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# Hydrodynamic modes in a trapped gas of metastable helium above the Bose-Einstein transition

## I Introduction

Soon after the experimental realization of Bose-Einstein condensation in trapped atomic gases, studies of collective excitations in these systems have become a subject of intense investigation by several groups . At very low temperature, when the system is Bose-Einstein condensed, it can be described by the hydrodynamic equations of a superfluid , which give predictions in good agreement with experiments performed with alkali condensates. At higher temperature, the mean field effects become less important and collisions turn out to be the dominant factors. For an ultracold gas above the critical temperature of condensation, the dynamical behavior of the dilute gas can be described by the Boltzmann equation. In this case two extreme situations can occur: - the hydrodynamic regime, where the mean free path between the colliding particles is small compared to the dimensions of the cold cloud confined in its trap - and the collisionless regime where the motion is described by the single particle Hamiltonian. In both cases, when excited, the system shows well-defined oscillations resulting from the external magnetic confinement, for which predictions have been made (see for instance  or  and references therein). The frequency and the damping rates of the gas oscillations can be calculated for a classical gas confined in an harmonic trap, neglecting the mean field effects. In reference  results are given for the monopole-quadrupole modes of excitation, both for the hydrodynamic and for the collisionless regime, with an explicit description of the transition between the two regimes. Many experimental studies have focused on collective excitations of such gases. Experiments have studied low-lying excitations over large ranges of temperature. For all the available data dealing with the thermal cloud of trapped alkali gases significantly above the critical temperature $`T_c`$ the regime is collisionless, due to the relatively low value of the atomic density and of the $`s`$-wave scattering length ruling the elastic collision rate at very low temperatures. Experiments performed at MIT with a dense gas of sodium provided oscillations of the thermal cloud analogous to first sound and approaching the hydrodynamic regime . However this regime was never completely reached and the complete check of the predictions of  is still to come.

When Bose-Einstein condensation of metastable helium was first achieved in 2001 , it was soon realized that the large estimated value of the scattering length (16 $`\pm `$ 8 nm) would favor a situation where the hydrodynamic regime could be observed in the thermal cloud above $`T_c`$. In particular our experiment at ENS seemed appropriate for such a study because of its relatively large number of atoms at the transition ($`8\times 10^6`$). We thus decided to focus on the study of collective excitations in the thermal cloud above $`T_c`$. The present article first briefly recalls the experimental set-up and the quantitative results already obtained for the relevant parameters: atomic density, temperature, elastic collision rate at the end of the evaporative cooling ramp. Then we explain the generation of excitations in the cigar shaped thermal cloud and describe the optical measurements of the oscillations of the monopole-quadrupole $`m=0`$ mode generated along the weak axis of the cloud. The data for the damping and the frequency of the mode are compared with the predictions of reference  and a discussion follows. In particular one finds a discrepancy between the elastic collision rate estimated from the initial data of  and those actually measured through the present method.

## II Magnetic trapping and optical detection

The production of a Bose-Einstein condensate of 4He atoms in the metastable $`2^3S_1`$ state at ENS is first reported in  and described in more detail in . The metastable atoms are produced from a cryogenic discharge source at a rate of $`10^{14}`$ at/s/sr. The atomic beam is manipulated by a laser operating on the $`2^3S_12^3P_2`$ transition of the helium atom at 1.083 $`\mu `$m. After transverse collimation, deflection and longitudinal deceleration in a 2 m long Zeeman slower, the beam loads a magneto-optical trap using laser beams with a large detuning compensated by a large intensity, in order to minimise the rate of inelastic Penning collisions induced by the laser .

The atomic cloud of typically $`10^9`$ atoms at 1 mK is then transfered into a magnetic trap through a multistep process  with an efficiency of about 75%. The magnetic trap that we use for the confinement is sketched in figure 1.

Three coils Q1, Q2, C3 of relatively small size realize an anisotropic magnetic Ioffe-Pritchard trap. Two additional Helmholtz coils H1 and H2 reduce the bias field in order to increase the radial confinement. A current of 46.6 A in all five coils produces a 5 G bias field, radial gradients of 266 G/cm and an axial curvature of 186 G/cm2. The trap depth is then about 16 mK, the trap frequency along the $`x`$ axis ($``$) is $`\omega _{}/2\pi =\omega _x/2\pi =115`$ Hz. The radial frequency is $`\omega _y/2\pi =\omega _z/2\pi =190`$ Hz without compensation of the bias and 988 Hz with a 5 G bias field. The cold cloud at thermal equilibrium has a cigar shape, elongated along the $`x`$ axis and with a cylindrical symmetry in the radial directions along the $`y`$ and $`z`$ axis. When required the cloud can be further compressed in the radial direction: for this we use another pair of Helmholtz coils delivering an additional field along the $`x`$ axis which reduces the value of the bias field below 5 G down to nearly 0. The current in the 5 coils can be switched off in 200 $`\mu `$s, but eddy currents induced in several pieces of the set-up in the vicinity of the cell create relatively strong transient field gradients which disappear with a time scale of a few ms. One has to take into account this phenomenon which can create some difficulties when deducing quantitative values from time of flight measurements.

The optical detection is shown in Fig. 1. One measures the absorption of a laser probe beam passing through the atomic cloud with a CCD camera (Hamamatsu C4880) with 1.5% efficiency at the wavelength $`\lambda =`$1.083 $`\mu `$m. The laser source is a DBR diode laser (SDL 60702 H1) operated in an extended cavity and amplified by an Yb doped amplifier. The probe pulse is long enough (100 $`\mu `$s) and intense enough ($`I=0.2I_{sat}`$) to give a reasonable signal to noise ratio in spite of the low efficiency of the detector. The magnification being of the order of 1, the resolution of the images is given by the size of the detector pixel, namely 24 $`\mu `$m. Usually the image of the cold cloud in the trap is too small to be detected with a good resolution. Thus after switching off the trap, we let the cloud expand for a few ms and take a picture. We deduce from the images both the actual size of the cloud in the trap and its temperature.

The temperature is ramped down in the magnetic trap by evaporative cooling. Details about the optimisation of the ramp are given in reference . In 8 s one decreases the temperature down to the $`\mu `$K range, whereas the phase space density increases by 6 orders of magnitude and one reaches the Bose-Einstein condensation around 5 $`\mu `$K. At the threshold of the transition the dimensions of the cloud have decreased to 90 and 9 $`\mu `$m in the axial and radial directions, respectivrly.

## III Relevant parameters

### A Number of atoms

An important parameter for collision studies is the total number of atoms. As already discussed in , a proper calibration of this number $`N`$ is difficult to extract with a good precision from the absorption images, due to various difficulties dealing with the duration of the pulse, the Penning collisions that it induces, its pushing of the atoms, and stray magnetic fields produced by eddy currents. We are currently developing a calibration method based on fluorescence measurements that will be published elsewhere. For the time being we prefer to rely on the method discussed in  based on the determination of the critical temperature $`T_c`$ for the condensation. $`T_c`$ is deduced from measurements of the relative number of atoms in the condensate and in the thermal cloud as a function of temperature. The determination of the critical temperature does not require knowing the absolute number of atoms in each phase. However it can be used to evaluate the number of atoms $`N_c`$ at the transition, assuming that one deals with an ideal bosonic gas. If so, $`N_c`$ and $`T_c`$ are related by:

$$N_c=1.2(k_bT_c/h\overline{\nu })^3$$
(1)
where $`h`$ is the Planck constant, $`k_b`$ the Boltzmann constant and $`\overline{\nu }`$ the geometrical average of frequencies of the trap (482 Hz). Measurements of reference  gave $`T_c=4.7\pm 0.5\mu `$K. One thus deduces $`N_c=8.2\times 10^6`$ atoms with an uncertainty of 30%. We neglected the possible errors resulting either from mean field interactions or from quantum correlations (see the discussion of note 13 in reference ). Once calibrated at $`T_c`$ the number of atoms $`N`$ is deduced for any temperature above $`T_c`$.

### B Scattering length

The scattering length $`a`$ is another important parameter relevant for the present studies, as the scattering processes for metastable helium atoms occur only in the $`s`$-wave channel at very low temperatures. There are several ways of estimating the value of $`a`$ from the present experiment. All of them suppose that the absolute number of atoms is known. As the uncertainty on this number is large, the value of $`a`$ is also derived with a large error bar. We here chose to rely on the method described in , in which the scattering length is deduced from the size of the condensate. Its value is determined from the characteristic size of the ground state of the trap and from the chemical potential $`\mu `$, which can be calculated from the size of the condensate in the Thomas-Fermi limit . We then find the value $`a=16\pm 8`$ nm, consistent with the experimental measurement of  and theoretical calculations of  and  estimating $`a`$ of the order of 8 nm (with no error estimate). A recent calculation  is also compatible with the present experimental value but does not give more indication on its precision.

### C Elastic collision rates

Finally from the previous values of parameters $`N_c`$ and $`a`$, one can deduce a value for the elastic collision rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{coll}`$ in the thermal cloud just at the transition before condensation. We use the simple formula:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{coll}=\overline{n}\sigma \overline{v}$$
(2)
where $`\overline{n}`$ is the average density and $`\overline{v}`$ is the mean relative velocity of the atoms at the transition temperature of 4.7 $`\mu `$K. One easily finds that:

$$\overline{v}=4\sqrt{\frac{k_bT}{\pi m}}=23\text{cm\hspace{0.17em}s}^1$$

and

$$\overline{n}=1.4\times 10^{13}\text{cm}^3.$$

The value of the cross section $`\sigma `$ is estimated from that of the scattering length by:

$$\sigma =8\pi a^2=6.4\times 10^{11}\text{ cm}^2$$

which finally results in:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{coll}=2\times 10^4\text{s}^1.$$
(3)
The uncertainty on this value is estimated within a factor of 4 which combines those on $`a`$, on $`N_c`$ and on $`T`$. However it can be compared to the low angular frequency of the trap ($`\omega _{}=2\pi \times 115`$ Hz), and one finds a ratio $`\omega _{}/\mathrm{\Gamma }_{coll}=0.04`$, much smaller than 1. A collision rate higher than the trap frequency also means that the mean free path $`L1/\overline{n}\sigma `$ of the atoms between collisions is smaller than the dimensions of the cloud. Near the critical temperature, $`L11\mu \text{m}`$, which is smaller than the size of the cloud along the weak axis $`\sigma _{}140\mu `$m. We can thus assume that one enters into the hydrodynamic regime, an interesting feature for a cold gas above the transition, as stated in the introduction. These results motivated us to undertake the following studies of the collective excitations in the thermal cloud above $`T_c`$.

