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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

R-modes in inviscid, rotating, relativistic stars (in which the Coriolis force acts as the restoring force to produce periodic fluid motions) are generically unstable to the emission of gravitational waves (Andersson 1998; Friedman & Morsink 1998), whose back-reaction produces a growth of the modes by the mechanism first studied by Chandrasekhar (1970) and by Friedman & Schutz (1978a,b; “CFS instability”).

In neutron stars at low temperatures $`T`$, the long mean free path of the fluid particles allows rapid momentum exchange over macroscopic lengthscales (shear viscosity), impeding the growth of the modes (Lindblom et al. 1998). At high $`T`$, the successive compression and expansion of a fluid element (a small effect for r-modes, unless the stellar rotation rate, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, is extremely fast; e.g., Lindblom & Owen 2002) leads to a departure from the chemical equilibrium conditions, inducing reactions (typically weak interactions) which tend to restore the equilibrium state. Since these reactions occur out of equilibrium, they constitute irreversible processes that dissipate energy and create entropy, extracting mechanical energy from the oscillation modes while increasing the temperature of the fluid and/or leading to the emission of neutrinos from the star.

The competition between the destabilizing effect of the gravitational radiation reaction, which is strongly dependent on $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, and the damping effect of the temperature-dependent shear and bulk viscosity generically defines one or two “instability regions” for low-amplitude r-modes at high $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and intermediate $`T`$, as shown in Fig. 1. In these regions, the mode amplitude grows exponentially, until it is choked by cooling or feeds back on $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`T`$ (and itself) through heating or gravitational-radiation torque.

Studies done so far of the evolution of young neutron stars under this instability (e.g., Owen et al. 1998; Lindblom & Owen 2002) include amplification and damping of r-modes by the above-mentioned effects in the linear regime, spin-down due to gravitational waves, and passive cooling, ignoring the nonlinear terms and the heating associated with the bulk viscosity. These effects are included in the present work, in addition to a probably more realistic treatment of angular momentum loss, motivated by the model case studied by Levin & Ushomirsky (2001a).

## 2 Nonlinear bulk viscosity and reheating

In the simplest case, namely neutron star matter composed only of neutrons ($`n`$), protons ($`p`$), and electrons ($`e`$), the equilibrium state is set by $`\mu _n=\mu _p+\mu _e`$, where $`\mu _i`$ is the chemical potential of particle species $`i`$. In the simplest approximation, we consider non-interacting particles, of which the neutrons and protons are non-relativistic, satisfying $`\mu _ip_{Fi}^2/(2m_i)n_i^{2/3}`$, where $`p_{Fi}`$ and $`n_i`$ are the respective Fermi momenta and number densities, and the electrons are extremely relativistic, with $`\mu _ep_{Fe}cn_e^{1/3}`$. If the total density $`\rho `$ is perturbed by an amount $`\delta \rho `$, at constant (charge-neutral) composition, the equilibrium state is perturbed by $`\delta \mu \mu _p+\mu _e\mu _n\mu _e\delta \rho /(3\rho ).`$

The equilibrium state can be restored by the “modified Urca reactions” (hereafter mUrca), $`n+Np+N+e+\overline{\nu }_e`$ and $`p+N+en+N+\nu _e`$, where $`\nu _e`$ and $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ are the electron neutrino and antineutrino, and $`N`$ is a “bystander nucleon” whose identity is not changed, but whose function is to absorb momentum in order to allow for overall momentum conservation in the reaction, given that the neutron Fermi momentum is much larger than that of all the other particles involved.

The net rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_m`$ of these reactions (net lepton number emitted per unit volume per unit time) is limited by the available phase space, increasing both with temperature, $`T`$, and with $`\delta \mu `$. The associated energy dissipation rate is

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_m(\delta \mu ,T)\delta \mu =ϵ_m(0,T)\frac{14680u^2+7560u^4+840u^6+24u^8}{11513},$$
(1)
where $`u\delta \mu /(\pi T)`$, and the neutrino emissivity (energy emitted in the form of neutrinos and antineutrinos per unit time per unit volume) takes a similar form,

$$ϵ_m(\delta \mu ,T)=ϵ_m(0,T)\left(1+\frac{22020u^2+5670u^4+420u^6+9u^8}{11513}\right),$$
(2)
with the equilibrium value $`ϵ_m(0,T)T^8`$ (see Reisenegger 1995). Studies of neutron star evolution so far have considered only the lowest-order term in $`u`$ in each of these expressions, which yield the linear bulk viscosity and equilibrium neutrino cooling of the star, respectively. Here, we consider the full expression for both. Equation (1) shows that, at high amplitudes, the dissipation increases much more strongly than predicted by linear theory, potentially providing a saturation mechanism that impedes the unlimited growth of the amplitude. In addition, we note that the net heating of the neutron star is given by the difference $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_m\delta \mu ϵ_m`$, a fourth-order polynomial in $`u^2`$ whose zeroth and first-order terms are negative whereas the three higher powers are positive. Thus, for small-amplitude oscillations, the star undergoes net cooling (somewhat faster than in equilibrium at the same $`T`$), whereas at high amplitudes it is heated more and more strongly.

In the inner core of a neutron star, additional particles may appear, such as the (baryonic) $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$ hyperons. Their presence changes the equilibrium abundances, increasing the proton-to-neutron ratio and probably allowing the much faster “direct Urca reactions” (hereafter dUrca), $`np+e+\overline{\nu }_e`$ and $`p+en+\nu _e`$, to take place, conserving momentum without the need of a “bystander particle”. For these, the quantitative details are slightly different from the mUrca case (see Reisenegger 1995 for the explicit expressions), but the qualitative properties discussed above still hold.

In addition, the hyperons give rise to the additional reactions $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}+pn+n`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^0+pp+n`$, which contribute to the bulk viscosity, substantially reducing the unstable region in the $`\mathrm{\Omega }T`$ plane, probably to two small and disjoint “windows” (see Fig. 1 and Lindblom & Owen 2002). These reactions emit no neutrinos, and therefore always have a heating effect. The rates of these reactions have only been calculated in the small-amplitude (“linear”) limit (Jones 2001; Lindblom & Owen 2002), but we extrapolate them into the nonlinear regime by using the expressions obtained by Madsen (1992) for the analogous processes in quark matter, $`u+ds+u`$.

## 3 Angular momentum loss and neutron star evolution

The evolution of the star is modeled by coupled first-order differential equations for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, $`T`$, and the dimensionless mode amplitude $`\alpha `$. The evolution of $`T`$ is determined by the heating and cooling processes discussed in the previous section, and that of $`\alpha `$ by the mentioned competition between the destabilizing gravitational radiation reaction and the stabilizing viscous effects. The evolution of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ deserves some additional comments.

In the instability conditions derived by Friedman & Schutz (1978b), a crucial role is played by the so-called “canonical angular momentum” associated with the mode, a quadratic functional of the displacement field which is related (though possibly not identical) to the physical angular momentum of the mode. In previous studies of the evolution of neutron stars under this instability (e.g., Owen et al. 1998), it was assumed that the total angular momentum of the star is the sum of a term corresponding to a rigid rotation, $`I\mathrm{\Omega }`$, where $`I`$ is the star’s (constant) moment of inertia, plus the canonical angular momentum of the mode. Furthermore, it was assumed that only the latter term is modified by the gravitational radiation reaction force, whereas the stellar rotation rate can be changed only by viscous dissipation of the modes, which would transfer angular momentum from one term to the other.

