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# Beyond the Cosmic Veil: Star and Planet Formation Research after SIRTF and NGST

## 1. Introduction

Star and planet formation will remain key themes in the NASA Origins Program through the next decade and beyond. During this time, the community will enjoy access to: 1) continued HST operation with STIS, NICMOS, ACS, COS, and WFC–3 with wavelength coverage from 0.1150–2.5 $`\mu `$m; 2) SIRTF with launch in early 2003 (lifetime $``$ 5 years) covering the wavelength range from 3–160 $`\mu `$m; and 3) NGST scheduled for launch in 2010 with projected 5 year mission covering the wavelength range 0.6–28 $`\mu `$m. Because important processes in star and planet formation occur over a wide range of temperatures, multi–wavelength observations are required in order to make significant progress (see overview by Hartmann this volume).

Both SIRTF and NGST will execute programs aimed at understanding the emergence of planetary systems from circumstellar disks around young stars, and the origins of stellar masses. Approved SIRTF guaranteed time programs will focus on circumstellar disk evolution and the nature and frequency of brown dwarf objects. In addition, three of the six adopted Legacy Science Programs (GLIMPSE, From Molecular Clores to Planet–Forming Disks, Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems) will directly impact star and planet formation research (http://sirtf.caltech.edu/SSC/legacy/). Two of the five themes in the Design Reference Mission for the NGST (The Birth and Formation of Stars and The Origins and Evolution of Planetary Systems) deal with similar topics (http://ngst.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/drm.html).

Observations in the UV/optical range are also important to obtain a complete picture of star and planet formation. Key observations include: 1) sampling the Wien peak of massive star energy distributions; 2) measuring important gas diagnostics for infall/outflow; and 3) studying resolved images of dust disks. As in the infrared spectral regime, space offers unique capabilities for UV/optical astronomy such as the accessible range from 912–3000 $`\AA `$, and diffraction–limited imaging over a large field of view at wavelengths $`<`$ 1 $`\mu `$m.

Here, we concentrate on two areas where a large aperture UV/Optical space telescope could make substantial contributions. We begin by identifying key issues, review the legacy of HST in each area, summarize the promise of SIRTF for studies of circumstellar disks and NGST for investigations concerning the origin of the IMF, and suggest parameters required in order for a UV/optical space telescope to realize its potential for star and planet formation research.

## 2. Evolution of Circumstellar Disks

Why should we care about the evolution of circumstellar disks around young stars? Because their study holds the promise of connecting observations of disks observed in the Milky Way as a function of age with the origin and evolution of our own solar system. Disks are the mostly likely sites of planet formation giving rise to extra–solar planets such as those detected around sun–like stars in the solar neighborhood. Ultimately we wish to know whether planetary systems are common or rare in the Universe. In addition, disk accretion is an important part of the star formation process. Does it help provide “feedback” into the surrounding interstellar medium and thus a regulating mechanism for the determination of stellar masses? What effects does it have on pre–main sequence evolution?

Our current understanding of the evolution of circumstellar disks surrounding young stars is limited by available observations. High resolution spectroscopic observations have suggested a connection between the accretion of material through a disk and mass loss in powerful outflows (e.g. Edwards et al. 1994). Through ground–based near–IR studies of young clusters, it appears that inner disk accretion terminates on timescales $`<`$ 10 Myr for most stars (Haisch et al. 2001; Hillenbrand et al. 2002). Photometric monitoring and spectroscopic observations have suggested a link between stellar rotation and the presence or absence of a disk (e.g. Bouvier et al. 1993). Studies of outer disks (1–10 AU) require mid– to far–infrared observations. A number of groups have suggested that substantial evolution occurs in dust disks at these radii from 10–100 Myr (see Meyer & Beckwith 2000 for a recent review). Millimeter wave observations probe evolution of the coolest dust found at the largest radii (e.g. Zuckerman & Becklin 1993).

### 2.1. Legacy of Hubble

The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) has provided a rich legacy of imaging and spectroscopic observations that have revolutionized the study of circumstellar disks around young stars. The first images of the dark disks seen in silhouette against the bright background of the Orion Nebula provided direct confirmation of the disk hypothesis that even the most ardent skeptics find difficult to refute (e.g. McCaughrean & O’Dell 1996; Figure 1). Subsequent studies have offered numerous examples of objects seen edge–on where a favorable viewing geometry provides a wealth of detailed knowledge about individual objects (e.g. Burrows et al. 1996). Monitoring programs over several years have also enabled proper motion studies of accretion–powered jets that provide direct tests of theoretical models (Hartigan et al. 2001). Coronographic observations with STIS and NICMOS (Schneider & Silverstone this volume) utilize high contrast imaging as a tool to probe dust structure and composition. Wide–field imaging studies have provided insight concerning large–scale mass–loss and interactions with the surrounding interstellar medium (Bally et al. 2002). Finally, UV spectroscopy is proving to be a powerful diagnostic tool to study accretion processes (Ardila et al. 2002) and the atomic and molecular gas content of disks through absorption–line observations along favorable lines of sight (e.g. Vidal–Madjar et al. 1994). Long–slit diffraction–limited imaging spectroscopy has also shed light on the complex relationships between star/disk systems and the surrounding interstellar medium (Grady et al. this volume).

### 2.2. The Promise of SIRTF

The Space Infrared Telescope, the last of NASA’s “Great Observatories” and the first new mission of the NASA Origins program, will be launched in early 2003 and provide unprecedented mid– and far–infrared sensitivity for studies of circumstellar disks. Through a suite of guaranteed time programs and the Legacy Science Program, SIRTF will make major contributions to our understanding of the structure and evolution of circumstellar disks around young stars. One program, the Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems (Meyer et al. 2002), is aimed directly at studying dust disks around solar–type stars and placing our solar system in context 111For additional information see http://feps.as.arizona.edu.. Through construction of spectral energy distributions from 3–160 $`\mu `$m for 350 stars of spectral type F8–K3 we hope to: 1) characterize the transition from primordial dust disks to debris disks by tracing evolution in the amount, distribution, and composition of dust; and 2) examine the diversity of planetary systems through their dynamical effect on dust. Through spectroscopic observations of warm (50–200 K) molecular hydrogen gas we hope to constrain the timescale for gas disk dissipation and giant planet formation. These programs, which build directly on the heritage of IRAS and ISO, will leave a rich legacy for follow–up observations with NGST as well as a large aperture UV/optical space telescope.

