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# Wide field weak lensing observations of A1835 and A2204

## 1 Introduction

In recent years, cosmological N-body simulations have been used to obtain theoretical mass profiles for massive clusters of galaxies (Navarro et al. 1997, hereafter NFW; Moore et al. 1999; Jing 2000). While there is some discrepancy between the models for the mass profile at small radii ($`100`$ kpc), at large radii ($`1`$ Mpc) they agree that the mass density should decrease as $`r^3`$. This is a much steeper slope at large radii than the singular isothermal sphere (hereafter SIS) model, which falls as $`r^2`$. Measuring the mass profiles of clusters at large radii, therefore, should provide an excellent test of the predictions from N-body simulations.

Weak gravitational lensing, in which one determines the mass of an object by measuring the shear induced in background galaxies by the gravitational potential of the object, is a powerful tool for determining the mass and mass profile of clusters of galaxies. Because the gravitational shear depends linearly on the two-dimensional mass surface density, it can be used to measure mass profiles to much larger radii than X-ray observations, for which the emissivity scales as the square of the baryonic mass density. Further, the resulting mass measurements have no dependence on the dynamical state of the cluster and are not influenced by shocks caused by infalling material. To date, the primary limitation on the maximum radius to which the cluster mass profiles has been measured with weak lensing ($`400600h^1`$ kpc) has been the size of the detector and the fact that the depth of exposure needed to obtain a sufficient number density of background galaxies for shear analysis made large-area mosaics impractical in telescope time.

With the advent of wide-field mosaic CCD detectors (Luppino et al. 1998), it is now possible to obtain a weak lensing signal to large radii ($`2h^1`$ Mpc) on moderate redshift clusters in a few hours of telescope time. The mass profile for A1689 out to $`2h^1`$ Mpc was measured by Clowe & Schneider (2001, hereafter CS01). Here we present the mass profiles to similar radii for two additional massive clusters, A1835 and A2204. In Sect. 2 we discuss the image reduction and object catalog generation. We analyze the weak lensing signal for A1835 in Sect. 3 and for A2204 in Sect. 4. In Sect. 5 we present out conclusions. Unless otherwise stated we assume a $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=0.3,\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$ cosmology, $`H_0=100h`$ km/s/Mpc, and that the mean redshift of faint galaxies is at $`z_{\mathrm{bg}}=1`$.

## 2 Observations and Data Reduction

Imaging on the fields was performed on the nights of May 29-30, 2000, with the Wide Field Imager (WFI) on the ESO/MPG 2.2m telescope in La Silla, Chile. In total, twelve 900 second exposures in $`R`$ were obtained on A1835 on May 30, twelve 900 second exposures in $`R`$ were obtained on A2204 on May 29, and three 600 second exposures in $`B`$ and $`V`$ were obtained on A2204 on May 30. The night of May 29 was photometric, while the night of May 30 was non-photometric and large changes in the brightness of objects can be seen in consecutive images. The images were taken with a dither pattern which filled in the gaps between the chips in the CCD mosaic, resulting in the final $`R`$-band images having $`82\%`$ of their area receiving the full exposure time and the rest receiving varying amounts of lesser exposure times as the area was in the chip gap or out of the field of view for one or more of the images. The $`V`$ images were taken with large enough offsets to fill in the chip gaps, but the final image has $`12\%`$ of the area covered by a single input image. Because one of the three $`B`$ images is unusable due to severe extinction, the coadded $`B`$ image has $`24\%`$ of the area covered by just one input image and $`3\%`$ of the area is blank.

### 2.1 Image Reduction

The image reduction technique for the $`R`$-band images is identical to that given in CS01. Treating each chip as its own separate camera, we de-biased the images from a master bias taken at the beginning and end of each night, and corrected for bias drift during the night by subtracting a linear fit to the residual of the overscan strip. The images were then flattened by a 9th by 17th order two-dimensional polynomial fit to the twilight flats. The fit to the twilight flat was performed in order to remove the sky interference fringes present in the $`R`$-band data. All of the long exposure $`R`$-band images from each night were then normalized with the mode sky value of the image and medianed together. The resulting night sky super-flat was also fit with a 9th by 17th order polynomial, and the images were flattened with this polynomial. The flattened images were re-normalized and medianed again to produce an image of the fringes, which have a peak-to-peak amplitude of $`10\%`$, which was then scaled to each images’ mode sky value and subtracted. As this technique tends to incorrectly subtract regions of low quantum efficiency, such as dust spots, such regions were masked by hand. As was mentioned in CS01, due to the large number of input images and the dithering between the images, the lensing results from this technique are indistinguishable from those produced by simply dividing by the nightsky flatfield with the fringes left in place. This technique, however, should more accurately preserve the photometry of the objects than by dividing by the fringes, particularly around the edge of the image where few input images were averaged. We note that neither of these methods is in principle correct, but lacking the means to separate the fringes from the flat-field for this data set, these two methods were chosen to determine if the miscorrection of the fringes or pixel variations could produce a noticable systematic error in the lensing results. Because the lensing data from the two methods are statistically indistinguishable, we therefore conclude that any systematic error produced is much smaller than the noise in the data. The $`B`$ and $`V`$-band images were flattened with a medianed flat without the fitting procedure above as the fringes are present only in the $`R`$-band data.

The sky level in each image was determined by detecting minima in a smoothed image. An image containing only the minima was then smoothed by a 128 pixel, $`30\stackrel{}{.}7`$, FWHM Gaussian and divided by a similarly smoothed image containing the number of minima (1 or 0) in each pixel. This produced an image of the sky smoothed on the $`30\mathrm{}`$ scale, which was then subtracted from the original image. This process was repeated on the sky-subtracted image using 96, 64, 48, and 32 pixel FWHM Gaussians. The first sky-subtracted image which only subtracts sky variations on the $`30\mathrm{}`$ scale was subsequently used for the photometric measurements of cluster galaxies, while the final sky-subtracted image which removed sky variations on a $`7\stackrel{}{.}5`$ scale, along with extended wings of bright stars and many of the larger galaxies, was used for the weak lensing measurements. The $`B`$ and $`V`$-band images had only the first sky-subtraction performed, as they are used only for photometry. The sky-fitting routine performed in CS01 could not be used on these fields due to the presence of several large stellar reflection rings in each field.

Stellar reflection rings are quite predominant on the WFI images. Every saturated star with blooming in the core has two reflection rings, roughly $`48\mathrm{}`$ in diameter, centered a few arcseconds from the star, radially away from the center of the image with the offset increasing with distance from the center of the image, with typically $`2\mathrm{}`$ offset between the two rings. Stars which are bright enough to have the blooming extend beyond the stellar core also have a visible third fainter reflection ring, $`92\mathrm{}`$ in diameter, which is centered about twice as far from the star and in the same radial direction as the two smaller rings. Exceptionally bright stars, however, reveal far more reflection rings. A star in the SW corner of the A1835 image, listed as $`V=7.4`$ in the USNO-A2.0 catalog (Monet et al. 2000), has three additional reflection rings: a $`318\mathrm{}`$ diameter ring centered $`140\mathrm{}`$ NE of the star, a $`232\mathrm{}`$ diameter ring centered $`287\mathrm{}`$ NE of the star, and a very faint ring $`10\mathrm{}`$ in diameter centered $`1\mathrm{}`$ NNE of the star. A star in the WSW edge of the A2204 image, $`V=7.8`$ in the USNO-A2.0 catalog, has two observable reflection rings, similar in size and offset to the first two given above. A $`V=5.6`$ star located only a few arcminutes SW of the A2204 cluster near the center of the image also has the same three additional rings, although the first is centered roughly on the star, the second about $`10\mathrm{}`$ NE of the star, and the larger third ring centered $`4\mathrm{}`$ SSW of the star. In addition, there appear to be a number of smaller reflection rings, $`3\mathrm{}`$ in diameter, located $`7\mathrm{}`$ SSW of this star which overlap each other sufficiently to make it impossible to determine an accurate count.

The sky-subtraction process above was able to remove the largest reflection ring such that we were confident of being able to accurately measure both magnitudes and second moments of the surface brightness for objects in this ring. For the other two larger rings, the sky-subtraction software was unable to remove the edges of the ring, including the spider shadows, so objects in these regions had their magnitudes and colors measured, but were excluded from the lensing analysis. The regions containing the three brighter rings found around all the stars were excluded from all subsequent analysis, both lensing and photometric.

The next step is to simultaneously combine the eight CCD images into a single image, move it to a common reference frame from all the images of a given field, and remove any distortion in the image introduced by the telescope optics. To do this we assumed that each CCD of the mosaic could be mapped onto a common detector plane using only a linear shift in the $`x`$ and $`y`$ directions and a rotation angle in the $`x`$-$`y`$ plane. We also assume that these mappings are the same for all the data. In doing so we are assuming the CCDs are aligned sufficiently well vertically that there are no changes in depth at which the focal plane is sampled across the chip boundaries and that the CCDs do not move relative to each other when the instrument is subjected to thermal variations or flexure during the night. These assumptions are verified later by the inability to detect a change in the point spread function (PSF) across the chip boundaries.

We then used a bi-cubic polynomial to map the detector plane for each exposure to a common reference frame for each field. The parameters for the two coordinate mappings were determined simultaneously by minimizing the positional offsets of bright but unsaturated stars among the images of the same field and with the USNO-A2.0 star catalog. A downhill simplex minimization method with multiple restarts was used to minimize the 21 free parameters in the CCD-to-detector plane mapping, while at each step in the simplex the detector plane-to-sky mapping was determined with a LU decomposition (Press et al. 1992) of a $`\chi ^2`$ minimization matrix. The resulting best fit mappings had a positional rms difference of .06 pixels, $`0\stackrel{}{.}015`$, among the images of the same field and $`0\stackrel{}{.}55`$ between the images and the USNO-A2.0 star catalog coordinates, which is the positional uncertainty of this catalog. No large scale collective offsets between the final stellar positions and those of the USNO-A2.0 catalog were seen in any portion of the fields. We also attempted the mappings using fourth to seventh order two-dimensional polynomials for the detector plane to sky mappings, but the resulting rms dispersions in stellar positions did not improve over the bi-cubic mapping. A discussion of this technique in greater depth can be found elsewhere (Clowe & Schneider 2002).

Each CCD image was then mapped onto the common reference frame using a triangular method with linear interpolation which preserves surface brightness and has been shown not to induce systematic changes in the second moments of of objects in the case fractional pixel shift (Clowe et al. 2000). To attempt to minimize the non-photometric conditions for the $`R`$-band of A1835 and $`B`$ and $`V`$-bands on A2204, the images were multiplied by a factor determined from comparing the fluxes of bright but unsaturated stars to those of the image with the brightest fluxes. For A2204 $`R`$-band, all twelve of the images were within $`2\%`$ of the brightest, thus confirming the photometric conditions of the first night’s data. For A1835 $`R`$-band, four of the twelve images were within $`10\%`$ of the brightest with the remainder at 60-80$`\%`$ of the brightest image. Further, three of the twelve images had stellar FWHM significantly higher than the others, so these were excluded from the summed image. For the $`B`$ and $`V`$-band images of A2204, all of the images were within $`10\%`$ of the brightest. The images were then averaged using a sigma-clipping algorithm to remove cosmic rays.

