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# Re-entrant spin glass and Magnetoresistance in Co0.2Zn0.8Fe1.6Ti0.4O4 spinel oxide

## I Introduction

Recently, extensive research activities are going on a variety of colossal magneto resistance (CMR) materials, which includes substituted manganite R1-xAxMnO3 \[R= trivalent rare earth ion, A= divalent alkaline rare earth ion\]  and spinel ferrites such as Fe1-xTxCrS4 \[T=Cu,Zn etc.\]  and CoxMn3-yO4 . The substitution by magnetic or non-magnetic ions has shown a tremendous effect in controlling the magnetic and electrical properties of a magnetic materials. As for example, the parent manganite LaMnO3 is an antiferromagnet and insulator. But the substituted manganites show ferromagnetism with metallic behaviour below the Curie temperature TC . The competition between ferromagnetic (metallic) and antiferromagnetic (insulator) exchange interactions change the the polaronic hopping between Mn4+(t$`{}_{2g}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{3}`$eg)-O-Mn3+(t$`{}_{2g}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{3}`$e$`{}_{g}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{1}`$) in substituted manganites . Besides the polaronic hopping, it has also been suggested that double exchange mechanism via Mn3+-O-Mn4+ ions, Jahn-Teller distortions due to Mn3+ ions and strong electron-phonon coupling are contributing to CMR effect in perovskites materials .
In general, there is no mixed valence Mn3+ \- Mn4+ ions or double exchange mechanism in spinel ferrites. In spinel lattices, the anions (O2-, S2- ions) form a cubic close packing, in which the interstices are occupied by tetrahedral (form A sites or sublattice) and octahedral (form B sites or sublattice) coordinated cations, gives rise the formula unit AB2X4 (A represent A site cations, B represent B site cations, X represent anions). The competition between ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic superexchange interactions occurs between the spins of inter-sublattices and intra-sublattices as A-O-B (JAB = inter-sublattice exchange interaction), B-O-B (JBB = B site intra-sublattice interaction) and A-O-A (JAA = A site intra-exchange interaction). In collinear spinel structure $`|J_{AB}|>>|J_{BB}|>>|J_{AA}|`$ and the system shows long range ferrimagnetic (ferromagnetic) order . If A sublattice magnetic dilution is below the percolation limit (CA$``$ 0.33 -0.4), the JAB and JBB will be comparable and magnetic frustration appears in the B sublattice. Then B site spins form finite size clusters. The spins inside the clusters may be canted due to short range antiferromagnetic interactions of nearest-neighbours. The longitudinal components (Sz) of a canted spin will contribute long range ferromagnetic ordering along the broken axis of symmetry (z axis) whereas the transverse components St will contribute spin glass ordering in x-y plane . The competition between ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic interactions and magnetic disorder in B sites have shown spin glass or re-entrant spin glass behaviour in spinel oxides .
Recently, it has been observed that the existence of ferromagnetic clusters (magnetic polarons) with itinerent charges (charges are itinerant within the clusters) in either an antiferromagnetic insulating matrix or paramagnetic insulating matrix exhibits an unusual magnetic properties with large CMR effect . It has been found theoretical by Aharoni et al.  and experimental by Hücker et al.  on La2-xSrxCu1-zZnzO4 that charge compensating defects like magnetic ion vacancy can significantly modify the effective exchange interactions by renormalizing the concentration of frustrated bonds and hopping conductivity of a system. The frustrating bond will behave like a magnetic dipole, which makes the superexchange interactions more ferromagnetic inside the clusters. It has also been suggested  that the existence of different valence cations in B site can enhance the conductivity in spinel oxides. To test the effect of cation vacancy and existence of mixed valence cations like Fe2+/Fe3+, extensive studies have been performed in Fe3-xMxO4 \[M = Ti4+,Zn2+\] spinel oxides . The results showed significant enhancement in conductivity with increasing cation vacancy and mixed valence cations in B sites.
In order to understand the magnetic ordering of B site clusters with intra spin canting, we have studied the Co0.2Zn0.8Fe2O4 spinel oxide . We have considered that the magnetic clusters are randomly distributed in the antiferromagnetic B site matrix. In this presentation, we have replaced Fe3+ by non-magnetic Ti4+ in Co0.2Zn0.8Fe2O4 with the motivation to study the effects of Fe2+/Fe3+ mixture, cation vacancies in B sites.

## II Experimental

### A Sample preparation and Characterization

We have prepared Co0.2Zn0.8Fe1.6Ti0.4O4 solid solution by conventional solid state method. The stoichiometric amount of powder oxides of 99.5% Co3O4 (from Fluka), 99.998% Fe2O3 (from Johnson Matthey), 99.998% ZnO (from Johnson Matthey) and 99.995% TiO2 (from Johnson Matthey) have been mixed and grinded for $``$ 2 hours. The mixture have been pelletized under the pressure of 9 tons/cm2 and heated at 9500C for 12 hours and at 12000C for 24 hours. The system has been finally sintered at 14000C for 24 hours with intermediate grinding and pelletizing. Through out process the heating and cooling rate was maintained at 30C/minute and 20C/minute, respectively. Room temperature X-ray diffraction spectrum has beeen taken using Philips PW1710 diffractometer with Cu Kα radiation. The XRD spectrum (Fig.1a) shows a well crystalline cubic spinel structure with lattice parameter (a) $``$ 8.4184 $`\AA `$.
The room temperature Mössbauer spectrum (Fig.1b) in absence of magnetic field has been recorded in transmission geometry using a 25 mCi 57Co source in Rh matrix. The paramagnetic spectrum consists of two Lorentzian doublets arising from B site Fe3+ ions and Fe2+ ions respectively and a Lorentzian singlet due to A site Fe3+ ions. The fitted values of isomer shift (IS) and quadrupole splitting (QS) are +0.098 mm/sec, +0.339 mm/sec for B site Fe3+ and +0.808 mm/sec, 0.760 mm/sec for B site Fe2+ ions respectively. The IS value for the A site Fe3+ ion is -0.181 mm/sec. The IS and QS values are calculated with respect to Fe metal and with $`\pm `$0.002 mm/sec error. The values are in good agreement previously reported for ferrites . The most probable cation distribution (with error =$`\pm `$ 0.001) obtained using standard least square method is (Zn$`{}_{0.8}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2+}`$Fe$`{}_{0.047}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{3+}`$Ti$`{}_{0.153}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{4+}`$)A\[Co$`{}_{0.2}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2+}`$Fe$`{}_{1.530\delta }{}^{}{}_{}{}^{3+}`$Fe$`{}_{0.023}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2+}`$Ti$`{}_{0.247}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{4+}`$\]BO4 (A: tetrahedral sites, B: octahedral sites). The term $`\delta `$ represent the cations vacancy to maintain the charge neutrality in B site or if $`\delta `$ is 0, then there is a possibility to obtain T4+ and Ti3+ mixtures in B sites .

### B Measurements

The low field ac susceptibility in the temperature range 60K to 325K with ac field $``$ 1 Oe and frequency range 37 Hz to 7.7 kHz and dc magnetization data under zero field cooled (ZFC) and field cooled (FC) condition have been recorded using home made magnetometer . For FC condition the cooling field and the measurement field was maintained at the same value. The time dependence of remanent magnetization have been observed by field cooled condition with waiting time (tw) $``$ 300 seconds. High field magnetic measurements have been performed using SQUID magnetometer. The dc resistivity as a function of temperature in absence and presence of magnetic field has been measured by two probe method using Kethley 6517A high resistance electrometer and Kethley 2001 multimeter has been used for magnetoresistance measurement at T$``$ 240K to 315K.

## III Results

### A AC susceptibility

The real ($`\chi ^{}`$) and imaginary ($`\chi ^{\prime \prime }`$) components of ac susceptibility (Fig.2) show the following features ,i.e., a small maximum at Tp $``$ 240K, a plateau like behaviour in the temperature range : 125 $`<T>`$ 240K, low temperature maximum at Tf $``$ 125K, the decrease of ac susceptibility above Tp and below Tf. These are the good characteristics for re-entrant magnetic phase transitions in a magnetic system . The rounded maximum in $`\chi ^{}`$, $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }`$ vs T at Tp suggest that the magnetic clusters of different size, instead of individual spins, are showing magnetic response at Tp. Further, the absence of any significant shift of Tp (Fig. 2) in the frequency range 37 Hz to 7.7 kHz of 1 Oe ac field suggests a strong ferromagnetic interactions inside the clusters . If there was no cluster size distribution, Tp should have been represented the curie temperature TC of the system. However, keeping in mind the cluster size distribution, it is expected that magnetic response of the largest clusters will occur at T $`>T_p`$. In this case, it is not proper to call Tp as the Curie temperature TC, where the system undergoes a paramagnetic to ferromagnetic state on decreasing the temperature. Therefore, the Curie temperature of the system is defined as the inflection point of $`\chi ^{}`$ at TC $``$ 270K and the difference between TC and Tp ($``$ 30K) is due to the existence of various size cluster below TC . If the magnetic clusters are assumed as the ferromagnetic domains, the absence of strong divergence in ac susceptibility data below TC suggest that the clusters in this system do not represent long range ordered ferromagnetic domains below TC. However, the plateau like behaviour in $`\chi ^{}`$, $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }`$ vs T data below 240K suggest the ferromagnetic ordering of the clusters  with the spin-spin correlation length (l) restricted to less than the size of the clusters due to various factors like spin canting, random occupation of the magnetic and non-magnetic moments inside the clusters. The plateau like behaviour may also be affected by the demagnetising field in the very thin semi-disc (length $`>>`$ breadth) shaped sample. However, the qualitative features of the sample will not signicantly changed due to the demagnetizing field effects. The effect of demagnetising field becomes less important and is expected to be almost independent of sample shape in this system, as the cluster size is smaller than the percolation limit where large number of spins are infinite long range ferromagnetic ordered .
Focussing on the low temperature maximum in $`\chi ^{}`$ and $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }`$ (Fig. 2), it is observed that Tf ($``$ 125K) shows a significant frequency shift (marked by arrow). This signals the appearance of more frustrated magnetic state with spin glass character at low temperature. The Tf(f) were estimated by first order derivative of $`\chi ^{}`$ with rest to temperature and the data (with $`\pm `$ 2% accuracy) were fitted with Vogel-Fulcher law

$$f=f_0exp^{E_a/(T_fT_0)}$$
(1)
The ln(f) vs 1/(Tf \- T0) data are shown in Fig.2b inset. The fitted parameters are f0 $``$ 107 Hz, Ea $``$ 220K and T0 $``$ 106K. These parameters suggest the freezing of clusters below Tf. This justify to define Tf is as cluster spin freezing temperature for this system. The spin glass feature at T $``$ Tf suggest that short range antiferromagnetic interaction is becoming significant as T$``$ Tf from high temperature side and competing with ferromagnetic interactions which is observed below 240K. The sharp decrease of $`\chi ^{}`$ and $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }`$ suggest the increase of spin canting inside the clusters on lowering the temperature . As a consequence domain wall motion of the clusters is hindered below Tf due to random anisotropy field .

