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# Multiwavelength observations of the GRB000615 field

## 1. Introduction

GRB000615 was simultaneously detected, at 06:17:45 UT of 15 June 2000, by the *Beppo*SAX GRBM and WFC, with a localization uncertainty of 2 (error circle radius), at coordinates (J2000) RA = $`15^\mathrm{h}32^\mathrm{m}36.^\mathrm{s}9`$, DEC = $`+73^{}49^{}07^{\prime \prime }`$ (Gandolfi et al. 2000). *Beppo*SAX NFI observations started $``$ 10 hours after the trigger time and lasted 1.44 days. Preliminary NFI data analysis by Nicastro et al. (2001) showed the presence of two sources, one in the LECS between 0.1 and 4 keV, and the other in the MECS between 1.6 and 4 keV. It is still not clear whether the MECS and the LECS sources are really distinct and which (if any) is related to GRB000615. Optical, IR and radio follow-up observations did not detect any transient in the WFC error box (Stanek et al. 2000; Pian et al. 2000; Di Paola et al. 2000; Frail et al. 2000). Here we present a refined analysis of the high energy *Beppo*SAX data along with that of optical data of the WFC error box.

## 2. Prompt event

Figure 1, left panel, shows the WFC (2–10 keV and 10–28 keV) and GRBM (40–700 keV) light curves of GRB000615. The $`\gamma `$–ray emission lasted about 13 s, while the X–ray emission was detected over a substantially longer interval of 120 s. Moreover, the bulk of the X–ray emission started $``$ 40 s after the $`\gamma `$–ray peak. In order to perform time-resolved spectral analysis of the GRB emission in the 2–700 keV range, we divided the light curves into three time intervals (a, b and c; see Fig. 1, left panel) of duration 30 s, 30 s and 60 s, respectively. The spectra integrated over these time bins were analysed separately. In our fits the $`N_\mathrm{H}`$ was fixed at the Galactic value (2.7$`\times `$1020 cm-2) unless otherwise stated. The best-fit parameters for the three spectra are reported in Table 1.

In the first 30 s (slice a) the spectrum was first fitted with a single power-law (PL) with photon index 1.5 $`\pm `$ 0.2. However, a 90% probability improvement was obtained using a single PL with free $`N_\mathrm{H}`$. In this case, we had a weak suggestion for a large $`N_\mathrm{H}`$ value ($``$2$`\times `$1023 cm-2), as shown in Table 1. We also fitted these data with the Band model (Band et al. 1993) or with a broken PL, but the spectral parameters were largely unconstrained.

The WFC data of the second temporal slice (b) were well fitted with a single PL with index 1.9 $`\pm `$ 0.3; however, this model were inconsistent with the GRBM upper limits. When these were accounted for the fit, the PL index was steeper than 2.12, which was still within 1$`\sigma `$ from the WFC data best-fit.

The spectrum of slice c was best fitted with a PL of index 2.2 $`\pm `$ 0.3. However, an excess around 8 keV appeared in the residuals. When we added a narrow Gaussian line to the model, the fit improved at the 98% confidence level, but using instead a recombination edge model, the parameters were poorly constrained. Nevertheless, assuming that this excess was due to the Fe recombination edge at 9.27 keV, a redshift $`z`$ 0.13 was derived.

The 2–10 keV to 40–700 keV fluence ratio of this GRB is 1.73 $`\pm `$ 0.22, one of the highest to date found for a *Beppo*SAX GRB (marginally higher than that of GRB990704, which was 1.52 $`\pm `$ 0.15; Feroci et al. 2001).

## 3. The search for the afterglow

### 3.1. X–rays

Confirming the preliminary results of Nicastro et al. (2001), the analysis of the MECS data revealed the presence of an uncatalogued steady X-ray source in the 1.6–4.5 keV interval. Its position was consistent with the WFC error box of the GRB. The spectrum of this object was fitted with either a PL with index $``$2.3 or with a blackbody having $`kT`$ 0.6 keV. The average flux in this band was (8.0 $`\pm `$ 1.6) $`\times `$ 10-14 erg cm-2 s-1.

In the LECS image we detected some signal at the center of the WFC error box with a significance of 2.5 $`\sigma `$ between 0.2 and 1.5 keV during the first 60 ks (corresponding to 15 ks of actual on-source time) of the observation. Its position was 2 away from the center of the MECS source error box, and therefore marginally consistent with it, considering the low S/N. The non-detection of substantial emission in the LECS at the position of the MECS source suggested that additional absorption ($`N_\mathrm{H}`$ 4$`\times `$1021 cm-2) could be present if the PL model was chosen. No additional $`N_\mathrm{H}`$ was required if, instead, a blackbody model was assumed.

Figure 1, right panel, shows the 2–4 keV flux of the GRB and of the MECS source. The plotted line corresponds to a power-law decay with index $`\alpha `$ 1.7 which is typical for X–ray afterglows. The steadiness of the flux from the source detected in the MECS is intriguing and could suggest that this was not the GRB afterglow; nevertheless this unusual behaviour occurred at least in another case, GRB970508 (Piro et al. 1998), in which a rebursting laid on a powerlaw decay was observed.

### 3.2. Optical

We performed an accurate analysis of $`R`$-band data (Stanek et al. 2000) acquired at FLWO on June 15 and 16, 2000; the results confirmed that 4 hours after the GRB trigger no optical afterglow was present in the WFC error box down to $`R`$ 22, i.e. slightly deeper than the previous limit ($`R`$ 21.5) determined from these data.

## 4. Summary

GRB000615 is probably the X–ray richest GRB observed by BeppoSAX, with a fluence ratio $`S_X/S_\gamma =1.73\pm 0.22`$. We found marginal evidence of spectral evolution in the prompt event: during the first 30 s, the spectrum shows very marginal evidence of absorption in addition to the Galactic one, which may be due to a high density circumburst medium. Between 60 and 120 s after the trigger, an emission feature is present at 98% confidence level, which can be interpreted as a Fe recombination edge at $`z`$ 0.13.

An uncatalogued and non-significantly variable source is detected with the MECS in the 1.6–4.5 keV energy range. The 2–4 keV fluxes measured by the WFC during the prompt event and by the MECS during the NFI pointing can be connected assuming a power-law decay of index 1.7, which is typical for X-ray afterglows. While the steadiness of the MECS source flux is uncommon in afterglows, we note, as remarked before, that this behavior is reminiscent of the short-term variability exhibited by the X–ray afterglow of GRB970508.

A transient 2.5$`\sigma `$ signal is present below 1.5 keV in the LECS image, at a position marginally consistent with the MECS source, but fully consistent with WFC error box. Although this latter circumstance may suggest its association with the GRB, the low significance of the detection prevents us to establish its reality and its relationship with the afterglow.

No optical afterglow down to $`R22`$ is present and this might suggest that GRB000615 is a “dark” burst which likely occurred in a high density environment.

## References

Band, D., Matteson, J., Ford, L., et al. 1993, ApJ, 413, 281

Di Paola, A., Antonelli, L. A., Licausi, G., et al. 2000, GCN circ. 708

Feroci, M., Antonelli, L. A., Soffitta, P., et al. 2001, A&A, 378, 441

Frail, D. A., Becker, K. M., Berger, E., et al. 2000, GCN circ. 721

Gandolfi, G. 2000, GCN circ. 705

Henden, A. A. 2001,
ftp://ftp.nofs.navy.mil/pub/outgoing/aah/grb/grb000615.dat

Nicastro, L., Cusumano, G., Antonelli, L. A., et al. 2001, in ESO Astroph. Symp., Gamma Ray Bursts in the afterglow era, ed Costa, E., Frontera, F., & Hjorth (Berlin: Springer-Verlag), 198

Pian, E., Masetti, N., Palazzi, E., et al. 2000, GCN circ. 727

Piro, L., Amati, L., Antonelli, L. A., et al. 1998, A&A, 331, L41

Stanek, K. Z., Garnavich, P. M., Berlind, P., & Jha, S. 2000, GCN circ. 709


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# Quantitative complementarity relations in bipartite systems

## Abstract

We introduce a complete set of complementary quantities in bipartite, two-dimensional systems. Complementarity then relates the quantitative entanglement measure concurrence which is a bipartite property to the single-particle quantum properties predictability and visibility, for the most general quantum state of two qubits. Consequently, from an interferometric point of view, the usual wave-particle duality relation must be extended to a “triality” relation containing, in addition, the quantitative entanglement measure concurrence, which has no classical counterpart and manifests a genuine quantum aspect of bipartite systems. A generalized duality relation, that also governs possible violations of the Bell’s inequality, arises between single- and bipartite properties.