### 2.2 Catalog Generation and Lensing Analysis

For object detection and photometry in the final images, we used SExtractor (Bertin & Arnouts 1996). For the photometric catalog, SExtractor was used on the images with the $`30\mathrm{}`$ smoothed sky subtraction to detect objects which had at least 5 pixels with fluxes greater than twice the signal-to-noise of the sky after smoothing with a 3 pixel FWHM Gaussian. The sky around each object was measured using a 32 pixel thick annulus around the object, and magnitudes were measured both down to a limiting isophote equal to the signal-to-noise of the sky and in a $`2\mathrm{}`$ radius aperture. The best-fit Gaussian FWHM and maximum pixel flux were also generated to distinguish stars from galaxies. For the A2204 $`B`$ and $`V`$-band images, SExtractor was used in two image mode, in which objects were detected and had the outer isophote determined in the $`R`$-band image, but the magnitudes were measured in the appropriate passband. Unless otherwise stated, all magnitudes and fluxes are measured using the isophotal magnitudes and all colors are from the $`2\mathrm{}`$ radius aperture magnitudes. All magnitudes are measured in the Vega system and determined from Landolt (1992) standard star fields observed at various times during the nights.

For the weak lensing analysis, SExtractor was used on the $`R`$-band images with the $`7\stackrel{}{.}5`$ smoothed sky subtraction to detect objects which had at least 3 pixels with fluxes greater than the signal-to-noise of the sky. The same sky determination, Gaussian FWHM, and magnitudes were measured as given above. The magnitudes for objects in common to both the lensing and photometric catalogs were statistically identical for galaxies with FWHM less than $`2\mathrm{}`$, which includes nearly all the galaxies used as background galaxies in the weak lensing process. The SExtractor catalog was then used with a modified version of the IMCAT software package, written by Nick Kaiser (http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/$``$kaiser/imcat). The objects were convolved with a series of Mexican-hat filters of increasing sizes in order to determine the smoothing radius at which the objects achieved maximum signal-to-noise against the sky. The radius with maximum signal-to-noise was then converted to a Gaussian smoothing radius (hereafter $`r_\mathrm{g}`$ for the smoothing radius and $`\nu `$ for the signal-to-noise) and an average level and slope of the sky were determined. A new centroid for each object was then computed by minimizing the first moments of the surface brightness using a Gaussian weighting function with radius $`r_\mathrm{g}`$. At this position, a new smoothing radius and signal-to-noise were computed for the object, and a new centroid calculated. This was repeated until either the new centroid was displaced by less than $`1/20`$th of a pixel from the previous centroid, in which case the object was kept in the catalog, or either the centroid moved more than a pixel from the original SExtractor coordinates or the signal-to-noise of the object fell below 5, in which case the object was removed from the catalog. For all surviving objects, a $`50\%`$ encircled light radius ($`r_\mathrm{h}`$) was measured and the second and fourth moments of the surface brightness were calculated using a Gaussian weighting filter with radius $`r_\mathrm{g}`$. The second moments were then converted into ellipticities, and the flux, second, and fourth moments were used to calculate the shear and smear polarizability tensors ($`P_{\mathrm{sh}}`$ and $`P_{\mathrm{sm}}`$) which define how the object reacts to an applied shear or convolution with a small anisotropic kernel, respectively (Kaiser et al. 1995, hereafter KSB, corrections in Hoekstra et al. 1998).

Unsaturated stars brighter than $`R=24`$ were selected by their half-light radius and used to model the PSF. As the half-light radius and ellipticity of the stars varied systematically, but smoothly, over the images, the half-light radius, ellipticity components, and the traces of the shear and smear polarizabilities of the stars were fit using two-dimensional seventh-order polynomials. It is important to note that there was no evidence for a change in the PSF, either in ellipticity or size, across any of the regions containing CCD boundaries. This demonstrates both that the WFI CCDs are sufficiently well aligned vertically to avoid changes in the PSF across chip edges and that all of the input images had sufficiently similar PSFs such that the area of the image which does not include contribution from any one image due to the chip gap has the same PSF as the rest of the image. The spatial variation in the PSF both before and after subtraction for the A1835 field can be seen in Fig. 1.

The ellipticities of the galaxies were corrected using $`e_\mathrm{c}=e_\mathrm{o}(\mathrm{tr}𝒫_{\mathrm{sm}}^{})^1𝒫_{\mathrm{sm}}e_\mathrm{f}^{}`$ (KSB) where $`e_\mathrm{f}^{}`$ is the fitted stellar ellipticity field evaluated at the position of the galaxy, $`e_\mathrm{o}`$ is the original measured ellipticity of the galaxy, and $`\mathrm{tr}𝒫_{\mathrm{sm}}^{}`$ is the fitted trace of the stellar smear polarizability evaluated at the position of the galaxy. The effects of circular smearing by the PSF can then be removed from the galaxies using $`g=(𝒫_\gamma )^1e_\mathrm{c}`$ (Luppino & Kaiser 1997) where $`𝒫_\gamma =𝒫_{\mathrm{sh}}𝒫_{\mathrm{sm}}\mathrm{tr}𝒫_{\mathrm{sh}}^{}(\mathrm{tr}𝒫_{\mathrm{sm}}^{})^1`$, for which the $`\mathrm{tr}𝒫^{}`$ denote the fitted traces of the stellar shear and smear polarizability evaluated at the position of each galaxy. The resulting $`g`$’s are then a direct estimate of the reduced shear $`g=\gamma /(1\kappa )`$, where both the shear $`\gamma `$ and convergence $`\kappa `$, the dimensionless mass density, are second derivatives of the gravitational potential. Because the measured $`𝒫_\gamma `$ values are greatly affected by noise, we fit $`𝒫_\gamma `$ as a function of $`r_\mathrm{g}`$, and $`e_\mathrm{c}`$. Because the PSF size varied slightly over the image, we divided the background galaxies into 4 bins based on the stellar $`r_\mathrm{h}`$ in their vicinity, and did the $`𝒫_\gamma `$ fitting separately for each bin. Simulations have shown that this technique reproduces the level of the observed shear to better than one percent accuracy for PSFs of similar profiles and ellipticities to those in these images (van Waerbeke 2000; Erben et al. 2001; Bacon et al. 2001).

## 3 A1835

Abell 1835, at $`z=0.252`$ (Allen et al. 1992) is the most X-ray luminous cluster in the ROSAT Brightest Cluster Sample (Ebeling et al. 1998). It has been studied with both XMM (Peterson et al. 2001) and Chandra (Schmidt et al. 2001, hereafter SA01), both of which demonstrate that the cluster has a relatively cool (3-4 keV) inner core surrounded by a hotter (8-12 keV) outer envelope. While this would suggest the presence of a massive cooling flow, a simple model has been ruled out by the lack of emission lines in the inner region (Peterson et al. 2001). The Chandra observations result in a best fit NFW model with $`r_{200}=1.28h^1`$ Mpc and $`c=4.0`$, for an $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=1.0,\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ cosmology (SA01).

A number of strong lensing arcs have been detected $`30\mathrm{}`$ from the brightest cluster galaxy (BCG). The three tangential and one radial arcs are apparently from three or four lensed sources, and can be well fit using a NFW model consistent with the X-ray mass models (SA01). The BCG shows evidence for recent star formation from strong optical emission lines and UV continuum (Allen 1995; Crawford et al. 1999) and 850 $`\mu `$m emission (Edge et al. 1999).

The WFI image used in the weak lensing analysis is shown in Fig. 2. Only nine of the twelve images taken were coadded for the final image, the remaining three having significantly larger seeing. The final image is $`34\stackrel{}{.}6\times 33\stackrel{}{.}3`$ with $`78\%`$ having the full exposure time and the remainder receiving lesser amounts due to the region being in a chip gap or out of the field of view for one or more of the images. The $`1\sigma `$ sky noise for the regions with the full exposure time is 27.7 mag/arcsec<sup>2</sup>. The mean seeing on the image is $`0\stackrel{}{.}72`$, but this varies systematically with position by $`\pm 0\stackrel{}{.}05`$, with the worst seeing in the SW quadrant. Object counts at a $`5\sigma `$ detection limit in the regions containing the full exposure time are complete to $`R=24.6`$ for a $`2\mathrm{}`$ radius aperture, as measured by the point where the number counts depart from a power law. Galactic extinction was corrected for using $`E(BV)=0.030`$ (Schlegel et al. 1998), converted to $`A_R=0.080`$ (Cardelli et al. 1989).

Using the SExtractor isophotal magnitudes, with the outer isophote at 27.70 mag/arcsec<sup>2</sup>, potential cluster galaxies were selected from objects with best fit Gaussian FWHM larger than stars and with $`16.78R<21.78`$, where $`R=16.78`$ is the magnitude of the brightest galaxy of the largest overdensity of galaxies by number in the image, and the galaxy for which the redshift was measured by Allen et al. (1992). Within a $`101\stackrel{}{.}2`$ radius aperture from the BCG (250 $`h^1`$ kpc for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=1,\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ cosmology, as assumed by Bahcall 1981), the overdensity is $`44_5^{+7}`$ galaxies with $`18.05R<20.05`$, where $`R=18.05`$ is the magnitude of the third brightest galaxy in the aperture, compared with the number density at the edge of the image, which corresponds to an Abell class III cluster (Abell 1958). Using the same radius for the determination of the second and third brightest cluster galaxies results in a Bautz-Morgan type I (Bautz & Morgan 1970) measurement for the cluster, $`(m_3m_1)+(m_2m_1)=2.45`$. Inside a 500 $`h^1`$ kpc aperture ($`181\stackrel{}{.}4`$) is a flux overdensity of $`R=13.98\pm .07`$ compared to the flux density in an annulus with $`2h^1<r<2.5h^1`$ kpc. Using a passive evolution correction and K-correction on the synthetic elliptical galaxy spectra of Bruzual & Charlot (1993) results in a measured cluster luminosity of $`L_{R,500}=(1.11\pm 0.07)\times 10^{12}h^2L_{}`$.

For the background galaxy catalog used in the weak lensing analysis, objects which had isophotal magnitudes with $`22<R<25.5`$, $`\nu >7`$, and $`r_\mathrm{g}>0.32\mathrm{}`$ (stars had $`0.28\mathrm{}<r_\mathrm{g}<0.32\mathrm{}`$) were selected from those passing all the tests given in Sect. 2.2. This resulted in a catalog of 15,699 objects, or 14.9 galaxies/sq arcmin, which can be used as a direct measure of the gravitational shear. Shown in Fig. 4 is the radial shear profile of the catalog centered on the BCG. As can be seen, the profile shows an increase of the shear with decreasing radius to $`800`$ pixels (192″, $`530h^1`$ kpc), inside of which the signal falls off. Using the shear between 800 and 4000 pixels (530–2650 $`h^1`$ kpc) distance from the BCG results in best fit models of $`\sigma _\mathrm{v}=1233_{70}^{+66}`$ km/s velocity dispersion for SIS and $`r_{200}=1550h^1`$ kpc, $`c=2.96`$ for NFW models. Both models have a significance of 8.8$`\sigma `$, as measured by $`\delta \chi ^2`$ from a zero mass model, and the error contours for the NFW models can be found in Fig. 5. The two models are indistinguishable in terms of quality of fit. Using the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=1,\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ cosmology of SA01 results in a best fit NFW model with $`r_{200}=1310h^1`$ kpc, $`c=2.81`$, which is of the same total mass but with a lower concentration as the Chandra fit. The Chandra best-fit model, however, is within our 1$`\sigma `$ errors. The mass overdensity inside a $`500h^1`$ kpc aperture compared to the density in a $`2h^1<r<2.5h^1`$ kpc annulus gives a mass excess of $`4.92_{0.55}^{+0.54}\times 10^{14}h^1M_{}`$ for the SIS fit and $`4.82_{0.65}^{+0.70}\times 10^{14}h^1M_{}`$ for the NFW fit. These result in mass-to-light ratios of $`M/L_R=443_{57}^{+56}hM_{}/L_{}`$ and $`434_{64}^{+69}hM_{}/L_{}`$ respectively. The shear at the edge of the image is still measurable at greater than $`3\sigma `$ significance, and the shear from all galaxies more than $`10\mathrm{}`$ away from the BCG is detected at $`5\sigma `$ significance.

