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# Simulations of the Local Universe

## 1 Introduction

One of the greatest challenges of modern astrophysics is understanding how galaxies, such as our Milky Way, form within the framework of the Big Bang cosmology. The current theory of structure formation, the extension of the Big Bang model called the Cold Dark Matter (CDM) scenario, predicts that galaxies form within extended massive dark matter halos built from smaller pieces that collided and merged, resulting in the hierarchy of galaxies, groups, and clusters observed today. The entire sequence of events is thought to be seeded by quantum fluctuations in the very early Universe and governed by mysterious ”dark matter” which constitutes about 85% of all matter in the universe. Although the accurate properties of galaxies depend on complicated baryonic processes (radiative cooling, formation and evolution of stars, etc.) operating on small scales, we expect that overall spatial distribution of dark matter halos is closely related to the observed galaxy distribution. Here we present numerical simulations designed to study the formation, evolution and present day properties of such dark matter halos in different cosmological environments.

In all simulations the spatially flat cold dark matter model with a cosmological constant ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{M}=0.3`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$, $`\sigma _8=0.9`$, and $`h=0.7`$), favored by most current observations, has been assumed.

## 2 Numerical simulations

The Adaptive Refinement Tree (ART) $`N`$-body code kkk97 (8, 9) was used to run all numerical simulation analyzed in this paper. In some of the simulations described below the code also included eulerian gasdynamics kkh02 (10). The code uses Adaptive Mesh Refinement technique to achieve high resolution in the regions of interests. The computational box is covered with a uniform grid which defines the lowest (zeroth) level of resolution. The code then reaches high force resolution by recursively refining all high density regions using an automated refinement algorithm. This creates an hierarchy of refinement meshes of different resolutions, sizes, and geometries covering regions of interest. The refinement data structures and algorithms khokhlov98 (4) allow individual cubic cells to be refined. The shape of the refinement mesh can thus effectively match the geometry of the region of interest. This algorithm is well suited for simulations of a selected region within a large computational box, as in the simulations presented below.

During the integration, spatial refinement is accompanied by temporal refinement. Namely, each level of refinement, $`l`$, is integrated with its own time step $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_l=\mathrm{\Delta }a_0/2^l`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_0`$ is the global time step of the zeroth refinement level. This variable time stepping is very important for accuracy of the results. As the force resolution increases, more steps are needed to integrate the trajectories accurately. In addition to spatial and temporal refinement, simulations described below also use non-adaptive mass refinement to increase the mass (and correspondingly the force) resolution inside a specific region. The multiple mass resolution is implemented in the following way kkbp01 (5). We first set up a realization of the initial spectrum of perturbations in such a way that initial conditions for a large number ($`1024^3`$) of particles can be generated in the simulation box. Initial coordinates and velocities of the particles are then calculated using all waves ranging from the fundamental mode $`k=2\pi /L`$ to the Nyquist frequency $`k=2\pi /L\times N^{1/3}/2`$, where $`L`$ is the box size and $`N`$ is the number of particles in the simulation. Particles outside high-resolution regions are then merged into particles of larger mass and this process can be repeated for merged particles. The larger mass (merged) particle is assigned a velocity and displacement equal to the average velocity and displacement of the smaller-mass particles. Extensive tests of the code and comparisons with other numerical $`N`$-body codes can be found in kravtsov99 (9, 7).

With increasing number of particles and resolution (i.e., number of refinement cells) the memory as well as the computing time requirement of the code increase. In practice, on nodes with 16 Gb of shared memory and up to 16 CPUs we are limited to simulations with $`256^3`$ particles (runtime is CPU-bound). The only way to overcome this problem is to use MPI to distribute computations accross nodes. We have developed two different MPI algorithms to handle larger simulations. In the first approach, we select spatially distinct objects of interest and simulate each of these objects on one node with high mass and force resolution whereas in the remaining part of the simulation box lower resolutions will be used. Each node uses then standard ART with OpenMP on shared memory. The inter-node communication is minimal. In the second approach, one can divide the whole simulation box into a number of sub-boxes which will be handled by different nodes. Each node simulates its own sub-box with high mass and force resolution whereas other sub-boxes have lower mass and force resolution. Again one integration step is done by standard ART with OpenMP on each node. After each integration step nodes exchange communications on positions, velocities and masses of particles that cross sub-box boundaries.

### 2.1 Constrained simulations of the local universe

Here our goal is to perform simulations that match the observed local universe as well as possible. Namely, we are interested in reproducing the observed structures: the Virgo cluster, the Local Supercluster and the Local Group, in the approximately correct locations and embedded within the observed large-scale configuration dominated by the Great Attractor and Perseus-Pisces superclusters.

An efficient algorithm for reconstructing the density and velocity fields from sparse and noisy data of redshift and velocity surveys is provided by the Wiener filter formalism and constrained realizations of gaussian random fields zaroubi\_etal95 (14). Here we use the MARK III catalog willick\_etal97 (13). The sample consists of $`3400`$ galaxies and provides radial velocities and inferred distances with fractional errors $`1721\%`$. A detailed analysis of the large scale structure in the Local Universe reconstructed from the MARK III survey was presented in zaroubi\_etal99 (16).

Several simulations with increasing force and mass resolution in the region around the Virgo Cluster were performed CR01 (6, 10). The initial conditions for these simulations were set using multiple mass resolution technique. Using $`z=0`$ output of a low-resolution run, we selected all particles within a sphere of $`25h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ radius centered on the Virgo cluster. The mass resolution in the Lagrangian region occupied by the selected particles was increased and additional small-scale waves from the initial $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM power spectrum of perturbations were added appropriately kkbp01 (5). For the two high-resolution simulations, the particle mass in the Local Supercluster region is 8 and 64 times smaller than in the low-resolution simulation. The highest resolution simulation has a particle mass of $`2.5\times 10^9h^1M_{}`$ and the maximum formal force resolution was $`2.4h^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ in the Local Supercluster region. The results of both high-resolution simulations agree well with each other at all resolved scales.

All major structures (the Local Supercluster, Great Attractor, Perseus-Pisces supercluster, and Coma cluster) observed within $`100h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ around the Milky Way exist in the simulations. The positions and morphology of these structures is, of course, fairly well dictated by the constraints imposed on the initial conditions. The Local Supercluster is an elongated structure which extends over $`40h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ along the SGX axis. There is a low-density “bridge” (of overdensity just above the average density), which connects the Local Supercluster with the Perseus-Pisces Super-cluster. There is also an even weaker filament connecting the Local Super-cluster with the Great Attractor.

Just as in the real Universe, the Local Group is located in a weak filament extending between the Virgo and Fornax clusters. This filament is a counterpart of the Coma-Sculptor “cloud” in the distribution of nearby galaxies. Figure 1 shows a zoom-in view of the immediate environment of the simulated Local Group. Note that the structures at these scales are only weakly affected by constraints imposed on the initial conditions. Several possible counterparts to existing objects (e.g., the MW and M31, M51, NGC253) are marked, but their existence is largely fortuitous. As can be seen in this figure, the simulated Local Group is located in a rather weak filament extending to the Virgo cluster. This filament borders an underdense region visible in the right lower corner of Figure 1, which corresponds to the Local Void in the observed distribution of nearby galaxies. We are now carrying out a series of high-resolution simulations of such voids (see below). The velocity field around the Local Group is rather quiet, in good agreement with observations. The peculiar velocity field in the Local Void exhibits a uniform expansion of matter out of this underdense region, while velocities between the Local Group and the Virgo (upper half of Fig. 1) show a coherent flow onto the main body of the Local Supercluster.

### 2.2 Galaxy clusters

Within a low mass resolution simulation ($`128^3`$ particles, $`m_{part}=2.0\times 10^{10}h^1M_{}`$) we have identified 15 clusters of galaxies with masses above $`1.0\times 10^{14}h^1M_{}`$. From this set we have selected 8 candidates with different masses and merging histories and added 5 smaller clusters/groups for load balance. We then re-simulated the clusters with higher mass resolution. With particle masses of $`3.2\times 10^8h^1M_{}`$ a typical cluster and its environment contains more than 1 million particles. The formal force resolution with 9 refinement levels was $`1h^1\mathrm{kpc}`$. Halos with masses above $`3.0\times 10^{10}h^1M_{}`$ are well resolved. A typical cluster contains more than 150 such halos. The simulations were done using an MPI version of the ART code where each of 8 nodes followed the evolution of one or two clusters. We are now carrying out simulations of these clusters including gasdynamics.

The dynamical evolution of a typical major merger between galaxy clusters can be seen in Fig. 2. The figure shows three snapshots of a cluster taken at $`z=0.8`$, $`z=0.6`$, and $`z=0.2`$. Although the cluster does not show significant substructure in its density contours during the merger, it is far from a relaxed state. Most of the energy transfer takes place during the first encounter (between $`z=0.8`$ and $`z=0.6`$), but the merger remnant does not reach virial equilibrium until it loses all the information about the initial conditions (i.e. the particles are well mixed). For this event, virialisation occurs at $`z0.2`$ ($`4`$ Gyr after the first encounter). During the first stages of cluster formation, the characteristic time between major mergers can be shorter than the relaxation time. High-redshift clusters may thus be in general far from the virial equilibrium inside their formal virial radius.

### 2.3 Voids

Cosmological simulations predict many more small DM halos than the observed number of satellites around the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies. Do we have the same problem for dwarf galaxies in voids? One naively expects a large number because the Press-Schechter mass function steeply rises with declining mass. In contrast, it seems that observations are failing to find a substantial number of dwarf galaxies inside voids (e.g. pope97 (11, 3)). However, the situation is complicated because it is very difficult to detect dwarf galaxies, many of them are expected to have low surface brightness.

In order to study the formation of large voids, the simulation box should be sufficiently large; we use a cube of size 80$`h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. On the other hand, we are interested in the formation of small structure elements inside voids, for which we need highest possible mass resolution. Therefore, we use particles with large masses to follow the evolution of large scale structures and particles with small masses to follow the evolution of structure within one spherical void.

