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# Reply to Comment on: “Radiation-Induced ’Zero-Resistance State’ and the Photon Assisted Transport”

## Abstract

We show that the comment by A.F. Volkov Volkov2003  ignores a delicate issue in the conductance measurement for a hall bar system. In such system, $`\rho _{xx}\rho _{xy}^2\sigma _{xx}`$ while $`\sigma _{xy}\sigma _{xx}`$, as correctly pointed out in Ref. Durst2003, . We clarify that the so called “zero resistance state” is actually a “zero conductance state”. A discussion concerning the phase transition induced by the negative conductance is presented.

In a comment Volkov2003  to our paper titled “Radiation-Induced ’Zero-Resistance State’ and the Photon Assisted Transport”, Shi2003  Volkov concludes that our work as well as the calculation in Ref. Durst2003,  can only produce the zero conductance instead of zero resistance. This conclusion is certainly true for a normal transport measurement without the presence of a magnetic field, where $`\rho _{xx}=1/\sigma _{xx}`$. However, in the specific experimental setup we are talking about, namely, a hall bar system, Mani2002 ; Zudov2001 ; Zudov2002  the relation between conductance and resistance is delicate albeit well known:

$`\rho _{xx}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _{xx}}{\sigma _{xx}^2+\sigma _{xy}^2}},`$
$`\rho _{xy}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _{xy}}{\sigma _{xx}^2+\sigma _{xy}^2}}.`$
As correctly pointed out in Ref. Durst2003, , those experiments lie in regime with $`\sigma _{xy}\sigma _{xx}`$. This yields,

$`\rho _{xx}`$ $``$ $`\rho _{xy}^2\sigma _{xx},`$
$`\rho _{xy}`$ $``$ $`1/\sigma _{xy}.`$
As the result, the measurement of longitudinal conductance is equivalent to the measurement of longitudinal resistance. Our theory actually suggest that the so called “zero resistance state” is actually a “zero conductance state” . This has important implication for a general non-hall bar system, *i.e.*, we can only see radiation induced “zero conductance” instead of “zero resistance”.

When system enters into negative conductance (or negative resistance for the S-shape CVC) regime, the instability will induce a phase transition and the system will be stabilized in a new phase. It is very important to study the detailed structure of such a new phase. On the other hand, we stress that these are two separate issues: (a) the origin of negative conductance (resistance); and (b) the structure of new phase induced by the instability. These two issues are determined by different sets of parameters. It becomes clear in our toy model: Shi2003  while the occurrence of negative conductance is fully determined by the radiation power and electron density of states, the determination of new voltage domain structure (see Fig. 4 in Ref. Shi2003, ) requires more parameters such as barrier thickness, lead configurations, dielectric constants, etc. It suggests that the structure of new phase will be very sensitive to the special setup of systems. So it will not be a surprise to find more exotic phases other than those discussed in current stage of theoretical studies Andreev2003 ; Anderson2003  and mentioned in the comment. Volkov2003

Finally, we point out that while the transport anomaly is well known in artificial systems, Keay1995  the observation of similar effect in a uniform system is still very interesting and striking. Especially, the phase transition induced by the negative conductance instability in such a uniform system is far from fully understood. We conclude that the phase transition induced by the negative conductance and the structure of resulting phase are the leading issues requiring more theoretical and experimental pursuits.


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# Single-channel transmission in gold one-atom contacts and chains

## Abstract

We induce superconductivity by proximity effect in thin layers of gold and study the number of conduction channels which contribute to the current in one-atom contacts and atomic wires. The atomic contacts and wires are fabricated with a Scanning Tunneling Microscope. The set of transmission probabilities of the conduction channels is obtained from the analysis of the $`I(V)`$ characteristic curve which is highly non-linear due to multiple Andreev reflections. In agreement with theoretical calculations we find that there is only one channel which is almost completely open.

PACS numbers: 73.40.-c, 73.20.-r, 74.50.-h

Much effort has been devoted in the last decade to the understanding of electron transport processes and mechanical properties of atomic-sized point contacts and chains between metallic electrodes review . Coherent electron transport in these nanostructures can be understood in the frame of the scattering formalism. The conductance $`G`$ of these nanocontacts is given by the Landauer formula $`G=G_0_{i=1}^N\tau _i`$, where $`\tau _i`$ are the transmission probabilities for each of $`N`$ conductance channels and $`G_0=2e^2/h`$ is the conductance quantum. For a given contact realization the conductance channels are in general neither completely open nor completely closed and the transparency $`\tau _i`$ of each channel depends on the material forming the contact Nature ; Sirvent , detailed atomic arrangement and applied stress PRLplateau . In this report we study the channel transparency set $`\{\tau _i\}`$ both in gold one-atom contacts and chains of single gold atoms Chains , for which theoretical models PRLplateau ; Cuevas98 ; Lopez-Ciudad99 ; abinitio ; Palacios02  predict an almost completely open single channel, and therefore a conductance close to $`G_0`$.

It is well established that conductance histograms (CH) show that the conductance of one-atom contacts of gold is close to $`G_0`$review  but the values of $`\tau _i`$ cannot be obtained from the only measurement of the total conductance. However, the marked non-linearity of the current-voltage characteristic (IV) of superconducting contacts has been exploited to obtain the set of transmission coefficients $`\{\tau _i\}`$ of atomic-sized aluminum contacts PRLset . The channel transmission probabilities are extracted by fitting the measured IV curve to a sum of $`N`$ independent IVs calculated for individual channels with a given transmission probability Averin95 ; Cuevas96 . This method was afterwards extended to other superconducting materials, showing that the number of conducting channels contributing to the current in one-atom contacts is limited by the valence of the atom at the contact Nature .

Gold is not superconducting. However we take advantage of the superconducting correlations induced in a thin layer of normal metal in contact with a superconductor. The energy spectrum is modified and a gap is opened at the Fermi energy. At low voltages transport is dominated by Andreev reflection processes which results in non-linear IV curves. Here we use the aforementioned method PRLset ; Nature  to analyze the transmission coefficients of proximity induced superconducting one-atom contacts and atomic chains of gold.

The proximity effect has been previously exploited Nature ; Scheerproxy  to get information of the $`\{\tau _i\}`$ in gold atomic contacts. In the first experiment Nature  the IV curves were fitted to a sum of theoretical IVs corresponding to BCS superconductors and the contribution of a single channel in one-atom contacts is reported. However, the energy dependence of the density of states and the probability of Andreev reflection at a proximity induced superconducting contact are smeared with respect to the BCS model Belzig96 . The modifications due to the proximity character of the superconducting correlations were taken into account in the later experiment Scheerproxy . Most of the experimental IVs recorded at the last conductance plateau before contact breaking could be fitted with a single channel. Several channels were necessary to fit the IV curves of some contacts with conductance smaller than $`G_0`$. However, in these experiments the conductance of the smallest contacts is usually much smaller than $`G_0`$, being the first peak of the histogram placed at $`0.6`$ $`G_0`$ and plateaux not nearly flat. These results are not consistent with what has been usually reported in gold atomic contacts in the normal state review . Here we report experiments in which the conductance histograms for proximity superconducting gold and normal gold are in remarkable agreement (Fig 1). We also study the channel content of chains of gold atoms.

Nanocontacts are produced by pressing two wires crosswise against each other. The wires are used as electrodes in place of tip and sample of an STM. The separation and contact size between the wires can be controlled with the piezoelectric positioning system the microscope. The advantage of using two crossed wires is the possibility of selecting the position of the point contact along both wires using the coarse lateral displacement capability of the microscope, allowing for the exploration of point contacts at different spots along the wires. The wires (0.25 mm diameter) are made of bulk lead and are in a first preparation step covered by thermal evaporation with a thick layer of lead (900 nm at a rate of 0.8 nm/s). This thick layer of lead provides a clean surface. A thin layer of gold (28 nm, rate of 0.1 nm/s) is then evaporated on top of the Pb layer. The lead and gold deposition sequence is performed without breaking the vacuum in the chamber ($`<10^6`$ mbar), thus preventing the presence of oxide at the Pb-Au interface and ensuring good electrical contact between both layers. The substrate is at a temperature of 80 K during film deposition. One-atom contacts are fabricated by slight indentation ($`<3`$ nm) and subsequent retraction of the electrodes. Further retraction results in contact breaking and a jump to the tunnelling regime. Experiments are done at 1.8 K. During nanocontact pull-off the conductance trace is step-like (see Fig. 1). This characteristic behavior has been shown to be due to the mechanical processes that take place during contact breaking PRLforce ; conductance plateaus corresponding to elastic deformation stages and sharp conductance changes related to sudden rearrangements of the atoms in the narrowest part of the nanocontact.

For gold nanocontacts in the normal state the last conductance plateau before contact breaking is close to $`G_0`$ and corresponds to the smallest possible contact: a one-atom contact. Despite the inherent variability of the exact conductance trace during contact pull-off, it has been shown in several experiments that the conductance histogram (CH) over a large number of contact breaking realizations displays peaks at conductance values that are characteristic of the chemical nature of electrodesreview . CH in gold nanocontacts have a characteristic first peak at a conductance close to $`G_0`$. We show in the inset of Fig. 1 a comparison between CH obtained for bulk gold tips in the normal state and in proximity induced superconducting gold nanocontacts. Due to the presence of excess current in the IVs of superconducting nanocontacts it is necessary to measure the differential conductance at a fixed bias voltage well above $`\mathrm{\Delta }/e`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the energy of the superconducting gap. The remarkable agreement between both CH supports the validity of our analysis also for atomic-sized contacts of gold in the normal state. The low value of the conductance of the first peak in the conductance histogram in Ref. Scheerproxy,  was probably due to enhanced elastic scattering related to sample preparation method.

We show in Fig. 2 representative IV curves recorded at a one-atom contact, in an atomic chain and in the tunneling regime, up to a voltage $`2\mathrm{\Delta }_0/e`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0=1.40`$ meV is the bulk superconducting gap for lead. We show both the measured IV curves (symbols) and theoretical fitting (lines). The theoretical IVs in the contact regime are calculated by solving the time-dependent Bogoliubov de Gennes equations within the scattering formalism Averin95 ; Zaitsev97 . This method requires the knowledge of the Andreev reflection amplitude of probability ($`a(E)`$) at the contact, where the voltage drops. $`a(E)`$ can be computed if the normal and anomalous Green functions are knownZaitsev97 . In the tunneling regime the IVs are calculated by the usual convolution of the densities of states at both sides of the barrierTinkham .

As both Au-Pb electrodes are only very weakly coupled at the weak link, to calculate the density of states and the Andreev reflection amplitude of probability, we model our system as two independent normal-superconducting (NS) structures and solve self-consistently the Usadel equationsUsadel70 ; Belzig96 . Usadel equations provide a quasiclassical description of the Green functions of a superconductor in the dirty limit, in which electronic transport is diffussive. Elastic impurity scattering is included in the Born approximation and is characterized by a mean free path $`l`$ (or a diffusion coefficient $`D=v_Fl/3`$). A description based on Usadel equations was recently used to explain the IV curves of lead nanostructures under the influence of a magnetic field and proximity effect, providing excellent quantitative agreement with experiment both in the contact and tunneling regimeSuderow00 ; Suderow02 .

