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# Absence of epidemic threshold in scale-free networks with connectivity correlations

## Abstract

Random scale-free networks have the peculiar property of being prone to the spreading of infections. Here we provide an exact result showing that a scale-free connectivity distribution with diverging second moment is a sufficient condition to have null epidemic threshold in unstructured networks with either assortative or dissortative mixing. Connectivity correlations result therefore ininfluential for the epidemic spreading picture in these scale-free networks. The present result is related to the divergence of the average nearest neighbors connectivity, enforced by the connectivity detailed balance condition.

Complex networks play a capital role in the modeling of many social, natural, and technological systems which are characterized by peculiar topological properties Albert and Barabási (2002); Dorogovtsev and Mendes (2002). In particular, small-world properties Watts and Strogatz (1998) and scale-free connectivity distributions Barabási and Albert (1999) appear as common features of many real-world networks. The statistical physics approach has been proved a very valuable tool for the study of these networks, and several surprising results concerning dynamical processes taking place on complex networks have been repeatedly reported. In particular, the absence of the percolation Callaway et al. (2000); Cohen et al. (2001) and epidemic Pastor-Satorras and Vespignani (2001a, b); May and Lloyd (2001); Pastor-Satorras and Vespignani (2002) thresholds in scale-free (SF) networks has hit the community because of its potential practical implications. The absence of the percolative threshold, indeed, prompts to an exceptional tolerance to random damages Albert et al. (2000). On the other hand, the lack of any epidemic threshold makes SF networks the ideal media for the propagation of infections, bugs, or unsolicited informations Pastor-Satorras and Vespignani (2001a).

Recent studies have focused in a more detailed topological characterization of several social and technological networks. In particular, it has been recognized that many of these networks possess, along with SF properties, non-trivial connectivity correlations Newman (2002). For instance, many social networks show that nodes with high connectivity will connect more preferably to highly connected nodes Newman (2002); a property referred to as “assortative mixing”. On the opposite side, many technological and biological networks show “dissortative mixing”; i.e. highly connected nodes are preferably connected to nodes with low connectivity Pastor-Satorras et al. (2001); Vázquez et al. (2002); Maslov and Sneppen (2002). Correlations are very important in determining the physical properties of these networks Boguñá and Pastor-Satorras (2002) and several recent works are addressing the effect of “dissortative mixing” correlations in epidemic spreading Eguíluz and Klemm (2002); Warren et al. (2002); Blanchard et al. (2002). The fact that highly connected nodes (hubs) are more likely to transmit the infection to poorly connected nodes could somehow slow down the spreading process. By numerical simulations and analytical arguments it has been claimed that, if strong enough, connectivity correlations might reintroduce an epidemic threshold in SF networks, thus restoring the standard tolerance to infections.

In this paper we analyze in detail the conditions for the lack of an epidemic threshold in the susceptible-infected-susceptible model Anderson and May (1992) in SF networks. We find the exact result that a SF connectivity distribution $`P(k)k^\gamma `$ with $`2<\gamma 3`$ in unstructured networks with assortative or dissortative mixing is a sufficient condition for a null epidemic threshold in the thermodynamic limit. In other words, the presence of two-point connectivity correlations does not alter the extreme weakness of SF networks to epidemic diffusion. This result is related to the divergence of the nearest neighbors average connectivity, divergence that is ensured by the connectivity detailed balance condition, to be satisfied in physical networks. The present analysis can be easily generalized to more sophisticated epidemic models.

In the following we shall consider unstructured undirected SF networks, in which the only relevant property of the nodes is their connectivity not (a), with distribution $`P(k)Ck^\gamma `$, with $`2<\gamma 3`$. $`P(k)`$ is defined as the probability that a randomly selected node has $`k`$ connections to other nodes. In this case the network has unbounded connectivity fluctuations, signalled by a diverging second moment $`k^2\mathrm{}`$ in the thermodynamic limit $`k_c\mathrm{}`$, where $`k_c`$ is the maximum connectivity of the network. It is worth recalling that in growing networks $`k_c`$ is related to the network size $`N`$ as $`k_cN^{1/(\gamma 1)}`$ Dorogovtsev and Mendes (2002). Finally, we shall consider that the network presents assortative or dissortative mixing allowing for non trivial two-point connectivity correlations. This corresponds to allow a general form for the conditional probability, $`P(k^{}|k)`$, that a link emanated by a node of connectivity $`k`$ points to a node of connectivity $`k^{}`$.

As a prototypical example for examining the properties of epidemic dynamics in SF networks we consider the susceptible-infected-susceptible (SIS) model Anderson and May (1992), in which each node represents an individual of the population and the links represent the physical interactions among which the infection propagates. Each individual can be either in a susceptible or infected state. Susceptible individuals become infected with probability $`\lambda `$ if at least one of the neighbors is infected. Infected nodes, on the other hand, recover and become susceptible again with probability one. A different recovery probability can be considered by a proper rescaling of $`\lambda `$ and the time. This model is conceived for representing endemic infections which do not confer permanent immunity, allowing individuals to go through the stochastic cycle susceptible $``$ infected $``$ susceptible by contracting the infection over and over again. In regular homogeneous networks, in which each node has more or less the same number of connections, $`kk`$, it is possible to understand the behavior of the model by looking at the average density of infected individuals $`\rho (t)`$ (the prevalence). It is found that for a spreading probability $`\lambda \lambda _c`$, where $`\lambda _c`$ is the epidemic threshold depending on the network average connectivity and topology, the system reaches an endemic state with a finite stationary density $`\rho `$. If $`\lambda \lambda _c`$, the system falls in a finite time in a healthy state with no infected individuals ($`\rho =0`$).

In SF networks the average connectivity is highly fluctuating and the approximation $`kk`$ is totally inadequate. To take into account the effect of the connectivity fluctuations, it has been shown that it is appropriate to consider the quantity $`\rho _k`$ Pastor-Satorras and Vespignani (2001a, b); Boguñá and Pastor-Satorras (2002), defined as the density of infected nodes within each connectivity class $`k`$. This description assumes that the network is unstructured and that the classification of nodes according only to their connectivity is meaningful not (a). Following Ref. Boguñá and Pastor-Satorras (2002), the mean-field rate equations describing the system can be written as

$$\frac{d\rho _k(t)}{dt}=\rho _k(t)+\lambda k\left[1\rho _k(t)\right]\underset{k^{}}{}P(k^{}|k)\rho _k^{}(t).$$
(1)
The first term on the r.h.s. represents the annihilation of infected individuals due to recovery with unitary rate. The creation term is proportional to the density of susceptible individuals, $`1\rho _k`$, times the spreading rate, $`\lambda `$, the number of neighboring nodes, $`k`$, and the probability that any neighboring node is infected. The latter is the average over all connectivities of the probability $`P(k^{}|k)\rho _k^{}`$ that a link emanated from a node with connectivity $`k`$ points to an infected node with connectivity $`k^{}`$. It is worth remarking that, while keeping into account the two point connectivity correlations, as given by the conditional probability $`P(k^{}|k)`$, yet we have neglected higher order density-density and connectivity correlations. Eq. (1) is therefore exact for the class of Markovian networks Boguñá and Pastor-Satorras (2002), in the limit of low prevalence ($`\rho (t)1`$).

In the case of uncorrelated networks each link points, with probability proportional to $`k^{}P(k^{})`$, to a node of connectivity $`k^{}`$, regardless of the emanating node’s connectivity. In this case, in the stationary state ($`_t\rho =0`$), $`_k^{}P(k^{}|k)\rho _k^{}(t)`$ assumes a constant value independent on $`k`$ and $`t`$ and the system (1) can be solved self-consistently obtaining that the epidemic threshold is given by Pastor-Satorras and Vespignani (2002)

$$\lambda _c=\frac{k}{k^2}.$$
(2)
For infinite SF networks with $`\gamma 3`$, we have $`k^2=\mathrm{}`$, and correspondingly $`\lambda _c=0`$; i.e. uncorrelated SF networks allow a finite prevalence whatever the spreading rate $`\lambda `$ of the infection. Finally, from the solution of $`\rho _k`$, one can compute the total prevalence $`\rho `$ using the relation $`\rho =_kP(k)\rho _k`$.

In the case of correlated networks the explicit solution of Eq. (1) is not generally accessible. However, it has been shown that the epidemic threshold is given by Boguñá and Pastor-Satorras (2002)

$$\lambda _c=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Lambda }_m},$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_m`$ is the largest eigenvalue of the connectivity matrix $`𝐂`$, defined by $`C_{kk^{}}=kP(k^{}|k)`$. In Ref. Boguñá and Pastor-Satorras (2002) it has been shown how this general formalism recovers previous results for uncorrelated networks, obtaining that, in this case, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_m=k^2/k`$. More generally, by looking at Eq. (3), the absence of an epidemic threshold corresponds to a divergence of the largest eigenvalue of the connectivity matrix $`𝐂`$ in the limit of an infinite network size $`N\mathrm{}`$. In order to provide some general statement on the conditions for such a divergence we can make use of the Frobenius theorem for non-negative irreducible matrices Gantmacher (1974). This theorem states the existence of the largest eigenvalue of any non-negative irreducible matrix, eigenvalue which is simple, positive, and has a positive eigenvector. One of the consequences of the theorem is that it provides a bound to such largest eigenvalue not (b). In our case the matrix of interest is the connectivity matrix and, since $`𝐂`$ is non-negative and irreducible not (c), it is possible to find lower and upper bounds of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_m`$. In particular, we can write not (b)

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_m^2\underset{k}{\mathrm{min}}\underset{k^{}}{}\underset{\mathrm{}}{}k^{}\mathrm{}P(\mathrm{}|k)P(k^{}|\mathrm{}).$$
(4)
This inequality relates the lower bound of the largest eigenvalue $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_m`$ to the connectivity correlation function and, as we shall see, allows to find a sufficient condition for the absence of the epidemic threshold.

In order to provide an explicit bound to the largest eigenvalue we must exploit the properties of the conditional probability $`P(k^{}|k)`$. A key relation holding for all physical networks is that all links must point from one node to another. This is translated in the connectivity detailed balance condition Boguñá and Pastor-Satorras (2002)

$$kP(k^{}|k)P(k)=k^{}P(k|k^{})P(k^{}),$$
(5)
which states that the total number of links pointing from nodes with connectivity $`k`$ to nodes of connectivity $`k^{}`$ must be equal to the total number of links that point from nodes with connectivity $`k^{}`$ to nodes of connectivity $`k`$. This relation is extremely important since it constraints the possible form of the conditional probability $`P(k^{}|k)`$ once $`P(k)`$ is given. By multiplying by a $`k`$ factor both terms of Eq. (5) and summing over $`k^{}`$ and $`k`$, we obtain

$$k^2=\underset{k^{}}{}k^{}P(k^{})\underset{k}{}kP(k|k^{}),$$
(6)
where we have used the normalization conditions $`_kP(k)=_k^{}P(k^{}|k)=1`$. The term $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k^{},k_c)=_kkP(k|k^{})`$ defines the average nearest neighbor connectivity (ANNC) of nodes of connectivity $`k^{}`$. This is a quantity customarily measured in SF and complex networks in order to quantify degree-degree correlations Pastor-Satorras et al. (2001); Vázquez et al. (2002); Maslov and Sneppen (2002). The dependence on $`k_c`$ is originated by the upper cut-off of the $`k`$-sum and it must be taken into account since it is a possible source of divergences in the thermodynamic limit. In SF networks with $`2<\gamma <3`$ we have that the second moment of the connectivity distribution diverges as $`k^2k_c^{3\gamma }`$ not (d). We thus obtain that