Within a low mass resolution simulation ($`128^3`$ particles, $`m_{part}=2.0\times 10^{10}h^1M_{}`$) we have identified 8387 galactic halos with masses $`>2.0\times 10^{11}h^1M_{}`$. This corresponds to a mean distance of about $`4h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ between halos. We then searched voids in the distribution of these galactic halos by constructing the minimal spanning tree using halo positions. The minimal spanning tree was then used to search for the point in the simulation box which has the largest distance $`r_1`$ to the set of halos. We identified this point as the center of spherical void with the radius of $`r_1`$. Excluding that void we were searching again for the point with the largest distance to the set and thus found the second largest void and so on. The algorithm is similar to that used by einasto:voids (1).

With the algorithm described above we find spherical voids in the halo distribution which do not contain any halo with a mass larger than $`2.0\times 10^{11}h^1M_{}`$; such halos by definition lie on the border of the void. After finding voids in the low-resolution simulation, we re-run the simulation with much higher mass resolution inside the voids ($`m_{\mathrm{part}}=4.0\times 10^7h^1M_{}`$), which allows identification of objects with masses larger than $`10^9h^1M_{}`$. By construction, the voids do not have halos with masses larger than $`M_\mathrm{b}=2.0\times 10^{11}h^1M_{}`$. Five voids have been identified and resimulated, their radii are $`r_{void}=11.6`$, 10.8, 9.4, 9.1, 9.1 $`h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. Inside the voids the matter density is typically a factor of 10 smaller than the mean density, but void properties exhibit large differences. Some voids are very isolated: the density within a sphere with radius 30 $`h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ centered on one of the void centers reaches only 2/3 of the mean density. On the other hand, the most prominent structure of the simulation, a galaxy cluster of $`2\times 10^{15}h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, is bordering one of the other voids. The density outside of this void rapidly increases. The mass function in voids is about an order of magnitude lower and its shape is different than that of the field galaxies glk (2).

In Fig. 3 we show the inner 20 $`h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ of a spherical void of radius 21.6 $`h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. In this void we found more than 50 halos with circular velocity $`v_c>50`$ km/s and more than 600 halos with $`v_c>20`$ km/s. There is a certain spatial mass segregation among halos. Typically, more massive halos tend to be situated in the outer part of the void. The largest halos in the plot are actually dwarf-size halos with circular velocities of $``$50km/s. The void is far from being empty and boring: it has a complex structure with numerous long filaments and small sub-voids. Visually it resembles the large-scale structure of the Universe, but everything in this plot is hundreds and thousands times less massive than in ”normal” configurations of interconnected superclusters and filaments.

### 2.4 Hydro simulations

We have started to repeat kkh02 (10) many of the simulations described above including eulerian shock-capturing gasdynamics and physical processes such as radiative cooling and stellar feedback. Inclusion of gasdynamics, although significantly increasing computational and memory demands of simulations, will allow us to address a much wider range of questions and more robust comparison with observations. For example, simulations of the Local Supercluster regions with cooling and starformation will allow us to study distribution and properties of galaxies in the simulations as a function of their luminosity and color. High-resolution simulations of the local voids will allow studies of spatial distribution of Ly $`\alpha `$ absorbers and their connection to galaxies. Simulations of nearby galaxy clusters (e.g., Virgo, Fornax, Coma) formed in realistics large-scale environments will allow for detailed object-to-object comparison of properties and should give us good insights into physical processes operating within intracluster medium.

As an example, we present here simulations of the Virgo cluster in the context of constrained simulations described in § 2.1. The lagrangian region within five virial radii (at $`z=0`$) around the cluster was resimulated with mass resolution 8 times higher (particle mass of $`3.1\times 10^8h^1M_{}`$) than that of the Local Supercluster simulation and spatial resolution of $`1h^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ in the central regions of the cluster. Figure 4 shows the sky projection of the X-ray intensity and emission-weighted temperature of gas in the simulations in galactic coordinates (the center of the polar projection corresponds to the North Galactic Pole, NGP). The Virgo cluster is the brightest object located near the NGP, very close to the actual location of the real Virgo cluster. Figure 5 shows radial profiles of dark matter and gas density, as well as profiles of

gas temperature and entropy for two simulations: one that included only adiabatic gasdynamics, and the other in which gas was preheated with the energy of 1.5 keV per gas particle at $`z=3`$. The preheating very roughly models the possible effect of galactic winds at high-redshifts. The figure shows that preheating increases entropy of the gas thereby lowering its density in the cluster core and increasing the overall gas temperature. It lowers the X-ray luminosity of the cluster by a factor of 8, which brings it in good agreement with the observed luminosity-temperature relation. Note, however, that it does not change the shape of the temperature profile. The proximity of the Virgo cluster makes it one of the best spatially resolved clusters, with the temperature mesurements well outside the virial radius. Figure 6 compares the observed temperature measurements around the center of the Virgo cluster shibata01 (12) as a function of projected radius to the corresponding measurements in simulations (adiabatic and preheating). We constructed projected map of emission-weighted temperature of the simulated Virgo cluster using $`4^{}\times 4^{}`$ pixels, each pixel represented by a point in the figure. The figure shows that neither simulation can match the much shallower temperature distribution in the central regions of the Virgo cluster. This indicates that preheating alone cannot be the whole story and other processes, such as cooling and/or central heating by AGNs can be important. We will be exploring the effects of these processes in future simulations.

## 3 Summary

The adaptive refinement tree code is a useful tool to study cosmological structure formation on different scales and with different resolutions. It runs well on a variety of platforms with shared and distributed memory. The simulations described here have been performed on the Hitachi of LRZ Munich, the small development Hitachi at the AIP, the IBM SP of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, and the IBM SP of NERSC Berkeley.

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# A dynamical study of the circumstellar gas in UX Orionis

## 1 Introduction

The detection of planetesimals is highly relevant for the study of the formation and evolution of planetary systems, since it is nowadays accepted that planets form from CS disks via the formation of planetesimals (Beckwith et al. 2000). Several lines of evidence suggest that the young main sequence A5V star $`\beta `$ Pic (20 Myr, Barrado y Navascués et al. 1999) hosts planetesimals inside its large CS disk. The main argument is the presence of transient Redshifted Absorption Components (RACs) in high resolution spectra of strong metallic lines, like Ca ii K 3934 Å. These spectroscopic events have been interpreted as being caused by the evaporation of comet-like highly hydrogen-depleted bodies. The interpretation is known as the Falling Evaporating Bodies (FEB) scenario (Lagrange et al. 2000, and references therein). However, the presence or absence of planetesimals during the pre-main sequence (PMS) phase is a controversial observational topic. The time scale for the formation of planetesimals ($``$104 yr, Beckwith et al. 2000) is shorter than the duration of the PMS phase ($``$1–10 Myr), which suggests that they should exist during PMS stellar evolution.

UX Ori-like PMS objects (UXORs) are characterized by a peculiar photo-polarimetric variability, which has been interpreted as the signature of massive, almost edge-on, CS disks (Grinin et al. 1991). Most UXORs have A spectral types and therefore are the PMS evolutionary precursors of $`\beta `$ Pic. UXORs have been reported to show RACs (Grinin et al. 1994; de Winter et al. 1999); they also show Blueshifted Absorption Components (BACs) in their spectra. In this paper, the acronym TAC (Transient Absorption Component) will be used to denote both RACs and BACs. In analogy to $`\beta `$ Pic, RACs observed in UXORs have been interpreted in terms of the FEB scenario (Grady et al. 2000). However, this interpretation has recently been questioned by Natta et al. (2000), who used the spectra obtained by Grinin et al. (2001) to analyze the dynamics and chemical composition of a very strong, redshifted event in UX Ori itself, an A4 IV star (Mora et al. 2001) $`2\times 10^6`$ year old (Natta et al. 1999). Gas accretion from a CS disk was suggested in Natta et al. (2000) as an alternative to the FEB scenario to explain the observed RACs in UX Ori. In addition, Beust et al. (2001) have found that the FEB hypothesis cannot produce detectable transient absorptions in typical HAe CS conditions, unless the stars are relatively old ($`10^7`$ yr).

A detailed observational study of the kinematics and chemistry of TACs, e. g. by means of échelle spectra which simultaneously record many metallic and hydrogen lines, can discriminate between the two scenarios. For instance, in a FEB event large metallicities are expected, while gas accreted from a CS disk would have approximately solar abundances. A strong observational requirement is set by the time scale of monitoring of the TACs. In Natta et al. (2000) spectra were taken 3 days apart. Since UX Ori is a highly variable star, there is some ambiguity in identifying transient spectral components of different velocities detected over this time interval as having the same physical origin. A better time resolution is needed in order to ensure that the TACs observed at different velocities are due to the dynamical evolution of the same gas. The EXPORT collaboration (Eiroa et al. 2000) obtained high resolution échelle spectra of a large sample of PMS stars (Mora et al. 2001). About 10 PMS stars showed TACs which were intensively monitored ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$``$ 1 day). The study of the kinematics and chemistry of these events provides important tools for identifying their origin, or at least to put severe constraints on it.

This paper presents an analysis of the TACs observed in UX Ori by EXPORT and shows that the results are not compatible with a FEB scenario. The layout of the paper is as follows: Section 2 presents a brief description of the EXPORT observations. Section 3 presents the procedures followed in the analysis of the spectra. Section 4 presents the kinematic and chemical results of the detected TACs. Section 5 gives a discussion of the dynamics and nature of the gas. In section 6, we present our conclusions.

## 2 Observations

High resolution spectra of UX Ori were taken in October 1998 and January 1999 using the Utrecht Echelle Spectrograph (UES) at the 4.2m WHT (La Palma Observatory). We collected 10 échelle spectra in the wavelength range 3800 – 5900 Å, with resolution $`\lambda /\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda `$ = 49000 (6 km/s); exposure times range between 20 and 30 minutes. The observing log is given in Table 1, in which the long-term (months) and short-term (days, hours) monitoring is evident. Standard MIDAS and IRAF procedures have been used for the spectroscopic reduction (Mora et al. 2001). Final typical signal to noise ratio (SNR) values are $``$150.