The largest sources of possible systematic errors in these fits are the inclusion of stars and cluster or foreground dwarf galaxies in the background galaxy catalog and the determination of the mean redshift of the background galaxy catalog. The minimum size cut in the catalog, however, should have removed any faint stars, as well as galaxies too small to get a good determination of the second moment of the surface brightness. A catalog without the minimum size cut results in a shear estimate which is 83$`\%`$ of the value with the size cut, which suggests that $`20\%`$ of the objects in the full catalog are stars, in agreement with estimates from photometric redshift catalogs of the same magnitude range (Fontana et al. 1999). The size cut removed $`24\%`$ of the objects in the full catalog. As we have only one passband of the region, however, we cannot exclude likely cluster galaxies based on color. Using the same magnitude cuts on the galaxies in a photometric redshift catalog of the HDF-South (Fontana et al. 1999) as those used on the background galaxy catalog results in a means lensing redshift for the background galaxies of $`z_{\mathrm{bg}}=0.79`$. We assume that the background galaxies lie in a sheet at this redshift for the lensing analysis. Contamination by cluster dwarf galaxies will lower the true mean lensing redshift, and therefore increased the measured cluster mass, although presumably not by a significant fraction at the edge of the field. This redshift determination, however, is based on only 47 galaxies in 1.4 square arcminutes, and thus both the Poissonian error and cosmic variance are presumably quite large.

In the determination of the NFW $`r_{200}`$, the majority of the weight in the fit comes from the outer regions of the image. As such, it would be heavily affected by any stellar population remaining in the catalog, but have relatively little effect from cluster dwarfs. The determination of $`c`$ in the NFW fits, however, is strongly dependent on the inner regions of the fit area, and as such is greatly affected by any cluster galaxies in the catalog (an example is given in the A2204 results). A fit to the shear profile from 250-4000 pixels (165-2650 $`h^1`$ kpc) from the BCG gives $`r_{200}=1600h^1`$ kpc, $`c=1.45`$, and the Chandra best-fit model is outside the $`3\sigma `$ contours. If one assumes that the Chandra mass model is the true mass model of the cluster, then these lower concentration best-fit NFW models for the weak lensing shear profiles indicate that the fraction of cluster galaxies in the ‘background’ galaxy catalog is $`0\%`$ at distances more than $`8\mathrm{}`$ from the cluster center, $`12\%`$ at distances of $`5\mathrm{}8\mathrm{}`$, $`20\%`$ between $`3\mathrm{}5\mathrm{}`$, and $`50\%`$ at $`1\mathrm{}2\mathrm{}`$.

Overlayed in solid contours on the $`R`$-band image in Fig. 2 is the resulting mass map from a KS93 reconstruction (Kaiser & Squires 1993) smoothed with a $`1\stackrel{}{.}9`$ Gaussian. Massmaps were also generated with a finite-field reconstruction (Seitz & Schneider 1996) using the same smoothing scale, which show identical structures as seen in Fig. 2. Shown in Fig. 3 are the mass reconsruction in greyscale and a visual estimate of the noise created by rotating all of the shear estimators of the background galaxy catalog by $`45\mathrm{deg}`$. As can be seen, there is a significant detection of the cluster mass. The centroid of this mass is located $`24\mathrm{}`$ east of the BCG, but this offset is not significant. In simulations of a $`\sigma _\mathrm{v}=1170`$ km/s SIS lens with the same background galaxy density as measured in the image, the measured centroid of the mass reconstructions differ from the true centroid by more than $`24\mathrm{}`$ $`64\%`$ of the time. Aside from the main cluster mass peak, several additional mass peaks are seen in the mass reconstruction. Significances for these features were measured using the mass aperture statistic (Schneider 1996; Schneider et al. 1998) after subtracting the cluster reduced shear profile measured in Fig. 4 from the shear estimators of the background galaxy catalog. For this we used the mass aperture statistic

$$M_{\mathrm{ap}}=4\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}x_i^2(1x_i^2)g_{\mathrm{t},i}$$
(1)
where $`x`$ is the radial distance from galaxy $`i`$ to the aperture center normalized by the maximum filter radius, $`g_{\mathrm{t},i}`$ is the component of the reduced shear measurement for galaxy $`i`$ tangential to the center of the aperture, and the sum is taken over all galaxies within the maximum radius of the aperture.

The significance levels measured by the mass aperture statistic for a $`5\mathrm{}`$ radius filter size can be seen in Fig. 6 as contour superimposed on the number density distribution of bright ($`15<R<21`$) galaxies. There are five mass peaks which a significance greater than $`2.5\sigma `$. Four of these peaks, one $`8\mathrm{}`$ west and one $`8\mathrm{}`$ north of the cluster, and one each in the SW and NW corners of the field, are spatially coincident with peaks in the bright galaxy distribution and are seen in the mass reconstruction in Fig. 2. With a $`5\mathrm{}`$ radius filter size, there are $`185`$ independent mass measurements in the field, and the chance of having a 2.5$`\sigma `$ positive noise peak is $`68\%`$. There is only a $`0.5\%`$ chance of having five positive mass noise peaks at $`2.5\sigma `$ or higher significance. To measure a mass for these peaks an SIS model was fitted from $`36\mathrm{}`$ to $`6\mathrm{}`$ radius, centered on the position of highest signal-to-noise. The peak $`8\mathrm{}`$ west of the cluster was best fit by a $`\sigma _\mathrm{v}=610_{160}^{+120}`$ km/s SIS with $`2.2\sigma `$ significance, and the peak $`8\mathrm{}north`$ of the cluster was best fit with a $`\sigma _\mathrm{v}=760_{120}^{+100}`$ km/s SIS with $`3.3\sigma `$ significance. The mass measurements assume the peaks are at the redshift of the cluster. The other three peaks were not well fit with a SIS model.

## 4 A2204

Abell 2204, at $`z=0.1517`$ (Pimbblet 2001), has been a target of many X-ray surveys (eg Forman et al. 1978; Ulmer et al. 1981; Edge et al. 1990; Ebeling et al. 1996; Jones & Forman 1999; Böhringer et al. 2000). Using ROSAT and ASCA data, Allen (2000) obtains a best-fit model isothermal sphere with $`\sigma _\mathrm{v}=1020_{70}^{+130}`$ km/s with a small (25 kpc) core and a massive cooling flow with $`\dot{\mathrm{M}}=1007_{263}^{+98}\mathrm{M}_{}/\mathrm{yr}`$. Optical observations of this cluster are complicated by the relatively low $`b=33^{}`$ galactic latitude, which results in a high extinction and stellar number count, and by the presence of a $`M_V=5.6`$ star $`4\stackrel{}{.}3`$ southwest of the BCG. Using the 2dF spectrograph, Pimbblet (2001) has measured a velocity dispersion of $`975_{50}^{+59}`$ km/s from 162 cluster galaxies. Also along the line of sight are two foreground groups at $`z=0.058`$ and 0.079 and one background group at $`z=0.292`$ (Pimbblet 2001). A2204 is measured to be Bautz-Morgan type II and Abell richness class 3 (Abell et al. 1989), but the number counts may be increased by the aforementioned foreground and background structures.

The WFI $`R`$-band image used in the lensing analysis is shown in Fig. 7. The final image is $`34\stackrel{}{.}7\times 33\stackrel{}{.}4`$ with $`77\%`$ of the area receiving the full exposure time of 3 hours. The $`1\sigma `$ sky noise for the regions with the full exposure time is $`28.3`$ mag/arcsec<sup>2</sup>. The mean seeing on the image is $`0\stackrel{}{.}79`$, but this varies systematically with position by $`\pm 0\stackrel{}{.}03`$ with the worse seeing near the bottom edge. Object counts at a $`5\sigma `$ detection limit in the regions containing the full exposure time are complete to $`R=24.8`$ ($`R=24.55`$ after correction for galactic extinction) for $`2\mathrm{}`$ radius aperture magnitudes. The 45 minute $`V`$ and 30 minute $`B`$-band images are $`34\stackrel{}{.}3\times 33\stackrel{}{.}6`$ and $`34\stackrel{}{.}0\times 33\stackrel{}{.}3`$ respectively. Only objects in those regions common to all three images were used in the subsequent analysis, with the exception of objects in three $`20\mathrm{}`$ wide vertical stripes located in the chip gaps for which the $`B`$-band image is blank and thus only and $`V`$ and $`R`$ magnitudes measured. The final area for object detection was $`34\stackrel{}{.}0\times 33\stackrel{}{.}1`$. Galactic extinction was corrected for using $`E(BV)=0.093`$ (Schlegel et al. 1998), converted to $`A_R=0.249`$, $`A_V=0.308`$, and $`A_B=0.401`$ (Cardelli et al. 1989).

Using SExtractor isophotal magnitudes, with the outer isophote at $`27.87`$ mag/arcsec<sup>2</sup>, for luminosity measurements and $`2\mathrm{}`$ radius aperture magnitudes for color measurements, potential cluster galaxies were selected from objects with best fit Gaussian FWHM larger than stars and with $`0.08<(VR)0.56\times (BV)<0.24`$, $`0.6<BV<1.5`$, and $`VR<0.9`$ (see Fig. 9). For objects in the narrow strips not covered by the $`B`$-band image, potential cluster galaxies were selected with $`0.4<VR<0.9`$. Inside a 500 $`h^1`$ kpc aperture (271$`\stackrel{}{.}`$0) is a flux of $`R=12.58\pm 0.07`$. Using a passive evolution correction and K-correction on the synthetic elliptical galaxy spectra of Bruzual & Charlot (1993) results in an absolute cluster luminosity of $`L_{R,500}=(1.27\pm 0.08)\times 10^{12}h^2L_{}`$. Using all of the non-stellar objects within the 500 $`h^1`$ kpc radius aperture with $`16.2<R<22`$ results in an excess flux of $`R=12.31\pm 0.07`$ compared to the flux density in a $`1330h^1\mathrm{kpc}<r<1550h^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ ($`12\mathrm{}<r<14\mathrm{}`$) radius annulus. This results in a cluster luminosity of $`L_{R,500}=(1.63\pm 0.11)\times 10^{12}h^2L_{}`$.

For the background galaxy catalog used in the weak lensing analysis, objects were selected which had isophotal magnitudes with $`22<R<25.8`$, $`\nu >7`$, $`r_\mathrm{g}>0.33\mathrm{}`$, and not with colors $`0.23<(VR)0.56\times (BV)<0.67`$, $`0.5<BV<1.6`$ ($`0.3<VR<1.5`$ for objects in the $`B`$ image gaps). The colors were selected to exclude galaxies with $`z<0.5`$. This resulted in a catalog of 12,989 galaxies, or 12.8 galaxies/sq arcmin, after accounting for the loss of image area due to the stellar reflection rings. Shown in Fig. 10 is the radial shear profile of the catalog centered on the BCG. While the shear at the edge of the image is only significant at the $`1\sigma `$ level, the shear for all galaxies greater than $`10\mathrm{}`$ from the BCG is detected at greater than $`3\sigma `$ significance. Using the Fontana et al. (1999) HDF-S photometric redshift catalog, we find that the mean lensing redshift of $`z_{\mathrm{bg}}=1.06`$ after applying the same magnitude and color-cuts as mentioned above. Using the shear between $`1\mathrm{}`$ and $`16\mathrm{}`$ ($`111h^1`$$`1770h^1`$ kpc) from the BCG results in best fit models of $`1035_{71}^{+65}`$ km/s velocity dispersion for SIS and $`r_{200}=1310h^1`$ kpc, $`c=6.3`$ for NFW models. The error contours for the NFW fits is given in Fig. 11. The significances of the fits are $`7.2\sigma `$ and $`7.1\sigma `$ for the SIS and NFW models respectively, calculated from the $`\delta \chi ^2`$ between the best fit and zero mass models. The NFW model provides a marginally better fit to the profile, with the F<sub>χ</sub> test of additional term (Bevington & Robinson 1992) giving an $`87\%`$ confidence level. The mass contained within a $`500h^1`$ kpc radius for these models are $`3.89_{0.51}^{+0.52}\times 10^{14}h^1M_{}`$ for SIS and $`3.80_{0.65}^{+0.83}\times 10^{14}h^1M_{}`$ for NFW. These result in mass-to-light ratios of $`M/L_R=306_{45}^{+46}hM_{}/L_{}`$ and $`299_{55}^{+68}hM_{}/L_{}`$.