$$\underset{k^{}}{}k^{}P(k^{})\overline{k}_{nn}(k^{},k_c)\frac{C}{(3\gamma )}k_c^{3\gamma }.$$
(7)
In the case of dissortative mixing Newman (2002), the function $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k^{},k_c)`$ is decreasing with $`k^{}`$ and, since $`k^{}P(k^{})`$ is an integrable function, the l.h.s. of Eq. (7) has no divergence related to the sum over $`k^{}`$. This implies that the divergence must be contained in the $`k_c`$ dependence of $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k^{},k_c)`$. In other words, the function $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k^{},k_c)\mathrm{}`$ for $`k_c\mathrm{}`$ in a non-zero measure set. In the case of assortative mixing, $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k^{},k_c)`$ is an increasing function of $`k^{}`$ and, depending on its rate of growth, there may be singularities associated to the sum over $`k^{}`$. Therefore, this case has to be analyzed in detail. Let us assume that the ANNC grows as $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k^{},k_c)\alpha k^\beta `$, $`\beta >0`$, when $`k^{}\mathrm{}`$. If $`\beta <\gamma 2`$, again there is no singularity related to the sum over $`k^{}`$ and the previous argument for dissortative mixing holds. When $`\gamma 2\beta <1`$ there is a singularity coming from the sum over $`k^{}`$ of the type $`\alpha k_c^{\beta (\gamma 2)}`$. However, since Eq. (7) comes from an identity, the singularity on the l.h.s. must match both the exponent of $`k_c`$ and the prefactor on the r.h.s. In the case $`\gamma 2\beta <1`$, the singularity coming from the sum is not strong enough to match the r.h.s. of Eq. (7) since $`\beta (\gamma 2)<3\gamma `$. Thus, the function $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k^{},k_c)`$ must also diverge when $`k_c\mathrm{}`$ in a non-zero measure set. Finally, when $`\beta >1`$ the singularity associated to the sum is too strong, forcing the prefactor to scale as $`\alpha rk_c^{1\beta }`$ and the ANNC as $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k^{},k_c)rk_c^{1\beta }k^\beta `$. It is easy to realize that $`r1`$, since the ANNC cannot be larger than $`k_c`$. Plugging the $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k^{},k_c)`$ dependence into Eq. (7) and simplifying common factors, we obtain the identity at the level of prefactors

$$\frac{r}{2\gamma +\beta }=\frac{1}{3\gamma }.$$
(8)
Since $`\beta >1`$ and $`r<1`$, the prefactor in the l.h.s. of Eq. (8) is smaller than the one of the r.h.s. This fact implies that the tail of the distribution in the l.h.s. of Eq. (7) cannot account for the whole divergence of its r.h.s. This means that the sum is not the only source of divergences and, therefore, the ANNC must diverge at some other point not (e).

The large $`k_c`$ behavior of the ANNC can be plugged in Eq. (4) obtaining that

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_m^2\underset{k}{\mathrm{min}}\underset{\mathrm{}}{}\mathrm{}P(\mathrm{}|k)\overline{k}_{nn}(\mathrm{},k_c)$$
(9)
The r.h.s. of this equation is a sum of positive terms and diverges with $`k_c`$ at least as $`\overline{k}_{nn}(\mathrm{},k_c)`$ both in the dissortative or assortative cases not (f). This readily implies that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_m\mathrm{}`$ for all networks with diverging $`k^2`$. Finally Eq. (3) yields that the epidemic threshold vanishes in the thermodynamic limit in all SF networks with assortative and dissortative mixing if the connectivity distribution has a diverging second moment; i.e. a SF connectivity distribution with exponent $`2<\gamma 3`$ is a sufficient condition for the absence of an epidemic threshold in unstructured networks with arbitrary two-point connectivity correlation function.

In physical terms, the absence of the epidemic threshold is related to the divergence of the average nearest neighbors connectivity $`\overline{k}_{nn}_N`$ in SF networks. This function is defined by

$$\overline{k}_{nn}_N=\underset{k}{}P(k)\overline{k}_{nn}(k,k_c),$$
(10)
where we have explicitly considered $`k_c`$ as a growing function of the network size $`N`$. By using the analysis shown previously it follows that $`\overline{k}_{nn}_N\mathrm{}`$ when $`N\mathrm{}`$. In SF networks this parameter takes into account the level of connectivity fluctuations and appears as ruling the epidemic spreading dynamics. Somehow the number of neighbors that can be infected in successive steps is the relevant quantity. Only in homogeneous networks, where $`\overline{k}_{nn}_Nk`$, the epidemic spreading properties can be related to the average connectivity. Noticeably, the power-law behavior of SF networks imposes a divergence of $`\overline{k}_{nn}_N`$ independently of the level of correlations present in the network. This amounts to lower to zero the epidemic threshold. On the practical side, connectivity correlation functions can be measured in several networks and show assortative or dissortative behavior depending on the system. These measurements are always performed in the presence of a finite $`k_c`$ that allows the regularization of the function $`\overline{k}_{nn}(k,k_c)`$. The most convenient way to exploit the infinite size singularity is to measure the average nearest neighbor connectivity for increasing network sizes. All SF networks with $`2<\gamma 3`$ must present a diverging $`\overline{k}_{nn}_N`$ for $`N\mathrm{}`$. This statement is independent of the structure of the correlations present in the networks.

It is worth stressing that the divergence of $`\overline{k}_{nn}_N`$ is ensured by the connectivity detailed balance condition alone. Thus it is a very general results holding for all SF networks with $`2<\gamma 3`$. On the contrary, the SF behavior with $`2<\gamma 3`$ is a necessary condition for the lack of epidemic threshold only in networks with general two-point connectivity correlations and in absence of higher-order correlations. The reason is that the relation between the epidemic threshold and the maximum eigenvalue of the connectivity matrix only holds for these classes of networks. Higher order correlations, or the presence of an underlying metric in the network not (a), can modify the rate equation at the basis of the SIS model and may invalidate the present discussion.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work has been partially supported by the European commission FET Open project COSIN IST-2001-33555. R.P.-S. acknowledges financial support from the Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología (Spain).


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# Maximal depth implies su(3)+su(2)+u(1)

## Abstract

Hence it excludes proton decay and supersymmetry. The main predictions of a gauge model based on the exceptional simple Lie superalgebra $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ (a localized version of $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$) are reviewed.

PACS: 02.20.Tw, 11.30.Ly, 11.30.Pb

Keywords: Exceptional Lie superalgebra, $`mb(3|8)`$, $`E(3|8)`$, standard model.

Simple infinite-dimensional Lie superalgebras of polynomial vector fields have recently been classified . The exception $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ (a.k.a. $`E(3|8)`$)  is singled out as the unique algebra of maximal depth $`3`$ in its consistent $``$-gradation. Its representation theory was recently worked out . This superalgebra, and its close relative $`𝔳𝔩𝔢(3|6)=E(3|6)`$ of depth $`2`$, are Cartan prolongs $`(𝔤_{},𝔤_0)_{}`$ where $`𝔤_{}`$ is nilpotent and $`𝔤_0=su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$111Technically, the classification concerns superalgebras over the field of complex numbers, so $`𝔤_0`$ is really $`sl(3)+sl(2)+gl(1)`$, the non-compact form of $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$. The problem of choosing the right real form of $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ is not considered here.. This means that there is a 1-1 correspondence between $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ (and $`𝔳𝔩𝔢(3|6)`$) irreps and $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$ irreps, suggesting that an $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ symmetry might be mistaken experimentally for the symmetries of the standard model (SM) in particle physics.

With this in mind, I recently constructed a gauge model with $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ symmetry . It was called the “second-gauged standard model” (SGSM), since the $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$ symmetry is made local not only in spacetime (first gauging), but also in internal space (second gauging). However, the details of this model are not necessary to extract the main experimental consequences, which differ sharply from predictions of popular theories such as supersymmetry (SUSY) and grand unified theories (GUTs). It is the purpose of this note to list and motivate these predictions, which will be tested at the LHC and at SuperKamiokande over the next decade. My hope is also that model builders will be attracted by this substantially new local mathematics, which immediately and unambigously leads to the correct SM symmetries. Technical details are given in the appendix.

The main observation is that the correct symmetry of the SM is not $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$ itself, but rather its associated current algebra $`𝔪𝔞𝔭(4,su(3)+su(2)+u(1))`$ of maps from four-dimensional spacetime to the gauge algebra. Since the bosons in the SM are gauge bosons, i.e. current algebra connections, the bosons in the SGSM must be connections of $`𝔪𝔞𝔭(4,𝔪𝔟(3|8))`$; this point was missed in . Just as there is a 1-1 correspondence between $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ and $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$ irreps, there is also a 1-1 correspondence between connections in the associated current algebras.

The SGSM thus predicts absense of new gauge bosons, and consequently no proton decay, except possibly by instanton effects. In contrast, all GUTs, and theories which can be approximated by GUTs at low energies, have interactions that do not conserve baryon number; in fact, the minimal $`SU(5)`$ model was slayed long ago precisely because it predicted too rapid proton decay. Also low-energy SUSY models, both the MSSM and the ESSM, predict proton decay at rates which are straining the bounds from SuperKamiokande . Within a decade, proton decay will either be discovered, or the bounds will be stringent enough to rule out GUTs and SUSY.

The main reason why SUSY became popular is that it is the only (known) way to circumvent the Coleman-Mandula theorem and combine internal and spacetime symmetries in a non-trivial way . However, there is no good experimental reason why such unification would be desirable. On the contrary, if we elevate maximal depth to a guiding principle (and at least the $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$ part is strongly supported by experiments), internal/spacetime unification is ruled out. Although there certainly are simple Lie superalgebras containing both $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ and the Poincaré algebra as subalgebras ($`𝔳𝔢𝔠𝔱(7|8)`$ is an obvious example), any such superalgebra is necessarily of less than maximal depth. Hence maximal depth requires that the $`𝔪𝔞𝔭(4,𝔪𝔟(3|8))`$ symmetry be combined with spacetime symmetries in the trivial way, i.e. as a semi-direct product. GUTs are excluded for essentially the same reason. Any finite-dimensional Lie algebra $`𝔤su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$ is of less depth, as are all prolongs based on $`𝔤`$.

If internal and spacetime symmetries are not combined non-trivially, gravity is not unified with other interactions. Since the main argument for string theory is that it allegedly contains gravity , maximal depth and string theory are mutually exclusive. $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ is proposed as a generalization of the SM symmetries, whereas gravity must be dealt with separately. It can be remarked that all projective lowest-energy Fock representations of the spacetime diffeomorphism algebra, which is the correct symmetry of classical gravity, naturally involve worldlines . This indicates that the correct treatment of quantum gravity conceptually involves field theory, or at least a theory with particle-like quanta.

The predictions so far were negative – proton decay and supersymmetric particles are not to occur. Mainly negative predictions are in a sense expected, since the SM is so successful experimentally, but one would nevertheless like to have some way to discriminate between $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ and $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$. In fact, there are two generic effects that point to $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ and that have already been experimentally confirmed: CP violation and several generations.

CP violation can be accounted for already within the SM by several mechanisms (theta angle, neutrino mass matrix, CKM matrix) , but it is one of the least understood aspects, as witnessed by expressions like “strong CP problem” and “flavour problem” . Also, CP violation in the SM is too weak to explain certain cosmological data, in particular the observed baryon-to-photon ratio. Almost any extension of the SM provides new sources of CP violation , but $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ has a mechanism which makes CP violation manifest already at the symmetry level: conjugate representations are inequivalent.

In fact, every infinite-dimensional algebra of vector fields has this property. E.g., in $`gl(n)`$ the distinction between conjugate representations is purely conventional, because this algebra is generated by vector fields of the form $`x^\mu _\nu `$, where $`[_\nu ,x^\mu ]=\delta _\nu ^\mu `$. One usually considers $`x^\mu `$ as the coordinate and $`_\nu =/x^\nu `$ as the derivative, but the opposite interpretation is equally valid. In contrast, in the full algebra $`𝔳𝔢𝔠𝔱(n)`$ of vector fields (which is related to $`gl(n)`$ as $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ is related to $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$), the distinction between co- and contra- is substantial. A general vector field is of the form $`\xi =\xi ^\mu (x)_\mu `$, and thus the symmetry between $`x^\mu `$ and $`_\nu `$ is lost. On the representation level, this is manifested in the existence of the exterior derivative, which acts on covariant skew tensor fields only.