The concept of complementarity in its full generality is summarized in the statement that a quantum system may posses properties which are equally real but mutually exclusive bohr . Often it is associated with wave particle duality, the complementary aspect between propagation and detection. Furthermore, it is commonly related to mutually exclusive properties of single quantum systems. Here, we go beyond single-partite systems and show that entanglement, which is a genuinely quantum concept with no classical counterpart, is a key entry in a generalized complementarity relation for bipartite systems. We consider the most general quantum state formed by two qubits in order to perform this task and arrive at a complementarity relation which is formed by three quantities, i.e. a “triality relation” is found. Two of the quantities generate local, single-partite realities which can be related to wave particle duality while the third quantity is found as the entanglement measure concurrence wootters  which generates an exclusive bipartite nonlocal reality. As one of the consequences, violations of the Bell inequality may be understood to be governed by this complementarity relation. We relate our findings to the known quantitative complementarity relations between distinguishability and visibility englert  and single- and two-particle visibility jaeger1 ; jaeger2  which intrinsically consider bipartite systems. With the help of the new complementarity relation, we demonstrate the common origin and equivalence of these known complementarity relations.

Suppose the most general bipartite state of two qubits,

$$|\mathrm{\Theta }=a|00+b|01+c|10+d|11,$$
(1)
where, from normalization, $`a`$, $`b`$, $`c`$, and $`d`$ satisfy

$$|a|^2+|b|^2+|c|^2+|d|^2=1.$$
(2)
The concurrence is defined as $`𝒞=|\mathrm{\Theta }|\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}|`$ with

$$|\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}=(\sigma _y\sigma _y)|\mathrm{\Theta }^{},\sigma _y=\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& i\\ i& 0\end{array}\right],$$
(3)
and $`|\mathrm{\Theta }^{}`$ is the complex conjugate of $`|\mathrm{\Theta }`$. It is related to the entanglement of formation, $`E(\mathrm{\Theta })=(𝒞(\mathrm{\Theta }))`$ wootters ; wootters1 , where

$`(𝒞)`$ $`=`$ $`h\left({\displaystyle \frac{1+\sqrt{1+𝒞^2}}{2}}\right),`$ (4)
$`h(x)`$ $`=`$ $`x\mathrm{log}_2x(1x)\mathrm{log}_2(1x).`$
The concurrence is a measure of entanglement on its own and constitutes an explicit bipartite property which describes phase relations shared among both parties. It is intimately related to the two-particle visibility, $`𝒱_{12}`$, in an interferometric setup jaeger1 ; jaeger2 ; abouraddy ; jakob1  and will represent the first entry in our complementarity relation. For the case of the most general state, Eq. (1), we find

$$𝒞(\mathrm{\Theta })=2\left|adbc\right|.$$
(5)
The second quantity in the complementarity relation is given by the coherence $`𝒱`$ between the two orthogonal qubit states, $`|0`$ and $`|1`$. We note that, in contrast to the concurrence, the coherence is a single qubit quantity. When we assume that the states represent two different alternatives in an interferometer, the coherence can be quantified by the fringe visibility, $`𝒱`$, of the arising interference pattern. $`𝒱`$ satisfies the standard definition

$$𝒱=\frac{I_{\text{max}}I_{\text{min}}}{I_{\text{max}}+I_{\text{min}}},$$
(6)
where $`I_{\text{max}}`$ and $`I_{\text{min}}`$ denote the maximum and minimum intensity, respectively. In a bipartite system, we must distinguish between the coherences of the two subsystems. The coherence between the states $`|0`$ and $`|1`$ of subsystem $`k`$ ($`k=1`$ or $`2`$), assuming the total system is in state $`|\mathrm{\Theta }`$, can be introduced as

$`𝒱_k`$ $`=`$ $`2|\mathrm{\Theta }|\sigma _k^+|\mathrm{\Theta }|,\sigma _k^+=\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 0& 0\end{array}\right].`$ (9)
From this definition, using Eq. (1), we readily find

$`𝒱_1`$ $`=`$ $`2|ac^{}+bd^{}|,𝒱_2=2|ab^{}+cd^{}|.`$ (10)
The coherence $`𝒱_k`$, as expected, is given by the off-diagonal elements of the reduced density matrix for subsystem $`k`$ that we obtain from Eq. (1) by tracing over the other subsystem.

The third and last entry in the complementarity relation also generates a single particle reality. It is the predictability, $`𝒫`$, which quantifies the a priori knowledge of whether the subsystems are in state $`|0`$ or $`|1`$. Again, in a bipartite system, we must distinguish between the predictabilities of the two subsystems. The predictability $`𝒫_k`$, for subsystem $`k`$ ($`k=1`$ or $`2`$), is defined as

$`𝒫_k`$ $`=`$ $`|\mathrm{\Theta }|\sigma _{z,k}|\mathrm{\Theta }|,\sigma _{z,k}=\left[\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right].`$ (13)
Using Eq. (1) we find

$`𝒫_1`$ $`=`$ $`\left|(|c|^2+|d|^2)(|a|^2+|b|^2)\right|,`$
$`𝒫_2`$ $`=`$ $`\left|(|b|^2+|d|^2)(|a|^2+|c|^2)\right|.`$ (14)
The predictability, $`𝒫_k`$, as expected, is given by the difference of the diagonal elements of the reduced density matrix of subsystem $`k`$.

We point out that all of the introduced quantities correspond to observables that can be measured in experiments. These quantities satisfy the following complementarity relation,

$$𝒞^2+𝒱_k^2+𝒫_k^2=\left(|a|^2+|b|^2+|c|^2+|d|^2\right)^21,$$
(15)
which is a simple exercise to prove and constitutes the central result of this paper. In Eq. (15) we have assumed the system in the most general pure bipartite state $`|\mathrm{\Theta }`$, as given by Eq. (1). This complementarity relation holds for the most general interferometric schemes with biparticles or biphotons, as well. In contrast to the duality relation of single partite quantum systems, it contains three mutually exclusive but equally real quantities. One of the quantities, entanglement, is a genuine quantum property of bipartite systems, while the other two correspond to single partite properties. Combining the single partite properties into a single entity, for $`k=1`$ or $`2`$,

$$𝒮_k^2=𝒱_k^2+𝒫_k^2,$$
(16)
a duality relation between bipartite and single partite properties arises,

$$𝒞^2+𝒮_k^2=1.$$
(17)
In the language of quantum information theory nielsen , $`𝒮_k`$ forms a local quantity whose constituents $`𝒫_k`$ and $`𝒱_k`$ can be changed under local unitary transformations into $`𝒫_k^{}`$ and $`𝒱_k^{}`$, satisfying the condition $`𝒫_k^2+𝒱_k^2=(𝒫_k^{})^2+(𝒱_k^{})^2`$. In particular, $`𝒮_k`$ can be all visibility with no predictability or, alternatively, all predictability with no visibility. By contrast, the concurrence $`𝒞`$ is a nonlocal property which remains invariant under local unitary transformations, i.e. $`𝒞=𝒞^{}`$.

We are now in a position to compare the new complementarity relation to previous ones. The first complementarity relation for a large class of pure bipartite quantum systems was derived by Jaeger et al. jaeger1 . It relates two-particle visibility $`𝒱_{12}`$ to single-particle visibility $`𝒱_k`$ ( $`k=1,2`$), in the form of an inequality,

$$𝒱_{12}^2+𝒱_k^21.$$
(18)
A similar relation has actually been demonstrated in a recent experiment abouraddy1 . It is worth noting at this point that the appearance of an inequality in a pure system, as contrasted to the equality relations (15) and (17), is the manifestation of a missing entity. Furthermore, this complementarity relation has been derived for a restricted set of transducers in the interferometer, viz. each transducer was taken to consist of symmetric beam splitters together with phase shifters.

