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# Towards a Fully Ab-Initio Description of the Diluted Magnetic Semiconductor 𝐺𝑎_{1-𝑥}𝑀𝑛_𝑥𝐴𝑠. Ferromagnetism, Electronic Structure, and Optical Response.

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## Abstract

There are two competing views of itinerant ferromagnetism, the first viewing ferromagnetism as resulting from the indirect coupling between local moments via the itinerant carrier dynamics, the so-called RKKY mechanism, while in the alternative picture, ferromagnetism results from the spin polarization of itinerant carriers by the strong atomic Hund interaction - the so-called double exchange (DE) scenario. Which view describes the ferromagnetism in diluted magnetic semiconductors, materials with promise for spintronic applications, is still unclear. Here, we describe the detailed physical response of the prototype material $`Ga_{1x}Mn_xAs`$ using a combination of first-principles bandstructure with methods based on dynamical mean field theory to incorporate strong, dynamical correlations and intrinsic as well as extrinsic disorder in one single theoretical picture. We show how ferromagnetism is driven by DE, in agreement with very recent observations, along with a good quantitative description of the details of the electronic structure, as probed by scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) and optical conductivity. Our results show how ferromagnetism can be driven by DE even in diluted magnetic semiconductors with small carrier concentration.

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Spintronics is a rapidly emerging technology where it is not the electron charge but the electron spin that carries information. It offers promising opportunities for developing a new generation of devices based on a combination of standard microelectronics with spin-dependent effects arising from the interaction of the carrier spin with the magnetism of the material . Another promising area envisions its marriage with optical photons, with the possibility of designing new spin based devices such as spin-field effect transistor (FET), spin-light emitting diodes (LED), optical switches operating in the THz range, modulators, encoders and decoders, and bits for quantum computation . Discovery of optically induced ferromagnetism in some $`Mn`$-doped III-V semiconductors opens up the possibility of applications to photonic storage devices and photonically-driven micromechanical elements . Success of this vision demands a deeper understanding of fundamental spin interactions in the solid state, along with the realistic bandstructures, and roles of dimensionality as well as intrinsic (extrinsic) defects.

The discovery of dilute magnetic semiconductors (DMS), which are III-V semiconductors randomly doped with small amounts of magnetic atoms, like $`Mn^{2+}`$, has provided us with an attractive example of prototype materials of great interest in this context . These have ferromagnetic transition temperatures much higher than those of earlier known $`Eu`$-chalcogenides , of order $`100K`$, and the magnetism can be controlled electronically. The optimum value of $`x`$ in $`Ga_{1x}Mn_xAs`$ corresponding to highest $`T_c=100K`$ is $`0.0430.05`$. In spite of much activity, the nature of ferromagnetism, as well as the detailed electronic structure, is not properly understood. Ultimately, the mechanism of FM should go hand-in-hand with the details of spin interactions in a system of dilute $`Mn^{2+}`$ ions doped randomly in the $`GaAs`$ host, and to the details of modification of the electronic structure due to $`Mn`$ doping.

Application of the Ruderman-Kittel-Kasuya-Yosida (RKKY) mechanism provides some understanding of magnetic and transport properties of DMS , but is somewhat questionable in this case, since it is only valid when the exchange interaction, $`J<<E_F`$, the Fermi energy of the carriers. This is obviously not the case in DMS, where the carrier concentration is low . An alternative double-exchange (DE) model based approach  has recently been invoked within a model bandstructure to study the evolution of $`T_c`$ with $`x`$. However, the specific conditions under which DE ideas can be applied to DMS remain to be elucidated.

Here, we discuss an implementation of DMFT which permits the incorporation of the actual electronic structure of real materials into the DMFT equations. Using this method, we show how a detailed understanding of half-metallic ferromagnetism, along with a quantitative description of the correlated electronic structure of $`Mn`$-doped $`GaAs`$ is achieved.

$`GaAs`$ is a well known band semiconductor. Its electronic structure, however, is sensitive to $`As`$ antisites forming in the bulk during growth. The importance of these defects in the $`GaAs`$ host, constituting a source of intrinsic disorder, will become clear below. Each $`Mn`$ ion in $`GaAs`$ serves a dual purpose, acting as an acceptor as well as a magnetic impurity. In reality, the situation is a bit more complex when the realistic local characteristics of the $`Mn`$ ion, such as the charge transfer energy ($`E_{Mn}E_{As}`$), and the $`pd`$ hybridization ($`AsMn`$), and Coulomb interactions, are taken into account. The importance of including such quantum chemical aspects is shown very clearly in spectroscopic measurements ; these yield the on-site Hubbard $`U=3.5eV`$, the charge transfer energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }=1.5eV`$, and the hybridization $`t_{pd}=1.1eV`$. Additionally, the Hund’s rule coupling $`J_H0.55eV`$, acting like a magnetic impurity potential . Finally, the random distribution of the $`Mn`$ ions gives rise to an additional non-magnetic disorder component. All previous theoretical works done for $`Ga_{1x}Mn_xAs`$ have focused either on pure bandstructure aspects , or on model approaches , and we are not aware of calculations which incorporate the strong correlation at $`Mn`$ sites, along with local quantum chemical information ($`t_{pd},\mathrm{\Delta }`$) and intrinsic $`As`$ antisite disorder as well as $`Mn`$-doping related magnetic and non-magnetic disorder into the complex bandstructure of this material in a consistent way. Very recent theoretical advances  have opened an attractive possibility to study the correlated bandstructure of materials involving transition metal oxides and rare-earth based compounds via LDA+DMFT.

In what follows, we show how a consistent theoretical (via LDA+DMFT) implementation including real bandstructure of $`GaAs`$, quantum chemical and strong correlation aspects mentioned above, and $`As`$ antisite disorder is indeed necessary for a detailed quantitative understanding of the physics of $`Ga_{1x}Mn_xAs`$.

A beautiful recent time-resolved magneto-optic measurement clearly shows the half-metallic character of the ferromagnetic metallic state in $`Ga_{1x}Mn_xAs`$ . But this is not all, as the correlated nature of this state is further revealed by various responses. First, photoemission measurements  reveal very small spectral weight near the Fermi surface, and a $`T`$-dependent build-up of spectral weight at higher energies. Further, the change of the chemical potential $`E_F`$ with $`Mn`$ doping is intriguing. At small $`x`$, it appears to be almost pinned to its $`x=0`$ value, but starts moving towards the valence band (VB) around the $`x`$ value where the semiconductor-metal transition accompanied by FM occurs. At $`x>0.05`$, it moves up again, concomitant with occurence of insulating behavior with reduction of $`T_c`$, clearly showing the intimate connection between changes in electronic structure and variation in $`T_c`$ as a function of $`x`$. More anomalous features are observed in optical measurements : there is no quasicoherent Drude response; instead, the spectrum exhibits a peak centered around $`1200cm^1`$, with a curious bump at lower energies. From a “modified Drude fit”, an effective mass $`m^{}=0.72m`$ is deduced, in contrast to $`m_b=0.24m`$ from LDA calculations. The depression of the low-energy incoherent spectral weight with increasing $`T`$ (decreasing magnetization) is also very clearly seen; what is interesting is that this spectral weight transfer (SWT) takes place over a wide energy scale of about $`4eV`$ (much larger than $`T_c`$). These observations are inexplicable within bandstructure ideas, and constitute direct evidence for the importance of dynamical electronic correlations in $`Ga_{1x}Mn_xAs`$.

While it provides a good description of ground state properties, the local density approximation (LDA) cannot describe the excited states of correlated systems, since the dynamical correlations in a quantum many-body system are neglected in the LDA. Thus, given the above arguments, a realistic description of $`Ga_{1x}Mn_xAs`$ requires combining the LDA, which provides an excellent ab-initio one-electron bandstructure of weakly correlated metals and band insulators , with well controlled, state-of-the-art many body calculations capable of accessing the dynamical effects of strong electron correlations in a proper way. Recently, the combination of LDA with dynamical mean field theory (DMFT) has been shown to provide good quantitative description for various correlated systems . Using LDA+DMFT, we will show how good quantitative agreement with DE ferromagnetism, STM data, and optical conductivity is obtained.

Local atomic-like features of $`Mn^{2+}`$ in $`GaAs`$ are obtained from the set of many-body levels describing processes of electron addition and/or removal in the atomic $`d`$-shell. The constants $`U,J_H`$ can be computed from first principles. Itinerant aspects of the actual solid enter via a dynamical bath function describing $`pd`$ hybridization; it quantifies the degree of itinerance of the $`d`$ electrons, and needs to be determined in a selfconsistent way from the DMFT equations. With this, the problem is reduced to solving an (asymmetric, in general) multi-orbital Anderson impurity problem selfconsistently embedded in a dynamical bath, giving us the impurity Green’s function $`G_{imp}(\omega )`$ and the self-energy $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(\omega )`$.

The bands of $`GaAs`$ are obtained from the eigenvalues of the matrix one-electron Hamiltonian $`H(k)`$, obtained from the LDA Kohn-Sham hamiltonian . The actual LDA density of states (DOS) for $`GaAs`$ (without antisites) is shown in Fig. 1.

To begin with, we model the effect of the random $`As`$ antisite potential in pure $`GaAs`$ using the usual coherent potential approximation (CPA) . Next, given the small concentration of $`Mn`$ sites, we first solve the asymmetric Anderson impurity problem in the dynamical bath provided by the $`GaAs`$ bandstructure for a single $`Mn`$ impurity with the parameters given earlier, using the generalization of the iterated perturbation theory (IPT) for arbitrary filling . The exact low-frequency behavior is obtained from the Friedel-Luttinger sum rule , while the correct high-frequency behavior is obtained from a selfconsistent computation of moments. These equations have appeared previously in various contexts , and we do not reproduce them here. For the one-band Hubbard model, very good agreement with quantum Monte Carlo data has been reported at high $`T`$. For a concentration $`x`$ of $`Mn`$ impurities, one has additionally to perform a configurational average over random $`Mn`$ positions (non-magnetic) as well as an average over all spin configurations of the $`Mn`$ ions (magnetic). These effects of strong magnetic and positional disorder scattering are treated using the extended dynamical coherent potential approximation (CPA) , which is combined with IPT for the $`Mn`$ impurities in a consistent way .