For one specific model problem (a thin spherical shell), Levin & Ushomirsky (2001a) were able to show that these assumptions are incorrect. For this case, the r-modes have no physical angular momentum, i.e., do not contribute to the total angular momentum of the star, which is exactly $`I\mathrm{\Omega }`$. Furthermore, $`I\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is changed by the gravitational waves, as there is no other angular momentum available for them to carry away. There is no proof that these results can be extrapolated to the much more complicated case of a complete neutron star. However, given that the previously made assumptions are rather special and have been disproved in the only available model case, we choose to base our evolutionary model on the results of Levin & Ushomirsky, taking the total angular momentum to be given by $`I\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and its derivative to be equal to minus the angular momentum carried away by the gravitational waves.

## 4 Results

We have tracked the evolution of a young neutron star for three different scenarios, which are determined by the instability boundaries shown in Fig. 1. Our numerical simulations start with the same initial conditions as in Owen et al. (1998), i.e., an initial temperture $`T_0=10^{11}\mathrm{K}`$ and an initial rotation rate $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=\frac{2}{3}\sqrt{\pi G\overline{\rho }}`$, about the maximum rotation the star can sustain without disrupting due to the centrifugal force, where $`\overline{\rho }`$ is the mean density of the star.

Our first scenario is a neutron star composed only of neutrons, protons and electrons, where its bulk viscosity is caused by mUrca reactions (Fig. 2). Non-linear bulk viscosity is unable to saturate the r-modes on its own, so they can grow to amplitudes $`\alpha 1`$, spinning down the star within an hour. Reheating is weak compared to neutrino emission, leading only to a delay in the cooling of the star, but not to a net temperature increase. Since other saturation mechanisms can be active (Arras et al. 2002), we have saturated the r-modes artificially (as in Owen et al. 1998) by an ad hoc damping force whose work is directly dissipated into heat. This leads to a rapid and substantial temperature increase, depending on the saturation amplitude, until the star is hot enough for neutrino cooling to become stronger. For saturation amplitudes $`\alpha <10^2`$, as for the unsaturated case, the heat gain is not enough to raise the temperature and only delays the cooling. However, the spin-down timescale becomes much longer, $`t_{sd}\alpha ^2`$ hours. This mechanism can in principle explain the inexistence of very rapidly rotating, young neutron stars. However, with our current understanding of the microphysics, the instability boundary restricts the final rotation periods (after spin-down through this mechanism) only to $`P>5`$ ms, not to the observed $`P>15`$ ms.

In our second scenario (not plotted), we consider the presence of hyperons in the inner core of the neutron star, contributing the relatively low bulk viscosity estimated by Jones (2001) and allowing dUrca processes to take place. The evolution is similar to our first scenario, but happens at lower temperatures ($`10^9\mathrm{K}`$), allowing some temperature increase to occur once the mode amplitude is large.

Our third scenario is basically the same as the second one, but the contribution of hyperon bulk viscosity is taken to be large (as suggested by Lindblom & Owen 2002), so as to split the unstable region in two (Fig. 1). Due to the rapid dUrca cooling, the high-temperature unstable region is passed through in seconds, and initially small-amplitude r-modes do not have enough time to grow significantly. It takes about a year for the neutron star to cool down to the second unstable region, which is avoided due to the large spin-down if the magnetic field of the star is large, $`B10^{13}`$ G or greater. If the magnetic field is weaker, the star enters this unstable region, and the r-modes grow until the heat released by viscous dissipation is large enough to raise the temperature, leading the star back to the stable region where it came from. Then, the r-modes are damped until neutrino cooling moves the star back to the unstable region. The cycle repeats until an equilibrium between amplitude-dependent heating and neutrino cooling is achieved and the star stabilizes with a fixed amplitude ($`\alpha 10^6`$) very close to the instability boundary (Fig. 3). The star then evolves along the instability boundary, spinning down due to the combination of magnetic dipole braking (which dominates for magnetic fields larger than $`10^9`$ G, as inferred for “classical”, young pulsars) and gravitational radiation, providing a persistent source of graviational radiation for $`200\mathrm{y}\mathrm{r}`$. This is qualitatively similar to the evolution found by Andersson et al. (2002) for strange stars, but with an important difference. Since those authors do not consider reheating nor a magnetic field, the timescale for the evolution along the instability boundary is set by the star’s cooling process rather than the magnetic torque.

## 5 Conclusions

We have found that the non-linear bulk viscosity terms cause no dramatic changes in the evolution of a young neutron star. They can decrease the maximum amplitude achieved by the r-modes, but cannot completely saturate the modes. The reheating makes the rapid spin-down phase take place at higher temperatures, possibly simplifiying the models by avoiding the formation of a solid crust and a superfluid core. The most important consequence of reheating is that, with strong bulk viscosity at sufficiently low temperatures, it can balance neutrino cooling, keeping the star close to the instability boundary, and turning it into a persistent source of gravitational radiation for hundreds of years.

## Acknowledgements

The possible importance of the nonlinear terms in the bulk viscosity was realized, independently of us, by P. Arras, and that of reheating through bulk viscosity by Y. Levin. Our work on this topic was initiated during A. R.’s participation in the program on “Spin and Magnetism in Young Neutron Stars” at the ITP in Santa Barbara, organized by L. Bildsten. A. R. thanks many of the participants of that program, but specially G. Ushomirsky and S. Morsink, for teaching him about r-modes and the CFS instability. We are also grateful to L. Lindblom for information about his work, and the organizers of the Marsala workshop for their efforts, which made an excellent conference happen. Most of the work presented here was funded by FONDECYT grant 1020840.


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# Quantum cryptography with fewer random numbers

## Acknowledgments

Supported by the Swiss Center ”Quantum Photonics”, and by the Swiss OFES within the frame of the European project RESQ.

## Figure Captions

Eve is assumed to have a quantum machine (represented by the unitary operator U) acting on blocks of $`n`$ qubits plus $`m`$ ancillas. After the unitary interaction Eve keeps her $`m`$ ancillas. If Alice sends only one qubit (or if Eve likes to attack the qubits one-by-one), Eve can simulate a n-qubit block by adding to Alice’s qubit the halfs of $`n1`$ singlets. After Alice and Bob announced the basis, Eve measures the other halves of the singlets in this basis, thus effectively preparing the simulated block as $`n`$ qubits all coded in the same basis.


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# R les des contraintes sur les signaux de transition de phase.

## 1 Introduction

Les transitions de phase dans les syst mes finis ont t tudi es dans de nombreux cadres th oriques. Des approches simples comme le mod le de gaz sur r seau permettent d’ tudier certaines propri t s comme la coexistence de phases ou la criticit et d crire de fa on qualitative les processus physiques comme la multifragmentation des noyaux atomiques ou des agr gats d’atomes. La description de la transition de phase dans ces syst mes diff re de la ph nom nologie classique que nous connaissons bien. Pour ces syst mes de taille finie, les fluctuations des observables sont importantes, les fonctions de partition contenant un nombre fini de termes ne permettent pas aux potentiels thermodynamiques de diverger, le r le des interfaces n’est plus n gligeable et surtout les ensembles statistiques ne sont pas quivalents. Une nouvelle description des transitions de phase pour ces syt mes doit tre formul e. Apr s une pr sentation du mod le de gaz sur r seau et quelques rappels de physique statistique, je pr senterai les effets des contraintes physiques appliqu es au syst me, c’est-a-dire le choix d’un ensemble statistique, sur deux signaux de transition de phase.

