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# Searching for the Signature of the Magnetic Fields at the Base of the Solar Convection Zone with Solar-Cycle Variations of p-Mode Travel Time

## 1 Introduction

Observations give evidence that magnetic fields on the Sun emerge from below. How and where magnetic fields are generated is a long standing unanswered question in astronomy Cowling (1934); Parker (1955); Babcock (1961). It has been suggested that the boundary between the radiative zone and convection zone (CZ) is the best location for an oscillatory solar dynamo Spiegel (1980); Parker (1993); Charbonneau & MacGregor (1997). Many attempts have been made to detect the magnetic fields in this region Gough et al. (1996); Basu (1997); Howe et al. (1999); Basu & Schou (2000); Basu & Antia (2001); Eff-Darwich et al. (2001); Antia et al. (2001). Until now no clear evidence of magnetic field in this region has been found. Here we use the technique of time-distance analysis Duvall et al. (1993) to measure solar cycle variations of travel time of acoustic waves with different ray paths to probe the magnetic fields at the base of the CZ.

A resonant solar p-mode is trapped and multiply reflected in a cavity between the surface and a layer in the solar interior. The acoustic signal emanating from a point at the surface propagates downward to the bottom of the cavity and back to the surface at a different horizontal distance from the original point. Different p-modes have different paths and arrive at the surface with different travel times and different distances from the original point. The modes with the same angular phase velocity have approximately the same ray path and form a wave packet. The relation between the travel time and travel distance of a wave packet can be measured by using the temporal cross-correlation between the time series at two points Duvall et al. (1993).

Different wave packets penetrate into different depths: the wave packet with a larger phase velocity penetrates into a greater depth. Time-distance analysis measures the travel times of different wave packets to probe the interior of the Sun at different depths Duvall et al. (1996); Kosovichev (1996); Kosovichev et al. (2000). The ray path of wave packet computed from a standard solar model with the ray theory for three different phase velocities is shown in Figure 1. If a magnetic field is present at the base of the CZ, it has different effects on different wave packets. It changes the travel time of wave packets which can penetrate into the base of the CZ, while it has no effect on the wave packets which can not reach the base of the CZ. If the magnetic fields at the base of the CZ vary with the solar cycle like the surface magnetic fields, travel time is expected to vary with the solar cycle as well. The change in travel time due to the magnetic fields at the base of the CZ is small because the ratio of magnetic pressure to gas pressure is small. However, the change in travel time increases linearly with the number of bounces between the boundaries of the cavity. Thus the strategy is to measure the change in multiple-bounce travel time. Here we measure the time for a wave packet to travel around the Sun to come back to the same spatial point. If a wave packet takes $`N`$ bounces to travel around the Sun, the change in travel time would increase by a factor of $`N`$ relative to the change in one-bounce travel time. Therefore, the problem becomes measuring solar cycle variations of travel time with the auto-correlation function of the time series at the same spatial point. In this study we use two different approaches, the multiple-bounce travel time analysis (MBTTA) and the power spectrum simulation analysis (PSSA), to measure the travel time of wave packets.

## 2 Multiple-Bounce Travel Time Analysis (MBTTA)

In the first approach (MBTTA), we use the helioseismic data taken with the Michelson Doppler Imager (MDI) on board the SOHO spacecraft Scherrer et al. (1995). The MDI data used here are full-disc low-resolution Doppler images of $`192\times 192`$ pixels, sampled at a rate of one image per minute. We have analyzed the data in the period of solar minimum and maximum. The data are divided into 4096-minute segments. Each time series of 4096 images is analyzed separately. The procedure of data analysis is described below. (1) Each full-disk Doppler image is transformed into $`\mathrm{sin}\theta \varphi `$ coordinates, where $`\theta `$ and $`\varphi `$ are the latitude and the longitude, respectively, in a spherical coordinate system aligned along the solar rotation axis. (2) The differential rotation of the solar surface is removed with an observed surface differential rotation velocity Libbrecht & Morrow (1991). (3) The data are filtered with a Gaussian filter of FWHM = 2 mHz centered at 3 mHz. (4) To reduce the interference among the wave packets of different phase velocities, a phase-velocity filter is applied to isolate the signals in a range of the phase velocity $`\omega /[l(l+1)]^{1/2}`$, where $`\omega `$ is the mode angular frequency and $`l`$ is the spherical harmonic degree. For each time series of 4096 images, the signals in the $`(\mathrm{sin}\theta ,\varphi ,t)`$ domain are transformed into the $`(l,m,\omega )`$ domain, where $`m`$ is the azimuthal order. A filter is applied to select the signals in a range of $`\omega /[l(l+1)]^{1/2}`$. The center of filter is chosen such that the one-bounce travel distance is $`360^{}/N`$, where $`N`$ is an integer. The filtered signals are transformed back to the $`(\mathrm{sin}\theta ,\varphi ,t)`$ domain. The points inside the active regions are excluded to avoid the contaminated signals measured in the magnetic regions. (5) The auto-correlation function of time series at each $`(\mathrm{sin}\theta ,\varphi )`$ is computed. (6) The auto-correlation functions are then averaged over a region of $`84^{}\times 94^{}`$ at the disk center. The size of averaging area is selected to avoid the signals near the limb. (7) The phase travel time $`\tau _N`$ is determined from the instantaneous phase of the auto-correlation function with a Hilbert transform technique Bracewell (1986); Duvall et al. (1996). It is repeated for $`N`$ between 6 and 15 to obtain the travel times of different wave packets. Since the waves used to compute the auto-correlation begin at a point at the surface, propagate in all directions to go around the Sun and come back to the same point, the auto-correlation function consists of signals which pass through a medium element from opposite directions. Thus the effects of motion of this element cancel out in the auto-correlation function.

To study solar cycle variations, the travel time $`\tau _N`$ is averaged over a solar minimum period (May 1996 - May 1997) and a solar maximum period (January 2000 - February 2001). It is found that the the travel time at solar maximum is shorter than that at solar minimum. The difference is defined as $`\delta \tau _N`$. The change in one-bounce travel time is equal to $`\delta \tau _N/N`$. To see the change of different wave packets, we plot $`\delta \tau _N/N`$ versus $`N`$ in the left panel of Figure 2. The result is denoted by the open circles. The value of $`\delta \tau _N/N`$ is approximately the same for all $`N`$’s, except a small drop at $`N=8`$. This approximately constant change is caused by the magnetic fields near the surface because the rays paths of different wave packets near the surface are approximately the same. This change in travel time, corresponding to a fraction of change in travel time of about $`1.3\times 10^4`$, is consistent with the well-known solar-cycle variations of frequency, about 0.4 $`\mu `$Hz for modes at 3 mHz Libbrecht & Woodard (1990).

The interesting phenomenon in Figure 2 is the additional decrease in travel time at $`N=8`$. The average of $`\delta \tau _N/N`$ over all $`N`$’s except $`N=8`$ is $`0.763\pm 0.005`$ second. The difference between $`\delta \tau _8/8`$ and the average value is $`0.053\pm 0.022`$ second.

## 3 Power Spectrum Simulation Analysis (PSSA)

The correlation function, from which the travel time is determined, is the inverse Fourier transform of the power spectrum of p-modes. Thus the signal corresponding to the travel time perturbation detected above should also exist in the mode frequencies which are determined from the power spectrum. In the second approach (PSSA), we use the mode frequencies measured with the helioseismic data taken with MDI and the Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG) Harvey et al. (1996) to construct the power spectrum in ($`l,\omega `$). The MDI data covers May 1996 - June 2001, and the GONG data May 1995 \- May 2001. The mode frequencies are averaged over about one year for MDI and about two years for GONG to increase the signal-to-noise ratio. The range of each averaging period is indicated by the horizontal bar in Figure 3. To construct the power spectrum in ($`l,\omega `$) from the mode frequencies, we assume that the spectral profile of each mode is a Lorentzian, and the width is a function of frequency only. We adopt the width measured in Howe et al. (1999). The power distribution versus $`l`$ is taken from the $`l\omega `$ diagram obtained in MBTTA. The frequency variation of power is obtained by applying a Gaussian filter centered at 3 mHz with FWHM = 0.55 mHz. Power is set zero for frequency greater than 3.5 mHz or smaller 2.5 mHz because some of mode frequencies above 3.5 mHz are not available. The composite power spectrum is filtered with the same phase velocity filter as in MBTTA prior to computing the cross-correlation function with the inverse Fourier transform. The cross-correlation function at zero travel distance corresponds to the auto-correlation function averaged over all spatial points, which is used to determine the travel time of the wave packet. The value of $`\delta \tau _N/N`$ for various periods along the solar cycle is shown in Figure 2.

The results of PSSA also show that there exists an additional decrease in travel time at $`N=8`$ relative to other $`N`$’s. The magnitude of additional decrease increases with solar activity. To quantify the additional decrease at $`N=8`$, we define $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _8`$ as the difference between $`\delta \tau _8/8`$ and the value at $`N=8`$ determined from a linear fit to $`\delta \tau _N/N`$ of all other $`N`$’s. Figure 3 shows $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _8`$ and the sunspot number versus date. The results of MDI and GONG are consistent, though the results of GONG are noisier. At solar maximum, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _80.015`$ second which is smaller than that from MBTTA. This difference may be caused by the differences in data analysis. First, the width of the frequency filter used in PSSA is smaller than that in MBTTA because some of higher mode frequencies are not available. A narrower filter yields a wider wave packet. Second, the correlation functions are averaged over a central region of $`84^{}\times 94^{}`$ in MBTTA, while the averaging area in PSSA is equivalent to the area used to measure the mode frequencies, which is almost the entire disk. The signals near the limb have a lower signal-to-noise ratio. Third, the active regions are excluded in MBTTA, while they are not in PSSA.

## 4 Discussion

To test whether the shorter travel time at $`N=8`$ is caused by the analysis procedure, we did the following test. The frequency difference between solar maximum and minimum is smoothed by a fit in the ($`l,\nu `$) domain. The mode frequencies at solar maximum are simulated by adding this smooth function to the mode frequencies at minimum. Applying the same procedure as in PSSA to the measured frequencies at solar minimum and the simulated frequencies at solar maximum, we compute the change in travel time for different $`N`$’s. The result shows that the change in travel time is approximately the same for all $`N`$’s and there is no additional decrease at $`N=8`$. This test indicates that the shorter travel time at $`N=8`$ is not caused by the analysis procedure.

It is unlikely that the shorter travel time at $`N=8`$ is caused by the spatial distribution of the near-surface magnetic fields. The most prominent spatial pattern of magnetic activity on the surface is the active latitudinal band in each hemisphere. The separation between the centroids of two active bands is about $`42^{}`$ in 1998 and monotonically decreases to about $`29^{}`$ in 2000 (from Greenwich Sunspot Data). If the latitudinal distribution of active regions can cause an additional decrease in one-bounce travel time, it would occur at $`N=9`$ in 1998 and shift to $`N=12`$ in 2000. This contradicts to the PSSA results shown in Figure 2. Thus it is unlikely that the shorter travel time at $`N=8`$ is caused by the separation of two active latitudinal bands on the surface. Since the active longitudes is less prominent than the active latitudes, it is unlikely the anomaly at $`N=8`$ is caused by the active longitudes.

The fact that the ray path of the wave packet of $`N=8`$ has the lower turning point at the base of the CZ as shown in Figure 1 suggests that the additional decrease in travel time at $`N=8`$ may be caused by the solar-cycle varying wave speed at the base of the CZ. The change in wave speed at the base of the CZ could be caused by magnetic field perturbation or/and sound speed ($`[\gamma p/\rho ]^{1/2}`$) perturbation. It has been shown that the global measurements can not distinguish these two effects Zweibel & Gough (1995). The previous study Kosovichev & Duvall (1997) has also indicated that either magnetic field perturbation or sound speed perturbation alone would cause a change in travel time not only for $`N=8`$ but also for $`N<8`$, though it is smaller. Thus either magnetic field perturbation or sound speed perturbation alone can not explain the measurements of travel time variation shown in Figure 2. However, the combination of these two perturbations might be able to explain the measured travel time variations. Although we do not know the mechanism producing the sound speed perturbation, it probably has the magnetic origin because the presence of a magnetic field could change the thermal structure and leads to a change in sound speed.

