text:
# Black Holes and Pulsar Binaries

### Acknowledgments.

This research was supported in part by NSF grant PHY-0203046 and the Center for Gravitational Wave Physics, an NSF funded Physics Frontier Center at Penn State.

## References

Abel, T., Bryan, G.L. & Norman, M.L., 2002, Science, 295, 93

Bailyn, C.D., Jain, R.K., Coppi, P. & Orosz, J.A., 1998, ApJ, 499, 375

Belczynski, K., Kalogera, V., & Bulik, T. 2002, ApJ, 572, 40

Brandt, W.N., Podsiadlowski, Ph. & Sigurdsson, S., 1995, MNRAS, 277, L35

Bromm, V., Coppi. P. & Larson, R.B., 1999, ApJ, 527, 5

Colpi, M., Possenti, A. & Gualandris, A., 2002, ApJ, 570, 85

D’Amico, N., Possenti, A., Fici, L., Manchester, R.N., Lyne, A.G., Camilo, F. & Sarkissian, J., 2002, ApJ, 570, 89

Fryer, C.L. & Kalogera, V., 2001, ApJ, 554, 548

Fryer, C.L., Heger, A., Langer, N. & Wellstein, S., 2002, ApJ, 578, 335

Grischchuk, L.P., Lipunov, V., Postnov, K. A., Prokhorov, M. E., & Sathyaprakash, B. S. 2001, Phys.–Uspheki, 44, 1

Hemsendorf, M., 2002, in Proc. ”The Evolution of Galaxies III. From Simple Approaches to Self-Consistent Models”, astro-ph/0209625

Israelian, G., Rebolo, R., Basri, G., Casares, J., & Martin, E. L. 1999, Nature, 401, 142

Kalogera, V., Narayan, R., Spergel, D. N., & Taylor, J. H. 2001, ApJ, 556, 340

Miller, M.C. & Hamilton, D.P., 2002, MNRAS, 330, 232

Portegies Zwart, S., & McMillan, S. L. W. 2000, ApJ, 528, L17

Sigurdsson, S. & Hernquist, L. 1993, Nature, 364, 423

Sigurdsson, S. & Phinney, E.S., 1995, ApJS, 99, 609

Sipior, M. & Sigurdsson, S., 2002, ApJ, 572, 962

White, R.E., Sarazin, C.L. & Kulkarni, S.R., 2002, ApJ, 571, 23


format: text

text:
# Anomalous Negative Magnetoresistance Caused by Non-Markovian Effects

## Abstract

A theory of recently discovered anomalous low-field magnetoresistance is developed for the system of two-dimensional electrons scattered by hard disks of radius $`a,`$ randomly distributed with concentration $`n.`$ For small magnetic fields the magentoresistance is found to be parabolic and inversely proportional to the gas parameter, $`\delta \rho _{xx}/\rho (\omega _c\tau )^2/na^2.`$ With increasing field the magnetoresistance becomes linear $`\delta \rho _{xx}/\rho \omega _c\tau `$ in a good agreement with the experiment and numerical simulations.

It is well known that in the Boltzmann-Drude approach the longitudinal resistivity $`\rho _{xx}`$ of a degenerate two-dimensional (2D) electron gas does not depend on the transverse magnetic field $`B`$. Therefore, the known mechanisms of magnetoresistance (MR) involve either quantum interference effects or classical non-Markovian memory effects, which are not captured in the Boltzmann picture. The MR, arising from quantum effects was discussed in a great number of works (see for review Ref. lee ). The role of classical memory effects was underappreciated for a long time, though several theoretical works pointed out at the importance of such effects for magnetotransport baskin ; polyakov ; boby . The interest to the problem of classical MR has sharply increased in recent years, starting with Ref. perel , where it was shown that effects of ”classical localization” may lead to the exponential suppression of electron diffusion at large $`B`$. This work was followed by a series of works fog ; bobynew ; basknew ; kuzm ; mir1 ; mir2 ; mir3 ; igor ; dmit , discussing different aspects of classical 2D magnetotransport in strong magnetic fields.

In this paper we focus on a mechanism of low field classical MR specific for systems of strong scatterers. This mechanism is connected to the memory effects due to backscattering events. The corresponding corrections to the conductivity are small in the parameter $`a/l,`$ where $`a`$ is the characteristic size of the scatterers and $`l`$ is the mean free path. Nevertheless, the dependance of these corrections on the magnetic field turns out to be very sharp, resulting in the MR anomaly. The anomaly was discovered in recent numerical simulations dmit1  where the MR in a system of 2D electrons scattering on randomly distributed hard disks was studied. This system is usually referred to as the Lorenz gas and is the simplest model of the 2D electron gas with strong scatterers. In the following we restrict our considerations to this model. The generalization of our results to other models of strong disorder is straightforward. Magnetotransport in the Lorenz gas is characterized by two dimensionless parameters: $`\beta =\omega _c\tau ,`$ and the gas parameter $`\beta _0=a/l=2na^2.`$ Here $`a`$ is the disk radius, $`n`$ is disks’ concentration, $`\omega _c`$ is the cyclotron frequency, $`\tau =l/v_F`$ is the mean free time and $`l=1/2na`$ is the mean free path. The anomaly was observed in the case $`\beta 1,\beta _01.`$ Both the numerical simulations and the qualitative analysis of dmit1  indicated that at zero temperature, $`T,`$ the MR can be expressed in terms of a dimensionless function $`f(z)`$ via

$$\frac{\delta \rho _{xx}}{\rho }=\beta _0f\left(\frac{\beta }{\beta _0}\right),$$
(1)
where $`\rho `$ is the resistivity for $`B=0.`$ Numerical results dmit1  suggest that $`f(z)z`$ as $`z0,`$ yielding $`\delta \rho _{xx}/\rho |\omega _c|\tau .`$ The latter expression is in a very good agreement with experimental measurements of MR in a random antidot arrays dot1 . It is anomalous in two senses. First, it has a non-analytic dependence on the magnetic field. Second, it does not vanish in the limit of vanishing $`\beta _0`$, which is normally regarded as the expansion parameter for the corrections to the Drude-Boltzmann picture. This intriguing behavior calls for a rigorous analytical theory of the effect, which would establish Eq. 1 and enable one to derive the analytical expression for function $`f`$. In this letter we present a theory of the anomaly and give an expression for $`f(z).`$ We find that for $`z1,`$ $`f(z)`$ is linear in agreement with numerical experiment, but at very small $`z0.05`$ crosses over to a quadratic dependence. Thus, for $`\beta 0,`$ Eq. 1 yields $`\delta \rho _{xx}/\rho \beta ^2/\beta _0.`$ The limit $`\beta _00`$ should be taken with care. While the small $`\beta `$ expansion seems to be singular as a function of $`\beta _0,`$ the region of $`\beta `$ where this expansion is valid shrinks as $`\beta _00.`$ For $`z\mathrm{},`$ $`f`$ saturates at some constant value. Therefore, the full variation of $`\delta \rho _{xx}/\rho `$ is of the order $`\beta _0.`$ In other words, the anomalous MR is strong but it exists in a small region of magnetic fields.

In dmit1  a mechanism of MR connected with memory effects arising in backscattering events was proposed. It has a close relation to the well known non-analyticity of the virial expansion of transport coefficients dorfman ; wei ; wei1 ; hauge ; peierls , which we briefly recall. For $`B=0`$ the leading nonanalytic correction to resistivity, $`\delta \rho `$, is due to the processes of return to a scatterer after a single collision with another scatterer \[Fig. 1(a)\].

The relative correction, $`\delta \rho /\rho ,`$ is proportional to the corresponding backscattering probability, given by the product of $`e^{r/l}d\varphi dr/l`$ (which is the probability to reach scatterer 2 without collision and scatter in the angle $`d\varphi `$) and the probability $`p`$ to return without collisions from 2 to 1 (here $`l`$ is the mean free path). Assuming $`p=\mathrm{exp}(r/l)`$ and integrating over intervals $`0<\varphi <a/r,a<r<\mathrm{},`$ one obtains dorfman ; wei ; wei1 ; hauge ; peierls  $`\delta \rho /\rho \beta _0\mathrm{ln}(1/2\beta _0).`$

In Ref. dmit1  it was shown that the probability $`p`$ is actually larger than $`\mathrm{exp}(r/l)`$ because the passage of a particle from $`1`$ to $`2`$ ensures the existence of a corridor of width $`2a`$ free of the centers of the disks. This reduces the scattering probability on the way back, yielding $`p(r,\varphi )=\mathrm{exp}(r/l+nS_0(r,\varphi )),`$ where $`S_0(r,\varphi )=2arr^2|\varphi |/2`$ is the area of the overlap of the two corridors \[Fig. 1(a)\]. For example, for $`\varphi =0,`$ we have $`S_0=2ar`$ and $`p=1.`$ Physically, this means that the particle is unable to scatter, since it travels back along the same path. Taking into account the effect of “empty corridor”, we get

$$\frac{\delta \rho }{\rho }_a^{\mathrm{}}\frac{dr}{l}_0^{a/r}𝑑\varphi e^{(2r/l)+nS_0}\beta _0\mathrm{ln}\left(\frac{C}{2\beta _0}\right),$$
(2)
where $`C`$ is a constant of the order of unity. Thus, for $`B=0`$ this effect simply changes the constant in the argument of the logarithm.

The key idea suggested in dmit1  was that for $`B0`$ the area of the overlap of the two corridors, $`S_B,`$ sharply depends on $`B,`$ resulting in the observed MR. Indeed, it is seen from Fig. 1(b) that for $`\beta \beta _0,`$ $`S_B0,`$ resulting in sharp negative MR

$$\frac{\delta \rho _{xx}}{\rho }_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{dr}{l}_0^{a/r}𝑑\varphi e^{2r/l}\left(e^{nS_B}e^{nS_0}\right).$$
(3)
The following qualitative explanation of the observed linear MR was presented in Ref. dmit1 . The value $`n(S_BS_0)`$ was estimated for $`\varphi =0`$ \[Fig. 1(c)\] to the first order in $`B`$ as $`nr^3/R_c=r^3/2alR_c,`$ where $`R_c`$ is the cyclotron radius. Assuming that this estimate also works at $`\varphi 0`$ and expanding $`e^{nS_B}e^{nS_0}`$ to the first order in $`B,`$ one gets $`\delta \rho _{xx}/\rho l/R_c=\omega _c\tau .`$

In fact, the physical picture of the phenomenon is more subtle. The contribution of any trajectory with $`\varphi 0`$ is cancelled in the first order in $`B`$ by the contribution of the time-reversed trajectory, since the values of $`S_BS_0`$ are opposite for these paths \[ Fig1. (d),(e)\]. The cancellation does not occur only at very small $`\varphi \beta .`$ The integration in Eq. 3 over $`\varphi <\beta `$ yields $`\delta \rho _{xx}/\rho \beta ^2/\beta _0`$. Larger values of $`\varphi `$ also give a quadratic in $`\beta `$ contribution to the MR. This contribution is positive and comes from the second order term in the expansion of $`e^{nS_B}e^{nS_0}`$ in $`B`$. It follows from our results \[Eqs. (1),(9)\] that the contribution of small angles is dominant resulting in a negative parabolic MR lyap . We find that the parabolic MR crosses over to linear at very small $`\beta 0.05\beta _0,`$ which explains why the parabolic MR was not seen in numerical simulations dmit1  and experiment dot1 .