Also shown in Fig. 10 is the shear profile of the cluster for the background galaxy catalog without rejecting $`z<0.5`$ galaxies based on color. This increases the number of galaxies in the catalog by $`18.2\%`$ but decreases the mean lensing redshift, as measured from the Fontana et al. (1999) photometric catalog, to $`z_{\mathrm{bg}}=0.82`$. Using this catalog results in a best fit SIS model of $`1054_{65}^{+60}`$ km/s velocity dispersion and NFW model with $`r_{200}=1400h^1\mathrm{kpc},c=4.9`$. This is consistent with the expectations discussed in Sect. 3, namely that because the cluster galaxies have an increasing density towards the cluster center, the inability to exclude faint cluster galaxies from the catalog does not significantly reduce the detected cluster mass at large radius, but reduces the concentration in the NFW model. While the measured shear at large radii ($`>8\mathrm{}`$) is essentially unchanged, the shear in the region $`1\mathrm{}`$ \- $`3\mathrm{}`$ from the cluster center has been decreased by $`13\%`$ from that of the color-selected catalog. For these fits, the NFW model provides a better fit at a $`99.7\%`$ confidence level, although this is mainly due to the lower shear at smaller radius. The fact that the same shear measurement at larger radius results in a larger overall cluster mass is due to the change in the assumed mean lensing redshift of the galaxies. The larger mass in this case indicates that either the field has fewer galaxies in the $`0.16<z<0.5`$ region than in the HDF-S or that the color cut removed a portion of higher-redshift galaxies not seen in the HDF-S, presumably due to the noise in the color measurement scattering the points into or out of the selected region. This would also indicate that the mean lensing redshift for the color-selected catalog is somewhat overestimated, and that the mass measured for the cluster is underestimated. Simulations in which a similar level of noise was added to the HDF-S galaxy colors and the color-selection applied resulted in the mean lensing redshift decreasing by $`0.03`$ on average, which results in an increase in the mass models of $`1\%`$.

The KS93 mass reconstructions, smoothed by a $`1\stackrel{}{.}9`$ Gaussian, is shown in solid contours on the $`R`$-band image in Fig. 7. Shown in Fig. 8 are the mass reconsruction in greyscale and a visual estimate of the noise created by rotating all of the shear estimators of the background galaxy catalog by $`45\mathrm{deg}`$. As can be seen, there is a significant detection of cluster mass, and the peak of the mass distribution is coincident with the BCG. In addition to the main cluster peak, several additional structures are see in the mass map. Both the mass peak $`12\mathrm{}`$ NNW of the cluster center and the filamentary-like structure extending to the east in the mass reconstruction are also found as overdensities of faint galaxies with colors consistent with the cluster galaxies. A smoothed galaxy number density of all galaxies with $`15<R<21`$ is shown in Fig. 12 along with signal-to-noise contours for a $`5\mathrm{}`$ radius mass aperture statistic calculated on the shear estimators of the background galaxy catalog after subtracting the cluster radial shear profile shown in Fig. 10.

Using the mass aperture statistic with a $`5\mathrm{}`$ radius, the NNW peak has a significance of $`2.8\sigma `$, while the filamentary structure is associated with 2 peaks, a $`2.6\sigma `$ significance peak $`12\mathrm{}`$ due east of the cluster and a $`2.8\sigma `$ peak $`5\stackrel{}{.}5`$ south of there. The fact that the structure which appears filamentary in Fig. 7 is broken into two peaks by the mass aperture statistic is a result of the compensated filter used in the measurement. None of the three peaks is fit well by a SIS model. There are eight mass peaks with a significance of at least $`2.5\sigma `$ when using the $`5\mathrm{}`$ radius mass aperture statistic. The expected number of positive $`2.5\sigma `$ mass peaks due to noise is $`1.2`$, with a $`32\%`$ of having at least two such peaks. The chance that all 8 peaks are due only to noise is $`0.002\%`$. In general, these peaks are spatially coincident with overdensities in the bright galaxy distribution, with offsets of $`1\mathrm{}`$ expected due to noise. Several of the mass peaks, however, have maximum signal-to-noises given by larger filter radii.

The mass peak $`13\mathrm{}`$ WNW of the cluster has a $`3.1\sigma `$ significance as measured from a $`7\mathrm{}`$ radius mass aperture. The peak is spatially coincident with an overdensity of faint galaxies with $`VR`$ colors $`0.2`$ magnitudes redder than the cluster sequence, which would imply that the peak is associated with a group of galaxies at $`z0.3`$. Placing this peak at $`z0.3`$ results in a best fit SIS model of the cluster-shear subtracted background galaxy catalog from $`36\mathrm{}`$ to $`7\mathrm{}`$ of $`755_{115}^{+95}`$ km/s velocity dispersion, and is distinguishable from a zero mass model at $`3.4\sigma `$, as measured by the $`\delta \chi ^2`$. While the colors of the galaxies near this peak are consistent with the $`z=0.292`$ structure in Pimbblet (2001), the best-fit lensing mass is ten times that inferred from the galaxy velocity dispersions. There are two additional structures at the WSW and NNE edges of the image. Both of the structures are significant at $`3.5\sigma `$ using a $`7\mathrm{}`$ radius mass aperture, while the chances of having $`3.5\sigma `$ noisepeak from a $`7\mathrm{}`$ radius mass aperture statistic in this image is only $`2.3\%`$. Both peaks are near galaxy overdensities which are redder than the cluster galaxies, suggesting redshifts of $`0.30.4`$.

## 5 Discussion and conclusions

We have detected a shear profile for the clusters A1835 and A2204 over a $`1\mathrm{}<r<16\mathrm{}`$ range of radii. Fitting a SIS model to these shear profiles gives best fit velocity dispersions of 1180 km/s for A1835 and 1040 km/s for A2204, in agreement with the mass measurements from X-ray observations, and significances of 8.8$`\sigma `$ and 7.2$`\sigma `$ from zero-mass models, respectively. A2204 has a best fit NFW profile of $`r_{200}=1310h^1\mathrm{kpc},c=6.3`$ which is a better fit to the data at $`87\%`$ confidence. A1835 has a best fit NFW profile of $`r_{200}=1480h^1\mathrm{kpc},c=2.86`$ which is statistically indistinguishable in quality of fit from the SIS model. For both clusters we detect the shear between $`10\mathrm{}`$ and $`16\mathrm{}`$ from the BCG at high significance, which suggests that one will still measure a shear signal from such clusters with even larger format cameras.

While the total mass measured for A1835 is in agreement with the Chandra X-ray observations of SA01, the concentration of mass towards the center of the cluster is much smaller. We believe this is due primarily to contamination of the ‘background’ galaxy catalog used to measure the shear with cluster dwarf galaxies. This would result in the shear in the inner regions of the cluster being reduced due to the presence of a population of zero shear objects, but the shear at large radii being virtually unchanged due to the decrease in number density of the cluster dwarfs with increasing distance from the cluster. We measured this effect in the A2204 data by comparing a catalog of galaxies which had probable cluster members rejected by color with a catalog without any color rejection. The color-selected catalog did have a higher shear in the inner few arcminutes of the cluster radial shear profile while having essentially the same shear at larger radius. The amount of the increase in shear by rejecting cluster dwarf galaxies in A2204 would not be sufficient to bring the X-ray and weak lensing mass concentrations of A1835 into agreement. Using the cluster dwarf number counts of Coma (Trentham 1998) we find from the observed magnitude limits that, given the same cluster richness, A2204, at $`z=0.152`$, would have 2.5 times more cluster dwarfs in the ‘background’ galaxy catalog than A1835, at $`z=0.252`$, but spread over a 2.2 times greater area. Thus, the actual contamination of the A1835 signal should be less than that observed in A2204, but in order to reconcile the shear profile with the X-ray observations, we need the contamination to be three times larger than that in A2204.

The galaxy density profiles in the background galaxy catalogs for the two clusters can be seen in Fig. 13. The rejection of low-z galaxies by color in the A2204 data results in a decrease in the number density of galaxies used for the weak lensing analysis of $`17\%`$ at large radius and $`25\%`$ at small radius. As can be seen, while A1835 has a similar number density of galaxies to the catalog without color selection for A2204 at large radius, it has a much larger galaxy density at small radius. There are three possible explanations for this increase in galaxy density in A1835 at small radius. The first is an increased number of cluster dwarf galaxies in the core of A1835 compared to A2204. The second is that there is either an overdensity of background galaxies near A1835 or an underdensity near A2204. The first explanation would result in an increase in the cluster dwarf fraction at small radius for A1835, and thus a greater decrease in the measured mass concentration than is seen in the non-color selected catalog for A2204, while the opposite would be true for the second explanation.

The third possible explanation of the increased galaxy density is that the decrease in the number density of galaxies in A2204 with decreasing radius is mostly due to the rejection of galaxies from the background galaxy catalog which have near neighbors and the increased bright galaxy density at the cluster core. A catalog of faint galaxies without this near neighbor rejection actually shows a slight rise in galaxy density at small radius in A2204, consistent with the small increase in color selected galaxies with decreasing radius discussed above. Because A1835 is at higher redshift than A2204, however, the cluster core has a much smaller angular size. As a result, the increase in rejection of galaxies from the background galaxy catalog should occur at a smaller angular radius in A1835 than in A2204, which is what appears to be occurring in Fig. 13. The fact that the number density profile of galaxies without the near neighbor rejection is similar for the two clusters suggests that this third explanation is the most likely, and thus the lensing mass profile does, in fact, have a smaller concentration than that measured from the X-ray data.

One possibility for the lower concentration in the weak lensing mass model than in the X-ray mass model would be an elliptical cluster core. The X-ray NFW profile was measured by using a spherical 3-dimensional model which was compared with a deprojected spectrum of the Chandra data. The weak lensing profile, however, is created by first integrating the mass along the line of sight, then fitting with a circularly symmetric model. In the case of a prolate cluster core, if the major axis of the core is lying in the plane of the sky then the best-fit weak lensing profile will have a smaller concentration than that of the X-ray model due to the fact that in the weak lensing analysis the mass is projected into a plane before being circularly averaged, while in the X-ray analysis the mass is spherically averaged. Conversely, if the major axis is lying along the line of sight, the weak lensing profile will have a higher concentration than the X-ray model. In studies of a CDM N-body cluster, King et al. (2001) found that the best fit 2-dimensional NFW concentration parameter among different projection axes could vary by $`20\%`$.

In addition to the primary cluster mass peak, several additional peaks were found in both clusters at $`34\sigma `$ significance using $`4\mathrm{}`$-$`7\mathrm{}`$ radius mass aperture statistics. Only two of the six peaks are not spatially coincident with galaxy overdensities, but both are located at the edge of the image, and thus could be associated with structures immediately outside the field of view. In addition, the mass reconstructions of both clusters have filamentary-like structures extending from the cluster cores. These structures are also seen in faint galaxy distributions, and part of the structure in A1835 is spatially coincident with an X-ray source.