Marriage of LDA with DMFT gives us a quantitative description of both ground- and excited state properties. Finite temperature, and local moment effects above $`T_c`$ are readily handled using temperature Green’s functions within DMFT.

We now describe our results. In Fig. 2, we show the total density of states (DOS) for $`Ga_{1x}Mn_xAs`$ for $`x=0,0.022,0.043`$ for our chosen parameter set. Given  that each $`Mn`$ dopant creates an additional $`As`$ anti-site, the concentration of antisites, $`n_{as}=0.015+x`$. For $`x=0`$, the effect of the random $`As`$ anti-site disorder is modeled using CPA, resulting in an impurity ($`As`$) band of anti-sites split off from the VB in the semiconducting gap of $`GaAs`$. We draw attention to the good agreement of the calculated ($`x=0`$) DOS with STM data . For small $`x=0.022`$, the total DOS still indicates semiconducting behavior, in coincedence with conclusions from Ref. . Notice, however, the appearance of a second, broader peak in the gap. Again, this is in accordance with results of STM measurements . Without random magnetic and non-magnetic impurity scattering, a quasicoherent peak is obtained (not shown). Inclusion of strong magnetic ($`J_H`$) and positional disorder scattering by CPA washes out this low-energy coherence, resulting in the red curve in Fig. 2. For $`x=0.043`$, metallic behavior, together with ferromagnetism (see below), is clearly revealed in the results (Fig. 2, green). From the real part of the one particle self-energy (not shown), we find $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}(\omega )/\omega |_{\omega =\mu }=2.03`$, leading to a mass enhancement of $`m^{}/m_b=3.03`$ (here, $`m_b`$ is the carrier mass estimated from LDA), in excellent agreement with observations. The half-metallic character of the system for $`|\omega |0.2`$ is clearly seen from our computed results (inset to Fig. 2), in full accord  with recent experimental work.

The ferromagnetic character of the metallic state is clearly shown by using the DMFT propagators to compute the static part of the spin susceptibility, $`\chi _s(𝐪)=N^1_𝐤G_{}(𝐤+𝐪)G_{}(𝐤)`$, and the effective intersite exchange, $`J_{eff}(𝐪)=J^2\chi _s(𝐪)`$. Given the small concentration of the correlated $`Mn`$ ions, we expect that vertex corrections appearing normally in the computation of $`\chi _s(𝐪)`$ will not modify our estimate of $`T_c`$ much (these corrections scale with the $`Mn`$ concentration). The transition temperature $`T_c`$ is estimated from the DMFT equations . We find, in full agreement with , that $`T_c=0`$ for $`x=0,0.022`$ and $`T_c=120K`$ for $`x=0.043`$.

In light of our results, we see clearly that ferromagnetism in $`Ga_{1x}Mn_xAs`$ results from the interplay between two scales: the effective impurity bandwidth of the correlated solution ($`W_{eff}`$) and the local Hund interaction ($`J_H`$) with $`J_H>W_{eff}`$, putting the system in the DE class. As described above, this is out of scope of pure LDA- or LDA+U based approaches, which cannot access dynamical effects of strong electronic correlations and static (dynamic) disorder. A proper treatment of these dynamical processes plays a crucial role (via DMFT) in generating an impurity band with reduced bandwidth ($`W<J_H`$), stabilizing DE ferromagnetism in this DMS system.

Finally, we compute the optical conductivity, $`\sigma (\omega )`$, directly from the fully renormalized DOS using the result known rigorously  in DMFT. In Fig. 3, we show our result, $`\sigma (\omega ,T)`$, as a function of $`\omega `$ for $`x=0.043`$. Concentrating on the $`T`$ dependence, we see clearly that our results are very similar to the one from Ref. . In particular, the broad peak around $`800cm^1`$, the smaller (anti-site related) bump around $`100cm^1`$ (somewhat different from experiment), and the incoherent low-energy response are all in complete accordance with observations. More satisfyingly, the $`T`$ dependence of the spectral weight transfer is also correctly reproduced: at low-$`T`$ (below $`T_c`$), no crossing point in $`\sigma (\omega )`$ is seen till $`3000cm^1`$, while above $`T_c`$, the curves seem to cross around $`800cm^1`$, in full semiquantitative agreement with experiment. However, we were not able to resolve a clear crossing point in the spectra above $`T_c`$. Finally, the distribution and $`T`$ dependence of the optical spectral weight (decrease with increasing $`T`$ below $`T_c`$, and increasing with $`T`$ above $`T_c`$) is in good agreement with the data as well.

Given the detailed quantitative agreement of our results with those gleaned from various spectroscopic, optical, and magnetic measurements, we believe that we have provided the first totally ab-initio (LDA+correlations) description of $`Ga_{1x}Mn_xAs`$. Our study highlights the importance of including intrinsic and extrinsic disorder, strong dynamical correlations and magnetic scattering, in concert with the real LDA bandstructure in one single picture. We have clearly shown how a consistent treatment of dynamical electronic correlations and disorder generates a narrow, quasicoherent impurity band in the semiconductor band gap, opening up the possibility for DE to drive the system into a ferromagnetic half-metallic state. Other diluted magnetic semiconductors of great current interest can be studied readily within this framework.

This work is supported by the Sonderforschungsbereich 608 of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.


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# Momentum spectroscopy of 1D phase fluctuations in Bose-Einstein condensates

## Abstract

We measure the axial momentum distribution of Bose-Einstein condensates with an aspect ratio of 152 using Bragg spectroscopy. We observe the Lorentzian momentum distribution characteristic of one-dimensional phase fluctuations. The temperature dependence of the width of this distribution provides a quantitative test of quasi-condensate theory. In addition, we observe a condensate length consistent with the absence of density fluctuations, even when phase fluctuations are large.

One of the most striking features of Bose-Einstein condensates is their phase coherence. Extensive experimental work on dilute atomic gases has demonstrated a uniform phase of three-dimensional (3D) trapped condensates Phillips\_coherence1 ; stenger99 , even at finite temperature Bloch . In low dimensional systems, however, phase fluctuations of the order parameter are expected to destroy off-diagonal long range order (see petrov1d ; Stoof\_Griffin\_Castin  and references therein). This phenomenon also occurs in sufficiently anisotropic 3D samples, where phase coherence across the axis (long dimension) is established only below a temperature $`T_\varphi `$, that can be much lower than the critical temperature $`T_\mathrm{c}`$ petrov3d . In the range $`T_\varphi <T<T_\mathrm{c}`$, the cloud is a “quasi-condensate”, whose incomplete phase coherence is due to thermal excitations of 1D axial modes, with wavelengths larger than its radial size. Quasi-condensates in elongated traps have been observed by Dettmer et al. dettmer01 , who measured the conversion, during free expansion, of the phase fluctuations into ripples in the density profile. Although the conversion dynamics is well understood Ertmer3 , the measured amplitude of density ripples was a factor of two smaller than expected.

In this Letter, we report on the measurement of the axial coherence properties of quasi-condensates via momentum Bragg spectroscopy. In previous work using this technique stenger99 ; davidson , the finite size and mean-field energy were the primary contributors to the spectral width. By contrast, the dominant broadening in our conditions results from thermally driven fluctuations of the phase, which reduce the coherence length petrov1d ; petrov3d . Indeed, the axial momentum distribution is the Fourier transform of the spatial correlation function $`C(s)=d^3𝐫\widehat{\mathrm{\Psi }}^{}(𝐫s𝐮_\mathrm{z}/2)\widehat{\mathrm{\Psi }}(𝐫+s𝐮_\mathrm{z}/2)`$ Zambelli , where $`𝐮_\mathrm{z}`$ is the axial unit vector. When phase fluctuations dominate (i.e. $`TT_\varphi `$), the axial momentum width is hence proportional to $`\mathrm{}/L_\varphi `$, where $`L_\varphi `$ is the characteristic axial decay length of $`C(s)`$. Experimentally, for $`6<T/T_\varphi <36`$, we find momentum distributions with Lorentzian shapes, whose widths increase with $`T`$. Such a shape is characteristic of large phase fluctuations in 1D Fabrice\_theory , which result in a nearly exponential decay of $`C(s)`$. Moreover, the momentum width agrees quantitatively with theoretical predictions to within our $`15\%`$ experimental uncertainty. This implies, in this temperature range, a coherence length substantially smaller than the quasi-condensate length $`2L`$, from about $`L/18`$ to $`L/4`$. We have also checked an important feature of quasi-condensates: the suppression of density fluctuations even in the presence of large phase fluctuations.

We produce a Bose-Einstein condensate of 87Rb in the $`5S_{1/2}`$ $`|F=1,m_F=1`$ state. A new design of our iron-core electromagnet, with respect to our previous work interrupted , allows us to lower the bias field of the Ioffe-Pritchard trap to obtain tighter radial confinement. Final radial and axial trap frequencies are respectively $`\omega _{}/2\pi =760(20)`$Hz and $`\omega _z/2\pi =5.00(5)`$Hz. The condensates, containing around $`5\times 10^4`$ atoms calib\_N0 , are needle-shaped, with a typical half-length $`L130\mu `$m and radius $`R0.8\mu `$m. The chemical potential being a few times $`\mathrm{}\omega _{}`$, the clouds are between the 3D and 1D Thomas-Fermi (TF) regime 1D . However, the low-lying excitations of the condensate are 1D in character, due to the large aspect ratio of the trap 1D\_Stringari .

Our momentum distribution measurement is based on four-photon velocity-selective Bragg diffraction. Atoms are diffracted out of the condensate by interaction with a moving standing wave, formed by two counter-propagating laser beams with a relative detuning $`\delta `$ stenger99 ; davidson . Due to the Doppler effect, the momentum component resonantly diffracted out of the condensate is $`p_z=M(\delta 8\omega _\mathrm{R})/(2k_\mathrm{L})`$ with $`\omega _\mathrm{R}=\mathrm{}k_\mathrm{L}^2/(2M)`$, $`M`$ the atomic mass, and $`k_\mathrm{L}=2\pi /\lambda `$ ($`\lambda =780.02`$ nm). The lasers are tuned 6.6 GHz below resonance to avoid Rayleigh scattering. The laser intensities (about 2 mW/cm2) are adjusted to keep the diffraction efficiency below 20 %.