### 2.3. Requirements for UV/O Space Telescope

What should we require from a UV/optical space telescope (UV/O–ST) for studies of planet formation? Spatial resolution of order 0.3 AU for the nearest T Tauri stars (3 mas at 100 pc and 1100 $`\AA `$) would enable us to: 1) possibly resolve the disk/jet interface providing a detailed understanding of the accretion process and insight into the star/disk interaction that may mediate stellar angular momentum evolution; and 2) detect large gaps in disks created through the dynamical interaction of giant planets with dust debris. In addition to spatial resolution, sensitivity to study gas disks at R = 10,000 is required in order to: 1) measure accretion rates $`<`$ 10-10 M/year (c.f. Johns–Krull et al. 2000) and 2) extend limits on H2 and CO gas in disks to levels comparable to SIRTF (c.f. Figure 1). Finally, 4–10’ fields of view from 1100–6000 $`\AA `$ are required to trace the accretion–driven mass loss history of young stars by observing shock diagnostics over a range of velocities. Such studies can constrain: 1) the angular momentum loss of PMS star/disk systems through energetic winds; and 2) the deposition of kinetic energy into the turbulent interstellar medium providing a support mechanism for collapsing clouds. An 8m UV/O–ST meets these requirements.

## 3. The Origins of Stellar Masses

How did the universal star formation rate evolve over cosmic time? How do galaxies, including our own Milky Way, assemble themselves? How are stars and planets formed? In order to quantitatively address all of these issues, one fundamental question must be answered: what physical processes determine the shape of the initial mass function of stars and sub–stellar objects? This question has plagued astronomers since the initial mass function was first introduced by Salpeter (1955). Its construction requires translation of an observed luminosity function into a mass function through adoption of an appropriate mass–luminosity (M–L) relation. Because high mass stars exist on the mass sequence for shorter lifetimes and because they are rare in comparison to lower mass stars, even construction of the field star IMF requires the assumption that: 1) the IMF is the same everywhere; and 2) it has remained the same for all time. These two assumptions have not been tested over the full range of available star–forming environments. Recent work by Massey et al. (1995), Scalo (1998), Reid et al. (1999), Kroupa (2001) and references therein have led to extensions of the field star IMF into new mass regimes as well as refinements in the characterization of its shape. Yet, even with the strong assumptions outlined above, uncertainties in the galactic birthrate complicate corrections for massive star evolution and adoption of time–dependent M–L relationships for sub-stellar objects in well–mixed stellar populations. Newly formed star clusters are ideal laboratories to investigate the IMF over the full range of stellar and sub–stellar masses with a minimum of assumptions.

### 3.1. Legacy of Hubble

Through observations that have complemented ground–based work, HST has provided intriguing hints concerning answers to the above questions. Studies of mass functions with WFPC2 and NICMOS in the field (Gould et al. 1997), the bulge (Holtzman et al. 1998), spheroid (Gould et al. 1998) and globular clusters (Paresce & De Marchi 2000) all point toward a stellar IMF that is similar in a variety of star–forming environments. Observations of young clusters with NICMOS, where brown dwarfs are more easily detected due to their high “pre–main sequence” luminosities, suggest that the universality of the IMF extends into the sub–stellar range (Luhman et al. 2000; Najita, Teide, & Carr 2001). Massey & Hunter (1998) have utilized the FOS to study the IMF in the low metallicity R 136 cluster in the Large Magellanic Cloud (Figure 2). The rapid post–main sequence evolution of massive stars creates degeneracies in the analysis of color–magnitude diagrams that require classification spectroscopy in order to accurately derive the IMF. Massey and collaborators find that the IMF above 10 M does not vary over a range of 2.0 dex in metallicity. However, recent near–infrared photometric studies of massive star formation in the inner galaxy with NICMOS on HST have raised the possibility of an unusual power–law IMF above 5 M in the heavily embedded Arches cluster (Figer et al. 1999).

### 3.2. The Promise of NGST

Does the Initial Mass Function (IMF) truncate somewhere below the hydrogen burning limit? Theoretical speculations abound. One conjecture is that the star–forming process is essentially self–regulating through some negative feedback mechanism. For example, accretion of material onto the central protostar drives a powerful bi–polar outflow which could disrupt the remnant infalling envelope (Adams & Fatuzzo, 1996). Balancing the mechanical energy between infall and outflow for typical molecular cloud cores suggests a characteristic mass of $``$ 0.25 M. An opposing view holds that the distribution of star–forming units in a collapsing cloud core is determined by fragmentation processes which in turn depend on the initial conditions of the local interstellar medium (e.g. temperature, density, metallicity). For example, the mass scale for a gravitational perturbation to become unstable in a uniform density medium, the Jean’s Mass, is roughly 0.7 M when averaged over the observed range of densities in nearby molecular clouds. Indeed such a preferred scale is observed as a break in the power–law distributions that characterize the surface density of companions in the Taurus dark cloud (Larson 1995). As the fragments collapse, the local gas density increases. Provided the material remains at a constant temperature, the Jean’s mass will decrease driving smaller and smaller regions unstable (hierarchical fragmentation). However, the minimum mass for fragmentation is fixed at the point where the condensing core becomes opaque to its own radiation, preventing further sub–fragmentation at a constant temperature (e.g. Spitzer 1978). Under conditions typical of nearby clouds this limit is $`10M_{JUP}`$. Large spectroscopic surveys will be needed to build robust estimates of the IMF and distinguish between these theories. With its combination of high angular resolution, accessible wavelength range, and sensitivity, NGST will be able to obtain NIR spectra for hundreds of 106 yr objects down to 1 MJUP viewed through $`A_V<25^m`$ of extinction within 500 pc of the Sun in a few hours of integration.

Nearby regions of massive star formation (R 136, NGC 3603, the Arches cluster) have commanded considerable attention as local analogs to “super star clusters” observed in interacting galaxies (e.g. O’Connell et al. 1994) that are proximate enough for detailed studies of the resolved stellar populations. With few exceptions, most studies show that the IMF of these regions of extreme star formation are consistent with the field star IMF that characterizes the solar neighborhood down to varying low mass limits $`>`$ 1M. Each of these regions contains dozens of stars $`>`$ 10 M which according to the field star IMF should be accompanied by $``$ 105 stars down to the hydrogen burning limit. Yet very little is known concerning the IMF in regions of extreme star formation below 1.0 M. Theory suggests that lower metallicity regions might contain hotter gas due to a lack of molecular cooling and therefore exhibit higher Jean’s mass on average (Nakamura & Umemura 2002). The starburst phenomenon is often associated with a top–heavy IMF as well as an upper mass cutoff suggested by models of their spectral evolution. In order to constrain the mass–to–light ratio in unresolved stellar populations over cosmic time, it is crucial to understand the shape of the IMF as a function of metallicity and environment in regions of extreme star formation. Our best hope is to study in detail star–forming events in the Milky Way and the local group that approach the activity of starbursts. NGST will be able to obtain spectra for objects below the hydrogen burning limit in clusters aged 1–3 Myr with AV = 0–10 from the Galactic Center out to the distance of the LMC.