In a subsequent publication Jeager et al. jaeger2  demonstrated that a stronger complementarity relation in form of an equality can be found if arbitrary local unitary and unimodular mappings between the subspaces, i.e. arbitrary transducers, are allowed. In terms of a generalized single particle visibility, $`V_k`$ ($`k=1,2`$), and a generalized two-particle visibility, $`V_{12}`$, this complementarity relation is given as

$$V_{12}^2+V_k^2=1.$$
(19)
It was later recognized that the two-particle visibility $`V_{12}`$ is directly related to the concurrence $`𝒞`$ abouraddy1 ; jakob1 . Since the concurrence is a proper entanglement measure, it is invariant under local unitary transformations. In fact, the quantities $`V_{12}𝒞`$ and $`𝒱_{12}𝒞`$ in (18) and (19) are identical. This has not been recognized in Refs. jaeger1 ; jaeger2 . Thus, the complementarity relation (19) is a special and restricted case of the general duality relation (17) between single- and bipartite properties. Indeed, as already mentioned after Eq. (17), the single-partite property $`𝒮_k`$ can be transformed with local unitary transformations, i.e. proper transducers, into a single-particle visibility equivalent to the generalized single-particle visibility $`V_k`$ introduced in jaeger2 . The general complementarity relation (15), however, which is independent of the particular choice of transducers in an interferometer and constitutes a genuine quantum property of the bipartite system, contains three equally real but mutually exclusive quantities. Comparing Eqs. (15) and (18), we can identify the missing quantity in Refs. jaeger1 ; jaeger2  as the predictability $`𝒫_k`$. The most general complementarity relation for a bipartite system exposed to an interferometer reads therefore as

$$𝒱_{12}^2+𝒱_k^2+𝒫_k^2=1.$$
(20)
Consequently, there is a correspondence between the “generalized” visibility $`V_k`$ in (19) and the single-partite property $`𝒮_k`$. This correspondence is given by

$$V_k^2𝒱_k^2+𝒫_k^2=𝒮_k^2.$$
(21)
We stress that $`𝒮_k`$ is invariant under local unitary transformations and is, thus, independent of the explicit form of the transducers. Of course, the quantities $`𝒫_k`$ and $`𝒱_k`$ explicitly depend on the form of the transducers involved. In fact, $`V_k(=𝒮_k)`$ is the maximum of $`𝒱_k`$ under such transformations.

Another important complementarity relation which is intrinsically related to bipartite systems was derived by Englert englert  and, independently, by Jaeger et al. jaeger2 . This relation is given by

$$𝒟^2+𝒱^21,$$
(22)
where $`𝒟`$ is the distinguishability and $`𝒱`$ is the visibility. In case of pure bipartite quantum systems the inequality transforms into an equality. The distinguishability is a measure of the possible which-path information in an interferometer that Nature can grant us. This possible information can be stored in an additional system which is entangled to the quantum system under consideration. Although the quantities involved were originally introduced as apparently single-partite quantities, one of them, the distinguishability $`𝒟`$, is intrinsically related to a bipartite property because it depends on the correlation to the additional quantum system which serves as the possible information storage. Indeed, it was qualitatively recognized, that the distinguishability $`𝒟`$ should be related to an entanglement measure englert2 .

With the new complementarity relation (15) at hand, we can now find a relation between the distinguishability, $`𝒟`$, and the entanglement measure, $`𝒞`$. In order to do this, we explicitly label the quantities in Eq. (22) with the system index $`k=1,2`$ of the bipartite system. Comparing Eqs. (15) and (22), we readily find the relationship,

$$𝒟_k^2=𝒞^2+𝒫_k^2.$$
(23)
between distinguishability and concurrence. This expression reveals explicitly which portion of the distinguishability $`𝒟_k`$ of subsystem $`k`$ is of nonclassical origin. Clearly, $`𝒟_k`$ is bounded from below by the single-particle property predictability. In the case when $`𝒞>0`$, it becomes possible to obtain additional which-path information in excess of the predictability, with appropriate sorting of the two-particle data. In the context of the recent debate on how complementarity is enforced englert3 ; wiseman1 ; wiseman3 ; duerr ; haroche , this relation is of fundamental importance. It explicitly states that complementarity is enforced by correlations and not by the Heisenberg uncertainty relations in the standard formalism. In order to relate complementarity to the uncertainty relations, the latter must be extended to entangled composite systems in order to include the nonclassical correlations between the subsystems bjork ; rempe ; trifonov ; luis .

In the following, we will establish the connection between the general complementarity relation (15) \[or (20)\] and a quantitative quantum erasure relation which was derived recently englert2 ; jakob1 . A similar relation in the context of entanglement generation and quantum statistics was found in Refs. bose1 ; bose2 . The erasure relation quantifies the maximum possible fringe visibility, i.e. the coherence $`c_k`$, of subsystem $`k`$, which can be achieved by quantum erasure, in form of an inequality englert2 ,

$$c_k^2+𝒫_k^21.$$
(24)
In case of a pure bipartite quantum system the inequality transforms into an equality. It was later shown, for a special class of bipartite systems, in which no single partite visibility was present, that the quantity $`c_k`$, although a single system property, is directly related to the entanglement measure concurrence, $`𝒞`$ jakob1 . With the help of the general complementarity relation (15) \[or (20) in case of interferometric considerations\] we can express the coherence, $`c_k`$, for the most general case of bipartite two-level systems as

$$c_k^2=𝒞^2+𝒱_k^2𝒱_{12}^2+𝒱_k^2.$$
(25)
Equations (23) and (25) yield for the concurrence

$$𝒞=\sqrt{c_k^2𝒱_k^2}=\sqrt{𝒟_k^2𝒫_k^2},$$
(26)
indicating a relation between the distinguishability $`𝒟_k`$ and the coherence $`c_k`$ as well as their relation to the entanglement measure concurrence $`𝒞`$. We note that $`𝒟_k𝒫_k`$ and $`c_k𝒱_k`$, which is obvious from their definition englert2 . Relation (26) also reveals the intimate quantum aspect of distinguishability and coherence when they exceed their lower bounds. We further note that relation (26) gives us the opportunity to employ measurable entities for the quantification of entanglement. Thus, entanglement becomes an operational concept.

So far we have restricted our treatment to cases where the bipartite system is described in a pure quantum state. The question necessarily arises as to what happens when the system initially contains some mixture. Because of the relations (22) and (24), proved in Refs. jakob1 ; englert2 , we obtain, together with Eqs. (23) and (25), the following inequality for the most general case of a mixed bipartite qubit system

$$𝒞^2+𝒱_k^2+𝒫_k^21.$$
(27)
This inequality can be qualitatively understood if we recall that concurrence and single-particle visibility in mixed bipartite qubit systems are limited by the upper bound of the corresponding quantities for pure systems. We emphasize that for mixed bipartite systems the above complementarity relation can not directly be rewritten into the corresponding inequality involving two-particle visibility $`𝒱_{12}`$, as was possible for the pure systems case. The reason is that the direct relation between concurrence and two-particle visibility ceases to exist for mixed quantum systems. In particular, the two-particle visibility, as defined by Jeager et al. jaeger1 ; jaeger2 , can differ from zero in mixed bipartite quantum systems although the concurrence is zero. This suggests a modification of the definition of two-particle visibility in mixed bipartite quantum systems which we plan to discuss elsewhere.