## 2 Le mod le Lattice-gas

Le mod le du gaz sur r seau est une extension du mod le d’Ising. Ce mod le suppose un r seau multidimensionnel (3 dimensions dans notre cas) comprenant N sites caract ris s par un nombre d’occupation $`n_i`$ (absence (0) ou pr sence (1) d’une particule sur le site $`i`$) ainsi qu’une impulsion $`\stackrel{}{p_i}`$. La donn e des N nombres d’occupation et impulsions associ es d finit une configuration microscopique $`\{n\}`$. Le Hamiltonien que nous utilisons dans nos simulations s’ crit de la fa on suivante:

$$H(\{n\})=\frac{ϵ}{2}\underset{ij}{\overset{N}{}}n_in_j+\underset{k=1}{\overset{N}{}}n_i\stackrel{}{p_i}^2$$

La premi re somme traduit une interaction attractive constante entre plus proches voisins sur le r seau (6 au maximum en 3 dimensions). Le param tre $`ϵ`$ peut tre vu comme la profondeur du puits de potentiel d’une interaction g n rique courte port e. Cette premi re somme est responsable de la coh sion du syst me et joue un r le de premi re importance. La deuxi me somme prend en compte l’agitation du syst me travers l’impulsion des particules du r seau donnant ainsi des degr s de libert suppl mentaires au syst me. Cette agitation contribue la dissociation du syst me en fragments. Les fragments sont identifi s l’int rieur de chaque configuration microscopique par un algorithme de reconnaissance du type Coniglio-Klein . L’observation du syst me consiste ensuite valuer des observables pertinentes calcul es sur un tat microscopique du syst me.

## 3 Ensembles statistiques

Les contraintes physiques ext rieures sur le syst me tudi sont appliqu es par le biais de multiplicateurs de Lagrange. L’observable $`A_l`$ (variable extensive) associ e $`\lambda _l`$ (param tre intensif) se retrouve alors distribu e dans un intervalle. Par exemple le multiplicateur de Lagrange associ au volume est la pression, celui associ au nombre de particules le potentiel chimique ou encore celui associ l’ nergie la temp rature. Pour toute observable nous pouvons d finir un param tre de Lagrange (conjugu canonique) qui permettra d’obtenir la distribution de cette observable l’ quilibre de Gibbs, c’est dire celle maximisant l’entropie statistique sous contraintes. Cette m thode permet de traiter de fa on quiprobable l’information dont on ne dispose pas, le seul biais introduit tant pr cis ment l’information pertinente.
Un algorithme Monte-Carlo de type Metropolis  permet d’ chantilloner diff rents ensembles statistiques afin d’obtenir les distributions statistiques de micro tats satisfaisant les contraintes. Il est possible d’ajouter ces contraintes des lois de conservations (distribution de Dirac de l’observable conserv e). Nous consid rerons les ensembles grand-canonique dans lequel le potentiel chimique et la temp rature sont fix s (ie. nombre de particules et energie d finis en valeur moyenne) ainsi que l’ensemble canonique o la masse est fix e et l’ nergie est d finie en valeur moyenne. Les distributions de probabilit pour chaque ensemble statistique sont rappel es dans le tableau 1.

## 4 Bimodalit

Une fois les distributions statistiques de micro tats obtenues, les projections de la densit d’ tat sur des directions d’observation jug es pertinentes permet d’ tudier la physique associ e au syst me.

F. Gulminelli et P. Chomaz ont propos  d’utiliser la topologie de la distribution des v nements dans l’espace d’observation pour signer la transition de phase pour les syst mes de taille finie. Dans la zone de co xistence de phase une bimodalit (deux maxima) dans la distribution de probabilit d’une observable permet d’identifier sans ambig it chacune des phases; cette observable joue alors le r le d’un param tres d’ordre. La projection de la densit de probabilit dans des espaces d’observation pertinents permet d’identifier l’appartenance des v nements chacune de ces phases.

La densit de mati re est le param tre d’ordre naturel de la transition de phase liquide-gaz la limite thermodynamique. Il est toutefois possible de trouver d’autres param tres d’ordre corr l s la densit ; en particulier on peut s’attendre ce que la taille du plus gros des fragments ($`A_{big}`$) puisse servir de param tre d’ordre.

La figure (1) repr sente la distribution des v nements grand-canoniques ( la valeur critique du potentiel chimique $`\mu =3ϵ`$) dans l’espace “taille totale du syst me (ie. densit ) versus taille du plus gros fragment” et montre la corr lation entre ces deux observables. Cette figure montre que m me en syst me de toute petite taille la co xistence de phase est reconnaissable par la bimodalit de la distribution du param tre d’ordre. La claire corr lation entre $`A_{big}`$ et et la masse totale du syst me $`A_{tot}`$ d montre en plus que $`A_{big}`$ peut tre utilis comme param tre d’ordre. Cette observable est facile manipuler dans les simulations num riques et accessible assez facilement exp rimentalement. La densit tant beaucoup plus difficile (voire impossible du fait de la difficult d’acc der au volume) mesurer, l’ tude de cette observable est d’un grand inter t pour faire des analogies ou comparer les r sultats des mod les avec l’exp rience.

A basse temp rature la distribution de ces observables est bimodale (la projection sur chaque axe r v le deux maxima). Les v nements denses (grande masse totale) et ayant un gros plus gros fragment $`A_{big}`$ sont identifi s comme appartenant la phase de type liquide tandis que le deuxi me lot d’ v nements (faible densit et petite taille du plus gros fragment) correspond la phase gazeuse. En levant progressivement la temp rature du syst me, ces deux lots d’ v nements se rapprochent l’un de l’autre pour fusionner la temp rature critique. Enfin pour les temp ratures surcritiques la distribution devient monomodale (un maximum), une seule phase fluide subsiste, avec un plus gros fragment de petite taille. Ainsi le passage d’une distribution bimodale une distribution monomodale signe le passage par un point critique correspondant la transition de phase du second ordre.

La figure (2) (graphique sup rieure) sch matise la bifurcation caract ristique d’une transition de phase. Cette figure montre la distribution grand-canonique du plus gros fragment pour diff rentes temp ratures. Le passage de la distribution bimodale de ce param tre d’ordre une distribution monomodale est bien localis e et permet d’identifier le point critique. Le graphique inf rieur sur cette m me figure pr sente les distributions du plus gros fragment dans la m me gamme de temp ratures pour l’ensemble canonique. Dans cet ensemble la masse a t fix e, c’est- -dire le nombre de sites occup s est maintenu constant, alors qu’il tait libre de fluctuer (sous la contrainte du potentiel chimique) dans l’ensemble grand-canonique. Si l’existence d’une loi de conservation emp che videment l’utilisation de la masse totale comme param tre d’ordre, la bimodalit de la distribution de taille du plus gros fragment a aussi disparu dans cet ensemble. La contrainte sur l’observable “masse totale du syst me” a fondamentalement chang la topologie de la distribution de $`A_{big}`$ cause de la forte corr lation entre $`A_{big}`$ et $`A_{tot}`$. Le plus gros fragment n’est plus un param tre d’ordre pour cet ensemble et ne permet plus de caract riser la co xistence de phase.