With the above caution in mind, we will estimate the field strength based on the assumption that the additional decrease in travel time at $`N=8`$ is caused only by the magnetic fields at the base of the CZ. If we adopt the value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _8`$ measured with MBTTA and PSSA, the fraction of change in travel time due to the wave speed perturbation at the base of the CZ is about $`0.015/\tau _80.053/\tau _82.69\times 10^6`$. If we use the half width of the tachocline, $`0.025R_{}`$, as the width of the magnetic layer at the base of the CZ Corbard et al. (2001), the fraction of change in wave speed at the base of the CZ, $`\delta w/w`$, is about $`2.69\times 10^5`$ because the wave packet of $`N=8`$ spends about one tenth of time inside the tachocline. If the change in wave speed is entirely due to the presence of magnetic fields, the fraction of change in wave speed is $`\delta w/w=\mathrm{sin}^2\theta (v_A^2/c^2)/2`$, where $`v_A=B/(4\pi \rho )^{1/2}`$ is the Alfven speed, and $`\theta `$ is the angle between wave propagation direction and magnetic field Kosovichev et al. (2000). The density $`\rho 0.2`$ g cm<sup>-3</sup> in the tachocline. Averaging $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta `$ over all directions yields about 1/2. Thus the magnetic field strength $`B[16\pi \rho c^2(\delta w/w)]^{1/2}47\times 10^5`$ gauss if the filling factor of magnetic field is unity. A smaller filling factor would increase the estimated field strength. The field strength estimated here is greater than most theories predict Fisher et al. (2000). Such a strong field needs a large degree of subadiabaticity in the tachocline to stabilize it Gilman (2000). The approximately constant $`\delta \tau _N/N`$ at $`N9`$ suggests that there is no strong magnetic field in the middle of the CZ.

The problem of above interpretation is that no additional decrease in travel time is detected for the neighboring wave packets of $`N=8`$ in our measurements. The neighboring wave packets, $`N=7`$ and 9, may be also influenced by the magnetic fields at the base of the CZ. The influence depends on the width and location of the magnetic layer at the base of the CZ and the width of the wave packets. If we adopt the parameters used above and the ray approximation to estimate the influence on the neighboring wave packets, the additional decrease at $`N=7`$ is about $`40\%`$ of that at $`N=8`$, while there is no effect on $`N=9`$. However, the finite width of the wave packets would increase the effect of magnetic fields on the neighboring wave packets. The previous studies have shown that the travel-time sensitivity kernel is wide Jensen et al. (2000); Birch & Kosovichev (2000). To estimate the effect due to the finite width, we construct the 3-D wave packet by superposing the eigenfunctions of the modes consistent with our phase-velocity filter Bogdan (1997). The FWHM of the energy distribution in the radial direction for the wave packets of $`N=7`$ and 9 at the lower turning point is about $`0.1R_{}`$, which is greater than the separation between the lower turning points of two neighboring wave packets, about $`0.020.03R_{}`$. Thus the influence of magnetic fields at the base of the CZ on the wave packets of $`N=7`$ and 9 is not negligibly small compared with that on $`N=8`$. This contradicts to the result of our measurements. At this moment, we do not know how the combination of magnetic field perturbation and sound speed perturbation can help resolve this contradiction.

We thank T. L. Jr. Duvall and A. G. Kosovichev for helpful discussion and comments. We thank Jesper Schou for providing the frequency tables of MDI/SOHO. SOHO is a project of international cooperation between ESA and NASA This work utilizes data obtained by the Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG) project, managed by the National Solar Observatory, which is operated by AURA, Inc. under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. The data were acquired by instruments operated by the Big Bear Solar Observatory, High Altitude Observatory, Learmonth Solar Observatory, Udaipur Solar Observatory, Instituto de Astrofisico de Canarias, and Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory. We are grateful to the GONG Data Team for providing the software package GRASP. Authors were supported by NSC of ROC under grant NSC-90-2112-M-007-036.


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# Kummer theory of abelian varieties and reductions of Mordell-Weil groups

## 1. Kummer theory

### 1.1. Review of Kummer theory

Let $`A`$ be an abelian variety over a number field $`F`$; set $`𝒪=\mathrm{End}_FA`$. For $`\alpha 𝒪`$ we set $`F_\alpha =F(A[\alpha ])`$ and $`G_\alpha =\mathrm{Gal}(F_\alpha /F)`$. The Kummer map

$$\kappa _\alpha :A(F)/\alpha \mathrm{Hom}_{G_\alpha }(\mathrm{Gal}(\overline{F}/F_\alpha ),A[\alpha ])$$

is defined as the composition

$$A(F)/\alpha H^1(F,A[\alpha ])\stackrel{res}{}H^1(F_\alpha ,A[\alpha ])^{G_\alpha }$$

with the first map a coboundary map for the $`\mathrm{Gal}(\overline{F}/F)`$-cohomology of the Kummer sequence

$$0A[\alpha ]A(\overline{F})\stackrel{𝛼}{}A(\overline{F})0$$

and the second map restriction to $`F_\alpha `$. (Concretely, for $`xA(F)`$, $`\kappa _\alpha (x)`$ is the homomorphism sending $`\gamma \mathrm{Gal}(\overline{F}/F_\alpha )`$ to $`\gamma (\frac{x}{\alpha })\frac{x}{\alpha }A[\alpha ]`$ where $`\frac{x}{\alpha }`$ is some fixed $`\alpha ^{\text{th}}`$-root of $`x`$ in $`A(\overline{F})`$.)

If $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is an $`𝒪`$-submodule of $`A(F)`$ and $`\alpha 𝒪`$, we write $`F_\alpha (\frac{1}{\alpha }\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ for the extension of $`F_\alpha `$ generated by all $`\alpha ^{\text{th}}`$-roots of elements of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$; alternately, $`F_\alpha (\frac{1}{\alpha }\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is the fixed field of the intersection of the kernels of the homomorphisms $`\kappa _\alpha (\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. The Galois group $`𝔤_\alpha (\mathrm{\Gamma }):=\mathrm{Gal}(F_\alpha (\frac{1}{\alpha }\mathrm{\Gamma })/F_\alpha )`$ is an $`𝒪[G_\alpha ]`$-module and $`\kappa _\alpha `$ restricts to an $`𝒪`$-linear map $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{Hom}_{G_\alpha }(𝔤_\alpha (\mathrm{\Gamma }),A[\alpha ])`$. We write the $`𝒪[G_\alpha ]`$-dual of this map as

$$\lambda _\alpha ^\mathrm{\Gamma }:𝔤_\alpha (\mathrm{\Gamma })\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(\mathrm{\Gamma },A[\alpha ]).$$

### 1.2. $`p`$-adic Kummer theory

Fix a rational prime $`p`$; set $`𝒪_p=𝒪𝐙_p`$ and $`K_p=𝒪𝐐_p`$. The Tate module $`T_pA:=\underset{}{\mathrm{lim}}A[p^n]`$ (resp. Tate space $`V_pA:=T_pA_{𝐙_p}𝐐_p`$) is naturally an $`𝒪_p[G_p^{\mathrm{}}]`$-module (resp. $`K_p[G_p^{\mathrm{}}]`$-module) where $`G_p^{\mathrm{}}=\mathrm{Gal}\left(F(A[p^{\mathrm{}}])/F\right)`$. It follows from \[5, Section 19, Corollary 2\] that there is a decomposition

(1.1)
$$K_p=M_{n_i}K_i$$

where $`M_{n_i}K_i`$ is the central simple algebra of $`n_i\times n_i`$-matrices over the division ring $`K_i`$. Corresponding to (1.1) is a decomposition $`V_pA=V_iA^{n_i}`$ of $`V_pA`$ into $`K_i[G_p^{\mathrm{}}]`$-modules. By \[4, Theorem 4\], we have

(1.2)
$$\mathrm{End}_{𝐐_p[G_p^{\mathrm{}}]}V_iA=K_i$$

for each $`i`$; in particular, each $`V_iA`$ is an irreducible $`K_i[G_p^{\mathrm{}}]`$-module. We record a second immediate consequence of (1.2) in the next lemma.

###### Lemma 1.1.

Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be an $`𝒪`$-module. Then the evaluation map

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_𝒪K_i\mathrm{Hom}_{K_i[G_p^{\mathrm{}}]}(\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(\mathrm{\Gamma },V_iA),V_iA)$$

is an isomorphism.

Fix an $`𝒪`$-submodule $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of $`A(F)`$. The inverse limit $`𝔤_p^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ of the $`𝔤_{p^n}(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is naturally an $`𝒪_p[G_p^{\mathrm{}}]`$-module endowed with an injection

$$\lambda _p^{\mathrm{}}^\mathrm{\Gamma }:𝔤_p^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma })\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(\mathrm{\Gamma },T_pA).$$

More generally, since $`𝒪_p/p^n𝒪/p^n`$ for all $`n`$, for any $`𝒪`$-module $`\mathrm{\Gamma }A(F)𝐙_p`$ we can still define $`𝔤_{p^n}(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ and $`\lambda _{p^n}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ for $`n\mathrm{}`$. In any case, there is a $`K_p[G_p^{\mathrm{}}]`$-module decomposition

(1.3)
$$𝔤_p^{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{\Gamma })_{𝐙_p}𝐐_p=𝔤_i(\mathrm{\Gamma })^{n_i}$$

(with $`n_i`$ as in (1.1)) into $`K_i[G_p^{\mathrm{}}]`$-modules, and there are natural injections

$$\lambda _i^\mathrm{\Gamma }:𝔤_i(\mathrm{\Gamma })\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(\mathrm{\Gamma },V_iA).$$

The decomposition (1.3) is functorial in the sense that there is a natural surjection $`𝔤_i(\mathrm{\Gamma })𝔤_i(\mathrm{\Gamma }^{})`$ for any $`𝒪`$-submodule $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{}`$ of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

The main result of Kummer theory we need is the following. The proof is a straightforward adaptation of the methods of Bashmakov and Ribet.

###### Proposition 1.2.

Fix a rational prime $`p`$ and let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be an $`𝒪`$-submodule of $`A(F)`$. Then the cokernel of $`\lambda _{p^n}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is bounded independent of $`n`$.

###### Proof.

First consider the cyclic case $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=𝒪x`$ for $`xA(F)`$. If $`\mathrm{\Gamma }𝒪`$, then $`𝐙x`$ is Zariski dense in $`A`$; the proposition thus follows from \[2, Theorem 2\] in this case. More generally, let $`A^{}`$ denote the largest abelian subvariety of $`A`$, defined over $`F`$, in which $`𝐙x`$ is Zariski dense; set $`𝒪^{}=\mathrm{End}_FA^{}`$. Using the Poincaré reducibility theorem (see \[5, Section 19, Theorem 1\]), one checks easily that

$$\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(\mathrm{\Gamma },V_pA)\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪^{}(\mathrm{\Gamma },V_pA^{}),$$

so that the general cyclic case follows from \[2, Theorem 2\] applied to $`A^{}`$. In fact, one has $`\mathrm{coker}\lambda _p^{\mathrm{}}^{𝒪x}=\mathrm{coker}\lambda _p^{\mathrm{}}^{𝒪x^{}}`$ whenever $`x,x^{}A(F)`$ are sufficiently $`p`$-adically congruent, so that the same arguments apply for arbitrary $`xA(F)𝐙_p`$.