### B DC magnetization

Fig.3a shows the zero field cooled (ZFC) and field cooled (FC) dc susceptibility (M/H) with magnetic field H = 10 Oe to 85 Oe and temperature range T = 20K to 320K. If the temperature continues to decrease, the ZFC susceptibility shows a broad maximum at Tf $``$ 125K. Below Tf, the ZFC susceptibility decreases upto our lowest measurement temperature 20K. The ZFC susceptibility is almost dc fields independent below 70K, as observed in other re-entrant system where low temperature regime shows spin glass behaviour but strong field dependent ferromagnetic regime appear as the temperature increases . The inverse of zero field cooled susceptibility ($`\chi _{dc}^{ZFC}`$) vs T plot above 275K shows an upward curvature and the data above 295K fit with (Fig.3a inset) Curie-Weiss law

$$\chi _{dc}=\frac{C}{T\theta _w}$$
(2)
The fitted parameters are Curie constant (C) $``$ 0.144 emu-K/g/Oe and the asymptotic Curie temperature ($`\theta _w`$) $``$ \+ 270K. The intercept of the inverse ZFC susceptibility on the positive temperature axis suggest a dominant ferromagnetic interactions in this system below TC $``$ 270K.
The FC susceptibility shows an weak magnetic irreversibility at Tirr ($`<T_C`$), which is followed by FC susceptibility maximum close to Tf with strong magnetic irreversibility at low temperature (see Fig.3a inset for 10 Oe FC and ZFC data). The decrease of FC susceptibility below Tf can be attributed due to the strong antiferromagnetic interactions or due to the local random anisotropy below below Tf . Fig.3b inset shows that irreversibility temperature Tirr and cluster spin freezing temperature Tf decreases with increasing magnetic field. The appearance of an weak magnetic irreversibility below TC and strong magnetic irreversibility below Tf suggest the re-entrant magnetic behaviour  in this system.

### C Magnetic hysteresis

We have shown magnetic field (H) dependence of ZFC isothermal magnetization (M) in Fig.4. The system shows some remarkable feature in M vs H plot. The 10K data show an S shape at low field regime, while the 30K and 60K data show a field induced magnetic transition at Hcf $``$ 1 Tesla and 1.5 Tesla, respectively. It is also observed that after 4 quadrant field cycling (0 $``$ Hmax and 0 $``$ Hmin), the field induced transition occurs at higher fields, i.e., Hcf $``$ 1.7 Tesla and 3 Tesla for 30K (Fig.4b) and 60K, respectively. The 100K do not show any field induced transition at + H axis but small field induced transition is observed at $``$ -1 Tesla. At T $``$ 150K no field induced transitions are observed. Similar phase induced transitions have been observed in a variety of disordered magnetic materials where the materials segregates into two distinguishable electronic states that coexist within the same crystallographic phase . The most reasonable explanation for such type of field induced transition is that the system undergoes an antiferromagnetic to metastable ferromagnetic state at H $`>H_{cf}`$. This is further confirmed that there is no long range ferromagnetic order in the system, rather the antiferromagnetic interactions promotes strong spin canting inside the clusters below 100K and the ferromagnetic state above Tf ($``$ 125K) is very similar to canted ferromagnets . The same features are observed in the M vs H plots where magnetization shows lacks of saturation even upto 8 Tesla. The low value of coercive field above 125K and no magnetic hysteresis above 150K suggest ferromagnetic regime of the sample. However, the rapid increase of coercive field below 100K (Fig.5 inset right scale) definitely suggest the blocking of domain wall motion in the spin canting state .
By inspecting the positive slope of H/M vs M2 at T $``$ 250K, we assumed that the paramagnetic to ferromagnetic phase transition in this system is second order . We have calculated the spontaneous magnetization (MS) using modified Arrot plot (Fig.5)

$$M^{1/\beta }(H)(H/M)^{1/\gamma }$$
(3)
A self consistent method to obtain the best fitted parameters was considered . In this procedure, first we have estimated the values of critical parameters using 250K data and modified Arrot plots were constructed using this parameters for all the temperatures. The linear extrapolation of high field magnetization data to M1/β axis gives the MS value and the linear extrapolation to (H/M)1/γ axis gives the inverse of initial susceptibility. The MS values were applied to the equation: MS (T) $``$ (TC \- T)1/β for T $`<T_C`$. The modified Arrot plots were reconstructed using the obtained values of $`\beta `$. Finally, we obtained the best fitted values as : $`\beta `$ = 1.03$`\pm `$0.02, $`\gamma `$ = 0.70$`\pm `$0.01 and TC $``$ 265K $`\pm `$2K. The exponent values are close to that reported values for Heisenberg ferromagnets with strong magnetic disorder . The temperature dependence of the MS (Fig.5 inset left scale) suggest that MS value at 10K ($``$ 46 emu/g) is less than the values obtained at 30K and 60K ($``$ 53 emu/g). This is due to the spin canting effect at low temperature.

### D Time and temperature dependence of dc magnetization

We have investigated the time dependence of field cooled remanent magnetization for better understanding of competition between equilibrium and non-equilibrium dynamics in the system. The experimental data (point symbol) in Fig.6a show a clear and systematic change of time dependent curvature from concave down (at T $``$ 130K) to concave up as the measurement temperature increases. We have found that the remanent magnetization decay at low temperature regime (T $``$ 130K) is best fitted by the superposition of a pure stretched exponential and a constant term as

$$M_R(t)=M_0+M_1exp^{(t/\tau )^n}$$
(4)
where M0, M1, $`\tau `$ and n are fitted parameters (shown in Table 1). The M0 parameter represents intrinsic ferromagnetic contribution and M1 relates to a glassy component at the measurement temperature . Above, 130K the remanent magnetization decay is not well fitted by equation (3). However, the best fit of 142K data require the product of a power law term with the stretched exponential function as

$$M_R(t)=M_0+M_1t^\alpha exp^{(t/\tau )^n}$$
(5)
where M0, M1, $`\alpha `$, $`\tau `$ and n are the fitted parameters (shown in Table 1). In general, the power law decay of remanent magnetization has been considered as a weak time dependent function and represents an equilibrium spin dynamics of a ferromagnetic system , where as the stretched exponential function represent the non-equilibrium slow spin glass dynamics . The relaxation of the system above the cluster spin freezing temperature Tf $``$ 125K suggest that it is not in a true ferromagnetic state. The disorder and frustration in the ferromagnetic state takes into account the two competitive times scale simultaneously, one is due to intra-cluster dynamics  and second one is due to the cluster growth in presence of the frustration . According to a model proposed by Chamberlin and Haines  that relaxation rate ($`\omega _s`$) of a cluster with size ’s’ is related as

$$\omega _sexp(C/s)$$
(6)
where C is a constant. This equation suggest that as the cluster size decreases, the relaxation rate will be faster. This is possible as the thermal activated process, on increasing temperature, will decrease the cluster size. In the temperature range T$``$ 166K to 251K, the time dependence of remanent magnetization follows a power law, similar to that has been observed in a re-entrant ferromagnet  by the equation

$$M_R(t)=M_0+M_1t^\alpha $$
(7)
with the fitted parameters shown in Table 1. It has been found that the remanent magnetization at 280K is practically independent of time (MR(t) $``$ M0) and the small value of M0 is due to the short range interacting clusters in the paramagnetic state .
The temperature dependence of the field cooled remanent magnetization (MTRM), after removing the cooling field $``$ 60 Oe, is shown in Fig.6b. The data clearly show a change in the nature of remanent magnetization decay at a tempearure TS $``$ 130K. We have found that TRM data at T$``$ 130K decay as

$$M_{TRM}exp(\alpha T)$$
(8)
where as the TRM data at T $`>130K`$ follow a simple power law decay as

$$M_{TRM}T^\beta $$
(9)
The implication of the above two equations is that the thermal activated process slowly reduces the glassy behaviour exhibits below TS in comparison with the fast decay in the ferromagnetic state. However, the non-zero value of MTRM at 280K is consistent with our assumption that it is due to the short range interacting clusters in the paramagnetic state.