Finally, we note that all of the masses quoted herein have assumed that the background galaxies have the redshift distribution given by the Fontana et al. (1999) HDF-S photometric redshift catalog. The appropriate magnitude and color cuts were made to this catalog, and the mean lensing redshift for the sample was calculated for each cluster. While the mean lensing redshift of the background galaxies does not affect the significance of the shear signals, it does affect both the total mass of the clusters and the concentration parameter of the best fit NFW profile. An overestimate of the mean background galaxy redshift would result in both the best-fit mass and concentration value for a cluster being lower than the true value. Because both A1835 and A2204 are at relatively low redshifts, the measured mass changes slowly with the mean lensing reshift. For the A2204 color selected catalog, the background galaxy mean lensing redshift would need to shift from the measured $`\overline{z}_{\mathrm{bg}}=1.06`$ to $`\overline{z}_{\mathrm{bg}}0.6`$ or $`\overline{z}_{\mathrm{bg}}4`$ in order for the systematic error from the redshift estimate to equal the level of the random error from the intrinsic galaxy ellipticities and mass sheet degeneracy. For the A1835 catalog, the background galaxy mean lensing redshift would need to shift from the measured $`\overline{z}_{\mathrm{bg}}=0.79`$ to $`\overline{z}_{\mathrm{bg}}0.62`$ or $`\overline{z}_{\mathrm{bg}}1.1`$ for the systematic error in the assumed mean lensing redshift to equate to the random error from the background galaxy distribution.

###### Acknowledgements.

We wish to thank Lindsay King, Jean-Paul Kneib, Robert Schmidt, and Ian Smail for help and useful discussions. This work was supported by the TMR Network “Gravitational Lensing: New Constraints on Cosmology and the Distribution of Dark Matter” of the EC under contract No. ERBFMRX-CT97-0172 and a grant from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.


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# Moriond Conference Summary: The Cosmological Model(s)

## 1 Introduction

It is a challenging task in ‘data compression’ to summarize briefly a conference so rich in ideas and observational results, covered in over 100 oral presentations. On the observational side, we were fortunate to hear at this meeting for the first time the results from two CMB experiments: CBI and VSA, which largely confirmed earlier results for the CMB acoustic peaks. We also heard updates on redshift and cluster surveys at different wavelengths. On the theoretical side, we learnt about the most advanced numerical simulations, and on ideas which relate fundamental physics (e.g.‘Brane World’) to cosmological models. The exponential growth of data has changed the character of the subject, in the sense that models can now be assessed quantitatively in great detail.

Below is a modest attempt to summarize the approaches of estimating the ‘best fit’ cosmological model. It is interesting that the title of meeting is “The Cosmological Model”, perhaps implying the good agreement within the community on the concordance $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-Cold Dark Matter model. As this model has been so successful and popular, it is timely to ask ‘what can go wrong’, and if other models are still possible.

## 2 Basic Assumptions and Paradigms

As Jim Peebles emphasized in his Introduction talk, our study of the Universe is performed within the framework of General Relativity, and within that theory by assuming the Cosmological Principle, i.e. that on large scales the Universe is (roughly) homogeneous and isotropic.

It is worth noting that the Cosmological Principle and the resulting FRW metric were formulated before observations could probe to significant redshifts, when the ‘dark matter’ problem was not well-established and the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) was still unknown. However, this ‘guess’ turned out to be successful. The COBE measurements of temperature fluctuations $`\mathrm{\Delta }T/T=10^5`$ on scales of $`10^{}`$ give, via the Sachs Wolfe effect, rms density fluctuations of $`\frac{\delta \rho }{\rho }10^4`$ on $`1000h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, i.e. the deviations from a smooth Universe are tiny. However, we note that on scales of $`100h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ (probed e.g. by the recent redshift surveys 2dFGRS, SDSS) the rms fluctuations expected from conventional models are non-negligible, $`\frac{\delta \rho }{\rho }0.1`$. One also has to verify carefully that a sample properly represents a typical patch of the FRW Universe in order to yield reliable global cosmological parameters. It is also common to assume the Inflationary paradigm, but other Brane-inspired models have also gained popularity recently.

## 3 Cosmic Probes

The different cosmic probes discussed at the meeting determine different sets of cosmological parameters. Below we give the approximated dependence on the density parameters for matter (total) $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}`$, baryons $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}`$, and dark energy $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, the Hubble constant $`H_0100h`$ km/sec/Mpc, and the (linear theory) normalization $`\sigma _8`$ of the mass fluctuations in $`8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ spheres. Other important parameters include the primordial spectral index $`n`$, the age of the Universe $`t_0`$, the optical depth to reionization $`\tau `$, and the linear biasing parameter $`b`$ (which can be generalized to more complicated biasing schemes). While in the 1960’s Sandage’s goal was to ‘search for two numbers’ it is now appreciated that even the basic cosmological model requires a dozen or so parameters, which are linked in non-trivial ways:

* Big Bang Nucelosynthesis: $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}h^2`$
* The CMB: $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }+\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m},\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}h^2,\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}h^2,\sigma _8e^\tau ,n,t_0`$
* SN Ia: $`3\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }4\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}`$
* Redshift surveys: $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{m}}^{}{}_{}{}^{0.6}/b,b\sigma _8,\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}h`$
* Peculiar velocities: $`\sigma _8\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{m}}^{}{}_{}{}^{0.6},\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}h`$
* Cluster abundance: $`\sigma _8\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{m}}^{}{}_{}{}^{0.6}`$
* Weak lensing: $`\sigma _8\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{m}}^{}{}_{}{}^{0.6}`$
* Baryon fraction in clusters: $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b},\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m},h`$
* Cepheids, Sunyaev-Zeldovich clusters, time-delay: $`h`$

An important point to note is that by using ‘orthogonal’ constraints one can significantly improve the estimation of cosmological parameters. The dependence on the factor of roughly $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{m}}^{}{}_{}{}^{0.6}`$ in different probes (peculiar velocities, cluster abundance and cosmic shear) is a coincidence, but having a number of different probes which are sensitive to the same combination of parameters provides an important cross check.

We also note that the choice of the model parameter space is somewhat arbitrary (e.g. by fixing some parameters given priors).

Some of these measurements are easy to interpret. For example the physics of the CMB is linear, so the acoustic peaks at redshift $`z1000`$ can probably be better understood than the weather conditions on the top of the Mont Blanc! The interpretation of other probes involves more complicated astrophysics, for example galaxy biasing, the mass-temperature relation in the cluster abundance, the evolution of SN Ia, and non-linear effects in weak gravitational lensing (shear). We also note that some of the methods (e.g. SN Ia and baryon fraction) are free of assumptions on the nature of the dark matter, while the interpretation of others (e.g. the CMB and redshift surveys) requires a specific power spectrum of fluctuations (e.g. CDM) to be assumed.

## 4 The Best-Fit Concordance Model: Ranking Our Belief

Although the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-CDM model with comparable amounts of Dark Matter and Dark Energy is rather esoteric, it is remarkable that different measurements converge to a ‘concordance model’. However, some parameters are more robust than others, and the list below is ordered (with a personal bias) from the more established to the less accurate parameters. We note that the meaning of the error bars below is non-trivial, as in some cases they are the result of marginalization over other free parameters. In other cases the error bars reflect the diversity of results derived by different methods. Refined values and error bars can be found in contributions by others in this volume and in numerous papers on astro-ph.

* The curvature of the Universe $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{k}=1\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0\pm 10\%`$ from the position of CMB acoustic peaks.
* The baryon density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}h^2=0.02\pm 10\%`$ from BBN and the CMB.
* The Hubble constant $`h=0.7\pm 10\%`$ from the Cepheid-calibrated distances.
* The spectral index $`n=1\pm 10\%`$ from the CMB.
* The age of the Universe $`t_014\pm 10\%`$ Gyr from the CMB alone (assuming $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{k}=0`$).
* The amplitude of fluctuations $`\sigma _80.8\pm 30\%`$, where the large error reflects the spread in results derived from cluster abundance, the CMB+2dFGRS and cosmic shear.
* The mass density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}0.3\pm 50\%`$, where again the derived values vary considerably (e.g. from mass-to-light vs. velocity fields).
* The neutrino mass density $`0.001<\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu <0.04`$, where the lower limit is from the recent atmospheric and solar neutrino oscillations and the upper limit is from large scale structure (e.g. 2dFGRS).
* The cosmic equation of state $`w=P/\rho `$: the current data are consistent with $`w=1`$ (i.e. a non-zero Cosmological Constant), but different forms of Quintessence $`w(z)`$ are still possible.

There is still room for tensor modes, non-adiabatic and non-Gaussian components in the CMB and for better estimation of the reionization parameter $`\tau 0.05`$. There is also the possibility of time-dependent physical constants (e.g the fine-structure constant $`\alpha `$). Conceptually, it seems we have to learn to live in a multi-component complex Universe, which perhaps takes us away from an idealized model motivated by Occam’s razor.

## 5 Outlook

There is general acceptance (perhaps too strongly) of the ‘concordance’ model with the following ingredients: 4% baryons, 26 % Cold Dark Matter (possibly with a small contribution of massive neutrinos) and the remaining 70 % in the form of Dark Energy (the Cosmological Constant or ‘Quintessence’). While phenomenologically the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-CDM model has been successful in fitting a wide range of cosmological data, there are some open questions:

* Both components of the model, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and CDM, have not been directly measured. Are they ‘real’ entities or just ‘epicycles’? Historically epicycles were actually quite useful in forcing observers to improve their measurements and theoreticians to think about better models!
* ‘The Old Cosmological Constant problem’: Why is $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ at present so small relative to what is expected from Early Universe physics?
* ‘The New Cosmological Constant problem’: Why is $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ at the present-epoch? Do we need to introduce a new physics or to invoke the Anthropic Principle to explain it?
* There are still open problems in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-CDM on the small scales e.g. galaxy profiles and satellites.
* The age of the Universe is uncomfortably close to some estimates for the age of the Globular Clusters, if their epoch of formation was late.
* Could other (yet unknown) models fit the data equally well?
* Where does the field go from here? Should the activity focus on refinement of the cosmological parameters within $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-CDM, or on introducing entirely new paradigms?

These issues will no doubt be revisited soon with larger and more accurate data sets. We will soon be able to map the fluctuations with scale and epoch, and to analyze jointly redshift surveys (e.g. 2dF, SDSS, DEEP2) and CMB (e.g. MAP, Planck) data. These high quality data sets will allow us to study a wider range of models and parameters.

## Acknowledgments

I thank the organisers for arranging this stimulating meeting, and Marie Treyer for encouraging me to summarise it. I am grateful to Sarah Bridle, Jerry Ostriker and other collaborators in the Leverhulme Quantitative Cosmology group in Cambridge for helpful discussions.


text:
# Electron Quasielastic Scattering at High Energy from 56Fe, What Suppression?

## Acknowledgments

This work was partially supported by the Korea Research Foundation Grant KRF-2001-015-DP0103 and the US Department of Energy under Contract DE-FG02-93ER40756 with Ohio University.


text:
# Radio ejection in the evolution of X-ray binaries: the bridge between low mass X-ray binaries and millisecond pulsars

## 1 Introduction

The widely accepted scenario for the formation of a millisecond radio pulsar (hereafter MSP) is the recycling of an old neutron star (hereafter NS) by a spin-up process driven by accretion of matter and angular momentum from a Keplerian disc, fueled via Roche lobe overflow of a binary late–type companion (see Bhattacharya & van den Heuvel 1991 for a review). If the NS has a magnetic dipole moment (typical values are $`\mu 10^{26}10^{27}`$ G cm3) the disc is truncated at the magnetosphere, where the disc pressure is balanced by the magnetic pressure, $`P_{\mathrm{MAG}}`$, exerted by the NS magnetic field. Once the accretion and spin-up process ends, the NS is visible as a MSP. Indeed, a common requirement of all the models of the emission mechanism from a rotating magnetic dipole is that the space surrounding the NS is free of matter up to the light cylinder radius $`R_{\mathrm{LC}}`$ (at which the speed of a body rigidly rotating with the NS equals the speed of light) .