In the case of pure bipartite systems an interesting relation emerges from the general complementarity relation (15) for possible violations of the Bell inequality Bell1 ; Bell2 ; shimony . In particular, we can state that violations of the Bell inequality are enforced by the complementarity between bipartite and single particle properties (17). This becomes clear when we recall the well known relation between the maximum possible violation of the Bell inequality $``$ and the concurrence $`𝒞`$,

$$=2\sqrt{1+𝒞^2},$$
(28)
which is valid for pure bipartite qubit systems gisin . With Eq. (17) we can rewrite (28) as

$$=2\sqrt{2𝒮_k^2},$$
(29)
where the single partite property $`𝒮_k`$ of subsystem $`k`$ is given by Eq. (16). As violations of the Bell inequality occur for $`2<||2\sqrt{2}`$, Eq. (29) reveals that exclusion of single partite properties in bipartite systems leads to maximal violation of the Bell inequality. In other words, the complementarity relation (15) governs the classical vs. nonclassical properties of the bipartite system. If the local single partite properties $`𝒮_k`$ are mutually excluded by the maximum possible concurrence, $`𝒞=1`$, the local realities necessarily cease to exist and we expect maximum possible violation of the Bell inequality. Thus, we may claim that violations of the Bell inequality are also governed by complementarity between single particle and bipartite properties.

In conclusion, complementarity in bipartite systems is a useful concept for the quantification of entanglement. We have shown that concurrence (or the equivalent entanglement of formation) naturally emerges as a complementary quantity to single partite properties in a bipartite qubit system. The single partite properties consist of local but mutually exclusive realities given by visibility and predictability, i.e. wave-particle duality. Thus, the complementarity relation in bipartite qubits contains three mutually exclusive quantities, i.e. a “triality” relation is emerging naturally. The concurrence, herein, is an explicit bipartite property, and does not have any classical counterpart. Moreover, we have shown that violation of the Bell inequality becomes a consequence of the complementarity between bipartite and single partite properties. For future direction of research in this area it might be worth while to explore complementarity concepts in multi-partite multiport interferometers. They provide a realization of multipartite qudit systems where the concept of entanglement is still not well understood.

This research was supported by the Office of Naval Research under Grant No. N00014-92J-1233 and by the European Union Research and Training Network COCOMO, Contract No. HPRN-CT-1999-00129.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The idea of topological inflation is independently pointed out by Vilenkin and Linde, and recently applied to the scenario of the brane world. Let us begin with a simple potential where a scalar field $`\varphi `$ is a one-component scalar field with a double-well potential,

$$V(\varphi )=\frac{1}{4}\lambda \left(\varphi ^2\eta ^2\right)^2.$$
(1.1)
This model has two minima at $`\varphi =\pm \eta `$, which are degenerated. Supposing a random state for $`\varphi `$ with a dispersion larger than $`\eta `$, the Universe will split into domains of $`\varphi =+\eta `$ and $`\varphi =\eta `$. The cosmological domain walls appear at the boundary interpolating between different vacua. There is the false vacuum state of $`\varphi 0`$ in the core of domain walls. If the size of the false vacuum region is greater than the horizon size, this region will undergoes inflational expansion. The conditions for the above simple potential implies $`\eta >M_p`$. Although it seems plausible that a topological inflation takes place when the above condition is satisfied, the constraints for the potential seem rather crucial, because it requires fine-tuning of the parameter $`\lambda <10^{12}`$. Even if one considers a supersymmetric flat potential, it seems difficult to meet the conditions for successful inflation. In generic cases, the negative mass of the flat potential is determined by the gravitino mass $`m_{3/2}`$. Then the energy density during inflation is almost fixed at $`V_0m_{3/2}^2\eta ^2`$, if single-field inflation is assumed. The above constraints may be removed if inflation is realized by the hybrid potential. In this paper we show examples for topological inflation combined with hybrid inflation, in which the hybrid potential is realized in the scenario of non-tachyonic brane inflation. 222In general, inflation with low fundamental scale is very difficult. Baryogenesis in models with low fundamental scale is discussed in ref..

## 2 Topological brane inflation

Here we first consider an effective potential of the form, 333 Here we consider the case where massless or massive modes are localized on the branes. The forms of their wave-functions will be gaussian that decays exponentially in the transverse directions. For example, we consider the form;
$$\psi (r)e^{(M_1r)^2},$$
(2.1)  where $`r`$ denotes the transverse distance from the center of the brane, and $`M_1^1`$ is the width of the wave-function. When branes are separated, the couplings between localized modes from different branes will decay exponentially. On the other hand, when branes are on top of each other, the couplings are restored. We will discuss some examples in the next section, where the couplings are needed to maintain supersymmetry in the inflation sector. (Of course the phenomenological supersymmetry breaking remains. However, in generic cases, the scale of the phenomenological supersymmetry breaking is much smaller than the required supersymmetry breaking during inflation. ) If the couplings are responsible for the supersymmetry on the branes, one will find supersymmetry restoration on the branes when branes are coincident. Let us consider the case when the constant energy density $`M^4`$ appears when branes are well separated. The origin of the vacuum energy is the spontaneous breaking of supersymmetry on the branes, which is due to the absence of some couplings. If the energy density disappears (i.e., supersymmetry is restored) when the interactions appear, one will find the potential of the form
$$V(\varphi )=M^4\left(1e^{(M_1r)^2}\right),$$
(2.2)  where $`r`$ denotes the distance between branes. In the next section, we will show some examples where supersymmetry restoration occurs at two points in the extra dimensions.

$$V(\varphi )=M^4\left(1e^{(M_1^1(\varphi +\varphi _0))^2}e^{(M_1^1(\varphi \varphi _0))^2}\right).$$
(2.3)
The potential (2.3) has two minima at $`\varphi =\pm \varphi _0`$, which are degenerated. Assuming $`|\varphi _0|>M_1`$, the peculiar feature of the potential is the flat direction. The potential is flat except for the small region around two minima. Although it remains flat at the tree level, the gravitational effect will lift the potential. For example, the gravitational correction may take the form,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }V=m_{3/2}^2\varphi ^2+A_n\frac{\varphi ^{2n+4}}{M_p^{2n}},$$
(2.4)
where the first term is the familiar soft mass term, and the second represents nonrenormalizable terms. For simplicity, here we have assumed that the soft mass appears with the negative sign, and the stability of the potential is ensured by the second term. Obviously, the potential (2.4) induces another (local or global) minima for the field $`\varphi `$. Here we simply assume that the global vacua are at $`\varphi =\pm \varphi _0`$, and denote the additional local minima by $`\varphi _{local}^i`$. The local minima $`\varphi _{local}^i`$ are assumed to be located outside the region of $`\varphi <|\varphi _0|`$. Supposing a random initial state for the field $`\varphi `$, the Universe is split into domains of $`\varphi =0`$, $`\varphi =\varphi _0`$ and $`\varphi _{local}^i`$. In this case, the width of the domain walls interpolating between different vacua is about $`\delta m_{3/2}^1`$, which is not related to the vacuum energy in the interior of the wall.

The obvious advantage of the above potential is the followings. Since there is no relation between the vacuum energy in the interior of the wall and the width of the domain wall, it is possible to find a model in which the vacuum expectation value of the inflaton field does not exceed the Planck scale. At the same time, the requirement from the COBE measurements of the microwave background anisotropies is crudely

$$\frac{\delta \rho }{\rho }\frac{H^3}{V^{}}\frac{M^6}{M_p^3\varphi _{COBE}m_{3/2}^2}10^5.$$
(2.5)
Here $`\varphi _{COBE}`$ denotes the expectation value of $`\varphi `$ when the COBE scales leave the horizon. Obviously, the above requirement is much looser than the conventional one. One may critically think that the fine-tunings of the parameter is simply replaced by the fine-tunings of the scales. In the context of the string theory, the consistency of the model is ensured by the requirement of additional dimensions. In models with large extra dimensions, the observed Planck mass is obtained by the relation $`M_p^2=M_{}^{n+2}V_n`$, where $`M_{}`$ and $`V_n`$ denote the fundamental scale of gravity and the volume of the $`n`$-dimensional compact space. Assuming more than two extra dimensions, $`M_{}`$ may be close to the TeV scale without conflicting any observable bound. The most natural embedding of this picture in the string theory context will be realized by the brane construction. Thus in the brane world scenario, there is no obvious reason to believe that the fundamental scale is as high as the Planck scale. In this respect, the fundamental scale is the scale that should be determined by observations, rather than the input parameter. We believe that the fundamental scale should be determined by the cosmological requirements.

