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# Giant dispersion of critical currents in superconductor with fractal clusters of a normal phase

## Abstract

The influence of fractal clusters of a normal phase on the dynamics of a magnetic flux trapped in a percolative superconductor is considered. The critical current distribution and the current–voltage characteristics of fractal superconducting structures in the resistive state are obtained for an arbitrary fractal dimension of the cluster boundaries. The range of fractal dimensions, in which the dispersion of critical currents becomes infinite, is found. It is revealed that the fractality of clusters depresses of the electric field caused by the magnetic flux motion thus increasing the critical current value. It is expected that the maximum current-carrying capability of a superconductor can be achieved in the region of giant dispersion of critical currents.

One way to increase the critical currents of superconductors consists in creating the artificial pinning centers in the volume of material. The role of such centers can be performed by the clusters of a normal phase formed in the course of the film growth at the sites of defects at the film-substrate interface . New possibilities for the pinning enhancement are opened in the case of clusters of a normal phase with fractal boundaries  (see also references in ). In the present paper the effect of such fractal clusters on the critical currents and current-voltage characteristics of superconductors in the resistive state are considered.

The problem setting is similar to that considered in , . A superconductor containing columnar inclusions of a normal phase is cooled in a magnetic field below the critical temperature (in field-cooling regime). As a result, the magnetic flux is trapped in isolated clusters of a normal phase. Then a transport current is passed through the sample across the direction of the magnetic field. It is assumed that a superconducting percolation cluster has been formed in the plane where electric current flows. While the transport current increases, the trapped flux remains unchanged until the vortices begin to break away from the clusters for which the pinning force is smaller than the Lorentz force created by the current. The vortices travel through the superconducting space via weak links between clusters of a normal phase. The weak links are readily formed at various structural defects in high temperature superconductors (HTS’s) characterized by a small coherence length. In usual low-temperature superconductors the weak links can be formed as a result of the proximity effect at the sites of minimum distance between the next normal phase clusters.

Thus, irrespective of their nature, the weak links form channels for the transport of vortices. According to the weak link configuration, each cluster of the normal phase contributes to the total distribution of the depinning critical currents. A geometric probability analysis of the influence of distribution of the points, where vortices can enter into weak links, on the critical currents of clusters was performed in Ref. . As the transport current increases, the vortices break away first from the clusters of a smaller pinning force and, accordingly, a smaller critical current. Therefore, a change in the trapped magnetic flux $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is proportional to the number of normal phase clusters of the critical currents below a preset value of $`I`$. Therefore, a relative flux decrease is equal to the probability that the critical current $`I^{}`$ of an arbitrarily selected cluster is smaller than $`I`$:

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }}{\mathrm{\Phi }}=\underset{0}{\overset{I}{}}f\left(I^{}\right)𝑑I^{}$$
(1)
where $`f\left(I\right)`$ is the probability density for the distribution of the critical depinning currents.

At the same time, the magnetic flux trapped in a cluster is proportional to the cluster area $`A`$. So, a change in the total trapped flux depends on the distribution of areas of the normal phase clusters. Thus, in order to determine how the transport current affects the trapped magnetic flux, it is necessary to find a relationship between distributions of the critical currents of clusters and their areas. This problem was solved in Ref.  for the general case of the gamma-distribution of areas of the clusters with fractal boundaries:

$$w\left(a\right)=\frac{\left(g+1\right)^{g+1}}{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(g+1\right)}a^g\mathrm{exp}\left(\left(g+1\right)a\right)$$
(2)
where $`w(a)`$ is the probability density for the cluster area distribution, $`aA/\overline{A}`$ is the dimensionless area of a cluster, $`\overline{A}`$ is the average cluster area, $`g`$ is the gamma-distribution parameter which determins the standard deviation of the cluster area $`\sigma _a=1/\sqrt{g+1}`$, and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )`$ is the Euler gamma–function. In this case, the distribution of critical currents is as follows:

$$f(i)=\frac{2G^{g+1}}{D\mathrm{\Gamma }(g+1)}i^{\left(2/D\right)(g+1)1}\mathrm{exp}\left(Gi^{2/D}\right)$$
(3)
where

$`G\left({\displaystyle \frac{\theta ^\theta }{\theta ^{g+1}\left(D/2\right)\mathrm{exp}\left(\theta \right)\mathrm{\Gamma }(g+1,\theta )}}\right)^{\frac{2}{D}}`$

$`\theta g+1+{\displaystyle \frac{D}{2}}`$

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu ,z)`$ is the complementary incomplete gamma function, $`iI/I_c`$ is the dimensionless electric current, $`I_c=\alpha \left(\left(g+1\right)/G\overline{A}\right)^{D/2}`$ is the critical current of the transition into the resistive state, $`\alpha `$ is a form factor, and $`D`$ is the fractal dimension of the cluster boundary. The fractal dimension determines the scaling relation between perimeter and area:

$$P^{1/D}A^{1/2}$$
(4)
where $`P`$ is the perimeter of a cluster of area $`A`$. Relation of Eq. (4) is consistent with the generalized Euclid theorem according to which the ratios of the corresponding geometric measures are equal when reduced to the same dimension .

In the particular case of $`g=0`$ the gamma-distribution of Eq. (2) reduces to the exponential one, $`w\left(a\right)=\mathrm{exp}\left(a\right)`$, for which $`\overline{a}=\sigma _a=1`$. This distribution of areas of the normal phase clusters with fractal boundaries was realized in YBCO-based film structures , .

The function of the critical current distribution of Eq. (3) allows us to fully describe the effect of the transport current on the trapped magnetic flux. Thus, the density $`n`$ of vortices broken away from the pinning centers by the current $`i`$ can be found:

$$n\left(i\right)=\frac{B}{\mathrm{\Phi }_0}\underset{0}{\overset{i}{}}f\left(i^{}\right)𝑑i^{}=\frac{B}{\mathrm{\Phi }_0}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(g+1,Gi^{2/D})}{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(g+1\right)}$$
(5)
where $`B`$ is the magnetic field, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0hc/\left(2e\right)`$ is the magnetic flux quantum, $`h`$ is the Planck constant, $`c`$ is the speed of light, and $`e`$ is the electron charge. The integral in the right-hand part of Eq. (5) is the cumulative probability function, which is a measure of the number of clusters of critical current smaller than the preset value of $`i`$.

Figure 1 shows how the fractal dimension of cluster boundaries affects the critical current distribution. A comparison between curves (1) and (3) shows that an increase in the fractal dimension leads to a significant extension of the “tail” of the distribution $`f=f\left(i\right)`$. This effect is more pronounced for smaller values of $`g`$-parameter of gamma-distribution.

In the interval of currents $`i>1`$ the magnetic flux motion causes the electric voltage across the sample, which goes into the resistive state. Because of the finite resistance any current flow is accompanied now by the energy dissipation. As for any hard superconductor (type-II, with pinning centers) the presence of dissipation in the resistive state does not necessarily implies the destruction of the phase coherence. The superconducting state collapses only when the dissipation exhibits an avalanche-like growth due to the thermo-magnetic instability development.

In the resistive state the superconductor is adequately described by the current-voltage characteristic. Using the fractal distribution of critical currents of Eq. (3), we can find the electric field arising from the magnetic flux motion after the vortices have been broken away from the pinning centers. Since each cluster of the normal phase contributes to the overall distribution of critical currents, the voltage across the superconductor $`V=V\left(i\right)`$ is an integral response to the sum of contributions from all clusters:

$$V=R_f\underset{0}{\overset{i}{}}\left(ii^{}\right)f\left(i^{}\right)𝑑i^{}$$
(6)
where $`R_f`$ is the flux flow resistance. The similar representation for the voltage across the sample is frequently used in the description of pinning of the vortex filament bundles in superconductors  as well as in the analysis of critical scaling of the current-voltage characteristics , that is to say, in all cases where there is a distribution of the depinning currents. In the present consideration we will concentrate on the conclusions following from the properties of fractal distribution of Eq. (3), so we will not consider any questions related to the possible dependence of the flux flow resistance $`R_f`$ on the transport current.

After substitution of the distribution function of Eq. (3) into the convolution integral of Eq. (6) and carrying out the integration, we eventually obtain an expression for the voltage across the sample

$$\frac{V}{R_f}=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(g+1\right)}\left(i\mathrm{\Gamma }(g+1,Gi^{2/D})G^{D/2}\mathrm{\Gamma }(g+1\frac{D}{2},Gi^{2/D})\right)$$
(7)
Figure 2 shows the current-voltage characteristics calculated by formula of Eq. (7) for a superconductor with fractal clusters of a normal phase. It should be noted that similar current-voltage characteristics were observed in the experiments on the measurement of the dynamic resistance of BPSCCO composites containing silver inclusions . A significant drop in the voltage across a sample for all fractal dimensions is observed beginning with the transport current $`i=1`$, which coincides with the current of the transition into the resistive state found in Ref.  from the cumulative probability function of the critical current distribution. For smaller currents the trapped flux remains virtually unchanged because there are no clusters with such a small depinning current.

As may be seen from Fig. 2, the fractality of clusters significantly reduces electric field arising from the magnetic flux motion in a superconductor, and this effect is enhanced with decreasing the $`g`$-parameter. This feature can be explained by peculiarity of the exponential-hyperbolic distribution of Eq. (3). An increase in the fractal dimension leads to expansion of the critical current distribution toward greater values of the current. At the same time, the total area under the curve $`f=f\left(i\right)`$ remains unchanged because the probability function of Eq. (3) is normalized to unity in the whole interval of possible positive critical currents. This implies that an increasing number of clusters, which can best trap the magnetic flux, are involved into the process. Therefore, the number of vortices broken away from the pinning centers by the Lorentz force tends to decrease, so a smaller part of the flux can move and, hence, an electric field of lower magnitude is generated. The lower the electric field, the smaller energy is dissipated as a result of the transport current passage, so a decrease in the heat-evolution, which could induce the transition into the normal state, leads to an increase in the critical current for the superconductor containing such fractal clusters. The maximum current-carrying capability is achieved upon decreasing the $`g`$-parameter: in this case the clusters of small size, which have the maximum critical currents, make the most contribution to the overall distribution.

The probability re-distribution resulting from a change in the fractal dimension is characterized by the variance of critical currents and can be represented by the standard deviation

$`\sigma _i=G^{\frac{D}{2}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(g+1D\right)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(g+1\right)}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(g+1D/2\right)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(g+1\right)}}\right)^2}`$

Dependence of the critical current standard deviation on the fractal dimension has a pronounced superlinear character (Fig. 3). For $`g<1`$ there exists an interval of $`Dg+1`$, where the dispersion of critical currents exhibits infinite growth. This giant dispersion region is indicated by hatching in Fig. 3. The distributions with infinite variance are well known in the probability theory, a classical example is the Cauchy distribution . However, such a behavior of the exponential-hyperbolic distribution of Eq. (3) is of special interest, since an increase in the variance leads to the increase in critical currents. A statistical distribution with the giant dispersion possesses an extremely extended “tail” corresponding to the contributions from clusters of high depinning currents. To the present, a minimum value of $`g`$-parameter (equal to zero) is realized in the YBCO-based composites with exponential distribution of the areas of normal phase clusters . The films containing such clusters exhibit increased current-carrying capacity. We may expect that superconductors containing the normal phase clusters with the distribution of areas characterized by the values of $`gD1`$ would provide for an additional increase in the critical currents.

