$`\left[\mathrm{\Gamma }_{5\mu }(k;P)\right]_{tu}=\left[\gamma _5\gamma _\mu \right]_{tu}`$ (5)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{d^4q}{(2\pi )^4}[S(q_+)\mathrm{\Gamma }_{5\mu }(q;P)S(q_{})]_{sr}K_{tu}^{rs}(q,k;P)},`$
in which $`K(q,k;P)`$ is the fully-amputated quark-antiquark scattering kernel. The Ward-Takahashi identity, Eq. (4), means that the kernel in the gap equation and that in the Bethe-Salpeter equation are intimately related. Therefore a qualitatively reliable understanding of chiral symmetry and its dynamical breaking can only be obtained using a truncation scheme that preserves this relation, and hence guarantees Eq. (4) without a fine-tuning of model-dependent parameters.

One such scheme exists truncscheme . Its leading-order term is the renormalisation-group-improved rainbow-ladder truncation and the general procedure provides a means to identify, a priori, those channels in which that truncation is likely to be accurate. This scheme underlies the successful application of a rainbow-ladder model to flavour-nonsinglet pseudoscalar mesons and vector mesons pmspectra1 ; pmspectra2 ; pmpipi ; pmew . The systematic nature of the scheme has also made possible a proof of Goldstone’s theorem in QCD mrt98  and the derivation of a mass formula that unifies the light- and heavy-quark sectors cdrlc01 .

In this scheme, as in perturbation theory, it is impossible, in general, to obtain complete closed-form expressions for the kernels of the gap and Bethe-Salpeter equations. However, for the planar dressed-quark-gluon vertex depicted in Fig. 1, closed forms can be obtained and a number of significant features illustrated will  when one uses the following model for the dressed-gluon line mn83

$$g^2D_{\mu \nu }(k)=\left[\delta _{\mu \nu }\frac{k_\mu k_\nu }{k^2}\right](2\pi )^4𝒢^2\delta ^4(k),$$
(6)
where $`𝒢`$, measured in GeV, sets the model’s mass-scale. This form is a precursor to the class of renormalisation-group-improved models. It has many positive features in common with that class and, furthermore, its particular momentum-dependence works to advantage in reducing integral equations to character-preserving algebraic equations. Naturally, there is a drawback: the simple momentum dependence also leads to some model-dependent artefacts, but they are easily identified and hence not cause for concern.

It is a general result will  that with any vertex whose diagrammatic content is known explicitly; e.g., Fig. 1, it is always possible to construct a unique Bethe-Salpeter kernel which ensures the Ward-Takahashi identities are automatically fulfilled: that kernel is necessarily non-planar. This becomes transparent with the model in Eq. (6), using which the gap equation obtained with the vertex depicted in Fig. 1 reduces to an algebraic equation, irrespective of the number of dressed-gluon rungs that are retained, and the same is true of the Bethe-Salpeter equations in every channel: pseudoscalar, vector, etc.

Results for the $`\pi `$ and $`\rho `$ are illustrated in Table 1. It is evident that, irrespective of the order of the truncation; i.e., the value of $`n`$, the number of dressed gluon rungs in the quark-gluon vertex, the pion is massless in the chiral limit. (NB. This pion is composed of heavy dressed-quarks, as is evident in the calculated scale of the dynamically generated dressed-quark mass function: $`M(0)0.5`$GeV.) The masslessness of the $`\pi `$ is a model-independent consequence of the consistency between the Bethe-Salpeter kernel and the kernel in the gap equation. Furthermore, the bulk of the $`\rho `$-$`\pi `$ mass splitting is present in the chiral limit and with the simplest ($`n=0`$; i.e., rainbow-ladder) kernel, which makes plain that this mass difference is driven by the DCSB mechanism: it is not the result of a finely adjusted hyperfine interaction. Finally, the quantitative effect of improving on the rainbow-ladder truncation; i.e., including more dressed-gluon rungs in the gap equation’s kernel and consistently improving the kernel in the Bethe-Salpeter kernel, is a 10% correction to the vector meson mass. Simply including the first correction ($`n=1`$; i.e., retaining the first two diagrams in Fig. 1) yields a vector meson mass that differs from the fully resummed result by $`\stackrel{<}{}1`$%. The rainbow-ladder truncation is clearly accurate in these channels.

