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# The transverse velocity and excitation structure of the HH 110 jet Based on observations made with the 4.2 m William Herschel Telescope operated on La Palma by the Issac Newton Group of Telescopes at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias.

## 1 Introduction

The HH 110 jet is found in L1647, in the Orion B cloud complex. There is some evidence that this object corresponds to the early stages of a jet-cloud collision. The jet presents a rather complex morphology in H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] images (Reipurth & Olberg 1991), with noticeable wiggles along its length, being suggestive of a turbulent flow. This object shows a very different morphology in near-infrared images (Davis et al. 1994, Noriega-Crespo et al. 1996). In the molecular hydrogen lines, the jet is nearly straight and the molecular emission appears shifted westward relative to the optical emission. The morphological differences and the displacement between the optical and near infrared emissions have been interpreted as the result of a grazing collision between the jet and a dense molecular cloud core. In this scenario, the jet strikes the molecular core and is deflected. The H2 emission is tracing the region where the atomic and molecular gas interact (Raga & Cantó 1995). This proposed scenario is actually reinforced by observational evidences, and has recently been modeled in some detail (Raga et al. 2002).

The morphology of HH 110 first suggested that the driving jet source would be embedded in the dark lane, north of the apex of the flow. However, searches at optical, near infrared and radio continuum wavelengths have failed to detect a driving source along the HH 110 flow axis. Later on, Reipurth et al. (1996) reported the discovery of another jet, HH 270, located $`3^{}`$ northeast of HH 110. An embedded near infrared source, very close to IRAS 05489+0256, is found along the HH 270 flow axis. Based on the morphology and on the direction of the proper motions of HH 270 (which point toward the apex of HH 110), Reipurth et al. (1996) proposed that HH 270 and HH 110 are associated. The HH 270 flow, driven by the embedded source, could be having a grazing collision with a dense molecular clump, through which the jet is deflected into the HH 110 flow (Raga et al. 2002).

Further observational results also are in agreement with this scenario. Rodríguez et al. (1998) detected centimeter radio continuum emission at the position of the embedded near infrared source. This radio continuum source (VLA 1) appears sligthly elongated in the NE-SW direction, with the major axis aligned with the HH 270 flow axis. This suggests that the VLA 1 source traces the base of the flow giving rise to the HH 270/HH 110 system. On the other hand, Sepúlveda (2001) detected, through ammonia mapping, a high density clump of molecular gas which is spatially associated with the HH 110 flow, being located in the region where HH 270 abruptly changes its direction to emerge as HH 110. This high density gas, traced by the ammonia emission, could be responsible for the deflection of the HH 270 flow.

Choi (2001) has obtained HCO+ interferometric maps, and does not detect emission in the crossing point of the HH 270 and HH 110 flow axes. Choi points out that this result is in apparent contradiction with the “deflected jet” interpretation of these flows. However, Raga et al. (2002) suggest that this result is not necessarily in contradiction with the deflected jet model, since the impact point might have moved into the dense cloud, so that it would now lie to the West of the HH 110 axis (where Choi 2001 does detect extended HCO+ emission).

The HH 110 jet seems to be suitable for searching for the observational signatures of entrainment and turbulence (as predicted by theoretical models) by studying the kinematics and the excitation structure along and across the jet axis. In this paper, we present the results obtained from long-slit, high resolution spectroscopy of the HH 110 jet. We have obtained spectra for slit positions both along and across the jet beam, allowing us to measure the spatially resolved radial velocities and emission line ratios along and across the jet. The observations are described in Sect. 2, and the results are presented in Sect. 3. Finally, the results are discussed in Sect. 4.

The data discussed in this paper represent a significant step forward with respect to previous spectroscopic observations of HH 110. As far as we are aware, the only published spectra of this object are the low resolution spectrum of Reipurth & Olberg (1991) and the high resolution spectrum of Reipurth et al. (1996), both corresponding to a single slit position along the outflow axis. We are now presenting high resolution spectroscopy with substantially more extensive spatial coverage, consisting of several slit positions both along and across the outflow axis. Throughout the paper, we attempt to compare our results (at the appropriate spatial positions) with the ones obtained from the spectrum of Reipurth et al. (1996), and the line intensities obtained from our spectra with the narrow band images of Reipurth et al. (1996) and Noriega-Crespo et al. (1996).

## 2 Observations

Long-slit, high resolution spectra of the HH 110 jet were obtained during the nights of December 12 and 13, 1998. The red arm of the double-armed spectrograph ISIS (Carter, Benn, & Rutten et al. 1994) and a Tektronics CCD detector of $`1024\times 1024`$ pixels (pixel size of 24 $`\mu `$m) were used at the Cassegrain focus of the 4.2 m William Herschel Telescope (WHT) at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos (La Palma, Spain). The high resolution grating R1200R (dispersion 17 Å mm-1) centered at 6600 Å was employed, covering the H$`\alpha `$, \[N II\] 6548, 6583 Å and \[S II\] 6717, 6731 Å lines and providing a spectral sampling of 0.41 Å pixel-1 (equivalent to 20 km s-1 at H$`\alpha `$). The spatial sampling was 0.36′′ pixel-1 and the seeing had a FWHM of $`2^{\prime \prime }`$ to $`3^{\prime \prime }`$. The spectrograph slit had a projected width of $`1^{\prime \prime }.5`$.

Spectra of the HH 110 jet were obtained at different positions: in one of these positions, the slit was placed along the central axis of the jet. For the rest of the spectra, the slit was positioned perpendicular to the jet axis and each of these spectra was obtained cutting the jet beam across a bright knot (see Table 1 and Fig. 1). This means that, for the first time, we were able to study the kinematic and excitation structure across the flow.

The spectra were reduced using the standard tasks for long-slit spectroscopy within the IRAF package111IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under a contract agreement with the National Science Foundation, that includes bias substraction, flat-fielding correction, wavelength calibration and sky substraction. The spectra were corrected for cosmic ray events by median filtering several exposures obtained at the same slit position. The spectra were not flux calibrated.

The results obtained from these observations are described in the following section.

## 3 Results

### 3.1 Structure along the HH 110 jet

In Fig. 2, we present the H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] 6717 Å PV (position-velocity) diagrams along the jet axis. We have used the nomenclature of Reipurth & Olberg (1991) for the knots, the most prominent of which are identified in Fig. 2. The radial velocities are relative to the ambient molecular cloud which has a heliocentric radial velocity of 23 km s-1 (Reipurth & Olberg 1991). Our PV diagrams are consistent with the \[S II\] PV diagram of Reipurth et al. (1996).

Fig. 2 shows a change in radial velocity along knot A, with a decrease of 25 km s-1 (from $``$48 to $``$23 km s-1) in $`1\stackrel{}{.}7`$. Such an effect was already noted by Reipurth et al. (1996). From Fig. 2, we also see that the FWHM of the \[S II\] 6717 Å emission line has the highest values at knots B and C, with a value of $``$ 90 km s-1, and decreases to a value of 70 km s-1 at knot H, in clear agreement with the results of Reipurth et al. (1996). Beyond knot H, the line width remains approximately constant. We should note that these line widths are well resolved with our 30 km s-1 effective spectral resolution.

Fig. 3 shows the radial velocities (with respect to the molecular cloud) corresponding to the peaks of the H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] 6717 Å line profiles along the HH 110 jet. All knots show blueshifted emission lines, with relatively small radial velocity variations along the axis of the jet.

The radial velocity of knot B is of $``$ $``$25 km s-1, and it increases (in modulus) at the position of knot C to $``$ $``$43 km s-1 in \[S II\] (see Fig. 3). Knot H has a radial velocity of $``$ $``$50 km s-1. At the location of knot M, the \[S II\] and H$`\alpha `$ lines show a range of radial velocities, between $``$ $``$50 km s-1 and $``$60 km s-1. Knot N has a radial velocity of $``$ $``$55 km s-1. Knot P shows a range of radial velocities from $``$65 to $``$55 km s-1.

Finally, knot Q has a radial velocity of $``$50 km s-1 in H$`\alpha `$ and $``$10 km s-1 in \[S II\]. This difference appears to be a result of the fact that at the position of knot Q, two components with different radial velocities are seen in both the H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] line profiles. While in H$`\alpha `$ the high radial velocity component is dominant, in the \[S II\] lines the low velocity component is much brighter, resulting in the low radial velocity determined from the \[S II\] lines.

Fig. 3 reveals that the variation of radial velocities with distance along HH 110 is qualitatively similar (with the exception of knot Q) for the H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] emission lines. In both cases, the jet accelerates with distance along the jet from $``$20 to $``$65 km s-1 (with respect to the molecular cloud).

In Fig. 4, we present the velocity integrated line ratios for various knots, as derived from the long-slit spectra. The \[N II\] 6583 / H$`\alpha `$, the \[S II\] (6717+6731) / H$`\alpha `$, and the \[S II\] 6717 / 6731 emission line ratios are plotted as a function of position along the slit. The emission line ratios obtained at December 12 and 13 are similar to each other (implying that the slit positions probably were almost coincident). In Figures 4 and 5 we show the average of both spectra (with error estimates based on the statistical error as well as on the differences between the two observations), and the following discussion is also based on the average of both spectra. For comparison, we have also included the results from Reipurth et al. (1996).

The \[N II\] 6583 / H$`\alpha `$ emission line ratio has a value of $``$ 0.12 in the bright knot A. This ratio increases in knot B, and decreases further out at the position of knot C. This ratio is $``$ 0.20 at the position of knot H, and it increases to $``$ 0.40 at knot M. At the position of knots N and P the \[N II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratio has an approximately constant value ($``$ 0.25) and decreases beyond knot P.

The trend of variation of the \[N II\] 6583 / H$`\alpha `$ emission line ratio with angular distance is consistent with the results of Reipurth et al. (1996). However, the values reported by Reipurth et al. (1996) are significantly lower than our values.

The overall trend of variation of the \[S II\] / H$`\alpha `$ emission along the length of the slit shows an almost constant value for the brightest knots (knots A, B, and C), where the ratio is $``$ 0.50. The \[S II\] / H$`\alpha `$ emission line ratio rapidly increases along knots H and M, to values of $``$ 0.80. The \[S II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratio decreases at larger distances (at the position of knots N, P and Q).

