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# Silicon Pad Detectors for the PHOBOS Experiment at RHIC

## 1 Introduction

The Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven National Laboratory will open a new horizon for Ultra-Relativistic Heavy-Ion physics, to explore highly excited dense nuclear matter under controlled laboratory conditions at a center-of-mass energy of 200 AGeV. At this energy, it is speculated that a plasma of deconfined quarks and gluons (QGP) will be formed following the initial series of nucleon-nucleon collisions. The QGP subsequently expands, cools and passes into the normal hadronic phase which itself expands until the hadrons cease to interact with each other at the freeze-out stage. A number of signatures of the formation of the deconfined phase have been proposed . It is generally thought that a single signature will be insufficient to provide the evidence for the QGP. Rather, the simultaneous observation of several of the proposed signatures, particularly on an event-by-event basis, will be required. PHOBOS seeks to address these questions in a timely fashion by focusing on measurements of hadronic observables for a very large sample of events.

## 2 PHOBOS detector

The PHOBOS detector consists of a 4$`\pi `$ multiplicity array, vertex finding detectors, two multi-particle tracking spectrometers, a set of plastic scintillator time-of-flight (TOF) walls, and trigger detectors. A schematic diagram of the experiment, showing most of these elements is shown in Fig. 1. The experiment is constructed almost exclusively of silicon pad detectors. Which have the advantage as providing simultaneously good position resolution, low multiple scattering in the detector and good energy loss resolution. The multiplicity array consists of an octagonal barrel of silicon pad detectors surrounding the beam pipe, and six rings of silicon pad detectors. This array covers the pseudo-rapidity range of $`|\eta |`$ $``$ 5.3. The multiplicity detector will provide event-by-event charged-particle multiplicity distributions which can be used to select interesting events for further study. The multiplicity distributions are interesting in their own right, containing information on multiplicity fluctuations and correlations, which potentially can be related to some of the proposed signatures of the QGP. The vertex detectors consist of two sets of silicon pad sensors situated above and below the beam line in the interaction region. Each set consists of two layers of silicon sensors with 4 sensors in the inner layer and 8 sensors in the outer layer as seen from the interaction region. The silicon vertex finder will be able to determine the position of the interaction point with an accuracy of 50 $`\mu `$m. The spectrometers consist of planes silicon pad detectors positioned on either side of the beam. Some of these planes lie within a 2T magnetic field. The spectrometers are able to measure and identify particles with transverse momenta as small as to 50 MeV/c for pions. The spectrometer will determine the particle momentum by measuring the track curvature and the particle type by the dE/dx method. The particle identification capability is further enhanced by two TOF walls behind the spectrometer. Finally, trigger counters consisting of two disks of 16 $`\stackrel{ˇ}{\mathrm{C}}`$erenkov radiators, and two sets of plastic scintillator counters (paddle counters), are arranged around the beam pipe. The paddle counters are designed to trigger on peripheral collisions and to give a first approximation of the event centrality.

#### 2.0.1  Design of Silicon Pad Detectors

The silicon pad detector is a single sided, AC coupled, detector that uses a double-metal layer to route the signals from the pads to the bonding area at the edge of the sensor. The wafer layout is conceptually similar to one used in CERN experiment WA98. The p+ implants are rectangular pads providing two-dimensional position information. The implants are biased via polysilicon resistors which are connected to a common bias line. A schematic diagram of the cross section of one pad of the silicon detector is presented in Fig. 2. The coupling capacitor between the first metal layer (Al) and the implant layer is formed by a 0.2 $`\mu `$m thick layer of silicon Oxide-Nitride-Oxide (ONO). Each pad from this array is read out by a second metal line that connects to the Metal 1 pad through a via and runs to the bonding pad. The active area of the silicon wafer is surrounded by a guard ring. The double metal layer has the advantage that the readout structure is integrated on the sensor without additional material. The full detector surface can be used for routing the signal lines to the sensor edge to a single row or multiple rows of bonding pads, permitting the use of standard readout chips. Nine different sensor types are used. The geometric characteristics of the different types of the sensors are presented in Table 1. A schematic layout of some of the silicon sensors used are shown in Fig. 3 and more details about silicon sensors are presented in reference .

#### 2.0.2  Testing and Acceptance Criteria of the Silicon Sensors

The silicon sensors were produced by the Miracle Technology Co, Taiwan under supervision of the National Central University (NCU), Taiwan. The dicing and initial inspection was carried out at NCU. Subsequent testing of the characteristics of the Silicon wafers was conducted at the University of Illinois at Chicago (vertex, octagon and ring wafers) and at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (spectrometer wafers).
This testing procedure was performed using a computer controlled probe station running LabView (National Instruments), which can write the results directly into a central Oracle database . The probe station is equipped with Keithley units for current and voltage measurements as well as with capacitance-meters for capacitance measurements of the sensor. The following tests are performed on each sensor :
\- IV Test : The leakage current s measured as a function bias voltage applied to the active area and the guard ring separtely. The backplane voltage is applied through the vacuum jig. Sensors with less than 5 $`\mu `$A current for the full active area at full depletion voltage, typically around 70 V and with stable guard ring current are accepted.
\- PN Test : The sensor depletion voltage is measured on a p-n diode test structure adjacent to the sensor on the same production wafer. This measured value for the depletion voltage was cross-checked with the results of tests with radioactive source carried out on the actual sensor. For most sensors, the depletion voltage was approximately 70 Volts.
\- Polysilicon Test : The polysilicon bias resistor was measured for each wafer on two identical test structures on the wafer. These test structures consist of a chain of resistors identical to those used to bias each pad. We measure the current-voltage characteristic for both test structures and accept sensors with pad bias resistance larger than 1 M$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$.
\- Pinhole Test :  Pinholes, or connections between the two metal layers through the first dielectric layer, are detected by measuring the current between the bonding pad and the bias line. The bias line is kept at ground potential and the bond pads are held at - 5V. For functional oxides, the measured current is zero. This measurement was done for each pad.
\- CV Test :  The functionality of the readout line is checked by measuring the capacitance between each pad and the detector backplane, while the sensor is fully depleted. For functional lines a characteristic capacitance pattern is observed, which largely depends on the readout line geometry and routing. Broken or shorted lines clearly exhibit a different capacitance which can easily be distinguished from that of functional lines. We allow a total of 3 $`\%`$ defective channels (sum of thin oxide defects and readout line defects) for each sensor.

#### 2.0.3  Readout Electronics

The readout of all PHOBOS silicon detectors is based on the VA-HDR-1 chip, a ”Viking” type chip manufactured by IDEAS . We use it in a 64-channel and a 128-channel version depending on the sensor granularity. The VA-HDR-1 chip was chosen as it is commercially available and provides a large dynamic range, with input signals up to 400 fC, i.e. more than 100 times the energy loss of minimum ionizing particle (MIPs). The VA-HDR-1 chips are mounted on a hybrid. These hybrids are ceramic in the case of the vertex and spectrometer detectors, and multilayer printed circuit boards for the multiplicity detectors. Each hybrid carries one or more chips with the chip inputs directly wire bonded to the sensors. The hybrid also has a small number of passive components to adjust the chip supply currents from common voltage rails and to filter the power supplies. The data are read out by Front End Controllers (FEC’s) which digitize the differential analog signals in a 12 bit ADC running at up to 5 MHz and store the ADC output in a FIFO. The digitized data are passed through a G-Link connection and multiplexing boards to a Mercury Raceway system  in which multiple PowerPC processors work concurrently on the data reduction. The FEC’s also monitor chip supply voltages, detector bias voltage and leakage currents. The monitoring values are automaticaly transmitted together with the ADC data. Finally, the processed data are sent to a workstation where they can be analyzed.

#### 2.0.4  Module Assembly and Tests

After each chip is tested and accepted, it is manually attached with conductive glue to the hybrid. The chip control side is wire bonded to the hybrid. After bonding, the hybrid is tested by reading the pedestal, measuring the chip noise and running a full calibration cycle for each channel. Following these tests, the sensor is glued to the hybrid. Finally, the sensor is wire bonded to the chip input. After assembly, the functionality of the completed module is tested in the same manner as the unassembled hybrid. In addition, each module is tested with an electron source 113Sn (E$`_e^{}`$ = 363 keV and 380 keV), which gives information about the full depletion voltage. The signal distribution from one pad of a ring-counter sensor from a 113Sn source is presented in Fig. 5. The response of a vertex sensor to minimum ionizing particles is shown in Fig. 6, which displays an energy-loss spectra for cosmic-ray muons. The peak of the minimum ionizing energy distribution accurs at approximately 80-90 keV. The width of the curve represented in the Fig. 6 is due to Landau Fluctuations. The signal signal-to-noise ration is approximatively 15. These silicon detectors have been also used during the engineering run in 1999. The stability of one octagon module during this period is illustrated in Fig. 7.

### 2.1  Performance of Silicon pad Detectors during Engineering Run at RHIC

During the engineering run of June 1999 at RHIC, 13 octagon modules, one half of the top layer of the inner vertex array (one module), one quarter of the top layer of the outer vertex array (two modules) and four first planes of spectrometer were installed. During this period, Au beam at injection energy (10.8 GeV/n) was circulated in each of the RHIC rings but not simultaneously. During this exposure, the silicon pad detectors showed low noise and very good stability in pedestal and gain. The average pedestal and noise per channel for one octagon module during running are presented in Fig. 7.

## 3 Summary

Since the signature of the quark-gluon plasma cannot be predicted unabigously, PHOBOS is initially attempting to study these collisions in an unbiased way. Therefore PHOBOS will study the production of all types of hadronic particles. The majority of the emitted charged hadrons will be detected by the multiplicity detector, which covers almost 4$`\pi `$ of solid angle. This permits us to study their distribution in the pseudo-rapidity range of $`|\eta |`$ $``$ 5.3 on an event-by-event basis. One percent of all emitted particles will be studied in detail by the two-arm magnetic spectrometer in the mid-rapidity region, where the highest energy densities are expected. In the spectrometer, particles will be momentum analysed and identified by energy loss measurements in the Silicon layers. The identification of higher momentum particles will be augmented by time-of-flight measurement.
For the silicon pad detectors, the sensor quality was demonstrated to be adequate for the required physics measurement. The sensor production, testing and assembly have been completed on schedule. Source and beam tests show an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio around 15. The expected capacitive coupling between the channels gives a modest crosstalk of less than 1$`\%`$.

Currently, the silicon pad detectors of PHOBOS are ready for implementation in the RHIC research program. The full multiplicity detector, the vertex detectors and one arm of the spectrometer are ready and will be installed when RHIC physics running starts in June 2000.

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# References

Dynamics and holographic discreteness of tachyonic inflation

Bin Wanga,111e-mail:binwang@fudan.ac.cn, Elcio Abdalla b,222e-mail:eabdalla@fma.if.usp.br, and Ru-Keng Su c,a333e-mail:rksu@fudan.ac.cn

a Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, P. R. China

b Instituto de Fisica, Univ. Sao Paulo, C.P.66.318, CEP 05315-970, Sao Paulo, Brazil

c China Center of Advanced Science and Technology (World Lab), Beijing 100080, P. R. China

## Abstract

We consider issues related to tachyonic inflation with inverse-power-law potential. We find the solution of the evolution equations in the slow roll limit in FRW as well as in the brane cosmology. Using the holographic entropy bound, we estimate the quantum-gravitational discreteness of tachyonic inflation perturbations.

PACS number(s): 98.80.Cq, 98.80.Hw.

The theory of cosmic inflation offers an attractive resolution of some of the great paradoxes in cosmology and has gained fairly good support from the recent observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation . However the accelerated expanding universe cannot be obtained from fundamental theories such as M/String theory. Recently there has been significant progress in bringing about a reconciliation, particularly due to Sen, who has pointed out that rolling tachyons can contribute a mass density to the universe that resembles classical dust . This has brought a new understanding of the role of the tachyon in string theory. The process of rolling tachyon in the cosmological background has been investigated in \[3-11\]. It is argued that the tachyonic field might play the dual role of inflation at the early epochs and of some new form of dark matter at late times. Nevertheless some problems with identifying the tachyon as the inflation are discussed in , where it was indicated that the reheating mechanism is lacking in these models.