### 2.2 Rainbow-ladder truncation

The renormalisation-group-improved rainbow-ladder truncation is based on the fact that in QCD, on the domain for which $`Q^2:=(kq)^2k^2q^2`$ is large and spacelike,

$`M(q,k;P):=g^2(\mu ^2)D_{\mu \nu }(kq)`$ (7)
$`\times \left[\text{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mu ^a(k_+,q_+)S(q_+)\right]\left[\text{}S(q_{})\mathrm{\Gamma }_\nu ^a(q_{},k_{})\right]`$
$`=`$ $`4\pi \alpha (Q^2)D_{\mu \nu }^{\mathrm{free}}(kq)`$
$`\times \left[\text{}{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda ^a}{2}}\gamma _\mu S^{\mathrm{free}}(q_+)\right]\left[\text{}S^{\mathrm{free}}(q_{}){\displaystyle \frac{\lambda ^a}{2}}\gamma _\nu \right],`$
where $`\alpha (Q^2)`$ is the strong running coupling and, e.g., $`S^{\mathrm{free}}`$ is the free quark propagator. The dressed-ladder truncation supposes that Eq. (7) is valid for all momenta and is thus an assumption about the long-range ($`Q^2\stackrel{<}{}1`$ GeV2) behaviour of the interaction. Requiring that Ward-Takahashi identities be automatically fulfilled by any truncation entails truncscheme ; will  that the kernel in the renormalised gap equation is expressed through

$$𝒢(Q^2)D_{\mu \nu }^{\mathrm{free}}(Q)\frac{\lambda ^a}{2}\gamma _\mu S(q)\frac{\lambda ^a}{2}\gamma _\nu ,$$
(8)
where we have introduced $`𝒢(Q^2)`$, an effective interaction, to emphasise that, while $`𝒢(Q^2)=4\pi \alpha (Q^2)`$ is well-determined for $`Q^2\stackrel{>}{}1`$ GeV2, the behaviour at $`Q^2<1`$GeV2; i.e., at infrared length-scales ($`\stackrel{>}{}0.2`$fm), of the kernels in the gap and Bethe-Salpeter equations is unknown.

Contemporary DSE studies employ a model for the infrared behaviour. The most extensively applied is pmspectra2 :

$`{\displaystyle \frac{𝒢(Q^2)}{Q^2}}={\displaystyle \frac{4\pi ^2}{\omega ^6}}DQ^2\mathrm{e}^{Q^2/\omega ^2}`$ (9)
$`+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}8}\pi {\displaystyle \frac{\pi \gamma _m}{\mathrm{ln}\left[\tau +\left(1+Q^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}^2\right)^2\right]}}(Q^2),`$
where: $`(Q^2)=[1\mathrm{exp}(Q^2/[4m_t^2])]/Q^2`$, $`m_t`$ $`=`$ $`0.5`$GeV; $`\tau =\mathrm{e}^21`$; $`\gamma _m=12/(332N_f)`$, $`N_f=4`$; and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}=\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\overline{\mathrm{MS}}}^{(4)}=0.234`$GeV pdgold  (NB. Eq. (9) gives $`\alpha (m_Z^2)=0.126`$. Comparison with a modern value pdg : $`0.113_{0.013}^{+0.009}`$, means that a smaller $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}`$ is acceptable in the model, if one wants to avoid overestimating the coupling in the ultraviolet, but not a larger value.) The true parameters in Eq. (9) are $`D`$ and $`\omega `$, which together determine the interaction tension in the model. However, they are not independent: in fitting, a change in one is compensated by altering the other; e.g., on the domain $`\omega [0.3,0.5]`$GeV, the fitted observables are approximately constant along the trajectory $`\omega D=(0.72\mathrm{GeV})^3`$. This correlation: a reduction in $`D`$ compensating for an increase in $`\omega `$, acts to keep a fixed value of the interaction tension; i.e., the interaction’s integrated strength on the infrared domain. With

$$\begin{array}{cc}D=(0.96\mathrm{GeV})^2,& \omega =0.4\mathrm{GeV}\end{array}$$
(10)
and current-quark masses

$$\begin{array}{cc}m_u^{1\mathrm{GeV}}=5.5\mathrm{MeV},& m_s^{1\mathrm{GeV}}=125\mathrm{MeV},\end{array}$$
(11)
one obtains the excellent description of meson observables described in the Introduction, which can be illustrated via the calculated values of the leptonic decay constant and vacuum quark condensate in Table 2.