## IV Generation and detection of excitation modes

We decided to generate the lowest excitation modes in the cold gas. The goal of this study is to observe the oscillations of the cold cloud in the axial direction after it receives a kick appropriate to generate the monopole-quadrupole $`m=0`$ mode. Let us recall that in an anisotropic trap the modes $`l=m=0`$ (monopole) and $`l=2`$, $`m=0`$ (quadrupole) are coupled and this results in two so-called ’monopole-quadrupole’ modes. We study the low-frequency monopole-quadrupole mode, for which the axial and radial oscillations are in opposite phase.

The calculations of reference  predict changes for the frequency $`\omega _Q`$ and for the damping $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_Q`$ of the oscillation mode when the collision rate varies from a collisionless regime to a hydrodynamic regime (see Fig. 3). We thus decided to measure the response in time of the ellipticity of the cloud after the mode is excited. We repeated the measurements at various temperatures above $`T_c`$ in a large range of collision rates, expecting to reach the hydrodynamic regime at the vicinity of the condensation transition.

The excitation is made by a transient pulse of magnetic field giving a kick to the trapped cloud. Several procedures were used and finally we found that the most efficient one is the following one:

\- One starts with the gas at rest in the trap at a given temperature $`T`$ above $`T_c`$ in the conditions used for the evaporative cooling ramp, namely with a bias field $`B_0`$ of 5 G resulting of an equal current in the 5 coils of the trap.

\- One abruptly lowers the bias field $`B_0`$ along the weak axis ($`x`$ direction) to a fraction of a Gauss by applying an appropriate current to the additional bias coils mentioned above. This creates a compression in the radial direction, the cloud becomes very elongated. The trap is no longer harmonic but the atomic density increases dramatically.

\- One simultaneously creates a sinusoidal modulation of this compression field with the additional bias coils. The amplitude of the short modulation pulse is of order 0.15 G, its duration of order 15 ms (3 periods). We chose a modulation frequency of 180 Hz, intermediate between 2 $`\nu _{}`$ and 1.55 $`\nu _{}`$ which are the expected frequencies for the low frequency monopole-quadrupole mode in the two extreme cases, the collisionless regime and the hydrodynamic regime .

\- Just after this pulse one changes the bias field again and sets it to about 2 G, a value significantly lower than the usual bias field $`B_0`$ of 5 G. This value is chosen in order the obtain the maximum compression of the gas compatible with an harmonic trap. On the one hand the higher the compression, the larger the collision rate, facilitating the entrance into the hydrodynamic regime. On the other the trap has to remain harmonic, meaning that the condition $`\mu B/k_bT1`$ must remain fulfilled, to avoid that the intrinsic frequency of the trap is changed by the anharmonicity.

One can show that such a procedure allows to excite the low frequency monopole-quadrupole mode $`m=0`$.

## V Experimental results, comparison with theory

We monitor the evolution of the ellipticity of the cloud as a function of time after the oscillation is produced. Actually the ellipticity oscillates at the same frequency as the collective mode with the same damping in case of a sufficiently small excitation. A measurement is shown in Fig.2.

From such data one extracts the oscillation frequency $`\omega _Q`$ and the damping rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_Q`$ of the excitation mode. For instance the results of Fig. 2, taken at $`3T_c`$ , give $`\omega _Q/2\pi =191\pm 6`$Hz and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_Q/2\pi =25.3\pm 0.8`$ Hz. This experiment is repeated several times at different values of the elastic collision rate obtained by varying the final frequency of the RF knife of the evaporation ramp.

The results are compared with the predictions of the classical theory of reference , which are recalled in Fig. 3.

These results derive both from numerical simulations and from analytical calculations, which are in excellent agreement. One notes that the ratio $`\omega _Q/\omega _{}`$ decreases from 2 for the collisionless regime to 1.55 for the hydrodynamic regime, whereas $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_Q/\omega _{}`$ goes to 0 at both ends but reaches a maximum in between the two regimes. The results of Fig.3a and Fig.3b can be combined to give the curve of Fig.4.

Fig.4 shows the experimental data we obtained. The advantage of such a presentation is that only relative values of the measured frequencies are used, which are known with good precision. One does not require knowledge of the collision rates, which is difficult due to the uncertainties in the present stage of the experiment. In Fig. 4 we plotted the points (called ”ENS”) corresponding to the highest collision rates that we were able to achieve at a temperature of about $`3T_c`$. The comparison between experimental data and theoretical calculation allows us to make an indirect measurement of the elastic collision rate in the excited cloud. The highest collision rate that we obtained is in the range of $`3.5\times 10^3`$ s-1. One remarks that we were unable to reach the expected collision rate of $`2\times 10^4s^1`$ which is indicated with a cross in Fig. 4 and which was estimated independently at the transition . We also plotted the results obtained by the group of W. Ketterle at MIT  for cold Na atoms.

## VI Discussion

Usually, when the initial elastic collision rate is high enough, the RF evaporation ramp enters in the so-called run-away regime, where both phase space density and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{coll}`$ increase exponentially. So we expect to measure the highest collision rate at the Bose-Einstein transition. In our case, we observed that the phase space density always increases (leading to the Bose-Einstein condensation) but on the contrary, at the very end of the evaporation ramp, the collision rate starts to decrease. The two behaviors are not incompatible since the phase space density scales like $`N/T^3`$ whereas the collision rate scales like $`N/T`$. Monitoring the evolution of the elastic collision rate along the evaporation ramp can be easily done while monitoring the optical density ($`OD`$) at the center of the cloud. Actually, both quantities are proportional in a harmonic trap : $`ODN/T\mathrm{\Gamma }_{Coll}`$. The evolution of the optical density of the cloud during the evaporative cooling is plotted in Fig. 5. This plot shows that the highest elastic collision rate we can produce is obtained at about $`3T_C`$. Then, instead of getting deeper into the hydrodynamic regime, the elastic collision rate turns back towards lower values while approaching the transition.

Actually, while studying the monopole-quadrupole excitation, the highest elastic collision rate measured in Fig. 4 ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{Coll}^{max}3.5\times 10^3`$ s-1) was obtained after evaporation down to about $`3T_C`$, and after additional compression of the magnetic trap. From this value we can infer the corresponding elastic collision rate before additional compression : $`2\times 10^3`$ s-1. Then, from Fig. 5 we can infer the collision rate at the critical temperature $`T_C`$ which is about twice as small, leading to $`10^3`$ collisions per second. This value is about 20 times smaller than the one derived from the measurement of the critical temperature of the phase transition.

Within our error bars, assuming 8 nm for the scattering length instead of 16 nm reduces by 4 the discrepancy between the two independent measurements of the elastic collision rate. Then, when we first estimated the collision rate knowing the critical temperature, the number of atoms at the transition was nearly twice as large as it was when we produced collective excitations, which also explains part of the discrepancy. Still it is not enough to conclude to the agreement between the two values. We are still working on improving the accuracy of both kinds of measurement to understand the discrepancy. In particular we started studying in more detail the effects of eddy currents on the measurement of the temperature. In fact, magnetic fields remaining after the switching off of the trap Zeeman shift the optical lines and modify the absorption cross section of atoms during the optical detection. This modification is not homogeneous in space and might lead to a systematic error on the effective measurement of the size of the cloud after free expansion, and, consequently, of the critical temperature.

In order to find out why we leave the run-away regime at the end of the evaporative ramp, we studied losses and heating rates. For instance we measured heating rates of 20 $`\mu `$K/s at $`3T_c`$. A possible explanation is related to inelastic Penning Ionization taking place when the density becomes high enough. A dominant process is the formation of He+ ions and He atoms in the ground state which have very large kinetic energy originated from the internal energy of the metastable atoms (about 20 eV). These hot products might collide with trapped metastable atoms and heat them up via elastic collisions . Estimates from numbers given in  lead to the right order of magnitude for the heating rate. The more hydrodynamic, the more efficient the heating process will be , apparently leading to a limitation in the highest elastic collision rate we can produce.

In conclusion, the route towards the hydrodynamic limit has been explored further than in any other reported experiment on collective excitation modes. Especially the measured frequency of the excited mode is strongly shifted towards the hydrodynamic regime as predicted. The experiment is still under progress, and we hope to go deeper into the hydrodynamic regime. However, intrinsic limitations due to inelastic collisions have been found.

Acknowledgements: The authors wish to thank the writers of  for allowing the reproduction of part of their work (Fig. 3). This work was supported by La Région Ile-de-France through SESAME contract number 521027.


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# Astrometry of the stellar image of U Her amplified by the circumstellar 22 GHz water masers

## 1 Introduction

The circumstellar envelopes (CSEs) around late-type stars contain several maser species that are excellent probes of the dynamics of the outflowing material. Astrometric observations are an important tool to study the locations and motions of the circumstellar masers with respect to the central star. This understanding is essential to reach the main goal of maser astrometry, which is to determine the distances to heavily enshrouded stars, that are too faint for their parallax to be determined directly.