Recently an interesting development in cosmology has been introduced, which is called a brane world based on superstring or M theory . In a brane world scenario, our universe is embedded in higher dimensions and standard-model particles are confined to four-dimensional hypersurfaces, while gravity is propagating in higher dimensions. This scenario suggests that the gravitational law could be different from the conventional cosmological model at the early stage of the universe or at high-energy scale. Accounts of reheating in the brane assisted inflation of non-tachyonic field have been discussed in . Effects of tachyon in context of brane world cosmology have been investigated \[17-19,8\]. It is interesting to note that arguments of possible solution of the reheating problem in the tachyonic inflation have been raised in the brane inflationary scenario \[17 18\].

The general functional form of tachyonic potential is not known. However it is expected that the potential $`V(\varphi )`$ has an unstable maximum at $`\varphi =0`$ and a minimum at $`\varphi =\mathrm{}`$. Sen  has shown that the choice of an exponential potential for the tachyonic field satisfies these requirements and leads to some interesting properties. Some other potential forms have been constructed leading to the desired cosmological evolution . In this paper we discuss issues of inflation with tachyon rolling on an inverse-power-law potential $`V(\varphi )=\mu ^{\alpha +4}\varphi ^\alpha `$, which satisfies the tachyonic potential requirements. A scalar field with this specific potential form has been shown with interesting behavior in the quintessence scenario . We will find exact solutions of slow roll equations in the usual four-dimensional FRW cosmology as well as on the brane.

The second motivation of the present paper is to study the perturbation and anisotropy of the tachyonic inflation. They are by far the most important aspect of inflation and are believed to be the ancestors of present cosmological structures. Recently there has been an intriguing idea of studying this problem by using the cosmic holographic principle . It is found that in fundamental theories where the holographic entropy bound arises from discrete fundamental eigenstates, the amount of inflation in the anisotropy is remarkably limited, which can be described with only about $`10^5`$ bits per sky-harmonic mode implying that the perturbations should be pixilated in some way . In this paper, we are going to extend their discussion to the tachyonic inflation.

In the conventional cosmology the Friedmann equation takes the form

$$H^2=\frac{\rho }{3M_p^2}$$
(1)
We consider that the matter fields consist of tachyonic field $`\varphi `$ as well as radiational fluids, i.e. $`\rho =\rho _\varphi +\rho _r`$. According to Sen , a rolling tachyon can be described by a fluid with energy density and pressure

$$\rho _\varphi =\frac{V(\varphi )}{\sqrt{1\dot{\varphi }^2}}$$
(2)
$$P_\varphi =V(\varphi )\sqrt{1\dot{\varphi }^2}$$
(3)
$`V(\varphi )`$ is the tachyon potential. The equation of motion of the tachyonic field minimally coupled to gravity is

$$\frac{V\ddot{\varphi }}{1\dot{\varphi }^2}+3HV\dot{\varphi }+\stackrel{~}{V}=0$$
(4)
where $`\stackrel{~}{V}={\displaystyle \frac{dV}{d\varphi }}`$. For the radiation fluid, we have

$$\dot{\rho }_r+4H\rho _r=0.$$
(5)
For a Robertson-Walker tachyon matter dominated universe, the condition to have accelerating expansion is

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\ddot{a}}{a}}`$ $`=`$ $`H^2+\dot{H}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{6M_p^2}}(\rho _\varphi +3P_\varphi )`$ (6)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6M_p^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{V}{\sqrt{1\dot{\varphi }^2}}}(3\dot{\varphi }^22)>0`$
which requires that

$$\dot{\varphi }^2<2/3.$$
(7)
This is different from the condition obtained in the inflation caused by a normal scalar field where $`\dot{\varphi }^2<V(\varphi )`$.

In order to have a sufficiently long period of inflation, the tachyonic field should start rolling with small initial $`\dot{\varphi }`$. Inserting our potential form into (4) and assuming a slow rolling condition, we find that

$$\varphi =[(2\alpha /2)\alpha (\mu ^{\alpha +4})^{1/2}M_p(tt_0)/\sqrt{3}]^{2/(4\alpha )}$$
(8)
where $`t_0`$ is an integration constant and we consider it as the moment of starting of the inflation. The universe expands as

$$a=a_0\mathrm{exp}[H_0(tt_0)^{(42\alpha )/(4\alpha )}],$$
(9)
where a constant $`H_0`$ is given by

$$H_0=\frac{(\mu ^{\alpha +4})^{(2+\alpha )/4}}{(\sqrt{3})^{(2\alpha )/2}M_p^{(2+\alpha )/2}}\alpha ^{\alpha /2}2^{\alpha /2}\frac{(4\alpha )^{(2\alpha )/2}}{42\alpha }.$$
(10)
To have the expansion of the universe, we need $`\alpha <2`$ or $`\alpha >4`$.

Another quantity of interest in inflation is the number of e-folds during the inflation phase,

$$N(\varphi )=\mathrm{ln}\frac{a(t_{end})}{a(t)}=_t^{t_{end}}H𝑑t=_\varphi ^{\varphi _{end}}\frac{3H^2V}{\stackrel{~}{V}}𝑑\varphi .$$
(11)
Using the inverse-power-law potential form,

$`N(\varphi )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mu ^{\alpha +4}}{\alpha M_p^2(2\alpha )}}\varphi ^{2\alpha }|_\varphi ^{\varphi _{end}}`$ (12)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mu ^{\alpha +4}}{\alpha M_p^2(2\alpha )}}[(4\alpha )\alpha \mu ^{(\alpha +4)/2}M_p/(2\sqrt{3})]^{(42\alpha )/(4\alpha )}(tt_0)^{(42\alpha )/(4\alpha )}|_{t_0}^{t_{end}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha }{2(2\alpha )}}`$
where we considered that the inflation stops when $`\dot{\varphi }^22/3`$. To overcome the horizon problem and bring us a suitable flat spectrum of perturbations, we require $`N5060`$ e-folds of inflation. Thus $`\alpha `$ should be in the range $`0<\alpha <2`$.

In order to study the dynamics of the tachyonic field, we also need to discuss the radiation dominated era. Employing (5), $`\rho _ra^4`$. The expansion law of the universe is $`at^{1/2}`$. From the equation of motion for the tachyonic field, we find $`\varphi t`$ and $`\rho _\varphi a^{2\alpha }`$. The density parameter of the tachyonic field is

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi =\frac{\rho _\varphi }{\rho _r+\rho _\varphi }\frac{\rho _\varphi }{\rho _r}a^{2(2\alpha )}.$$
(13)
In the reasonable range of the parameter $`\alpha `$, $`0<\alpha <2`$, we find that the tachyonic field energy decreases slower than the radiation energy, and eventually the tachyonic field dominates the radiation. This result can also be got from

$$\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}_\varphi =\frac{H\rho _rV(43\dot{\varphi }^2)}{\sqrt{1\dot{\varphi }^2}\rho ^2}.$$
(14)
Since $`\dot{\varphi }_{max}=1`$, the density parameter of a tachyon field will never decrease in time. Eq. (14) is not dependent on the potential form. This agrees to the study of tachyonic inflation with exponential potential  and provides support to the analysis in .

We are going to extend our study to the brane world scenario. We will analyze the dynamics of a tachyonic field in the Randall Sundrum s second brane scenario . The discussion here may also be valid in other type of brane world models, in which a quadratic term of energy momentum tensor generically appears. The effective Friedmann equation is described as

$$H^2+\frac{k}{a^2}=\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{\Lambda }^{(4)}+\frac{\rho }{3m_4^2}+\frac{\rho ^2}{36m_5^6}+\frac{C}{a^4},$$
(15)
where $`m_4`$ and $`m_5`$ are four and five dimensional Planck mass, respectively, which satisfies $`m_4>>m_5`$. $`k`$ is a curvature constant and $`C`$ is a constant which transmits bulk graviton influence onto the brane. For simplicity we take $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{(4)},k`$ equal to zero in the following discussion.

As for matter field on the brane, we consider tachyonic field $`\varphi `$ as well as the conventional radiation fluid, $`\rho =\rho _\varphi +\rho _r`$. We consider only the early stage of the universe, at which the quadratic term is dominant and then matter fluid can be ignored.

In the tachyonic field dominated era, the Friedmann equation becomes

$$H=\frac{1}{6m_5^3}\rho _\varphi =\frac{1}{6m_5^3}\frac{V(\varphi )}{\sqrt{1\dot{\varphi }^2}}$$
(16)
The energy and momentum of each field on the brane are conserved. For the tachyonic field we have

$$\dot{\rho _\varphi }=3H(\rho _\varphi +P_\varphi )$$
(17)
which is equivalent to the equation of motion described by (4).

The condition to accommodate the accelerating expansion in this brane world becomes

$$\frac{\ddot{a}}{a}=\frac{V^2}{6m_5^6}\frac{13\dot{\varphi }^2}{6(1\dot{\varphi }^2)}>0$$
(18)
which leads to

$$\dot{\varphi }^2<1/3.$$
(19)
This condition is different from that of the tachyonic inflation in the conventional FRW cosmology.

Analogously to (8), substituting our inverse-power-law potential, the tachyonic field is obtained

$$\varphi =[2\alpha (2\alpha )m_5^3/\mu ^{\alpha +4}]^{1/(2\alpha )}(tt_0)^{1/(2\alpha )}$$
(20)
The scale factor is given by

$$a=a_0\mathrm{exp}[H_0(tt_0)^{(22\alpha )/(2\alpha )}]$$
(21)
where

$$H_0=\frac{1}{6m_5^3}\mu ^{\alpha +4}[2\alpha (2\alpha )m_5^3/\mu ^{\alpha +4}]^{\alpha /(2\alpha )}\frac{2\alpha }{22\alpha }$$
(22)
In order to have the exponentially expanding universe, $`\alpha `$ has to be in the range $`0<\alpha <1`$. This requirement is consistent with that of the reasonable number of e-foldings in the inflation similar to that got in (12)

$$N=\frac{\alpha }{2(1\alpha )}$$
(23)
in the brane inflational world. The reasonable range of taking $`\alpha `$ is tighter than that in the usual FRW cosmology.

In the radiation dominated era, similar to the previous discussion $`\rho _ra^4`$. Due to the quadratic density term in the Friedmann equation, $`at^{1/4}`$ in the brane scenario. The equation of motion for the tachyonic field tells us that $`\varphi t`$, which results in $`\rho _\varphi a^{4\alpha }`$. Thus the density parameter of the tachyonic field $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi a^{4(1\alpha )}`$. For the reasonable values of $`\alpha `$, the tachyonic field energy density far exceeds the density in the radiation. This behavior obtained in the brane cosmology is qualitatively the same as that in the usual FRW cosmology and also supports the argument in .

Although facing the reheating problem, tachyonic inflation might still be a possible responsible for an earlier stage of inflation followed by another inflationary era driven by other fields . The existence of the tachyonic inflation stage may be important for the resolution of major cosmological problems such as the homogeneity, flatness and isotropy problems. Thus it is of interest to investigate the perturbation and anisotropy of the tachyonic inflation.

The maximum observable total entropy and the de Sitter expansion rate are related by $`S_{max}=\pi M_p^2/H^2`$ in holography. According to , we assume that this relation arises from discrete elements so that changes in $`S`$ and $`H`$ occurs by integer steps. The tachyonic field $`\varphi `$ is also fixed in a finite set of discrete values, since it determines the tachyonic perturbation which in turn fixes $`H`$ when the perturbation freezes out.

The COBE normalized value for the amplitude of scalar density perturbations is

$$\delta _H^2=\frac{\pi }{75}P_\varphi 1.1\times 10^{10}$$
(24)
where

$$P_\varphi ^{1/2}\frac{H^2}{2\pi |\dot{\varphi }|\sqrt{V}}$$
(25)
for the tachyonic field .

In the conventional FRW cosmology, we find

$$P_\varphi ^{1/2}=\frac{3V^2}{2\pi (3M_p^2)^{3/2}\stackrel{~}{V}}$$
(26)
during the slow roll inflation.

The steady increase in observable entropy is at a rate

$$\dot{S}_{max}=M_p^2H[\frac{\pi \stackrel{~}{V}^2}{3H^4V^2}]=H\frac{1}{4\pi P_\varphi }$$
(27)
Combing (24), in every inflationary e-folding $`S_{max}`$ increases by an amount of order $`10^8`$ just due to the classical evolution of the system.