Let us now turn to the fermions. Because gauge bosons must be identified with connections of the associated current algebra, they are not unified into a single multiplet. Analogously, there is no compelling reason why different species of quarks and leptons should be unified. Note in passing that all applications of conformal field theory to statistical physics contain several Virasoro irreps . This is the reason why $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$, despite being a superalgebra, does not predict unobserved SUSY partners. Note also that $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ is not technically a SUSY, because it does not contain a Poincaré subalgebra.

However, any $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ irrep decomposes into several $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$ irreps under restriction, which can account for several generations. I thus suggest “vertical” unification between generations, but not “horizontal” unification within a single generation. Denote the basis of a $`𝔪𝔞𝔭(4,𝔪𝔟(3|8))`$ module by $`\psi (x,\theta ,u,\vartheta )`$, where $`x`$ is the spacetime coordinate and $`(\theta ,u,\vartheta )`$ are coordinates in internal $`3|8`$-dimensional space (see Appendix). Upon restriction to $`𝔪𝔞𝔭(4,su(3)+su(2)+u(1))`$, this module contains three natural submodules, defined by the conditions $`d^6\theta \psi (x,\theta ,u,\vartheta )=0`$, $`d^3u\psi (x,\theta ,u,\vartheta )=0`$, and $`d^2\vartheta \psi (x,\theta ,u,\vartheta )=0`$, respectively. As a very speculative note, this might suggest that the three SM generations are related to depth $`3`$.

The predictions so far were quite generic, and apply to $`𝔳𝔩𝔢(3|6)`$ as well, but the fermion content is $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$-specific. To consider $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ would be overkill if we wanted to identify fermions with tensor modules, since all information about these is encoded already in the $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$ subalgebra. Instead, I suggested in  that fermions should be identified with closed form modules, i.e. the irreducible quotients $`\mathrm{ker}`$, where $``$ is an invariant morphism (the analogue of the exterior derivative). $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ tensor modules are labelled by weights $`(p,q;r;Y)`$, $`p,q,r`$, $`Y`$, where $`p\pi _1+q\pi _2`$ is an $`su(3)`$ weight, $`r`$ is an $`su(2)`$ weight and $`Y`$ is weak hypercharge222In , the abelian weight was defined with a factor $`3`$ in order to work exclusively with integers.. The tensor module $`T(p,q;r;Y)`$ is irreducible except for four series 333Kac and Rudakov  obtain the contragredient result.:

$`\mathrm{\Omega }_A(p,r)`$ $`=`$ $`T(p,0;r;\frac{4p}{3}+r2),`$
$`\mathrm{\Omega }_B(p,r)`$ $`=`$ $`T(p,0;r;\frac{4p}{3}r4),`$
$`\mathrm{\Omega }_C(q,r)`$ $`=`$ $`T(0,q;r;\frac{4q}{3}+r+2),`$
$`\mathrm{\Omega }_D(q,r)`$ $`=`$ $`T(0,q;r;\frac{4q}{3}r).`$
The best assignment possible is described by the following table:

$$\begin{array}{ccccc}& & & & \\ \text{weight}& \text{fermion}& \text{form}& Y(\text{SM})& Y(𝔪𝔟)\\ & & & & \\ (0,1;1;\frac{1}{3})& \left(\begin{array}{c}u_L\\ d_L\end{array}\right)& \mathrm{\Omega }_D(1,1)& \frac{1}{3}& \frac{1}{3}\\ (0,1;0;\frac{4}{3})& u_R& \mathrm{\Omega }_D(1,0)& \frac{4}{3}& \frac{4}{3}\\ (0,1;0;\frac{2}{3})& d_R& \mathrm{\Omega }_C(1,0)& \frac{2}{3}& \frac{10}{3}\\ & & & & \\ (0,0;1;1)& \left(\begin{array}{c}\nu _{eL}\\ e_L\end{array}\right)& \mathrm{\Omega }_D(0,1)& 1& 1\\ (0,0;0;2)& e_R& \mathrm{\Omega }_C(0,0)& 2& 2\end{array}$$

We see that the $`su(3)+su(2)`$ weights of the fundamental fermions can be fitted very snugly into the list of form modules, but that the hypercharge assignment in the C sector ($`d_R`$ and $`e_R`$) is off by four units. Also, the anti-fermions fit into the A and B sectors, but here we have an additional discrepancy $`\mathrm{\Delta }Y=2`$. Replacing $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ by $`𝔳𝔩𝔢(3|6)`$ does not help; the reducibility conditions are different , but it is still impossile to fit all fermions to closed form modules.

Although the hypercharge problem is embarrassing, it can be circumvented in several ways. Maybe $`d_R`$ and $`e_R`$ (but not the fermions in the D sector) should be identified with irreducible tensor modules. Another possibility is that the restriction $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$, which is not understood, introduces extra hypercharge in the C sector. E.g., integration over the internal $`3|8`$-dimensional space contributes $`\mathrm{\Delta }Y=2`$. However, we can conclude that hypercharge is quantized in multiples of $`1/3`$.

To summarize, the main predictions from the assumption of maximal depth are:

* $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$ symmetry; more precisely, a localized form thereof.
* No proton decay, since there are no new gauge bosons.
* No sparticles, since supersymmetry is incompatible with maximal depth.
* Manifest CP violation, since conjugate representations are inequivalent.
* Several generations, since the restriction of an $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ irrep to $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$ is reducible.
* Several fermion species in qualitative agreement with experiments, but the naïve hypercharge assignment in the C sector is off by four units.
* Charge quantization in units of $`1/3`$.

The absense of proton decay and sparticles will be tested at the LHC and SuperKamiokande over the next decade. However, maximal depth excludes SUSY and GUTs in principle, not only at energy scales accessible to the next generation of experiments. The reason is simple: if nature reaches maximal depth at some scale, it would be unnatural to retract to less depth at higher energy. There is of course also the possibility that proton decay and sparticles will be seen in experiments soon. If so, the fact that maximal depth immediately leads to the correct SM symmetries will merely be a mathematical curiousity.

Appendix

Every algebra of polynomial vector fields $`𝔤`$ admits a grading by finite-dimensional vector spaces of depth $`d`$ and height $`h`$:

$$𝔤=𝔤_d+\mathrm{}+𝔤_1+𝔤_0+𝔤_1+\mathrm{}+𝔤_h.$$

Finite-dimensional Lie superalgebras have gradings with depth and height equal and at most $`2`$, whereas infinite-dimensional algebras have infinite height and finite depth. Apart from an inconsistent regrading of $`𝔨𝔰𝔩𝔢(5|10)`$, $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ is the unique simple Lie superalgebra of maximal depth $`3`$ .

The grading is said to be consistent if odd subspaces are purely fermionic and even subspaces purely bosonic. It is known that the only consistently graded simple algebras are the contact algebras $`𝔨(1|m)`$ (a.k.a. the centerless $`N=m`$ superconformal algebra) and the four exceptions $`𝔨𝔰𝔩𝔢(5|10)`$, $`𝔳𝔩𝔢(3|6)`$, $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ and $`𝔨𝔞𝔰(1|6)`$. These algebras were first discovered by Shchepochkina  ($`𝔨𝔞𝔰(1|6)`$ was independently found in ), and their consistent gradings first appeared in . They were described explicitly in terms of generators and brackets in , and the preserved geometries were discovered in .

It is instructive to consider some examples.

The polynomial part of the Virasoro algebra $`𝔳𝔢𝔠𝔱(1)`$ has generators $`L_m=t^{m+1}\frac{}{t}`$, $`m1`$. Setting $`\mathrm{deg}L_m=m`$, we see that this algebra has depth $`1`$; the grading is inconsistent since $`L_1`$ is bosonic.

The polynomial part of the superconformal algebra $`𝔨(1|1)`$ has generators $`L_m=t^m(t\frac{}{t}+\frac{m+1}{2}\theta \frac{}{\theta })`$, $`m1`$, and $`G_r=t^{r+1/2}(\frac{}{\theta }+\theta \frac{}{t})`$, $`r1/2`$. Setting $`\mathrm{deg}L_m=2m`$ and $`\mathrm{deg}G_r=2r`$ makes this into a consistently graded superalgebra of depth $`2`$.

The Clifford algebra $`Cl(m)`$ has $`m`$ fermionic generators $`D_i`$ and a single bosonic generator $`E`$. The brackets read

$`\{D_i,D_j\}`$ $`=`$ $`2g_{ij}E,`$
$`[D_i,E]`$ $`=`$ $`[E,E]=0,`$
where $`g_{ij}`$ are symmetric structure constants. $`Cl(m)`$ can be realized as vector fields acting on $`^{1|m}`$ as follows:

$`D_i`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{}{\theta _i}}+g_{ij}\theta ^j{\displaystyle \frac{}{t}},`$
$`E`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{}{t}}.`$
The contact superalgebra $`𝔨(1|m)𝔳𝔢𝔠𝔱(1|m)`$ is generated by vector fields $`X`$ which preserve the dual Pfaff equation $`D_i=0`$. In other words, $`X𝔨(1|m)`$ if

$$[D_i,X]=f_i^jD_j,$$

where $`f_j^i`$ are some functions depending on $`X`$. Note that a general vector field $`X𝔳𝔢𝔠𝔱(1|m)`$ satisfies

$$[D_i,X]=f_i^jD_j+g_iE,$$

so $`𝔨(1|m)`$ is characterized by $`g_i=0`$. Setting $`\mathrm{deg}\theta ^i=1`$, $`\mathrm{deg}t=2`$ gives $`𝔨(1|m)`$ a consistent grading of depth $`2`$. $`𝔨(1|m)`$ is known in physics as the centerless $`N=m`$ superconformal algebra, which is well known to have a central extension iff $`m4`$ . In general, a Virasoro-like extension can be obtained by restriction from $`𝔳𝔢𝔠𝔱(1|m)`$; this cocycle is evidently non-central for $`m5`$.

Let us now turn to the definition of $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ . Consider the following nilpotent Lie superalgebra $`\stackrel{~}{𝔤}_{}`$:

$`\{D^{ia},D^{jb}\}`$ $`=`$ $`6ϵ^{ijk}ϵ^{ab}E_k,`$
$`[D^{ia},E_j]`$ $`=`$ $`2\delta _j^iϵ^{ab}F_b,`$
$`\{D^{ia},F_b\}`$ $`=`$ $`[E_i,E_j]=[E_i,F_a]=\{F_a,F_b\}=0,`$
where $`i,j,k=1,2,3`$ are $`^3`$ indices, $`a,b=1,2`$ are $`^2`$ indices, and $`ϵ^{ijk}`$ and $`ϵ^{ab}`$ are the totally anti-symmetric constant tensors. Setting $`\mathrm{deg}D^{ia}=1`$, $`\mathrm{deg}E_i=2`$, $`\mathrm{deg}F_a=3`$ makes $`\stackrel{~}{𝔤}_{}`$ into a graded superalgebra; the grading is evidently consistent. Verification of the Jacobi identities is non-trivial; one needs that the three generators $`F_a`$, $`F_b`$ and $`F_c`$ can never be linearly independent.