### 3.3. Requirements for UV/O Space Telescope

What capabilities are required for an UV/O–ST in order for it to make major advances in understanding the origin of the initial mass function? Maintaining a wavelength range from 1100–6000 $`\AA `$ will enable a UV/O–ST to study the formation of high mass stars in regions of low extinction throughout the local group over a wide range of stellar temperatures (spectral types later than K0 to earlier than O5). Spatial resolutions of 200 AU (3 mas at the distance of the LMC and 1100 $`\AA `$) will result in resolution of many wide binary systems and minimize the nebular background often associated with regions of massive star formation. Spectral resolution (and sensitivity) at R$`>`$ 3000 is required for classification of the hottest stars, a necessary step in order to derive an accurate IMF in regions of extreme star formation. Fields of view 4–10’ are required in order to separate clusters from field populations and assess local environments which could influence their dynamical evolution. An 8m UV/O–ST would enable studies of nearby starbursts with resolution and sensitivity comparable to HST studies of massive star formation in the LMC (Figure 2).

#### Acknowledgments.

I would like to thank the SOC for organizing such a stimulating meeting. Special thanks to C. Grady, P. Hartigan, P. Massey, and K. Stapelfeldt for discussions concerning priorities for a UV/O–ST in star and planet formation research, and M. McCaughrean for helpful comments on a draft of this manuscript. Thanks also to the the Max–Planck–Institut für Astronomie in Heidelberg and the Astrophysikalishes Institut Potsdam for the hospitality they provided during the preparation of this manuscript.

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# An Efficient Source of Single Photons: A Single Quantum Dot in a Micropost Microcavity

Current Address: \]Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Electronics, Department of Microelectronics and Information Technology, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Electrum 229, SE-164 40 Kista, Sweden Also at \]NTT Basic Research Laboratories, Atsugishi, Kanagawa, Japan Also at \]Solid-State Photonics Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 94305 U.S.A. Also at \]NTT Basic Research Laboratories, Atsugishi, Kanagawa, Japan

## Abstract

We have demonstrated efficient production of triggered single photons by coupling a single semiconductor quantum dot to a three-dimensionally confined optical mode in a micropost microcavity. The efficiency of emitting single photons into a single-mode travelling wave is approximately 38%, which is nearly two orders of magnitude higher than for a quantum dot in bulk semiconductor material. At the same time, the probability of having more than one photon in a given pulse is reduced by a factor of seven as compared to light with Poissonian photon statistics.

The photon statistics of a light source can be described by the second-order autocorrelation function, defined as follows: $`g^{(2)}(\tau )=\widehat{a}^{}(t)\widehat{a}^{}(t+\tau )\widehat{a}(t+\tau )\widehat{a}(t)/\widehat{a}^{}\widehat{a}^2`$, where $`\widehat{a}^{}(t)`$ and $`\widehat{a}(t)`$ are the photon creation and annihilation operators, respectively, at time $`t`$. A pulsed source will have a correlation function consisting of a series of peaks separated by the repetition period $`T`$. The area $`g_o^{(2)}`$ of the peak around $`\tau =0`$, normalized by $`T`$, gives an upper bound on the probability that two or more photons are present in the same pulse: $`P(n2)(1/2)\widehat{n}^2g_o^{(2)}`$, where $`\widehat{n}`$ is the mean photon number per pulse Santori et al. (2001). A source where $`g_o^{(2)}<1`$ has a reduced multi-photon probability as compared to coherent light with Poissonian photon statistics. If $`g_o^{(2)}`$ is sufficiently close to zero, we can speak of a single-photon source.

Such a source has been demonstrated using the controlled excitation of single molecules Brunel et al. (1999); Lounis and Moerner (2000) and single nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond nanocrystals Beveratos et al. (2002), and using the controlled injection of carriers into a mesoscopic quantum well Kim et al. (1999). Pulsed excitation of semiconductor quantum dots (QD’s) can also be used for single-photon production Michler et al. (2000); Santori et al. (2001). The energy of the photon emitted due to electron-hole recombination in a dot depends on the total charge configuration of the dot Landin et al. (1998). If we excite a QD with a laser pulse, then, the electron-hole pairs that are created will each recombine to emit a photon with a unique wavelength. A single emitted photon can subsequently be isolated by spectral filtering Gérard and Gayral (1999).

QD’s offer several advantages as sources for single photons. They have high oscillator strengths and narrow spectral linewidths, and do not suffer from photobleaching or shelving. The materials used to make QD’s are compatible with mature semiconductor technologies, allowing them to be further developed and integrated with other components. A significant drawback, though, is that very few of the photons emitted by a QD escape from the high-refractive-index semiconductor containing the dot into useful directions. This can be remedied by placing the dot in a microscopic optical cavity, increasing the spontaneous emission rate by a quantity known as the Purcell factor. The fraction $`\beta `$ of the emitted photons which are captured by the cavity mode then depends on the enhanced emission rate $`\gamma `$ and the emission rate $`\gamma _o`$ in the absence of a cavity: $`\beta =1(\gamma _o\gamma _c)/\gamma `$, where $`\gamma _c/\gamma _o`$ is the fraction of radiation that would be coupled into the cavity mode in the limit of zero photon storage time.

In order to have an efficient source of single photons, it is necessary that a large fraction of the light escapes from the confined cavity mode into a single travelling-wave mode. This extraction efficiency can be determined by comparing the quality factor $`Q`$ of the mode in a real cavity to the quality factor $`Q_o`$ for an ideal cavity without unwanted losses: $`\eta _{\mathrm{extract}}=Q/Q_o`$. The mean photon number per pulse that can be observed will also depend on the total collection and detection efficiency of the experimental apparatus. Since this is not intrinsic to the single-photon source, we will concentrate on the external quantum efficiency $`\eta `$ of the device, independent of the measurement equipment.

Several semiconductor microcavities have been investigated for the enhancement of spontaneous emission from QD’s, including whispering-gallery modes in microdisks Gayral et al. (1999) and defect modes in two-dimensional photonic crystals Reese et al. (2001); Yoshie et al. (2001). More practical for light extraction are microscopic posts etched out of distributed-Bragg reflector (DBR) microcavities Gérard et al. (1998); Solomon et al. (2001). Light escaping from the fundamental mode of a micropost microcavity is well approximated by a Gaussian beam, and can thus be efficiently coupled into optical fibers, detectors, or other downstream optical components.

We used molecular-beam epitaxy to grow planar DBR microcavities containing self-assembled InAs QD’s. The DBR mirrors consist of alternating quarter-wavelength-thick layers of GaAs and AlAs, separated by a one-wavelength-thick spacer layer of GaAs. The reflectivity of the bottom DBR was deigned to be significantly higher than that of the top DBR, so that almost all of the light in the cavity escapes upwards rather than downwards. The QD’s were grown at the center of the spacer layer. They are islands of InAs formed by a strain-induced self-assembly process Bimberg et al. (1999). We grew islands with a low areal density by using a high substrate temperature and by stopping InAs deposition shortly after island formation.

