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# The Cosmic Ray Background as a Tool for Relative Calibration of Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes

## 1 Introduction

Atmospheric Cherenkov detectors cannot be calibrated using a test beam and the estimation of their sensitivity strongly depends on Monte Carlo simulation programs in which are modeled the atmosphere and the various elements of the detectors. Simulations usually assume a set of fixed conditions while the overall efficiency of the experiment can vary in time due to a number of factors. The most important cause of these variations is the atmosphere itself, and measuring and modeling changes in the $`\gamma `$-ray detection efficiency due to changing atmospheric conditions is complex. The slow degradation of optical elements until their recoating or replacement or the occasional readjustment of photo-detector gains also affects the sensitivity of the experiment. When measuring the $`\gamma `$-ray flux from a source, one must correct for these effects.

In this paper we present a method used for the Whipple Atmospheric Cherenkov Imaging Telescope to estimate an overall relative efficiency factor. We also validate the method using observations of the Crab Nebula and present some applications. In its basic form the method is based on the analysis of data taken toward the Zenith Mohanty  and this is presented first. We have realized that the method can be generalized in a way which incorporates the effects of the Zenith angle at which observations are made. While detailed simulations will always be necessary in order to understand variations in telescope sensitivity, a simple correction such as that presented here is a useful tool which may be particularly important when studying the time variability of $`\gamma `$-ray sources. An example of this is the case of flaring active galactic nuclei (AGN) which may be observed over a long period of time and a wide range of Zenith angles and atmospheric conditions. We also present the application of a similar method to CELESTE, a Cherenkov wavefront sampling experiment, which illustrates the utility of the technique as a way of obtaining a relative calibration between individual elements of a detector array.

## 2 Relative calibration at fixed Zenith angle

### 2.1 The method

Each recorded Cherenkov event can be characterized by its luminosity, $`Q`$, the definition of which may depend on the specific experiment. A relative throughput factor, $`F`$, between two observation times can then be defined as the ratio between the luminosity produced by the same atmospheric shower observed at the same Zenith angle but under the two different conditions. For data obtained with the Whipple $`10\mathrm{m}`$ telescope Cawley90 ; Finley01 , we define the luminosity of an event as the sum of the signals in all the photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) that gave a significant contribution to the image Reynolds93 . In order to effectively estimate the throughput factor we use the fact that the cosmic ray spectrum is constant at the energies we observe Gaisser90 , and therefore differences in the distribution of $`Q`$ obtained at the same Zenith angle with the same detector should only reflect variations in light collection efficiency and gain of the experiment. Practically, in the Whipple data analysis, we construct the histogram of $`Q`$ obtained from the Zenith observations during a specific night. This is then used as a reference for the other nights to be calibrated. For each of the other nights we construct the histogram of $`F\times Q`$, with $`F`$ being a test value for the relative gain between the night to be calibrated and the reference night. We then adjust $`F`$ until the distribution best fits the reference one. When applying this process one must take care to avoid the regions of the $`Q`$ distribution where the effects of threshold and saturation of the experiment become important.

### 2.2 An Application: Calibration of the focal plane light collecting cones

The Whipple telescope focal plane detector is equipped with light collecting cones which reduce the dead space between the photomultiplier tube pixels. The actual light collection improvement due to the cones is given by a combination of their optical properties and the shape and size of the main optics as seen from the focal plane. This factor is usually estimated by simulations based on measurements performed in the lab under simplified conditions. Here we try to quantify this factor using the method described in the previous section by taking some data toward the Zenith with and without the cones installed. The comparison of the two sets of data is presented in figure 1. The data with the cones are used as a reference and a relative throughput factor is calculated for the data obtained without the cones. From this we estimate that the cones are responsible for $`27\%`$ of the Cherenkov light collection efficiency of the telescope. This result matches very well with the previous estimates (F.Krennrich, private communication).

### 2.3 Correlation with the sky quality

Every night, the Whipple telescope operator records his estimate of the sky quality on a qualitative scale ranging from $`C^{}`$ to $`A`$. Data that were obtained under sky qualities less than $`B`$ are often rejected. In figure 2 we show the average throughput factor as a function of the observer’s estimate of sky quality, with the vertical error bars indicating the standard deviation. It appears that the throughput factor increases as the sky quality improves but the plot also shows that some of the data obtained under a $`C`$ sky could very well be used. Cirrus cloud occurs typically at an altitude of $`10\mathrm{km}`$, with night to night variations of $`\pm 3\mathrm{km}`$ (Goldfarb00, ). The majority of the Cherenkov light produced by air showers is emitted near to the shower maximum (the altitude at which the number of particles in the shower is greatest) which is $`10\mathrm{km}`$ for showers initiated by a $`500\mathrm{GeV}`$ $`\gamma `$-ray. It is possible, therefore, that the observer can be influenced in his judgment of the weather conditions by some high altitude cirrus clouds which could be responsible for an increase in the sky background brightness without affecting the quantity of Cherenkov light collected by the telescope. There will also be occasions when the telescope was aimed between the clouds during the observation. Because of this, the idea of calculating the throughput factor using a single test run with the telescope pointing to the Zenith is invalid, as the results cannot be applied to other observations on the same night. This is one of the motivations for generalizing the method to any Zenith angle.

## 3 Relative calibration at any Zenith angle

### 3.1 Generalization

The relative throughput calibration method as described above already allows us to correct for changes in the telescope which affect the light collection efficiency, as well as helping with data selection. Nevertheless, it is based on data obtained at a fixed Zenith angle, which cannot be strictly contemporaneous with the astronomical observations of interest. Therefore it can not be used with confidence to make corrections to the data. It is, in principle, possible to apply the same method to compare data obtained at different Zenith angles. The value of $`F`$ then results from differences in atmospheric transparency as well as differences in the detection geometry which affect both the energy threshold and the effective $`\gamma `$-ray collection area. When observations are made at lower Zenith angles the atmospheric showers produce a Cherenkov light pool which extends over a larger area (Sommers85, ).

Figure 3 shows how the throughput factor $`F`$ corresponds to a combination of two effects. Factor $`T`$ measures the horizontal shift in the distribution caused by changes in the light collection efficiency which result from changes in the instrument and atmospheric conditions as well as from differences in Zenith angle. Factor $`A`$ measures the vertical shift (a change in the number of showers observed with a given luminosity) caused by changes in the effective $`\gamma `$-ray collection area due to different source Zenith angles. Only the factor $`F`$ can be directly measured from the event luminosity distributions. As the radius of the Cherenkov light pool is defined only by the atmospheric density profile and source Zenith angle, factors $`T`$ and $`A`$ should show the same Zenith angle dependence for both $`\gamma `$-ray and cosmic-ray initiated showers as long as most of the Cherenkov light is emitted from the core of the shower. This allows us to use a generalized throughput factor in our analysis of $`\gamma `$-ray signals.

### 3.2 Test and application of the method

In figure 4 the throughput factor is shown as a function of $`\theta _z`$, the distance from the Zenith. The reference data were taken at $`\theta _z30^o`$ from the Zenith and so $`F`$ is close to one at this point. It can be shown that if the atmospheric density profile is assumed isothermal, the area of the Cherenkov light pool is proportional to $`\frac{1}{\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _z}`$ (see appendix). Using this, for a luminosity distribution of differential power law index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, the throughput factor is expected to vary as

$$F(\mathrm{cos}\theta _z)^{2(\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }})}\times \mathrm{}^{\frac{K}{\mathrm{cos}\theta _z}}$$
(1)
where the exponential term is used to describe the atmospheric attenuation of Cherenkov light. For our observed $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2.3`$ we have

$$F(\mathrm{cos}\theta _z)^{1.13}\times \mathrm{}^{\frac{K}{\mathrm{cos}\theta _z}}$$
(2)
This function gives the curves shown on figure 4 for three different empirically derived values of $`K`$. Points falling near the upper curve would correspond to data obtained under the best atmospheric conditions while points on the lower curve correspond to data obtained under poorer conditions. We can see on this figure that variations of $`\pm 20\%`$ arise in the event luminosity even when the observer estimated the sky quality to be good (more than 90% of these observations where graded as $`A`$ or $`B`$ weather by the observer). Variations of this magnitude must be corrected for in order to establish accurate $`\gamma `$-ray fluxes, particularly in the case of sources with steep spectra.

In order to use the throughput value to correct the measured $`\gamma `$-ray rate, we must verify that the $`\gamma `$-ray showers are affected by changes in Zenith angle, instrument efficiency and atmospheric transparency in approximately the same way as the background cosmic ray showers which are used to derive the throughput factor. We do this by looking at the $`\gamma `$-ray rate observed in the direction of the Crab Nebula: the Crab is the standard candle of TeV $`\gamma `$-ray astronomy and dedicated studies (using selected data taken close to Zenith and under good weather conditions) have shown its emission at these energies to be constant over a timescale of years Vacanti91 . If the throughput factor is applied correctly, the Crab Nebula $`\gamma `$-ray rate after correction should remain stable within statistical errors over all elevations and weather conditions

There are different ways in which one could apply the correction. One possible method is to apply the throughput correction directly to the measured Cherenkov photon yield in each PMT, prior to parameterization of the images. The drawback here is that the signal to noise ratio will not remain constant over the range of throughput factors and Zenith angles, and so the efficiency of the $`\gamma `$-ray selection cuts will also change. In addition, for observations where the correction factor is large, the hardware trigger threshold will bias the number of images which pass the selection cuts. Because of this, we prefer to apply the correction directly to the measured rate. This is only strictly accurate if the spectrum of $`\gamma `$-rays from the source follows a simple power law of known spectral index.

We try here to correct the $`\gamma `$-ray rate separately for the Zenith angle and atmospheric transparency effects. The Zenith angle dependence of the $`\gamma `$-ray rate is ideally calculated using Monte Carlo simulations; here we use a simple analytical model which provides a good approximation. The effective collection area, $`A`$, and threshold energy, $`E_{th}`$, are both proportional to $`\frac{1}{\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _z}`$ and so the $`\gamma `$-ray rate $`\mathrm{\Phi }(\mathrm{cos}\theta _z)^{2(\alpha 1)}`$ where $`\alpha `$ is the integral $`\gamma `$-ray power law spectral index. For the Crab Nebula, $`\alpha =1.5`$ (Hillas98, ) and so $`\mathrm{\Phi }\mathrm{cos}\theta _z`$. This can be used to correct the measured $`\gamma `$-ray rate to the rate expected at a fixed Zenith angle; we choose to calculate the corrected rate for a Zenith angle of $`30^{}`$, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{30}`$.