Consider $`^{3|8}`$ with basis spanned by three even coordinates $`u^i`$, six odd coordinates $`\theta _{ia}`$, and two more odd coordinates $`\vartheta ^a`$, where $`\mathrm{deg}\theta _{ia}=1`$, $`\mathrm{deg}u^i=2`$ and $`\mathrm{deg}\vartheta ^a=3`$. $`\stackrel{~}{𝔤}_{}`$ can be realized as a subalgebra of $`vect(3|8)`$ as follows:

$`D^{ia}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{}{\theta _{ia}}}3ϵ^{ijk}\theta _j^a{\displaystyle \frac{}{u_k}}+ϵ^{ijk}\theta _j^a\theta _k^b{\displaystyle \frac{}{\vartheta ^b}}ϵ^{ab}u^i{\displaystyle \frac{}{\vartheta ^b}},`$
$`E_i`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{}{u^i}}\theta _i^a{\displaystyle \frac{}{\vartheta ^a}},`$
$`F_a`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{}{\vartheta ^a}},`$
where $`\theta _i^a=ϵ^{ab}\theta _{bi}`$. $`\stackrel{~}{𝔤}_{}`$ is naturally an $`su(3)+su(2)+u(1)`$ module; this is where contact with the SM symmetries is made. $`su(3)`$ acts on $`^3`$, $`su(2)`$ acts on $`^2`$ and $`u(1)`$ computes the grading; the grading operator is

$$Z=3Y=3\vartheta ^a\frac{}{\vartheta ^a}+2u^i\frac{}{u_i}+\theta _{ia}\frac{}{\theta _{ia}},$$

where $`Y`$ is weak hypercharge.

$`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ is now defined as the subsuperalgebra of $`𝔳𝔢𝔠𝔱(3|8)`$ which preserves the dual Pfaff equation $`D^{ia}=0`$. In other words, $`X𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ iff

$$[D^{ia},X]=f_{jb}^{ia}D^{jb},$$

for some functions $`f_{jb}^{ia}`$ (depending on $`X`$). An equivalent definition $`𝔪𝔟(3|8)`$ is as the Cartan prolong $`(𝔤_{},𝔤_0)_{}`$, where $`𝔤_{}`$ is isomorphic to $`\stackrel{~}{𝔤}_{}`$ but commutes with it. This means that we start from the realizations of $`𝔤_{}`$ and $`𝔤_0`$ as vector fields on $`^{3|8}`$, and define $`𝔤_k`$, $`k>0`$, recursively as the maximal subalgebra of $`𝔳𝔢𝔠𝔱(3|8)`$ such that $`[𝔤_1,𝔤_k]𝔤_{k1}`$.

$`𝔳𝔩𝔢(3|6)`$ is defined in a similar manner, except that we set $`F_a=0`$ in $`\stackrel{~}{𝔤}_{}`$. Since the realization requires two less fermionic coordinates, this is a subalgebra of $`𝔳𝔢𝔠𝔱(3|6)`$.


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# Energy loss of quarks in deconfined matter at RHIC: photon-tagged jets, single electron and dilepton spectra from open charm

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Induced gluon radiation of a fast quark propagating through a deconfined medium of quarks and gluons causes an energy loss which should considerably modify various observables in relativistic heavy-ion collisions compared to $`pp`$ collisions. In such a way the properties of the deconfined medium (parton composition and space-time dependent densities etc.) can be probed. The QCD based theory of the energy loss has been elaborated by various groups; a few key references are  from which other relevant publications can be traced back. As pointed out in  the modified transverse momentum spectrum of final hadrons at midrapidity appears as a convolution of the energy loss distribution and the primary spectrum. To enable a comparison with earlier work , we employ here a simplified version by using a Monte Carlo averaging over traversed path lengths and by shifting the transverse momentum of a quark with energy $`E`$ and mean free path $`\lambda `$ before hadronizing by the mean energy loss according to

$$\mathrm{\Delta }E=\frac{\alpha _s}{3}\zeta \{\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill 0& :\hfill & L<\lambda \text{or}\text{in}\text{hadron}\text{matter}\hfill \\ \hfill \widehat{q}(T_f)L^2& :\hfill & L<L_c\hfill \\ \hfill \sqrt{\widehat{q}(T_f)E}L& :\hfill & L>L_c\hfill \end{array}$$
(1)
where $`L`$ is the traversed path inside the deconfined medium, $`L_c=\sqrt{E/\widehat{q}(T_f)}`$, and $`\widehat{q}`$ encodes the transport properties of the medium. Remarkable is the apparent independence of the initial state, i.e. the energy loss depends on the temperature $`T_f`$ at which the quark leaves the medium. As we show below, however, due to life time and geometrical size effects, a sensitivity on the initial conditions occurs.

## 2 SINGLE ELECTRONS FROM OPEN CHARM DECAYS

Using the PYTHIA version 6.206 with charm quark mass parameter $`m_c=1.5`$ GeV, intrinsic parton transverse momentum distribution $`\sqrt{k_{}^2}=2.5`$ GeV,111This choice describes the charged hadron and $`\pi ^0`$ spectra measured by PHENIX in peripheral collisions and is compatible with UA1 data \[K. Gallmeister, C. Greiner, Z. Xu, to be published\]. default $`Q`$ scale and K factor $`𝒦=5.7`$ one gets the charm cross section $`\sigma _{c\overline{c}}^{NN}=404`$ $`\mu `$b at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}=130`$ GeV. With the hybrid fragmentation scheme (Peterson fragmentation function with $`ϵ=0.06`$) and the electron/positron decay channels of charmed hadrons within PYTHIA the resulting inclusive transverse momentum spectrum agrees fairly well ($`\chi _{d.o.f.}^2=0.27`$ (0.39)) with the PHENIX data  when using the appropriate thickness functions $`T_{AA}=6.2`$ (22.6) mb-1 for minimum bias (central) collisions, see Figure 1.

To see which space is left for an energy loss we use the above described scheme with Bjorken symmetries (transverse radius $`R_A=7`$ fm, no transverse expansion, full chemical equilibrium, initial time $`\tau _i=0.2`$ fm/c) and initial temperature $`T_i=550`$ MeV. The final temperature $`T_f`$ depends on the creation point and propagation direction of the charm quarks; the minimum of $`T_f`$ is given by the chiral transition temperature of 170 MeV. We parameterize different energy loss strengths by $`\zeta `$. The results of our Monte Carlo sampling are exhibited in Figure 2. An optimum description of the data is accomplished by $`\zeta =0.2\mathrm{}0.5`$, as quantified by $`\chi _{d.o.f.}^2=0.32\mathrm{}0.31`$. It turns out, however, that larger energy losses are also compatible with data (e.g., $`\chi _{d.o.f.}^2=0.43`$ (0.76) for $`\zeta =1.0`$ (2.0)), as no energy loss does ($`\chi _{d.o.f.}^2=0.39`$ for $`\zeta =0`$). Insofar, the present data do not constrain significantly the energy loss of charm quarks. Our neglect of the dead cone effect  and the use of the mean energy loss instead of the proper distribution  overestimates the theoretical energy loss. We are aware that it would be better to compare $`pp`$ data with central $`AA`$ data because the minimum bias data might be contaminated by energy losses.

## 3 DILEPTON SUPPRESSION

As pointed out in  and quantified in , energy loss effects can suppress the dileptons from charm decays. This is a potentially important effect since these charm contributions compete with the Drell-Yan yield  and hide the interesting thermal contribution. Given the above parameterization of the modifications of inclusive single electrons by energy losses of charm quarks, we proceed to estimate the possible suppression of dileptons from correlated semi-leptonic decays of open charm mesons. Our predictions are displayed in Figure 3 for various values of the strength parameter $`\zeta `$. Indeed, the dilepton spectra are quite sensitive to energy losses, however, assuming a small loss, as suggested by the above analysis, the corresponding suppression is small. This implies that without subtracting the charm component in dilepton spectra, an identification and quantification of the thermal yield will hardly be possible. Otherwise, as shown in  the thermal dilepton contribution allows a very concise characterization of the highly excited strongly interacting matter. Therefore, it would be very useful to get experimental dilepton spectra with identified charm contribution.

## 4 MOMENTUM IMBALANCE OF PHOTON-TAGGED JETS

Following the suggestion in  one can try to extract information on energy losses from photon-tagged jets. After the hard reaction $`g+q\gamma +q`$ the outgoing photon does not suffer any noticeable modification by the ambient medium. Therefore, the momentum imbalance $`p_{}^\gamma p_{}^q`$ may serve as a sensible quantity to characterize the energy loss of the outgoing quark $`q`$ which can be identified in a jet by selecting a sufficiently narrow cone . Within the above described scheme the resulting momentum imbalance is depicted in Figure 4. Clearly seen is the dependence on the initial condition which essentially comes from life time effects. For $`T_i=550`$ MeV the two-regime behavior from Eq. (1) is evidenced. For more details consult .

## 5 SUMMARY

The present inclusive single-electron spectra  from open charm decays in Au + Au collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}=130`$ GeV seem to point to tiny energy losses. More quantitative conclusions can be drawn after the release of the data of Au + Au collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}=200`$ GeV which have better statistics and better centrality selection ; also the release of the $`pp`$ data at the same energy will be very helpful.

Photon-tagged jets are considered useful to accomplish the goal of jet tomography of deconfined matter.

Discussions with R. Averbeck, Y. Akiba, and B. Cole are gratefully acknowledged.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Active galactic nuclei (AGN) jets have been extensively imaged in the radio, and also emit significantly at higher frequencies including the X-rays via synchrotron and inverse Compton (IC). It turns out that black hole candidate (BHC) X-ray binaries (XRBs) also produce collimated outflows, at least when in the low/hard state (LHS) . The jets in several persistent Galactic sources have already been resolved in the radio (e.g., 1E1740.7-2942, ; Cyg X-1, ).

Analogous to the “signature” emission of compact radio cores in AGN (e.g., ), XRB jets contribute a flat-to-inverted radio synchrotron component to the LHS spectra. Beyond this radio signature, a typical LHS spectrum shows a weak thermal contribution and a hard power-law at higher frequencies. This has generally been interpreted in terms of a Standard Thin Disk (SD; ) which either transitions at some radius to an optically thin, non-radiative flow, or is underlying a corona (for reviews see ). The hotter plasma is believed to account for the hard power-law via IC upscattering of the thermal SD photons.

While variations of this picture can successfully explain the X-ray features, there is increasing evidence that—at least in the LHS and likely also the quiescent state—the jet is also playing a role outside the radio band. The extent of this role is not yet clear, but we have found that emission from the jets alone can actually account for the majority of the broadband LHS spectrum (excluding the thermal SD contribution) in sources where simultaneous radio, X-ray and sometimes infrared (IR)/optical data are available. The models for these various sources also show a surprising degree of similarity in their input parameters, and is the only model yet which can explain the multi-wavelength correlations which are now being seen in several sources. It is therefore important to begin exploring ways in which the jets can be incorporated into the previously disk/corona-only X-ray picture, and to know the extent to which they can reasonably contribute.

## 2 Brief Model Summary

We first considered a jet model for the BHC XTE J1118+480, because of the excellent broadband observational coverage. Details of the model, data references and figures can be found in . The basic idea is that a small fraction of the charge-neutral accreting plasma from the inner disk, which we take to be optically thin and hot, escapes the black hole and is collimated into a jet. The energy in the jet is divided equally between the kinetic energy and the internal energy, dominated by hot electrons and the magnetic fields. Under these assumptions, to explain the radio/IR spectra with a realistic jet power, $`Q_\mathrm{j}=q_\mathrm{j}\dot{M}c^2`$ where $`q_\mathrm{j}0.010.1`$, the thermal plasma must encounter some acceleration region within the jet (see, e.g., ). This process is also inferred because of the observed optically thin synchrotron power-law seen during radio outbursts, indicating the presence of nonthermal particles.

The question of whether jet synchrotron will contribute to the X-rays is thus a matter of the maximum energy to which the particles can be accelerated. Synchrotron cooling will dominate as long as the SD does not extend too close to the base of the jet ($`\begin{array}{c}<\\ \end{array}10r_g`$). In the specific case of Fermi acceleration, the location of the maximum cutoff is not dependent on the magnetic field, the jet power, or the shock location but is instead dependent on two plasma parameters: the mean free path for diffusive scattering and the speed of the shock in the plasma frame. Because we would expect XRBs to have similar shock structures, we should get roughly similar cutoffs for different sources and accretion rates. In cases where the photon field from the SD is high enough, however, IC from the jet could instead dominate.