Our goal in this paper is to find a concrete example, in which the above idea is realized within the natural settings of the brane world.

### 2.1 Non-tachyonic brane inflation due to the D-term

Here we consider non-tachyonic brane inflation in ref., and examine whether one can construct a model that is suitable for our purposes. In general, F-term inflation suffers from the old serious difficulty. In the past, the idea of D-term inflation was invoked to solve the problem of F-term inflation in conventional supergravity. Our model for inflation is a modification of the conventional hybrid inflation. Here we consider an extra dimension $`(y)`$ and a localized Fayet-Iliopoulos term placed at $`y=0`$ of the form

$$\xi D\delta (y),$$
(2.6)
where $`D`$ is an auxiliary field of the vector superfield. We consider an additional abelian gauge group $`U(1)_X`$ in the bulk, while the Fayet-Iliopoulos term for $`U(1)_X`$ is localized on a brane. We also include the fields $`\varphi _X`$ that has the $`U(1)_X`$ charge and localized on the other brane at $`y=y_1`$. When two branes are located at a distance, $`|y_1|>>M_{}^1`$, the Fayet-Iliopoulos term (2.6) breaks supersymmetry on the brane.444Here we temporally ignore the derivative terms.  In this case, as in the conventional models for brane inflation, the inflaton field is the moduli that parametrizes the brane distance. Here we denote the moduli by $`\varphi =M_{}^2y_1`$, where $`M_{}`$ is the fundamental scale. The potential for the inflaton field is flat at the tree level. As we are considering D-term inflation, the mass of the inflaton ($`m_\varphi `$) may be much smaller than the Hubble parameter. Then a modest limit is $`m_\varphi m_{3/2}`$, where $`m_{3/2}`$ is the gravitino mass in the true vacuum. If the extra dimension is $`S^1`$, the resultant domain wall is the $`N=1`$ axionic domain wall that is bounded by the strings. The potential is periodic, and similar to eq.(2.3).

model 2

Let us consider the next example, five-dimensional theory that is made chiral by choosing the right boundary conditions. An abelian gauge multiplet of the five-dimensional gauge sector consists of a vector superfield $`V`$ whose components are the four-dimensional part of the vector gauge field $`A^\mu `$, the left-handed gaugino, auxiliary field $`D`$, and a chiral scalar field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$. The lowest component of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is a complex scalar $`\varphi =(\mathrm{\Sigma }+iA_5)/\sqrt{2}`$, where $`A_5`$ is the fifth component of the vector field. The five-dimensional Lagrangian density is given by

$$\left[\frac{1}{g^2}\left(\mathrm{\Phi }^{}\mathrm{\Phi }\sqrt{2}(\mathrm{\Phi }^{}\mathrm{\Phi })_yVV_y^2V\right)\right]_{\theta ^4}+\left[W_\alpha W^\alpha \right]_{\theta ^2}+h.c.$$
(2.7)
We assume a Fayet-Iliopoulos term on a brane at $`y=0`$, which looks like

$$\left[2\xi V\delta (y)\right]_{\theta ^4}.$$
(2.8)
Here we assume that the fields $`\varphi _X^\pm `$, which have charges of $`\pm q_X`$, are localized on a brane at $`y=L/2`$. The D-flat condition is

$$D=\left[2\xi \delta (y)+\frac{gq_X}{2}(|\varphi _X^+|^2|\varphi _X^{}|^2)\delta (yL/2)+_y\mathrm{\Sigma }\right]=0$$
(2.9)
which is satisfied even though the fields $`\varphi _X^\pm `$ are not located at the brane on which the Fayet-Iliopoulos term is localized. In this case, the explicit form of the solution is $`|\varphi _X^+|^2|\varphi _X^{}|^2=4\xi /gq_X`$, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=\xi ϵ(y)`$. This simple example shows that there is a possibility that supersymmetry can be restored by the derivative terms even if the Fayet-Iliopoulos term and the charged matter field are separated. Such a configuration is possible for five-dimensional models with orbifolded boundary conditions, at least when the Fayet-Iliopoulos term and the charged matter are located exactly at different fixed points. Then we can find two degenerated supersymmetric vacua at each fixed point. The potential for the moduli field $`\varphi `$ is

$$V(\varphi )=M^4\left(1e^{\left(\frac{\varphi }{M_{}}\right)^2}e^{\left(\frac{\varphi M_{}^2L/2}{M_{}}\right)^2}\right).$$
(2.10)
Here the field $`\varphi `$ denotes the moduli for the location of the moving brane on which the fields $`\varphi _X^\pm `$ are localized. The above potential has two degenerated minima at $`\varphi =0`$ and $`\varphi =M_{}^2L/2`$. The potential between the degenerated vacua is almost flat at the tree level, however it may be lifted by the conventional supersymmetry breaking. The situation is precisely the same as eq.(2.3).

## 3 Conclusions and Discussions

In this paper we have considered cosmological brane configurations that induce topological inflation. In generic models for topological inflation, there is a strict bound. In this paper, we show some examples in which a novel type of topological inflation is realized with the unconventional hybrid potential, which avoids the difficulties of the conventional topological inflation.

## 4 Acknowledgment

We wish to thank K.Shima for encouragement, and our colleagues in Tokyo University for their kind hospitality.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Complex fluids, such as foams, emulsions, pastes and slurries, are known to exhibit a rich phenomenology of nonlinear rheological behaviors (Larson, 1999). In particular, similar low frequency shear rheology is observed for a wide range of these soft materials (see Fielding et al., 2000 for a review). For many of these materials, the stress response $`\sigma `$ to a shear strain of constant rate $`\dot{\gamma }`$ is described by $`\sigma =A+B\dot{\gamma }^n`$ that leads to a non-newtonian viscosity (Barnes et al., 1989). This common rheological behavior was recently attributed to two properties of these materials, structural disorder and metastability, resulting in a “glassy” dynamics, where thermal motion alone is not sufficient to achieve complete structural relaxation (Sollich et al., 1997; Sollich, 1998).

Due to long-range interactions, it turns out to be a complex task to predict the nonlinear rheological behavior, including a non-Newtonian viscosity, on the basis of the structure and interactions in these systems. Numerical simulations have allowed to predict the relationship between the material’s microstructure and its macroscopic properties (Brady et al., 2000; Melrose et al., 1995; Melrose et al., 1999). Recently, a different approach to the rheology of these “soft glassy materials” has been developed, starting from a model of a glassy system instead of taking all the interactions – including colloidal and hydrodynamic interactions – into account. Because of both their practical and fundamental interest, the nonlinear rheology of such soft glassy systems subjected to an external drive has recently attracted particular attention. This was done either by extending approaches for the description of glassy dynamics (Sollich et al., 1997; Cugliandolo et al., 1997; Sollich, 1998; Berthier et al., 2000; Barrat and Berthier, 2000; Fielding et al., 2000) or based on phenomenological approaches (Hébraud et al., 1998; Dérec et al., 2001, Coussot et al., 2002). The most interesting situation occurs when the relaxation time scale of the system becomes of the same order of magnitude as the time scale introduced by the shearing process. This usually happens in glassy systems because the typical relaxation time grows together with the waiting time $`t_w`$, that is the time elapsed after a quench from the “liquid” into the “glassy” state.

At rest, the properties of glassy systems thus depend on the waiting time: the system is said to age. Recent theoretical and numerical works, initially developped for supercooled liquids, have allowed for a first detailed description of the aging process (Bouchaud et al., 1996; Kob and Barrat, 1997). Glassy systems exhibit two modes of relaxation : a fast mode corresponding to the fast motion of particles in the ’cages’ constituted by their neighbors and a slow mode of relaxation resulting from the structural rearrangement of these ’cages’. The strongest experimental evidence for the applicability of such predictions (including classical mode-coupling approach) comes from colloidal glasses (Nelson and Allen, 1995; Pusey and Van Megen, 1987; Bonn et al., 1999; Abou et al., 2001). Because of the experimental advantages they present compared to structural glasses, where there are two coupled control parameters, temperature and density, these colloidal glasses have been studied extensively.