An interesting evolutionary phase can occur if the mass transfer rate drops below the level required to allow the expansion of the magnetosphere beyond $`R_{\mathrm{LC}}`$, switching–on the emission from the rotating magnetic dipole (e.g. Illarionov & Sunyaev, 1975; Ruderman, Shaham & Tavani 1989; Stella et al., 1994). The pressure exerted by the radiation field of the radio pulsar may overcome the pressure of the accretion disk, thus determining the ejection of matter from the system. Once the disk has been swept away, the radiation pressure stops the infalling matter as it overflows the inner Lagrangian point.

## 2 The Effects of the Pulsar Energy Output

The push on the accretion flow exerted by the (assumed dipolar) magnetic field of the NS can be described in terms of an outward pressure (we use the expressions outward or inward pressures to indicate the direction of the force with respect to the radial direction) exerted by the (assumed dipolar) rotating magnetic field, $`B`$, on the accretion flow: $`P_{\mathrm{MAG}}=\frac{B^2}{8\pi }=7.96\times 10^{14}\mu _{26}^2r_6^6\mathrm{dy}/\mathrm{cm}^2`$, where $`\mu _{26}`$ is the magnetic moment of the NS in units of $`10^{26}`$ G cm3, and $`r_6`$ is the distance from the NS center in units of $`10^6`$ cm. Another contribution to the outward pressure is given by the radiation pressure (if present) generated by the rotating magnetic dipole, which, assuming isotropic emission, is given by: $`P_{\mathrm{RAD}}=2.04\times 10^{12}P_3^4\mu _{26}^2r_6^2\mathrm{dy}/\mathrm{cm}^2`$. The accretion flow, in turns, exerts a inward pressure on the field: for a Sakura–Sunyaev accretion disc in zone C (certainly the case at large radii), the pressure is dominated by the gas contribution, $`P_{\mathrm{DISC}}\dot{M}^{17/20}r^{21/8}`$, where $`\dot{M}`$ is the accretion rate (see e.g. Frank, King & Raine 1992). This inward ram pressure of the accretion flow equals the outward pressure due to the magnetic dipole at the magnetospheric radius that defines an equilibrium point. Since the radial dependence of the magnetostatic pressure exerted by the NS is steeper than the radial dependence of the disc pressure, the equilibrium point defined above is stable inside $`R_{\mathrm{LC}}`$, where the pulsar radiation pressure $`P_{\mathrm{RAD}}`$ is absent. On the other hand, the equilibrium point is unstable beyond $`R_{\mathrm{LC}}`$. Therefore if $`P_{\mathrm{RAD}}`$ dominates over $`P_{\mathrm{DISC}}`$ for any $`r>R_{\mathrm{LC}}`$ the whole accretion disc is swept away up to the inner Lagrangian point $`L_1`$ by the radiation pressure of the pulsar. During this “radio ejection” phase, the mechanism that drives mass overflow from $`L_1`$ can well be active, but the pulsar radiation pressure at $`L_1`$ prevents mass accretion onto the NS (see Burderi et al. 2001).

It is possible that mass transfer during the binary system evolution suffers instabilities, due to the X-ray illumination of the secondary star during the accretion phases, which makes the mass transfer rate quite unsteady. In this case the system temporarily detaches, allowing the pulsar to switch–on. However the companion evolution, which leads to radius expansion, will lead again to overflow. Mass transfer to the NS and spin–up, due to the accretion of angular momentum of the mass overflowing the Roche lobe can therefore go on, until the pulsar has been so much spun up that its radiation pressure at the inner Lagrangian point is high enough to prevent mass accretion. In this case we expect to be in the presence of a radio MSP which from time to time is obscured by the matter floating around the system.

## 3 PSR J1740-5340

The eclipsing MSP PSR J1740-5340, discovered by D’Amico et al. (2001a) in the globular cluster NGC 6397, has the longest orbital period ($`P_{\mathrm{orb}}32.5`$ hrs) and the most massive minimum companion mass (0.18 $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$) among the 10 eclipsing pulsars detected up to now. The spin period ($`P_{\mathrm{spin}}3.65\times 10^3`$ s) and its derivative ($`\dot{P}_{\mathrm{spin}}=1.59\times 10^{19}`$), recently derived by D’Amico et al. (2001b), allow the determination of the NS magnetic moment, $`\mu _{26}7.7`$. Its position with respect to the cluster center excludes the possibility of a contamination of $`\dot{P}_{\mathrm{spin}}`$ due to the NS acceleration in the gravitational field of the cluster (D’Amico et al. 2001b), implying that the estimate of the NS magnetic moment is reliable. The optical counterpart of PSR J1740-5340, identified by Ferraro et al. 2001 with a slightly evolved turnoff star in the sample studied by Taylor et al. (2001) using data from the HST archive, also shows light modulation at the same orbital period as the radio data (Ferraro et al. 2001).

PSR J1740-5340 shows radio eclipses lasting for about 40% of the orbital phase at 1.4 GHz (D’Amico et al. 2001b). Out of eclipse the pulsar signal at 1.4 GHz shows significant excess propagation delays (up to $`3`$ ms) and strong intensity variations. This suggest that in PSR J1740-5340 the signal is propagating through a dense material surrounding the system. In order to investigate this possibility, D’Amico et al. (2001b) have fitted the excess delays measured in two adjacent bands of 128 MHz each at 1.4 GHz. They found that the excess delays $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ can be well fitted with the equation $`\mathrm{\Delta }t\nu ^{2.02\pm 0.30}`$ that strongly supports the hypothesis that the responsible mechanism is dispersion in a ionized medium (see Fig. 1, right panel). In this case the corresponding electron column density variations are $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_\mathrm{e}8\times 10^{17}\mathrm{\Delta }t_3`$ cm-2, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }t_3`$ is the delay at 1.4 GHz in ms. For $`\mathrm{\Delta }t_33`$ the estimated electron column density is $`2.4\times 10^{18}`$ cm-2.

The eclipsing radius of the system is $`R_\mathrm{E}4.4\times 10^{11}`$ cm (D’Amico et al. 2001b), taking $`m_1=1.8`$$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ for the NS mass and $`m_2=0.45`$$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ for the secondary mass (see below) and $`P_{\mathrm{orb}}32.5`$ hr. This radius is larger than the Roche lobe radius of the secondary ($`1.3\times 10^{11}`$ cm). This means that the eclipsing matter is beyond the gravitational influence of the companion star and must be continuously replenished. From a simple calculation (see Burderi et al. 2002 for details), we can estimate a rough order of magnitude of the necessary mass loss rate from the secondary, $`\dot{M}`$, by assuming spherical symmetry (which is, however, not consistent with the randomly variable signal intensity shown by the radio data). We find $`\dot{M}`$ up to $`0.6\times 10^{10}`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ yr-1. Even considering the uncertainty on this estimate, winds induced by the pulsar radiation are typically 2–3 orders of magnitude weaker (Tavani & Brookshaw, 1991). It is also unlikely that this matter is provided by the wind from the main sequence companion star, given that the mass loss rate due to the star wind is expected to be less than $`10^{12}`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ yr-1. We conclude that the mass loss rates we derive are more consistent with Roche lobe overflow driven by nuclear evolution of the secondary and orbital angular momentum mass loss, than with a possible wind from the secondary.

We propose that this system is now experiencing the radio ejection phase postulated above. When: i) as a result of the accretion of matter and angular momentum, the NS spin period is so short that, potentially, the radiation pressure of a pulsar phase would be high enough to overcome the pressure of the matter overflowing the Roche lobe, and ii) the oscillations in $`\dot{M}`$ are large enough to allow the MSP to switch–on, then the radio–ejection phase begins, leading to the appearance of the system as it looks now.

## 4 Binary Evolution in the Globular Cluster NGC 6397

In order to choose coherently the input parameters for the possible evolution leading to PSR J1740-5340, it is important to take into account what we know of the general properties of the host cluster. Figure 1 (left panel) shows the composite HR diagram of NGC 6397 in the plane $`M_v`$ versus $`VI`$. The open circles identify the objects examined by Taylor et al. (2001) in the core of this cluster, to select objects which have been probably subject to binary evolution. One of the Taylor et al. (2001) BY Dra candidates, plotted as a full dot in Figure 1 (left panel), is indeed the optical counterpart of PSR J1740-5340. On the observational HR diagram we show an isochrone of 12 Gyr for metallicity in mass fraction Z=0.006 and helium mass fraction Y=0.23. The isochrone of 12 Gyr, which fits the cluster HR diagram, implies that a mass of $`0.81`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ is evolving at the cluster turnoff (TO), and that its TO luminosity is $`2.24`$ $`\mathrm{L}_{}`$. Different interpretations of the HR diagram morphology, assuming that the distance of the cluster is smaller, may lead to values of the TO luminosity down $`1.8`$ $`\mathrm{L}_{}`$. The optical counterpart of PSR J1740-5340 is at a luminosity similar to the TO luminosity (i.e. 1.8-2.3 $`\mathrm{L}_{}`$), but cooler than the TO, that is, at a radius larger than the TO radii.

We study four cases of evolution (see Fig. 1, left panel, and Burderi et al. 2002). In all cases, we model the initial parameter of the system as starting with a 0.85 $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ companion, a 1.4$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ NS, and a orbital initial period of 14.27 hr. We follow the binary evolution with the ATON1.2 code (D’Antona, Mazzitelli, & Ritter 1989). The mass loss rate is computed following the formulation by Ritter (1988), as an exponential function of the distance of the stellar radius to the Roche lobe, in units of the pressure scale height. This method also allows to compute the first phases of mass transfer, during which the rate reaches values which can be much larger than the stationary values, due to the thermal response of the star to mass loss. The evolution of the system also includes orbital angular momentum losses through magnetic braking, in the Verbunt & Zwaan (1981) formulation, in which the braking parameter is set to $`f=1`$. We also tested a case in which $`f=2`$.

When mass accretion on the NS is assumed, and the binary evolution suffers a Low Mass X-ray Binary (LMXB) phase, it is also important to consider how the X–ray phase would affect the binary evolution we are considering, as a fraction $`R_2^2/(2a)^22.7\times 10^2`$ of the X–ray luminosity impacts at the secondary surface. A self–consistent modelling is quite difficult, as the feedbacks are not easy to describe both physically and numerically. We follow a simplified schematization in which the star is immersed in the X–ray radiation bath, and the total luminosity $`L_{tot}`$ which it must radiate is the sum of the stellar luminosity $`L_{}`$ plus the heating luminosity $`L_h`$, from which an ‘irradiation temperature’ $`T_{irr}=(L_h/4\pi \sigma R_2^2)^{1/2}`$ is defined. The stellar luminosity and $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ then are related by: $`L=L_{tot}L_h=4\pi \sigma R_2^2(T_{\mathrm{eff}}^4T_{irr}^4)`$ Consequently, the stellar $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ becomes hotter due to the irradiation, and the star rapidly evolves in the HR diagram at a location determined by the amount of irradiation allowed. The phases of mass transfer are only slightly altered by the new system conditions. However, as the star loses mass, its radius becomes larger than the radius of the standard sequence. This difference amounts to $`20`$% at the orbital period of PSR J1740-5340.