Thus, the fractal properties of normal phase clusters significantly affect the dynamics of magnetic flux trapped in a superconductor. This phenomenon is related to a radical change in the distribution of critical currents caused by an increase in the fractal dimension of cluster boundaries. The most important result is that the fractality of the normal phase clusters enhances pinning, thus preventing the destruction of superconductivity by the transport current. This effect opens principally new possibilities for increasing the critical currents in composite superconductors by optimization of their geometric-morphological characteristics.

$`\mathrm{𝐀𝐜𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐥𝐞𝐝𝐠𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬}`$

This work is supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Researches (Grant No 02-02-17667).


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# Ejection of a Low Mass Star in a Young Stellar System in Taurus

## 1. Introduction

If they contain three or more members, the multiple stellar systems in which many stars are known to form (Abt & Levy 1976; Poveda, Allen, & Parrao 1982) can evolve chaotically (Valtonen & Mikkola 1991). The least massive members of the system can then suffer an ejection (whereby they are launched on a highly elliptical – but still bound – orbit), or even an escape (a situation when the stars will leave the system altogether). Such violent events can have major implications for the subsequent stellar evolution. They can limit the accretion process that makes young stars grow and favor the production of brown dwarfs (Reipurth 2001; Reipurth & Clarke 2001). This possibility, supported by detailed hydrodynamical simulations (Bate et al. 2002), could explain the flattening of the low-mass end of the initial mass function with respect to Salpeter’s original power law.

Here we present the first direct evidence for this mechanism using multi-epoch high angular resolution radio observations of the multiple system T Tauri. T Tauri has long been known to be a binary system (Dyck, Simon, & Zuckerman 1982). The north component, T Tau N, is considered the prototype for the whole class of low-mass pre-main sequence stars, and is indeed one of the best studied young stars in the sky. The southern infrared companion (T Tau S), located about 0.7 arcseconds (100 AU) to the south, is more obscured and not evident in the optical. Recent infrared images of T Tau S obtained by speckle holography showed that, in turn, it is composed of two stars, T Tau Sa and T Tau Sb, separated at the time of the first infrared observations (1997 – Koresko 2000) by a mere 50 mas (7 AU). Subsequent observations (Köhler, Kasper, & Herbst 2000; Duchêne, Ghez, & McCabe 2002) showed that the separation between Sa and Sb is increasing, and that Sb is currently moving westward at the fairly large projected velocity of 20 km s-1.

## 2. Observations

As part of an observational program devised to search for orbital motions in embedded young multiple systems, we reanalyzed archival observations of T Tauri taken with the Very Large Array of the US National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO)111NRAO is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universtities, Inc.. The eleven observations used here correspond to all the existing VLA 2 cm observations obtained in the most extended configuration of the array (A) with an integration time larger than 1 hour; supplemented by a deep 3.5 cm integration obtained in 1998 also in the A configuration. The latter was included to have a continuous coverage of the source approximately every three years in the last two decades. The last 2 cm observation was obtained while Pie Town, an additional antenna which can be connected to the VLA to obtain higher resolution, was also in use. This dataset was reduced twice: once with, and once without Pie Town.

The data were always recorded in both circular polarizations, with an effective bandwidth of 100 MHz. The sensitivity of the observations varies significantly from epoch to epoch but it is sufficient for the two components of the system (T Tau N and T Tau S) to be detected in all epochs but one; in the 1982 data, T Tau N is not detected. All observations used as phase calibrator the source 0400+258, whose absolute position has been refined over the years; the absolute registration used here corresponds to the oldest position for 0400+258: $`\alpha (1950.0)`$ = $`04^\mathrm{h}00^\mathrm{m}03{}_{}{}^{\mathrm{s}}.589`$; $`\delta (1950.0)`$ = $`25^{}51^{}46{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }.50`$. Once calibrated, the interferometer visibilities were imaged using the IMAGR algorithm. To obtain relatively high angular resolutions, without losing much sensitivity, we used a weight intermediate between uniform and natural for all 2 cm observations; the resulting angular resolution is of the order of $`0{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }.13`$ at all epochs. The 3.5 cm image was produced with uniform weighting to obtain the highest angular resolution possible ($``$ $`0{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }.20`$). Finally, the synthesized beam for the 2001 2 cm image which includes Pie Town is $`0{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }.11`$ $`\times `$ $`0{}_{}{}^{\prime \prime }.06`$ (P.A. 34).

## 3. Results and discussion

T Tauri is a double radio source (Schwartz, Simon, & Campbell 1986, see also our Fig. 1), separated by about 0.7 arcsec in the north-south direction. A third radio component (T Tau R) which was reported from longer wavelength images (Ray et al. 1997), is never seen in the present data. The emission observed at 2 and 3.5 cm is probably largely dominated by free-free emission from ionized winds (Phillips, Lonsdale, & Feigelson 1993), although gyrosynchrotron emission from a magnetically active photosphere might also contribute (Skinner & Brown 1994; Johnston et al. 2003).

Although faint extended emission, presumably tracing episodic ejection events, is sometimes seen around T Tau S, the cores of both T Tau N and T Tau S remain essentially Gaussian at our angular resolution (see Fig. 1 for images at four of the epochs). This implies that extended components of the outflow powered by T Tau S (van Langevelde et al. 1994; Solf & Böhm 1999) never dominate the short wavelength radio emission and are unlikely to affect significantly our astrometry. Since T Tau S appears as a single source, it is a priori unclear whether both components (T Tau Sa and Sb) known to exist there contribute to the total observed emission, or whether one of the two components strongly dominates the flux density. Fortunately, the last radio observation considered here is almost simultaneous with a recent infrared observation (Duchêne et al. 2002). As Fig. 1e shows, at that epoch, the radio source T Tau S is coincident within the errors with the infrared source T Tau Sb.

A quick inspection of Fig. 1 immediately shows significant large-scale motions, with both components of the system moving towards the south–east. To characterize these motions, we determined the positions of the two sources at each epoch using Gaussian fits, and corrected these positions for the effect of the trigonometric parallax: a maximum of 7 mas, almost entirely in right ascension. The resulting motion of T Tau N (Fig. 2) appears to be remarkably linear, with translational proper motions of $`\mu _\alpha `$cos $`\delta `$ = 12.2 $`\pm `$ 0.6 mas yr-1; $`\mu _\delta `$ = –12.7 $`\pm `$ 0.6 mas yr-1, very similar to the values given in the Hipparcos catalog (Perryman et al. 1997) and by Jones & Herbig (1979). Following previous works (Loinard 2002; Loinard et al. 2002; Rodríguez et al. 2003; Curiel et al. 2003), we interpret these linear motions as due to the overall motion with respect to the Sun of the region where T Tauri is located.

The motion of T Tau S is more complex: it follows the same trend as T Tau N until about 1992, but around 1995, it starts to move westwards (Fig. 2c). Because it is so close to T Tau Sa, T Tau Sb is most likely to be in gravitational interaction with it, so it is important to determine the motion of T Tau Sb relative to T Tau Sa. Since T Tau Sa is not actually seen in the radio images, this involves two steps: first correcting the absolute motion of T Tau Sb for the large scale, nearly linear, motion of T Tau N; and then correcting for the motion of T Tau Sa relative to T Tau N. The former step is easily done by subtracting, for each epoch, the absolute position of T Tau N (Fig. 2a,b) to the absolute position of T Tau Sb. The latter step can be done fairly accurately because the relative motion of T Tau N and T Tau Sa is relatively well constrained thanks to multi-epoch near-infrared observations. Using all the available data (Ghez et al. 1995; Roddier et al. 2000; Duchêne et al. 2002), we estimate that the orbital motion of T Tau Sa around T Tau N results in rates of change of +$`0{}_{}{}^{}.3`$ yr-1 for the position angle, and of –3.4 mas yr-1 for the separation. This is a somewhat smaller rate of change for the angular position than reported by Roddier et al. (2000). The difference comes from our taking into account the latest observation by Duchêne et al. (2002). At the epoch of that observation (late 2000), the position angle between N and Sa was only $`179\text{.}^{}7`$, significantly less than the extrapolation from the data of Roddier et al.

Relative to Sa, the radio source T Tau S appears to first follow a roughly elliptical path, then approach T Tau Sa around 1995–1998, and then rapidly move away from it between 1998 to 2001 (Fig. 3). During the last 5.5 years of observation, it has moved by about 150 mas; at a distance of 140 pc, this proper motion corresponds to a projected velocity of $``$ 20 km s-1, very similar to the projected velocity of T Tau Sb reported by Duchêne et al. (2002). This further confirms the identity between the radio source T Tau S and the infrared source T Tau Sb. It also implies that the motion seen in the radio does not trace a shock phenomenon (a Herbig-Haro-like nebulosity) but truly a stellar motion since T Tau Sb is known from infrared spectroscopy (Duchêne et al. 2002) to be a pre-main sequence M star.

From 1983 to 1995, the motion of T Tau Sb relative to T Tau Sa appears to follow Kepler’s second law: roughly equal areas are swept during equal times. This suggests that the first part of the motion does reflect a bound, elliptical orbit. Under this assumption, one can estimate the mass of the T Tau S system using Kepler’s third law. Given the projected semi-major axis (a $``$ 9 AU) of the orbit, and the apparent period (P $``$ 20 yr) a lower limit of 2 M is required. Since Sb is a pre-main sequence star of type M1 (Duchêne et al. 2002) its mass is about 0.5 M. Hence, Sa must have a mass larger than about 1.5 M. The second part of the path, on the other hand, follows a significantly different trend. While the distance between Sa and Sb changes by about the same amount from 1998 to 2001, as from 1989 to 1995, the more recent part has been covered at twice the velocity of the first part (20 km s-1 instead of 10 km s-1 – Fig. 3). Interestingly, the total mass required to keep the motion bound given the separation and velocity in late 2000 is at least 5 M. This mass is quite larger than would be expected for such a low-luminosity young object. T Tau S has a bolometric luminosity of 11 L (Koresko, Herbst, & Leinert 1997), that can be provided by a single pre-main sequence star with a mass of 1 to 2 M (Kenyon & Hartmann 1995). A 5 M pre-main sequence star is expected to have a bolometric luminosity of several hundred Solar luminosities, an order of magnitude higher than the measured luminosity of T Tau S.

Fig. 3 also shows that the radio source was close to the nominal position of Sa only between 1995 and 1998. At all other epochs, the separation between Sa and the radio source was large enough that the radio source could not have been Sa. This implies that the radio source is very likely to have been Sb during the entire time span of the VLA observations, and that we are not witnessing a “Christmas Tree” effect where the radio source corresponds sometimes to Sa and sometimes to Sb. The existence of one or more additional radio sources which would have switched on and off during the observations appears as a particularly unlikely and ad hoc possibility. The analysis of the polarization of the 2 cm radio emission of T Tau S (Johnston et al. 2003) further confirms this point since T Tau S is found to have consistently exhibited of the order of 10% of left circular polarization (LCP) over the entire time-span covered by the observations.