The two NS are assumed to be equal and consist of a dirty normal layer with thickness $`d_N`$ which is bounded at one end by vacuum and joined to a dirty semi-infinite superconductor at the other. Note that the diffussive description is expected to be valid in the case $`d_Nl`$. The Green functions which are relevant to calculate the IV curves are the ones at the vacuum-bounded edge of the normal layer. The proximity effect is also, affected by the existence of a barrier at the interface, as quasiparticles normally reflected do not contribute to it. In a diffusive system, the mismatch between the characteristic parameters (conductivity and diffusion coefficients) of the normal and superconducting metals, leads to an effective barrier for the quasiparticles. It can be described through the parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=(D_S/D_N)^{1/2}\sigma _N/\sigma _S`$. In our model we assume $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1`$ and a vanishing resistance of the interfacenote1 . With these assumptions the superconducting correlations in the normal metal are described by $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ and the value of $`d_N/\xi _S`$, where $`\xi _S`$ is the coherence length of the superconductor. In the atomic chain and one-atom contact the transmission channels set enters also as fitting parameters. A similar model was used by Scheer et alScheerproxy  in the description of Au contacts with superconductiviy induced by proximity effect. In their case, however, the mismatch parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ was also used as a fitting parameter.

Solid lines in Fig. 2 show the calculated IV which for the same sample fitting parameter, $`d_N/\xi _S=0.81`$, best fit both the curves in the tunneling and the contact regime. Assuming the nominal thickness $`d_N=28`$ nm it corresponds to a superconducting coherence length $`\xi _S=34`$ nm, in good agreement with the values obtained in Ref. Suderow00,  and Suderow02, .

The tunneling regime IV curve, plotted in Fig. 2b, shows a gap smaller than $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ and a bump characteristic of NS structures Wolf82 . It is however poorly fitted notefit , which means that the density of states used, shown in the inset of Fig. 2(a), does not agree completely with the experimental one. The source of disagreement in the fitting can be better understood by looking at the derivative of the experimental and theoretical tunnel IV curves, shown in inset in Fig. 2 (b). The theoretical curve shows an asymmetric peak at the gap which decays slowly as the energy increases and results from the one in the density of states. This asymmetric peak structure is characteristic of the diffusive regime for parameters which give gaps in the normal metal much smaller than $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$. The peak in the experimental curve is more symmetric. More rounded peaks (and tunneling curves with a bump more similar to the one obtained experimentally) can be obtained for much smaller values of $`d_N/\xi _S`$. In the diffusive regime the gap induced in the spectrum of the normal metal decreases with $`d_N/\xi _S`$. Lower values of the fitting parameter induce gaps with values much closer to $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ and could not explain the strong reduction of the gap found experimentally and would give worse fits.

Scheer et al. Scheerproxy  also found disagreement in the fit of the tunneling conductance and related it to the non-diffusive character of the samples, being the condition $`d_Nl`$ not fulfilled. The proximity effect is a consequence of the coherent superposition of Andreev reflection and is strongly influenced by the length of the path which the electron travels between Andreev reflection processes. Thus, the energy dependence of the induced pair correlations is very sensitive to the degree of disorder in the normal metal and the shape of the spectrum differs considerably in the clean and dirty limitsArnold78 ; Wolf82 ; Belzig96 . We have also tried, without success, to fit the experimental curves assuming that there is no disorder being the transport in the electrodes ballistic, instead of diffusiveArnold78 ; Wolf82 ; Kieselmann87 ; Vecino . As concluded by Scheer et al. Scheerproxy , we think that the lack of good fittings in the tunneling regime is due to transport in the gold layer being in the weakly disordered regime, instead of in the diffusive or clean limits.

Given the uncertainty in the density of states, the accuracy with which the channel transmission set is obtained in the contact regime is slightly reduced, compared to the ones done in BCS superconductors. The single-atom curve can be reasonably well fitted with a very open channel with transmission $`T_1=0.995`$. The chain is reasonably well fitted by a single channel with transmission $`T=0.96`$. This result is representative of the general behavior that we observe thus confirming that one widely open channel is responsible for the conduction in single atom gold contacts, in agreement with theoretical predictionsCuevas98 ; Lopez-Ciudad99 ; abinitio ; Palacios02 .

This work has been supported by the Spanish DGI through grants MAT2001-1281 and PB0875/96. Additional funding comes from the ESF Vortex programm, the Welch Foundation, and the NSF under grants DMR-0210383 and DMR0115947. E.B. acknowledges financial support from a fellowship of the Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid during the early stages of this work. We acknowledge W. Belzig for helpful support.

Present address: Theoretische Physik, ETH-Hönggerberg, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

With an age estimated at 8 Gyr (Chaboyer et al. 1999) a mass exceeding 4000 m (Kaluzny & Udalski 1992) and metallicity $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]=0.32`$ (Worthey & Jowett 2003) the stellar cluster NGC 6791 may be considered as an intermediate object between old open clusters and globular clusters from the bulge region of the Galaxy. The cluster hosts two cataclysmic variables (Kaluzny et al. 1997) and is known to possess a bimodal horizontal branch with about 1/3 of HB stars located on the blue horizontal branch (Kaluzny & Udalski 1992; Liebert, Saffer & Green 1994).

There are a total of 74 known variable stars in the field of NGC 6791. They were identified by Kaluzny and Rucinski (1993; hereafter KR), Rucinski Kaluzny & Hilditch (1996; hereafter RKH) and by Mochejska et al. (2002; 2003). In particular, the paper by Mochejska et al. (2002) reports first results of a large survey aimed at detection of possible planetary transients in the cluster stars. The field of massive search for planetary transients started with a survey of 47 Tuc conducted by Gilliliand et al. (2000) using the HST. Recently the OGLE group reported detection of 121 stars with transiting low surface brightness companions (Udalski et al. 2002; Udalski et al 2002a; Udalski et al 2002b). So far one of these companions was confirmed to be a body of planetary mass (Konacki et al. 2003).

In this paper we present re-analysis of the data already used in KR and RKH. New time series photometry was extracted using an image subtraction technique. The main motivation for undertaking that job was an attempt to detect some possible planetary transients. It was also expected that a new precise photometry may lead to detection of some new variables in the cluster field.

## 2 Observing material and data reductions

The first data set used in this contribution was collected with the 1-m Jacobus Kapteyn Telescope during 14 consecutive nights in July 1995. Most of the data were taken during bright time. The instrument was a $`1024\times 1024`$ CCD camera giving a scale of 0.331 arcsec per pixel. A total of 619 and 154 frames were collected in the $`V`$ and $`I`$ bands, respectively. The exposure time was set to 5 min for all images. In the present analysis we used 579 and 139 best seeing frames for $`V`$ and $`I`$ filters, respectively. Median seeing for that subset of data was 1.16 arcsec for the $`V`$ band and 1.09 arcsec for the $`I`$ band.

The second data set was obtained on four consecutive nights in October 1991 using 0.9-m telescope at the Kitt Peak National Observatory. The instrument was a $`1024\times 1024`$ CCD camera giving a scale of 0.68 arcsec per pixel. The cluster was monitored for a total of about 16 hours. Present analysis is based on 61 and 8 images for the $`V`$ and $`B`$ bands, respectively. The median seeing for the $`V`$ band was 1.77 arcsec and the exposure time was equal to 10 min for all frames. Exposures in the $`B`$ band lasted 15 min.

More details on both data sets used in this paper are given in RKH and KR.

Photometry was extracted using the image subtraction package ISIS V2.1 (Alard & Lupton 1998; Alard 2000). For each of the 4 filter and data-set combinations a reference image was constructed by combining several individual best seeing images. Daophot/Allstar package (Stetson 1987) was then used to get instrumental profile photometry for stellar objects detectable on reference images. Subsequently differential light curves expressed in ADU were derived with the ISIS routine $`phot`$ for all these stars. Finally, the light curves were converted from ADU to the instrumental magnitudes defined by the profile photometry extracted from the reference images. At that point we used the procedure which is described in detail in Mochejska et al. (2002).

Transformation to the standard BVI system was performed based on a set of local standards defined in the cluster field by Stetson (2000). For the KR data set usage of a total of 592 local standards resulted in the following transformations:

$`v=V0.0021(BV)3.0557`$ (1)
$`b=B0.1336(BV)2.7664`$ (2)
$`bv=0.2815+0.8763(BV)`$ (3)
For the RKH data set usage of 399 local standards lead to relations:

$`v=V0.0553(VI)3.3728`$ (4)
$`i=I0.0127(VI)2.8809`$ (5)
$`vi=0.9577(VI)0.4922`$ (6)
Time series photometry obtained for the $`V`$ band was the subject of analysis aimed at detection of variable objects. First all light curves were searched for presence of periodic signal using the TATRY program provided kindly by Dr. Schwarzenberg-Czerny. That program makes use of a multiharmonic periodogram method which is described in Schwarzenberg-Czerny (1996). It is capable of finding different types of periodic variables but is most suitable for detection of objects showing continuous changes of luminosity. To search for possible eclipsing binaries we used the $`BLS`$ method introduced recently by Kovács et al. (2002). It is particularly suitable for detection of shallow and/or narrow eclipses which can be potentially due to planetary transients.

We have identified a total of 4 new variables in the RKH data set. One of them, V76, was identified independently in the KR data set. All variables reported in RKH and KR were recovered. We have failed to detect any candidates for planetary transients. Equatorial coordinates of new variables are listed in Table 1. The transformation from rectangular to equatorial coordinates was derived using 375 stars from the USNO A-2 catalog (Monet et al. 1998) which were located in the $`V`$-band reference image for RHK data set. We present finder charts for the newly discovered variables in Fig. 1.

In Fig. 2 we present a plot of the standard deviation $`\sigma `$ versus the average $`V`$ magnitude for all light curves extracted from the RKH data set. One may note that for the brightest stars the achievable precision is about 0.004 mag and the $`\sigma `$ reaches 0.01 mag at $`V17.2`$.

## 3 Properties of variables

In Table 2 we provide some information about basic photometric properties of four newly identified variables. The sample is supplemented with the data for two earlier identified objects, V9 and V17, which will be discussed below. Columns 2, 3 and 4 list maximal $`V`$ magnitude and average colors. The full range of observed luminosity changes is listed in columns 5 and 6 for the $`V`$ and $`I`$ band, respectively. Derived periods along with their errors are listed in column 7. The last column of Table 2 gives cluster membership probabilities extracted from an unpublished proper motion study conducted by Dr. Kyle Cudworth. Five variables are likely members of NGC 6791 while for one of them, V75, proper motion data are not available.

Figure 3 shows location of all variables in the $`V/VI`$ and $`V/BV`$ color magnitude diagrams of the cluster field. Positions marked correspond to $`V_{\mathrm{max}}`$ and average color of variables.

Time domain light curves of V17 and V75-77 are shown in Fig. 4. Phased light curve of V78 is presented in Fig. 5. All light curves are based on the RKH data set.

In Fig. 6 we present phased light curves of V9 obtained in 1991 (KR data set), 1995 (RKH data set) and 2001 (Mochejska et al. 2002) seasons. Phased color curve of V9 from the 1995 season is shown in Fig. 7.

V75 is located slightly to the red of the cluster main sequence tip on the color-magnitude diagram. Its 1995 light curve shows sine-like modulation with $`P=11.34`$ d and $`17.374<V<17.406`$. The data from the 1991 season (KR data set) give the light curve with nightly averaged magnitudes from the range $`17.343<V<17.351`$. The stars may belong to ellipsoidal variables which would imply an orbital period of about 22.7 days. Presence of ellipsoidal variability in case of such long orbital period is conceivable only if V75 is composed of a slightly evolved star and a dark companion with a mass exceeding significantly mass of the cluster turnoff stars.***For the binary composed of two turnoff stars and with $`P_{\mathrm{orb}}23`$ d ellipsoidal variability would be much smaller than it is observed. Another possibility is that V75 belongs to diverse class of ”spotted variables”.