For general $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ it suffices to show that each of the injections $`\lambda _i^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is an isomorphism. Suppose, then, that some $`\lambda _i^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is not surjective. Since $`\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(\mathrm{\Gamma },V_iA)`$ is a direct sum of copies of the irreducible $`K_i[G_p^{\mathrm{}}]`$-module $`V_iA`$ (and thus in particular is a semisimple $`K_i[G_p^{\mathrm{}}]`$-module), it follows that there exists a $`K_i[G_p^{\mathrm{}}]`$-surjection

$$\phi :\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(\mathrm{\Gamma },V_iA)V_iA$$

annihilating $`𝔤_i(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. By Lemma 1.1 the map $`\phi `$ is given by evaluation at some $`x\mathrm{\Gamma }_𝒪K_i`$; using the injection $`K_iK_p`$ and scaling $`\phi `$ if necessary, we may in fact assume that $`x\mathrm{\Gamma }𝐙_p`$. There is then a commutative diagram

The clockwise composition is zero by construction, so that we must have $`\lambda _i^{𝒪x}=0`$ as well. By the cyclic case considered above this implies that $`x`$ maps to zero in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_𝒪K_i`$. But then $`\phi `$, which is evaluation at $`x`$, is also zero. This contradicts the surjectivity of $`\phi `$ and thus proves the proposition. ∎

### 1.3. Reductions and Frobenius elements

We write $`k_w`$ for the residue field of a finite extension $`F^{}`$ of $`F`$ at a place $`w`$ and $`\mathrm{red}_w:A(F^{})A(k_w)`$ for the reduction map.

###### Lemma 1.3.

Fix $`\alpha 𝒪`$ and $`xA(F)`$. Let $`w`$ be a finite place of $`F_\alpha `$, relatively prime to $`\alpha `$, at which $`A`$ has good reduction. Then $`\mathrm{red}_wx`$ lies in $`\alpha A(k_w)`$ if and only if $`\lambda _\alpha ^{𝒪x}(\mathrm{Frob}_w)=0`$, where $`\mathrm{Frob}_w\mathrm{Gal}(F_\alpha (\frac{x}{\alpha })/F_\alpha )`$ is the Frobenius element at $`w`$.

###### Proof.

Fix an $`\alpha ^{\text{th}}`$-root $`\frac{x}{\alpha }`$ of $`x`$ in $`A(\overline{F})`$ and a place $`w^{}`$ of $`F_\alpha (\frac{x}{\alpha })`$ over $`w`$. If $`\lambda _\alpha ^{𝒪x}(\mathrm{Frob}_w)=0`$, then $`w^{}`$ is completely split over $`w`$ so that $`k_w^{}=k_w`$. In particular, $`\mathrm{red}_w^{}\frac{x}{\alpha }A(k_w^{})`$ lies in $`A(k_w)`$; thus $`\mathrm{red}_wx\alpha A(k_w)`$ as claimed.

Conversely, if there is $`yA(k_w)`$ with $`\alpha y=\mathrm{red}_wx`$, then $`y\mathrm{red}_w^{}\frac{x}{\alpha }`$ lies in $`A[\alpha ]`$. Since $`y`$ and $`A[\alpha ]`$ are both in $`A(k_w)`$ we conclude that $`\mathrm{red}_w^{}\frac{x}{\alpha }`$ is in $`A(k_w)`$ as well. In particular, we have

(1.4)
$$\mathrm{Frob}_w\left(\mathrm{red}_w^{}\frac{x}{\alpha }\right)\mathrm{red}_w^{}\frac{x}{\alpha }=0.$$

On the other hand, $`\mathrm{Frob}_w(\frac{x}{\alpha })\frac{x}{\alpha }`$ already lies in $`A[\alpha ]`$, which injects into $`A(k_w^{})`$; (1.4) thus forces

$$\mathrm{Frob}_w\left(\frac{x}{\alpha }\right)\frac{x}{\alpha }=0\text{ in }A(\overline{F}).$$

This says exactly that $`\lambda _\alpha ^{𝒪x}(\mathrm{Frob}_w)=0`$, as claimed. ∎

We assume now that $`𝒪`$ is commutative. Suppose that $`𝔞`$ is an ideal of $`𝒪`$ such that $`\beta 𝔞\alpha 𝒪`$ for some $`\alpha ,\beta 𝒪`$. Multiplication by $`\beta `$ then yields a map $`A[\alpha ]A[𝔞]`$.

###### Lemma 1.4.

Let $`\alpha ,\beta ,𝔞`$ be as above and fix $`xA(F)`$. Let $`w`$ be a finite place of $`F_\alpha `$, relatively prime to $`\alpha `$, at which $`A`$ has good reduction. If $`\beta \lambda _\alpha ^{𝒪x}(\mathrm{Frob}_w)0`$, then $`\mathrm{red}_wx𝔞A(k_w)`$.

###### Proof.

We prove the contrapositive. Suppose that $`\mathrm{red}_wx𝔞A(k_w)`$. Then

$$\beta \mathrm{red}_wx\beta 𝔞A(k_w)\alpha A(k_w),$$

so that there is $`yA(k_w)`$ with $`\beta \mathrm{red}_wx=\alpha y`$. On the other hand, fixing an $`\alpha ^{\text{th}}`$-root $`\frac{x}{\alpha }`$ of $`x`$ in $`A(\overline{F})`$ and a place $`w^{}`$ of $`F_\alpha (\frac{x}{\alpha })`$ lying above $`w`$, we also have $`\beta \mathrm{red}_wx=\alpha \beta \mathrm{red}_w^{}\frac{x}{\alpha }`$. Therefore

$$y\beta \mathrm{red}_w^{}\frac{x}{\alpha }A[\alpha ].$$

From here the argument proceeds as in the second half of the proof of Lemma 1.3 above to show that $`\beta \lambda _\alpha ^{𝒪x}(\mathrm{Frob}_w)=0`$. ∎

We remark that the converse of Lemma 1.4 holds in the case that $`\alpha 𝒪=𝔞𝔞^{}`$ with $`𝔞,𝔞^{}`$ relatively prime and $`\beta 𝔞^{}(1𝔞)`$.

## 2. Modules over commutative, reduced, finite, flat $`𝐙`$-algebras

### 2.1. Projections

Let $`𝒪`$ be a commutative, reduced, finite, flat $`𝐙`$-algebra. The normalization $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ of $`𝒪`$ decomposes as a product $`_{j=1}^h\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_j`$ of Dedekind domains. We say that a $`𝐙`$-linear map $`t:𝒪𝐙`$ is full if it is non-trivial on $`𝒪\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_j`$ for each $`j`$.

###### Lemma 2.1.

Fix a full map $`t:𝒪𝐙`$. Then the map

(2.1) $`\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(N,𝒪)`$ $`\mathrm{Hom}_𝐙(N,𝐙)`$
$`f`$ $`tf`$
has finite cokernel for any finitely generated $`𝒪`$-module $`N`$.

###### Proof.

Since $`𝒪`$ has finite index in $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$, it suffices to prove the result after replacing $`𝒪`$ by $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ and $`N`$ by $`N_𝒪\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$. We may therefore assume that $`𝒪`$ decomposes as a product $`𝒪_i`$ of Dedekind domains. There is then a corresponding decomposition $`N=N_i`$, and by the definition of a full map it suffices to prove the lemma for each factor $`N_i`$; that is, we may assume that $`𝒪`$ is a Dedekind domain.

In this case every finitely generated $`𝒪`$-module has a free submodule of finite index; this allows one to reduce to the case that $`N`$ is free, and then to the case that $`N`$ is free of rank one. (2.1) is then a map

(2.2)
$$𝒪=\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(𝒪,𝒪)\mathrm{Hom}_𝐙(𝒪,𝐙)$$

between two free $`𝐙`$-modules of the same rank, so that it suffices to prove that it is injective. For this, note that (2.2) is $`𝒪`$-linear; thus its kernel is an ideal of $`𝒪`$. However, every non-zero ideal of $`𝒪`$ has finite index and $`\mathrm{Hom}_𝐙(𝒪,𝐙)`$ is torsion-free; therefore (2.2) must be either zero or injective. As $`t`$ itself lies in the image, it is obviously non-zero. ∎

We now fix a finitely generated $`𝒪`$-module $`N`$ and a $`𝐙`$-submodule $`M`$ of $`N`$ containing the $`𝐙`$-torsion submodule $`N_{\mathrm{tors}}`$ of $`N`$.

###### Lemma 2.2.

Fix $`xN`$ and suppose that $`p`$ is a rational prime such that $`xM𝐙_{(p)}`$. Then there is an $`𝒪`$-linear map $`\psi :N𝒪`$ such that $`\psi (x)\psi (M)+p^n𝒪`$ for sufficiently large $`n`$.

###### Proof.

Choose a $`𝐙`$-basis $`y_1,\mathrm{},y_rN`$ of $`N/N_{\mathrm{tors}}`$ such that there are integers $`d_1,\mathrm{},d_r`$ with

$$M=d_1y_1,\mathrm{},d_ry_rN_{\mathrm{tors}}.$$

(Of course, some of the $`d_i`$ may be zero.) Writing $`x=a_1y_1+\mathrm{}+a_ry_r+t`$ with $`a_i𝐙`$ and $`tN_{\mathrm{tors}}`$, the fact that $`xM𝐙_{(p)}`$ implies that there is some index $`i`$ such that

(2.3)
$$\mathrm{ord}_pa_i<\mathrm{ord}_pd_i.$$

Let $`\psi _0:N𝐙`$ be $`\mathrm{\#}N_{\mathrm{tors}}`$ times projection onto $`y_i`$; this is a well-defined map, and it follows from (2.3) that $`\psi _0(x)\psi _0(M)+p^n𝐙`$ for sufficiently large $`n`$. (In fact, $`n>\mathrm{ord}_p(a_i\mathrm{\#}N_{\mathrm{tors}})`$ suffices.)

Fix a full map $`t:𝒪𝐙`$. By Lemma 2.1, we can find a non-zero integer $`b`$ such that $`b\psi _0`$ is in the image of (2.1). Thus there is an $`𝒪`$-linear map $`\psi :N𝒪`$ with $`b\psi _0=t\psi `$. Since $`t(p^n𝒪)p^n𝐙`$, we conclude that $`\psi (x)\psi (M)+p^n𝒪`$ for sufficiently large $`n`$, as desired. ∎

### 2.2. Pre-bases

We continue with $`MN`$ as before. Fix $`yN`$ not in $`N_{\mathrm{tors}}`$ and let $`\phi :𝒪𝒪y`$ be the $`𝒪`$-linear surjection sending $`1`$ to $`y`$. We define $`\eta _0(y)`$ to be the least positive integer $`m`$ such that there exists an $`𝒪`$-linear map $`\psi :𝒪y𝒪`$ with the composition

$$𝒪y\stackrel{𝜓}{}𝒪\stackrel{𝜑}{}𝒪y$$

multiplication by $`m`$. (Let $`K_j`$ denote the fraction field of $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_j`$; since $`𝒪𝐐=K_j`$, to see that any maps $`\psi `$ as above exist it suffices to prove the corresponding fact after replacing $`𝒪`$ by $`K_j`$. In this context the map $`\phi `$ idenitifes with the quotient map

$$K_j\underset{jJ}{}K_j$$

for some non-empty subset $`J`$ of $`\{1,\mathrm{},h\}`$, so that the existence of $`\psi `$ is obvious.)

We say that $`y_1,\mathrm{},y_rN`$ are an $`𝒪`$-pre-basis of $`N`$ if:

* $`y_iN_{\mathrm{tors}}`$ for all $`i`$;
* $`(𝒪y_1)\mathrm{}(𝒪y_r)`$ injects into $`N`$ with finite cokernel.