## 3 Some Applications

We have applied this model so far to 4 LHS sources with simultaneous or quasi-simultaneous data, in addition to XTE J1118+480. One of the most interesting data sets comes from the 1981 observations of the Galactic BHC GX 339-4, presented in . The IR/optical wavebands seem to indicate the clear presence of both jet and disk components, which has not been seen explicitly in any other source. The first component at lower frequencies has a negative slope, suggesting that we are seeing the expected turnover from the optically thick to optically thin regimes. The shape of this spectrum at higher frequencies is hidden under a component which is likely due to thermal emission from the SD, as indicated by the sharp rise in the optical points. However, if the simultaneously measured X-rays are traced back to the IR, they line up with the turnover remarkably well, supporting their interpretation as synchrotron emission. We present one possible model fit in Fig. 1a.

A special feature of GX 339-4 is that its radio emission has been observed to tightly correlate with the X-ray emission over the entire range of LHS luminosities, and also down to a very weak level of emission in the “off” state . This also suggests that the plasma emitting the synchrotron radiation plays a role at higher energy. In Fig. 1b-d we show representative fits to three of the 13 simultaneous data sets (see ), which cover almost three orders of magnitude in X-ray luminosity.

The correlation data of  can be seen explicitly in Fig. 2. The solid line is the prediction of the synchrotron-dominated jet model, with the power as the only changing parameter. The two “outliers” may be due to a reflaring at the time of the observation. If we ignore them, the slope of the correlation is $`1.4`$, which is predicted analytically from the dependence of the radio and X-ray luminosities on jet power in our model.

In Fig. 3 we show two other applications which are not as well constrained due to the non-simultaneity. Simultaneous radio and X-ray data are critical for understanding this model. At this preliminary stage, however, we seem to be discovering a few trends beyond the correlations. For instance, in all sources the shock acceleration zone seems to fall $`10^2`$ $`r_g`$, which is roughly where the reconfinement shock is thought to occur in AGN (e.g., ). This means that the “turnover coincidence” where the X-rays always trace back to the IR could be a signature of acceleration from this shock zone.


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# Untitled Document

Write to:
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# A New Window Onto Quantum Chaos

(August 7, 2002)

## Abstract

In this article the statistical properties of symmetrical random matrices whose elements are drawn from a $`q`$-parameterized non-extensive statistics power-law distribution are investigated. In the limit as $`q1`$ the well known Gaussian orthogonal ensemble (GOE) results are recovered. The relevant level spacing distribution is derived and one obtains a suitably generalized non-extensive Wigner distribution which depends on the value of the tunable non-extensivity parameter $`q`$. This non-extensive Wigner distribution can be seen to be a one-parameter level-spacing distribution that allows one to interpolate between chaotic and nearly integrable regimes.

Over the past two decades random matrix theory has proven to be a useful tool in the study of quantum chaos. Universal signatures of quantum chaos were found for systems whose corresponding classical Hamiltonians exhibit chaotic behavior, and they are reviewed in Gut ; haake1 ; stockmann1 . The level spacing distributions derived from ensembles of random matrices Porter ; mehta1  have been shown to describe closely the statistics of fluctuations in the energy spectra of some chaotic systems Bohigas . This concept has also been extended to scattering Blumel ; John , dissipative systems Grobe ,inter-series mixing in helium puttner1  and in general the analysis of systems with mixed regular and chaotic phase space regions reichl1 .

In the generic case of mixed phase space, the Hamiltonian can be written as $`H=H_o+ϵH_1`$, with $`H_o`$ an integrable Hamiltonian and $`H_1`$ a non-integrable Hamiltonian. Regular and chaotic regions coexist in the mixed phase space and no universal laws have been shown to hold. Therefore level spacing distributions between neighboring eigenvalues have been suggested brody1 ; Izrailev ; berry1 ; stockmann1  that are composed of the distributions describing the regular $`H_o`$ and chaotic $`H_1`$ regions separately. The regular regions have classically integrable Hamiltonians $`H_o`$ whose eigenvalues are uniformly distributed and therefore the nearest-neighbor spacing statistics are described by Poisson distributions brody1 . The eigenvalues of the non-integrable Hamiltonians $`H_1`$ in the chaotic regions on the other hand are assumed to have an ergodic phase space region and are thus taken to be Gaussian distributed. The nearest-neighbor statistics for the chaotic regions then follow the Wigner-surmised level spacing statistics. These composite distributions then contain one or more adjustable parameters that allow for an interpolation between the Poisson and the Wigner level statistics.

The individual regions have Hamiltonians $`H_o,H_1`$ whose eigenvalues are assumed to be independent. Thus an assumption of statistical independence of the random matrix elements (the eigenvalues) is inherent to the theory also as a consequence of a semi-classical approximation. This assumption is admittedly invalid in even the simplest quantum case berry1  if tunneling between the different regions is not neglected.

In this letter the level spacing distribution of a generic $`H`$ is obtained from statistically dependent random matrix elements corresponding to correlated eigenvalues. The importance of using non-extensive statistic is that the nearest-neighbor level spacing distribution allows one to interpolate from the nearly integrable to the chaotic regime as the non-extensive parameter $`q`$ is varied. The Hamiltonian matrix of $`H`$ to be considered is an $`N\times N`$ real symmetric matrix, and is invariant under orthogonal transformations.

The extensive Gaussian random matrix theory can be generalized by examining the non-extensive, or $`q`$-parameterized entropy tsallis1 ; wang1 . For systems with statistically dependent (say, Hamiltonian matrix elements) variables the joint probability decomposition is

$$P(H_i,H_j)=P(H_iH_j)P(H_j),$$
(1)
which gives the pseudo-additive entropy

$`S_q(H_i,H_j)=S_q(H_j)+S_q(H_iH_j)`$
$`+(1q)S_q(H_j)S_q(H_iH_j),`$
$`S_q=ln_qP={\displaystyle \frac{P^{1q}1}{1q}}.`$ (2)
It is known rajagopal1  that the Tsallis entropy satisfies this condition, and the resulting probability will be of the power-law form. The $`q`$-logarithm is $`ln_qX=\frac{1X^{1q}}{(q1)}`$. In the limit as $`q1`$ the usual form of the natural logarithm and thus the extensive statistics and its exponential (Gaussian) distributions is recovered.

The entropy to be maximized given the constraints is then

$`S_q`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1P_N^q(H)𝑑H}{(q1)}}\text{ },`$
$`Tr(H^2)_q`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle Tr\left(H^2\right)\text{ }P_N^q(H)𝑑H}`$ (3)
$`=`$ $`\sigma _q^2,`$
and which is subject to the extra normalization condition

$$P_N(H)𝑑H=1.$$
(4)
Then maximizing $`S_q`$ with the above constraints, yields the least biased probability density or non-extensive distribution function

$$P_N(H)=A_N\text{ }\left(1+\beta (q1)Tr(H^2)\right)^{\frac{1}{q1}},$$
(5)
where $`A_N`$ is a normalization constant and

$$Tr(H^2)=\underset{1iN}{}H_{ii}^2+2\underset{1ijN}{}H_{ij}^2.$$
(6)
This is then the Tsallis power-law form of the probability density for the $`N\times N`$ random matrix elements. This nonextensive distribution then is use to obtain the correlated distribution function for the eigenenergies assuming that the given Hamiltonian is symmetric, real and can be diagonalized by means of an orthogonal transformation. The correlated distribution is given as

$`P_N(E_1,\mathrm{},E_N)=`$
$`A_N{\displaystyle \underset{j>i}{}}\left|E_iE_j\right|\left(1+\beta (q1){\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}E_i^2\right)^{\frac{1}{q1}}.`$ (7)
Consider a special case of non-extensive ensembles of $`2\times 2`$ matrices. The nearest neighbor spacing distribution $`p(s)`$ is obtained from the correlated energy distribution function $`P(E_1,E_2)`$ by

$`p(s)={\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑E_1{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑E_2P(E_1,E_2)\delta (s\left|E_1E_2\right|)`$
$`p(s)=A{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑E_1{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑E_2\left|E_1E_2\right|`$
$`\times \left(1+\beta (q1){\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}E_i^2\right)^{\frac{1}{q1}}\delta (s\left|E_1E_2\right|).`$ (8)
The constants $`A`$ and $`\beta `$ are fixed by the two normalization conditions$`p(s)𝑑s=1`$, $`sp(s)𝑑s=1`$.

Integrating Eq.7. with the above conditions yields the non-extensive nearest neighbor spacing distribution.

$$p(s)=\frac{(53q)\beta }{2}s\left(1+\beta (q1)s^2/2\right)^{\frac{1}{q1}+\frac{1}{2}},$$
(9)
where

$$\beta (q)=\frac{\pi }{2}\frac{1}{q1}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{1}{q1}2)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{1}{q1}\frac{3}{2})}\right)^2,$$
(10)
and $`1<q<\frac{3}{2}`$.

The behavior of the non-extensive nearest neighbor spacing distribution obtained by plotting its values for a range of the level spacing $`s`$, given the ‘inverse variance’ $`\beta `$ and the non-extensivity parameter $`q`$. In Fig.1. the $`q`$ dependence of $`\beta `$ is plotted for values of $`q`$ between $`1<q<1.5`$. In Fig.2. the Poisson (solid), extensive (long-short dashing) and non-extensive Wigner (short dashing) distributions are plotted for a low non-extensivity parameter $`q`$ value of $`q=1.01`$. The non-extensive distribution is nearly superimposed on the extensive Wigner distribution as is expected for $`q>1`$. In Fig.3. the Poisson (solid), extensive (long-short dashing) and non-extensive Wigner (short dashing) are plotted for a high value of the non-extensivity parameter $`q=1.38`$. Here the distribution is greatly shifted and approaches the Poisson level statistics distribution.

In this letter Gaussian distributed $`N\times N`$ random Hamiltonian matrix elements is generalized to the case of the non-extensive statistics and the resultant power-law distributions. A derivation of the subsequent level spacing statistical distribution, the non-extensive Wigner distribution, is given. This derivation is obtained from maximizing the non-extensive entropy of Tsallis of the $`N\times N`$ symmetrical random matrix elements. The resultant of nonextensive level-spacing distribution is $`q`$-parameterized and the nearest neighbor spacing distribution varies from near integrable to chaotic regimes as the non-extesive parameter $`q`$ is varied. The major importance is the possibility of using non-extensive statistics to shed light on the quantum signatures of classically mixed systems. In future work it will be interesting to apply these results to Hamiltonians of mixed systems between regular and chaotic regimes where deviations from the Wigner statistics become pronounced.

One of the authors, F. Michael, wishes to acknowledge support from the NSF through grant number DMR99-72683.


text:
# The universal freeze-out criterion at SPS and RHIC

## Abstract

We formulate a freeze-out criterion for ultra-relativistic heavy ion collisions in terms of the pion escape probability from the collision region. We find that the increase in pion phase-space density from SPS to RHIC reported at this conference has a small influence on particle freeze-out because of the small $`\pi \pi `$ cross-section. Our treatment takes into account dynamical expansion, chemical composition and momentum of the escaping particle for particle freeze-out. It supports a freeze-out at rather low temperature—below 100 MeV—and earlier decoupling of high $`p_{}`$ particles.

A precise formulation of the condition under which particles decouple (“freeze-out”) from a heavy ion collision is important for understanding the dynamical origin of the final state. The observation of STAR  that the pion phase-space density increases at RHIC indicates that freeze-out is not characterised solely by a universal value of pion phase-space density, in contrast to a recent suggestion . Also, freeze-out is not characterised solely by a universal value of the total particle density since the volume from which particles decouple shows a non-monotonous dependence on collision energy .