### E Temperature dependence of dc resistivity

As a complimentary support for the existence of re-entrant magnetic state, we have measured the resistivity ($`\rho `$) as a function of temperature and magnetic field. Fig.7a shows $`\rho `$ vs T plot at zero and 7.8 kOe magnetic field. The zero field resistivity rapidly increases below 270K and shows slow increase below 200K that indicates the presence of ferromagnetic ordering below 200K. The high resistivity values even below 200K suggest that the ferromagnetic interaction is weak in this system . The strong increase of resistivity below 100K suggest that antiferromagnetic interaction is dominating over the ferromagnetic one due to strong spin canting effect at low temperature. The resistivity follows an exponential function as $`\rho `$ $``$ exp$`^{E_g/kT}`$ in both the regimes, suggests semi-conducting behaviour of the system. The fitted value of the activation energy (Eg) is decreasing from $``$ 0.239 eV (for T $`>200K`$) to 5.98 meV (for T $`<`$ 200K). This informs that the paramagnetic like disordered state become more ordered (ferromagnetic) below 200K .
It is observed (Fig.7a) that as the temperature decreases below 320K, resistivity under field ($`\rho `$ (7.8 kOe)) remains greater than $`\rho `$ (0) value upto T$``$ 270K. Then $`\rho `$ (7.8 kOe) $``$ $`\rho `$ (0) upto 240K but increases upto TSM $``$ 175K, where the system shows field induced semiconductor to metal transition. On further decreasing temperature, $`\rho `$ (7.8 kOe) decreases before showing a sharp increase below the field induced metal to semiconductor transition at TMS $``$ 80K. This is a re-entrant semi-conducting (S-M-S) behaviour  in our system. The magnetoresistance (MR) calculated (from Fig.7a) using the formula $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho `$/$`\rho _0`$\[=($`\rho _{7.8kOe}`$-$`\rho _0`$)/$`\rho _0`$\] shows $``$ 80% (-ve) change at TMS, $``$ 20% (-ve) at TSM, $``$ 40% (-ve) at 200K and positive MR above 270K.
The comparison of resistivity ($`\rho `$ (H)) with the ac susceptibility data (Fig.7a right scale) shows that the positive magnetoresistance occurs in the paramagnetic regime (T$`>T_C`$ 270K), the negative MR is observed below Tp where the clusters show ferromagnetic ordering and the magnetoresistance again decreases in the spin glass regime (T $`<`$ 100K). The difference between the ac susceptibility maximum at Tp $``$ 240K and the $`\rho `$ (H) maximum at 175K probably due to the existence of different size clusters in the system. Depending on the size and random distribution of magnetic and non-magnetic ions inside the clusters, the proportion of ferromagnetic (metallic) and paramagnetic (semi-conducting) contributions will vary from cluster to cluster in the system. These clusters are called magnetic polarons or ferrons . Some of the clusters, which are paramagnetic in nature, will show semi-conducting and most of the clusters, which are ferromagnetic in nature, will show metallic behaviour. As a result, instead of showing $`\rho `$ (H) maximum near to Tp or TC, the system shows $`\rho `$ (H) maximum at $``$ 175K. This behavior is in contrast to the conventional CMR perovskites where $`\rho `$ (H) occurs near to TC . The resistivity in presence of magnetic field, therefore, confirms that there is no long range ferromagnetic order in this system and the spin-spin correlation length varies from cluster to cluster. Below 175K, the high magnetic field strongly reduces the paramagnetic effect and increases the size of ferromagnetic clusters. As the spin-spin correlation length increases in presence of field, the scattering of the charge carrier decreases and the enhancement of the electron hopping inside the clusters show metallic behaviour in the system. The appearance of canted spin glass state at T $`<T_f`$, where antiferromagnetic interaction dominates, will the spin-spin correlation length and increases the electron scattering process inside the clusters. The localization of electrons in spin canted states show sharp increase of resistivity .
We have also measured the magnetoresistance (MR), after zero field cooling from 300K to the measurement temperature ($``$ 240K to 315K). The temperature has been kept constant with maximum fluctuation $`\pm `$ 0.1K during the measurement period. We find (Fig.8) an appreciable change in magnetoresistance $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho `$/$`\rho _0`$\[=($`\rho _H`$-$`\rho _0`$)/$`\rho _0`$\] for magnetic field $`\pm `$ 7.8kG. It is to be noted (Fig.8a) that the MR is negative at 247K and suggests dominant ferromagnetic contribution. For T $``$ 252K, the MR initially shows positive value and then crossover to negative value as the applied field increases. This indicates a competition between ferromagnetic and paramagnetic response of the clusters below TC. On further increasing the measurement temperature, the system shows positive MR (Fig.8b) at T $``$ TC ($``$ 270K) (Fig.8c) in the paramagnetic regime. The positive MR in the paramagnetic state may be due to the Lorentz force , which causes bending (’twisting’) of the conduction electron’s path, or grain boundary scattering as expected for polycrystalline sample in the paramagnetic state . To confirm about the cross over from negative to positive MR near to Curie temperature (TC), we have continued the MR measurement at a particular temperature for more than one field cycling( 0 Oe $``$ 7.8kOe $``$ 0 Oe $``$ -7.8 kOe $``$ 0 Oe). Fig.9a shows that the MR at T = 252K ($`<T_C`$) continuously decreases on cycling the field for three times, in contrast to the continuously increasing trend (Fig.9c) at 289K ($`>T_C`$). However, if we look at the 272K (near to TC) data (Fig.9b), the MR value never gets back to the starting point after the one cycle field application. The continuation of increasing or decreasing trend of magnetoresistance is related to relaxation  or memory effect  in the sample.

## IV Discussion

The magnetic and complementary resistivity measurements of Co0.2Zn0.8Fe1.6Ti0.4O4 spinel oxide give the signatures of re-entrant spin glass behaviour, eventhough, the existence of a true re-entrant spin glass phase is still a matter of debate for 3-dimensional system . The experimental results will be discussed by assuming the existence of various size clusters. The ferromagnetic behaviour has been understood by treating these clusters as magnetic domains, inside of which all the spins are not necessarily be infinite long range ordered due to spin canting effects, random distribution of magnetic and non-magnetic ions and different proportion of ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic interactions inside the clusters. The temperature dependence of ac susceptibility data suggest that domain formation occurs above 240K. As the temperature decreases, canted spin structure is favoured inside the domains due to antiferromagnetic interactions. As a result, the random anisotropy field introduced by Dzyalosinsky-Moriya type interactions $``$ $`\stackrel{}{S_i}`$x$`\stackrel{}{S_j}`$ will hinder the (cluster) domain wall movement and decrease the low field ac susceptibility at low temperature . The frequency dependence of ac susceptibility ($`\chi ^{}`$, $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }`$), the weak irreversibility (between FC and ZFC susceptibility) below TC ($``$ 270K) and strong irreversibility below Tf ($``$ 125K) give the characteristic feature of typical re-entrant ferromagnet . The re-entrant character of the system is further confirmed by the time dependence of the field cooled remanent magnetization experiments. The slow spin dynamics at T$``$ 130K suggest the non-equilibrium canted spin glass state, where as an equilibrium spin dynamics is dominating over the non-equilibrium dynamics in the ferromagnetic phase (weak time dependent) and the spin dynamics, then, approaches toward a time independent disordered (paramagnetic) phase as observed at 280K. The relaxation data along with field dependence of magnetization data also confirm that there is no long range ferromagnetic order, rather the system is a canted ferromagnet.
The most attractive feature of the present system is that the magnetic ordering and transport properties are highly correlated. The Mössbauer analysis suggests the existence of Fe3+ and Fe2+ ions and charge compensating defects (due to valence mismatch between Ti4+ and Fe3+ ions) like cation vacancies in B site . The charge compensating defects can give rise ferromagnetic interactions by renormalizing the concentration of frustrated bonds . Simultaneously, the charge fluctuations among the cations (Ti4+/Fe2+ to Ti3+/Fe3+) in B site clusters will enhance the electron (polaron) hoping mechanism  and consequently the system shows large electrical conductivity. On the otherhand, tetravalent non-magnetic Ti4+ ions substitution in place of magnetic Fe3+ ions makes the inter-sublattice interactions Fe$`{}_{}{}^{3+}{}_{B}{}^{}`$-O2--Fe$`{}_{}{}^{3+}{}_{A}{}^{}`$ almost negligible and the magnetic interactions depends on the B site superexchange interactions like Fe$`{}_{}{}^{3+}{}_{B}{}^{}`$-O2--Fe$`{}_{}{}^{2+}{}_{B}{}^{}`$, Fe$`{}_{}{}^{3+}{}_{B}{}^{}`$-O2--Ti$`{}_{}{}^{3+}{}_{B}{}^{}`$, Fe$`{}_{}{}^{2+}{}_{B}{}^{}`$-O2--Ti$`{}_{}{}^{4+}{}_{B}{}^{}`$ etc. From the various measurements, it is observed that although there exists both ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic superexchange interactions, the dominant one is the ferromagnetic interactions which is observed from the intercept of the inverse of susceptibility on positive temperature axis. The appearance of metallic like resistivity behavour in presence of dc field at 80K to 175K range strongly suggest that magnetic exchange interactions are also affecting the electrical properties of the sample.

## V Conclusions

In conclusion, the present system Co0.2Zn0.8Fe1.6Ti0.4O4 exhibits re-entrant magnetic phase transitions, i.e. paramagnetic to ferromagnetic state at TC $``$ 270K and ferromagnetic to canted spin glass state at Tf $``$ 125K. The re-entrant behaviour in magnetic and in electrical resistivity data is attributed due to the cation vacancy and charge fluctuation effects inside the ferromagnetic clusters (magnetic polarons). The ferromagnetic state is not a typical long range ordered type, rather than a canted ferromagnetic one, where longitudinal spin components show ferromagnetic order and transverse spin components show spin glass order at low temperature. Without Neutron diffraction experiment, it is very difficult to say whether the ferromagnetic order of longitudinal spin components is still maintaining in canted spin glass state. However, the variation of exchange interactions, random distributions of cations from cluster to cluster may give rise inhomogeneity in electronic phase, i.e. a mixture of metallic (ferromagnetic) and semi-conducting (antiferromagnetic) components within the same cluster, eventhough, the system is in same crystallographic (cubic spinel) phase.
Acknowledgement: One of the authors RNB thanks to The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR, New Delhi, India) for providing fellowship \[F. No. 9/489(30)/98-EMR-I\]. We also thank C. Bansal, S. sarkar and S. Kumar for helping in Mössbauer data support.

