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# Out of equilibrium statistical ensembles for mesoscopic rings coupled to reservoirs

## Abstract

We derive non equilibrium statistical ensembles for a ballistic Aharonov-Bohm loop connected to several electrodes connected to reservoirs with different chemical potentials. A striking consequence of these non trivial ensembles is the emergence of quantum zero point fluctuations of the persistent current around the loop. Detailed predictions for the low frequency noise power are given.

Persistent currents in isolated rings have been the subject of detailed theoretical Imry ; Landauer  and experimental Levy ; Mohanty ; Chandra ; Mailly  investigations. They are indeed a probe of the many body energy level dependance in the external magnetic flux but they are also sensitive to the quantum state of the ring. Persistent currents in isolated mesoscopic networks have been discussed theoretically in the context of a semi-classical model in the diffusive limit Pascaud , and in the context of the scattering approach for ballistic conductors Texier . Observation of persistent currents in an isolated set of connected mesoscopic diffusive rings has been reported in recent experiments Rabaud .

The physics associated to persistent currents in a ring connected to external reservoirs has first been investigated in Buttiker2  where the connection between the spectrum of the isolated ring and its transport properties in a two terminal geometry has been established. The resulting $`h/e`$ periodic oscillations of the conductance have been observed experimentally Webb . Connecting a circuit (which plays the role of the system) to external leads will also affect the persistent current because of the electron’s tunnelling into the leads. For instance, connection to a single lead has been considered in Buttiker-bis  to model dissipation in the ring. Here, we investigate deeply non-equilibrium situations such as a two terminal experiment with a high bias voltage. In the non-equilibrium case, the reduced density matrix of the ring is a non trivial one, not reducible to any equilibrium density matrix. This effect is non perturbative since it survives even in the limit of vanishing coupling to the reservoirs.

In this letter, we illustrate this idea in the simple example of a mesoscopic ballistic non interacting ring coupled to several electrodes that are connected to external reservoirs of different chemical potentials. We first determine the ring’s reduced density matrix and show that it can be used to recover transport properties in the spirit of Buttiker2 . Then, we show that a dramatic signature of the non equilibrium character of the ring’s reduced density matrix is the presence of quantum zero point fluctuations of the persistent current around the ring. With progresses of low noise measurements and nano-fabrication techniques, these fluctuations may become observable in a near future. This effect is basically due to the increase of electron states that contribute to the noise. Let us mention that increases of shot noise based on the same general idea have also been discussed in the context of beam experiments imry:beams  and of diffusive contacts with strong electron/electron interactions nagaev . We end this letter by discussing how these non-equilibrium issues can be traced within the framework of Keldysh’s formalism.

Similarly to Ref. Texier , we divide a connected system into two types of regions: a ballistic “intermediate” region that contains an Aharonov-Bohm loop and external electrodes connected to the Aharonov-Bohm loop (see Fig. 1). DC-transport can be controlled through a voltage difference $`V`$ applied between the left and right external electrodes and the flux enclosed by the Aharonov-Bohm loop. Quantities of physical interest are the transport current flowing across the mesoscopic device and the persistent current flowing around the loop.

The external electrodes and the intermediate region can be described using a tight-binding Hamiltonian for free electrons. The coupling between the left/right electrodes and the intermediate island is described by the tunnel Hamiltonian :

$$\widehat{𝒲}=t_{a,\alpha }c_a^+c_\alpha +t_{\alpha ,a}c_\alpha ^+c_a+t_{b,\beta }c_b^+c_\beta +t_{\beta ,b}c_\beta ^+c_b.$$
(1)
Since we are interested in out of equilibrium effects, we focus on the $`eVk_BT`$ regime. In most cases, we shall set $`T=0`$ K. This model is valid provided that the tunnelling amplitudes from the electrodes to the small system are much larger than the inelastic scattering rates inside the small system. In this case, tunnelling to the electrodes completely determine the non equilibrium state of the system and reservoirs. The most transparent picture of this stationary non equilibrium state can be obtained within the Laudauer formalism. The idea of the scattering approach is to find a basis of stationary one-particle states (the “in” states) from which the exact non equilibrium many body state of the global system (mesoscopic device and leads) can be constructed. The prescription is then to fill the “in” states coming from each lead up to its chemical potential.

Since we are interested in the persistent current, a quantity specific to the small system, the natural object to consider is the one particule reduced density matrix restricted to the mesoscopic device. To our knowledge, this object has seldom been considered within the context of mesoscopic physics whereas it has been discussed long ago in the context of black hole physics. In the discussion of Unruh and Hawking effects Hawking , the degrees of freedom behind the horizon are the counterparts of those attached to the leads in the present case. The ring’s one particle reduced density operator can be obtained by eliminating the one particle wave functions in the leads from the exact stationary Schrődinger equation. This procedure yields an inhomogeneous Schrődinger equation on the small system, with an effective Hamiltonian containing boundary terms representing hopping back and forth to the reservoirs and a source term associated to the incident electronic flux. Solutions to this equation provides the decomposition of “in” states’s wave functions in the mesoscopic system’s Hilbert space.

This decomposition has a very simple form in the limit of very small coupling to the leads. It shows Lorentzian resonances when the energy of the “in” state coincides with the one particle eigenvalue $`\epsilon _\lambda `$ of the isolated mesoscopic system’s Hamiltonian. Near resonance, the decomposition of the “in” state coming from the left electrode at energy $`\epsilon `$ is given by:

$$\psi _\lambda (\epsilon ,L)\frac{it_{\alpha ,a}\lambda |a}{(\epsilon \epsilon _\lambda )+\frac{i\mathrm{}}{2}\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda }.$$
(2)
Here $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda =\frac{l}{\mathrm{}^2v_R}(|t_{\alpha ,a}a|\lambda |^2+|t_{\beta ,b}b|\lambda |^2)`$ denotes the total escape rate given by the Fermi golden rule for an electron in the small system stationary state $`|\lambda `$ expressed in terms Fermi velocity in the reservoirs $`v_R`$ and the lattice spacing $`l`$. From the lead’s point of view, these resonances appear in the transmission coefficient:

$$t(\epsilon )\frac{it_{\alpha ,a}t_{\beta ,b}b|\lambda \lambda |a}{(\epsilon \epsilon _\lambda )+\frac{i\mathrm{}}{2}\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda }.$$
(3)
In the case where the level spacing in the mesoscopic system is large compared to the total escape rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda `$ of an electron from the state $`|\lambda `$ to the electrodes, the ring’s reduced density matrix is diagonal within the basis of one particle energy levels of the ring (incoherent reduced density matrix). Populations $`\overline{n}(\epsilon _\lambda )=c_\lambda ^{}c_\lambda `$ are given at zero temperature by:

$$\overline{n}(\epsilon _\lambda )=\frac{1}{2}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_L}{\pi \mathrm{\Gamma }}\mathrm{arctan}\left(\frac{\epsilon _\lambda \mu _L}{\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Gamma }/2}\right)\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_R}{\pi \mathrm{\Gamma }}\mathrm{arctan}\left(\frac{\epsilon _\lambda \mu _R}{\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Gamma }/2}\right)$$
(4)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{L,R}`$ denote the escape rates in the left (resp. right) electrode given by the Fermi golden rule. In general, these escape rates do depend on the energy level $`\lambda `$. Note that $`\overline{n}(\epsilon _\lambda )`$ is nothing but the average of contributions of all electrodes connected to the small system, the ponderation being provided by ratios of Fermi golden rule’s escape rates. In the limit of very small tunnelling amplitudes, this distribution can still remain non trivial, being a step function determined by the ratios of tunnelling amplitudes. The values of these non equilibrium populations are easily understood in a classical way according to the sequential tunnelling picture. For instance, when $`\mu _L>\mu _R`$ and for energy levels $`\mu _R<\epsilon _\lambda <\mu _L`$, the current $`(1\overline{n}(\epsilon _\lambda ))\mathrm{\Gamma }_L`$ from the left lead must be equal to the current $`\overline{n}(\epsilon _\lambda )\mathrm{\Gamma }_R`$ to the right lead leading to a non equilibrium population $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_L/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ consistent with eq. (4). We note that local non equilibrium occupation numbers have been discussed and observed experimentally in mesoscopic diffusive wires Pothier .

For a non interacting system, the persistent current is the average value of the derivative of the ring’s Hamiltonian with respect to the magnetic flux. Using the mesoscopic system’s reduced density matrix and under the hypothesis of negligible variation of escape rates for all the energy levels which are partially occupied, a simple expression can be given in terms of the persistent current $`I(\varphi ,\mu _\alpha )`$ of a ring at fixed chemical potentiel $`\mu _\alpha `$:

$$I_P(\varphi )=\underset{\alpha }{}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_\alpha }{\mathrm{\Gamma }}I(\varphi ,\mu _\alpha )$$
(5)
The current $`I(\varphi ,\mu _\alpha )`$ can be computed directly in term of the single electron eigenenergies $`\epsilon _n(\varphi )`$ for the isolated ring as $`_n\frac{d\epsilon _n(\varphi )}{d\varphi }\mathrm{\Theta }(\mu _\alpha \epsilon _n(\varphi ))`$ or equivalently using the scattering matrix of the ring Akkermans . Formula (5) directly shows the influence of non equilibrium populations given by eq. (4). Let us also notice that, in this non equilibrium situation, the persistent current cannot be derived using the derivative of the average energy with respect to the flux. As a function of the external magnetic flux, the persistent current still roughly has a sawtooth shape but with discontinuities when one particle energy levels cross the reservoir’s chemical potentials.