Next we sketch our calculations. We consider the Lorentz gas at $`T=0`$, assuming that $`\beta 1,\beta _01.`$  In this case off , $`\delta \rho _{xx}/\rho =(DD_0)/D_0,`$ where $`D_0=v_Fl_{\text{tr}}/2`$ is the Drude diffusion coefficient for $`B=0,`$ $`l_{\text{tr}}=3l/4=3/8na`$ is the momentum relaxation length and $`D`$ is given by

$$D=\frac{1}{2}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑t𝐯(0)𝐯(t)=\frac{1}{2}𝑑𝐫𝑑𝐯G\mathrm{𝐯𝐯}_0.$$
(4)
Here $`G=G(𝐯,𝐯_0,𝐫)`$ is the Fourier transform (at $`\omega =0`$) of the retarded Green’s function of the Liouville equation and $`\mathrm{}`$ stands for the averaging over the positions of the disks. The equation for $`G`$ reads

$$\left(\widehat{L}_0\widehat{T}_{}\widehat{T}_+\right)G=\delta (𝐫)\delta (𝐯𝐯_0),$$
(5)
where $`\widehat{L}_0=𝐯/𝐫\omega _c[𝐯\times /𝐯]`$ is the Liouville operator of the free motion in the magnetic field. The interaction with disks is written in Eq. 5 in the form of a collision integral wei ; mori . The scattering operators $`\widehat{T}^\pm `$ transform arbitrary function $`f(𝐫,𝐯)`$ as follows,

$`\widehat{T}^+f(𝐫,𝐯)=p_F{\displaystyle 𝑑𝐯^{}\sigma (\phi )\delta (ϵϵ^{})n^+f(𝐫,𝐯^{})},`$
$`\widehat{T}^{}f(𝐫,𝐯)=p_F{\displaystyle 𝑑𝐯^{}\sigma (\phi )\delta (ϵϵ^{})n^{}f(𝐫,𝐯)},`$ (6)
where $`n^\pm =_i\delta (𝐫𝐑_i\pm 𝐚).`$

Here $`𝐑_i`$ are the positions of the disks, delta-function $`\delta (ϵϵ^{})`$ provides the energy conservation, $`p_F`$ is the Fermi momentum, $`\sigma (\phi )=(a/2)|\mathrm{sin}(\phi /2)|`$ is the differential cross-section of one disk and $`\phi `$ is the angle between $`𝐯^{}`$ and $`𝐯`$. The vector $`𝐚=𝐚(𝐯^{},𝐯)=a(𝐯^{}𝐯)/\sqrt{2(v^2𝐯^{}𝐯)}`$ is pointing from the center of a disk to the scattering point at the disk surface \[Fig. 2\]. Physically, operator $`\widehat{T}^+`$ describes influx of particles with velocity $`𝐯`$ at the point $`𝐑_i𝐚`$, while operator $`\widehat{T}^{}`$ describes the outflux of particles with velocity $`𝐯`$ at the point $`𝐑_i+𝐚.`$ The Boltzmann equation is obtained from Eq. 5 by averaging the Liouville operator over the positions of the disks, yielding $`\widehat{T}^+f(𝐫,𝐯)=p_Fn𝑑𝐯^{}\sigma (𝐯,𝐯^{})\delta (ϵϵ^{})f(𝐫,𝐯^{}),\widehat{T}^{}=1/\tau .`$ Here $`n=n^\pm `$ is the concentration of the disks and $`1/\tau =nv2a`$ is the inverse full scattering time.

Introducing now $`\delta \widehat{T}^\pm =\widehat{T}^\pm \widehat{T}^\pm `$ and writing a formal solution of (5), $`\widehat{G}=(\delta +\widehat{L}_0\widehat{T}^{}\widehat{T}^+)^1`$ as a series in $`\delta \widehat{T}^\pm ,`$ we get

$$\widehat{G}=\widehat{G}_0+\underset{\alpha ,\gamma =\pm }{}\widehat{G}_0\delta \widehat{T}^\alpha \widehat{G}_0\delta \widehat{T}^\gamma \widehat{G}_0+\mathrm{},$$
(7)
where $`\widehat{G}_0=(\delta +\widehat{L}_0+1/\tau \widehat{T}^+)^1`$ is the Green’s function of the Boltzmann operator (here $`\delta 0`$). Eq. 7 gives a regular way to calculate correlations, which are absent in the Boltzmann picture.

Consider first the case $`B=0.`$ Substituting the first term in the right hand side of Eq. 7 into Eq. 4, we get $`D=D_0.`$ The second term in Eq. 7 describes the memory-effect due to diffusive returns. As discussed above, the main contribution comes from returns after a single scattering. This process is described by the diagram Fig. 3(a). The dashed line corresponds to the pairings $`\delta \widehat{T}^\alpha \delta \widehat{T}^\gamma `$ ($`\alpha ,\gamma =\pm `$), external wavy lines to the diffusion propagators $`\widehat{G}_0.`$ The internal line corresponds to the Boltzmann propagator truncated at one scattering $`\widehat{G}_{}\widehat{T}^+\widehat{G}_{},`$ where $`\widehat{G}_{}=(L_0+1/\tau )^1`$ is the ballistic propagator and $`\widehat{T}^+`$ stands for one scattering event ($`G_{}`$ are shown by solid lines and $`\widehat{T}^+`$ by the cross). This diagram yields $`\delta \rho /\rho =\delta D/D=(2\beta _0/3)\mathrm{ln}(1/2\beta _0)`$ dorfman ; wei ; wei1 ; hauge ; peierls  . The terms of the $`N\text{th}`$ order in Eq. 7 contain $`N`$ pairings ($`N`$ dashed lines) and are typically small as $`\beta _0^N.`$ However, there is a series of diagrams, shown in Fig. 3(b), whose contribution is of the order $`\beta _0`$ wei1 . The internal dashed lines in this series only contain pairings $`\delta \widehat{T}^{}\delta \widehat{T}^{}.`$ Summing the diagrams Fig. 3(b) together with Fig. 3(a), one gets an exact equation

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\delta \rho }{\rho }}={\displaystyle \frac{nl_{\text{tr}}}{4l}}\text{Re}{\displaystyle _a^{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{dr}{r}}e^{2r/l}{\displaystyle _0^{2\pi }}𝑑\phi _0{\displaystyle _0^{2\pi }}𝑑\phi _f\sigma (\phi _0)\sigma (\phi _f)`$
$`(1e^{i\phi _0})(1e^{i\phi _f})e^{nS_0(r,\varphi _0+\varphi _f)}={\displaystyle \frac{2\beta _0}{3}}\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{C}{2\beta _0}}\right),`$ (8)
instead of qualitative estimate Eq. 2.

Here $`\phi _0,\phi _f`$ are the scattering angles \[Fig. 4(a)\], $`\varphi _0(a/r)\mathrm{cos}(\phi _0/2),`$  $`\varphi _f(a/r)\mathrm{cos}(\phi _f/2)`$ and $`C1.8`$ Thus, addition of the series Fig. 3(b) to Fig. 3(a) leads to the following renormalization: $`\mathrm{ln}(1/2\beta _0)\mathrm{ln}(C/2\beta _0).`$ Physically, the series Fig. 3(b) accounts for the effect of the “empty corridor”. The $`N`$th order term in this series corresponds to $`N1`$ term in the Taylor expansion of the $`\mathrm{exp}(nS_0)`$ in Eq. 8. Four terms in the product $`(1e^{i\phi _0})(1e^{i\phi _f})=1e^{i\phi _0}e^{i\phi _f}+e^{i(\phi _0+\phi _f)}`$ correspond to four combinations of $`(\pm ,\pm )`$ at the ends of external dashed lines in the diagrams shown in Fig. 3. They are connected with four different types of correlation at a given point $`𝐫.`$ The diagram $`(+,+)`$ \[Fig. 4(b)\] corresponds to the process, where an electron has two real scatterings on a disk placed at point $`𝐫.`$ The diagram $`(,)`$ \[Fig. 4(c)\] does not correspond to any real scattering at point $`𝐫.`$ It just allows us to calculate correctly the probability for an electron to pass twice the region of the size $`a`$ around point $`𝐫`$ without scattering. To interpret the diagram $`(+,),`$ note that in the Boltzmann picture, which neglects correlations, the following process is allowed. An electron scatters on a disk and later on passes through the region occupied by this disk without a scattering \[Fig. 4(d)\] The diagrams $`(+,)`$ correct the Boltzmann result by substracting the contribution of such unphysical process. Analogous consideration is valid for diagram $`(,+)`$ shown in Fig. 4\[e\].

For $`B0`$ the sum of diagrams shown in Fig. 3 can be expressed as an integral over angles $`\phi _0,\phi _f`$ (scattering angles for $`B=0`$). The only difference from Eq. 8 is that one should replace $`S_0S_B.`$ For $`\beta 1`$ the overlap area can be calculated as $`S_B(r,\varphi )=_0^r𝑑xh(x),`$ where $`h(x)\left(2a\left|\varphi xx^2/R_c\right|\right)\theta \left(2a\left|\varphi xx^2/R_c\right|\right)`$, $`\theta `$ is the Heaviside step function and $`\varphi =\varphi _0+\varphi _f+r/R_c`$ \[Fig. 4(a)\]. The value of $`\delta \rho _{xx}/\rho `$ is obtained from Eq. 8 by replacing $`e^{nS_0}`$ to $`e^{nS_B}e^{nS_0}.`$ Introducing dimensionless variables $`T=r/l,z=\beta /\beta _0`$ we get Eq. 1, where function $`f(z)`$ is given by

$`f(z)={\displaystyle \frac{3}{32}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{dT}{T}}e^{2T}{\displaystyle _0^{2\pi }}𝑑\phi _0{\displaystyle _0^{2\pi }}𝑑\phi _f`$
$`\mathrm{cos}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\phi _0+\phi _f}{2}}\right)\mathrm{sin}^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{\phi _0}{2}}\right)\mathrm{sin}^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{\phi _f}{2}}\right)\left(e^{s_z}e^{s_0}\right).`$ (9)
Here

$`s_z={\displaystyle _0^T}𝑑t\left(1\left|\zeta t{\displaystyle \frac{zt^2}{2}}\right|\right)\theta \left(1\left|\zeta t{\displaystyle \frac{zt^2}{2}}\right|\right),`$
$`\zeta ={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{cos}(\phi _0/2)+\mathrm{cos}(\phi _f/2)}{2T}}+{\displaystyle \frac{zT}{2}},s_0=s_{z0}.`$ (10)
Function $`f(z)`$ has the following asymptotics

$$f(z)=\{\begin{array}{cc}0.33z^2\hfill & \text{for }z0.05\hfill \\ 0.032(z0.04)\hfill & \text{for }0.05z2\hfill \\ 0.391.3/\sqrt{z}\hfill & \text{for }z\mathrm{}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(11)
Note that there is a parametrically small nonanomalous correction to Eq. 1 due to returns after multiple scatterings, $`\delta \rho _{xx}^{}/\rho 0.2\beta _0\beta ^2`$ dmit1 . To compare the results of simulations dmit1  with the theoretical results in a wider region of parameters $`\beta ,\beta _0,`$ we substract $`\delta \rho _{xx}^{}/\rho `$ from the numerical curves. Theoretical and numerical dmit1  results are plotted in Fig. 5. in the universal units, $`\delta \rho _{xx}/\rho \beta _0`$ versus $`z=\beta /\beta _0.`$ It is seen, that the theoretical and numerical results are in a very good agreement.

The comparison with the experiment dot1  is more difficult, because of the 50 % uncertainty in the sizes of the antidots. However, a good agreement with the experiment can be achieved by appropriate choice of $`a`$ in the uncertainty interval dmit1 .