Following the growth, we etched microposts out of the sample. A bilayer resist was exposed using an electron beam and was subsequently used to lift off a thick nickel mask. The sample was then etched using a low-pressure electron-cyclotron-resonance plasma of chlorine and boron trichloride in a background of argon. We divided the etch into three stages; in each subsequent stage, we decreased the flow rate of chlorine and decreased the process pressure. The sample was cooled to an initial temperature of about $`3^o`$C before the etch was started. Fig. 1(a) shows a scanning-electron microscope image of a typical etched micropost. Light in the post is confined vertically by the DBR’s and laterally by total internal reflection.

For optical measurements, pulsed laser light with a photon energy larger than the GaAs bandgap was directed towards the micropost. The sample was held in a liquid-helium cryostat at a temperature of approximately 5 K, so that the created carriers were rapidly trapped by the QD and quickly relaxed to the lowest-energy confined states. Optical emission was collected by a lens in front the the cryostat and was filtered spectrally and spatially to eliminate scattered pump light. The emitted light could be sent to a spectrometer (with a spectral resolution of 0.05 nm) or to a streak camera (with a temporal resolution of 25 ps), for measurement of intensity as a function of time and of wavelength. Alternatively, it could be directed towards a Hanbury Brown and Twiss-type (HBT) apparatus, which incorporated spectral filtering, in order to record a histogram of time intervals between photons. In the limit of low total collection and detection efficiency, this histogram approximates the photon correlation function $`g^{(2)}(\tau )`$. More detail on the experimental methods can be found in Ref. Santori et al. (2002a).

We used selected a particular post, with a top diameter of 0.6 $`\mu `$m, which exhibited a single-QD photoluminescence line at a wavelength of 855 nm, spectrally well removed from the wetting-layer emission. A visibility of $`33.1\pm 1.8`$ % was measured in a linear polarization basis for this emission line, while very low visibility was measured in a circular basis. We therefore modelled light from the QD as consisting of a linearly polarized part together with an unpolarized part in determining the fraction of QD emission lost at the polarizers in our HBT setup.

Single-photon generation was confirmed using the HBT apparatus. A measured histogram is shown in Fig. 2(a). The central peak is nearly absent, reflecting strong suppression of the multi-photon probability. Each peak in the photon correlation data can be described by a two-sided exponential, with a decay constant given by the spontaneous decay time and the instrument response time. The recombination time was measured using the streak camera to be $`4.4\pm 1.2`$ ns. (Details on lifetime measurements are given in Ref. Santori et al. (2002b).) The time resolution of the HBT apparatus was calibrated by measuring correlation functions for attenuated laser light scattered off the micropost. The width of the measured peaks was $`473\pm 29`$ ps, mostly limited by electronic jitter in our photon counters.

A fit using the measured time constants is also shown in Fig. 2(a); the only two adjustable parameters are the area of the central peak and the area of all the other peaks. The ratio of these areas, equal to $`g_o^{(2)}`$, is shown for various pump powers in Fig. 2(b). The probability of multi-photon pulses increases with pump power, suggesting that other states, apart from the desired QD emission, are contributing a background of unregulated photons.

The overall detection efficiency after the initial collection lens was determined by scattering attenuated laser light, tuned to the QD emission wavelength, off the micropost of interest. The total photon count rate at the detectors was compared to the optical power measured immediately after the collection lens using a calibrated power meter. Including light lost at the polarizers, the detection efficiency was determined to be $`3.02\pm 0.16`$ %.

The fraction of light captured by the initial lens, on the other hand, was estimated to be 22% using Gaussian-beam optics, with the beam waist in the post being approximated by the fundamental mode in an infinite cylindrical waveguide. This estimate was validated by calculations using the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method. The field distribution in the fundamental mode was calculated as described in Ref. Pelton et al. (2002); Fig. 1(b) shows the result. The far-field radiation pattern was then estimated by Fourier-transforming the calculated near field Vuc̆ković et al. (2002). The result shows a nearly Gaussian profile, with a divergence that agrees well with that given by Gaussian-beam optics.

In order to determine the device efficiency, the total photon count rate was normalized by the laser repetition rate and then divided by the collection and detection efficiency, giving the mean photon number per pulse $`\widehat{n}`$. We then assumed that the light emitted from the source consists of a statistical mixture of perfectly regulated single photons, together with a small background of photons with Poissonian statistics. The coupling of this state into the travelling-wave mode leaving the top of the micropost was modelled as an attenuation by a factor equal to the efficiency $`\eta `$, giving $`\eta =\widehat{n}(1g_o^{(2)})^{1/2}`$.

Fig. 3 shows efficiencies determined in this way. The efficiency saturates at higher powers, when more than one electron-hole pair is captured by the dot for each pump pulse. The solid line is a fit according to the saturation equation $`\eta =\eta _{\mathrm{max}}(1e^{P/P_{\mathrm{sat}}})`$, where $`P_{\mathrm{sat}}`$ is the saturation pump power and the saturated efficiency $`\eta _{\mathrm{max}}`$ is equal to $`37.6\pm 1.1`$%. This external quantum efficiency is approximately two orders of magnitude higher than that for a QD in bulk GaAs. We believe that this is also the highest efficiency yet reported for a single-photon source. We note that, in determining this efficiency, we have not considered the polarization states of the emitted photons. We also note that the efficiency drops to approximately 8% if we include losses at the initial collection lens; however, this could be improved simply by using a lens with a larger numerical aperture.

The measured efficiency should be equal to the product of the coupling coefficient $`\beta `$ and the light extraction efficiency $`\eta _{\mathrm{extract}}`$. Under high pump power, the discrete QD transition is accompanied by a broadband background, filtered by the cavity resonance; a Lorentzian fit to the filtered luminescence gives $`Q=628\pm 69`$. A similar measurement on an unetched portion of the planar microcavity gives $`Q_o=1718\pm 13`$, resulting in $`\eta _{\mathrm{extract}}=36.6\pm 4.0`$%. The coupling coefficient, on the other hand, was determined by measuring the recombination rates for other QD’s on the same sample that are out of resonance with the cavity mode. The off-resonant lifetimes are expected to be nearly identical to the lifetimes of QD’s in the absence of a microcavity, due to the high density of leaky modes in our micropost microcavities Bayer et al. (2001). Since the unmodified lifetimes are too long to measure using our streak camera, we measured the autocorrelation of photons from these dots using the HBT apparatus, and fitted the peak widths to obtain a recombination time of $`25.4\pm 1.4`$ ns. This represents a Purcell factor of $`5.8\pm 1.6`$, corresponding to a coupling coefficient $`\beta =83\pm 23`$%. We note that the unmodified lifetimes are unusually long for self-assembled InAs / GaAs QD’s. However, the demonstrated improvement of collection efficiency using the Purcell effect is independent of the exact nature of the dots, and should apply equally to QD’s with shorter lifetimes.