At fixed reservoir’s chemical potentials, the experimental signal is given by the Fourier transform with respect to the magnetic flux. Let us recall that for an isolated ballistic 1D ring, the $`n`$-th harmonic $`I_n`$ is given in terms of the Fermi velocity $`v_F`$, the ring’s perimeter $`L`$ and the number of electrons in the ring $`N`$. Introducing $`I_{}=ev_F/L`$:

$$I_n=I_{}\times \frac{i}{\pi n}(1)^{nN}$$
(6)
In the non equilibrium situation described here, at zero temperature, the harmonics are given by :

$$I_n[(\mu _\alpha )]=I_{}\times \frac{i}{\pi n}\times \left(\underset{\alpha }{}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_\alpha }{\mathrm{\Gamma }}\mathrm{cos}(2\pi n\chi (\mu _\alpha ))\right)$$
(7)
where $`\chi (\mu )=\sqrt{\frac{2mL^2\mu }{h^2}}`$ corresponds to an effective flux associated with the chemical potential $`\mu `$. In the particular case of a two terminal geometry, the $`n`$th harmonic is modulated by the bias voltage $`V`$. As expected on physical grounds, the modulation only appears in the asymmetric case. Assuming that $`eV=\mu _L\mu _R`$ is small compared to $`\sqrt{\mu }=(\sqrt{\mu _L}+\sqrt{\mu _R})/2`$, we have for the $`V`$-dependant part of $`n`$-th Fourier harmonic:

$$\frac{I_n[\mu _L,\mu _R]}{I_n[\mu ,\mu ]}1=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_L\mathrm{\Gamma }_R}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}\mathrm{tan}(2\pi n\chi (\mu ))\mathrm{sin}\left(\frac{neVL}{\mathrm{}v_F\sqrt{2}}\right)$$
(8)
In principle, this could be experimentally observed under conditions similar to the ones necessary for the observation of the persistent current in a single ballistic ring. We assume the effective electron gas temperature to be smaller than $`\mathrm{}v_F/L`$. Tunnelling amplitudes must be within the range $`k_BT/\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{L/R}v_F/L`$ and the voltage bias should satisfy $`eV\mathrm{}v_F/L`$. For 10 $`\mu `$m diameter ring, the level spacing is typically of 500 mK. A temperature within the mK range ensures that thermal effects do not suppress the persistent current. Voltages above 1 mV should be sufficient to create non equilibrium populations for many one particle energy levels. The total dc-conductance is given by $`G=\frac{e^2}{h}\frac{2L}{v_F}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_L\mathrm{\Gamma }_R}{\mathrm{\Gamma }_L+\mathrm{\Gamma }_R}`$.

A more striking signature of the non equilibrium reduced density matrix can be found in the zero temperature noise of the persistent current. Since the ”in” scattering states are stationary states of the total Hamiltonian, the two time correlation function of the persistent current can be exactly computed using our previous expressions for $`\psi _\lambda (\epsilon ,\alpha )`$. Its Fourier transform $`S_{I_P}(\omega )`$ turns out to have a complicated expression showing quantum structures above frequencies of order $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. For the ring considered above, at a dc-resistance of the order of 10 to 1000 $`h/e^2`$, this frequency is still above 1 Mhz. Measurements of the persistent current as carried for instance in Rabaud  are done at a much lower frequency. Therefore, experimentalists only access to the zero frequency limit of the noise. $`S_{I_P}(0)`$ turns out to be related to the ensemble fluctuations $`C_P=I_P^2I_P^2`$ of the persistent current by $`S_{I_P}(0)=2C_P/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. At low frequency, $`S_{I_P}(\omega )`$ shows a lorentzian behaviour:

$$S_{I_P}(\omega )\frac{2\mathrm{\Gamma }}{\omega ^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }^2}C_P.$$
(9)
The characteristic function of the probability distribution of the persistent current is given by a superposition of partition noises ($`j_n(\varphi )=d\epsilon _n(\varphi )/d\varphi `$):

$$\widehat{P}(k)=\underset{n}{}\left(1+\overline{n}(\epsilon _n(\varphi ))(e^{ikj_n(\varphi )}1)\right)$$
(10)
Only the partially populated energy levels contribute to the non-zero cumulants and therefore these non-zero cumulants constitute a true signature of the non equilibrium state of the ring. On the contrary, the persistent current of an isolated ring has zero noise at zero temperature. This opens the possibility of an experimental test although measuring the persistent current noise can be quite an experimental challenge.

The total noise is a sum of contributions associated to the partially occupied one particle energy levels. For $`eV\mathrm{}v_F/L`$, a continuum spectrum approximation can be used. Since all energy levels between the smallest and the largest lead’s chemical potential contribute to the noise, the variation of the Fermi velocity $`v_F(\epsilon )`$ might be taken into account for explicit evaluations. The variance $`C_P`$ of the persistent current is finally obtained as:

$$C_P=I_{}^2\frac{v_F(\epsilon )}{v_F}\overline{n}(\epsilon )(1\overline{n}(\epsilon ))\frac{d\epsilon }{\mathrm{}v_F/L}$$
(11)
In particular, for the two terminal geometry, and assuming constant escape rates and constant Fermi velocity over the relevant energy range, one gets:

$$C_P=I_{}^2\frac{|eV|}{hv_F/L}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_L\mathrm{\Gamma }_R}{\mathrm{\Gamma }^2}$$
(12)
which shows that the fluctuation of the persistent current becomes larger than its average value as soon as the voltage is larger than the energy level separation in the ring. The three terminal geometry has a richer structure. Denoting by $`\mu _{1,2,3}`$ the chemical potentials in decreasing order and $`y_\alpha =\mathrm{\Gamma }_\alpha /\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, we get:

$$C_P=\frac{eI_{}^2}{hv_F/L}\left(V_2y_2(y_1y_3)+V_3y_3(1y_3)V_1y_1(1y_1)\right)$$
(13)
Note that sensitivity with respect to the intermediate voltage is enhanced with the asymmetry in the couplings to the leads.

As expected, the noise is also a periodic function of the magnetic flux. Its Fourier transform with respect to the magnetic flux can easily be obtained using the free electron dispersion relation. Using $`v_F^2(\epsilon _n(\varphi ))/v_F^2=\epsilon _n(\varphi )/\epsilon _F`$, the zero temperature noise can be related to the persistent current around a loop connected to a single lead. Ordering the chemical potentials in increasing order, we get:

$$\frac{C_P}{\varphi }=\frac{I_{}^2}{\epsilon _F}\underset{\alpha }{}(I_P(\varphi ,\mu _\alpha )I_P(\varphi ,\mu _{\alpha +1}))\overline{n}_{\alpha ,\alpha +1}(1\overline{n}_{\alpha ,\alpha +1})$$
(14)
where $`\overline{n}_{\alpha ,\alpha +1}`$ denotes the non equilibrium population of all energy levels between chemical potentials $`\mu _\alpha `$ and $`\mu _{\alpha +1}`$. In the end, the $`n`$-th harmonic of the zero temperature variance of the persistent current is given by:

$$C_P(n)=\frac{I_{}^2}{2\pi ^2n^2}\underset{\beta \alpha }{}y_\alpha y_\beta \mathrm{sign}(\alpha \beta )\mathrm{cos}(2\pi n\chi (\mu _\alpha ))$$
(15)
Let us now connect the simple physical picture just developed to some important issues raised within the Keldysh approach. The Keldysh formalism is a natural framework for dealing with non equilibrium physics Keldysh . It provides a way to do systematic perturbation theory in the tunnelling amplitudes. The starting point of this perturbation theory is an “initial” density operator which is partly fixed by imposing the temperatures and chemical potentials of the external reservoirs. But this does not by itself determine the initial density operator for the mesoscopic ring.

In order to clarify this point, let us discuss the dc-current through system. The current flowing through the left contact can be expressed as Wingreen :

$$I_{\alpha ,a}=\frac{e^2|t_{\alpha ,a}|^2}{\mathrm{}}(G_{aa}^<g_{\alpha \alpha }^>G_{aa}^>g_{\alpha \alpha }^<).$$
(16)
where the $`g_{\alpha \alpha }`$s denote Keldysh’s Green functions for the isolated left lead whereas the $`G_{a,a}`$s are for the system with the right lead connected. Using Dyson’s equation, one gets: $`G_{a,a}^<=(1+G^Rt)g^<(1+tG^A)`$. Naively, equation (16)’s r.h.s. could depend on the system’s initial density operator through Keldysh’s Green functions for the isolated mesoscopic system. Such terms would introduce infrared divergences in Keldysh’s perturbative expansion and of course be present in computations involving the persistent current around the ring. But the key point is that Dyson’s equation for the retarded and advanced Green’s function provide a way to cure this problem in the non interacting case since one can show that $`1+G^Rt=G^R(g^R)^1`$ vanishes on the system’s eigenenergies. Those terms can also be cured order by order in Keldysh’s perturbative expansion by imposing that the system’s “initial” Green’s function $`g^{>,<}`$ are given by the non trivial one particle reduced density operator computed in this letter.