Note finally that we fully neglected quantum effects. This is possible when $`a\sqrt{\lambda _Fl}`$ ($`\lambda _F`$ is a Fermi wavelength). This criterion ensures that diffraction effects on the edges of the disks are not relevant at the scales of the order of $`l.`$ In the opposite case, $`a\sqrt{\lambda _Fl},`$ the diffraction should destroy the “corridor effect”, does suppressing the anomalous MR. The detailed analysis of quantum effects will be presented elsewhere.

In summary, we have proposed a theory of the negative anomalous MR in the Lorenz gas. The analytical expression for the MR \[Eqs. (1), (9), (11)\] has been derived.

We thank M.I. Dyakonov for insightful discussions and R. Jullien for providing us with the numerical data. We are also grateful to I.V. Gornyi and D.G. Polyakov for useful comments. The work was partially supported by RFBR and INTAS.


text:
# The mass-velocity and intensity-velocity relations in jet-driven molecular outflows

## 1 Introduction

Various authors have noted that the intensity-velocity relationship observed in low-J CO lines in molecular outflows tends to follow a broken power-law $`I_{\mathrm{CO}}(v)v^\gamma `$, with $`\gamma `$ 1.8 $`\pm `$ 0.5 up to line-of-sight velocities $`v_{\mathrm{break}}`$ 10-30 km s-1 and $`\gamma `$ 3-7 at higher velocities (e.g. Rodríguez et al. rodriguez (1982); Stahler stahler (1994); Bachiller & Tafalla bataf (1999); Richer et al. richer (2000)). This property is an important test for proposed mechanisms of molecular outflow acceleration. In particular, recent work has addressed this issue in the case of entrainment by a jet.

Using an analytic model of a jet/bowshock system, Zhang & Zheng (zz97 (1997)) predicted a mass distribution, $`m(v)`$, following a broken power-law $`v^\mu `$ with slopes $`\mu 1.8`$ up to 10 km s-1 and $`\mu 5.6`$ beyond. The observed values of $`\gamma `$ in CO intensity profiles are then reproduced, provided the CO abundance and line excitation do not vary much with velocity. However, this seems highly unlikely, given the broad range of shock strengths in a bowshock.

Smith, Suttner & Yorke (smith (1997)) conducted numerical simulations of jet-driven molecular outflows that take into account dissociation and heating in shocks. They find that $`I_{\mathrm{CO}}(v)`$ follows a power-law $`v^\gamma `$ with $`\gamma `$1.2–1.6 up to 10 km s-1, and a steeper slope further out, in qualitative agreement with observations. They attribute this result to a much steeper mass-velocity relation, $`m(v)v^{3.5}`$, than Zhang & Zheng (zz97 (1997)). However, their reasoning involves an erroneous high-temperature dependence of the CO emissivity ($``$ T instead of $`T^1`$). Therefore, the actual origin of the slope of $`I_{\mathrm{CO}}(v)`$ in jet simulations, and the underlying mass-velocity relation itself, remain to be clearly established. In this work we clarify this issue using simulations at higher resolution, and analytical modelling.

## 2 Numerical method

The code used in this work is very similar to that used in Downes & Ray (dr2 (1999)). The initial conditions are also very similar, but we give a brief overview of them here for completeness.

The simulations are performed in 2D cylindrical symmetry. The densities of molecular and atomic hydrogen are tracked, along with the ionisation fraction of hydrogen. The CO density is assumed to be a constant ($`10^4`$) fraction of the H2 density by number. The numerical scheme is a Godunov scheme which is second order in time and space (see, e.g., Downes & Ray dr2 (1999)).

The grid-spacing was set at $`10^{14}`$ cm. The jet radius was $`5\times 10^{15}`$ cm, and its density was 100 cm-3 (equal to the ambient density), thus allowing a resolution of cooling layers a factor of $`10^2`$-$`10^4`$ higher than in Smith et al. (smith (1997)). The time-averaged jet velocity, $`v_0`$, was 215 km s-1. Superimposed on this were sinusoidal variations with periods of 5, 10, 20 and 50 years with total amplitude $`v_1`$.

In order to explore the effects of varying the jet velocity, three simulations were run, as follows: (1) a “steady” jet where $`\frac{v_1}{v_0}=0`$; (2) a “pulsed” jet where $`\frac{v_1}{v_0}=0.6`$; and (3) a “ramped-up” jet where $`\frac{v_1}{v_0}=0.6`$ and $`v_0`$ increases linearly in time from 0 to 215 km s-1 over 100 years. Typically, simulations of jets start off with the jet propagating at full speed into the ambient medium. It is likely that YSO jets do not ‘switch on’ impulsively, and it has been suggested recently (Lim et al. limetal2002 (2002)) that a slow start-up of a jet may lead to increased molecular abundance at the head of the bowshock, which would then affect the resulting intensity-velocity relation that we wish to model.

## 3 Numerical results

In this section, we concentrate on the results of simulation (2) (pulsed jet) described in Sect. 2, at a time $`t=400`$ yrs. Results for other times and for the steady and ramped-up jets (simulations (1) and (3) in Sect. 2) will be discussed in Sect. 5.

Figure 1 contains a log-scale plot of the density distribution for the chosen simulation. We can see that the bowshock is rather irregular. These irregularities are attributed to the growth of the Vishniac instability (Downes & Ray dr2 (1999)). In addition, several “mini-bowshocks” are present along the jet length, tracing internal working surfaces resulting from the variability of the jet velocity. Figure 2 contains plots of various mass-velocity and intensity-velocity relations for the same simulation, assuming an inclination of $`30^{}`$ to the plane of the sky. We discuss each of these distributions in detail in the following.

### 3.1 The total mass-velocity relation

A significant feature of Fig. 2 is that $`m(v)`$, the mass-velocity relation for all swept-up material (i.e. excluding jet material), remains quite shallow across the whole velocity range. It is essentially flat at the lowest velocities ($`v<3`$ km s-1), then follows an approximate power-law $`m(v)v^\mu `$ with exponent $`\mu 1.5`$ at intermediate velocities, before rising slightly again above $`v40`$ km s-1. The power-law slope that we find agrees quite well with the value of $`\mu 1.8`$ predicted by the analytical model of Zhang & Zheng (zz97 (1997)) for low velocities, but their predicted break to a steeper slope $`\mu 5.6`$ at velocities above 10 km s-1 is not seen.

### 3.2 The molecular mass-velocity relation

The mass-velocity relation for swept-up molecular material, $`m_{\mathrm{H}_2}(v)`$, behaves similarly to the total mass-velocity relation, $`m(v)`$, at low velocities. It does, however, become considerably steeper than $`m(v)`$ at higher velocities (v $``$ 20 km s-1). This steepening occurs because material at these velocities has been accelerated by faster shocks near the apex of the bowshock, where significant molecular dissociation occurs. Indeed, the typical dissociation limit for low-density non-magnetic shocks is $``$ 30 km s-1 (see e.g. Flower et al. 2003). We note that the molecular fraction appears to rise again at the highest velocities (above 80 km s-1). This is an unavoidable result of numerical diffusion at the bow head, which results in mixing of molecular jet material into the high-velocity swept-up gas.

### 3.3 The $`I_{\mathrm{CO}}(v)`$ relation

The CO J=2-1 line emissivity at each grid point of the simulation was calculated from the local density and temperature according to the analytical formulae of McKee et al. (mckee (1982)), which take into account sub-thermalization of the levels. Emission was assumed optically thin, which is probably a good approximation for velocities above a few km s-1.

Figure 2 shows that the resulting intensity-velocity relation for the CO J=2–1 line, $`I_{\mathrm{CO}}(v)`$, follows the same slope as $`m_{\mathrm{H}_2}(v)`$ at low velocities, but breaks to an even steeper relation than $`m_{\mathrm{H}_2}(v)`$ at velocities above $`30`$ km s-1. This steepening results from the temperature dependence of the CO(2-1) emissivity per molecule. This dependence (assuming LTE) is given in terms of a function $`\mathrm{\Omega }(T)`$ in Cabrit & Bertout (c&b (1990)), and is plotted as a function of temperature for the CO J=2-1 line in Fig. 13 of Lada & Fich (LF (1996)). The line emissivity per molecule is seen to initially increase steeply with $`T`$ up to a maximum at $`T`$ 20 K, similar to the excitation energy of the upper level of the transition. For higher temperatures, however, it then decreases as $`T^1`$, due to the larger number of energy levels available to the molecule (or equivalently, as an effect of the partition function). Hence, as we go to higher velocities, not only are there fewer molecules to emit (due to shock dissociation), but they are hotter (because they have been through a stronger shock) and so they emit less efficiently in the CO J=2-1 line. This produces an even steeper slope at high velocities in $`I_{\mathrm{CO}}(v)`$ than in $`m_{\mathrm{H}_2}(v)`$.

### 3.4 The $`I_{\mathrm{H}_2}(v)`$ relation

It is interesting to explore the predicted intensity-velocity relation for the H2 S(1) 1–0 line, $`I_{\mathrm{H}_2}(v)`$, as it has been recently observed in a few flows (Salas & Crúz-González salas (2002)) and the line is of much higher excitation than the CO J=2-1 line. Such predictions from jet simulations have, to the best of our knowledge, never been presented so far. For simplicity, we computed the line emissivity assuming LTE. Although this is not fully justified at the moderate densities of our simulations, it is sufficient to illustrate the change of slope with excitation of the line that we predict to occur in jet-driven outflows.

From Fig. 2 we see that, unlike the CO 2-1 line, this intensity-velocity relation is shallower than $`m_{\mathrm{H}_2}(v)`$ up to 30 km s-1, and therefore does not show as dramatic a break in slope at high velocities. This is due to the fact that the the upper energy level for the H2 S(1) 1–0 line lies at 7000 K; hence the emissivity per molecule is still increasing with $`T`$ up to temperatures of $`10^4`$ K, so that higher velocity, hotter material now emits more efficiently in the H2 S(1) 1–0 line. The $`I_{\mathrm{H}_2}(v)`$ distribution is then shallower than the underlying mass distribution.

## 4 Comparison with observations

In this section, we compare our simulation results directly with observations. Figure 3 contains plots of our results for the $`m(v)`$ and $`I_{\mathrm{CO}}(v)`$ relations, along with observed intensity-velocity relations in CO J=2-1 for various bipolar outflows (taken from Bachiller & Tafalla bataf (1999)). A similar comparison with the results of Salas & Crúz-González (salas (2002)) will be made in a forthcoming paper, using NLTE calculations of the H2 S(1) 1–0 line intensity.

It is notable that the simulation results for the $`I_{\mathrm{CO}}(v)`$ relation reproduce the observations remarkably well, given that the velocity of the jet was arbitrarily chosen and the simulation timescale is shorter than that of the physical systems (estimated ages range from 1000 yrs in Orion to several times $`10^4`$ yrs for L 1551 and Mon R2). It is also interesting to note that the predicted $`I_{\mathrm{CO}}(v)`$ more closely matches the observations than the total mass-velocity relation $`m(v)`$, save for L1448.

The only parameters which have been tuned in this comparison are the vertical scale (i.e. a scaling in the ambient gas density), and the assumed inclination to the plane of the sky. The latter parameter can be seen to have a sizeable effect on the break velocity. While our adopted inclinations do not exactly match that inferred from observations for each of the systems shown, the trend is correct in the sense that Orion A and L1448 are the most inclined to the plane of the sky, NGC2071 is intermediate, and L1551 and Mon R2 are believed to be closest to the plane of the sky.