EXPORT also carried out simultaneous intermediate resolution spectroscopy, optical photo-polarimetry and near-IR photometry of UX Ori during the nights when the UES spectra were taken (Mora et al. 2001; Oudmaijer et al. 2001; Eiroa et al. 2001). Table 1 also gives photo-polarimetric data taken simultaneously with the UES spectra; they show that UX Ori was always in its bright state with little variation, but significant (Oudmaijer et al. 2001).

## 3 Analysis of the spectra

A detailed analysis of TACs requires high SNR ($`>`$ 25) and high spectral resolution ($`<`$ 10 km/s) in order to resolve the kinematic components observed simultaneously in different lines, as is shown in Fig. 1. This figure presents the Na i D lines in one of the UES spectra together with the simultaneous intermediate resolution spectrum (R $``$ 6000) in the same lines. The UES spectrum clearly shows a sharp, IS, narrow zero velocity component and a RAC in both lines of the doublet while both components, though visible, cannot be cleanly separated in the lower resolution spectrum. This is why we restrict our further analysis of the absorptions to the UES spectra.

All the UX Ori UES spectra show CS spectral features in a variety of lines. The features are seen in absorption and can be either blueshifted or redshifted; some underlying emission is also present (see below). Their profiles are complex and blended components are directly seen in many cases. Thus, the analysis of the CS contribution to the observed spectra requires a careful subtraction of the stellar photospheric spectrum and a method to characterize the blended kinematical components. In this section we describe the procedure we have followed, which is the one used in Natta et al. (2000), although we have improved it by considering all detected TACs simultaneously.

### 3.1 Subtraction of the UX Ori photospheric spectrum

Firstly we estimate the radial velocity of the star. The heliocentric correction of each observed spectrum is computed using MIDAS. Then, the radial velocity of the star is estimated by fitting the Na I D sharp IS absorption. This absorption is stable in velocity (velocity differences in our spectra are less than 1.0 km/s) and is related to the radial velocity of the star (Finkenzeller & Jankovics 1984). A value of 18.3 $`\pm `$ 1.0 km/s is obtained, in good agreement with the 18 km/s estimate by Grinin et al. (1994).

Kurucz (1993) model atmospheres assuming solar metallicity and turbulence velocity of 2 km/s have been used to synthesize the photospheric spectra, which are later used for a comparison with the observed ones. Atomic line data have been obtained from the VALD online database (Kupka et al. 1999), and the codes SYNTHE (Kurucz 1979; Jeffery et al. 1996) and SYNSPEC (Hubeny et al. 1995) are used to synthesize the metallic lines and Balmer hydrogen lines, respectively. In this way we compute a large grid of synthetic spectra with the effective temperature, gravity and rotation velocity as free variable parameters.

The best set of free parameters is estimated by comparing a number of lines among the observed spectra and the synthetic ones. This is not an easy task since most UX Ori lines are variable to some extent, and the choice of pure photospheric lines is not trivial. Our choice is to consider a number of weak lines that show a minimum degree of variability (less that 1%) in the UES spectra. The blends located at 4172 – 4179 Å (mainly Fe ii and Ti ii) and 4203 Å (Fe i) have been used to estimate Teff (effective temperature) and log g (logarithm of the surface gravity), since they are sensitive to changes in Teff and log g for early type A stars (Gray & Garrison 1987, 1989). The synthetic spectra have also been broadened allowing for stellar rotation. The best set of free parameters we find is Teff = 9250 K, log g = 4.0, v $`\mathrm{sin}i`$ = 215 km/s. Fig. 2 shows the comparison between the synthetic and the average observed spectrum in the above-mentioned lines; the agreement is excellent. The stellar parameters of the synthetic spectrum are in very good agreement with the spectral type and rotational velocity derived elsewhere (Mora et al. 2001).

The next step consists of the subtraction of the best synthetic photospheric spectrum from each observed spectrum. This has been carried out by fitting the continuum with a linear law between two points selected at both sides of those lines showing TACs. As an example Fig. 3 shows the Ca ii K line results, where the synthetic spectrum and the J.D. 2451209.4204 UX Ori observed one are plotted together with the residual after the subtraction. The residual corresponds to the CS contribution to the observed spectra. As a more convenient way to represent this contribution we define the $`R`$ parameter (normalized residual absorption):

$`R=1F_{\mathrm{obs}}/F_{\mathrm{syn}}`$

$`R`$ = 0 means no CS absorption, and $`R`$ = 1 denotes complete stellar light occultation, i.e. $`R`$ quantifies the CS absorption strength and could be directly compared to the models in Natta et al. (2000). $`R`$ is also plotted in Fig. 3.

### 3.2 R multicomponent gaussian fitting

The CS contribution presents a very complex line profile caused by the blending of different transient features. As an example, Fig. 3 shows the components of the Ca ii K line which are clearly present in that particular observation. For the sake of analysing the profile we assume that it is caused by gas with different kinematics and that each component can be represented by means of a gaussian function. This choice provides a direct interpretation of the fit parameters in terms of a physical characterization of the gaseous transient absorption components: the gaussian center gives the central velocity (V) of each component, the gaussian FWHM (Full Width at Half Maximum) provides the velocity dispersion ($`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$) and finally the gaussian peak gives the value of the residual absorption $`R`$. Since the feaures are blended a multigaussian fit is needed, which has been carried out by means of the IRAF ngaussfit routine. Fig. 3 shows the results of the multigaussian fit for the Ca ii K line. 4 gaussians, i.e. 4 kinematical components, each with their corresponding parameters, provide an excellent agreement with the residual CS contribution profile.

This analysis is applied to the lines with the strongest variability, which are good tracers of the CS gas properties: H$`\beta `$ 4861 Å, H$`\gamma `$ 4340 Å, H$`\delta `$ 4102 Å, H$`ϵ`$ 3970 Å, H$`\zeta `$ 3889 Å, Ca ii K 3934 Å, Ca ii H 3968 Å, Na i D2 5890 Å and Na i D1 5896 Å. All Balmer lines with good SNR present transient absorption features (even the noisy H$`\kappa `$ 3750 Å, 10th line in the Balmer series). They are also observed in many other lines (e.g. He i, Fe i and Fe ii), as already pointed out by Grinin et al. (2001), but a corresponding discussion is deferred to a future work.

Underlying line emission is often significant in the Balmer lines, particularly in H$`\beta `$, H$`\gamma `$ and H$`\delta `$; in fact, H$`\alpha `$ is seen in emission (equivalent width $``$ 10 Å) in the simultaneous INT spectra. Ca ii K and H also show little emission. In these cases $`R`$ is underestimated and negative values can artificially arise when the synthetic photospheric spectrum is subtracted. This is especially bad for faint absorption components near the emission peaks since the latter appear as minima in the $`R`$ plot. In order to avoid contamination by these emission components, we define a new “zero level”, estimated by a linear fit to the minima observed in the $`R`$ plot. Fig. 4 illustrates this approach. The consistency of the results obtained with different lines confirms its validity. Further improvements should be based on theoretical modelling or higher order fitting of the emission.

## 4 Results

Table 2 gives the radial velocity shift $`v`$, the velocity dispersion $`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$ and the absorption strength $`R`$ of each identified transient absorption, computed according to the procedure described in the previous section. Uncertainties affecting the values of Table 2 are difficult to quantify, especially in the case of blended components. We are confident, however, that the values are a good representation of the gas properties in the case of sharp, isolated features. The results allow us to identify trends, based on the similar and consistent behaviour of many different lines.

Absorption components at different radial velocities - either redshifted or blueshifted - are found in the Balmer and metallic lines. Ca ii and Na i components with the stellar radial velocity are also detected. Features in different lines with similar radial velocities are detected within each spectrum; thus, it is reasonable to assume that they form in approximately the same region. The absorptions with similar velocities appearing in different lines are called a TAC, which can be characterized by the average of the radial velocity of the individual lines. A total of 24 TACs can be identified in our spectra - 17 RACs and 7 BACs. Fig. 5 plots the average radial velocity of each detected TAC as a function of the observing time. Error bars show the rms error and the number of individual lines used to estimate the average velocity is indicated. Fractional numbers come from the fact that a weight of 1/2 is assigned to those absorption line features that are less certain (the blended lines H$`ϵ`$ and Ca ii H, the weak line H$`\zeta `$ and the Na i doublet affected by telluric lines), and weight 1 to the rest. Fig. 5 clearly shows that more than one TAC is present in each observed spectrum and that there is a radial velocity shift when comparing TACs in different spectra. The shift does not seem to be accidental; there appears to be a systematic temporal evolution of the TACs from one spectrum to the following one when their radial velocities are analysed. This is clearly evident in the behaviour of the TACs observed in the four spectra taken during the night J.D. 2451210.5 with a time interval of around 4 hours from the first to the last one. Thus, the data reveal groups of TACs representing a dynamical evolution of the gas with which they are associated. We call each of these groups an ”event”. In total, 7 events are identified, of which 4 are redshifted and 3 blueshifted. The detailed temporal evolution of $`v`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$ and $`R`$ for each individual line absorption component of 2 of these events (1 blueshifted and 1 redshifted) is shown in Fig.6.

### 4.1 Kinematics

In this section we describe the kinematic behaviour of the circumstellar gas as revealed by our observations. Since they cover only a limited amount of time, it is difficult to estimate if the trends we have observed are always present, or if they are specific to our observations, and a different choice of times, or a longer coverage of the star, would give a different picture. Only additional observations, and longer time coverage, can tell us what is the case. With this caveat, this database is nevertheless a good starting point for the discussion of the TAC phenomenon in UX Ori.

Among the detected events, the infalling gas (RACs) shows the largest velocities. For instance, event #1 shows a maximum average radial velocity of about 200 km/s which is roughly a half of the value of the stellar escape velocity, $``$410 km/s, while the maximum average velocity of the outflowing gas (BACs) is about 100 km/s. This observational result could be biased since we begin detecting outflowing gas at maximum velocities, which is not always the case for the infalling gas (e.g. events #4 and #7). We also note that blueshifted gas is detected when there are redshifted absorptions, but the opposite is not true; we do not know if there is a physical meaning behind this result.