Similar issues have been recently discussed in the context of quantum dots. For example, in Ref. Coleman , the authors ask how to represent the effect of a large voltage bias between the two leads connected to a dot in the Kondo regime. This particular problem raises the important question of finding the correct starting point for Keldysh’s perturbative expansion in the coupling to the reservoirs. In a recent work Parcollet , O. Parcollet and C. Hooley have pointed out the importance of finding the right reduced density operator for the impurity spin even in the limit of a small coupling to the leads in order to obtain a well defined and correct perturbation expansion.

In conclusion, we have shown on a specific example that the physics of mesoscopic devices connected to external leads must be described using non equilibrium statistical ensembles even in the limit of vanishing coupling to the reservoirs. The example of a mesoscopic ring connected to two leads at different voltages could provide a direct experimental test of these ideas. We have shown that non zero cumulants of the persistent current are a signature of the non-equilibrium reduced density matrix of the mesoscopic ring. These ideas can be extended to more complicated circuits using the scattering approach on general graphs Texier2 . Another issue is to derive the non equilibrium state of an interacting system such as a Luttinger liquid coupled to leads.

Fruitful discussions with S. Camalet, F. Hekking and L. Saminadayar are acknowledged. J.-C. Cuevas is thanked for very useful comments on Keldysh’s perturbation theory.


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# Silicon Detectors at the LHC

## 1 Introduction

The LHC detectors will have to function in a high radiation environment, fluences of up to $`10^{15}`$ 1 $`\mathrm{MeV}`$ neutron equivalents ($`\mathrm{n}_{\mathrm{eq}}`$)$`/\mathrm{cm}^2`$ are expected over a 10 year period. They will have to cope with a 40 MHz collision rate and high particle multiplicities. In this environment, the detectors must provide efficient tracking and b-tagging capabilities.

These requirements are met by the silicon systems that are being constructed for the LHC detectors on a scale previously unprecedented in particle physics.

## 2 ALICE

ALICE, the heavy ion collider experiment of the LHC, has the highest expected particle multiplicities at the LHC: up to 8000 charged particles per unit of rapidity. In order to achieve a good two-track separation three dimensional hit information is required wherever possible.

The primary functions of the ALICE silicon system  are the determination of primary and secondary vertices necessary for the reconstruction of charm and hyperon decays, to provide identification (using dE/dx) for low momentum particles and to assist the ALICE time projection chamber in particle tracking.

The silicon system consists of six cylindrical layers of silicon detectors. The two inner layers, at radii of $`47\mathrm{cm}`$, and coping with multiplicities of up to 90 particles/$`\mathrm{cm}`$2 are comprised of 240 modules containing 9.8 million $`50\times 425\mu \mathrm{m}`$ $`p^+\mathrm{on}n`$ pixels .

The two central layers consist of silicon drift detectors, ALICE is the only experiment at the LHC to exploit this technology. The need for three dimensional information combined with the relatively modest central event rate ($``$40 Hz trigger) and radiation hardness requirements (12.7 krad in 10 years for the inner layer) at ALICE make this a suitable technology choice. A series of $`p^+`$ field strips are implanted on both sides of an n-type silicon wafer and connected by built-in voltage dividers. Hence, under an applied bias voltage, an electric drift field parallel to the wafer surface is produced. Electrons liberated by charged particles are drifted up to 35 $`\mathrm{mm}`$ in 4.5 $`\mu \mathrm{s}`$ and collected on the $`256n^+`$ anodes. The doping inhomogeneities in the neutron transmutation doped material cause the electrons to deviate significantly from their ideal trajectory and this must be compensated for. The deep sub-micron CMOS readout electronics samples the collected charge at 40 MHz with a 10 bit ADC. After corrections are applied a spatial precision of 25 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ in the drift co-ordinate and 33 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ in the perpendicular co-ordinate has been achieved over the full drift distance of 35 $`\mathrm{mm}`$.

The outermost two layers of the silicon system, at radii of 39 and 43 $`\mathrm{cm}`$, are comprised of 1770 modules containing 2.7 million 95 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ pitch double sided silicon strips. Analogue read-out, implemented in the 0.25 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ CMOS process, is used in order that the dE/dx information is preserved.

## 3 LHCb

LHCb, the dedicated b physics experiment at the LHC, has a forward geometry covering the range 15 to 300 mrad. The tracking system comprises a set of circular silicon sensors known as the vertex locator , a silicon strip station and three hybrid tracking stations. The silicon sensors will all be read out with radiation hard analogue electronics.

The hybrid tracking stations employ two different technologies: they have silicon sensors in the higher occupancy region close to the beam and straw drift tubes surrounding these. The silicon strip station and the hybrid layers will use the same sensor design and a similar layout. Each station comprises four layersof single sided 200 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ $`p^+\mathrm{on}n`$ pitch sensors. Two of these layers are rotated by a small stereo angle. Typically, two 11cm long sensors are connected together to form a ladder.

The vertex locator (VELO) is required to perform primary and b decay vertex reconstruction, with the displaced vertex capabilities being used in the second level trigger. Hence, good vertex resolution and fast tracking capabilities were strong considerations for the design. The VELO uses two sets of 42 4.2 $`\mathrm{cm}`$ outer radius semi-circular sensors, arranged over approximately one metre with the beam direction as their axis, covering the interaction point and the region downstream. The sensors are of two types, having strips that run either radially or circumferentially with pitches varying between 40 and 100 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$. The two sets of half disks are separated by 6 $`\mathrm{cm}`$ during injection of the LHC beam, but the active strips at the inner radius of the disks are brought to only 8 $`\mathrm{mm}`$ from the LHC beam when stable conditions are provided. Naturally this leads to an extreme radiation environment, a fluence of $`10^{14}`$ $`\mathrm{n}_{\mathrm{eq}}`$/$`\mathrm{cm}^2`$ per year is anticipated. The performance of irradiated $`p^+\mathrm{on}n`$ and $`n^+\mathrm{on}n`$ prototype sensors, evaluated in a test beam, are compared in Figure 1. $`n^+\mathrm{on}n`$ sensors have been chosen as they remain fully efficient even when only 60 % of the detector thickness is depleted. A best resolution of 4 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ has been achieved with these sensors.

## 4 ATLAS

The inner detector tracking system of ATLAS  consists of pixels, silicon strips and a straw tracker.

The pixel system has three forward disks per side and three barrel layers at radii of 5 to 12 $`\mathrm{cm}`$. The detector is composed of 1500 modules and has 100 million $`50\times 400\mu \mathrm{m}^2`$ $`n^+\mathrm{on}n`$ pixels. The modules are mounted on carbon frames, where their positions must be monitored and maintained at a 10 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ accuracy. The 15 kW of power dissipated in the $`1.5\mathrm{m}^2`$ pixel system is removed by a coolant in the integrated cooling ducts. A new 7 $`\mathrm{m}`$ long insertable tubular layout has been designed which allows independent installation and removal of the pixels from the silicon strip layers. In addition to decoupling the construction schedule for the pixels and strips this will also facilitate upgrades, for example a change in the inner pixel layer which (due to radiation damage) is only anticipated to be operational for the first three to five years of the LHC. The pixels are readout with a In/SnPb bump-bonded front-end chip implemented in the radiation hard 0.25 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ CMOS process. A recent production run has been highly successful with 85 % of the chips passing the initial tests, and irradiated bump-bonded assemblies retaining high efficiency (98%), low noise (350 $`e^{}`$) and the expected resolution of 13 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$.

Four barrel layers at radii of 27 to 52 $`\mathrm{cm}`$ and nine end cap disks per side of silicon strips surround the pixel detector. Single sided $`p^+\mathrm{on}n`$ strips are used throughout with a square sensor containing 80 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ pitch strips used in the barrel and wedge geometries used in the forward region. The sensors are readout with binary DMILL BiCMOS front-end chips. A module consists of two sets, mounted back to back, of two daisy-chained single sided sensors with a 40 mrad stereo angle between the planes. The effective strip length is around 12 $`\mathrm{cm}`$.

The designs of all the LHC detectors are now well advanced and indeed production of the larger systems of ATLAS and CMS has already commenced. Indeed, in the case of ATLAS, 85 % of the silicon strip sensors have already been delivered, with less than 1 % of the manufacturer’s supplied detectors failing the ATLAS tests. Module production is also now underway.