Table 1: The fitted parameters M0, M1, n, $`\tau `$ and $`\alpha `$ of equations 4, 5 and 7 while fitted with time dependence of remanent magnetization data. For detais see text.
T(K) M0 $`\pm \mathrm{\Delta }`$ M1 $`\pm \mathrm{\Delta }`$ n $`\pm \mathrm{\Delta }`$ $`\tau `$ $`\alpha `$$`\pm \mathrm{\Delta }`$    80K 0.164$`\pm `$0.002 1.327$`\pm `$0.001 0.068$`\pm `$0.001 105 s -  90K 0.260$`\pm `$0.001 0.728$`\pm `$0.001 0.227$`\pm `$0.001 105 s -  109K 0.270$`\pm `$0.004 0.679$`\pm `$0.001 0.158$`\pm `$0.001 105 s -  120K 0.373$`\pm `$0.003 0.390$`\pm `$0.002 0.219$`\pm `$0.001 105 s -  130K 0.259$`\pm `$0.005 0.573$`\pm `$0.001 0.130$`\pm `$0.001 105 s -  142K 0.272$`\pm `$0.002 0.511$`\pm `$0.001 0.090$`\pm `$0.001 105 s 0.006$`\pm `$0.0005  166K 0.463$`\pm `$0.003 0.228$`\pm `$0.001 - - 0.115$`\pm `$0.0001  189K 0.283$`\pm `$0.003 0.069$`\pm `$0.001 - - 0.276$`\pm `$0.0001  216K 0.150$`\pm `$0.002 0.063$`\pm `$0.001 - - 0.118$`\pm `$0.0002  251K 0.109$`\pm `$0.001 0.015$`\pm `$0.001 - - 0.194$`\pm `$0.0001  280K - - - - -

Figure Caption

Fig.1a XRD data for Co0.2Zn0.8Fe2-xTixO4 spinel oxide, b) Mössbauer spectrum recorded in absence of magnetic field at 300K. Solid point: experimental data, dotted/solid line is the fitted data using least square method
Fig.2 Temperature dependence of real ($`\chi ^{}`$) and imaginary ($`\chi ^{\prime \prime }`$) component of ac susceptibility measured at 1 Oe ac field in the frequency range 337 Hz to 7.7 kHz. The inset Fig. shows the expt data fitted with Vogel-Fulcher law
Fig.3 a) Zero field cooled dc susceptibility vs temperature measured at different fields. The inset shows the zero field cooled (ZEC) and field cooled (FC) magnetization vs temperature measured (top corner) and Curie-weiss law fit to expt data (at close interval) measured at 10 Oe. b) field cooled dc susceptibility vs temperature and the cluster freezing temperature (Tf) and irreversible temperature (Tirr) at different fields.
Fig.4 Hysteresis loop shown for 10K to 300K. The solid line represents the increase of M as H increases 0 to 7 tesla. The open symbol shows the loop. The arrow up indicate the field where field induced transition ocurs. The horizontal arrow represent the M (axis) values at the temperature indicated. For details see in the text.
Fig.5 Modified Arrot plot (M1/β vs (H/M)1/γ with $`\beta `$ = 1.03 and $`\gamma `$ 0.7) for temperature 10K to 300K. The dotted line is the linear extrapolation of M1/β (for H$`>`$ 3 Tesla) to H = 0 axis to calculate the spontaneous magnetization and the solid lines are drawn for guide to eye. Inset shows temperature dependence of spontaneous magnetization (MS) and coercive field (HC)(right scale).
Fig.6 a) Time dependence of remanent magnetization measured at different temperatures, b) Temperature dependence of remanent magnetization. TS is the temperature which separate two decay regions.
Fig.7 a) Temperature dependence of resistivity at 0 Oe and 7.8 kOe and ac susceptibility at 1 Oe, 337 Hz (right scale). b) magnetoresistance calculated by subtracting 7.8 kOe data from 0 Oe data. For Tf, Tp, TMS and TSM see in the text.
Fig.8 Magnetoresistance measured at different temperatures with maximum field 8 kOe for Co0.2Zn0.8Fe2-xTixO4 spinel oxide.
Fig.9 Magnetoresistance measured for more than one cycle of applied field $`\pm `$ 8 kOe.


format: text

text:
# Inelastic Dark Matter at DAMA, CDMS and Future Experiments

## 1 Introduction

Recently the DAMA collaboration has reported evidence from four years of study of an annual modulation signal consistent with a WIMP . The data satisfy the six requirements of a WIMP signal in that it is a modulation of the single hit rate, contained entirely in the low energy bins, with the appropriate shape, phase, period, and amplitude that are expected. Studies of possible systematic errors have turned up no candidates to explain the modulation .

At the same time, the CDMS collaboration has reported no evidence for a WIMP signal in their experiment , claiming a conflict with DAMA as interpreted as a WIMP coupled with spin-independent (SI) interactions at $`99.8\%`$, even given no assumptions about the background .

Given this conflict, and the absence of a clear source of systematic error, it is worthwhile to consider alternative forms of dark matter, with different interaction properties from the neutralino. The neutralino is a very appealing candidate, both because it arises in a motivated theory (supersymmetry) and because it naturally has the right relic abundance. In looking for a alternative theory, we would like to retain both of these features, while still explaining the discrepancy between CDMS and DAMA.

### 1.1 Inelastic Dark Matter

Let us consider “inelastic dark matter” (iDM) . We assume the presence of two particles $`\chi _1`$ and $`\chi _2`$, such that $`\delta =m_2m_1>0`$. We further assume that $`\chi _1`$ constitutes the dark matter in the galaxy, and that $`\chi _1`$ can only scatter off of nuclei by making an inelastic transition to $`\chi _2`$. That is, the allowed scattering is $`\chi _1N\chi _2N`$. Let us emphasize that the inelasticity is not due to a nuclear transition, but instead in the final state of the dark matter particle, itself.

It is quite simple to construct models of this type, but we will address this later. For now, let us focus on the kinematical changes which occur in a scattering experiment. The central difference from ordinary elastic scattering is the requirement on the velocity $`\beta `$ for a scattering to occur:

$$\beta ^2>\frac{2\delta (m_N+m_\chi )}{m_Nm_\chi },$$
(1)
where $`m_N`$ is the mass of the target nucleus. The important point is that the right hand side is an increasing (more severe) function for lighter target nuclei. In the halo there is a distribution of velocities. Because the DAMA target is NaI ($`A_I=127`$) while the CDMS target is Ge ($`A_{Ge}=73`$), a larger range of velocities will be visible at DAMA than at CDMS (figure 1). As a consequence, the sensitivity of DAMA relative to CDMS is enhanced when compared with the elastic case.

A second effect enhances the sensitivity of DAMA relative to CDMS. Because we are sensitive to the number of particles above some velocity $`\beta _{min}`$, as we orbit the sun, the number of particles which can scatter can change considerably. As a consequence, the modulated amplitude can be considerably larger than $`7\%`$ of the unmodulated amplitude, as is the limit in the usual elastic case. In figure 2, we see this enhancement.

An interesting result of this involves the interpretation of the DAMA data. It is often noted (e.g., ) that the DAMA best fit point has an unmodulated signal comparable to their measured background in certain low energy bins. Here, this is no longer the case in general. In fact, the suppression of the DAMA unmodulated signal is most pronounced in the low energy bins in question, as we will discuss in the next section.

The combination of all changes allows us to fit the “model-independent” data of , and compare with the limits of CDMS in our framework, requiring fewer than six of the observed nuclear scatterers to be WIMP events. Making certain reasonable assumptions that not too much of the DAMA signal lies in the high energy bins, we achieve the allowed parameter space of figure 3. We show the allowed region for $`m_\chi =100\mathrm{G}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}`$.

Recently, the DAMA collaboration has performed a complete analysis of their data within the iDM framework , and found regions in good agreement with the estimated regions of . Interestingly, the best fit points lie well in the inelastic regime, where both the spectrum and strength of modulation can differ signficiantly from the elastic case.

### 1.2 Experimental Signals of iDM

Although inelastic dark matter offers an attractive resolution to the conflict between CDMS and DAMA, it is essential that the scenario offer additional experimental signals to distinguish it from elastically scattering dark matter.

Of great importance are the upcoming experiments using targets at least as heavy as iodine. Xenon ($`A_{Xe}=131`$) is being used in a number of upcoming experiments. Still, while xenon and iodine are similar in mass, the sensitivity of most experiments compared with DAMA changes as a function of $`\delta `$. This would be at most a factor of a few, and so a test should be available in the near future. Also important is the upcoming CRESST experiment, with a tungsten target ($`A_W=183`$) , which would be significantly more sensitive than any of the existing experiments.

The suppression of event rate is not the only significant difference. Because the kinematics are changed, the shape of the signal as a function of energy can be considerably different. In figure 4 we see how the modulated signal can appear as a function of energy at DAMA. While for certain values of $`\delta `$ the elastic case and inelastic case appear comparable, there can also be significant spectral differences. Currently the DAMA spectrum is unpublished, only fits to it are available. It is possible that presently existing data could help to suggest whether this scenario is correct.

At experiments which study the total rate (as opposed to modulation), the effect is even more pronounced. The signal spectrum, which for elastic WIMPs would rise dramatically at low energies, would now dip at low energies. The position of the peak would depend sensitively on $`\delta `$. We show an example spectrum as would be seen at CDMS in figure 5. Such a signal would be a smoking gun of the iDM scenario. Measuring it would give great information into both the inelastic WIMP and the distribution of dark matter in the halo.

## 2 Models of iDM

So far we have considered iDM only as an attractive idea, but have not yet discussed how such a model would arise. In fact, as described in , it is quite simple to realize such a model in supersymmetric theories.

A complex scalar field is composed of two real scalar fields. If the scalar is charged under some gauge symmetry, one finds that the coupling of the gauge boson is off-diagonal . That is, if $`\varphi =a+ib`$, we have in the Lagrangian

$$A_\mu (a^\mu bb^\mu a).$$
(2)
If the gauge symmetry is broken, then $`a`$ and $`b`$ will have no symmetry requiring their degeneracy, so higher order effects will naturally split their masses. This is then a general setup for achieving inelastic dark matter.