Fig. 4 illustrates the differences between our results and the \[S II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratio trend along the HH 110 jet derived by Reipurth et al. (1996). We observe a rapid increase of the \[S II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratio from knot B to the location of knots H-M, and a linear decrease beyond knot M, while Reipurth et al. (1996) obtained a slow increase from knot B to knot M and a rapid decrease beyond knot M. Moreover, our \[S II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratios are significantly higher than the values reported by Reipurth et al. (1996).

Fig. 4 also shows the \[S II\] 6717 / 6731 emission line ratios along the HH 110 jet. A first glance at the \[S II\] 6717 / 6731 plot shows a rapid increase of this ratio (and, consequently, a rapid decrease of the electron density) with increasing distance along the jet. The electron density decreases from $``$ 865 cm-3 in knot A to $``$ 640 cm-3 in knot B, with a lower value of $``$ 415 cm-3 in knot C. The \[S II\] 6717 / 6731 ratio increases at knot H, and consequently the electron density decreases to a value of $``$ 270 cm-3. The electron density increases at knots M and N (with values of $``$ 500 cm-3). The other knots show smaller electron densities ($``$ 150 cm-3 in knot P and $``$ 50 cm-3 in knot Q).

The overall behaviour of the electron density along the jet axis is qualitatively similar to the measurements of Reipurth et al. (1996), who also found an almost continous decrease of the electron density along the axis of HH 110. However, our electron density values are somewhat lower than the values reported by Reipurth et al. (1996).

Finally, Fig. 5 illustrates the behaviour of the \[N II\] 6583 / \[S II\] (6717+6731) (hereafter \[N II\] / \[S II\]) ratio (which is a measure of the excitation of the spectrum) along the axis of HH 110. The \[N II\] / \[S II\] ratio shows a monotonic increase with distance from a value $``$ 0.20 (at knot A) to $``$ 0.50 (at knots P and Q), with the exception of knot B which shows a \[N II\] / \[S II\] line ratio of $``$ 0.45, which lies well above the prevailing trend.

### 3.2 Structure across the HH 110 jet: knots B and C

First, we study the PV diagrams and the variation of the \[N II\] 6583 / H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] (6717+6731) / H$`\alpha `$ emission line ratios and the electron density as a function of position across the jet at knots B and C, which lie closer to the base of the HH 110 jet than the other knots, and where the jet shows a well collimated morphology (see Fig. 1).

In Fig. 6 we present the PV diagrams across the beam of the jet. These measurements were obtained with spectrograph slit positions “sb” and “sc” (see Fig. 1 and Table 1), which intersect the jet at knots B and C, respectively. The distances were measured from the H$`\alpha `$ intensity peak (located at 0.0 in the Fig. 6). We should remember that the molecular cloud is located towards the west (i.e., positive values of $`y`$).

The H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] emission lines of knots B and C are characterised by the presence of a peak and a weak asymmetrical emission which extends eastwards. In the PV diagrams of knots B and C (see Fig. 6), we clearly see that the \[S II\] emission extends out to 6′′ from the peak of the knot towards the west, and to $``$ 9′′ towards the east. We also see that the H$`\alpha `$ emission extends 10′′ further out to the east. The secondary emission we have detected in H$`\alpha `$ corresponds to the faint emission detected east of knots B and C in the H$`\alpha `$ image obtained by Reipurth & Olberg (1991, who labeled this region as X and Y).

The H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] 6717 Å PV diagrams of knots B and C show an approximately constant radial velocity across the knots (see Fig. 6). The radial velocities (i.e. the mean values of the bright central regions of knots B and C) have values of $``$ $``$30 km s-1. These radial velocities are consistent within the errors with the velocity values derived for knots B and C from the spectra obtained along the axis of the jet (see Sect. 3.1). We see an increase of the radial velocity (in modulus) by 20 km s-1 from the central part of knot B towards the edges (see Fig. 6), while no significant variation is observed across knot C.

Across knot B from west to east, the \[N II\] 6583 / H$`\alpha `$ emission line ratio first increases from 0.20 to 0.30 in $``$ 3′′ and then rapidly decreases (see Fig. 7). The maximum of the \[N II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratio is displaced by $``$ $`0\stackrel{}{.}8`$ towards the west with respect the central peak of the H$`\alpha `$ intensity.

The \[S II\] (6717 + 6731) / H$`\alpha `$ ratio shows a similar, but less pronounced, variation across knot B (see Fig. 7). This ratio first increases from $``$ 0.40 to 0.55 in $``$ 4′′, and then decreases eastwards to a value of $``$ 0.40 at $``$4′′ from the central position.

Knot B has an almost constant \[S II\] 6717 / 6731 line ratio of $``$ 0.95 (see Fig. 7) across the central bright region, corresponding to a $`n_e`$ $``$ 700 cm-3. The density decreases at $`y\pm `$ 2′′, where \[S II\] 6717 / 6731 $``$ 1.17 (e.g., $`n_e`$ $``$ 300 cm-3).

The \[N II\] / \[S II\] line ratio decreases across knot B from $``$ 0.60 at 2′′ west of the central peak (i.e. $`y=0`$) to $``$ 0.25 at 4′′ east of the central peak.

Across knot C, the \[N II\] 6583 / H$`\alpha `$ emission line ratio is significantly lower than the corresponding values for knot B, which is in agreement with the results obtained from the spectrum along the axis of the jet. The \[N II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratio slightly increases moving eastwards across the bright, central region (see Fig. 7), and then decreases further estwards. A larger variation across knot C was found for the \[S II\] (6717+6731) / H$`\alpha `$ ratio, which increases across the central region (see Fig. 7) and then decreases further eastwards. The maximum of the \[S II\] / H$`\alpha `$ distribution is located at $``$ $`1\stackrel{}{.}4`$ east of the H$`\alpha `$ central peak.

At the central position of knot C, the \[S II\] 6717 / 6731 ratio is $``$ 1.08 (see Fig. 7), and therefore the electron density has a value of $``$ 450 cm-3. The \[S II\] 6717 / 6731 ratio increases towards both sides, adopting a value $``$ 1.35 at $`\pm `$ 4′′ from the centre (i. e., $`n_e`$ $``$ 100 cm-3). The \[N II\] / \[S II\] emission line ratio decreases across knot C from west to east, from $``$ 0.40 to 0.20 across 5′′.

The results found in this section therefore are:

* the radial velocities of knots B and C are approximately constant across the width of the jet,
* the \[N II\] / H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratios show an increase across knots B and C moving from west to east (along $``$ 6′′),
* the electron densities are constant in the brightest region of knots B and C, which are surrounded by lower density gas,
* the \[N II\] / \[S II\] emission line ratios across knots B and C show a similar trend, with a west to east decrease (i.e., a decrease of the excitation of the spectrum).

### 3.3 Structure across HH 110: knots I, J, P and Q

At a position of 25′′ south of knot A, the jet widens in a cone with a large opening angle. The slit positions “sd” and “se” (see Fig. 1 and Table 1) show emission extending $`30^{\prime \prime }`$ in \[S II\] cutting across knots I and J (slit position “sd”), and also across knot P (slit position “se”). The spectrum across knot P also shows emission arising from the northern edge of knot Q (see Fig. 1).

In Fig. 8 we present the PV diagrams across the beam of the jet at the position of knots I and J, and P and Q. Across knot J, we see a clear trend of decreasing radial velocities (in modulus) moving from west to east. In the western edge of knot J we measure a \[S II\] 6717 Å radial velocity of $``$55 km s-1, and at a position $``$ 9′′ to the east this velocity has a value of $``$ $``$25 km s-1. In knot I, the peak of the \[S II\] 6717 Å emission has a velocity of $``$ $``$70 km s-1, and the H$`\alpha `$ emission has a radial velocity of $``$ $``$85 km s-1.

Fig. 8 also shows the PV diagram across knots P and Q. The H$`\alpha `$ radial velocity as a function of position shows an S-shaped structure, with a peak value (in modulus) of $``$67 km s-1 and a minimum value of $``$40 km s-1. The peak of knot P (located at $`y=0`$) has a radial velocity of $``$55 km s-1. The \[S II\] radial velocities have a similar dependence with position, but have values which are systematically less negative by 10 km s-1.

Fig. 9 shows the \[N II\] 6583 / H$`\alpha `$, \[S II\] (6717+6731) / H$`\alpha `$, and \[S II\] 6717 / 6731 emission line ratios across knots J+I, and P+Q. The \[N II\] 6583 / H$`\alpha `$ ratio increases as a function of distance across knots I and J (from west to east). The \[N II\] 6583 / H$`\alpha `$ ratio increases across knot I (from west to east) up to a value of $``$ 0.30. The \[N II\] 6583 / H$`\alpha `$ ratio rapidly decreases (from west to east) across knot J (see Fig. 9), decreasing from 0.30 to a value of 0.075 along $`7\stackrel{}{.}0`$.

The \[S II\] (6717+6731) / H$`\alpha `$ line ratio also shows a linear increase across knot I and across the gas between the two knots (increasing from 0.30 to 0.65 over 12′′, see Fig. 9). From the western to the eastern edge of knot J, the \[S II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratio decreases from 0.6 to 0.2.

The \[N II\] / \[S II\] emission line ratio changes abruptly at the position of the H$`\alpha `$ peak of knot I, showing a value of $``$ 0.20 to the west and $``$ 0.40 to the east. At the position of knot J, the \[N II\] / \[S II\] ratio has a constant value of $``$ 0.45.

The \[S II\] 6717 / 6731 line ratio shows an overall increasing trend from west to east (see Fig. 9). The electron density has a mean value $``$ 100 cm-3 at the position of knot I. We see a W-E trend of increasing \[S II\] 6717/6731 line ratio across knot J, with electron densities decreasing from $``$ 100 cm-3 to $`<`$ 60 cm-3.

Fig. 9 also illustrates the variation of the \[N II\] 6583 / H$`\alpha `$ ratio as a function of position across knot P. Along the western edge of knot P, from west to east, the \[N II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratio shows two peaks. The higher peak is displaced $`3^{\prime \prime }`$ to the west of the central part of knot P. The lower peak approximately coincides with knot Q (even though this knot does not lie right on the position of our spectrograph slit, see Fig. 1).

The \[S II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratio rapidly decreases from west to east across knot P from a value $`>`$ 1.3 (at the western edge) to 0.7 (at the location of the H$`\alpha `$ maximum, see Fig. 9). Across knot Q, the \[S II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratio is $``$ 0.9, and smoothly decreases to the east of the knot.