In order to successfully assemble such large systems a well structured testing and quality assurance plan is necessary. Extensive tests are performed on the components such as the sensors, hybrids and front-end chips before assembly, during assembly and on the completed modules. The scale of these tests is illustrated by listing the tests that will be performed on the final assembled ATLAS silicon module: 100 points are measured on each detector; Leakage current measurements up to 500V are taken and the stability checked over a 24 hour time period; a range of electrical tests are performed including the requirement that 99 % of the strips are efficient; the modules are required to withstand ten thermal cycles between -25C and +40C; finally the modules are operated, clocked and triggered, at the standard operating environment and temperature of -7C for 24 hours.

## 5 CMS

CMS has by far the largest of the silicon systems, as they have adopted an entirely silicon solution to their tracking .

The initial barrel pixel system consists of two layers close to the interaction point at radii of 4.4 and 7.2 $`\mathrm{cm}`$ and two forward disks, with a $`100\times 150\mu \mathrm{m}^2`$ pixel size. The inner layer is expected to receive a fluence of about $`3\times 10^{14}\mathrm{n}_{\mathrm{eq}}/\mathrm{cm}^2`$ per year at full machine luminosity, with the readout chip being the most vulnerable part of the system and expected to withstand approximately two years of running. At a fluence of $`6\times 10^{14}\mathrm{n}_{\mathrm{eq}}/\mathrm{cm}^2`$ the sensors are expected to be operated at less than half the full depletion voltage, hence the choice of $`n^+\mathrm{on}n`$ pixels.

One of the key differences of the CMS and ATLAS silicon strip detectors has already been mentioned: while the ATLAS system has 4,000 modules the CMS system has a staggering 15,000 modules to assemble. There are 10 detector layers in the barrel region and three inner disks and nine outer disks per side of the detector: a total of 206 $`m^2`$ of silicon. The CMS module design uses either two or four $`p^+\mathrm{on}n`$ sensors in a module for single sided or back-to-back layers. The strip pitches vary between 61 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ in the inner barrel layer at 21 $`\mathrm{cm}`$ and 140 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ in the outer layer at 115 $`\mathrm{cm}`$.

Another significant difference is the choice of readout mode for the system. While ATLAS has selected the cheaper option of binary readout, the additional control and resolution of analogue readout has been chosen by CMS and the other two experiments. The larger data volume of the CMS analogue system is then readout of the 128 channel front-end chips and passed to a laser driver which transmits the signals in fibre optic cables over a 100$`\mathrm{m}`$ distance to the counting room.

An entirely automated system has been developed both for the module assembly and for the testing. The setup that is used at each of the seven laboratories assembling modules is shown in figure 2. The system uses video from a CCD video camera to automatically locate fiducial marks on each of the module components. Glue is dispensed onto the carbon fibre frame and then the silicon sensors and hybrid are positioned by a robotic arm. Results show that two sensors in a module have an rms translational displacement of only 3 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and a rotational accuracy of 1.5 mrad has been achieved. Three modules can be assembled simultaneously in around 25 minutes.

## 6 Closing Remarks

With the development and construction of the LHC a paradigm shift in silicon detector history is occurring. There are nine distinct subsystems, over $`280m^2`$ of silicon and 22,000 modules to assemble. The silicon systems of the LHC do not simply provide superior vertexing capabilities or provide the first space points for tracking, like their LEP forerunners, but rather their combined attributes of spatial precision, speed and radiation tolerance have gained these technologies their roles as primary components of the tracking system for the LHC experiments.

## 7 Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the many members of the silicon groups of the four LHC experiments who assisted in the preparation of my presentation and of this paper, particularly Ariella Cattai, Leonardo Rossi and Flavio Tosello.


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# Probing drifting and nulling mechanisms through their interaction in PSR B0809+74

## 1 Introduction

In pulsars, the emission in individual pulses generally consists of one or more peaks (‘subpulses’), that are much narrower than the average profile and the brightness, width, position and number of these subpulses often vary from pulse to pulse.

In contrast, the subpulses in PSR B0809+74 have remarkably steady widths and heights and form a regular pattern (see Fig. 1a). They appear to drift through the pulse window at a rate of $`0.09P_2/P_1`$, where $`P_2`$ is the average longitudinal separation of two subpulses within one rotational period $`P_1`$, which is $`1.29`$ seconds. Figure 1a also shows how the pulsar occasionally stops emitting, during a so-called null.

In this paper, we will interpret the drifting subpulse phenomenon in the rotating carousel model (Ruderman & Sutherland 1975). In this model, the pulsar emission originates in discrete locations (‘subbeams’) positioned on a circle around the magnetic pole. The circle rotates as a whole, similar to a carousel, and is grazed by our line of sight. In between successive pulses, the carousel rotation moves the subbeams through this sight line, causing the subpulses to drift.

Generally, the average profiles of different pulsars evolve with frequency in a similar manner: the profile is narrow at high frequencies and broadens towards lower frequencies, occasionally splitting into a two-peaked profile (Kuzmin et al. 1998). This is usually interpreted in terms of ‘radius to frequency mapping’, where the high frequencies are emitted low in the pulsar magnetosphere. Lower frequencies originate higher, and as the dipolar magnetic field diverges the emission region grows, causing the average profile to widen.

The profile evolution seen in PSR B0809+74 is different. The movement of the trailing edge broadens the profile as expected, but the leading edge does the opposite. The profile as a whole decreases in width as we go to lower frequencies until about 400 MHz. Towards even lower frequencies the profile then broadens somewhat (Davies et al. 1984; Kuzmin et al. 1998). Our own recent observations of PSR B0809+74, simultaneously at 382, 1380 and 4880 MHz, confirm these results (Rankin et al. 2002). Why the leading part of the expected profile at 400 MHz is absent is not clear. While Bartel et al. (1981) suggest cyclotron absorption, Davies et al. (1984) conclude that the phenomenon is caused by a non-dipolar field configuration. We will refer to this non-standard profile evolution as ‘absorption’, but none of the arguments we present in this paper depends on the exact mechanism involved.

In a recent paper (van Leeuwen et al. 2002, henceforth Paper I) we investigated the behaviour of the subpulse drift in general, with special attention to the effect of nulls. We found that after nulls the driftrate is less, the subpulses are wider but more closely spaced, and the average pulse profile moves towards earlier arrival. Occasionally this post-null drift pattern remains stable for more than 150 seconds.

For a more complete introduction to previous work on PSR B0809+74, as well as for information on the observational parameters and the reduction methods used, we refer the reader to Paper I. In this paper we will investigate the processes that underly the post-null pattern changes. We will quantify some of the timescales associated with the rotating carousel model and map the post-null changes in the drift pattern onto the emission region.

One of the interesting timescales is the time it takes one subbeam to complete a rotation around the magnetic pole. This carousel-rotation time is predicted to be of the order of several seconds in the Ruderman & Sutherland model. Only recently a carousel-rotation time was first measured: Deshpande & Rankin (1999) find a periodicity associated with a 41-second carousel-rotation time for PSR B0943+10.

The second goal is to determine the changes in the emission region that underly the different drift pattern we see after nulls. Mapping this emission region could increase our insight into what physically happens around nulls.

Achieving either goal requires solving the so-called aliasing problem: as the subpulses are indistinguishable and as we observe their positions only once every pulse period, we cannot determine their actual speed.

## 2 Solving the aliasing problem

The main obstacles in the aliasing problem are the under sampling of the subpulse motion and our inability to distinguish between subpulses. The pulsar rotation only permits an observation of the subpulse positions once every pulse period. Following them through subsequent pulses might still have led to a determination of their real speed, but unfortunately the subpulses are so much alike that a specific subpulse in one pulse cannot be identified in the next, making it impossible to learn its real speed.

In Fig. 2 we show a simulation of subpulse drifting, where we have marked all subpulses formed by a particular subbeam with a darker colour. We use these simulations to discuss how the driftrate, which is the observable motion of the subpulses through subsequent pulses, is related to the subbeam speed, which cannot be determined directly. In Fig. 2a the speed of the subbeams is low ($`0.09P_2/P_1`$) and identical to the driftrate. In Fig. 2b the subbeam speed is higher ($`0.91P_2/P_1`$), but the driftrate is identical to the one seen in Fig. 2a. When the differences between subpulses formed by various subbeams are smaller than the fluctuations in subpulses from one single subbeam, these two patterns cannot be distinguished from one another. In that case the subpulses within one driftband, which seem to be formed by one subbeam, can actually be formed by a different subbeam each pulse period (‘aliasing’).

To solve the aliasing problem for PSR B0809+74 we follow driftrate changes after nulls to determine the subbeam speed. Nulls last between 1 and 15 pulse periods, and in Paper I we have shown that for each null the positions of the subpulses before and after the null are identical if we correct for the shift of the pulse profile. So, as there is no apparent shift in subpulse position, either the subbeams have not moved at all, or their movement caused the new subpulses to appear exactly at the positions of the old ones.

As the lengths of the nulls are drawn from a continuous sample it is highly unlikely that the subbeam displacement is always an exact multiple of the subpulse separation: only a total stop of the subbeam carousel can explain why the subpulse positions are always unchanged over the null. At some point after the null, however, the subbeams have accelerated, and the drift pattern has returned to normal. In Fig. 1 we see how, after a null, the driftrate increases to its normal value in about 50 pulses.