The dynamics of events #1 and #2 (RACs) and #3 and #5 (BACs) denotes a deceleration of the gas. In event #4 the gas first accelerates and then decelerates; the data of #7 suggest an acceleration, while event #6 is only present in one spectrum. An estimate of the acceleration of the events over the time interval covered by the data is given in Table 3. Positive values mean acceleration while negative ones mean deceleration. Table 3 also gives the duration of each event, which is defined as the time it takes to reach zero velocity (for decelerating gas) or to go from zero to the maximum observed velocity for accelerating gas. The estimates suggest that the events typically last for a few days and that accelerations are a fraction of m s-2. It is interesting to point out that the acceleration and deceleration phases of event #4 are of the same order of magnitude. We also note that our data do not allow us to conclude that this event is unique, since we may have missed the accelerating part of the other events. In this respect, it would have been of great interest to follow the evolution of event #7, which represents infalling gas with a significant acceleration, departing from a velocity very close to the stellar velocity (though it is only well detected in H$`\beta `$ and H$`\gamma `$).

All the transient line absorption features are very broad (Table 2), as is evident in the raw spectra. We have computed for each TAC of each event the average value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$, weighted as in the case of $`v`$ (the rms dispersion of $`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$ among the different lines in a TAC is typically $``$25%). There is a tendency for Na i lines to be narrower than hydrogen and Ca ii lines ($`\mathrm{\Delta }v_{\mathrm{Na}\text{i}}0.5\mathrm{\Delta }v_{\mathrm{H},\mathrm{Ca}\text{ii}}`$). This will not be investigated further in this paper, but it could give interesting clues to the physical conditions of the gas. Fig. 7 shows $`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$ versus $`v`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$/$`v`$ versus $`v`$ for each detected TAC, which are two complementary views. Each event with the corresponding TACs are enclosed in boxes. The diagrams show that events are well separated and that the velocity dispersion does not change drastically along their temporal evolution (perhaps with the exception of event #2). This behaviour is remarkable in event #4 which has both acceleration and deceleration phases. Thus, these results suggest that events could be characterized by a kind of “intrinsic” velocity dispersion throughout their lifetimes.

### 4.2 $`R`$ parameter

Table 2 gives the parameter $`R`$ for each absorption component. The ratio of the $`R`$ values among different lines hardly varies for all 24 identified TACs. This is shown in Table 4, where we give the ratio of H$`\beta `$, H$`\delta `$, H$`\zeta `$, Ca ii K and Na i D2 to H$`\gamma `$. H$`\gamma `$ has been chosen as the reference line because it is clearly present in all events. To estimate the errors we have applied a sigma-clipping algorithm to reject bad points; the corresponding values are given in Table 4. The remaining lines do not have a well defined ratio to H$`\gamma `$; we think this has no physical meaning, since H$`ϵ`$ and Ca ii H are blended and the relatively weak Na i D1 is more affected than Na i D2 by the strong telluric absorptions in this wavelength interval.

The fact that the ratio of $`R`$ between different lines is rather constant allows us to characterize each TAC by an “intensity” ($`<R>`$) in the following manner. The ratios $`R_{\mathrm{line}}`$/$`R_{\mathrm{H}\gamma }`$ of each TAC are used to compute an “equivalent average $`R_{\mathrm{H}\gamma }`$ $`<R>`$”. $`<R>`$ is estimated from H$`\beta `$, H$`\delta `$, Ca ii K (weight 1.0) and H$`\zeta `$ (weight 0.5). Fig. 8 shows $`<R>`$ as a function of the TAC velocities and events are enclosed in boxes. No correlation is seen. However, as in the case of $`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$, the estimated $`<R>`$ values do not seem to change drastically from TAC to TAC within individual events.

## 5 Discussion

The intensity and dynamics of the transient components are revealed by the spectra in such detail that a careful analysis in the context of specific models (magnetospheric accretion models, to mention one obvious example) could be used to validate the theoretical scenarios. This is in itself a huge effort, well beyond the scope of this paper. There are, however, several points that we think are worth mentioning. Firstly, the data indicate that the events are the signatures of the dynamical evolution of gaseous clumps in the UX Ori CS disk. There do not seem to be large changes in the velocity dispersion and the relative line absorption strengths through the lifetime of each clump. This suggest that they are ‘blobs’ which basically preserve their geometrical and physical identity. In this respect, event #4 is remarkable since during its estimated life of $``$6 days it shows both an acceleration and a deceleration. In addition, the data reveal other aspects concerning the nature and dynamics of the events which are indicated in the following subsections.

### 5.1 Origin of the circumstellar gas

Based on spectra qualitatively similar to those discussed here, Natta et al. (2000) analysed the chemical composition of one infalling event in UX Ori. Non-LTE models were used to estimate the ionization and excitation of Balmer (up to H$`\delta `$), Ca II and NaI lines. Roughly solar abundances were found for the gas causing the redshifted features of that event. The present data suggest a similar nature for the gas causing the identified blobs. We detect evidence of infalling gas in the Balmer lines and in a number of metallic lines with similar velocities, which also display roughly constant strength ratios to the Balmer lines; these ratios are $`<1`$ (see Table 4). Similar result are found for the outflowing gas (blueshifted absorptions). Thus, we can conclude that the CS gas in UX Ori is not very metal rich. In addition, the data suggest that the physical conditions of the outflowing and infalling gas are rather similar and they likely co-exist in space.

A second point is that in both RACs and BACs the CS gas has a significant underlying emission, at least in the Balmer lines we have examined. This can be seen easily if we compare the values of the observed average ratio for the Balmer lines to the ratio of the opacity in the lines (see Table 4, columns 2 and 6). If the CS gas was just absorbing the photospheric flux, then the ratio of any two lines originating from the same lower level should be equal to the ratio of their opacities. This is clearly not the case (see also similar results in Natta et al. (2000)). There are a number of reasons why this can happen. The first is that the observed absorption is due to a very optically thick cloud, whose projected size is smaller than the stellar surface. In this case, however, $`R`$ should be the same for all the lines, roughly equal to the occulted fraction of the stellar surface, and this does not seem to be the case. In particular, the Na i D1 absorption is always weaker than the Na i D2 (R$`_{\mathrm{Na}\text{i}\mathrm{D2}}`$ / R$`_{\mathrm{Na}\text{i}\mathrm{D1}}`$ = 1.4 $`\pm `$ 0.4). A second possibility is that there is significant emission in the lines.

R, for any given component, can be estimated from the ratio $`F_{\mathrm{obs}}/F_{\mathrm{syn}}`$. This can be done following eq. 5 of Rodgers et al. (2002), which provides this ratio under the assumption of a stellar and a circumstellar contribution to the observed flux; the circumstellar contribution is caused by a spherical occulting cloud and a more extended envelope. In our zero order approach we neglect the extended envelope, and we assume a small optical depth and black-body emission for the spherical occulting cloud. In this case, R can be written as:

$$R=\tau \left[1\frac{B_\nu (T_{\mathrm{ex}})}{B_\nu (T_{})}\left(\frac{R_{\mathrm{cloud}}}{R_{}}\right)^2\right]$$
(1)
where $`\tau `$ is the optical depth in the line, and $`T_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ is the black-body excitation temperature of the gas in the cloud. $`R_{\mathrm{cloud}}`$ is the projected radius of the CS cloud. Some ”filling-in” of the absorption features ($`R<\tau `$) may occur if $`T_{\mathrm{ex}}\stackrel{<}{}T_{}`$ and $`R_{\mathrm{cloud}}\stackrel{>}{}R_{}`$ (e.g. $`T_{\mathrm{ex}}7000K`$ and $`R_{\mathrm{cloud}}/R_{}=1.6`$, which is the corotation radius for UX Ori, reproduce the observed ratios).

### 5.2 Gas Dynamics

As already pointed out, the discussion in the previous subsection together with the results of Natta et al. (2000) indicates that the TACs in UX Ori do not arise from the evaporation of solid bodies, but in a substantially different scenario. The simultaneous presence of infalling and outflowing gas in the immediate vicinity of UX Ori is reminiscent of the predictions of magnetospheric accretion models, as developed by a number of authors in the last several years (see Hartmann (1998) for a basic account of this theory). All these models assume stationary conditions, and it is difficult to derive quantitative predictions on the time dependent behaviour of the CS lines. However, some simple points can be made to constrain the different models.

Let us start with the infall motions we detect. The simplest case we can consider for comparison is that of a blob of gas moving along the field lines of a stellar dipole magnetic field, seen in absorption against the stellar photosphere. The infalling gas is practically contained in a region of the size of the corotation radius, which for UX Ori is $`R_{\mathrm{co}}1.6`$ $`R_{}`$. This is in agreement with the discussion in subsection 5.1. The small value of the corotation radius implies that the maximum poloidal velocity the blob will reach is of order $`V_{\mathrm{esc}}(1R_{\mathrm{star}}/R_{\mathrm{co}})220`$ km s-1. Since the UX Ori disk is seen almost edge-on (Voshchinnikov et al. 1988), the observed velocity shift will be of the same order, which is in agreement with what we observe. A simple calculation shows that the blob will be seen to accelerate from very low velocity to this maximum value in a time interval of about 1 day, until it hits the star. The acceleration seen in event #4 is reminiscent of such a behaviour, although the time scale is longer. On the contrary, the decelerating infall motions we see (events #1,2,4) require a modification of this simple model. A significant distortion of the velocity pattern can be caused by the rapid rotation of the star, which can create a sort of centrifugal barrier for the infalling gas. Using the expression of the poloidal velocity given by eq. (8.76) of Hartmann (1998) for the UX Ori parameters, we find a decrease of the maximum velocity (to about 180 km s-1), but a similar acceleration pattern and time scale. Still, the interaction of the fast rotating magnetosphere with the accreting disk material should be considered in detail. Muzerolle et al. (2001) have included rotation in a study of T Tauri Stars (TTS), where, however, it is much smaller than the escape velocity at the stellar surface and the change of the poloidal velocity is negligible. Similar calculations for cases where the stellar rotation is a significant fraction of the escape velocity would be very valuable.