It has been argued  and demonstrated  that the chemical composition of the system must be taken into account. For pion freeze-out, the nucleon and anti-nucleon density is more important than that of pions since the pion-nucleon cross-section is larger than the pion-pion one. With increasing collision energy the pion abundance and their contribution to scattering grows, but it is argued that the momentum-averaged mean free path of a pion at freeze-out stays constant .

This argumentation still ignores the influence of global dynamics on the freeze-out criterion. A strong expansion makes the particle density decrease fast and if the characteristic time scale for density decrease $`\tau _{\mathrm{exp}}=(_\mu u^\mu )^1`$ is smaller than the mean free time between collisions $`\tau _{\mathrm{scatt}}`$ a particle is likely to seize interacting, i.e., to freeze-out .

In our work we study—in addition to these two aspects—how the probability for a particle to decouple depends on its momentum . We formulate freeze-out as condition for an individual particle: a particle freezes-out at the time of its last scattering. This is in contrast to the “fireball freeze-out” which is understood as a boundary in space-time between interacting matter and free-streaming particles. In the extreme case of a hydrodynamic model the “fireball freeze-out” is usually treated by the Cooper-Frye prescription  in which all particles decouple along the same three-dimensional hyper-surface when the medium fulfils certain condition. Our treatment goes beyond Cooper-Frye: particle freeze-out depends on its type, position, and momentum in addition to the characteristics of the medium. This corresponds to freeze-out as described by a cascade event generator.

The freeze-out criterion which we explore is based on the escape probability

$$𝒫(x,p,\tau )=\mathrm{exp}\left(_\tau ^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\overline{\tau }(x+v\overline{\tau },p)\right),$$
(1)
which determines the probability that a pion emitted with momentum $`p`$ from the position $`(x,\tau )`$ escapes from the medium without further interaction. Here, the scattering rate $`(x,p)`$ is integrated along the trajectory of the pion. Freeze-out is assumed to occur when $`𝒫(x,p,\tau )`$ reaches a universal value of order one.

The role of collective expansion: To illustrate how collective expansion affects particle freeze-out, we consider the case of particles with vanishing momentum in the centre of a fireball with longitudinally boost-invariant and transversely linear expansion velocity profile of the form

$`u^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`(\mathrm{cosh}\eta \mathrm{cosh}\eta _t,\mathrm{cos}\varphi \mathrm{sinh}\eta _t,\mathrm{sin}\varphi \mathrm{sinh}\eta _t,\mathrm{sinh}\eta \mathrm{cosh}\eta _t).`$ (2)
Here, $`\eta =\mathrm{Arctanh}(z/t)`$ and $`\eta _t=\xi r`$ where $`\xi =0.08\text{fm}^1`$ is a typical value for the transverse expansion gradient . At the time $`\tau _{\mathrm{em}}`$ at which the pion is emitted, the density of scattering centres decreases by the rate

$$\frac{1}{\rho }\frac{\rho }{\tau }|_{\tau =\tau _{\mathrm{em}}}=_\mu u^\mu =\frac{1}{\tau _{\mathrm{em}}}+2\xi .$$
(3)
A power-law decrease of density with time is consistent with (3) if

$$\rho (\tau )=\rho _{\mathrm{em}}\left(\frac{\tau _{\mathrm{em}}}{\tau }\right)^\alpha ,\alpha =1+2\xi \tau _{\mathrm{em}}.$$
(4)
Under the assumption $`\rho `$ we obtain for the opacity integral of a particle of zero momentum

$$_{\tau _{\mathrm{em}}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau (\tau )=\frac{_{\mathrm{em}}}{\alpha 1}\tau _{\mathrm{em}}=\frac{_{\mathrm{em}}}{2\xi },$$
(5)
where $`_{\mathrm{em}}`$ is the scattering rate at $`\tau _{\mathrm{em}}`$. Technically, the calculation of this opacity integral for particles of non-zero momentum $`p`$ is more complicated, since one has to follow the propagation of the particle through layers of different density. For a quantitative statement, this requires a model of the space-time evolution of the fireball. Qualitatively, however, the general result will be consistent with the main feature of the case $`p=0`$ considered here: as seen from (5), freeze-out from a denser fireball (larger $`_{\mathrm{em}}`$) is possible if it is compensated by a stronger expansion gradient such that the value of opacity integral stays constant.

The role of chemical composition: To determine the value of $`_{\mathrm{em}}`$ for collisions at $`\sqrt{s}=17A\text{GeV}`$ (SPS) and $`\sqrt{s}=130A\text{GeV}`$ (RHIC), we calculate the scattering rate

$$(p)=\underset{i}{}d^3k\rho _i(k)\sigma _i^{}(s)|v_\pi v_i|,$$
(6)
where $`\sigma _i^{}`$ is the cross-section for pion scattering on species $`i`$. For the collinear cross-section we use the parametrisation

$$\sigma _i(\sqrt{s})=\underset{r}{}j_i,m_i,j_\pi ,m_\pi ||J_r,M_r\frac{2S_r+1}{(2S_i+1)(2S_\pi +1)}\frac{\pi }{p_{\mathrm{CMS}}^2}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_{r\pi i}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{i,\mathrm{tot}}}{(M_r\sqrt{s})^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }_{i,\mathrm{tot}}^2/4},$$
(7)
where the sum runs over all resonances in the $`\pi i`$ scattering. Particle densities $`\rho _i(k)`$ are assumed to be thermal. For realistic temperatures, only low-lying resonances are relevant and we include $`i=\pi ,N,\overline{N},K,\rho ,\mathrm{\Delta },\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ when summing in (6) over scattering partners. Since the freeze-out temperature is not known a priori, we scan three values: $`T=90,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}100},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}120}\text{MeV}`$. Chemical potentials for pions are estimated from data on phase-space density, those for other species from measured ratios of $`dN/dy`$ at mid-rapidity (see  for more details on the estimates).

Figure 1 shows the scattering rates as a function of the pion momentum relative to the heat bath calculated for SPS and RHIC, as well as the most important contributions to $``$. In spite of the strong increase of the pion phase-space density at RHIC , the relative meson contribution to the total scattering rate does not grow proportionally since the $`\pi \pi `$ cross-section is much smaller than the one for $`\pi N`$. The total baryonic contribution changes very little since the smaller amount of baryons at RHIC is roughly compensated by anti-baryons. In summary, there is about 10% of the relative contribution shifted from baryons to mesons when going from SPS to RHIC.

As seen in Figure 2, the scattering rate depends strongly on the assumed freeze-out temperature since the pion-nucleon scattering is typically dominated by total CMS energy below the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ resonance peak. At higher temperature, average CMS energies move closer to the peak value thus leading to increased scattering cross-sections. Estimating the pion escape probability (1) from eq. (5) and $`\xi =0.08\text{fm}^1`$, one finds that a pion only has a reasonable chance to escape (of order 50%) when the temperature is 100 MeV at most.

We finally point out that the scattering rates in Figure 2 generically decreases with increasing pion momentum. This leads us to conjecture that high $`p_{}`$ pions may decouple earlier, from hotter and smaller system. This may provide a novel as yet unexplored contribution to the observed $`M_{}`$ dependence of HBT radii.

The freeze-out criterion studied here differs from the Cooper-Frye formalism typically employed in hydrodynamical model studies. It will be interesting to explore to what extent this affects the predictions of hydrodynamical simulations for the collision evolution.


text:
# I Introduction

## I Introduction

The gravity theory of Dvali–Gabadadze–Porrati (DGP) is a braneworld theory with a metastable four-dimensional graviton . The graviton is pinned to a four-dimensional braneworld by intrinsic curvature terms induced by quantum matter fluctuations; but as it propagates over large distances, the graviton eventually evaporates off the brane into an infinite volume, five-dimensional Minkowski bulk. As a result, the DGP braneworld theory is a model in a class of theories in which gravity deviates from conventional Einstein gravity not at short distances (as in more familiar braneworld theories), but rather at long distances. Such a model has both intriguing phenomenological  as well as cosmological consequences .

A braneworld model of the sort where gravity is modified at extremely large scales is motivated by the desire to ascertain how our understanding of cosmology may be refined by the presence of extra dimensions. Observational pillars of the standard cosmological model, including the cosmic microwave background and large scale structure, provide important tests of theories that seriously modify physics at cosmological scales. Deffayet’s cosmological equations for the DGP model already point to important deviations from the standard model . In order to constrain the DGP theory further, understanding the development of large scale structure is necessary. Leakage of gravitational energy into the bulk is a key aspect of the DGP braneworld model, and one expects such leakage to modify the spectrum of density fluctuations at the largest observable cosmological scales. However, a detailed analysis, or even an intuitive understanding, of how spectral power of metric perturbations on the brane fills the bulk and (potentially) reenters the brane depends on the global structure of the brane worldsheet.

In this paper, we articulate the global structure of the five-dimensional bulk for the cosmological evolution of DGP braneworlds as a first step in understanding how large scale structure in the universe is modified. After reviewing the particulars of the model, we take the equations laid out in  and show how one may interpret the evolution of the braneworld as a relativistically expanding bubble, viewed either from the interior or the exterior, depending on the specific phase of the theory. We then go on to examine the cosmological time foliations of the bulk and show how peculiarities arise, such as shortcuts through the bulk (leading to effective brane causality violationSuch shortcuts seem to be prevalent in braneworld theories. For previous studies of this phenomenon and how such shortcuts relate to four-dimensional Lorentz symmetry violation, see for example .), and breakdowns of that foliation occur in different regimes of the theory, and discuss how understanding the global geometry of DGP braneworld evolution may offer insight into cosmological perturbations.

## II Preliminaries

### A The Model and Cosmology

Consider a braneworld theory of gravity with an infinite volume bulk and a metastable brane graviton . We take a four-dimensional braneworld embedded in a five-dimensional Minkowski spacetime. The bulk is empty; all energy-momentum is isolated on the brane. The action is

$$S_{(5)}=\frac{1}{2}M^3d^5x\sqrt{g}R+d^4x\sqrt{g^{(4)}}_m+S_{GH}.$$
(1)
The quantity $`M`$ is the fundamental five-dimensional Planck scale. The first term in Eq. (1) corresponds to the Einstein-Hilbert action in five dimensions for a five-dimensional metric $`g_{AB}`$ (bulk metric) with Ricci scalar $`R`$. The term $`S_{GH}`$ is the Gibbons–Hawking action. In addition, we consider an intrinsic curvature term which is generally induced by radiative corrections by the matter density on the brane :

$$\frac{1}{2}M_P^2d^4x\sqrt{g^{(4)}}R^{(4)}.$$
(2)
Here, $`M_P`$ is the observed four-dimensional Planck scale (see  for details). Similarly, Eq. (2) is the Einstein-Hilbert action for the induced metric $`g_{\mu \nu }^{(4)}`$ on the brane, $`R^{(4)}`$ being its scalar curvature. The induced metric is Throughout this paper, we use $`A,B,\mathrm{}=\{0,1,2,3,5\}`$ as bulk indices, $`\mu ,\nu ,\mathrm{}=\{0,1,2,3\}`$ as brane spacetime indices, and $`i,j,\mathrm{}=\{1,2,3\}`$ as brane spatial indices.

$$g_{\mu \nu }^{(4)}=_\mu X^A_\nu X^Bg_{AB},$$
(3)
where $`X^A(x^\mu )`$ represents the coordinates of an event on the brane labeled by $`x^\mu `$.