There are two scenarios for this subbeam acceleration. The first we will call gradual speedup. Here the changes in the subbeam speed occur on timescales larger than $`P_1`$. The second we will call instantaneous, as the entire acceleration happens within $`1P_1`$, effectively out of sight.

In Fig. 3 we show four simulated pulse sequences with different speedup parameters. In all cases, we simulate a drift pattern like that of PSR B0809+74. During a null, from pulses 30 to 45, there is no subbeam displacement. Immediately after the null the subbeams build up speed, and each pulse period we translate the subbeam displacement to a change in subpulse position. Although the final driftrate is the same for all scenarios ($`0.09P_2/P_1`$), the subbeam speeds differ considerably. The bottom four graphs show these speeds for each scenario. In the top four diagrams we have marked the subpulses from one subbeam with a darker colour for clarification.

Let us look at the case of gradual speedup to alias order $`0`$, where the subbeam speed is the same as the driftrate (Fig. 3a). In this case the driftrate will gradually increase and form a regular driftband pattern, much like the pattern found in the observations.

Next, we investigate a subbeam acceleration to a slightly higher speed. At $`0.91P_2/P_1`$, Fig. 3b shows alias mode $`1`$, which is the simplest configuration in which the subbeams move opposite to the subpulse drift. Right after the null the drift consequently commences in this opposite direction. When the subbeam speed nears the first aliasing boundary $`0.5P_2/P_1`$, the subpulses seem to move erratically through the window. After the subbeam speed passes the first alias boundary, the subpulse drift resumes its normal direction, and as the subbeam speed approaches $`0.91P_2/P_1`$, the drift pattern returns to normal.

Also in the ‘alias order 1’ scenario (Fig. 3c), which is the simplest aliased mode in which the subbeams move in the same direction as the subpulses, the subpulses wander when the subbeam speed nears an alias boundary. Such a disturbance of the drift pattern turns out to be present in all simulations of non-zero alias orders. Because the observed pulse sequences always show smooth, non-wandering driftbands (like in Fig. 1a), we conclude that the subbeams cannot accelerate gradually to a high speed.

With instantaneous acceleration the subbeam speed switches suddenly. Most likely it will do so when the pulsar beam faces away from us. After we see pulse number $`n`$, the subbeams will move slowly for a certain time, quickly speed up, and then move fast until we see the subpulses of pulse $`n+1`$ appear. The actual speedup can occur any moment between seeing pulses $`n`$ and $`n+1`$. This means that the displacement of the subbeams can vary from very little (speedup just before pulse $`n+1`$) to a lot (speedup right after pulse $`n`$). The accompanying changes in subpulse position will then be evenly distributed between 0 and $`P_2`$; the subpulse positions after the speedup will not be related to those before.

If the subbeams accelerate instantaneously at the end of a null, before the first pulse can be observed, the subpulse phases are not preserved over the null. As this is opposite to what is observed, this possibility is ruled out.

If the subbeam acceleration occurs a few pulses after a null, we expect that the change in driftrate will nearly always be accompanied by a sudden change in the longitude of the driftband, as illustrated in Fig. 3d for a final subbeam speed of $`1.09P_2/P_1`$. The absence of a significant number of such sudden shifts in the data indicates that the subbeam carousel of PSR B0809+74 does not speed up instantaneously to a high speed.

As only the gradual speedup to alias order 0 can explain the observed drift patterns, the drift seen in the subpulses of PSR B0809+74 directly reflects the movement of the subbeams, without any aliasing.

## 3 Discussion

### 3.1 Alias order of other pulsars

The subbeam speedup in PSR B0809+74 follows the simplest scenario possible: it is gradual, and the subpulse drift is not aliased. In other pulsars this might not be the case, and for those we predict drift-direction reversals or jumps in driftband longitude during the subpulse-drift speedup phase after nulls.

### 3.2 Subbeam-carousel rotation time

Having resolved the aliasing of the subpulses’ representation of the subbeams, we know that the subbeams move at $`0.09P_2/P_1`$. Such a low rotation rate means it will take each subbeam $`11P_1`$ to move to the current position of its neighbour. The following estimate of the number of subbeams then leads directly to the carousel-rotation time.

Towards the edges of the profile the sight line and the carousel move away from each other, and a subbeam will cease to be visible when the sight line no longer crosses it. When the subbeams are small, or widely spaced compared to the curvature of the carousel, the sight line will cross only few. In that case there will not be many subpulses visible in one pulse. If, however, the subbeams are large and closely spaced compared to the carousel curvature, the sight line passes over more subbeams in one traverse, leading to many subpulses per pulse.

In most of the pulses of PSR B0809+74 we observe two subpulses, occasionally we discern three. By combining this with the ratio of the subpulse width and separation we find there must be more than 15 subbeams on the carousel. As one subbeam reaches the position of its neighbour in $`11P_1`$, a 15-subbeam carousel rotates in over 200 seconds.

Persistent differences in the properties of individual subbeams should introduce a long term periodicity in the pulse sequences, at the carousel-rotation frequency. Thus far, no such periodicity has been found, which is not surprising as the periodicity can only be measured if the lifetime of the subbeam characteristics is longer than the carousel-rotation time.

In PSR B0943+10, the only pulsar for which we know how the subbeams vary (Deshpande & Rankin 1999, 2001), the associated timescales are in the order of 100 seconds. If we assume their lifetimes are comparably long in PSR B0809+74, the subbeams will have lost most of their recognisable traits once they return into view after one carousel rotation. Having regular pulse sequences that contain several tens of rotation times might still show some periodicity at the carousel-rotation frequency. Unfortunately nulls have a destructive influence on the driftband pattern and possibly on the subpulse characteristics. This has thus far made it impossible to observe bright sequences longer than 3 times our lower limit on the rotation time of 200 seconds.

After the prediction that the rotation time in most pulsars would be on the order of several seconds (Ruderman & Sutherland 1975), the observation that it is 41 seconds in PSR B0943+10 was somewhat surprising. The suggested dependence of the carousel-rotation time on the magnetic field strength and the pulse period predicts that the rotation time in PSR B0809+74 should be roughly 4 times smaller. The circulation time we observe, several hundreds of seconds, shows that the theoretical predictions are incorrect in absolute numbers as well as in the scaling relations they propose.

### 3.3 Emission region geometry

In Paper I we found many interesting changes in the driftband pattern after nulls. The subpulses reappear $`510\%`$ broader and $`15\%`$ closer together, which results in a brighter average profile. The individual subpulses move $`1.5^{}`$ towards earlier arrival, as does their envelope, the average profile, with $`1.1^{}`$ (Fig. 4). The subpulses drift $`50\%`$ more slowly than usual. Occasionally, this slow drifting pattern remained stable for over 100 pulses.

Knowing, as we do now, that there is no aliasing involved, we can identify single subpulses with individual subbeams. This implies that we can interpret the drift pattern changes in terms of the subbeam-carousel geometry (Fig. 5). We will do so for each of the altered characteristics.

The first thing we note is that, relative to the shift of the average profile, the positions of the subpulses are unchanged over nulls. This means that the subbeam carousel has not rotated during the null.

After nulls, the subpulses are positioned about 15% closer together. In principle, this could be the result from a change in subbeam speed. At a certain moment, a particular subbeam will be pointing towards the observer. It takes some time before the pulsar has rotated the next subbeam into the observer’s view, and during this time the subbeams themselves have moved, too. This motion translates directly to a change in the longitudinal subpulse separation. Yet, as we have shown that subbeam speed is low, this effect is negligible.

A more significant change in $`P_2`$ could be caused by an increase in the number of subbeams on a carousel of unchanged size. The other option is that a decrease in the carousel radius moves the subbeams closer together.

In the first scenario the number of subbeams would have to change during the null, causing the subbeam placement to change considerably. This would lead to subpulse-position jumps over the null. In that case, we would not expect the phases of the subpulses to be as unchanged over the nulls as is observed. Secondly, some time after the null the new configuration would have to return to normal. This means subbeams would have to appear or disappear. We see no evidence of this in any of the 200 nulls we observed. The change in the subbeam separation $`P_2`$ can therefore not be due to a changed number of subbeams.

In the second scenario the carousel radius decreases by 15%, but the number of subbeams remains the same. As the subbeams now share a reduced circumference, their separation also decreases.

The contraction of a carousel causes all subpulses to move towards the longitude of the magnetic axis. If we combine this contraction with the aforementioned absorption, we can immediately explain the observed shift to earlier arrival of the subpulses and their envelope, the average profile: with only the trailing part unabsorbed, all visible subpulses move towards earlier arrival (Figs. 4 and 5).

In general, the subpulses farthest from the longitude of the magnetic axis will move most, while those at it, if visible, will remain at their original positions. Enlargement of our sample of subpulse positions can therefore indicate were the magnetic axis of PSR B0809+74 is located. This would immediately indicate how much of the pulse profile is ‘absorbed’ and illuminate the thus far much debated alignment of the pulse profiles at different frequencies.