(Note that we do not require that the corresponding map $`𝒪^rN`$ is injective.) Let $`\eta ^{}(y_1,\mathrm{},y_r)`$ be the order of this cokernel and define

$$\eta (y_1,\mathrm{},y_r)=\eta ^{}(y_1,\mathrm{},y_r)\eta _0(y_1)\mathrm{}\eta _0(y_r).$$

It then follows from the definition of $`\eta _0(y_i)`$ that there are $`𝒪`$-linear maps

$$\psi _i^{y_1,\mathrm{},y_r}:N𝒪$$

for $`i=1,\mathrm{},r`$ such that

(2.4)
$$\eta (y_1,\mathrm{},y_r)y=\psi _1^{y_1,\mathrm{},y_r}(y)y_1+\mathrm{}+\psi _r^{y_1,\mathrm{},y_r}(y)y_r$$

for all $`yN`$. We usually just write $`\eta `$ and $`\psi _i`$ if the pre-basis $`y_1,\mathrm{},y_r`$ is clear from context. A standard inductive procedure shows that pre-bases always exist.

###### Proposition 2.3.

Fix $`xN`$ and suppose that $`p`$ is a rational prime such that $`xM𝐙_{(p)}`$. Then there is an $`𝒪`$-pre-basis $`y_1,\mathrm{},y_r`$ of $`N`$ such that $`\psi _1(x)\psi _1(M)+p^n𝒪`$ for sufficiently large $`n`$.

###### Proof.

By Lemma 2.2, we may choose an $`𝒪`$-linear map $`\psi :N𝒪`$ such that $`\psi (x)\psi (M)+p^n𝒪`$ for sufficiently large $`n`$. Let $`K^{}`$ denote the image of $`\psi 𝐐`$; we have $`K^{}=_{jJ}K_j`$ for some non-empty subset $`J`$ of $`\{1,\mathrm{},h\}`$. In particular, $`K^{}`$ is a projective $`K_j`$-module, so that there exists a map $`\phi _0:K^{}N𝐐`$ such that $`\psi \phi _0`$ is the identity on $`K^{}`$. Scaling $`\phi _0`$ by an integer we obtain an $`𝒪`$-linear map $`\phi :\stackrel{~}{𝒪}^{}N`$ such that $`\psi \phi `$ is mulitplication by some non-zero integer; here $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}^{}=_{jJ}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_j`$.

Set $`y_1=\phi (1)`$ and choose an $`𝒪`$-pre-basis $`y_2,\mathrm{},y_r`$ for $`\mathrm{ker}\psi `$. Then $`y_1,\mathrm{},y_r`$ is an $`𝒪`$-pre-basis of $`N`$ and $`\psi _1=m\psi `$ for some non-zero integer $`m`$. It thus follows from the definition of $`\psi `$ that $`\psi _1(x)\psi _1(M)+p^n𝒪`$ for sufficiently large $`n`$, as desired. ∎

### 2.3. Ideals

We continue with $`𝒪`$ as above. Fix a rational prime $`p`$ and write the $`𝐙`$-exponent of $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}/𝒪`$ as $`cp^d`$ with $`d0`$ and $`c`$ relatively prime to $`p`$. Let

$$p\stackrel{~}{𝒪}=\stackrel{~}{𝔭}_1^{e_1}\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{𝔭}_g^{e_g}$$

be the factorization of $`p\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ into prime ideals of $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$; for each $`i\{1,\mathrm{},g\}`$ we let $`\mu _p(i)`$ denote the unique $`j\{1,\mathrm{},h\}`$ such that $`\stackrel{~}{𝔭}_i`$ is the pullback of a prime ideal on $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_j`$. For $`yN`$ we define $`I_p(y)\{1,\mathrm{},g\}`$ to be the set of indices $`i`$ such that the image of $`y`$ in $`N_𝒪\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_{\stackrel{~}{𝔭}_i}`$ is non-torsion. In fact, since every proper ideal of each $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_j`$ has finite index, we have

(2.5)
$$I_p(y)=\{i;\mathrm{rank}_𝐙\left((𝒪\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_{\mu _p(i)})y\right)>0\}.$$

For $`i=1,\mathrm{},g`$ and any $`n`$, we define ideals of $`𝒪`$ by

$$𝔭_{i,n}=\stackrel{~}{𝔭}_i^{e_in}𝒪.$$

The reader is invited to focus on the case $`d=0`$, when $`𝔭_{i,n}=𝔭_{i,1}^n`$ and the analysis below is quite a bit simpler. In the general case, we have $`cp^d\stackrel{~}{𝔭}_i^n𝔭_{i,n}`$; since the $`\stackrel{~}{𝔭}_i`$ are relatively prime, it follows that

(2.6)
$$c^{g1}p^{d(g1)}𝒪𝔭_{i,n}+\underset{ji}{}𝔭_{j,n}$$

for all $`n`$. Furthermore, $`p^n\stackrel{~}{𝒪}𝒪p^{nd}𝒪`$ for $`nd`$, so that

(2.7)
$$p^n𝒪𝔭_{1,n}\mathrm{}𝔭_{g,n}p^{nd}𝒪;$$

(2.8)
$$c^{dg}p^{n+dg}𝒪𝔭_{1,n}\mathrm{}𝔭_{g,n}p^{nd}𝒪;$$

for any $`nd`$.

###### Lemma 2.4.

Let $`N`$ be a finitely generated $`𝒪`$-module. Fix $`\alpha 𝒪`$ and $`xN`$. Suppose that there is an index $`i`$ and non-negative integers $`a,b`$ such that:

1. $`\alpha 𝔭_{i,a}`$;
2. $`x𝔭_{i,b}N`$;
3. $`N[p^{a+d}]p^bN`$.

Then $`\alpha xp^{a+b+d}N`$.

###### Proof.

We first replace $`𝒪`$ by $`\underset{}{\mathrm{lim}}𝒪/𝔭_{i,n}`$, $`N`$ by $`\underset{}{\mathrm{lim}}N/𝔭_{i,n}`$, and $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ by $`\underset{}{\mathrm{lim}}𝒪/\stackrel{~}{𝔭}_i^n`$. Let $`\stackrel{~}{𝔭}`$ denote the maximal ideal of $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$, so that $`\stackrel{~}{𝔭}^{e_i}=p\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$; set $`𝔭_n=\stackrel{~}{𝔭}^{e_in}𝒪`$. With this notation we have $`\alpha 𝔭_a`$ and $`x𝔭_bN`$, and it suffices to prove that $`\alpha xp^{a+b+d}N`$. Note that $`\alpha \stackrel{~}{𝔭}^{e_ia}`$, so that there is some $`\beta \stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ with $`\alpha \beta =p^a`$.

Set $`C=\stackrel{~}{𝒪}/𝒪`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{N}=N_𝒪\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$; $`C`$ is killed by $`p^d`$ and there is an exact sequence

(2.9)
$$\mathrm{Tor}_1^𝒪(N,C)N\stackrel{𝜄}{}\stackrel{~}{N}N_𝒪C0.$$

Suppose now that $`\alpha xp^{a+b+d}N`$. Applying $`\iota `$ and multiplying by $`\beta `$, we find that $`p^a\iota (x)p^{a+b+d}\stackrel{~}{N}`$. By (2.9) we have $`p^d\stackrel{~}{N}\iota (N)`$, so that this implies that $`p^axp^{a+b}n\mathrm{ker}\iota `$ for some $`nN`$. Again by (2.9) this kernel is killed by $`p^d`$; we conclude that

$$p^{a+d}xp^{a+b+d}N.$$

Thus

$$xp^bN+N[p^{a+d}]p^bN𝔭_bN.$$

Since $`x𝔭_bN`$ by hypothesis, this yields the desired contradiction. ∎

## 3. Reductions of Mordell-Weil groups

### 3.1. Galois elements

Let $`A`$ be an abelian variety over a number field $`F`$. By \[5, Section 19, Corollary 2\] the ring $`𝒪:=\mathrm{End}_F`$ is a reduced, finite, flat $`𝐙`$-algebra. We further assume that it is commutative; we fix a rational prime $`p`$, and we continue with the notations of Section 2 for this ring $`𝒪`$ and prime $`p`$. By (2.6) we may fix $`a_{i,n}𝔭_{i,n}`$ and $`b_{i,n}_{ji}𝔭_{j,n}`$ such that $`a_{i,n}+b_{i,n}=c^{g1}p^{d(g1)}`$. The map

$`\phi _n:A[p^{nd}]`$ $`A[𝔭_{1,n}]\mathrm{}A[𝔭_{g,n}]`$
$`t`$ $`(b_{1,n}t,\mathrm{},b_{g,n}t)`$
is then well-defined by (2.8).

###### Lemma 3.1.

The cokernel of $`\phi _n`$ is bounded independent of $`n`$.

###### Proof.

Since $`p^n𝔭_{i,n}`$ we can define a map

$`\psi _n:A[𝔭_{1,n}]\mathrm{}A[𝔭_{g,n}]`$ $`A[p^{nd}]`$
$`(t_1,\mathrm{},t_g)`$ $`p^d(t_1+\mathrm{}+t_g).`$
As $`c^{g1}p^{d(g1)}b_{i,n}𝔭_{i,n}`$, the map $`\phi _n\psi _n`$ is just multiplication by $`c^{g1}p^{dg}`$. The lemma follows from this. ∎

For an $`𝒪`$-submodule $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of $`A(F)`$, we now write

$$\lambda _{𝔭_{i,n+d}}^\mathrm{\Gamma }:𝔤_{p^n}(\mathrm{\Gamma })\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(\mathrm{\Gamma },A[𝔭_{i,n+d}])$$

for the composition of $`\lambda _{p^n}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ with $`\phi _{n+d}`$ and projection to $`A[𝔭_{i,n+d}]`$. In the next lemma we use the natural map $`𝔤_{p^n}(\mathrm{\Gamma })𝔤_{p^m}(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ (corresponding to multiplication by $`p^{nm}`$ from $`\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(\mathrm{\Gamma },A[𝔭_{i,n+d}])`$ to $`\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(\mathrm{\Gamma },A[𝔭_{i,m+d}])`$) to regard $`\lambda _{𝔭_{i,m+d}}^\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ as a map from $`𝔤_{p^n}(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ for $`nm`$.

###### Lemma 3.2.

Let $`y_1,\mathrm{},y_r`$ be an $`𝒪`$-pre-basis of $`A(F)`$. Then there is an integer $`b`$ such that for all sufficiently large $`n`$ there is a $`\sigma _n𝔤_{p^n}(A(F))`$ with

$$\lambda _{p^n}^{𝒪y_j}(\sigma _n)=0\text{ for }j=2,\mathrm{},r;$$

$$\lambda _{𝔭_{i,b}}^{𝒪y_1}(\sigma _n)0\text{ for all }iI_p(y_1).$$

###### Proof.

The cokernel of the natural map

$$\pi :\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(A(F),A[p^n])\underset{j=1}{\overset{𝑟}{}}\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(𝒪y_j,A[p^n])$$

is bounded independent of $`n`$ by the definition of a pre-basis. Combined with Proposition 1.2, it follows that the cokernel of

$$\pi \lambda _{p^n}^{A(F)}:𝔤_{p^n}\left(A(F)\right)\underset{j=1}{\overset{𝑟}{}}\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(𝒪y_j,A[p^n])$$

is bounded independent of $`n`$. Finally, by Lemma 3.1 we conclude that the cokernel of the map

(3.1)
$$\begin{array}{c}𝔤_{p^n}\left(A(F)\right)\hfill \\ \hfill \left(\underset{iI_p(y_1)}{}\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(𝒪y_1,A[𝔭_{i,n+d}])\right)\left(\underset{j=2}{\overset{𝑟}{}}\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(𝒪y_j,A[p^n])\right)\end{array}$$

is bounded independent of $`n`$.