Now consider the effect of a quantum perturbation in the inflation field of amplitude $`\delta \varphi `$, assuming that it behaves like “frozen in classical spacetime background, the jump in total entropy associated with a horizon-scale perturbation $`\delta \varphi `$ can be expressed in the form

$$\delta S_{tot}=2\pi M_p^2\frac{\delta H}{H^3}=\frac{(3M_p^2)^{3/2}\pi \stackrel{~}{V}}{3V^2}V^{1/2}\frac{\delta \varphi }{H}=\frac{V^{1/2}}{2P_\varphi ^{1/2}}\frac{\delta \varphi }{H}10^4V^{1/2}\frac{\delta \varphi }{H}$$
(28)
where the slow roll condition has been adopted. The quantity $`{\displaystyle \frac{\delta \varphi }{H}}`$ can be determined statistically in order $`1/M_p^2`$ , where we have introduced the dimension here. The corresponding increment $`\delta S_{qft}10^4V^{1/2}/M_p^2`$ is roughly the jump in the total observable cosmological entropy associated with the creation or destruction of a simple horizon-scale inflaton quantum. Due to the special form of the equation of motion of the tachyonic field, the information in a typical horizon-scale perturbation depends on the value of $`V`$ here.

The scale of the inflaton perturbations to be observed in the pattern of microwave anisotropy on the sky including direct images created by the Sachs-Wolfe effect is about $`10^4`$ . To have the observable effect, we need $`\delta S_{qft}10^4`$ which requires $`V^{1/2}>M_p^2`$. Obviously this requirement is impossible to be satisfied. The COBE measurement of the CMB anisotropy tells us that when our universe leaves the horizon the potential $`V(\varphi )`$ is far below the Planck scale. To be precise $`V^{1/4}`$ is no more than a few times $`10^{16}Gev`$ $`(V^{1/4}<M_p)`$ and it may be many orders of magnitude smaller . This reasonably leads the amount of information $`\delta S_{qft}`$ attached to the perturbation in the horizon-size inflaton quantum $`\delta \varphi `$ as it freezes into a classical state to be much smaller than the total growth of information of the spacetime during the same time. Therefore the discreteness due to the tachyonic inflation in usual FRW cosmology do not have the observational impact.

Now let us discuss the tachyonic inflation in the brane world. Using the slow roll condition and the Friedmann equations, we have

$$P_\varphi ^{1/2}=\frac{3V^{7/2}}{2\pi (6m_5^3)^3\stackrel{~}{V}}$$
(29)
The maximum observable total entropy is $`S_{max}=m_4^2\pi /H^2`$ in the brane world. The total growth of information of the spacetime reads

$`\dot{S}_{max}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2m_4^2\pi }{H^3}}{\displaystyle \frac{dH}{dt}}=H{\displaystyle \frac{\pi m_4^2}{9m_5^3}}(6m_5^3)^5{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{V}^2V}{V^7}}`$ (30)
$`=`$ $`H{\displaystyle \frac{m_4^4V}{24\pi m_5^6P_\varphi }}10^7{\displaystyle \frac{m_4^2V}{m_5^6}}H`$
The change of the total observable entropy due to $`\delta \varphi `$ has the form

$`\delta S_{tot}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi m_4^2\delta H}{H^3}}={\displaystyle \frac{\pi m_4^2}{3m_5^3}}[{\displaystyle \frac{\delta \varphi }{H}}](6m_5^3)^2{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{V}}{V^2}}`$ (31)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{m_4^2}{12m_5^6}}[{\displaystyle \frac{\delta \varphi }{H}}]{\displaystyle \frac{V^{3/2}}{P_\varphi ^{1/2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{V^{3/2}}{m_5^6}}10^4`$
where $`[{\displaystyle \frac{\delta \varphi }{H}}]`$ has been determined statistically as $`1/m_4^2`$ . The ratio of the amount of information to the total growth of information of the spacetime is $`{\displaystyle \frac{V^{1/2}}{m_4^210^3}}`$, which is reasonably much smaller than unit since $`V^{1/4}<m_4`$. Considering $`V^{1/4}=6.2ϵ^{1/4}\times 10^{16}Gev`$ when the observable universe leaves the Hubble parameter, and $`m_5m_4=10^{18}Gev`$, the corresponding increment $`\delta S_{qft}>10^4`$ may be satisfied. This may produce a detectable level of discretness.

Suppose that the possible values of the horizon size inflaton perturbation $`\delta \varphi `$ are selected from a discrete set of levels separated by some size $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi `$. The incremental observable information available by the transition between levels is

$$\mathrm{\Delta }S_{tot}=\frac{m_4^2\pi }{3m_5^3}[\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi }{H}]\frac{\stackrel{~}{V}}{H^2}$$
(32)
We now assert that jumps in $`\delta \varphi `$ occur in steps of at least a certain minimum size $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi `$, such that $`\mathrm{\Delta }S_{tot}\mathrm{ln}2`$. This leads to

$$[\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi }{H}]\frac{3m_5^3}{m_4^2\pi }\frac{H^2}{\stackrel{~}{V}}\mathrm{ln}2>10^4\mathrm{ln}2$$
(33)
where the quantum transition in the maximum observable entropy $`\mathrm{\Delta }S_{qft}>10^4`$ is taken to have observable effect. According to , the amplitude of the anisotropy on the sky coming from a discrete distribution with values of the temperature is

$$\mathrm{\Delta }T[\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi }{H}]<Q>10^9$$
(34)
where $`<Q>18\pm 1.6\mu k`$ from the COBE data.

In summary, we have studied tachyonic inflation with inverse-power-law potential and found the exact solution of evolution equations in the slow roll limit in the FRW cosmology as well as on the brane. Some differences in the dynamics of tachyonic field have been found between the brane and the conventional cosmological models. We have also shown that the tachyonic matter dominates always in the inflation with the inverse-power-law potential, in agreement with the discussion of exponential potential  and analysis in . The reheating problem arises both in the usual FRW and brane world. By using the holographic entropy bound, we have estimated the quantum-gravitational discretness of tachyonic inflationary perturbations. In the FRW world, there is no observational effect of the discretness, however in the brane scenario, the discretness may be detectable. The level of discretness in the brane world is calculated. It is worth noting that the discretness estimation here do not depend on the detailed forms of the potential.


text:
# Heat conductivity in linear mixing systems

## Abstract

We present analytical and numerical results on the heat conduction in a linear mixing system. In particular we consider a quasi one dimensional channel with triangular scatterers with internal angles irrational multiples of $`\pi `$ and we show that the system obeys Fourier law of heat conduction. Therefore deterministic diffusion and normal heat transport which are usually associated to full hyperbolicity, actually take place in systems without exponential instability.

Given a particular classical, many-body Hamiltonian system, neither phenomenological nor fundamental transport theory can predict whether or not this specific Hamiltonian system yields an energy transport governed by the Fourier heat law. Heat flow is universally presumed to obey a simple diffusion equation which can be regarded as the continuum limit of a discrete random walk. In consequence, transport theory requires that the underlying deterministic dynamics yield a truly random process. Therefore, it is not mere idle curiosity to wonder what class, if any, of many-body systems satisfy the necessary stringent requirements. Moreover, it now becomes increasingly meaningful to seek example of many-body systems which, using dynamics alone, can be shown to obey the Fourier heat law. A large number of papers have recently approached this problem, mainly via numerical simulations . Leaving aside, for the purpose of the present paper, systems which conserve the total momentum, the general picture which emerges is that positive Lyapounov exponent is a sufficient condition to ensure Fourier heat law. In particular the paper  was precisely aimed at answering this question. Indeed in  the thermal conductivity was studied for a Lorentz channel- a quasi one dimensional billiard with circular scatterers \- and it was shown to obey Fourier law. The conclusion at which the above numerical computations point out appears quite natural. Indeed modern ergodic theory tells us that for K-systems, a sequence of measurements with finite precision mimics a truly random sequence and therefore these systems appear precisely those deterministically random systems tacitly required by transport theory. On the other hand we do not have rigorous results and in spite of several efforts, the connection between Lyapounov exponents, correlations decay and diffusive properties is still not completely clear. In a recent paper  a model has been presented which has zero Lyapounov exponent and yet it exhibits unbounded Gaussian diffusive behavior. Since diffusive behavior is at the root of normal heat transport then the above results constitutes a strong suggestion that normal heat conduction can take place even without the strong requirement of exponential instability. If this would be the case, then it may turn out to be an important step in the general attempt to derive macroscopic statistical laws from the underlying deterministic dynamics. Indeed systems with zero Lyapounov exponent have zero algorithmic complexity and, at least in principle, are analytically solvable.

In this paper we consider a two dimensional billiard model which consists of two parallel lines of length $`L`$ at distance $`d`$ and a series of triangular scatterers (Fig. 1). In this geometry, no particle can move between the two reservoirs without suffering elastic collisions with the triangles. Therefore this model is analogous to the one studied in  with triangles instead of discs and the essential difference is that in the triangular model discussed here the dynamical instability is linear and therefore the Lyapounov exponent is zero. Strong numerical evidence has been recently given  that the motion inside a triangular billiard, with all angles irrational with $`\pi `$ is mixing, without any time scale. Moreover, an area preserving map, which was derived as an approximation of the boundary map for the irrational triangle, when considered on the cylinder, shows a nice Gaussian diffusive behavior even though the Lyapounov exponent of the map is zero . It is therefore reasonable to expect that the motion inside the irrational polygonal area of Fig 1 is diffusive thus leading to normal conductivity.

In the following we present careful numerical investigations of the heat transport in the system of Fig 1 both by direct numerical simulation of energy flow for the system in contact with thermal baths as well as via Green-Kubo approach. Our results provide convincing evidence that, if the angles $`\theta `$ and $`\varphi `$ are irrational multiples of $`\pi `$, the system obeys Fourier law and the coefficients of thermal conductivity computed via the two approaches, coincide.

In our computations we model the heat baths by stochastic kernels of Gaussian type, namely, the probability distribution of velocities for particles coming out from the baths is

$`P(v_x)={\displaystyle \frac{|v_x|}{T}}\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \frac{v_x^2}{2T}}\right),`$ (1)
$`P(v_y)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi T}}}\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \frac{v_y^2}{2T}}\right)`$ (2)
for $`v_x`$ and $`v_y`$, respectively.

The total length of the channel is $`L=Nl`$ where $`N`$ and $`l`$ are the number and the length of the fundamental cells. For the irrational angles we take $`\theta =(\sqrt{2}1)\pi /2`$ and $`\varphi =1`$. By increasing $`L`$, the number of particles per cell must be kept constant. However, since the particles do not interact one may consider the motion of a single particle over long times and then rescale the flux.

We turn now to the definition of the two relevant quantities: the internal temperature and the heat flux. The temperature field at the stationary state is calculated following the idea used in Ref , namely, we divide the configuration space in slices $`\{C_i\}`$. The time spent by the particle within the slice in the $`j`$th visit is denoted by $`t_j`$ and the total number of crossings of a slice $`C_i`$ during the simulation is $`M`$. The temperature is defined by

$$T_{C_i}=\frac{_j^Mt_jE_j(C_i)}{_j^Mt_j},$$
(3)
where $`E_j(C_i)`$ is the kinetic energy at the $`j`$th crossing of the slice $`C_i`$. Since the energy changes only at collisions with the heat baths, we define the heat flux as

$$j(t_c)=\frac{1}{t_c}\underset{k=1}{\overset{N_c}{}}(\mathrm{\Delta }E)_k,$$
(4)
where $`(\mathrm{\Delta }E)_k=E_{in}E_{out}`$ is the change of energy at the $`k`$th collision with the heat bath and $`N_c`$ is the total number of such collisions which occur during time $`t_c`$.

For sufficiently long integration times, both the internal temperature field and the heat flux reach a stationary value. We have checked that the temperature profile obeys the law given in Ref. For small temperature differences $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$, it is a linear function, as illustrated in Fig. 2:

$$T=\frac{T_RT_L}{L}.$$
(5)
In order to study the dependence of the heat flux on the system size, we need to consider larger and larger systems, keeping the particles density constant. The corresponding heat flux (for a density of one particle per unit length) is $`J=Lj`$, where $`j`$ is the flux computed with a single particle simulation. In Fig. 3, we plot the heat flux $`J`$ as a function of the system size $`N`$. For the irrational case, the best fit gives $`J=AN^\gamma `$, with $`\gamma =0.99\pm 0.01`$ and $`A=0.015`$. The coefficient of thermal conductivity is therefore independent on $`N`$, which means that the Fourier law is obeyed and its numerical value is $`\kappa =\frac{J}{T}=0.225`$.