Between 1995 and 1998, Sb has passed within about 15 mas (2 AU) of Sa (Fig. 3). Such close encounters between a single low-mass star and a double system can lead to the ejection of the low-mass object, with a velocity of the order of the escape velocity at that separation (Sterzik & Durisen 1998; Anosova 1986). For a 1.5 M system, the escape velocity at 2 AU is 35 km s-1, about twice the current projected velocity of Sb. The radio source T Tau S (or, equivalently, the infrared source T Tau Sb) is, therefore, likely to be currently moving westward as a result of its recent ejection from the system. In this scheme, T Tau Sa would be a close binary system with a separation smaller than about 2 AU, and with a total mass of about 1.5 M; such a system would have an orbital period of approximately 2 years. Two pre-main sequence stars, each with a mass of about 0.5 to 1 M would provide the required mass, and would have a total luminosity compatible with that of T Tau S.

As mentioned earlier, the first part of the orbit of Sb around Sa (1983 to 1995) can be fitted by an ellipse (dotted curve in Fig. 3). Any subsequent large departure from this projected ellipse has to be taken as a change in the orbit, so from 1998 to 2001 Sb must indeed have changed its original orbit. Could this change be the result of a slight modification of the orbital plane due, for example, to viscous effects or to gravitational interaction with gaseous structures in the surrounding inhomogeneous medium? For motions nearly along the line of sight, small angular changes in direction can indeed result in large projected effects. However, the motions considered here cannot be nearly along the line of sight: the observed motions from 1998 to 2001 already imply a mass that is quite large given the luminosity of T Tau S. To maintain the possibility of bound motion, we have to assume that the velocity vector from 1998 to 2001 is close to the plane of the sky. In this configuration, any small modification of the orbital plane will result in small projected changes. So, could we have observed a large change in the direction of the motion, without a significant change in the magnitude of the velocity vector? Although possible, it is a fairly unlikely event. Equally large accelerations are needed to change significantly the direction or the magnitude of a velocity vector. Why would all the acceleration go into changing only the direction of the velocity vector rather than changing both direction and magnitude? We favor the interpretation that there was a large change in the velocity vector (quite likely both in magnitude and in direction) and that Sb is in a very different, wider orbit leading to an ejection or even possibly an escape.

A statistical objection could be made against this interpretation. The probability of detecting an ejection in a young multiple system appears, at first sight, to be quite small. Non-hierarchical triple systems are inherently unstable and will eject a member on timescales of the order of one hundred crossing times (Anosova 1986). A system like T Tau S has a crossing time of order 10 years, so one should have to monitor about a hundred such systems over the timescales used in this paper to have a probability of order one to see an ejection. Yet, only a handful of such systems has been monitored, so we seem to be witnessing an event with a probability of only a few percent. However, important selection effects could be at work. The systems that undergo ejection events must have had previously close encounters in which all three members met in a small volume of space. Such close encounters will strongly enhance disk accretion and thus increase luminosity and outflow activity in the participating young stars. This is precisely the type of “active” stars that are studied more systematically. Indeed, some of the mysterious properties of infrared companions (such as T Tau S) could plausibly be related to such enhanced activity. We may then be selecting a priori systems which have undergone close encounters in the recent past, and which are more likely to suffer an ejection.

Whether the change of orbit of T Tau Sb described here will ultimately lead to a full escape will be known if monitoring programs of T Tauri in the near infrared and the radio are performed in the coming 5 years. An argument favoring the escape scenario is related to the relatively large eccentricity of the true orbit of T Tau Sb, that following Hilditch (2001), we can estimate to be $`e`$ = 0.8 $`\pm `$ 0.2. For an elliptical orbit of eccentricity $`e`$ the velocity at periastron has to increase by $`\mathrm{\Delta }V/V=[2/(1+e)]^{1/2}1`$ for the motion to become unbound. For $`e0.8`$, a relatively small increase of 5% in the velocity will change the orbit from elliptical to parabolic. However, given the short timescale of the ejection events, one should have a priori a higher chance of seeing the result of the escape (i.e. a single star moving relatively fast compared to its environment) than the escape itself. Yet, there is only one known T Tauri star which is moving fast compared to its surroundings (RW Aur – Jones & Herbig 1979), and a few indirect evidences for fast moving younger sources (Arce & Goodman 2002; Reipurth et al. 1999) or main sequence stars (Allen, Poveda, & Worley 1974; Hoogerwert, de Bruijne, & de Zeeuw 2000). We speculate that this relative lack of detected “fast-moving” stars, however, might also be a consequence of observational biases. If the escape occurs, the pre-main sequence star will likely be left with very little of its original surrounding material, so the accretion and ejection activity will abruptly be halted. Within a very short time after the escape, the low-mass star is likely to reach a quiescent state, in which it would easily go unnoticed. Moreover, a star which would escape with a velocity only slightly above the escape velocity would have a small velocity once it reaches large distances from its original location (recall that a star escaping with exactly the escape speed will have zero velocity once at infinity). It would have truly large velocities only for the short period of time just subsequent to the ejection.

We acknowledge enriching discussions with Gaspard Duchêne and Arcadio Poveda. Comments made by Bo Reipurth, and the referee, Alyssa Goodman, significantly improved the quality of this paper. We thank Barry Clark and the VLA data analysts for their help with the data retrieval process. We acknowledge support from CONACyT and DGAPA/UNAM.


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# Magnetic and superconducting instabilities in the periodic Anderson model: an RPA study

## 1 Introduction

The superconducting and magnetic properties of heavy-fermion materials have recently attracted much attention because of their non-conventional character.  These materials have very large specific heat coefficients $`\gamma `$, indicating very large effective quasi-particle masses, hence the designation heavy fermions. Some of these materials, order antiferromagnetically at low temperatures (examples are $`UAgCu_4`$, $`UCu_7`$, $`U_2Zn_{17}`$) while others (such as $`UBe_{13}`$, $`CeCu_2Si_2`$, $`UPt_3`$) order in a superconducting state and others show no ordering (such as $`CeAl_3`$, $`UAuPt_4`$, $`CeCu_6`$, $`UAl_2`$).  Some compounds exhibit phases where antiferromagnetic order coexists with unconventional superconductivity. Examples are: $`UPd_2Al_3`$ ($`T_N=14.3`$ K and $`T_c=2`$ K), $`UNi_2Al_3`$ ($`T_N=4.5`$ K and $`T_c=1.2`$ K), CePd2Si2 ($`T_N`$ 10 K and $`T_c`$ 0.5 K) and CeIn3 ($`T_N`$ 10 K and $`T_c`$ 0.15 K). In the prototype heavy-fermion system CexCu2Si2 the coexistence of $`d`$wave superconductivity and magnetic order was clearly identified in a small range $`x`$ values around $`x0.99`$.

Systems that exhibit both superconductivity and antiferromagnetism at low temperature have ratios between the Néel temperature $`T_N`$ and the superconducting critical temperature $`T_c`$ of the order of $`T_N/T_c1100`$. The coexistence of both types of order can be tuned by external parameters such as external pressure or changes in the stoichiometry.

A description of the normal state properties of the heavy-fermion systems has been attempted assuming a generalization of the impurity Anderson model to the lattice.  In the Anderson lattice the energy of a single electron in an $`f`$orbital (e. g. $`4f^1`$) is $`ϵ_0`$, and the energy of two electrons in the same $`f`$orbital ($`4f^2`$) is $`2ϵ_0+U`$, where $`U`$ is the on-site Coulomb repulsion. The energy of the $`4f^2`$ state is much larger than the energy of the $`4f^1`$ state. Thus, if the charge fluctuations at the $`f`$orbital are small, the $`4f^1`$ electron may behave as a local moment.

The complexity of heavy-fermion systems arises from the interplay between Kondo screening of local moments, the antiferromagnetic (RKKY) interaction between the moments and the superconducting correlations between the heavy quasi-particles. The local moments form in partially filled $`f`$ shells of Ce and U ions. The absence of magnetic order in some cases could perharps be due to complete Kondo screening (below the Kondo temperature $`T_K`$) or to a spin liquid arrangement of the local moments. In the normal non-magnetic state the Anderson lattice model predicts Fermi-liquid like behaviour and explains the main features at low temperatures, such as the large effective masses and the Kondo resonance near the Fermi level. But the main technical difficulty is the competition between the Kondo compensation of the localized spins and the magnetic interaction between them. This interaction is mediated by the conduction electrons ($`RKKY`$-type). Related to this competition is the effectiveness of the compensating cloud around each $`f`$-site. The size of this cloud has been subject of controversy. While some arguments show that it should be a large scale of the order of $`v_F/T_K`$ , other arguments claim to be $`a`$ ($`a`$ is the lattice constant).  This is a relevant issue and is related to Nozières exhaustion problem which states that there are not enough conduction electrons to screen the $`f`$-moments.

It has been proposed that the mechanism for superconductivity lies in the strong Coulomb interaction between the $`f`$-electrons, not in a phonon mediated attraction. Using Coleman’s  slave boson formalism together with a large-$`N`$ approach, various attempts have been made to search for the existence of an effective interaction which might be responsible for superconductivity in the infinite-$`U`$ Anderson-lattice model. It was proposed  that slave boson fluctuations can provide an effective attraction between the electrons to leading order in $`1/N`$. Later, a calculation of the electron-electron scattering amplitude to order $`1/N^2`$ revealed an effective attractive interaction in the $`p`$ and $`d`$ channels, which was interpreted as a manifestation of the $`RKKY`$ interaction, showing that spin fluctuations are an important mechanism.  The inclusion of $`f^0`$, $`f^1`$ and $`f^2`$ states, using two sets of slave bosons, was also considered in the context of the Anderson lattice as a possible description of high-$`T_c`$ superconductors.

The magnetic order in the ground state of Kondo Insulators has been studied by Dorin and Schlottmann in the framework of the Anderson-lattice model. The same authors have later studied the effect of orbital degeneracy and finite $`U`$ on a ferromagnetic ground state (their approach did not generate RKKY interactions, thus preventing the study of antiferromagnetic order).

In this work we consider the slave-boson approach to the infinite-$`U`$ Anderson-lattice model. We treat the boson fields at the mean-field level, thereby enforcing the constrain of one $`f`$-electron (at most) per site only on the average. By splitting the boson operator into a condensate part and an above-the-condensate term, which describes fluctuations, we compute the magnetic and pairing susceptibilities at the random-phase approximation (RPA) level. For spin 1/2 particles the condensate density at moderate temperatures does not change much relative to its ground-state value. Therefore we do not expect our results to be of less quality then those characterizing the ground-state properties. We search for the critical temperatures ($`T_N`$ and $`T_c`$) at which anti-ferromagnetic order or superconducting ($`s`$ or $`d`$-wave) pairing occurs in a normal non-magnetic system. We find that the value of $`T_c`$ is much smaller than the magnetic temperature $`T_N`$. Unlike $`T_N`$, the superconducting temperature monotonically increases with externally applied pressure.