A particular example of this is a “mixed sneutrino”, or a sneutrino which is then mixed with a singlet scalar field. Examples of models which are consistent with iDM have been given in . Let us consider a supersymmetry breaking spurion $`X`$ which acquires $`A`$ and $`F`$ component vevs of roughly the same scale

$$X10^{11}\mathrm{GeV}+\theta ^2(10^{11}\mathrm{GeV})^2,$$
(3)
and consider a singlet field $`N`$ which acquires a mass through the usual Giudice-Masiero mechanism  with a Lagrangian

$$\left[\frac{X}{M_{Pl}}LNH\right]_F+\left[\frac{X^{}}{M_{Pl}}NN+\frac{X^{}XX^{}}{M_{Pl}^3}NN\right]_D.$$
(4)
These terms lead to a scalar potential

$$V=A\stackrel{~}{l}\stackrel{~}{n}h+m_n^2\stackrel{~}{n}\stackrel{~}{n}^{}+\mathrm{\Delta }^2(\stackrel{~}{n}\stackrel{~}{n}+\stackrel{~}{n}^{}\stackrel{~}{n}^{})+m_l^2\stackrel{~}{l}\stackrel{~}{l}^{}.$$
(5)
The lightest eigenstate is the real component of a linear combination of $`\stackrel{~}{l}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{n}`$. The LSP then is an inelastic WIMP with splitting $`\delta \mathrm{\Delta }^2/m_{LSP}`$, which is the correct size to explain the DAMA/CDMS discrepancy.

It is important to stress that the parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is a symmetry breaking parameter, without which the real components of the LSP would be degenerate. Because of this, even while $`m_l^2`$, $`m_n^2`$ and $`A`$ may all be renormalized, the small inelasticity parameter is stable, making the model natural.

Because the LSP is a combination of sneutrino and the singlet scalar, its coupling to $`Z`$ is suppressed compared with the minimal sneutrino of the MSSM. As a consequence, it can evade direct limits from LEP and achieve the proper relic abundance .

## 3 Conclusions and Outlook

In summary, we have seen that inelastic dark matter can easily explain the discrepancy between CDMS and DAMA. Like the neutralino, inelastic dark matter can arise naturally in supersymmetric theories as the real component of a mixed sneutrino. This well-motivated candidate is natural both in that it arises simply out of supergravity theories, and that its important features (the small splitting $`\delta `$) are radiatively stable.

Such models make exciting predictions for the upcoming round of dark-matter experiments. For small to moderate $`\delta `$, CDMS would be expected to see a signal after its move to the Sudan mine with low energy events suppressed. For moderate to large $`\delta `$, DAMA would see a spectral deformation from the elastic case. In all events, upcoming xenon and tungsten experiments would see a signal with varying degrees of spectral distortion.


text:
# Braneworld tensor anisotropies in the CMB

## I Introduction

The early universe provides a testing ground for theories of gravity. The standard cosmological model, based on general relativity with an inflationary era, is very effective in accounting for a broad range of observed features of the universe. However, the lack of a consistent theoretical framework for inflation, together with the ongoing puzzles on the nature of dark matter and dark energy, indicate that cosmology may be probing the limits of validity of general relativity.

M theory is considered to be a promising potential path to quantum gravity. As such, it is an important candidate for cosmological testing. In the absence of a sufficiently general M-theoretic model of cosmology, we can use phenomenological models that share some of the key features of M theory, including branes. In brane cosmology, the observable universe is a 1+3-dimensional “brane” surface moving in a higher-dimensional “bulk” spacetime. Standard-model fields are confined to the brane, while gravity propagates in the bulk. The simplest, and yet sufficiently general, phenomenological braneworld models are those based on the Randall-Sundrum II scenario Randall and Sundrum (1999). These models have the additional advantage that they provide a framework for investigating aspects of holography and the AdS/CFT correspondence.

In the generalized RSII models, analyzed via an elegant geometrical approach in Ref. Shiromizu et al. (2000), the bulk is a 1+4-dimensional spacetime, with non-compact extra spatial dimension. What prevents gravity from ‘leaking’ into the extra dimension at low energies is the negative bulk cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_5=6/\mathrm{}^2`$, where $`\mathrm{}`$ is a curvature scale of the bulk. In the weak-field static limit, null results in tests for deviations from Newton’s law impose the limit $`\mathrm{}1`$ mm. The negative $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_5`$ is offset by the positive brane tension $`\lambda `$, which defines the energy scale dividing low from high energies. The limit $`\mathrm{}<1`$mm implies $`\lambda >(100\mathrm{GeV})^4`$, and the effective cosmological constant on the brane is

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }=\frac{1}{2}(\mathrm{\Lambda }_5+\kappa ^2\lambda ),$$
(1)
where $`\kappa ^2=8\pi G=8\pi /M_4^2`$, and $`M_410^{19}`$GeV is the effective Planck scale on the brane. A further intriguing feature of the braneworld scenario is that, because of the large extra dimensions, the fundamental energy scale of gravity can be dramatically lower than the effective Planck scale on the brane – as low as $``$ TeV in some scenarios. In generalized RSII models, the fundamental scale is higher, $`M_5>10^5`$TeV, and is related to $`M_4`$ via $`M_5^3=M_4^2/\mathrm{}.`$

At energies well above the brane tension $`\lambda `$, gravity becomes 5-dimensional and significant corrections to general relativity occur. There are also corrections that can operate at low energies, mediated by bulk graviton or Kaluza-Klein (KK) modes. Both types of correction play an important role in tensor perturbations.

The background cosmological dynamics of a Friedmann brane in Schwarzschild-Anti de Sitter (AdS) bulk are well understood Binetruy et al (2000), including the high-energy modifications to inflation Maartens et al. (2000). High-energy inflation on the brane generates a zero-mode (4D graviton mode) of tensor perturbations, and stretches it to super-Hubble scales. This zero-mode has the same qualitative features as in general relativity, remaining frozen at constant amplitude while beyond the Hubble horizon, but the overall amplitude is higher Langlois et al. (2000). The massive KK modes (5D graviton modes) remain in the vacuum state during slow-roll inflation. The evolution of the super-Hubble zero mode is the same as in general relativity, so that high-energy braneworld effects in the early universe serve only to re-scale the amplitude. However, when the zero mode re-enters the Hubble horizon, massive KK modes can be excited. Qualitative arguments hawking ; Gorbunov et al (2000) indicate that this is a very small effect, but it remains to be properly quantified, so that the signature on the CMB may be calculated, and constraints may be imposed on the braneworld parameters.

We develop here a formalism to compute the tensor anisotropies in the CMB, which incorporates the early-universe high-energy braneworld effects, and we carefully delineate what is known on the brane from what is required from bulk equations. Once the 5D solutions are provided, our formalism, with its modified CMB code (based on CAMB Lewis et al. (2000); Lewis (2000)), is able to compute these anisotropies. We illustrate this by using a simple approximation to the 5D effects (cf. the analysis of the braneworld scalar Sachs-Wolfe effect in Ref. Barrow and Maartens (2001)).

## II Braneworld dynamics and tensor perturbations

There has been an explosion of interest in the theory of cosmological perturbations in braneworlds and their implications for observational cosmology (see e.g. Refs. pert ).

In this paper, we follow the same general formalism previously developed to analyze braneworld scalar anisotropies in the CMB Leong et al. (2002). This is based on the 1+3-covariant perturbation theory for CMB anisotropies Challinor (2000), generalized to incorporate braneworld effects. (See Ref. Leong et al. (2002) for further details and definitions.)

The field equations induced on the brane are

$$G_{ab}=\mathrm{\Lambda }g_{ab}+\kappa ^2T_{ab}+6\frac{\kappa ^2}{\lambda }𝒮_{ab}_{ab},$$
(2)
where $`𝒮_{ab}(T_{ab})^2`$ carries high-energy corrections, and is negligible for matter energy densities $`\rho \lambda `$, while $`_{ab}`$, the projection of the bulk Weyl tensor on the brane, carries corrections from KK or 5D graviton effects. From the brane-observer viewpoint, the energy-momentum corrections in $`𝒮_{ab}`$ are local, whereas the KK corrections in $`_{ab}`$ are nonlocal maartens ; mukohyama , since they incorporate 5D gravity wave modes. These nonlocal corrections to the Einstein equations on the brane cannot be determined purely from data on the brane, and so the induced field equations are not a closed system; one needs to supplement them by 5D equations governing $`_{ab}`$.

The trace free $`_{ab}`$ contributes an effective energy density $`\rho ^{}`$, pressure $`\rho ^{}/3`$, momentum density $`q_a^{}`$ and anisotropic stress $`\pi _{ab}^{}`$ on the brane, which collectively incorporate the spin-0, spin-1 and spin-2 modes of the 5D graviton, and through which the brane “feels” the bulk gravitational field. Then the braneworld corrections can conveniently be consolidated into an effective total energy density, pressure, momentum density and anisotropic stress:

$`\rho ^{\text{eff}}`$ $`=`$ $`\rho \left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{\rho }{2\lambda }}+{\displaystyle \frac{\rho ^{}}{\rho }}\right),`$ (3)
$`P^{\text{eff}}`$ $`=`$ $`P+{\displaystyle \frac{\rho }{2\lambda }}(2P+\rho )+{\displaystyle \frac{\rho ^{}}{3}},`$ (4)
$`q_a^{\text{eff }}`$ $`=`$ $`q_a\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{\rho }{\lambda }}\right)+q_a^{}`$ (5)
$`\pi _{ab}^{\text{eff }}`$ $`=`$ $`\pi _{ab}\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{\rho +3P}{2\lambda }}\right)+\pi _{ab}^{},`$ (6)
where $`\rho `$ and $`P`$ are the total matter density and pressure, $`q_a`$ is the total matter momentum density, and $`\pi _{ab}`$ is the matter anisotropic stress. We have neglected terms quadratic in $`q_a`$ and $`\pi _{ab}`$ since these do not contribute to the fluctuations in the effective variables in linear perturbation theory.