V78 is located on the red giant branch about 2 magnitudes above the turn-off region of the cluster. The proper motion data indicate cluster membership with propbability of 94%. The derived period $`P=0.33`$ d is an alias of a 1 day period and the power spectrum of the light curve has a prominent peak also at $`P0.25`$ d. Unfortunately, in the KR data set the star was located close to a bad column on most images which prevented derivation of its light curve. We also did not manage to extract the $`I`$ band light curve from the 1995 data as the variable was overexposed on all images in that filter. Images in the $`V`$-band were free from that problem. The value of the $`VI`$ color listed for the variable in Table 2 was adopted from Stetson (2000).
Photometric variability at the 0.01 mag level is quite common among field giants of spectral type G-K. Henry et al. (2000) detected variability on time scales from 2 days to a few week weeks in a total of 81 objects from a sample including 187 stars. Observed changes of luminosity were explained by presence of radial pulsations.
Edmonds and Gilliland (1996) detected 15 K giant variables in the globular cluster 47 Tuc. Observed changes had amplitudes 0.005-0.015 mag in the $`U`$ band and periods between about 2 and 4 day. As a likely cause of variability the authors considered radial or nonradial pulsations.
However, variability on a time scale shorter that 1 day was reported so far for a very few giants. Hatzes & Cohran(1994) reported $`\beta `$ Oph to exhibit multiperiodic radial velocity variations with a period of about 0.25 day. Observed amplitudes of radial velocity correspond to predicted photometric variablity at the level of a few mmag at best. Similarly, radial velocity variations with periods of the order of hours detected in $`\eta `$ Boo (Kjeldsen et al. 2002) and in $`\xi `$ Hya (Frandsen et al. 2002) imply photometric effects at the $`\mu `$ magnitude level. Both mentioned giants show supposedly solar-like oscillations.
In that context V78 may prove to be very a interesting object but follow-up observations are needed to confirm detected variability and to establish its period with confidence.

V77 is a likely yellow straggler member of the cluster. The light curve shows sine-like modulation with the period of about 7.7 d and low amplitude. Variability of V77 can be explained by an ellipsoidal effect in a binary system or alternatively by ”spots” related activity.

### 3.1 Variable red stragglers

Variables V9, V17 and V76 are all likely cluster members and moreover they can be classified as red stragglers. The term ”red straggler” is used to denote objects located to the red of the main sequence or subgiant branch on color-magnitude diagrams of old stellar clusters. They should not be confused with ordinary binary members of clusters which are also observed to the red of main sequences. Red stragglers may be defined as objects whose position in the red part of the color magnitude diagram of a parent cluster cannot be reproduced by combining light of two ordinary stars from principal sequences. Variable red stragglers were identified in 47 Tuc by Albrow et al. (2001) and more recently by Mathieu et al. (2003) in M67. Both red stragglers in M67 are binary stars. Also an optical counterpart of the binary millisecond pulsar PSR J1740-5340 in NGC 6397 (Ferraro et al. 2001) is an example of a red straggler.

V9 is the only red straggler from NGC 6791 which is certainly a binary star. Its light curves from 1991 (KR data set), 1995 (RKH data set) and 2001 (Mochejska et al. 2002) seasons are shown in Fig. 6. The color curve obtained in 1995 is presented in Fig. 7. The light curves were phased using an ephemeris:
$`MinI=HJD2448540.5739\pm 0.0013+E\times 3.1870848\pm 0.0000016d`$
which is based on moments of 3 individual primary minima. These minima span the period from 1991 to 2001 and are listed in Table 3.

The 1995 and 2001 light curves of V9 phased with the new ephemeris clearly show the presence of a shallow secondary eclipse centered at phase $`\varphi =0.50`$. They also exhibit significant asymmetry. The maximum following the primary eclipse is higher that that following the seacondary eclipse. The disturbed shape of the light curve precludes determination of geometrical elements of the binary by means of a standard light curve solution. The color curve from the 1995 season shows noticeable dips during both eclipses. This is quite an unusual behavior as in most eclipsing binaries the observed color becomes bluer at the secondary eclipse. At the primary eclipse the observed color of V9 is $`VI1.47`$. This value sets a lower limit on the color of the cooler component of the system and places it at least 0.25 mag to the red of the cluster subgiant branch (see Fig. 3). If the binary is indeed a member of the cluster then we may infer that its secondary is in stage of thermal inequilibrium.

Large and variable asymmetry of the light curve of V9 (see Fig. 6) is most likely due to occurrence of starspots on the surface of the cooler component of the binary. Profound spot activity is very often observed in close binaries composed of red subgiants (or giants) and main sequence stars. That class of variable stars in known as RS CVn type binaries. Light curves of RS CVn binaries occasionally show disturbances reaching a few tenths of magnitude in the $`V`$ band (Padmakar & Pandey 1999).

V17 shows light variations with period $`P=6.20`$ d. The 1995 season light curve is slightly asymmetric with some kind of a ”bump” occuring about 1 day before the minimum light. The full range of magnitudes diminishess from 0.091 in the $`V`$-band to 0.069 in the $`I`$-band. The light curve in the $`R`$-band obtained in 2001 by Mochejska et al. (2001) shows also sine-like shape but with different kind of asymmetry than is observed in our data from the 1995 season. There is no indication of any detectable change of period of variability between the 1995 and the 2001 seasons. If the variable is indeed a member of the cluster then it is difficult to explain its position on the color-magnitude diagram without postulating that it is a binary whose evolution was affected by some mass transfer between components. We note that V17 resembles S1113 in M67 (Mathieu et al. 2003) in respect of position on the color magnitude diagram of the parent cluster as well as a character of observed luminosity changes. To explain variability of S1113 Mathieu et al. (2003) postulated that they are due to combined effects of ellipsoidality and stellar spots. These two effects allow to explain also characteristic of the light curves of V17 and in particular their asymmetry and season-to-season changes of shape.

V76 shows light variations with the period $`P=4.19`$ d. For the 1995 season the full range of magnitudes changes from 0.094 in the $`V`$-band to 0.066 mag in the $`I`$-band. The variable is located above an apparent sequence of photometric binaries visible on both presented color-magnitude diagrams. Its $`V`$-band light curve for the 1991 season (KR data set) is shown in Fig. 8. During that season the average magnitude of the variable was $`<V>18.24`$ what can be compared with $`<V>=18.27`$ observed in the 1995 season. We would like to note that the variable possesses close visual companion at distance $`d=0.56`$ arcsec. This companion has $`V=20.43`$, $`BV=1.18`$ and $`VI=1.415`$.

## 4 Summary

In this paper we have discussed photometry of six variables from the central field of the old open cluster NGC 6791. All but one of them can be considered very likely cluster members based on their observed proper motions. The sample includes three red stragglers. Their location on the cluster color-magnitude diagram is hard to explain without postulating that they are evolved close binaries. In fact, variable red straggler V9 is an eclipsing close binary. Hypotheses about the binary nature of red stragglers V17 and V76 could be tested by obtaining suitable spectrosopic observations.
For the red giant variable V78, our data indicate modulation of the light curve with a period of about 0.33 day and an amplitude of about 0.005 mag in the $`V`$ band. This interesting object seems to be an attractive target for further observations. The yellow straggler V77 shows modulation of the light curve with a period of about 7.7 days.

Acknowledgments. This work was supported with NSF grant AST-9819787 and polish KBN grant 5P03D004.21. We are very grateful to Dr. Kyle Cudworth for providing us with the proper motion data for NGC 6791. We would also like to thank an anonymous referee, for a prompt and useful report.

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# Generalized special Lagrangian torus fibration for Calabi-Yau hypersurfaces in toric varieties I

## 1 Introduction

Let $`(X,\omega _g,\mathrm{\Omega })`$ be a Calabi-Yau manifold, where $`\omega _g`$ is the Kähler form of a Kähler metric $`g`$ (not necessarily Calabi-Yau) and $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is a holomorphic volume form. A middle dimensional real submanifold $`LX`$ is called a generalized special Lagrangian submanifold if $`L`$ is Lagrangian with respect to the Kähler form $`\omega _g`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ has constant phase along $`L`$. Namely, the phase angle function $`\theta _1`$ is constant, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }|_L=e^{i\theta }d\mathrm{Vol}_g`$, $`\theta =\theta _1+i\theta _2`$. Notice that $`\theta _2`$ is the restriction on $`L`$ of a global function $`\theta _2`$ on $`X`$ satisfying $`\mathrm{\Omega }\overline{\mathrm{\Omega }}=e^{2\theta _2}\omega _g^n`$. When $`\theta _2`$ is a constant, $`g`$ is a Calabi-Yau metric () and $`L`$ is called special Lagrangian submanifold of $`X`$. (More background and details on these concepts can be found in .) In this paper, we will mainly consider generalized special Lagrangian submanifolds and generalized special Lagrangian torus fibration for Calabi-Yau hypersurfaces in toric varieties near large complex limit.

The concept of special Lagrangian submanifold was first introduced in the seminal work of Harvey and Lawson  in the more general context of calibrated geometry. In  some important examples were constructed. After , the most notable progress on special Lagrangian was made in the work of Mclean . Mclean’s work was actually on the more general framework of deformation of calibrated submanifolds. Specifying to the case of special Lagrangian, he proved that the local deformation of a special Lagrangian submanifold $`L`$ is unobstructed and the local moduli has real dimension $`h^1(L)`$. This important work did not attract much attention and was not published until the proposal of SYZ conjecture  in mirror symmetry.

According to SYZ proposal, on each Calabi-Yau manifold there should be a special Lagrangian torus fibration. This conjectural special Lagrangian torus fibration structure of Calabi-Yau manifolds is further used to give a possible geometric explanation of the mirror symmetry conjecture. SYZ conjecture brought a lot of new attention to the study of special Lagrangian, and more generally calibrated geometry.

In complex dimension 2, the SYZ special Lagrangian fibrations can be reduced to the classical elliptic fibrations for K3 surfaces under the hyperKähler twist, which generically have 24 simple rational nodal singular fibres. The detailed knowledge of the two-dimensional SYZ fibrations naturally would suggest that SYZ fibration in dimension three should be smooth with codimension 2 singular locus. This had indeed been the prevailing view for quite a while. However evidences later indicated that this prevailing view might not be true. One evidence appeared in my construction of Lagrangian torus fibrations for Calabi-Yau hypersurfaces in toric varieties via gradient flow method (). The singular loci for the fibrations produced by the natural Hamiltonian-gradient flow are of amoeba nature and of codimension 1! Incidentally, the fibration maps are not smooth! This made me suspect that the actual special Lagrangian fibrations might also exhibit similar behavior (see the remark in the last section of ). Even with this evidence, people in favor of the original point of view could still argue that special Lagrangian condition might miraculously turn the fibration maps into smooth maps and make singular locus codimension 2. A more convincing evidence came from the important local example of special Lagrangian fibration with codimension 1 singular locus by D. Joyce . His fibration map is also not smooth. After these evidences, the current prevailing view is that the special Lagrangian torus fibrations for Calabi-Yau manifolds (if exist) should be non-smooth maps and have codimension 1 singular loci, very similar to the Lagrangian fibrations constructed via gradient flow method in . Nevertheless, up till now there is still not a single global construction of (generalized) special Lagrangian torus fibration with codimension 1 singular locus for a compact Calabi-Yau 3-fold to the author’s knowledge.

After SYZ conjecture, especially after the examples of D. Joyce, there has been an explosion of work on singular special Lagrangians. We will not discuss this development in detail, since our work at this stage only concerns smooth (generalized) special Lagrangian torus. Interested readers may consult the series of papers on this subject by D. Joyce (starting with ) and the references therein.

Our current work concentrates on the global structure of (generalized) special Lagrangian fibrations and can be viewed as an attempt toward verifying my conjecture () that the actual special Lagrangian fibrations should resemble the structure of Lagrangian fibrations constructed via gradient flow. Instead of constructing special Lagrangian submanifold by hand out of nowhere, which is very hard indeed, we look closer to the physics origin of the problem and notice that the explicit toric Lagrangian fibration of the toric large complex limit, based on which we produced Lagrangian fibrations for Calabi-Yau hypersurfaces near the large complex limit via gradient flow approach, is actually also a generalized special Lagrangian toric fibration over a sphere! Our method is a combination of the Hamilton-gradient flow we used in  and the deformation of (generalized) special Lagrangian manifolds similar to Mclean’s approach using some implicit function theorem.