To build the momentum spectrum of the quasi-condensate, we measure the fraction of diffracted atoms versus the detuning $`\delta `$ between the counter-propagating laser beams. The differential frequency $`\delta `$ must be stable to better than the desired spectral resolution, about 200 Hz for our typical $`L_\varphi =10\mu `$m. The optical setup is as follows. A single laser beam is spatially filtered by a fiber optic, separated into two arms with orthogonal polarizations, frequency shifted by two independent 80 MHz acousto-optic modulators, and recombined. The modulators are driven by two synthesizers stable to better than 1 Hz over the typical acquisition time of a spectrum. The overlapping, recombined beams are then sent through the vacuum cell, parallel (to within 1 mrad) to the long axis of the trap, and retro-reflected to obtain two standing waves with orthogonal polarizations, moving in opposite directions. After we mounted the critical retro-reflecting mirror on a long, rigid plate to minimize axial vibrations, the average over ten beat notes had a half-width at half-maximum (HWHM) of $`216(10)`$ Hz for a 2-ms pulse beat .

The following experimental procedure is used to acquire a momentum spectrum. At the end of forced evaporative cooling, the radio frequency knife is held fixed for 6.5 s to allow the cloud to relax to equilibrium. Indeed, we observe axial shape oscillations of the cloud, triggered by the onset of Bose-Einstein condensation shvarchuck02 ; Fabrice\_proceed , despite a slow evaporation (less than 100 kHz$`/`$s) across $`T_\mathrm{c}`$. The magnetic trap is then switched off abruptly, in roughly 100 $`\mu `$s, and the cloud expands for 2 ms before the Bragg lasers are pulsed on for 2 ms. Since there are two laser standing waves moving in opposite directions, two diffracted components are extracted. We wait for a further 20 ms to let the diffracted atoms separate from the parent condensate, and take an absorption image (Fig. 1a). Diffraction efficiency is defined as the fraction of atoms in each secondary cloud. We repeat this complete sequence for several detunings (typically 15), several times (typically 5). After averaging the diffraction efficiencies measured at each detuning $`\delta `$, we obtain two “elementary spectra”, one for each diffraction component.

We take the Bragg spectrum after expansion rather than in the trap to overcome two severe problems. In the trapped condensate, first, the mean free path (about 10 $`\mu `$m) is much smaller than its axial size, typically 260 $`\mu `$m, so that fast Bragg-diffracted atoms would scatter against the cloud at rest Chikkatur\_collisions . Second, the inhomogeneous mean field broadening stenger99  would be of the order of 300 Hz, i.e. larger than the spectral width expected from phase fluctuations. By contrast, after 2 ms of free expansion, the peak density has dropped by two orders of magnitude castin\_kagan , and both effects become negligible. The measured momentum spectra faithfully reflect the phase fluctuations of the trapped quasi-condensate. Indeed, the phase fluctuations do not significantly evolve in 2 ms, since the typical timescale for their complete conversion into density ripples varies from 400 ms to 15 s for the range of temperatures we explore Fabrice\_theory . Also, the mean field energy is released almost entirely in the radial direction, because of the large aspect ratio of the trap castin\_kagan , and contributes only about $`50`$ Hz of Doppler broadening in the axial direction. The only perturbation due to the trap release seems to be small axial velocity shifts (around $`100\mu `$m/s) attributed to stray magnetic gradients that merely displace the spectra centers.

Bragg spectra have been taken at various temperatures between 90(10) nK and 350(20) nK, while $`T_\mathrm{c}`$ varied from 280(15) nK to 380(20) nK. The temperature was fixed to within 20 nK by controlling the final trap depth to a precision of 2 kHz, and measured from a fit to the wings of an averaged absorption image. The fitting function is an ideal Bose distribution with zero chemical potential, plus an inverted parabolic profile for the quasi-condensed cloud. At each temperature, pairs of elementary spectra (described above) were collected across a 125-ms-wide range of hold times to average over residual oscillation and slowly varying fluctuations. All elementary spectra corresponding to the same temperature are reduced to the same surface, background, and center, and superposed (Fig. 1 b).

The line shape of the resulting spectra is clearly closer to a Lorentzian than to a Gaussian (see Fig. 1). This is a significant result, because a Lorentzian-like profile is expected for a momentum distribution dominated by phase fluctuations (see Fabrice\_theory  and below), in contrast to the gaussian-like profile expected for a pure condensate Zambelli ; stenger99 . From the Lorentzian fit, we extract the measured half-width $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _\text{M}`$ for each temperature.

The theoretical results obtained in petrov3d ; Fabrice\_theory  do not apply directly to our experiment. In those works, a 3D Thomas-Fermi density profile was assumed, whereas in our case modification of the density profile by the thermal cloud and radial quantum pressure must be accounted for. We find (and discuss below) that a parabolic profile is still a good fit function, but that the usual $`T=0`$ relations between $`\mu `$, $`L`$, $`R`$, and the number of condensed atoms $`N_0`$ are no longer valid. We therefore extend the calculation of the axial correlation function in Fabrice\_theory  to an arbitrary density profile, in the local density approximation. In the mean field regime petrov1d , from the result of kane\_kadanoff  for a 1D uniform Bose gas at finite temperature, we obtain:

$$C\left(s\right)=𝑑zn_1\left(z\right)\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{n_1\left(0\right)\left|s\right|}{2n_1\left(z\right)L_\varphi }\right),$$
(1)
where $`n_1(z)=d^2𝐫_{}n_0(𝐫_{},z)`$ is the axial 1D density of the quasi-condensate, while $`n_0(𝐫)`$ is its 3D density profile. The coherence length near the center of the trap is given by $`L_\varphi =\mathrm{}^2n_1(0)/(Mk_\mathrm{B}T)`$ TFlimits . Following Petrov et al. petrov1d ; petrov3d , we define the temperature which delineates the border between coherent and phase-fluctuating condensates as $`T_\varphi =L_\varphi T/L`$. Since $`n_1(0)`$, $`L`$, and $`T`$ are extracted directly from the images, the definitions of $`L_\varphi `$ and $`T_\varphi `$ relate the coherence properties to experimentally measured quantities. The axial momentum distribution follows from a Fourier transform of $`C(s)`$ and is well approximated by a Lorentzian of width $`\mathrm{\Delta }p_\varphi =\alpha \mathrm{}/L_\varphi `$ (HWHM), with $`\alpha =0.67`$ for a parabolic $`n_0(𝐫)`$ Fabrice\_theory ; alpha . The predicted spectral width is therefore $`\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }\nu _\varphi `$, where

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _\varphi =\frac{2\mathrm{}k_\mathrm{L}}{2\pi ML_\varphi }.$$
(2)
In the following we will use $`\alpha `$ as a free parameter to test the theory outlined above.

Figure 2

shows the measured spectral width $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _\text{M}`$ versus $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _\varphi `$. Dispersion of the measured $`n_1(0)`$ and $`T`$ results in the horizontal error bars on $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _\varphi `$, while vertical error bars indicate the standard deviation of the fit width. The measured widths increase at higher $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _\varphi `$ as expected. To compare these data to theory, we need to take into account a finite “instrumental” width of the Bragg spectra, including the effect of the mirror vibrations, residual sloshing in the trap, and Fourier broadening due to the 2-ms pulse length (125 Hz HWHM). We assume that all experimental broadenings result in a Gaussian apparatus function of half-width $`w_\mathrm{G}`$, to be convolved by the Lorentzian momentum profile with a half-width $`\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }\nu _\varphi `$. The convolution, a Voigt profile, has a half-width $`\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }\nu _\varphi /2+\sqrt{w_\mathrm{G}^2+(\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }\nu _\varphi )^2/4}`$. Note that fitting a Voigt profile instead of a Lorentzian to a spectrum gives the same total HWHM to less than 5 %, but the Lorentzian shape is too predominant to extract reliably the Gaussian and the Lorentzian contributions to the profile. Using $`\alpha `$ and $`w_\mathrm{G}`$ as free parameters to fit the data of Fig. 2, we find $`w_\mathrm{G}=176(6)`$ Hz, and $`\alpha =0.64(5)(5)`$. The first uncertainty quoted for $`\alpha `$ is the standard deviation of the fit value. The second results from calibration uncertainties on the magnification of the imaging system and on the total atom number, which do not affect $`w_\mathrm{G}`$. The agreement of the measured value of $`\alpha `$ with the theoretical value 0.67, to within the 15 % experimental uncertainty, confirms quantitatively the temperature dependence of the momentum width predicted in Ref. petrov3d . The coherence length $`\mathrm{}/p_\varphi `$ deduced from this measurement varies between $`5.9(8)`$ and $`39(4)\mu `$m, in the range $`6<T/T_\varphi <36`$.

Another important aspect of quasi-condensates, the suppression of axial density fluctuations, is investigated here through the size of the trapped condensate. In the presence of density fluctuations, the resulting interaction energy ketterle\_g2  would increase the size with respect to the expectation for a smooth density profile. The measured axial half-length $`L`$ after release faithfully reflects the half-length in the trap since axial expansion is negligible expansion .

Figure 3 shows that the measured values of $`L`$ at various temperatures (filled circles) are smaller than the standard Thomas-Fermi prediction (diamonds) $`L_{\mathrm{TF}}^2=2\mu /(M\omega _z^2)`$, with $`\mu `$ given by $`2\mu =\mathrm{}\overline{\omega }(15N_0a/\sigma )^{2/5}`$ DalfovoRMP , where $`\overline{\omega }=(\omega _{}^2\omega _z)^{1/3}`$, $`\sigma =\sqrt{\mathrm{}/(M\overline{\omega })}`$ and $`a=5.32`$ nm scat\_length . We find that this smaller value results from the compression of the quasi-condensate by the 3D thermal component (excitations with energy much larger than $`\mathrm{}\omega _{}`$), and from radial quantum pressure. The 3D excited states contribute negligibly to the fluctuations of the phase petrov3d  and only the density profile is affected. Using a Hartree-Fock approach intmodel ; DalfovoRMP , we find:

$$L^2=\frac{2g}{M\omega _z^2}\left\{n_0\left(0\right)+\frac{2}{\lambda _\mathrm{T}^3}\left[\text{g}_{3/2}\left(e^{\frac{gn_0\left(0\right)}{k_\mathrm{B}T}}\right)\text{g}_{3/2}\left(1\right)\right]\right\},$$
(3)
with the coupling constant $`g=4\pi \mathrm{}^2a/M`$, the thermal de Broglie wavelength $`\lambda _\mathrm{T}=[2\pi \mathrm{}^2/(Mk_\mathrm{B}T)]^{1/2}`$, and $`\text{g}_{3/2}(x)=_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}x^n/n^{3/2}`$. The open circles in Fig. 3 show the solution of Eq. (3) assuming a parabolic profile, such that $`n_0(0)=15N_0L^3ϵ^2/(8\pi )`$. The aspect ratio $`ϵ`$ is calculated according to the theory developed in Zubarev\_1D , which takes into account radial quantum pressure. The calculated lengths are in agreement with our measurements to better than both the statistical error (shown), and our estimated calibration uncertainty (not shown) of 4 % on the ratio $`L_{\mathrm{meas}.}/L_{\mathrm{calc}.}`$. We conclude that a phase-fluctuating condensate has the same smooth profile as a true condensate, and thus that the axial density fluctuations are suppressed even when phase fluctuations are large.