### 2.3 Comparison with lattice-QCD simulations

The scalar functions characterising the renormalised dressed-quark propagator: the wave function renormalisation, $`Z(p^2)`$, and mass function, $`M(p^2)`$, obtained by solving the renormalised gap equation using Eq. (9), are depicted in Figs. 2, 3. The infrared suppression of $`Z(p^2)`$ and enhancement of $`M(p^2)`$ are long-standing predictions of DSE studies, as Ref. cdragw  makes plain and could be anticipated from Ref. bjw . This prediction has recently been confirmed in numerical simulations of quenched lattice-QCD, as is evident in the figures.

It is not yet possible to reliably determine the chiral limit behaviour of lattice Schwinger functions. Hence one does not have a lattice estimate for the quantities in Table 2. To obtain such an estimate, we used the DSE model described previously, varying $`(D,\omega )`$ in order to reproduce the lattice data. Our current best result, obtained with

$$\begin{array}{cc}D=(0.74\mathrm{GeV})^2,& \omega =0.3\mathrm{GeV},\end{array}$$
(12)
at a current-quark mass of $`0.6m_s^{1\mathrm{GeV}}`$, Eq. (11), is also depicted in Figs. 2, 3, and yields $`f_\pi =0.094`$GeV, $`m_\pi =0.48`$GeV. (NB. These are values for a pion-like bound state constructed from constituents whose current-quark mass is $`m14m_u`$. Our DSE-calculated meson-mass versus current-quark-mass trajectory is consistent with results of recent quenched lattice-QCD simulations obtained on $`m[1,2]m_s`$ cdrlc01 .) The parameters in Eq. (12) give chiral limit results:

$$f_\pi ^0=0.068\mathrm{GeV},\overline{q}q_{1\mathrm{GeV}}^0=(0.19\mathrm{GeV})^3.$$
(13)
### 2.4 Gap equation and QCD’s gauge sector

Contemporary Landau gauge DSE studies of QCD’s gauge sector have been used to infer a form of the effective interaction alkofer , which is well represented by $`(x=Q^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}^2)`$

$$\frac{1}{4\pi }𝒢(x):=\alpha (x)=\frac{a_0+a_1x}{1+a_2x+a_3x^2+a_4x^3}+\frac{\pi \gamma _m}{\mathrm{ln}(e+x)},$$
(14)
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}a_0& a_1& a_2& a_3& a_4\\ & & & & \\ 1.47& 0.881& 0.314& 0.00986& 0.00168\end{array}.$$
(15)
Aspects of these DSE studies are in qualitative agreement with quenched lattice-QCD results latticegluon ; e.g., the feature that the dressed-gluon propagator is finite at $`Q^2=0`$. This effective interaction yields the results in the second row of Table 2: apparently, $`f_\pi `$ is too small by a factor of $`2`$ and the scale of DCSB too small by a factor of $`4=1.6^3`$ pctprivate . This outcome could have been anticipated from Ref. hmr98 .

Equations (7), (8) are correct on the ultraviolet domain in which perturbation theory is applicable. However, modelling is involved in extrapolating onto the infrared domain. One may require that multiplicative renormalisability of the dressed fermion propagator be preserved in this modelling cp90 . The Ansatz of Ref. bloch  incorporates this constraint, however, it implicitly specifies a kernel in the gap equation that violates a more important constraint, namely, Lorentz covariance burden93 . A minimal Ansatz that satisfies both constraints and Eq. (7) finds expression in the kernel of the renormalised gap equation as