The \[S II\] 6717 / 6731 ratio increases across knot P (from west to east), with values of $``$ 1.25 to 1.35 along 6′′ (see Fig. 9) . The electron densities range from 200 cm-3 to 80 cm-3. The \[N II\] / \[S II\] emission line ratio first increases eastwards, and then maintains a more or less constant value of $`0.40`$ across the brighter regions of knots P and Q.

The results found in this section therefore are:

* the radial velocities of knots I and J decrease from west to east, while the PV diagram of knot P shows a S-shaped structure,
* the \[N II\] / H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratios increase across knots I and J moving from west to east, and show an overall decreasing trend across knot P,
* the electron densities decrease from from west to east across knots I, J and P,
* the \[N II\] / \[S II\] emission line ratios abruptly change at the position of knot I (from a value of $``$ 0.20 west to 0.40 east of the knot), and this ratio is more or less constant across the bright regions of knot P.

### 3.4  The spatial displacements between the H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] spatial intensity distributions

Noriega-Crespo et al. (1996) pointed out the differences observed between the intensity distribution of the optical emission (H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\]) and the H2 emission along and across the axis of the HH 110 jet. An inspection of their Figs. 3, 4 and 5 also shows clear differences between the H$`\alpha `$ and the \[S II\] emission lines.

In the following, we explore the differences between the spatial distributions of the H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] velocity integrated intensities (see Fig. 10) across the axis of the HH 110 jet, as obtained from the spectra with slit positions “sb”-”se” (see Table 1).

In Fig. 10 (top left panel) we show the H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] intensity distribution over the cross section of the jet at knot C. This graph reveals the apparent spatial separation between both distributions. We observe a clear offset in position of the intensity peaks, with the \[S II\] intensity maximum at $`0\stackrel{}{.}5`$ towards the east with respect to the H$`\alpha `$ peak. For knot B, we observe a similar spatial distribution in H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\], in agreement with the results obtained by Noriega-Crespo et al. (1996).

For knot P, we find a displacement between the H$`\alpha `$ and the \[S II\] 6717 Å spatial intensity distributions (see Fig. 10, top right panel). We observe a clear offset (by $`0\stackrel{}{.}8`$) between the position of the intensity maximum seen in H$`\alpha `$ and in \[S II\] 6717 Å. In contrast to the spatial displacement observed across knot C, the \[S II\] peak is displaced towards the west with respect to the H$`\alpha `$ peak, again in agreement with the results of Noriega-Crespo et al. (1996).

Finally, across knot J we observed the largest spatial offset between the H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] spatial intensity distribution (see Fig. 10, bottom right panel), while no offset is observed across knot I. Across knot J, the \[S II\] peak is offset by $`2\stackrel{}{.}0`$ westwards from the H$`\alpha `$ peak.

The values of the observed displacements between the H$`\alpha `$ and the \[S II\] 6717 Å spatial intensity distributions should be taken with some caution due to the $`23^{\prime \prime }`$ angular resolution of our observations. However, we do find a good agreement between the spatial displacements shown in our spectra and the results of Noriega-Crespo et al. (1996). This agreement appears to confirm the reality of the spatial displacements which we see in our spectra.

## 4 Discussion and Conclusions

As we have described in the previous sections, the HH 110 jet has a very complex structure, with detailed, spatially dependent radial velocities, line intensities and line ratios. Let us now describe the general trends that can be deduced from the detailed structure.

The result that is most clear is that the radial velocity has a largely monotonic trend of larger (i. e., more negative) velocities as a function of position along the jet (see Sect. 3.1). The velocity goes from a value of $`20`$ km s-1 for knot A to $`65`$ km s-1 in knot P. If we consider that the jet has a mean radial velocity (with respect to the cloud) $`<v_r>=42`$ km s-1, one can use the mean proper motion $`<v_p>=83`$ km s-1 determined by Reipurth et al. (1996), we obtained a $`\varphi =27^{}`$ between the outflow axis and the plane of the sky. On the other hand, if we consider the radial velocities and proper motions of the H, M and P knots (which are the knots with the better determined proper motions) to obtain an inclination angle $`\varphi _H=22^{}`$, $`\varphi _M=41^{}`$ and $`\varphi _P=38^{}`$, respectively. Interestingly, averaging these three values we obtain an angle of $`34\pm 8^{}`$ which is consistent within the errors with the $`27^{}`$ orientation angle calculated with the mean radial velocity and proper motion (see above).

Adopting a $`\varphi =35^{}`$ angle between the outflow axis and the plane of the sky, we can deproject the measured radial velocities, and conclude that the HH 110 flow accelerates from a velocity of 35 km s-1 in knot A up to 110 km s-1 in knot P (knot A and P being separated by $`130^{\prime \prime }`$). This acceleration could be the result of a time-dependent ejection velocity from the outflow source (with ejection velocity decreasing as a function of time). Another possible explanation for such a velocity vs. position trend has been suggested by Raga et al. (2002), who modeled HH 110 as a wake left behind by a short-lived deflected jet, which is pinched off as the incident jet starts to penetrate the dense cloud which produced the jet deflection.

The radial velocity cross sections of the jet (see Sects. 3.2 and 3.3), show an almost constant velocity for knots B and C, a velocity change from W to E of $`60`$ km s-1 (corresponding to a deprojected value of $`100`$ km s-1) for knots I and J, and a more complicated, S-shaped cross section spanning a $`30`$ km s-1 velocity range (corresponding to a deprojected value of $`50`$ km s-1) for knot P.

The \[S II\] line ratio along the HH 110 jet shows a more or less monotonic drop of the electron density in the downstream direction (see Sect. 3.1). The \[S II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratio first grows, reaching a maximum of $`0.8`$ in knots H-M, and then drops along the jet axis. The \[N II\] / H$`\alpha `$ ratio has a qualitatively similar behaviour, showing a maximum in knot M. The \[N II\] / \[S II\] ratio shows a more or less monotonic growth down the jet axis.

The \[S II\] line ratio across the jet (see Sect. 3.3) shows that across knots B and C we have a dense ($`450700`$ cm-3), central region of the jet beam, with lower density ($`100300`$ cm-3) regions on both sides. In knots I, J and P, the electron density grows monotonically from E to W (from $`50`$ to 200 cm-3). The other measured line ratios show quite complex cross sections.

If we compare the cross sections of the emission of the different lines, we find that the maxima sometimes coincide (knot B and I), but that in other cases there are shifts of $`0\stackrel{}{.}5`$-$`2^{\prime \prime }`$ between the maxima of H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] (knots C, J and P, see Sect. 3.4).

From the above discussion, we see that while there are systematic trends along the HH 110 jet for both the radial velocities and the emission line ratios, no clear trends are seen across the width of the jet beam. The cross sections of the jet (taken at different positions along the HH 110 jet) show complex radial velocity and line emission structures, which differ quite strongly from each other.

Given the complex structures that are observed, it does not appear to be reasonable to compare them with simple models of plane-parallel shock waves, or with “mixing-length” models of turbulent mixing layers. For example, the analytic turbulent mixing layer model of Noriega-Crespo et al. (1996) predicts that there should be a systematic velocity increase from W to E across the section of the HH 110 flow. Also, the model predicts that there should be a systematic W to E increase in the excitation of the emitted spectrum. Such systematic trends might be partially present in our data, but they mostly show complex cross sections which differ from each other at different positions along the HH 110 flow. For example, we do see that the \[N II\] / \[S II\] ratio increases from W to E, and we detect spatial offsets between the maxima of the H$`\alpha `$ and \[S II\] emission cross sections, in qualitative agreement with the mixing layer model of Noriega-Crespo et al. (1996). However, we do not see clear trends in the radial velocity across the HH 110 flow.

We should note that one might expect to have large discrepancies between observations of a turbulent flow (which would correspond to a “snapshot” of the turbulent eddies) and the predictions from a “mixing length” turbulent mixing layer model (which attempts to describe the properties of a smooth, ensemble-averaged “mean flow”). Therefore, it is difficult to use comparisons between observations and this type of models to prove or disprove whether the emission from HH 110 is indeed formed in a turbulent mixing layer.

A possible approach would be to compute 3D models of a jet/cloud interaction similar to the ones of Raga et al. (2002), but including a description of the S II and N II ions, so as to be able to obtain predictions of the observed emission lines. From such a simulation, one could explore whether or not the complex properties which we have discussed above are consistent with a jet/cloud collision scenario.

As noted by Raga et al. (2002), a model of a jet/cloud collision does produce a “pinched-off” deflected jet beam that has properties which resemble the H$`\alpha `$ and H2 1-0 s(1) emission of HH 110. Such a model also produces an apparent “acceleration” along the flow, which is the characteristic signature of the wake left behind the pinched-off deflected jet beam. Our data do show this acceleration, which is also seen in the proper motions of Reipurth et al. (1996).

The spectroscopic data presented in this paper, however, give a much more detailed description of the kinematics and excitation of HH 110. It will be necessary to compute new models (with higher resolution and a more detailed treatment of the atomic/ionic processes) in order to see whether or not these observations agree in detail with the predictions from a jet/cloud interaction model.

###### Acknowledgements.

The work of RE, RL and AR was supported by CGICYT grant PB 98-0670-C02 and MCyT grant AYA2002-00205 (Spain). The work of GA was supported by CGICYT grant PB 98-0670-C02 (Spain). RE and AR acknowledges support from the ACI 2000-8 Direcció General de Recerca (Spain). GA acknowledges support from Junta de Andalucía (Spain). The work of ACR was supported by CONACyT grants 34566-E and 36572-E.


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# Invariants of the Kerr Vacuum

## Abstract

The Kerr vacuum has two independent invariants derivable from the Riemann tensor without differentiation. Both of these invariants must be examined in order to avoid an erroneous conclusion that the ring singularity of this spacetime is “directional”.