### 1.1 Circumstellar H2O masers

Interferometric observations of the 22 GHz H2O masers in the CSEs of Mira-variable stars with MERLIN, the VLA and Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) indicate that the H2O masers are found up to a few hundred AU from the star (e.g. Lane et al. 1987). This is generally inside the OH maser shell, which is located at up to several 1000 AU. The H2O masers often show an a-spherical distribution, and the size of the maser region is thought to increase with mass-loss rate (Cooke & Elitzur 1985). The maser is expected to be pumped due to collisions (Neufeld & Melnick 1991). The 22 GHz maser can then be easily excited in the inner parts of the CSE at temperatures of 400 to 1000 K and H2 number densities of $`10^9`$ cm-3. In this region the outflow is still being accelerated. Therefore, as shown by Rosen at al. (1978) the velocity coherent paths through the masing medium are of approximately equal length in both the radial direction as well as the direction tangential to the star, and thus the H2O maser beaming is expected to be both radial and tangential. The radial beaming results in the maser occurring in front of the star, tangential beaming would display a ring within a narrow velocity range close to the stellar velocity (e.g. Reid & Menten 1990).

H2O masers are significantly more variable than their OH cousins. They exhibit strong variability in intensity, which seems to indicate that the masers are at least partially unsaturated, since an unsaturated maser is strongly influenced by changes in the local conditions. An analysis of the H2O maser line-widths and line-shapes also indicates that the masers are not completely saturated (e.g. Vlemmings et al. 2002).

Whereas semi-regular stars are observed to have H2O maser spectra that can change shape rapidly, Mira-variable stars typically show no large profile changes over several years. However, the individual features can still show significant changes in intensity (Engels et al. 1988).

### 1.2 Amplified Stellar Image

Interferometric observations of OH masers have revealed that the most compact features were only found at the blue-shifted side of the spectrum (Norris et al. 1984). It was argued that this was due to amplification of the continuum maser emission from the underlying star by the maser screen in front of it. This is called the Amplified Stellar Image Theory. Amplification of the stellar emission results in a high brightness maser spot at the most blue-shifted side of the OH maser spectrum. This spot should coincide at the different OH maser transitions, and is expected to be persistent over a long period of time. Several observations have confirmed this hypothesis (e.g. Sivagnanam et al. 1990).

According to the amplified stellar image theory, the compact, most blue-shifted, spot is necessarily fixed to the stellar position. Therefore, high resolution astrometric observations of this spot can be used to determine the stellar trajectory. This hypothesis has been tested for the Mira-variable star U Her by van Langevelde et al. (2000, hereafter vL00). The absolute positions of the OH maser spots were determined with respect to the radio-reference frame using extra-galactic phase reference sources. The positions were compared with the optical Hipparcos positions with unprecedented accuracy. It was shown that the most blue-shifted spot was indeed located in front of the stellar radio-photosphere. The size of this spot was found to be $`20`$ mas, which is comparable with the expected size of the radio-photosphere, which is thought to be twice the size of the star, as proposed by Reid & Menten (1997).

Although the H2O masers generally show a great number of spots over an area of several hundred mas, it has been argued that in some cases one of the H2O maser spots corresponds to the stellar image (Reid & Menten 1990; Marvel 1996; Colomer et al. 2000). However, because the distribution of the H2O masers is considerably less spherical than that of the OH masers, it is not straightforward to assume that the stellar image underlies the most blue-shifted spot. Also, because the maser brightness depends strongly on local effects such as density or pumping inhomogeneities, several bright spots can be observed and an H2O maser stellar image could be less conspicuous or persistent than the OH stellar image.

Here we present phase referencing observations of the H2O masers around U Her used to determine accurate maser spot positions. These have been compared with the Hipparcos optical position and the positions obtained for the OH masers in vL00.

## 2 Observations

MERLIN was used to determine the positions of the H2O masers in the CSE of U Her with respect to 3 extragalactic reference sources. From the observations, which were performed on May 20 2001, we were able to determine accurate astrometric positions. The observations required a total of 8 hours on the target source and the calibrator and reference sources. As a result the beam size was $`30\times 25`$ mas.

One of the main problems of using the phase referencing method to determine accurate positions at 22 GHz is the lack of bright reference sources at that frequency. For this project 3 reference sources were selected from the VLBI calibrator catalog (Beasley et al., 2002). These were J1628+214 (now J1630+231, $`80`$ mJy, at $`2.8^{}`$ from U Her), J1635+1831 ($`50`$ mJy, at $`2.4^{}`$) and J1619+2247 ($`200`$ mJy, at $`4.2^{}`$). They were selected to have a flat spectrum, making it possible to detect them at 22 GHz with a 2 minute integration time. Our phase reference observation cycle consisted of 2 minutes per reference source and 4 minutes on the target source. The H2O masers were observed in a $`4`$ MHz band with 128 spectral channels, providing a velocity resolution of $`0.42`$ km/s. The continuum reference sources were observed in a $`16`$ MHz band with 16 channel, giving a $`13.5`$ km/s resolution. In the 2 minute integration time on the reference source we typically reached a SNR$`5`$.

Reference source J1628+214 was also used in vL00 to determine the positions of the 1667 MHz OH masers around U Her. We can thus determine the positions of the H2O masers with respect to the OH masers. The positional accuracy of the reference sources with respect to the radio reference frame is $`3`$ mas. However, as the positions were determined at $`2.4`$ and $`8.4`$ GHz the position at the different frequencies can be different at the sub-milliarcsecond level, as shown in e.g. Fey et al.(1997).

After initial flux calibration with the MERLIN software, the data were processed in AIPS. Because the reference sources at 22 GHz are weak, we performed both a normal and a reverse phase referencing scheme. In the reverse scheme, we were able to determine accurate positions of both J1619+2247 and J1628+214 with respect to the brightest H2O maser feature of U Her. As a consistency check, we managed to get a good phase connection from J1628+214, the closest reference source, to the U Her H2O masers with the normal phase referencing scheme. J1635+1831 was too faint for us to obtain a good phase connection.

The accuracy of the phase referencing model depends on the MERLIN correlator model. The two largest uncertainties in the model are the telescope positions (accurate to $`5`$ cm) and tropospheric effects. Under normal circumstances these combine to produce an error in absolute position measurements of up to $`10`$ mas for a target-reference source separation of $`3^{}`$ (e.g. Kovalevsky et al 1997).

## 3 Results

At the time of our observations the spectrum of the 22 GHz H2O masers around U Her did not show significant structure, as only a few features were detected. The averaged cross power spectrum is shown in an inlay in Fig. 1. We find that the shape of the spectrum is similar to previous observations, performed with MERLIN, the Very Large Array (VLA) and with the 100-m radio telescope in Effelsberg (Baines et al. in preparation; Yates & Cohen 1994; Colomer et al. 2000; Engels et al. 1988). In our spectrum we find that the strongest feature is located at $`15.7`$ km/s, and this is the feature which was used to determine the phase solutions. The stellar velocity of U Her is $`14.5\pm 0.5`$ km/s, which was determined from OH and SiO maser observations (Chapman et al. 1994). As the U Her H2O maser emission is located between $`13`$ and $`20`$ km/s, the strongest feature is not the most blue-shifted feature.

After phase referencing and determining the position of J1628+214 with respect to the brightest H2O maser feature of U Her, we find that the position of J1628+214 is shifted by $`+83`$ mas in right ascension and $`+15`$ mas in declination with respect to the positions in vL00 ($`(\alpha ,\delta )_{2000}=16^h30^m11^s.23117`$,$`+21\mathrm{°}31\mathrm{}34\mathrm{}.3144`$). A similar process for J1619+2247 results in a position shift of $`+76`$ mas in right ascension and $`+25`$ mas in declination with respect to the position in the VLBA calibrator list. As a consistency check we have also determined the position shift of the brightest maser spot after phase referencing with respect to J1628+214. We find that the maser spot is shifted $`83`$ and $`11`$ mas in right ascension and declination respectively with respect to the a priori assumed target coordinates.

The formal uncertainty in fitting a Gaussian profile to the reference source or maser spot is a fraction of the beam width, and depends on the SNR of the image. For the reference sources the formal position errors are of the order of $`5`$ mas in each coordinate, for the U Her maser spot the errors are $`1`$ mas. The best phase connection was made when phase referencing J1628+214 to the brightest maser spot, so we assume that the positions as determined with J1628+214 are the most reliable. The actual phase referencing errors can be estimated from the difference between the position of the brightest maser spot with respect to the two reference sources. From this, we conclude that our positions are accurate to within $`10`$ mas, which is in agreement with the estimated errors due to the correlator model that are described above. For the brightest H2O maser spot around U Her we then find a position of $`(\alpha ,\delta )_{2000}=16^h25^m47^s.468`$,$`+18\mathrm{°}53\mathrm{}32\mathrm{}.849`$ at the time of our observations.

To compare this position to the stellar position of U Her we have extrapolated the optical position found by the Hipparcos satellite at J1991.25 to our epoch of observation. We have used the proper motion and parallax determined by monitoring the position of the most blue-shifted OH maser spot, which was shown to be the stellar image. The first fit was performed in vL00 for 6 epochs of observations, a fit including additional epochs was presented in Vlemmings et al. (2000). As described in vL00, the OH maser proper motion is entirely consistent with the Hipparcos proper motion. The error in the transposed position is dominated by the error in proper motion. At our epoch of observation this error is $`6`$ mas in each coordinate. Combined with the errors on the parallax and our position errors, we have been able to compare the radio and optical position with $`18`$ mas accuracy. Fig. 1 shows a map of the H2O maser features, covering the velocity range indicated in the spectrum, including the position of the star. Circles indicate the size of the star and the radio-photosphere. The size of the radio-photosphere can be estimated from SiO maser observations by Diamond et al. (1994). Their observations provide an upper limit of $`20`$ mas if, as proposed by Reid & Menten (1997), the radio-photosphere extends to the edge of the SiO masing region. The triangle denotes the stellar position as determined when using the maser positions with J1635+1831 as the reference source.

Although the size of the brightest H2O maser spot ($`50`$ mas) is larger than the expected size of the stellar radio-photosphere, most likely due to the blending of several weaker maser features, the position of peak intensity matches the predicted location of the star within the errors. This indicates that the H2O maser spot also coincides with the most blue-shifted OH maser spot which has been shown to be the amplified stellar image. Thus, also the brightest H2O maser spot seems to be emission from the stellar radio-photosphere amplified by the maser medium at the line of sight.

## 4 Discussion

The observations of an amplified stellar image in the H2O masers of U Her indicate that at least for the brightest spot at this epoch the maser beaming is radial. Reid & Menten (1997) have detected 22 GHz continuum emission from a small sample of Mira stars, finding the typical stellar brightness temperature to be $`T_{}=1600`$ K. Compared to their estimate of the maser excitation temperature ($`10`$ K), this is strong enough to influence the H2O maser medium and produce a stellar image, as the increased seed radiation from the star will cause the radial maser beam to be brighter. Since the H2O masers are found to be mostly unsaturated, slight changes in density, pumping and velocity structure have a strong effect on the maser and the relative strength of the maser features and the amplified stellar image may be less dominant than the OH, as is demonstrated by the detection by Reid & Menten (1990) of an H2O maser feature at the stellar position of W Hya which was several orders of magnitude weaker than the strong feature observed here.

The H2O masers around U Her have been observed before with MERLIN, the VLA and the VLBA. VLA observations by Colomer et al. (2000), and MERLIN observations by Bains et al. (in preparation) show an incomplete ring structure with a scale of $`150200`$ mas. The brightest maser spot seen in our MERLIN observations corresponds in velocity with the masers on the edge of the ring structure. So somewhat surprisingly, our astrometric results indicate that the star is not in the center of this ring.

The maser spots detected with high resolution VLBA observations do not show any indication of circular structure (Vlemmings et al. 2002). They have a linear extent of $`6070`$ mas and they most likely correspond to the brightest VLA and MERLIN features.

## 5 Conclusions

Our observations have shown that the circumstellar H2O maser can amplify the stellar image and produce a strong stellar image, a phenomenon previously detected at the OH maser transitions. Although this effect is not necessarily strong in all H2O masers, it can be very valuable for astrometric purposes. Accurate astrometry of the stellar image can be used to determine the location of the various maser species in the CSE with respect to each other and the star. Simultaneous, high resolution observations significantly improve our understanding of the kinematics in the CSEs. Using the stellar image in H2O masers, it will also be possible to determine the stellar trajectory and distance with a higher accuracy than with OH masers. However, because of the high variability of H2O masers additional monitoring will have to be performed to show if the stellar image is persistent enough for a long term monitoring campaign.

Acknowledgments: This project is supported by NWO grant 614-21-007. MERLIN is a National Facility operated by the University of Manchester at Jodrell Bank Observatory on behalf of PPARC. We also thank the referee Mark Reid for valuable input.


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# Drift chamber readout system of the DIRAC experiment

## 1 Introduction

The two-arm spectrometer of the DIRAC experiment  at CERN includes a set of planar drift chambers with about 2000 signal wires in the $`X`$, $`Y`$ and $`W`$-planes. Hit wire signals are digitized in on-chamber mounted time-to-digital converters (TDCs). Numbers of hit wires in $`X`$-planes are processed in the trigger system of the setup to find the tracks in both arms of the spectrometer. The tracks found are compared with respect to the relative momentum of pion pairs  and the accepted events are collected during beam spill in the VME buffer memories.

A feature of these drift chambers is the high current mode of operation  i.e. the signals from sense wires typically have an amplitude of 1 mA and a width about 20 ns at half-maximum.

The on-chamber mounted TDC board is the main unit of the readout system. It combines 16 input signal discriminators, the 16-channel TDC itself and a data buffer. The boards are immediately plugged in the signal plane connectors. Up to 8 boards can be read out via a common bus. In comparison with the standard configuration, in which the discriminators and the TDCs are separate modules and chambers operate in the proportional mode, the described system has the following advantages:

* The number of modules in the system is reduced;
* The number of cables is reduced. There are no external connections between the discriminators and the TDCs;
* There are no the time measurement distortions due to crosstalks in a long flat cable, which usually connects the discriminators and the TDCs in the standard configuration. Note that crosstalks between the adjacent channels in a flat cable 30 m long cause a pulse jitter about 1.5 ns;
* Due to the high threshold, 0.1 mA, of input discriminators practically all external pickup noise is rejected.

## 2 Readout system

The readout system consists of 8 segments, which handle the hit wire signals in parallel (Fig.1). After RESET the TDC boards continuously accept the hits until a common STOP signal arrives at the readout system. It causes acquisition to stop and processing of the recorded hits to start. The hits found inside a TDC time window are loaded into the on-board buffer memory. After all TDCs in the segment have completed the data processing, the selected hit data are transferred from the buffers to the bus driver (BD) and, in parallel, to the trigger system (hit wire numbers only). The TDC boards are read out in a geographical addressing mode, empty buffer memories are skipped. Due to a pipeline structure of the TDC boards the recorded data are processed and the selected ones are read out at the rate of 100 ns per hit.

Depending on state of the control bus M the individual lines ST are used to fan out the common STOP signal or to read out the TDC buffer. The flag F indicates the board status. Similarly the BS and BF lines control the bus driver. With respect to the common STOP the hits selected in a segment will be available for processing in the trigger system at the access time:

$$\mathrm{T}_\mathrm{a}=\mathrm{T}_0+(\mathrm{N}_{\mathrm{rm}}+\mathrm{N}_{\mathrm{ss}}+3)100\mathrm{ns},$$

where $`\mathrm{T}_0=700`$ ns is the constant delay, $`\mathrm{N}_{\mathrm{rm}}`$ is the maximum number of hits recorded in one of all TDC boards, $`\mathrm{N}_{\mathrm{ss}}`$ is the number of hits selected in all TDCs of the segment and 3 is the number of “pumping” clocks.

To minimize the access time each $`X`$-plane is connected to only one segment of the readout system.

The selected hits are stored in the bus drivers until the readout controller receives the EVENT ACCEPTED or RESET signal from the trigger system. An accepted event is numbered and transferred into the VME buffer memory (BUF) at the rate of 100 ns/hit. The RESET discards all temporary recorded data. During the beam spill the readout system is hardware controlled. It requires only three external control signals: STOP, EVENT ACCEPTED and RESET. During the interval between the spills the VME processor reads out all VME buffers .

A two-wire bus (SD) is used to set the TDCs time window.

The bus drivers and the controller are placed near the drift chambers in a NIM crate, which is also used to power the readout system. Due to the setup layout three such systems are used to read out all drift chambers.

## 3 TDC board

The 16-channel TDC board discriminates, digitizes, selects and buffers the hit wire signals. The last 16 hits in each channel can be recorded. The TDC operates in the COMMON STOP mode therefore no additional delay in the recording channel is required.

The TDC board (Fig.2) consists of an input discriminators (DSR), a time-to-digital converter (TDC), a magnitude comparator (CMP), a buffer memory (BM), and a control unit (CTR).

Two 8-bit shift registers (SRG) are used to set the maximum time measurement range and the offset value, i.e. the far and near time thresholds, respectively. The TDC time window is defined as difference between these thresholds.

The input discriminator consists of a protection scheme (BAV99) and an ultrafast voltage comparator MVL407S  (one chip per four channels). The input resistance of 300 $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ was chosen to match the wave impedance of the signal wire. A test pulse is applied to all inputs via 3 k$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ resistors.

The TDC itself is built on two MTD133B integrated circuits  connected together by a common data bus. The MTD133B is an 8-channel multihit time-to-digital converter, which measures the separation in time between hits (transitions) arriving at the COMMON input and each of eight independent channels. Each channel accepts up to 16 hits. With the acquisition clock frequency of 250 MHz the time difference is measured with the 0.5 ns least count in the 16-bit dynamic range.

In the acquisition mode the MTD133B continuously accepts the input hits until the TDC board receives the STOP signal (ST line). Then the bus driver disables the hit acquisition and starts data processing and buffering. During this phase the MTD133B computes the time intervals between the recorded hits and the common STOP signal and compares them to the far time threshold. The data less than the threshold are put on the common data bus. Note that after three “pumping” clocks a new valid data word is asserted on each readout clock until all the recorded hits are processed. The external magnitude comparator (CMP) compares the time intervals to the near time threshold. The data which exceed this threshold are loaded into the buffer memory. Thus this buffer contains only hits which arrived at the TDC within the preset time window. After the last recorded hit has been processed, the TDC board sets a flag on the F line. The bus driver waits until all TDCs in the segment complete data processing, then switches the F lines to the buffer memory and reads out non-empty memories in a priority order. This operation is completed when all TDC boards reset the F flags.

The analog and digital parts of the printed circuit board have separate ground and power planes which are connected to the power supply via the differential LC filters. The discriminator outputs are also differential. This technique provides an isolation factor more than 66 dB.

| TDC board specification |  |
| --- | --- |
| Number of channels | 16 |
| Input impedance | 300 $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ |
| Threshold range | 0.05–2 mA |
| Slewing (from 2 to 20 thresholds) | $`<`$1 ns |
| Maximum number of hits in each channel | 16 |
| Double pulse resolution | $`<`$10 ns |
| Least count | 0.5 ns |
| Time measurement range | 20–2048 ns |
| Offset value | 0–2048 ns |
| Step of the range and offset setting | 8 ns |
| Time window width | 16–2048 ns |
| Step of the window setting, | 8 ns |
| Differential nonlinearity | $`\pm `$10% |
| Time of data processing and readout | $`(\mathrm{N}_\mathrm{r}+\mathrm{N}_\mathrm{s}+3)100`$ ns 111Here $`\mathrm{N}_\mathrm{r}`$ is the number of hits recorded within the TDC time range and $`\mathrm{N}_\mathrm{s}`$ is the number of the selected hits. |
| Power dissipation | 4.3 Wt |

## 4 TDC testing

The TDC board is designed to operate without tuning and therefore only an after-production test is required. The test equipment (Fig.3) is based on the specially designed delay generator operating in the range from 10 ns to 260 $`\mu `$s with the delay step of 20 ps. In the SINGLE HIT mode the module generates one hit and one STOP at each trigger coming from the CAMAC bus. In the BURST mode up to 16 hits and one STOP are generated.

A set of programs has been written to test all components of the TDC board. They allows to test and visualise the performance of each TDC channel in the range of time interval between HIT and STOP from 20 ns to 2048 ns with the step of 20 ps in the SINGLE HIT or BURST mode. Also there is a possibility to scan automatically all positions of the time window in each TDC channel to test the efficiency of the hit selection.

## 5 Conclusion

The features of the above-described readout system result in the reduced number of modules (there are no separate discriminator boards and TDC modules), a small numbers of cables and high noise immunity. At the threshold of 0.1 mA the drift chamber efficiency is about 99% and the spatial resolution equals to 85 $`\mu `$m .

The readout system has been successfully operating in the DIRAC experiment since 1999. At a typical rate about $`610^5`$ counts per spill (0.45 s) in each arm of the spectrometer the average access time is about 2 $`\mu `$s. The accepted data are transferred to the VME buffers, on average, within 5 $`\mu `$s. This operation is not the longest readout of the whole setup and thus it does not increase the setup dead time.

## Acknowledgments

We would like to thank L.Nemenov and M.Ferro-Luzzi for support and coordination of this work, V.Kruglov for fruitful discussions and participation in the common job for the system implementation, A.Kulikov for support of the setup trigger system, V.Olshevsky and S.Trusov for readout software support and their help in testing the TDC board prototype. The work was partially supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, project 01–02–17756.


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# A key to room-temperature ferromagnetism in Fe-doped ZnO: Cu

## Abstract

Successful synthesis of room-temperature ferromagnetic semiconductors, Zn1-xFexO, is reported. The essential ingredient in achieving room-temperature ferromagnetism in bulk Zn1-xFexO was found to be additional Cu doping. A transition temperature as high as 550 K was obtained in Zn0.94Fe0.05Cu0.01O; the saturation magnetization at room temperature reached a value of $`0.75\mu _\mathrm{B}`$ per Fe. Large magnetoresistance was also observed below $`100`$K.

Diluted magnetic semiconductors (DMSs) have attracted a great deal of attention because of the possibility of incorporating the magnetic degrees of freedom in traditional semiconductors FurdynaJK\_JAP\_88 ; wolf . DMSs combine their transport and/or optical properties with magnetism and thereby carry an enormous potential of opening up a path to entirely new devices. Until recently, (Ga,Mn)As has been a representative DMS with its moderately high Curie point (maximum $`T_c`$110 K) OhnoH\_JMMM\_99 . However, an essential task in a device realization of the potential is to find a DMS with the Curie point above room temperature MedvedkinGA\_etal\_JJAP\_00 ; MatsumotoY\_etal\_S\_01 ; reed .

Recent theoretical works predicted ferromagnetism above room temperature in a II-VI semiconductor ZnO, normally of n-type, when doped with magnetic impurities DietlT\_etal\_S\_00 ; SatoK\_K-YoshidaH\_JJAP\_01 . Since ZnO is optically transparent, ferromagnetic ZnO would be a transparent magnet as well. Despite of intensive efforts on transition metal-doped ZnO thin films, the experimental results did not converge on a definite conclusion; there are, for instance, contradicting reports on Co-doped ZnO thin films JinZ\_etal\_APL\_01 ; UedaK\_etal\_APL\_01 . Even the successful report, in which Co-doped ZnO thin films showed $`T_c`$ of about 300 K, was attached with reservation that the reproducibility was less than 10% UedaK\_etal\_APL\_01 . Surveying the current situation with transition metal-doped ZnO, one naturally comes to a suspicion that the inconsistent results in thin film DMSs, within a group or among different groups, might be due to sensitive dependence of thin films on detailed process conditions such as target qualities, substrates, growing temperatures, oxygen pressure, etc. These thoughts motivated us to probe bulk samples rather than thin films.

In this letter, we concentrate on Fe-doped ZnO bulk samples. As described below, Fe-doping alone turned out to be not sufficient for room temperature ferromagnetism in ZnO and the third element was required. As one member of the transition metal group, Cu substitution may be considered as magnetic doping if Cu substitutes for Zn2+ as Cu2+. Cu-doping, however, did not induce a significant change in the magnetic property of ZnO films JinZ\_etal\_APL\_01 . On the other hand, Cu may be used as an additional p-type dopant into naturally n-type ZnO samples JunST\_ChoiGM\_JACerS\_98 . This new idea of additional Cu-doping in Zn1-xFexO was highly successful and led us to a room temperature ferromagnetic DMS. In view of the inconsistent film results, reproducibility was ascertained by measuring several samples synthesized by the same procedures.

Polycrystalline samples were fabricated with the standard solid state reaction method in Ar filled quartz tubes. High purity ZnO(99.99+%), FeO(99.9+%), and CuO(99.99+%) powders were mixed thoroughly and processed at 1170 K for 24 hours. The single phase nature of samples was checked by $`\theta 2\theta `$ x-ray diffraction (XRD) using a Cu $`K_\alpha `$ source; substantial amount of exposure time was allowed in the XRD scans to check even a minute amount of a secondary phase. Magnetization, resistivity, Hall coefficient, and thermopower were measured by employing equipments manufactured by Quantum Design (MPMS and PPMS). The SQUID magnetometer (MPMS) was equipped with a high temperature oven facility. X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) was carried out at the Dragon beamline of the Synchrotron Radiation Research Center in Taiwan.

Fig. 1(a) shows a typical powder XRD pattern of Zn1-xFexO for $`x=0.07`$. All the peaks belong to the hexagonal lattice of ZnO, and no indication of a secondary phase is found. A shift of XRD peak positions related to lattice spacing changes was clearly observed when the concentration of Fe was varied; the data refinement revealed that the shift was caused by a variation of lattice spacing $`a`$ as displayed in Fig. 1(b). The linear expansion of the $`a`$-axis lattice spacing with increasing $`x`$ indicates that doped Fe atoms substitute for Zn atoms in the lattice up to $`x=0.07`$ under the current processing condition. The incorporation of Fe atoms into the lattice was also evidenced from the XAS measurements which yielded the oxidation state of Fe to be mostly Fe2+. On further doping of Fe above $`x\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.1}`$, the system enters a coexistence region of the dominant hexagonal phase (Fe-doped ZnO) and a minor cubic phase (FeO). It should be noted here that the Fe solubility of bulk ZnO found in this work is higher than that of thin films JinZ\_etal\_APL\_01 . The low solubility of the films seems to be related to the fact that it is the $`c`$-axis lattice constant, not $`a`$-axis which is constrained by a substrate, that varies as the contents of Fe changes. This is a manifestation of the difference between bulk and thin films, which will be discussed elsewhere song .

We now turn to the magnetic properties of Zn1-xFexO. When measured at room temperature, a sample with $`x`$ = 0.05 showed a maximum saturation magnetization ($`M_s`$). However, the measured $`M_s`$ of Zn0.95Fe0.05O (0.025$`\mu _B`$/Fe, $`\mu _B`$ = Bohr magneton) was far too small to be considered as a room temperature ferromagnet. The situation is evident in Fig. 2(a), showing the magnetization$``$field ($`MH`$) curve of Zn0.95Fe0.05O sample at 300 K. We then attempted additional Cu-doping into Zn0.95Fe0.05O as a means of rendering respectable ferromagnetism to the system. According to Dietl et al., hole doping is most effective in achieving carrier-mediated ferromagnetism in semiconductors DietlT\_etal\_S\_00 . Jun and Choi showed that introduction of CuO into n-type ZnO increases resistivity up to 1% mixture JunST\_ChoiGM\_JACerS\_98 , which suggests that Cu can play the role of a p-type dopant. Cu-doping into Zn0.95Fe0.05O via the standard ceramic method neither caused any structure change nor induced a secondary phase up to 1% incorporation. A small amount of additional Cu-doping, however, brought about drastic changes in $`M`$ as illustrated in Fig. 2(b), (c) and (d). The magnetization is greatly enhanced with Cu-doping, so that $`M_s`$ at room temperature of the sample with 1% Cu (0.75$`\mu _B`$/Fe) becomes 30 times larger than that of the sample without Cu. The fact that $`M_s`$ increases systematically only with Cu contents virtually eliminates the possibility of Fe (or iron oxide) clusters being responsible for magnetization. The saturation occurs at 2 kOe, while the coercive field is about 20 Oe at room temperature. The small coercivity of a polycrystalline sample indicates the intrinsically soft nature of this material.

Now that we have established ferromagnetism in Zn0.95-yFe0.05CuyO at room temperature, its Curie temperature is of interest. In order to determine $`T_c`$ of Zn0.94Fe0.05Cu0.01O, which shows the largest $`M_s`$ at 300 K in Fig. 2 (c), its $`M`$ was measured as a function of temperature at a small field (500 Oe). The measured $`M`$, presented in Fig. 3, clearly shows that a transition to a paramagnetic state occurs near 550 K. It is noted that the transition is rather sharp and appears to deviate from a mean field description. The transition temperature of 550 K is considerably higher than the Curie temperature of most DMSs. More importantly, it is high enough for the purpose of device applications at room temperature.

In addition to ferromagnetism, transport properties are of exceeding importance in DMS. Fig. 4(a) is the plot of the resistivity of Zn0.94Fe0.05Cu0.01O at zero field as a function of temperature. The resistivity displays a typical semiconducting behavior. At room temperature the resistivity has a value of 0.1 $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm. Magnetoresistance (MR $`(\rho (H)\rho (0))/\rho (0)`$) was also measured at various temperatures. The measured MR of a bulk sample is very large and positive as shown in Fig. 4(b). However, the MR of Zn0.94Fe0.05Cu0.01O becomes insignificant above 100 K, even if the system is still ferromagnetic. At present, we have no understanding on this peculiar behavior.

In order to elucidate the origin of ferromagnetism, we also measured the thermopower and the Hall coefficient of Zn0.95Fe0.05O and Zn0.94Fe0.05Cu0.01O. Both samples yielded negative values for thermopower as well as Hall coefficient, and no anomalous Hall effect was observed. These results, first of all, indicate that electrons are major carriers in the samples. The number of carriers at room temperature estimated from the Hall coefficients are 4.2x$`10^{17}`$/cm3 and 5.0x$`10^{17}`$/cm3 for Zn0.94Fe0.05Cu0.01O and Zn0.95Fe0.05O, respectively. XAS measurements also showed that the valence state of Cu in Zn0.94Fe0.05Cu0.01O is Cu1+, rather than Cu2+. Thus, Cu ions play the role of acceptors and reduces the number of electron carriers, although they are not able to change the n-type character itself. It is then evident that the ferromagnetism in Zn0.94Fe0.05Cu0.01O (which appears with reduction in the number of electrons) is not mediated by electrons. As Sato et al. suggested, it is very likely that a 3$`d`$ band is formed by doped Fe atoms, and ferromagnetism occurs within this band via double exchange SatoK\_K-YoshidaH\_JJAP\_01 . The lack of anomalous Hall effect is probably due to a weak coupling of the conduction electrons, which dominate transport, to magnetic degrees of freedom.

In conclusion, we achieved ferromagnetism in Zn1-xFexO by Cu-doping, and the Curie temperature of 550 K and the saturation magnetization of 0.75$`\mu _B`$/Fe were obtained for Zn0.94Fe0.05Cu0.01O.

This work was supported by the SRC program of KOSEF and the BK21 program of MOE. J.-H. Park thanks Drs. H.-J. Lin and C.T. Chen of the SRRC in Taiwan for the beam time.

Figure Captions

FIG. 1: (a) Intensity of X-ray diffraction vs $`2\theta `$, from a polycrystalline Zn1-xFexO sample with $`x=0.07`$. All the peaks belong to the hexagonal structure of ZnO. (b) Variation of the lattice constant $`a`$ vs Fe concentration $`x`$.

FIG. 2: Room temperature $`MH`$ curves of bulk Zn0.95-yFe0.05CuyO: (a) $`y`$ = 0, (b) 0.002, (c) 0.005, (d) 0.01. The vertical scale (magnetic moment/Fe) was converted from measured values, assuming homogeneous magnetic states.

FIG. 3: The magnetization of Zn0.94Fe0.05Cu0.01O is plotted as a function of temperature. The strength of the applied field was 500 Oe.

FIG. 4: Transport properties of Zn0.94Fe0.05Cu0.01O: (a) The resistivity vs temperature, (b) Magnetoresistance (MR) at various temperatures. MR is defined as $`(\rho (H)\rho (0))/\rho (0)`$. At 100 K, the MR is insignificant.


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# Discrepancy between Monte-Carlo Results and Analytic Values for the Average Excluded Volume of Rectangular Prisms

## Acknowledgments

We thank Intervep, NSERC and NSF for support. We also thank Professor Paul Goodey at the University of Oklahoma for providing useful clarifications and encouragement.


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# A Computation of The Mass Spectrum of Mesons and Baryons

## 1 Introduction

In this paper we give a computation of the mass spectrum of mesons and baryons. We show that there is a consecutive numbering of the mass spectrum of mesons and baryons. Also we show that in this numbering many stable mesons and baryons are assigned with a prime number.

We first consider the mesons listed in the Particle Data Group (PDA). Let us start with the $`\pi `$ meson. Let us choose $`45`$ as a rate. Then we have $`3\times 45=135`$ which gives the mass $`135Mev`$ of the $`\pi ^0`$ meson. We notice that $`3`$ is a prime number and we assigned it to the $`\pi ^0`$ meson. Then we consider the koan mesons. We have that $`11\times 45=495`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`493.7Mev`$ of the $`K^+`$ and the $`K^{}`$ mesons. We notice that $`11`$ is a prime number and we assign it to the koan mesons. Let us then consider the $`\eta `$ meson. We have $`13\times 45=585`$ which approximates quite well the experimental mass $`548.8Mev`$ of the $`\eta `$ meson. Here let us make a more precise estimate of the mass of $`\eta `$ meson. Let $`45`$ be deviated by $`3`$ to $`42`$. This deviation may be considered as due to the effect of spin and orbital angular momentum for mass splitting. Then we have $`13\times 42=546`$ which approximates well the experimental mass $`548.8Mev`$ of the $`\eta `$ meson. We have that $`13`$ is a prime number and we assign it to the $`\eta `$ meson. This then gives the mass spectrum of the first Eightfold Way of mesons. We shall later consider the $`\eta ^{}`$ meson of the first nonet.

Let us then consider the next octet of vector mesons. Let us first consider the $`\rho `$ meson. We have $`17\times 45=765`$. This approximates the experimental mass $`770Mev`$ of the $`\rho ^0`$ meson. Let us then consider the $`\omega `$ meson. Let $`45`$ be deviated by $`1`$ to $`46`$. As above this deviation may be considered as due to the effect of spin and orbital angular momentum for mass splitting. Then we have $`17\times 46=782`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`783Mev`$ of the $`\omega `$ meson. We notice that both the $`\rho ^0`$ meson and the $`\omega `$ meson correspond to the same prime number $`17`$. Let us then consider the $`K^{}(892)`$ meson. We have $`19\times 45=852`$. This approximates quite well the experimental mass $`892Mev`$ of the $`K^{}(892)`$ meson. Here let us make a more precise estimate of the $`K^{}`$ mesons. Let $`45`$ be deviated by $`2`$ to $`47`$. Then we have $`19\times 47=890`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`892Mev`$ of the $`K^{}(892)`$ meson. we have that the $`K^{}(892)`$ meson correspond to the prime number $`19`$. Let us then consider the $`\varphi `$ meson. We have $`23\times 45=1035`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`1020Mev`$ of the $`\varphi `$ meson. We notice that $`23`$ is a prime number and we assign it to the $`\varphi `$ meson. This thus gives the mass spectrum of the nonet of vector mesons.

Let us then consider the $`\eta ^{}`$ meson of the first nonet. Let $`45`$ be deviated by $`3`$ to $`42`$. Then we have $`23\times 42=966`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`958Mev`$ of the $`\eta ^{}`$ meson. This thus gives the mass spectrum of the first nonet of mesons.

We notice that these two nonets are finally numbered at the prime number $`23`$. This is interesting because the next prime number is $`29`$ which is relatively far apart from the prime number $`23`$. We also notice that the consecutive prime numbers $`11,13,17,19`$ and $`23`$ have all been assigned to the mesons of the first two nonets of mesons which are stable mesons.

The $`\varphi `$ meson is considered as a meson of the form $`s\overline{s}`$ where $`s`$ denotes the strange quark. Then it is interesting to note that both the mesons $`\varphi `$ and $`\eta ^{^{}}`$ correspond to the prime number $`23`$. This shows that there is a relation between these two mesons. This agrees with the usual quark content of these two mesons that these two mesons are considered to have a component of $`s\overline{s}`$. Later we show that the mesons $`a_0(980)`$ and $`f_0(980)`$ also correspond to the prime number $`23`$. From this we may conclude that these two mesons $`a_0(980)`$ and $`f_0(980)`$ should also relate to $`s\overline{s}`$. This agrees with the experiments that these two mesons lie very close to the opening of the $`K\overline{K}`$ channel -.

Let us then considered the $`J/\psi `$ meson $`c\overline{c}`$ for the charm quark $`c`$. We have $`67\times 46=3082`$. This approximetes quite well the experimental mass $`3096Mev`$ of the $`J/\psi `$ meson. Thus $`J/\psi `$ is assigned with the prime number $`67`$.

Let us consider more on the $`J/\psi `$ meson. For the $`J/\psi `$ meson let us choose $`23\times 45`$ as another rate. Then we have $`3\times 23\times 45=3105`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`3096Mev`$ of the $`J/\psi `$ meson. Thus the prime number $`3`$ also corresponds to the $`J/\psi `$ meson which is a stable meson. We notice that $`23\times 45Mev=1035Mev`$ is just the mass for the $`\varphi `$ meson. This gives a relation between the strange quark and the charm quark.

Let us then consider the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ meson which is of the form $`b\overline{b}`$ where $`b`$ denotes the beauty (or bottom) quark. We have $`211\times 45=9495`$. This approximates quite well the experimental mass $`9460Mev`$ of the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ meson. We also notice that $`211`$ is a prime number. Then let us consider the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(10023)`$ meson which is the first excite state of the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ meson. We have $`223\times 45=10035`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`10023Mev`$ of the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}^{}`$ meson. It is interesting to notice that $`223`$ is also a prime number and that it is the prime number next to the prime number $`211`$ for the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ meson.

Let us consider two more excited states $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(10350)`$ and $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(10570)`$ of the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ meson. We have $`230=10350`$ and $`235\times 45=10575`$. This approximete well the experimental masses of $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(10350)`$ and $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(10570)`$ respectively. However we notice that $`230`$ and $`235`$ are not prime numbers.

Thus we see that all the basic mesons except the meson $`t\overline{t}`$ for the top quark $`t`$ correspond to a prime number. For the meson $`t\overline{t}`$ because its mass is very large that we need a more accurate measurement of the value of its mass to determine the prime number for this meson $`t\overline{t}`$. We have $`7993\times 45=359685`$ which approximately gives $`360Gev`$ of the experimental mass of $`t\overline{t}`$. Then the prime number $`7993`$ could be approximately for $`t\overline{t}`$.

Continuing in this way with $`45`$ or its deviations as a rate we have that all the experimental masses of mesons in the table of mesons can well be approximated by this computation. For simplicity we list the computational result in a form of table. In this table we list together the light mesons and strange mesons which are separately listed in the Particle Data Group (PDA) . In this table in the column of computed mass the first number of the product is as a consecutive number while the second number is as a deviation from the number $`45`$. In this table the prime consecutive numbers are in bold face. From this table we see that there are more mesons which could be corresponded to a prime consecutive number. This is an evidence that prime numbers give more stable mesons than nonprime numbers. Also it is interesting to notice that the consecutive numbers from $`26`$ to $`53`$ have all been assigned to the mesons.

In this table of mesons for the mesons $`a_0(980)`$ and $`f_0(980)`$ we have $`23\times 43=989`$. This approximates quite well the experimental mass $`980Mev`$ of $`a_0(980)`$ and $`f_0(980)`$. Thus the prime number $`23`$ is also assigned to $`a_0(980)`$ and $`f_0(980)`$. By the same reason as for the $`\eta ^{^{}}`$ meson we have that $`a_0(980)`$ and $`f_0(980)`$ are related to $`\varphi `$ and their quark contents sould have a component of $`s\overline{s}`$. This agrees with the experiments of these two mesons -.

$$\begin{array}{cc}& \\ \text{Meson}& \text{Computed mass}\hfill \\ & \\ \pi (135)& \mathrm{𝟑}\times 45=135\hfill \\ & \\ K(494)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟏}\times 45=495\hfill \\ & \\ \eta (549)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟑}\times 42=546\hfill \\ & \\ \rho (770)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟕}\times 45=765\hfill \\ & \\ \omega (783)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟕}\times 46=783\hfill \\ & \\ K^{}(892)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟗}\times 47=893\hfill \\ & \\ \eta ^{}(958)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 42=966\hfill \\ & \\ a_0(980)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 43=989\hfill \\ & \\ f_0(980)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 43=989\hfill \\ & \\ \varphi (1020)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 45=1035\hfill \\ & \\ h_1(1170)& 26\times 45=1170\hfill \\ & \\ b_1(1235)& 27\times 45=1242\hfill \\ & \\ a_1(1260)& 28\times 45=1260\hfill \\ & \\ f_1(1285)& 28\times 46=1288\hfill \\ & \\ a_2(1320)& 28\times 47=1316\hfill \\ & \\ f_2(1270)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 44=1276\hfill \\ & \\ \pi (1300)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 45=1305\hfill \\ & \\ f_0(1370)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 47=1363(\mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 44=1364)\hfill \\ & \\ f_1(1420)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 49=1421(\mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 46=1426)\hfill \\ & \\ h_1(1380)& 30\times 46=1380\hfill \\ & \\ K_1(1270)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 41=1271\hfill \\ & \\ \eta (1295)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 42=1302\hfill \\ & \\ K_1(1400)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 45=1395\hfill \\ & \\ f_2(1430)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 46=1426\hfill \\ & \\ K_0^{}(1430)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 46=1426\hfill \\ & \\ K_2^{}(1430)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 46=1426\hfill \\ & \\ K(1460)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 47=1457\hfill \\ & \\ \pi _1(1405)& 32\times 44=1408(\mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 45=1395)\hfill \\ & \\ f_1(1510)& 32\times 47=1504(33\times 46=1518)\hfill \\ & \\ \omega (1420)& 33\times 43=1419(\mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 46=1426,\mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 49=1421)\hfill \\ & \\ \rho (1450)& 33\times 44=1452(\mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 47=1457)\hfill \\ & \\ a_0(1450)& 33\times 44=1452\hfill \\ & \\ f_0(1500)& 33\times 45=1495\hfill \\ & \\ f_2(1565)& 34\times 46=1564(\mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 42=1554)\hfill \\ & \\ K_2(1580)& 35\times 45=1575\hfill \\ & \\ \eta _2(1645)& 35\times 47=1645\hfill \\ & \\ X(1650)& 36\times 46=1656\hfill \\ & \\ K_1(1650)& 36\times 46=1656\hfill \\ & \\ \rho _3(1690)& 36\times 47=1692\hfill \\ & \\ K_2(1770)& 36\times 49=1764\hfill \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{cc}& \\ \text{Meson}& \text{Computed mass}\hfill \\ & \\ K^{}(1410)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 38=1406(30\times 47=1410)\hfill \\ & \\ \eta (1440)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 39=1443(32\times 45=1440)\hfill \\ & \\ f_2^{^{}}(1525)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 41=1517(34\times 45=1530)\hfill \\ & \\ X(1600)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 43=1591\hfill \\ & \\ \omega (1600)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 43=1591\hfill \\ & \\ \omega _3(1670)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 45=1665\hfill \\ & \\ \pi _2(1670)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 45=1665\hfill \\ & \\ \rho (1700)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 46=1702\hfill \\ & \\ X(1775)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 48=1776\hfill \\ & \\ f_0(1710)& 38\times 45=1710\hfill \\ & \\ K_3^{}(1780)& 38\times 47=1786\hfill \\ & \\ K_2(1820)& 38\times 48=1824\hfill \\ & \\ \eta _2(1870)& 39\times 48=1872\hfill \\ & \\ X(1910)& 39\times 49=1911\hfill \\ & \\ X(2000)& 40\times 50=2000\hfill \\ & \\ a_4(2040)& 40\times 51=2040\hfill \\ & \\ \varphi (1680)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 41=1681(42\times 40=1680)\hfill \\ & \\ K^{}(1680)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 41=1681(42\times 40=1680)\hfill \\ & \\ f_2(1640)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 40=1640(\mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 44=1628,38\times 43=1634)\hfill \\ & \\ f_2(1810)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 44=1804\hfill \\ & \\ \varphi _3(1850)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 45=1845\hfill \\ & \\ K_0^{}(1950)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 48=1968(\mathrm{𝟒𝟑}\times 45=1935)\hfill \\ & \\ f_2(1950)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 48=1968(\mathrm{𝟒𝟑}\times 45=1935)\hfill \\ & \\ f_2(2010)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 49=2009\hfill \\ & \\ K_4^{}(2045)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 50=2050\hfill \\ & \\ f_4(2050)& 42\times 49=2058\hfill \\ & \\ \eta (1760)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟑}\times 41=1763(40\times 44=1760)\hfill \\ & \\ \pi (1800)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟑}\times 42=1806(40\times 45=1800)\hfill \\ & \\ f_0(2020)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟑}\times 47=2021\hfill \\ & \\ f_0(2060)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟑}\times 48=2064\hfill \\ & \\ \pi _2(2100)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟑}\times 49=2107\hfill \\ & \\ f_2(2150)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟑}\times 50=2150\hfill \\ & \\ \rho (2150)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟑}\times 50=2150\hfill \\ & \\ K_2^{}(1980)& 44\times 45=1980(\mathrm{𝟒𝟑}\times 46=1978,46\times 43=1978)\hfill \\ & \\ \rho _3(2250)& 45\times 50=2250\hfill \\ & \\ f_2(2300)& 46\times 50=2300\hfill \\ & \\ f_4(2300)& 46\times 50=2300\hfill \\ & \\ K(1830)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟕}\times 39=1833(39\times 47=1833)\hfill \\ & \\ f_J(2220)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟕}\times 47=2209\hfill \\ & \\ K_2(2250)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟕}\times 48=2256(50\times 45=2250)\hfill \\ & \\ \rho _5(2350)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟕}\times 50=2350\hfill \\ & \\ K_4(2500)& 48\times 52=2496(\mathrm{𝟒𝟕}\times 53=2491,50\times 50=2500)\hfill \\ & \\ a_6(2450)& 49\times 50=2450\hfill \\ & \\ f_0(2200)& 50\times 44=2200\hfill \\ & \\ f_2(2300)& 51\times 45=2295\hfill \\ & \\ f_2(2340)& 52\times 45=2340\hfill \\ & \\ \eta (2225)& \mathrm{𝟓𝟑}\times 42=2226\hfill \\ & \\ K_5^{}(2380)& \mathrm{𝟓𝟑}\times 45=2385\hfill \\ & \\ K_3(2320)& 54\times 43=2322\hfill \\ & \\ f_6(2510)& 57\times 44=2508\hfill \\ & \\ K(3100)& \mathrm{𝟔𝟕}\times 46=3082\hfill \\ & \\ X(3250)& \mathrm{𝟕𝟏}\times 46=3266\hfill \end{array}$$

Let us then consider the mass spectrum of baryons. In contrast to the rate $`45`$ for mesons let us choose $`72`$ as the rate for baryons.

Let us start from the the neutron $`n=N(939)`$. We have $`13\times 72=936`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`939Mev`$ of the neutron $`n=N(939)`$. We have that the prime number $`13`$ is assigened to proton and neutron. Then we consider $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1115)`$. Let $`72`$ be deviated to $`66`$. Then we have $`17\times 66=1122`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`1115Mev`$ of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1115)`$. We have that the prime number $`17`$ is assigned to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1115)`$. Then we consider $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(1193)`$. We have $`17\times 70=1190`$ where $`70`$ is as a deviation of $`72`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`1193Mev`$ of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(1193)`$. Thus the prime number $`17`$ is also assigned to $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(1193)`$. Then we consider $`\mathrm{\Xi }(1317)`$. We have $`19\times 69=1311`$ where $`69`$ is as a deviation of $`72`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`1317Mev`$ of $`\mathrm{\Xi }(1317)`$. The prime number $`19`$ is assigned to $`\mathrm{\Xi }(1317)`$. This gives the mass spectrum of the first Eightfold Way of baryons.

Let us then consider the first decuplet of baryons. Consider first $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$. We have $`17\times 72=1224`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`1232Mev`$ of $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$. The prime number $`17`$ is assigned to $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$. Then we consider $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(1385)`$. We have $`19\times 73=1387`$ where $`73`$ is as a deviation of 72. This approximates well the experimental mass $`1385Mev`$ of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(1385)`$. The prime number $`19`$ is then assigned to $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(1385)`$. Then we consider $`\mathrm{\Xi }(1530)`$. Let $`72`$ be deviated by $`1`$ to $`73`$. Then we have $`21\times 73=1533`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`1530Mev`$ of $`\mathrm{\Xi }(1530)`$. The number $`21`$ is assigned to $`\mathrm{\Xi }(1530)`$. (On the other hand we also have $`19\times 81=1539`$ which also approximates $`1530`$ well. Thus the prime number $`19`$ may also be assigned to $`\mathrm{\Xi }(1530)`$. However $`81`$ is a larger deviation from $`72`$ than $`73`$). Finally we consider $`\mathrm{\Omega }(1672)`$. Let $`72`$ be deviated by $`1`$ to $`73`$. Then we have $`73\times 23=1679`$. This approximates well the experimental mass $`1672Mev`$ of $`\mathrm{\Omega }(1672)`$. Thus the prime number $`23`$ is assigned to $`\mathrm{\Omega }(1672)`$. This gives the mass spectrum of the first decuplet of baryons.

It is interesting to notice that as the $`\varphi `$ meson we have that the $`\mathrm{\Omega }(1672)`$ baryon also corresponds to the prime number $`23`$. Also the second octet of vector mesons and the first decuplet of baryons are both assigned with prime numbers $`17,19`$ and $`23`$. This shows that the second octet of mesons corresponds to the first decuplet of baryons.

Continuing in this way we have that all the experimental masses of baryons in the table of baryons in the Particle Data Group (PDA) can well be approximated by this computation. For simplicity we list the computational result in a form of table. In this table in the column of computed mass the first number of the product is as a consecutive number. Also the prime consecutive numbers are in bold face.

$$\begin{array}{cccc}& & & \\ N\text{baryon}& \text{Computed mass}& \mathrm{\Delta }\text{baryon}& \text{Computed mass}\\ & & & \\ N(939)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟑}\times 72=936& \mathrm{\Delta }(1232)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟕}\times 72=1224\\ & & & \\ N(1440)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟗}\times 76=1444& \mathrm{\Delta }(1550)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟏}\times 74=1554\\ & 20\times 72=1440& & \\ & & & \\ N(1520)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟗}\times 80=1520& \mathrm{\Delta }(1600)& 22\times 73=1606\\ & & & \\ N(1535)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟗}\times 81=1539& \mathrm{\Delta }(1620)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 70=1610\\ & & & \\ N(1540)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 67=1541& \mathrm{\Delta }(1700)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 74=1702\\ & 22\times 75=1540& & 25\times 68=1700\\ & & & \\ N(1650)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 72=1656& \mathrm{\Delta }(1905)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 83=1909\\ & 22\times 75=1650& & \\ & & & \\ N(1675)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 73=1679& \mathrm{\Delta }(1930)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 84=1932\\ & 25\times 67=1675& & \\ & & & \\ N(1680)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 73=1679& \mathrm{\Delta }(1920)& 24\times 80=1920\\ & 24\times 70=1680& & \\ & & & \\ N(1700)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 74=1702& \mathrm{\Delta }(1940)& 24\times 81=1944\\ & 25\times 68=1700& & \\ & & & \\ N(1710)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 74=1702& \mathrm{\Delta }(1900)& 25\times 76=1900\\ & 24\times 71=1704& & \\ & & & \\ N(1720)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 75=1727& \mathrm{\Delta }(1910)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 66=1914\\ & & & \\ N(1900)& 25\times 76=1900& \mathrm{\Delta }(1950)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 67=1943\\ & & & \\ N(1990)& 28\times 71=1988& \mathrm{\Delta }(2150)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 74=2146\\ & & & \\ N(2000)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 69=2001& \mathrm{\Delta }(2160)& 30\times 72=2160\\ & & & \\ N(2080)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 72=2088& \mathrm{\Delta }(2200)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 71=2201\\ & & & \\ N(2100)& 30\times 70=2100& \mathrm{\Delta }(2300)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 74=2294\\ & & & \\ N(2190)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 75=2175& \mathrm{\Delta }(2350)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 76=2356\\ & 30\times 73=2190& & \\ & & & \\ N(2200)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 71=2201& \mathrm{\Delta }(2400)& 30\times 80=2400\\ & & & \\ N(2220)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 72=2232& \mathrm{\Delta }(2420)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 78=2418\\ & & & \\ N(2250)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 73=2263& \mathrm{\Delta }(2500)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 81=2511\\ & & & \\ N(2600)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 70=2590& \mathrm{\Delta }(2850)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 77=2849\\ & & & \\ N(2700)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 73=2701& \mathrm{\Delta }(2750)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 67=2747\\ & & & \\ N(2800)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 76=2812& \mathrm{\Delta }(2950)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 72=2952\\ & & & \\ N(3000)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 73=2993& \mathrm{\Delta }(3230)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟑}\times 75=3225\\ & & & \\ N(3030)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 74=3034& & \\ & \mathrm{𝟒𝟑}\times 71=3053& & \\ & & & \\ N(3245)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟕}\times 69=3243& & \\ & & & \\ N(3690)& \mathrm{𝟓𝟑}\times 70=3710& & \\ & & & \\ N(3755)& \mathrm{𝟓𝟑}\times 71=3763& & \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{cccc}& & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }\text{baryon}& \text{Computed mass}& \mathrm{\Sigma }\text{baryon}& \text{Computed mass}\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(1115)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟕}\times 66=1122& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1193)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟕}\times 70=1190\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟗}\times 74=1406& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1385)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟗}\times 73=1387\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(1520)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟗}\times 80=1520& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1480)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 64=1472\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(1600)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 70=1610& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1560)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 68=1564\\ & 22\times 73=1606& & \\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(1670)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 73=1679& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1580)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 69=1587\\ & 22\times 76=1672& & \\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(1690)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 74=1702& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1620)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 70=1610\\ & 22\times 77=1694& & \\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(1800)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 78=1794& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1660)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 72=1656\\ & 24\times 75=1800& & \\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(1810)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 79=1817& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1670)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 73=1679\\ & & & 22\times 76=1672\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(1820)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 79=1817& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1690)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 74=1702\\ & 24\times 76=1824& & 22\times 77=1694\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(1830)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 80=1840& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1750)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 76=1748\\ & 25\times 73=1825& & \\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(1890)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 65=1885& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1775)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 77=1771\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(2000)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 69=2001& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1840)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 80=1840\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(2020)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 70=2030& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1880)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 65=1885\\ & & & 26\times 72=1872\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(2100)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 72=2088& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1915)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 66=1914\\ & 30\times 70=2100& & \\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(2110)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 73=2117& \mathrm{\Sigma }(1940)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 67=1943\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(2325)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 75=2325& \mathrm{\Sigma }(2000)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 69=2001\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(2350)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 76=2356& \mathrm{\Sigma }(2030)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 70=2030\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }(2585)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 70=2590& \mathrm{\Sigma }(2070)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 71=2059\\ & & & \\ & & \mathrm{\Sigma }(2080)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 72=2088\\ & & & \\ & & \mathrm{\Sigma }(2100)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟎}\times 70=2100\\ & & & \\ & & \mathrm{\Sigma }(2250)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 73=2263\\ & & & 30\times 75=2250\\ & & & \\ & & \mathrm{\Sigma }(2455)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 79=2449\\ & & & \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 66=2442\\ & & & \\ & & \mathrm{\Sigma }(2620)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 71=2627\\ & & & \\ & & \mathrm{\Sigma }(3000)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟏}\times 73=2993\\ & & & \\ & & \mathrm{\Sigma }(3170)& \mathrm{𝟒𝟑}\times 74=3182\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{cccc}& & & \\ \mathrm{\Xi }\text{baryon}& \text{Computed mass}& \mathrm{\Omega }\text{baryon}& \text{Computed mass}\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Xi }(1317)& \mathrm{𝟏𝟗}\times 69=1311& & \\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Xi }(1530)& 21\times 73=1533& \mathrm{\Omega }(1672)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 73=1679\\ & \mathrm{𝟏𝟗}\times 81=1539& & \\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Xi }(1630)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 71=1633& \mathrm{\Omega }(2250)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 73=2263\\ & & & 30\times 75=2250\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Xi }(1680)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 73=1679& \mathrm{\Omega }(2380)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 77=2387\\ & 24\times 70=1680& & 33\times 72=2376\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Xi }(1820)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟑}\times 79=1817& \mathrm{\Omega }(2470)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟕}\times 67=2479\\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Xi }(1940)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 67=1943& & \\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Xi }(2030)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 70=2030& & \\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Xi }(2120)& \mathrm{𝟐𝟗}\times 73=2117& & \\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Xi }(2250)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 73=2263& & \\ & 30\times 75=2250& & \\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Xi }(2370)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 76=2356& & \\ & 33\times 75=2375& & \\ & & & \\ \mathrm{\Xi }(2500)& \mathrm{𝟑𝟏}\times 81=2511& & \\ & 32\times 78=2496& & \end{array}$$

To conclude, we have given a computation of the mass spectrum of mesons and baryons. From the above tables we see that our computation can approximate the experimental masses of mesons and baryons. From this computation we show that there is a consecutive numbering of the mass spectrum of mesons and baryons and it is interesting that in this numbering many stable mesons and baryons are assigned with a prime number. In addition to the Regge theory and the constitutent quark model (CQM) this computational method may provide a way to the study of the mass spectrum of mesons and baryons. We shall give a model of mesons and baryons from which this computation is based on. In this model each meson or baryon will be considered as a knot.