In this paper, we investigate experimentally the response of a colloidal glass of Laponite to a steady shear strain of constant rate. The experimental materials and methods are described in Section II. Section III presents the rheological experiments. We discuss our experimental results and conclude in Section IV.

## 2 Materials and methods

The experiments were performed on Laponite RD, a synthetic clay manufactured by Laporte Industry. The chemical composition of the clay is as follows : SiO2, $`65.82\%`$; MgO, $`30.15\%`$; Na2O, $`3.20\%`$; LiO2, $`0.83\%`$ and corresponds to the chemical formula Si8.00 (Mg5.45Li0.40)H4O24Na0.75. The particles of Laponite are colloidal disks of 25 nm diameter and 1 nm thickness, with a negative surface charge on both faces (Kroon et al., 1998). The clay powder was mixed in ultra-pure water and NaCl at different clay concentrations varying between $`2\%`$ wt to $`5\%`$ wt. The ionic strength of the suspension, denoted $`I`$, was subsequently adjusted by dissolution of NaCl in water, in the range $`10^4<I<8.10^3`$ M. The pH value of the suspensions was fixed to pH = 10 by addition of NaOH, providing chemically stable particles (Thompson and Butterworth, 1992; Mourchid and Levitz, 1998). The suspension was stirred vigorously during 15 minutes and then filtered through a Millipore Millex - AA 0.8 $`\mu `$m filter unit. This preparation procedure allows us to obtain a reproducible initial liquid state. The aging time $`t_w=0`$ of the suspension is defined as the moment it passes through the filter. Within a time varying from a few minutes to a few hours for the different concentrations and ionic strengths considered here, a three order of magnitude increase in the suspension viscosity was observed. Being in a liquid state right after preparation, the suspension becomes more and more viscous and does not flow anymore when tumbling the recipient. Since the physical properties of the suspension depend on the time elapsed since preparation $`t_w`$, the sample is said to age. The aging dynamics can be characterised by oscillatory shear experiments in order not to disturb the system. These measurements are performed using small oscillations at a frequency of 1 Hz at an imposed stress of 0.1 Pa. They yield G’ and G”, the elastic and loss moduli respectively. The complex viscosity modulus $`\eta ^{}`$ can be calculated from these quantities from $`\eta ^{}=(G^2+G^{\prime \prime 2})^{1/2}/\omega `$. It can be observed that the viscosity changes very rapidly, by 2 orders of magnitude over about 1 hour, as shown in Figure 1.

Thus, suspensions of Laponite become strongly visco-elastic in time, even at low volume fraction $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ in particles (of the order of $`\mathrm{\Phi }0.01`$). The formation of a gel, evidenced by the existence of a fractal network, has been invoked in explaining the visco-elasticity (Pignon al., 1997; Mourchid and Levitz, 1998). Recently, the structure and viscosity of Laponite suspensions at ionic strength $`I=10^4`$ M were studied by using static light scattering (Bonn et al., 1999). Contrary to previous observations, no evidence for a fractal-like organisation of the particles could be found, provided the suspensions were filtered. Therefore, it has been proposed that Laponite suspensions form so-called repulsive colloidal glasses, stabilised by electrostatic repulsions. In such systems, the ergodicity is lost due to blocking of particle movements by the dense surrounding cages formed by their nearest neighbours. The colloidal glass is obtained for very low volume fraction $`\mathrm{\Phi }0.01`$ compared to those for usual spherical colloids, for which glasses are obtained above $`\mathrm{\Phi }0.5`$ (Pusey and Van Megen, 1987). To account for this difference, one has to consider the effective volume fraction of a particle, which is done by adding to the particle radius the Debye length. To give an order of magnitude, it is estimated to 30 nm for a ionic strength $`I=10^4`$ M. Recent experiments have shown that the location of the glass transition line in the (volume fraction / electrolyte concentration) phase diagram is consistent with this assumption (Levitz et al., 2000).

Addition of salt to a suspension of Laponite disks reduces electrostatic repulsion and can even lead to an attraction. Recently, such short-ranged attractive colloidal systems have received renewed attention in terms of their dynamic properties (Nicolaï and Cocard, 2001). When the strength of short-ranged attraction becomes significantly greater than the thermal energy, the system can form a colloidal gel, in which the particle motions will be completely jammed even at very low bulk volume fractions. The system behaves nonergodic prior to complete blocking of particle dynamics. Therefore, by varying the strength and range of the attractive interactions, a reentrant transition of the liquid glass line and a glass-glass transition can be realized (Dawson et al., 2001).

In this paper, we present mainly experimental results obtained with suspensions of Laponite at $`1.5\%`$ wt, $`I=7.10^3`$ M. Very similar results were obtained with suspensions of Laponite at $`I=10^4`$ M. For the ionic strength considered here, static and dynamic light scattering experiments show that the suspensions form colloidal glasses (Bonn et al., 1999).

## 3 Nonlinear rheology

Shear experiments were performed on a controlled stress rheometer that can also operate in controlled strain mode (Rheologica StressTech), using a Couette geometry or a vane geometry with 1 mm gap in the range $`50<\dot{\gamma }<500`$ s-1, and a Couette geometry with 1 / 8 mm gap in the range $`500<\dot{\gamma }<2000`$ s-1. The tests were carried out at a temperature of $`20.0\pm 0.5^\text{o}`$C. Evaporation of water or CO2 contamination of the sample was completely avoided by covering the sample with vaseline oil and a plate made of Plexiglas.

At $`t_w=0`$, the sample was exposed to a continuous shear strain with a constant rate $`\dot{\gamma }`$ between $`50<\dot{\gamma }<2000`$ s-1. The viscosity of the suspension increased slowly with time and reached a stationary value after some time, as shown in Figure 2. A variation of the viscosity of less than $`1\%`$ per hour was choosen as a criterion for the stationary state to be reached, as this is of the order of magnitude of our measurements precision. This stationary state was obtained after very long times. To give an order of magnitude, for a $`4\%`$ wt suspension at ionic strengh $`I=10^4`$ M, it was reached in about 50 hours. By increasing the particle concentration from $`1.5\%`$ to $`5\%`$, we observed a slight decrease in the time to reach the stationary state. Upon increasing the ionic strength, we were able to reach the stationary state of the system faster, as shown in Figure 2 for a suspension at $`1.5\%`$ wt, with two different ionic strengths.

In order to compare the driven aging dynamics to the spontaneous one, we measured the complex viscosity modulus of the suspension under shear. The experimental procedure was the following : every 30 minutes, we stopped shearing for a very short time (typically 30 s) and performed oscillatory shear experiments, at a frequency of 1 Hz and at an imposed stress of 0.15 Pa, leading to the elastic and loss moduli. This procedure allowed us no to perturb the shearing process. The complex viscosity moduli both for the system that evolves spontaneously and for the system under shear are shown in Figure 3. As the complex viscosity modulus can be taken as a measure of the age of the system, it follows immediately that the aging dynamics under flow is very slow compared to the “spontaneous” aging dynamics : the complex viscosity modulus increase is slower when the system is submitted to an external drive.

If the drive was suppressed once the stationary state was attained, the “spontaneous” aging process again took place as was observed by performing oscillatory shear experiments : the complex viscosity modulus $`\eta ^{}`$ changed very rapidly, by 2 orders of magnitude over about 1 hour, in a similar way to what was observed for the spontaneous aging process.

Starting from different aging times $`t_w`$, a continuous shear strain with the same constant rate was applied to the system : the same non-equilibrium stationary state is attained, characterized by very similar viscosities. Figure 4 shows the rejuvenation and driven aging process under a shear rate $`\dot{\gamma }=500`$ s-1, starting from different aging times. The steady-state viscosity thus appears to only depend on the applied shear rate. As the complex viscosity can be taken as the measure of the age of the system, the corresponding age of the stationary state appears to be power-dependent. When applying the external drive to a suspension aged for a long enough time $`t_w`$, the viscosity decreased in time until the system reached its steady state. During this shearing experiment, we measured the complex viscosity modulus using the same procedure as explained above. The complex viscosity modulus and the dynamic viscosity are shown to evolve in the same direction, they both decrease : so-called rejuvenation of the suspension was observed. It is worth noting that, even by shearing strongly the suspension during hours, in the range $`50<\dot{\gamma }<2000`$ s-1, the initial “liquid” state, obtained at $`t_w=0`$ as described in Section II, was never reached again, the final state being only determined by the rate of the applied shear strain.