## 5 Invariance par changement d’ ch lle

Il a t propos de nombreux autres moyens de mettre en vidence une transition de phase. R. Botet et M. Ploszajczak  ont propos par exemple d’utiliser la th orie des fluctuations universelles ou $`\mathrm{\Delta }scaling`$. Cette th orie d montre que dans un ph nom ne critique la distribution du param tre d’ordre est invariante par changement d’ ch lle du syst me. Cette th orie a des applications en physique nucl aire pour ce qui concerne la ph nom nologie de la multifragmentation des noyaux excit s des nergies comparables leur nergie de liaison, si la taille du plus gros fragment est param tre d’ordre de la transition de phase associ e la multifragmentation et si celle-ci est interpr table comme un ph nom ne critique (ie. a lieu en proximit du point critique du diagramme de phase). On attend dans ce cas que la forme de la distribution du plus gros fragment (moyenant une transformation d’ ch lle) reste la m me lorsque la taille du syst me est modifi e traduisant le caract re universel de cette distribution. Le passage par un point critique se traduit par la v rification du $`\mathrm{\Delta }scaling`$ de la distribution normalis e $`P_{<m>}(m)`$ du param tre d’ordre $`m`$ pour diff rentes tailles de syst mes :

$$<m>^\mathrm{\Delta }P_{<m>}(m)=\mathrm{\Phi }(z_\mathrm{\Delta }),z_\mathrm{\Delta }=\frac{mm^{}}{<m>^\mathrm{\Delta }}$$
(1)
o $`m^{}`$ et $`<m>`$ repr sentent la valeur la plus probable et la valeur moyenne du param tre d’ordre et $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ la fonction d’ ch lle. Dans une phase d sordonn e les distributions des param tres d’ordre doivent v rifier $`\mathrm{\Delta }=1`$, le passage par un point critique est sign par $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\frac{1}{2}`$. J.M. Carmona et al. ont montr  que cette th orie est v rifi e dans le mod le de gaz sur r seau. Cette technique est cependant difficle mettre en oeuvre car la qualit de la loi d’ ch lle (1) d pend videmment de la valeur de $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ qui peut priori varier entre 0 et 1 et n’est pas connue avant l’analyse.

En ce qui concerne les donn es exp rimentales, le nombre limit d’esp ces nucl aires rend impossible une application directe de la m thode. Les propri t s d’invariance d’ ch lle ont alors t tudi es pour une m me collision d’ions lourds en variant la violence de la collision  et un changement de r gime a t observ de $`\mathrm{\Delta }=1`$ vers $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\frac{1}{2}`$. L’ensemble statistique (tri exp rimental) dans lequel est effectu cette analyse s’apparente un ensemble gaussien interm diaire entre un ensemble microcanonique et un ensemble canonique.

En notant $`P(A_{big})`$ la distribution du plus gros fragment, $`<A_{big}>`$ et $`\sigma _{A_{big}}`$ la moyenne statistique et la variance de cette distribution, l’ quation (1) peut tre crite de fa on quivalente par l’ensemble des deux relations

$$\sigma _{A_{big}}P(A_{big})=\mathrm{\Psi }(z_{PMS})=\mathrm{\Psi }(\frac{A_{big}<A_{big}>}{\sigma _{A_{big}}})$$
(2)
$$\frac{<A_{big}>}{\sigma _{A_{big}}^{2\mathrm{\Delta }}}=Constante$$
(3)
L’ quation (2) exprime la transformation qui permet d’obtenir les distributions centr es $`\mathrm{\Psi }(z_{PMS})`$ de la variable r duite $`z_{PMS}`$. Ceci constitue une premi re tape qui ne suppose pas la valeur de $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. L’ quation (3) exprime une relation affine entre les logarithmes des valeurs moyennes et des variances des distributions de plus gros fragments

$$ln(A_{big})=Cte\mathrm{\Delta }ln(\sigma _{abig})$$

qui permet, si la loi d’ ch lle (2) est v rifi e, d’ tablir la valeur de $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$.

Nous avons appliqu cette m thode d’analyse aux donn es de notre mod le pour mieux comprendre ce signal. Similairement la m thode exp rimentale, nous avons gard la taille du r seau constante (6x6x6, ce qui correspond 108 particules dans l’ensemble canonique).

La figure (3) montre les r sultats obtenus dans les ensembles grand-canonique (haut) et canonique (bas). La partie gauche de chaque sous-figure montre la relation entre le logarithme de la valeur moyenne ($`ln(\kappa _1^2)`$) et le logarithme de la variance ($`ln(\kappa _2)`$) des distributions du plus gros fragment, chaque point correspond une temp rature (basses temp ratures droite, hautes gauche), la partie droite de ces figures superpose les fonctions d’ ch lle $`\mathrm{\Psi }(z_{PMS})`$.

Dans l’ensemble grand-canonique, comme nous l’avons vu au paragraphe pr c dent, les distributions du plus gros fragment dans la zone de coexistence de phase sont bimodales. La variance globale a donc une signification qui n’est plus compatible avec la th orie des fluctuations universelles. Dans cet ensemble les fonctions d’ ch lle de ces distributions ne se superposent pas, il n’y a pas d’invariance par changement d’ ch lle. La relation entre variance et moyenne est lin aire, aucun accident ne permet dans ce diagrame de d celer la localisation du point critique. Il est plus judicieux par exemple d’utiliser comme nous l’avons vu la disparition de la bimodalit pour localiser le point critique. Seules les distributions correspondant des temp ratures surcritiques semblent approximativement suivre une loi d’ ch lle avec $`\mathrm{\Delta }1`$.

Dans l’ensemble canonique, les conclusions sont tr s diff rentes, la valeur moyenne de la taille du plus gros fragment diminue avec la temp rature, la variance augmente, passe par un maximum puis rediminue traduisant l’ largissement de la distribution de plus gros fragments observ e au voisinage de la temp rature critique. Les fonctions d’ ch lle sont regroup es en deux familles distinctes poss dant une asym trie propre. Les distributions correspondant aux basses temp ratures sont inclin es vers la droite tandis que celles correspondant aux grandes temp ratures sont pench es vers la gauche, au passage de la temp rature critique cette distribution du param tre d’ordre s’aplatit avec une forme tr s large (fluctuation maximale). Assez loin de la temp rature critique, les distributions de chaque famille se ressemblent beaucoup mais ne suivent pas rigoureusement une loi d’ ch lle. Le $`\mathrm{\Delta }scaling`$ n’est pas observ bien que le point critique thermodynamique soit explor par la simulation (point d’intersection des deux droites dans le diagramme de gauche). En effet, m me si on accepte d’interpr ter la ressemblence des distributions comme une loi d’ ch lle d form e par les effets de taille finie, il est clair sur la figure (3) que la relation entre $`ln(A_{big})`$ et $`ln(\sigma _{A_{big}})`$ n’est pas lin aire sauf peut- tre pour les temp ratures fortement surcritiques. Toutefois les interpolations lin aires de la figure (3) montrent que si l’on dispose d’un domaine de variation de temp rature limit , la r duction de la variance due la loi de conservation sur la masse totale peut tre faussement interpr t e comme un changement de r gime de $`\mathrm{\Delta }=1`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\frac{1}{2}`$.