In the background, $`q_a^{}=0=\pi _{ab}^{}`$. The modified Friedmann equations are

$`H^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa ^2}{3}}\rho ^{\text{eff }}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\mathrm{\Lambda }{\displaystyle \frac{K}{a^2}},`$ (7)
$`\dot{H}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa ^2}{2}}(\rho ^{\mathrm{eff}}+P^{\mathrm{eff}})+{\displaystyle \frac{K}{a^2}},`$ (8)
and the KK energy density behaves like ‘dark’ radiation:

$$\rho ^{}\frac{1}{a^4}.$$
(9)
The (1+3)-covariant description of tensor perturbations in general relativity Dunsby et al. (2000); Challinor (2000) generalizes naturally to braneworld cosmology maartens . Tensor modes on the brane are characterized by the transverse traceless shear $`\sigma _{ab}`$, which is a tensor potential for the electric and magnetic Weyl tensors $`E_{ab}`$ and $`H_{ab}`$. The sources for linearized tensor modes are the matter anisotropic stress $`\pi _{ab}`$ and the KK anisotropic stress $`\pi _{ab}^{}`$. The Boltzmann equation governs $`\pi _{ab}`$. As pointed out above, the KK anisotropic stress, which carries the imprint of 5D gravitational wave modes on the brane, is not determined by 4D equations on the brane. For the moment, we assume that $`\pi _{ab}^{}`$ is given from a solution to the 5D equations. Below we will discuss what this entails and how one can approximate the solution.

The transverse traceless quantities can be expanded in electric ($`Q_{ab}^{(k)}`$) and magnetic ($`\overline{Q}_{ab}^{(k)}`$) parity tensor harmonics Challinor (2000), with dimensionless coefficients:

$`E_{ab}`$ $`={\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{a}}\right)^2\left[E_kQ_{ab}^{(k)}+\overline{E}_k\overline{Q}_{ab}^{(k)}\right],`$ (10)
$`H_{ab}`$ $`={\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{k}{a}}\right)^2\left[H_kQ_{ab}^{(k)}+\overline{H}_k\overline{Q}_{ab}^{(k)}\right],`$ (11)
$`\sigma _{ab}`$ $`={\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{k}{a}}\left[\sigma _kQ_{ab}^{(k)}+\overline{\sigma }_k\overline{Q}_{ab}^{(k)}\right],`$ (12)
$`\pi _{ab}`$ $`=\rho {\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}\left[\pi _kQ_{ab}^{(k)}+\overline{\pi }_k\overline{Q}_{ab}^{(k)}\right],`$ (13)
$`\pi _{ab}^{}`$ $`=\rho {\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}\left[\pi _k^{}Q_{ab}^{(k)}+\overline{\pi }_k^{}\overline{Q}_{ab}^{(k)}\right].`$ (14)
Using $`H_{ab}=\mathrm{curl}\sigma _{ab}`$, we arrive at the coupled equations

$`{\displaystyle \frac{k}{a^2}}\left(\sigma _k^{}+\sigma _k\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{k^2}{a^2}}E_k{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa ^2}{2}}\rho \pi _k=\kappa ^2(23\gamma ){\displaystyle \frac{\rho ^2}{4\lambda }}\pi _k+{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa ^2}{2}}\rho \pi _k^{},`$ (15)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{k^2}{a^2}}\left(E_k^{}+E_k\right)k\left({\displaystyle \frac{k^2}{a^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{3K}{a^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa ^2}{2}}\gamma \rho \right)\sigma _k+{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa ^2}{2}}\rho \pi _k^{}{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa ^2}{2}}(3\gamma 1)\rho \pi _k`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{\kappa ^2}{4\lambda }}\{2k\gamma \rho ^2\sigma _k(3\gamma 2)\rho ^2\pi _k^{}[3\gamma ^{}(3\gamma 2)(6\gamma 1)]\rho ^2\pi _k\}`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}k\kappa ^2\rho ^{}\sigma _k{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa ^2}{2}}\left[\rho \pi _k^{^{}}+(13\gamma )\rho \pi _k^{}\right],`$ (16)
where a prime denotes $`d/d\tau `$, with $`\tau `$ conformal time, $`=a^{}/a`$, and the (non-constant) parameter $`\gamma `$ is defined by $`P=(\gamma 1)\rho `$. Equations $`(\text{15})`$ and $`(\text{II})`$, with all braneworld terms on the right-hand sides, determine the tensor anisotropies in the CMB, once $`\pi _k`$ and $`\pi _k^{}`$ are given. The former is determined by the Boltzmann equation in the usual way Challinor (2000), except that the background dynamics are altered by braneworld effects. The latter requires a solution of the 5D perturbation equations.

The solution for the non-local anisotropic stress will be of the form

$$\pi _k^{}(\tau )𝑑\stackrel{~}{\tau }𝒢(\tau ,\stackrel{~}{\tau })F[\pi _k,\sigma _k]|_{\stackrel{~}{\tau }},$$
(17)
where $`𝒢`$ is a retarded Green’s function evaluated on the brane. The functional $`F`$ is known in the case of a Minkowski background Sasaki et al (2001), but not in the cosmological case. (An equivalent integro-differential formulation of the problem is given in Ref. Mukohyama (2001); see also Ref. soda .) Once $`𝒢`$ and $`F`$ are determined, Eq. $`(\text{17})`$ can in principle be incorporated into a modified version of Boltzmann codes such as CAMB Lewis et al. (2000) or CMBFAST Seljak and Zaldarriaga (1996). It remains a major task of braneworld cosmological perturbation theory to find this solution, or its equivalent forms in other formalisms. In the meanwhile, in order to make progress towards understanding braneworld signatures on tensor CMB anisotropies, we can consider approximations to the solution.

The nonlocal nature of $`\pi _k^{}`$, as reflected in Eq. $`(\text{17})`$, is fundamental, but is also the source of the great complexity of the problem. The lowest level approximation to $`\pi _k^{}`$ is local. Despite removing the key aspect of the KK anisotropic stress, we can get a feel for its influence on the CMB if we capture at least part of its qualitative properties. The key qualitative feature is that inhomogeneity and anisotropy on the brane are a source for KK modes in the bulk which “backreact” maartens  or “feed back” mukohyama , onto the brane. The transverse traceless part of inhomogeneity and anisotropy on the brane is given by the transverse traceless anisotropic stresses in the geometry, i.e. by the matter anisotropic stress $`\pi _{ab}`$ and the shear anisotropy $`\sigma _{ab}`$. The radiation and neutrino anisotropic stresses are in turn sourced by the shear to lowest order (neglecting the role of the octupole and higher Legendre moments).

Thus the simplest local approximation which reflects the essential qualitative feature of the spin-2 KK modes is

$$\kappa ^2\pi _{ab}^{}=\zeta H\sigma _{ab},\zeta ^{}=0,$$
(18)
where $`\zeta `$ is a dimensionless KK parameter, with $`\zeta =0`$ corresponding to no KK effects on the brane, and $`\zeta =0=\lambda ^1`$ giving the general relativity limit. \[Note that for tensor perturbations, where there is no freedom over the choice of frame (i.e. $`u^a`$), there is no gauge ambiguity in Eq. (18). However, for scalar or vector perturbations, this relation could only hold in one frame, since $`\pi _{ab}^{}`$ is frame-invariant in linear theory while $`\sigma _{ab}`$ is not.\]

The approximation in Eq. (18) has the qualitative form of a shear viscosity, which suggests that KK effects lead to a damping of tensor anisotropies. This is indeed consistent with the conversion of part of the zero-mode at Hubble re-entry into massive KK modes Langlois et al. (2000); Gorbunov et al (2000). The conversion may be understood equivalently as the emission of KK gravitons into the bulk, and leads to a loss of energy in the 4D graviton modes on the brane, i.e. to an effective damping. The approximation in Eq. (18) therefore also incorporates this key feature qualitatively.

With this first approximation, we can close the system of equations on the brane by adding the equation

$$\kappa ^2\rho \pi _k^{}=\zeta \frac{k}{a^2}\sigma _k.$$
(19)
We will also assume $`K=0=\rho ^{}`$ in the background. The parameter $`\zeta `$ (together with the brane tension $`\lambda `$) then controls braneworld effects on the tensor CMB anisotropies in this simplest approximation.

## III  CMB Tensor Power Spectra

Ignoring the photon anisotropic stress (i.e. $`\pi _{ab}=0`$), the variable $`u_ka^{1+\zeta /2}\sigma _k`$ satisfies the equation of motion

$$u_k^{\prime \prime }+\left[k^2+2K\frac{(a^{1\zeta /2})^{\prime \prime }}{a^{1\zeta /2}}\right]u_k=0,$$
(20)
where we have used Eq. (18). In flat models ($`K=0`$) on large scales there is a decaying solution $`\sigma _ka^{(2+\zeta )}`$. Since Eq. (20) contains no first derivative term the Wronskian is conserved. On large scales we can use the solution $`\sigma _ka^{(2+\zeta )}`$ to write the conserved Wronskian as $`W=\sigma _k^{}+(2+\zeta )\sigma _k`$. (The Wronskian vanishes in the decaying mode.) Integrating gives the following two independent solutions on large scales in flat models:

$$\sigma _k=\{\begin{array}{cc}A_ka^{(2+\zeta )},\hfill & \\ B_ka^{(2+\zeta )}^\tau 𝑑\stackrel{~}{\tau }a(\stackrel{~}{\tau })^{2+\zeta },\hfill & \end{array}$$
(21)
where $`A_k`$ and $`B_k`$ are constants of integration. If we let $`\zeta 0`$, we recover the results in Ref. Lewis (2000) for the general relativity case.