The stationary viscosities obtained for different values of the applied shear rate from $`t_w=0`$ are shown in Figure 5. The larger the applied shear rate, the smaller the value of the stationary viscosity and the faster we reach it. If we consider the typical time necessary to obtain the steady state as the time when the viscosity varies less than $`1\%`$, we find that for the constant respective shear rates $`50`$ s-1, $`100`$ s-1 and $`500`$ s-1, times are respectively 10 h, 5 h and 1 h. As a result, it roughly scales with $`1/\dot{\gamma }`$. By reporting the values of the stationary viscosity as a function of the applied shear rate, a shear-thinning behaviour was observed as shown in Figure 6. It can be accurately characterized by a power law $`\eta \dot{\gamma }^\alpha `$, with $`\alpha =0.60\pm 0.10`$ for the different suspensions of Laponite considered here.

## 4 Discussion

From a theoretical point of view, a number of models have been introduced recently to account for the interplay between the drive and the relaxation of the system. Sollich and co-wokers (1997) extended Bouchaud ’s trap model (Bouchaud, 1992; Monthus and Bouchaud, 1996) to driven systems, leading to the ’Soft Glassy Rheology’ (SGR) model (Sollich, 1998; Fielding et al, 2000). Other models that capture many of the observed rheological properties have been introduced (Hébraud et al., 1998; Dérec et al., 2001, Coussot et al., 2002). Cugliandolo et al. (1997) suggested an approach to non-equilibrium systems, in which the non-equilibrium state was generated by ’stirring’ the system. Further theoretical studies on driven mean-field disordered systems and numerical studies on Lennard-Jones glasses allowed for a detailed description of the non-equilibrium behaviour, including rheological properties (Berthier et al., 2000; Barrat and Berthier, 2000). All these models were shown to account well for a number of rheological behaviors in soft glassy materials. In particular, as a result of these theoretical predictions, it is expected that if we inject power into aging systems, there is the possibility of stabilizing the age of the system in a power dependent level : the younger the larger the power input (Bouchaud et al., 1996; Horner, 1996; Sollich, 1998; Kurchan, 1999; Berthier et al., 2000; Dérec et al., 2001). The power injection into the system derives from the applied shear rate. For a vanishingly small drive, however, the slow mode relaxation time, assumed to be proportional to the viscosity, again diverges (Berthier et al., 2000).

These theoretical predictions are confirmed by the experimental results described above. The driving force acting on the system results in the suppression of the aging process. The larger the shear rate, the smaller the stationary viscosity that means the younger the glassy system, as the complex viscosity is known to increase with time $`t_w`$ and can be therefore taken as a measure of its age. Once the drive is suppressed, the spontaneous aging process again takes place. From our experimental results, it appears that the external drive leads to a drastic slowing down of the spontaneous aging dynamics or, in some cases, in the rejuvenation of the system. The occurence of rejuvenation or “driven” aging depends on both the external drive power and the age of the system when applying the external drive. This is completely consistent with phenomenological models in which the final stationary state results from the competition between the spontaneous aging dynamics – that strenghtens the interactions between particles and leads to less and less accessible configurations in phase space as time evolves – and the mechanically induced rejuvenation of the configurations – process going against the spontaneous aging and leading to its slowing down. Coussot and co-workers (2002) have shown that, under imposed stress a bifurcation in rheological behavior occurs: for small stresses, the viscosity increases in time: the material eventually stops flowing. For slightly larger stresses, the viscosity decreases continuously in time: the flow accelerates. Thus, the viscosity jumps discontinuously to infinity at the critical stress, implying also there is a range of shear rates for which the flow is unstable. Here, we work at sufficiently high imposed shear rates so that the flows are stable; no shear banding is observed.

In the experiments, the typical time to reach the stationary state is surprisingly long. Our experiments show that this typical time scales with $`1/\dot{\gamma }`$, result which confirms theoretical expectations and numerical simulations (Berthier et al., 2001). However, the prefactor of $`1/\dot{\gamma }`$ is of the order of $`10^6`$ in a typical experiment and suggests that the applied shear disrupts very large scale structures. We observed that this typical time is of the same order of magnitude than the time necessary for the spontaneous aging dynamics to slow down dramatically. This fact strengthens the idea of a competition, between spontaneous aging and the external drive. Furthermore, these steady-shear experiments disprove a common idea on Laponite suspensions : when taking an “old” suspension, it is not sufficient to stir the system during a few minutes in order to obtain the initial state at $`t_w=0`$, for the shear strain rates considered here.

The shear rejuvenation was studied by using Diffusive Wave Spectroscopy (DWS) in a suspension of Laponite (Bonn et al., 2002). The shear rejuvenation was shown to have a very large effect on the microscopic dynamics. Upon increasing the shear rate, the steady-state relaxation time decreases. In the experiments reported in this paper, the complex viscosity modulus associated to the stationary state was also shown to decrease with the applied shear rate. This is consistent with the DWS experiments, where the measurements allowed us to relate the microscopic diffusion dynamics to the macroscopic viscosity of the system.

In the SGR model, the rheological response of the system depends on the distance from the glass transition temperature $`x`$. If we assume that we are in the immediate vicinity of the glass transition, $`x1`$, the shear-thinning exponent found experimentally is in reasonable agreement with the theory. Berthier et al. (2000) studied, within the framework of the mean-field (or mode-coupling) approximation, the influence of an external drive on a system undergoing a glass transition. Above the glass transition, for high enough shear rates, the slow mode relaxation time $`t_\alpha `$ of the system scales as $`t_\alpha \dot{\gamma }^{2/3}`$. As the dynamic viscosity $`\eta `$ is assumed to be proportional to the slow mode relaxation time, the system has therefore a shear-thinning behavior characterized by the power law $`\eta \dot{\gamma }^{2/3}`$. Very similar results are obtained from molecular dynamics simulations, where the viscosity is directly extracted from the applied shear rate (Barrat and Berthier, 2000; Yamamoto and Onuki, 1998), with $`\eta \dot{\gamma }^{0.9}`$ and $`\eta \dot{\gamma }^{0.8}`$ respectively. The shear-thinning behavior observed experimentally (an exponent between $`0.5`$ and $`0.7`$) is in fair agreement with the above theoretical and numerical predictions.

In conclusion, we have studied experimentally the nonlinear rheological behavior of a glassy system under an external drive. Qualitatively, our experimental results confirm all the findings predicted by the glassy models. They show the competition between the external drive, leading to a mechanically induced rejuvenation of the configurations, and the aging dynamics, leading to a slowing down. Depending on the competitive antagonists, driven aging or rejuvenation may be observed. In addition, the shear-thinning viscosity observed in our experiments agrees quantitatively with at least one simulation result. Since the value of the exponent depends on the exact model that is chosen, the differences with the model calculations may not be very important. The key result is that non-equilibrium models for glassy systems are able to predict a non-Newtonian behavior without taking into account the specific interactions between particles.

## 5 References

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# Trigonometric Solutions of the WDVV Equations from Root Systems

## 1 Introduction

In two-dimensional topological conformal field theory the following remarkable system of third order nonlinear partial differential equations for a function $`F`$ of $`N`$ variables emerged

$$F_iF_1^1F_j=F_jF_1^1F_ii,j=1,\mathrm{},N$$
(1)
Here $`F_i`$ is the matrix

$$(F_i)_{kl}=\frac{^3F}{a_ia_ka_l}.$$

Moreover, it is required that $`F_1`$ is a constant and invertible matrix. Usually this system is called the WDVV equations. Generalizations, not requiring $`F_1`$ to be constant, have been introduced and studied in the context of four- and five-dimensional $`N=2`$ supersymmetric gauge theory.

Although extremely difficult to solve in general, this overdetermined system (1) of nonlinear partial differential equations admits exact solutions. For instance, within the theory of Frobenius manifolds, a substantial class of polynomial solutions has been constructed by Dubrovin  for any Coxeter group. Furthermore, for any gauge group, perturbative approximations to exact prepotentials in four-dimensional Seiberg-Witten theory satisfy the (generalized) WDVV equations. These solutions are of rational type and may be constructed for any root system (see  and ).

In this note we shall construct solutions of system (1) of trigonometric type for any crystallographic root system. This construction is achieved by the introduction of an additional variable and addition of a Weyl invariant correction term to the perturbative prepotential in five-dimensional Seiberg-Witten theory.

## 2 Main result

For our convenience by renumbering the variables we may suppose that $`F_N`$ is constant and invertible instead of $`F_1`$. More precisely we have the following result

### 2.1 Theorem

Let $`R`$ be a crystallographic root system in $`^n`$ and $`W`$ the corresponding Weyl group. Then the function $`F`$ of $`n+1`$ variables $`a_1,\mathrm{},a_n,a_{n+1}`$ given by

$$F(a_1,\mathrm{},a_n,a_{n+1})=\frac{1}{2}\underset{\alpha R}{}f((\alpha ,a))+\gamma (\frac{1}{6}a_{n+1}^3+\frac{1}{2}a_{n+1}(a,a))$$
(2)
satisfies the system (1) of WDVV equations. Here $`(\alpha ,a)=\alpha _1a_1+\mathrm{}+\alpha _na_n`$ is the standard Euclidean inner product in $`^n`$ and $`f`$ is the function given by

$$f(x)=\frac{1}{6}x^3\frac{1}{4}Li_3(e^{2x})=\frac{1}{6}x^3\frac{1}{4}\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{e^{2kx}}{k^3}$$
(3)
so that

$$f^{\prime \prime \prime }(x)=\text{coth}(x).$$
(4)
$`\gamma `$ is some fixed constant satisfying $`\gamma ^2=c`$ for some fixed number $`c`$ depending on the root system $`R`$. For each type of crystallographic root system the value of $`c`$ is given in table 1.

Proof
Obviously the matrix $`F_{n+1}`$ equals $`\gamma I`$, where $`I`$ is the identity matrix. So in this case the WDVV conditions reduce to

$$F_iF_j=F_jF_i$$

and are automatically satisfied if $`i=n+1`$ or $`j=n+1`$. Therefore we may restrict ourselves to $`i,jn`$ and in order that the expression $`F`$ satisfies the WDVV equations the expression

$$\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}F_{ilk}F_{kjm}+F_{il,n+1}F_{n+1,jm}=\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}F_{ilk}F_{kjm}+\gamma ^2\delta _{il}\delta _{jm}$$

should be symmetric in $`i`$ and $`jn`$. In other words we should have

$$\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}(F_{ilk}F_{kjm}F_{jlk}F_{kim})+\gamma ^2(\delta _{il}\delta _{jm}\delta _{jl}\delta _{im})=0$$
(5)
The left hand side of the equation (5) above is anti symmetric in $`l`$ and $`m`$, thus this condition is equivalent to

$$\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}F_{ilk}F_{kjm}F_{jlk}F_{kim}F_{imk}F_{kjl}+F_{jmk}F_{kil}+2\gamma ^2(\delta _{il}\delta _{jm}\delta _{jl}\delta _{im})=0$$
(6)
Since

$$F_{ilk}=\frac{1}{2}\underset{\alpha R}{}f^{\prime \prime \prime }((\alpha ,x))\alpha _i\alpha _l\alpha _k(i,l,kn)$$

where $`f^{\prime \prime \prime }(u)=\mathrm{coth}(u)`$, a simple calculation shows that this condition becomes

$$\frac{1}{4}\underset{\alpha R,\beta R}{}f^{\prime \prime \prime }((\alpha ,x))f^{\prime \prime \prime }((\beta ,x))(\alpha ,\beta )(\alpha _i\beta _j\alpha _j\beta _i)(\alpha _l\beta _m\alpha _m\beta _l)+2\gamma ^2(\delta _{il}\delta _{jm}\delta _{jl}\delta _{im})=0$$
(7)
Considering only positive roots we finally should have

$$\underset{\alpha >0,\beta >0}{}f^{\prime \prime \prime }((\alpha ,x))f^{\prime \prime \prime }((\beta ,x))(\alpha ,\beta )(\alpha _i\beta _j\alpha _j\beta _i)(\alpha _l\beta _m\alpha _m\beta _l)=2\gamma ^2(\delta _{jl}\delta _{im}\delta _{il}\delta _{jm})$$
(8)
For a moment we restrict our attention to the left hand side of the last equality (8). We split this expression into a partition of pairs of positive roots $`\alpha >0,\beta >0`$ such that the product $`s_\alpha s_\beta `$ of the corresponding Weyl reflections $`s_\alpha ,s_\beta `$ equals a $`w`$ in the Weyl group $`W`$. So we split the sum into

$$\underset{wW}{}\underset{\begin{array}{c}\alpha >0,\beta >0\\ s_\alpha s_\beta =w\end{array}}{}f^{\prime \prime \prime }((\alpha ,x))f^{\prime \prime \prime }((\beta ,x))(\alpha ,\beta )(\alpha _i\beta _j\alpha _j\beta _i)(\alpha _l\beta _m\alpha _m\beta _l)$$
(9)
Applying the Dunkl identity (see Matsuo , proof of proposition 3.3.1) we see that this sum (9) equals

$$\underset{wW}{}\underset{\begin{array}{c}\alpha >0,\beta >0\\ s_\alpha s_\beta =w\end{array}}{}(\alpha ,\beta )(\alpha _i\beta _j\alpha _j\beta _i)(\alpha _l\beta _m\alpha _m\beta _l)$$
(10)
and simplifying this sum again, it equals

$$\frac{1}{4}\underset{\alpha R,\beta R}{}(\alpha ,\beta )(\alpha _i\beta _j\alpha _j\beta _i)(\alpha _l\beta _m\alpha _m\beta _l)$$
(11)
We want to evaluate this last expression. To this end we introduce the homogeneous $`4`$-form $`A`$ by

$$\frac{1}{4}\underset{\alpha R,\beta R}{}(\alpha ,\beta )((\alpha ,x)(\beta ,y)(\alpha ,y)(\beta ,x))((\alpha ,u)(\beta ,v)(\alpha ,v)(\beta ,u))=A(x,y;u,v)$$

Obviously the form $`A`$ is antisymmetric in $`x,y`$ and in $`u,v`$. Moreover it is invariant under the Weyl group $`W`$ and under permutation of $`x,y`$ by $`u,v`$. Consequently a small calculation shows that we necessarily have

$$A(x,y;u,v)=c((x,u)(y,v)(x,v)(y,u))$$
(12)
for some fixed constant $`c`$. With respect to the Euclidean coordinates $`e_1,\mathrm{},e_n`$ this means that the expression (11) equals

$$c(\delta _{il}\delta _{jm}\delta _{jl}\delta _{im})$$

Hence the WDVV condition (8) reduces to $`c=2\gamma ^2`$. This completes the proof of the theorem.

The precise value of $`c`$ is evaluated with the help of appendix of Bourbaki  and is listed in table 1.

The numbers listed in this table are in agreement with the results in the paper .

### 2.2 Remark

We may insert a $`W`$-invariant set of complex numbers, i.e. $`k_{w\alpha }=k_\alpha (wW)`$ into the expression $`F`$ in (2) in the following way

$$F(a_1,\mathrm{},a_n,a_{n+1})=\frac{1}{2}\underset{\alpha R}{}k_\alpha f((\alpha ,a))+\gamma (\frac{1}{6}a_{n+1}^3+\frac{1}{2}a_{n+1}(a,a))$$
(13)
The proof of the theorem has to be modified in a rather obvious way. Note that the Dunkl identity remains in force in this case. Of course the value of $`\gamma `$ has to be modified correspondingly.