More precisely, the fibration we construct is a generalized special Lagrangian fibration of an open set of the Calabi-Yau hypersurface over an open set of the base sphere with smooth torus fibres. The first fact that makes such (partial) fibration interesting is that (generalized) special Lagrangian fibration is rigid and free of local Hamiltonian deformation. One can be sure that any (generalized) special Lagrangian fibre one constructs will remain to be part of the ultimate global (generalized) special Lagrangian fibration for the Calabi-Yau. This suggests that one can construct the (generalized) special Lagrangian fibration piece by piece and these pieces will automatically coincide in the overlap and form a global fibration. In comparison, such (partial) fibration will be of far less interest for Lagrangian fibrations precisely due to the local Hamiltonian freedom of Lagrangian fibrations. Secondly, our fibration will be over an open set of the base sphere whose compliment is a fattening of the singular locus of the corresponding Lagrangian fibration constructed in . This enables us to verify all the non-trivial monodromies and they coincide with the Lagrangian case, which is a good indication that the ultimate global (generalized) special Lagrangian fibration for the Calabi-Yau hypersurface might resemble the structure of Lagrangian fibration constructed via gradient flow. For this reason, we call our (partial) fibration monodromy representing. In a certain sense, the construction of monodromy representing fibration is the construction of smooth fibres, which nicely compliments the works of Joyce and others on singular special Lagrangians. Hopefully one can eventually fill in the singular fibres and their neighborhood and achieve the construction of global (generalized) special Lagrangian fibration.

Remark: Although the SYZ mirror conjecture is formulated in terms of special Lagrangian fibrations, generalized special Lagrangian fibration is in a certain sense a close enough substitute. Firstly, generalized special Lagrangian submanifolds are minimal submanifolds with respect to the conformal Kähler metric $`\stackrel{~}{g}=e^{\frac{2}{n}\theta _2}g`$, just like the special Lagrangian submanifolds. So they could exhibit similar singularity structures. Secondly, as for special Lagrangian submanifolds, the deformation space of generalized special Lagrangian submanifold $`L`$ in $`X`$ also has dimension $`h_1(L)`$. On the other hand, generalized special Lagrangian submanifolds have the advantage that they make sense for any Kähler metric, so we do not need to work with the Calabi-Yau metric (), whose structure is very mysterious to this day.

## 2 Overview of the construction

Let $`(P_\mathrm{\Delta },\omega )`$ be a toric variety whose moment map image (with respect to the toric Kähler form $`\omega `$) is the real convex polyhedron $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_{}`$. Also assume that the anti-canonical class of $`P_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is represented by an integral reflexive convex polyhedron $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0M`$ and the unique interior point of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ is the origin of the lattice $`M`$. Integral points $`m\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ correspond to holomorphic toric sections $`s_m`$ of the anti-canonical bundle. For the unique interior point $`m_o`$ of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$, $`s_{m_o}`$ is the section of the anti-canonical bundle that vanishes to first order along each toric divisor of $`P_\mathrm{\Delta }`$.

Let $`\{w_m\}_{m\mathrm{\Delta }_0}`$ be a strictly convex function on $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ such that $`w_m>0`$ for $`m\mathrm{\Delta }_0\{m_o\}`$ and $`w_{m_o}0`$. Define

$$\stackrel{~}{s}_t=s_{m_o}+ts,s=\underset{m\mathrm{\Delta }_0\{m_o\}}{}a_ms_m,\mathrm{where}|a_m|=\tau ^{w_m},\mathrm{for}m\mathrm{\Delta }_0\{m_o\}.$$

Let $`X_t=\{\stackrel{~}{s}_t^1(0)\}`$. Then $`\{X_t\}`$ is a 1-parameter family of Calabi-Yau hypersurfaces. $`X_0=\{s_{m_o}^1(0)\}`$ is the so-called large complex limit. $`X_t`$ is said to be near the large complex limit if $`\tau `$ and $`t`$ are small and $`t\tau ^{w_{m_o}}`$.

Since $`X_0`$ is toric, the moment map induces the standard generalized special Lagrangian fibration $`\widehat{\pi }_0:X_0\mathrm{\Delta }`$ with respect to the toric holomorphic volume form. In , we constructed Lagrangian torus fibration for $`X_t`$ when $`X_t`$ is near the large complex limit, using the Hamiltonian-gradient flow to deform this fibration for $`X_0`$ symplectically to the desired Lagrangian fibration $`\widehat{\pi }_t:X_t\mathrm{\Delta }`$ for such $`X_t`$. The (topological) singular set of the fibration map $`\widehat{\pi }_t`$ is $`C=X_t\mathrm{Sing}(X_0)`$, which is independent of $`t`$. The corresponding singular locus $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}=\widehat{\pi }_0(C)`$ is also independent of $`t`$. When $`X_t`$ is near the large complex limit, $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}\mathrm{\Delta }`$ exhibits amoeba structure that is a fattening of a graph $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Delta }`$. It was conjectured in  that the singular locus for the (generalized) special Lagrangian torus fibration should resemble the singular locus $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ of the Lagrangian torus fibration.

In this work we will use similar idea to construct generalized special Lagrangian fibration for $`X_t`$ by deformation from the standard fibration of the large complex limit $`X_0`$.

At a first glance, the construction of special Lagrangian fibration (middle dimensional minimal surface PDE) appears to be much harder than the construction of Lagrangian fibration (with Hamiltonian deformation freedom). However, since special Lagrangian submanifold is rigid, the generalized special Lagrangian fibration on a Calabi-Yau manifold is essentially canonical when we fix the Kähler metric. This important property implies that one can construct the generalized special Lagrangian fibration over different part of the base $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ separately and they will automatically match on the overlaps.

In this paper, we will construct generalized special Lagrangian fibration for $`X_t`$ over two types of regions in $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. The type one region consists of the interior of top dimensional faces in $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Torus fibres over this region are of “normal” size. This part of the construction is a direct analogue of Mclean’s deformation result  and have also been done earlier by Goldstein in  using a slightly different method. The type two region consists of small neighborhoods of vertices of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Torus fibres over this region can have very “small” size. This part of the construction is the main original contribution of this paper. Notice from  that these two types of regions are mirror dual to each other under the symplectic SYZ mirror symmetry proved in  for Calabi-Yau hypersurfaces in toric varieties.

All the resulting generalized special Lagrangian fibres are smooth tori. A (generalized) special Lagrangian fibration of smooth tori over an open set $`U\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is said to represent the monodromy if $`\mathrm{\Delta }U`$ is a fattening of $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ that retracts to $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$. Existence of such monodromy representing (generalized) special Lagrangian (partial) fibration is a good indication that the actual global (generalized) special Lagrangian fibration might resemble the structure of the Lagrangian fibration constructed in  as we conjectured.

It is easy to see that the generalized special Lagrangian torus fibrations we construct over the union of the two types of regions already represent monodromy in the case of Fermat type Calabi-Yau hypersurfaces (including Fermat type quintics in $`^4`$).

In the sequels of this paper, we will construct generalized special Lagrangian torus fibrations that represent monodromy for generic Calabi-Yau hypersurfaces near the large complex limit. We will also discuss some singular fibres.

This paper is organized as follows. In section 3 we discuss the implicit function theorems and the general deformation results of (generalized) special Lagrangians. Hamiltonian-gradient flow is reviewed in section 4, and is used to derive two more specific deformation results of (generalized) special Lagrangians that are needed for our construction. Sections 5 and 6 are devoted to the construction of generalized special Lagrangian fibrations over the two types of regions. In section 7, we apply our results to constructing monodromy representing generalized special Lagrangian torus fibrations for Fermat type Calabi-Yau hypersurfaces.

## 3 Implicit function theorems and deformation of (generalized) special Lagrangian

### 3.1 Implicit function theorems

In our discussion we will need the implicit function theorem (for example see ). We will carry out the standard proof carefully to derive a more quantitative version of the implicit function theorem that we need.

###### Theorem 3.1 (Implicit function theorem)

Assume that $`_1`$, $`_2`$ are Banach spaces. $`F:_1\times _2`$ is a map, whose Frechet derivative is continuous. $`F(0,0)=0`$ and $`\frac{F}{h}(0,0):_1_2`$ is invertible. Then there exists a $`C^1`$-path $`h(t)`$ such that $`F(h(t),t)=0`$.

Proof: Consider the operator $`T`$ defined as

$$Th=h\left(\frac{F}{h}(0,0)\right)^1F(h,t).$$

$$\delta Th=\left(I\left(\frac{F}{h}(0,0)\right)^1\frac{F}{h}(h,t)\right)\delta h.$$

$`T`$ would be a contraction mapping on the ball $`U__1(r)_1`$ if $`[\frac{F}{h}(0,0)]^1C`$ and

$$\frac{F}{h}(h,t)\frac{F}{h}(0,0)\frac{1}{2C}$$

for $`hU__1(r)`$. For $`T`$ to map $`U__1(r)`$ to itself, we only need $`F(0,t)__2\frac{r}{2C}`$.

By choosing $`r`$ and $`t_0`$ small enough, all these conditions are easily satisfied for $`(h,t)U__1(r)\times [0,t_0]`$. Then for any $`t[0,t_0]`$, by contraction mapping principle, there exists a unique $`h(t)U__1(r)`$ satisfying $`F(h(t),t)=0`$. Clearly, $`h(t)`$ is a $`C^1`$-path with derivative

$$\frac{dh}{dt}=\left(\frac{F}{h}(h(t),t)\right)^1\frac{F}{t}(h(t),t).$$

It is easy to see the above proof actually proved the following quantitative version of the implicit function theorem.

###### Theorem 3.2 (Quantitative implicit function theorem)

Assume that $`_1`$, $`_2`$ are Banach spaces. $`F:_1\times _2`$ is a map, whose Frechet derivative is continuous and $`\frac{F}{h}(0,0):_1_2`$ is invertible. $`[\frac{F}{h}(0,0)]^1C`$. Assume further that we can find $`r_0>r>0,t_0>0`$ such that for $`(h,t)U__1(r_0)\times [0,t_0]`$,

$$\frac{F}{h}(h,t)\frac{F}{h}(0,0)\frac{1}{2C},F(0,t)__2\frac{r}{2C}.$$

Then there exists a $`C^1`$-path $`h(t)`$ in $`U__1(r)`$ for $`t[0,t_0]`$ such that $`F(h(t),t)=0`$. Further more, $`h(t)`$ is the unique solution of $`F(h(t),t)=0`$ in $`U__1(r_0)`$.

Proof: Only the uniqueness part needs comment. The conditions of the theorem imply that $`T:U__1(r_0)U__1(r_0)`$ is a contraction mapping. Therefore $`T`$ has a unique fixed point in $`U__1(r_0)`$, which is the unique solution of $`F(h(t),t)=0`$.

### 3.2 Deformation of generalized special Lagrangian

Let $`(X,\omega )`$ be a symplectic manifold with a family of Calabi-Yau structures $`(\mathrm{\Omega }_t,J_t,g_t)`$. Let $`L_0`$ be a generalized special Lagrangian submanifold in $`(X,\omega ,\mathrm{\Omega }_0)`$. Then locally, there is an identification $`XT^{}L_0`$ such that $`\omega `$ is identified with the canonical symplectic form on $`T^{}L_0`$. (See  for the general case. In our toric situation, such identification is actually explicit and does not need the general result from .) Any Lagrangian submanifold $`L`$ near $`L_0`$ can be identified with the graph of $`dh`$ for some smooth function $`h`$ on $`L_0`$. Under standard coordinate $`(x,y)`$ on $`T^{}L_0`$, $`\omega =dxdy`$ and $`L`$ is locally the graph $`(x,\frac{h}{x})`$.