In summary, it seems clear, on the basis of these simulations, that a jet-driven bowshock can reproduce the observed $`I_{\mathrm{CO}}(v)`$ remarkably well, both in terms of the slopes at low and high velocities and in terms of the range of break velocities where this change of slope occurs, without the need to invoke two distinct entrainment mechanisms as is done in Zhang & Zheng (zz97 (1997)).

The simulation results do tend to be slightly too flat at the lowest velocities, especially in the oldest flows (Mon R2 in particular). This could be due to the short timescales in our simulations, as we now show.

## 5 The effect of age and time-variability

### 5.1 Effect of time-variability of the jet velocity

It is important to verify that our results are not critically dependent upon the adopted jet velocity behaviour. Figure 4 compares the $`m(v)`$ relation for the pulsed jet with the swept-up mass-velocity relation for the other two simulations (steady jet and ramped-up jet), at the same time and same inclination. It is clear that the relations are very similar. This is also the case for the $`m_{\mathrm{H}_2}(v)`$, $`I_{\mathrm{CO}}(v)`$ and $`I_{\mathrm{H}_2}(v)`$ relations (not shown). This strongly suggests that variability of the jet velocity (at least on time-scales less than about 50 yrs) will not greatly affect the resulting mass-velocity or intensity-velocity relations.

### 5.2 Effect of age

It is also important to verify that our results do not depend critically on the simulation timescale, since observed flows cover a large range of ages. Figure 5 contains plots of the mass-velocity relation for the pulsed jet simulation (2) at different times from $`t=100`$–400 yrs. It can be seen that the part of the $`m(v)`$ distribution that follows a power-law $`v^{1.5}`$ extends to progressively lower velocities as time goes, while the flat portion of $`m(v)`$ at very low velocity shrinks. This behaviour can be understood as follows: the power-law regime corresponds to the part of the bow structure presently on the grid, while the flat part of $`m(v)`$ comes from the truncation of the bow at the left border of the computational grid; as the bow head advances, more of the bow structure appears on the grid, so that the part affected by truncation is at a lower speed (since velocity decreases away from the bow head). Hence, we expect that for longer timescales, the flat part of $`m(v)`$ and $`I_{\mathrm{CO}}(v)`$ will fall to very low velocities, while the $`v^{1.5}`$ power-law should extend over the whole observable velocity range, in better agreement with observations of old flows such as Mon R2. Simulations over very long timescales are under way to study this hypothesis.

## 6 Analytic model

In this section we explore in more depth how a jet-driven bowshock can produce the power-law slope $`\mu 1.5`$ of the mass-velocity relation discussed in Sect. 3.1. Figure 6 contains a schematic diagram of the set-up used in this discussion.

Consider an idealised bowshock, the shape of which is given by the relation $`zr^s`$, moving in the positive $`z`$ direction with constant velocity $`v_0`$ into an ambient medium of constant density $`\rho _\mathrm{a}`$. We assume that there is no mixing in the bow, so that the magnitude of the post-shock velocity in the observer’s frame is $`v_0\mathrm{sin}\theta `$, with $`\mathrm{tan}\theta =dr/dz`$ (see Fig. 6). An observer situated along the $`z`$-axis will then see a line-of-sight velocity of

$$v=v_0\mathrm{sin}^2\theta $$
(1)
Far from the apex, where $`\theta `$ is small, $`v\mathrm{tan}^2\theta (r^2)^{1s}`$. The rate of increase of mass at projected velocity $`v`$ is then

$$\frac{d}{dt}\left(m(v)dv\right)=\rho _\mathrm{a}v_02\pi r(v)dr\left(v\right)^{s/(1s)}dv.$$
(2)
Hence the mass-velocity relation in this case is a power-law

$$m(v)v^\mu \mathrm{with}\mu =\frac{s}{s1}.$$
(3)
In order to verify that the no-mixing model can indeed explain the $`m(v)`$ relations found in our simulations, we need to determine the appropriate value of $`s`$ for the simulated bows. For this, we examine the rate at which ambient mass is swept up by the bowshock, integrated over all velocities. For an adopted ideal bow shape $`zr^s`$, this rate is

$$\frac{dm}{dt}(t)=\pi r_0^2\rho _\mathrm{a}v_0$$
(4)
where $`r_0z^{1/s}(t)`$ is the maximum bowshock radius and $`z(t)=v_0t`$ is the length of the bowshock, both at time $`t`$. Hence, the total swept-up mass as a function of time is predicted to vary as

$$m(t)t^\alpha \mathrm{with}\alpha =1+2/s.$$
(5)
In Fig. 7 we plot the total swept-up mass $`m(t)`$ as a function of time for each of the simulations. Indeed, we find that it closely follows a power-law, with a slope $`\alpha =1.7`$–1.8. Note that the apparent deviation of simulation (3) from this law at early times is due to the initial ramping up of the jet velocity $`v_0`$. Since the bow model predicts $`\alpha =1+2/s`$, we infer that the appropriate value of $`s`$ for our simulated bowshocks is $`s=2.5`$$`2.9`$. If we now substitute this range of values of $`s`$ into equation 3, we find that our simple bow model with no mixing predicts an exponent of the mass-velocity relation in the range $`\mu =1.5`$$`1.7`$. This is remarkably close to what we find in the simulations (Sect. 3.1). Note that the same bow model, but assuming instantaneous mixing of post-shock swept-up gas, predicts a much steeper slope $`\mu =2+s/2=3.5`$ (Smith et al. smith (1997)).

It is important to keep in mind that the power-law slope is predicted to hold only for small values of $`\theta `$, i.e. sufficiently far from the head of the bowshock. In Figure 8 we plot the mass-velocity relation for a theoretical bow with $`s=3`$, calculated numerically without the assumption of small $`\theta `$. The power-law of slope $`\mu =s/(s1)=1.5`$ is seen to give a very good approximation to the actual $`m(v)`$ up to about 20% of the jet velocity. At higher velocities, the mass-velocity relation flattens out and then increases with velocity. This behaviour is clearly also seen in our simulated $`m(v)`$ (see Fig. 2), although we do not find as sharp a peak at $`v_0`$, due to the fact that the head of the bowshock is rather irregular.

## 7 Conclusions

We find that the mass-velocity relation in simulations of jet-driven molecular outflows is a shallow power-law of exponent $``$ -1.5, with no break to a steeper slope at higher velocity, unlike previous analytical predictions by Zhang & Zheng (zz97 (1997)). This $`m(v)`$ relation can be well explained by a bowshock model with no post-shock mixing. It does not appear to be consistent with the full mixing model proposed by Smith et al. (smith (1997)).

We also find that the resulting intensity-velocity relation for the CO J=2-1 line compares remarkably well with observations of molecular outflows. In particular, it does have a break in slope around 20-30 km s-1. The break is found to result from molecular dissociation near the bow apex, and from the $`1/T`$-dependence of emission at temperatures exceeding the energy of the upper level of the line. Because of this dependence on $`T`$, a jet-driven model predicts a shallower slope at high velocity in higher excitation lines (e.g. H2 S(1)(1-0) and high-J CO lines), which could be tested by ongoing studies. Another implication of our results is that, in jet-driven outflows, the CO J=2-1 intensity profile reflects the slope of the underlying mass-velocity distribution only at velocities $``$ 20 km s-1, and that higher temperature tracers are required to probe the mass distribution at higher speed.

The only weak point of a bowshock model with no mixing is that emitting gas expands perpendicular to the bow surface, and thus there is some difficulty in explaining the apparent “forward-directed” motion of molecular outflows noted by Lada & Fich (LF (1996)). Quantitatively, our simulations predict comparable amounts of redshifted and blueshifted gas up to velocities of 3-4 km s-1. Full mixing was invoked by Smith et al. (smith (1997)) to alleviate this problem, but we have shown here that it would predict a very steep $`m(v)`$ of slope $`3.5`$ and an even steeper CO intensity-velocity relation (due to dissociation and temperature effects), inconsistent with observations. We note that another situation in which motion will be more forward-directed is when the bowshock propagates into already moving material. This is an interesting issue which clearly requires further work.

###### Acknowledgements.

We would like to thank Rafael Bachiller for kindly providing us with the observational data in Figure 3 and for stimulating discussions. We are indebted to Alex Raga for his contribution to the code calculating CO emissivities, and for helpful suggestions about this work. T.P. Downes acknowledges support as a visiting astronomer at the Observatoire de Paris.


text:
# A softer look at MCG–6-30-15 with XMM-Newton

## 1 Introduction

MCG–6-30-15 is one of the most studied Seyfert 1 galaxies in the X-ray band due to its high X-ray flux and relative closeness (z = 0.00775, $`L_{210\mathrm{keV}}5\times 10^{42}`$$`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$; $`H_0=70`$$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$). At energies above 2 keV the X-ray spectrum consists of a power-law with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1.9`$, skewed iron K$`\alpha `$ line and reflection hump (e.g. Fabian et al., 2002). At softer energies much controversy still exist concerning the observed spectral features. Before the use of grating spectra, sharp drops in flux observed in soft X-ray spectra were interpreted as absorption edges due to OVII and OVIII in ionized gas within the AGN environment (“the warm absorber”; Otani et al., 1996; Reynolds, 1997; George et al., 1998).

However the increase in spectral resolution afforded by the use of grating spectrometers onboard XMM-Newton and Chandra has challenged the view that reprocessing of soft X-rays by photoionized gas is responsible for the observed spectral features. Branduardi-Raymont et al. (2001) proposed that sharp drops seen in the Reflection Grating Spectrometer (RGS) spectra from XMM-Newton observations of MCG–6-30-15 and Mrk 766 at $`0.39`$, $`0.55`$ and $`0.7`$ keV were due to the blue wings of relativistically blurred emission lines of CVI, NVII and OVIII Ly$`\alpha `$, the blurring mechanism being the same as that used to explain the skewness of the Fe K$`\alpha `$ line. The reason for adopting this view was that the position of the sharp drop at $`0.7`$ keV, if caused by an OVII absorption edge inferred an unrealistically high infall velocity of matter of $`16,000`$ $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Lee et al. (2001) countered this suggestion with Chandra High Energy Transmission Grating Spectrometer (HETGS) observations in which the 16,000 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$discrepancy in position of the OVII edge was explained by the blending together of resonance absorption lines red-ward of the edge and by L-shell absorption from neutral iron which is probably in the form of dust (the “dusty warm absorber” model; DWA). In a re-analysis of the original RGS data Sako et al. (2003) fitted both the DWA and blurred emission line models to the original RGS data. These workers argue that the models of Lee et al. (2001) over-predicted the flux below the passband of the HETG instrument and that the relativistic line interpretation provides a better fit to the data than the DWA interpretation.

Given the evidence for a relativistically-blurred iron line and reflection continuum in MCG–6-30-15, some relativistically-blurred soft X-ray lines are also expected in the spectrum (Ross & Fabian, 1993; Nayakshin, Kazanas, & Kallman, 2000; Różańska et al., 2002) The strength of these lines is however predicted to be much smaller, and the blue wing broader, than those claimed from the RGS spectra (Ballantyne, Ross, & Fabian, 2002). The determination of the underlying soft X-ray continuum is of importance for understanding the X-ray irradiation of accretion discs.

This paper presents the RGS data for the long $`320`$ ks observation of MCG–6-30-15 (Fabian et al., 2002). In particular we test to see if a DWA or relativistically-blurred emission line model can explain the overall spectral shape and see what can be inferred about the underlying continuum. The rest of the paper is organised as follows. Section 2 describes the data reduction. In Section 3 absorption across the 0.7 keV drop is examined. Section 4 presents a photoionization model of the warm absorber used in Section 5, where DWA and the relativistically-blurred emission line models are fit to the data. In Section 6 an attempt is made to use spectral variability to determine the underlying continuum. The results are discussed in Section 7. This paper does not represent a full description of the data but a first step in modelling the RGS spectrum of the DWA in MCG–6-30-15 and a first look at some of the key features in the data. Plasma diagnostics of individual species will be presented in a later paper.