Outflowing gas is seen in events #3 and #5. In both cases we start detecting the outflow at negative velocities of 100–80 km s-1, and we see deceleration on time scale of 2–3 days. Stellar-field-driven wind models (X-wind, see Shu et al. 2000, and references therein) predict that the wind leaves the disk surface close to the corotation radius on almost radial trajectories, accelerating rapidly to a speed of the order of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{}R_{\mathrm{co}}350`$ km s-1. This is significantly more than the maximum outflow velocity we observe, although the time coverage of our spectra can bias this result since we always find the maximum velocity of the outflow in the first spectrum taken in both the October 98 and January 99 observing runs. Nevertheles, the deceleration we observe is not predicted by the models, unless collimation of the wind into the direction of the magnetic axis (i.e., away from the line of sight to the observer) occurs before the maximum speed is achieved and takes place on time scales of few days. Winds driven by disk magnetic field (see Königl & Pudritz 2000, and references therein) tend to produce slower outflows with large velocity dispersions from a broad region of the disk. Goodson et al. (1997) discuss models where the interaction between the rotating stellar field and a disk field results in a time-dependent launching of a two component outflow, of which one (the disk wind) has some similarity to what we observe. However, also in these models it is not clear what could cause the observed deceleration. It is noteworthy that, once the acceleration phase is over, a wind can be decelerated by the effect of the stellar gravity (Mitskevich et al. 1993). In UX Ori the deceleration caused by the central star is $`0.20.5`$ m s-2 at distances of $`1420`$ $`R_{}`$, where the local escape velocity is $``$ 130 km s-1. An episode of outflow consistent with being gravitationally decelerated was observed in the TTS SU Aur by Petrov et al. (1996).

The predictions of simple magnetospheric accretion models have been compared to the observed line variability in a number of TTS, with moderate success. The best case is that of SU Aur, a rather massive TTS with a rotation period of about 3 days. This star shows evidence of simultaneous infall and outflow motions in various lines, similar to those observed in UX Ori (Johns & Basri 1995; Petrov et al. 1996; Oliveira et al. 2000). The infalling velocity is clearly modulated by the rotation period of the star, and a model with magnetically chanelled accretion in a dipole field inclined by a few degrees to the rotation axis of the star may account for most of the observed infall properties. As in UX Ori the outflow is very variable, with maximum velocity similar to that of the infalling gas and a tendency to decelerate on a time scale of days, with no obvious rotational modulation (Johns & Basri 1995). Note that the timing strategy of our UX Ori observations is not suited to the detection of modulations on the time scale of the stellar rotation period, which is about 17 hr.

UX Ori may provide a useful test-case. On one hand, it is likely that the structure of the stellar magnetic field is more complex than in TTS, since UX Ori (a A-type star of 2–3 $`M_{}`$) lacks the surface convective layer that may create a simple magnetic field in TTS. On the other hand, one may take advantage of the fact that the average accretion rate of UX Ori is rather low (Tambovtseva et al. 2001). The CS gas is mostly seen in absorption against the continuum, when a sporadic increase of the accretion rate in the disk creates gas “blobs” which move along the magnetic field lines, tracing their pattern more clearly than in objects with higher accretion rates, where broad emission dominates the CS lines. We would like to mention that Pontefract et al. (2000) also suggest magnetospheric accretion as a promising model to explain the H$`\alpha `$ spectropolarimetry data of the Herbig Ae star AB Aur.

One final point to keep in mind in this context is that variations along the flow (both for infall and outflow) of the source function in the various lines may have an important effect on the comparison between observations and models, so that detailed calculations are required for validation of the models.

## 6 Conclusions

The data presented in this paper allow us to analyse the spectroscopic behaviour of the CS gas disk around UX Ori on time scales of months, days and hours. Significant activity in the CS disk is always present, which manifests itself in the continuous appearance and disappearance of absorption components detected in hydrogen and in many metallic lines. This activity is not related to substantial variations of the stellar photosphere. Blobs of gas experiencing infalling and outflowing motions are the likely origin of the transient features. Blobs undergo accelerations/decelerations of the order of tenths of m s-2 and last for a few days. Detectable changes in the gas dynamics occur on a time scale of hours, but the intrinsic velocity dispersion of the blobs appears to remain rather constant. No noticeable differences are seen in the properties of the infalling and outflowing gas, although infalls might have larger velocity dispersion. The relative absorption strength of the transient absorptions suggests gas abundances similar to the solar metallicity, ruling out the evaporation of solid bodies as the physical origin of the spectroscopic features. We suggest that the data should be analysed in the context of detailed magnetospheric accretion models, similar to those used for T Tauri stars.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors wish to thank V. P. Grinin for valuable discussion about the analysis procedures. A. Mora acknowledges the hospitality and support of the Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri for two long stays during which a substantial part of this work was carried out. A. Alberdi, C. Eiroa, B. Merín, B. Montesinos, A. Mora, J. Palacios and E. Solano have been partly supported by Spanish grants ESP98-1339 and AYA2001-1124.


text:
# Kicked Rotor in Wigner Phase Space

## 1 Introduction

For many years the field of quantum chaos  had been the exclusive play–ground of theoretical physics. However, the recent success in experimentally realizing cold atom sources and the newly emerging field of atom optics  are slowly changing this situation in favor of experimental physics. Indeed, a series of atom optics experiments  has verified fingerprints of quantum chaos such as dynamical localization, quantum resonances, quantum dynamics in a regime of classical anomalous diffusion and accelerator modes. Even the reconstruction of the wave function of the kicked particle in amplitude and phase seems now to be feasible .

Quantum effects are due to quantum interference. Interference phenomena stand out most clearly in the Wigner function description of quantum theory . This feature serves as our motivation to develop in the present paper the Wigner function treatment of a kicked particle. Similar steps have already been taken in . However, our motivation and ultimate goal is slightly different: We try to gain a deeper understanding of dynamical localization. In this spirit the purpose of the present paper is to lay the foundations for this long term goal and to summarize the inevitable formalism.

Our paper is organized as follows: In Sec. 2 we briefly review the essential ingredients of the delta function kicked particle. Here, we do not specify the kicking potential but only assume that it is periodic in space. Moreover, we introduce dimensionless variables which we use throughout the paper. In this way only two dimensionless parameters — the scaled Planck’s constant and the scaled kicking strength — determine the quantum dynamics of this model. In Sec. 3 we derive the stroboscopic time evolution, that is the maps for the state vector and the Wigner function. We then in Sec. 4 use the state vector map to review the effect of quantum resonances. Section 5 is dedicated to an illustration of this phenomenon and of anti–resonances in Wigner phase space. We conclude in Sec. 6 by summarizing our main results. In order to keep the paper self–contained we have included the relevant calculations in three Appendices.

## 2 The model

In the present section we briefly summarize the classical and quantum mechanical model of the kicked particle. In contrast to the standard treatments we do not specify the form of the kicking potential, except that it should be periodic in space. Moreover, we introduce dimensionless variables which reduce the number of parameters. We first consider the motion of a classical particle of mass $`M`$, characterized by coordinate $`\stackrel{~}{x}`$ and momentum $`\stackrel{~}{p}`$. Then we turn to the quantum description.

The motion of the particle is driven by a sequence of $`\delta `$–function kicks with period $`T`$ described by the Hamiltonian

$$\stackrel{~}{H}=\frac{\stackrel{~}{p}^2}{2M}+\stackrel{~}{K}\stackrel{~}{V}(\stackrel{~}{x})\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\delta (\stackrel{~}{t}nT).$$
(1)
The strength of the kick depends on the position of the particle via a potential $`\stackrel{~}{K}\stackrel{~}{V}(\stackrel{~}{x})`$ where $`\stackrel{~}{K}`$ denotes the kick amplitude and $`\stackrel{~}{V}(\stackrel{~}{x})`$ contains the spatial dependence with unit amplitude. Throughout the paper we consider potentials which are periodic with period $`\lambda 2\pi /k_0`$. Moreover, we also assume the symmetries $`\stackrel{~}{V}(\stackrel{~}{x})=\stackrel{~}{V}(\stackrel{~}{x})`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{V}(\stackrel{~}{x}\pm \lambda /2)=\stackrel{~}{V}(\stackrel{~}{x})`$.

For the further analysis it is convenient to use scaled variables. In particular, we introduce the dimensionless coordinate $`xk_0\stackrel{~}{x}`$, momentum $`p(k_0T/M)\stackrel{~}{p}`$ and time $`t\stackrel{~}{t}/T`$. With these variables the Hamiltonian, Eq. (1), transforms into

$$\stackrel{~}{H}\frac{M}{k_0^2T^2}H$$

where

$$H\frac{1}{2}p^2+KV(x)\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\delta (tn)$$
(2)
includes the stochasticity parameter $`K\stackrel{~}{K}k_0^2T/M`$ and the scaled potential $`V(x)\stackrel{~}{V}(x/k_0)`$ now enjoys the period $`2\pi `$.

We now turn to the quantum description with position and momentum operators $`\widehat{\stackrel{~}{x}}`$ and $`\widehat{\stackrel{~}{p}}`$. They satisfy the familiar commutation relation $`[\widehat{\stackrel{~}{x}},\widehat{\stackrel{~}{p}}]=i\mathrm{}`$ which in dimensionless variables reads $`[\widehat{x},\widehat{p}]=ik\text{-}`$. Here we have introduced the scaled Planck’s constant $`k\text{-}\mathrm{}k_0^2T/M`$.

Moreover, in these dimensionless variables the Schrödinger equation

$$i\mathrm{}\frac{}{\stackrel{~}{t}}|\psi =\widehat{\stackrel{~}{H}}|\psi $$

takes the form

$$ik\text{-}\frac{}{t}|\psi =\widehat{H}|\psi $$
(3)
where we have replaced in the classical Hamiltonian $`H`$, Eq. (2), the position and momentum $`x`$ and $`p`$ by the corresponding operators giving rise to the quantum mechanical Hamiltonian $`\widehat{H}`$.

## 3 Time evolution

We now turn to the discussion of the time evolution of this kicked system. Here we pursue two different approaches: we first concentrate on the dynamics of the state vector, and then use these results to derive the time evolution of the Wigner phase space distribution. Due to the stroboscopic behavior of the potential energy we reduce the continuous time evolution to a discrete mapping.