The point under discussion here is very delicate and numerical experiments must be very accurate and reliable in order to reach clear conclusions. We have therefore checked the validity of our result by an independent approach, via a Green-Kubo type formalism, by studying the diffusive properties of our model isolated from thermal baths.

In our numerical calculations, we follow Ref, namely, we consider the system with periodic boundary conditions and with an initial temperature distribution $`\beta (x)`$ given in Fig. 4(a). Then we calculate how the heat flows from the half hotter part ($`L/4<|x|<L/2`$) of the system to the half colder part ( $`L/4<x<+L/4`$). At time $`t=0`$ we take a Maxwellian distribution of velocities, namely, $`P(v_{x,y})=\mathrm{exp}(v_{x,y}^2/(2T(x)))/\sqrt{2\pi T(x)}`$. If we denote by $`Q(t)`$ the energy contained in the cold half part of the chain then, if the system obeys the Fourier law, the quantity ($`\mathrm{\Delta }Q(t)=Q(t)Q(0)`$) must increase linearly with time $`t`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }Q(t)=(2\kappa T^2\beta )t`$. Clearly the linear increase takes places only for times smaller than the sound transit time across channel. The numerical results are shown in Fig. 4(b) where the dotted line, which fits the initial linear increase of the curve for N=40, has slope $`\kappa =0.225`$ thus indicating a very good agreement with simulations with thermal baths.

Another important characteristic which is relevant for transport properties is the decay of the velocity autocorrelation function. In Fig 5 we show the decay of the absolute value of the normalized velocity autocorrelation $`C(t)=\frac{v_x(0)v_x(t)}{v_x^2(0)}`$ for the irrational case. This function decays as $`|C(t)|t^\alpha `$ with $`\alpha 3/2`$.

In Fig. 6 we show the diffusive behaviour of our model isolated from thermal baths. A clear diffusive behaviour $`\mathrm{\Delta }x^2=2Dt`$ for the irrational case is observed with diffusion coefficient $`D=0.15`$.

In fact, in our model, we can establish a connection between the thermal conductivity $`\kappa `$ and the diffusion coefficient $`D`$. Indeed the average time a particle takes to travel from the left to the right bath and vice versa is:

$$t_{LR}=t_{RL}=\frac{L^2}{2D},$$
(6)
then according to Eq.(4), we can write the heat current as:

$$j=\frac{_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{v^2}{2}\left(P(v,T_L)P(v,T_R)\right)𝑑v}{t_{LR}+t_{RL}},$$
(7)
where $`P(v,T)=(4\pi /(2\pi T)^{3/2})v^2exp(v^2/2T)`$ is the distribution for the modulus of velocity of particles coming out from the baths (see Eq. (1)). The thermal conductivity $`\kappa =Lj/T`$ is thus,

$$\kappa =\frac{3}{2}D.$$
(8)
We have numerically tested this formula. The thermal conductivity calculated from Figs.2-3 is $`\kappa =0.225`$. On the other hand the diffusion coefficient calculated from Fig. 6 is $`D=0.15`$ which, according to the above relation, gives $`\kappa =3D/2=0.225`$.

As expected, a completely different behaviour is obtained when the angles $`\theta `$ and $`\varphi `$ are rational multiples of $`\pi `$. The case with $`\theta =\pi /5`$ and $`\varphi =\pi /3`$, is shown in Fig. 6 (triangles), and leads to a clear anomalous diffusive behaviour indicating the absence of Fourier law. Correspondingly, the simulations with the heat baths (solid triangles in Fig. 4) indicate a divergent behaviour of the coefficient of thermal conductivity $`\kappa N^{0.22}`$.

In conclusion, when all angles are irrational multiples of $`\pi `$ the model shown in Fig. 1 exhibits Fourier law of heat conduction together with nice diffusive properties and the numerical value of the thermal conductivity computed via a Green-Kubo approach agrees with the one obtained by direct numerical simulations with thermal baths. However, when all angles are rational multiple of $`\pi `$, the model shows abnormal diffusion and the heat conduction does not follow the Fourier law.

One may argue that the model considered here is somehow artificial and far from realistic physical models. However the problem discussed here is quite delicate and controversial and it is highly desirable to understand which dynamical properties are necessary and sufficient to derive Fourier law. In this respect billiards like models are very convenient since they are more suitable for analytical and numerical analysis.

BL and JW were supported in part by Academic Research Fund of NUS. GC has been partially supported by EU Contract No. HPRN-CT-1999-00163 (LOCNET network) and by MURST (Prin 2000, *Caos e localizzazione in Meccanica Classica e Quantistica*).


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# Ground-Based Optical Deep Pencil Beam Surveys

## 1. Introduction

Since the early 1980’s, CCD’s have been employed on large telescopes to obtain deep images of small sections of the sky. With better than $`60\%`$ quantum efficiency ranging from the atmospheric UV cutoff to the drop in their sensitivity at $`1\mu `$, these first surveys readily reached a limiting magnitude of 26 in all of the broad bandpasses encompassed by this wavelength range. Until the mid-1990’s the 1 cm size of the CCD chip limited the area on the sky covered with each exposure to a few sq. arcmin. Consequently, the actual volume surveyed per field was very small, typically a few or tens of $`pc^3`$, up to the scale height of 325 pcs for late type disk population dwarf stars. As such, they proved an ineffective method to discover the latest M dwarfs, let alone L or T brown dwarfs with unknown scale height and local volume densities estimated to be in the range of $`10^2`$ per L or T class of objects (Liu et al. 2002). Complicating the picture was the fact that these untargeted surveys had multipurpose science drivers, often were focused at higher galactic latitudes, and employed many different filter systems.

More recent developments leading to larger CCD chips and mosaics have increased the sizes of individual deep survey fields to tens of arc minutes across, but have not significantly increased survey depth. With the success of the large area SDSS optical survey in discovering BD’s, and the marked absence of similar results from the many deeper pencil beam surveys over two decades, the latter do not appear to be a very efficient method to discover such objects. Yet despite continued limited spatial coverage, because of their increased depth, serendipitous discoveries of BD’s by existing pencil beam surveys may help to address questions surrounding the uncertainties regarding the spatial distribution of field BD’s.

## 2. Recent Observations

This paper will focus on the initial results of the Deep Lens Survey (DLS, http://dls.bell-labs.com). The DLS is composed of 7 “random” fields to be surveyed over a five year period, each 2 degrees on a side, selected to avoid bright stars and areas with high galactic extinction. Taken with Mosaic CCD imagers on NOAO’s Blanco and Mayall Telescopes, each field is split into a 3x3 array of roughly 35 sq. arcmin Mosaic-size subfields (0.257 arcsec per pixel) called p11 through p33. These subfields are imaged in four bands: B, V, R and z’. See Fig. 1 for the combined filter plus CCD plus telescope response curves. Twenty 600 second exposures are obtained in each of the B, V, and z’ filters, with twenty 900 second exposures in the R filter. We estimate limiting magnitudes (Vega) for 5 sigma stellar detection in 1 arcsec seeing of 26.3 in B, 26.4 in V, 26.5 in R and 24.1 in z’, with seeing to date averaging 0.8 arcsec in R and 1.0 arcsec in the other filters.

The data reduction has been completed for several subfields and is available for public access at the DLS web site listed previously. This site contains information regarding the survey specifics (such as field coordinates, completeness, etc), matched catalog 2.5 arcsec aperture magnitudes produced by SExtractor (version 2.1.6) for objects detected in each released subfield, as well full images in each filter for download, and the tools for analysis. One of our survey fields overlaps one in the NOAO Wide Deep Survey (Tiede et al. 2002) and will have K-band coverage also.

### 2.1. Initial Results in Detection of Brown Dwarfs

We have completed the data reduction and analysis of two 1600 sq. arcmin subfield areas, F1p22 ($`l^{II}=125^{}`$, $`b^{II}=50^{}`$) and F4p22 ($`l^{II}=257^{}`$, $`b^{II}=47^{}`$) to search for BD candidates as well as red halo subdwarfs at/near the hydrogen burning limit. Using average absolute magnitudes for L and T dwarfs obtained from Dahn et al. (2002), we estimate that we could detect early L dwarfs ($`Rz^{}=3.6`$ or greater) out to a distance of 410 pc, mid L dwarfs ($`Rz^{}=4`$ or greater) out to 140 pc, and T dwarfs ($`Rz^{}>4.5`$) out to 90 pcs. By way of comparison, using the SDSS z\* (AB mag) detection limit of 20.3 alone, the SDSS limiting distances fall to roughly $`\frac{1}{3}`$ of our values. Searching our images for stellar BVR dropouts (i.e. detected in a z’ image alone) should more than double our line of sight distance.

Fig. 2 presents the $`BR`$ vs. $`Rz^{}`$ data for all $`19<R<26`$ objects in the F4p22 subfield morphologically classified as stellar using an algorithm based on the out-of-roundness deviations. Similar results are obtained for F1p22. Those objects which are too faint for detection in the bluer band have been indicated by a small $`\times `$ at their given $`Rz^{}`$ color along the top of the plot. The filled large squares represent Gunn-Stryker spectrophotometric standards, with additional notations to indicate the approximate positions of M5, M6, M7, and M8 dwarfs. The tracks reflect expected evolution and K-corrections for elliptical (circle), irregular (triangle), and Sb+Sc (diamond) galaxies with increasing redshift (steps of $`z=1`$ are indicated by filled symbols, starting with the large open symbol at $`z=0`$) based on spectral energy distribution templates from Bruzual and Charlot (1993). These are shown to indicate regions free of contamination by compact high redshift galaxies, a point which will be especially important in searching for red halo subdwarfs near the hydrogen burning limit. Note that QSO’s of increasing redshift fall well blueward of the stellar locus.

We discovered no objects with colors indicative of BD’s, i.e. $`Rz^{}>3.4`$ and $`VR>2.4`$. Such objects are probably too faint to be detected in $`V`$, let alone $`B`$. Furthermore, assuming that some BD’s would be too faint in our R band for detection, a check was made in each field for stellar-like objects which dropped out of the R, V, and B images. To an R limit of 26.5 mag, we typically find $`200,000300,000`$ galaxies and 2,000 to 3,000 stars per subfield. We detect approximately 7,000 BVR dropout objects in each subfield, only 10 of which are stellar. Upon closer individual inspection, none of these appeared to be good BD candidates. Though the DLS subfields cover slightly more area, go roughly as deep, and had similar seeing to the IfA Deep Survey subfields (Liu et al. 2002), we detect no brown dwarf candidates; while they discovered one T dwarf in their first field. At a $`z^{}=20.9`$ mag and $`R25.5`$, such an object would have been easily detectable by the DLS. No additional detections have been reported (Liu 2002b) even though both surveys cover a similar range of galactic latitude.

In a similar survey covering a much smaller area, comparable results for late M dwarfs were found by Boeshaar and Tyson (1986). No stars with $`Rz^{}>2.8`$ (equivalent to $`Mv>15`$) were discovered in twelve 12 sq. arcmin deep CCD fields. Yet in one high latitude 40 sq. arcmin field Boeshaar et al. (1994) detected six M dwarfs ranging from dM6 to dM8-9. Furthermore, the late dM’s all appear to be located within an area of less than 20 sq. arcmin. Few surveys report null results when searching for objects with low probability of detection. Often only the serendipitous discoveries are announced. Our cursory evaluation of late dM, L, T stars found in similar deep CCD surveys lends support to the contention that small area high galactic latitude pencil beam fields have a low probability of discovering large numbers of stars at or below the tail end of the main sequence.

### 2.2. Detection of Cool Halo M Subdwarfs

All extremely red field halo subdwarfs have been identified initially from photographic high proper motion surveys. To date, there are only 4-5 extremely metal poor subdwarfs with $`M_V>14`$ known (Gizis 1997, Gizis and Reid 2002). These objects would be the best candidates to have masses near the halo hydrogen burning limit. Large uncertainties remain both theoretically and observationally regarding the relations between mass, metallicity, and color for these stars. Consequently, very large uncertainties in the number density of such objects exist (Hawley and Gizis 2000). Do red subdwarfs exist at $`[Fe/H]\stackrel{<}{}2.5`$, comparable to the most metal poor hotter subdwarf population (Beers et al. 1998)? Answers to these questions will be important to understanding the early history of low mass star formation in our Galaxy. While the initial surveys have sampled only the immediate solar neighborhood, i.e. out to approximately 100 pc, very deep multicolor CCD surveys are ideally designed to sample the halo out beyond 1 kpc for the intrinsically faintest subdwarfs, and beyond 3 kpc for objects of Mv$`=12`$.