Locally, we can write

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_t=\eta _t\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}(dx_k+u_{t,k}dy),$$

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_t|_L=\eta _t(x,\frac{h}{x})det\left(I+U_t\frac{^2h}{x^2}\right)\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}dx_k,$$

where $`U_t=(u_{t,1},\mathrm{},u_{t,n})=(u_{t,jk})`$ and $`u_{t,k}dy={\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}}u_{t,jk}dy_j`$.

$$F(h,t)=\mathrm{Im}\left(\mathrm{log}\mathrm{\Omega }_t|_L\right)=\mathrm{Im}\left(\mathrm{log}\eta _t(x,\frac{h}{x})+\mathrm{log}det\left(I+U_t\frac{^2h}{x^2}\right)\right)$$

defines a map $`F:_1\times _2`$, where $`_1=C^{2,\alpha }(L_0)`$, $`_2=C^\alpha (L_0)`$ are Banach spaces. It is also convenient to introduce $`_3=C^{1,\alpha }(\mathrm{\Gamma }(T^{}L_0))`$ to measure Lagrangian submanifolds near $`L_0`$. $`_1`$ is naturally a closed subspace of $`_3`$. (More generally, a small tubular neighborhood of $`L_0`$ can be identified locally with the normal bundle $`N_{L_0}`$. A small deformation $`L_1`$ of $`L_0`$ can be viewed as a section of $`N_{L_0}`$. We will use $`L_1L_0_{C^{1,\alpha }}`$ to denote the $`C^{1,\alpha }(\mathrm{\Gamma }(N_{L_0}))`$ norm of such section.) We intend to apply implicit function theorem to $`F`$ to construct the family of generalized special Lagrangians $`L_t`$ with respect to $`(X,\omega ,\mathrm{\Omega }_t)`$.

Straightforward computations give us

$$\delta _hF(h,t)=\frac{F}{h}(h,t)\delta h=a_t^{ij}\frac{^2\delta h}{x_ix_j}+b_t^i\frac{\delta h}{x_i},$$

where

$$a_t^{ij}(x)=\mathrm{Im}\left(\left(I+U_t\frac{^2h}{x^2}\right)^1U_t\right)(x,\frac{h}{x}),$$

$$b_t^i(x)=\mathrm{Im}\left(\frac{1}{\eta _t}\frac{\eta _t}{y_i}+\mathrm{Tr}\left(\left(I+U_t\frac{^2h}{x^2}\right)^1\frac{U_t}{y_i}\frac{^2h}{x^2}\right)\right)(x,\frac{h}{x}).$$

In particular,

$$\delta _hF(0,0)=\frac{F}{h}(0,0)\delta h=a^{ij}\frac{^2\delta h}{x_ix_j}+b^i\frac{\delta h}{x_i},$$

where

$$a^{ij}(x)=\mathrm{Im}\left((U_0)_{ij}\right)(x,0),b^i(x)=\mathrm{Im}\left(\frac{1}{\eta _0}\frac{\eta _0}{y_i}\right)(x,0).$$

Example: Assume that $`(X,\omega ,\mathrm{\Omega }_0)`$ is a toric variety with the Kähler potential $`\rho `$ (as function of $`\{\mathrm{log}r_k^2\}`$) and standard holomorphic volume form

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_0=\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{idz_k}{z_k}=\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}(d\theta _ki\frac{dr_k}{r_k}).$$

Then

$$\omega =i\overline{}\rho =i\rho _{jk}\frac{dz_j}{z_j}\frac{d\overline{z}_k}{\overline{z}_k}=d\theta _kd\rho _k.$$

Let $`L_0`$ be one of the real tori where all the $`r_k`$’s are constants. $`L_0`$ is obviously a generalized special Lagrangian with respect to the toric metric and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$. The coordinate $`(\theta _k,\rho _k)`$ naturally identifies $`X`$ with $`T^{}L_0`$. Under this coordinate, it is easy to compute that

$$\eta _0=1,u_{0,jk}=\frac{i}{2}\rho ^{jk},\mathrm{where}(\rho ^{jk})=(\rho _{jk})^1.$$

Therefore

$$\delta _hF(0,0)=\frac{1}{2}\rho ^{jk}\frac{^2\delta h}{\theta _j\theta _k}.$$
(3.1)
A smooth function is called (smoothly) bounded if the function and all its multi-derivatives are bounded. The metric matrix $`(g_{ij})`$ under certain coordinate is called bounded if each entry $`g_{ij}`$ is bounded as a smooth function and $`det(g_{ij})`$ is bounded from below by a positive constant. Under such condition, the curvature will be smoothly bounded and the inverse matrix $`(g^{ij})`$ is also bounded in the same sense. The Riemannian manifold is of bounded geometry if in addition, the injective radius is bounded from below by a positive constant. Such coordinates that make $`(g_{ij})`$ bounded is called proper.

A smooth family of smooth embeddings $`\{\varphi _t:Y_1(Y_2,g)\}_{tB}`$ is called bounded if $`y_2=\varphi _t(y_1)=\varphi (y_1,t)`$ is smoothly bounded for suitable coordinate $`(y_1,t)`$ and $`y_2`$ such that $`y_1`$ for fixed $`t`$ is proper coordinate of $`(Y_1,\varphi _t^{}g)`$ and $`y_2`$ is proper coordinate of $`(Y_2,g)`$. (Smoothly) boundedness of a smooth family of smooth tensors can also be defined similarly.

###### Definition 3.1

$`(LX,g)`$ is said to be of bounded geometry if both $`(X,g)`$ and $`(L,g|_L)`$ are of bounded geometry and the embedding $`L(X,g)`$ is bounded.

###### Theorem 3.3

Let $`(X,\omega )`$ be a symplectic manifold with a family of Calabi-Yau structure $`(\mathrm{\Omega }_t,J_t,g_t)`$. Let $`L_0`$ be a generalized special Lagrangian submanifold in $`(X,\omega ,\mathrm{\Omega }_0)`$. Assume $`(L_0X,g_0)`$ is of bounded geometry and $`\stackrel{~}{\nu }=\mathrm{max}_{t[0,t_0]}\mathrm{\Omega }_t\mathrm{\Omega }_0_{C^2}`$ is small enough. Then there exist $`C_1,C_2>0`$ and a smooth family of generalized special Lagrangian submanifolds $`L_t(X,\omega ,\mathrm{\Omega }_t)`$ that are Hamiltonian equivalent to $`L_0`$ for $`t[0,t_0]`$, and satisfy $`L_tU__3(C_1\stackrel{~}{\nu })`$. Further more, $`L_t`$ is the unique generalized special Lagrangian submanifold of $`(X,\omega ,\mathrm{\Omega }_t)`$ in $`U__3(C_2)`$.

Proof: $`\frac{F}{h}(h,t)`$ is a second order linear differential operator with coefficients being smooth functions of $`(t,x,h,\frac{h}{x},\frac{^2h}{x^2})`$. Therefore $`\frac{F}{h}(h,t)`$ is continuous on $`(h,t)`$. Similarly, $`\frac{F}{t}(h,t)`$ is continuous on $`(h,t)`$.

In general, as is well known, $`J_t`$ is determined by $`\mathrm{\Omega }_t`$ according to $`J_t(dx_k+\mathrm{Re}(u_{t,k}dy))=\mathrm{Im}(u_{t,k}dy)`$, which easily implies that $`\mathrm{Im}(U_t)(x,0)=(g_t|_L)^1`$. In particular

$$\frac{F}{h}(0,0)\delta h=(g_0|_L)^{ij}\frac{^2\delta h}{x_ix_j}+b^i\frac{\delta h}{x_i}.$$

(According to (3.1), the operator is much simpler in our toric case.) Since $`(L_0X,g_0)`$ is of bounded geometry, by standard Schauder estimate for the linear elliptic operator $`\frac{F}{h}(0,0)`$, there exists a constant $`C`$ such that

$$\delta h__1C\left(\frac{F}{h}(0,0)\right)\delta h__2.$$

Since $`[0,t_0]`$ is compact and $`\frac{F}{h}(h,t)`$ is continuous on $`(h,t)`$, there exists a constant $`C_2`$ such that when $`(h,t)U__1(C_2)\times [0,t_0]`$,

$$\frac{F}{h}(h,t)\frac{F}{h}(0,t)\frac{1}{4C}.$$

(More quantitatively, one needs the $`C^2`$-norm of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_t`$ to be uniformly bounded, which is implied by the conditions of the theorem.)

The condition $`\stackrel{~}{\nu }=\mathrm{max}_{t[0,t_0]}\mathrm{\Omega }_t\mathrm{\Omega }_0_{C^2}`$ being small implies both

$$\frac{F}{h}(0,t)\frac{F}{h}(0,0)\frac{1}{4C}$$

and

$$F(0,t)__2\frac{C_1\stackrel{~}{\nu }}{2C}.$$

Now our quantitative implicit function theorem will imply our result.

Remark: Since $`\mathrm{\Omega }_t\mathrm{\Omega }_0_{C^2}=O(t)`$ for $`t`$ small, when $`t_0`$ is allowed to be small, no additional condition on the smooth family $`\{\mathrm{\Omega }_t\}_{t[0,t_0]}`$ is needed. Theorem in this version is an analog of Mclean’s theorem.

## 4 Hamiltonian-gradient flow

Consider a smooth family of Kähler manifold $`(X_t,\omega _t)`$ with constant Kähler class, total space $`𝒳`$ and fibration map $`t:𝒳D`$. It is very easy to construct a Kähler form $`\omega `$ on the total space $`𝒳`$ so that $`\omega _t=\omega |_{X_t}`$. $`\omega `$ is determined by the family up to the pullback of Kähler form on $`D`$. The flow of $`V=\frac{f}{|f|^2}`$, where $`f=\mathrm{Re}(t)`$, determines symplectomorphisms $`\varphi _t:X_0X_t`$. We call this flow Hamiltonian-gradient flow. $`V`$ will be called the (normalized) Hamiltonian-gradient vector field for the parameter $`t`$. This flow was discussed intensively in  and has been used in my construction of Lagrangian fibrations .

We will start with a family $`(X_t,\omega _t,\mathrm{\Omega }_t)`$ of Calabi-Yau manifolds, we have the total space $`(𝒳,\omega ,\mathrm{\Omega })`$, such that $`\omega _t=\omega |_{X_t}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_t=(\mathrm{\Omega }(dt)^1)|_{X_t}`$. Since $`\varphi _t`$ are symplectomorphisms, we have $`\omega _0=\varphi _t^{}\omega _t`$. Using the Hamiltonian-gradient flow, the family $`(X_t,\omega _t,\mathrm{\Omega }_t)`$ of Calabi-Yau manifolds can be reduced to the equivalent family of Calabi-Yau structures $`\{\varphi _t^{}\mathrm{\Omega }_t\}`$ on the fixed symplectic manifold $`(X_0,\omega _0)`$. Let $`V_t`$ denote the Hamiltonian-gradient vector field for the parameter $`t`$. We have

###### Lemma 4.1

$$ı(V_t)\mathrm{\Omega }|_{X_t}=\mathrm{\Omega }_t.$$

Proof: By definition, $`V_t,dt=1`$. Hence $`ı(V_t)\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is a representative of the relative holomorphic volume form, namely

$$ı(V_t)\mathrm{\Omega }|_{X_t}=\mathrm{\Omega }_t.$$

###### Theorem 4.1

Assume that $`\{X_t\}_{t[0,t_0]}`$ is a bounded smooth family, and the bound is uniform with respect to $`t_0`$. $`(L_0X_0,g_0)`$ is of bounded geometry. Then when $`t_0`$ is small, there exist a smooth family of generalized special Lagrangian submanifolds $`L_t(X_t,\omega _t,\mathrm{\Omega }_t)`$ that are Hamiltonian equivalent to $`L_0`$ for $`t[0,t_0]`$, and satisfy $`L_tL_0_{C^{1,\alpha }}C|t|`$.

Proof: Under the condition of the theorem, there exist local bounded smooth map, $`(z,t)^n\times [0,t_0]𝒳`$, such that $`(z,t)`$ for fixed $`t`$ is a local proper coordinate of $`X_t`$. The projection of $`\frac{}{t}`$ to the normal direction of $`X_t`$ is exactly the Hamiltonian-gradient vector field $`V_t`$. $`V_t`$ is clearly smooth and uniformly bounded under our condition. Consequently, $`\varphi _t`$ is a uniformly bounded smooth flow, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_t=ı(V_t)\mathrm{\Omega }|_{X_t}`$ and $`\varphi _t^{}\mathrm{\Omega }_t`$ are smooth uniformly bounded family. Therefore $`\varphi _t^{}\mathrm{\Omega }_t\mathrm{\Omega }_0_{C^2}=O(t)`$. For $`t_0`$ small, apply theorem 3.3, there exists a smooth Hamiltonian equivalent family of generalized special Lagrangian submanifolds $`L_t^{}(X_0,\omega _0,\varphi _t^{}\mathrm{\Omega }_t)`$ for $`t[0,t_0]`$. Let $`L_t=\varphi _t(L_t^{})`$. Clearly, $`\{L_t\}_{t[0,t_0]}`$ is the desired smooth family.

We will also need to consider a family version (parametrized by $`s`$) of the above situation, where we have 2-parameter family $`(X_{t,s},\omega _{t,s},\mathrm{\Omega }_t)`$ of Calabi-Yau hypersurfaces in $`(𝒳,\omega ,\mathrm{\Omega })`$, such that $`\omega _{t,s}=\omega |_{X_{t,s}}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_t=(\mathrm{\Omega }(dt)^1)|_{X_{t,s}}`$. (Here $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_t`$ are also depending on $`s`$. We are omitting the subscript for the simplicity of notations.) We will use $`V_t`$ and $`V`$ to denote Hamiltonian-gradient vector fields for the parameters $`t`$ and $`s`$ respectively. We still have $`ı(V_t)\mathrm{\Omega }|_{X_{t,s}}=\mathrm{\Omega }_t`$. Let $`\varphi _s`$ denote the flow for $`V`$. For fixed $`t`$, the family $`(X_{t,s},\omega _{t,s},\mathrm{\Omega }_t)`$ of Calabi-Yau manifolds can be reduced to the equivalent family of Calabi-Yau structures $`\{\varphi _s^{}\mathrm{\Omega }_t\}`$ on the fixed symplectic manifold $`(X_{t,0},\omega _{t,0})`$.

###### Theorem 4.2

Assume that $`X_{\stackrel{~}{t},s}`$ forms a bounded smooth family for $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$ near $`t`$ and $`s[0,s_0]`$, and the bound is uniform with respect to $`s_0`$. $`(L_{t,0}X_{t,0},g_0)`$ is of bounded geometry. Then when $`s_0`$ is small, there exist a smooth family of generalized special Lagrangian submanifolds $`L_{t,s}(X_{t,s},\omega _s,\mathrm{\Omega }_s)`$ that are Hamiltonian equivalent to $`L_{t,0}`$ for $`s[0,s_0]`$, and satisfy $`L_{t,s}L_{t,0}_{C^{1,\alpha }}C|s|`$.

Proof: Under the condition of the theorem, there exists a local bounded smooth map, $`(z,\stackrel{~}{t},s)^n\times (tϵ,t+ϵ)\times [0,s_0]𝒳`$, such that $`(z,\stackrel{~}{t},s)`$ for fixed $`(\stackrel{~}{t},s)`$ is a local proper coordinate of $`X_{\stackrel{~}{t},s}`$. The projection of $`\frac{}{\stackrel{~}{t}}`$ and $`\frac{}{s}`$ to the normal direction of $`X_{t,s}`$ is exactly the Hamiltonian-gradient vector fields $`V_t`$ and $`V`$. $`V_t`$ and $`V`$ are clearly smooth and uniformly bounded under our condition. Consequently, $`\varphi _s`$ is a uniformly bounded smooth flow, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_s=ı(V_t)\mathrm{\Omega }|_{X_{t,s}}`$ and $`\varphi _s^{}\mathrm{\Omega }_s`$ are smooth uniformly bounded family. Therefore $`\varphi _s^{}\mathrm{\Omega }_s\mathrm{\Omega }_0_{C^2}=O(t)`$. For $`s_0`$ small, applying theorem 3.3, there exists a smooth Hamiltonian equivalent family of generalized special Lagrangian submanifolds $`L_{t,s}^{}(X_{t,0},\omega _0,\varphi _s^{}\mathrm{\Omega }_s)`$ for $`s[0,s_0]`$. Let $`L_{t,s}=\varphi _s(L_{t,s}^{})`$. Clearly, $`\{L_{t,s}\}_{s[0,s_0]}`$ is the desired smooth family.

## 5 Fibration over top dimensional faces in $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$

Take $`X_0P_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ to be the large complex limit, with the natural generalized special Lagrangian fibration $`\widehat{\pi }_0:X_0\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Non-degenerate fibres are in the smooth part of $`X_0`$, which is a union of top dimensional complex tori fibred over top dimensional faces in $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. The following results are direct analogues of Mclean’s deformation result  and theorem 5.1 in a slightly different form has also been done earlier by Goldstein in  using a slightly different method.

###### Theorem 5.1

For any non-degenerate generalized special Lagrangian fibre $`L_0`$ in $`X_0`$, there exists a smooth family $`\{L_t\}_{t[0,t_0]}`$, where $`L_t`$ is a generalized special Lagrangian torus in $`X_t`$ that is Hamiltonian equivalent to $`\varphi _t(L_0)`$ and satisfy $`L_tL_0_{C^{1,\alpha }}C|t|`$. ($`C`$ and $`t_0`$ depend on the distance of $`L_0`$ to $`\mathrm{Sing}(X_0)`$). For each fixed small $`t`$, when the fibre $`L_0X_0`$ varies, $`L_tX_t`$ will form a generalized special Lagrangian fibration over an open set $`U_t^{\mathrm{top}}\mathrm{\Delta }`$. The compliment of $`U_t^{\mathrm{top}}`$ in $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is a thin fattening (depending how small the $`t`$ is) of the $`(n1)`$-skeleton of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$.

Proof: Without loss of generality, we will concentrate on one of the smooth components of $`X_0`$. One may choose suitable toric coordinate $`(z_0,\mathrm{},z_n)`$, such that locally $`X_0=\{z_0=0\}`$ and $`X_t=\{z_0=tp(z)\}`$, where $`p(z)`$ is holomorphic on this smooth component of $`X_0`$. A generalized special Lagrangian fibre in this smooth component of $`X_0`$ can be expressed as

$$L_0=\{z_0=0,|z_k|=r_k(\mathrm{constant}),\mathrm{for}1kn\}.$$
(5.1)
Since $`L_0`$ is non-degenerate, $`p(z)`$ is bounded near $`L_0`$. Hence $`\{X_t\}_{t[0,t_0]}`$ is a smooth family that is bounded near $`L_0`$ (uniformly with respect to $`t_0`$ as long as $`t_0`$ is not too big). Applying theorem 4.1, we get the desired smooth family $`\{L_t\}_{t[0,t_0]}`$.

For fixed small $`t`$, to show $`L_t`$ form a generalized special Lagrangian fibration when the fibre $`L_0`$ varies, it is sufficient to show that non-trivial deformation 1-forms of $`L_t`$ have no zeroes on $`L_t`$. This is true because $`L_tL_0_{C^{1,\alpha }}C|t|`$ is small, which implies that non-trivial deformation 1-forms of $`L_t`$ are close to non-trivial harmonic 1-forms of $`L_0`$, which have no zeroes on $`L_0`$. (Notice from (3.1) that for $`L_0`$, deformation 1-forms are just harmonic 1-forms.)

We will call $`L_0`$ in (5.1) of bounded geometry up to scale $`\nu `$ if $`\mathrm{log}\widehat{r}_k`$ are bounded for $`1kn`$, where $`\widehat{r}_k=r_k/\nu `$. Argument in theorem 5.1 will also apply to such torus as long as $`\widehat{t}=t/\nu ^{n+1}`$ is small. More precisely, under the rescaled metric $`\widehat{g}=\nu ^2g`$ and coordinate $`\widehat{z}=z/\nu `$ and $`\widehat{t}`$, we are exactly in the situation of the proof of theorem 5.1, where we can apply theorem 4.1. We will use $`\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }`$ to denote $`C^{1,\alpha }`$-norm with respect the scalled metric $`\widehat{g}`$.

###### Theorem 5.2

$`U_t^{\mathrm{top}}`$ in theorem 5.1 will contain $`\widehat{\pi }_0(L_0)`$, where $`L_0X_0`$ is of bounded geometry up to scale $`\nu `$ as long as $`\widehat{t}=t/\nu ^{n+1}`$ is small. Further more $`L_tL_0_{\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }}=O(\widehat{t})`$ for such torus.

## 6 Fibration near vertices of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$

The fibre of $`\widehat{\pi }_0:X_0\mathrm{\Delta }`$ over a vertex of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is a fixed point in $`P_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ of the toric action. Assume $`OP_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is one of such fixed points and $`P_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is smooth around $`O`$. Then locally around $`O`$, we have local toric coordinate $`z=(z_0,\mathrm{},z_n)`$ such that

$$X_t=\{\stackrel{~}{p}_t(z)=0\},\mathrm{where}\stackrel{~}{p}_t(z)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}z_k+tp(z).$$

A natural idea to construct generalized special Lagrangian for $`X_t`$ (which is similar to the idea we used on the construction of Lagrangian fibration in ) is to modify the singular Hamiltonian-gradient flow to deform the generalized special Lagrangian for $`X_0`$ to the generalized special Lagrangian for $`X_t`$. This idea was successfully carried out in the previous section for smooth fibres in $`X_0`$. For singular fibres of $`X_0`$, this idea is somewhat difficult to carry out, partly due to the singular nature of the Hamiltonian-gradient vector field.

Instead, we will use an alternative idea based on a local model so that we will not need to deal with singular vector fields. We will start with the local model.

Local model: In $`^{n+1}`$, consider the family of hypersurfaces $`\{X_{t,0}\}`$ defined as

$$X_{t,0}=\{z_0\mathrm{}z_n=t\}.$$

Clearly $`X_{t,0}`$ are all toric varieties. For a toric metric on $`^{n+1}`$ with Kähler form $`\omega `$, $`\omega _{t,0}=\omega |_{X_{t,0}}`$ is a toric Kähler form on $`X_{t,0}`$. The natural generalized special Lagrangian torus fibration $`\widehat{\pi }_{t,0}:X_{t,0}\mathrm{\Delta }`$ with respect to any toric Kähler form is defined as $`\widehat{\pi }_{t,0}(z)=\{|z_k|^2\mathrm{min}(\{|z_i|^2\}_{i=0}^n)\}_{k=0}^n`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the first quadrant in $`^{n+1}`$.

Without loss of generality, we may assume $`p(0)=1`$ and denote $`\stackrel{ˇ}{p}(z)=p(z)1`$. Let

$$X_{t,s}=\{\stackrel{~}{p}_{t,s}(z)=0\},\mathrm{where}\stackrel{~}{p}_{t,s}(z)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}z_k+t(1+s\stackrel{ˇ}{p}(z)).$$

We will use the family $`\{X_{t,s}\}_{s[0,1]}`$, which connect the local model $`X_{t,0}`$ and $`X_t=X_{t,1}`$. Our idea here is to deform the generalized special Lagrangian torus fibration of the local model $`X_{t,0}`$ to the generalized special Lagrangian torus fibration of $`X_t`$.

For a constant $`\nu >0`$, let

$$L_{t,0}=\{zX_{t,0}||z_k|=r_k(\mathrm{constant}),\mathrm{for}0kn\},$$

where $`r_k`$ for $`1kn`$ are of order $`\nu `$ and $`r_0`$ is of order $`\frac{t}{\nu ^n}`$. More precisely, assume that $`\mathrm{log}\frac{r_k}{\nu }`$ for $`1kn`$ and $`\mathrm{log}\frac{\nu ^nr_0}{t}`$ are bounded. Similar to section 5, we will use rescaled metric $`\widehat{g}=\nu ^2g`$ and coordinate $`\widehat{z}=z/\nu `$ and $`\widehat{t}=t/\nu ^{n+1}`$. Notice that when $`\widehat{t}`$ is bounded, $`L_{t,0}`$ is of bounded geometry up to scale $`\nu `$. We have

###### Theorem 6.1

When $`\widehat{t}`$ and $`\nu `$ are bounded and $`t`$ is small enough, for any such generalized special Lagrangian fibre $`L_{t,0}`$ in $`X_{t,0}`$, there exist a smooth family $`\{L_{t,s}\}_{s[0,1]}`$, where $`L_{t,s}`$ is a generalized special Lagrangian torus in $`X_{t,s}`$ that is Hamiltonian equivalent to $`\varphi _s(L_{t,0})`$ and $`L_{t,s}L_{t,0}_{\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }}=O(\widehat{t}\nu )`$. For each fixed small $`t`$, when the fibre $`L_{t,0}`$ varies, $`L_{t,1}`$ will form a generalized special Lagrangian fibration over an open neighborhood $`U_t^{\mathrm{ver}}`$ of the vertex of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$.

Proof: Scale the coordinate and metric by $`z=\nu \widehat{z}`$, $`g=\nu ^2\widehat{g}`$. Then

$$X_{t,s}=\left\{\widehat{z}_0=\widehat{t}(1+s\stackrel{ˇ}{p}(\nu \widehat{z}))\left(\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}\widehat{z}_k\right)\right\}.$$
(6.1)
Near $`L_{t,0}`$, $`\widehat{z}_k=O(1)`$ for $`1kn`$ and $`\widehat{z}_0=O(\widehat{t})`$, which can be small. From the explicit expression in (6.1), it is easy to verify that $`X_{t,s}`$ (near $`L_{t,0}`$) with respect to parameters $`\widehat{t}`$ near the fixed value and $`\widehat{s}=\widehat{t}\nu s[0,\widehat{t}\nu ]`$ forms a smooth family that is uniformly bounded. According to our requirement on $`L_{t,0}`$, clearly $`L_{t,0}`$ is of bounded geometry in $`(X_{t,0},\widehat{g})`$. Applying theorem 4.2, we get the desired smooth family $`\{L_{t,s}\}_{s[0,1]}`$.

## 7 Monodromy representing generalized special Lagrangian torus fibration for Fermat type Calabi-Yau hypersurfaces

The results in the previous two sections can be summarized into the following.

###### Theorem 7.1

When $`t`$ is small enough, there exists an open subset $`\stackrel{~}{X}_tX_t`$ and a smooth special Lagrangian torus fibration $`\widehat{\pi }_t:\stackrel{~}{X}_tU_t`$, where $`U_t=U_t^{\mathrm{top}}U_t^{\mathrm{ver}}\mathrm{\Delta }`$ (as indicated in figure 1 for $`n=2`$ near a vertex of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$).

Proof: The only thing remaining to be shown is that the two fibrations coincide in the overlaps. Start with

$$L_{t,0}=\{zX_{t,0}||z_k|=r_k(\mathrm{constant}),\mathrm{for}0kn\}$$

$$L_0=\{z_0=0,|z_k|=r_k(\mathrm{constant}),\mathrm{for}1kn\}$$

with the same constants $`\{r_k\}_{k=1}^n`$ such that $`L_0`$ is of bounded geometry up to scale $`\nu `$. Under the rescaling by $`\nu `$, it is easy to check that $`L_{t,0}L_0_{\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }}=O(\widehat{t})`$. By theorems 5.2 and 6.1, we have

$$L_tL_0_{\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }}=O(\widehat{t}),L_{t,1}L_{t,0}_{\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }}=O(\widehat{t}).$$

Consequently $`L_{t,1}L_t_{\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }}=O(\widehat{t})`$. This implies that the Lagrangian torus $`L_{t,1}X_t`$ is of order $`O(\widehat{t})`$ in the deformation space of Lagrangian torus (modulo Hamiltonian equivalence) near $`L_tX_t`$ parametrized by $`H^1(L_t)`$ under the rescaled metric $`\widehat{g}`$. Recall that $`L_t`$ form a generalized special Lagrangian fibration with bounded geometry with respect to $`\widehat{g}`$ when constants $`\{r_k\}_{k=1}^n`$ vary. We can find constants $`\{r_k^{}\}_{k=1}^n`$ such that $`\mathrm{log}r_k^{}\mathrm{log}r_k=O(\widehat{t})`$ and the corresponding $`L_t^{}`$ is Hamiltonian equivalent to $`L_{t,1}`$. It is easy to verify from their exlicit definition that $`L_{t,0}L_0^{}_{\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }}L_{t,0}L_0_{\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }}+L_0L_0^{}_{\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }}=O(\widehat{t})`$. Consequently, $`L_{t,1}L_t^{}_{\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }}L_{t,1}L_{t,0}_{\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }}+L_{t,0}L_0^{}_{\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }}+L_0^{}L_t^{}_{\widehat{C}^{1,\alpha }}=O(\widehat{t})`$. By the uniqueness part of theorem 3.3, when $`\widehat{t}`$ is small, $`L_{t,1}`$ coincide with $`L_t^{}`$.

Figure 1: $`U_t=U_t^{\mathrm{top}}U_t^{\mathrm{ver}}\mathrm{\Delta }`$ (n=2)

The dotted areas in figure 1 are $`U_t^{\mathrm{ver}}`$, $`U_t^{\mathrm{top}}`$ and $`U_t=U_t^{\mathrm{top}}U_t^{\mathrm{ver}}`$ near a vertex of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ (for $`n=2`$). The radii of the small circles are of order $`O(|t|^{\frac{1}{n+1}})`$ and the radius of the big circle is of order $`O(1)`$, which is independent of $`t`$.

Remark: By “smooth special Lagrangian torus fibration”, we mean that the fibres are smooth and varying smoothly. Then $`U_t`$ can be equipped with the corresponding smooth structure to make the map $`\widehat{\pi }_t`$ smooth in the usual sense.

When $`dimX_t=1`$, the singular locus $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}=\mathrm{}`$. Theorem 7.1 implies the uniformization theorem for such $`X_t`$, which is of course classical.

###### Corollary 7.1

When $`dimX_t=1`$ and $`t`$ is small enough, there exists a smooth special Lagrangian circle fibration $`\widehat{\pi }_t:X_tS^1`$, consequently, $`X_t`$ is biholomorphic to $`/\mathrm{\Pi }`$, where $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is a lattice in $``$.

Proof: Assume the phase of the holomorphic volume form $`\mathrm{\Omega }_t`$ is $`\theta `$ along the special Lagrangian circle fibres. One can find canonical (up to addition of constant) local holomorphic coordinate $`z=x+iy`$ such that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_t=e^{i\theta }dz`$, and $`dy`$ resticted to the special Lagrangian circle fibres equals to zero. Consequently, $`y`$ restricts to constant along the special Lagrangian circles and forms natual coordinate of the base $`\mathrm{\Delta }S^1`$. When extending the canonical holomorphic coordinate $`z`$ around the fibre circle and a horizontal circle, one would pick up constants $`\pi _1`$ and $`\pi _2`$ that generate lattice $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$. Then it is easy to see that $`X_t`$ is biholomorphic to $`/\mathrm{\Pi }`$ and the fibration map is $`\widehat{\pi }_t(z)=y`$.

A more non-trival application of theorem 7.1 is to the case of Fermat type Calabi-Yau in $`^n`$ (including Fermat type quintics in $`^4`$). For Fermat type Calabi-Yau, the singular locus $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ is rather simple. (See  for detail.) It is fairly easy to see that $`\mathrm{\Delta }U_t`$ is a fattening of $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ in this case.

###### Corollary 7.2

For Fermat type Calabi-Yau family $`\{X_t\}`$ with the restriction of any toric Kähler metric from $`^n`$ (including the Fubini-Study metric), when $`t`$ is small enough, there exists a smooth monodromy representing generalized special Lagrangian torus (partial) fibration for $`X_t`$.

Acknowledgement: I would like to thank Prof. Yong-Geun Oh for helpful discussions and Qin Jing for pushing me to draw figure 1.


text:
# Proof.

A Theorem on Prime Numbers

Leo Liberti

Centre for Process Systems Engineering
Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine

(l.liberti@ic.ac.uk)

2 August 2002

## Abstract

The theorem presented in this paper allows the creation of large prime numbers (of order up to $`o(n^2)`$ given a table of all primes up to $`n`$.

Notation: in what follows, products taken over empty index sets are to be considered equal to 1.

Theorem
Let $`p(i)`$ be the $`i`$-th prime number and let $`I_1,I_2`$ be a partition of $`\{1,\mathrm{},n\}`$ such that

$`q_1={\displaystyle \underset{iI_1}{}}p(i){\displaystyle \underset{iI_2}{}}p(i)`$ $``$ $`(p(n))^2,`$ (1)
$`q_2={\displaystyle \underset{iI_1}{}}p(i)+{\displaystyle \underset{iI_2}{}}p(i)`$ $``$ $`(p(n))^2.`$ (2)
Then $`q_1,q_2`$ are prime numbers.

###### Proof.

Suppose there is a non-unit prime $`b`$ such that $`b\sqrt{q_1}`$ and $`b|q_1`$. Then because $`\sqrt{q_1}p(n)`$ we have $`bp(n)`$; thus there is a $`jn`$ such that $`b=p(j)`$. Assume without loss of generality $`jI_1`$ (a symmetric argument holds if we assume $`jI_2`$). Then $`b|q_1`$ and $`b|_{iI_1}p(i)`$ imply $`b|_{iI_2}p(i)`$, i.e. $`jI_1I_2`$, which is empty, so such a $`b`$ cannot exist. Hence $`q_1`$ is prime. Similarly for $`q_2`$. ∎

This theorem allows us, given a table of prime numbers up to an integer $`n`$, to create prime numbers of order at most $`o(n^2)`$.

A note about the theorem, by C. Helfgott

To my posting this theorem on arXiv.org, Dr. C. Helfgott of Berkeley, USA, gave this reply:

> Your results, while not wrong, are virtually useless. I do not mean to offend, but rather to point out certain facts you may have inadvertantly overlooked:
>
> 1. You define a quantity
>
> $$q_2=\mathrm{\Pi }_{iI_1}p(i)+\mathrm{\Pi }_{iI_2}p(i)$$
>
> and wish to restrict it to the range $`\{0,\mathrm{},(p(n))^2\}`$. However, for any value of $`n>5`$, and any partition $`I_1,I_2`$ of $`\{1,\mathrm{}n\}`$, the quantity $`q_2`$ will be greater than your bound. Thereby making your theorem a null statement.
> 2. For your quantity $`q_1`$, yes, it may be possible to construct a partition with the properties described. I suspect, however, that you would find it computationally intractable to do so for any significant value of $`n`$. Furthermore, there are much better ways of constructing primes of size $`p(n)^2`$ than to start by listing all primes up to $`p(n)`$ (which is in and of itself a nigh-impossible task for any significant value of $`n`$).
>
> In conclusion, while the two results presented in your paper are true, one is a null statement, and the other is so impractical to implement as to be completely useless.