To apply the throughput correction we first calculate the expected throughput factor, $`F_{exp}`$, normalized to a Zenith angle of $`30^{}`$ (because the measured throughput factor $`F_{meas}`$ has been calculated with reference to an observation taken at a Zenith angle of $`30^{}`$) such that :

$$F_{exp}=(\frac{\mathrm{cos}\theta _z}{\mathrm{cos}30^{}})^{1.13}$$
(3)
This is equivalent to equation 2 but without atmospheric attenuation. The effects of atmospheric attenuation are automatically incorporated in the throughput correction , which we use to calculate the corrected rate as follows:

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_{corr}=\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_{30}}{(F_{meas}/F_{exp})^\alpha }$$
(4)
Figure 5 shows $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{30}`$ as a function of Zenith angle and of $`F_{meas}/F_{exp}`$. The $`\gamma `$-ray rate is constant with Zenith angle after the Zenith angle correction, while there is clearly still a correlation with the throughput correction which is well fit by a power law of index $`\alpha =1.5`$, as expected for the Crab.

Figure 6 shows the reduction in the width of the rate distributions at each stage of the correction. We note, however, that the width of this distribution is not the best measure of the effectiveness of the correction. Observations at large Zenith angles often result in a measurement which is not statistically significant and so the width of the distribution for these runs will be dominated by statistical fluctuations. Most of these Crab data were taken under good weather conditions; the throughput correction will play an even stronger role when trying to analyse data taken under poorer conditions.

### 3.3 Application to Mrk421 Variability Studies

Markarian 421 (Mrk421) is a bright TeV $`\gamma `$-ray source which has been well studied and is known to be extremely variable Buckley96 ; Aharonian99 ; Piron01 . During the 2000/2001 observing season this source was in the most active state yet observed Holder01 , with an average TeV $`\gamma `$-ray flux of 1.5 times the steady flux from the Crab Nebula. Measurements in the $`212\mathrm{keV}`$ X-ray region were also made by the All Sky Monitor (ASM) on board the Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer (RXTE). Multiwavelength studies of the variable emission from AGN are extremely important to our understanding of the nature of the particles and acceleration mechanisms in jets. In the 2000/2001 Whipple observations of Mrk421, data were taken whenever possible, including at low Zenith angles and during poor weather, so as to provide the best possible sampling of the $`\gamma `$-ray light curve. The throughput factor provides us with a method to treat these data in a consistent fashion.

Observations of Mrk421 for the night of March $`27^{th}`$ 2001 are shown in figure 7. The source was in a very high state and so we observed continuously from a source Zenith angle of $`12^{}`$ down to $`60^{}`$. The difference between the results before and after throughput factor correction illustrates the importance of this correction when studying the detailed structure of flares.

Figure 8 shows the correlation between X-ray and $`\gamma `$-ray measurements both with and without a throughput correction applied to the $`\gamma `$-ray data. The correlation, as defined by the linear correlation coefficient, $`r`$, improves slightly when the throughput correction is applied. The correlation is not perfect; the remaining scatter may be due to the fact that the measurements are daily average fluxes, where the X-ray and $`\gamma `$-ray observations which have been used to calculate the averages are not exactly contemporaneous. Alternatively, it may be due to the details of the $`\gamma `$-ray production mechanism in the source. Clearly though, the magnitude of the effect of the throughput correction on the measured $`\gamma `$-ray flux shows the importance of the correction in this type of study.

## 4 Relative Calibration of a Telescope Array: CELESTE

In this section we consider a different use of the cosmic ray background. Rather than attempting to correct for temporal changes in the efficiency of a single telescope we are interested in calculating a relative calibration between the different elements of an array.

The CELESTE experiment proposal ; NIM , situated in the French Pyrenees, uses forty movable $`54\mathrm{m}^2`$ mirrors (known as heliostats) of a former solar electrical plant to reflect Cherenkov light from air showers to a detector package at the top of a $`100\mathrm{m}`$ tall tower. The detector package consists of a single photomultiplier tube (PMT) equipped with a fast analog-to-digital converter (FADC) for each heliostat, providing a measure of the arrival time and photon density of the Cherenkov light at ground level. This type of Cherenkov wavefront sampling experiment provides a massive total mirror area which allows us to reach an energy threshold of $`60\mathrm{GeV}`$ (Denaurois02, ). The fundamental problem still exists however; there is no test beam with which to calibrate the experiment. Furthermore, in the case of a heliostat array it is necessary to calculate a relative calibration of the different heliostats which, for a solar plant experiment like CELESTE, will vary as the source position is tracked across the sky and the mirrors present a changing area of reflecting surface to the detector.

For each event which triggers the experiment, the luminosity $`Q`$ for each heliostat is simply given by the charge measured by the single PMT. The histograms of $`Q`$ can then be used to calculate a throughput factor for each heliostat in a similar fashion to that described above for the Whipple telescope. The difference in this case is that the throughput factor describes the relative gains of the forty heliostats. In fact, the throughput calculation has been made in a simplified way for CELESTE by simply integrating the $`Q`$ histograms and measuring the values of $`Q`$ at two constant fraction levels ($`5\%`$ and $`30\%`$) of the total number of events. These fractions were chosen so as to be distant from the regions of the histograms affected by saturation of the ADCs at the higher end and by the trigger conditions at the lower. We then normalize the difference in $`Q`$ at these two levels to provide the throughput measurement for each heliostat. If the distribution of $`Q`$ is a perfect power law this method should produce identical results to the $`\chi ^2`$ minimization used for the Whipple telescope data. We have compared the two methods using Whipple data taken over a range of elevations and find the results to be consistent to within $`10\%`$. The results of this section illustrate relative changes in the heliostat response and so are not strongly affected by this discrepency.

An example of the use of this measurement is shown in figure 9. The upper plot shows the layout of the CELESTE heliostat array and the tower which houses the detector package. Also shown are the five groups of heliostats whose signals are summed and used to trigger the experiment and the position of the Cherenkov imaging experiment, CAT. The three central plots show the throughput measurements for three heliostats at different positions in the heliostat array as a function of the Azimuth angle of the source in the sky. As the source moves across the sky, the heliostat efficiency changes, and this change will be greatest for heliostats which reflect the Cherenkov light through the largest angle to the detector in the tower. The three plots correspond to heliostats located on the far left (west), centrally and on the far right (east) of the array. The slope of the measured change in throughput with Azimuth angle reflects these positions. This is illustrated further in the lower plot which shows the slope of the throughput change with Azimuth angle as a function of the heliostat’s angular position in the array defined by the angle heliostat - tower - north. A heliostat due north of the tower has an angular position of $`0^{}`$, while those to the east and west of the tower have positive and negative angular positions, respectively.

The measured change in throughput with source position has been used to verify the simulation of the rather complex telescope optics with good results (Denaurois00, ). Also, the heliostat throughput factors, calculated with the heliostats observing a point due south of the experiment, have been used to calculate an adjustment to the high voltage supply of each PMT such that the relative gain after the adjustment is approximately the same for each heliostat/PMT pair. This correction smooths out the largest differences between the different groups of heliostats which are used to trigger the experiment and prevents the experiment energy threshold being defined by a few very sensitive detectors. The throughput factors have also been used to identify heliostats with erratic behaviour; for example, heliostats with large tracking errors, which can then be repaired.

## 5 Conclusion

We have shown that cosmic ray background events observed at fixed Zenith angle can be used to establish a relative calibration for a single atmospheric Cherenkov imaging telescope in order to account for the many unavoidable temporal changes in light collection efficiency, gain and, most importantly, atmospheric conditions. Generalizing the method, we have shown that it can be used for the relative calibration of data obtained at different Zenith angles, taking into account both the geometrical effects due to Zenith angle and the variations in atmospheric conditions.

This calibration method can be used to introduce corrections at various levels. At the most basic level, it can be used to select which data were taken under good conditions. We have also shown that it can be used to rescale the measured $`\gamma `$-ray fluxes in order to make observations taken under different conditions more comparable. One method of estimating the background due to cosmic rays for $`\gamma `$-ray observations taken without dedicated background control observations is to choose archival background observations taken under conditions as similar as possible to the source observation being considered. The throughput factor can be used as one of the criteria to judge which background runs are most suitable (Horan02, ).

The application of the throughput calibration to CELESTE observations shows how useful it may be when considering telescope arrays. The next generation of Cherenkov imaging telescopes are currently being developed; the VERITAS (VERITAS, ), HESS (HESS, ) and CANGAROO III (CANGAROO, ) projects all involve using multiple telescopes on the same site. Inter-calibration of these telescopes will be difficult without a dedicated test beam. For VERITAS, simulations indicate that an energy resolution of $`15\%`$ should be possible; in practice, this will require a relative calibration accurate to $`<15\%`$. The throughput method described here may well prove to be the best solution

## 6 Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the VERITAS and CELESTE collaborations for the use of their data. We would also like to thank Philippe Bruel for his help in developing the CELESTE calibration.

## Appendix A Appendix

Figure 10 shows schematically the emission of Cherenkov light in the atmosphere. We can see that $`R=\frac{HH_{tel}}{\mathrm{cos}\theta }\mathrm{tan}\psi `$. The Cherenkov angle $`\psi `$ is given by $`\mathrm{cos}\psi =1/n`$ where $`n`$ is the atmospheric refraction index at altitude H. In a standard isothermal atmosphere $`n=1+273\times 10^6e^{H/8.5}`$ where H is expressed in km. Using the first order small angles approximation for $`\psi `$ one finds $`R=\frac{HH_{tel}}{\mathrm{cos}\theta }\sqrt{(546\times 10^6e^{H/8.5})}`$.

For small values of $`H`$, $`R`$ increases with $`H`$ while for large values of $`H`$, $`R`$ decreases with $`H`$. Therefore $`R`$ must take a maximum of value $`R_{max}`$ which corresponds to the rim of the Cherenkov light pool. By solving $`\frac{dR}{dH}=0`$ for R one finds: $`R_{max}=\frac{17}{\mathrm{cos}\theta }\sqrt{546\times 10^6e^{(17+H_{tel})/8.5}}`$ which, for $`H_{tel}=2km`$, gives $`R_{max}\frac{130m}{\mathrm{cos}\theta }`$. From this it results that the effective collection area should scale as $`\frac{1}{\mathrm{cos}^2\theta }`$.

When we consider cosmic rays which are incident at an angle to the vertical the air shower develops in less dense atmosphere, where the Cherenkov emission per unit of track length is lower. The total track length is longer by an amount which compensates for this and consequently the total quantity of Cherenkov light produced by the shower does not depend on the Zenith angle $`\theta `$. However, as the Cherenkov light pool on the ground extends over a larger radius, the light is more diluted and $`Q`$, the measured luminosity of a shower, scales as $`\mathrm{cos}^2\theta `$.

In the generalized throughput calculation we compare luminosity distributions obtained under different elevations. The content of a specific luminosity bin will be affected by a factor $`\frac{1}{\mathrm{cos}^2\theta }`$, corresponding to the change in collection area, and by a factor $`\mathrm{cos}^{2\mathrm{\Gamma }}\theta `$, corresponding to the event luminosity scaled for a power law luminosity distribution of spectral index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2.3`$ as measured in the case of the Whipple telescope. By combining those two factors raised to the $`1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, one expects the throughput factor to scale as $`F(\mathrm{cos}\theta _z)^{2(\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }})}`$.