Normally, the edges of a pulse profile indicate where the overlap of the sight line and the subbeam carousel begins and ends. The contraction of a carousel will then move both edges inward. Yet when the first part of the profile is absorbed, the leading edge reflects the end of the absorption. If this edge is near the middle of the sight-line traverse over the carousel, it will not be affected by a reduction of the carousel size. In that case we will see a change in the position of the trailing edge but not in the leading one, which is exactly what we observe in PSR B0809+74 (Fig. 4).

The wider subpulses we see after a null translate directly to wider subbeams. We do note that a change in carousel radius leads to a new sight-line path, which may have an impact as well.

The significant chance that a null starts or ends within the pulse window of the pulses that surround it, would on average make these pulses dimmer than normal ones (Lyne & Ashworth 1983). Quite unexpectedly however, the pulses after nulls were found to be brighter than average. This is easily explained in our model: the change in the carousel geometry causes the subpulses to broaden and become more closely spaced, while their peak brightness remains the same. This leads to the post-null pulse-intensity increase that is observed.

### 3.4 Post-null polar gap height

If we follow the radius-to-frequency-mapping argument discussed in the introduction, then the reduction of the carousel size implies that the emission after a null comes from lower in the pulsar magnetosphere than it does normally. The reduction of the subbeam separation supports this idea, but the broadening of the subpulses seems inconsistent.

At this stage a comparison with the pulse profiles and drift patterns observed at higher frequencies seems promising. Emission at higher frequencies is also supposed to originate lower in the pulsar magnetosphere, so similar effects may point at one cause: a decrease in emission height.

Much like the post-null profile, the average profile at higher frequencies moves towards earlier arrival (Rankin et al. 2002). Comparing drift patterns, we see that at higher frequencies the driftrate decreases and that the subpulses broaden and move closer to one another (Davies et al. 1984), strikingly similar to the behaviour we find after nulls.

Only one anomaly remains: when comparing drift patterns at different frequencies, the changes in driftrate and subpulse separation $`P_2`$ always counterbalance, leaving the carousel rotation time $`\widehat{P}_3`$ unchanged. This means that the subbeams we observe at a certain frequency are cuts through rods of emission, intersections at the emission height associated with that frequency. The rods rotate rigidly but diverge with increasing height. At each height $`\widehat{P}_3`$ is the same, while the speed and separation of the subbeams do change.

In contrast to this normal invariance of $`\widehat{P}_3`$, we see it change considerably after nulls, an increase that cannot be explained by a change in viewing depth. We therefore expect that the disturbance that caused the change in this depth, can also account for the 50% increase in $`\widehat{P}_3`$.

Usually, both the subbeam separation $`P_2`$ and the emission height are assumed to scale with the polar gap height $`h`$ (Ruderman & Sutherland 1975; Melikidze et al. 2000). The 15% decrease in $`P_2`$ would thus be due to a identical fractional decrease in the gap height, which should also cause an equal decrease in emission height.

If this change in gap height could also account for the observed increase of the carousel rotation time $`\widehat{P}_3`$, all post-null drift-pattern changes can be attributed to one single cause.

$`\widehat{P}_3`$ is thought to scale as $`h^2`$. For the inferred 15% gap height decrease this predicts a 40% increase in $`\widehat{P}_3`$, nicely similar to the 50% we find.

With one single cause we can therefore explain both the puzzling well-known phenomena (the driftrate decrease after nulls, the bright first active pulse) and the newly discovered subtle ones (the change in the position of the average profile, the decrease of the subpulse separation and the subpulse-width increase). This post-null decrease in gap height offers a glimpse of the circumstances needed to make the pulsar turn off so dramatically.

## 4 Conclusions

We have shown that the drift of the subpulses directly reflects the actual motion of the subbeams, without any aliasing.

In other pulsars with drifting subpulses this may be different: for those we predict drift-direction reversals or longitude jumps in the post-null drift pattern.

We find that the carousel-rotation time for PSR B0809+74 must be long, probably over 200 seconds. The expected lifetime of the subbeam characteristics is less, which explains why thus far no periodicity from the carousel rotation could be found in the pulse sequence.

The rotation time we find is larger than theoretically predicted, not only in absolute numbers but also after extrapolating the rotation time found in PSR B0943+10. Both the magnitude and the scaling relations that link the carousel-rotation time to the magnetic field and period of the pulsar are therefore incorrect.

When the emission restarts after a null the drift pattern is different, and having determined the alias mode, we identify the underlying changes in the geometry of the subbeam carousel. A combination of a decrease in carousel size and ‘absorption’ already explains many of the changes seen in the post-null drift pattern.

The resemblance between the drift pattern after nulls and that seen at higher frequencies, thought to originate at a lower height, is striking. Assuming that similar effects have identical causes leads us to conclude that after nulls we look deeper in the pulsar magnetosphere, too.

Both this decrease in viewing depth and the striking increase in the carousel rotation time can be quantitatively explained by a post-null decrease in gap height.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank Marco Kouwenhoven for his help with the observations and Frank Verbunt, Russell Edwards and Patrick Weltevrede for constructive discussions.


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# ROSAT X-ray Spectral Properties of Nearby Young Associations: TW Hydrae, Tucana-Horologium, and the 𝛽 Pic Moving Group

## 1 Introduction

The recent discovery of several groups of young ($`540`$ Myr) stars within 100 pc of the Sun has given new direction to the field of star and planet formation (Jayawardhana & Greene 2001). The seminal nearby, young stellar group is the TW Hydrae Association (TWA), which lies only $`50`$ pc from Earth (Kastner et al. 1997), is $`510`$ Myr old (Weintraub et al. 2000), and has $`20`$ known member star systems (Webb et al. 1999; Zuckerman et al. 2001c \[hereafter Zc\]). Several dozen additional, recently identified TWA candidate systems are listed in Makarov & Fabricius (2001) and Webb (2001). Other examples are the very nearby $`\beta `$ Pictoris Moving Group (bPMG; $`D36`$ pc, age $`12`$ Myr; Zuckerman et al. 2001a \[hereafter Za\]; Ortega et al. 2002), and the Tucana and Horologium Associations (each $`D40`$ pc, age $`30`$ Myr; Torres et al. 2000; Zuckerman & Webb 2000; Zuckerman et al. 2001b \[hereafter Zb\]). Each of these groups consists of $`20`$ known and candidate member star systems. Based on their adjacent positions and their similar distances, space motions, and ages, Zb and de la Reza et al. (2001) have proposed that the Tucana and Horologium Associations constitute a single, young stellar group. We adopt this suggestion in the remainder of this paper, and we designate the combined group as the Tucana-Horologium Association (T-HA).

In many respects systems such as the TWA, T-HA, and bPMG, though only recently identified and still in a rapid state of flux, are better suited to detailed studies of star and planet formation than more distant, well-studied star-forming regions like the Orion and Taurus molecular clouds. Unlike T Tauri stars in regions of active star formation, the nearby groups typically are not readily associated with parent molecular clouds and, as a result, there remains considerable uncertainty concerning their origin and evolutionary status (see reviews in Jayawardhana & Greene 2001). Indeed, the approximate age range of the TWA stars, and consequently the identification of this group as a nearby association, was initially ascertained by Kastner et al. (1997) largely through the strength of the stars’ X-ray emission. The TWA’s estimated age of about 10 Myr makes the association especially intriguing, since this age corresponds to the epoch of Jovian planet formation, according to present theory, and is a defining characteristic of post-T Tauri stars (Herbig 1978). The stars in the TWA and other nearby young associations, therefore, likely represent a long-sought missing link between the very young and well-studied T Tauri stage and the stellar main sequence (Jensen 2001).

As a consequence of the proximity of the TWA, X-ray observations of its members (and of TW Hya in particular) have yielded new insight into the origin of high-energy emission from young stars. Archival data from the Roentgen Satellite (ROSAT) demonstrate that the $`10`$ Myr age of the TWA represents an especially X-ray-luminous epoch in the early evolution of solar-mass stars (Kastner et al. 1997), and X-ray (ASCA and ROSAT) spectral monitoring suggests the optical and X-ray variability of some classical T Tauri stars is due to a combination of short-term flaring and long-term variations in absorbing column (Kastner et al. 1999). Chandra/HETGS (High Energy Transmission Gratings Spectrograph) observations of TW Hya itself produced the first high-resolution X-ray spectrum of a T Tauri star (Kastner et al. 2002). The HETG spectra yield unexpected results for plasma density, temperature, and elemental abundances which, taken together, suggest that the X-ray emission from TW Hya may arise from accretion rather than from coronal activity. If so, this would suggest that many other X-ray luminous young stars derive part or most of their X-ray luminosity from accretion or other star-disk interactions, although coronal activity remains the widely accepted mechanism for such emission (e.g., Feigelson & Montmerle 1999).