$$4\pi \alpha (Q^2)\frac{1}{Z^2(Q^2)}D_{\mu \nu }^{\mathrm{free}}(Q)\frac{\lambda ^a}{2}\gamma _\mu S(q)\frac{\lambda ^a}{2}\gamma _\nu .$$
(16)
The gap equation’s solution now gives the results in the third row of Table 2. \[We simplified the numerical study by using a well-tried angle approximation: $`\alpha ((kq)^2)/Z^2((kq)^2)`$ $``$ $`\alpha ((kq)^2)/Z^2(\mathrm{max}(k^2,q^2))`$.\] This procedure is evidently a candidate for providing a bridge between DSE studies of the gauge sector and what is known, from the calculation of observables, to be the infrared strength required in the effective interaction. The increased interaction tension arises because the enhancement of $`1/Z(p^2)`$, evident in Fig. 2, persists with this kernel and amplifies the effective coupling: the interaction tension calculated with Eq. (14) alone is $`\sigma ^\mathrm{\Delta }=12`$GeV/fm but using Eq. (16) we estimate that the $`1/Z^2(Q^2)`$ factor raises this to $`\sigma ^\mathrm{\Delta }25`$GeV/fm.

## 3 Confinement

This is a statement about the properties of coloured Schwinger functions; i.e., gauge-dependent quantities. Hence it is plausible that the expression of confinement will depend on the gauge fixing procedure one employs. Linear covariant gauges are most widely employed in DSE studies. While the problem of Gribov copies is unresolved, it affects only the far infrared behaviour of coloured Schwinger functions and hence is hoped to have little impact on physical observables. This conjecture is supported by the close correspondence between Landau and Laplacian gauge two-point quark and gluon Schwinger functions obtained in quenched lattice-QCD simulations tonylaplacian . (Laplacian gauge fixing is a nonlocal prescription that is identical to Landau gauge at ultraviolet momenta. It is free of Gribov copies.)

It has long been known gastao  that for confinement it is sufficient that no coloured Schwinger function possess a spectral representation. This is equivalent to the statement that all coloured Schwinger functions violate reflection positivity. That property can manifest itself almost as simply as, say, dressed-gluons being described by a propagator with a large width. The connection between confinement and the violation of reflection positivity has cleanly been illustrated in QED3 pieterQED3 , and it is a result of DSE studies that a sufficiently large interaction tension will always produce a dressed-quark propagator that violates reflection positivity. (NB. Gap equation solutions that violate reflection positivity also exhibit DCSB. The converse is not necessarily true.) Thus it is a widespread conjecture that confinement in QCD is realised this way.

A Schwinger function that violates reflection positivity is easily identified: it is sufficient that the function exhibit a maximum or inflection at some spacelike four momentum-squared. In lattice-QCD simulations, this feature is evident in the two-point gluon Schwinger function latticegluon  and incipient in the scalar functions characterising the dressed-quark two-point function latticequark . It is plain in our results for the dressed-quark propagator, Figs. 2, 3, and apparent in the DSE result for the gluon two-point function alkofer2 . The DSE solution for the ghost two-point function also violates reflection positivity but in this case it is manifest in the strength of its singularity at $`k^2=0`$.

A consistent picture may be emerging. It is complemented by the fact that the colour-singlet $`S`$-matrix elements which describe physical processes do not exhibit unphysical quark and gluon production thresholds when calculated using coloured Schwinger functions that violate reflection positivity. The ideas we have described also ensure that coloured composites such as diquarks do not appear in the spectrum truncscheme ; will .

## 4 Epilogue

The momentum-dependent dressing of quark and gluon propagators is a fact. It is certainly the keystone of DCSB and quite likely plays a central role in confinement. Its incorporation into models of low-energy phenomena facilitates the development of a qualitatively reliable understanding and makes possible an excellent description of experiment. That has provided guidance for modelling the long-range behaviour of the interaction between light-quarks. A remaining challenge is to calculate it and progress is being made.

### Acknowledgments

We thank P.O. Bowman for the lattice data and P.C. Tandy for a careful reading of the manuscript. PM and AR are grateful for the hospitality and support of the Physics Division at ANL during visits in which part of this work was conducted. This work was supported by: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, contract no. Ro 1146/3-1; the US Department of Energy (DOE), Nuclear Physics Division, contract no. W-31-109-ENG-38; DOE grant nos. DE-FG02-96-ER-40947, DE-FG02-97-ER-41048; and benefited from the resources of the US National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center.