## 2 Data Reduction

MCG–6-30-15 was observed by XMM-Newton on revolutions 301, 302 and 303 (2001 July 31 – 2001 August 5) for 320 ks (Fabian et al., 2002). The observation data files (ODFs) were reduced with version 5.3.3 of the XMM-Newton Science Analysis Software (sas) using the standard processing chains and the calibrations from 2002 December. The final few ks of data from each revolution showed strong background flaring, these periods were removed from the data extraction. The data were grouped so that at least 20 counts were in each bin and were fitted to trial models in xspec v11.2 (Arnaud, 1996). Data above 1.7 keV were ignored due to the known calibration uncertainties at the mirror Au edge. Unless otherwise stated errors quoted are for 90 per cent confidence level for one interesting parameter ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2=2.7`$). The data are plotted in the observation frame throughout.

## 3 Simple absorption model

The fluxed RGS spectrum from all three revolutions is shown in Fig. 1.

Evident in the spectra are the drops in flux at 0.39, 0.54 and 0.7 keV. The high spectral resolution of the RGS requires the inclusion of individual resonance absorption lines when considering the effect of photoionized absorption. Specifically, at the red side of an absorption edge there is a series of resonant absorption lines that converge to the edge energy. These have the effect of reducing the observed edge energy when convolved with intrinsic Doppler broadening and the spectral resolution of the instrument.

Models of the cross-section of OVII and OVIII near their K-edges were constructed using the continuum cross-section fitting formulae of Verner & Yakovlev (1995), the resonance absorption line data of Verner et al. (1996) and the fitting formulae for line absorption series near absorption edges of Mewe (1977). The transmission through a column density of $`10^{18}`$ cm-2 of OVII, calculated assuming a turbulent velocity (b parameter) of 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, is plotted in Fig. 2. This shows the effect of the resonance lines on the apparent position of the edge, which is clearly shifted to lower energies. Also present at 0.7 keV are the FeI L-shell absorption edges which have fine structure in their cross-section at the L2,3 edge as described by Kortright & Kim (2000).

Fig. 3 shows the revolution 301 data fitted to a power-law, Galactic absorption ($`N_\mathrm{H}=4.06\times 10^{20}`$ cm-2; Elvis, Wilkes, & Lockman, 1989) and absorption by OVII, OVIII and FeI across the energy range 0.6 – 1.7 keV. The best fit ($`\chi ^2=9003.9`$ for 6625 degrees of freedom ($`dof`$)) requires a photon index of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2.36\pm 0.02`$ and column densities of $`\mathrm{log}N_{\mathrm{OVII}}=18.22\pm 0.02`$, $`\mathrm{log}N_{\mathrm{OVIII}}=18.47\pm 0.02`$ and $`\mathrm{log}N_{\mathrm{FeI}}=17.29\pm 0.02`$. Although the best fitting model gives a poor overall $`\chi _\nu ^2`$, it reproduces the detailed shape of the drop at $``$0.7 keV remarkably well as can be seen from Fig. 4 where the model is compared to the fluxed spectrum from all three orbits. The sharp drops at 0.7 and 0.713 keV are clearly fitted by the Fe I absorption profile. Also evident are the resonant absorption lines of OVII. The FeI L3 edge is observed at $`0.7023\pm 0.0007`$ keV which corresponds to an velocity of $`320\pm 340`$$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$with respect to the rest frame of the source if the iron is in the metallic form described by Kortright & Kim (2000). The absolute error on the energy scale of measurements of the cross-section of iron oxides are required before it can be determined whether the observed iron is in the metallic or iron oxide form. The derived power-law photon index is higher than the photon index of $`1.9`$ derived with the EPIC instrument above 2.5 keV (Fabian et al., 2002) suggesting the emission below 1–2 keV has a soft excess relative to an extrapolation of the best fitting continuum above 2 keV (see also Lee et al., 2001). The residuals around 1 keV are due to absorption lines of FeXIII-XXIV and NeIX-X.

## 4 Photoionization model

While the previous Section suggests that absorption by FeI, OVII and OVIII can explain the sharp drop in flux at 0.7 keV, it does not provide a self-consistent model of absorption from a photoionized absorber. In order to explore the properties of any warm absorption in MCG–6-30-15 and provide a model of this absorption the 96beta5 version of the photoionization code cloudy was used to calculate the absorbed spectrum produced by the passage of a continuum through a layer of gas (Ferland et al., 1998). This version of cloudy was used since it includes the atomic transitions of the iron Unresolved Transition Array (UTA; Behar, Sako, & Kahn, 2001) which have been observed previously in Seyfert 1 X-ray spectra. Above 1 keV the incident continuum is taken to have the spectral shape inferred from fitting the EPIC and BeppoSAX data (Fabian et al., 2002). Below 1.0 keV the spectrum is assumed to be a power-law with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2.03.0`$ down to a break energy of 10 eV and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.5`$ below this. The normalization of the incident spectrum is determined from the X-ray luminosity in the 2–10 keV range, $`L_{210}`$, inferred from the EPIC and BeppoSAX data. Also included in the incident continuum is a blackbody component with a temperature of $`2.5\times 10^5`$ K and bolometric luminosity of $`6\times 10^{43}`$ $`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The gas is assumed to have a constant density and Solar elemental abundance with a turbulent velocity of 100$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. This turbulent velocity is used since the lines appear unresolved in the Chandra HETGS spectrum of Lee et al. (2001).

The code was used to generate a grid of incident and absorbed spectra as well as a list of absorption line optical depths at line centre where greater than 0.01. The parameters that were varied across the grid were column density of the gas ($`N_\mathrm{H}=10^{20}10^{22}\mathrm{cm}^2`$), inner radius of cloud from central source ($`R=10^{16}10^{19}\mathrm{cm}`$), ionization parameter of the cloud ($`\xi =10^510^3`$) and spectral index between 10 eV and 1 keV ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2.03.0`$). The density of the gas, $`n_\mathrm{H}`$, is set from $`R`$, $`\xi `$ and $`L_{210}`$, through the formula:

$$\xi =\frac{L_{210}}{n_\mathrm{H}R^2}$$

The resulting transmitted continua (i.e. including only bound-free edges) were divided by the incident continua to produce a continuum absorption model. The absorption lines were then included using a Gaussian opacity profile with a b width of 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$.

In using only the turbulent velocity as the line broadening mechanism the natural and thermal broadening of the lines are neglected. Thermal broadening is ignored since for the species of interest in a photoionized gas thermal broadening velocities are only 10-20 per cent of the turbulent velocity (Nicastro, Fiore, & Matt, 1999). Lee et al. (2001) show that various absorption lines from OVII and OVIII lie on the flat part of the curve of growth for column densities of interest here, justifying our neglect of natural line broadening.

## 5 Spectral fitting

### 5.1 Dusty warm absorber model

We now fit the warm absorber photoionization model to the data from all three revolutions. Galactic absorption, FeI absorption and multiple warm absorption zones are included to account for absorption of the continuum. The absorption component is kept fixed between data from different revolutions while the parameters of the underlying continuum are allowed to vary. The continuum is taken to be a broken power-law with a break energy of 1 keV, spectral index of 2.2 above the break energy and a variable spectral index below the break energy. The use of a broken power-law is justified since the variability suggests some break in the continuum at $`12`$ keV (Fabian et al., 2002; Fabian & Vaughan, 2003). Fitting in the range 0.6–1.7 keV with a three zone warm absorber gives $`\chi ^2=8412.6/6620`$ $`dof`$. The fit parameters for this model are given in Table 1 (model 1). Three zones are required since two distinct velocity components are seen in the absorption lines (Sako et al., 2003) and features from a broad range of ionization parameters are present. Extending the model over the whole RGS passband reveals that the predicted model flux is far higher than the observed data below 0.5 keV. The smooth nature of the discrepancy suggests additional cold absorption is needed, possibly in the form of absorption from the ISM within MCG–6-30-15. However, including additional cold absorption in our fit to the 0.32–1.7 keV energy range produces a large OI edge that is not seen in the data. One possibility is that gas is partly ionized so most of the O is ionized to higher species reducing the depth of the OI edge. A four zone warm absorber produces a fit with $`\chi ^2=16601.9/12053`$ $`dof`$, where one of the zones has a low ionization parameter $`\mathrm{log}\xi =4.4`$ accounting for the excess low energy absorption. Table 1 (model 2) gives the fit parameters for this model. The residuals for this model are shown in Fig. 5a. As mentioned the lowest ionization parameter zone is required to cause the spectrum to turn down at low energies without too deep a neutral oxygen edge. The medium ionization parameter zone is required to fit the OVII edge and lines, the drop in flux at $`0.39`$ keV due to the CV edge and the Fe UTA at 0.7–0.8 keV which takes the form of a trough in the data. The higher parameter zones are required to fit a range of absorption line features around 1 keV as well as any OVIII features. The majority of the OVII column density is located in zone 2 ($`\mathrm{log}\xi 0.5`$) while the majority of the OVIII column density is located in the highest ionization parameter zones 3 and 4 ($`\mathrm{log}\xi 1.5`$). The best fitting DWA model contains less OVII and OVIII column density than the simple absorption model presented in section 3 since other absorption components are present in the photoionization models, such as the Fe UTA, that can compensate for some of the OVII and OVIII column.

Although residuals are present they take the form of broad features, whereas the region across the 0.7 keV drop is reasonably well fitted.

We now add a broad Gaussian emission component at $`0.6`$ keV to account for any excess emission in this region possibly from reflection components. The best-fitting model produces a significant improvement in the fit with $`\chi ^2=15977.3/12051`$ $`dof`$ as can be seen in Fig. 5b (see model 3 in Table 1 for the fit parameters of this model). The line has an equivalent width of $``$120 eV and is very broad with $`\sigma `$170 eV. The model fits the region around the 0.7 keV drop extremely well (see Fig. 6a). However, the broad Gaussian shape is not that of a single relativistic disc line and should be considered as only an approximation of the shape of the residuals. Adding the broad Gaussian emission line results in changes to the best fitting DWA component. The broad emission line has the effect of fitting the excess in the residuals in the range $``$0.5–0.9 keV. This produces an excess below $``$0.4 keV and above $``$1.35 keV. The DWA component compensates to fit these excesses by, at low energy, increasing the ionisation parameter of the lowest ionization parameter zone (zone 1) which results in absorption that rolls over less at low energies and is flatter, and at high energies by decreasing the column density of the high ionization parameter zones which results in less absorption above $`1.35`$ keV flattening the absorption.