The general time-dependent line element under consideration is of the form

$$ds^2=N^2(t,y)dt^2+A^2(t,y)\gamma _{ij}dx^idx^j+B^2(t,y)dy^2,$$
(4)
and, the metric components are given by

$`N`$ $`=`$ $`1+ϵ|y|\ddot{a}\left(\dot{a}^2+k\right)^{1/2}`$ (5)
$`A`$ $`=`$ $`a+ϵ|y|\left(\dot{a}^2+k\right)^{1/2}`$ (6)
$`B`$ $`=`$ $`1,`$ (7)
where $`k=1,0`$ or $`1`$ is the intrinsic spatial curvature parameter. We take the total energy-momentum tensor which includes matter and the cosmological constant on the brane to be

$$T_B^A|_{\mathrm{brane}}=\delta (y)\mathrm{diag}(\rho ,p,p,p,0).$$
(8)
When the matter content on the brane is specified, the induced scale factor $`aA(t,y=0)`$ is determined by the Friedmann equations :

$$\sqrt{H^2+\frac{k}{a^2}}=\frac{1}{2r_0}\left[ϵ+\sqrt{\frac{4r_0^2}{3M_P^2}\rho +1}\right]$$
(9)
and

$$\dot{\rho }+3(\rho +p)H=0,$$
(10)
where we have used the usual Hubble parameter $`H=\frac{\dot{a}}{a}`$ and we have defined a crossover scale

$$r_0=\frac{M_P^2}{2M^3}.$$
(11)
This scale characterizes that distance over which metric fluctuations propagating on the brane dissipate into the bulk .

### B The Coordinate Transformation

Starting with Eqs. (46) when $`k=0`$, Deruelle and Dolezel  obtained an explicit change of coordinate $`Y^A=Y^A(X^A)`$ to go to the canonical five-dimensional Minkowskian metric

$$ds^2=(dY^0)^2+(dY^1)^2+(dY^2)^2+(dY^3)^2+(dY^5)^2.$$
(12)
See also Ref. . The coordinate transformations is

$`Y^0`$ $`=`$ $`A(y,t)\left({\displaystyle \frac{r^2}{4}}+1{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\dot{a}^2}}\right){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle 𝑑t\frac{a^2}{\dot{a}^3}\frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac{\dot{a}}{a}\right)},`$ (13)
$`Y^5`$ $`=`$ $`A(y,t)\left({\displaystyle \frac{r^2}{4}}1{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\dot{a}^2}}\right){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle 𝑑t\frac{a^2}{\dot{a}^3}\frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac{\dot{a}}{a}\right)},`$ (14)
$`Y^i`$ $`=`$ $`A(y,t)x^i,`$ (15)
where $`r^2=x^ix^j\eta _{ij}`$, and $`\eta _{ij}`$ is here a flat Euclidean three-dimensional metric. The transformation Eqs. (14) can be generalized to nonzero spatial curvatures. We describe that generalization in Sec. VI.

## III The Brane Worldsheet in a Minkowski Bulk

We wish to focus on the early universe of cosmologies of DGP braneworlds, and in particular on the four-dimensional big bang evolution at early times. For clarity, we restrict ourselves to spatially flat braneworlds ($`k=0`$) and radiation domination (i.e., $`p=\frac{1}{3}\rho `$) such that, using Eqs. (910), $`a(t)=t^{1/2}`$ when $`Hr_0^1`$ using appropriately normalized time units. A more general equation of state does not alter the qualitative picture; changes resulting from altering the spatial curvature are discussed in Sec. VI. Equation (9) shows that the early cosmological evolution on the brane is independent of the choice of the $`ϵ`$–parameter. However, we see that late time evolution depends quite sensitively to the choice of $`ϵ`$. When $`ϵ=1`$, as $`H(t)`$ approaches the value $`r_0^1`$ at late times, the evolution of the scale factor transitions between four-dimensional Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) behavior to five-dimensional FLRW behavior. We refer to this phase as the FLRW phase. When $`ϵ=1`$, as $`H(t)`$ approaches the value $`r_0^1`$ at late times, the asymptotic state is an empty universe undergoing deSitter expansion with $`H=r_0^1`$. We refer to this phase as the self-accelerating phase. See Ref.  for details.

The global configuration of the brane worldsheet is determined by setting $`y=0`$ in the coordinate transformation Eq. (14). We get

$`Y^0`$ $`=`$ $`t^{1/2}\left({\displaystyle \frac{r^2}{4}}+1t\right){\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}t^{3/2}`$ (16)
$`Y^5`$ $`=`$ $`t^{1/2}\left({\displaystyle \frac{r^2}{4}}1t\right){\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}t^{3/2}`$ (17)
$`Y^i`$ $`=`$ $`t^{1/2}x^i.`$ (18)
The locus of points defined by these equations, for all $`(t,x^i)`$, satisfies the relationship

$$Y_+=\frac{1}{4Y_{}}\underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}(Y^i)^2+\frac{1}{3}Y_{}^3,$$
(19)
where we have defined $`Y_\pm =\frac{1}{2}(Y^0\pm Y^5)`$. Note that if one keeps only the first term, the surface defined by Eq. (19) would simply be the light cone emerging from the origin at $`Y^A=0`$. However, the second term ensures that the brane worldsheet is timelike except along the $`Y_+`$–axis. Moreover, from Eqs. (17), we see that

$$Y_{}=t^{1/2},$$
(20)
implying that $`Y_{}`$ acts as an effective cosmological time coordinate on the brane. The $`Y_+`$–axis is a singular locus corresponding to $`t=0`$, or the big bang.§§§ The big bang singularity when $`r<\mathrm{}`$ is just the origin $`Y_{}=Y_+=Y^i=0`$ and is strictly pointlike. The rest of the big bang singularity (i.e., when $`Y_+>0`$) corresponds to the pathological case when $`r=\mathrm{}`$.

This picture is summarized in Fig. 1. Taking $`Y^0`$ as its time coordinate, a bulk observer perceives the braneworld as a compact, hyperspherical surface expanding relativistically from an initial big bang singularity ($`Y^A=0`$, for all $`A`$). A single point on that hyperspherical surface moves strictly at the speed of light and maintains an infinite energy density. The worldline of this remnant of the big bang follows the $`Y_+`$–axis. Note that a bulk observer views the braneworld as spatially compact, even while a cosmological brane observer does not. Simultaneously, a bulk observer sees a spatially varying energy density on the brane, whereas a brane observer sees each time slice as spatially homogeneous.

The results of this section are analogous to those found for the global and causal structure of Randall–Sundrum II (RS2) braneworld cosmologies . However, in the RS2 case, one only treats that part of the bulk interior to the brane worldsheet, and the bulk is anti-deSitter. The bulk is strictly Minkowski for DGP braneworlds, with the associated intuitive benefits. In particular, the five-dimensional lightcone is respected, as well as the causal structure of the asymptotic infinities of the spacetime. Inertial bulk observers always have trivial worldlines.

Though the brane cosmological evolution between the FLRW phase and the self-accelerating phase is indistinguishable at early times, the bulk metric Eqs. (46) for each phase is quite distinct. That distinction has a clear geometric interpretation: The FLRW phase ($`ϵ=1`$) corresponds to that part of the bulk interior to the brane worldsheet, whereas the self-accelerating phase ($`ϵ=1`$) corresponds to bulk exterior to the brane worldsheet. The full bulk space is two copies of either the interior to the brane worldsheet (the first phase) or the exterior (the latter phase), as imposed by $`𝒵_2`$–symmetry. Those two copies are then spliced across the brane. We examine each case separately.

## IV Global Structure of the FLRW Phase

### A Foliation of Equal Cosmological Time Surfaces

If one takes $`ϵ=1`$ in Eq. (6), the scale factor in a radiation dominated universe ($`p=\frac{1}{3}\rho `$) evolves like (using appropriately normalized time units)

$`a(t)=t^{1/2}`$ $`\mathrm{when}`$ $`Hr_0^1`$ (21)
$`a(t)=(r_0t)^{1/4}`$ $`\mathrm{when}`$ $`Hr_0^1.`$ (22)
By taking $`ϵ=1`$, Eqs. (14) implies that one is effectively choosing the interior region of Fig. 1 as the bulk. Again, an observer goes from one copy of the interior to another as one crosses the brane. The bulk coordinates of an event may be read from Eqs. (14). With some algebra, we arrive at

$`Y_{}`$ $`=`$ $`t^{1/2}\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{|y|}{2t}}\right)`$ (23)
$`Y_+`$ $`=`$ $`t^{1/2}\left[\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{|y|}{2t}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \frac{r^2}{4}}t\right){\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}t\right]`$ (24)
$`Y^i`$ $`=`$ $`t^{1/2}x^i\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{|y|}{2t}}\right).`$ (25)
Figure 2 depicts equal–$`|y|`$ curves and equal cosmological time (equal–$`t`$) curves from the point of view of an inertial bulk observer. One can imagine this image as a slice of Fig. 1 down the middle along the plane determined by $`Y_+`$ and $`Y_{}`$. The bulk region that corresponds to this phase is the region interior to the brane worldsheet in Fig. 1. We see then that the volume of any spacelike surface in the bulk is finite. Each equal–$`t`$ curve only extends to a value of $`|y|=2t`$. There it intersects the big bang singularity located along the $`Y_+`$–axis.

### B Apparent Brane Causality Violation

Consider an event, $`𝒪`$, located on the brane worldsheet. We wish to examine its past lightcone to see all events which are in causal contact with $`𝒪`$. Take the cosmological coordinates of this event to be $`t=t_0,y=0,x^i=0`$. If one is restricted to motion on the brane, then geodesics are determined by the induced metric Eqs. (46) with $`|y|=0`$. The locus of past directed brane null rays are defined by the coordinates $`x^i(t)`$ such that

$$r(t)=2(t_0^{1/2}t^{1/2}),$$
(26)
for a given cosmological time $`t<t_0`$. As expected, even as $`t0`$, the past directed brane lightcone only encompasses a finite region in $`r`$. However, imagine that certain signals (e.g., graviton degrees of freedom) may travel through the bulk. Since the bulk lightcone is trivial in the coordinates $`\{Y^A\}`$, one can use Eqs. (17) to identify what events on the brane worldsheet intersect the past bulk lightcone of $`𝒪`$. That locus of brane coordinates is given by the coordinates $`x^i(t)`$ such that

$$r(t)=\sqrt{\frac{4}{3}\frac{(t_0^{1/2}t^{1/2})(t_0^{3/2}t^{3/2})}{t^{1/2}t_0^{1/2}}},$$
(27)
where again $`t`$ is a cosmological time such that $`t<t_0`$. Note that as $`t0`$, the past bulk light cone encompasses an arbitrarily large region in comoving coordinate, $`r`$. Because of the convexity of the brane worldsheet, one can see that only the FLRW phase allows propagation of light signals through the bulk between events on the brane. If signals may travel unimpeded through the bulk, such signals would appear to travel faster than the speed of light on the brane, thus providing an effective brane causality violation. One can see that this conclusion is natural by examining Fig. 1. The past lightcone of any event $`𝒪`$ on the brane worldsheet clearly encompasses the entire big bang for $`r<\mathrm{}`$, which is located at the origin, $`Y^A=0`$.

## V Global Structure of the Self-Accelerating Phase

### A Foliation of Equal Cosmological Time Surfaces

The self-accelerating phase corresponds to taking $`ϵ=1`$ in Eq. (6). With this choice of $`ϵ`$, Eq. (6) implies the scale factor in a radiation dominated universe evolves as (using appropriately normalized time units)

$`a(t)=t^{1/2}`$ $`\mathrm{when}`$ $`Hr_0^1`$ (28)
$`a(t)e^{t/r_0}`$ $`\mathrm{when}`$ $`Hr_0^1.`$ (29)
The bulk region is the region exterior to the brane worldsheet in Fig. 1. The coordinates of an event in the bulk may again be read from Eqs. (14):

$`Y_{}`$ $`=`$ $`t^{1/2}\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{|y|}{2t}}\right)`$ (30)
$`Y_+`$ $`=`$ $`t^{1/2}\left[\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{|y|}{2t}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \frac{r^2}{4}}t\right){\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}t\right]`$ (31)
$`Y^i`$ $`=`$ $`t^{1/2}x^i\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{|y|}{2t}}\right).`$ (32)
Unlike the FLRW phase, spatial slices of the Minkowski bulk are infinite in volume. However, there exists a subtlety with equal-time foliation of the big bang for the self-accelerating phase. The cosmological coordinate system Eqs. (4) develops singularities when $`|y|=2t`$. This condition in the FLRW phase defines a set of points lying on the brane itself and corresponded to the big bang singularity. In the self-accelerating phase, the locus $`|y|=2t`$ exists in the Minkowski bulk. Here, the surface $`|y|=2t`$ follows the relationship

$$Y_+=\frac{1}{4Y_{}}\underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}(Y^i)^2\frac{1}{12}Y_{}^3.$$
(33)
When this relationship is satisfied, $`N=0`$. Moreover, one can show that no value of $`(y,t)`$ covers a region where $`Y_+`$ is smaller than the value defined by Eq. (33).