## 2 The model and the RPA solution

The PAM Hamiltonian is given by

$$H=H_c^0+H_f^0+H_{cf}+H_U,$$
(1)
where

$`H_f^0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i,\sigma }{}}(ϵ_0\mu )f_{i,\sigma }^{}f_{i,\sigma },`$ (2)
$`H_c^0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }{}}(ϵ_\stackrel{}{k}\mu )c_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }^{}c_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma },`$ (3)
$`H_{cf}`$ $`=`$ $`V{\displaystyle \underset{i,\sigma }{}}\left(c_{i,\sigma }^{}f_{i,\sigma }+f_{i,\sigma }^{}c_{i,\sigma }\right),`$ (4)
$`H_U`$ $`=`$ $`U{\displaystyle \underset{i,}{}}n_{i,}n_{i,}.`$ (5)
The $`c`$ and $`f`$ operators are fermionic and obey the usual anti-commutation relations. The hybridization potential $`V`$ is assumed to be momentum independent. The term $`H_U`$ represents the strong on-site repulsion between the $`f`$-orbitals. We consider $`U=\mathrm{}`$. We implement the condition $`U=\mathrm{}`$ within the slave-boson formulation due to Coleman,  in which the empty $`f`$-site is represented by a slave boson $`b_i`$ and the physical operator $`f_i`$ in equation (4) is replaced with $`b_{}^{}{}_{i}{}^{}f_i`$ together with the constrains of only one $`f`$electron per site. The implementation of this constraint amounts to introducing a Lagrange multiplier $`\lambda `$ which will renormalize the bare $`f`$level energy from $`ϵ_0`$ to $`ϵ_f=ϵ_0+\lambda `$. We split the boson operators in two terms

$$b_\stackrel{}{q}^{}=\sqrt{N}\sqrt{z}\delta _{0,\stackrel{}{q}}+B_\stackrel{}{q}^{},$$
(6)
where $`z`$ represents the boson condensate and $`B_\stackrel{}{q}^{}`$ represents the fluctuations above the condensate. This procedure leads in leading order to a mean field Hamiltonian . The corresponding mean field equations can be written in terms of the Fourier transform of the Green’s functions

$`G_{ff,\sigma }(\stackrel{}{k},\tau \tau ^{})`$ $`=`$ $`T_\tau f_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }(\tau )f_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }^{}(\tau ^{}),`$ (7)
$`G_{cc,\sigma }(\stackrel{}{k},\tau \tau ^{})`$ $`=`$ $`T_\tau c_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }(\tau )c_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }^{}(\tau ^{}),`$ (8)
$`G_{cf,\sigma }(\stackrel{}{k},\tau \tau ^{})`$ $`=`$ $`T_\tau c_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }(\tau )f_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }^{}(\tau ^{}),`$ (9)
as

$$z=1\frac{T}{N_s}\underset{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }{}\underset{i\omega _n}{}𝒢_{ff,\sigma }(\stackrel{}{k},i\omega _n),$$
(10)
and

$$ϵ_f=ϵ_0\frac{VT}{\sqrt{z}N_s}\underset{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }{}\underset{i\omega _n}{}G_{cf,\sigma }(\stackrel{}{k},i\omega _n),$$
(11)
where $`N_s`$ denotes the number of lattice sites. Equation (10) states that the mean number of electrons at an $`f`$-site is $`n_f=1z`$. For a given number of particles per site, $`n`$, these equations must be supplemented with the particle conservation condition which yields the chemical potential $`\mu `$ for any temperature:

$$n=1z+\frac{T}{N_s}\underset{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }{}\underset{i\omega _n}{}G_{cc,\sigma }(\stackrel{}{k},i\omega _n).$$
(12)
The fluctuations beyond the mean field approach are described by the Hamiltonian

$$H_{fluct}=\frac{V}{\sqrt{N}}\underset{\stackrel{}{k},\stackrel{}{q},\sigma }{}(c_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }^{}f_{\stackrel{}{q},\sigma }B_{\stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{q}}^{}+B_{\stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{q}}f_{\stackrel{}{q},\sigma }^{}c_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }),$$
(13)
and will be considered in the calculation of the magnetic susceptibility and superconducting correlation functions below. The calculation, even at the RPA level, of the correlation functions requires the knowledge of the boson propagator. The full calculation of the latter is a technically difficult problem by itself, and is still unsolved. There are, however, $`1/N`$ calculations of $`D(\stackrel{}{k},\tau \tau ^{})`$.  Here we follow the work of Evans  and use an asymptotic form for the boson propagator given by

$$D(\stackrel{}{k},\tau \tau ^{})=T_\tau B_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }(\tau )B_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }^{}(\tau ^{})\frac{1}{\lambda }.$$
(14)
We also adopt the same approximation for the propagator $`\overline{D}(\stackrel{}{k},\tau \tau ^{})=T_\tau B_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }^{}(\tau )B_{\stackrel{}{k},\sigma }(\tau ^{})`$. In the calculation below we shall use mean field fermionic propagators.

The transverse spin susceptibility for the $`f`$ electrons is defined as

$$\chi _+(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)=\mu _B^2_0^\beta 𝑑\tau e^{i\omega _n\tau }T_\tau S^{}(\stackrel{}{q},\tau )S^+(\stackrel{}{q},0),$$
(15)
where $`\beta =1/T`$ is the inverse temperature, $`T_\tau `$ is the chronological order operator (in imaginary time), $`S^{}(\stackrel{}{q})=_\stackrel{}{p}f_{\stackrel{}{p},}^{}f_{\stackrel{}{p}+\stackrel{}{q},}`$ and $`S^+(\stackrel{}{q})=[S^{}(\stackrel{}{q})]^{}`$. The calculation at the RPA level yields

$$\chi _{+,}^f(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)=\frac{\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_{ff}^{ff}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)[1J\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_{fc}^{cf}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)]}{[1J\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_{fc}^{cf}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega )]^2J^2\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_{ff}^{ff}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_{cc}^{cc}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)},$$
(16)
where $`J=V^2/(N\lambda )`$. The result (16) holds for all values of $`n_f`$ and is a generalization of that obtained by Evans  for the case $`n_f=1`$. The functions $`\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)`$ above are given by:

$`\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_{ff}^{ff}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\beta }}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m}{}}G_{ff}(\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m)G_{ff}(\stackrel{}{p}+\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _m+i\omega _n),`$
$`\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_{cc}^{cc}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\beta }}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m}{}}G_{cc}(\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m)G_{cc}(\stackrel{}{p}+\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _m+i\omega _n),`$
$`\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_{fc}^{cf}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\beta }}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m}{}}G_{cf}(\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m)G_{fc}(\stackrel{}{p}+\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _m+i\omega _n)`$
There are three possible superconducting pairing susceptibilities that one can define. These refer to Cooper pairs of either $`c`$electrons or $`f`$electrons, and a hybrid Cooper pair with a $`c`$ and an $`f`$electron. We consider the correlation function:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{dd}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)=_0^\beta e^{i\omega _n\tau }\underset{\stackrel{}{k}_1,\stackrel{}{k}_2}{}\eta (\stackrel{}{k}_1)\eta (\stackrel{}{k}_2)T_\tau d_{\stackrel{}{k}_1,}(\tau )d_{\stackrel{}{k}_1+\stackrel{}{q},}(\tau )d_{\stackrel{}{k}_2,}^{}d_{\stackrel{}{k}_2+\stackrel{}{q},}^{},$$
(17)
where $`d=c,f`$ and $`\eta (\stackrel{}{k})`$ is the Cooper pair structure factor, assumed to be either extended $`s`$wave or $`d`$wave. The hybrid pairing correlation function is defined as

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{cf}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)=_0^\beta e^{i\omega _n\tau }\underset{\stackrel{}{k}_1,\stackrel{}{k}_2}{}T_\tau f_{\stackrel{}{k}_1,}(\tau )c_{\stackrel{}{k}_1+\stackrel{}{q},}(\tau )c_{\stackrel{}{k}_2,}^{}f_{\stackrel{}{k}_2+\stackrel{}{q},}^{}.$$
(18)
This definition has been used previously in a mean field study of the Kondo lattice . At the RPA level the Cooper pair correlation function (17) is given by

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{dd}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)=\mathrm{\Gamma }_{dd}^{dd}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)+\frac{J\mathrm{\Gamma }_{cc}^{fc}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)\mathrm{\Gamma }_{fc}^{cc}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)}{1J[\mathrm{\Gamma }_{cf}^{fc}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)+\mathrm{\Gamma }_{cc}^{ff}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)]},$$
(19)
and the function (18) is given by

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{cf}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)=\mathrm{\Gamma }_{cc}^{ff}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)+\frac{J\mathrm{\Gamma }_{fc}^{fc}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)\mathrm{\Gamma }_{cc}^{ff}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)}{[1J\mathrm{\Gamma }_{fc}^{fc}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)]^2+J^2[\mathrm{\Gamma }_{cc}^{ff}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)]^2}.$$
(20)
The $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)`$ functions appearing in the previous expressions are given by

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{cc}^{cc}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\beta }}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m}{}}\eta ^2(\stackrel{}{p})G_{cc}(\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m)G_{cc}(\stackrel{}{p}+\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _m+i\omega _n),`$
$`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{fc}^{cc}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\beta }}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m}{}}\eta (\stackrel{}{p})G_{cc}(\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m)G_{fc}(\stackrel{}{p}+\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _m+i\omega _n),`$
$`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{cc}^{ff}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\beta }}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m}{}}G_{ff}(\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m)G_{cc}(\stackrel{}{p}+\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _m+i\omega _n),`$
$`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{cf}^{fc}(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\beta }}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m}{}}G_{fc}(\stackrel{}{p},i\omega _m)G_{cf}(\stackrel{}{p}+\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _m+i\omega _n),`$
## 3 Superconducting and magnetic instabilities

The magnetic and superconducting instabilities of the system are signaled by the poles of the corresponding susceptibilities. Therefore, we search for the temperature $`T`$ at which the denominators in the RPA expressions for the susceptibilities vanish:

$`K_m(\stackrel{}{Q},0)`$ $`=`$ $`[1J\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_{fc}^{cf}(\stackrel{}{Q},0)]^2J^2\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_{ff}^{ff}(\stackrel{}{Q},0)\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_{cc}^{cc}(\stackrel{}{Q},0),`$ (21)
$`K_{dd}(0,0)`$ $`=`$ $`1J[\mathrm{\Gamma }_{cf}^{fc}(0,0)+\mathrm{\Gamma }_{cc}^{ff}(0,0)],`$ (22)
$`K_{cf}(0,0)`$ $`=`$ $`[1J\mathrm{\Gamma }_{fc}^{fc}(0,0)]^2+J^2[\mathrm{\Gamma }_{cc}^{ff}(0,0)]^2,`$ (23)
where $`\stackrel{}{Q}=(\pi ,\pi ,\pi )`$ and $`K_m(\stackrel{}{Q},0)`$, $`K_{dd}(0,0)`$, and $`K_{cf}(0,0)`$ are the Stoner factors of the correlation functions (16), (19), and (20), respectively. Since heavy-fermion materials are antiferromagnetic materials we seek for poles of $`K_m(\stackrel{}{Q},0)`$ at the antiferromagnetic wave vector $`\stackrel{}{Q}`$. From the definitions of the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\stackrel{}{q},i\omega _n)`$ functions we see that the Cooper pair structure factor $`\eta (\stackrel{}{p})`$ does not appear in the Stoner factors $`K_{dd}(0,0)`$ and $`K_{cf}(0,0)`$. Moreover, we shall see below that the solutions to $`K_{dd}(0,0)=0`$ and $`K_{cf}(0,0)=0`$ both lead to the same critical temperature. Therefore, the system’s tendency for a certain Cooper pair symmetry only shows up in the intensity of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{dd}(0,0)`$ or $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{cf}(0,0)`$, which is controlled by the numerator of these functions. We also see that both antiferromagnetism and superconductivity are controlled by the same interaction parameter $`J`$, which, in turn, depends on hybridization only.