By the definition of the set $`I_p(y_i)`$, for each $`iI_p(y_1)`$ there is some $`m>0`$ such that $`p^{n+dm}\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(𝒪y_1,A[𝔭_{i,n+d}])0`$ for sufficiently large $`n`$. (That is, these groups grow with $`n`$.) Since the cokernel of (3.1) is bounded, it follows that there is an integer $`b`$ such that for sufficiently large $`n`$ there is $`\sigma _n𝔤_{p^n}(A(F))`$ with

$$\sigma _n|_{\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(𝒪y_j,A[p^n])}=0\text{ for }j=2,\mathrm{},r;$$

$$p^{n+db}\sigma _n|_{\mathrm{Hom}_𝒪(𝒪y_1,A[p_{i,n+d}])}0\text{ for all }iI_p(y_1).$$

By the remarks preceding the lemma, this $`\sigma _n`$ is the required element of $`𝔤_{p^n}(A(F))`$. ∎

###### Lemma 3.3.

Let $`y_1,\mathrm{},y_r`$ be an $`𝒪`$-pre-basis of $`A(F)`$. Then there is an integer $`b`$ such that for all sufficiently large $`n`$ there are infinitely many places $`w`$ of $`F_{p^n}`$ with

$$\mathrm{red}_wy_jp^nA(k_w)\text{ for }j=2,\mathrm{},r;$$

$$\mathrm{red}_wy_1𝔭_{i,b}A(k_w)\text{ for }iI_p(y_1).$$

###### Proof.

Let $`n`$ be sufficiently large and fix $`\sigma _n`$ as in Lemma 3.2. If $`w`$ is a place of $`F_{p^n}`$ with $`\mathrm{Frob}_w=\sigma _n`$ in $`𝔤_{p^n}(A(F))`$, then $`w`$ satisfies the conditions of the lemma by Lemmas 1.3 and 1.4. Since the Cebatorev density theorem guarantees the existence of infinitely many such $`w`$, the lemma follows. ∎

### 3.2. Reduction of subgroups

We are now in a position to prove our main result.

###### Proposition 3.4.

Let $`A`$ be an abelian variety over a number field $`F`$; assume that $`𝒪=\mathrm{End}_FA`$ is commutative. Fix a rational prime $`p`$ and let $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ be a subgroup of $`A(F)`$ containing $`A(F)_{\mathrm{tors}}`$. Suppose that $`xA(F)`$ is such that

(3.2)
$$\mathrm{red}_vx\mathrm{red}_v\mathrm{\Sigma }$$

for almost all places $`v`$ of $`F`$. Then $`x`$ lies in $`\mathrm{\Sigma }𝐙_{(p)}`$.

###### Proof.

Suppose that $`x\mathrm{\Sigma }𝐙_{(p)}`$. By Proposition 2.3 we can then choose an $`𝒪`$-pre-basis $`y_1,\mathrm{},y_r`$ of $`A(F)`$ such that there is an integer $`a`$ with

(3.3)
$$\psi _1(x)\psi _1(\mathrm{\Sigma })+p^a𝒪.$$

Let $`b`$ be the integer determined by $`y_1,\mathrm{},y_r`$ in Lemma 3.3 and fix $`n>a+b+2d`$. Let $`w`$ be a place of $`F_{p^n}`$ as in Lemma 3.3; by (3.2) we may further assume that there is a $`y\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ with $`\mathrm{red}_wx=\mathrm{red}_wy`$. Multiplying by $`\eta `$, by (2.4) we have

$$\psi _1(x)\mathrm{red}_wy_1+\mathrm{}+\psi _r(x)\mathrm{red}_wy_r=\psi _1(y)\mathrm{red}_wy_1+\mathrm{}+\psi _r(y)\mathrm{red}_wy_r.$$

Thus

(3.4)
$$\left(\psi _1(x)\psi _1(y)\right)\mathrm{red}_wy_1p^nA(k_w)$$

by the definition of $`w`$.

Set $`\alpha =\psi _1(x)\psi _1(y)`$; by (3.3) and (2.7), $`\alpha 𝔭_{i,a+d}`$ for some $`i`$. Fix such an $`i`$. Since $`\alpha \mathrm{im}\psi _1`$, by (2.5) we have $`iI_p(y_1)`$; thus we also have $`\mathrm{red}_wy_1𝔭_{i,b}A(k_w)`$ by the definition of $`w`$. Since $`A(k_w)[p^{a+2d}]p^bA(k_w)`$ (as $`A[p^n]A(k_w)`$ and $`a+b+2d<n`$), we may therefore apply Lemma 2.4 to conclude that $`\alpha xp^{a+b+2d}A(k_w)`$. Since $`a+b+2d<n`$, this contradicts (3.4), and thus proves the proposition. ∎

###### Corollary 3.5.

Let $`A`$ be an abelian variety over a number field $`F`$ and assume that $`\mathrm{End}_FA`$ is commutative. Let $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ be a subgroup of $`A(F)`$ containing $`A(F)_{\mathrm{tors}}`$ and suppose that $`xA(F)`$ is such that $`\mathrm{red}_vx\mathrm{red}_v\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ for almost all places $`v`$ of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. Then $`x\mathrm{\Sigma }`$.

###### Proof.

This is immediate from Proposition 3.4 applied for all primes $`p`$. ∎


text:
# Evolution of large-scale perturbations in quintessence models

## I Introduction

Recent observations seem to indicate that the Universe is undergoing a period of accelerated expansion acc . Whereas cosmologists initially introduced a cosmological constant in order to explain this, a range of different models have emerged, amongst which quintessence has been particularly prominent in the literature RP ; qui . It is defined as a scalar field rolling down its potential and presently dominating the dynamics of the Universe. An important class of quintessence models are known as tracking models RP ; qui , where the late-time evolution of the field has an attractor behaviour rendering its evolution fairly independent of initial conditions. In contrast to a cosmological constant, which is by definition perfectly homogeneous, the quintessence field can, and indeed must, have perturbations.

The evolution of perturbations in quintessence models have been studied by many authors RP ; quintperts ; BMR ; perts2 . In this paper we carry out an exhaustive and elegant analysis of those in the large-scale approximation. We model the contents of the Universe by a perfect fluid with equation of state $`w_\mathrm{f}`$ and a scalar field $`Q`$ with potential $`V(Q)`$. We assume a flat Universe throughout.

## II Background evolution

Before studying the perturbations, we recall some results for the homogeneous background evolution. The geometry of the Universe is described by a flat Robertson–Walker metric

$$\mathrm{d}s^2=\mathrm{d}t^2+a^2(t)\mathrm{d}𝐱^2.$$
(1)
The Einstein equations

$`H^2=\left({\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}}{a}}\right)^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{8\pi }{3m_{\mathrm{Pl}}^2}}\left(\rho _\mathrm{f}+\rho _Q\right),`$ (2)
$`2\dot{H}+3H^2=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}{\displaystyle \frac{\ddot{a}}{a}}+\left({\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}}{a}}\right)^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{8\pi }{m_{\mathrm{Pl}}^2}}\left(p_\mathrm{f}+p_Q\right)`$ (3)
relate the matter components to the geometry. The indices “f” and “$`Q`$” always refer to the perfect fluid and the quintessence field respectively, and dots are time derivatives. We will use a prime to denote a derivative with respect to $`N\mathrm{log}(a/a_0)`$.

The evolution of the fluid is straightforward, with its energy density scaling as $`a^{3(1+w_\mathrm{f})}`$, where $`w_\mathrm{f}`$ is the ratio of pressure to energy density of the fluid. The quintessence field follows the Euler–Lagrange equation

$$\ddot{Q}=3H\dot{Q}\frac{\mathrm{d}V}{\mathrm{d}Q}$$
(4)
and its equation of state is

$$w_Q\frac{p_Q}{\rho _Q}=\frac{\dot{Q}^2/2V(Q)}{\dot{Q}^2/2+V(Q)}.$$
(5)
Depending on the precise model and on the choice of initial conditions, the quintessence dynamics can feature up to five main regimes, which were classified by Brax et al. BMR  and which appear in a sequential order. During the first three the quintessence field is sub-dominant.111Actually, one can consider initial conditions with domination of the quintessence field, but they usually lead to an “overshoot” of the required present energy density, and are therefore not interesting. The “kinetic” regime is characterized by the domination of the kinetic energy which scales as $`a^6`$. In the “transition” and “potential” regimes the potential energy dominates and the energy density remains constant. The sound speed of the quintessence field is defined by

$$c_{\mathrm{s}Q}^2\frac{\dot{p}_Q}{\dot{\rho }_Q}=w_Q\frac{w_Q^{}}{3(1+w_Q)}=1+\frac{2}{3}\frac{\mathrm{d}V/\mathrm{d}Q}{H\dot{Q}},$$
(6)
and is equal to $`1`$ or $`2w_\mathrm{f}`$ respectively during those regimes. During the “tracker” regime the quintessence field approximately mimics the behaviour of the fluid, and usually its energy density is still sub-dominant when tracking begins. If $`w_Q=w_\mathrm{f}`$ there is perfect tracking, even if the quintessence field is not sub-dominant. Finally the field enters its “domination” phase, during which $`w_Q`$ tends to $`1`$ in most cases.

Four useful parameters can be defined to describe these five regimes. They are the quintessence density parameter $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$, the equation of state conveniently parametrized as $`\gamma _Q1+w_Q`$, the speed of sound $`c_{\mathrm{s}Q}^2`$ as defined in Eq. (6), and one further parameter relating to the speed of sound defined as

$$\theta _Q\frac{\left(c_{\mathrm{s}Q}^2\right)^{}}{1c_{\mathrm{s}Q}^2}=3(1+c_{\mathrm{s}Q}^2)\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}N}\mathrm{log}\left(Q^{}\mathrm{d}V/\mathrm{d}Q\right).$$
(7)
In order to simplify the notation, we define the vector $`𝐱(\mathrm{\Omega }_Q,\gamma _Q,c_{\mathrm{s}Q}^2,\theta _Q)`$. In Fig. 1, we show an example of the evolution of those parameters. We take the realistic case $`w_\mathrm{f}=1/3`$ during radiation domination and $`w_\mathrm{f}=0`$ during matter domination, and we use an inverse power-law quintessence potential. We clearly see the five different regimes, and also the transition between radiation domination and matter domination which in this case occurs during the tracking regime. In Table 1 we give the values of the parameters in the general case for each regime.