### 3.1 State vector

The Hamiltonian

$$\widehat{H}\frac{\widehat{p}^2}{2}+KV(\widehat{x})\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\delta (tn)$$

consists of two parts: (i) The operator of kinetic energy and (ii) the operator of potential energy which is explicitly time dependent. However, the latter part is only of importance for integer $`t`$. Between two kicks it vanishes and the state $`|\psi _n`$ evolves freely according to

$$|\psi _n^{}=\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{free}}(\widehat{p})|\psi _n\mathrm{exp}\left[i\frac{\widehat{p}^2}{2k\text{-}}\right]|\psi _n.$$
(4)
Here, we have propagated the state over one time unit $`t=1`$.

For integer $`t`$, the potential energy dominates over the kinetic energy and we can neglect it. This feature allows us to integrate the Schrödinger equation, Eq. (3), over one kick. The state $`|\psi _{n+1}`$ immediately after a $`\delta `$–function kick is related to the state $`|\psi _n^{}`$ just before the kick by

$$|\psi _{n+1}=\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{kick}}(\widehat{x})|\psi _n^{}\mathrm{exp}\left[i\frac{K}{k\text{-}}V(\widehat{x})\right]|\psi _n^{}.$$
(5)
We emphasize that neglecting the kinetic energy is not an approximation since the $`\delta `$–function only acts at an instant of time with an infinite strength.

When we combine Eqs. (4) and (5) the complete time evolution over one period reads

$$|\psi _{n+1}=\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{kick}}(\widehat{x})\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{free}}(\widehat{p})|\psi _n=\mathrm{exp}\left[i\kappa V(\widehat{x})\right]\mathrm{exp}\left[i\frac{\widehat{p}^2}{2k\text{-}}\right]|\psi _n$$
(6)
and maps the state $`|\psi _n`$ onto $`|\psi _{n+1}`$. Here we have introduced the abbreviation $`\kappa K/k\text{-}`$.

We find the quantum state $`|\psi _N`$ after $`N`$ kicks by applying the Floquet operator

$$\widehat{U}(\widehat{x},\widehat{p})\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{kick}}(\widehat{x})\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{free}}(\widehat{p})$$
(7)
$`N`$ times onto the initial state $`|\psi _0`$.

Since the potential $`V(x)`$ is periodic, that is $`V(x+2\pi )=V(x)`$, the kick operator $`\mathrm{exp}\left[i\kappa V(\widehat{x})\right]`$ is also periodic and we can expand it into Fourier series

$$\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{kick}}(\widehat{x})=e^{i\kappa V(\widehat{x})}=\underset{l=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}S_l\left(\kappa \right)e^{il\widehat{x}}$$
(8)
with expansion coefficients

$$S_l\left(\kappa \right)\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑\xi e^{il\xi }e^{i\kappa V(\xi )}.$$
(9)
In this Fourier representation the operator nature of the $`\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{kick}}`$ only enters through the Fourier operator $`\mathrm{exp}[il\widehat{x}]`$.

With the the help of the relation Eq. (8) the Floquet operator Eq. (7) takes the form

$$\widehat{U}(\widehat{x},\widehat{p})=\underset{l=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}S_l\left(\kappa \right)e^{il\widehat{x}}\mathrm{exp}\left[i\frac{\widehat{p}^2}{2k\text{-}}\right].$$

We conclude this subsection by discussing the action of this operator on a momentum eigenstate. For this purpose we calculate the representation of $`\widehat{U}`$ in the momentum basis by inserting the completeness relation $`1\mathrm{l}=𝑑p|pp|`$ twice. When we recall the formula

$$e^{il\widehat{x}}|p=|plk\text{-}$$
(10)
we arrive at

$$\widehat{U}=\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝑑p\underset{l=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}S_l(\kappa )\mathrm{exp}\left[i\frac{p^2}{2k\text{-}}\right]|plk\text{-}p|.$$
(11)
Hence, the Floquet operator $`\widehat{U}`$ couples only momentum eigenstates separated by integer multiples of $`k\text{-}`$.

### 3.2 Wigner function

We now analyze the dynamics of the kicked particle from the point of view of phase space. In particular, we discuss the time evolution of the corresponding Wigner function. Two possibilities offer themselves: (i) We can solve the quantum Liouville equation  of the kicked particle, or (ii) we can use the mapping of the state vectors derived in the preceding section to obtain a mapping of the corresponding Wigner functions. In the present section we pursue the second approach.

For this purpose we recall the definition

$$W_{n+1}(x,p)\frac{1}{2\pi k\text{-}}\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝑑\xi e^{ip\xi /k\text{-}}x+\frac{1}{2}\xi |\psi _{n+1}\psi _{n+1}|x\frac{1}{2}\xi $$
(12)
of the Wigner function of the state $`|\psi _{n+1}`$.

When we substitute the mapping, Eq. (6), into the right-hand side of Eq. (12), we arrive at

$$W_{n+1}(x,p)=\frac{1}{2\pi k\text{-}}\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝑑\xi e^{ip\xi /k\text{-}}U_{\mathrm{kick}}(x+\xi /2)U_{\mathrm{kick}}^{}(x\xi /2)x+\xi /2|\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{free}}|\psi _n\psi _n|\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{free}}^{}|x\xi /2.$$
(13)
Here we have used the property $`\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{kick}}(\widehat{x})|x=U_{\mathrm{kick}}(x)|x`$.

Since the potential $`V(x)`$ is periodic, the bilinear form

$$U_{\mathrm{kick}}(x+\xi /2)U_{\mathrm{kick}}^{}(x\xi /2)=e^{i\kappa \left[V(x+\xi /2)V(x\xi /2)\right]}e^{i\kappa 𝒱(x,\xi /2)}$$

with the generalized potential

$$𝒱(x,y)V(x+y)V(xy)$$
(14)
is also periodic in $`\xi /2`$ with period $`2\pi `$. We can therefore expand

$$e^{i\kappa 𝒱(x,\xi /2)}=\underset{l=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)e^{il\xi /2}$$
(15)
into a Fourier series where the expansion coefficients

$$𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}d\left(\frac{\xi }{2}\right)e^{il\xi /2}e^{i\kappa 𝒱(x,\xi /2)}$$
(16)
still depend on the position $`x`$ and are periodic with a period of $`2\pi `$.

With the help of the Fourier series, Eq. (15), the mapping of the Wigner function, Eq. (13), yields

$$W_{n+1}(x,p)=\underset{l}{}𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)\frac{1}{2\pi k\text{-}}\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝑑\xi e^{i(p+lk\text{-}/2)\xi /k\text{-}}x+\xi /2|\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{free}}|\psi _n\psi _n|\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{free}}^{}|x\xi /2.$$
(17)
We can identify the remaining integral in Eq. (17) when we recall  that the free time evolution

$`W(x,p;t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi k\text{-}}}{\displaystyle \underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}𝑑\xi e^{ip\xi /k\text{-}}x+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\xi |\mathrm{exp}\left[i{\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{p}^2}{2k\text{-}}}t\right]|\psi \psi |\mathrm{exp}\left[i{\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{p}^2}{2k\text{-}}}t\right]|x{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\xi `$
of the Wigner function follows from the Wigner function of the initial state $`|\psi `$ by replacing the position $`x`$ by $`xpt`$, that is

$$W(x,p;t)=W(xpt,p;t=0).$$

Hence, the integral in Eq. (17) is the Wigner function of the state $`|\psi _n`$ propagated for the time $`t=1`$ and evaluated at the shifted momentum $`p+lk\text{-}/2`$.

Consequently, the recursion formula, Eq. (17), for the mapping of the Wigner function of the kicked particle takes the form

$$W_{n+1}(x,p)=\underset{l}{}𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)W_n(x\left(p+lk\text{-}/2\right),p+lk\text{-}/2).$$
(18)
We recognize that this mapping describes a shearing of the distribution $`W_{n+1}`$ along the $`x`$–axis due to the free time evolution. The successive kick causes a displacement in momentum with the position–dependent weight factor $`S_l(\kappa ;x)`$.

In contrast to the mapping of the state vector, Eq. (6) the Wigner function map also involves contributions at half integer multiples of $`k\text{-}`$. These additional terms reflect the interference nature of quantum mechanics. They are the analogies of the positive and negative interference structures of a Schrödinger cat  which are located half way between the classical parts. Moreover, they dissappear when we integrate over position space in order to obtain the momentum distribution. We show this property explicitly in Sec. 5.

In the Wigner function treatment of the kicked particle the expansion coefficients $`𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)`$ play the same role as the coefficients $`S_l(\kappa )`$ in the state vector description. For a brief comparison between these two quantities and a discussion of their properties we refer to Appendix A.

## 4 Quantum Resonances viewed from State Space

In this section we use the mapping of the wave function, Eq. (6), to discuss a characteristic effect in the time evolution of the kicked particle: the phenomenon of quantum resonances. The size of the scaled Planck’s constant $`k\text{-}`$ is a decisive factor for the occurrence of quantum effects in the time evolution of the kicked particle. In particular, we obtain dramatically different dynamics for $`k\text{-}`$ being a rational and irrational multiple of $`4\pi `$. In particular, we show that for $`k\text{-}=4\pi `$ and integer multiples resonances occur and the average kinetic energy increases quadratically with the number of kicks.

For the value of $`k\text{-}=4\pi `$ the mapping defined by the Floquet operator $`\widehat{U}`$, Eq. (7), simplifies significantly. In order to illustrate this interesting dynamics we consider the state

$$|\psi _N=\widehat{U}^N|p=0=\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{kick}}\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{free}}\mathrm{}\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{kick}}\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{free}}|p=0$$

after $`N`$ kicks where the Floquet operator $`\widehat{U}\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{kick}}\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{free}}`$ acts $`N`$ times on the initial state $`|p=0`$.