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# On Non-intersecting Arithmetic Progressions

## I. Introduction

Suppose that $`a_1(modq_1),a_2(modq_2),\mathrm{},a_k(modq_k)`$ is a collection of arithmetic progressions, where $`2q_1<\mathrm{}<q_kx`$, with the property that

$$\{a_i(modq_i)\}\{a_j(modq_j)\}=\mathrm{},\text{if }ij\text{.}$$

We say that such a collection of arithmetic progressions is disjoint or non-intersecting. Let $`f(x)`$ be the maximum value for $`k`$, maximized over all choices of progressions $`a_i(modq_i)`$. Define

$$L(c,x):=\mathrm{exp}(c\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}),$$

and define

$`\psi (x,y):=\mathrm{\#}\{ny:p\text{ prime},p|npy\},\text{ and}`$
$`\psi ^{}(x,y):=\mathrm{\#}\{ny:p\text{ prime},p^a|np^ay\}.`$
In , Erdős and Szemerédi prove that

$$\frac{x}{\mathrm{exp}\left((\mathrm{log}x)^{1/2+ϵ}\right)}<f(x)<\frac{x}{(\mathrm{log}x)^c},$$

for some constant $`c>0`$. (This result is also mentioned in . ) Their lower bound can be refined by using more exact estimates for $`\psi (x,L(c,x))`$ than was used in their paper. Specifically, as direct consequence of \[Lemma 3.1, 1\], we have the following estimate

###### Lemma 1

For any constant $`c>0`$,

$$\psi (x,L(c,x))=\frac{x}{L(1/(2c)+o(1),x)}.$$
$`(1)`$
We also have the same estimate for $`\psi ^{}(x,L(c,x))`$, since

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \psi (x,L(c,x))& >\psi ^{}(x,L(c,x))>\psi (x,L(c,x))\underset{n^2>L(c,x)}{}\psi (x/n^2,L(c,x))\hfill \\ & =\psi (x,L(c,x))O\left(\frac{x}{L(c/2+1/(2c)+o(1),x)}\right),\hfill \end{array}$$
$`(2)`$
Now, let $`p`$ be the largest prime number less than or equal $`L(1/\sqrt{2},x)`$. Let $`q_1,q_2,\mathrm{},q_t`$ be the collection of all integers $`x`$ which are divisible by $`p`$, and whose prime power factors are all $`<p`$. From (1) and (2), we have that $`t=x/\left(pL(1/\sqrt{2}+o(1),x)\right)=x/L(\sqrt{2}+o(1),x)`$. For each $`q_i=p\mathrm{}_r^{h_r}\mathrm{}_{r1}^{h_{r1}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_1^{h_1}`$, where $`p>\mathrm{}_r^{h_r}>\mathrm{}_{r1}^{h_{r1}}>\mathrm{}>\mathrm{}_1^{h_1}`$ are the powers of the disctint primes dividing $`q_i`$, we choose the residue class $`a_i(modq_i)`$ using the Chinese Remainder Theorem as follows:

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill a_i\mathrm{}_r^{h_r}(modp);& a_i\mathrm{}_{j1}^{h_{j1}}(mod\mathrm{}_j^{h_j}),\text{for }2jr;\hfill \\ & \text{and finally, }a_i0(mod\mathrm{}_1^{h_1}).\hfill \end{array}$$

This is exactly the construction which appears in  (except that their progressions were all square-free), and it is easy to see that our choice of progressions $`a_i(modq_i)`$ are disjoint. Thus, we have that

$$f(x)>\frac{x}{L(\sqrt{2}+o(1),x)}.$$

In this paper we will prove the following results:

###### Theorem 1

If $`a_1(modq_1),\mathrm{},a_k(modq_k)`$ are a collection of disjoint arithmetic progressions, where the $`q_i`$’s are square-free and $`2q_1<\mathrm{}<q_kx`$, then

$$k<\frac{x}{L(1/2o(1),x)}.$$

###### Corollary to Theorem 1

$$f(x)<\frac{x}{L(1/6o(1),x)}.$$

Thus, we will have shown that

$$\frac{x}{L(\sqrt{2}+o(1),x)}<f(x)<\frac{x}{L(1/6o(1),x)}.$$

To see how the Corollary follows from Theorem 1, let $`b_1(modr_1),\mathrm{},b_{f(x)}(modr_{f(x)})`$ be a maximal collection of disjoint arithmetic progressions with $`2r_1<\mathrm{}<r_{f(x)}x`$. Suppose, for proof by contradicition, that for some $`ϵ<1/6`$

$$f(x)>\frac{x}{L(1/6ϵ,x)}.$$
$`(3)`$
Write each $`r_i=\alpha _i\beta _i`$, where $`\beta _i`$ is square-free, gcd$`(\alpha _i,\beta _i)=1`$, and every prime dividing $`\alpha _i`$ divides to a power $`2`$. (Note: we may have $`\alpha _i`$ or $`\beta _i=1`$.) Now, at least half of $`\alpha _i`$’s must be $`L(1/3,x)`$, for if not we would have from our assumption (3) that

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \frac{x}{2L(1/6ϵ,x)}<f(x)/2& <\mathrm{\#}\{r_i:\alpha _i>L(1/3,x)\}\hfill \\ & <x\underset{n^2>L(1/3,x)}{}\frac{1}{n^2}\underset{p\text{ prime}}{}\left(1+\frac{1}{p^2}+\frac{1}{p^3}+\mathrm{}\right)\hfill \\ & \frac{x}{L(1/6,x)},\hfill \end{array}$$

which is impossible for $`x`$ large enough in terms of $`ϵ`$. Thus, we must have that there exists an $`\alpha <L(1/3,x)`$ for which at least $`f(x)/\left(2L(1/3,x)\right)`$ of the $`r_i`$’s have $`\alpha _i=\alpha `$. Let $`R(\alpha )\{r_1,\mathrm{},r_{f(x)}\}`$ be such a collection of $`r_i`$’s, where

$$|R(\alpha )|>\frac{f(x)}{2L(1/3,x)}>\frac{x}{2L(1/2ϵ,x)},$$

where this last inequality follows from our assumption (3). Now there must exist a residue class $`b(mod\alpha )`$ for which at least $`|R(\alpha )|/\alpha `$ of the progressions $`b_i(modr_i)`$ satisfy

$$r_iR(\alpha ),\text{ and }b_ib(mod\alpha ).$$
$`(4)`$
Thus, the arithmetic progressions $`b_i(modr_i/\alpha )`$, where $`r_i`$ satisfies (4), is a collection of $`|R(\alpha )|/\alpha x/(\alpha L(1/2ϵ,x))`$ disjoint progressions, with distinct square-free moduli $`x/\alpha `$. This contradicts Theorem 1 for $`x`$ sufficiently large in terms of $`ϵ`$. We must conclude, therefore, that the bound in (3) is false for all $`ϵ<1/6`$ and $`x>x_0(ϵ)`$, and so the Corollary to Theorem 1 follows.

## II. Proof of Theorem 1

Before we prove Theorem 1, we will need the following lemma:

###### Lemma 2

There are at most $`x/L(c/2+o(1),x)`$ positive integers $`nx`$ such that $`\omega (n)>c\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}`$. (Recall: $`\omega (n)=_{p|n,p\text{prime}}1`$.), where $`c`$ is some positive constant.

###### Demonstration Proof of Lemma 2

We observe that

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \mathrm{\#}\{nx:\omega (n)>c\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}\}& <x\underset{j>c\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{log}x}{\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}}}{}\frac{\left(\underset{\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{p^ax}{p\text{ prime}}}{}\frac{1}{p^a}\right)^j}{j!}\hfill \\ & =\frac{x}{(c\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x})^{\{c+o(1)\}\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}}}\hfill \\ & =\frac{x}{L(c/2+o(1),x)}.\hfill \end{array}$$

We now resume the proof of Theorem 1. Consider the collection of all the $`q_i`$’s with the properties

A. $`\omega (q_i)<\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{log}x}{\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}}`$, and

B. There exists a prime $`p>L(1,x)`$, such that $`p|q_i`$,Let $`\{r_1,\mathrm{},r_k^{}\}`$ be the collection of all such $`q_i`$’s satisfying A and B, and where $`\{b(r_1),\mathrm{},b(r_k^{})\}`$ are their corresponding residue classes.

To prove our theorem, we start with the set $`S_0=\{r_1,\mathrm{},r_k^{}\}`$, and construct a sequence of subsets $`S_0S_1S_2\mathrm{}`$, and a sequence of primes $`p_1,p_2,\mathrm{}`$ (and let $`p_0=1`$), such that the for each $`i1`$, the following three properties hold

1. Each member of $`S_i`$ is divisible by the primes $`p_1,\mathrm{},p_i`$,

2. There exists an integer $`A_i`$, such that for each $`r_jS_i`$, we have that $`b(r_j)A_i(modp_1p_2\mathrm{}p_i)`$.

3. $`|S_i|>|S_{i1}|/(p_i\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}).`$ We continue constructing these subsets until we reach a subset $`S_t`$ which has the additional property:

4. There exists a prime $`pp_1,\mathrm{},p_t`$, $`pL(1,x)`$ such that at least $`|S_t|/\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}`$ of the elements of $`S_t`$ are divisible by $`p`$.Let us suppose for the time being that we can construct these sets $`S_1,\mathrm{},S_t`$. Applying Property 3 iteratively, together with Property 4, we have that the number of elements of $`S_t`$ which are divisible by $`p`$ (which are already divisible by $`p_1p_2\mathrm{}p_t`$ by Property 1) is at least

$$\frac{|S_0|}{p_1p_2\mathrm{}p_t(\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x})^{t+1}}\frac{|S_0|}{p_1p_2\mathrm{}p_tL(1/2+o(1),x)},$$

(Note: By Property A above we have that $`t\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}`$ since every element of $`S_0`$ has at most $`\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}`$ prime factors.) From this, together with the fact that $`p>L(1,x)`$, we have

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \frac{x}{p_1\mathrm{}p_kL(1,x)}& \mathrm{\#}\{nx:pp_1p_2\mathrm{}p_t|n\}>\mathrm{\#}\{qS_t:p|q\}\hfill \\ & \frac{|S_0|}{p_1p_2\mathrm{}p_tL(1/2+o(1),x)}.\hfill \end{array}$$

It follows that

$$|S_0|<\frac{x}{L(1/2o(1),x)},$$

From this, together with Lemmas 1 and 2 and the fact that the elements of $`S_0`$ satisfy A and B above, we have that

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \frac{x}{L(1/2o(1),x)}>|S_0|& >k\mathrm{\#}\{nx:\omega (n)\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}\}\hfill \\ & \psi (x,L(1,x))\hfill \\ & >k\frac{x}{L(1/2o(1),x)},\hfill \end{array}$$

and so

$$k<\frac{x}{L(1/2o(1),x)},$$

which proves our theorem.

To construct our sets $`S_i`$, we apply the following iterative procedure: suppose we have constructed the sets $`S_1,\mathrm{},S_i`$, which satisfy 1 through 3 as above. To construct $`S_{i+1}`$, first pick any element $`rS_i`$. Now let $`e_1,\mathrm{},e_j`$ be all those primes dividing $`r/(p_1\mathrm{}p_i)`$ (note: $`j<\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}`$). Each element $`sS_i`$, $`sr`$, is divisible by at least one of these primes, since otherwise $`\text{gcd}(r,s)=p_1\mathrm{}p_i`$ and so we would have $`b(r)A_ib(s)(mod\text{gcd}(r,s))`$, which would mean that $`\{b(r)(modr)\}\{b(s)(mods)\}\mathrm{}`$.

Now, there must be at least $`|S_i|/j>|S_i|/\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}`$ of the elements of $`S_i`$ which are divisible by one of these primes $`e_h`$. Let $`C_iS_i`$ be the collection of all elements $`S_i`$ divisible by this prime $`e_h`$. There exists at least one residue class $`B(mode_h)`$ for which more than $`|C_i|/e_h>|S_i|/(e_h\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x})`$ of the elements $`rC_i`$ satisfy $`b(r)B(mode_h)`$. Now let $`S_{i+1}`$ be the collection of all such $`rC_i`$, set $`p_{i+1}=e_h`$, and let $`A_{i+1}A_i(modp_1\mathrm{}p_i)`$ and $`A_{i+1}B(modp_{i+1})`$ by the Chinese Remainder Theorem. Then we will have that properties 1, 2, and 3 as above follow immediately for this set $`S_{i+1}`$.

If there exists a prime $`p>L(1,x)`$ which divides more than$`|S_{i+1}|/\sqrt{\mathrm{log}x/\mathrm{log}\mathrm{log}x}`$ of the elements of $`S_{i+1}`$, then we set $`t=i+1`$ and we are finished. If not, we continue constructing these sets $`S_j`$. We are guaranteed to eventually hit upon such a prime $`p`$ since all our $`r_j`$’s are divisible by at least one prime $`p>L(1,x)`$ by property B.


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# Comment on: “Semiclassical theory of spin-orbit interactions using spin coherent states”

## Abstract

We point out that a certain kind of combined classical translational and spin dynamics – claimed in \[M. Pletyukhov et al. Phys. Rev. Lett. 89 (2002) 116601\] to arise from the Pauli equation in the semiclassical limit $`\mathrm{}0`$ for fixed spin – only shows up if one simultaneously considers the high spin limit $`S\mathrm{}`$.

preprint: ULM-TP/02-7preprint: August 2002

The main intention of the recent Letter PleAmaMehBra02  is to derive a semiclassical trace formula for the density of states of quantum systems with a spin-orbit interaction. The Hamiltonians under consideration are of the form

$$\widehat{H}=H_0(\widehat{𝒒},\widehat{𝒑})+\kappa \frac{\mathrm{}}{2}\widehat{𝒔}𝑪(\widehat{𝒒},\widehat{𝒑}),$$
(1)
where $`H_0(\widehat{𝒒},\widehat{𝒑})`$ describes the translational motion and $`\widehat{𝒔}=(\widehat{s}_x,\widehat{s}_y,\widehat{s}_z)`$ denotes normalized spin operators, i.e. generators of the $`(2S+1)`$-dimensional irreducible representation of the Lie algebra $`𝔰𝔲(2)`$. As their main tool to evaluate the trace of the time evolution operator $`\mathrm{e}^{\frac{\mathrm{i}}{\mathrm{}}\widehat{H}t}`$ the authors of PleAmaMehBra02  use coherent state path integrals for both translational and spin degrees of freedom. They claim that in the semiclassical limit $`\mathrm{}0`$, for fixed spin quantum number $`S`$, the classical periodic orbits entering the trace formula derive from coupled dynamics of the translational and the spin motion, including a back reaction of the spin on the translational part. This contradicts earlier results of two of us BolKep98 ; BolKep99a . It is the aim of the present Comment to point out that the aforementioned kind of coupled classical dynamics can only appear in the combined limits $`\mathrm{}0`$, $`S\mathrm{}`$ with $`\mathrm{}S=const`$, but not for fixed spin $`S`$.

Two versions of semiclassical trace formulae for Hamiltonians of the type (1) have previously been derived in BolKep99a . These two cases are distinguished by the way in which the semiclassical limit is performed. In the first scenario, referred to as the “weak-coupling limit” in PleAmaMehBra02 , the single limit $`\mathrm{}0`$ is considered, whereas the further parameters $`\kappa `$ and $`S`$ in (1) are fixed. One then finds a trace formula which involves periodic orbits of the translational dynamics generated by the classical Hamiltonian $`H_0(𝒒,𝒑)`$ and solutions of the spin precession equation $`\dot{𝒔}=\kappa 𝑪\times 𝒔`$ along these orbits. The second scenario of BolKep99a , however, is concerned with the combined limits $`\mathrm{}0`$, $`\kappa \mathrm{}`$ such that $`\stackrel{~}{\kappa }:=\kappa \mathrm{}=const`$ and therefore represents a “strong-coupling limit”. In this case the orbits relevant for the trace formula are determined by the ray Hamiltonians $`H_0+m\stackrel{~}{\kappa }|𝑪|`$, $`m=S,\mathrm{},S`$. The only remnants of the spin motion are certain geometric phases, but no classical spin precession enters. We also point out that only in the second scenario the problem of mode conversion can show up. These two scenarios are not properly distinguished in PleAmaMehBra02  as it is the first one which also applies to the Dirac equation, yet the second scenario proves the assumptions made in FriGuh93 . But most importantly, it should be noted that one can only achieve a third version of a trace formula, as intended in PleAmaMehBra02 , in a scenario different from the previous ones. This would require to vary the additional parameter $`S`$ entering (1) along with $`\mathrm{}`$. Such an approach would provide a semiclassical theory with a different, rather than larger, range of validity.

The problematic step in the derivation of the trace formula in PleAmaMehBra02  is an incorrect application of the method of stationary phase to the coherent state path integral. The latter is dominated by paths that yield rapidly oscillating contributions to the total phase $`/\mathrm{}`$ in the limit $`\mathrm{}0`$. Terms in the principal function $``$ proportional to $`\mathrm{}`$ hence must not be included in the determination of stationary points. If properly employed at this stage, the two types of semiclassical limits studied in BolKep99a  will, as it should be, reproduce the result obtained there. In PleAmaMehBra02  the authors, however, also include $`\mathrm{}`$-dependent terms in the principal function $``$ to determine their classical paths. An inspection of the expression for $``$ given in eqs. (7) and (8) in PleAmaMehBra02  reveals that in order for this to result from a correct application of the method of stationary phase the combined limits $`\mathrm{}0`$, $`S\mathrm{}`$ with $`\mathrm{}S=const`$ must be taken. This seems to have been overlooked in PleAmaMehBra02 , as also indicated by the fact that an example is given for the case $`S=1/2`$.

We remark that the trace formula searched for in PleAmaMehBra02  emerges as a special case, for the Lie group $`G=\mathrm{SU}(2)`$, of a more general problem, see GuiUri90 ; TayUri92  and references therein. In these papers it is indeed proven that the combined limits $`\mathrm{}0`$, $`S\mathrm{}`$ with $`\mathrm{}S=const`$ have to be considered for the desired trace formula to hold.


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# Critical onset in coherent oscillations between two weakly coupled Bose-Einstein condensates

## Figures caption

Fig. 1. The phase diagram relating to the critical onset in the parameter space of $`t`$ and the laser velocity $`V`$ for the initial conditions: $`l(0)=0,`$ $`p(0)=0`$and$`\theta (0)=0.`$ The solid line is the lifetime $`\tau _p(V),`$ the dashed line is $`\tau _c(V)`$.

Fig. 2. The relative population after the dc current is destroyed.

Fig. 3. The lifetime of the dc current for different initial $`\theta .`$ The initial relative population is $`p(0)=0`$ and $`l(0)=0.`$

Fig. 4(a). The lifetime for different initial accelerations. The solid line is for $`V_0=0.5`$ $`\mu m/s`$ and the dashed line is for $`V_0=0.4`$ $`\mu m/s`$. (b). The relative phase $`\theta `$ when the velocity reaches $`V_0.`$


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# HORIZONTAL-BRANCH MORPHOLOGY AND THE PHOTOMETRIC EVOLUTION OF OLD STELLAR POPULATIONS

## 1 INTRODUCTION

When stellar systems can be resolved into individual stars such as open and globular star clusters in the Milky Way and Local Group galaxies, one can derive their ages and metallicities via isochrone fitting to the main sequence turnoff and red giant branch in the color-magnitude diagram and fitting luminosity functions to the white dwarf cooling sequence (Hansen et al. 2002). This luxury does not exist for more distant systems, however, so one must rely upon their integrated colors or spectra. Calibrating theoretical spectrophotometric quantities using local, resolved systems is then surely a necessary step (e.g., Gibson et al. 1999).

Since local and nearby extragalactic globular clusters (GCs) are easily detected and feasible for analysis due to their rather simple nature, there have been many photometric studies of globular cluster systems in external galaxies which have revealed important information regarding the link between GC systems and their host galaxies (see Ashman & Zepf 1998 for a recent review). Information regarding their relative ages within a given galaxy or between galaxies is particularly relevant for studying the hierarchical formation of galaxies. As globular cluster ages and metallicities become better constrained, the opportunities for understanding the process of galaxy formation and its subsequent evolution can only increase.

In recent years, there have been many efforts to develop evolutionary population synthesis models (e.g., Bruzual & Charlot 1993; Worthey 1994; Buzzoni 1995; Vazdekis et al. 1996; Maraston 1998; Lee 2001a, 2001b) in order to analyze the integrated spectrophotometric quantities from globular clusters and galaxies and to derive their mean ages and metallicities. It is true that those integrated quantities are indeed determined by age and metallicity of those stellar systems, but it also should be kept in mind that they are the two most arguably dominant parameters that determine globular clusters’ horizontal-branch (HB) morphologies. Therefore, the integrated colors of GCs should be affected to some degree by differing HB morphologies at the similar metallicity (the ‘second parameter’ effect). It is now generally accepted that age is the global second parameter that controls HB morphology \[after the first parameter, metallicity – Lee, Demarque, & Zinn 1994; Sarajedini, Chaboyer, & Demarque 1997; Salaris & Weiss 2002\], although for some GCs a third (or more) parameter may be needed to explain their peculiar HB morphologies \[such as blue tail phenomenon – Recio-Blanco et al. 2002\].

We are extending this second parameter analysis to broader age ranges in this work, applicable even to potentially older stellar systems than we have in the Milky Way, and investigate how variation of HB morphology influences the integrated photometric quantities. With a better understanding of post-main sequence stellar evolution, it is now feasible to study the systematic effects of those evolved stars on the integrated spectrophotometric values. One vivid example has already appeared in Lee, Yoon, & Lee (2000; hereafter Paper I) for the realistic assessment of ages of old stellar systems using the H$`\beta `$ index. A unique aspect of these models lies in its treatment of the systematic variation of HB morphology as a function of age and metallicity. In this paper, we present a detailed quantitative analysis toward the effects of HB morphology on theoretical integrated broad-band colors ranging from far-UV to near-IR at various stages of age and metallicity. In addition, integrated broad-band colors that have been used to estimate the metallicity of globular clusters are examined with our models in order to check the veracity of the so-called color-metallicity transformation relations that are widely used, but based solely upon Galactic GCs.

In Section 2, our population models developed with and without consideration of HB stars are presented and compared with those of other groups. We first consider optical to near-IR colors, including those using the Washington photometric system, an investigation of UV to optical colors is then presented. Section 3 corroborates the validity of our models with HB stars by calibrating them using a sample of relatively low-reddened Galactic GCs and our results are then used to assess several color-metallicity transformation relations. We compare our models with available UV to near-IR data for GC systems in M31, M87, and NGC 1399 (e.g., Cohen, Blakeslee, & Ryzhov 1998; Kissler-Patig et al. 1998; Forbes et al. 2001). In most cases, we have specially sought age-sensitive colors, to combine with spectroscopic metallicity information. A discussion of the implications of our work is provided in Section 4.

## 2 POPULATION MODELS OF INTEGRATED BROADBAND COLORS WITH AND WITHOUT HORIZONTAL-BRANCH STARS

The present models were constructed, in essence, from the same evolutionary population synthesis code, developed to study the stellar populations of globular clusters (Paper I). In summary, we have used the Yale Isochrones (Demarque et al. 1996) rescaled for $`\alpha `$-element enhancement111\[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] = 0.4 for \[Fe/H\] $`<`$ $``$1.3, \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] goes from 0.4 to 0.0 as \[Fe/H\] goes from $``$1.3 to 0.0, and \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\]=0.0 for \[Fe/H\] $`>`$ 0.0 (Wheeler, Sneden, & Truran 1989). (Salaris, Chieffi, & Straniero 1993) and the HB evolutionary tracks by Yi, Demarque, & Kim (1997). For metal-rich (\[Fe/H\] $`>`$ $``$0.5) populations, the value of the helium enrichment parameter, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$Y/$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$Z = 2, was assumed. The standard Salpeter (1955) initial mass function was adopted for calculating the relative number of stars along the isochrones. For the conversion from theoretical quantities to observable quantities, we employed the stellar library of Lejeune, Cuisinier, & Buser (1997, 1998) in order to cover the largest possible range in stellar parameters such as metallicity, temperature, and gravity. As discussed in Paper I, we have rescaled the isochrone ages, such that the 15 Gyr isochrones now corresponds to present day 12 Gyr old populations222According to Fig. 14 and Table 7 of Yi et al. (2001), it is assured that our treatment of age reduction effect by 3 Gyr is basically correct, though some conundrum remains as the trend may be reversed in the metal-rich regime. and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$t = 0 corresponds to t $``$ 12 Gyr.

The treatment of the detailed systematic HB morphology variation with age and metallicity is also compatible with that of Paper I. Figure 1 presents our model isochrones as a function of HB morphology \[(B$``$R)/(B+V+R), where B, V, and R are the numbers of blue HB stars, RR Lyrae variables, and red HB stars, respectively; Lee et al. 1994\] and metallicity \[Fe/H\]. The Galactic GC data of Lee et al. (1994) are overplotted. For NGC 4590 and NGC 6656, the updated HB types are adopted from the Harris (1996, June 1999 version) compilation. In order to match the observed HB morphology of inner halo Galactic GCs (Galactocentric radius $``$ 8 kpc) at their currently favored mean age ($``$ 12 Gyr, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$t = 0 Gyr) in light of the distance scale suggested by Hipparcos (e.g., Chaboyer et al. 1998), the value of $`\eta `$, the parameter in Reimers (1975) law, was taken to be $`\eta `$ = 0.65. We then investigate the age range $``$ 4 Gyr $``$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$t $``$ \+ 4 Gyr. In Figure 1, the larger symbols are the relatively low-reddened Galactic GCs \[$`E`$($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$) $`<`$ 0.2\] that will be used to calibrate our models in Section 3.1. It is useful to note here that the inner halo Galactic GCs (filled circles) are not only systematically older, but also more tightly grouped along our model 333The filled symbol that lies significantly away from the inner halo locus in Fig. 1 is NGC 6584. According to Table 5 of Dinescu, Girard, & van Altena (1999), NGC 6584 is of very much eccentric orbital parameters ($`R_a`$ $``$ 13 kpc, $`R_p`$ $``$ 1 kpc) and therefore it may not belong to the true inner halo cluster category (see also Section 4. of Lee et al. (1994) for more detailed description). Actually, taking NGC 6584 as an outer halo cluster could make our assertion stronger. isochrone than those in the outer halo (open circles).

We have not taken into account the effects of extended blue tails on the HB, or blue stragglers, in this work, as it remains difficult to quantify them systematically with age and metallicity. We recognize though that some UV indices and colors may be affected by their inclusion. Furthermore, except for the case of UV to optical colors, post-asymptotic giant branch (PAGB) stars are not considered here.

### 2.1 OPTICAL TO NEAR-IR RANGE COLORS

Here we address the theoretical integrated broad-band colors in the standard $`UBVRIK`$ filter system. The following is a brief summary of the computational procedure. First, for each star (or group of stars, after binning) with a given metallicity, temperature, and gravity, we find the corresponding colors and the bolometric correction values from the color tables of Lejeune et al. (1998). Second, these are converted into each bandpass’ luminosity. Finally, after each bandpass’ luminosity has been summed, for a simple stellar population of a given metallicity and age, we compute the integrated photometric magnitudes for each bandpass. Integrated broad-band colors are then calculated from these computed magnitudes.

Figure 2 presents our theoretical predictions for the integrated broad-band colors, (a) $`U`$ $``$ $`V`$, (b) $`B`$ $``$ $`V`$, (c) $`V`$ $``$ $`I`$, and (d) $`V`$ $``$ $`K`$ as a function of \[Fe/H\]. We find that our models with HB stars (thick lines) show quantifiable differences from those without HB stars (thin lines), notably in Figure 2b. Because of the contribution from blue HB stars, $`B`$ $``$ $`V`$ does not become monotonically redder as metallicity increases at given ages, but becomes bluer by as much as $``$ 0.15 mag. Similar “wavy” features444Selected synthetic CMDs in Fig. 5 of Lee et al. (2000) would be helpful to understand this “wavy” features. have been seen in the temperature-sensitive H$`\beta `$ index (Paper I). Other colors appear to be affected to some degree by our treatment of HB morphology variations, but the effects are not as prominent in the age-range investigated here. In the succeeding investigation, we will mainly concentrate on $`B`$ $``$ $`V`$ and $`V`$ $``$ $`I`$ because these two colors are two of the most frequently referred to in the literature.

There have been related studies of the theoretical integrated broad-band colors in recent years (e.g., Worthey 1994; Kurth, Fritze-von Alvensleben, & Fricke 1999; Brocato et al. 2000), however, the different stellar physics and calibrations result in inevitable differences in their predictions. In particular, the different treatment of the HB is noteworthy and may result in significant differences in the models. For instance, Worthey (1994; W94) treated HB stars as a rather simple red clump, providing results similar to those of our models without HB stars (cf. http://astro.wsu.edu/worthey/). Both Kurth et al. (1999; KFF99) and Brocato et al. (2000; BCPR00) include HB stars in their models but their values of $`\eta `$, the efficiency of mass loss, are different ($`\eta `$ = 0.35 in KFF99 and $`\eta `$ = 0.4 in BCPR00) from ours ($`\eta `$ = 0.65) probably because they adopted $``$ 15 Gyr for the absolute age of Galactic GCs (see Table 1 of Yi et al. 1999 for the different choice of $`\eta `$ in connection with that of the absolute age of Galactic GCs). For example, Figure 3 shows significantly different HB morphologies at the same metallicity and similar age as different values of $`\eta `$ (different amounts of mass loss) are adopted. The Padova isochrones (Girardi et al. 2000) employ the smaller value of $`\eta `$ = 0.4 compared to that which we use in this study (open circles and small points)555The solid line in Fig. 3 represents the HB evolutionary track and the dashed line does that of post-HB. For this study, we present the case with HB stars only. The study with post-HB stars can be found in Lee (2001a). and seemingly no mass dispersion is taken into account (triangles). Combination of these issues results in different model predictions, particularly for temperature-sensitive indices. BCPR00 tested several values of $`\eta `$ and showed that higher values of $`\eta `$ gave bluer colors (see their Fig. 8).

Despite these differences, it is interesting to note that both KFF99 and BCPR00 do show slight crossovers among different ages at the low metallicity region in the $`B`$ $``$ $`V`$ vs. \[Fe/H\] plane (see Fig. 3 of KFF99 and Fig. 9 of BCPR00). In addition, it is noted that almost all models reveal some non-linear feature in the $`V`$ $``$ $`I`$ vs. \[Fe/H\] plane, being flatter in the low metallicity range, \[Fe/H\] $`<`$ $``$ 1.0. The importance of this non-linearity will be addressed further in Section 3.1 when the empirical linear color-metallicity relations are assessed with our models.

### 2.2 WASHINGTON PHOTOMETRIC SYSTEM

The Washington photometric system introduced by Canterna (1976) was originally developed as an optimum system for deriving temperatures ($`T_1`$ and $`T_2`$ filters) and abundances ($`C`$ and $`M`$ filters) for late-type giant stars. In essence, the $`C`$ filter covers about two thirds of the $`U`$ and $`B`$ filter, and the $`M`$ filter has its peak between the $`B`$ and $`V`$ filters and covers about half of each filter. The $`T_1`$ and $`T_2`$ filters are almost identical to the $`R`$ and $`I`$ filters, respectively (see, Fig. 1 of Lejeune & Buser 1996). Because of its efficiency with the broader bandpasses than the commonly used $`UBVRI`$, the popularity of this system has grown in recent years, when obtaining integrated colors of GC systems in distant galaxies (e.g., Geisler & Forte 1990; Lee & Geisler 1993; Secker et al. 1995; Zepf et al. 1995; Ostrov et al. 1998). Perhaps the most important use of this system is in the determination of metallicities for distant GCs from their integrated colors, especially ($`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$), with its very long color baseline (Geisler & Forte 1990).

Although the number of observational studies using the Washington photometry has been increasing, little has yet been done in modeling the colors for the system, at least in comparison with the extant body of model colors for the $`UBVRI`$ system. In this context, we investigate the theoretical integrated colors using the Washington photometric system. The computation of integrated colors using the Washington system required some modifications to the procedure described in Section 2.1. First, we generate the integrated spectral energy distributions (SEDs) for a simple stellar population of a given metallicity and age using the flux tables (Lejeune et al. 1998). Then the fluxes within each bandpass of the Washington photometric system are integrated using the relative filter response functions, and we calculate the integrated magnitudes and colors. We have taken the response functions of the Washington system from KPNO homepage (http://www.noao.edu).

Figure 4 shows effects of HB stars on (a) $`M`$ $``$ $`T_1`$ and (b) $`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$ colors, as predicted from our models, as a function of \[Fe/H\]. Thin lines represent models without HB stars, while thick lines include the effects of HB stars, based on the model loci of Figure 1. It is found that both $`M`$ $``$ $`T_1`$ and $`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$ colors are affected by blue HB stars and become bluer by $``$ 0.08 mag and by $``$ 0.2 mag, respectively, than the models without HB stars, similar to the feature seen in Figure 2b \[($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$)\] and the H$`\beta `$ index seen in Figure 6 of Paper I. Geisler, Lee, & Kim (1996) examined the age, HB morphology, and metallicity sensitivities of the integrated $`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$ color, based on the work of Cellone & Forte (1996) and concluded it was an efficient metal abundance index, in contrast, we have found that the integrated $`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$ is, to some degree, affected by the systematic variation of HB morphology with age and metallicity. It is difficult to compare our results directly with those of Cellone & Forte (1996; CF96), because CF96 give their outputs only at two given ages (5 and 15 Gyr) and base their predictions upon the older Buzzoni (1989, 1995) population synthesis code. However, it is evident even in CF96 that the predicted $`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$ with an intermediate HB morphology is bluer than that of a red HB, at the same metallicity (see Fig. 7 of Geisler et al. 1996). Theoretical modeling of the Washington photometric system based on a large sample of individual stars would undoubtedly give more credibility to this particular aspect of stellar population synthesis work (e.g., Lejeune & Buser 1996).

### 2.3 UV TO OPTICAL RANGE COLORS

The computational procedure for the relevant UV bandpass magnitudes is almost identical to that which we described in Section 2.2. For the case of UV to optical colors of an old stellar population, however, the contribution from PAGB stars is considered. A small number of PAGB stars can have a significant impact upon the integrated UV flux. The PAGB contribution is somewhat stochastic by nature, due to small number statistics being driven primarily by their short lifetimes. For instance, the evolutionary lifetime of a 0.565 M PAGB star is only 40,000 years (Schönberner 1983) compared to about 100 Myrs for HB stars. We have quantified the expected number ratio of PAGB to HB stars based on the ratio of their evolutionary lifetimes after more than 10 simulations and added the corresponding averaged fluxes using Schönberner’s (1983) evolutionary track for a 0.565 M PAGB star.

Figure 5 shows several integrated SEDs from our models, with and without PAGB stars. Three ages ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$t = + 4, 0, and $``$ 4 Gyr) are illustrated at the given metallicity (\[Fe/H\] = $``$ 1.17). All fluxes have been normalized to unity at 5550 Å and then converted into magnitudes. One can then easily estimate magnitude differences relative to the $`V`$-band from Figure 5. For the ensuing investigation, 15 $``$ $`V`$ and 25 $``$ $`V`$ are defined as the magnitude differences between the far-UV and the near-UV band centered at 1550 Å and 2490 Å, respectively, with 150 Å bandwidths, as indicated by the grey columns in Figure 5, and the visual band. The dashed lines in Figure 5 ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$t = $``$ 4 Gyr) show that old stellar systems with only red HB stars would have minimal far-UV flux without a PAGB contribution. From the dotted lines in Figure 5 ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$t = + 4 Gyr), we can see that once hot blue HB stars begin to become important for very old systems, the PAGB contribution becomes increasingly insignificant. Consequently, it is seen that the older populations with the bluer HB stars should be relatively UV bright, especially in the far-UV range. In the near-UV range, however, it is seen that the contribution from PAGB stars is relatively unimportant.

In Figure 6, 15 $``$ $`V`$ and 25 $``$ $`V`$ colors from our models including contributions from PAGB stars are plotted against \[Fe/H\] for five relative ages ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$t = $``$ 4, $``$ 2, 0, + 2, and + 4 Gyr, respectively). The 15 $``$ $`V`$ vs. \[Fe/H\] plot (Figure 6a) is reminiscent of Figure 1, which suggests that the far-UV to optical colors also describe the HB morphology, in a manner similar to that of the optical to near-IR colors. This leads us to believe that far-UV photometry, in combination with optical data, will provide a useful age discriminant for GC systems. In Figure 6b, however, it is found that 25 $``$ $`V`$ from our models is relatively insensitive to the variation of HB morphology, compared to 15 $``$ $`V`$. This is because in the near-UV range the contribution from main sequence turnoff stars is not insignificant. These models will be tested using the available UV datasets of Galactic and M31 GCs in Section 3.3.

## 3 COMPARISON WITH OBSERVATIONS

### 3.1 CALIBRATION VIA GLOBULAR CLUSTER SYSTEM IN THE MILKY WAY

Having discussed the theoretical aspects of generating integrated broad-band colors in Section 2, we now provide an empirical calibration for the models using the Milky Way’s GC system. We adopt Harris’ (1996) dataset for calibration purposes, but restrict ourselves to those clusters with line-of-sight reddenings $`E`$($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$) $`<`$ 0.2. The more highly-reddened clusters possess increasingly uncertain photometry. When needed, the extinction law of Cardelli, Clayton, & Mathis (1989) is adopted.

Figure 7 contrasts this sample of Galactic GCs (where filled circles represent inner halo clusters, and open circles, outer halo clusters) with our models in the (a) ($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$)o, (b) ($`V`$ $``$ $`I`$)o, (c) ($`M`$ $``$ $`T_1`$)o, and (d) ($`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$)o vs. \[Fe/H\] planes. The integrated $`B`$ $``$ $`V`$ and $`V`$ $``$ $`I`$ colors of Galactic GCs have essentially negligible uncertainties, due to the intrinsic brightness of the sample; the largest uncertainties can be traced to the uncertainty in foreground reddening, which corresponds to $`<`$ 0.02 mag for this sample. The limited sample of Galactic GCs with Washington photometry (Harris & Canterna 1977) is shown along with our models in Figure 7c and 7d. As a matter of fact, this is a first ever try to separate the Milky Way globulars into subpopulations and to address their relative age differences using broadband colors. It appears that our models reproduce the differences between inner and outer halo clusters noted in Figure 1, in the sense that the inner halo clusters are not only more tightly grouped along the isochrone than the outer halo counterparts, but also relatively older from the eye fit.

In Figure 7, we applied 0.03 mag, 0.01 mag, and 0.05 mag zero-point offsets to the models in $`B`$ $``$ $`V`$, $`M`$ $``$ $`T_1`$, and $`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$, respectively, in order to minimize the residuals between the models and the data. These offsets may arise from uncertainties in the adopted theoretical stellar atmospheres or our rough age reduction treatment by 3 Gyr or the color-effective temperature calibration (e.g., Girardi 2001; Kurucz 2001; Yi et al. 2001; Westera et al. 2002). We apply the same offsets for the comparison against extragalactic systems in Section 3.2. The models of Figure 7 support the hypothesis that the realistic HB morphology inclusion is truly important, and the fact that even the small relative age difference between inner and outer halo clusters is rather satisfactorily reproduced ascertains that we are making some progress here over the previous attempts (e.g., Fig. 43 of W94, Figs. 3, 4 of KFF99, Figs. 6, 9 of BCPR00, and Fig. 7 of Geisler et al. 1996).

Before our models are applied to extragalactic GC systems, several empirical linear color-metallicity transformation relations in the literature were assessed (see Figure 8). First, in the \[Fe/H\] vs. ($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$)o plane (Fig. 8a), Couture, Harris, & Allwright’s (1990) relation (CHA90) is shown with our models, ($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$)o = 0.200\[Fe/H\] + 0.971. The CHA90 relation is based on Galactic GCs with $`E`$($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$) $``$ 0.4. Fig. 8b shows the \[Fe/H\] vs. ($`V`$ $``$ $`I`$)o plane, with CHA90’s relation, \[($`V`$ $``$ $`I`$)o = 0.198\[Fe/H\] + 1.207\], Kissler-Patig et al.’s (1998) relation (KBSFGH98), \[\[Fe/H\] = $``$ 4.50 + 3.27($`V`$ $``$ $`I`$)\], Kundu & Whitmore’s (1998) relation (KW98), \[\[Fe/H\] = $``$ 5.89 + 4.72($`V`$ $``$ $`I`$)\], and Harris et al.’s (2000) relation (HKHHP00), \[($`V`$ $``$ $`I`$)o = 0.17\[Fe/H\] + 1.15\] contrasted with our models. These latter relations are also made using the relatively low-reddened Galactic GCs, except that of KBSFGH98, who made their relation using the NGC 1399 GCs (see Section 3.2). The \[Fe/H\] vs. ($`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$)o plane is shown in Fig. 8c, with Geisler & Forte’s (1990) relation (GF90), \[\[Fe/H\] = 2.35($`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$)o $``$ 4.39\] compared with our models. GF90’s relation is based upon the dataset of Harris & Canterna (1977), using the Galactic GCs in the range $``$ 2.25 $``$ \[Fe/H\] $``$ $``$ 0.25.

Because these color-metallicity transformation relations rely upon Galactic GCs in a limited range of color (0.6 $`<`$ ($`V`$ $``$ $`I`$)o $`<`$ 1.1), caution must be employed when extrapolating their use beyond this range (e.g., Harris et al. 1992; Harris, Harris, & McLaughlin 1998). Our models in Figure 8 suggest that $`B`$ $``$ $`V`$ may not be a good metallicity indicator and even $`V`$ $``$ $`I`$ should be used with extra caution to derive metallicity because of the model non-linearity. Geisler & Forte (1990) demonstrated that the $`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$ index is highly metallicity-sensitive, with a total range of 0.84 mag for the Galactic GCs, more than twice that of $`B`$ $``$ $`V`$ and easily converted to \[Fe/H\] metallicities on the Zinn (1985) scale with a mean standard deviation of 0.19 dex (cf. Harris & Harris 2002). However, Figure 8c suggests that even the color-metallicity transformation relation using $`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$ is subject to large uncertainty in metallicity estimation, if there are sizable age differences amongst GCs within and between galaxies.

### 3.2 COMPARISON WITH GLOBULAR CLUSTER SYSTEMS IN M31, M87, AND NGC 1399

We have demonstrated in Section 3.1 that detailed modeling of HB morphology is important in stellar population synthesis by calibrating our models using the sample of Galactic GCs. We now compare data from the M31, M87, and NGC 1399 GC systems with our models in order to investigate whether they show any systematic differences, particularly in terms of age, compared to their Galactic counterparts. In Paper I, we suggested that the GC systems of M87 and NGC 1399 are a few billion years older than the Milky Way system, based upon an analysis of the \[Fe/H\] vs. H$`\beta `$ plane. We now examine this claim using integrated broad-band colors, instead of H$`\beta `$.

For the M31 system, we use the Barmby et al. (2000) compilation. As in the case of the Galactic GC system, we restrict the M31 sample to those with $`E`$($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$) $`<`$ 0.2 and $`\sigma `$\[Fe/H\] $`<`$ 0.2. Figure 9 compares the M31 GCs (filled squares) with our models in the (a) ($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$)o and (b) ($`V`$ $``$ $`I`$)o vs. \[Fe/H\] planes; Galactic GCs with $`E`$($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$) $`<`$ 0.2 (open circles) are also plotted. The M31 GCs are reasonably well reproduced by our models and we suggest that there are no significant differences between the Galactic and M31 systems.

For the case of the M87 GC system, there are at least two photometric studies carried out in the $`UBVRI`$ system (Strom et al. 1981; Couture et al. 1990). Both datasets, however, suffer to some degree from uncertain photometric accuracy. These data, after combining with Cohen et al.’s (1998) spectroscopic metallicity determinations, are compared with our models in Figure 10. We adopt a foreground reddening of $`E`$($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$) = 0.02 (Burstein & Heiles 1982), corresponding to $`E`$($`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$) = 0.04.

A comparison of the Strom et al. (1981; SFHSWS81) photometry for the M87 GC system with our models is shown in Fig. 10(a) ($`U`$ $``$ $`B`$)o, 10(b) ($`U`$ $``$ $`R`$)o, and 10(c) ($`B`$ $``$ $`R`$)o. Here the brighter sample of data ($`B`$ $`<`$ 21) is highlighted with large filled circles, while the fainter sample ($`B`$ $`<`$ 22) is shown with small open circles. Strom et al. (1981) suggest that uncertainties in their color zero-points amount to 0.1 - 0.2 mag. We found that zero-point offsets of 0.08 mag in $`U`$ $``$ $`B`$, 0.11 mag in $`U`$ $``$ $`R`$, and 0.01 mag in $`B`$ $``$ $`R`$ were necessary to match our models to their photographic photometry. The models are consistent with the data, particularly for the brighter clusters with smaller observational uncertainties. Although difficult to extract robust age information from this sample, Figure 10c nevertheless shows that higher quality data paricularly in the regime of \[Fe/H\] $`<`$ $``$ 1 may allow for a useful age discrimination in the future.

Another comparison of M87 GCs (using photometric data from Couture et al. 1990) with our models in the ($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$)o and ($`V`$ $``$ $`I`$)o vs. \[Fe/H\] planes is presented in Figure 11. It appears that this sample of M87 GCs also exhibits systematic zero-point offsets, as noted by Couture et al. of the order of $`\pm `$ 0.04 mag in color. With only 9 clusters in common between Couture et al. (1990) and Cohen et al. (1998), it is difficult to obtain useful age information of this system mainly because of the residual observational uncertainties. Additional high-quality photometric data (at least $`B`$, $`V`$, and $`I`$) is urgently required, in order to examine any potential age differences between GC systems in M87 and the Milky Way.

The Washington CCD photometry for the M87 GCs is compared with our models in Figure 12. Thirty-two clusters have both photometry (Lee & Geisler 1993; LG93) and spectroscopy (Cohen et al. 1998). We have used only 25 of these here, excluding the C field (photometric uncertainty) and W field (non-photometric night) data of LG93; they are plotted in Figure 12(a) and 12(b). The typical photometric error in $`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$ for the cluster sample is 0.06 mag, but far smaller for the brighter GCs. The typical uncertainty in spectroscopic metallicity is $``$ 0.2 dex, and is not displayed here for clarity. The QSNR, defined by Cohen et al. (1998) in their spectroscopic analysis, correlates with photometric magnitude in the sense that brighter clusters are of higher QSNR. The large filled circles of Figure 12 have QSNR $`>`$ 50, and are the relatively bright clusters with relatively high accuracy in photometry as well as in spectroscopy. It is seen from Figure 12 that even though our models trace the data reasonably well, the low quality of the M87 GCs photometry prevents us from any precise age estimation.

In Figure 13, we present a comparison of the NGC 1399 GCs (photometric data from Kissler-Patig et al. 1997, \[Fe/H\] from Kissler-Patig et al. 1998) with our models in the \[Fe/H\] vs. ($`V`$ $``$ $`I`$)o plane. There appears to be a systematic offset between the data and our models. Kissler-Patig et al.’s (1998) color-metallicity transformation relation (Figure 8b) differs substantially from other comparable relations, therefore it would be worthwhile to get more number of fine photometry of metal-rich clusters to address this seeming discrepancy.

### 3.3 UV PHOTOMETRY

We can conclude from Section 3.2 that reliable age information for extragalactic GC systems is difficult to obtain with the currently available optical to near-IR data. As suggested in Section 2.3 though, far-UV photometry would appear to be more useful as an age discriminant. Here, we examine whether our theoretical UV to optical colors can be applied to the available UV photometry of globular clusters in the Milky Way and M31.

In Figure 14, data for the Galactic GCs from the Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO 2, filled circles) and the Astronomical Netherlands Satellite (ANS, filled squares) and those for the M31 GCs from the Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT, open circles) are plotted with our models. Triangles represent the relatively highly-reddened clusters with $`E`$($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$) $`>`$ 0.2. For the Galactic system, there are 7 far-UV and 13 near-UV data points from the OAO 2, and 17 far-UV and 22 near-UV data points from the ANS (Dorman, O’Connell, & Rood 1995). Bohlin et al. (1993) report 43 near-UV and 4 far-UV detections of M31 GCs using the UIT. From their Table 2 & 3, however, only 17 near-UV and zero far-UV photometry are used here after the exclusion of uncertain identifications (indicated by a colon following the Bo ID in their tables) and considering only those have both \[Fe/H\] and $`E`$($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$) from Barmby et al. (2000).

The predicted (15 $``$ $`V`$)o colors from our models as a function of \[Fe/H\] are compared with Galactic GCs in the left panel of Figure 14. The OAO 2 photometry is shown in Figure 14a, and Figure 14b presents that from the ANS. The errors associated with the OAO 2 data amount to $``$ 0.5 mag, and are omitted in Figure 14a. As we compare it to Figure 1, it is noted that the observations fall within the suggested age range of our model predictions. Moreover, the far-UV flux from the well-known second parameter pair, M3 and M13 (depicted as crosses), is explicable with a relative age difference of $``$ 1.5 Gyr between the pair. This is consistent with the recent age estimation for these clusters based on their optical CCD photometry (Rey et al. 2001). We also note that 47 Tuc (Figure 14a) is well reproduced by our models, verifying our estimation of the PAGB star contribution to the integrated far-UV flux. The use of far-UV to optical colors is, therefore, suggested as the most promising chronometer for GC systems, with the admitted caveat that there are a few peculiar GCs, such as NGC 6388 and NGC 6441 with unexpected extended blue HB stars (Rich et al. 1997). If there are significant age differences between Milky Way and giant elliptical GC systems, in the sense of the latter being 2 - 3 Gyr older (as suggested in Paper I), then we predict that the majority of metal-rich clusters would be far-UV bright compared to Galactic counterparts. In this respect, the results from the recent HST far-UV photometry of GC systems in Virgo ellipticals (GO 8643 & GO 8725) are highly anticipated.

In the right panel of Figure 14, the (25 $``$ $`V`$)o colors of M31 GCs (UIT data, open circles) are shown with our models as a function of \[Fe/H\]. In addition, the relevant data for Galactic GCs (OAO 2; Figure 14c, ANS; Figure 14d) are overplotted for comparison. We have recalibrated the (25 $``$ $`V`$)o colors of the M31 GCs by adopting $`V`$ and $`E`$($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$) from Barmby et al. (2000). Our models represent the near-UV photometry of M31 GCs, as well as those in the Milky Way, with no significant differences seen between the two systems, especially when disregarding the highly-reddened clusters (triangles). This again suggests that the M31 and Milky Way GC systems are fundamentally similar, in agreement with the analysis of optical to near-IR colors seen in Section 3.2, and consistent with the earlier conclusions of Bohlin et al. (1993). As discussed in Section 2.3, it is somewhat difficult to discriminate age differences of GC systems using the near-UV photometry alone. Far-UV photometry of the M31 GCs would be highly desirable to better quantify our findings. In this respect, a large UV photometry dataset for the M31 GC system from the upcoming GALEX (http://www.srl.caltech.edu/galex/) mission will become an invaluable resource.

## 4 CONCLUSIONS & DISCUSSION

The primary goal of our paper was to investigate the effects of horizontal-branch stars on the integrated broad-band colors of old, simple, stellar populations. To do so, we have employed a unique, self-consistent, treatment of HB morphology as a function of age and metallicity. We have found that some temperature-sensitive integrated broad-band colors are significantly affected by the presence of blue HB stars within our investigated age range of $``$ 4 Gyr $``$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$t $``$ \+ 4 Gyr (i.e., 8 Gyr $``$ t $``$ 16 Gyr). The close agreement between our models and the relatively low-reddened inner halo Galactic GCs in both the Johnson-Cousins and Washington filter systems is encouraging. The use of far-UV to optical colors is suggested to be a powerful age-dating regime for old stellar systems, when coupled with realistic HB morphologies (Lee 2001a, 2001b). Future observations of GC systems in external galaxies from large ground-based telescopes and space UV facilities will enable us to quantify any systematic age differences between the various systems. A more sophisticated understanding of the theory governing mass loss and helium enrichment will also contribute to a better understanding of stellar age determination using far-UV photometry (O’Connell 1999).

In the case of the M31 GC system, our work suggests that it is not fundamentally different from the Galactic system, from the UV through to the near-IR. This is in contrast to several studies which have claimed that the metal-rich M31 GCs could be much younger than the metal-poor sample (e.g., Burstein et al. 1984; Barmby & Huchra 2000). Future far-UV datasets to be provided, for example, by the GALEX mission should aid in resolving this controversy. Further Washington system photometry will also be valuable (Lee et al. 2001).

The study of extragalactic GC systems today is being driven primarily by an attempt at understanding the bimodal color distributions seen from many early-type galaxies (e.g., Larsen et al. 2001; Kundu & Whitmore 2001) as well as from some spirals (Forbes, Brodie, & Larsen 2001). The origin of these blue and red subpopulations and the implication for the formation of their host galaxies remains unclear. If a relative age difference exists between the subpopulations, an important piece of the galaxy formation puzzle will have been found. Identifying useful age discriminants remains an important component of cosmology and galaxy formation. The broad-band photometric predictions described here, in combination with the spectroscopic discriminants of Paper I, should provide observers with the necessary tools to discriminate age differences amongst GC subpopulations. Finally, we conclude that several of the canonical linear color-metallicity transformation relations should be used with caution if there are sizable age differences amongst globular clusters within and between galaxies. It remains to be seen if bimodal color distributions can be interpreted as simple metallicity or age differences, or whether a more complicated interplay between metallicity and age must be involved.

It is a pleasure to thank P. Barmby for M31 GCs data, M. G. Lee for M87 GCs data, T. Lejeune for his updated color table, and S. K. Yi for many helpful discussions. We are also grateful to the anonymous referee for her/his detailed report that helped us improve this paper. Support for this work was provided by the Creative Research Initiatives Program of the Korean Ministry of Science and Technology. This work was also supported by the Post-doctoral Fellowship Program of Korea Science & Engineering Foundation (KOSEF). BKG acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council through its Large Research Grant Program (A00105171).


text:
# Modern Techniques in Galaxy Kinematics: Results from Planetary Nebula Spectroscopy

## References

Côté, P., et al. 2001, ApJ, 559, 828

Douglas, N. G., et al. 2002, this volume

Gerhard, O., Kronawitter, A., Saglia, R. P., & Bender, R. 2001, AJ, 121, 1936

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Romanowsky, A. J., & Kochanek, C. S. 2001, ApJ, 553, 722

Zepf, S. E., et al. 2000, AJ, 120, 2928


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# Multiscaling and Nonextensivity of Large-scale Structures in the Universe

## 1 Introduction

One of the key problems in structure formation theories is the issue of the galaxy distribution and the transition to homogeneity and isotropy of the Universe in large enough scales. Historically, the hypothesis of homogeneity (the Cosmological Principle, CP) was introduced by Einstein to find simple solutions of the field equations for the case where the spatial hypersphere of the Universe is a maximally symmetric subspace of the space-time. That allows us to derive the Robertson-Walker metric and the Friedmann equations, the theoretical framework where cosmology has been developed. At the same time, the CP implies that all mass units should be statistically equivalent, with a Poisson distribution in space. In this case, correlations may appear only on average and should be the same when viewed from any point in the system. Actually, it has been shown that luminous matter in the Universe shows a quite structured distribution of galaxies and voids. This structure has led some authors  to tentatively describe galaxy clustering using a fractal distribution with a dimension $`1.2`$. The results of a number of redshift surveys  indicate that, indeed, there is a certain hierarchy in the Universe, with stars forming galaxies, galaxies grouping themselves in groups, clusters and superclusters. A rough limit to this clustering is seen at a distance of about 200 $`h^1`$ Mpc and the present redshift surveys do not show evidence of large-scale structures beyond this scale. Particularly, in very large scales - those probed by cosmic microwave background (CMB) experiments, especially by the COBE-DMR experiment - there is no evidence of violation of local isotropy . However, we should note that the existence of such a crossover towards homogenization, as well as the exact value of the fractal dimension, are questions of intense debate \[5-7\].

The fractal hypothesis is deeply connected with a topology theorem which states that homogeneity is implied by the condition of local isotropy plus the assumption of analicity (or regularity) for the distribution of matter. It is possible to prove that in a fractal the condition of local isotropy can be satisfied but, since a fractal is a non-analytic structure, the property of homogeneity is not implied . This means that the fractal scenario is incompatible with the CP. Observations point out that galaxy structures indeed exhibit fractal properties up to some scale, although a pure fractal description does not seem to be favored at the moment . Recently, some authors (e.g. \[10-12\]) have had some success in describing the clustering properties of visible matter in the Universe in terms of a multifractal phenomenon associated with density thresholds applied to multifractal sets. They show that both a hybrid fractal and a multifractal approaches can reasonably describe the matter distribution up to $`100h^1`$ Mpc.

In spite of the relative success of the multifractal approach to describe the distribution of matter in the Universe, it is important to understand the physics behind this framework. In general terms, the multifractal description of galaxies may represent a strange attractor that is the nonlinear outcome of the dynamical equations of gravitational galaxy clustering . However, it is not simple to find a dynamical connection between fractal sets and galaxy clustering. In this work we propose an alternative solution to this problem, using the generalized thermostatistics (GTS) formalism . We show that applying the idea of nonextensivity, intrinsic to GTS, it is possible to derive an expression for the correlation function, describing the scaling properties of large-scale structures in the Universe. The present approach is based on the assumption of a scale dependent correlation dimension ($`D_2`$), which leads to a reconciliation with observational data at various scales, showing a smooth transition from a clustered, fractal Universe to large-scale homogeneity, with $`D_2=3`$.

The physical motivation behind our approach is the peculiar behavior of large-scale gravitational systems, dominated by the unshielded, long-range nature of gravity. In contrast, other many-body systems, like neutral gases and plasmas, are characterized by short-range interactions. Because of this fundamental difference, the standard Boltzmann-Gibbs statistical mechanics cannot be applied to gravitating systems, since the long-range nature of gravity strongly violates one of its basic premises (short-ranged effective interactions), and, thus, special techniques are needed . One possibility to overcome this difficulty – adopted by us – is to use the GTS, a theory proposed to correct Boltzmann-Gibbs statistical mechanics in those cases where its prescriptions fail.

## 2 Theoretical Framework

In the context of galaxy clustering, the important exponent is the correlation dimension $`D_2`$ , which is defined in terms of the scaling of the correlation integral $`C(r)`$ over a distance $`r`$ (normalized by a reference scale L):

$$C(r)=_0^r4\pi n(1+\xi (s))s^2𝑑s=Ar^{D_2},$$
(1)
where $`\xi (r)`$ is the two-point correlation function, $`n`$ is the mean density of objects and $`A`$ is a constant. By differentiating eq. (1) with respect to $`r`$ we get:

$$1+\xi (r)=\frac{D_2Ar^{(D_23)}}{4\pi n}.$$
(2)
Considering that in large enough scales we have $`(1+\xi )1`$ and $`D_23`$, we obtain $`A=4\pi n/3`$ and

$$1+\xi (r)=\frac{D_2r^{(D_23)}}{3}.$$
(3)
Based on the scaling properties of multifractals, a generalization of Boltzmann-Gibbs thermostatistics has been proposed  through the introduction of a family of generalized entropy functionals $`S_q`$ with a single parameter $`q`$. These functionals reduce to the classical, extensive Boltzmann-Gibbs form as $`q1`$. The generalized entropy has been successfully used to describe a wide range of phenomena, including long-range interactions , turbulence \[18-20\], anomalous diffusion , among others. For an up-to-date list of references on GTS and its applications, see .

For a system with $`W`$ microscopic state probabilities $`p_i0`$, that are normalized according to $`_i^Wp_i=1`$, the GTS formalism is based upon two axioms. First, the entropy of the system is given by

$$S_q=k\frac{1_i^Wp_i^q}{q1}=\frac{k}{q1}\underset{i}{\overset{W}{}}\left(p_ip_i^q\right),$$

where $`k`$ and $`q`$ are real constants. Second, an experimental measurement of an observable $`O`$, whose value in state $`i`$ is $`o_i`$, yields the (unnormalized) $`q`$-expectation value,

$$O_q=\underset{i}{\overset{W}{}}p_i^qo_i,$$

of the observable $`O`$.

Within the framework of GTS, the following special additivity rule holds:

$$O_q(2V)=2O_q(V)+2(1q)O_q(V)S_q(V)/k,$$
(4)
where $`V`$ is an arbitrary volume. In the sense of eq. (4), the entropic index $`q`$ characterizes the degree of nonextensivity of the system.

Nonextensivity implies that $`O_q`$ is not uniformly distributed within $`V`$ but rather concentrated on a subset of noninteger dimension $`D_2`$. In this case, the following scaling relation holds:

$$O_q(2V)=2^{D_2/3}O_q(V).$$
(5)
The reasoning above may be extended to the context of galaxy clustering if we assume the correlation integral $`C(r)`$ as being the observable in eq. (4). Thus, with the additional assumption of a scale dependent entropic parameter $`q(r)`$, from eqs. (4) and (5), it immediately follows:

$$D_2(r)=3\frac{\mathrm{log}(2+a(1q(r)))}{\mathrm{log}2},$$
(6)
where $`D_2(r)`$ is the correlation dimension and $`a=2S_q/k`$ will be determined later.

The idea of relating nonextensivity and multiscaling through a scale dependent correlation dimension, as given by eq. (6), has been originally proposed by us in the context of fully developed turbulence . Interestingly, Chen and Bak  recently suggested a similar relation, derived from a simple reaction-diffusion model of turbulent phenomena, as a new geometric form for describing the distribution of luminous matter in the Universe .

To be complete, the above formulation shall contain a model for $`q(r)`$. We suggest the following simple ansatz:

$$r1/(q1)^\beta ,$$
(7)
or equivalently $`(q1)(1/r)^{1/\beta }`$, with $`\beta >0`$. At large scales, as $`r`$ grows, we have $`q1`$ and $`D_23`$. The appropriate choice of $`a`$ sets the value of $`D_2`$ at a lower reference scale.

## 3 Results and Discussion

We compared our model against observational data from various redshift surveys . Results are shown in Figs. 1 and 2, for $`a=0.65`$ and $`\beta =1.0`$ (solid line); $`a=1.60`$ and $`\beta =0.8`$ (dashed line); $`a=0.28`$ and $`\beta =2.0`$ (long dashed line); with $`L=100h^1`$ Mpc for all cases. For comparison purposes, a purely fractal description ($`D_2=2`$) and a homogeneous scenario ($`D_2=3`$) are also depicted in Fig. 1 (dotted straight lines). We observe that for $`\beta =1`$, which corresponds to the simplest relation between $`q`$ and $`r`$, our results show a good agreement with observational data for both the two-point correlation function and the correlation dimension. Increasing $`\beta `$, we may obtain a better fitting for $`1+\xi (r)`$ at the expense of the correlation dimension data. The opposite is true for decreasing values of $`\beta `$.

Equations (3) and (6) offer a quantitative description of matter clustering in the Universe, and of the smooth transition from small-scale nonextensive fractal behavior to large-scale extensive homogeneity. From a geometrical point of view, our model shows a Universe displaying a clear hierarchy, with predominance of point-like ($`D_20`$) and filamentary ($`D_21`$) structures at small scales, and surface-like ones ($`D_22`$) at intermediate scales. For sufficiently large scales ($`r>500h^1Mpc`$), the homogeneity predicted by the Cosmological Principle is recovered. All these features of the present approach are in good agreement with observational data.

Summarizing, we may say that our primary motivation in this work was to investigate the prediction of multiscaling and nonextensivity of large-scale structures in the Universe within the context of the generalized thermostatistics formalism. The results presented above suggest that we cannot discard this theoretical framework as a viable way to explain the gravitational clustering in the Universe. However, we should be careful and keep in mind two important caveats: the poorness of observational data in some scale domains may be masking the results, and the fact that luminous galaxies may not perfectly trace the mass distribution (the biasing problem). From a theoretical point of view, what is missing at the moment is a detailed understanding of how $`q`$ vary with scale. In the present work, we adopted the simplest model that provided a good agreement with the data. We are currently running a number of COBE-normalized CDM simulations for some relevant cosmological models . We believe that further study on the resulting correlations and velocity distributions, at different scales (from galaxies to superclusters), may reveal the connection between the entropic parameter and the dynamics of mass clustering in the Universe.

This work was partially supported by FAPESP and CNPq-Brazil.