Recently Schmidt schmidt  has reminded us, by way of a simple example, that the square of the Weyl tensor can be negative. This behavior is a well known property of the Kerr vacuum brad , new , henry  in which the Weyl tensor becomes highly anisotropic sufficiently close to the singularity. Indeed, the divergence of this scalar (equivalent here to the Kretschmann scalar) is a standard way in which texts point out the singularity in this spacetime (e.g. hawkingellis , wald , dinverno ) though an explicit form of this scalar is a little hard to find in the texts (correct forms are give in defeliceclarke  and poisson  and an incorrect form is given in ludvigsen ). The scalar is not difficult to calculate by hand (using, for example, the Newman-Penrose formalism) and so it not a surprise that it was trivial to calculate (in a radiating Kerr-Newman generalization) on a personal computer a decade ago musgrave . The Kerr vacuum has two independent invariants derivable from the Riemann tensor without differentiation. In this note we examine each in detail and point out that both must be examined in order to avoid an erroneous conclusion that the ring singularity is in any sense “directional”.

In terms of the familiar Boyer-Lindquist coordinates boyer , writing $`xr/a,a0`$ and $`WC_{ijkl}C^{ijkl}`$ where $`C_{ijkl}`$ is the Weyl tensor, it follows that

$$𝒲\frac{Wa^6}{48m^2}=\frac{(xx1)(x+x1)(xx2)(x+x2)(xx3)(x+x3)}{(x^2+x1^2)^6}$$
(1)
where $`x1cos(\theta ),x2(2+\sqrt{3})cos(\theta )`$ and $`x3(2\sqrt{3})cos(\theta )`$. Note that (1) holds for all $`a0`$ and $`m0`$. Along $`x=0`$, $`𝒲cos(\theta )^6=1`$ but along $`\theta =\pi /2,𝒲x^6=+1`$ and so $`𝒲`$ fails to be continuous in the limit $`x0,\theta \pi /2`$ ($`𝒮`$). Indeed $`𝒲`$ need not diverge in the limit $`𝒮`$ along trajectories asymptotic to $`x=\pm x1,\pm x2,\pm x3`$. The sign of $`𝒲`$ is summarized in Figure 1 and some level curves of constant $`𝒲`$ are shown in Figure 2, both in the $`\theta x`$ plane. The function $`𝒲`$ is plotted in Figures 3 and 4. This extends the analysis in brad  and in henry  (the special case given in Figure 2 of henry  is incomplete).

Any vacuum solution of Einstein’s equations has only one further independent quadratic invariant, $`{}_{}{}^{}W^{}C_{ijkl}C^{ijkl}`$ where $`{}_{}{}^{}C_{ijkl}^{}`$ is dual to the Weyl tensor. (See, for example, weinberg . $`W`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{}W`$ are equivalent to the real and imaginary parts of the complex Weyl scalar in spinor notation. In new  $`{}_{}{}^{}W`$ is called the Chern-Pontryagin invariant.) With $`x`$ and $`x1`$ defined as in (1) it follows that

$${}_{}{}^{}𝒲\frac{{}_{}{}^{}Wa^6}{96m^2}=\frac{3xx1(xx4)(x+x4)(xx5)(x+x5)}{(x^2+x1^2)^6}$$
(2)
where $`x4\sqrt{3}cos(\theta )`$ and $`x5cos(\theta )/\sqrt{3}`$. There are no further independent (non-differential) invariants in the Kerr vacuum (as it is of Petrov type D). Again note that (2) holds for all $`a0`$ and $`m0`$. Now $`{}_{}{}^{}𝒲=0`$ along $`x=0`$ but, for example, $`16{}_{}{}^{}𝒲cos(\theta )^6=+1`$ along $`x=x1`$ and so $`{}_{}{}^{}𝒲`$ also fails to be continuous in the limit $`𝒮`$. $`{}_{}{}^{}𝒲=0`$ along $`x=0`$ and $`\theta =\pi /2`$ and need not diverge in the limit $`𝒮`$ along trajectories asymptotic to $`x=\pm x4`$ and $`\pm x5`$. The sign of $`{}_{}{}^{}𝒲`$ is summarized in Figure 5 and some level curves of constant $`{}_{}{}^{}𝒲`$ are shown in Figure 6, again both in the $`\theta x`$ plane. The function $`{}_{}{}^{}𝒲`$ is plotted in Figures 7 and 8.

Whereas there exist trajectories (albeit non-geodesic) along which $`𝒲`$ or $`{}_{}{}^{}𝒲`$ do not diverge in the limit $`𝒮`$, there exists no trajectory along which both $`𝒲`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{}𝒲`$ remain finite in this limit. In this sense the singularity of the Kerr vacuum is not directional.

Dynamic images of $`𝒲`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{}𝒲`$ are available at http://grtensor.org/negweyl the details of which are difficult to summarize in static images.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was supported by a grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. Portions of this work were made possible by use of GRTensorII grt .


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# Dust-to-gas ratios in the starburst regions of luminous infrared galaxies

## 1 Introduction

IRAS surveys have revealed that a significant fraction of extragalactic objects produce the bulk of their radiation at far-infrared (FIR) wavelengths (Soifer 1986; Sanders & Mirabel 1996 for a recent review). Imaging surveys of luminous infrared galaxies (LIGs; $`L_{\mathrm{IR}}>10^{11}L_{}`$) showed that the vast majority of these objects is morphologically disturbed, with spatial structures indicative of galactic mergers (e.g. Sanders et al. 1988; Clements et al. 1996).

The interest on the nature of LIGs grew during the last few years as they may represent an important step in the global process of galaxy formation and evolution. Indeed, strong evolution in the space density of LIGs has been detected in the deep mid-infrared (MIR; Taniguchi et al. 1997; Aussel et al. 1999) and FIR surveys (Kawara et al. 1998; Puget et al. 1999) with ISO satellite. Reports from the first deep sub-millimeter (sub-mm) surveys with SCUBA (Smail et al. 1997; Hughes et al. 1998; Barger et al. 1998; Eales et al. 1999) showed that the space density of LIGs at high redshift ($`z1`$) appears sufficient to account for nearly all of the FIR/sub-mm background radiation (e.g. Barger, Cowie & Sanders 1999). It seems clear that detailed studies of nearby LIGs are a required first step in order to better understand their high-redshift counterparts, and in particular to reveal the nature of the dominant energy source responsible for their enormous FIR luminosity (Lutz & Tacconi 1999). Results from recent studies at MIR (e.g. Genzel et al. 1998) and radio wavelengths suggest that the majority of LIGs are powered predominantly by young and hot stars rather than by active galactic nuclei (AGNs). However, there is growing evidence from optical/near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy that the frequency of AGN occurrence among LIGs increases with increasing FIR luminosity (e.g. Veilleux et al. 1995; Kim, Veilleux & Sanders 1998; Veilleux, Sanders & Kim 1999).

In this paper, we refer to the sample of seven LIGs recently observed in the MIR (from 8 to 18 $`\mu `$m) by Soifer et al. (2001, hereafter S01) using the Keck telescopes with spatial resolution approaching the diffraction limit. These seven objects are among the closest LIGs and have been classified as starburst galaxies from optical spectroscopy (Armus et al. 1989; Veilleux et al. 1995).

S01 give some important results by the analysis of the MIR data (S01, Table 3) about, sizes, temperatures, and luminosities in the different sources. We would like, however, to explain the results by modelling the emitting clouds or clumps in dusty regions surrounding the starbursts. Dust plays a major role in IR emission. We will thus investigate the distribution of dust in the different starburst regions within the galaxies, and dust-to-gas properties on small local scales. For sake of consistency, we will focus on both the continuum radiations and the optical emission lines from each galaxy of the sample. When the spectra are integrated, we will try to distinguish the contributions of clouds with different physical conditions, photoionized by starbursts of different ages.

The models adopted up to now for the calculation of dust emission in the IR (e.g. Siebenmorgen et al 1999) accounted for heating of dust by star radiation in starbursts, and for power-law radiation in AGN. The grains are destroyed by photo-dissociation. However, in the turbulent regime created by the starburst, shocks are playing a major role by heating gas and dust and by leading to sputtering of the grains. We will focus on the clouds in the very starburst regions. Therefore, in our models we account for the coupled effect of radiation from an external source and for the shocks.

Gas and dust mutually heat each other by collisions in shock turbulent regimes. Regarding the spectral energy distribution (SED) of the continuum, recall that the frequency corresponding to the dust reradiation peak depends on the shock velocity (e.g. Viegas & Contini 1994). At high shock velocities, the grains will reach high temperatures in the immediate post shock region, before being destroyed by sputtering, so that dust reradiation will peak in the MIR, whereas, at low velocities, the peak appears in the FIR.

Actually, our goal consists in modelling the continuum SED of each galaxy in the S01 sample, particularly in the IR range, adopting the data in the MIR presented by S01 and completed with data from NED111The NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (see Appendix B for the list of references) at other wavelengths. Indeed, the data from the NED show different precisions and different apertures, leading to a large scattering. The S01 data, however, refer to the IR range and hardly include radiation from the gas, so NED data are included in our modelling in order to determine the gas-to-dust ratio.

In most of the objects of the sample different fractions of flux from the old star population background are included in the near-IR (NIR) data, as generally found in AGN and starburst galaxies (Viegas & Contini 2000). We will try to fit the data corresponding to the lowest flux by emission from the clouds in the objects (e.g. NGC 1614, NGC 2623, NGC 3690), and those corresponding to the highest flux by the black body emission. In fact, the data from the NED in the NIR cluster within the black body curve.

The models which explain the continuum SED are constrained by the agreement with observations of the emission-line spectra (Armus et al. 1989; Veilleux et al. 1995). The spectra are quite poor in number of emission lines, however, being the most significant ones (\[OIII\] 5007, \[OI\] 6300, \[NII\] 6584, and \[SII\] 6716+6731) they are enough to constrain the models.

To obtain a basis for modelling, we have compared the observed emission-line ratios of each galaxy with the models presented in Contini & Viegas (2001a, hereafter CV01), where model calculations of line spectra in the UV-optical-IR ranges are presented. The results are obtained by the SUMA code (Viegas & Contini 1994) which, besides the line and continuum spectra emitted by the gas, also calculates reradiation by dust. Dust features are summarized in Sect. 2. The models in CV01 are all calculated adopting a dust-to-gas ratio $`d/g=4\times 10^5`$ by mass. In many cases the $`d/g`$ value will be increased to fit the SED in the IR. The line ratios will then change accordingly, because a high $`d/g`$ in the postshock region, before complete destruction of the grains by sputtering, acts as an increased density, speeding up the cooling processes. This will lead to a refinement of the models in order to obtain the best fit to the observational data. The models are described in Sect. 3. Recall that modelling the line and continuum spectra simultaneously implies cross-checking them (Sect. 4) until a fine tuning is obtained (Contini et al. 1998). The models adopted in this work are described and referred to the models of CV01 in Appendix A (Table A1). Discussion of results and concluding remarks appear in Sect. 5.