The consequences of the choice $`k\text{-}=4\pi `$ stand out most clearly when we consider the free time evolution

$$\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{free}}|lk\text{-}=\mathrm{exp}\left[i\frac{\widehat{p}^2}{2k\text{-}}\right]|lk\text{-}=\mathrm{exp}\left[il^2\frac{k\text{-}}{2}\right]|lk\text{-}$$

of momentum eigenstates $`|lk\text{-}`$ between two kicks. Indeed, for $`k\text{-}=4\pi `$ or a integer multiple the phase accumulated by the momentum eigenstate $`|lk\text{-}=|l4\pi `$ during the free propagation is $`2\pi `$ or an integer multiple, that is

$$\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{free}}|l4\pi =e^{2\pi il^2}|l4\pi =|l4\pi .$$
(19)
Hence, for this particular value of $`k\text{-}`$ the momentum eigenstates are invariant under free time evolution.

According to Eq. (11) the kick operator $`\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{kick}}`$ couples momentum eigenstates separated by integer multiples of $`k\text{-}`$. Since we start from the momentum eigenstate $`|p=0`$ we have a superposition of momentum eigenstates $`|lk\text{-}`$ after every kick. For $`k\text{-}=4\pi `$ these states are invariant under free time evolution and the state after $`N`$ kicks reads

$$|\psi _N=\widehat{U}_{\mathrm{kick}}^N|p=0=e^{iN\kappa V(\widehat{x})}|p=0=\underset{l=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}S_l\left(N\kappa \right)|l4\pi $$

where in the last step we have used the Fourier decomposition, Eq. (9), and the shift relation, Eq. (10).

With the help of the resulting momentum distribution

$$W_N(p)=\left|p|\psi _N\right|^2=\underset{l}{}S_l^2(N\kappa )\delta (p+l4\pi ),$$
(20)
which involves momenta at $`p=l4\pi `$ with weight factor $`S_l^2`$, we evaluate the mean energy

$$E\frac{1}{2}\widehat{p}^2=\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝑑p\frac{1}{2}p^2W_N(p)=8\pi ^2_{l=\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}l^2S_l^2(N\kappa )$$

of the system after $`N`$ kicks.

In Appendix B we calculate this sum over the expansion coefficients $`S_l`$ and find

$$E=\frac{1}{2}F^2KN^2$$

where $`F^2`$ is the square of the force $`F=dV/dx`$ averaged over one period. Moreover, we have recalled the abbreviation $`\kappa K/k\text{-}=K/(4\pi )`$.

Hence, for the special choice of $`k\text{-}=4\pi `$ the energy increases quadratically with the number of kicks. From Eq. (19) we note that also integer multiples of $`k\text{-}=4\pi `$ leave the momentum eigenstates invariant. Consequently, the resonance also occurs in these cases.

We conclude this section by briefly explaining our special choice of the initial state $`|p=0`$. In this case the Floquet operator, Eq. (11), only maps this initial state onto discrete momentum eigenstates $`p=lk\text{-}`$. During the dynamics we therefore always stay in a momentum ladder starting at zero momentum. Moreover, these eigenstates are invariant under the unitary transformation of the free time evolution provided $`k\text{-}=4\pi `$.

However, there is one more reason for choosing $`|p=0`$ as our initial state. Due to the discreteness of the momentum variable the spatial wave function has always a period of $`2\pi `$. We would have found the same result if we had imposed periodic boundary conditions corresponding to a kicked rotor. Hence, the mathematics of the kicked particle with zero initial momentum eigenstate and the kicked rotor is identical.

## 5 Quantum Resonances viewed from Wigner Phase Space

How does a quantum resonance reflect itself in phase space? In order to answer this question we consider the map, Eq. (18), of the Wigner function.

### 5.1 Wigner function after second kick

The Wigner function of our initial momentum eigenstate $`|p=0`$ reads

$$W_0(x,p)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\delta (p),$$

where we have introduced the normalization factor $`1/(2\pi )`$ such that the Wigner function integrated over all momenta and over one spatial period is normalized to unity.

After one kick, the Wigner function

$$W_1(x,p)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{r}{}𝒮_r(\kappa ;x)\delta \left(p+rk\text{-}/2\right).$$
(21)
can be viewed as a stack of delta function walls aligned parallel to the $`x`$–axis. Each wall is weighted with the function $`𝒮_r`$, Eq. (16), which imprints a $`x`$–dependent modulation of period $`2\pi `$ onto the wall.

In contrast to the state vector description the Wigner function phase space not only enjoys contributions at $`p=lk\text{-}`$ but also at $`p=(2l+1)k\text{-}/2`$. However, the corresponding weight function $`𝒮_{2l+1}`$ displays a position dependence such that the integral over it vanishes. Only for $`p=lk\text{-}=2lk\text{-}/2`$ do we find a nonvanishing contribution

$$\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑x𝒮_{2l}(\kappa ;x)=2\pi S_l^2(\kappa )$$
(22)
as shown in Appendix A. As a consequence, the resulting momentum distribution

$$W_1(p)=\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑xW_1(x,p)=\underset{l}{}\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑x𝒮_{2l}(\kappa ;x)\delta (p+lk)=\underset{l}{}S_l^2(\kappa )\delta (p+lk\text{-})$$

only involves momenta at integer multiples of $`k\text{-}`$ in complete agreement with the state vector description.

After the second kick, the phase space distribution

$$W_2(x,p)=\underset{s}{}𝒮_s(\kappa ;x)W_1(x\left(p+sk\text{-}/2\right),p+sk\text{-}/2).$$

is expressed in terms of the Wigner function $`W_1`$, Eq. (21), after the first kick which after substitution into this formula yields

$$W_2(x,p)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{s}{}\underset{r}{}𝒮_s(\kappa ;x)𝒮_r(\kappa ;x(p+sk\text{-}/2))\delta \left(p+(r+s)k\text{-}/2\right).$$

We first use the $`\delta `$–function to replace the momentum $`p`$ in the second expansion coefficient $`𝒮_r`$ by $`(r+s)k\text{-}/2`$. We then introduce the summation index $`lr+s`$ and arrive at

$$W_2(x,p)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{l}{}𝒲_l(x)\delta \left(p+lk\text{-}/2\right).$$

with the distribution

$$𝒲_l(x)\underset{r}{}𝒮_{lr}(\kappa ;x)𝒮_r(\kappa ;x+rk\text{-}/2).$$
(23)
### 5.2 Resonance

So far we have not specified the value of $`k\text{-}`$. When we now utilize $`k\text{-}=4\pi `$ and recognize from the definitions, Eqs. (14) and (16), of the generalized potential $`𝒱`$ and the expansion coefficients $`𝒮_l`$ the periodicity property $`𝒮_l(\kappa ;x+r2\pi )=𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)`$, the coefficient $`𝒲_l`$ reduces to

$$𝒲_l^{(+)}\underset{r}{}𝒮_{lr}(\kappa ;x)𝒮_r(\kappa ;x)$$

In Appendix C we evaluate this sum analytically and find

$$𝒲_l^{(+)}=𝒮_l(2\kappa ;x).$$

Hence, at a resonance, that is for $`k\text{-}=4\pi `$, the phase space distribution after the second kick reads

$$W_2(x,p)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{r}{}𝒮_r(2\kappa ;x)\delta \left(p+r2\pi \right).$$
(24)
It is interesting to compare this expression with the phase space distribution

$$W_1(x,p)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{r}{}𝒮_r(\kappa ;x)\delta (p+r2\pi )$$

after the first kick which follows form Eq. (21) for $`k=4\pi `$. We note that the argument $`\kappa `$ of the expansion coefficient has been replaced by $`2\kappa `$.

This result has a simple explanation. During the free time evolution each point of the phase space distribution follows the classical trajectory , that is each point at the momenta $`lk\text{-}/2`$ moves with constant velocity and traverses during the time $`t=1`$ the coordinate distance $`x=lk\text{-}/21`$. For $`k\text{-}=4\pi `$ this distance is one or an integer multiple of $`2\pi `$. Subsequent to this movement, the next kick occurs. The associated displacement with $`x`$–dependent weight functions $`𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)`$ is therefore in phase with the freely propagated phase space distribution and adds up coherently.

We can continue the iteration of the Wigner function by starting from the distribution, Eq. (24) after the second kick and we find following the above arguments the distribution

$$𝒲_l^{(+)}(x)\underset{r}{}𝒮_{lr}(\kappa ;x)𝒮_r(2\kappa ;x).$$

In Appendix C we have calculated this sum and find the Wigner function

$$W_3(x,p)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{r}{}𝒮_r(3\kappa ;x)\delta \left(p+r2\pi \right).$$

By induction the Wigner function after the $`N`$-th kick reads

$$W_N(x,p)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{r}{}𝒮_r(N\kappa ;x)\delta \left(p+r2\pi \right).$$

We conclude this section by using this Wigner function to calculate the momentum distribution $`W_N(p)`$ after $`N`$ kicks by integrating over position. We recall that this integration over $`x`$ eliminates the odd momenta, that is

$$W_N(p)=\underset{l}{}\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑x𝒮_{2l}(N\kappa ;x)\delta (p+l4\pi )=\underset{l}{}S_l^2(N\kappa )\delta (p+l4\pi ).$$
(25)
Here we have used the integral relation, Eq. (22) for the coefficients $`𝒮_{2l}`$.

The result Eq. (25) is in complete agreement with the distribution, Eq. (20), obtained in the state vector picture.

### 5.3 Anti–resonance

Another interesting case occurs for $`k\text{-}=2\pi `$. This so–called anti-resonance  results from the symmetry of the potential and manifests itself in an oscillating mean energy $`E`$, that is $`E`$ oscillates between the initial energy and the energy $`F^2K/2`$ after the first kick. Again, we analyze this phenomenon in phase space.

According to Eq. (23) the distribution $`𝒲_l`$ after the second kick reads for $`k\text{-}=2\pi `$

$$𝒲_l=\underset{r}{}𝒮_{lr}(\kappa ;x)𝒮_r(\kappa ;x+r\pi ).$$

In Appendix C we calculate this sum and find $`𝒲_l=\delta _{l,0}`$ which yields the Wigner function

$$W_2(x,p)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\delta (p).$$

Hence, the Wigner function after two kicks matches exactly the initial Wigner function. Indeed, the free time evolution between the first and second kick has propagated the contributions at the momenta $`lk\text{-}/2`$ by $`l\pi `$ along the $`x`$ direction. When the second kick occurs, all contributions for the momenta $`lk\text{-}/2`$ interfere destructively except for the case $`l=0`$ where all contributions interfere constructively.