Combining the measured $`\beta `$ and $`\eta _{\mathrm{extract}}`$ results in an expected external quantum efficiency of $`30\pm 9`$%. This agrees, within the error, with the efficiency that we determined at saturation.

Both $`\beta `$ and $`\eta _{\mathrm{extract}}`$ are limited by the quality factor of the microcavity mode. FDTD simulations predict $`Q=657`$ for our micropost, in good agreement with the experimental value. Since the calculations do not include non-idealities such as surface roughness, the difference between $`Q`$ for the micropost and $`Q_o`$ for the planar microcavity can be attributed to the post geometry. Improving $`Q`$ requires more vertical post sidewalls, which should be achievable using different etching techniques, such as chemically assisted ion-beam etching. Optimization of the microcavity design can increase the quality factor yet further, allowing for coupling efficiencies approaching 100% Vuc̆ković et al. .

To summarize, we have demonstrated efficient generation of single photons using a single quantum dot in a micropost microcavity. The emission rate from the dot was enhanced by a factor of 5.8, so that 83% of the emitted light was coupled into a single cavity mode. The majority of this light escaped into a single-mode, Gaussian-like travelling wave, resulting in an external quantum efficiency of approximately 38%. This high efficiency is achieved at the same time that the probability of having more than one photon in a given pulse is reduced by a factor of seven as compared to Poissonian light. We note that single-photon generation using a single QD in a micropost microcavity has recently been reported by other researchers Moreau et al. (2001), but no explicit treatment of device efficiency has been provided.

An efficient source of single photons will be useful for quantum key distribution N. Lütkenhaus (2000). Using existing single-photon sources would result in a limited secure-key transmission rate over reasonable distances, due to the accumulated effects of source inefficiency, channel loss, and compression during error correction and privacy amplification. Our demonstrated improvement in source efficiency would allow for transmission through approximately 20 dB of additional channel loss. Our single-photon source may also eventually be useful for linear-optical quantum computation, providing the very high efficiencies required, while emitting indistinguishable photons capable of exhibiting the necessary fourth-order interference Knill et al. (2001).

###### Acknowledgements.

We would like to thank E. Waks and A. Scherer for helpful discussions. Financial assistance for M.P. and C.S. was provided by Stanford University. Financial assistance for C.S. was also provided by the National Science Foundation. Financial assistance for G.S.S. was provided by the Army Research Office.


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# Multiple Collimated Outflows in the Proto-planetary Nebula GL 618

## 1 Introduction

Kwok, Purton, and Fitzgerald (1978) introduced the interacting winds model to account for the development of spherical planetary nebulae (PN). In this model a massive, low-velocity wind removes a large fraction of the envelope material during the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase of evolution, and is followed by a higher-velocity, lower-mass wind. The high-velocity wind snowplows into the previously ejected AGB wind material and sweeps up gas to form a PN. The majority of PN exhibit aspherical structure, ranging from slightly elliptical to bipolar (Greig, 1971; Zuckerman and Aller, 1986; Balick, 1987; Schwarz, Corradi, and Melnick, 1992; Manchado et al., 1996). Other investigators have extended the interacting winds model to explain the formation of these aspherical objects (Khan and West, 1985; Balick, 1987; Soker and Livio, 1989; Icke, Balick, and Frank, 1992; Frank, 1994; Dwarkadas, Chevalier, and Blondin, 1996).

Understanding the origin of asymmetric structure in PN has been the focus of extensive research in recent years. To achieve asymmetric PN morphologies, the interacting winds model requires that mass loss during the early phases of the development of these objects is aspherical. This aspherical structure is then amplified through the wind-shaping that occurs as the PN evolves. Observationally, the time that aspherical structure becomes important is becoming clear. Mass loss during the AGB is predominantly spherical (Neri et al., 1998; Meixner et al., 1998), while the morphologies of proto-planetary nebulae are typically aspherical (Trammell, Dinerstein, and Goodrich, 1994; Meixner et al., 1997; Dayal et al., 1998; Kwok, Su, and Hrivnak, 1998; Ueta, Meixner, and Bobrowsky, 2000). These findings indicate that during the late-AGB and/or post-AGB phase, the mass loss becomes aspherical (Kastner, Soker, and Rappaport, 2000, for reviews). The mechanism that triggers this change in the character of the mass loss is not well understood. Suggestions for this trigger range from binary star evolution (Morris, 1981; Soker and Livio, 1994) to the effects of magnetic fields (Garcia-Sergura, 1997).

A recent HST narrow-band H$`\alpha `$ survey of the morphologies of low excitation PN (Sahai and Trauger, 1998a) revealed a dazzling array of complex structures in these objects including jets, knots, bubbles, and loops. The large variety of structures seen in these images cannot be explained by the interacting winds model alone. Sahai & Trauger suggested that phenomena such as jets acting during the early post-AGB phase may play a role in creating the complex structures seen in these objects. Recent CO observations of several young PN with collimated outflows have demonstrated that these outflows are significantly disrupting and interacting with the neutral shells surrounding these objects (Forveille et al., 1998; Cox et al., 2000; Huggins et al., 2000; Bachiller et al., 2000). Both the HST imaging and the CO observations suggest that jets could have a significant impact on the way we think about the evolution of PN. The interaction of the jet with previously ejected material may influence the morphological evolution of PN in a way that is not considered in current models of PN formation. Further, the phenomena driving the change from spherical to aspherical mass loss in the early stages of PN development are not clear. The formation of jets may play a role in the change to aspherical mass loss in some objects.

If jets are playing a major role in the shaping of PN, their influence will be most significant at a time when the PN still has a large neutral envelope and before the fast wind develops. We present HST observations of GL 618, a young PN undergoing the stage of evolution immediately preceding the PN phase, during which recently lost material has begun to disperse but the fast wind has not fully developed. GL 618 is surrounded by a shell of dust and neutral gas that extends well beyond the optical nebula (Speck, Meixner, and Knapp, 2000; Meixner et al., 1998, and references therein). Our new observations have allowed us to confirm that jets are present in GL 618 and to better understand the importance of these outflows in development of this object.