All the sequences are evolved until the mass loss phase finally ends with the stellar remnant evolving into the white dwarf region as low mass helium white dwarfs. We see that the most luminous three objects among those identified by Taylor et al. (2001) as helium WDs actually may be the end–products of such an evolution. The optical component of PSR J1740-5340 also seems compatible with the evolution we have suggested. It lies along case 2 evolution, that not including irradiation, as, in fact, the pulsar luminosity is not important as irradiation source for the binary.

### 4.1 The Evolution of the Progenitor System of PSR J1740-5340

As already said, the binary evolution which we are describing is not dramatically altered by the irradiation due to the LMXB phase: in particular, the final evolution is very similar, although the white dwarf remnant mass is slightly smaller. However, it helps to predict that the LMXB phases can be alternated with phases in which the system remains detached, as already had been suggested for systems having main sequence companions. We now consider the evolution of the system, taking also into account the pulsar’s behavior. Any time the system detaches, the radio pulsar will switch on, but it will be quenched again when the mass transfer resumes. In the HR diagram the position of the secondary component will shift from its ‘irradiated’ position during the LMXB mass transfer phase (track 3 on the left of the MS) to its ‘standard’ position along track 1. However, as discussed in Burderi et al. (2001), when the pulsar is spinning sufficiently fast and the orbital period is sufficiently long (longer than a critical value $`P_{\mathrm{crit}}P_{\mathrm{spin}}^{9.6}\mu ^{4.8}\dot{M}^{2.04}`$), the radiation pressure exerted by the pulsar at the inner inner Lagrangian point is larger than the pressure exerted by the matter overflowing the Roche lobe even if the mass transfer rate recovers its secular value dictated by the nuclear evolution of the companion. If $`P_{\mathrm{orb}}P_{\mathrm{crit}}`$ the system will remain in the radio–ejection phase during all the subsequent binary evolution. In this case, the matter overflowing the Roche lobe will be accelerated by its interaction with the pulsar radiation and ejected from the system. In the case of PSR J1740-5340, the critical period $`P_{\mathrm{crit}}`$ to reach the ‘radio–ejection’ phase is $`39`$ hr, not very different from its orbital period. Thus, PSR J1740-5340 is possibly in the radio–ejection phase. Considering the dependency of $`P_{\mathrm{crit}}`$ from the system parameters, the fact that $`P_{\mathrm{crit}}P_{\mathrm{orb}}`$ is compelling.

## 5 Summary and Conclusions

We have considered the evolution of possible progenitors of the binary MSP PSR J1740-5340 in the Globular Cluster NGC 6397. We can reproduce the HR diagram location of the optical companion, starting mass transfer to the NS from a hypothetical secondary of mass 0.85 $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$, slightly evolved off the main sequence when mass transfer begins. In conclusion we propose that:

i) Orbital evolution calculations shows that a slightly evolved 0.85 $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ secondary orbiting a NS can transfer mass to the NS, and reaches a stage in which its mass is reduced to $`0.45`$ $`\mathrm{M}_{}`$, and its optical location in the HR diagram is then compatible with the recently detected optical counterpart of PSR J1740-5340;

ii) PSR J1740-5340 might represent a system whose evolution has been envisioned by Burderi et al. (2001): the spin and the magnetic moment of the pulsar may keep the system in a radio–ejection phase in which accretion is inhibited by the radiation pressure exerted by the pulsar on the overflowing matter while the mechanism that drives the Roche lobe overflow from the companion is still active, thus causing an intense wind which would be very difficult to explain otherwise. This evolution seems to be the only viable possibility to explain the long lasting eclipses and the strong intensity variation randomly occurring in the radio emission. An artistic impression of the system, according to this scenario, is shown in Figure 2.

As a final remark we note that $`P_{\mathrm{orb}}P_{\mathrm{crit}}`$ suggests the interesting possibility that this system could swiftly switch from the present radio pulsar phase to an accretion phase in which it should be visible as a $`L_\mathrm{X}10^{36}`$ ergs s-1 LMXB.

## Acknowledgments

This work was partially supported by a grant from the Italian Ministry of University and Research (Cofin-99-02-02).

## References


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# Weakened Constraints from 𝒃→𝒔𝜸 on Supersymmetry Flavor Mixing Due to Next–To–Leading–Order Corrections

## Abstract

We examine the process $`BX_s\gamma `$ in minimal supersymmetry (SUSY) with general squark flavor mixings. We include all relevant next–to–leading order (NLO) QCD corrections and dominant NLO SUSY effects from the gluino. We find that gluino–squark corrections to down–type quark masses induce large NLO corrections to the dominant Wilson coefficients whose size is often similar to those at LO, especially at large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. For $`\mu >0`$, destructive interference, and suppression by the renormalization group running lead to a “focusing effect” of reducing the size of gluino corrections to the branching ratio, and also of reducing the LO sensitivity to flavor mixings among squarks. Constraints from $`(BX_s\gamma )`$ on the SUSY–breaking scale can become significantly weakened relative to the minimal flavor violation case, even, at large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, for small flavor mixings. The case of $`\mu <0`$ can also becomes allowed.

preprint:

Introduction.— The radiative decay $`BX_s\gamma `$ provides a powerful tool for testing various extensions of the standard model (SM), such as supersymmetry. This is because in $`bs\gamma `$ “new physics”effects can appear at a one–loop level, which is the same as the lowest–order SM flavor changing neutral current (FCNC), and can therefore be of comparable size bbmr90 . However, as both experimental results exp  and a SM prediction at the full next–to–leading–order (NLO) QCD level gm01 ; bcmu02  have reached an error of $`10\%`$,

$`(BX_s\gamma )_{\mathrm{exp}}`$ $`=`$ $`(3.34\pm 0.38)\times 10^4,`$ (1)
$`(BX_s\gamma )_{\mathrm{SM}}`$ $`=`$ $`(3.70\pm 0.30)\times 10^4,`$ (2)
it has become clear that little room is now left for new physics contributions. This has in turn been used to impose severe constraints on flavor–violating (FV) interactions beyond the SM. These are usually related to some scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ at which new physics appears. In the case of low–energy supersymmetry (SUSY), $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is set by the SUSY–breaking scale $`M_{\mathrm{SUSY}}`$, which is expected to remain within $`𝒪(1\text{TeV})`$ on the grounds of naturalness.

The SM contribution to $`bs\gamma `$ involves a one–loop exchange of the top quark and the $`W^{}`$. In 2–Higgs doublet models (2HDM), there is, in addition, a constructive contribution from the charged Higgs $`H^{}`$. A complete NLO analysis in the SM has been performed in several stages and recently completed in bcmu02  and, likewise, in the 2HDM bg98 ; crs98 ; cdgg98 .

In SUSY, additional one–loop diagrams come from an exchange of the charged Higgs–top $`H^{}`$$`t`$ and the chargino–stop $`\chi ^{}`$$`\stackrel{~}{t}`$. The latter contributes constructively (destructively), depending on whether the Higgs/higgsino mass parameter $`\mu >0`$ or $`<0`$, respectively. Detailed studies of SUSY contributions to $`(BX_s\gamma )`$ have been performed beyond the LO cdgg98susy ; bmu00 ; cgnw00 ; dgg00 . In particular, dominant NLO contributions have been calculated cgnw00 ; dgg00  and shown to be important. They are enhanced by factors involving large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =H_2^0/H_1^0`$ \[the ratio of the neutral Higgs VEVs\] and $`\mathrm{log}\left(M_{\mathrm{SUSY}}/m_W\right)`$.

The good agreement between the ranges (1) and (2) has also been used to derive stringent constraints on the mass spectra of the superpartners in specific popular models, like the minimal supersymmetric SM (MSSM), or the constrained MSSM (CMSSM). For example, in the CMSSM, the case of $`\mu <0`$ has been shown to be ruled out, except for the very large common gaugino $`m_{1/2}`$ and scalar $`m_0`$ masses ($``$ few TeV), where SUSY contributions become tiny. For $`\mu >0`$, stringent lower bounds of a few hundred GeV have also been derived on $`m_{1/2}`$ and $`m_0`$, especially at large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ cmssmbsgamma .

Such bounds, even if model dependent, have clear implications for searches for SUSY in accelerators, for the neutralino as a dark matter weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP), and in other nonaccelerator processes. For example, in dark matter searches the constraint from $`bs\gamma `$ often forbids larger values of the spin–independent scattering cross section of WIMPs on proton $`\sigma _p^{SI}`$ that would otherwise be accessible to today’s experimental sensitivity knrr1 .

The above conclusions have often been reached by assuming, sometimes implicitly, that the mixings among the mass eigenstates of squarks closely resemble the Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa (CKM) structure of the quark sector. This scenario, often called minimal flavor violation (MFV), is perhaps the simplest way of addressing the nagging flavor problem of SUSY. FV interactions are in general not forbidden by gauge symmetry and, without assuming any organizing principle, can lead to exceeding experimental bounds by many orders of magnitude agis02 . The mixings of the first two generations of squarks are strongly constrained by the $`K^0\overline{K}^0`$ system but bounds on mixings with the third generation are much weaker. In the case of $`bs\gamma `$, rather stringent constraints have been derived, in the LO approximation, on the magnitude of possible FV terms beyond MFV in specific scenarios for flavor structure, but shown to be highly model dependent bghw99 ; ekrww02 . The question thus arises about the robustness of constraints on SUSY derived in MFV or other specific scenarios.

In this Letter, we examine the process $`bs\gamma `$ in the MSSM with general flavor mixing (GFM) in the down–type squark sector. In addition to the full NLO QCD corrections from the SM+2HDM bcmu02 ; bg98 ; crs98 ; cdgg98 , we introduce NLO QCD resummation above $`m_W`$ and threshold corrections from the heavy gluino field $`\stackrel{~}{g}`$ in the presence of all mixings in the down–squark sector. In contrast to MFV cgnw00 ; dgg00 , most analyses of the GFM have been done with only LO matching conditions (MCs) for SUSY contributions bghw99 , in which case NLO effects become an issue. In order to be able to compare with the SM+SUSY contributions to $`(BX_s\gamma )`$ in MFV and in LO, we calculate all $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$–enhanced NLO contributions in the framework of GFM and show that they lead to dramatic implications.

Procedure.— The contributions to $`bs\gamma `$ from all states that are much heavier than $`m_b`$ are described by the effective Lagrangian gm01

$$=\frac{4G_F}{\sqrt{2}}V_{ts}^{}V_{tb}\underset{i=1}{\overset{8}{}}\left[C_i(\mu )P_i+C_i^{}(\mu )P_i^{}\right].$$
(3)
The Wilson coefficients $`C_i(\mu )`$ and $`C_i^{}(\mu )`$, which are associated with operators $`P_i`$ and their chirality–conjugate partners $`P_i^{}`$, play the role of effective coupling constants. In the SM, it is natural to choose the scale at which the heavy (SM) states decouple at $`\mu _Wm_W`$. Their values at $`\mu _W`$ are found by imposing matching conditions between an effective and an underlying theory. One evaluates the $`C_i^{()}`$s at $`\mu _bm_b`$ from the running of the renormalization group equations (RGEs) from $`\mu _W`$ down to $`\mu _b`$. In order to remove the dependence on the scale $`\mu _b`$, at $`\mu _W`$ NLO MCs need to be imposed bmmp94 . They have been computed in full in NLOmatchingSM ; cdgg98 ; bmu00 , and we have followed gm01  to apply them here with MCs at $`\mu _b`$ ghw96 .

New physics effects usually appear in the Wilson coefficients $`C_{7,8}`$ and $`C_{7,8}^{}`$ of the magnetic and chromo–magnetic operators $`P_{7,8}`$ and $`P_{7,8}^{}`$, respectively. In the MFV case, as well as in the SM/2HDM, one usually neglects $`C_{7,8}^{}`$ as suppressed by the ratio $`m_s/m_b`$. This can no longer be done in the case of GFM, where the $`\stackrel{~}{g}`$ contributions to $`C_{7,8}^{}`$ are of a similar strength bghw99 .