Dahn et al. (1995) have demonstrated that extremely metal poor M subdwarfs (esdM’s) appear well-separated from disk M dwarfs by more than 0.5 mag in the $`BV`$ vs. $`VI`$ color plane. Observing M dwarfs of known metallicity, Gullixson et al. (1995) show a similar effect using the broad band $`B_j`$, $`R`$ and $`I^{}`$ bands of a deep 4-meter CCD survey. This population separation is most noticeable between B and other filters due to the effects of differential molecular oxide blanketing in the V, R, I and z’ filters in comparison to the B band, which is dominated by atomic lines. Conversely, the $`BV`$ color is an inaccurate temperature index for M dwarfs. With reduced molecular blanketing of the spectra, one expects M subdwarfs to fall closer to the black body line in broad band color plots. In Fig. 2, esdM’s of $`M_V=1215`$ fall in a region from $`Rz^{}1.52.15`$, with $`BR>3.3`$, well above the $`BR`$ colors of the M disk population.

Since a metallicity gradient exists among the M dwarfs, extending from young disk to extreme halo (Hartwick et al. 1984), we would expect to see a continuous distribution of stars in $`BV`$ or $`BR`$ for a given red color index, as shown. Note in Fig. 3, which plots $`VR`$ vs. $`Rz^{}`$ for the same F4p22 subfield, that without B magnitudes it is more difficult to distinguish among the M main sequence ($`Rz^{}>1`$) population classes than in Fig. 1. Here, changes in molecular blanketing with decreasing metallicity affect both V and R almost equally at a given temperature. In the $`BV`$ vs. $`Rz^{}`$ plot of Fig. 4 for our F4p22 subfield, the separation among the M dwarf distribution becomes more pronounced as expected.

To address the question of contamination of the ground-based colors used to identify red subdwarfs by an unresolved population of high red shift elliptical galaxies at faint magnitudes (Reid et al. 1996), we have superimposed the redshift-evolutionary plots of several galaxy types on all of our color-color plots. The elliptical galaxies fall well below the esdM regime in Fig 1; and they fall among the disk population M dwarfs in Fig.3. Thus negligible galaxy contamination should be encountered in the region where the extreme M subdwarfs are located. In a previous deep CCD survey, Tyson and Boeshaar (1997) found that the six identified subdwarf candidates lay within the numbers expected, extrapolating from the luminosity function of Dahn et al. (1995, 1996). Follow-up multi-slit spectroscopy on three of these candidates using the CTIO 4-meter confirmed their identity as M subdwarfs. The combination of accurate predictions of galaxy colors, B filter data, plus careful analysis of the point spread function in our color images indicates that we should be able to identify M-type halo subdwarfs with $`90\%`$ confidence even at our faint magnitude limits.

## 3. Discussion

Very deep multicolor pencil beam surveys provide a rich data base which can be utilized to provide information on the scale height distribution of field brown dwarfs and more accurately define the luminosity function of lowest mass stellar halo population. Though each individual mosaiced CCD subfield in itself offers a low probability of detection, the combined data from larger abutted areas, such as those covering 4 sq. deg. in the DLS, should allow for a meaningful sample of objects to be evaluated. Using $`0.01/pc^3`$ each for the local volume density of L and T dwarfs as estimated by Liu (2000), we might expect to find $`\stackrel{<}{}3`$ T dwarfs and $`\stackrel{<}{}33`$ L dwarfs in each 4 sq. degree DLS field when our survey in completed. This assumes detection in $`Rz^{}`$ and a uniform spatial distribution with a vertical scale height of no more than 200 pcs. Reducing the scale height to 100 pcs lowers the expected number of L dwarfs by a factor of 8. If we simply search for stellar objects which drop out of all bands except z’, then the number of T dwarfs per field should drop from $`30`$ (indicating a scale height $`200`$ pc) to about 4 (scale height $`100`$ pcs). Whereas only a relative handful of the coolest halo subdwarfs have been identified to date using other techniques, carefully analyzed deep CCD observations including B band data should discover in one DLS field numbers of very red esdM’s similar to those currently known. Extrapolating from the luminosity function of Dahn et al. (1995, 1996), we expect to find at least 4 extreme subdwarfs similar to LHS 1742a (esdM 5.5) or LHS 1826 (esdM6) per each LHS field and 15 stars similar to LHS 453 (esdM3.5). The observations for esdM’s should prove equally important as the search for additional L and T dwarfs since we know far less about the coolest halo population.

When the 30 sq. degree DLS is finished, more will be known about these subluminous halo objects and field BD’s. The problem with current pencil beam surveys is that the numbers of halo stars found do not permit cutting the sample in multiple ways, testing their distribution with galactic coordinates, etc. Enabled by a confluence of optics and microelectronics advances, the proposed Large Synoptic Survey Telescope ($`LSST`$, http://lsst.org), will produce a large volume optical multi-color survey of $`14,000`$ sq. degrees to $`27^{th}`$ magnitude. Completion of the facility is expected by 2012, and the data will be public. Image quality is expected to be as good or better than the current generation of new technology telescopes ($`0.4^{\prime \prime }`$ fwhm), and each field of the sky will be covered hundreds of times, permitting proper motion studies and enhanced rejection of galaxies due to the low surface brightness achieved. Moreover, due to higher quantum efficiency at $`1\mu `$, the $`LSST`$ filter set will most likely include an additional filter near this spectral region, complementing the SDSS $`ugriz`$ filter set. The combination of broad area coverage, survey depth and increased near IR sensitivity will allow for a direct determination of the local disk distribution of field brown dwarfs. Furthermore, the $`LSST`$ will create a sample of thousands of subluminous halo stars, probing deep into the halo as well as spanning the full range of galactic coordinates. The role of these stars in the evolution of the structure of our galaxy will then be more apparent.

#### Acknowledgments.

The DLS data are taken on the 4-meter Blanco and Mayall telescopes, operated by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories (NOAO). NOAO is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), Inc., under Cooperative Agreement with the National Science Foundation.

## References

Beers, T.C., Rossi, S., Norris, J.E., Ryan, S.G., Molaro, P., Rebolo, R. 1998, Space Science Reviews, 84, Issue 1/2, 139

Boeshaar, P.C., Tyson, J.A., Seitzer, P.O., 1986, Dark Matter in the Universe, G. Knapp and J. Kormendy eds. (Dordrecht, Reidel), 32

Boeshaar, P.C., Tyson, J.A., Bernstein, G. 1994, A.S.P. Conf. Ser., 64 ed. J.P. Caillault, 64

Bruzual, G., Charlot, S. 1993, ApJ405, 538

Dahn, C.C., Liebert, J.W., Harris, H.,Guetter, H.C. 1995, in The Bottom of the Main Sequence and Beyond, ed. C.J. Tinney, Springer, Heidelberg, 239

Dahn, C.C. 1996, private communication.

Dahn, C.C., Harris, H.C., Vrba, F.J. et al. 2002, AJ, in press (astro-ph/0205050)

Gizis, J. E. 1997, AJ, 113, 806

Gizis, J.E., Reid, I.N. 2002, PASP, 112, 610

Gullixson, C.A., Boeshaar, P.C., Tyson, J.A. 1995, ApJS, 99, 281

Hartwick, F,D.A., Cowley, A. P. , Mould, J. R. 1984, ApJ, 286, 269

Liu, M.C., Wainscoat, R., Martin, E.L., Barris, B., Tonry, J. 2002a, ApJ, 568, L107

Liu, M.C., 2002b, private communication.

Reid, I.N., Yan, L., Majewski, S., Thompson, I., Smail, I. 1996, AJ, 112, 1472

Reid, I.N., Hawley, S.L., 2000, New Light On Dark Stars: Red Dwarfs, Low Mass Stars, Brown Dwarfs, 436

Tiede, G.P., Dey, A., Jannuzi, B.T., Brown, M.J.I., Ryan, E., Najita, J.R. 2002, BAAS, 33, 1487

Tyson, J. A., Boeshaar, P.C. 1997, Proceedings of Dark Matter ’96: The Physics of Dark Matter, ed. N. Spooner, World Scientific, 164


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# 1 W pole graph for the transition ⟨𝜋⁺∣𝐻_𝑊∣𝐾⁺⟩.

Version 2.41, Sept 5, 2002

Consistently computing the $`K\pi `$ long distance weak transition

J. Lowe

Physics Department, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131

M.D. Scadron

Physics Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721

## Abstract

First we extract the long-distance (LD) weak matrix element $`\pi H_WK`$ from $`K2\pi `$, $`K3\pi `$, $`K_L2\gamma `$, $`K^+\pi ^+e^+e^{}`$, $`K^+\pi ^+\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ and $`K_L\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ data and give compatible theoretical estimates. We also link this LD scale to the single-quark-line (SQL) transition scale $`\beta _W`$ and then test the latter SQL scale against the decuplet weak decay amplitude ratio $`\pi ^{}\mathrm{\Xi }^0H_W\mathrm{\Omega }^{}/\mathrm{\Xi }^{}H_W\mathrm{\Omega }^{}`$. Finally, we study LD $`K_S2\gamma `$ decay. All of these experimental and theoretical values for $`\pi H_WK`$ are in good agreement. We deduce an average value from eleven experimental determinations of $`\pi H_WK=(3.59\pm 0.05)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2`$, while the theoretical SQL values average to $`(3.577\pm 0.004)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2`$.

PACS numbers: 13.20.Eb and 13.25.Es

I. INTRODUCTION

The weak matrix element, $`\pi H_WK`$, appears in expressions for many kaon decay rates. Here, we deduce values for it from several experimental and theoretical sources. The work is an up-date to, and extension of, an earlier analysis . Our goal is to demonstrate that there is a good deal of consistent information, both experimental and theoretical, on this matrix element, and that a reliable numerical value is available. In Sect. II, we extract four values of $`\pi H_WK`$ from data and we show that these are in good agreement with each other and with two theoretical estimates. In Sects. III and IV, we study the SQL scale, $`\beta _W`$, demonstrating consistency with values from first and second-order treatments and yielding two further values for the $`K\pi `$ weak matrix element. In Sect. V, we derive yet another value for $`\pi H_WK`$ from the weak $`K_L\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ rate together with the electromagnetic $`\pi e\overline{e}`$ and $`\eta \mu \overline{\mu }`$ rates, and in Sect. VI, we demonstrate consistency of our numerical result with the parity-violating $`K_S\gamma \gamma `$ decay. Sect. VII summarises the results.

Throughout, the work uses the current-algebra (CA) partially conserved axial current (PCAC)-consistency scheme, as was studied in Ref. . Such a low-energy CA-PCAC chiral approach generates long-distance (LD) weak amplitudes for an $`H_W`$ built up from $`VA`$ weak currents satisfying the charge algebra $`[Q_5+Q,H_W]=0`$.

Unless otherwise stated, all data in the following are taken from the Particle Data Group (PDG) tabulation .