### 5.2 Relativistic emission line model

Branduardi-Raymont et al. (2001) and Sako et al. (2003) argue that the drop in flux at 0.7 keV is due to the blue wing of a relativistically blurred OVIII Ly$`\alpha `$ emission line. In this interpretation the warm absorber is responsible for only narrow absorption features rather than any broad ionization edges. In this section we fit this relativistic emission line (REL) model to data from all three revolutions. In the original model of Branduardi-Raymont et al. (2001) the model consists of a power-law and emission lines due to CVI Ly$`\alpha `$ (0.368 keV), NVII Ly$`\alpha `$ (0.500 keV), and OVIII Ly$`\alpha `$ (0.654 keV) emitted by the inner-part of an accretion disc around a rotating black hole. The relativistic blurring is achieved with the LAOR model (Laor, 1991). Free parameters in the model are inner and outer radius of the disc ($`R_{\mathrm{in}}`$ and $`R_{\mathrm{out}}`$), disc inclination ($`i`$), emissivity $`ϵ`$ as a function of radius $`R`$ which is parametrized as a power-law with index $`q`$ (i.e. $`ϵR^q`$). Galactic absorption is also included. The best fitting model produces a fit with $`\chi ^2=17457.8/12051`$ $`dof`$ (see Fig. 7a). The fit parameters of this model are given in Table 2 (model 1). While the level of the continuum is well reproduced, the region across the 0.7 keV drop is poorly fitted since no FeI L-shell absorption is included. Adding FeI to account for the L2,3 edge clearly seen in the data ($`N_{\mathrm{FeI}}=10^{17.2}\mathrm{cm}^2`$) produces a fit with $`\chi ^2=17534.6/12051`$ $`dof`$. See Table 2 (model 2) for fit parameters. The effects of warm absorption are now included by adding absorption by OVI-OVIII, FeXVII-XXIV and NeIX-X in two velocity components, one with an outflow velocity of $`2000`$ $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$and the other at rest in the frame of the source as was observed by Sako et al. (2003). Also included is a broad Gaussian absorption trough at $``$0.75 keV to represent any Fe UTA. Allowing the columns of these species and FeI to be free parameters improves the fit ($`\chi ^2=17579.4/12022`$; see Fig. 7b). Table 2 (model 3) gives the fit parameters for this model. The OVIII column density of $`10^{18.4}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ produces an edge at 0.871 keV with $`\tau 0.24`$. The best-fitting column of FeI required is insufficient to account for the fine structure seen at 0.7 keV (see Fig. 6b) and the spectral index of the power-law is $``$1.5, much lower than the $``$2.0 index found for the EPIC data (Fabian et al., 2002). The equivalent widths of the three emission lines are $``$34 eV for CVI Ly$`\alpha `$, $``$38 eV for NVII Ly$`\alpha `$ and $``$220 eV for OVIII Ly$`\alpha `$.

Under the REL model of Sako et al. (2003) the 1.0–1.7 keV region consists of a power-law modified by narrow absorption features. Here we fit this region to a power-law producing a best-fitting spectral index of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=0.93\pm 0.04`$. Even with a column of FeI of $`10^{17.2}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ the best-fitting spectral index is $`1.10\pm 0.04`$. In order to match the continuum here with the softer power-law found at higher energies the continuum is required to break at around 2 keV from a hard power-law below the break to a softer one above. No mechanism is known that can create such a break.

### 5.3 Combined DWA/REL model

Finally the DWA model was combined with the REL model and fitted to the data. It was found that the best fitting model obtained from the fit was strongly dependant on the starting position of the fit. If the REL model with zero line normalisation was added to the best fitting DWA model (model 2) then only very small emission lines were required. When the DWA model was added to the best fitting REL model (model 1) then very little warm absorption was required. It would appear that two separate solutions exist; one with a large DWA and small REL and the other with small DWA and large REL.

### 5.4 DWA/REL fitting summary

The REL model by itself is a poor fit and requires the addition of a DWA. Even then some parameters are unphysical. The simple DWA model, acting on a power-law continuum, probably requires structure in the soft X-ray continuum. The likely best-fitting model is a DWA acting on a continuum with some emission structures.

## 6 Empirical absorption model

The principal difficulty in fitting the soft X-ray spectra of absorbed Seyfert 1 AGN is that the shape and level of the continuum is not known, partly because broad emission lines can mimic absorption edges. In this section we attempt to circumvent this problem using the known spectral variability of MCG–6-30-15.

The flux in the Fe K$`\alpha `$ line at $``$6.4 keV is observed to vary little while the flux in the continuum is highly variable (Lee et al., 2000; Vaughan & Edelson, 2001; Lee et al., 2002; Shih, Iwasawa, & Fabian, 2002; Fabian et al., 2002). If a spectrum extracted from a period of low continuum flux is subtracted from a spectrum extracted from a period of higher flux, the resulting spectrum (the difference spectrum) can be adequately fit by just a power-law above $``$2 keV (Fabian et al., 2002). It would therefore appear that above $``$2 keV the emission consists of a rapidly variable power-law with constant Fe K$`\alpha `$ emission. On this basis Fabian & Vaughan (2003) introduce a model for the emission consisting of a rapidly variable Power-Law Component (PLC) and an almost constant Reflection Dominated Component (RDC). Since the RDC changes little, subtracting a low flux spectrum from a high flux spectrum effectively removes it.

Data from revolution 303 were used to examine this variability for the RGS data since the flux level varied considerably during this period (see Vaughan et al. 2003 for light curves). Two pn spectra were extracted, one from the first 80 ks when the mean flux level was high and one from the last 40 ks when the mean flux level was low. The low flux spectrum was subtracted from the high flux spectrum and the resulting difference spectrum was found to be adequately fitted by a power-law with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }2.2`$ in the range 3–10 keV. The ratio of data to best fitting power-law is shown in Fig. 8a. Assuming that the variability model applies to any reflection components below 3 keV, the underlying continuum in the pn difference spectrum is just a power-law and any deviations that are seen in Fig. 8a are due to absorption. These deviations from the high energy power-law therefore represent the absorption function of the source, including both intrinsic and Galactic absorption.

Next RGS spectra for the first 80 ks and last 40 ks of revolution 303 were extracted. The RGS spectra from the low flux period was subtracted from the RGS spectra from the high flux period for each instrument to leave the PLC modified by absorption. These RGS difference spectra were then divided by a power-law, with the spectral index and normalization fixed to the values derived from the pn difference spectrum, to produce the RGS absorption functions in Fig. 8b and c. The OI edge at $``$0.54 keV and the FeI/OVII edge at $``$0.7 keV can clearly be seen. This absorption function is compared to the best-fitting DWA absorption model from section 5.1 in Fig. 9a where the best-fitting DWA model is seen to be more absorbed than the absorption function inferred from the pn difference spectrum. This would result if the varying PLC is a broken power-law with a break at $`12`$ keV and a softer spectrum below this break than that inferred from the pn difference spectrum in the 3–10 keV range. Fig. 9b compares the empirical absorption function obtained by assuming the PLC to be a broken power-law with slopes $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1=2.66`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2=2.29`$ and break energy $`E_{\mathrm{br}}=1.75`$ keV, with the best-fitting DWA model. Good agreement is found. Also if the best fitting DWA model is applied to the pn difference spectrum a broken power-law for the underlying continuum produces a good fit to the data. Fig. 10 shows the different model components present in the spectra.

We proceed by assuming that the absorption function for the soft X-ray spectrum is the pattern of deviations in the RGS difference spectrum from a broken power-law. This will be the case if the variable part of the spectrum is approximately a broken power-law continuum. Specifically this means that any additional emission features do not vary with the continuum, which would mean they contribute to the reflection dominated component of Fabian & Vaughan (2003). The assumption is supported by the fact that the RMS variability spectrum shows no sharp emission or absorption features below 1 keV (Fabian et al., 2002) and is well represented by the above model. The spectral indices and break energy of the broken power-law are assumed to be fixed while the normalization varies. Such a continuum is observed in many other Seyfert 1 X-ray spectra. The RGS difference spectra are divided by the broken power-law to form the RGS absorption function. Now that the absorption function has been derived for the soft X-ray band, its effects can be removed from the RGS data for the whole observation and the RDC in the soft-band can be examined. RGS data for all three revolutions were divided by the absorption function to correct for both Galactic and warm absorption. The spectra for each revolution were then fitted to a power-law and the ratio of data to best fitting model for each revolution combined to produce Fig. 11. The photon index of the best fitting power-law for the absorption corrected spectra was $``$2.8, which is steeper than that derived for the high energy spectral index of the PLC of $``$2.3, re-enforcing the idea that there may be a soft excess below 2 keV, similar to the variable two component power-law in Ton S180 (Vaughan et al., 2002). The residuals also show an excess of emission below 0.4 keV and a trough at $``$1 keV. Any features around the OVII (0.5740 keV) or OVIII (0.6536 keV) emission lines are constrained to be less than $``$20 per cent of the continuum. Provided the PLC continuum is a power-law in the RGS passband, the shape of the residuals in Fig. 11 are independent of the spectral index and normalization assumed for that power-law. Note the resemblance to the residuals found earlier (Fig. 5a).

The whole emission complex between 0.45 and 0.9 keV was earlier modelled as a broad Gaussian (section 5.1). We now fit it in the absorption corrected spectra with a power-law and emission lines centred on the OVII $`1s^21s2p`$ and OVIII Ly$`\alpha `$ line energies. Fits with both intermediate width Gaussian and relativistically-blurred lines produce upper limits on the equivalent width of OVII and OVIII emission of $`30`$ eV. The whole complex could be due to OVII, OVIII, FeL and other emission expected in the reflection spectrum (Ballantyne et al., 2002) together with further absorption structure. Detailed modelling of this emission will be carried out in later work.

## 7 Discussion

The high signal-to-noise of our 320 ks observation has allowed the unambiguous detection of FeI L-shell absorption through the fine structure at the L2,3 edge. This has been observed before in the ISM (Paerels et al., 2001) and in Cygnus X-1 (Schulz et al., 2002). It combines with the resonance and edge absorption from OVII and OVIII to explain the drop in flux at 0.7 keV (Lee et al., 2001) and remove the $``$16,000 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$discrepancy in position between the observed drop and that expected from the OVII K-shell edge reported in Branduardi-Raymont et al. (2001).

In comparing the DWA and REL models to the data, both produce similar values of $`\chi ^2`$, although all models are formally unacceptable. However the normalizations of the three broad emission lines in the REL model are free parameters, so the level of the continuum in each section of the spectra can be easily fit. The equivalent widths of these lines are also much larger than has been obtained with self-consistent models of ionized disc reflection (Ballantyne et al., 2002). As has been noted in Section 5, the best-fitting REL model requires insufficient FeI to fit properly the fine structure at 0.7 keV and produces an unrealistically flat spectral index for the underlying power-law. The DWA model in contrast uses only a broken power-law for the underlying continuum. Addition of a reflection component, with emission features around the 10–20 per cent level (Fig. 11), may well explain some of the remaining residuals (see for example the model in Fabian & Vaughan 2003). The DWA model also assumes Solar abundances and a turbulent velocity of 100 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Relaxing these two assumptions should improve the fit further. These improvements will be explored in a later paper.

In Section 6 the pn and RGS difference spectra are used to determine the presence of additional emission components. This method reveals a steep increase in flux below 0.4 keV and a trough at 1 keV. This suggests that an extra emission component is present below 0.4 keV which, combined with increased low ionization parameter warm absorption, could explain the low energy residuals from the DWA model. This extra emission component may be the high energy tail of the quasi-blackbody emission emitted from the accretion disc. These methods assume the absorption present is non-varying, whereas an anti-correlation of the optical depth of an absorption feature with ionizing flux would produce a drop in the absorption corrected spectra where that absorption was. Such variability was observed by Otani et al. (1996) for absorption around 1 keV. The residuals in the DWA fit at 1 keV may be due to a warm absorber zone with this sort of variability which would explain the trough seen at $`1`$ keV in the absorption corrected spectra. The fact that no large peak in the absorption spectra is observed in the 0.6–0.7 keV region suggests that any OVIII emission, which does not vary exactly with the continuum, is at a level not greater than $``$10–20 per cent of the continuum. This is much smaller than in the basic REL model.

In summary, we have found that detailed absorption modelling of the average RGS spectra agrees with an analysis based on variability. Both indicate the dominant presence of dusty warm absorber. Residuals from the modelling show that the underlying continuum has some complex emission structures in the 0.4–0.9 keV band of amplitude consistent with theoretical predictions for an ionized reflector.