## 6 Conclusions and Outlook

In the present paper we have studied various aspects of the quantum dynamics of a kicked particle. In Wigner phase space the time evolution is a sequence of shearing the Wigner distribution along the position axis and displacing it along the momentum axis with position dependent weight factors $`𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)`$. As a first application of this formalism we have revisited the physics of resonances and anti–resonances. However, this approach is also useful when we study the influence of corners in the kicking potential  on dynamical localization.

Resonances and anti–resonances occur for the special choice $`k\text{-}=4\pi `$ and $`k\text{-}=2\pi `$, respectively, of the scaled Planck’s constant. However, an interesting situation emerges for $`k\text{-}`$ being a rational multiple $`r/s`$ of $`4\pi `$. Here the free time evolution shifts each displaced contribution at $`p=lk\text{-}/2`$ by an amount of $`2\pi lr/s`$. Therefore, consecutive contributions cannot add up fully coherently due to the different spatial shifts of the $`x`$-dependent weighting functions $`𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)`$. It is interesting to note that this analytical treatment also includes the limit $`r,s\mathrm{}`$ with $`r/sconst.`$ which corresponds to the limit of localization. Here the contributions of the Wigner function can never interfere coherently and dynamical localization appears, that is the broadening of the momentum distribution is coming to a halt. However, this analysis is beyond the scope of the present paper and will be published elsewhere.

## 7 Acknowledgments

We thank I.Sh. Averbukh, B.G. Englert, S. Fishman, M. Freyberger, H.J. Korsch and Th. Seligman for many fruitful discussions. This work originated when two of us (FH and WPS) were enjoying the wonderful hospitality of the University of Texas at Austin. We thank our Texan colleagues, in particular D. Steck, for many stimulating discussions during this visit. Moreover, we are most grateful to F. DeMartini and P. Mataloni for patiently awaiting the completion of this manuscript. The work of MB and WPS is supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. MGR gratefully acknowledges the support of the Welch Foundation and the National Science Foundation.

## Appendix A Properties of Wigner Expansion Coefficients

In this Appendix we relate the coefficients

$$S_l(\kappa )=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑\xi e^{il\xi }e^{i\kappa V(\xi )}$$

emerging from the map of the state vectors to the functions

$$𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑ye^{ily}e^{i\kappa V(x+y)}e^{i\kappa V(xy)}$$
(26)
from the Wigner map. Moreover, we calculate the integral of $`𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)`$ over one spatial period. This quantity emerging establishes a crucial connection between $`S_l(\kappa )`$ and $`𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)`$.

We start the discussion by first noting that both functions are Fourier coefficients. Indeed, the coefficients $`S_l`$ result from the expansion of $`\mathrm{exp}[i\kappa V(x)]`$ whereas $`𝒮_l`$ come from $`\mathrm{exp}[i\kappa 𝒱(x,y)]`$ where $`𝒱(x,y)V(x+y)V(xy)`$. For anti–symmetric potentials $`V(x)=V(x)`$ we find $`𝒱(0,y)=2V(y)`$ which establishes the connection

$$𝒮_l(\kappa ;0)=S_l\left(2\kappa \right)$$

between the two expansion coefficients.

Moreover, it is also important that due to the anti–symmetry $`V(x)=V(x)`$ of the potential and the resulting anti–symmetry $`𝒱(x,y)=𝒱(x,y)`$ of the generalized potential both functions $`S_l`$ and $`𝒮_l`$ are purely real.

The integral

$$_l\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑x𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)$$

over the expansion coefficients $`𝒮_l(\kappa ;x)`$ brings out a deep connection with $`S_l`$. Indeed, when we substitute the expression Eq. (26) for $`𝒮_l`$ into the definition of $`_l`$ and use the Fourier representations, Eq. (8), of $`\mathrm{exp}[i\kappa V(x+y)]`$ and $`\mathrm{exp}[i\kappa V(xy)]`$ we arrive at

$$_l=\underset{r}{}\underset{s}{}S_rS_s\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑xe^{i(rs)x}\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑ye^{i(lrs)y}.$$

The integration over $`x`$ yields the condition $`r=s`$ and thus

$$_l=\underset{r}{}S_r^2\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑ye^{i(l2r)y}.$$

Hence, we find

$$_{2s+1}=\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑x𝒮_{2s+1}(\kappa ;x)=0$$

and

$$_{2s}=\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑x𝒮_{2s}(\kappa ;x)=2\pi S_s^2(\kappa ).$$

For all odd values $`l`$ the integral of $`𝒮_l`$ over one period vanishes, whereas for all even values this integral produces the square of the coefficients $`S_l`$ of the state space mapping. This feature guarantees that the interference terms in phase space vanish when integrated over position.

## Appendix B Momentum spread

In this Appendix we evaluate the sum

$$I(z)\underset{l=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}l^2S_l^2(z)$$

containing the expansion coefficients

$$S_l\left(z\right)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑xe^{ilx}e^{izV(x)}$$
(27)
of the state vector map. This sum determines the spread of the momentum at the main resonance.

When we substitute the definition, Eq. (27), of the expansion coefficients $`S_l(z)`$ into the sum and exchange integration and summation we arrive at

$$I(z)=\frac{1}{4\pi ^2}\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑x^{}\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑x\left[\underset{l}{}l^2e^{il(x+x^{})}\right]e^{iz\left[V(x)+V(x^{})\right]}.$$
(28)
The representation

$$\underset{l}{}e^{ilx}=2\pi \underset{\nu }{}\delta (x+2\pi \nu )$$
(29)
of a comb of delta functions allows us to express the term in the square brackets in Eq. (28) as the second derivative of the delta function, that is

$$\underset{l}{}l^2e^{il(x+x^{})}=2\pi \underset{\nu }{}\frac{^2}{x^2}\delta (x+x^{}+2\pi \nu ).$$

The derivative can be shifted to the other $`x`$–dependent part $`e^{izV(x)}`$ of the integrand. When we integrate over the remaining delta function we find

$$I(z)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑xe^{izV(x)}\frac{d^2}{dx^2}e^{izV(x)}.$$

Here we have recognized that the integration only extends over a single interval of $`2\pi `$ which reduces the summation over $`\nu `$ to the term $`\nu =0`$.

The symmetry $`V(x)=V(x)`$ of the potential yields

$$I(z)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑x\left(z^2\left[\frac{d}{dx}V(x)\right]^2+iz\frac{d^2}{dx^2}V(x)\right).$$

Due to the anti–symmetry of the potential the second term of the integral does not contribute and we obtain the result

$$I(z)=\underset{l=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}l^2S_l^2(z)=z^2F^2.$$

Here we have introduced the average

$$F^2\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑x\left[\frac{d}{dx}V(x)\right]^2$$

of the square of the force $`F=dV/dx`$ acting on the particle.

## Appendix C Resonance and Anti–resonance

For the phase space analysis of the resonance we need to evaluate the sum

$$𝒲_l^{(+)}\underset{r=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝒮_{lr}(\kappa ;x)𝒮_r(\kappa ^{};x).$$
(30)
The anti–resonance involves the sum

$$𝒲_l^{()}\underset{r=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝒮_{lr}(\kappa ;x)𝒮_r(\kappa ;x+r\pi ).$$
(31)
We start our discussion with the sum $`𝒲_l^{()}`$ and first show that it is closely related to the sum $`𝒲_l^{(+)}`$. For this purpose we introduce the new integration variable $`\overline{y}y`$ in the expansion coefficient

$$𝒮_r(\kappa ;x)\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑ye^{iry}e^{i\kappa \left[V(x+y)V(xy)\right]}$$
(32)
which yields

$$𝒮_r(\kappa ;x+r\pi )=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑\overline{y}e^{i(r)\overline{y}}e^{i\kappa \left[V(x+r\pi \overline{y})V(x+r\pi +\overline{y})\right]}.$$

Due to the periodicity properties $`V(x+2m\pi )=V(x)`$ and $`V(x+(2m+1)\pi )=V(x)`$ of the potential we find the symmetry relation

$$𝒮_r(\kappa ;x+r\pi )=𝒮_r(\kappa ;x)$$

which brings the sum $`𝒲_l^{()}`$ into the form

$$𝒲_l^{()}=\underset{r=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝒮_{lr}(\kappa ;x)𝒮_r(\kappa ;x).$$

It is therefore convenient to evaluate the sums

$$𝒞_l^{(\pm )}\underset{r=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝒮_{lr}(\kappa ;x)𝒮_{\pm r}(\kappa ^{};x).$$

For this purpose we substitute the definition of $`𝒮_r`$, Eq. (32), into the sum and interchange the summation and integration which leads to

$$𝒞_l^{(\pm )}=\frac{1}{4\pi ^2}\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑y\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑y^{}\left\{\underset{r}{}e^{ir(yy^{})}\right\}e^{ily}e^{i\left[\kappa 𝒱(x,y)+\kappa ^{}𝒱(x,y^{})\right]}.$$

The sum in the curly brackets represents a comb of delta functions, Eq. (29), which allows us to perform the integral over $`y^{}`$, that is

$$𝒞_l^{(\pm )}=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑ye^{ily}e^{i(\kappa \pm \kappa ^{})𝒱(x,y)}=𝒮_l(\kappa \pm \kappa ^{};x).$$
(33)
Here we have used the symmetry $`𝒱(x,y)=𝒱(x,y)`$ following from the definition, Eq. (14), of $`𝒱`$.

Hence, in the sum $`𝒲_l^{(+)}`$ defined in Eq. (30) for a resonance the parameters $`\kappa `$ and $`\kappa ^{}`$ add. At an anti–resonance the sum $`𝒲_l^{()}`$, Eq. (31), contains only the single parameter $`\kappa `$. Since the difference of $`\kappa `$ and $`\kappa ^{}=\kappa `$ appears in the explicit expression, Eq. (33), for $`𝒞_l^{()}`$ we find

$$𝒲_l^{()}=𝒮_l(0;x)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\underset{\pi }{\overset{\pi }{}}𝑑ye^{ily}=\delta _{n,0}$$

where $`\delta _{l,0}`$ denotes the Kronecker–delta.