## III Perturbation evolution

In order to describe the perturbations we choose the conformal Newtonian gauge MFB . As long as there is no anisotropic stress, the perturbed metric is

$$\mathrm{d}s^2=(1+2\mathrm{\Phi })\mathrm{d}t^2+a^2(t)(12\mathrm{\Phi })\mathrm{d}𝐱^2,$$
(8)
where in this case $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is equal to the gauge-invariant potential defined as in Ref. MFB . We work in Fourier space and compute the first-order perturbed Einstein equations

$`3H(H\mathrm{\Phi }+\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}){\displaystyle \frac{k^2}{a^2}}\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`4\pi G(\delta \rho _\mathrm{f}+\delta \rho _Q),`$ (9)
$`\ddot{\mathrm{\Phi }}+4H\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}+(2\dot{H}+3H^2)\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`4\pi G(\delta p_\mathrm{f}+\delta p_Q),`$ (10)
where the perturbed fluid pressure $`\delta p_\mathrm{f}=w_\mathrm{f}\delta \rho _\mathrm{f}`$ and the perturbations in the quintessence energy density and pressure are given by

$`\delta \rho _Q`$ $`=`$ $`\dot{Q}\delta \dot{Q}\dot{Q}^2\mathrm{\Phi }+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{d}V}{\mathrm{d}Q}}\delta Q,`$ (11)
$`\delta p_Q`$ $`=`$ $`\dot{Q}\delta \dot{Q}\dot{Q}^2\mathrm{\Phi }{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{d}V}{\mathrm{d}Q}}\delta Q.`$ (12)
The perturbed Euler–Lagrange equation and fluid conservation equation lead to

$`\delta \ddot{Q}+3H\delta \dot{Q}+{\displaystyle \frac{k^2}{a^2}}\delta Q+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{d}^2V}{\mathrm{d}Q^2}}\delta Q=4\dot{Q}\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}2{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{d}V}{\mathrm{d}Q}}\mathrm{\Phi },`$ (13)
$`\dot{\delta _\mathrm{f}}3(1+w_\mathrm{f})\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}=(1+w_\mathrm{f}){\displaystyle \frac{k}{a}}𝒱_\mathrm{f},`$ (14)
where $`\delta _\mathrm{f}\delta \rho _\mathrm{f}/\rho _\mathrm{f}`$ and $`𝒱_\mathrm{f}`$ gives the fluid velocity. From now on we use $`N`$ as a time variable and study the evolution of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, $`\delta _\mathrm{f}`$, $`\delta _Q\delta \rho _Q/\rho _Q`$ and $`\delta _P\delta p_Q/\rho _Q`$ in the long-wavelength limit ($`k/aH1`$). We define the vector $`𝐲(\mathrm{\Phi },\delta _\mathrm{f},\delta _Q,\delta _P)^T`$, and considerable algebra leads to the expression

$$𝐲^{}=(\gamma _\mathrm{f},𝐱)\times 𝐲,$$
(15)
where the matrix $`(\gamma _\mathrm{f},𝐱)`$ is given by

$$(\gamma _\mathrm{f},𝐱)=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}1& \mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{f}/2& \mathrm{\Omega }_Q/2& 0\\ 3\gamma _\mathrm{f}& 3\gamma _\mathrm{f}\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{f}/2& 3\gamma _\mathrm{f}\mathrm{\Omega }_Q/2& 0\\ 3\gamma _Q& 3\gamma _Q\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{f}/2& 3\gamma _Q\mathrm{\Omega }_Q/2+3w_Q& 3\\ 3\gamma _Qc_{\mathrm{s}Q}^2& 3\gamma _Q\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{f}/2& 3\gamma _\mathrm{f}\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{f}/2+\theta _Q& 3\gamma _Q\mathrm{\Omega }_Q/2+3w_Q3\gamma _\mathrm{f}\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{f}/2\theta _Q3c_{\mathrm{s}Q}^2\end{array}\right).$$
(16)
In order to display the above expression in compact form we used the variables $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{f}=1\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ and $`w_Q=\gamma _Q1`$, but the matrix depends only on the five independent parameters $`\gamma _\mathrm{f}`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$, $`\gamma _Q`$, $`c_{\mathrm{s}Q}^2`$ and $`\theta _Q`$. Recall that $`\gamma _\mathrm{f}`$ and $`\gamma _Q`$ take on values between $`0`$ and $`2`$.

The general evolution is of course very complicated, but as seen in Fig. 1, during each of the five regimes described above the coefficients within the matrix take on constant values, and this allows us to study the main features of the perturbation evolution. We are interested in the eigenvalues $`n_i`$ of the matrix $``$ and their corresponding eigenvectors $`𝐲_i`$. The solution then takes the form

$$𝐲=\underset{i=1}{\overset{4}{}}A_i𝐲_i\mathrm{exp}(n_iN),$$
(17)
where the $`A_i`$ are constants given by the initial conditions.

### III.1 The adiabatic case

Before considering the general case, we restrict ourselves to adiabatic perturbations. For perturbations to be adiabatic, they must share a common perturbation according to the prescription

$$\frac{\delta \rho _\mathrm{f}}{\dot{\rho }_\mathrm{f}}=\frac{\delta \rho _Q}{\dot{\rho }_Q}=\frac{\delta p_Q}{\dot{p}_Q},$$
(18)
which ensures that all matter perturbations vanish on uniform-density hypersurfaces. Note that the quintessence pressure perturbation, as well as its density perturbation, must satisfy the adiabatic condition (for the perfect fluid adiabaticity of its pressure perturbation is automatically guaranteed by its equation of state). These conditions can be rewritten as

$$\frac{\delta _\mathrm{f}}{\gamma _\mathrm{f}}=\frac{\delta _Q}{\gamma _Q}=\frac{\delta _P}{c_{\mathrm{s}Q}^2\gamma _Q}.$$
(19)
It is well known that initially adiabatic perturbations remain purely adiabatic, and indeed it is not difficult to check that these conditions are conserved through evolution by our equations. We can therefore reduce the dynamical system in the adiabatic case to a system of two first-order equations. We define the vector $`𝐳(\mathrm{\Phi },\delta _\mathrm{f})^T`$, and using Eqs. (15) and (19) we find

$$𝐳^{}=𝒢(\gamma _\mathrm{f},\mathrm{\Omega }_Q,\gamma _Q)\times 𝐳,$$
(20)
where the matrix $`𝒢(\gamma _\mathrm{f},\mathrm{\Omega }_Q,\gamma _Q)`$ is given by

$$𝒢(\gamma _\mathrm{f},\mathrm{\Omega }_Q,\gamma _Q)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& \gamma _{\mathrm{tot}}/2\gamma _\mathrm{f}\\ 3\gamma _\mathrm{f}& 3\gamma _{\mathrm{tot}}/2\end{array}\right),$$
(21)
where $`\gamma _{\mathrm{tot}}=\gamma _\mathrm{f}\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{f}+\gamma _Q\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$. The eigenvalues and eigenvectors are given in the upper part of Table 2. We see, as is well known, that there are always a constant and a decaying adiabatic mode, the former giving the late-time solution $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\gamma _{\mathrm{tot}}\delta _\mathrm{f}/2\gamma _\mathrm{f}=\delta _{\mathrm{tot}}/2`$, where $`\delta _{\mathrm{tot}}\delta \rho _{\mathrm{tot}}/\rho _{\mathrm{tot}}`$.

### III.2 The general case

We now return to the full set of perturbation equations Eq. (15), continuing to consider the regimes in each of which the coefficients of the matrix $``$ remain constant. We summarize our main results in the lower part of Table 2. For the perfect tracker regime the eigenvectors $`𝐲_3`$ and $`𝐲_4`$ have not been given, since they are long and complicated formulas which are anyway not very relevant. In order to simplify some expressions we have used the variables

$`n_{\mathrm{ut1}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}(\gamma _\mathrm{f}2w_Q),`$ (22)
$`n_{\mathrm{ut2}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}(\gamma _\mathrm{f}+2w_Q),`$ (23)
$`n_{\mathrm{ut3}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}\sqrt{(2w_Q+\gamma _\mathrm{f})^28\gamma _\mathrm{f}},`$ (24)
$`n_{\mathrm{pt1}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}\left(2\gamma _\mathrm{f}\right),`$ (25)
$`n_{\mathrm{pt2}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}\sqrt{(2\gamma _\mathrm{f})(2\gamma _\mathrm{f}8\gamma _\mathrm{f}\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{f})}.`$ (26)
For each regime the adiabatic modes can easily be identified as the first two entries in the table. Now let us analyze the two other, non-adiabatic, modes. In the kinetic case there are a growing mode, for which $`\delta _P=\delta _Q`$ and thus $`\delta \dot{Q}=0`$ (since $`\mathrm{\Phi }=0`$), and another constant mode corresponding to $`\delta Q=0`$. During the transition and potential regimes the former growing mode becomes constant and for each regime the fourth mode is decaying. Therefore, before entering the tracker the quintessence field may feature large non-adiabatic perturbations. As long as the Universe is dominated by the fluid, they are isocurvature perturbations.

In the usual tracker case the last two eigenvalues may have an imaginary part, leading to oscillations, and their real part can either be negative or positive according to the value of $`\gamma _\mathrm{f}`$ and $`\gamma _Q`$. The regimes of the eigenvalues are shown in Fig. 2. However, since the quintessence field has to dominate at the present epoch, $`\rho _Q`$ must decrease more slowly than $`\rho _\mathrm{f}`$, and hence $`\gamma _Q<\gamma _\mathrm{f}`$. As one can see in Fig. 2, this implies $`\mathrm{Re}(n_{3,4})<0`$ . In the perfect tracker case one easily sees that the last two modes decay, possibly oscillating as they do. As long as all the other modes are decaying, during the tracker regime the constant adiabatic mode $`𝐲_1`$ is an attractor. As a result, a long tracker period implies the suppression of all non-adiabatic modes BMR ; perts2 . Moreover, in the case of a sub-dominant tracker the late-time evolution of the perturbations is even independent of the quintessence field initial conditions.

Finally, during the domination regime, which is reached after the present epoch, the non-adiabatic modes are constant and decaying.

## IV Conclusions

We have derived four first-order equations to describe large-scale perturbations in quintessence scenarios. During each of the five main regimes of quintessence behaviour, these equations have constant coefficients, enabling analytic solution of the perturbations by eigenvector decomposition.

We have seen that during the kinetic regime there is a growing isocurvature mode which then remains constant until tracking begins. However, if the quintessence field undergoes a long period of tracking, there remain only adiabatic perturbations which, in case of a sub-dominant tracker, are independent of its initial conditions. A low initial quintessence energy density ML , or a long kinetic period, may prevent the non-adiabatic modes disappearing completely.

It is possible in principle to carry out the same analysis without using the large-scale approximation, although the equations may then be too complicated to be useful.

###### Acknowledgements.

M.M. was supported by the Fondation Barbour, the Fondation Wilsdorf and the Janggen-Pöhn-Stiftung, and A.R.L. in part by the Leverhulme Trust. We thank Pier-Stefano Corasaniti for useful discussions.


text:
# Polymers near Metal Surfaces: Selective Adsorption and Global Conformations

## Abstract

We study the properties of a polycarbonate melt near a nickel surface as a model system for the interaction of polymers with metal surfaces by employing a multiscale modeling approach. For bulk properties a suitably coarse grained bead spring model is simulated by molecular dynamics (MD) methods with model parameters directly derived from quantum chemical calculations. The surface interactions are parameterized and incorporated by extensive quantum mechanical density functional calculations using the Car-Parrinello method. We find strong chemisorption of chain ends, resulting in significant modifications of the melt composition when compared to an inert wall.

PACS numbers: 68.43-Bc, 31.15-Ar, 61.25-Hq, 36.20-Ey

Understanding how polymer molecules behave near metal surfaces would greatly enhance our ability to control essential interfacial properties in a wide variety of problems, including adhesion, wetting and nano-dewetting, biomolecular recognition, and self-assembly, to name a few bigbook (1996); Uhlerr and Theodorou (1998). Such an understanding is, however, difficult to obtain, because widely disparate length scales come into play Baschnagel et al. (2000). Specifically, atomic-scale energetics dominate at the interface, where chemi- and physisorption of different small parts of the polymer molecules may occur. Such details of the interaction in turn affect the entropically-governed shapes of entire molecules and thus the bulk properties of the melt close to the surface. Gaining a better understanding of the fundamental nature of such an interface thus requires a multiscale modeling approach. The purpose of this letter is to describe a novel multiscale simulation for molecular-level modeling of polymers near metal surfaces. Liquid polycarbonate near a nickel surface is taken as a first example. It displays specific challenges to the method and at the same time is of high technical relevance, where fine control over material properties at the polymer-die interface is crucial (e.g. production of CD’s).

We combine ab initio calculations for the interaction of fragments of bisphenol-A-polycarbonate (BPA-PC; \[Fig 1(a)\]) and Ni with molecular-level coarse grained simulations of the polymer melt near a wall. In most polymerization processes for PC, the chain ends are phenoxy rings. We find that the adsorption of the phenoxy chain ends significantly alters the local melt structure. Such information is difficult to obtain directly from experiment and bears specific relevance to both the design of polymer recipes and die surfaces for optimal processing. Since the fragments considered here are not unique to BPA-PC, the results are of general importance for many organic polymers including biopolymers close to metal surfaces.