In conclusion, we have demonstrated three important features of quasi Bose-Einstein condensates: (i) the momentum distribution shape, found Lorentzian; (ii) the temperature dependence of the momentum width; and (iii) the suppression of density fluctuations. Our results are in quantitative agreement with the finite-temperature, interactive theory developed in petrov1d ; petrov3d  supplemented by a Hartree-Fock treatment of 3D excited states. The same method could be applied to investigate how long range order develops during the condensate growth (see shvarchuck02  and references therein).

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank M. Lécrivain and V. Boyer for the development of the electromagnet trap used in this work, and J. Retter for useful comments on the manuscript. We also thank G. V. Shlyapnikov and D. S. Petrov for stimulating interactions, and S. Gupta and N. Davidson for useful conversations. This work was supported by the CNRS, the DGA, and the EU.


text:
# Time–delay autosynchronization of the spatio-temporal dynamics in resonant tunneling diodes

## I Introduction

Since the groundbreaking work by Ott, Grebogi and Yorke OTT90 , chaos control has evolved into a central issue in nonlinear science SCH99c . While earlier methods of chaos control have used a rather complicated calculation of the control force from the Poincare map, recent control schemes based on time–delay autosynchronization PYR92 ; SOC94  are much simpler to handle and have been applied to a number of real world problems BIE94 ; PIE96 ; SIM96 ; HAL97 ; SUK97 ; PAR99 ; LUE01 ; BEN02 ; BET03 .

One intriguing aspect is the possibility of noninvasive control. This refers to the stabilization of a target state which is not changed by the control term, and the control force vanishes once the target state has been reached. A natural choice for the target state are unstable periodic orbits (UPOs), since they are dense in the chaotic attractor of the uncontrolled system.

While earlier work has concentrated on low-dimensional dynamic systems described by maps or ordinary differential equations SCH93b , the emphasis has recently shifted towards stabilization of spatio-temporal patterns. It was shown that for a generic nonlinear reaction–diffusion model of activator–inhibitor type with one spatial degree of freedom, different noninvasive time–delayed feedback methods can be used to suppress chaotic behavior FRA99 ; BEC02 ; BAB02 ; JUS03 , and their respective domains of control have been compared and interpreted in terms of Floquet spectra.

In this paper we will apply time–delayed feedback control schemes to a semiconductor nanostructure which is currently of great interest SCH00 : the double barrier resonant tunneling diode (DBRT). This device is well known as an electronic oscillator, and complex spatio-temporal patterns of the current density have been reported in numerical simulations GLA97 ; MEL98 ; FEI98 ; MEI00b ; ROD03 , including chaotic spatio-temporal scenarios SCH02 . Here we propose to apply time–delay autosynchronization to stabilize those spatio-temporal breathing and spiking patterns under a wide range of operating conditions, and induce stable periodic oscillations. The paper is organized as follows. After the introduction of the DBRT model in Sect. II, we examine the dynamical bifurcation scenarios leading to the formation of lateral current density patterns of the uncontrolled system in Sect. III. We find parameter regimes featuring chaotic breathing as well as chaotic spiking. In Sect. IV time-delayed feedback control is used for the stabilization of periodic spiking and breathing oscillations. We compare the control performance for different control schemes. The details of the model are given in the Appendix.

## II The model

The DBRT is a semiconductor nanostructure which consists of one GaAs quantum well sandwiched between two AlGaAs barriers along the $`z`$-direction (cf. Fig. 1). The quantum well defines a two-dimensional electron gas in the $`xy`$ plane. The spatially homogeneous steady states give rise to a Z-shaped current–voltage characteristic GOL87a  exhibiting bistability in a range of applied voltages. The middle branch of the current–voltage characteristic can be stabilized by applying an appropriate active circuit with a negative load resistance MAR94 . Complex spatio-temporal patterns can arise if the lateral re–distribution of electrons within the quantum well WAC95d ; GLA97 ; MEL98 ; FEI98 ; MEI00b ; SCH02 ; ROD03  is taken into account. In the following we assume that the extension of the device in $`y`$-direction is small and charge inhomogeneities can only appear in the $`x`$-direction. Using dimensionless variables throughout we arrive at the following equations:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{a}{t}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{}{x}}\left(D(a){\displaystyle \frac{a}{x}}\right)+f(a,u)KF_a(x,t)`$ (1)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{du}{dt}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\epsilon }}\left(U_0urj\right)KF_u(t)`$ (2)
Here the uncontrolled model SCH02  has been extended by the control terms $`KF_a`$ and $`KF_u`$ representing the control forces with amplitude $`K`$. The dynamic variables are the inhibitor $`u(t)`$ and the activator $`a(x,t)`$. The one–dimensional spatial coordinate $`x`$ corresponds to the direction transverse to the current flow. In the semiconductor context $`u(t)`$ denotes the voltage drop across the device and $`a(x,t)`$ is the electron density in the quantum well. The nonlinear, nonmonotonic function $`f(a,u)`$ describes the balance of the incoming and outgoing current densities in the quantum well (Fig. 2 (a)), and $`D(a)`$ is an effective, electron density dependent transverse diffusion coefficient (Fig. 2 (b)) CHE00 . The local current density in the device is $`j(a,u)=\frac{1}{2}(f(a,u)+2a)`$, and $`j=\frac{1}{L}_0^Lj𝑑x`$ is associated with the global current. Eq. (2) represents Kirchhoff’s law of the circuit in which the device is operated. The external bias voltage $`U_0`$, the load resistance $`r`$, and the time-scale ratio $`\epsilon `$ are dimensionless external parameters. We consider a system of width $`L`$ with no charge transfer through the lateral boundaries (i.e., Neumann boundary conditions $`_xa=0`$ at $`x=0,L`$). In Appendix A we give explicit expressions for $`f(a,u)`$ and $`D(a)`$ and draw the connection to the microscopic physical parameters.

In the case without control force ($`K=0`$) one stationary solution of (1) is given by the homogeneous solution $`a(x)=a_i^{\text{hom}}`$ with $`f(a_i^{\text{hom}},u)=0`$. Up to three different solutions $`a_i^{\text{hom}}`$ may exist for one fixed value of $`u`$ (Fig. 2(a)). This gives rise to a $`Z`$-shaped current–voltage characteristic $`j(u)=a`$ (solid line in Fig. 2(c)).

The spatially homogeneous stationary solutions of the coupled equations (1) and (2) are given by the intersection of the current–voltage characteristic $`j(u)`$ and the load line which is the nullcline $`j=(U_0u)/r`$ of (2). States on the middle branch of the $`j(u)`$ characteristic are unstable in a passive external circuit with effective resistance $`r>0`$. By choosing $`r<0`$, which can be realised by an active circuit, i.e. applying an additional control voltage proportional to the device current $`j`$ in series with the bias $`U_0`$ MAR94 , it is in principle possible to stabilize the middle branch of the stationary $`j(u)`$ characteristic and access it experimentally, but for large enough $`\epsilon `$ Hopf bifurcations can occur, leading to uniform limit cycle oscillations of the current and voltage.

It should be noted that, depending upon the intersection of the load line with the $`j(u)`$ characteristics, the DBRT represents either a bistable, or an oscillatory, or an excitable active medium MIK94 . It is remarkable that the DBRT can be operated as an excitable system even in the spatially homogeneous case. Consider the situation in Fig. 3(a) where the load line intersects the homogeneous characteristic near the second turning point at a low current value ($`j4.63`$, and $`\epsilon =70`$). Due to the large value of $`\epsilon `$ the relaxation in $`u`$ is much slower than the relaxation in $`a`$. If noise pushes the system off its fixed point in the low current regime, it quickly relaxes to a value of $`aj`$ in a high current state. Then the slow relaxation in $`u`$ sets in and drags the system along the homogeneous characteristic towards high $`u`$ (since we are above the load line) until the upper branch of the homogeneous characteristic ends. At this point, the system again quickly relaxes in $`a`$, this time towards a low current state. Since we are now below the load line the system finally returns to the fixed point. This excursion in phase space results in a spike-like response in the current and voltage signal upon external noise (Fig. 3(b)) which is characteristic for an excitable medium.

## III Spatio-temporal scenarios

As the device width $`L`$ in $`x`$-direction increases (the device width in $`y`$ direction is fixed and small compared to $`L`$), the middle branch of the homogeneous solution $`a_2^{hom}`$ (Fig. 2(c)) becomes unstable against inhomogenous fluctuations. A straightforward linear stability analysis SCH00  shows that this occurs at

$$L>\pi \sqrt{\left|\frac{D(a_2^{hom})}{_af(a_2^{hom})}\right|}.$$
(3)
Then an additional stationary solution of eq. (1) arises in the form of a current filament. Fig. 2(d) shows the dependence of $`a`$ and $`j`$ on the transverse spatial coordinate $`x`$ for a half–filament with $`L=30`$ and $`u=265`$. The dashed line in Fig. 2(c) depicts the corresponding current–voltage characteristic $`j(u)`$.