II. EXPERIMENTAL and THEORETICAL TESTS of the $`K\pi `$ WEAK SCALE

II.1 From $`K_S\pi \pi `$ decays

CA-PCAC consistency requires amplitude magnitudes, for $`f_\pi 93\mathrm{MeV}`$ :

$`_{K_S\pi \pi }^+`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{f_\pi }}\pi ^+H_WK^+(1m_\pi ^2/m_K^2),`$
$`_{K_S\pi \pi }^{00}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{f_\pi }}\pi ^0H_WK_L(1m_\pi ^2/m_K^2),`$
$`_{K^+\pi ^+\pi ^0}^{+0}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2f_\pi }}\pi ^+H_WK^++\pi ^0H_WK_L(1m_\pi ^2/m_K^2),`$ (1)
where the factor $`(1m_\pi ^2/m_K^2)`$ must be used in Eqs. 1 . Note that the isospin invariance $`\pi ^+H_WK^+=\pi ^0H_WK_L`$ manifests the $`\mathrm{\Delta }I=1/2`$ rule in Eq. 1 with $`^+=^{00}`$ and $`^{+0}0`$, then compatible with data and $`^{+0}/^+0.047`$. However, one must also account for the final-state \[FS\] interactions with the observed $`\pi \pi `$ phase shifts, $`\delta _ł^{I_{\pi \pi }}`$, evaluated at the kaon mass, $`\delta _0^0\delta _0^245^o`$ . To do so, the $`K_S\pi \pi `$ amplitudes of Eqs. 1 are written as

$`_{K_S\pi \pi }^+=a_{1/2}+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}a_{3/2}`$
$`_{K_S\pi \pi }^{00}=a_{1/2}{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}a_{3/2},`$ (2)
where the subscripts on the real amplitudes $`a_{1/2},`$ $`a_{3/2}`$ refer to the I-spin of $`H_W`$. The amplitudes including FS interactions are then

$`_{K_S\pi \pi }^+_{FS}=\left[a_{1/2}^2+{\displaystyle \frac{4}{9}}a_{3/2}^2+{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}a_{1/2}a_{3/2}\mathrm{cos}(\delta _0^0\delta _0^2)\right]^{1/2}`$
$`_{K_S\pi \pi }^{00}_{FS}=\left[a_{1/2}^2+{\displaystyle \frac{16}{9}}a_{3/2}^2{\displaystyle \frac{8}{3}}a_{1/2}a_{3/2}\mathrm{cos}(\delta _0^0\delta _0^2)\right]^{1/2}.`$ (3)
The experimental rates, from Ref. , give amplitudes

$`_{K_S\pi \pi }^+_{\mathrm{PDG}}`$ $`=`$ $`m_{K_S}\left[8\pi \mathrm{\Gamma }_+^{K_S}/q\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}=(39.1\pm 0.2)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV},`$
$`_{K_S\pi \pi }^{00}_{\mathrm{PDG}}`$ $`=`$ $`m_{K_S}\left[16\pi \mathrm{\Gamma }_{00}^{K_S}/q\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}=(37.1\pm 0.1)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV},`$
$`_{K^+\pi \pi }^{+0}_{\mathrm{PDG}}`$ $`=`$ $`m_{K^+}\left[8\pi \mathrm{\Gamma }_{+0}^{K^+}/q\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}=(1.832\pm 0.006)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV},`$ (4)
where $`q`$ is the magnitude of the relevant decay momentum. These can be substituted in Eqs. 3 yielding the I-spin amplitudes

$`a_{1/2}38.42\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV},`$
$`a_{3/2}1.43\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}.`$ (5)
These can in turn be used in the CA-PCAC consistency conditions, Eqs. 1, 2, to extract the reduced matrix element $`\pi ^+H_WK^+`$ (or equivalently $`\pi ^0H_WK_L`$). For $`\pi ^+H_WK^+`$, it is necessary to subtract off the contribution from the $`W^+`$ pole graph of Fig. 1 , namely

$`\pi ^+H_WK^+_{\mathrm{Wpole}}=(G_F/\sqrt{2})s_1c_1f_\pi f_Km_K^2=(0.460\pm 0.006)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ (6)
for $`G_F=11.6639\times 10^6\mathrm{GeV}^2`$, $`f_K1.22f_\pi `$, $`f_\pi 93\mathrm{MeV}`$ and $`s_1c_1=0.217\pm 0.003`$ . This leads to the result

$`\pi ^+H_WK^+`$ $`=`$ $`((3.980\pm 0.020)(0.460\pm 0.006))\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ (7)
$`=`$ $`(3.520\pm 0.021)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2,`$
where the first 3.980 number in Eq. 7 stems from Eqs. 1-5, $`_{K_S\pi \pi }^+39.373\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}`$. For the matrix element $`\pi ^0H_WK_L`$, for which there is no W pole term, Eqs. 1-3 give directly

$`\pi ^0H_WK_L=(3.666\pm 0.010)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$ (8)
It is reassuring that these values in Eqs. 7 and 8 are quite close. Again assuming isospin invariance, we average Eqs. 7 and 8 to find the mean reduced matrix element

$`\pi ^+H_WK^+_{\mathrm{avg}}=\pi ^0H_WK_L_{\mathrm{avg}}=(3.637\pm 0.009)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$ (9)
II.2 From $`K3\pi `$ decays

Reducing in two pions consistently, the four measured $`K_{3\pi }`$ weak decay amplitudes

($`_{++}^+=(1.93\pm 0.01)\times 10^6`$, $`_{+00}^+=(0.96\pm 0.01)\times 10^6`$, $`_{+0}^L=(0.91\pm 0.01)\times 10^6`$, $`_{000}^L=(2.60\pm 0.02)\times 10^6`$) predict the CA-PCAC reduced matrix elements :

$`\pi ^+H_WK^+`$ $`=`$ $`2f_\pi ^2(1m_\pi ^2/m_K^2)^1\pi ^+\pi ^+\pi ^{}H_WK^+=(3.63\pm 0.02)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2,`$
$`\pi ^+H_WK^+`$ $`=`$ $`4f_\pi ^2(1m_\pi ^2/m_K^2)^1\pi ^+\pi ^0\pi ^0H_WK^+=(3.59\pm 0.04)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2,`$
$`\pi ^0H_WK_L`$ $`=`$ $`4f_\pi ^2(1m_\pi ^2/m_K^2)^1\pi ^+\pi ^0\pi ^{}H_WK_L=(3.42\pm 0.04)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2,`$
$`\pi ^0H_WK_L`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}f_\pi ^2(1m_\pi ^2/m_K^2)^13\pi ^0H_WK_L=(3.24\pm 0.02)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$ (10)
Once more assuming isospin invariance, the four reduced $`K\pi `$ transitions for $`K_{3\pi }`$ decays in Eq. 10 average to

$`\pi ^+H_WK^+_{\mathrm{PCAC}}^{K_{3\pi }}=\pi ^0H_WK_L_{\mathrm{PCAC}}^{K_{3\pi }}=(3.449\pm 0.015)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$ (11)
To show that the final-state-corrected $`K_{2\pi }`$ result, Eq. 9 and the nearby PCAC-averaged $`K_{3\pi }`$ result, Eq. 11, (where FS interactions are known  to be minimal) do indeed refer to the same $`K\pi `$ weak transition, we must verify that the PCAC corrections in the two cases are in fact minimal, given the observed rate ratio :

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(K^+\pi ^+\pi ^+\pi ^{})}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(K_S\pi ^+\pi ^{})}}|_{\mathrm{PDG}}={\displaystyle \frac{(\mathrm{}/\tau _{K^+})(5.59\pm 0.08)\%}{(\mathrm{}/\tau _{K_S})(68.61\pm 0.28)\%}}=(5.88\pm 0.09)\times 10^4.`$ (12)
This ratio, Eq. 12, must then be compared to the analog PCAC rate ratio, where the PCAC-consistency amplitude ratio  $`A_{++}^+_{PCAC}=\pi ^+\pi ^{}H_WK_S/2f_\pi `$ generates the rate ratio

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(K^+\pi ^+\pi ^+\pi ^{})}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(K_S\pi ^+\pi ^{})}}|_{\mathrm{PCAC}}={\displaystyle \frac{0.798\times 10^6\mathrm{GeV}}{0.206\mathrm{GeV}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2f_\pi }}\right)^28\pi m_{K_S}^2\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{m_\pi ^2}{m_K^2}}\right)^25.94\times 10^4.`$ (13)
Note that the measured rate ratio Eq. 12 is close to the PCAC-consistency ratio Eq. 13. Here, the 3-body phase-space factor $`0.798\times 10^6`$ GeV was computed in Ref. . Likewise the rate ratio for $`K_L3\pi ^0/K_S2\pi ^0`$ is for the PDG $`(1.16\pm 0.02)\times 10^3`$ and $`1.32\times 10^3`$ for PCAC consistency. The amplitude ratios are even closer. Thus it should not be surprising that the scales of 3.64 in Eq. 9 and 3.45 in Eq. 11 are indeed close.

II.3 From $`K_L2\gamma `$ decays

Low-mass pole diagrams also generate LD weak amplitudes. The $`\pi ^0`$ pole gives the $`K_L2\gamma `$ amplitude magnitude

$`2\gamma H_WK_L={\displaystyle \frac{\pi ^0H_WK_L}{m_{K_L}^2m_{\pi ^0}^2}}F_{\pi ^0\gamma \gamma }=(3.49\pm 0.05)\times 10^9\mathrm{GeV}^1,`$ (14)
where the $`\pi ^0\gamma \gamma `$ amplitude (either from data or theory) is $`\alpha /\pi f_\pi =0.025\mathrm{GeV}^1`$ and we have neglected the Levi-Civita factor on both sides of Eq. 14. This then leads immediately to

$`\pi ^0H_WK_L_{\pi ^0\mathrm{pole}}=(3.20\pm 0.04)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$ (15)
The $`\eta `$ and $`\eta ^{}`$ pole graphs in Fig. 2 have opposite sign. However, they are not quite equal in magnitude and a detailed calculation  shows that the $`K\pi `$ transition in Eq. 15 is then effectively enhanced by 11.1% to

$`\pi ^0H_WK_L_{\pi ^0,\eta ,\eta ^{}\mathrm{poles}}=(3.56\pm 0.04)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$ (16)
II.4 From the $`K^+\pi ^+e^+e^{}`$ and $`K^+\pi ^+\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ rare decays

The recent Brookhaven $`K^+\pi ^+e^+e^{}`$ experiment E865 finds the amplitude  at $`q^2=0`$

$`A(0)_{K\pi e\overline{e}}=(4.00\pm 0.18)\times 10^9\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$ (17)
Recently, Burkhardt et al.  showed that both the decay rate and the $`q^2`$ dependence can be well understood in a straightforward model in which the only terms that survive at $`q^2=0`$ are the LD virtual bremsstrahlung graphs of Fig. 3, which scale with the weak matrix element $`\pi ^+H_WK^+`$ that we study here. These virtual bremsstrahlung graphs predict the long-distance (LD) weak amplitude at $`q^2=0`$ :

$`A_{LD}(0)=e^2\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\pi ^+H_WK^+}{m_{K^+}^2m_{\pi ^+}^2}}\right|\left|{\displaystyle \frac{dF_{\pi ^+}}{dq^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{dF_{K^+}}{dq^2}}\right|,`$ (18)
where vector meson dominance (VMD) $`\rho `$, $`\omega `$ and $`\varphi `$ poles require e.g. the $`\rho `$ form factor $`F_{\pi ^+}(q^2)=\left(1q^2/m_\rho ^2\right)^1`$ and

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dF_{\pi ^+}}{dq^2}}|_{q^2=0}=1/m_\rho ^2=1.69\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$ (19)
Likewise, the $`\rho `$, $`\omega `$ and $`\varphi `$ VMD poles for the $`F_{K^+}(q^2)`$ form factor predict

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dF_{K^+}}{dq^2}}|_{q^2=0}={\displaystyle \frac{n_\rho }{m_{\rho ^0}^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{n_\omega }{m_\omega ^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{n_\varphi }{m_{\varphi ^0}^2}}=1.42\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ (20)
as measured from $`\rho ,\omega ,\varphi e^+e^{}`$ electromagnetic decays. Here, $`6n_{\rho ,\omega ,\varphi }=1,3,2`$ from VMD  fixing the normalisation $`n_\rho +n_\omega +n_\varphi =1`$ as required. Finally, substituting Eqs. 19, 20 into Eq. 18 and using the E865 $`K^+\pi ^+e^+e^{}`$ amplitude in Eq. 17, one extracts the LD transition:

$`\pi ^+H_WK^+`$ $`=`$ $`e^2A(0)_{K^+\pi ^+e^+e^{}}\left(m_{K^+}^2m_{\pi ^+}^2\right)\left|{\displaystyle \frac{dF_{\pi ^+}}{dq^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{dF_{K^+}}{dq^2}}\right|_{q^2=0}^1`$ (21)
$`=`$ $`(3.62\pm 0.16)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$
Possible short-distance (SD) corrections to Eq. 21 have been shown to be less than 10% , partly because the top quark corrections are small due to the large top-quark mass ($`m_t175\mathrm{MeV}`$) and also because QCD corrections substantially reduce the SD contribution. This lack of knowledge of the SD contribution is the dominant source of uncertainty in the weak matrix element, so we take the value to be

$`\pi ^+H_WK^+=(3.62\pm 0.36)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$ (22)
Eq. 22 is in close agreement with Eqs. 9, 11, 16 above.