Motivated by these results, we are conducting an archival study of ROSAT data that focuses on the TWA and other nearby stellar groups. Our goal is to establish the gross X-ray spectral properties of nearby post-T Tauri stars. Such data, when compared with similar results already available for T Tauri stars embedded in molecular clouds (e.g., Neuhauser et al. 1995) and for main-sequence field stars (e.g., Fleming et al. 1995), should offer clues to the evolutionary status of stars in nearby associations and, more generally, to the mechanism(s) responsible for the bright X-ray emission that appears ubiquitous among young (age $`100`$ Myr), solar-mass stars. Here, we present an analysis of ROSAT Position-Sensitive Proportional Counter data available for the known members of the TWA, the TA, and the bPMG. These results strengthen the interpretation that the stars in these and other nearby, dispersed young associations constitute a transition stage between cloud-embedded T Tauri stars and main sequence stars.

## 2 Data

Data presented here consist of ROSAT Position-Sensitive Proportional Counter (PSPC) X-ray hardness ratios, as catalogued in the RASS Bright Source Catalog (BSC; Voges et al. 1999)111These ROSAT data were obtained through the the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center, a service of the Laboratory for High Energy Astrophysics at NASA/GSFC and the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory.. The ROSAT PSPC was sensitive from about 0.1 to 2.4 keV. Despite the limited spectral resolution of the PSPC ($`E/\mathrm{\Delta }E1`$), analysis of PSPC data, and hardness ratios in particular, has proven to be an effective means to understand the X-ray spectral properties of young stars (e.g., Neuhauser et al. 1995). As described in Neuhauser et al., PSPC hardness ratios (hereafter HRs) are constructed from the integrated counts in three different PSPC energy bands (“soft,” “hard 1,” and “hard 2,” respectively), spanning the energy (channel) ranges 0.1–0.4 keV (11–41), 0.4–0.9 keV (52–90), and 0.9–2.0 keV (91–201). Denoting the counts in these three bands as $`S`$, $`H1`$, and $`H2`$, respectively, the two standard ROSAT PSPC HRs are then defined as

$$HR1=\frac{H1+H2S}{H1+H2+S}$$

$$HR2=\frac{H2H1}{H2+H1}.$$

## 3 Results

### 3.1 Hardness Ratios of Local Associations

In Fig. 1a, we present PSPC HRs for established members of the TWA, as listed in Zc. With the exception of TW Hya itself, the PSPC HRs of the TWA stars are evidently rather tightly confined. It is apparent from Fig. 1a that, while HR2 for TW Hya itself is typical of TWA stars, the value of HR1 for TW Hya is significantly different from the HR1 values of most other TWA members. This distinction in HR1 is consistent with the unusual ultraviolet through radio spectral properties of TW Hya. Indeed, TW Hya remains the only unambiguous example of a classical T Tauri star among the known TWA membership.

The membership of the T-HA remains remains subject to debate. Here, we adopt the membership proposed by Zb and Za. Specifically, we include all Tucana candidate members in Tables 1 and 2 of Zb except for HIP 92024, which was subsumed into the bPMG by Za, and all but five Horologium candidate members listed in Table 5 of Torres et al. (2000). The rejected five stars (ERX 14, 16, 45, 49, and 5) were judged by Zb to be too distant to be part of the T-HA; including these five stars in our HR sample would not significantly change the results described below. Seven additional T-HA candidate members proposed by Torres et al. and Zb, including the infrared-excess object HD 10647, were not detected in the RASS. Most of these stars are of sufficiently early type (F5 and earlier) that they may be intrinsically X-ray-faint (see below). The lack of a RASS X-ray counterpart to the F9 star HD 10647 casts some doubt on its membership in the T-HA, however, given the RASS detections of several other T-HA and bPMG stars of similar spectral type.

With its membership thus defined, the distribution of HRs for the T-HA is quite well confined, and the locus of HRs for the T-HA lies very near that of the TWA (Fig. 1b). The same is true for the bPMG (Fig. 1c), for which we include all probable and possible members identified by Za.

In Table 1 we list the mean HRs (and errors on the means) for the TWA, the T-HA, and the bPMG. Aside from HR 4796A (whose M-type companion, HR 4796B, is most likely the X-ray source in this binary system; Jura et al. 1998), the known membership of the TWA consists exclusively of K and M stars. The T-HA and bPMG memnership includes a larger proportion of earlier-type stars, and for these two associations we also list separately in Table 1 the mean HRs for K and M stars and for earlier types. In calculating the mean HRs for the earlier-type stars, we have omitted the handful of A stars that are associated with X-ray sources, since it is likely that the X-rays from such systems originate from later-type companions (e.g., Daniel et al. 2002).

It is clear from Fig. 1 and Table 1 that all three nearby, young stellar groups considered here display very similar X-ray spectral properties in the RASS data. There appears to be a weak tendency, moreover, for the earlier-type (F and G) stars in these young associations to exhibit harder X-ray emission, as measured by HR1, than the later-type (K and M) stars.

### 3.2 Comparison with T Tauri Stars, the Hyades, and Field Main Sequence Stars

In Fig. 2 we compare the HRs of the TWA, T-HA, and bPMG members with the HRs of classical T Tauri stars (cTTS) and weak-lined T Tauri stars (hereafter wTTS) in Taurus (Neuhauser et al. 1995), with Hyades members detected in the ROSAT All-Sky Survey (Stern, Schmitt, & Kahabka 1995) for which data are available in the BSC, and with nearby field main sequence stars. The last sample consists of the K and M dwarfs studied by Fleming et al. (1995; $`D<7`$ pc, ages $`\stackrel{>}{}`$ 1 Gyr) and all single F and G stars within 14 pc222As determined through a search of the Nstars database, http://nstars.arc.nasa.gov/index.cfm. for which data are available in the BSC. Aside from $`\pi ^1`$ UMa, which likely is a member of the Ursa Major moving group (age $`300`$ Myr; e.g., Messina & Guinan 2002), the stars in the nearby F-G sample likely have ages of at least 2 Gyr (e.g., Habing et al. 2001). In Table 1 and Fig. 3 we display the mean HRs for the Taurus TTS, local association, Hyades, and field star samples; in calculating these means and their formal errors, we use as weights the inverse squared uncertainties in HR1 and HR2.

It is readily apparent from Figs. 2 and 3 that the typical HRs for the TWA, T-HA, and bPMG, which cluster in the vicinity of HR1 $`=0`$, HR2 $`=0`$, differ significantly from the HRs of cTTS and wTTS associated with the Taurus star-forming clouds and from the field dwarf population. The cloud TTS have larger values of both HR1 and HR2 than the TWA, T-HA, and pBMG stars. The wTTS in Taurus display HR1 in the range $`0.81.0`$, while cTTS in Taurus all display HR1 $`=1.0`$. The hardness ratios of field dwarfs, on the other hand, are centered well to the left of and somewhat below the hardness ratios of the nearby associations; all of these stars have negative values of HR1, and the vast majority have negative values of HR2. Thus, although there is some overlap between the three populations (Fig. 2) — cloud TTS, nearby young association, and field main sequence — Figs. 2 and 3 indicate that they represent a sequence of decreasing HR.

The distinction between the HR distributions of the members of nearby young associations and the Hyades is more subtle (Figs. 2, 3). There is substantial overlap between the HR distributions of these two samples (Fig. 2). The 93 Hyades members in the RASS are all confined to HR1 $`<0.2`$, however, whereas 7 of 53 (13%) of known members of nearby young associations display HR1 $`>0.2`$. Consistent with this observation, the means of both HR1 and HR2 for the Hyades stars are significantly smaller than the means of the members of nearby young associations (Fig. 3, left panel). It is apparent, however, that these distinctions are primarily the result of the sharp distinction between the mean HRs of the F and G stars in the young association and Hyades samples (Fig. 3, right panel). For K and M stars, there is no statistical difference between the HRs of members of nearby, young associations and those of the Hyades members (Fig. 3, center panel).

There is also a significant difference between the mean HR1 values of the Hyades and main sequence field populations, for both F,G and K,M stars. However, the weighted mean of HR1 for the field star F,G sample is strongly influenced by the nearest G star, $`\alpha `$ Cen, because the uncertainties in its HR values ($`\pm 0.01`$) are much smaller than those of the remainder of the field F and G star sample (which range from $`\pm 0.05`$ to $`\pm 0.2`$). Excluding this star, whose values of HR1 $`=0.98`$, HR2 $`=0.38`$ place it at the extreme left of the field star HR distribution, the the F,G star HR distributions of the Hyades and the field stars appear quite similar (Fig. 2).

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 Does X-ray emission soften with stellar age?

Figs. 2 and 3 suggest that X-ray emission softens monotonically (toward smaller values of HR1 and, to a lesser extent, HR2) as stars evolve from cloud T associations to sparse, cloud-less T associations (as represented by the TWA, T-HA, and bPMG stars), then again from cloud-less T association to aging cluster (Hyades) and, finally, from cluster to the field. Such a trend of softening X-ray radiation with stellar age has been noted by previous investigators, based on observations of TTS and open clusters (including the Hyades; e.g., Neuhauser 1997). This trend is much more clearly demonstrated herein — through the inclusion of the newly identified local associations — than in the previous work. We now consider the possible origin and interpretations of such a trend.