I can only thank Dr. Helfgott for highlighting these facts. I would just like to point out that since the inception of the polynomial-time primality testing algorithm by Agrawal, Kayal and Saxena (see http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/news/primality.html), constructing a list of all primes up to $`p(n)`$ is less “nigh-impossible” than it seemed. It is true, however, that the few numerical experiments I ran on this theorem were disappointing.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Sex, which involves the alternation of meiosis and gamete fusion, is a rather inefficient means of self-propagation as compared to asexual reproduction, where offspring stem only from a mitotically produced cells. One of the most common reasons used to explain the origin and maintenance of sex is its ability to reduce the mutation load if consecutive mutations lead to an increasing decline in relative fitness, although it is not clear a priori that the heritable variance in fitness is significantly increased by sex. Despite decades of developing theoretical models to explain why sex is such a widespread phenomenon and how sexual reproduction may confer advantages that outweigh its disadvantages, until now no such general clear advantage has been found.

Investigations of evolutionary problems by physicists have in fact boomed in the last few years. Since computer simulations of natural systems can provide much insight into their fundamental mechanisms, they can be used to test theoretical ideas that could be otherwise viewed as too vague to deserve the status of scientific knowledge . In this way, many computer models in population dynamics have been proposed to investigate the evolution of sex and its justification, as well as the comparison between sexual and asexual reproduction, for instance, the Redfield model , the Penna bit-string model , a genomic bit-string model without aging  and Stauffer model .

Of particular interest here is the Heumann-Hötzel model , which originally simulated the evolution of asexual population, composed of haploid individuals, without recombination. Thus now we introduce the recombination in this model, in order to find out if the sexual reproduction (with males and females) can produce better results than the simple asexual reproduction . In the next section, we describe the standard and the modified Heumann-Hötzel model, in section 3, we present our results and in section 4, our conclusions.

## 2 Heumann-Hötzel Model

Since it has been proposed by Michael Heumann and Michael Hötzel in $`1995`$, the Heumann-Hötzel model , which was an unsuccessful attempt to introduce more ages in the Dasgupta model , has remained forgotten due to the fact that after many generations it reduces to the two-age model of Partridge-Barton . The Dasgupta model consists in taking into account some modifications such as hereditary mutations and food restrictions in the Partridge-Barton model. In fact, the Heumann-Hötzel paper , treats basically the computer simulations using the generalized Dasgupta aging model proposed by Michael Hötzel in his work, under the supervision of Dietrich Stauffer, in order to obtain the license to teach in German secondary school . Michael Heumann, who was another teacher’s candidate, worked only on the inclusion of the ”Dauer” state in the Dasgupta model .

Recently, the Heumann-Hötzel model was reinvestigated and, according to the authors, with “simple and minor change in the original model” this incapacity to describe populations with many ages seems to be surmounted .

In the original version of the Heumann-Hötzel, the genome of each (haploid) individual is represented by one set of probabilities $`p_0,p_1,p_2,\mathrm{},p_{\mathrm{maxage}1}`$, where $`p_a`$ is the survival probability that an individual has to reach age $`a+1`$ from age $`a`$. At every time step $`t`$, $`N(t)\mathrm{maxage}`$ individuals are chosen randomly to have their survival probability $`p_a`$ altered by mutations to $`p_a^{}=p_a\mathrm{exp}(ϵ)`$, where the age $`a`$ is also randomly chosen. $`N(t)`$ is the size of the population at time $`t`$ and $`\mathrm{maxage}`$ is the maximum age one individual can live, which is set up in the beginning of the simulation. The quantity $`ϵ`$ is chosen randomly as any number between $`ϵ_1`$ and $`ϵ_2`$ and when it is negative (positive) it corresponds to a deleterious (beneficial) mutation.

The effect of food and space restrictions is taken account by an age-independent Verhulst factor, which gives to each individual a probability $`[1N(t)/N_{\mathrm{max}}]`$ of staying alive; $`N_{\mathrm{max}}`$ represents the maximum possible size of the population. This mean-field probability of death for the computer simulations has the benefit of limiting the size of population to be dealt with. The passage of time is represented by the reading of a new locus in the genome of each individual in the population, and the increase of its age by $`1`$. After taking account the natural selection and the action of Verhulst dagger, at the completion of each period of life, each individual gives birth to one baby (age=0) which inherits its set of probabilities ($`p_0^{},p_1^{},p_2^{},\mathrm{},p_{\mathrm{maxage}1}^{}`$).

In the recent reinvestigation of this model, individuals with age $`a`$ in the interval $`a_{\mathrm{min}}aa_{\mathrm{max}}`$ will generate $`b`$ offspring and the mutations are allowed only on a fraction $`F`$ ($`0F1`$) of the babies.

In the sexual version, each (diploid) individual of the population, which consists of males and females, is genetically represented now by two sets of survival probabilities, $`P(a)^1`$ and $`P(a)^2`$, to be read in parallel. In this way, we have studied the following cases (see below):

$$P(a)^1=(p_0^1,p_1^1,p_2^1,\mathrm{},p_{\mathrm{maxage}1}^1)$$

$$P(a)^2=(p_0^2,p_1^2,p_2^2,\mathrm{},p_{\mathrm{maxage}1}^2)$$

$``$ Case (a) \- The effective survival probability in some age will be the arithmetic average of the values present in both sets at that age:

$$P(a)^{\mathrm{effective}}=(\frac{p_0^1+p_0^2}{2},\frac{p_1^1+p_1^2}{2},\mathrm{},\frac{p_{\mathrm{maxage}1}^1+p_{\mathrm{maxage}1}^2}{2})$$

$``$ Case (b) \- The effective survival probability in some age will be the maximum value between the values present in both sets at that age:

$$P(a)^{\mathrm{effective}}=(\mathrm{max}[p_0^1,p_0^2],\mathrm{max}[p_1^1,p_1^2],\mathrm{},\mathrm{max}[p_{\mathrm{maxage}1}^1,p_{\mathrm{maxage}1}^2])$$

If the female succeeds in surviving until the minimum reproduction age $`a_{\mathrm{min}}`$, it chooses, at random, an able male to mate ($`a_{\mathrm{min}}\mathrm{age}a_{\mathrm{max}}`$) and it generates, with probability $`p_b`$, $`b`$ offspring every iteration until the maximum age of reproduction $`a_{\mathrm{max}}`$. The offspring inherits its set of survival probabilities from its parents in the following way: the two sets of survival probabilities of the male, for instance, are broken in the same random position, and the complementary pieces, belonging to different strings, are joined to form two male gametes. One of the gametes is then randomly chosen to be passed to the offspring. After that, $`m_m`$ random mutations are introduced into this gamete, and the final result corresponds to one string of the baby genome. The same process occurs with the female genome, generating the second string of the baby, with $`m_f`$ mutations. At the end the offspring genome contains a total of $`M=m_m+m_f`$ mutations. Finally, the sex of the baby is randomly chosen, each one with probability $`50\%`$. This procedure is repeated for each of the $`b`$ offspring.

## 3 Results

The simulation starts with $`N_\mathrm{o}`$ individuals (half for each sex) and runs for $`400,000`$ time steps, at the end of which (the last $`10,000`$ steps, when the population was stabilized) averages are taken over the population. The parameters of the simulations are:

$``$ Initial population $`N_\mathrm{o}=10,000`$;

$``$ Maximum population size $`N_{\mathrm{max}}=100N\mathrm{o}`$;

$``$ Probability to give birth $`\mathrm{p}_\mathrm{b}=1.0`$;

$``$ Birth rate $`\mathrm{b}=1.0`$;

$``$ Mutation rate $`m_m=m_f=1`$ per gamete;

$``$ $`ϵ_1=0.02`$ and $`ϵ_2=0.04`$ (the same values used in the original Hötzel model).

Our figures with $`N_\mathrm{o}=10,000`$ are confirmed by larger simulations with $`N_\mathrm{o}=100,000`$, and also by larger simulations with $`10^7`$ time steps.

From Figure 1 and its inset we can see that the diploid sexual population is not only larger than the haploid asexual one, but also presents a higher survival probability.

In Figure 2 (case (a)) and Figure 3 (case (b)), we present the survival probability as a function of age for different period of reproduction ($`a_{\mathrm{min}}ia_{\mathrm{max}}`$). Aging starts with reproduction: the survival rate decays as soon as reproduction age is reached. There are no individuals alive older than the maximum reproduction age $`a_{\mathrm{max}}`$. Figure 4 corresponds to the case in which all the individuals of the population reproduces only once - the so-called catastrophic senescence effect . In this way, two rules of reproducing were adopted: 1) The reproduction age is the same for all individuals ($`a_{\mathrm{max}}=a_{\mathrm{min}}=10`$), 2) The reproduction age is randomly chosen between $`a_{\mathrm{min}}=5`$ and $`a_{\mathrm{max}}=10`$. We can noticed that this effect is more pronounced for the former , as well that the responsible for that are both breeding once and breeding for all individuals at the same age. The explanation for these effects observed in Figures 2-4 is based on the Darwin theory: individuals must stay alive in order to reproduce and perpetuate the species. If they can no longer generate offspring but remain in the population, they are killed by the accumulation of deleterious mutations .

In fact, real mutations can be divided into the common recessive (almost $`90\%`$ of the real mutations are recessive) and the rare dominant mutations. In this way, if among the many genes of a species, one of the father’s genes differs from the corresponding one of the mother, then it adversely affects the child only if the mutation is dominant. Recessive mutations affect the child only if both the father and mother have them. In order to take into account this aspect in the sexual version of Hötzel, at the beginning of the simulation we choose randomly $`d`$ dominant positions and keep them fixed during the whole simulation. The effective survival probability in the dominant positions (ages) will be the smallest value of the two located in the same position in both strands, and for recessives ones the effective survival probability will be the arithmetic average of them. In Figure 5, we can see that the inclusion of dominance does not alter the lifespan of the population, although it has been observed that population evolved without dominance is larger than the other without dominance due the deaths in the former being bigger than the latter, since in these dominant positions the effective survival probability is the minimum value between the values present in both sets at that age. In the particular simulation shown, for $`\mathrm{age}=2`$ it is noticed a decrease in the survival probability when the dominance is considered, since the ages $`2`$, $`13`$, $`10`$, $`15`$ were dominant positions.

Figure 6 shows the time evolution of the total population of each age for sexual reproduction when the mutations are exclusively harmful. From this figure we can notice that a stable population for ages $`a3`$ is obtained, in contrast to the original model in which there are no individuals alive older than age $`a>2`$, even if beneficial mutation and also a deleterious mutation rate $`5`$ times smaller have been assumed. The result obtained here (Fig. 1), introducing sex in the original model, was found with the asexual Hötzel model  only when mutations were allowed on a very small fraction $`F=10\%`$ of the babies and also a minimum age of reproduction $`a_{\mathrm{min}}=8`$ was considered. In our simulations, $`F=100\%`$, $`a_{\mathrm{min}}=1`$ and $`a_{\mathrm{max}}=17`$.

## 4 Conclusions

We have shown that main problem related to the Hötzel model, which was its incapacity to treat populations with many age intervals, has been overcome by introducing recombination (with males and females) in this model, without any other assumptions. As well as, with the inclusion of sex in the model, the population meltdown observed in the asexual version, when only deleterious mutations are considered, has been avoided. Moreover, in agreement with some earlier models, we have also obtained that the sexual reproduction (with males and females) produces better results than the asexual one.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Suzana Moss and Dietrich Stauffer for discussions and a critical reading of the manuscript, and DAAD for financial support.