We first describe the ab initio part of our work. Then we introduce the coarse grained model and its modification to incorporate specific surface interactions and apply this to the PC melt near a Ni surface.

Our motivation to perform ab initio calculations is to ultimately understand how BPA-PC molecules interact with well-characterized surfaces. Such calculations are so expensive, however, that the study of even a single unit of BPA-PC near a Ni surface is not feasible. Our strategy is to cut the chain into comonomeric molecules, small enough to study the interaction with the surface. We consider three molecules analogous to the comonomeric subunits of BPA-PC \[Fig 1(b)\]: carbonic acid (i), propane (ii) and benzene (iii) representing carbonate, isopropylidene, and phenylene, respectively. Additionally, to systematically test our choices for the small molecule analogues, we also consider phenol (iv). Moreover, phenol itself on a metal surface is important, due to its toxicity, catalytic activity, and widespread occurrence as a byproduct. For our purposes here, however, we focus on how these molecules behave as BPA-PC comonomers, and examine the adsorption on a Ni {111} surface. For benzene on Ni{111}, we found an adsorption energy and geometry in good agreement with Refs. Mittendorfer and Hafner (2001); Yamagishi et al. (2001); Held et al. (2001). The main results to emerge from our ab-initio calculations, and incorporated into the coarse-grained model, are that the carbonic acid and propane molecules do not stick to the surface. Benzene, which has a strong adsorption in isolation, is sterically hindered to adsorb when incorporated into a BPA-PC chain, due to neighboring carbonate and isopropylidene groups. However, phenoxy end groups are not in this way sterically hindered, and hence may adsorb strongly to the surface.

We used the plane-wave pseudopotential CPMD code, Hutter at al. (1995-1999), implemented with finite-temperature density functional theory Alavi et al. (1994); Alavi (1996). The orbital cut-off was set to 60 Ry. We used the PBEBurke and Ernzerhof (1996) generalized gradient approximation (GGA). The surface is represented by four close-packed layers of Ni {111} (lattice parameter $`a_0`$ = 3.543 Å), with the top two layers allowed to relax. We used a ($`2\times 2`$) lateral supercell for carbonic acid and propane adsorption, and a ($`3\times 3`$) cell for benzene and phenol, employing $`4\times 4\times 1`$ and $`3\times 3\times 1`$ $`k`$-point mesh for the smaller and larger cells, respectively. Several geometry optimizations, starting from plausible structures compatible with possible orientations of the respective comonomers in a polymer chain, were performed at each of the four high-symmetry sites of the {111} surface. The adsorption energy ($`E_{\mathrm{ad}}`$), Table 1, defined as the energy of the adsorption system relative to the clean surface and isolated molecule, characterizes the strength of the interaction of each submolecule with the surface.

For both carbonic acid and propane, $`E_{\mathrm{ad}}`$ turned out to be rather small, 0.01 eV, which is both negligible compared to the inherent error due to the GGA and smaller than the characteristic thermal energies in typical melt processing of polycarbonate. The adsorption energies were not significantly changed by going to a larger cell (3$`\times `$3), i.e. lower coverage. Significant repulsion was experienced by both propane and carbonate below 3.2 Å, regardless of orientation, implying that achieving distances smaller than this value are highly improbable.

Benzene Mittendorfer and Hafner (2001), however, experiences a strong adsorption energy of $`E_{\mathrm{ad}}=`$ 1.05 eV at a center-of-mass distance $``$ 2 Å from the surface and in a horizontal orientation, in very good agreement with Mittendorfer and Hafner (2001). Since the carbonate and isopropylidene moities show strong repulsion for distances shorter than 3.2 Å, phenylene is sterically forbidden by its neighbours to approach the surface to its ideal adsorption distance. We therefore examined the interaction of benzene with the surface at larger distances, finding that adsorption is short ranged and decays below 0.03 eV at a distance beyond 3 Å. Therefore an internal phenylene comonomer has only a weak interaction with the surface. For phenol, we calculate an $`E_{\mathrm{ad}}=0.9`$ eV, at a distance of 2.0Å. Because no steric hindrance to the horizontal approach of a phenoxy end group to the surface exists, it is likely that only the chain ends adsorb strongly to the surface. We incorporate the above information into a coarse-grained model of BPA-PC melts next to a Ni{111} wall. More details and results of the ab initio study will be presented in a forthcoming publication Luigi, Cameron, and Ali .

Our polymer model is based on a previously presented coarse-graining technique Tschöp et al. (1998), in the meanwhile improved Abrams and Kremer (2002). The model reduces the number of degrees of freedom (“particles”) required to faithfully simulate specific polymer melts at a mesoscopic level to a minimum. Such a coarsening is necessary to generate equilibrated samples of long polymer chain liquids Tschöp et al. (1998), whose many different conformations are governed by the intrachain entropy, $`SN`$, $`N`$ the number of repeat units. Briefly, the atomic structure is mapped onto a bead-spring chain, where each bead, or mapping point, represents a specific comonomer \[Fig. 2 (a)\], resulting in four beads per BPA-PC repeat unit. This requires the enforcement of (1) fixed bead-bead bond lengths along the backbone; (2) specific bond angle distributions at each bead type; and (3) torsional states around bead-bead bonds along the backbone. The bond angle potential around the carbonate-type bead and the torsional potential at the phenylene connection between carbonate and isopropylidene beads are obtained from a Boltzmann inversion of distribution functions of an all-atom simulation of isolated chains at the desired temperature, which is 570K in our case. The average bead diameter and intermolecular length scale, which reflects the excluded volume of the molecules, fixes the mass and volume density of the melt Tschöp et al. (1998). Finally, planar Lennard-Jones 10–4 potentials represent the smooth confining walls Abrams and Kremer (2001). The bead-specific distances at which monomer subunits experience an average 1 $`kT`$ repulsion is taken directly from the ab initio calculations. For the phenoxy end groups and an attractive wall, the 10–4 potential is modified to show a well depth of 5 $`kT`$ at a distance of 2.7 Å. This distance is chosen because we represent the phenoxy end group as a sphere \[Fig. 2 (b)\], and the 5 $`kT`$/2.7 Å potential reflects to first order an average over all near-surface orientations of phenol, including the horizontally-oriented strongly adsorbed state Abrams and Kremer (2001).

We simulated melts of 160 chains of 20 repeat units (83 beads per chain, or a molecular weight of 5292), in a rectilinear box ($`L\times L\times 2L`$), by straightforward molecular dynamics. The runs are long enough to equilibrate the chain conformations in bulk and near the surface Abrams and Kremer (2001).

Because phenoxy chain ends are likely to stick strongly to the surface, we focus on this effect in the coarse-grained BPA-PC model. To do this, we consider the number density of phenoxy end groups, $`\rho _p`$, as a function of distance from the walls, $`z`$. To compare to experiments for spatially-resolved compositional analyses, a more natural quantity to consider is a cumulative normalized function, $`F(z)`$, defined as

$$F(z)\frac{1}{\rho _{p0}z}_0^z\rho _p(z^{})𝑑z^{},$$
(1)
where $`\rho _{p0}`$ is the bulk density of chain ends. $`F(z)`$ is the ratio of the number of end groups in a layer between 0 and $`z`$ and the number expected in such a layer given the overall density of the system in the absence of walls. $`F(z)`$ can be referred to as an intensity, which is the natural observable of some depth-resolved experimental techniques, such as angle-resolved XPS Cumpson (1995), none of which, to our knowledge, have yet been applied to polycarbonate/nickel interfaces.

In Fig. 3, we show $`F(z)`$ for the case in which the walls are completely neutral, and for the case in which the phenoxy end groups are allowed to adsorb via the energetic interaction discussed previously. Also shown in the inset is $`\rho _p(z)`$ for $`z<`$ 40 Å. For neutral walls the cumulative density quickly rises to the bulk value and remains constant. For this case there is a weak localization of phenoxy end groups at the surface (Fig. 3, inset), which is balanced by depletion on a length scale about one repeat unit ($``$ 8 Å). However, the cumulative normalized density never exceeds unity.

The situation is dramatically different when the chain ends are preferentially attracted to the walls. Here, $`F(z)`$ displays a steeply rising overshoot, which shows that the surface has a roughly eight-times excess of end groups. Though $`F(z)`$ decays over long length scales relative to the attractive potential, the chain ends are strongly localized near the surface (inset Fig. 3). Also there is a large depletion zone of chain ends in the liquid adjacent to this strongly adsorbed layer. As $`z`$ increases, the end group intensity decays to the bulk value at about 40 Å from the wall, which is larger than the mean gyration radius of about 30 Å. Viscoelastic consequences will be the subject of future work.

These results are intriguing in light of previous simulations Bitsanis and Hadziioannou (1990) of simple bead-spring chains, which showed that neither neutral or attractive walls produced chain end depletion layers that reflect the size of the chains. Our results indicate that walls that adsorb only chain ends do indeed show such a region in the melt. This highlights the importance of chain end mobility (and small molecule impurities) in the overall composition of a thin adsorbed polymer film.

In contrast, more recent mean-field calculations Wu et al. (1995) contend that natural enhancement of chain ends at neutral surfaces results in near-surface excess ends with an adjacent depletion zone whose depth reflects the size of the chains. Our results indicate that this is not a generic property of polymers. Instead, we find that this is only observed with an explicit end-surface attraction. When no such attraction is given, perturbations in end-group distribution in the liquid die out much less than a depth of $`R_g`$ from the wall. The discrepancy arises from the interplay between the intrachain statistics and the packing of the irregularly-shaped monomers near the surface.

By employing a multiscale approach, we showed how the interplay of entropic and energetic contributions can alter the structure of a polymer melt near a metal surface. Specifically, we predict that polycarbonate chain ends adsorb strongly to a nickel surface next to a polycarbonate liquid. This suggests modifying chain ends provides a reasonably sensitive way to control interfacial behavior of polycarbonate in the manufacture of optical data storage devices, and other modern nanostructured surfaces. The technique of marrying ab initio calculations involving small molecule analogues of polymeric comonomers with chemically-specific coarse grained models opens up the possibilty to study a wide array of biomolecule/metal surface interactions. Thus this study sheds a new light on the technically important field of polymer/metal surface interactions and highlights the important need for experimental contributions.

Acknowledgements: We are grateful to M. Parrinello for suggestions and for providing us the CPMD code, and to F. Müller-Plathe, G. Wegner, and B. Jones for comments and suggestions. The work was supported by the Bundesministerium für Bildung and Forschung, BMBF, grant No.03 N 6015. Images were rendered using the Raster3D package. Merritt and Bacon (1997)


text:
# Magnetic Field Dependence of Electronic Specific Heat in Pr1.85Ce0.15CuO4

## Abstract

The specific heat of electron-doped Pr1.85Ce0.15CuO4 single crystals is reported for the temperature range 2 - 10 K and magnetic field range 0 - 10 T. A non-linear magnetic field dependence is observed for the field range 0 - 2 T. Our data supports a model with lines of nodes in the gap function of these superconductors. Theoretical calculations of the electronic specific heat for dirty d-wave, clean d-wave, and s-wave symmetries are compared to our data.

PACS no.s: 74.25.Bt, 74.20.Rp, 74.25.Jb

The order parameter (gap) symmetry of the high-Tc cuprate superconductors(HTSC) is an important parameter in attempting to understand the pairing mechanism in these materials. For hole-doped cuprates experimental evidence strongly favors $`d`$-wave symmetry . Surprisingly, early experiments on electron-doped(n-type) Nd1.85Ce0.15CuO4 (NCCO) suggested a $`s`$-wave symmetry. Recent penetration depth , tri-crystal , photoemission , Raman scattering  and point contact tunneling experiments  on NCCO and Pr2-xCexCuO4 (PCCO) favor a $`d`$-wave symmetry. In addition to these measurements which show s-wave or d-wave symmetry, there are penetration depth  and point contact tunnelling  experiments that have shown evidence for a change in the order parameter as the doping changes from under-doped(d-wave) to over-doped(s-wave). However, since these prior measurements on the n-type cuprates are surface sensitive there is a need for bulk measurements (e.g. specific heat) to convincingly determine the pairing symmetry, as was the case for the p-type cuprates .