### B Reversal of Cosmological Time and $`N0`$

Indeed, one can show that this coordinate singularity is associated quite generally with the existence of a decelerating scale factor and one may derive intuition based on phenomenologically interesting cosmic evolutions. Consider a general scale factor evolution $`a(t)`$. Then, one can ascertain the parametric evolution of equal–$`|y|`$ (and fixed $`r^2`$) curves with respect to cosmological time, $`t`$. Using the coordinate transformation Eqs. (14), one can track $`\dot{Y_+}`$ and $`\dot{Y_{}}`$ for fixed $`|y|`$. We find that

$`\dot{Y_+}`$ $`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{r^2\dot{a}}{4}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\dot{a}}}\right)\left(1+|y|{\displaystyle \frac{\ddot{a}}{\dot{a}}}\right)=\left({\displaystyle \frac{r^2\dot{a}}{4}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\dot{a}}}\right)N(t,y)`$ (34)
$`\dot{Y_{}}`$ $`=`$ $`\dot{a}\left(1+|y|{\displaystyle \frac{\ddot{a}}{\dot{a}}}\right)=\dot{a}N(t,y).`$ (35)
Thus, $`\dot{Y_+}`$ and $`\dot{Y_{}}`$ vanish simultaneously when $`N(t,y)=0`$, implying cusps in the equal–$`|y|`$ curves in the $`(Y^5,Y^0)`$–plane.

Using a typical cosmological scenario, one can generate a qualitative picture of the evolution of the metric function $`N(t,y)`$. At early times, we assume an inflationary phase that is approximately deSitter with a Hubble scale, $`H_{\mathrm{infl}}`$. In this case, the scale factor grows with positive acceleration. Eventually, the inflationary stage ends and reheating occurs. A hot FLRW-like, big bang universe is restored. Figure 3 shows how, for a sufficiently large $`|y|`$, the metric function $`N(t,y)`$ develops nodes. One node occurs during the reheating stage, the other during the FLRW stage. When the FLRW stage is radiation dominated, the second node occurs near $`t=\frac{1}{2}|y|`$. Thus, the minimum $`|y|`$ for which these nodes develop depends on the earliest time at which FLRW evolution is restored.

So when $`N<0`$, both $`Y_+`$ and $`Y_{}`$ decrease with increasing cosmological time, $`t`$. This implies a reversal of the direction of future-versus-past for the bulk observer relative to a brane observer. This is not surprising since one can think of $`N`$ acting as a sort of speed of light. When that value is negative, one is effectively reversing the sign of time.

In order to provide a more intuitive description of the early universe, let us imagine that the big bang is smoothed out by a stage of early inflation that extends arbitrarily far into the past. Figure 4 provides a visual description of equal–$`|y|`$ and equal cosmological time curves from the point of view of an inertial bulk observer. Again, imagine taking a slice of Fig. 1 down the middle, but where the brane worldsheet is smoothed out at the origin to include an early inflating stage. Indeed, in order to fill out the region of bulk spacetime not covered by values of $`Y_+`$ less than that determined by Eq. (33), one needs to includes something like this early inflationary stage.

### C Leakage and Depletion of Anisotropic Power

In Sec. IV we saw how null worldlines through the bulk in the FLRW phase could connect different events on the brane. This observation was a consequence of the convexity of the brane worldsheet and the choice of bulk. Conversely, if one chooses the bulk corresponding to the self-accelerating phase, one may conclude that no null lightray through the bulk connects two different events on the brane. Let us elaborate on the consequences of such an observation.

Consider again Fig. 4. Because the brane worldsurface must be timelike and spatially compact, each external past-directed and future-directed lightrays can only intersect the brane worldsheet once. But perturbations through the bulk must follows these lightrays, since the action Eq. (1) dictates that the empty bulk is pure Einstein gravity. From the propagator , one can see that gravitational modes on the brane are influenced only by bulk modes at length scales of order $`𝒪(r_0)`$ or larger. If one imagines that the initial state of perturbations is localized around the brane, then no bulk perturbations from the brane in the past can reintersect the brane in the sufficiently late future, and that one expects only a depletion of amplitude from the power spectrum of perturbations at large scales.

This argument is subject to the validity of using linearized perturbations on cosmological backgrounds. But recall at the times of interest (when $`Hr_0^1`$), perturbations have condensed into compact objects like galaxies, clusters, etc. Study of compact objects in the DGP braneworld theory  suggest that nonlinear effects may not necessarily decouple, even at large scales. A more detailed study of how perturbation on differing scales interact as well as the importance of nonlinearities in the DGP model is necessary to draw a definitive conclusion on the matter.

## VI Nonflat Spatial Geometries

For the metric (6) with $`k0`$, one can find as a change of coordinate $`Y^A=Y^A(X^A)`$ leading to the canonical Minkowski metric (12). It can be defined for $`k=1`$ by

$`Y^0`$ $`=`$ $`A(y,t)\stackrel{~}{y}+\stackrel{~}{z},`$ (36)
$`Y^5`$ $`=`$ $`A(y,t)\stackrel{~}{Y}^5,`$ (37)
$`Y^i`$ $`=`$ $`A(y,t)\stackrel{~}{Y}^i,`$ (38)
where $`\stackrel{~}{Y}^i`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{Y}^5`$ are functions of the $`x^i`$ only and verify

$$(\stackrel{~}{Y}^5)^2+\underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}(\stackrel{~}{Y}^i)^2=1,$$
(39)
which defines a three-dimensional $`k=1`$ maximally symmetric space. For $`k=1`$, we find

$`Y^0`$ $`=`$ $`A(y,t)\stackrel{~}{Y}^0,`$ (40)
$`Y^5`$ $`=`$ $`A(y,t)\stackrel{~}{y}+\stackrel{~}{z},`$ (41)
$`Y^i`$ $`=`$ $`A(y,t)\stackrel{~}{Y}^i,`$ (42)
where $`\stackrel{~}{Y}^i`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{Y}^0`$ are function of the $`x^i`$ only and verify

$$(\stackrel{~}{Y}^0)^2\underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}(\stackrel{~}{Y}^i)^2=1,$$
(43)
which defines a three-dimensional $`k=1`$ maximally symmetric space. The quantities $`\stackrel{~}{y}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{z}`$ are given by

$`\stackrel{~}{y}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}}{\sqrt{\dot{a}^2+k}}},`$ (44)
$`\stackrel{~}{z}`$ $`=`$ $`k{\displaystyle 𝑑t\frac{1}{\dot{a}}\frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac{a}{\sqrt{\dot{a}^2+k}}\right)}.`$ (45)
So, we see that on the brane the coordinate $`Y^0`$ acts as the cosmological time coordinate when $`k=1`$, whereas the coordinate $`Y^5`$ acts as the cosmological time coordinate when $`k=1`$. Compare this to the case when $`k=0`$ and the cosmological time is characterized by $`Y_{}=\frac{1}{2}(Y^0Y^5)`$.

The qualitative features represented in Fig. 1 are the same except for the following. In the $`k=1`$ scenario, the big bang is a pointlike singularity at the origin, and the entire braneworld is a hypersphere whose radius is determined by the induced scale factor $`a(t)`$. The brane worldsheet lies entirely within the light cone of the origin ($`Y^A=0`$) such that the surface maintains a spherical symmetry around the $`Y^0`$–axis. Again, equal cosmological time surfaces are loci of equal $`Y^0`$ on this brane worldsheet. When $`k=1`$, the big bang is composed of two lightrays located along the lightcone defined by $`Y^5=0`$. Once again, the entire brane worldsheet is located within the light cone of the origin. Equal-cosmological-time surfaces are loci of equal $`Y^5`$ on the brane worldsheet. These pictures are directly analogous to those found in , but where again the bulk internal and external to the brane worldsheet refer to different phases of the theory, and each bulk is strictly Minkowski. Moreover, the types of subtleties shown to exist in the coordinate transformation for the self-accelerating phase discussed in Sec. V carry over. In particular, the mapping of the cosmological coordinate system to the bulk coordinate system is not one-to-one when there exist values of $`|y|`$ where $`N0`$.

## VII Concluding Remarks

We examined the global structure of early universe cosmologies for Dvali–Gabadadze–Porrati (DGP) braneworlds. Two distinct phases exist: the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) phase, where late time evolution follows five-dimensional FLRW behavior, and the self-accelerating phase, where the brane asymptotes to late time deSitter expansion with an empty brane. A bulk observer sees the brane as a relativistically expanding, roughly hyperspherical bubble emerging from a pointlike big bang. Depending on the spatial curvature of the internal brane cosmology, the brane is strictly hyperspherical (positive spatial curvature, $`k=1`$), has one residual big bang point on the hypersphere moving at exactly the speed of light (flat spatial geometry, $`k=0`$), or two diametrically opposed residual big bang points on the hypersphere, also moving at exactly the speed of light (negative spatial curvature, $`k=1`$). Note that a bulk observer perceives the brane as compact, even when a cosmological brane observer would not (i.e., the $`k=0,1`$ cases). The bulk is two identical copies of the space interior to this compact brane, glued across a $`𝒵_2`$–symmetric brane when in the FLRW phase. Correspondingly, the bulk space is two copies of the space exterior to the brane when in the self-accelerating phase.

The FLRW phase exhibits lightlike shortcuts through the bulk that connect different events on the brane. This phenomena can lead to apparent brane causality violation and provides an opportunity for the evasion of the horizon problem. Unlike the big bang of conventional four-dimensional FLRW cosmology, the past (bulk) lightcone of every spacetime event on the brane contains the entire big bang for all comoving coordinate radii $`r<\mathrm{}`$. Phrasing this statement another way is that the entire brane worldsheet is in the future lightcone of the big bang for $`r<\mathrm{}`$, where the locus of spacetime events of the big bang with $`r<\mathrm{}`$ is strictly pointlike. Thus, gravitons emitted from a time arbitrarily close to the big bang may travel through the bulk and may transmit thermal information to all parts of the brane during the evolution of the early universe. The difficulty in this mechanism for evading the horizon problem is that bulk propagation of gravitons is at its least significance precisely at those times (i.e., the early big bang) when we wish to transmit them through the bulk.

The self-accelerating phase does not possess lightlike worldline that connect different events on the brane. This observation implies that density perturbations leaving the brane via the bulk cannot reenter the brane at some later time. At sufficiently large scales, where brane fluctuations are strongly coupled to bulk modes, one anticipates that only depletion of power can occur for metric fluctuations, since there is no mechanism for replenishment of power at these scales. This argument implies a deficit in the power spectrum of linear density perturbations at large scales. The magnitude of this deficit, as well as the validity of this analysis motivated by linearized perturbations, are subject to more quantitative inquiry. Nevertheless, one can see the advantage of developing an understanding of the global structure of DGP braneworlds for gaining insight into their phenomenological consequences.

###### Acknowledgements.

The author would like to thank C. Deffayet, G. Dvali, G. Gabadadze and G. Starkman for helpful discussions. This work is sponsored in part by NSF Award PHY-9996137 and the David and Lucille Packard Foundation Fellowship 99-1462.