Brookhaven experiment E865 has also measured  the decay $`K^+\pi ^+\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$. Because of the limited statistics of this measurement, compared to the $`K^+\pi ^+e^+e^{}`$ channel, an extrapolation quadratic in $`q^2`$ gives an unduly large error in the amplitude at $`q^2=0`$. Therefore, we invoke lepton universality which implies that the shape of the $`q^2`$ dependence of $`A(q^2)`$ is the same for these two channels. Thus we fit the amplitude, as a function of $`q^2`$, for $`K^+\pi ^+\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ using the coefficients of $`q^2`$ and $`q^4`$ determined from the fit  to the $`K^+\pi ^+e^+e^{}`$ data. Again, we allow a contribution of 10% to the error in $`A(0)`$ due to the uncertainty in the SD contribution. The result is

$`A(0)_{K\pi \mu \overline{\mu }}=(4.45\pm 0.67)\times 10^9\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ (23)
from which, using Eqs. 18 and 21,

$`\pi ^+H_WK^+=(4.0\pm 0.6)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$ (24)
II.5 Meson weak self-energy graphs

We now compare the five experimental $`\pi H_WK`$ LD weak scales in Eqs. 9, 11, 16, 22, 24 (extracted from $`K_{2\pi }`$, $`K_{3\pi }`$, $`K_{L2\gamma }`$, $`K_{\pi ^+e^+e^{}}^+`$, $`K_{\pi ^+\mu ^+\mu ^{}}^+`$ weak decays, averaging to $`3.59\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2`$) with the theoretical prediction of the “eye diagram” model-independent meson loop graphs of Fig. 4.

This amplitude, which has UV cutoff $`\mathrm{\Lambda }1.87\mathrm{GeV}`$ near the observed D mass , is found via a Wick rotation to $`q^2=p^2`$, $`d^4p=i\pi ^2q^2dq^2`$ with $`q^2=x`$ and $`s_1c_1=0.217\pm 0.003`$:

$`\pi ^0H_WK_L`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{G_F}{\sqrt{2}}}s_1c_1\left(m_D^2m_K^2\right){\displaystyle ^\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\displaystyle \frac{d^4p}{(2\pi )^4}}{\displaystyle \frac{p^2}{(p^2m_D^2)(p^2m_K^2)}}`$ (25)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{G_FV_{ud}V_{us}\left(m_D^2m_K^2\right)}{\sqrt{2}\times 16\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{x^2dx}{(x+m_D^2)(x+m_K^2)}}`$
$`=`$ $`(3.47\pm 0.05)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2,`$
where the error is dominated by the uncertainty in $`s_1c_1`$. This result is in excellent agreeent with the weak LD scales in Eqs. 9, 11, 16, 22, 24 above.

An alternative W-mediated approach which builds in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }I=1/2`$ structure follows from the quark-model single-quark-line (SQL) s$``$d weak transition. With u and c quark intermediate states, the GIM $`K_L\pi ^0`$ LD transition is

$`\pi ^0H_WK_L={\displaystyle \frac{G_F}{\sqrt{2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{s_1c_1}{4\pi ^2}}(m_c^2m_u^2)m_K^2{\displaystyle \frac{f_K}{f_\pi }}2.92\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ (26)
for $`G_F=11.6639\times 10^6\mathrm{GeV}^2`$, $`s_1c_10.217`$, $`m_c1.5`$ GeV, $`m_u0.34`$ GeV (for constituent quarks) and $`f_K/f_\pi 1.22`$. Then the predicted Eq. 26 is 82% of Eqs. (9,11,16,22,24) above. When the heavier top-quark intermediate state in included using a “heavy-quark approximation” , Eq. 26 becomes closer to the $`K_L\pi ^0`$ LD transition found throughout sect. II.

III. FIRST and SECOND ORDER TESTS of the SQL TRANSITION

III.1 Quark-model $`sd`$ first-order weak transition

Alternatively, we study the $`K_L\pi ^0`$ weak transition at the quark level via the (Nambu-Goldstone) tightly bound $`\mathrm{\Delta }I=\frac{1}{2}`$ quark bubble graph of Fig. 5.

We focus on the $`K_S\pi \pi `$ decay rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$. Firstly, one computes from Fig. 5

$`\pi ^0H_WK_L=2\beta _Wm_{K_L}^2f_K/f_\pi ,`$ (27)
where $`\beta _W`$ is the dimensionless weak SQL scale. ¿From this, the total width of the $`K_S`$ is

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S{\displaystyle \frac{3}{16\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{q}{m_K^2}}_{K_S\pi \pi }^{00}^23.61\beta _W^2m_K.`$ (28)
¿From Ref. , the experimental value of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S`$ is

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }_S=(73.67\pm 0.07)\times 10^{16}\mathrm{GeV}.`$ (29)
Relating Eqs. 28 and 29 gives the weak SQL scale as

$`\beta _W\left[(73.67\pm 0.07)\times 10^{16}/3.61\times 0.497672\right]^{1/2}6.4\times 10^8,`$ (30)
where 0.497672 GeV is the neutral kaon mass. Substituting the value of $`\beta _W`$ from Eq. 30 gives for the weak matrix element (see the second reference in )

$`\pi ^0H_WK_L3.9\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$ (31)
This global estimate is compatible with the experimental values found in sect. II. We therefore extend the concept of fig. 5 to the second-order weak process, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{LS}=m_{K_L}m_{K_S}.`$

III.2 Quark model s$``$d second-order weak transition and the $`K_LK_S`$ mass difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{LS}`$

Since $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{LS}`$ can be taken as a second-order weak transition, one may express the data as

$`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{LS}=(0.4736\pm 0.0012)\mathrm{\Gamma }_S,\mathrm{or}\mathrm{equivalently}`$ (32)
$`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{LS}=(0.7011\pm 0.0016)\times 10^{14}m_K,`$ (33)
in order to find a more accurate value for the weak SQL scale $`\beta _W`$ and a further value for $`\pi ^0H_WK_L`$.

Specifically, the second-order weak quark bubble graph of Fig. 6 (not the usual parameter-dependent W-W quark box) is the obvious generalisation of the first-order weak quark bubble graph of Fig. 5. In both cases the linear-$`\sigma `$-model inspired (with PCAC-compatible ) pseudoscalar couplings are used. Then the (CP-conserving) $`K^0\overline{K}^0`$ mixing matrix is diagonalised as

$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}m_{K^0}^2& \lambda \\ \lambda & m_{\overline{K}^0}^2\end{array}\right)\stackrel{\varphi }{}\left(\begin{array}{cc}m_{K_S}^2& 0\\ 0& m_{K_L}^2\end{array}\right),$$
(34)
with $`\varphi =45^o`$ for states $`\sqrt{2}K_{L,S}=K^0\pm \overline{K}^0`$. Saturating $`\lambda =K^0H_W^{(2)}\overline{K}^0`$ via unitarity for the overwhelmingly dominant $`2\pi `$ intermediate state  predicts $`\varphi =\mathrm{arctan2}\mathrm{\Delta }m_{LS}/\mathrm{\Gamma }_S\pi /4`$, which in turn gives $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{LS}\mathrm{\Gamma }_S/2`$, close to the measured value in Eq. 32.

For the above consistent picture (Figs. 5, 6), ordinary two-level quantum mechanics (independent of quantum field theory) then requires

$`\mathrm{sin2}\varphi =2\lambda (m_{K_L}^2m_{K_S}^2)^1\lambda /m_K\mathrm{\Delta }m_{LS},`$ (35)
where the LHS of Eq. 35 is unity for $`\varphi =45^o`$ (and very nearly unity when CP-violating effects are included) so that

$`\lambda m_K\mathrm{\Delta }m_{LS}.`$ (36)
However, the off-diagonal matrix element $`\lambda `$ in Eqs. 35, 36 also gives from Fig. 6

$`\lambda =K^0H_W^{(2)}\overline{K}^02\beta _W^2m_K^2,`$ (37)
since the only mass scale in Eq. 37 is $`m_K^2`$, the diagonalisation is second-order weak (requiring a $`\beta _W^2`$ factor) and the factor of 2 in Eqs. 27, 37 stems from $`(1\gamma _5)^2=2(1\gamma _5)`$. Standard CA-PCAC considerations  also recover Eq. 37.

Combining Eqs. 36, 37 leads to the result

$`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{LS}2\beta _W^2m_K,`$ (38)
which, together with the $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{LS}`$ value  in Eq. 33, predicts the weak SQL scale

$`\beta _W=[(0.7011\pm 0.0016)\times 10^{14}/2]^{1/2}(5.921\pm 0.007)\times 10^8,`$ (39)
which gives, with Eq. 27,

$`\pi ^0H_WK_L=(3.578\pm 0.004)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2,`$ (40)
again compatible with the experimental values found in sect. II.

IV. PCAC SPIN-3/2 TESTS of the LD-SQL TRANSITION for $`\mathrm{\Xi }H_W\mathrm{\Omega }`$

Another SQL test relates to the decuplet weak decay amplitude $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{}\mathrm{\Xi }^0\pi ^{}`$ relative to the Rarita-Schwinger transition $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}H_W\mathrm{\Omega }^{}h_2\overline{u}(\mathrm{\Xi })p^\mu u(\mathrm{\Omega })_\mu `$, but first we extract this latter weak scale from the $`K^0`$ tadpole SQL graph of fig. 7  with kaon PCAC strong coupling  $`K^0\mathrm{\Xi }^{}\mathrm{\Omega }^{}g_2\sqrt{2}/f_K`$:

$`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}H_W\mathrm{\Omega }^{}h_2`$ $`=`$ $`0H_WK^0g_2/m_K^2`$ (41)
$``$ $`2\sqrt{2}f_Km_K^2\beta _W\times \sqrt{2}/f_Km_K^2=4\beta _W.`$
However, kaon PCAC is known to be accurate only to within 25 - 30%, so instead we employ strong decuplet-octet baryon-pseudoscalar meson (DBP) data to extract  $`g_{DPB}=(m_D+m_B)g_2/215.7`$ which is a 20% lower estimate than used for $`g_2`$ in Eq. 41. Thus a more accurate estimate for $`h_2`$ than Eq. 41 is

$`h_2=4\beta _W/1.23.3\beta _W.`$ (42)
We note that Eq. 42 is quite close to the standard decuplet-octet baryon SU(3) flavour SQL estimate

$`h_2=3\beta _W`$ (43)
for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ constructed from 3 strange quarks. This too can be verified from magnetic-moment data , giving the ratio

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mu _\mathrm{\Omega }}{\mu _\mathrm{\Lambda }}}={\displaystyle \frac{(2.02\pm 0.05)\mu _N}{(0.613\pm 0.004)\mu _N}}=3.3\pm 0.1,`$ (44)
so we consistently invoke the SU(3) value to compute the weak SQL scale Eq. 43, not Eq. 41, and use the difference between Eqs. 42 and 43 to give a feel for the error.

Returning to $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{}\mathrm{\Xi }^0\pi ^{}`$ weak decay, we next extract the dominant parity-conserving amplitude E from experiment  with cm momentum $`p=294`$ MeV/c:

$`E(\mathrm{\Omega }^{}\mathrm{\Xi }^0\pi ^{})={\displaystyle \frac{m_\mathrm{\Omega }}{m_\mathrm{\Omega }+m_\mathrm{\Xi }}}\left[24\pi \mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Xi }\pi }/p^3\right]^{1/2}=(1.33\pm 0.02)\times 10^6\mathrm{GeV}^1.`$ (45)
This observed amplitude in Eq. 45 has remained unaltered for over a decade . It then predicts from pion PCAC (recall the PCAC structures of Eqs. 1)

$`\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Xi }^0\pi ^{}H_W\mathrm{\Omega }^{}}{\mathrm{\Xi }^{}H_W\mathrm{\Omega }^{}}}\right|=\left|{\displaystyle \frac{E(\mathrm{\Omega }^{}\mathrm{\Xi }^0\pi ^{})}{h_2}}\right|{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}f_\pi }}\mathrm{or}h_217.5\times 10^8.`$ (46)
This estimate Eq. 46 is further supported using SU(6) Thirring product wave functions . Finally, we use Eqs. 43, 46 to provide the third determination of the SQL scale $`\beta _W`$:

$`\beta _W=h_2/317.5\times 10^8/3=(5.8\pm 0.6)\times 10^8,`$ (47)
reasonably near the prior estimates of Eqs. 30, 39. As mentioned above, the error quoted reflects the consistency indicated by the difference between Eqs. 42 and 43. This gives, with Eq. 27,

$`\pi ^0H_WK_L=2\beta _Wm_{K_L}^2f_K/f_\pi =(3.5\pm 0.4)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2,`$ (48)
again compatible with the experimental values found in sect. II.