In SUSY, the new mass scale $`M_{\mathrm{SUSY}}`$ is set by $`m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}`$ and the squark mass $`m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}`$, which tend to be heavier than the other states. (We assume no large mass splittings among the squarks.) It is reasonable to expect a hierarchy $`\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}}\mu _W`$ just like one has $`\mu _W\mu _b`$. In order for QCD corrections beyond the LO to match the underlying SUSY theory and the effective theory at $`\mu _W`$, we extend the treatment of cdgg98susy ; dgg00  to the case of GFM. The usual procedure, which we follow here, is to assume that $`m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}}`$, while all the other SUSY states play a role at $`\mu _W`$ dgg00 . We thus do not resum the logarithms of $`m_H/\mu _W`$ and $`m_{\stackrel{~}{q}(\stackrel{~}{g})}/\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}}`$. The resummation of QCD correction between $`\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}}`$ and $`\mu _W`$ is performed with the NLO anomalous dimensions with six quark flavors misiakmunz95 . We compute two–loop gluon corrections to the $`H^{}`$ contributions to $`C_{4,7,8}`$ at $`\mu _W`$, and those from the $`\chi ^{}`$, $`\chi ^0`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{g}`$ fields to $`C_{7,8}^{()}`$ at $`\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}}`$ as in bmu00 . We have verified that their contributions to $`C_{16}^{()}`$ and their mixing to $`C_{7,8}^{()}`$ are numerically negligible when using available five–flavor anomalous dimensions cmm98 . We also neglect operators outside of the SM basis. At LO they are numerically subdominant bghw99 , and we could not identify any enhancement mechanism beyond the LO. At the NLO–level, SUSY QCD contributions come from $`𝒪(\alpha _s)`$ corrections involving the gluino. For the states at $`\mu _W`$ ($`W`$, $`\varphi ^{}`$ and $`H^{}`$), these are absorbed into the effective vertices by integrating out the $`\stackrel{~}{g}`$ field cdgg98susy . We have calculated these vertices with GFM in the down–squark sector or2 .

For the fields at $`\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}}`$, this effective approach cannot be applied. Instead of calculating a full set of two–loop diagrams (a rather formidable task), we include finite threshold corrections to Yukawa matrices, which become important at large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ bottomcorr ; cgnw00 ; dgg00 . As described in detail in or2 , we first integrate out the gluino and the squarks to calculate effective quark mass matrices in the super-CKM (SCKM) basis. By identifying these with physical ones, we extract the Yukawa couplings that appear in the higgsino–quark–squark vertices and in the F–term contributions to squark mass matrices, and further perturbatively include “$`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ resummation” cgnw00 ; dgg00 , generalized to GFM or2  for self–consistency.

General flavor mixings.— In the absence of an underlying theory of flavor in the squark sector, all the entries of the $`6\times 6`$ mass matrix square of down–type squarks are in general nonzero (and likewise for the up–type squarks). It is natural to break it into four $`3\times 3`$ submatrices of the $`LL`$, $`LR`$, $`RL`$ and $`RR`$ sectors. For the 2nd to 3rd generation mixing of relevance to $`bs\gamma `$, the departure from the MFV case can be parameterized by introducing $`\delta _{LL}^d=(m_{d,LL}^2)_{23}/\sqrt{(m_{d,LL}^2)_{22}(m_{d,LL}^2)_{33}}`$ and $`\delta _{LR}^d=(m_{d,LR}^2)_{23}/\sqrt{(m_{d,LL}^2)_{33}(m_{d,RR}^2)_{22}}`$, and analogously for $`\delta _{RL}^d`$ and $`\delta _{RR}^d`$, where $`m_{d,LL(RR,LR)}^2`$ are, respectively, the $`3\times 3`$ soft mass matrices $`m_{Q(D)}^2`$ and the soft trilinear term matrix $`A_d^{}`$ rotated into the SCKM basis or2 .

In the case of GFM, these mixings induce new 1–loop contributions to $`bs\gamma `$, with one internal line involving $`\stackrel{~}{g}`$ (or $`\chi ^0`$) and the other from $`\stackrel{~}{b}`$ turning into $`\stackrel{~}{s}`$ due to the 2nd to 3rd generation mixing. We insert the $`\delta ^d`$s at $`\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}}`$ and all the corrections described above are generalized to the case of GFM. The $`6\times 6`$ mass matrices are diagonalized numerically, instead of using the less accurate mass–insertion approximation.

Focusing effect.— We find that, relative to the LO MC at $`\mu _W`$, NLO corrections generally reduce SUSY contributions (mostly from the gluino) to $`(BX_s\gamma )`$. As a result, constraints on $`m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}`$ and related SUSY parameters (like the $`\chi ^\pm `$ and $`\chi ^0`$ soft mass parameters), and on the FV couplings become considerably relaxed. This focusing effect becomes particularly strong at large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. This is illustrated in Fig. 1. We present ranges of the $`(BX_s\gamma )`$ as a function of the common squark mass, $`m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}\sqrt{(m_{Q,U,D}^2)_{ii}}`$ in the case of MFV ($`\delta _{LR}^d=0`$) and for $`\delta _{LR}^d=\pm 0.02`$. We scan over the ranges of $`1<m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}^2/m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}^2<2`$ and apply collider bounds on superpartner masses. The brown (darker) bands are obtained by using our expressions for dominant NLO–level contributions, while the green (light) bands correspond to applying the approximation of the LO matching at $`\mu _W`$. One can clearly see a strong suppression of the SUSY contribution at the NLO–level. While some focusing is already present in the MFV case, the effect becomes strongly enhanced in the case of GFM.

Focusing comes from two sources. First, RGE evolution between $`\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}}`$ and $`\mu _W`$ generally reduces SUSY contributions. For example, for $`M_{\mathrm{SUSY}}1\text{TeV}`$, one finds $`\alpha _s(\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}})/\alpha _s(\mu _W)0.8`$, $`C_7(\mu _W)0.8C_7(\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}})+0.06C_8(\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}})`$ and $`C_8(\mu _W)0.8C_8(\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}})`$. (The NLO QCD matching condition at $`\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}}`$ causes some additional reduction.) Second, at $`\mu >0`$ we find a remarkable tendency of “alignment” between the effective $`b`$–quark mass and the corresponding penguin operator at large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. This reduces the gluino contribution to $`C_{7,8}`$ and, as a result, the SUSY contribution to $`(BX_s\gamma )`$ in the case of GFM. The essential point is that flavor mixing in the soft SUSY–breaking terms induces flavor off-diagonal elements in the effective quark mass matrices through gluino–squark loops. In order to rediagonalize them, one also rotates the Yukawa couplings that appear in the higgsino vertices and squark mass matrices, thus inducing $`𝒪(\alpha _s)`$ corrections to them in SCKM basis. The resultant $`C_{7,8}`$ is also “rotated”. The effect is enhanced by large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. For example, $`\delta _{LR}^d`$ (or $`\delta _{LL}^d`$) induces a correction proportional to $`\delta m_{bs}^{}/\mathrm{cos}\beta `$ in the higgsino vertex. This generates a diagram with an exchange of $`\stackrel{~}{c}_L`$ and $`\chi ^{}`$, and another one with the $`\stackrel{~}{b}_R`$$`\stackrel{~}{s}_L`$ (with mass insertion $`\delta m_{bs}^{}\mu \mathrm{tan}\beta `$ ) and the gluino in the loop, as shown in Fig. 2. Both are proportional to $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ and the rotation occurs in the direction that reduces the LO effect at $`\mu >0`$.

If we take $`\delta _{RR}^d`$ (or $`\delta _{RL}^d`$) instead, analogous diagrams are induced for the $`b_L`$ to $`s_R`$ transition, which reduces the gluino contribution at $`\mu >0`$ in a similar manner. The first diagram can be even larger than the LO gluino effect if the “diagonal part” of the chargino penguin is arbitrarily large. For more details see or2 . At $`\mu <0`$, the rotation described above occurs in the direction which increases the LO effect. This competes with the reduction caused by the RGE evolution. As $`\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}}`$ increases, the RGE effect increases, while the quark mass correction decreases. At $`\mu _{\mathrm{SUSY}}1`$ TeV, the two effects have similar size for both signs of $`\mu `$.

Relaxation of constraints on SUSY and FV terms.— The constraints obtained in the MFV scenario cgnw00 ; dgg00  are no longer valid with GFM, and their robustness is of particular phenomenological interest. We illustrate this by including the above large NLO–level corrections. In the three panels of Fig. 3 we show the contours of $`(BX_s\gamma )`$ in the plane of $`m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}`$ and $`\delta _{LR}^d`$ (left panel) and $`\delta _{LL}^d`$ (middle and right panels) for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =45`$, $`m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}^2/m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}^2=2`$, $`A_u=m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}`$, and $`\mu >0`$ (left and right panels) and $`\mu <0`$ (middle panel). The light green (light grey) and dark yellow (dark grey) bands agree with the experimental range (1) at the $`1\sigma `$ ($`2\sigma `$) C.L. Larger departures are denoted as “excluded”. In the case of $`\delta _{LR}^d`$, in MFV one finds $`m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}\text{ }>800\text{GeV}`$ at the $`2\sigma `$ C.L. for $`\mu >0`$.

In contrast, even relatively small nonzero values of $`|\delta _{LR}^d|0.04`$ remove the constraint from $`bs\gamma `$ altogether. The effect is even more striking for $`\delta _{LL}^d`$ and $`\mu <0`$ where relatively light squark becomes again allowed. We have checked numerically that, at $`\mu >0`$, constraints on FV terms at NLO become also considerably relaxed. For example, in Fig. 3 at $`m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}=1000\text{GeV}`$ and $`\mu >0`$, we find $`\delta _{LR}^d(NLO)/\delta _{LR}^d(LO)7`$. Similar GFM deconstraining can also be obtained by introducing nonzero $`\delta _{LL}^d`$s instead, for both $`\mu >0`$ and $`\mu <0`$ but with a milder NLO effect. It is interesting to note the existence of two branches of allowed solutions in Fig. 3. By simultaneously allowing for more than one $`\delta ^d`$ to become nonzero, one can relax the constraint from $`bs\gamma `$ even further, even at LO bghw99 . In addition, in general FV contributions can also come from the up–squark sector up-mixing . We have checked that this effect is numerically less important.

Finally, we must reemphasize that in our analysis we assume $`M_{\mathrm{SUSY}}/m_W`$ larger than a few and compute only the leading NLO effects, which are enhanced by $`M_{\mathrm{SUSY}}/m_W`$, large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, or flavor mixing. We also remain in the SM basis of operators, instead of considering the full operator basis of the MSSM. Despite this, we do believe that the results presented here should remain as the dominant effect in a more complete study.

Conclusions and outlook.— Contributions from new physics to rare processes like $`bs\gamma `$, do not necessarily have to be suppressed by the largeness of the related effective mass scale beyond the SM. Instead, this can be caused by new effects beyond the LO. In the case of SUSY with GFM, at the NLO level we have pointed out the existence of one such suppressing effect, which we call focusing. Despite this, $`bs\gamma `$ still maintains strong sensitivity to even small deviations from MFV (although less so than at LO) of especially the flavor mixing terms $`\delta _{LL}^d`$ and $`\delta _{LR}^d`$. This puts into question the robustness of the commonly assumed constraints on $`M_{\mathrm{SUSY}}`$ in MFV. It appears that the alignment mechanism is generic to processes involving chirality flip. We are now exploring its role in other FCNC processes.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank P. Gambino, T. Hurth, A. Masiero, M. Misiak and L. Silvestrini for helpful comments.