In Figure 1 we show a plot of the Néel and superconducting temperatures as functions of the total electronic density $`n`$. It is seen that antiferromagnetism can only occur in a very small region of electronic density. Furthermore, the increase of $`T_N`$ when $`n2`$ corresponds to an increase of the density of $`n_f`$ electrons towards the Kondo limit ($`n_f=1`$). It is also clear that $`T_N`$ is not a monotonically increasing function of $`J`$. Upon reducing $`V`$, a larger range of electronic densities can be reached where antiferromagnetic order can be found. From the inset of Figure 1 we see that the superconducting temperature $`T_c`$ is very small (about $`T_cT_N/50`$) close to the density region where the system exhibits antiferromagnetic order.

The dependence of the Néel and superconducting temperatures on pressure has been measured in some heavy-fermion systems . In those studies the Néel temperature is found to decrease as the applied pressure increases and superconducting order is found to develop in a limited range of applied pressures, when the Néel temperature is reduced below $``$1K. Let us now see how the critical temperatures in our model vary with the model parameters which, in principle, should depend on externally applied pressure. Increasing pressure should, presumably, make both the hybridization $`V`$ and the conduction band hopping $`t`$ increase . In Figure 2 we present $`T_N`$ and $`T_c`$ versus $`V`$, taking the ration $`V/t`$ constant. We see that above a certain value of $`V`$ the magnetic order disappears but the superconducting order remains. We also find that close to the region where the magnetic order vanishes, $`T_c`$ is much smaller than the maximum value attained by $`T_N`$. This is in qualitative agreement with experimental data on some Cerium compounds (e.g. CeIn3), where the ratio $`T_N/T_c100`$. Other examples are: CeCu2(Si1-xGex)2, where $`T_c`$ as function of pressure displays a positive curvature; and CeRhIn5, where the $`T_c`$ curve is almost parallel to pressure axis.  For CeCu2Ge2 and CeCu2Si2 the $`T_c`$ curve initally stays almost parallel to the pressure axis, but it shoots up above a certain pressure. Although $`T_c`$ keeps increasing as $`V`$ increases, it never reaches values comparable with the maximum value of $`T_N`$, even for unreasonable values of $`V`$ as we can see in the right panel of Figure 2. We believe that a better treatment of the boson propagator will lead to a decrease of $`T_c`$ in agreement with the experiments. We remark that the above calculation of $`T_c`$ is only valid in the in a situation where the system is non-magnetic because we have not calculated $`K_{dd}(0,0)`$ or $`K_{cf}(0,0)`$ in the magnetically ordered phase. Furthermore, when $`T_c`$ is small, the approximation employed for the boson propagator should be improved by including its low energy part.

For comparison we also plot the temperature $`T_K`$ defined as the difference between the renormalized $`f`$level energy $`ϵ_f`$ and the chemical potential . This can be very different from the lattice Kondo temperature  in the non-magnetic system. Nevertheless, the combined behavior of $`T_N`$ and $`T_K`$ represents the well-known Doniach diagram showing the interplay between RKKY and Kondo screening effect. For small values of $`V`$, $`T_K`$ is exponentially small and the system shows antiferromagnetic order. On the other hand, as $`V`$ increases the Kondo temperature grows, leading to Kondo compensation of the $`f`$moments and to a decreasing Néel temperature. For even larger values of $`V`$ complete disappearance of the magnetic order takes place and the system shows paramagnetic behavior (assuming there are enough conduction electrons to compensate all the $`f`$local moments). We have also computed the superconducting critical temperature from both equations (22) and (23) and obtained the same $`T_c`$, as can be seen in the right panel of Figure 2. Along the $`T_N`$ curve, $`n_f`$ decreases from 1 to 0.8, as $`V`$ increases, and $`n_f0.85`$ when $`T_N`$ is maximum.

Both Figure 1 and Figure 2 show similar behaviour near the point where $`T_N0`$. In both cases $`T_c`$ starts to increase with a positive curvature. Although in many heavy-fermion systems $`T_c`$ presents a negative curvature, there are examples where a positive curvature have been observed, such as CePd2Si2 under chemical pressure ($`T_N=10`$ K, $`T_c=0.2`$ K, therefore $`T_N/T_c=50`$) .

Since our treatment does not take competition between magnetism and superconductivity into account, we cannot tell whether finite values of $`T_c`$ and $`T_N`$ imply that both types of order will be present at low temperature. Nevertheless, we found in previous work , at the simplest mean field level, that magnetism and superconductivity may coexist in the system. It follows from the above remarks that the calculation of $`T_c`$ when $`T_N`$ is finite requires both the introduction of a better approximation for the boson propagator and extra electronic propagators describing the antiferromagnetic order in the system, as was done in the description of spin waves in the magnetically ordered Mott insulator.

The authors want to thank P. D. Sacramento for comments on the manuscript.

## References


text:
# Theoretical study of cache systems

## 1 Inroduction

Rapid development of computer technologies in the end of the last millennium leads to appearance of a virtual world with its own laws. Unfortunately, in this period too few attention was given to studying of fundamental principles of virtual life.

The main constructions of the virtual world base on the concrete algorithms intended for providing vital functions. The easiest and obvious principles were used for constructing and modernizing of these algorithms. During their implementation weren’t any time for studying and optimization. Often their low performance was compensated with growing power of computers. The main thing was that the new constructions of the virtual world allowed to manage the raising problems.

Now days we can afford some respite and part of forces should be transferred to studying of fundamental laws and to optimization of vital systems on a base of recent knowledge. Frankly speaking, any research area may be considered as scientific field if and only if its basic principles are enveloped in a mathematical form and new rules may be predicted on a base of known facts.

The aim of this paper is a theoretical study of a cache system in order to find a way for optimization of proxy systems and to modernize construction principles. Principles that should be used for a model is discussing as well. A universal model can be easy generalized to any applications based on Zipf-like distribution like prefetcnig schemes, Content distribution Networks (CDN) , peer-to-peer systems , Internet search engine, etc.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides some background information about model parameters. Section 3 presents the analytical laws and the special points of theoretical model. Section 4 describes the main elements of cache construction. In Section 5 we examine steady-state or limiting performance of static caching schemes when Web documents were not changing and new documents were not being generated. Section 6 discusses the ways of optimization of cache systems. New principles of cache construction are formulated in Section 7. Section 8 discusses the mathematical description of renewal of Web documents. The benefit of web prefetching is the contest of Section 9.

## 2 Model parameters

In this section definitions of variables are given and basic approaches and terminus has been analyzed.

In today s common web configurations, the proxy server exists between clients and web servers. Clients send all requests to a global network as it is shown on the Fig. 1. Some documents are requested several times and therefore they should be held in a cache system.

As it was reported in Refs.  the relative frequency of requests to Web pages follows Zipf-like distribution . This distribution states that the relative probability of a request for the $`i`$’th most popular page is

$$p_i=\frac{A}{i^\alpha },$$
(1)
where $`A=p_1`$ is the probability of the most popular item and $`\alpha `$ is positive exponential value less then unity.

Let the users ask for $`K`$ documents during time $`t`$:

$$K(\nu _{out},t)=C\nu _{out}t.$$
(2)
This result depends on aggregated bandwidth $`\nu _{out}`$, on time $`t`$ and a constant $`C`$. The constant $`C`$ from Eq. (2) is an inverse proportion of a mean size $`E(C)`$ of documents received from the global network:

$$C=\frac{1}{E(C)}$$
(3)
In Ref.  a number of received documents $`K`$ is defined by request stream from a population of $`N`$ users

$$K(\lambda ,N,t)=\lambda Nt,$$
(4)
where $`\lambda `$ is average client request rate.

Let $`p`$ documents be unique and $`M`$ be equal to quantity of documents that can be requested from the cache system as it has shown on the Fig. 2. Then an efficiency of the system or a hit ratio can be defined as

$$H=\frac{kp}{K}=\underset{1}{\overset{M}{}}\frac{A}{x^\alpha }𝑑x$$
(5)
the ratio of non-unique cacheable documents $`kp=k_1^M\frac{A}{x^\alpha }𝑑x`$ to their total number $`K`$.

Wolman et al.  examined steady-state or limiting performance of caching schemes. Their model of steady-state performance assumes that a cache can store all cacheable documents in the Web and there isn’t any capacity misses in workload. The probability that a requested document is cacheable is $`p_c`$, ($`k=p_cK`$). With this assumptions the maximal rates of $`H`$ is identical with $`p_c`$ , i.e. the ideal hit rate for cacheable documents $`H_i=H/p_c`$ would approach $`100\%`$.

A key difference between the models presented by Breslau at al  and by Wolman et al  is that document rate of change has been incorporated into the model rather than assuming that documents are static. In order to describe this effect an additional multiplier has been included to a integral from Eq. (5):

$$\lambda Np_i/(\lambda Np_i+\mu ),$$
(6)
where $`\mu `$ is an exponential parameter of interarrival times for object requests and updates, $`p_i`$ is proportional to $`1/i^\alpha `$. This multiplier throws off one effective query of any document from cache during its lifetime $`T_{ch}=1/\mu `$, that is the interval between two consecutive modifications of object. Such an updating request must be redirected to the global network to get the renewed Web page.

## 3 The analytical laws and the special points

An analytical model is constructed with a goal to predict behaviour of the investigated systems on the base of the analytical laws written in a mathematical form and to find ways for optimization. Mathematical constructions of computer models remind laws of the thermodynamics and the molecular physics in many respects. There are two directions of modeling: macroscopic and microscopic approaches.

In the first case the corresponding laws are formulated for parameters describing cache systems as an indivisible object. The following values should be considered as macroscopic parameters: hit ratio $`H`$, Zipf exponent $`\alpha `$, the number of unique documents $`p`$, $`M`$, etc.

The microscopic description assumes an analysis on a level of transmitting IP packets, of requests to the global network, i.e. huge number of the events. In this case investigators have to apply the theory of stochastic processes such as Poisson’s distribution or Markov’s chain. The main problem of this approach is a right interpretation of analytical results and their generalization, i.e in a limit passage from microscopic values to macrolaws.

Usually the macroscopic dependencies operate with values that are measured directly. Unfortunately, corresponding laws are not yet found for the main part of the virtual world therefore a particular attention should be given to their search. Proxy cache is a pleasant exception to the general rule.

Two types of correlations pretend to a role of fundamental laws described cache systems :

* A Zipf-like distribution, see Eq. (1)
* Normalizing conditions or a sum of the probability to request the universe of $`1nk`$ objects.

Mentioned laws could be applied to the special points of Zipf distribution. As it is shown on the Fig. 2 there are a few special points but only two of them, $`M`$ and $`p`$, are used for construction of the theory. Then the Zipf-like distribution leads to

$`{\displaystyle \frac{Ak}{M^\alpha }}`$ $`=`$ $`2,`$ (7)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{Ak}{p^\alpha }}`$ $`=`$ $`1.`$ (8)
Normalizing conditions for the first $`M`$ and $`p`$ documents from a cache are

$`{\displaystyle \underset{1}{\overset{M}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{A}{x^\alpha }}𝑑x`$ $`=`$ $`H_i,`$ (9)
$`{\displaystyle \underset{1}{\overset{p}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{A}{x^\alpha }}𝑑x`$ $`=`$ $`1.`$ (10)
Here $`H_i`$ is an ideal (steady-state) performance that assumes unlimited capacity. For a real system the Eq. (9) has been transformed to

$$H=p_c\underset{1}{\overset{S_k}{}}\frac{A}{x^\alpha }𝑑x,$$
(11)
where $`S_k`$ is a number of cache objects requested repeatedly, i.e. $`\vartheta _i2`$ ($`\vartheta _i=p_ik`$) for $`iS_k`$.

Five Egs. (7-11) allow to describe the basic effects, to predict parameters value, ways of optimization, etc. Modification of this system of five equations would lead to describing of new effects.

## 4 Elements of cache construction

This section discusses which elements are compulsory for cache system. Also possible ratios between these elements should be investigated.

Three main parts are distinguished in any cache system:

* A kernel $`S_k`$ that contains popular documents with $`\vartheta _i2`$.
* An accessory part $`S_u`$ that keeps unpopular documents requested from the Internet once, i.e. $`\vartheta _i=1`$.
* A managing part $`S_m`$ that contains statistics of requests and rules for replacement of cache objects.

A system of the Eqs. (7-11) determines mathematical correlations between cache elements $`S_k,S_u,S_m`$.

First of all it is necessary to write the expressions for experimental search of $`\alpha `$ With help of the Eqs. (7,8)

$$p=2^{1/\alpha _1}M.$$
(12)
The correlation between $`p`$ and $`k`$ from system of Eqs. (8,10) gives

$$k=\frac{p}{1\alpha _2}.$$
(13)
Another useful relation is a solution of a system of Eqs. (7,9) concerning variable $`M`$:

$$M=\frac{(1\alpha _3)H}{2}K.$$
(14)
This means that only each 15th document should be stored in the cache among all documents requested from the global network (for typical values $`\alpha 0.7,H35\%`$).

It should be noted that three Eqs. (12-14) give the different values of $`\alpha `$

$$\alpha _1<\alpha _2<\alpha _3.$$
(15)
These differences $`\alpha _3\alpha _2`$, $`\alpha _2\alpha _1`$ are of order $`0.04÷0.05`$ and may be graphically explained, see Fig. (3). As a rule the value $`\alpha _3`$ from Eq. (14) is found from experimental data and it is used for the further calculations.

Analyzing log files of proxy cache a mean lifetime $`t_u`$ can be calculated for those documents, which popularity is $`\vartheta _i=1`$. Such a statistic determines also lifetime $`T_{eff}`$ of cache objects with a citing index $`\vartheta _i=2`$, i.e. those items that have been stored in proxy cache, requested one time from a proxy and have been deleted subsequently.

It is easy to see that a number of documents in a cache kernel $`S_k`$ is a value $`M(T_{eff})`$ corresponding to the time $`T_{eff}`$, and $`S_u`$ depends on $`p,M,t_u`$:

$`S_k`$ $`=`$ $`M(T_{eff}),`$ (16)
$`S_u`$ $`=`$ $`p(t_u)M(t_u),`$ (17)
The following ratio between the part $`S_k,S_u`$ has been found with help of Eqs. (2), (12):

$$\frac{S_k}{S_u}=\frac{T_{eff}}{(2^{1/\alpha }1)t_u}$$
(18)
The Eq. (18) gives a criteria for optimal using of a storage capacity. This criteria allows to plane an experiment: how does efficiently of cache replacement algorithm depend on correlation of the proxy parts? It should be noted this result as well as the experiment plan was the consequence of the theoretical study.

The analysis of log files from Samara State Aerospace University proxy  leads to the facts that variables $`t_u`$ and $`T_{eff}`$ are directly proportional to the cache size $`S_{eff}/\nu _{int}`$ and can be considered as coincided values:

$$T_{eff}t_u.$$
(19)
In other words the kernel and accessory parts are approximately correlated as 1:2 or less then 40% of storage capacity has been used for the basic goal to store the repeatedly requested documents.

## 5 Steady-state performance (static Web)

In this section we examine steady-state or limiting performance of static caching schemes when Web documents were not changing and new documents were not being generated. Wolman et al model  of steady-state performance assumes that a cache can store all cacheable documents in the Web and there aren’t any capacity misses in the workload. With this assumption, they conceive that in the long term the hit rate $`H_i`$ for cacheable documents would approach 100%. However, considerable part of cacheable documents $`pM`$ is requested from the global network only one time as it is shown on Fig. 2 that illustrate Zipf-like distribution.

More accurate expression for ideal hit ratio $`H_i`$ may be written with help of Eqs.(12,13,14) to in consecutive order $`k,p,M`$

$$H_i2^{(\alpha 1)/\alpha },$$
(20)
that gives 75% for $`\alpha =0.7`$.

The alternative expression for ideal hit ratio $`H_i`$ follows from Fig. 2:

$$H_i1\frac{pM}{k}$$
(21)
that gives 80% .

The hit rate $`H`$ of web cache is considered to grow in a log-like fashion as a function of cache size . Wolman‘s work  shows that there is no benefit in additional cache size beyond a certain size. However such an statements are impeccable only for an extremely huge sizes.

The cache administrators believe that a production cache should store about 2-3 days of traffic. Such an recommendation can be found on the cite of the Measurement Factory Inc., that tested well-known cache products .

From analyzes of the Eq. (11) for cache performance the following dependence appears

$$\frac{H_1}{H_2}=\left(\frac{S_1}{S_2}\right)^{1\alpha },$$
(22)
that allows to talk about power fashion  in size’s area of a few days traffic. This fact has been confirmed by experimental research .

## 6 Optimization of cache systems

A fine tuning of cache that increases hit ratios by only several percentage points would be equivalent to a several-fold increase in cache size. In order to determine an optimal cache size Kelly and Reeves  are guided on economical methods like monetary cost of memory and bandwidth.

The aim of our theoretical investigation is a search of dependencies between cache size $`S=S_k+S_u`$ and other macroscopic parameters like internal bandwidth $`\nu _{int}`$, maximum hit ratio $`H_i`$, Zipf’s exponent $`\alpha `$, etc.

As it is shown in Ref.  a ratio of effective size of cache system $`S_{eff}`$ to aggregated bandwidth of external links $`\nu _{int}`$ can be considered as a constant:

$$\frac{S_{eff}}{\nu _{int}}=\tau .$$
(23)
Our goal is to calculate a lower limit $`\tau (\mu ,\alpha )`$ when the performance mounts to the 35% level $`(H_{eff}35\%)`$ of well working system.

Eqs.(20,21) give the following estimation for a real system with $`\alpha 0.7`$, $`p_c=0.6`$:

$$\frac{p_cH_i}{\sqrt{2}}H_{eff}35\%$$
(24)
Eqs.(9,11) allow to calculate the correlation between documents number in a real cache kernel $`S_k`$ and a number $`M_{max}`$ corresponding to limiting performance $`H_i`$:

$$S_k=2^{1/(2(\alpha 1))}M_{max}$$
(25)
where

$$M_{max}=\frac{(1\alpha )p_cH_i}{2}\nu _{out}T_{ch}$$
(26)
Parameter $`T_{ch}=1/\mu _u=186`$ days is the time between renewal of unpopular documents . If $`H_{eff}=0.35`$, then

$$\tau (\mu _u,\alpha )=2^{1/\alpha }2^{1/(2(\alpha 1))}\frac{1\alpha }{2.61\mu _u}.$$
(27)
It is easy to calculate $`\tau =6,0`$ days for $`\alpha =0.8`$.

## 7 New principles of cache construction

The main result of any research of cache system should be finding a way for increasing hit ratio. We see the two basic directions for achievement that goal. The first conjecture is that the hit rate $`H`$ increases with growth of $`S_k/S_u`$. The second one is based on the general feature of the existing cache algorithms that the only documents requested two times and more during the time $`t_u`$ are included in the kernel $`S_k`$. Therefore we conclude that caching algorithm based on the rigid tie of the main cache parameters to the time $`t_u`$ is low effectiveness. Our approach is to separate the management block based on the requests’ statistics from the time $`t_u`$.

The current situation can be resolved with the new construction principles for cache systems. The most important feature is that fixed ratio between cache parts must be guaranteed. The statistics of requests must be kept long time for all cacheable documents including delayed ones. An inseparable part of the new construction is a replacement algorithm with a metric function based on Zipf law.

The basic principles of system of internet traffic caching based on a Zipf-like distribution (ZBS) could be formulated as follows:

1. Three main construction parts are distinguished in ZBS-system:

* A kernel $`S_k`$ that contains popular documents with $`\vartheta _i2`$.
    * An accessory part $`S_u`$ keeps unpopular documents requested from the Internet once, i.e. with $`\vartheta _i=1`$. Size of the accessory part $`S_u`$ must not exceed 10% from the full size of the ZBS cache $`S_{eff}`$.
    * A managing part $`S_m`$ contains statistics of requests as a base for a replacement policy. The control information including statistics are kept in $`S_m`$ for a long time interval $`t_s10(S_{eff}/\nu _{int})`$, where $`\nu _{int}`$ is an aggregated bandwidth of the external links. The value $`t_s`$ must exceed one month, the maximal time interval is restricted by a half of an year. A document popularity $`\vartheta _i`$ takes into account all requests that made by users during the time $`t_s`$.
2. An additional necessity to request a cached document from the global network is caused by document modification. The newly received document’ item is stored in the kernel $`S_k`$ and the corresponding frequency parameter assumes to be equals unity $`\vartheta _i=1`$.
3. An replicate metric $`C_i=T_z^i/\vartheta _i`$ is calculated for each document stored in the kernel $`S_k`$, where $`T_z^i`$ is a time period spent from the last modification of the document and $`\vartheta _i`$ is the corresponding request’s frequency. The Fig. 4 contains a graphical explanation of these variables. A document with the biggest $`C_i`$ is deleted when the kernel $`S_k`$ is overfilled.
4. A metric $`C_i=\frac{T_z^i}{\nu _i}\frac{1}{E_i}`$ is applied for increasing byte hit ratio. Here $`E_i`$ is the size of the corresponding document.
5. The document from the accessory part $`S_u`$ is deleted

* when it is placed to the kernel $`S_k`$ after the second request,
    * accordingly recently-based policies, e.g. FIFO, when the accessory part $`S_u`$ is overfilled.

The described cache scheme improves the hit ratio by a few percent according Eq. (22) because of the kernel size $`S_k`$ increases twice from 40% to 90% when other things being equal. For the huge cache size the profit consists of in an economy of the half of disk storage.

## 8 Renewal of Web documents

In the previous section our analysis has been based on the model presented by Breslay et al  and extended by Wolman et al.  to incorporate document rate of change. The Wolman model yields formulas to predict steady-state properties of Web caching systems parameterized by population size $`N`$, population request rates $`\lambda `$, document rate of change $`\mu `$, size of object universe $`n`$ and a popularity distribution for objects.

The key formulas from Wolman et al.

$`C_N`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{1}{\overset{n}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{Cx^\alpha }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{1+\frac{\mu Cx^\alpha }{\lambda N}}}\right)𝑑x`$ (28)
$`C`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{1}{\overset{n}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{x^\alpha }}𝑑x`$ (29)
yield $`C_N`$, the aggregate object hit ratio considering only cacheable objects. Document rates of change $`\mu `$ were considered to take two different values, one for popular documents $`\mu _p`$ and another for unpopular documents $`\mu _u`$. An additional multiplier from Eq. (28) throws off one effective query to any document from cache during time $`T_{ch}=1/\mu `$ between its changes. Such an request updates the existing objects when it has been modified.

In present paper we assume that the document rate of change $`\mu (i)`$ depends on its popularity $`i`$. Mathematical equivalent of this assertion is that the steady-state process of demand cache is again described by Zipf distribution with a small $`\alpha _R`$ as it is shown on Fig. 5.

The difference between an ideal performance of a cache system and its real value has been conditioned by the renewal of documents in the global network

$$\mathrm{}H=\left(\underset{i=1}{\overset{M}{}}\vartheta _iHK\right)/K$$
(30)
The ideal Zipf-like distribution corresponds to the upper line on the Fig. 5 but the real hit ratio $`H`$ determines $`\alpha _R`$ as

$$\alpha _R=12M/HK$$
(31)
Now it is easy to find $`\mu _i`$

$$\mu (i)=\frac{\vartheta _i^{id}\vartheta _i^R}{T_{st}}=\frac{(p/i)^\alpha (p/i)^{\alpha _R}}{T_{st}}$$
(32)
It should be noted again that the experiment’s plan is the consequence of the theoretical study. The corresponding results have been calculated from the proxy’ trace of Samara State Aerospace University  and has been assembled in the Table 1.

Finally, the system of Eqs. (7-11) must be modernized by change of variables $`\alpha `$ on $`\alpha _R`$.

## 9 Long-term Prefetching

One way to further increase the cache hit ratio is to anticipate future requests and prefetch these objects into a local cache. The benefit of web prefetching is to provide low retrieval latency for users, which can be explained as high hit ratio.

This section examines the costs and potential benefits of long-term prefetching for content distribution. In traditional short-term prefetching, caches use recent access history to predict and prefetch objects likely to be referenced in the near future. In contrast, long-term prefetching uses long-term steady-state object access rates and update frequencies to identify objects to replicate to content distribution locations.

Using analytic models and trace-based simulations, Venkataramani at al. , Jiang at al.  examine algorithms for selecting objects for long-term prefetching. They use threshold-based algorithms and fetch those objects with values that exceed the threshold. The object selection criterion of prefetching determines which object to replicate in advance. They have several options of criteria such as object popularity and lifetime.

An algorithm of prefetching by good-fetch was proposed by Venkataramani at al. . As for object $`i`$, assume the object s lifetime $`l_i`$, its probability of being accessed $`p_i`$, and user request arrival rate denoting how many requests arrive per second is $`a`$. Then the probability of object $`i`$ to be accessed before it dies is

$$P_{goodFetch}=1(1p_i)^{a\times l_i}$$
(33)
where $`a\times l_i`$ is the number of requests arriving during the lifetime of object $`i`$.

Jiang at al.  has proposed an algorithm using the $`ap_il_i`$ value to select objects. Objects with the highest value of $`ap_il_i`$ will be included in the prefetching set, meaning those objects with most possible requests will be prefetched in caches.

The analytical model derived in  allows to express the hit ratio of threshold-based algorithms. In order to describe this effect an additional multiplier has been included to a integral from Eq. (5). Such an fraction

$$ff(i)=ap_il_1/(ap_il_i+1)$$
(34)
is identical to Wolman multiplier from Eq. (6). The fraction (34) represents the hit ratio among accesses to the object $`i`$. Stated otherwise, this denotes the probability of object $`i`$ being fresh when it is being accessed. It is called a freshness factor of object $`i`$ denoted as $`ff(i)`$ in .

The approach developed in the Section 8 allows to calculate freshness factor $`ff(i)`$ as coefficient between hit ratios of demand cache and of ideal performance, see Fig. 5. Taking into account the Eq. (13) and the data from the Table 1 it is easy to see

$$ff(i)=k_R/k_i=(1\alpha _R)/(1\alpha _i)=0.93.$$
(35)
For threshold-based algorithms, an object $`i`$ is always kept fresh by prefetching it whenever there is any change, if its corresponding metric is above its threshold value $`T_p`$. Then we will always have a hit on object $`i`$, while the hit ratio for other objects remains same as $`ff(i)`$. In other words the prefetching algorithms allow to reach highest hit ratio corresponding to upper line on Fig. 5 to use an additional bandwidth. This additional value has been estimated

$$\mathrm{\Delta }BW=(1ff(i))\nu _{int}$$
(36)
as 7% to the mean magnitude of aggregated bandwidth of external links from Eq. (23).

On our opinion the additional module to the cache construction described in Section 7 can give an effective prefetching by lifetime:

* An additional mark $`N^i`$ is introduced for each cache item. It equals the number of document modification for the time $`T_{ins}`$ from installation of cache system.
* The threshold value is $`T_p^i=T_{ins}/N^i`$.
* If the time from a last modification of the document $`T_z^i`$ exceeds corresponding threshold $`T_p^i`$ then the cache fetches this object.

Mathematical basis of this module is uniform distribution of modification moments inside $`T_{ins}`$.

## 10 Conclusions

The aim of this paper is a theoretical study of a cache system in order to optimize proxy cache systems and to modernize construction principles including prefetching schemes. Two types of correlations, Zipf-like distribution and normalizing conditions, play a role of the fundamental laws. A corresponding system of equations allows to describe the basic effects like ratio between construction parts, steady-state performance, optimal size, long-term prefetching, etc. A modification of the fundamental laws leads to the description of new effects of documents’ renewal in the global network.

The main result of any research of cache systems is finding a way for increasing hit ratio. Our theoretical study leads to the criteria for an optimal using of storage capacity. This criteria allows to plane several experiment on the base of the mathematical analysis.

The current situation can be resolved with the new construction principles for cache systems. An internet traffic caching system based on Zipf-like distribution (ZBS) is invented. The new system construction consists of the three parts: a kernel for storing popular documents, an accessory part for unpopular documents and a management part for keeping requests’ statistic. Documents’ replacement algorithm based on a metric function that uses Zipf-like distribution is a part of the new ZBS system. The additional module to the cache construction described in Section 7 gives an effective prefetching by lifetime.


text:
# Predictions for the 𝛾𝛾 total cross-section in the TeV region: an update Talk presented by A. De Roeck at the International Linear Collider Workshop, Jeju Island, Aug. 26-30, 2002.

## 1 Introduction

It is well known that a knowledge of $`\sigma (\gamma \gamma \mathrm{hadrons})`$ is quite important to be able to estimate the hadronic backgrounds  at the future $`\gamma \gamma `$ colliders and also at the next generation $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders like TESLA  and still higher energy options like CLIC. Theoretical computation of total/inelastic cross-sections for hadronic collisions, from ‘first’ principles in QCD, is a challenging problem. All the QCD based descriptions involve modelling of the non perturbative part. The data for total hadronic cross-sections at higher energies $`100`$$`200`$ GeV, now available, from HERA for the $`\gamma p`$ processes and from LEP for $`\gamma \gamma `$ processes, have provided an additional testing ground for these models and help in model development. Recently a new five flavour parametrisation of the parton densities in the photon for heavy quark densities, has become available. Physics possibilities at the TeV energy $`e^+e^{}`$ collider, are being seriously studied. The range of theoretical expectations for the hadronic $`\gamma \gamma `$ cross-sections for the TESLA energies and possibilities of distinguishing between various models in the $`\gamma \gamma `$ collider option were studied in detail and a summary was presented in the TESLA-TDR. Fig.

1 shows that the model predictions of $`\gamma \gamma `$ hadronic cross-sections can differ by a factor 2 already at the TESLA energies. In this contribution we update the predictions to extend to higher $`\gamma \gamma `$ energies, including the newer CJKL densities for the photonic partons and also present predictions of a new model for the overlap functions of the partons in the transverse plane, including effect of resummation of the soft gluon emission by the partons. The latter results in a taming of the fast energy rise of total hadronic cross-sections at higher energies in the EMM model, thus increasing the reliability of these predictions.

## 2 Normalisation and energy dependence of $`\sigma ^{\mathrm{tot}}`$

All theoretical models which try to calculate the total cross-section have to provide a prediction for two quantities: the normalisation and the energy dependence. The issue of obtaining a theoretical description of the rise with energy of total cross-sections in hadronic collisions has occupied theoretical physicists from the early days of strong interaction physics. As said in the introduction, data are now available in the same energy range for $`pp`$/$`p\overline{p}`$, $`\gamma p`$ and $`\gamma \gamma `$ processes. Using simple quark counting rules and the Vector Meson Dominance (VMD) all the observed cross-sections can be put on the same scale. For example, $`\sigma _{p\overline{p}}^{\mathrm{tot}}`$ and $`\frac{3}{2P_{\mathrm{had}}}\sigma _{\gamma p}^{\mathrm{tot}}`$ have similar normalisation. Here $`P_{\mathrm{had}}`$ is a factor which essentially measures the probability that a $`\gamma `$ will behave like a hadron, and is given in VMD by $`_{\rho ,\omega ,\varphi }\frac{4\pi \alpha _{QED}(\sqrt{s})}{f_V^2}=\frac{1}{240}`$ at $`\sqrt{s}=200GeV`$. For $`\sigma _{\gamma \gamma }^{\mathrm{tot}}`$, factorisation implies that the multiplying factor be $`\frac{9}{4(P_{\mathrm{had}})^2}`$. We see in Fig. 2 that the different cross-sections so multiplied by these factors implied by factorisation indeed have similar normalisation at the point where the rise with energy starts. Having fixed the overall normalisation of different cross-sections by using VDM and factorisation, we notice that the rate of the rise of the cross-sections with energy seems to be higher when one or more of the colliding hadrons is a photon.

This statement can be made more quantitative by using the ‘classic’ Regge-Pomeron parametrisation of the total cross-sections given by

$$\sigma ^{\mathrm{tot}}=Xs^ϵ+Ys^\eta .$$
(1)
As a matter of fact, a fit of this form to $`\sigma ^{\mathrm{tot}}`$, keeping the normalisation free, shows that $`ϵ`$ describing the high energy behaviour is different for the $`pp`$ and the $`\gamma \gamma `$ data and the best fit values are $`ϵ_{pp}=0.08`$ and $`ϵ_{\gamma \gamma }0.1`$$`0.2`$ respectively .

The theoretical models which have been put forward to explain the energy rise of $`\sigma ^{\mathrm{tot}}`$ fall in three broad classes: 1) the Regge-Pomeron models where to accomodate the faster rise of $`\sigma ^{\mathrm{tot}}`$ more power terms are suggested, 2) a factorization appproach which predicts the photon cross-section in terms of those measured for proton, but the problem of calculating the proton cross-sections from first prinicples still remains and 3) in a QCD based approach in terms of quarks and gluons where the rise of the total hadronic cross-sections with energy is attributed to the increased number of parton collisions. We had included in Fig. 1 a representative prediction of each class of models. Various model predictions for $`\sigma _{\gamma \gamma }^{\mathrm{tot}}`$ can be fitted in the form of Eq. (1) yielding values of $`ϵ`$ between $`0.1`$$`0.3`$.

## 3 Minijet model and Bloch Nordsieck Resummation

In this section we briefly mention some features of the Eikonalised Minijet Model(EMM) and the Bloch Nordsieck(BN) resummation. In the EMM the rise of $`\sigma ^{\mathrm{tot}}`$ with energy is ascribed to the rise with energy of the ‘minijet’ cross-section :

$`\sigma _{jet}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _{p_tmin}}{\displaystyle \frac{d^2\sigma _{jet}}{d^2\stackrel{}{p}_t}}d^2\stackrel{}{p}_t`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{partons}{}}{\displaystyle _{p_tmin}}d^2\stackrel{}{p}_t{\displaystyle f(x_1)𝑑x_1f(x_2)𝑑x_2\frac{d^2\sigma ^{partons}}{d^2\stackrel{}{p}_t}}.`$
The rise of $`\sigma _{jet}`$ with energy is controlled by the small $`x`$ dependence of the parton densities, and hence mostly by the gluon densities at high energies, in the concerned hadron and by the value of $`p_t^{min}`$, the minimum transverse momentum cut-off. In the unitarised formulation, only part of the energy rise of the $`\sigma _{jet}`$ is reflected in the rise of $`\sigma ^{\mathrm{inel}},\sigma ^{\mathrm{tot}}`$ with energy. The $`\sigma ^{\mathrm{inel}},\sigma ^{\mathrm{tot}}`$ in unitarised form are then given by

$`\sigma _{pp(\overline{p})}^{\mathrm{inel}}=2{\displaystyle d^2\stackrel{}{b}[1e^{n(b,s)}]}`$ (3)
$`\sigma _{pp(\overline{p})}^{\mathrm{tot}}=2{\displaystyle d^2\stackrel{}{b}[1e^{n(b,s)/2}cos(\chi _R)]}`$
where $`n(b,s)`$ is the number of collisions of the partons in the hadrons in the transverse space and $`\chi _R=0`$. In the simplest model $`n(b,s)`$ is assumed to have a factorised form as a sum of the perturbative and non-perturbative contributions:

$$n(b,s)=n_{NP}(b,s)+n_P(b,s)=A(b)[\sigma _{\mathrm{soft}}+\sigma _{jet}],$$
(4)
Here $`A(b)`$ is the overlap of the partons in the transverse space. This can be calculated as the inverse Fourier Transform of the Form Factor of the hadrons or from the inverse Fourier Transform of the intrinsic transverse momentum distribution of the partons in the hadron, $`\sigma _{jet}`$ is given by Eq. 3 and $`\sigma _{\mathrm{soft}}`$ is parametrised. When the colliding partons are photons, the model has to include the fact that a photon has to ‘hadronise’ before this formalism can be applied. If $`P_{\mathrm{had}}`$ measures this ‘hadronisation’ probability for the $`\gamma `$, the EMM expression for $`\sigma _{\gamma \gamma }^{\mathrm{tot}}`$ is given by

$$\sigma _{\gamma \gamma }^{\mathrm{tot}}=2P_{had}^{\gamma \gamma }d^2\stackrel{}{b}[1e^{n^{\gamma \gamma }(b,s)/2}],$$
(5)
with $`n^{\gamma \gamma }(b,s)=2/3n_{\mathrm{soft}}^{\gamma p}+A^{\gamma \gamma }(b)\sigma _{jet}(s)/P_{\mathrm{had}}^{\gamma \gamma }`$ with $`P_{\mathrm{had}}^{\gamma \gamma }=\left[P_{\mathrm{had}}\right]^2`$. One gets a very good description of the $`\gamma \gamma `$ data with the EMM predictions obtained with the same set of parameters which fit the $`\gamma p`$ data, by adjusting the overall normalization upwards by $`10\%`$. The EMM predictions shown in the Fig. 1 are obtained in the above framework and the predictions are in line with the generally observed trend of faster energy rise with energy.

However, even though the EMM model is qualitatively correct, it is unable to provide a correct description of the early energy rise for the $`p\overline{p}`$ data. The rather steep rise of $`\sigma _{\gamma \gamma }^{\mathrm{inel}}`$ also raises the question whether such a rise is realistic at high energies. Clearly this simple picture requires further refinements.

It is clear that the factorisation assumed in Eq. 4 is too severe an approximation and must be relaxed. The transverse momentum distribution of the partons in a hadron and hence the transverse overlap function are sure to have an energy dependence. Thus one writes the number of collisions as

$$n(b,s)=n_{\mathrm{soft}}(b,s)+A_{PQCD}(b,s)\sigma _{jet}^{LO}.$$
(6)
where $`n_{\mathrm{soft}}`$ is to be fitted just like the $`\sigma _{\mathrm{soft}}`$ earlier. $`A_{PQCD}`$ is calculated in terms of the intrinsic transverse momentum distribution of partons in a hadron calculated in a semi-classical approach as being built, to leading order, from the resummation of the soft gluon emissions from a valence quark . The expression for $`A_{PQCD}(b,s)`$ in this model is given by

$$A_{PQCD}(b,s)\frac{e^{h(b,s)}}{d^2\stackrel{}{b}e^{h(b,s)}}$$
(7)
where,

$$h(b,s)=_{k_{min}}^{k_{max}}d^3\overline{n}_{gluons}(k)[1e^{ik_tb}].$$

In the above $`k_{max}`$ is the kinematic upper limit for the momentum for the soft gluon emission, whose resummation builds the intrinsic transverse momentum distribution of the partons in the hadron. $`k_{min}`$ in principle is zero; but then one needs to have a model for $`\alpha _s(k_t)`$ as $`k_t0`$. Since the intrinsic transverse momentum distribution is built here in terms of the resummation of soft gluons, this is termed as the Bloch Nordsieck model of $`A(b,s)`$. The $`A_{PQCD}(b,s)`$ depends on $`p_{tmin}`$ and the parton densities. As $`\sqrt{s}`$ increases the phase space available for soft gluon emission also increases causing a rise in $`k_{max}`$. Further, the transverse momentum of the initial colliding pair due to soft gluon emission increases with increasing energy and causes more straggling of initial partons reducing the probability for the collision and hence $`n(b,s)`$. A good fit to the $`pp`$ and $`p\overline{p}`$ data is obtained, using $`A_{PQCD}`$ as given by Eq. 7, with a $`\sigma _{\mathrm{soft}}`$ which is a constant or very slowly falling with $`\sqrt{s}`$ and $`A_{\mathrm{soft}}^{BN}`$ also very slowly falling at low energy and then remaining constant.

Figure 3 shows that this model reproduces both the initial fall and the final rise, correctly.

## 4 Results and Outlook.

In this section we present the results of the updates of the EMM model, namely two types of densities and soft gluon resummation for both of them.

In this we use for the photons the soft part of the eikonal $`n(b,s)`$ directly from the $`pp/p\overline{p}`$ processes and we use $`n_{\mathrm{soft}}^{\gamma \gamma }(b,s)`$ given by $`\frac{4}{9}\frac{n_{\mathrm{soft}}^{pp}+n_{\mathrm{soft}}^{p\overline{p}}}{2}`$ using the values obtained in the fit shown in Fig. 3. In Fig. 4, we show results for two different partonic densities in the photon, the GRS and the newer CJLK densities. We further extend our predictions to energies relevant for CLIC. We have used here soft resummation for hard scattering as described in the earlier section. The dashed line in Fig. 4 shows the expected cross-sections upto CLIC energies in the EMM model, for parameters which give the nice agreement with the LEP data shown in Fig. 1. The dash-dotted line shows the predictions for the ASPEN model. The solid and the dotted curves show predictions of the EMM model with soft resummation for the CJLK and GRS densities with the various parameters as indicated in the figure. As we see, the soft resummation of the hard scattering does indeed tame the rise at high energies. We notice, that the soft gluon emission also provides the initial decrease of the cross-sections. The CJLK densities have steeper $`x`$ dependence and that is reflected in steeper energy rise for those densities. We have chosen the value of $`p_t^{min}`$ in each case such that the model predictions agree with the LEP data. The difference between predictions for the different parton densities is about $`20\%`$ at higher energies. The expected errors on the ‘pseudo data points’ show clearly that the measurements at a high energy $`\gamma \gamma `$ collider have the potential of distinguishing between different formulation of the EMM model as well as between the QCD based models and those which treat $`\gamma `$ as a ‘proton’ for the purposes of these calculations.

Of course, one needs to also study the $`\gamma p`$ cross-sections in the EMM model with soft resummation and see whether a unified description, with soft parameters related by VMD, Quark Model and factorisation, is possible for all four cross-sections, $`pp`$, $`p\overline{p}`$, $`\gamma p`$ and $`\gamma \gamma `$ in this modified EMM picture. Further, one also needs to fold these hadronic cross-sections for the $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions with the $`\gamma `$ spectra expected in the $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions at CLIC energies, including the beamstrahlung photons, to estimate the hadronic backgrounds at these multi-TeV $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders. Work to do this is in progress.

## Acknowledgments

G.P. and A.G. acknowledge support by the EC Contract EURIDICE HPRN-CT2002-00311.