## Acknowledgements

Based on observations obtained with XMM-Newton, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and the USA (NASA). AKT acknowledges support from PPARC. ACF thanks the Royal Society for support. JCL thanks the Chandra fellowship for support. This was provided by NASA through the Chandra Postdoctoral Fellowship Award number PF2-30023 issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by SAO for and on behalf of NASA under contract NAS8-39073. We thank Gary Ferland for help with cloudy Jeff Kortright for useful information on the FeI L edge profile and an anonymous referee for helpful comments.


text:
# On the origin of the X-ray emission from a narrow-line radioquasar at 𝑧>1

## 1 Introduction

One of the most debated aspects of the unification scheme for Active Galactic Nuclei (AGNs) is the origin of the difference between Radio-Loud (RL) and Radio-Quiet (RQ) objects. Whether or not an AGN is able to develop a large-scale jet must be somehow intimately related to the central engine, for example, to the spin of the black hole (Blandford & Znajek 1977). X-ray observations are particularly relevant to this issue, as X-rays are thought to arise mostly in the neighbourhood of the nucleus itself.

It was noted early on (Wilkes & Elvis 1987, Canizares & White 1989) that the X-ray spectra of RL AGN are generally harder than those of RQ AGN. Further, it was found that the circumnuclear environment of RL and RQ AGNs appears different: RL AGNs are often surrounded by cold absorbing material (see, e.g., Cappi et al. 1997, Sambruna et al. 1999) while many RQ AGN exhibit X-ray warm absorber features (Reynolds & Fabian 1995).

The origin of the apparently flat X-ray spectrum of RL objects was attributed to beamed emission, which would dominate over, if at all present, the Compton upscattering by relativistic electrons off the UV photons from the accretion disk in RQ AGN. The apparently flatter slope of the underlying unabsorbed spectrum in RL AGN (Cappi et al. 1997) lent some support to this. However, more recent work by Sambruna, Eracleous & Mushotzky (1999) demonstrates that the intrinsic power law (once absorption is accounted for) is very similar in RL objects with a double-lobe radio structure (i.e., not suspected of being beamed towards the observer) and RQ AGN (photon spectral index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.82.0`$).

Nevertheless there are differences in the X-ray emission properties of RL and RQ AGN, especially in the features that are thought to arise in the reprocessing of the primary radiation. Both the Fe K$`\alpha `$ fluorescence line and the Compton reflection shoulder, ubiquitous in RQ objects (Pounds et al. 1990, Nandra & Pounds 1994), are typically weaker in RL objects (Sambruna et al. 1999). This probably implies a different structure in the inner accretion disk in RL and RQ objects. Mechanisms that suppress the reflected component include a truncated accretion disk converted into a geometrically thick structure (e.g. an ADAF, see Meier 2001), and reflection in an ionized disk (Ballantyne, Ross & Fabian 2002). Hasenkopf, Sambruna & Eracleous (2002) analyzed the $`ASCA`$ and $`BeppoSAX`$ X-ray spectra of 3 moderate-redshift radioquasars with luminosities $`10^{45}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and found similar properties, i.e., presence of cold absorption and weak reflection components.

It is intriguing that absorption by cold material appears to play a role both in the distinction between RL and RQ objects as well as in the optical emission line properties of AGN. RQ narrow-line AGNs (Seyfert 2s) tend to be more absorbed than RQ broad-line AGNs (Seyfert 1s and QSOs) as predicted by the unified AGN scheme (Antonucci 1993). However a number unabsorbed Seyfert 2 galaxies has been found (Pappa et al. 2001, Panessa & Bassani 2002), lending some support to the idea that optical emission line properties are, at least in some cases, intrinsic to the Broad Line Region rather than modulated by reddening/absorbing material (Barcons, Carrera & Ceballos 2003).

In this paper we study a narrow-line radioquasar (RX J1011.2+5545) at $`z=1.246`$, one of the few high redshift examples of this class. It was discovered in the $`ROSAT`$ Medium Sensitivity Survey (Carballo et al. 1995), where its PSPC X-ray spectral shape qualified it as the hardest of the sources in the survey. A subsequent follow-up (Barcons et al. 1998) revealed that its $`R21.0`$ optical counterpart is a RL narrow-line QSO, where the CIII\]$`\lambda 1909`$ semi-forbidden line has no detectable broad components, and MgII $`\lambda 2800`$ is extremely weak. The combined $`ROSAT`$ and $`ASCA`$ X-ray spectrum suggested intrinsic absorption (at a low significance level) and also hinted an underlying flat X-ray spectrum. Barcons et al. (1998) derived an X-ray luminosity of $`2.4\times 10^{44}`$ and $`1.1\times 10^{45}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$ in the $`0.52`$ keV and $`210`$ keV bands respectively ($`H_0=70\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$ used throughout). The double-lobed morphology of the radio counterpart ensures that beamed emission does not dominate the X-ray spectrum. This source is therefore an interesting example of an AGN that should be absorbed by cold gas, both because it is radio loud and because its optical spectrum exhibits very weak (if at all) optical broad emission lines.

## 2 $`XMMNewton`$ X-ray observations

RX J1011.2+5545 was observed for about 33 ks by $`XMMNewton`$ (Jansen et al 2001) on the 23 of November of 2001 during revolution 353, within the AO-1 programme. All the instruments were on, although the prime objective, given the flux of the source, was to use the EPIC cameras (Turner et al. 2001, Strüder et al. 2001). All the EPIC cameras were operated in full window mode and equipped with the ’Thin1’ filter. The observation data file was pipeline-processed by SAS v5.2, but the analysis presented here has been conducted entirely using SAS v5.3.3.

The EPIC event lists (MOS1, MOS2 and pn) were cleaned of high background flares, resulting in good-time intervals of 29.7, 30.0 and 24.6 ks respectively. Further filtering followed the standard procedures, keeping only single and double events and, in the case of EPIC pn, those with FLAG=0.

Since the X-ray data has to be compared to much better angular resolution optical and radio data, we also refined the astrometric solution of the pipeline event lists and images which is based on the attitude and orbit control system of the $`XMMNewton`$ spacecraft. This astrometric solution is known to leave small (up to a few arcsec) but significant residuals. We then extracted all sources in the USNO-A2 catalogue in the EPIC field of view, and looked for a shift and rotation in the EPIC pn source list provided by the pipeline by using the internal SAS task eposcorr. A total of 47 X-ray to USNO-A2 matches were found, and the correction that we applied to the X-ray data was $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha =0.88^{\prime \prime }E`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\delta =1.02^{\prime \prime }S`$ and a rotation of $`0.4^{}`$.

### 2.1 X-ray morphology

Our narrow-line radioquasar is well detected in all 3 EPIC cameras. Furthermore, in the EPIC pn and in the EPIC MOS1 cameras, the source shows some structure, in terms of X-ray emission towards the NE. Figure 1 shows the EPIC pn image in the $`0.212`$ keV band around the target, where the NE emission is most obvious. The MOS1 image shows a similar structure, but this NE emission is not present in the MOS2 data. We attribute this fact to the “triangular” shape of the point spread function (PSF) of the X-ray telescope corresponding to the MOS2 detector, which is highly asymmetric.

The pipeline processed source list for these data does not find a second source in the position of the NE extension, which lies approximately 14” away from the central source. We tried hard to modify the source finding algorithm parameters, lowering the detection likelihood to 6 (instead of 10) and enabling 2 sources to be fitted around each detection box. However, the SAS refused to find a source there. A test for extended emission only gave a marginal detection (likelihood $`6`$) in the MOS1 image.

In spite of this, it is clear from Fig. 1 that the X-ray emission is real. No other X-ray sources in the image show a similar patch in the same direction, thus ruling out a bad attitude solution origin for this second source. Our extracted spectrum for this source contains $`100`$ and $`50`$ background-subtracted counts in the EPIC pn and EPIC MOS1 images respectively (see sect. 2.2). Further support for the reality of this source comes from the positional coincidence of this X-ray emission with an extended optical source (see section 3). In what follows we will refer to this faint X-ray source as “source 2”, as opposed to “source 1”, which is the target object RX J1011.2+5545.

### 2.2 X-ray spectra

X-ray spectra have been extracted from the 3 EPIC cameras, first for the full emission complex (i.e., sources 1 and 2 together), as was done for the $`ROSAT`$ and $`ASCA`$ data. Spectra were extracted around the centre of the target within a circle of 25 arcsec, resulting in $`1400`$ background-subtracted counts for the EPIC pn spectrum and over $`500`$ background-subtracted counts in each of the EPIC MOS spectra. X-ray spectra were grouped in 10 count bins and counts below $`0.2`$ keV were ignored. No attempt was made to co-add spectra from different instruments, but instead they were fitted together.

In the Barcons et al. (1998) analysis of the $`ROSAT`$ and $`ASCA`$ spectrum of this source, it was suggested that the X-ray spectrum could be intrinsically flat ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.4`$ was the best fit) with some marginal evidence for absorption (99% level). We therefore fitted the $`XMMNewton`$ spectrum with a single power law plus galactic absorption (fixed at $`N_\mathrm{H}=7.8\times 10^{19}\mathrm{cm}^2`$). The fit gave a very poor $`\chi ^2=300.16`$ for 229 degrees of freedom, with the residuals immediatly suggesting the need for a further absorption component. Adding an intrinsic cold absorber at the redshift of the source gives a spectacular improvement with $`\chi ^2=194.72`$ for 228 degrees of freedom. The F-test gives a significance of $`3\times 10^{23}`$ for absorption not being detected. The best-fit parameters are reported in table 1.

Figure 2 shows the measured X-ray (MOS1, MOS2, pn) spectra and the corresponding best fit models, together with a plot of the fitting residuals. Fig. 3 presents the confidence contours in the ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$,$`N_\mathrm{H}`$) parameter space, using the same parameter range as employed by Barcons et al. (1998) in their study based on $`ROSAT`$ (18 ks) and $`ASCA`$ (52 ks) spectra (solid curves for XMM-Newton and dotted curves for $`ROSAT`$ and $`ASCA`$). Besides highlighting the excellent capability of $`XMMNewton`$ to perform X-ray spectroscopy of faint X-ray sources, Fig. 3 also shows that all data sets are consistent. The $`XMMNewton`$ data, however, clearly rule out an intrinsically flat X-ray spectrum, and show that the spectral flatness inferred from the earlier data was due to a combination of a steep power law seen through a significant absorbing column.

We also attempted to fit an emission feature to the full 3 instrument X-ray spectra, at the expected position of the redshifted Fe K$`\alpha `$ line. Hasenkopf et al. (2002) find line equivalent widths around $`100200`$ eV in 3 radioquasars of similar X-ray luminosity. However, the residuals to the absorbed power-law fit to RX J1011.2+5545 do not show any hint of a significant positive deviation around $`3`$ keV, and indeed no improvement in the $`\chi ^2`$ is achieved by adding a gaussian line. The 3$`\sigma `$ upper limit to the line equivalent width is $`1`$ keV, and slightly lower ($`600`$ eV) assuming a line width $`<0.3`$ keV. We have also tried to add a reflection component (via the pexrav model from Magdziarz & Zdziarski 1995), but the $`\chi ^2`$ does not improve and returns a null value for the reflected component.

The fluxes (corrected for Galactic absorption) of the overall complex are shown in table 1. Note that these are entirely consistent with the $`ROSAT`$ and $`ASCA`$ inferred fluxes, i.e., the source has not varied much after an interval of several years. The luminosity of the source is $`2.5\times 10^{44}`$ and $`9.4\times 10^{44}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$ in the 0.5-2 and 2-10 keV bands respectively. If we correct for the intrinsic absorption, these luminosities go up to $`6.4\times 10^{44}`$ and $`9.8\times 10^{44}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$.