Ground-based optical and near-IR imaging of GL 618 reveal two lobes of emission (each about 3$`\mathrm{}`$ in extent) separated by a dark lane. The central regions of the nebula are hidden from direct view at optical and near-IR wavelengths by the lane of obscuring material. The spectrum of GL 618 is composed of a faint continuum and a variety of low-excitation emission lines. Schmidt and Cohen (1981) and Trammell, Dinerstein, and Goodrich (1993) used spectropolarimetry to study GL 618 and found that the continuum and part of the permitted line emission are reflected from deep in the nebula. The low-excitation, forbidden line flux and remainder of the permitted line emission are produced in the bipolar lobes. Trammell et al. demonstrated that shock-excited emission dominates the spectra of the lobes of GL 618 with the emission indicative of shock velocities in the range of 50$``$100 km s-1. Long-slit optical spectroscopy of GL 618 suggests that the shock emission is associated with out-flowing gas (Carsenty and Solf, 1982). Sanchez Contreras, Sahai, and Gil de Paz (2002) present a recent detailed ground-based spectroscopic study of GL 618. Their analysis of the emission line profiles and ratios suggest shock velocities in the range 75$``$200 km s-1. The largest velocities correspond to the tips of the bullets that we see in our HST images. Near-IR spectroscopy of GL 618 has revealed the presence of thermally excited H2 emission (Thronson, 1981; Latter et al., 1992). This object also exhibits \[Fe II\] emission thought to be associated with the shock-heated gas (Kelly, Latter, and Rieke, 1992) and more recent observations establish that at least part of this emission is associated with an outflow (Kastner et al., 2001). Ueta, Fong, and Meixner (2001) presented high spatial resolution near-IR images of GL 618 taken with the Subaru Telescope. The structure observed in the near-IR extends beyond the optical nebula and these images reveal the presence of ”horns” and bullet-like structures associated with the bipolar lobes of GL 618. Ueta et al. suggest that the \[Fe II\] emission is associated with these features. These features are coincident with the tips of the outflows that we see in our HST images. These authors also found high velocity CO clumps at the positions of the IR bullets when they re-examined existing 12CO J=1-0 interferometry data. Our new HST observations demonstrate that the source of the shock-excited emission in GL 618 is a set of highly collimated outflows originating in the central regions of the object.

## 2 Observations

We have obtained WFPC2 images of GL 618 as part of a HST Cycle 6 program. GL 618 was centered in the Planetary Camera which has a 36″x 36″field of view and a plate scale of 0.0455″pixel-1. Images were obtained through three filters selected to isolate strong shock-excited emission lines, and thus trace the outflow in this source. The filters used were F631N (isolating \[O I\]$`\lambda `$6300 line emission), F656N (isolating H$`\alpha `$ line emission), and F673N (isolating \[S II\] $`\lambda `$$`\lambda `$6717,31 line emission). In addition, we obtained images through F547M in an attempt to measure the adjacent continuum emission. The images of GL 618 were obtained on 23 October 1998 UT and exposure times ranged from 15 to 45 minutes. The images were processed through the HST data reduction pipeline procedures and cosmic rays were removed by combining several exposures of each object. The images were flux calibrated using the standard conversion to flux provided during the pipeline reduction procedures.

We have not removed the continuum from the narrow-band images that we present in this work. The F547M continuum band is contaminated by many weak emission lines making it impossible to reliably use images through this filter for continuum subtraction. Alternatively, we could have used an average value for the continuum derived from our ground-based work to remove continuum emission from our HST images. However, the line to continuum ratio is highly variable across the nebula making this approach unreliable. We point out that the continuum is approximately flat across the wavelength range covered by our narrow-band filters (as indicated in the ground-based spectroscopy, Trammell, Dinerstein, and Goodrich (1993)) and that this continuum is significantly weaker than the line emission in our ground-based spectroscopy (average line to continuum ratios of 50 to 125 for H$`\alpha `$, \[S II\], and \[O I\]). Further, the line emission seen in our HST images is concentrated in knot-like structures. In these regions of intense line emission, the line to continuum ratio is higher than the average values derived from the ground-based work. Consequently, the lack of continuum subtraction does not significantly affect our conclusions regarding the overall morphology of the shock-excited emission.

We have used our narrow-band images to form several line ratio maps for GL 618. The problems with continuum subtraction do introduce an additional error (approximately 10% in the worst case) into these maps. However, the primary purpose of these maps is to determine the outflow velocity. The outflow velocity is determined by comparing the observed line ratios with ratios predicted by models of shock-excited emission. The comparison with shock models results only in a range of possible shock velocities. The relatively small errors introduced into the line ratios by the lack of continuum subtraction do not significantly alter the value of the shock velocity that we derive.

## 3 Results And Analysis

Previous ground-based optical and near-IR work indicate that out-flowing gas is present in GL 618 (see section 1 for discussion). We present HST narrow-band imaging of GL 618 that confirm the presence of outflows in the lobes of this object and reveal the morphology of these flows. Figure 1 shows the 3-color image of GL 618 created by combining the H$`\alpha `$, \[S II\], and \[O I\] narrow-band images of this object. Figure 2 shows the individual narrow-band images. At least three distinct outflows are visible in each lobe of GL 618. The opening angles of these outflows are small, approximately 10 $``$15°. The central star is not visible in the HST images, consistent with previous optical and near-IR images (Latter et al., 1992). A dust lane obscures the central star at optical wavelengths.

The morphologies seen in the \[S II\] and \[O I\] HST images are similar (see Figures 1 and 2). These images trace the morphology of the shock-excited emission in GL 618. The brightest emission occurs near the tip of each of the outflows and there is no forbidden line emission seen in the central regions of GL 618. Careful examination of the tip of the outflow labeled a in the west lobe of GL 618 (see Figure 1) reveals an excitation gradient across this region. H$`\alpha `$ is brightest on the side of the knot that is facing away from the central regions of GL 618. This type of gradient is expected as material flowing away from the central source impinges on the surrounding nebular material. The bright spots at the tips of the outflows are not clumps of material being overrun by a wind or outflow (Trammell, 2000). In this case, the brightest H$`\alpha `$ emission would be present on the side of the bullet-like structures facing the central object. Based on their near-IR images and a reanalysis of high resolution CO data, Ueta, Fong, and Meixner (2001) also argue that the shock-excitation is produced when fast-moving material impacts the surrounding nebula.

The morphology observed in H$`\alpha `$ differs from the forbidden line morphology. H$`\alpha `$ emission is associated with the outflows, but in addition, a significant amount of H$`\alpha `$ emission is seen towards the central regions of GL 618 (see Figures 1 and 2). Spectropolarimetric observations indicate that part of the H$`\alpha `$ emission is reflected and part of this emission is produced by shocks in the lobes (Trammell, Dinerstein, and Goodrich, 1993). We have spatially separated these components in the HST images. At least part of the H$`\alpha `$ emission associated with the central regions of the object is probably reflected emission from an H II region buried deep in the nebula. Recent ground-based spectroscopy confirms that part of the H$`\alpha `$ in the inner regions is scattered (Sanchez Contreras, Sahai, and Gil de Paz, 2002). A high density H II region has been observed at the center of GL 618 at radio wavelengths (Kwok and Feldman, 1981) and in the reflected optical spectrum (Trammell, Dinerstein, and Goodrich, 1993). The H$`\alpha `$ emission coincident with the outflows is the shock-excited component of the permitted line emission.

In addition to the H$`\alpha `$ emission associated with the inner regions of the object and the outflows, a faint halo of emission is present in the H$`\alpha `$ image (best seen in Figure 2 panel a). This faint halo is most likely H$`\alpha `$ emission scattered by dust present in the outer regions of GL 618. GL 618 is known to be surrounded by an extensive molecular and dust envelope (see section 1 for discussion). The dusty material is probably part of the shell of material ejected by the central star of the object during its late AGB evolution. The axis of symmetry appears to be different for the scattered light envelope and the outflows seen in GL 618.

Three outflow features are seen in the images of GL 618. We believe that these features are the result of three separate outflows occurring simultaneously in GL 618. Alternatively, these features could be the result of one precessing jet. However, if this were the case we would expect to see S or spiral shaped morphology in the emission from the outflow (Cliffe et al., 1995; Livio, and Pringle, 1996). We do not observe this type of morphology in the lobes of GL 618. We have further investigated the nature of the outflows by considering the recombination times of the ionized gas in the outflows. The presence of photoionized gas appears to be limited to the immediate vicinity of the central star in GL 618. This suggests that there is no significant source of ionization in the lobes of GL 618 other than that caused by thermal excitation in the outflows. If an outflow precesses away from a region, that region will continue to emit until the gas cools and recombines. Emission from S+ is seen in all three outflow features. We can estimate the amount of time that the gas would continue to produce \[S II\] line emission after the outflow precesses away from a region by calculating the recombination time for S+. The recombination time, $`\tau _{recomb}`$, is given by

$$\tau _{recomb}=\frac{1}{N_e\alpha }$$

where Ne is the electron density and $`\alpha `$ is the recombination coefficient. The electron density is approximately 104 cm-3 based on ground-based spectroscopy (Trammell, Dinerstein, and Goodrich, 1993) and the recombination coefficient for S+ is 1.8 x 10-12 cm3 s-1 (Arnaud and Rothenflug, 1985, for T=10,000 K). The S+ would recombine in approximately 1 year after the outflow moved away from a region. Based on this result, we conclude that the three features seen in our HST images are three separate ongoing outflows. It has been suggested that simultaneous, multiple outflows have occurred or are occurring in several other young PN including the Starfish Twins (Sahai, 2000), GL 2688 (Cox et al., 2000), Roberts 22 (Sahai et al., 1999), and the Frosty Leo Nebula (Sahai et al., 2000).

A ring-like morphology is seen in the outflows in all of the HST images (see Figure 1). This is most evident in the bright outflow labeled b in Figure 1. This morphology has not been seen in any ground-based images. The presence of these structures offers an opportunity to estimate the inclination of GL 618. Carsenty and Solf (1982) estimated the inclination of GL 618 be to 45°based on their optical spectroscopy. If GL 618 were viewed pole-on ($`i=`$ 90°) we would expect the rings to be perfect circles. Instead, we see elliptical structures. We have estimated the inclination of three of the outflows based on the shapes of the rings as seen in the H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] images. For the brightest outflow in the East lobe (labeled b in Figure 1), we estimate an inclination of 39°$`\pm `$ 4°. For the outflow labeled c in the East lobe, we estimate an inclination of 59°$`\pm `$ 10°. The feature labeled d in Figure 1 implies an inclination of 36°$`\pm `$ 4°. These results suggest that the outflows in GL 618 are not co-planar. These results also indicate that the previous estimate of the inclination of GL 618 was an overestimate. Sanchez Contreras, Sahai, and Gil de Paz (2002) also find a lower inclination for GL 618. Based on their spectroscopic observations of H$`\alpha `$ in GL 618, these authors calculate an inclination angle of 24°$`\pm `$ 6°.

The ring-like features occur at semi-regular intervals along the outflows and could indicate that the source of the jet is episodic. Raga and Noriega-Crespo (1998) modeled this type of structure for episodic outflows associated with young stars. Alternatively, the rings could be the result of instabilities in the outflow. If the rings are the result of an episodic jet, we can estimate the amount of time between ejection events by looking at the spacing of the rings. The ring-like structures seen in outflow labeled b in Figure 1 are separated by approximately 0.5″. Assuming an outflow velocity of 120 km s-1 (see discussion later in this section) for the jet and a distance to GL 618 of 1.5 kpc, this implies an ejection event approximately every 35 years. Note that distance to GL 618 is uncertain and estimates range from 0.9 to 2 kpc (Schmidt and Cohen, 1981; Goodrich, 1991).

A dark arc is evident in the H$`\alpha `$ image of the West lobe (see Figure 2a). This arc is located approximately 1.5″from the center of the dark lane. The dark arc is a region where there is a deficit of H$`\alpha `$ emission. We believe that we are seeing dust in silhouette at the position of the dark arc. This dust could be located in the outer edge of the lane of dust obscuring the central star of GL 618. On the other hand, it could be a feature in the extended halo of GL 618. This halo is the remnant of AGB mass loss in this object. If the arc is a feature of the dust halo of GL 618, it might be similar to the arcs seen in HST images of GL 2688, another young planetary nebula. The arc structure in the extended scattered light halo of GL 2688 is explained as episodic mass loss by the star during the late AGB phase of evolution (Sahai et al., 1998b). A deep image of the scattered light halo of GL 618 could reveal if this type of episodic mass loss occurred in this object.

We have measured the average value of line ratios at the tips of the outflows labeled a, b, and e in Figure 1. These are the regions where out-flowing material is impacting the surrounding nebula. In these regions \[O I\] / H$`\alpha `$ = 0.37 $``$ 0.40 and \[S II\]/H$`\alpha `$ = 0.11 $``$ 0.16. The values of the line ratios at the tips of the outflows provide an estimate of the shock velocity, and thus the outflow velocity in these regions. The bullet-like structures seen at the tips of the outflows have the geometry of bow shocks. Our estimates are an average of the line ratios across the entire bow shock region. Only the line ratios at the head of the bow shock, where the velocity component perpendicular to the shock is greatest, will reveal the maximum shock velocity. The rest of the bow shock consists of oblique shocks that result in line ratios indicative of lower shock speeds. Therefore, the shock velocity derived by examining line ratios from the entire region of the bow shock will provide an average value of the shock velocity. The outflow velocity at the tip of the outflow will be larger.