The conserved Wronskian is proportional to the metric perturbation variable, $`H_T`$, characterising the amplitude of 4D gravitational waves. In flat models $`H_T`$ is related to the covariant variables quite generally by

$$H_{Tk}=\frac{\sigma _k^{}}{k}+2E_k.$$
(22)
Ignoring photon anisotropic stress, we can eliminate the electric part of the Weyl tensor via the shear propagation equation (15) to find $`kH_{Tk}=\sigma _k^{}(\zeta +2)\sigma _k=W`$. The fact that $`H_T`$ is conserved on large scales in flat models in the absence of photon anisotropic stress can also be seen directly from its propagation equation,

$$H_{Tk}^{\prime \prime }+(2+\zeta )H_{Tk}^{}+k^2H_{Tk}=0.$$
(23)
We can solve Eq. (20) on all scales in the high-energy ($`\rho \lambda `$ and $`a\tau ^{1/3}`$) and low-energy ($`\rho \lambda `$ and $`a\tau `$) radiation-dominated regimes, and during matter-domination ($`a\tau ^2`$). The solutions are

$`u_k(\tau )`$ $`=\sqrt{k\tau }\left[c_1J_{\frac{1}{6}(5+\zeta )}(k\tau )+c_2Y_{\frac{1}{6}(5+\zeta )}(k\tau )\right]`$ $`(\text{high energy radiation}),`$ (24)
$`u_k(\tau )`$ $`=\sqrt{k\tau }\left[c_3J_{\frac{1}{2}(3+\zeta )}(k\tau )+c_4Y_{\frac{1}{2}(3+\zeta )}(k\tau )\right]`$ $`(\text{low energy radiation}),`$ (25)
$`u_k(\tau )`$ $`=\sqrt{k\tau }\left[c_5J_{\frac{5}{2}+\zeta }(k\tau )+c_6Y_{\frac{5}{2}+\zeta }(k\tau )\right]`$ $`(\text{matter domination}),`$ (26)
where $`c_i`$ are integration constants. The solutions for the electric part of the Weyl tensor can be found from Eq. (15). For modes of cosmological interest the wavelength is well outside the Hubble radius at the transition from the high-energy regime to the low-energy. It follows that the regular solution (labelled by $`c_1`$) in the high-energy regime will only excite the regular solution ($`c_3`$) in the low-energy, radiation-dominated era. Performing a series expansion, we arrive at the appropriate initial conditions for large-scale modes in the low-energy radiation era:

$`H_{Tk}`$ $`=1{\displaystyle \frac{(k\tau )^2}{2(3+\zeta )}}+{\displaystyle \frac{(k\tau )^4}{8(3+\zeta )(5+\zeta )}}+O[(k\tau )^6],`$ (27)
$`\sigma _k`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{k\tau }{3+\zeta }}+{\displaystyle \frac{k^3\tau ^3}{2(3+\zeta )(5+\zeta )}}+O[(k\tau )^5],`$ (28)
$`E_k`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{(4+\zeta )}{2(3+\zeta )}}{\displaystyle \frac{(k\tau )^2(8+\zeta )}{4(3+\zeta )(5+\zeta )}}+O[(k\tau )^4].`$ (29)
In the limit $`\zeta 0`$, we recover the general relativity results Challinor (2000).

For modes that are super-Hubble at matter-radiation equality (i.e. $`k\tau _{\text{eq}}1`$), the above solution joins smoothly onto the regular solution labelled by $`c_5`$ in Eq. (26). For $`k\tau _{\text{eq}}1`$, the shear during matter domination takes the form

$$\sigma _k=2^{\frac{3}{2}+\zeta }\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{5}{2}+\zeta )(k\tau )^{(\frac{3}{2}+\zeta )}J_{\frac{5}{2}+\zeta }(k\tau ).$$
(30)
In the opposite limit, the wavelength is well inside the Hubble radius at matter-radiation equality. The asymptotic form of the shear in matter domination is then

$$\sigma _k\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }[\frac{1}{2}(3+\zeta )]}{\sqrt{\pi }}\left(\frac{2\tau _{\text{eq}}}{\tau }\right)^{1+\zeta /2}(k\tau )^{(1+\zeta /2)}\mathrm{sin}(k\tau \pi \zeta /4).$$
(31)
We use the initial conditions, Eqs. (27)–(29), in a modified version of the CAMB code to obtain the tensor temperature and polarization power spectra. The temperature and electric polarization spectra are shown in Figs. 1 and 2 for a scale-invariant initial power spectrum. The normalisation is set by the initial power in the gravity wave background. Figs 1 and 2, together with Eqs. (24)–(29), are the main result of this work, and we now discuss the physical conclusions following from these results.

## IV Discussion

As expected, we find that the power spectra are insensitive to high-energy effects, i.e. effectively independent of the brane tension $`\lambda `$ : the $`\zeta =0`$ curve in Fig. 1 is indistinguishable from that of the general relativity model (both power spectra are identical at the resolution of the plot). For the computations, we have used the lowest value of the brane tension $`\lambda =(100\mathrm{GeV})^4`$, consistent with the tests of Newton’s law.

There are three notable effects visible in Figs. 1 and 2, arising as the physical consequences of our approximate model of the KK stress: (i) the power on large scales reduces with increasing KK parameter $`\zeta `$; (ii) features in the spectrum shift to smaller angular scales with increasing $`\zeta `$; and (iii) the power falls off more rapidly on small scales as $`\zeta `$ increases. Neglecting scattering effects, the shear is the only source of linear tensor anisotropies (see e.g. Ref. Challinor (2000)). For $`1l<60`$ the dominant modes to contribute to the temperature $`C_l`$s are those whose wavelengths subtend an angle $`1/l`$ when the shear first peaks (around the time of Hubble crossing). The small suppression in the $`C_l`$s on large scales with increasing $`\zeta `$ arises from the reduction in the peak amplitude of the shear at Hubble entry \[see Eq. (30)\], qualitatively interpreted as the loss of energy in the 4D graviton modes to 5D KK modes.

Increasing $`\zeta `$ also has the effect of adding a small positive phase shift to the oscillations in the shear on sub-Hubble scales, as shown e.g. by Eq. (31). The delay in the time at which the shear first peaks leads to a small increase in the maximum $`l`$ for which $`l(l+1)C_l`$ is approximately constant, as is apparent in Fig. 1. The phase shift of the subsequent peaks in the shear has the effect of shifting the peaks in the tensor $`C_l`$s to the right. For $`l>60`$ the main contribution to the tensor anisotropies at a given scale is localized near last scattering and comes from modes with wavenumber $`kl/\tau _0`$, where $`\tau _0`$ is the present conformal time. On these scales the gravity waves have already entered the Hubble radius at last scattering. Such modes are undergoing adiabatic damping by the expansion and this results in the sharp decrease in the anisotropies on small scales. Increasing the KK parameter $`\zeta `$ effectively produces more adiabatic damping and hence a sharper fall off of power. The transition to a slower fall off in the $`C_l`$s at $`l200`$ is due to the weaker dependence of the amplitude of the shear on wavenumber at last scattering for modes that have entered the Hubble radius during radiation domination Starobinsky (1985). \[The asymptotic expansion of Eq. (30) gives the shear amplitude $`k^{(2+\zeta )}`$ at fixed $`\tau `$, whereas for modes that were sub-Hubble at matter-radiation equality Eq. (31) gives the amplitude $`k^{(1+\zeta /2)}`$.\]

Similar comments apply to the tensor electric polarization $`C_l^E`$, shown in Fig. 2. As with the temperature anisotropies, we see the same shifting of features to the right and increase in damping on small scales. Since polarization is only generated at last scattering (except for the feature at very low $`l`$ that arises from scattering at reionization, with an assumed optical depth $`\tau _C=0.03`$), the large-scale polarization is suppressed, since the shear (and hence the temperature quadrupole at last scattering) is small for super-Hubble modes. In matter domination the large-scale shear is $`\sigma _k=k\tau /(5+2\zeta )`$; the reduction in the magnitude of the shear with increasing KK parameter $`\zeta `$ is clearly visible in the large-angle polarization. The braneworld modification to the tensor magnetic polarization $`C_l^B`$ has the same qualitative features as in the electric case.

In principle, observations can constrain the KK parameter $`\zeta `$, which controls the generation of 5D modes within our simplified local approximation, Eq. (18). The other braneworld parameter $`\lambda `$, the brane tension, is not constrained within our approximation. In practice, the tensor power spectra have not been measured, and the prospect of useful data is still some way off. What is more important is the theoretical task of improving on the simplified local approximation we have introduced. This approximation has allowed us to encode aspects of the qualitative features of braneworld tensor anisotropies, which we expect to survive in modified form within more realistic approximations. However, a proper understanding of braneworld effects must incorporate the nonlocal nature of the KK graviton modes, as reflected in the general form of Eq. $`(\text{17})`$. It is also necessary to investigate the scalar anisotropies, which have a dominant contribution to the measured power spectra. These may reveal new braneworld imprints that are more amenable to observational testing.

###### Acknowledgements.

B.L. thanks the Universities of Cape Town and Portsmouth for hospitality, during which part of the work was done. B.L. thanks Y.L. Loh, A. Lewis, A. Kahle, G. Chon and J. Weller for assistance with various computational matters, P. Dunsby and C. van de Bruck for helpful and critical discussions. B.L. is supported by an Overseas Research Studentship, the Cambridge Commonwealth Trust and the Lee Foundation, Singapore. A.C. acknowledges a PPARC Postdoctoral Fellowship.


text:
# Environment Shaping Galaxies: Star Formation Histories of Cluster Galaxies

## 1. Introduction

In the quest for undertanding how galaxy evolution is affected by environmental processes, galaxy optical spectra provide precious informations regarding the evolutionary histories and stellar population content of galaxies. Here I summarize some of the latest results obtained from spectroscopy of cluster galaxies, both at low and high redshift.

## 2. Lenticular galaxies

Lenticular (S0) galaxies are a key component in clusters, being very numerous and sometimes the most numerous of all Hubble types in rich clusters today. Already more than 20 years ago it was suggested that S0 galaxies could evolve from spirals that lost their gas supply. The hypothesis of a spiral origin for a significant fraction of the cluster S0’s has received strong support from HST studies of clusters at z=0.4-0.5 (Dressler et al. 1997) and ground-based studies at z=0.1-0.2 (Fasano et al. 2000): these works find the proportion of spirals to increase and the incidence of S0s to decrease at higher redshifts.

Based on this, one might expect to observe in cluster S0’s some (weak) residual signs of their past history as spirals. Perhaps the most obvious evidence to seek is the presence of relatively young (as compared to ellipticals) stellar populations. We have investigated the ages of stars in ellipticals and S0 galaxies in the Coma cluster (Poggianti et al. 2001b), deriving luminosity-weighted ages and metallicities from spectroscopic index-index diagrams (Fig. 1). The main result is that more than 40% of the S0s have undergone star formation during the last $`5`$ Gyr, while such activity is absent in the ellipticals.

A similar conclusion was reached in the Fornax cluster (Kuntschner & Davies 1998) and in Abell 2218 (Smail et al. 2001), but other studies had failed to detect any difference between the ages of Es and S0s. A possible explanation for the discordant results of different studies could be the galaxy luminosity range explored. In our Coma sample the fraction of S0 galaxies with recent star formation is higher at fainter magnitudes, and their quite faint luminosities are consistent with them being the descendants of typical star-forming spirals at intermediate redshifts. In contrast, the brightest S0’s seem to have had their latest star formation episode at higher redshifts, and possibly have formed by some other mechanism, therefore any study limited to very luminous galaxies might have missed the bulk of the population with spiral-origins. The most straightforward way to test this would be to study the S0 luminosity function in the field and in the clusters, at low and high-z.

## 3. Galaxy spectra: distant clusters versus Coma

Additional evidence that starforming galaxies are progressively transformed into passive ones in clusters comes from the spectra of distant cluster galaxies.

When the first spectra of distant cluster galaxies were taken (e.g. Dressler & Gunn 1983, Couch & Sharples 1987, Fabricant et al. 1991), it came as a surprise that many of these spectra displayed unusually strong Balmer lines in absorption, and no emission lines. This type of spectra, named “k+a” or “E+A” spectra, indicate that star formation has recently ceased in these galaxies (during the last 1-1.5 Gyr). Those with the strongest Balmer lines require a starburst before the quenching of star formation, and therefore are usually referred to as “post-starburst galaxies”. The incidence of k+a spectra among cluster galaxies at z=0.4 appears to be much higher than in field galaxies at similar redshifts (Dressler et al. 1999) and the majority of k+a spectra belong to galaxies classified as spirals on the basis of their morphology in HST images (Poggianti et al. 1999). The differences in the strength of the $`\mathrm{H}\delta `$ and of the other Balmer lines in k+a spectra as opposed to spectra of passive galaxies are shown in Fig. 2, where cluster galaxy spectra at z=0.5 with $`3<\mathrm{H}\delta <8`$ Å and $`\mathrm{H}\delta <3`$ Å have been separately coadded (Dressler et al. 2002).

In the following I am going to show a comparison between the spectral types of distant cluster galaxies and those of Coma galaxies of similar absolute magnitudes. The Coma dataset is a spectroscopic survey of a magnitude limited sample with essentially no additional color or morphological selection criteria (Mobasher et al. 2001, Poggianti et al. 2002). The distant dataset is the spectroscopic catalog of the MORPHS collaboration (Dressler et al. 1999), that includes 10 rich clusters at z=0.4-0.5 with a wide range of properties, such as concentration, optical and X-ray luminosity. In Table 1 we present the spectral properties of Coma galaxies, of the whole MORPHS sample and, separately, of the two MORPHS clusters whose X-ray luminosities more closely resemble Coma111 The X-ray luminosity of Coma (corresponding to $`L_X\mathrm{9.5\hspace{0.17em}10}^{44}\mathrm{ergs}\mathrm{s}^1`$ when observed at z=0.5 at 0.3-3.5 keV) lies in between that of Cl0016+16 ($`L_X\mathrm{11.8\hspace{0.17em}10}^{44}\mathrm{ergs}\mathrm{s}^1`$, 0.3-3.5 keV) and that of 3C 295 ($`L_X\mathrm{6.4\hspace{0.17em}10}^{44}\mathrm{ergs}\mathrm{s}^1`$, 0.3-3.5 keV).

The most striking difference in Table 1 is the lack of bright k+a galaxies in Coma. Moreover, there is a tendency for emission-line galaxies to be less common in Coma. Choosing to compare only with clusters of similar X-ray luminosities enhances the difference between the k+a population at z=0.5 and at z=0, and attenuates the difference in the emission-line population.

### 3.1. Emission lines: an interesting but incomplete view

For distant galaxies the most commonly used indicator of current star formation activity is the \[Oii\]3727 line, whose flux is expected to be roughly proportional to the present star formation rate of a galaxy.

Based on the \[Oii\]3727 line of clusters and field galaxies in the MORPHS spectroscopic catalog, complemented by a sample of nearby galaxies (Dressler et al. 2002), we have computed the SFR per unit B-band luminosity at z=0.5 and z=0, in clusters and in the field, with the following results:

$`z=0.5\frac{SFR}{L_B}(field)=3\times \frac{SFR}{L_B}(clusters)`$

$`z=0.0\frac{SFR}{L_B}(field)=10\times \frac{SFR}{L_B}(clusters)`$

Thus, the difference between the field and the clusters is a factor of 3 more pronounced in the local Universe than at z=0.5. Furthermore,

$`\mathrm{clusters}\frac{SFR}{L_B}(z=0.5)=6\times \frac{SFR}{L_B}(z=0.0)`$

$`\mathrm{field}\frac{SFR}{L_B}(z=0.5)=2\times \frac{SFR}{L_B}(z=0.0)`$

i.e. the evolution of the SFR per unit luminosity, as derived from the \[Oii\] line, has been steeper in clusters than in the field during the last 5 Gyrs, as if the cluster environment has somehow “accelerated” the evolution towards more passive, earlier-type galaxies. These results should be always considered remembering that:

a) a lower SFR (\[Oii\] flux) per unit luminosity in the clusters does not rule out that a SF enhancement could take place in some or all cluster galaxies prior to the final quenching of star formation;

b) dust effects are ignored in these calculations, and the amount of star formation hidden by dust is unknown. It is important to keep in mind that starburst galaxies with very high SFR in the local Universe are characterized by spectra with weak to moderate emission lines, because generally the higher the SFR, the higher the dust extinction and the fraction of SF hidden.

If dust affected cluster galaxies differently than field galaxies, for example due to an environmentally-induced star formation enhancement, then the comparison field-cluster shown above would be misleading. If, instead, dust effects played the same role in all environments at a given redshift, the relative comparison field-cluster would be meaningful. The evidence of important dust effects in distant cluster galaxies has been highlighted by the first radio continuum (Smail et al. 1999) and mid-IR (Duc et al. 2002) studies.

## 4. Fainter galaxies

Any comparison with the distant cluster data is inevitably limited to the brightest end of the galaxy luminosity function, while in nearby clusters it is possible to study also fainter galaxies. In Coma, our spectroscopic survey extends over more than 6 magnitudes down to $`M_B14`$.

In the previous section I have discussed the fact that Coma lacks the population of luminous k+a galaxies that is present in clusters at z=0.4. Strikingly, very clear examples of k+a spectra are found instead among the faint Coma galaxies, as shown in Fig. 3 (Poggianti et al. 2002). We show here a sample of k+a’s with a range of $`\mathrm{H}\delta `$ strengths, from very strong, post-starburst galaxies (#1 and #4) to weaker cases (#6 and #7). Balmer-strong spectra of Coma galaxies have been previously reported in a number of works by Caldwell, Rose and collaborators (e.g. Rose et al. 2001 and references therein).

Coma k+a’s in our sample are typically fainter than $`M_V18.5`$ (Fig. 4) and constitute a significant fraction (10-15 %) of the dwarf galaxy population at $`M_B>17`$. Why are k+a’s in clusters a luminous phenomenon at z=0.5, and a faint phenomenon at z=0? Is this due to a “cosmic evolution” (i.e. the changes in field galaxies + the hierarchical history of clusters), or to an evolution with z of the processes affecting galaxies in clusters? The former possibility is probably more likely. In fact, when studying the luminosity-weighted ages of all Coma galaxies with no emission lines in our sample we find systematic trends of age with galaxy luminosity. Fig. 5 shows what proportion of currently-passive Coma galaxies of a given magnitude experienced the latest star formation during the last 3 Gyr, between 3 and 9 Gyr ago and more than 9 Gyr ago. The age of the latest star formation episode was derived from index-index diagrams similar to Fig. 1, as described in Poggianti et al. 2001a.

About half of all galaxies of any luminosity do not show signs of significant star formation activity in the last 9 Gyr, i.e. since z=1.4 in a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ cosmology. Among the bright, currently passive galaxies, the fraction that experienced a star formation activity betwen 3 and 9 Gyr ago ($`0.25<z<1.4`$) is much higher than the fraction with SF during the last 3 Gyr (since $`z=0.25`$), while the opposite is true for the faint galaxy population. This seems to point to a “downsizing effect” suggesting that the last star formation activity (possibly related to the epoch of accretion onto the cluster) occurs on average at lower redshifts for progressively fainter galaxies. In this scenario, the galactic properties become a probe of the cluster accretion history of field starforming galaxies.

#### Acknowledgments.

I wish to thank my collaborators of the Coma group, in particular T. Bridges, B. Mobasher and D. Carter, and of the MORPHS group, especially A. Dressler and A. Oemler, for countless useful discussions and for allowing me to show our common results ahead of publication.

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