In the EPIC MOS1 and pn data, sources 1 and 2 can be separated (see again Fig. 1) and therefore we have extracted the spectrum of sources 1 and 2 independently from these data. In order to minimize the contamination of the tail of source 1 on the spectrum of source 2, conservative non-overlapping circles of radii 9.5 arcsec and 7.5 arcsec were choosen around the centre of sources 1 and 2 respectively. This gave $`900`$ pn and $`315`$ MOS 1 background-subtracted counts for source 1 and $`100`$ pn and $`50`$ MOS1 background-subtracted counts for source 2. The spectra of source 1 is virtually equivalent to the overall spectrum, as it contains more than 90% of the total flux (see best fit parameters in table 1.

The MOS1+pn spectrum of source 2 has been fitted to a power law model with Galactic absorption, and the resulting parameters are shown also in table 1. Figure 4 shows the X-ray spectrum together with the best fit model.

## 3 $`NOT`$ optical observations

Given the interesting morphology of the EPIC X-ray image, the region around RX J1011.2+5545 was imaged in the optical with the 2.6m $`NOT`$ optical telescope in La Palma. The instrument ALFOSC was used with the Johnson R filter, for a total integration of 1 hour (splitted in two 30 min integrations slightly shifted) in service time on the 24th of October 2002. The observation was conducted in bright time and the average airmass was 1.6.

The images were reduced using standard IRAF reduction techniques, including debiasing, trimming, flat-fielding (using twilight flats) and finally registering both images to a common frame. The measured seeing in the resulting image is 1.37”. The astrometric calibration was done using the USNO-A2 catalogue. No photometric standard was observed, so we used the less sensitive image of Barcons et al. (1998) to perform the photometric calibration.

The $`NOT`$ image is shown in Fig. 5 along with contours from the EPIC pn X-ray image. It is then clear that source 1 is coincident with the optical counterpart identified in Barcons et al. (1998), with magnitude $`R21.0`$ and that source 2 overlays with a fainter, extended optical source. This optical counterpart has a FWHM extent of 2.4 arcsec, while the seeing is 1.4 arcsec. We measure its magnitude by aperture photometry to be $`R21.9`$. This spatial coincidence lends further support to the reality of source 2.

## 4 $`VLA`$ radio observations

The source RX J1011.2+5545 is known to be a radio source, detected in various surveys, as previously discussed in Barcons et al. (1998). In particular, the FIRST-VLA data at 1.4 GHz resolved the radio source into two components, aligned approximately along the N-S axis, with a total integrated flux of $`0.16`$ Jy. Furthermore, it was also detected in the 7th Cambridge survey at 151 MHz as source 7C 434 with a flux of 1.2 Jy (Pooley, Waldram & Riley 1998).

Besides the double-lobed morphology of the source, the FIRST-VLA radio map shows a hint of extended emission from the northern lobe towards the NE. Since this is the general direction of source 2 detected in the EPIC pn image, we requested a deeper, better angular resolution observation of this source with the $`VLA`$ of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) as an ad hoc proposal.

The observation was conducted in November 13, 2002 with the C configuration. We choosed both 3.6 cm (8.4 GHz) and 6 cm (5 GHz) giving approximate beams of $`3`$ arcsec and $`5`$ arcsec respectively for natural weigthing (see below). Exposure times were selected in order to have a 3$`\sigma `$ sensitivity of approximately 0.1 mJy beam-1 at both frequencies. We recall that the FIRST-VLA survey at 1.4 GHz has a flux threshold a factor of 5 higher and a beam of $`5`$ arcsec. Since sources 1 and 2 are separated by 14”, the radio maps (even the early FIRST-VLA survey) should be able to clearly resolve both sources. Moreover (see section 5) in the event that source 2 corresponds to a knot in a jet emanating from source 1, a flux level of the order of $`110`$ mJy would be expected, and in this case a positive detection should be achieved with the obtained radio data.

The observation consisted of two snapshots of 10 minutes at 3.6 cm and two snapshots of 8 minutes at 6 cm on RX J1011.2+5545, preceded and followed by a 1.5 minute observation of the phase calibrator 1035+564. The amplitude calibrators used were 3C 48 at 3.6 cm and 3C 286 at 6 cm (we were forced to use different amplitude calibrators because of technical problems during the 3.6 cm snapshot of 3C 286). The data were edited and calibrated using standard procedures within the aips software package of NRAO. The maps shown here have been produced using self-calibration and natural weighting of the data, which are the most sensitive to extended and faint structures. The final 3$`\sigma `$ sensitivy is 0.07 mJy beam-1 at 3.6 cm and 0.09 mJy beam-1 at 6 cm.

Fig. 6 shows the contours of the $`VLA`$ maps overlayed on the $`NOT`$ optical image. The 3.6 cm map clearly resolves the nucleus (concident with the optical counterpart of RX J1011.2+5545) and two lobes in the N-S direction. The 6 cm data exhibits the same structure, but without a clear separation between the northern lobe and the nucleus.

The variation in radio spectral index $`\alpha `$ (defined as $`S_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$ between the 3.6 and 6 cm bands) across the source ranges from $`\alpha =1.7`$ to $`\alpha =+0.3`$. Table 2 shows the radio spectral index at various locations of the radio source (see caption of Fig. 6 for definitions). The overall nucleus and double-lobe structure is consistent with a synchrotron self-absorbed nucleus plus ageing effects in the relativistic electron population along the lobes. The flatter spectral index of the N-lobe (as compared to the S-lobe) could be due to a variety of reasons, including the jet meeting a denser medium in the N-lobe zone, different ordering of the magnetic field, the orientation of the source etc. The steep-spectrum NE tail is consistent with freely expanding radio gas.

It is also clear from Fig. 6 that source 2 detected in the EPIC pn does not emit in radio, down to a 3$`\sigma `$ sensitivity below $`0.1`$ mJy at both 3.6 and 6 cm. To further emphasize this, we overlay the 3.6 cm contours on the EPIC pn image in Fig. 1 (see also Fig. 5 for the X-ray contours on top of the optical image). It can also be appreciated that, within the $`XMMNewton`$ angular resolution, the X-ray emission matches very well that of the nucleus resolved by the radio maps with little contribution from the lobes.

## 5 Discussion and conclusions

### 5.1 The nature of source 2

Using the positions of the optical counterparts for sources 1 ($`\alpha _1=10:11:12.27`$, $`\delta _1=+55:44:47.9`$, J2000) and 2 ($`\alpha _2=10:11:13.74`$, $`\delta _2=+55:44:59.9`$, J2000) we can compute the possibility of finding two such close sources by chance. The relevant parameter is the source density at the flux of source 2 ($`0.52`$ keV flux of $`10^{14}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$) which we take $`140\mathrm{deg}^2`$. The probability of finding source 2 within 14 arcsec of source 1, being unrelated, is $`0.3\%`$. Although this is not a very significantly small number, we checked the possibility that source 2 could be somehow related to source 1.

We have further explored the possibility that source 2 results from the emission of a knot in a putative jet of source 1, should they be at all related. (Note, however, that the geometry of the radio maps does not suggest that hypothesis). Such knots have been found to be X-ray emitters in several objects, among them 3C273 (Marshall et al. 2001). If we take the A1 knot as quoted in Marshall et al. (2001), and scaling from the flux measured at $`1`$ keV from the $`XMMNewton`$ data in source 2 ($`0.010.02\mu \mathrm{Jy}`$) we would expect a radio flux around 6 cm of $`515`$ mJy. Our $`VLA`$ data, which sets a 3$`\sigma `$ upper limit of 0.1 mJy beam-1 at the position of source 2, clearly rules out that option.

We can therefore conclude that source 2 is a real X-ray source, with an optical counterpart of $`R21.9`$ and to our knowledge unrelated to source 1.

### 5.2 The nature of the X-ray emission in the narrow-line radioquasar

The main conclusion of this work is that the X-ray emission properties of this narrow-line radioquasar are very similar to those of broad-line radioquasars of similar luminosity. The apparently flat X-ray spectrum found by $`ROSAT`$ and $`ASCA`$ is the result of a steep power law (photon spectral index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.83`$) seen through an intrinsic absorbing column $`N_\mathrm{H}=4\times 10^{21}\mathrm{cm}^2`$, in agreement with the results from Hasenkopf et al. (2002) for broad-line radioquasars of similar luminosity. The typically flatter spectral index attributed earlier to RL AGNs $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1.41.5`$ is totally excluded in this narrow-line radioquasar (see again Fig. 3). This confirms that relativistic beaming does not play a major role in its X-ray emission, as expected from the double-lobe radio morphology.

The X-ray spectrum displays moderate cold absorption (in excess of Galactic absorption), also in the same range as the Hasenkopf et al. (2002) broad-line radioquasars of similar luminosity (but lower redshift) $`(14)\times 10^{21}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. The overall spectral energy distribution (shown in Barcons et al 1998) is similar to the template for RL QSOs as shown in Fig. 10 of Elvis et al (1994), except for the harder X-ray slope resulting from intrinsic absorption.

The measured absorption column is, however, on the lower side of that expected for narrow-line AGN. Indeed, in a large sample of \[OIII\]-selected narrow-line RQ AGN (Seyfert 1.8, 1.9 and mostly 2 galaxies), Risaliti, Maiolino & Salvati (1999) found that the majority of these sources are absorbed by columns $`>10^{22}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. This should be expected in the framework of the AGN unified model, where the lack or weakness of optical broad emission lines would be due to reddening by the same gas that absorbs soft X-rays. Nevertheless, a number of examples of RQ narrow-line Seyferts have been found with small or no cold absorbing column at all (Pappa et al. 2000, Panessa & Bassani 2002, Barcons et al. 2003). The narrow-line radioquasar studied here also belongs to this class of low-absorption column objects, where the lack of optical broad-lines is difficult to understand in terms of reddening/absorption and could be attributed to intrinsic properties of the broad line region.

It is also remarkable that no reflection features are present in this object, down to the sensitivity level of our rather high quality X-ray data. However the 3$`\sigma `$ upper limit found for the equivalent width of the Fe line ($`600`$ eV in the case of a relatively narrow line $`\sigma <0.3`$ keV) is not in conflict with a reflection component consistently small, as in broad-line radioquasars of similar luminosity (Hasenkopf et al. 2002).

It would be interesting to study other narrow-line radioquasars of similar luminosity to check whether the properties of RX J1011.2+5545 are peculiar (in the sense of moderate absorbing column of cold gas and weak reflection features) or relatively general. Bright and medium sensitivity X-ray surveys performed with $`XMMNewton`$ should be particularly sensitive to this type of sources (even more heavily absorbed), where modest follow-up exposures could deliver X-ray data of enough quality to merit a spectral analysis as the one presented here.

## Acknowledgments

The work reported herein is based partly on observations obtained with $`XMMNewton`$, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA member states and the USA (NASA). The $`NOT`$ telescope is operated by the Nordic Optical Telescope Scientific Association on the spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. We are grateful to the service support for conducting the optical observations. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. We acknowledge financial support by the Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología (Spain), under grants AYA2000-1690 (XB, FJC, MTC), AYA2002-03326 (RC, JIGS) and AYA2001-3092 (MR, JMP). MR and JMP acknowledge also partial support by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF/FEDER). During this work, MR has been supported by a fellowship from CIRIT (Generalitat de Catalunya, ref. 1999 FI 00199).