We have compared the observed line ratios with the models of thermally excited emission produced in a bow shock presented by Hartigan, Raymond, and Hartmann (1987). The line ratios are most consistent with their model of a bow shock with velocity 100 km s-1. If we compare our results to the planar shock models presented by Hartigan et al., we find that our observed line ratios are consistent with a shock velocity in the range of 40$``$100 km s-1. Note that these models do not include the effects of magnetic fields. The field strength at the tips of the outflows is likely to be small so that this assumption is valid. However, if the field is strong ($``$ 300 $`\mu `$G) in these regions, we could be underestimating the shock velocity by 20$``$40 km s-1.

The shock velocity is a measure of the relative speeds of the colliding gas. In the case of GL 618 an outflow is colliding with a surrounding shell of material that was ejected during the AGB/post-AGB phase. Meixner et al. (1998) have estimated an overall outflow velocity for the extended CO shell around GL 618 of 20 km s-1. Assuming that the outflows are colliding with gas moving at approximately 20 km s-1, the measured shock velocity (100 km s-1) indicates a velocity for the collimated outflow to be about 120 km s-1 (Voutflow = Vshock \+ Vshell). This is consistent with estimates of the outflow velocity based on previous spectropolarimetry (Trammell, Dinerstein, and Goodrich, 1993) and with optical and near-IR kinematic measurements (see section 1). This value is also consistent with the shock velocities recently reported by (Sanchez Contreras, Sahai, and Gil de Paz, 2002).

Based on an outflow velocity of 120 km s-1 and assuming a distance to GL 618 of 1.5 kpc, we calculate the kinematic age of the outflows. The brightest outflows (labeled a and b in Figure 1) extend approximately 6″from the center of GL 618 in the HST images. We assume an inclination of 39°(see previous discussion). These parameters yield a kinematic age of $``$ 500 years for the outflows seen in the HST images. The outflows seen in GL 618 are a recent phenomenon and probably became active shortly after the star left the AGB.

Hajian, Phillips, and Terzian (1995) detected emission from CS in GL 618. This emission has an X-like morphology and is confined to the inner 4″of the object (this corresponds to the dark lane that we see in our optical images). The outflows that we see in the optical seem to be a continuation of the CS structure, as the optical outflows continue along a line extended from the CS structure. Meixner et al. (1998) examined the CO emission in GL 618 at high spatial resolution. The majority of the CO emitting gas in GL 618 is participating in a spherical expansion at 20 km s-1. However, these high spatial resolution observations reveal that the halo of CO emission is not entirely spherically symmetric. The CO exhibits an X- like structure in the halo. This structure appears as 3 bright spots of CO emission located approximately 20″from the center of GL 618. These areas of low-velocity (20 km s-1) CO emission are along the same axis as the CS and optical emission and are exterior to the optical outflows. The fact that the low-velocity CO emission related to the outflow is exterior to the optical emission is important. This indicates that the outflow is interacting with the neutral shell surrounding GL 618. Jets are playing a major role in the morphological development of this PN.

## 4 Discussion

Our observations demonstrate that emission from highly collimated outflows dominates the optical emission and morphology of GL 618. A comparison of the optical images with previous molecular line studies indicates that the jets are interacting with the neutral envelope surrounding GL 618. This interaction is shaping the neutral envelope of GL 618 and will determine the morphological evolution of this object. GL 618 is undergoing the early stages of PN development. Only a small region of photoionized gas is present in GL 618 and this ionized gas is found only in the immediate vicinity of the central star (Kwok and Feldman, 1981). The fast wind described in the interacting winds model (Kwok, Purton, and Fitzgerald, 1978) has not fully developed in GL 618. The interacting winds model suggests that it is the interaction of this fast wind with the surrounding neutral envelope that dictates the morphological evolution of a PN. In GL 618 the fast wind will be interacting with a neutral envelope that has already been significantly altered by the action of the jets.

The interaction of the jets with the neutral envelope seen in GL 618 is not unique. Recent observations of several other young PN indicate that jets may have a much more significant role in the overall development of these objects. CO observations of PN known to contain collimated outflows have shown that these outflows are having a major impact on the surrounding neutral shells (Forveille et al., 1998; Cox et al., 2000; Huggins et al., 2000; Bachiller et al., 2000, e.g.). For example, in BD+30°3639 the CO observations reveal a pair of high velocity molecular knots just outside the ionized nebula. This is very similar to relationship between the molecular material and optical jets seen in GL 618. In all of these objects the jet’s interaction with the neutral shell, not interacting winds, could be the dominant mechanism in determining the overall morphology of the PN.

The complex, multi-polar geometry observed in GL 618 is not unique. Sahai (2000) presented HST images of two young PN, He 2-47 and M1-37 (dubbed the Starfish Twins). These objects exhibit multi-polar morphology that is similar to that seen in GL 618. Sahai suggests that jets established the complex geometry of these nebulae. He estimates that the jets were active within the past few hundred years and suggests that multiple outflows occurred simultaneously in these objects. While the overall morphology of these objects is similar to GL 618, there are some differences. Knots or bullets of emission are prominent at the tips of the outflows in GL 618. These types of structures are not evident in the images of He 2-47 and M1-37. These bright spots mark the point where active jets collide with ambient material in GL 618. The jets are no longer active in the Starfish Twins so that the regions that correspond to tips have cooled significantly and do not appear as bright spots.

CO observations and HST imaging strongly suggest that jets play a important or dominant role in the shaping of some PN. These jets appear to be short-lived and they seem to operate during the post-AGB and/or PPN phases of evolution. Early jet action sets the stage for the complex morphologies we observed in some PN. High spatial resolution spectroscopy of these objects is needed to better understand the dynamics of the outflows and their impact of the surrounding material.

The overall morphology of the neutral envelope of GL 618, as traced by CO, is spherical (Meixner et al., 1998). The more recent mass outflows in this object are clearly aspherical. As is the case in other PN, the mass loss in GL 618 appears to have switched from spherical to aspherical soon after the star left the AGB. The kinematic age of the outflows suggest that the jets turned on sometime shortly after the star left the AGB. The trigger for the switch from spherical to aspherical mass loss in GL 618 appears to be the formation of collimated outflows in this object.

The debate concerning the origin of collimated outflows and also the formation of aspherical PN in general, centers on whether binary or single stars are responsible for producing aspherical mass loss. Both models of binary star interaction (Morris, 1981; Soker and Livio, 1994) and magnetic confinement (Garcia-Sergura, 1997; Matt et al., 2000), while providing a scheme for producing the overall aspherical structure in PN, may also provide mechanisms to produce the highly collimated outflows. The complex, multi-polar outflow geometry seen in GL 618 may be difficult for either of these types of models to explain.

The authors thank the referee for useful comments and suggestions. This work was supported by NASA through grant number GO-06761 from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555.