#### 4.1.1 Distance, absorption, and hardness ratio

The Hyades ($`D45`$ pc; e.g., Gunn et al. 1988) and the local associations lie at very similar distances, such that any systematic differences in ROSAT HRs most likely are not due to differences in intervening interstellar absorption. We must consider, however, whether the trend evident in Figs. 2 and 3 partly represents monotonically decreasing interstellar absorption, from the most distant sample (cloud TTS) to the least distant sample (nearby, field main sequence stars). One does expect objects of a given X-ray emission temperature ($`T_x`$) to move almost directly to the right (increasing HR1) in the hardness ratio diagram as absorbing column ($`N_H`$) increases (see Fig. 4 of Neuhauser et al. 1995). However, for $`T_x25`$ MK, HR1 only increases from $`0.2`$ to $`0.5`$ as $`N_H`$ increases by 2 orders of magnitude (from $`10^{18}`$ cm-2 to $`10^{20}`$ cm-2), while HR2 remains roughly constant (Neuhauser et al.). Thus, while the typical extinction (and hence $`N_H`$) toward stars in local associations remains to be determined333Rucinsky & Krautter (1983) noted that foreground extinction is negligible in the general direction of TW Hya itself., it is likely that the local ISM gas column densities are not large enough to explain the differences in mean HR1 between local, older (age $`\stackrel{>}{}2`$ Gyr) field stars and the younger stars in the Hyades and in local groups such as the TWA, T-HA, and bPMG. Furthermore, we find no statistical difference between the HRs of TWA members recently identified by Zc and those of the “original” TWA members identified by Kastner et al. (1997) and Webb et al. (1999), despite the fact that the former stars are generally more distant than the latter (Zc). The trend apparent in Figure 2 therefore is caused predominantly by age and/or circumstellar environment (§5).

The situation may be somewhat more complicated for samples that lie as distant as Taurus ($`D140`$ pc), as at such distances interstellar gas may have a significant affect on HR1. Indeed, the effects of interstellar absorption may explain the positions of Pleiades stars in a plot of HR1 vs. HR2; these $`100`$ Myr-old stars are clustered near HR1 $`0.5`$ (see Fig. 6 of Neuhauser 1997), i.e., their ROSAT X-ray spectra are softer than those of cloud TTS but are somewhat harder, on average, than those of the TWA, T-HA, and bPMG members, particularly in HR1. The typical reddening toward Pleiades members, $`E(BV)0.04`$ (Breger 1986), implies typical column densities $`N_H2\times 10^{20}`$ cm-2 (Neuhauser et al. 1995), so this difference in mean HR1 can be explained as partly due to extinction, suggesting that the intrinsic HRs of the Pleiades stars are similar to those of the younger TWA and other local groups.

#### 4.1.2 Spectral type and hardness ratio

Fig. 3 and Table 1 indicate that earlier-type (F and G) stars evolve more rapidly in HR than do late-type (K and M) stars. Specifically, it would appear that at the age of the local associations ($`1030`$ Myr), F and G stars display somewhat harder X-ray emission than do K and M stars, while by Hyades age (700 Myr) the situation is reversed. A recent Chandra study of the Pleiades (Daniel et al. 2002) suggests that F and G types already display softer X-ray spectra than K and M types by the time such stars are $``$100 Myr old. The relatively rapid X-ray evolution of F and G stars (relative to K and M types) is consistent with the result that K and M stars reach the X-ray “saturation” level ($`\mathrm{log}L_x/L\mathrm{bol}3`$) at $`100`$ Myr (Kastner et al. 1997), much later than F and G stars (e.g., Randich et al. 1995). While Fig. 3 indicates that K and M stars evolve very little in X-ray spectral hardness between $`10`$ Myr and 700 Myr, K and M stars do become softer X-ray sources after several Gyr.

### 4.2 ROSAT hardness ratios of candidate TWA members

Based on an optical spectral survey of TWA candidate stars identified by Makarov & Fabricius (2001; hereafter MF), Song et al. (2002; hereafter SBZ) conclude that 20 of these 23 candidates are not TWA members. Many or most of the MF stars appear to be $`100`$ Myr old, based on their positions in theoretical pre-main sequence isochrones (Fig. 2 of SBZ) and, to a lesser extent, on the strengths of their Li $`\lambda 6708`$ absorption lines (Fig. 1 of SBZ). Fig. 4 demonstrates that the HRs of most of the MF stars follow the HR distribution of the “established” TWA as defined by Zc. If the results of SBZ are correct, therefore, Fig. 4 further indicates that there is little evolution in the X-ray spectral properties of late-type stars between $`10`$ Myr and $`100`$ Myr.

The only three Makarov & Fabricius (2001) TWA candidates whose spectral properties are consistent with TWA membership, according to SBZ, display somewhat anomalous (TW Hya-like) HRs in Fig. 4. The absence of strong H$`\alpha `$ emission in the SBZ spectra of these three stars (TYC 7760–0835–1, TYC 8238–1462–1, and TYC 8234–2856–1) indicates that (unlike TW Hya) these stars are not classical TTS. If these stars are indeed roughly coeval with and have HRs similar to those of the TWA, then their rightward positions, relative to previously established TWA members, in Fig. 4 may be due in part to their relatively early spectral types; all three stars have $`BV`$ colors that suggest they are earlier than spectral type K. We may also view these stars through a larger column density of interstellar absorbing material than most other TWA members (§4.1). With regard to the latter possibility, we note that SBZ derive photometric distances of $`130`$ pc to TYC 7760–0835–1, TYC 8238–1462–1, and TYC 8234–2856–1 — i.e., these stars are roughly twice as distant as the “established” TWA membership (Zc).

## 5 Conclusions

Our analysis of the ROSAT PSPC hardness ratios of local associations, and of cloud T Tauri stars and field main sequence stars, indicates that X-ray spectral hardness decreases monotonically with increasing stellar age (Figs. 2 and 3 and Table 1), with the trend stronger for F and G stars than for K and M stars. There are three alternative interpretations of this trend:

1. The intrinsic X-ray spectrum of a star of spectral type F or later softens with age (Fleming et al. 1995; Neuhauser 1997). Such a trend could be due to decreasing X-ray emission temperature and/or to age-dependent changes in X-ray emitting region abundances that modulate the strengths of the brightest emission lines in the ROSAT band.
2. The column density of X-ray absorbing material associated with the environments of young stars declines monotonically as these objects evolve. For Taurus TTS, the X-ray absorbing gas and dust may consist of both circumstellar and molecular cloud material, whereas for the older, nearby stellar groups like the TWA, T-HA, and bPMG, we expect residual circumstellar material to dominate. This would suggest that PSPC hardness ratios of the members of local associations can be used to examine the evolution of gaseous circumstellar disks around young stars.
3. Contributions to X-ray emission from star-disk interactions in general, and accretion in particular, decline as stars evolve from the T Tauri phase toward the main sequence. Such contributions may arise in star-disk magnetic field reconnection events (e.g., Shu et al. 1997) or in energetic shocks along accretion columns (Kastner et al. 2002). In either model, the emitting region temperature would be in excess of $`10^6`$ K, and therefore should contribute a relatively hard excess X-ray emission component that diminishes with age as the disk disperses.

For F and G stars — which continue to evolve in HR from the T Tauri through post-T Tauri through early main sequence stages — we cannot distinguish, at present, between these alternative explanations. Given that TW Hya is surrounded by a disk viewed nearly pole-on (e.g., Kastner et al. 2002 and references therein), the anomalous position of this K7 star in Fig. 1 offers support for the third interpretation (declining star-disk interactions) in the case of young ($`\stackrel{<}{}10`$ Myr), low-mass stars. The first interpretation (changing intrinsic stellar X-ray emission properties) best explains the continuing X-ray spectral evolution of K and M stars beyond the age of the Hyades, however. We are analyzing archival PSPC spectra of individual stars to determine whether further progress can be made from the available ROSAT data (Kastner & Crigger, in preparation). However, high-resolution Chandra and XMM X-ray spectroscopy of representative objects — from which precise X-ray emitting region temperatures, densities, and elemental abundances can be determined (e.g., Kastner et al.) — will no doubt be required to establish the mechanism(s) responsible for the softening of X-ray emission with stellar age.

Regardless of the correct interpretation of the observed trend, Figs. 2 and 3 demonstrate that analysis of ROSAT HRs can help discriminate between X-ray-emitting T Tauri stars, post-T Tauri stars, and both young (Hyades- and Pleiades-age) and older (age $`\stackrel{>}{}1`$ Gyr) main sequence stars in the field. ROSAT HRs evidently are a particularly useful tool for assessing the ages of samples that consist mostly of F and G stars, while for spectral types of K and later, ROSAT HRs can effectively isolate peculiar cases (e.g., TW Hya). The results presented here suggest, therefore, that candidate members of young associations can be identified partly on the basis of ROSAT PSPC hardness ratios, particularly if other age-related X-ray emission discriminants are applied (such as the ratio of X-ray luminosity to bolometric luminosity; Kastner et al. 1997).

We acknowledge incisive comments from the referee and Inseok Song that substantially improved this paper. Ms. Rich acknowledges support from a summer internship program funded by the Industrial Associates of the Center for Imaging Science at RIT.