## 6 Conclusion

Dans cette contribution nous avons montr que les distributions des observables et les moments associ s (moyenne, variance …) d pendent de fa on critique de l’ensemble statistique consid r (ie. les contraintes appliqu es notre syst me). Ceci est sp cialement important dans la recherche d’un param tre d’ordre pour une transition de phase. Une observable peut tre param tre d’ordre pour un ensemble statistique et ne plus l’ tre pour une autre. En particulier notre tude montre qu’il est difficile de penser que $`A_{big}`$ puisse tre utilis comme param tre d’ordre dans les exp riences de multifragmentation nucl aire tant donn sa corr lation avec la masse totale du syst me qui est fortement contrainte dans les exp riences. Par contre des observables se basant sur l’asym trie des distributions du plus gros fragment semblent tr s prometteuses.


text:
# A second constant of the motion for two-dimensional positronium in a magnetic field

## Abstract

Recent numerical work indicates that the classical motion of positronium in a constant magnetic field does not exhibit chaotic behavior if the system is confined to two dimensions. One would therefore expect this system to possess a second constant of the motion in addition to the total energy. In this paper we construct a generalization of the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector and show that a component of this vector is a constant of the motion.

Anderson, Murawski, and SchmidtAMS  have recently performed a numerical study of the classical motion of positronium embedded in a constant magnetic field. They find that the three-dimensional system is chaotic, suggesting the possibility of a chaos-assisted tunneling reduction of the lifetime of positronium which Ackermann, Shertzer, and SchmelcherAckermann ; Shertzer  had previously predicted to be on the order of years. When the system is confined to two dimensions, however, no sign of chaos emerges from their computations. Indeed, they were able to show that the largest Lyapunov exponent is zero. These results suggest the existence of an additional constant of the motion (CM). We show here that such a CM may be obtained from a component of a generalized Laplace-Runge-Lenz vectorLaplace ; Runge ; Lenz .

For completeness, we review the basic equations in the notation of Ref.AMS . The system consists of two particles of equal mass $`m`$ and charges $`+e`$ and $`e`$ moving nonrelativistically in a constant magnetic field $`𝐁`$:

$$m\ddot{𝐫}_1=e\dot{𝐫}_1\times 𝐁\frac{e^2}{4\pi ϵ_0}\frac{𝐫_1𝐫_2}{|𝐫_1𝐫_2|^3}$$
(1)
$$m\ddot{𝐫}_2=e\dot{𝐫}_2\times 𝐁+\frac{e^2}{4\pi ϵ_0}\frac{𝐫_1𝐫_2}{|𝐫_1𝐫_2|^3}$$
(2)
One may easily integrate the sum of Eqs. (1) and (2) to find the conserved quantity (called the pseudomomentum in Refs.Ackermann ; Shertzer )

$$m\dot{𝐑}e𝐫\times 𝐁=𝜶$$
(3)
where

$`𝐑=𝐫_1+𝐫_2`$ (4)
$`𝐫=𝐫_1𝐫_2`$ (5)
The difference of Eqs. (1) and (2) leads to

$$m\ddot{𝐫}=e\dot{𝐑}\times 𝐁\frac{e^2}{2\pi ϵ_0}\frac{𝐫}{r^3}$$
(6)
Substitution of $`\dot{𝐑}`$ from Eq. (3) yields an equation for $`𝐫`$,

$$m\ddot{𝐫}=\frac{e}{m}(e𝐫\times 𝐁+𝜶)\times 𝐁\frac{e^2}{2\pi ϵ_0}\frac{𝐫}{r^3}$$
(7)
Choosing the coordinate system such that $`𝐁=B𝐞_3`$ and rescaling $`t`$ and $`𝐫`$ according to $`(eB/m)tt`$, $`(2\pi ϵ_0B^2/m)^{1/3}𝐫𝐫`$ as in Ref.AMS  one finds

$$\ddot{𝐫}=(𝐫\times 𝐞_3)\times 𝐞_3\frac{𝐫}{r^3}+𝜷$$
(8)
where $`𝜷=(2\pi ϵ_0/me^3B)^{1/3}𝜶\times 𝐞_3`$.

In the two-dimensional case, $`(𝐫\times 𝐞_3)\times 𝐞_3=𝐫`$, and the above simplifies to

$$\ddot{𝐫}=𝐫\frac{𝐫}{r^3}+𝜷$$
(9)
The presence of the harmonic term on the right-hand side makes ionization impossible for two-dimensional positronium.

Eq. (9) implies that the dimensionless angular momentum $`𝐋=𝐫\times \dot{𝐫}`$ is not conserved. Indeed, taking the cross product of $`𝐫`$ with Eq. (9) we have

$$𝐫\times \ddot{𝐫}=𝐫\times 𝜷$$
(10)
or

$$\dot{𝐋}=𝐫\times 𝜷$$
(11)
A fairly obvious constant of the motion is the dimensionless energy

$$E=\frac{1}{2}v^2+\frac{1}{2}r^2\frac{1}{r}𝜷𝐫.$$
(12)
A second nontrivial CM may be obtained by taking the cross product of Eq. (11) with $`\dot{𝐫}`$, and then computing the scalar product of the resulting equation with $`𝜷`$. After taking this cross product, adding and subtracting $`𝐋\times \ddot{𝐫}`$ on the left-hand side, and using Eq. (9) we get

$$\frac{d}{dt}(𝐋\times \dot{𝐫})+𝐋\times (𝐫+\frac{𝐫}{r^3}𝜷)=(𝐫\times 𝜷)\times \dot{𝐫}$$
(13)
But $`𝐋\times 𝐫/r^3=d\widehat{𝐫}/dt`$, where $`\widehat{𝐫}=𝐫/r`$ is the unit vector in the $`𝐫/r`$ direction. Therefore

$$\frac{d𝐀}{dt}+𝐋\times (𝐫𝜷)=(𝐫\times 𝜷)\times \dot{𝐫}$$
(14)
with $`𝐀=\widehat{𝐫}+𝐋\times \dot{𝐫}`$ the dimensionless Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector. We now take the dot product of Eq. (14) with $`𝜷`$:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dt}}(𝐀𝜷)`$ $`=`$ $`(𝐋\times 𝐫)𝜷+[(𝐫\times 𝜷)\times \dot{𝐫}]𝜷`$
$`=`$ $`𝐋(𝐫\times 𝜷)+(𝐫\times 𝜷)(\dot{𝐫}\times 𝜷)`$
$`=`$ $`𝐋\dot{𝐋}+\dot{𝐋}\ddot{𝐋}`$
Thus

$$\frac{d}{dt}\left(𝐀𝜷+\frac{1}{2}𝐋^2\frac{1}{2}\dot{𝐋}^2\right)=0$$
(15)
or

$$𝐀𝜷+\frac{1}{2}(𝐫\times \dot{𝐫})^2\frac{1}{2}(𝐫\times 𝜷)^2=C_\beta $$
(16)
with $`C_\beta `$ a constant. It is easy to show that the above is equivalent to the statement that the scalar product of $`𝜷`$ with the vectorRedmond

$$𝐂=𝐀\frac{1}{2\beta ^2}𝐋\times (𝐋\times 𝜷)+\frac{1}{2}𝐫\times (𝐫\times 𝜷)=𝐀+\frac{L^2}{2\beta ^2}𝜷+\frac{1}{2}𝐫\times (𝐫\times 𝜷)$$
(17)
is conserved. Note that the vector itself is not conserved, since

$$\frac{d𝐂}{dt}=\left(\frac{3}{2}\beta 𝐫\widehat{𝜷}\right)𝐋\times \widehat{𝜷}$$
(18)
The existence of the new CM $`C_\beta =𝐂𝜷`$ depends crucially on the equality of the masses of the particles involved; it no longer obtains if $`m_1m_2`$. Furthermore, it is an exact conservation law for the classical dynamics of two-dimensional positronium only if the experimental conditions warrant modeling the real system by Eqs. (1), (2), i.e., only if the conditions are such that spin, radiative, and relativistic effects are irrelevant. On the other hand, such effects are expected to be small for the delocalized states of interest in Refs.Ackermann ; Shertzer . Hence, even if the improved (by the inclusion of spin, radiative, and relativistic effects) description did display chaotic behavior, Eq. (16) should still represent an approximate conservation law, implying that the predictions of Refs.Ackermann ; Shertzer  would not be threatened by chaos-assisted tunneling in the two-dimensional case.