The filament is stable for $`r<0`$ at small $`\epsilon `$, but becomes unstable by a Hopf bifurcation for large enough $`\epsilon `$. In this case complex spatio-temporal breathing (Fig. 4) and spiking patterns (Fig. 5) are expected if the homogeneous fixed point is still stable with respect to Hopf bifurcations BOS00 .

Choosing the load line as in Fig. 2(c) (dotted line), the homogeneous fixed point on the middle branch is always unstable against the filamentary mode for $`L=30`$, but is stable against Hopf bifurcations up to $`\epsilon <16.43`$ (dotted line in Fig. 6). On the other hand, a Hopf bifurcation of the half–filament occurs already at $`\epsilon _h^f=6.4`$, leading to periodic filament oscillations (Fig. 4(a)) for $`\epsilon >\epsilon _h^f`$. This breathing filament undergoes a period doubling cascade for $`\epsilon >8.2`$ leading to chaos (c.f. Fig. 4(b)). We note that the dynamic behavior is characterized by oscillations of varying amplitude around the unstable filamentary fixed point, which is typical for a chaotic breathing scenario.

With further increase of $`\epsilon `$ oscillations around the homogeneous fixed point become important and a competition between the two fixed points sets in. Thereby the breathing filament transmutes into a spiking filament as in Fig. 5(a) for $`\epsilon =13.15`$. Here two oscillations around the homogenous fixed point are followed by one oscillation around the filamentary fixed point. This periodic spiking quickly becomes chaotic at further increase of $`\epsilon `$, yielding a chaotic spiking behaviour, which is characterized by a sequence of almost homogeneous oscillations intermitted by one large filamentary oscillation (Fig. 5(b)). The resulting phase portrait is reminiscent of the Rössler attractor. While breathing oscillations are always close to the filamentary fixed point, the spiking oscillations are related to both the filamentary and the homogeneous fixed point. The complete bifurcation diagram with respect to $`\epsilon `$ is depicted in Fig. 6. We note that the homogeneous limit cycle emerging from a Hopf bifurcation of the homogeneous fixed point (dotted line) at $`\epsilon =16.43`$ suppresses chaos with increasing $`\epsilon `$ and finally becomes stable against filamentary oscillations for $`\epsilon >20.2`$, and further on determines the dynamics of the system.

Using the Benettin algorithm BEN80  we have calculated the two largest Lyapunov exponents $`\lambda _1`$ and $`\lambda _2`$ for varying $`\epsilon `$ (Fig. 7). We observe that at most one Lyapunov exponent is positive, while the second one is zero for a periodic or chaotic orbit. Taking into account the third largest Lyapunov exponent we can then estimate an upper limit for the fractal dimension of the attractor after Kaplan and Yorke KAP79  as $`D_{KY}2.1`$. Although the system has an infinite number of degrees of freedom it is therefore only weakly chaotic. The global coupling is responsible for the suppresion of extensive spatio temporal chaos MEI00 .

## IV Time-delayed feedback control of chaotic breathing and spiking

We now apply chaos control to stabilize a particular UPO of period $`\tau `$ of the uncontrolled system which is embedded in a chaotic attractor. The control forces $`F_a`$ and $`F_u`$ in eqs. (1),(2) will be designed such that they do not suppress chaos by generating a new periodic solution but only by changing the stability of a solution that already exists in the uncontrolled system. Hence $`F_a`$ and $`F_u`$ vanish exactly on the target orbit. Such a requirement is in general met by time–delayed feedback schemes PYR92 . For example, we may choose $`F_u=F_{\text{vf}}`$ with a generic voltage feedback force defined by

$$F_{\text{vf}}(t)=u(t)u(t\tau )+RF_{\text{vf}}(t\tau ).$$
(4)
Here $`R`$ is a memory parameter which damps sudden changes in the control force by taking into account multiple delays with a decaying weight of earlier states of the system SOC94 . A control scheme of this type is called extended time–delay autosynchronization (ETDAS). Such a scheme allows for noninvasive control, since an unstable state may be maintained with vanishingly small control forces.

For the control force $`F_a`$ in the spatial degree of freedom we will alternatively use either a local control force,

$$F_{\text{loc}}(x,t)=a(x,t)a(x,t\tau )+RF_{\text{loc}}(x,t\tau ).$$
(5)
where every spatial point is controlled independently of its neighboring points, or a global control force

$$F_{\text{glo}}(t)=a(t)a(t\tau )+RF_{\text{glo}}(t\tau ).$$
(6)
with $`a=\frac{1}{L}_0^La𝑑x`$ where the same control force is applied to every spatial point. This second choice $`F_a=F_{\text{glo}}`$ may be experimentally favorable since the spatial average is related to the total charge in the quantum well and does not require a spatially resolved measurement. In the following we will concentrate on the question how the coupling of the control forces to the spatial and discrete degrees of freedom influences the performance of the control. The UPO in question will be a flip orbit, i.e. its largest complex valued Floquet exponent $`\lambda `$ will obey $`\text{Im}\lambda =\pi /\tau `$. This type is practically important, as it naturally arises in period doubling scenarios, and the torsion of the orbit associated with $`\text{Im}\lambda `$ is a necessary ingredient for time-delayed feedback control to work JUS97 . Recently time–delay methods have also been extended to the stabilisation of orbits without torsion by adding a controller associated with an additional unstable degree of freedom PYR01 .

Physically, the control forces may be realized by appropriate electronic control circuits. $`KF_u`$ corresponds to an additional control voltage applied in series with the bias $`U_0`$, and $`KF_a`$ may be implemented by a spatially extended lateral gate electrode which influences the two-dimensional electron gas in the quantum well locally or globally.

In principle the control performance of time–delayed feedback methods can be studied by linear stability analysis of the differential–delay equations (1),(2) around the target orbit. This is difficult for a general control scheme, since the stability of the orbit is governed by Floquet eigenmodes and by the largest complex valued growth rates $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ (Floquet exponent), which are modified by the control force in a complicated way. Still there exists a particularly simple control scheme, called diagonal control JUS97 ; JUS99 , for which $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(K,R)`$ satisfies the exact equation

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }+K\frac{1e^{\mathrm{\Lambda }\tau }}{1Re^{\mathrm{\Lambda }\tau }}=\lambda .$$
(7)
where $`\lambda `$ is the complex Floquet exponent of the uncontrolled system. Another control scheme for which analytic results are available is the Floquet mode control where the control force is a projection onto the unstable Floquet mode BAB02 ; JUS03 .

In our model we achieve diagonal control by setting $`F_a=F_{\text{loc}}`$ and $`F_u=F_{\text{vf}}`$ (cf. Table 1), which is a straightforward extension of the diagonal control for discrete systems (cf. BLE96 ).

We now want to control the period–one orbit (dashed line in Fig. 6) in the chaotic breathing regime (Fig. 4(b)). As explained in Sec. III, this orbit is generated by the supercritical Hopf bifurcation of the stationary filament at $`\epsilon =\epsilon _f^h`$. It subsequently becomes unstable by the period doubling cascade with increasing $`\epsilon `$. From Fig. 8(b) we note that, before the control is switched on ($`K=0`$), a sawtooth–like structure in the (fictitious, since not yet applied) control force $`|F|_s=\text{sup}\{|F_{\text{vf}}|,|F_{\text{loc}}|\}`$ appears. This happens as the uncontrolled system approaches and abandons the UPO ergodically. The slope of the increasing control force is given by $`\lambda `$. Such a pattern is useful for tuning the critical parameter $`\tau `$ empirically. After the diagonal control is switched on, the control force decays exponentially as $`|F|_s|\mathrm{exp}\mathrm{\Lambda }(K,R)t|`$ (Fig. 8(b)) to a new level which is about three orders of magnitude smaller than the uncontrolled level. At the same time the voltage signal becomes periodic (Fig. 8(a)), and the chaotic attractor in the phase portrait collapses to a one dimensional periodic orbit.

By changing the control parameters $`K`$ and $`R`$ we observe that the regime of successful control in the $`K`$$`R`$ plane (Fig.9(a)) exhibits a typical triangular shape, bounded by a flip instability (Re $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, Im $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\pi /\tau `$) to its left and by a Hopf (torus) bifurcation to its lower right. These two boundaries may also be obtained by solving eq. (7) for $`\text{Re}\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$. We find that the analytical prediction for the control boundaries are in excellent agreement with the numerical results (see Fig. 9(a)).

To confirm the bifurcations at the boundaries we consider the real part of the Floquet spectrum of the orbit subjected to control for varying $`K`$ and $`R=0`$ (Fig. 9(b)). Complex conjugate Floquet exponents show up as doubly degenerate pairs. The largest nontrivial exponent decreases with increasing $`K`$ and collides at negative values with a branch coming from negative infinity. As a result a complex conjugate pair develops and the real part increases again. The real part of the exponent finally crosses the zero axis giving rise to a Hopf bifurcation. The numerical simulations agree well with the analytical result.

We now replace the local control force $`F_a=F_{\text{loc}}`$ by the global control $`F_a=F_{\text{glo}}`$ without changing the voltage feedback (i.e. global control with voltage feedback in table 1). Fig. 10 shows the corresponding control regime and Floquet spectrum. The control domain looks similar in shape as for diagonal control, although the domain for the global scheme is drastically reduced. The shift in the control boundaries is due to a different scenario in the Floquet spectrum. Now $`\text{Re}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ decreases more slowly with increasing $`K`$ than in the diagonal case, and thus the flip bifurcation takes place at large values of $`K`$. At the same time the complex conjugate pair responsible for the Hopf bifurcation crosses the zero axis with a larger slope and therefore at a smaller $`K`$ value than in the diagonal case.

It is now interesting to note that if we keep $`F_a=F_{\text{glo}}`$ as before but remove the voltage feedback completely, the control domain is shifted to higher $`K`$ values and at the same time is dramatically increased (Fig. 11(a)). From the Floquet spectrum we see that after the flip bifurcation the largest Floquet exponent does not immediately hybridize into a complex conjugate pair, but the Hopf bifurcation is caused by another complex conjugate pair which is not connected to the largest Floquet exponent. Thereby the Hopf bifurcation is suppressed and the control regime is increased. This behavior is very similar to the one observed in a different reaction–diffusion model (modeling a heterostructure hot electron diode, HHED) BEC02 , where it was found that additional control of the global variable $`u`$ may gradually reduce the control regime to zero.

From the practical point of view the most relevant control scheme is the pure voltage control, i.e. $`F_u=F_{\text{vf}}`$, $`F_a=0`$, since the voltage variable may be conveniently measured and manipulated by an external electronic device. The corresponding control domain and Floquet exponents are shown in Fig. 12. Here the control regime is even somewhat smaller than in the case of global control with voltage feedback but the shape of the control regime and the Floquet spectrum are qualitatively very similar. It is encouraging that this kind of control is at all possible, since it opens up the opportunity to conveniently study chaos control in a real world device.

We finally consider the case of local control without voltage feedback (Fig. 13). Here the control regime is surprisingly even larger than for diagonal control. The shape of the control regime is not triangular any more as before, but has an additional edge at low $`K`$ and $`R`$ values. The reason for this edge can be explained from the Floquet diagram. Here a Floquet exponent from below collides with the largest Floquet exponent at positive real values before the flip bifurcation occurs. This complex conjugate pair then crosses the zero axes from above and undergoes an inverse Hopf bifurcation. For larger values of $`K`$ another complex conjugate pair performs a second Hopf bifurcation seemingly unrelated to the first one.

An overview of the different coupling schemes considered in this section is given in table 1. By comparing the different control schemes, we may characterize the influence of the voltage control. If the voltage control is switched on, the largest Floquet exponent rises quickly after the collision with an exponent coming from below, and participates in the Hopf bifurcation at the right boundary of the control regime. If on the other hand the voltage control is switched off, the largest Floquet exponent only rises slowly after the collision, and often the Hopf bifurcation at the right boundary is caused by a complex conjugate pair which is indepent of the largest Floquet exponent. In this case the Hopf boundary is shifted to larger values of $`K`$ than for diagonal control. The choice of the control force $`F_a`$ influences the decrease of $`\text{Re}\mathrm{\Lambda }(K)`$ at small $`K`$. For $`F_a=F_{\text{loc}}`$ this decrease is large and the flip boundary practically coincides with the one obtained for diagonal control, while for $`F_a=F_{\text{glo}}`$ the flip boundary is shifted to higher $`K`$ values since $`|_K\text{Re}\mathrm{\Lambda }(K)|`$ is small. For $`F_a=0`$ the slope $`|_K\text{Re}\mathrm{\Lambda }(K)|`$ is even smaller, shifting the boundary to even higher $`K`$ values.

The period-one orbit can be controlled continuously in a whole range of values of $`\epsilon `$ (cf. thick dashed lines in Fig. 6 for diagonal control). Note that since the period $`\tau `$ of the UPO depends on $`\epsilon `$, $`\tau `$ needs to be readjusted while sweeping $`\epsilon `$. It is then even possible to stabilize the period-one orbit in higher periodic windows, where the target orbit is obviously not part of the attractor. This opens up the possibility of obtaining stable self-sustained voltage oscillations independently of parameter fluctuations. The Floquet exponent $`\lambda `$ also depends on $`\epsilon `$, and this allows us to study the control performance as a function of the largest Floquet exponent of the UPO. In Fig. 14(a) the control performance for global control with voltage feedback for fixed $`R`$ is plotted. As expected, the regime of control is considerably smaller than the analytical predictions for diagonal control. Fig. 14(b) shows the control performance for pure voltage feedback and different values for $`R`$. Although the control regimes are much smaller than predicted for diagonal control, the trend in the shift of the control regime for increasing $`R`$ is qualitatively similar.

Surprisingly we find a finite $`K`$ value for the flip boundary as $`\lambda \tau 0`$ (Fig. 14(b)). This is in marked contrast to the analytical results for diagonal control, where the flip boundary extrapolates to zero for $`\lambda \tau 0`$. To understand why this is the case, let us consider a situation where we apply pure voltage control to a stable orbit. From the Floquet spectrum in Fig. 15 we see that with increasing control force the stable orbit is destabilized by a flip bifurcation, then becomes stable again by a second flip bifurcation, before it finally undergoes the usual Hopf bifurcation at high $`K`$ values. Such a reentrance scenario does not happen for diagonal control.

So far we have stabilized the period-one breathing orbit. We have investigated whether the obtained results are specific for a given UPO, or whether similar results can be observed for different orbits such as the period-three spiking orbit (cf. thick solid lines in Figs. 5,6) which stands for the second basic dynamical pattern (spiking) in the DBRT system. Fig. 16 shows the control regimes for different control schemes. Again we note that diagonal control is very well predictable by the analytic formula (7) (Fig. 16(a)), whereas omitting the voltage control shifts the Hopf border to large $`K`$ values, and replacing local with global control shifts the flip boundary to larger $`K`$ values. For pure voltage control and global control with voltage feedback no domain of control was found. Nevertheless features of the different control schemes are similar for both breathing and spiking orbits.

## V Conclusions

We have applied different schemes of chaos control by time–delay autosynchronization to a globally coupled reaction–diffusion model describing charge transport in a semiconductor nanostructure, viz. a double-barrier resonant tunneling diode (DBRT). The spatio–temporal dynamics and bifurcation scenarios of the uncontrolled DBRT in an external circuit display a variaty of complex patterns, including breathing and spiking oscillations either of which can be periodic or chaotic.

We have shown that by using time–delayed feedback methods it is possible to stabilize unstable breathing or spiking patterns. Different control scheme were compared with respect to efficiency, and quantitative comparisons of their respective control domains in the $`RK`$ parameter space were given and interpreted in terms of the Floquet spectra. Those turned out to be helpful to gain insight into the control mechanisms and understand why the control performance may, e.g., be improved by omitting control of the voltage variable. As a control scheme which is particularly simple to realize experimentally, albeit with a small control regime which requires careful adjustment of the control parameters $`R`$ and $`K`$, we have singled out pure voltage control. Our findings may be important for obtaining stable self-sustained voltage oscillations in resonant tunneling diodes independently of parameter fluctuations.

This work was supported by DFG in the framework of Sfb 555.

## Appendix A

In this Appendix we provide analytical expressions for the functions $`D(a)`$ and $`f(a,u)`$ appearing in eq. (1) and relate the dimensionless quantities used throughout this paper to their respective dimensional physical quantities marked by a tilda.

The voltage drop across the DBRT $`\stackrel{~}{u}(t)`$ and the external bias voltage $`\stackrel{~}{U}_0`$ are related to their dimensionless counterparts by $`u=e\stackrel{~}{u}/(k_BT)`$ and $`U_0=e\stackrel{~}{U}_0/(k_BT)`$, respectively, with the temperature $`T`$, the electron charge $`e<0`$, and Boltzmann’s constant $`k_B`$. The two–dimensional electron density is rescaled via $`a=\stackrel{~}{a}\pi \mathrm{}^2/(mk_BT)`$, where $`m`$ is the effective mass of the electron in the well. Time and space coordinates are rescaled by $`t=\stackrel{~}{t}\mathrm{\Gamma }_L/\mathrm{}`$ and $`x=\stackrel{~}{x}/\sqrt{\mathrm{}\mu k_BT/(e\mathrm{\Gamma }_L)}`$ where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_L=\mathrm{\Gamma }_R`$ is the transition rate for electrons from the emitter to the quantum well (and from the quantum well to the collector) and $`\mu `$ is the electron mobility.

This yields a rescaling of current and resistance as $`j=\stackrel{~}{ȷ}\pi \mathrm{}^3/(emk_BT\mathrm{\Gamma }_L)`$ and $`r=\stackrel{~}{r}e^2mA\mathrm{\Gamma }_L/(\pi \mathrm{}^3)`$, respectively, where $`A`$ is the cross sectional area of the device. Note that the effective resistance in general contains two terms $`\stackrel{~}{r}=Rk`$, where $`R`$ represents an external resistor and $`k`$ arises from an active circuit with a voltage gain $`U_c=k\stackrel{~}{ȷ}A`$ MAR94 . In the case $`k>R`$ this leads to $`r<0`$ with particularly interesting chaotic scenarios, as shown in the main text. The time-scale ratio is given by $`\epsilon =RC\mathrm{\Gamma }_L/\mathrm{}`$, where $`C`$ is the total capacitance of the circuit.

The effective diffusion coefficient $`D(a)`$ may be calculated by considering a generalized form of Einstein’s relation which covers the full range from Fermi-degenerate to nondegenerate conditions and a drift term resulting from the change in the local potential due to Poisson’s equation CHE00 :

$`D(a)=a\left({\displaystyle \frac{d}{r_B}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{1\mathrm{exp}\left[a\right]}}\right),`$ (8)
where $`r_B(4\pi ϵϵ_0\mathrm{}^2)/(e^2m)`$ is the effective Bohr radius in the semiconductor material, $`ϵ`$ and $`ϵ_0`$ are the relative and absolute permittivity of the material, respectively, and $`d`$ is the effective thickness of the double-barrier structure.

The function $`f(a,u)`$ is obtained from a microscopic consideration of the tunneling currents $`J_{ew}(a,u)`$ and $`J_{wc}(a)`$ from the emitter to the quantum well and from the well to the collector, respectively SCH02 :

$$f(a,u)=\left[\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{\pi }\mathrm{arctan}\left(\frac{2}{\gamma }(x_0\frac{u}{2}+\frac{d}{r_B}a)\right)\right]$$

$$\times \left[\mathrm{ln}\left(1+\mathrm{exp}(\eta _ex_0+\frac{u}{2}\frac{d}{r_B}a)\right)a\right]a$$
(9)
Here $`\gamma `$ and $`x_0`$ describe the broadening and the energy level of the electron states in the quantum well, and $`\eta _e`$ is the dimensionless Fermi level in the emitter, all in units of $`k_BT`$. In this article we choose $`\gamma =6`$, $`d/r_B=2`$, $`\eta _e=28`$ and $`x_0=114`$. Typical physical values correspond to units of time, space, voltage, electron density, and current density of the order of $`3.3`$ ps, $`100`$ nm, $`0.35`$ mV, $`10^{10}\text{cm}^2`$, $`500\text{ A}\text{cm}^2`$, respectively, for $`d=20\text{ nm}`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_L=\mathrm{\Gamma }_R=0.2\text{ meV}`$, $`k_BT=0.32\text{ meV}`$ ($`T=4\text{ K}`$ ).


text:
# Asymmetries in the Production of Λ^ 0 in 250 GeV/𝑐 𝜋^±, K± and p – Nucleon Interactions

## Abstract

Using data from Fermilab fixed-target experiment E769, we have measured particle-antiparticle production asymmetries for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ hyperons in 250 GeV/$`c`$ $`\pi ^\pm `$, K± and p – nucleon interactions. The asymmetries are measured as functions of Feynman-x ($`x_F`$) and $`p_T^2`$ over the ranges $`0.12x_F0.12`$ and $`0p_T^23(GeV/c)^2`$ (for positive beam) and $`0.12x_F0.4`$ and $`0p_T^210(GeV/c)^2`$ (for negative beam). We find substantial asymmetries, even at $`x_F`$ around zero. We also observe leading-particle-type asymmetries. These latter effects are qualitatively as expected from valence-quark content of the target and variety of projectiles studied.

G.A. Alves,(1) S. Amato,(1),aaaNow at Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil J.C. Anjos,(1) J.A. Appel,(2) J. Astorga,(5) T. Bernard,(5),bbbDeceased S.B. Bracker,(4),cccRetired L.M. Cremaldi,(3) W.D. Dagenhart,(5)dddNow at Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02454 C.L. Darling,(8) D. Errede,(7),eeeNow at University of Illinois, Urbana, Il 61801 H.C. Fenker,(2),fffNow at Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, Newport News, VA 23606 C. Gay,(4),gggNow at Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511 D.R. Green,(2) R. Jedicke,(4),hhhNow at LPL, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 P.E. Karchin,(6) S. Kwan,(2) L.H. Lueking,(2) J.R.T. de Mello Neto,$`^{(1),𝚊}`$ J. Metheny,(5) R.H. Milburn,(5) J.M. de Miranda,(1) H. da Motta,(1) A. Napier,(5) M.S. Nicola,(1) D. Passmore,(5) A. Rafatian,(3) A.C. dos Reis,(1) W.R. Ross,(8) A.F.S. Santoro,(1),iiiNow at Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil M. Sheaff,(7) M.H.G. Souza,(1) C. Stoughton,(2) M.E. Streetman,$`^{(2),𝚌}`$ D.J. Summers,(3) S.F. Takach,(6) A. Wallace,(8) Z. Wu(8)
(1)Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

(2)Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois, 60510

(3)University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677

(4)University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 1A7

(5)Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155

(6)Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202

(7)University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706

(8)Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511

(Fermilab E769 Collaboration)

Leading particle production effects have been studied both experimentally  and theoretically . These effects are manifest as an enhancement in the production rate of particles that share one or more valence quarks with an initial state hadron compared to their antiparticles when they share either none or fewer. This enhancement is expected to become larger as the produced particles carry more and more of the initial particle’s center-of-mass momentum. Other effects, like the associated production of a kaon and a hyperon, can also contribute to an asymmetry in hyperon-antihyperon production .

As a byproduct of our charm program in Fermilab Experiment E769, we collected a large sample of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ hyperons which we have used to measure the particle-antiparticle production asymmetries reported here. Given E769’s variety of identified beam particles, we can study the production asymmetries as the content of valence quarks in the beam changes. This is the first such measurement in the central kinematical region (i.e., near $`x_F=0`$) and with this variety of projectiles in a single experiment.

The asymmetry $`A`$ can be defined as

$$A\frac{N_{\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}}N_{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}}}{N_{\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}}+N_{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}}}$$
(1)
where $`N_{\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}}`$ ($`N_{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}}`$) is the number of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ ($`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$) produced over the kinematic range of interest.

For all beam types, a positive asymmetry growing larger with increasingly negative $`x_F`$ is expected, because $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ ($`uds`$) shares two valence quarks with the target p ($`uud`$) or n ($`udd`$) while $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ ($`\overline{u}\overline{d}\overline{s}`$) shares none. For both the $`\pi ^+`$ ($`u\overline{d}`$) and $`\pi ^{}`$ ($`\overline{u}d`$) beams, an asymmetry close to zero is expected for $`x_F>0`$, because $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ each share one valence quark with the incident beam. For the K+ ($`u\overline{s}`$) beam, a negative asymmetry which becomes more negative with increasing $`x_F`$ is expected for $`x_F>0`$, because $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ shares the heaviest valence quark with the beam while $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ shares only a light quark. The situation is reversed for the K- ($`\overline{u}s`$) beam, where the asymmetry in the forward direction is expected to be positive and to become more positive with increasing $`x_F`$. For the p ($`uud`$) beam, a large positive asymmetry which grows even larger with increasing $`x_F`$ is expected in the forward direction, because $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ shares two valence quarks with beam proton while $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ shares none. Although measurements of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ production asymmetries have been made in several other experiments , no single experiment to date has been able to study the asymmetries and to compare them for all five beam types, $`\pi ^{}`$, $`\pi ^+`$, $`p`$, $`K^+`$ and $`K^{}`$.

Experiment E769 recorded about $`400\times 10^6`$ physics events from interactions of 250 GeV/$`c`$ hadron beams of both signs on a multifoil target of Be, Cu, Al and W. The negative beam consisted of $`93\%`$ $`\pi ^{}`$, $`5\%`$ $`K^{}`$ and $`1.5\%`$ $`p^{}`$, the positive beam of $`61\%`$ $`\pi ^+`$, $`4.4\%`$ $`K^+`$, and $`34\%`$ $`p`$. Event-by-event beam particle identification was accomplished through the use of a differential Čerenkov counter and a transition radiation detector. Pre-scaling of triggers was used to enhance the recorded sample of minority-beam-particle interactions.

The apparatus in Fermilab experiment E769 has been previously described (See  and references therein.) In this analysis we use the 11 silicon microstrip planes (1 - 30 cm downstream of the target), 35 drift chambers (150 - 1750 cm downstream of the target), 2 multiwire proportional chambers (130 cm, 180 cm downstream of the target), and 2 magnets (centered at 290 cm, 620 cm downstream of the target) for momentum measurement. The two threshold Čerenkov counters downstream of the target were not used and the electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters were used only for on-line event selection. The trigger required that the total “transverse energy” (i.e., sum of the products of energy observed times the tangent of the angle from the target to each calorimeter segment) be at least 5.5 GeV. Most $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$’s decay before entering the drift chamber region, but downstream of the end of the silicon vertex detectors.

Throughout this paper, references to a particle should be taken to include its antiparticle except where explicitly stated otherwise. For historical reasons and current availability of data samples, the positive beam and negative beam samples come from rather different event selections. The positive beam $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$’s were reconstructed from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$’s decaying upstream of the silicon vertex detector, while the negative beam sample comes from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$’s decaying downstream and reconstructed using tracks which were not seen in the silicon vertex detector. In addition to the resulting differences in selection criteria, there are more $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ data from the negative beam and consequently larger kinematic ranges are accessible.

All $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$’s were reconstructed using the $`p\pi ^{}`$ decay mode. Selection criteria were chosen to maximize the signal significance using Monte Carlo simulation for the signal, and using side-band data for background projections. The ratio of proton to pion decay momenta was required to be larger than 3.0. For the positive beams (p, $`\pi ^+`$ and $`K^+`$), proton and $`\pi ^{}`$ tracks were required to make a vertex downstream of the last target, but upstream of the silicon detector, and have a distance of closest approach less than 0.02 cm. The resulting $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ candidate track was then required to have an impact parameter relative to the interaction point of less than 0.006 cm. For the negative beams ($`\pi ^{}`$ and $`K^{}`$), the proton and $`\pi ^{}`$ tracks were required to make a vertex downstream of the silicon detector, but upstream of the first analysis magnet. The tracks had to have a distance of closest approach less than 0.7 cm at the decay vertex, with no requirement on the impact parameter of the lambda candidate track.

The reconstructed mass distributions for each interval of $`x_F`$ and $`p_T^2`$ were fit in the mass range from $`1.101`$ to $`1.127`$ $`GeV/c^2`$ using a binned maximum likelihood method with a Gaussian signal plus a linear background. All $`x_F`$ and $`p_T^2`$ bin widths are much larger than the resolution of the variable binned. In the fit, the central reconstructed mass values and mass resolutions were fixed to values obtained from Monte Carlo simulation. Monte Carlo simulation studies demonstrated that $`K_s^0\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ provided a flat background and produced a negligible effect on the fit numbers of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$’s. The total reconstructed mass distributions are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Table 1 shows the total numbers of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ from the fits shown.

For each $`x_F`$ and $`p_T^2`$ bin we compute an asymmetry, $`A`$, as defined in Equation 1. Values for the $`N`$’s were obtained from individual fits to the $`p\pi `$ mass plots for events selected to lie within each $`x_F`$ and $`p_T^2`$ interval. For each beam type, the asymmetry $`A(x_F)`$ integrated over $`p_T^2`$, and the asymmetry $`A(p_T^2)`$ integrated over our range of $`x_F`$, are presented in Figs. 3 and 4. The results are also listed in Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5 along with statistical errors.

The experimental apparatus itself could create an apparent particle-antiparticle asymmetry if there were a difference in the detection efficiencies for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$. Selection criteria for the particle and antiparticle samples were identical. However, geometrical acceptances and reconstruction efficiencies were not necessarily the same. To evaluate this potential effect, a large sample of simulated events was created using the Pythia/Jetset event generators . These were passed through a detailed simulation of the E769 spectrometer to simulate “data” in digitized format, which was then processed through the same computer reconstruction code as that used for data from the experiment. Simulated event data were subjected to the same selection criteria as used for detector data. No difference was found between the acceptances and efficiencies for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ compared to $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ at a level significant with respect to the statistical errors.

We also looked for systematic effects from the other following sources:

* Event selection criteria;
* The minimum transverse energy in the calorimeters required in the on-line event selection;
* KS contamination of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ signal;
* Misidentification of beam particle types;
* $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ from higher-mass hyperon decays;
* Mass fits (shape);

All seven sources, the relative efficiencies and the six others listed, were found to produce systematic effects that were negligible in each kinematic bin, both individually and in the ensemble, when compared to the statistical uncertainties.

The behavior of the asymmetries shown in Figs. 3 and 4 have leading particle effects where expected. A larger asymmetry is observed when there is a larger difference in the number of valence quarks in the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ or $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ in common with the target or the various beams. We  and others  have reported evidence for similar effects in the production of $`D^\pm `$ mesons in the forward region ($`x_F>0`$).

The Pythia 6.2  model describes only some features of our results, and those only qualitatively, as can be seen in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. This model predicts small values of asymmetry for $`x_F=0`$ in contrast to our results which have large asymmetries in this region. This may be due to associated production of strange mesons and baryons (more $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}\overline{K}`$ than $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}K`$). Leading particle effects play an increasingly important role as $`\left|x_F\right|`$ increases.

Our results for particle-antiparticle asymmetries are consistent with the results obtained by other experiments where similar data exists . Our results can be described qualitatively in terms of the energy thresholds for the production of hyperons and antihyperons together with their associated particles and a model in which the recombination of valence quarks in the beam and target particles contributes to the hyperon and antihyperon production in an asymmetrical manner .

In summary, we report a precise, systematic study of the production asymmetries for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ hyperons by various incident hadrons in a single experiment. The range of $`x_F`$ covered allows the study of asymmetries in regions close to $`x_F=0`$. Our results are consistent with other experiments where similar data exists and while models so far describe some features of our results, they do so only qualitatively.

We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the staffs of Fermilab and of all the participating institutions. This research was supported by the Brazilian Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico, the U.S. National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, and the National Research Council of Canada. Fermilab is operated by the Universities Research Association, Inc., under contract with the United States Department of Energy.


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# References

Comment on ”Vortex Liquid Crystal in Anisotropic Type II Superconductors”

Recently Carlson et al.  tried to compose the $`HT`$ phase diagram of anisotropic superconductors based on the Lindemann criterion for melting of flux-line lattice. It is worthy to notice that the issue itself is interesting. However, their conclusion on the existence of a smectic vortex phase is unphysical for the following reasons: There is no appropriate estimate on thermal fluctuations above the ”lower melting temperature”, since the basis of the elastic theory used by the authors, namely the lattice structure, disappears already; One therefore cannot argue even the existence of the intermediate phase, such as smectic in Fig. 1 of Ref., above the ”lower melting temperature”, not only its melting as noticed by the authors.

It is interesting to ask if one can draw useful information from a Lindemann-type argument for melting phenomena in uniaxially anisotropic superconductors when the magnetic field is applied perpendicularly to the anisotropic axis. An idea is to suppose that one can have two Lindemann numbers in the two different directions, instead of two meltings. From the elastic theory (see references in Ref.), we know that the Lindemann melting line is given by the following equation: $`t/\sqrt{1t}=c^2\times f(b,\kappa ,\gamma ,Gi)`$. This property permits us to shift the ”upper melting line” in Fig. 4 of Ref. to lower temperature by reducing the Lindemann number without touching the details of $`f(b,\kappa ,\gamma ,Gi)`$ . The numerical results thus obtained are shown in Fig. 1. There is a perfect collapse between the two curves when one takes $`c_{long}0.17`$ while fixes $`c_{short}=0.2`$ to the value chosen in Ref.. The collapse of the two curves is expected for large $`\kappa `$’s, namely in extremely type II superconductors, and is achieved whenever the two Lindemann numbers satisfy the fixed ratio which is revealed in our analysis.

Should the ”two melting lines” never collapse, there appears another possible melting scenario. One could have an intersection between these ”two melting lines”, besides the ones at $`T=T_c`$, $`H=0`$ and $`T=0`$, $`H=H_{c2}`$. Then, the lower melting temperature should be adopted as the true one at a given magnetic field to form a single melting line. The ”intersecting point” could be a triple point: the melting mechanism below and above the triple magnetic field $`H_t`$ is different; there may be two liquids separated by another first-order line, which terminates at a critical point where the two liquids become identical.

There exists of course the possibility of an intermediate phase in the $`HT`$ phase diagram (see for example ). Its identification is beyond the Lindemann-type phenomenological argument. Although terminologies of superconductivity have been used in the present discussions, it is obvious that the results are applicable to a wide range of melting phenomena.

This study is partially supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, under the Priority Grant No. 14038240.

Xiao Hu and Qing-Hu Chen
Computational Materials Science Center
National Institute for Materials Science
Tsukuba 305-0047, Japan

Received March 5 2003

PACS numbers: 74.25.Op, 61.30.-v, 74.25.Qt

Figure caption:

Fig. 1: Collapse of the two curves in Fig. 4 of Ref. by tuning the Lindemann number in the ”long” direction to 0.17 while keeping that in the ”short” direction at 0.2.


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# Untitled Document

Comments on “Mutually composite fermions in double layer quantum Hall systems”, Jinwu Ye, cond-mat/0302558: Why it is wrong? Keshav N. Shrivastava School of Physics, University of Hyderabad,
Hyderabad 500046, India

Jinwu Ye has shown that two flux quanta are attached in one layer while the electron is in the other layer to form a mutually composite fermion (MCF). This idea is based on an earlier idea that composite fermions (CF) are formed by attaching two flux quanta to one electron. We find that the formation of MCF is unphysical and it can not be the basis of a new theory. Similarly, the CF are also unphysical objects and their Lorentz invariance is missing.

Corresponding author: keshav@mailaps.org
Fax: +91-40-2301 0145.Phone: 2301 0811.

1. Introduction

Recently, Jinwu Ye has suggested the idea of mutually composite fermions (MCF). There are two layers of semiconductors, one layer has one electron and the other layer has two flux quanta. This object is called a mutually composite fermion (MCF). The electron to which two flux quanta are attached is called a composite fermion (CF).

We show why both these ideas are wrong. Actually, earlier also we have pointed out as to why the CF is a wrong object.

2. Description

The MCF is formed by keeping one electron in one layer and two flux quanta in another layer. One of the problems with this model is that the field is kept without any electric current. The flux, $`\varphi _o`$ is related to the field and the area by the relation,

$$B.A=n\varphi _o$$
(1)
where $`n`$ is an integer. The flux quantum is equivalent to a field, $`B=n\varphi _o/A`$, where $`\varphi _o=hc/e`$ and $`𝐀`$ is the area. According to Biot and Savart’s law of classical electrodynamics, an electron going in a circular orbit is equivalent to a current. The current of a charged particle is associated with mutually orthogonal electric and magnetic fields. Usually the cross product $`𝐄\times 𝐇`$ gives the energy flow. So it is not possible to keep $`𝐁`$ in one layer and $`𝐄`$ in another. Jinwu Ye has suggested that $`𝐁`$ and $`𝐄`$ be kept in different layers and this is not correct. If it is correct, then how the $`𝐁`$ is carried to another layer and what will be its velocity? The velocity of $`𝐄\times 𝐇`$ is the velocity of light but when $`𝐄`$ and $`𝐇`$ are decoupled, they will have different velocities. In order to generate a magnetic field, a coil is made so that the current is along the coil and the magnetic field is along the axis of the coil but not at a distance such as $`d`$, where $`d`$ is the distance betweeen layers.

Let us say that we have two flux quanta. These flux quanta have fields $`B_1=n\varphi _{o1}/A`$ and $`B_2=n\varphi _{o2}/A`$. The electric field associated with these flux quanta is zero, $`E_1=E_2=0`$. In that case $`𝐄\times 𝐁=0`$ so that light can not come from such flux quanta. These flux quanta will be “black” objects. According to one of the Maxwell equations $`.𝐇=0`$. Therefore, $`H_z=constant`$. If electron is kept in one layer and the flux quanta in another, then $`H_z`$=constant, condition is not satisfied so that $`.𝐇=0`$ condition is not obeyed.

We have noted  several times that CF model is incorrect. In this model, two flux quanta are attached to one electron but there is no detachment of flux quanta from any where. Therefore, it can not conserve energy and extra flux quanta can not be created.

It is perfectly justified to add the gradient of a function to the vector potential of electromagnetic field subject to the condition that a time derivative of the same function devided by the velocity of light is substracted from the scalar potential. In some of the works the latter condition is not met. They have set the correction to the scalar potential as zero so that the function becomes independent of time. Then only the vector potential or the magntic field has to be corrected. This is called the Chern-Simon theory but it does not satisfy the Lorentz condition.

E-B decoupling. In the Maxwell equations, the time derivative of the magnetic field gives the space derivative of the electric field. Similarly, the time derivative of the electric field determines the gradient of the magnetic field and the current. Therefore, the electric field $`𝐄`$ determines $`𝐁`$ and the time derivative of $`𝐁`$ determines $`𝐄`$. This is the $`𝐄`$ and $`𝐁`$ coupling. Therefore, it is not possible to put magnetic field or flux quanta at a distance from the current. The flux quanta are thus not separated so that Jinwu Ye is not correct. This means that there is no theory of quantum Hall effect. Laughlin’s incompressible wave function gives the concept of a fractional charge but the quantity which was thought to be $`e`$ is $`e/a_o^2`$, where $`Ba_o^2=n\varphi _o`$. So that the fraction may arise from $`𝐁`$. The only other theoretical model is due to Jain which requires that two flux quanta are attached to one electron. This model is unphysical and can not form the basis of a new principle.

The proper explanation of the quantum Hall effect data is given in ref.4.

3. Conclusions.

In conclusion, we find that there is no way for Jinwu Ye or Jain to be correct. They are badly inconsistent. There is no way to attach two flux quanta to one electron. Similarly, it is not possible to put flux in one layer and the electron in another. According to the classical electrodynamics, the $`𝐄`$ and $`𝐁`$ should be orthogonal and have one origin but not separated from each other.

4. References

1. Jinwu Ye, cond-mat/0302558.
2. K. N. Shrivastava, cond-mat/0209666, 0210320, 0211223, 0310380, 0302009, 0302315; Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. J1.209(March 2003).
3. S. S. Mandal and J. K. Jain, Phys. Rev. B 66, 155302(2002).
4. K.N. Shrivastava, Introduction to quantum Hall effect,
Nova Science Pub. Inc., N. Y. (2002).

Note: Ref.4 is available from:
Nova Science Publishers, Inc.,
400 Oser Avenue, Suite 1600,
Hauppauge, N. Y.. 11788-3619,
Tel.(631)-231-7269, Fax: (631)-231-8175,
ISBN 1-59033-419-1 US$`\$69`$.
E-mail: novascience@Earthlink.net