The specific heat is sensitive to low temperature electronic excitations. Different gap symmetries have different density of electronic states close to the Fermi level. Conventional low-Tc superconductors show a $`s`$-wave gap symmetry in which the electronic specific heat has an exponential temperature dependence, $`C_{el}T^{1.5}e^{\mathrm{\Delta }/kT}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the energy gap . For a clean $`d`$-wave superconductor electronic excitations exist even at the lowest temperatures. The electronic DOS is predicted to have a linear energy dependence close to Fermi level, and this shows up in the electronic specific heat as $`C_{el}T^2`$ .

In the mixed state, there are two types of quasiparticle excitations in the bulk of the superconductor: bound states inside the vortex cores, and extended states outside the vortex cores. In conventional $`s`$-wave superconductors, the in-core bound states dominate the quasiparticle excitations, therefore the electronic specific heat is proportional to the number of vortices. The number of vortices is linear in field, therefore the electronic specific heat is also linear in field. . In a superconductor with lines of nodes(e.g. $`d`$-wave symmetry), the extended quasiparticles dominate the excitation spectrum in the clean limit. It has been shown that the electronic specific heat has a $`\sqrt{H}`$ dependence in the clean limit  at T=0. For non-zero temperatures there is a minimum field that depends on temperature after which the $`\sqrt{H}`$ dependence should be observed. In the dirty limit the energy scale related to impurity bandwidth (or impurity scattering rate) is much larger than the energy scale related to the Doppler shift due to magnetic field(the dominant mechanism for the clean d-wave case), and much less than the superconducting gap maximum. In this limit, i.e. $`k_BT<<(H/H_{c2})\mathrm{\Delta }_0<<\mathrm{}\gamma _0<<\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ is the gap maximum and $`\mathrm{}\gamma _0`$ is the impurity band width, the magnetic field dependence deviates from $`\sqrt{H}`$, and an $`H\mathrm{log}(H)`$ like dependence is predicted below a certain field H\*, which depends on temperature and impurity concentration in the sample .

In this paper we present the first magnetic field dependent specific heat measurements on n-type cuprates which probe the symmetry of the superconducting state. The electronic specific heat has been observed to have a non-linear magnetic field dependence. The theoretical model for a clean $`d`$-wave symmetry fits reasonably well to our data, however there are deviations from this type of field dependence below $`H^{}`$=0.6 T (Fig.3). We find that a $`H\mathrm{log}(H)`$ type dependence gives a better fit to our data over the whole range, which means our data can better be described by a dirty d-wave symmetry. It is important to emphasize that the main point of this work is to address the question of s-wave vs d-wave, rather than clean d-wave vs dirty d-wave.

The specific heat data was obtained in the temperature range 2 - 10 K and the magnetic field range 0 - 10 T using the relaxation method . The measurements were repeated in two systems, a home-made setup and a Quantum Design PPMS with some modifications on the sample holder to remove the field dependence of the original chip. The addenda consists of a sapphire substrate with a thermometer and heater, and Wakefield thermal compound to hold the PCCO crystal. The addenda was measured separately and was found to have no magnetic field dependence within the resolution of our experiment($`\pm 2.5\%`$). The experiment was done on several optimally doped Pr1.85Ce0.15CuO4 single crystals (the mass of the crystals was 3-5 mg). The sample heat capacity is approximately equal to two times that of the addenda at $`T=2`$ K, and equal to that of the addenda at $`T=10`$ K. The crystals were grown by the directional solidification technique . The samples were characterized with a SQUID magnetometer and found to be fully superconducting, with similar transition temperatures Tc=22 K$`\pm `$2 K.

The specific heat of a d-wave superconductor usually has the following main contributions: the electronic contribution, which could have the form $`\gamma T`$ or $`\gamma T^2`$ depending on the field and temperature range the measurement is done, the phonon contribution, which at the temperature range of our experiment can be written as $`\beta T^3`$, and a Schottky contribution, which is caused by spin-1/2 paramagnetic impurities . Furthermore $`\gamma =\gamma (0)+\gamma (H)`$, where $`\gamma (H)`$ gives the field dependent part of the electronic specific heat coefficient, and $`\gamma (0)T`$ is the residual linear temperature dependent part of the electronic specific heat. $`\gamma (0)`$ is sample dependent, and its origin is not completely understood. . Non-electronic two-level systems away from the copper-oxide planes are one of the possible candidates for the origin of this term . This term has been found in all hole-doped samples studied .

Fig.1 shows temperature dependence of the specific of PCCO heat at four different fields, 0 T, 1 T, 2 T, and 10 T applied perpendicular to the ab-plane of the crystal. The field range 0-2 tesla is the relevant field range to extract the gap symmetry information , and at H=10 T the sample is completely in the normal state($`H_{c2}=8`$T at T=2K). Driving the sample to the normal state enables us to extract an important parameter, $`\gamma _n=6.7\pm 0.5`$ mJ/mole-K2, which is needed to compare our data to theoretical predictions quantitatively. A global fit which assumes the phonon coefficient, $`\beta `$, constant for all fields and $`\gamma `$ variable gives a $`\gamma (0)=1.4\pm 0.2`$ mJ/mole-K2. This value of $`\gamma (0)`$ is consistent with the values found for $`\gamma (0)`$ in the hole-doped superconductors($`\gamma (0)1`$ mJ/mole-K2 for YBCO ). The fact that we do not have any Schottky upturn at low temperatures for any field shows that our sample is free from a detectable level of magnetic impurities. From the slope of the lines, obtained through a global fit, $`\beta =0.29\pm 0.01`$ mJ/mole K4, and a Debye temperature $`\mathrm{\Theta }_D=362\pm 4`$ K has been extracted. These values are in reasonable agreement with the other published data in the literature($`\beta =0.244`$ mJ/mole K4, and $`\mathrm{\Theta }_D=382`$ K ).

Since the phonon specific heat is field independent and there is no Schottky contribution to the specific heat, subtracting the zero field specific heat from the specific heat at other fields gives the field dependent part of the electronic specific heat. Fig.2 shows the field dependent part of the electronic specific heat,$`\gamma (H)`$T, vs magnetic field at 3.4 K in the field range 0 \- 8 T. Fig.3 shows theoretical fits to the 3.4 K data in the field range 0 - 2 T. The clean d-wave fit is calculated using the equation:

$$C_{el}=\gamma _nT\left(\frac{8}{\pi }\right)\left(\frac{H}{H_{c2}/a^2}\right)^{1/2}for\left(\frac{TH_{c2}^{1/2}}{T_cH^{1/2}}\right)1$$
(1)
where $`\gamma _n=6.7`$ mJ/mole $`K^2`$ (from the intercept of our 10 T data in Fig. 1), $`H_{c2}=10`$ T, and $`a=0.7`$(this value was found experimentally for YBCO ) are used. The clean d-wave fit is clearly better than the linear s-wave fit. Possible non-linear behavior in an s-wave superconductor will be discussed below.

Even though the clean d-wave fit has a much better consistency than the linear s-wave fit, there seem to be deviations between our data and the clean d-wave theory below $`H^{}=0.6`$ T, which would be expected from a dirty d-wave superconductor. In fact, being in the dirty limit is not unexpected, since the penetration depth measurements performed on similar crystals, grown by this group, were also consistent with dirty d-wave symmetry . For clean d-wave symmetry the change in the penetration depth as a function of temperature is linear in temperature($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`\lambda `$(T) $``$ T), whereas a quadratic temperature dependence($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`\lambda `$(T) $``$ T2) is expected if the nodes are filled by impurity states, i.e. dirty d-wave. A quadratic temperature dependence has been observed consistently by two different groups on many crystals they studied . If a dirty d-wave function of the type $`C_{el}(H)=A\mathrm{log}(B/H)`$ is fitted to our data, an excellent fit is obtained for the fitting parameters $`A=6.2\pm 0.6`$ mJ/mole-K and $`B=17.6\pm 4.7`$ tesla. We compared these parameters with the theoretical predictions  calculated from the equation:

$$C_{el}(H)=\gamma _nT\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_0}{8\mathrm{}\gamma _0}\right)\left(\frac{H}{H_{c2}/a^2}\right)Log\left(\frac{\pi H_{c2}}{2a^2H}\right),$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{}\gamma _0`$ is the impurity band width, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ is the superconducting gap maximum, and $`a`$ is a geometrical factor related to vortex lattice geometry. Substituting $`H_{c2}=10`$ T and $`a=1`$, the fitting parameter $`B=\left(\frac{\pi H_{c2}}{2a^2}\right)`$ can be calculated to be 15.7 tesla, in reasonably good agreement with the value generated by our data $`B=17.6\pm 4.7`$ tesla. The other fitting coefficient $`A`$ can be calculated from $`A=\gamma _nT\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_0}{8\gamma _0}\right)\left(\frac{1}{H_{c2}/a^2}\right)`$. However the parameter $`\gamma _0`$, which is related to the density of impurities in the sample and is sample dependent, is not known. Therefore by using the experimental $`A=6.2\pm 0.7`$ mJ/mole-K value, $`\mathrm{}\gamma _0`$ can be estimated to be 2.1 K, which is in good agreement with high quality YBCO samples .

Our analysis at the other temperatures(Fig.4) also produced results similar to the T=3.4 K data. For T=2.3 K, $`A=3.1\pm 0.2`$ mJ/mole-K and $`B=18.0\pm 4.7`$ tesla, and for T=2.7 K $`A=4.3\pm 0.5`$ mJ/mole-K and $`B=18.7\pm 4.9`$ tesla are found. Theoretically the coefficient $`B`$ should be the same for all temperatures, and the coefficient $`A`$ should be linearly proportional to the temperature. The best fits to the data generated the same values for $`B`$ within the error range, and the values for $`A`$ scale with temperature, even though not in perfect agreement with the theory.

We should mention that the s-wave theory we used to fit our data neglects non-linear effects that might arise in the vicinity of $`H_{c1}`$ due to vortex-vortex interaction or due to a possible change in the size of the vortex cores. Some experiments performed on s-wave superconductors have shown non-linear, even $`\sqrt{H}`$, magnetic field dependence for $`C_{el}`$. However the field dependence is not consistent for different temperatures, which means depending on what temperature the field dependence is probed, the electronic specific heat has a different field dependence. Different groups have observed $`C_{el}H^n`$ for almost any value of n between 0.5 to 1 depending on what material they studied and at what temperature range they performed their experiment . While we can not definitively rule out s-wave symmetry as an explanation for our data we believe that a dirty d-wave symmetry gives the most consistent and plausible fit to our data.

In conclusion, our specific heat data strongly suggests that the $`d`$-wave symmetry in electron doped PCCO at optimal doping is a bulk property of the material. However, due to non-magnetic impurities in our sample, the electronic specific heat follows a magnetic field dependence of type $`H\mathrm{log}(H)`$ below H=0.6 T, consistent with dirty d-wave symmetry. In addition, the normal state Sommerfeld constant of PCCO, $`\gamma _n`$=6.7$`\pm `$0.4 mJ/mole-K2, has been measured for the first time.

We thank Prof. Peter J. Hirschfeld, and Prof. Chandan Dasgupta for insightful discussions. P. F. acknowledges the support of the Canadian Institute of Advanced Research(CIAR), The Canadian Fondation for Innovation(CFI), The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research ouncil of Canada(NSERC), The Foundation of the Université de Sherbrooke. The work at Maryland was supported by the NSF DMR 01-02350.