text:
# Observing the Sunyaev-Zel’dovich Effect Closer to Home

## 1 Introduction

The mean baryonic density of the Universe is now fairly well determined from nucleosynthesis (e.g. Burles, Nollett, & Turner 2001), the temperature fluctuation power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) (Spergel et al. 2003), models of the Lyman alpha forest at high redshift (e.g. Hui et al. 2002), and the hot gas fraction in clusters (e.g. Roussel, Sadat & Blanchard 2000), together with constraints on the total matter density and the Hubble parameter, to be $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}0.044`$. As discussed by Silk (2003), there is a net shortfall in the baryons observed at the present day: about 20% are visible in the form of stars and cluster gas (Fukugita, Hogan and Peebles 1998), 20 % are in the low-redshift Lyman-$`\alpha `$ forest (Penton, Shull, & Stocke 2000), and about half of the remainder are predicted by simulations of structure formation to be in a diffuse, warm intergalactic medium (Cen & Ostriker 1999; Davé et al. 2001), for which there is also increasing observational evidence (e.g. Mathur, Weinberg, & Chen 2003). The missing 30% of the baryons, by implication, must be in some other phase, at densities and temperatures that are very hard to detect. Several pieces of observational evidence, including the break in the X-ray luminosity-temperature ($`L_\mathrm{x}`$$`T_\mathrm{x}`$) relation on the scale of groups (e.g. Helsdon & Ponman 2000; Xue & Wu 2000) and spectroscopic signatures of strong winds in damped Lyman-break systems (Shapley et al. 2002) suggest that this baryon deficit is connected with galaxy formation, which may eject a substantial fraction of the baryons out of dark matter haloes and into the IGM. If it is indeed true that galaxies process and eject a large fraction of the baryons in their haloes, then this is an important feature of galaxy formation that should be confirmed by direct observations of the residual hot gas in galaxy haloes.

In principle, the gas content of a dark matter halo can be determined directly from its X-ray emission, but whereas galaxy clusters emit strongly in the X-ray, due to their large gas content and high virial temperature, typical galaxy haloes will be much fainter X-ray emitters. Furthermore, galaxies themselves contain bright X-ray point sources, making emission from an extended, gaseous component around them harder to detect. Thus, while the non-detection of X-ray emission from a diffuse component in low-mass systems has set limits on the mass and mean density of gas surrounding typical galaxies (Benson et al. 2000), the constraints are relatively weak, and large quantities of low-density gas could easily be hiding in low-mass haloes.

The Sunyaev-Zel’dovich (SZ) effect, in which CMB photons are scattered to higher energies by collisions with hot electrons, provides a more sensitive way of detecting gas at low densities. This effect has now been been measured with high signal-to-noise in many massive clusters (e.g. Mason, Myers, & Readhead 2001; Grego et al. 2001; De Petris et al. 2002; see Rees et al. 2002 for earlier references) , and increasing quantities of SZ data are becoming available from CMB experiments and dedicated instruments (see Carlstrom, Holder & Reese 2002 for a recent review). The central decrement produced by the SZ effect is independent of redshift, and varies in amplitude roughly as $`M`$, the mass of the cluster, so current SZ surveys generally focus on detecting the most massive galaxy clusters, irrespective of distance. The total SZ flux scattered by a source scales as $`M^{5/3}d_a^2`$, however, where $`d_a`$ is the angular diameter distance to the source. For a sufficiently nearby source, the larger apparent diameter can compensate for the mass dependence, making the gas in low-mass systems easier to detect.

In this letter, we suggest that one of the strongest integrated SZ signals may come from a galaxy halo, specifically the halo of our immediate neighbour M31. If this signal could be detected, it would offer a unique opportunity to study halo gas on a mass-scale that is very difficult to probe by other means. In what follows, we will first make a simple estimate of how the integrated (thermal) SZ flux and X-ray luminosity scale with mass and distance to the source, and compare the total signal from various nearby haloes. We will then calculate more precise values for M31, using a realistic model for the halo gas distribution. Finally, we will discuss the possibility of detecting a very low-amplitude temperature decrement from such an extended source, using data from all-sky CMB missions such as the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) or the Planck Surveyor.

## 2 The SZ flux from Nearby Haloes

### 2.1 Basic Scaling

The thermal SZ effect is the temperature decrement produced when CMB photons are inverse-Compton scattered off hot gas along the line of sight. The relative decrement is proportional to the integral of the gas pressure, $`P_\mathrm{e}=n_\mathrm{e}T_\mathrm{e}`$, along the line of sight. The integrated SZ flux, that is the total flux scattered in our direction by gas in a particular halo, is:

$$S(\nu )_{\mathrm{SZ}}g(\nu )I_o(\nu )𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{r_{\mathrm{vir}}}n_\mathrm{e}(𝐫)T_\mathrm{e}(𝐫)𝑑l$$
(1)
where the function $`g(\nu )`$ describes the frequency dependence of the SZ effect, $`I_o(\nu )`$ is the intensity of the CMB, $`d\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the solid angle subtended by the gas, $`r_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ is the virial radius of the halo, $`\theta `$ is the angle between the halo centre and the line of sight, and $`l=(\left|r\right|^2\theta ^2d_a^2)^{1/2}`$.

We can get a rough estimate of the magnitude of the SZ flux by assuming that the gas is isothermal, and that its temperature $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ is proportional to the virial temperature, $`T_{\mathrm{vir}}M^{2/3}`$. Integrating out to the virial radius $`r_{\mathrm{vir}}M^{1/3}`$, we then obtain the scaling relation $`S(\nu )_{\mathrm{SZ}}M^{5/3}d_a^2(z)`$, where $`d_a(z)`$ is the (angular diameter) distance to the source.

Fig. 1 shows the estimated mass of various haloes, versus their estimated distance from us. The small black triangles are nearby groups or clusters from the UZC-SSRS2 catalogue (Ramella et al. 2002), with estimated distances derived from the redshift assuming zero peculiar velocity, and estimated masses as given in the catalogue. We also include various nearby galaxy and cluster haloes (large points), with their names indicated. The distances and masses for these objects were taken from the Lyon-Meudon Extragalactic Database (LEDA) and from various recent references (Virgo – Schindler, Binggeli, & Böhringer 1999; Fouqué et al. 2001; Coma – Liu & Graham 2001). For M81 and Cen A, we assumed the same halo mass as M31. The more distant points are a set of Abell clusters for which the SZ effect has been measured (Mason et al. 2001), with distances based on their redshift and masses scaled up from the mass of Coma by $`(T_{\mathrm{Abell}}/T_{\mathrm{Coma}})^{3/2}`$. We assume a Hubble constant of 70 km s-1 Mpc-1 in all cases.