V. DOMINANT LD $`K_L\mu \overline{\mu }`$ DECAY

The dominant first-order weak LD $`\pi ^0`$ and $`\eta `$ poles are displayed in Figs. 8(a), 8(b) while the (smaller) second-order weak short-distance (SD) graph is shown in Fig. 8(c). First from $`\pi ^0e\overline{e}`$, $`\eta \mu \overline{\mu }`$, $`K_L\mu \overline{\mu }`$ decay data we extract the various dimensionless amplitudes defined from an S-matrix element $`S_{fi}=F(Pł\overline{ł})\overline{u}i\gamma _5v\overline{\delta }^4(p_fp_i)`$ with lepton spinors normalised covariantly, generating decay rates $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(Pł\overline{ł})=pF(Pł\overline{ł})^2/4\pi `$ for cm momenta $`p=67`$ MeV/c, 252 MeV/c, 225 MeV/c for $`\pi ^0e\overline{e}`$, $`\eta \mu \overline{\mu }`$, $`K_L\mu \overline{\mu }`$ respectively. The PDG tables  then require the central value amplitude magnitudes to be:

$`F(\pi ^0e\overline{e})=(3.02\pm 0.33)\times 10^7,`$
$`F(\eta \mu \overline{\mu })=(1.85\pm 0.31)\times 10^5,`$
$`F(K_L\mu \overline{\mu })=(2.26\pm 0.05)\times 10^{12}.`$ (49)
While the $`\pi e\overline{e}`$ and $`\eta \mu \overline{\mu }`$ amplitudes in Eq. 49 are of electromagnetic origin , it is clear that the much smaller $`K_L\mu \overline{\mu }`$ amplitude in Eq. 49 is a weak decay suppressed by $`10^7`$.

In order to apply the observed amplitudes of Eq. 49 to the graph of Fig. 8(a), we must first scale up the $`\pi ^0e\overline{e}`$ amplitude to the $`\pi ^0\mu \overline{\mu }`$ via one power of lepton mass (no covariant normalisation) $`m_\mu /m_e206.77`$ to

$`F(\pi ^0\mu \overline{\mu })=206.77\times 3.02\times 10^7=(6.24\pm 0.68)\times 10^5.`$ (50)
Then the sum of the graphs Figs. 8(a),(b) predicts the weak amplitude magnitude

$`F(K_L\mu \overline{\mu })`$ $`=`$ $`\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\pi ^0H_WK_LF(\pi ^0\mu \overline{\mu })}{m_K^2m_\pi ^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\eta H_WK_LF(\eta \mu \overline{\mu })}{m_K^2m_\eta ^2}}\right|`$ (51)
$``$ $`(9.747.37)\times 10^{12}=(2.4\pm 1.6)\times 10^{12}.`$
Here we have taken $`\pi ^0H_WK_L3.58\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ as the average LD weak scale in Sec. II and also divided by $`\sqrt{3}`$ in $`\eta H_WK_L`$ using SU(3) symmetry for $`\eta =\eta _8`$ since $`d_{866}/d_{366}=1/\sqrt{3}`$. We find it significant that the simple estimate in Eq. 51 is so close to $`K_L\mu \overline{\mu }`$ data $`2.26\times 10^{12}`$ in Eq. 49. Prior studies used complex two-loop graphs and $`\gamma \gamma `$ unitarity integrals, but still ended up with a result near Eq. 51 anyway .

Alternatively, we could input the experimental value of the $`K_L\mu \overline{\mu }`$ amplitude, $`(2.26\pm 0.05)\times 10^{12}`$. If we assume the SU(3) value for $`\eta =\eta _8`$ of $`1/\sqrt{3}`$ for the ratio $`\eta H_WK_L/\pi ^0H_WK_L`$, we can solve Eq. 51 for the weak matrix element, giving

$`\pi ^0H_WK_L=(3.4\pm 2.4)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$ (52)
Given the 75% cancellation between the $`\pi ^0`$ and $`\eta `$ poles in Eq. 51, we must verify that this net LD amplitude is still larger than the second-order weak SD amplitude of Fig. 8(c). The latter SD box graph  is driven by the heavy t quark at $`m_t175`$ GeV or $`X_t=m_t^2/m_W^24.8`$ with

$`G(X_t)={\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{X_t}{X_t1}}\right]^2\mathrm{ln}X_t+{\displaystyle \frac{X_t}{4}}+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{X_t}{1X_t}}2,`$ (53)
then predicting the SD amplitude

$`F_{K_L\mu \overline{\mu }}^{SD}s_1c_1s_2^2\times 10^9G(X_t)2\times 10^{13}`$ (54)
for $`s_1c_10.22`$, $`s_20.02`$. The ratio of Eq. 51 to Eq. 54 then suggests

$`\left|F^{LD}/F^{SD}\right|_{K_L\mu \overline{\mu }}23.7/212,`$ (55)
so indeed the LD amplitude is more than an order of magnitude greater than the $`K_L\mu \overline{\mu }`$ SD amplitude.

VI. LD $`K_S2\gamma `$ WEAK DECAY

Finally, we consider the parity-violating (PV) weak decay $`K_S2\gamma `$. Note that the relative errors are significantly larger than for the parity-conserving (PC) weak decay $`K_L2\gamma `$, i.e. with observed amplitude magnitudes  found from $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(K\gamma \gamma )=m_K^3F_{K\gamma \gamma }^2/64\pi `$:

$`F_{K_L\gamma \gamma }=(3.49\pm 0.05)\times 10^9\mathrm{GeV}^1,F_{K_S\gamma \gamma }=(5.4\pm 1.0)\times 10^9\mathrm{GeV}^1,`$ (56)
with both amplitudes scaled to the Levi-Civita $`ϵ`$ factor.

Given the $`\pi ^0`$ and $`\sigma `$ pole graphs of Figs. 2 and 9, the corresponding Feynman amplitude magnitudes are

$`2\gamma H_W^{PC}K_L=\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\pi ^0H_W^{PC}K_L}{m_K^2m_{\pi ^0}^2}}F_{\pi ^02\gamma }\right|3.49\times 10^9\mathrm{GeV}^1,`$ (57)
$`2\gamma H_W^{PV}K_S=\left|{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma H_W^{PV}K_S}{m_K^2m_\sigma ^2+im_\sigma \mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma }}\right|F_{\sigma 2\gamma }5.4\times 10^9\mathrm{GeV}^1.`$ (58)
Although the $`\pi ^02\gamma `$ amplitude is actually measured as $`(0.025\pm 0.001)\mathrm{GeV}^1`$ (in agreement with the PVV quark graph or the AVV anomaly $`\alpha /\pi f_\pi =0.025\mathrm{GeV}^1`$ with rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\pi ^0\gamma \gamma }=m_\pi ^3F_{\pi ^0\gamma \gamma }^2/64\pi `$), neither the broad $`\sigma `$ mass-width nor the $`\sigma 2\gamma `$ decay rate is accurately known.

Taking $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma m_\sigma `$ along with the (reasonable) chiral value

$`\sigma H_W^{PV}K_S=\pi ^0H_W^{PC}K_L3.58\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ (59)
as found in Sec. II, the estimate  $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\sigma \gamma \gamma }=(3.8\pm 1.5)\mathrm{keV}`$ along with the analogue rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\sigma \gamma \gamma }=m_\sigma ^3F_{\sigma \gamma \gamma }^2/64\pi `$ and Eq. 58 in turn requires the central value of the $`\sigma `$ mass and the $`\sigma \gamma \gamma `$ amplitude to be (without making any theoretical assumptions)

$`m_\sigma 614\mathrm{MeV},F_{\sigma \gamma \gamma }2.3\alpha /\pi f_\pi 0.057\mathrm{GeV}^1.`$ (60)
¿From a phenomenological viewpoint, a 614 MeV $`\sigma `$ mass is near the central mass now listed in the PDG tables , $`m_\sigma =4001200\mathrm{MeV}`$, also close to the E791 collaboration  weak decay analysis, $`m_\sigma 500\mathrm{MeV}`$. Moreover, the $`F_{\sigma \gamma \gamma }2.3\alpha /\pi f_\pi `$ amplitude value is near the constituent-quark-model value of $`(\frac{4}{9}+\frac{1}{9})N_c\alpha /\pi f_\pi =(5/3)\alpha /\pi f_\pi `$ enhanced by 30% due to meson $`\pi ^+`$ and $`K^+`$ loops to $`2.2\alpha /\pi f_\pi `$ . It is satisfying that Eqs. 60 (resulting from Eqs. 56 \- 59) are so close to these experimental and theoretical values.

We end this $`\sigma `$-dominated $`K_S2\gamma `$ section by including the $`\sigma `$-dominated $`K_L\pi ^02\gamma `$ rate. Folding in the latter 3-body phase space integral from Ref.  of $`1.7\times 10^4\mathrm{GeV}^4`$, the PCAC rate ratio is predicted to be

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(K_L\pi ^02\gamma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(K_S2\gamma )}}|_{PCAC}={\displaystyle \frac{(m_\sigma \mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma )^2(1.7\times 10^4\mathrm{GeV}^4)}{m_K^6(4\pi f_\pi )^2}}=11.6\times 10^4`$ (61)
given $`f_\pi =93\mathrm{MeV}`$, for $`m_\sigma =\mathrm{\Gamma }_\sigma =614\mathrm{MeV}`$ from Eq. 60, close to the measured PDG rate ratio

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(K_L\pi ^02\gamma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(K_S2\gamma )}}|_{PDG}={\displaystyle \frac{(\mathrm{}/\tau _L)(1.68\pm 0.10)\times 10^6}{(\mathrm{}/\tau _S)(2.4\pm 0.9)\times 10^6}}=(12.1\pm 4.6)\times 10^4,`$ (62)
for the observed lifetimes $`\tau _L=(5.17\pm 0.04)\times 10^8\mathrm{sec}`$, $`\tau _S=(0.8935\pm 0.0008)\times 10^{10}\mathrm{sec}`$. Note that the weak scale $`\sigma H_W^{PV}K_S`$ divides out of the PCAC ratio Eq. 61. Yet the nearness of Eqs. 61, 62 gives further PCAC support for the $`K_S2\pi `$ and $`K_L3\pi `$ PCAC $`K\pi `$ transition in Sect. II.

VII. CONCLUSION

In Sec.II we showed that the measured decay rates for $`K_S2\pi `$, $`K3\pi `$, $`K_L2\gamma `$, $`K^+\pi ^+e\overline{e}`$, $`K^+\pi ^+\mu \overline{\mu }`$ lead to the average long distance (LD) weak scale $`\pi H_WK`$ and also derive a theoretical estimate for this quantity. Then in Sec.III we computed the single quark line (SQL) s$``$d dimensionless weak scale $`\beta _W`$ from both first-order and second-order weak transitions. In Sec.IV we verifed the above weak scales by reviewing the observed spin 3/2 $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{}\mathrm{\Xi }^0\pi ^{}`$ weak decays and in Sec.V we computed LD and SD $`K_L\mu \overline{\mu }`$ weak decay amplitudes. Finally in Sec VI we studied LD $`K_S2\gamma `$ weak decay and its PCAC extension to $`K_L\pi ^02\gamma `$.

All of these estimates give strikingly similar values for the weak $`K\pi `$ matrix element (without any arbitrary parameters). Table 1 summarises the results. The average of the seven experimental values (derived from eleven measured rates) in Table 1 is

$`\pi ^+H_WK^+=\pi ^0H_WK_L=(3.59\pm 0.05)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2,`$ (63)
where the error quoted is the external error.

The errors quoted in Table 1 result mostly from propagation of the experimental errors on the input data and, apart from a few cases, do not include any contribution from the uncertainty in the theoretical methods. An estimate of the reliability of the procedures used here is provided by the external error on the seven experimental values in Table 1. The fact that this external error, quoted in Eq. 63, is just 1.4% supports the overall consistency of the methods used and therefore the reliabilty of our numerical value for the $`K\pi `$ weak matrix element. It is also noteworthy that the experimental result in Eq. 63 is in excellent agreement with the mean of the theoretical estimates in Table 1, which is $`(3.577\pm 0.004)\times 10^8\mathrm{GeV}^2`$.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to G. Eilam, V. Elias and B. Bassalleck for many discussions. We acknowledge support from the US DOE.