## 2 About dust

Emission from a starburst is generally calculated by computing the radiative transfer in the galactic nuclei under the assumption of spherical symmetry (Siebenmorgen, Krugel, & Zota 1999), or treating the starburst (Efastathiou et al. 2000) as an ensemble of optically thick giant molecular clouds centrally illuminated by recently formed stars. The dust-to-gas ratio is not required for computing the radiation transfer models.

Hildebrand (1983) discussed direct methods to determine cloud and dust masses and derived a lower limit ($``$ 60) for g/d (where g=Mgas and d=Mdust) calculating Mgas from visual extinction and Mdust by thermal emission. A rough g/d $``$ 100 was estimated, given the errors for the implied coefficients (dielectric, etc).

Generally, three population of grains are adopted to fit the average IS extinction curve. 1) large grains of silicate and amorphous carbon, with a volume ratio of VSi/VaC =1.4 (Siebenmorgen et al. 1999) and a power-law size distribution, a-q with q=3.5 (100$`<`$a$`<`$2500 A) provide the bulk of emission responsible for 9.7 and 18 $`\mu `$m resonance. 2) Small graphite particles corresponding to q=4 (10$`<`$a$`<`$100 A) emit primarily at MIR wavelengths. Being small, they show dramatic fluctuations in temperature. 3) PAH carriers of IR features correspond to single molecules with 25 carbon atoms and clusters of 10-20 molecules. The small graphite and PAH are underabundant with respect to ISM by factors of 10 or more.

Cold dust or cirrus emission results from heating by the IS radiation field, warm dust is associated with star formation regions, and hot dust appears around an active nucleus (Helou 1986). Rowan-Robinson & Crawford (1989) found that the ratio of the starburst emission to the cirrus emission is 2 to 1. PAHs are responsible for no more than 22 % of the total 3-1100 $`\mu `$m emission (Dale et al. 2001), the exact percentage depending on the activity level of the interstellar medium.

Diffuse ISM radiates strongly in 3.3, 6.2, 7.7, 8.6, 11.3, 12.7 $`\mu `$m and in atomic emission lines (Spoon et al. 2002), the relative strengths of the different PAH emission bands being a strong function of the PAH size: small PAH radiates strongly at 6.2 and 7.7 $`\mu `$m, while larger PAHs emit most of their powers at increasingly long wavelengths. Moreover, laboratory simulations predict a double peaked bump in the 18-23 $`\mu `$m wave band, due to the morphological transformation of ice on grain mantles (Contini 1990).

A broad absorption band due to the Si-O stretching mode in amorphous silicates, centered at 9.7 $`\mu `$m is also commonly detected in galaxies (Spoon et al 2002). The center of the silicate absorption coincides with the gap between the 6.2 and 8.6 $`\mu `$m and 11.3-12.8 $`\mu `$m PAH complexes. Therefore, it is not clear whether the 9.7 $`\mu `$m flux minimum should be interpreted as the ”trough” between PAH emission features or as strong silicate absorption, or a combination of the two. A strong silicate feature is often accompanied by MIR absorption features, due to molecules frozen in ice mantles which leads to a deep and broad 3.0 $`\mu `$m water ice feature. The interplay of 6.0 $`\mu `$m water ice and 5.25,5.7, 6.25 PAH emission is shown in many spectra (Spoon et al 2002).

Turbulent and hostile environments in galaxies often destroy the molecular material that resides in or close to these regions. PAHs are likely to be destroyed, or severely dumped in localized regions of high heating intensity such as the regions near OB associations (Dale et al. 2001), and may evaporate in a strong UV radiation field (Siebenmorgen et al. 1999). Mid-IR flux may also be diminished toward regions of high extinction in AGN-dominated galaxies, but it is unclear whether significant obscuration also occurs for starburst galaxies. Moreover, sputtering of grains throughout shock fronts is efficient for shock velocities in the range suitable to starburst galaxies and AGN (Viegas & Contini 1994). In conclusion, PAH emission comes from the extended region of the galaxy.

Coronal lines eventually blended with the bands of PAH and water ice (Contini & Viegas 2001) are the following : \[MgVIII\] 3.03 $`\mu `$m, \[SiIX\] 3.9 $`\mu `$m, \[MgVII\] 5.5 $`\mu `$m, \[MgV\] 5.6 $`\mu `$m, \[NeVI\] 7.6 $`\mu `$m, \[FeVII\] 7.8 $`\mu `$m, \[ArIII\] 8.99 $`\mu `$m, \[FeVII\] 9.52 $`\mu `$m, \[SIV\] 10.54 $`\mu `$m, \[NeII\] 12.8 $`\mu `$m, etc. (see also Sturm et al 2002) We have included lines which do not exactly correspond to the bands, because large FWHM of line profiles, corresponding to high velocities, lead to blending with the closer bands. Mg and Si are easily locked up in dust grains. In this case their lines in the MIR would not interfere with the bands. On the other hand, Ne is not adsorbed in grains due to its atomic configuration, therefore, the Ne lines coexist with dust features.

Model results (CV01) regarding black body radiation from stars show that \[NeII\] are strong for shock velocities $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$$`>`$ 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$and U$`<`$ 10, while \[ArIII\] may be detected for $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ between 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$and 500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$and decreases at higher velocities, independently from the black body intensity flux.

Shock dominated models (Contini & Viegas 2001b) show that \[NeII\] is strong for $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. High ionization lines appear for $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$$``$ 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, particularly \[NeVI\], increasing at $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$= 500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, \[NeVI\] and \[NeII\] being the strongest at $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=300 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The high level lines \[MgVIII\], \[SiIX\], \[MgVII\] are strong for $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=1000 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, particularly, \[SiIX\] 3.9 $`\mu `$m.

## 3 Composite models

The SUMA code is described in CV01 and in Viegas & Contini (1994). The input parameters are the following: the shock velocity, $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$, the preshock density, $`\mathrm{n}_0`$, the preshock magnetic field, $`\mathrm{B}_0`$, the starburst age, $`t`$, the ionization parameter, $`U`$ (in number of photons / number of electrons), the geometrical thickness of the clouds, D, and the dust-to-gas ratio, $`d/g`$. Relative abundances to H of He, C, N, O, Ne, Mg, Si, S, Ar, and Fe are cosmic (Allen 1973).

In our models we refer to clouds close to the starburst and therefore affected by radiation and shocks with velocities $``$ 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$.

Dust is collisionally heated by the gas across the shock front and downstream. The temperature of dust follows the temperature of gas and can reach very high temperatures in the postshock region, for $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ $``$ 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$(Figs. 1, left diagram).

The models in Fig. 1 (left) are the following: $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=1000 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, $`\mathrm{n}_0`$=1000 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ (solid lines); $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, $`\mathrm{n}_0`$=300 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ (long-dashed lines); $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=300 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, $`\mathrm{n}_0`$=300 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ (short-dashed lines); and $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, $`\mathrm{n}_0`$=100 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ (dotted lines). For all the models $`D`$ = 1 pc, $`\mathrm{B}_0`$ = 10-4 gauss and $`d/g=4\times 10^4`$ are adopted.

The distribution on grain size is automatically derived by SUMA which calculates sputtering in the different zone downstream of the shock. The sputtering rate depends on the gas temperature, that is $``$ $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$2 in the immediate postshock region. In Fig. 1 (right diagram) the distribution of grain radius downstream in two cases of relative strong ($`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) and weak ($`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) shocks is shown for silicate grains with an initial radius a0= 0.2 and 0.06 $`\mu `$m. In the high velocity case the sputtering rate is so high that grains with a0= 0.06 $`\mu `$m are rapidly destroyed downstream. So, only grains with large radius (a0 $``$ 0.1 $`\mu `$m) will survive downstream, while small grains are completely sputtered. On the other hand, the grains survive downstream of low velocity shocks. Graphite grains are more sputtered than silicate grains for T=106 K (Draine & Salpeter 1979) Therefore, in regions where strong shocks are created by the starburst, we will consider relatively large grains, e.g. silicate grains with an initial radius of 0.2 $`\mu `$m. Small grains (e.g. PAH) survive in the extended galactic regions on scales of hundred pc and lead to the features that appear in the spectral energy distribution (SED).

In Fig. 2 the SED of bremsstrahlung radiation and emission by dust in the IR, corresponding to models in Fig. 1 (left diagram), is presented. Some significant wavelengths (in $`\mu `$m, top scale) are also plotted (thin dotted lines).

The peaks of dust reradiation in the IR correspond to maximum grain temperatures of 314 K, 199 K, 143 K, and 41 K for $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 1000, 500, 300, and 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, respectively.

Notice that the bump corresponding to $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ is wide, because the grains are less sputtered for low $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ and a large region of grains emitting at low temperature is present downstream (Fig. 1 left). The flux ratios between the dust bumps and the bremsstrahlung curve will change adopting different $`d/g`$ values. In particular, the flux from a starburst region at 2.3 $`\mu `$m hardly corresponds to dust, while for a high $`d/g`$ the flux at 3.2 $`\mu `$m accounts for both gas and dust emission.

The clouds in the surrounding of a starburst are heated and ionized by the light of the stars with a distribution which depends on age (Cid Fernandes et al. 1992), and by secondary diffuse radiation from the slabs of the gas heated by the shock. The clouds move outwards from the starburst and shocks form on the outer edge of the clouds. Radiation heating leads to gas temperatures below $`3\times 10^4`$ K, while gas heated by the shocks can reach relatively high temperatures, depending on the shock velocity (Contini & Viegas 2000).

The continuum emissions by dust and gas in the different frequency ranges must be consistent. Therefore, we will adopt the following procedure. First we will model the line emission spectra from the gas and then will use the same models to calculate the continuum SED in all the ranges. The emission of dust in the IR depends on the intensity of the star cluster flux, on mutual cooling and heating by collision with gas, on the size of the grains which survive from sputtering, and on the dust-to-gas ratio.

In previous papers (e.g. Viegas, Contini, & Contini 1999, Contini, Viegas, & Prieto 2002) it was shown that fragmentation of clouds in shocked regions results from R-T instability in a turbulent regime. Therefore, the spectra emitted from the different regions of a galaxy are modelled by multi-cloud models, i.e. by models which account for the summed spectra emitted from single clouds adopting relative weights. The relative weight, which are defined by the best fit to the data, account for the relative number of clouds in the conditions determined by the model, and for the fraction of the emitting surfaces Throughout modelling we will show the best agreement to the data of single cloud models in the different wavelength domains in the SED, in order to explain the role of each type of cloud.

Indeed, the models leak a small scale fit to dust IR features corresponding to cirrus and extended ISM regions which should be added. Nevertheless, modelling gas and dust in a consistent way, provides a rough information of dust distribution in the different galaxies. The dust-to-gas ratios will be derived by the fit of the dust infrared bump consistently with bremsstrahlung at higher frequencies.

## 4 Modelling the sample

In the following, we model the individual SED and optical emission-line ratios of S01’s sample of galaxies.

### 4.1 VV114

VV114 is a pair of interacting galaxy, particularly interesting for its high infrared luminosity (10$`{}_{}{}^{11.3}L_{}^{}`$) and high FIR-to-visible flux ratio. VV 114 is composed of two stellar components separated by 15″, designated by VV 114 E and VV 114 W (Knop et al 1994). The extreme NIR colors of VV 114 E indicate the presence of a large concentration of dust, while VV 114 W is relatively unobscured at optical wavelengths (Knop et al. 1994). The near-infrared color-color diagram presented by Doyon et al. (1995) shows that ”the intrinsic SED of VV114 is affected by three components, namely blue stars, nebular emission, hot dust, and extinction”.

In Tables 1 and 2 the observed emission-line ratios in VV 114 N and VV 114 S, respectively, are compared with model calculations, and in Figs. 3 and Fig. 4 the SED of the continuum for VV 114 E (see Soifer et al. 2001 for the nomenclature) is presented. Filled squares refer to the MIR photometry in a 4″ diameter beam (Soifer et al. 2001), open squares to the NIR, IRAS and radio-cm data found in NED.

We show in Figs. 3 the modelling of data in the different wavelength ranges in three different diagrams (top, middle, and bottom), in order to explain our procedure, while in Fig. 4 the best fit of the data by a multi-cloud model is shown. The models are not summed up, in order to better understand the role of each single-cloud model.

Table 1 shows that model M1 explains roughly the emission-line ratios. Indeed, the \[OIII\]/\[OI\] ratio is relatively high, but is lower than for other models. This model could explain the SED (Fig. 3 top) adopting $`d/g=8\times 10^4`$, while the models in CV01 were all calculated with $`d/g=4\times 10^5`$. Notice, however, that the datum representing emission at 3.2 $`\mu `$m strongly constrains the modelling, and a more consistent fit to bremsstrahlung emission as well as to dust reradiation is presented in Fig. 3 (middle), where model M2 (solid lines) similar to M1 was run with $`d/g=0.032`$ and $`U=3.5`$ to recover the fit of the line ratios. Models M1 and M2 correspond to a stellar population age of 3.3 Myr, a relatively high shock velocity ($`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) and a preshock density $`\mathrm{n}_0`$ = 300 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$. Kim et al. (1995) give FWHM $``$ 400 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$for the \[OIII\] line profile of VV 114. Models with a higher age and/or with a reduced geometrical thickness give similar results regarding the continuum, because the effect of the shock prevails on radiation at high $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$.

The NIR data from the NED show that there is a non negligible contribution from an old stellar population of about 5 000 K (Fig. 3 middle, dotted line).

Although model M2 explains satisfactorily S01 data both in the bremsstrahlung and in the MIR ranges, the contribution of high velocity ($`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 1000 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) high density ($`\mathrm{n}_0`$ = 1000 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$) dusty clouds with $`d/g=0.02`$ (short-dashed lines) is invoked to explain MIR data at higher frequencies. The maximum temperature of the grains corresponding to the high velocity shock is 330 K. This model is radiation-bound and the temperature of the gas in the downstream region behind the shock never drops below $`1.2\times 10^7`$ K. Therefore, these clouds do not contribute to the optical lines.

The IRAS FIR data indicate that lower shock velocities are also present in the emission regions. IRAS data at about 100 $`\mu `$m can be explained by models with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and $`\mathrm{n}_0`$ = 100 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ (Fig. 3 bottom). Model M3 is selected because of very high \[OI\]/H$`\beta `$ and \[SII\]/H$`\beta `$ emission-line ratios which could improve the fit of the summed spectrum (SUMN). Also in this case model M4 similar to M3 but with a high $`d/g=0.016`$ value has been adopted (long dashed lines)), in agreement with the high $`d/g`$ ratio reported by Frayer et al. (1999). The emission-line ratios which result from M3 and M4 are very different. Moreover, the emission at 60 $`\mu `$m can be better explained by emission from hotter dust, i.e. a shock of $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ must be used (short dash-dot lines in Fig. 3 bottom). The corresponding line ratios appear in column 7 (M5) of Table 1 . The low $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$-$`\mathrm{n}_0`$ models correspond to a younger population ($`t`$ = 0.0 Myr), while model M1 corresponding to an older population shows high $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$-$`\mathrm{n}_0`$ in agreement with Viegas, Contini & Contini (1999), namely, that an old starburst corresponds to high $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$.

The two sub-mm data points at 450 $`\mu `$m and 850 $`\mu `$m (from Frayer et al. 1999) show that the FIR bump intensity corresponding to the low velocity models must be reduced. Considering that there is a single datum (at 3.2 $`\mu `$m) which constrains the models, and consistently with the line spectra, we reduce both gas and dust emission of model M4. The fit of the dataset available for VV 114 E is presented in Fig. 4. The two radio data follow the trend of synchrotron emission, confirming the presence of strong supernova and stellar winds in the galaxy.

Model M5 overpredicts the datum at 850 $`\mu `$m. Dust becomes optically thick for $`\tau `$ = $`\pi a^2`$ (d/g) n $`𝒟`$ Qabs $``$ 1. Adopting a $``$ 0.02 $`\mu `$m(radius of the sputtered grains), d/g= 6 10-13 (by number), n= 3 103 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ (density downstream for model M5), and Qabs =2 (Contini 1992), the absorbing length, $`𝒟`$, results $``$ 2 1019 cm, similar to the geometrical thickness of the clouds. Notice that the grain radius, the temperature, the density, etc change downstream with distance from the shock front, therefore, absorption changes accordingly.

In Fig. 5 we compare the MIR spectra of VV 114 separate nuclei observed by Soifer et al (2002, fig. 1)) with MIR ISOCAM broad-band photometry by Le Floc’h et al. (2002). The depression at 10 $`\mu `$m in the spectrum of VV 114ENE (open squares) is deeper than for VV 114ESW (filled squares) (Soifer et al 2002). VV 114NE also shows the peak at 11.3 $`\mu `$m and the shoulder at 8.6 $`\mu `$m, characteristic of PAH. Le Floc’h et al. broad band observations in the nucleus (open triangles, connected by a solid lines) and diffuse emission (large filled circles connected by a long-dashed line) are directly compared with the data for VV 114ENE and show a rough high scale similarity, however, they leak the substructures at about 9.5 and 11 $`\mu `$m. Le Floc’h et al observations of VV 114W (knot 2) which correspond to filled triangles, connected with a dotted line, fit Soifer et al (2002) VV 114ESW data at wavelengths $`>`$ 9 $`\mu `$m but leak the shoulder by PAH at lower wavelength.

The MIR data from the Keck telescope by Soifer et al. (2001) VV114E(4) (asteriks) are given for comparison in Fig. 5 as well as the models which better explain them (Fig. 3, middle diagram). The data follow the trend of Soifer et al (2002) for VV 114ESW at large wavelength. Recall that absorption reduces the emission corresponding to the high velocity model ($`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=1000 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) (short dashed line) more than the emission corresponding to $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$(solid thick line), because densities downstream increase with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ and $`\mathrm{n}_0`$.

PAH emission is a consistent fraction fPAH of dust emission in the IR because their features are observed. Considering that the flux of silicate dust, integrated in the IR domain, is evaluated by models to $``$ 103 $`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$, and adopting that PAH emission is 20% of the total IR luminosity, 1011.3 L (Sect. 2), the radius of PAH extended region is $``$ 37/(fPAH)1/2 pc. PAH emission is observed up to some hundred pc scales, therefore fPAH $``$ 0.01 and hardly affects model physical processes in our model calculations.

About the MIR domain, PAH flux from Siebenmorgen, Krügel, and Laureijs (2001, fig. 6) integrated between 5 and 12 $`\mu `$m is $``$ 10-9 $`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$, while the flux in the same wavelength range calculated with our high velocity model which peaks in the MIR, is $``$ 2 10-9 $`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$. the discrepancy is negligible, considering the approximation of modelling and indicates that PAH emission and silicate dust emission are similar.

Optical spectroscopic data for VV 114 S (from Veilleux et al. 1995) are compared with models in Table 2. Notice that the \[OIII\]/H$`\beta `$ emission-line ratio is higher than in VV 114 N. To reproduce such a ratio a stellar population with an age of 2.5 Myr is adopted (models M6, M7, and M8). The model corresponding to a young population (M3) is also added to better fit the data. Tables 1 and 2 refer to VV 114 N and S respectively, while the continuum data refer to VV 114 E. So we cannot refer to well located regions and the continuum relative to star with $`t=2.5`$ Myr is also shown in Fig. 3 (long dash-dot).

The weighted sum of the single contributions appears in the last column of Tables 1 and 2. We have added also the models calculated with a low $`d/g`$, as they appear in CV01. In fact, dust has a clumpy distribution and cannot affect in the same way the emission from the overall galaxy. The weight $`w`$ adopted for each single model are given in the last row of Tables 1 and 2. They correspond roughly to those obtained to fit the SED of the continuum. Actually, the large range of emission-line ratios, corresponding to the different models, indicate that many different physical conditions coexist in VV 114.

To determine the amount of dust in the different regions of VV 114. specific emission in the different regions are compared with model results in Fig. 4. The data in the NIR domain are few, moreover, they are explained by black body emission from the old stellar population background rather than by bremsstrahlung. So, we will use the relative weights, which will indicate in this case the intensity of dust emission in the NIR. Therefore, we normalize the relative weight w of model M2, which best fit the data relative to dust emission, to that of model BB representing the old stellar population, corresponding to black body emission of $`T=\mathrm{5\hspace{0.17em}000}`$ K, in the different regions. Table 3 shows w in columns 2 and 3 for M2 and BB, respectively, and the ratio of the weights in column 4. In the second row we refer to the VV 114 E region represented in Fig. 3. Rows 3, 4, and 5 refer to regions whose SED is represented in Fig. 4 diagrams. The w referring to the IRAS data appear in the last row.

We consider now the ratios w(M2)/w(BB) (Table 3, last column), in order to compare the relative amount of dust in the different regions of VV 114. Adopting a homogeneous distribution of old stars, the results suggest that VV114 E SW and NE regions show about the same amount of dust, while W4 region is less dusty, in agreement with the results of Knop et al. (1994), namely that VV 114 W is relatively unobscured at optical wavelength. IRAS data (Fig. 4 right diagram) show a higher flux in all domain, besides less dust than for VV114 E.

Images of VV 114 taken at different wavelengths (see Fig. 1 of Soifer et al. 2001) show different characteristics. For example, at 2.2 $`\mu `$m the NIR emission is black body from old stars ($`\mathrm{T}_{}`$ = 5 000 K, see Fig. 3) with perhaps some contribution from bremsstrahlung from gas heated and ionized by the starburst and by diffuse emission downstream. Therefore we see a quite complex picture at 2.2 $`\mu `$m and the shock fronts disrupted by R-T instability can also be recognized. At 3.3 $`\mu `$m the image reveals dust reradiation downstream the high velocity shock. At 12.5 $`\mu `$m the image shows the maximum of dust emission from clouds near a rather aged starburst. At this wavelength dust emits from the postshock region of a high velocity shock. The emission has therefore a clumpy distribution, considering that the high velocity shock fronts are disrupted. Moreover, the clumps are relatively small, because the grains are rapidly sputtered in the post shock region. Unfortunately there is no image at longer wavelengths which could show the distribution of low velocity gas and dust. Frayer et al. (1999) show images of VV 114 at 450 and 850 $`\mu `$m. The images are different indicating that the two data in Fig. 3 belong to different models. The datum at 450 $`\mu `$m represents dust corresponding to a model with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (model M5) and the other one corresponds to a lower shock velocity (100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$). In fact the image is less tormented and more homogeneous.

The continuum SED in the radio range in Fig. 4 shows that radio emission at 8.4 GHz is synchrotron radiation created near the shock front. So, the image at 8.4 GHz shows some clumpiness.

### 4.2 NGC 1614

NGC 1614 is a strongly interacting galaxy showing crossed tails on photographic plates (Arp 1966). High-resolution NIR images and spectra (Alonso-Herrero et al. 2001) reveal a strong nuclear starburst ($`100`$ pc diameter) surrounded by a ring ($`400`$ pc diameter) of brigh HII regions. The detection of numerous Wolf-Rayet stars in the integrated nuclear spectrum of this galaxy (e.g. Vacca & Conti 1992) indicates that the starburst is very young (between 2 and 6 Myr). The optical spectrum observed by Vaceli et al. (1997) (see Table 4) is used to cross-check the continuum. The few line ratios by Veilleux et al. (1995) are in agreement with those of Vaceli et al. (1997). Model M9 (CV01) is selected because i) the line ratio \[OIII\]/H$`\beta `$ is in agreement with the data, ii) the \[OIII\]/\[OI\] ratio, even if high, is lower than for other models, and iii) particularly, because the MIR bump for VV 114 is nicely fitted by models with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Black body radiation from stars with $`\mathrm{T}_{}`$ = 5 000 K (dotted line) is also revealed between 1 and 3 $`\mu `$m.

The dust peak in the FIR indicates that clouds with lower shock velocities contributes to the spectra, i. e. model M3 (CV01, $`d/g=4\times 10^5`$, dashed lines) and clouds corresponding to $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and a higher $`d/g=0.024`$ (M5, dash-dot lines). A $`d/g=4\times 10^5`$ is a higher limit for model M3; a lower $`d/g`$ will not change the emission-line ratios. The high $`d/g`$ used for clouds at $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ is also constrained by the data at $`1.572\times 10^{15}`$ Hz.

Fig. 7 shows that bremsstrahlung radiation from a cool gas overpredicts the datum in the radio range. Indeed, absorption of free-free radiation increases with wavelength and can reduce drastically the bremsstrahlung from cool gas. At 5 GHz gas with a density of 103 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ and T between 103 \- 104 K becomes optically thick for distances of 4 - 90 pc (Osterbrock 1989).

The high velocity model represents a stellar population with an age of 3.3 Myr, $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, $`\mathrm{n}_0`$ = 300 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$, $`U`$ = 10, and $`d/g=4\times 10^3`$ (M10, represented by solid lines), similar to model 12(10a) in CV01, but with a high $`d/g`$ (4 10-3). This model explains both the data in the soft X-ray from Einstein satellite and the radio measurement at 4.85 GHz (Griffith et al. 1995). Model M9 with a low $`d/g`$ contributes to the emission-line ratio and is included in Table 4. Both high and low d/g clouds are accounted for.

Kim et al. (1995) give \[OIII\] line FWHM of 310 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, which is lower than the high velocity found. This could be a rough signal of galaxy interaction, namely, in some region of the system the shock velocity is higher than the real gas velocity, due to head-on collision of clouds. Low shock velocities, on the other hand, correspond to regions farther from the starburst bulk, or shocks resulting from head-on-back collisions.

The emission-line ratios of all the models used to explain the continuum and the optical line spectrum are presented in Table 4 and the weighted sum appears in the last column. The corresponding relative weights are given in the last row. The \[OI\]/H$`\beta `$ emission-line ratio is overpredicted by a factor of $``$ 2 and the \[NII\]/H$`\beta `$ emission-line ratio is underpredicted by the same factor. \[NI\]/H$`\beta `$ is also underpredicted indicating a N/H higher than cosmic ($`9.1\times 10^5`$). Indeed, NGC 1614 is one of the starburst nucleus galaxies showing a particularly high nitrogen-to-oxygen abundance ratio (Coziol et al. 1999), which could be due to a sequence of starbursts over the past Gyrs.

Soifer et al. (2001) claim that the 2.2 $`\mu `$m continuum image does not reveal a ring-like structure, but a strong central peak of emission. This results from the fact that the 2.2 $`\mu `$m light traces the old stellar populations which peak at the nucleus, while the MIR, radio and P$`\alpha `$ images trace the ring of current star formation. Indeed Fig. 7 shows that the datum at 2.2 $`\mu `$m is explained by black body radiation from stars with $`\mathrm{T}_{}`$ = 5 000 K.

### 4.3 NGC 2623

This is a strongly interacting galaxy (Soifer et al. 2001), exhibiting strong Balmer absorption lines in its integrated optical spectrum (Armus, Heckman, & Miley 1989). Because of the steep emission-line Balmer decrement, the H$`\beta `$ and H$`\gamma `$ lines appear in absorption, while H$`\alpha `$ appears in emission. The strong absorption features indicate a large intermediate-age ($`10^810^9`$ yr) stellar population.

The optical spectrum is presented in Table 5. The observed emission lines are few, hardly constraining the models. Therefore, we have used models similar to those adopted for VV 114 and NGC 1614. The continuum SED is presented in Fig. 8. The MIR bump and a few optical data are well explained by model M11 (solid lines), similar to 11(10A) from CV01, with $`d/g=4\times 10^4`$, while reradiation by dust at wavelengths longer than 60 $`\mu `$m is explained by model M12 (dash-dot lines), namely a model corresponding to $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, and a very young stellar population. Also for this model $`d/g=4\times 10^4`$. Only one datum is available in the radio range. So, we cannot decide whether radio emission is synchrotron or bremsstrahlung from a relatively cool gas. Stars with $`\mathrm{T}_{}`$ = 5 000 K also contribute to the SED at about $`\nu =10^{15}`$ Hz. Concluding, NGC 2623 shows a lower amount of dust relative to VV 114.

### 4.4 NGC 3690 + IC 694

NGC 3690 + IC 694 show a system of five nuclei. The MIR photometry has been performed by S01 in single regions and with different apertures. It is thus possible to determine the $`d/g`$ ratios for each nucleus. The optical spectra (Armus et al. 1989) are available in the A, B, and C regions (see S01 for nomenclature). The number of lines is very small allowing only a rough modelling.

In Table 6 we compare model calculations with the observed emission-line ratios from Armus et al. (1989). The models are taken from CV01 and some of them are run with different $`d/g`$ values. Model M5 which refers to $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ is constrained by the fit of the SED. The summed spectra SUM1 and SUM2 appear in the last two columns of Table 6. The fit is not very good, particularly the \[NII\]/H$`\beta `$ emission-line ratio is underpredicted and \[SII\]/H$`\beta `$ line ratio is overpredicted. A higher than cosmic N/H abundance ratio has been found in many galaxies containing a starburst. Moreover, in dust rich galaxies sulphur could be locked up into CS diatomic molecules.

The SED of the continuum is shown in Fig. 9 for the summed spectrum. Notice that most of the data in the radio-to-X-ray range are well explained by a model with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and $`t=3.3`$ Myr (solid lines). However, lower velocities are also important to explain the FIR bump (dash-dot lines). For the summed SED shown by S01 in their fig. 6, $`d/g`$ = $`4\times 10^3`$.

We adopted the same ratio of relative weights for models M5 and M14 as for the line ratios (Table 6), although dust emission from model M5 overpredicts the data in the FIR and indicates strong absorption by dust (see sect. 4.1).

In Fig. 10, the data from S01 (fig. 4f) for single regions are compared with models. The $`d/g`$ found for each region are presented in Table 7. B2 shows the lowest $`d/g`$ and C’ the highest. In fact, \[SII\]/H$`\beta `$ line ratios are low in region C, indicating that sulphur is locked in dust.

The image at 2.2 $`\mu `$m shows a more complete and tormented structure, corresponding to the complex of contributions by the starburst radiation, by the old stellar population and by the strong shock. On the contrary, the image at 3.2 $`\mu `$m is smoother because shows only the black body emission of the old stellar population. The images at 12.5 $`\mu `$m and that at 6.4 GHz are similar because they show the flux at different frequencies on the distribution of dust emission from the same cloud.

### 4.5 IC 883

The optical spectrum of IC 883 is classified as that of a LINER by Veilleux et al. (1995). However, we could fit the few line ratios presented in Table 8 with an averaged sum of starburst models, as for the other galaxies of the sample. Nevertheless, checking the results of composite models presented by Contini & Viegas (2001b) which refers to AGN, we found that the observed line ratios could be also explained by a model with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, $`\mathrm{n}_0`$ = 100 $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$, and $`\mathrm{F}_\mathrm{H}`$ = 109 cm-2 s-1 eV-1 at 1 Ryd. However, such a model cannot explain the emission by dust in the MIR, because $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ is too low.

The SED of the continuum is presented in Fig. 11 top. We show both the contributions of a model corresponding to a stellar age of 3.3 Myr with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and $`d/g=4\times 10^5`$ (M9 represented by solid lines) and a model also corresponding to $`t=3.3`$ Myr with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and $`d/g=8\times 10^4`$ (M15 represented by dash-dot lines). As the galaxy is more compact than the former ones it was reasonable to consider that the clouds with different $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ correspond to the same starburst age. Interestingly, some data in the NIR are explained by black body radiation from stars with $`\mathrm{T}_{}`$ = 1 000 K (dotted line). This is justified by the assumption that there is strong silicate absorption at 10 $`\mu `$m (S01).

In the bottom diagram of Fig. 11, the photometry in different apertures (filled squares: 4″; open squares: 1″) are explained by the same starburst model with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Notice that with a lower aperture the flux is reduced for all the data by about the same factor.

The images at 2.2 $`\mu `$m and 12.5 $`\mu `$m (S01) are similar because corresponding to the same distribution of dust emission.

### 4.6 NGC 6090

The results of Acosta-Pulido et al (1996) show that 84% of the NGC 6090 emission comes from the wavelength regime shortward of 120 $`\mu `$m and argues for very efficient heating of the dust. It implies temperatures higher than about 25 K which cannot be accounted for by the interstellar radiation field alone.

The models are compared with observed emission-line ratios (Veilleux et al. 1995) in Tables 9 and 10 for the SW and NE regions respectively. With cross-checking considerations, the SED of the continuum which appears in Fig. 12 shows that model M17 (solid lines) with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and d/g=1.6$`\times 10^4`$ explains some significant data in the MIR from NED, in agreement with Keck data (S01) Reradiation by dust in clouds with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and $`d/g=2.8\times 10^4`$ (M18) explains the IR data (dash-dot lines) and bremsstrahlung.

The fit of the summed optical line ratios shows that other models contribute. Clouds photoionized by a $`t=3.3`$ Myr starburst and with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 500, 200, and 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ explain the summed line ratios in the NE region, while the low velocity cloud contribution in region SW corresponds to a younger age ($`t=2.5`$ Myr) and appears in the sum with a high relative weight (model M19). Notice, however that H$`\beta `$ absolute value is very low and is compensated by the high relative weight. Also for this galaxy, \[NII\]/H$`\beta `$ line ratio is underestimated and \[OI\]/H$`\beta `$ is overestimated in region NE.

In Fig. 13 the diagrams correspond to the different continuum SED in the regions indicated by S01 (fig. 6c). A $`d/g<1.6\times 10^3`$ is revealed in E(6), even if the flux is high. The fluxes decrease in EN and ES and mostly in W(4) and W(1.5).

The data point at 2.2 $`\mu `$m corresponds always to bremsstrahlung emission, while the other data are associated with reradiation by dust in a relative high velocity regime. Consequently, the image at 2.2 $`\mu `$m (S01) is complex and more complete. It seems that emission in the radio is bremsstrahlung by cool gas.

### 4.7 Mrk 331

The continuum SED of Mrk 331 which is shown in Fig. 14 shows that the data are well explained by model M22 (solid lines) with $`d/g=4\times 10^4`$, $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and $`t=3.3`$ Myr. However, a model corresponding to $`t=0.0`$ and $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ better fits the data in the optical range (M3). The corresponding $`d/g`$ is 10 times lower. As we found for the other galaxies, a model with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ is needed to fit the data in the IR (M18, represented by dash-dot lines). We use a starburst corresponding to $`t=3.3`$ Myr, because the one corresponding to $`t=0.0`$ Myr shows too high \[OIII\]/\[OI\] line ratios. Fig. 14 shows that bremsstrahlung emission is strongly absorbed at 5 GHz, as was found for NGC 1614 (sect. 4.2).

In Table 11 the optical line ratios observed by Veilleux et al. (1995) are compared with model calculations. To obtain an acceptable fit, the summed spectrum accounts for model M23 which corresponds to $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 300 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$and to black body radiation from stars with $`\mathrm{T}_{}`$ = 10 000 K. The SED of Mrk 331 does not show the emission from old stars. A possible explanation comes from the presence of the ring. In Fig. 15 the flux from different regions are given. It can be noticed that the flux from the ring is higher than the flux from the nucleus. Then, radiation from the old stellar population is reprocessed by the gas and dust in the ring. Fig. 15 shows that $`d/g=4\times 10^4`$ nicely fits all of the diagrams out of region (4) which shows a reduced $`d/g`$. All emission at wavelengths longer than 10 $`\mu `$m comes from dust, at smaller values from gas.

## 5 Discussion and concluding remarks

In previous sections we have modelled both the continuum SED and optical emission-line ratios of a representative sample of IR luminous starburst galaxies observed in the MIR by S01 using the Keck Telescope.

Some significant results, obtained by modelling the optical line spectra, are summarized in Fig. 16, where the distribution of the dust-to gas ratios, in units of 4$`\times 10^4`$, the age of the starburst in Myr, and the contribution in % to the \[OIII\] 5007+4959 line (P\[OIII\]) are given in clouds corresponding to different velocities. Notice that VV 114 S (Table 2) does not appear in Fig. 16 because all the clouds therein have the same velocity ($`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$), with ages between 0.0 and 2.5 Myr.

The diagrams show that generally lower velocities correspond to early ages (see Viegas et al. 1999), out of IC 883 and NGC 6090, which are dominated by relative old starbursts.

The d/g ratio peaks for clouds with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$= 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. This is in agreement with the results of Fig. 1 (left panel) which shows that for shock velocities $`<`$ 300 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$dust grains are less sputtered. In high velocity environments d/g is partly reduced, although grains with a radius $`>`$ 0.2 $`\mu `$m can survive in a small region downstream, close to the front of a $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$= 500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$shock. Moreover, IC 883, NGC 6090, and Mrk 331 show that d/g ratios are lower in older starbursts also when $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$= 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Generally, low velocity clouds ($`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$=100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) in young (and old, e.g. NGC 6090) starbursts are less dusty. Recall that d/g in the corresponding models are often upper limits (e.g. NGC 1614). In fact, these clouds are generally far from the starburst bulk, already merging with the ISM. Accordingly, IC 883 that is a compact object, does not show a low velocity component neither in the line spectrum nor in the continuum.

The relative contribution to the \[OIII\] lines from clouds corresponding to $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$= 500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$prevails in VV 114 N, NGC 3690, and NGC 6090 NE. Interestingly, in Mrk 331 the contribution increases smoothly with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$. We would expect a relatively large FWHM of the \[OII\] line profile.

Moreover, the comparison of model calculations with the emission-line ratios shows that sulphur is depleted. Generally, N/H abundance ratio higher than cosmic is indicated.

The main results regarding the IR domain of the continuum SED, are the following:

Emission from clouds in the neighbourhood of starbursts with $`t=3.3`$ Myr and with shock velocities of $``$ 500 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ explains both the bremsstrahlung and reradiation from dust in the MIR. Clouds with lower velocity (100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) and corresponding to a lower age ($`t=0.0`$ Myr) which contribute to the line spectra give a low contribution to the SED in the FIR, while clouds with $`\mathrm{V}_\mathrm{s}`$ = 200 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ are crucial to explain the FIR bump due to dust emission.

By fitting the continuum SED we found that dust-to-gas ratios change in the different regions of single galaxies. We found that d/g ranges between $`1.6\times 10^4`$ and $`3.2\times 10^2`$ (see Sect. 2). More specific results are given in Table 12.

An old stellar population with $`\mathrm{T}_{}`$ = 5 000 K is revealed by black body emission in the optical-NIR range of a few objects.

Finally, the data which correspond to the SED are not resolved enough to permit an analysis of absorption by ice and emission by PAH. However, small dust grains corresponding to PAH and graphite, and ice mantles are easily destroyed in a shock dominated regime close to the starburst, therefore, they are emitting from a farther extended region. The modelling shows that absorption by silicate at $``$ 9.7 $`\mu `$m is strong for VV 114 E(4), MRK 331, and NGC 3690. Moreover, absorption by water ice at $``$ 3 $`\mu `$m is suggested for VV 114.

In summary, the frequencies corresponding to the maxima of dust reradiation depend on the shock velocity. However, the radiation from the starburst affects gas bremsstrahlung emission in the optical range. Gas and dust are mutually heating and cooling, therefore, from the ratio between the intensity of dust emission and the bremsstrahlung it is possible to deduce the dust-to-gas ratio in each observed region of single galaxies.

## Aknowledgments

We are very grateful to the referee for important comments. We thank Sueli M. Viegas for many helpful discussions.

## Appendix A

In Table A1 the models are defined and referred to the models in CV01. The input parameters appear in columns 2-6. In the last column the number before the parenthesis refer to the number of the model in the tables (which appears inside the parenthesis) of CV01.

## Appendix B

The data from NED come from:

Spinoglio et al. (1995), Moshir et al. (1990), Soifer et al. (1989), Griffith et al. (1994), Condon et al. (1998), Fabbiano, Kim, & Trinchieri (1992), Kinney et al. (1993), De Vaucouleurs et al. (1991), Huchra (1977), Doroshenko & Terebezh (1979), Balzano & Weedman (1981), Rieke & Low (1972), Lebofsky & Rieke (1979), Eales, Wynn-Williams, & Duncan (1989), Dunne et al. (2000), Griffith et al. (1995), Godwin et al. (1977), Gregory & Condon (1991), Becker, White, & Edwards (1991), Joyce & Simon (1976), Allen (1976), Carico et al. (1992), Odewanhn & Aldering (1995), Becker, White, & Helfand (1995).