Both the mass and the distance estimates plotted here contain substantial uncertainties. Nonetheless, they give a general indication of representative values for nearby haloes. Also indicated on the plot are lines of constant integrated SZ flux, assuming the scaling $`S(\nu )_{\mathrm{SZ}}M^{5/3}d_a^2`$. We see that Coma stands out as one of the most massive nearby clusters; indeed, it was recently detected at about the 10-$`\sigma `$ level (that is 5, 0.5 and 5-$`\sigma `$ in 3 separate bands) by De Petris et al. (2002), for instance. We also see that there are various other promising targets for SZ observations, including Virgo and the Abell clusters. At very small distances, however, another source stands out: the halo of M31. Although a thousand times less massive than the Abell clusters, it is close enough that it may produce a comparable SZ flux locally.

An extended halo around M31 might also be detectable in X-rays. We can estimate the X-ray luminosity from gas in the halo of M31, for the simple isothermal gas distribution considered above. The total X-ray luminosity is:

$$L_\mathrm{X}=𝑑Vn_\mathrm{e}^2\mathrm{\Lambda }(T)𝑑r.$$
(2)
Here $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(T)`$ is the X-ray emissivity, which is consists of a bremsstrahlung term scaling as $`T^{1/2}`$, and a term due to spectral lines. For simplicity, we will assume the line emission has the same scaling with $`T`$, and increases the total luminosity by a factor of roughly 2 (as appropriate for a low metallicity gas in the 0.5-2.0 keV band). The total luminosity should therefore scale as $`L_xMn_\mathrm{e}(0)^2T^{1/2}M^{4/3}n_\mathrm{e}(0)^2`$. Thus, even a massive halo of gas may escape detection provided it is sufficiently extended, so that $`n_\mathrm{e}`$ is low.

In fact, recent ASCA observations by Takahashi et al. (2001) place an upper limit of $`2.3\pm 0.3\times 10^{38}`$ erg s-1 on soft (0.5-10 keV) emission from within 12’ (or 2.7 kpc at a distance of 770 kpc) of the centre of M31, while an earlier analysis of ROSAT data by West, Barber and Folgheraiter (1997) limited the contribution to the luminosity from within 21.5 kpc (at 770 kpc) to less than $`5.4\times 10^{39}`$ erg s-1 in the 0.5–2.0 keV band, assuming M31 has the same mass as the Milky Way. We will scale this mass up to $`10^{40}`$ erg s-1, on the assumption that M31 is at least 50 per cent more massive than the Milky Way, as implied by its greater circular velocity. As we will show below, these limits do not constrain the mass of gas in the halo of M31 very strongly, provided the gas is distributed well beyond the optical extent of the galaxy.

So far in this discussion we have assumed simple scalings for the sizes, temperatures and densities of halo gas distributions. Observations show that real systems deviate from these simple assumptions. The relationship between X-ray luminosity and temperature is a power-law for massive clusters, for instance, but changes slope on group and galaxy scales (e.g. Helsdon & Ponman 2000; Xue & Wu 2000 and references therein). Overall, low-mass haloes are less X-ray luminous than expected from simple scalings or from galaxy formation models (Benson et al. 2000). This could indicate that low-mass haloes contain little hot gas, their primordial gas having cooled and/or having been ejected at some point in the halo’s history. In this case, the SZ effect may be undetectable on galaxy scales. Alternatively, however, the gas may be present in an extended, low-density distribution. In this case, the X-ray signal will be reduced, but the total SZ flux will be unaffected. We investigate these possibilities in more detail below.

### 2.2 Simple Halo Models

We will now consider more detailed models of the gas distribution in the halo of M31, to calculate realistic values for the total SZ decrement and X-ray luminosity. The distribution of hot gas in galaxy clusters is reasonably well described by a empirically-derived fitting function, the beta profile,

$$n_\mathrm{e}(r)=n_\mathrm{e}(0)(1+(r/r_\mathrm{c})^2)^{3\beta /2}$$
(3)
(Cavaliere & Fusco-Femiano 1978). We will assume $`\beta =2/3`$, since this is the value which best matches cluster X-ray profiles (Jones & Foreman 1984; Mohr, Mathiesen, & Evrard 1999). For this particular model, if the gas is isothermal, then the integrated SZ flux from within a projected radius $`R`$ is:

$`S_{\mathrm{SZ}}(R,\nu )=`$
$`S_0g(\nu )\left({\displaystyle \frac{n_\mathrm{e}(0)}{10^3\mathrm{cm}^3}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \frac{T_\mathrm{e}}{1\mathrm{keV}}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \frac{r_\mathrm{c}}{1\mathrm{kpc}}}\right)^3f_1(R),`$ (4)
where $`S_0=3.615\times 10^3`$ Jy (assuming a distance of 770 kpc to M31), $`g(\nu )`$ is a function of order 1 describing the frequency dependence of the effect, and $`f_1(R)=[(1+(R/r_\mathrm{c})^2)^{1/2}1]`$. The contribution to the bolometric X-ray luminosity from within the same radius is:

$`L_\mathrm{X}(R)=`$
$`L_{\mathrm{X},0}\left({\displaystyle \frac{n_\mathrm{e}(0)}{10^3\mathrm{cm}^3}}\right)^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{T}{1\mathrm{keV}}}\right)^{0.5}\left({\displaystyle \frac{r_\mathrm{c}}{1\mathrm{kpc}}}\right)^3f_2(R),`$ (5)
where $`L_{\mathrm{X},0}=1.10\times 10^{35}`$erg s-1 (assuming the dominant contribution is from free-free emission, and that line emission is negligible) and $`f_2(R)=[1(1+(R/r_\mathrm{c})^2)^{1/2}]`$. The electron density is normalised by specifying the mass within some radius $`M_{\mathrm{hot}}(<R)=4\pi m_\mathrm{p}\mu n_\mathrm{e}(0)r_\mathrm{c}^3[(R/r_\mathrm{c})\mathrm{tan}^1(R/r_\mathrm{c})]`$. We note that the gas distribution in simulated haloes drops off faster than $`r^2`$ in the outer parts, so if we integrated the beta profile out to the virial radius of the halo we would overestimate the mass in the outer regions. To avoid this complication, we consider only the mass within the central 100 kpc of the halo, and use this to set $`n_\mathrm{e}(0)`$.

To determine the amplitude of the SZ and X-ray emission, we need to fix the values of $`T`$, $`M_{\mathrm{hot}}(<100\mathrm{kpc})`$, and $`r_\mathrm{c}`$. We will assume that the gas in the halo of M31 follows the mass-temperature relation observed for slightly more massive group haloes, so that $`T0.5`$ keV. For $`M_{\mathrm{hot}}(<100\mathrm{kpc})`$, the total mass of hot gas within the central 100 kpc, we have the constraint that the baryon fraction of the whole halo not exceed the universal value $`f_\mathrm{b}=\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}/\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=0.166`$ (Spergel et al. 2003). The mass of the halo of M31 is estimated to be between 1 and $`2\times 10^{12}M_{}`$ (Klypin, Zhao, & Somerville 2002). Thus its total, primordial baryonic mass would have been $`1.663.32\times 10^{11}M_{}`$, of which approximately $`9\times 10^{10}M_{}`$ are in the form of stars and gas in the galaxy itself. This leaves up to $`2.4\times 10^{11}M_{}`$ of hot gas in the halo. If this gas traced the dark matter distribution, roughly half of it would lie in the central 100 kpc of the system (assuming a virial radius of 330 kpc). Then again, radiative cooling or galactic heating may have altered the gas distribution, causing it to be more or less centrally condensed. We will consider values of $`M_{\mathrm{hot}}`$ between $`10^{10}`$ and $`1.5\times 10^{11}M_{}`$, which should cover a realistic range in mass.

Finally, we have to choose a value for the core radius of the gas distribution, $`r_\mathrm{c}`$. Detailed models of cluster gas suggest that this should be roughly equal to the core radius of the dark matter distribution, $`r_{\mathrm{c},\mathrm{DM}}`$ , which is 27.5 kpc for a halo mass of $`2\times 10^{12}M_{}`$ in a LCDM cosmology (Eke, Navarro & Steinmetz 2001). On the other hand, there has been recent observational evidence for a much larger, lower density distribution of gas around the Milky Way, extending out to 70 kpc or more (Sembach et al. 2002). Given this uncertainty, for each model we will choose the smallest core radius consistent with the X-ray limits discussed previously, which will generally be larger than $`r_{\mathrm{c},\mathrm{DM}}`$. Slightly larger or smaller core radii will have little effect on the detectability of the SZ signal, which depends mainly on $`M_{\mathrm{hot}}`$, as shown below.

In table 1 we give the SZ and X-ray emission from various model haloes, with parameters chosen based on these arguments. We calculate the integrated SZ flux from within the core radius and 100 kpc, as well as the X-ray luminosity from the two regions for which there are observational limits, $`r_1=2.7`$ kpc and $`r_2=21.5`$ kpc. We see that the SZ flux from some models can be very large, while the total X-ray luminosity is still below the observational limits. To determine whether any of these gas distributions would be detected, however, we have to estimate the noise level in SZ maps filtered on large scales. We will make a rough calculation of the signal-to-noise in the next section. First, however, we consider the additional contribution to the signal from the kinetic SZ effect.

### 2.3 Kinetic SZ effect

Motion of gas with respect to the CMB also produces a second, kinetic SZ effect with a distinct spectral signature. The amplitude of the kinetic effect relative to the thermal effect is:

$$S_0^\mathrm{k}/S_0^\mathrm{t}(\nu )=\left(\frac{1.67}{j(\nu )}\right)\left(\frac{\mathrm{v}_{\mathrm{CMB}}}{1000\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1}\right)\left(\frac{T_\mathrm{e}}{1.0\mathrm{keV}}\right)^1,$$
(6)
where $`j(\nu )`$ is a function of order one describing the spectral dependence and $`\mathrm{v}_{\mathrm{CMB}}`$ is the velocity of the gas with respect to the CMB. For clusters, where $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ is large, this ratio is typically less than 10 per cent, but in M31 $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ would be much lower, and thus the kinetic effect could boost the SZ signal substantially. If we assume the gas is moving with the same velocity as the central galaxy (whose motion is almost opposite to the CMB dipole), then $`\mathrm{v}_{\mathrm{CMB}}=582`$ km s-1, and at 150 GHz, $`S_0^\mathrm{k}/S_0^\mathrm{t}2`$, so the combined SZ flux will be three times larger at this frequency. The halo of M31 may also rotate at an appreciable velocity, of course, which would modulate this contribution. Finally, we note that the thermal and kinetic contributions to this signal can in principle be separated, due to their different frequency dependence. Thus it could provide the first strong detection of the kinetic SZ effect. This separation will require good spatial resolution and excellent signal-to-noise, however, since the frequency dependence of the kinetic SZ signal is the same as that of the CMB.

### 2.4 Detection Strategies

For the models considered above, we expect a total SZ flux of $``$ 1–10 Janskys or more, spread out over a patch several degrees in size. While this signal is comparable to those detected from much more compact sources such as distant clusters, it may be harder to extract from SZ maps contaminated by residuals from primary anisotropies or large-scale foregrounds. We have estimated the contribution of our models to the power spectrum of the Rayleigh-Jeans (RJ) regime in the Planck maps. Since the power spectrum is an average quantity over the sky, our estimates need to be re-scaled by an area correction factor in order to make a fair comparison. In Fig. 2, we compare the contribution from the models to estimates of the residuals in Planck SZ maps (Tegmark et al. 2000), making pessimistic, realistic, or optimistic assumptions about the efficiency of foreground subtraction (dotted lines, from top to bottom). We see that for realistic assumptions about foreground subtraction (middle dotted line), our models are detectable at the 1–10$`\sigma `$ level on 20 scales. The kinetic contribution could increase the signal by an additional factor of 2–3, provided it could be separated from the CMB itself.

We note that M31 lies in a zone of reasonably low foregrounds. Fig. 3 shows a section of the SFD dust map (Schlegel, Finkbeiner, & Davis 1998) centred on M31. The circle indicates a projected radius of 7.4, or 100 kpc at a distance of 770 kpc. Since we know the centre of the halo gas distribution a priori, we may be able to optimise the SZ detection further, by using filters centred on this point or focusing on the parts of this region less contaminated by foregrounds. Given the low amplitude and large spatial extent of the source, the signal from M31 will probably not be detectable by interferometers. The data from the WMAP mission is more promising in this regard, although it is also at lower frequency where the relative contribution from the thermal SZ effect is smaller. Recent analysis by Tegmark, de Oliveira-Costa & Hamilton (2003) finds that WMAP residuals have an r.m.s. amplitude of 4–5 $`\mu K`$ at $`l=10`$ in the cleanest regions of the sky. Using a naive combination of WMAP frequencies (Q-W bands) to subtract the CMB, we expect roughly 6 times less signal from the SZ effect than in the RJ regime assumed in Fig. 2, so even model ‘A’ would not be detectable above this noise level without using more elaborate methods. On the other hand, the 4-year WMAP data may start to rule out the most massive of our halo models.

## 3 Discussion

We have shown that for a series of realistic models, the halo of M31 should produce a substantial integrated SZ flux. While the precise extent and amplitude of the flux depend on the details of the gas distribution, more elaborate models should produce roughly the same values as calculated here. In particular, since the SZ effect depends on the integral of the electron pressure along the line of sight, we expect the same total flux even if the pressure support for the halo gas close to M31 itself comes from a hotter, lower-density component heated by galactic sources, as suggested by X-ray observations (e.g. Takahashi et al. 2001).

From the calculations above, the integrated SZ flux should be detectable at the 1-$`\sigma `$ to 10-$`\sigma `$ level in SZ maps based on Planck data, provided that the foreground removal is reasonably accurate, and that the halo of M31 still contains a reasonable amount of hot gas. If this signal is detected, it will provide a direct determination of the thermodynamic properties of halo gas on galaxy scales. Conversely, if the SZ effect is not detected it will place useful constraints on the amount of gas left over after the formation of a spiral galaxy within this halo. We do not expect the SZ signal from M31 to be visible in the first-year WMAP data, but the 4-year data should also start to constrain the gas distribution in its halo. Thus CMB experiments may soon provide an unexpected view of the effects of galaxy formation close at hand.

## Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Nabila Aghanim, Greg Bryan, Marc Sarzi and Joe Silk for useful discussions. JET acknowledges support from the Leverhulme Trust during the course of this work. KM acknowledges the support of a PPARC Fellowship (PPA/G/S/1999/00671). JMD acknowledges the support of a Marie Curie Fellowship from the European Community (HPMF-CT-200-00967). The dust map shown in Fig. 3 was generated using NASA’s SkyView facility, located at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov).