text:
# Printed on The Ratio Problem in Single Carbon Nanotube Fluorescence Spectroscopy

\[

## Abstract

The electronic bandgaps measured in fluorescence spectroscopy on individual single wall carbon nanotubes isolated within micelles show signficant deviations from the predictions of one electron band theory. We resolve this problem by developing a theory of the electron hole interaction in the photoexcited states. The one dimensional character and tubular structure introduce a novel relaxation pathway for carriers photoexcited above the fundamental band edge. Analytic expression for the energies and lineshapes of higher subband excitons are derived, and a comparison with experiment is used to extract the value of the screened electron hole interaction.

\]

By isolating single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNT’s) in micelles O’Connell et al.  have observed midinfrared fluorescence from individual SWNT’s in solution. Measurements of the photoluminescence efficiency (PLE) as a function of the exciting optical frequency provide a useful probe of the optical excitations of individual SWNT’s. These are of fundamental interest and provide a basis for applications of SWNT’s as optical materials.

The spectra obtained in these experiments contain features not anticipated by existing models for the nanotube electronic structure . In this Letter we study the “ratio problem”– the ratio between critical energies measured in these experiments violates a robust, model independent prediction of conventional one electron theory. Here we show that the ratio problem is resolved by identifying the effects of the electron hole interactions in the optically excited states. The magnitude of this problem can be used to extract an experimental assignment of the strength of the screened Coulomb interactions between the excited electron and hole. We develop a model for the final state interactions following optical excitations into the higher subbands, and find that it contains several unique intrinsic relaxation mechanisms that derive from one dimensionality and tubular geometry of SWNT’s. We estimate the intrinsic lifetime and derive an analytic expression for the lineshape due to these processes.

The experiments of O’Connell et al.  measure absorption and fluorescence in solutions that contain micelles enapsulating single tubes of various radii and chiralities. The experimental situation is sketched in the left panel of Figure 1, where optical excitation of an electron hole pair into a high energy azimuthal subband (a) is followed by decay into the lowest subband from which the pair recombines with the emission of a photon (b). The band gaps depend on the tube radius and chirality. By measuring the dependence of the fluorescence at a single frequency on the exciting frequency, one isolates from the ensemble the electronic excitations of one (or possibly a few) tube wrappings. Thus, peaks in the PLE can be assigned to electronic transitions between the quantized subbands of individual tubes.

The ratio of the frequency of the second peak in the PLE to the fluorescence frequency measures the ratio of the critical energies for excitations between the first two pairs of quantized azimuthal subbands of a single tube, as shown in Figure 1. Crudely, the ratio of the second absorption frequency to the emission frequency should be two because of the quantization of the azimuthal component of the crystal momentum . This prediction is not exact and is violated by effects arising from the tube curvature and from the threefold anisotropy (the so called “trigonal warping”) in the band structure . However these effects depend on the tube radius and vanish for large radius tubes. Thus one electron theory predicts that the frequency ratio must asymptotically approach two in the limit of large tube radius. Experimentally it does not, and instead approaches an asymptotic value nearer to 1.75. This is significant for the optical properties, and corresponds to a shift of the expected locations of band edges as large as $`2000\mathrm{cm}^1`$! We refer to this problem as the “ratio problem.”

The “ratio problem” can be identified unambiguously by studying the aymptotic gap ratio in the limit of large radius tubes; the observed ratios for small radius tubes are sensitive to tube curvature and band structure anisotropy. However, even for small radius tubes the band model fails to describe the data since it predicts gap ratios larger than two for approximately half of the small radius tubes measured, contrary to experiment. Likewise, quasiparticle self energy effects in the single particle Green’s function do not resolve the ratio problem for large tube radii since the self energy can be linearized in wavector $`q`$ close to the zone corner. Therefore the quasiparticle self energy corrections also satisfy the aymptotic “ratio equals two” rule for large radius tubes. As we show below the ratio problem can be traced to interaction effects in the electron-hole Green’s function that persist in the large radius limit.

Previous measurements of the electronic spectra using single electron tunneling  have been interpreted within a conventional band picture including the effects of trigonal warping. However, unlike tunneling spectroscopy, optical excitation produces two charged carriers: the excited electron and its valence band hole which are bound by their Coulomb attraction  (Figure 2(a),(c)) producing an excitonic bound state. Our theory uses a variational method to study the long range interactions (Figure 2(a)) that bind the exciton. For a nanotube of radius $`R`$ embedded in a medium with dielectric constant $`\kappa `$ it is convenient to introduce the energy parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\mathrm{}v_F/R`$ where $`v_F`$ is the Fermi velocity, and the dimensionless coupling constant $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }=\alpha /\kappa =e^2/(2\pi \kappa \mathrm{}v_F)`$. All energies in the problem can be expressed in units of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$ characterizes the strength of the screened Coulomb interaction. Our variational ansatz for the pair wavefunction for the $`n`$-th subband exciton as a function of the relative coordinate $`\mathrm{\Phi }_n(\delta z)\mathrm{exp}(|\delta z|/\xi _n)`$ gives an estimate of its localization length $`\xi _n1.5\kappa R/n`$ and binding energy $`\delta E_n=n\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }/1.5\kappa ^2`$. Note that this binding energy scales with the size of the unrenormalized gap $`2n\mathrm{\Delta }/3`$ and reduces its magnitude by $`10\%`$. For reasons discussed below, this result of the variational theory disagrees with the result of Ando’s analysis of the exciton using a screened Hartree Fock theory of the interaction . While the electron hole interaction reduces the observed threshholds for interband transitions, the binding energy scales with the subband index $`n`$ and therefore this does not change the observed ratios of the intersubband transition energies. Since the width of this bound state can be much larger than a lattice constant we study the relaxation of the exciton in the Wannier limit.

Additionally, the Coulomb interaction mediates finite momentum interband relaxation processes that conserve the total crystal momentum (Figure 2(b)). These have an unusual spectral structure because of the one dimensionality of the nanotube and the quantization of the azimuthal component of the crystal momentum.

An exciton created at the second subband edge can relax by decaying into an unbound electron hole pair in the first subband with nonzero kinetic energy (as shown in process (c) of Figure 1)). This process transfers one unit of azimuthal crystal momentum from the electron to the hole. The decay rate can be calculated using the Golden Rule which gives the second subband exciton a self energy

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }_2(E)`$ $`=`$ $`\underset{\delta 0}{lim}{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }^2\mathrm{}v_F}{R}}{\displaystyle 𝑑\zeta \frac{|V_1(\zeta )|^2|M_{21}(\zeta )|^2}{(E+i\delta )/\mathrm{\Delta }2\sqrt{(1/3)^2+\zeta ^2}}}`$ (1)
$`=`$ $`iA(E)\stackrel{~}{\alpha }^2\mathrm{\Delta }`$ (2)
where the momentum transferred in the scattering $`q=\zeta /R`$, $`V_1(\zeta )=2I_1(\zeta )K_1(\zeta )`$ is the Coulomb kernel for interband scattering at wavevector $`\zeta `$ along the tube axis expressed in terms of the Bessel functions of imaginary argument $`I_m`$ and $`K_m`$, $`M_{21}`$ is the scattering matrix element evaluated in the effective mass theory . Integrating Equation (1) we find $`A(4\mathrm{\Delta }/3)2.3`$.

A remarkable feature of the nanotube electronic spectrum is that the interband excitations in the second subband have sufficient energy to decay into pairs of first subband particle hole excitations as depicted in Figure 1 (d-e). A typical process that contributes to this decay is shown in Figure 3(a) where a hot electron excites a second electron hole pair out of the vacuum. (There are three related though inequivalent processes that are not shown in this Figure.) The amplitudes for these processes first appears in the perturbation theory at order $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }^2`$.

All the scattering processes that contribute to this relaxation channel are constrained by conservation of crystal momentum so that the four momenta in the final state of Figure 3(b) sum to zero. At the low energies relevant to our problem the situation is further simplified by projecting this amplitude onto the final state containing a pair of first subband excitons with momenta $`\pm Q`$. The projection is carried out by integrating over the two relative momenta of the bound electrons and holes, so that the phase space for the final state is one dimensional indexed by the single remaining free momentum $`Q`$. Thus the spectral weight for these final states diverges at low energy proportional to $`1/\sqrt{E}`$. This leads to the unusual situation sketched in the inset to Figure 4. The electron-hole excitation at the second band edge resonates with a nonsingular background of electron-hole excitations from the lowest azimuthal subband (this is described by the self energy of Equation 1) and hybridizes with the two electron-two hole continuum that has a one dimensional singularity at its threshhold.

The vertex function $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(q_2,q_1,q_1^{},q_1^{\prime \prime })`$ for this latter process depends only weakly on the momenta over the width $`\xi ^1`$ relevant to describe the Wannier exciton. Using this fact we obtain

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }^2\mathrm{}v_F}{R}}{\displaystyle _\mathrm{\Lambda }^\mathrm{\Lambda }}𝑑\zeta {\displaystyle \frac{V_1(\zeta )V_0(\zeta )M_{2111}(\zeta )}{2/3\sqrt{(1/3)^2+\zeta ^2}}}`$ (3)
$`=`$ $`B\stackrel{~}{\alpha }^2\mathrm{\Delta }e^{i\theta }`$ (4)
where $`V_m(\zeta )`$ gives the Coulomb kernels for scattering with $`m`$ units of crystal momentum in the azimuthal direction and with $`\delta q=\zeta /R`$ along the tube axis. The factor $`M`$ in the integrand is a matrix element that we evaluate using the single particle states in the effective mass wavefunctions on the tube . $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is an ultraviolet cutoff on the integral for for which a Debye approximation gives the estimate $`\mathrm{\Lambda }2.7`$. The integration in Equation (3) then gives $`B5.83`$ and yields for the self energy of Figure 3(c)

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }_4(E)\frac{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }^4B^2\mathrm{\Delta }}{\sqrt{(4/3)^2(E/\mathrm{\Delta })^2}}$$
(5)
Combining the results of Equations (1) and (3) we obtain an expression for the exciton Green’s function in terms of the scaled energy $`\epsilon =E/\mathrm{\Delta }`$

$`𝒢(\epsilon )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\epsilon \epsilon _o+iA\stackrel{~}{\alpha }^2+B^2\stackrel{~}{\alpha }^4/\sqrt{\epsilon _o^2\epsilon ^2}}}`$ (6)
where $`\epsilon _o`$ gives the (scaled) energy of the unperturbed exciton. The absorption lineshape $`(\epsilon )=\mathrm{Im}𝒢(\epsilon )/\pi `$ is therefore completely determined by the screened coupling constant $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$; in Figure 4 we plot $`(\epsilon )`$ for three representative values of the coupling. The zero in this lineshape denotes the locations of the threshhold energy for the two particle-two hole continuum. Note that while the electronic bandgaps depend on tube radius $`R`$, scaling approximately as $`1/R`$, the Coulomb interaction has the same scaling with radius. In particular, for large radius tubes the excitonic interactions become weak in proportion to the scale of the band gap, expressed as a fraction of the bandgap it approaches a nonzero limit for large $`R`$.

The second term in the self energy of Equation (4) is higher order in the small parameter $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$, but it makes a signficant contribution to the self energy because of its singular energy dependence. Solving for the roots of the denominator we find that the pole for the bare second subband exciton is shifted to lower energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }\epsilon =3^{1/3}B^{4/3}\stackrel{~}{\alpha }^{8/3}/2`$ and develops a width $`\delta \epsilon =A\stackrel{~}{\alpha }^2`$. In contrast, the first subband exciton is unaffected by any similar relaxation process, since it does not overlap a pair continuum, and therefore it is unrenormalized.

In the lower panel of Figure 4 we plot the ratio of the renormalized energy of the second subband exciton to the energy of the first subband exciton. The dashed line gives the result of the noninteracting theory that ignores these relaxation effects. Experiment indicates that in the limit of large tube radii the ratio lies in the shaded region, which is well described by a dimensionless coupling constant $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }0.20`$. The unscreened coupling constant is $`e^2/2\pi \mathrm{}v_F0.42`$ and so the fit indicates an effective dielectric screening of the exciton with $`\kappa 2.1`$. For this coupling constant the linewidth is $`0.09\mathrm{}v_F/R`$, giving $`\delta \lambda /\lambda 0.07`$ which is quite close to the experimentally observed width in PLE . This coupling constant places the nanotube micelle in the crossover regime where the shift and width of the line are comparable, as shown as the bold curve in Figure 4.

A single electron injected into the second azimuthal subband edge has insufficient energy to relax by exciting an electron hole pair. Thus the processes illustrated in Figure 3 for the exciton do not occur in the single particle Green’s function and should have no effect on electronic spectra measured by tunneling spectroscopy.

The effect of the Coulomb interaction on the optical excitations has been studied theoretically previously by Ando . His work augments the effective mass model by introducing a Coulomb interaction between electrons that is studied within the Hartree Fock approximation. Ando’s approach predicts an enhancement of the single particle bandgap due to the interactions, and the appearance of a bound exciton spectrum within this larger gap. Note however that the effective mass Hamiltonian is parameterized to match the low lying quasiparticle excitations of a the reference graphene sheet and thus already includes some self energy effects due to the Coulomb interaction. Our model treats the excitonic effects of the Coulomb interaction between the electron and hole, and therefore builds in the correct separation energy within the effective mass theory. Processes leading to the self energy of Figure 3 occur beyond the level of a Hartree Fock treatment of the interaction.

It is interesting that if the coupling constant $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$ were unscreened, the renormalized second subband exciton hybridizes so strongly with the two electron two hole continuum that its energy becomes comparable to that of the fundamental first subband exciton. This situation is reminscent of the known anomalous ordering of the electronic excitations of the polyenes . There the lowest singlet excitation corresponds not to the promotion of a single electron from the highest unoccupied molecular orbital to the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital, but instead to a two particle-two hole excited state.

The interaction of carbon nanotubes with visible light results in the formation of “hot” carriers well above the lowest band edge. Our results demonstrate that a quantitative analysis of these excitations requires an understanding of the dominant relaxation mechanisms for these carriers. We find that the excitations of the many body system at these energies mix the interband excitations of the independent particle model with a continuum of primitive electron-hole excitations, and the latter are particularly strong because of the one dimensional character of these structures. These can now be included in quantitative analyses of spectroscopic data on these systems.

Acknowledgements: This work was supported by the Department of Energy under Grant DE-FG02-ER-0145118, and by the National Science Foundation under MRSEC grant DMR-00-79909. We thank Rick Smalley and Bruce Weisman for communicating their experimental results prior to publication.


format: text

text:
# Precise laser spectroscopy of the antiprotonic helium atom and CPT test on antiproton mass and charge

## 1 Introduction

The antiprotonic helium atom ($`\overline{p}`$He+) is a three-body system consisting of an antiproton, an electron, and a helium nucleus. Some states (quantum numbers; $`n`$, $`l`$ $``$ 38) of this exotic atom are known to live anomalously long (lifetime $``$ 3 $`\mu `$s) for a system including an antiproton. Since its discovery in 1991 , the nature of this antiprotonic atom has been studied extensively, and precise measurements of its enegy levels have been carried out using a laser spectroscopic method.

In the last few years we have performed sub-ppm laser spectroscopy on many transitions of the antiprotonic atom at CERN AD (Antiproton Decelerator) . We have done a CPT test on proton-antiproton mass and charge differences by comparing the experiment with theories, as the theories use the known proton mass value for the antiproton mass.

## 2 Experimental Setup

Our current experimental scheme is in principle the same as the one described in Refs. . A major improvement is that we started to use a new radiofrequency quadrupole decelerator (RFQD) . The apparatus can decelerate antiprotons from 5.3 MeV to below 100 keV by a RFQ electric field. Previously, we had to use a gas target dense enough to stop 5.3 MeV antiprotons (atomic density $`\rho 10^{21}`$ cm-3), but such a high density can shift the resonant frequency significantly. By using the RFQD, antiprotons can be stopped in a far lower density target ($`\rho =10^{17}`$$`10^{18}`$ cm-3), thus we can directly measure the transition frequencies at “zero-density”, instead of taking several scans at different target densities and making an extrapolation.

## 3 Analysis

### 3.1 Transition frequency

The analysis method for the transition frequencies is also concisely described in the Refs. . Here we summarize the three procedures used for the deduction of the frequencies.

* Fitting the frequency profiles of the resonances
Each resonance profile was fitted with a sum of two identical-shaped Voigt functions separated by the theoretical hyperfine splitting . The uncertainty of the fitting is $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu =`$ 20–60 MHz, which mainly comes from statistical fluctuations, instability of the laser power, and irregular frequency distributions of the laser pulse.
* Absolute frequency calibration
Our wavelength meter is absolutely calibrated against molecular ro-vibrational lines of iodine  or tellurium, or atomic lines of neon or argon by optogalvanic spectroscopy. The accuracy of the calibration is 20–50 MHz.
* Density extrapolaration
For high density (non-RFQD) scans, transition frequencies at zero-density were obtained by linear extrapolation of the several central frequencies at different densities. Due to the limited accuracy of the temperature and pressure measurement, this procedure causes 20–50 MHz of uncertainty.

By taking into account all of the above, the overall precision $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu /\nu `$ was 0.1–0.2 ppm.

### 3.2 CPT test

The agreement between the experiment and theories enables us to put a limit on the proton-antiproton mass (or charge) difference, which is equal to zero if the CPT theorem holds. Here we describe how we could obtain the CPT limit from the experimental results.

The charge-to-mass ratio of antiproton $`Q_{\overline{p}}/M_{\overline{p}}`$ has been measured to a high precision of $`9\times 10^{11}`$ by a Penning trap experiment . Our experiment measures transition frequencies, which are differences of energy levels. The frequency of an antiprotonic transition should depend on the antiproton mass and the charge. If we assume a hydrogen-like system, this dependence can be written as

$$\mathrm{}\nu =\mathrm{\Delta }EM_{\overline{p}}Q_{\overline{p}}^2.$$
(1)
However, the actual dependence is different from the above, because the system consists of three particles and the antiproton is quite heavy. Instead, we can write the realistic dependence by introducing a parameter $`f`$, which depends on the transition:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }EM_{\overline{p}}Q_{\overline{p}}^{f1}=(Q_{\overline{p}}/M_{\overline{p}})^1Q_{\overline{p}}^f=(Q_{\overline{p}}/M_{\overline{p}})^{f1}M_{\overline{p}}^f.$$
(2)
If we fix the well-known charge-to-mass ratio, $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ is simply proportional to $`Q_{\overline{p}}^f`$ and $`M_{\overline{p}}^f`$. The parameter $`f=`$ 2–6 was theoretically evaluated by Kino  by calculating the shift of the transition frequency when the input proton mass value is changed slightly.

Then, the CPT limit parameter $`\delta `$ can be obtained by comparing the experimental and theoretical values:

$$\delta =\frac{Q_p+Q_{\overline{p}}}{Q_p}=\frac{M_pM_{\overline{p}}}{M_p}=\frac{1}{f}\frac{\nu _{th}\nu _{exp}}{\nu _{exp}},$$
(3)
since the theories use the precisely-known proton mass as the antiproton mass in the calculations. The limits of all the twelve transitions were averaged to obtain the final result.

## 4 Results

Fig. 1 shows the comparison of the experimental and the theoretical transition frequencies published in 2001 . In this figure, the experimental values are centered on the dotted lines and their precisions $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _{exp}/\nu _{exp}`$ are shown as error bars. Two independent calculations by Korobov  and Kino  are compared with our results. Although not shown in this figure, eight more states of $`\overline{p}^4`$He+ and $`\overline{p}^3`$He+ measured in 2001–2002 are in analysis.

Table 1 is the summary of our progress. From the measurements in 2000, we obtained a CPT limit of 60 ppb with a confidence level of 90% . Since then, many transitions including those of $`\overline{p}^3`$He+ were measured, and the RFQD contributed to an efficient data-taking. As a result, the CPT limit is, according to our preliminary analysis so far, greatly improved by a factor 3 or better. The final result of the analysis will be presented in .

We are grateful to CERN PS division for their help, V.I. Korobov, D.D. Bakalov and Y. Kino for useful discussions. This work was supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Creative Basic Research (Grant No. 10NP0101) of Monbukagakusho of Japan, and the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (Grant Nos. OTKA T033079 and TeT-Jap-4/00).


text:
# Bound states of 3He at the edge of a 4He drop on a cesium surface

## Abstract

We show that small amounts of 3He atoms, added to a 4He drop deposited on a flat cesium surface at zero temperature, populate bound states localized at the contact line. These edge states show up for drops large enough to develop well defined surface and bulk regions together with a contact line, and they are structurally different from the well-known Andreev states that appear at the free surface and at the liquid-solid interface of films. We illustrate the one-body density of 3He in a drop with 1000 4He atoms, and show that for sufficiently large number of impurities, the density profiles spread beyond the edge, coating both the curved drop surface and its flat base and eventually isolating it from the substrate.

During the last decade, experimental and theoretical studies of wetting phenomena on substrates of various adsorptive strenghts have considerably enriched the physics of quantum fluids. Liquid 4He, which was early believed to be a universal wetting agent, exhibits finite wetting temperatures on cesium surfaces. On the other hand, the theoretical prediction that 3He is a universal wetting agent was confirmed by measurements of its adsorption isotherms on Cs. These opposite and complementary wetting properties combine in a very interesting manner when the helium isotopes coexist in a low-temperature solution, since 3He dissolved into bulk liquid or 4He films populates a two-dimensional homogeneous layer of Andreev states on the free surface (see e.g., Ref.  and refs. therein).

Andreev-like states for a single 3He atom, localized at the liquid-substrate interface of a 4He film on a variety of adsorbers, including weak alkalis like Cs, were predicted within the frame of density functional (DF) theory. The effect of 3He impurities on the liquid-vapor and liquid-solid surface tensions of 4He on Cs is a key ingredient in the prediction of reentrant wetting by helium mixtures, as measured shortly afterwards. The existence of the interfacial bound states was confirmed by experimental evidence and by microscopic variational calculations. More recent measurements of the contact angle of helium mixtures on Cs showed that the large observed values are consistent with both single-particle (sp) states of the 3He atoms at the liquid-solid interface and surface excitations.

The preference of 3He to migrate to the surface of 4He is a very general consequence of the mutual interaction between the isotopes, and this structure appears as well in density profiles of mixed drops as described by DF theory. These descriptions of finite helium mixtures consider freely standing systems in vacuum; however, mixed clusters deposited on adsorbing substrates offer an interesting illustration of the competition between selfsaturation, mutual interaction between the helium isotopes and external confinement, with consequences on their wetting behavior. A theoretical approach has been anticipated for droplets of pure 4He on Cs, whose profiles and contact angles have been recently computed, employing a Finite Range Density Functional (FRDF) at zero temperature.

In this letter, we present DF calculations of nanoscale mixed 3He-4He droplets at zero temperature on a flat Cs surface using the FRDF for mixtures of Ref. and demonstrate that the lowest-lying 3He sp bound states are localized on the perimeter of the 4He base -i.e., the contact line. These are genuine edge states of a different nature than the well-known Andreev ones, since they originate in the peculiarities of the mean field for this specific geometry.

For this sake, assuming axial symmetry around the $`z`$-axis perpendicular to the Cs substrate, by functional differentiation of the energy density we derive the Euler-Lagrange (EL) equation for the 4He particle density $`\rho _4(r,z)`$ and the Kohn-Sham (KS) equations for the 3He sp wave functions (wf’s) $`\psi _{nl}(r,z)e^{il\phi }`$, with $`l`$ the $`z`$-projection of the orbital angular momentum, for fixed particle numbers $`N_i`$ ($`i`$=3, 4). The general form of these equations can be found in Ref.; hereafter we shall mostly restrict our considerations to the case $`N_4`$ = 1000 and varying $`N_3`$ as discussed below.

The first problem that we solve is the Schrödinger equation for one 3He atom in the field of a 4He cluster on a Cs surface, with the Cs-He potential of Ref. . In Fig. 1 we show contour plots on the $`y=0`$ plane (hereafter, lengths are given in $`\mathrm{\AA }`$) of the probability densities $`|\psi _{n0}(r,z)|^2`$ for $`n`$ = 1, 2, and 3, together with grayscale views of the density $`\rho _4(r,z)`$, which exhibits the layered structure encountered in films on flat surfaces (see also Ref. ).

The most spectacular result is undoubtedly the appearance of the $`1s`$ ground state (gs) $`\psi _{10}`$, since the sharp localization of the impurity on the contact line indicates the existence of a new kind of sp state, the edge state. With a truly one-dimensional (1D) probability density on a ring of mesoscopic size, it would certainly exist in a macroscopic droplet, being in essence a 1D analog of the two-dimensional Andreev state at the planar free surface of 4He. Its origin is the density distribution of the 4He drop, that together with the potential created by the substrate, gives rise to the strong attraction experienced by the impurity near the contact line. In addition, the enhanced surface width of the 4He cluster at the edge, due to the overlapping spreads of both the upper and the lower surface, permits large zero point motion of the impurity, thus lowering its kinetic energy and favouring binding.

We display in Fig. 2 the evolution of the sp energy $`\epsilon _{1s}`$ with $`N_4`$, which shows that for relatively small sizes (around $`N_4`$=2000), the curve seems to be asymptotic to a certain value, the macroscopic limit. We have verified as well that $`s`$-states with $`n`$ between 2 and 8 span an energy shell, with a width of about 1.3 K starting at $`\epsilon _{20}`$= -4.74 K, for i.e., $`N_4`$ = 1000 (cf. Fig. 3), that could be regarded as fragmentation of the Andreev state of the free surface of films, induced by finite size and curved shape. This is supported by the shape of the excited probability densities displayed in Fig. 1, which display peaks on the upper surface of the drop.

Noticeably also, we have found that the probability densities $`|\psi _{1l}(r,z)|^2`$ for $`l>0`$ are essentially identical to $`|\psi _{10}(r,z)|^2`$. This reflects the fact that these excitations consist of rotations of the gs $`\psi _{10}`$ around the symmetry axis of the 4He drop, as can be seen in the sp level scheme depicted in Fig. 3. Instead, since $`s`$-excited states possess nonvanishing probability density on the rotational axis, states with $`n>1`$ and $`l>0`$ are more sensitive to the centrifugal potential, that splits the cusp creating extra lobes in the higher levels described by wf’s $`\psi _{nl}(r,z)`$.

For the rotational band, the sp energies follow the rule

$$\epsilon _{1l}=\epsilon _{10}+\frac{\mathrm{}^2l^2}{2m_{10}^{}R_{10}^2}$$
(1)
with $`\epsilon _{10}`$ = -5.03 K. Effective masses $`m_{nl}^{}`$, defined as the state averages of the local, density-dependent one,

$$\frac{1}{m_{nl}^{}}=𝑑\stackrel{}{r}\frac{1}{m_3^{}\left[\rho _4(r,z)\right]}[\psi _{nl}(r,z)]^2$$
(2)
are parameters that appear naturally in the prefactor of the centrifugal potential as one computes the expectation value of the sp hamiltonian. In this case, we obtain $`m_{10}^{}`$ = 1.21 $`m_3`$, which together with the slope of the linear regression in Fig. 3 gives a gs radius $`R_{10}`$ = 35.1 $`\mathrm{\AA }`$. We point out that if $`m_{10}^{}=m_3`$, the corresponding values $`\epsilon _{10}`$ = -4.86 K and $`R_{10}`$ = 34.7 $`\mathrm{\AA }`$ reveal the scarce relevance of this parameter to our main results. For the $`s`$-states $`n`$=2 to 8, the respective $`m_{n0}^{}`$ are similar and close to 1.3 $`m_3`$, that scales with the effective mass for the Andreev surface state in 4He films on Cs, around 1.45 $`m_3`$.

As a second step, we have solved the system consisting of the coupled EL/KS equations, for $`N_3`$ values corresponding to closed shell configurations made of sp states within the gs rotational band. For small $`N_3`$ values, the level filling sequence still corresponds to the sp spectrum of a single atom, with slightly decreasing slopes of the gs rotational band, due to the finite 3He density which enhances the effective mass, and smaller values of $`|\epsilon _{10}|`$ also depending on $`N_3`$. This is illustrated in Fig. 3 for $`N_3`$ = 26. The shape of the wf’s $`\psi _{1l}(r,z)`$ below the Fermi sea is now sensitive to $`N_3`$, and $`\rho _4(r,z)`$ is also affected; maps of the 3He and 4He particle densities, with details as in Fig. 1, are depicted in Fig. 4, showing the tendency of the 3He density to drift upwards on the drop surface; note that the lowest 3He density line corresponds to 10$`{}_{}{}^{6}\mathrm{\AA }_{}^{3}`$.

A substantial simplification of the above full coupled problem, within excellent accuracy for sufficiently large $`N_3`$, is provided by the Thomas-Fermi (TF) method. We apply this procedure to $`N_3100`$, and find that at $`N_3=100`$, the density profile of the impurities covers the free surface of the 4He drop, and tends to isolate it from the substrate. For $`N_3`$ between 100 and 150, the situation qualitatively changes, and 3He spreads beyond the edge of the 4He drop giving rise to a thin film of 3He that coats the Cs substrate with an asymptotic coverage $`n_3`$. As our interest here is in finite systems, we have just solved the problem of the splashed 4He1000 droplet for two very low asymptotic coverages, namely $`n_3=2\times 10^3`$ and $`3\times 10^3\mathrm{\AA }^2`$.

Figure 5 is a threedimensional view of $`\rho _3(r,z)`$ corresponding to $`n_3=3\times 10^3\mathrm{\AA }^2`$, where the occupied edge states of the single atoms can be visualized as large peaks near the contact line, while Fig. 6 exhibits the corresponding $`\rho _4(r,z)`$. The layering of the 3He density appears as a series of peaks on the covering shell on the 4He cluster; in addition, we note the spreading of $`\rho _3(r,z)`$ near the substrate as $`r`$ increases beyond the region populated by the edge states. In this case, the number of 3He atoms inside a cylinder of radius $`R=50\mathrm{\AA }`$ is $`180`$, and $`138`$ for $`n_3=2\times 10^3\mathrm{\AA }^2`$.

Finally, we comment on the contact angle, whose determination for nanoscopic droplets is far from trivial, as discussed in . We have seen that helium droplet densities display non-negligible surface widths and are highly stratified near the substrate. This structure renders the contact angle an ill defined quantity, and one has to resort to methods such as that in , since a determination of the contact angle by ‘visual inspection’ of the equidensity lines may only lead to a rather crude estimate. For the pure 4He droplets our results coincide with those of , thus the procedure there described would give a contact angle of about 30 degrees.

The presence of 3He affects the contact angle, as can be judged from Fig. 7, where we show the contour plot of the total 3He+4He density corresponding to roughly half the bulk 4He density for $`N_4=1000`$ and the above two 3He coverages. It appears from this figure that whereas the height of the cap does not change visibly, the radius of the cap base increases by $`810\%`$ and this should have a sizeable effect in any sensible determination of the contact angle.

To summarize, we have found that in addition to the well known Andreev states, 4He drops on Cs substrates host a new class of 3He sp states which appear as 1D rings of 3He atoms surrounding the contact line for mesoscopic drops or wedges, and are the lowest-lying. The gs energies found in this work are, for the largest clusters, close to those of surface Andreev states, around -5.1 K depending on the 4He coverage, and below the interfacial Andreev states, around -4.3 K. The experimental detection of these edge states might be a challenge, open to seeking thermodynamic evidence through specific heat or magnetic susceptibility measurements below the dewetting line of the low temperature phase diagram for mixtures, or dynamical evidence for undamped 1D spin-density oscillations. The statistical model in Ref.  shows that the most likely scenario for measured contact angles and surface tensions must include both Andreev states and ripplons at the substrate-liquid interface; accordingly, it might be interesting to examine the effects of the new edge states -so far overlooked- in this description.

This work has been performed under grants BFM2002-01868 from DGI, and 2001SGR-00064 and ACI2000-28 from Generalitat of Catalunya. E.S.H. has been also funded by M.E.C.D. (Spain) on sabbatical leave. We are grateful to Francesco Ancilotto, Milton Cole and Adrian Wyatt for useful discussions, and to Eckhard Krotscheck for helpful advice.


text:
# Selection criteria for targets of asteroseismic campaigns

## 1 Introduction

The aim of asteroseismology is to use the properties of the oscillations of stars to place constraints on their internal structure. The frequencies of stellar oscillations can be used to determine parameters of stars that are either inaccessible to classical observation or can not be determined with an accuracy that is sufficient for many purposes. The foremost examples of these parameters are the mass and angular momentum of stars. Currently, accurate masses of stars can only be determined if they are members of close binary systems. Even for the best spectroscopic data and stellar atmospheres modelling currently available, for single stars their mass is not known to better than 20 %. If one wishes to determine the mass function of stars and investigate its universality, for instance in order to investigate star formation processes, the current data are heavily biased to stars that have formed in binary systems, which may not reflect the variety of conditions under which stars can form and thus provide an incorrect mass function for the galaxy. As a consequence of the fact that forming stars contract from molecular clouds many orders of magnitude larger than their main sequence stellar radius, a substantial amount of angular momentum must be shed during the contraction. An important constraint for theories of mechanisms mediating this angular momentum loss would be the measurement of the angular momentum of stars for a range of masses. Also, for the post-main sequence evolution of in particular high-mass stars the loss of angular momentum during evolution is similarly important. Unfortunately spectroscopic observations have access to only the projected surface rotation velocity. The true angular momentum can only be obtained through asteroseismology (Pijpers, (2003)).

Oscillation frequencies are measures of sound travel time through the star, which is an average of the inverse of the sound speed. There is a relation between the sound speed and the mass because stars are in hydrostatic equilibrium. There is a secondary dependence on hydrogen abundance which arises through the change in the mean atomic mass on which the sound speed depends. Thus if a sufficient number of modes is present and identified in the time series of an oscillating star, it should in principle be possible to measure its mass, its core hydrogen abundance (‘age’), and its rotation rate. Using more sophisticated inverse analyses other information, such as depths of convection zones, might be possible to extract as well. The identification of observed modes of oscillation and the subsequent analysis is considerably facilitated if ‘external’ constraints such as a stellar effective temperature or a stellar radius are available (cf. Brown et al., (1994)).

Sect. 2 of this paper discusses the stars that have been selected as the most appropriate candidates for observation in the MONS experiment (Measuring Oscillations in Nearby Stars) on board the Rømer satellite which is an element in the Danish small satellite program (Christensen-Dalsgaard, (2002)). Relevant stellar parameters from the literature or derived in the paper are presented here. Sect. 3 presents a set of selection criteria which can easily be generalized for other missions with different limiting sensitivities. These selection criteria are intended to maximize the effectiveness of any oscillation frequencies obtained in constraining stellar structure. Sect. 4 presents some results and discussion.

## 2 The short-list of stars for MONS

For the MONS mission a short-list of stars has been decided upon from which a subset of around 20 stars is to be selected for observation by the main camera. In making this list, a variety of criteria were used in order to obtain a set of stars which are representative of several classes or groups corresponding to the interests of a large international community. All of these stars are solar-like in the sense that they are expected to exhibit oscillations driven stochastically by convection in a surface convection zone. It is desirable to have stars representative of several subgroups within this class : close solar analogues in mass as well as somewhat lower and higher mass stars (at various stages of evolution), some stars at lower and higher metallicity than the Sun, some stars that on the basis of the level of their magnetic activity are expected to rotate rather more rapidly than the Sun and finally a few stars at higher effective temperature.

However it is useful to consider whether it is possible to create a larger and possibly more uniform sample of stars using quantitative criteria. Such a list would include most of the stars listed above but could serve as resource for other asteroseismic missions and observing campaigns as well as for contingency planning for the MONS mission itself. In order to do this it is first necessary to obtain the relevant stellar parameters. The luminosity $`L`$ in units of the solar value $`L_{}`$ can be obtained from measurable quantities using the following equation :

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \mathrm{log}\frac{L}{L_{}}=4.0+0.4M_{\mathrm{bol},}& 2.0\mathrm{log}\pi [\mathrm{mas}]\hfill \\ \hfill 0.4& (VA_V+BC(V)).\hfill \end{array}$$
(1)
Here and throughout the paper logarithms are taken to base 10. The parallax $`\pi `$ is obtained from the Hipparcos (ESA, (1997)) satellite in all cases except for a few binary systems. For these the value is used that is obtained by Söderhjelm (1999) which takes into account corrections due to the relative motion of the two components in their orbit. The Johnson V magnitude is obtained from the Catalogue of Photometric Data (Mermilliod et al., (1997)). For most stars in the MONS short-list there are high precision determinations of the stellar parameters : effective temperature, surface gravity, and metallicity $`(T_{\mathrm{eff}},\mathrm{log}g,[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}])`$ directly from spectroscopy. For the remaining stars spectroscopy is being obtained and will be reported elsewhere (Bruntt, (2003)). With these values it is possible to obtain colours $`(BV)`$, extinction $`A_V`$ and bolometric corrections $`BC(V)`$ on $`V`$ using the BaSeL library of model atmospheres (Lejeune et al., (1998)). $`M_{\mathrm{bol},}`$ is the solar bolometric absolute magnitude.

In order to be fully consistent, in principle it would be necessary to re-reduce the original spectra or obtain new ones and perform fitting for $`(T_{\mathrm{eff}},\mathrm{log}g,[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}])`$ using the same model atmosphere code that would also be used to calculate the colour and bolometric corrections. In practice this is not feasible for a large number of stars and therefore it is assumed that the uncertainties on the values for $`(T_{\mathrm{eff}},\mathrm{log}g,[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}])`$ quoted by the various authors are sufficiently large to encompass any systematic effects between the various codes currently in use for spectral line fitting for these parameters. One possible systematic effect is changes in colours and bolometric corrections that can arise due to different assumptions concerning properties of convection. In order to asses the magnitude of such effects the bolometric corrections and colours were compared with those resulting from using model atmospheres of Bessel et al. (1998) with and without overshoot. For all stars in the MONS short-list the differences between the two treatments and between that grid and the BaSeL grid of model atmospheres were smaller than any differences introduced due to the uncertainty in the measurements of $`(T_{\mathrm{eff}},\mathrm{log}g,[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}])`$. Of course very different treatments of convection such as proposed by Canuto & Dubovikov (1998), or 3-D simulations (cf. Asplund et al., 1999) might well introduce substantial changes both in the estimation of $`(T_{\mathrm{eff}},\mathrm{log}g,[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}])`$ as well as in $`BC(V)`$ and $`(BV)_0`$, but as yet such information is not available for large numbers of stars.

A summary of the stellar parameters is presented in Tables 1 and 2. In a number of cases more than one independent determination of $`(T_{\mathrm{eff}},\mathrm{log}g,[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}])`$ is available in the literature. However, in many references no error estimates are quoted, which makes it difficult to asses whether or not the various determinations are consistent. The values in Tables 1 and 2 are either from a reference which quotes an error estimate or the most recent determination available. The bolometric corrections on the V magnitude $`BC(V)`$ are obtained by tri-linear interpolation in $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, $`\mathrm{log}g`$, and $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]`$ on the tables of Lejeune et al. (Lejeune et al., (1998)) for the BaSeL library of model atmospheres. In order to be consistent with these tables, the bolometric magnitude of the Sun $`M_{\mathrm{bol},}`$ is taken to be 4.746 (Lejeune et al., (1998)). An estimate of the uncertainty in the bolometric correction is obtained by treating the error estimates on $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, $`\mathrm{log}g`$, and $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]`$ as independent errors and combining them quadratically. The necessary partial derivatives of the bolometric correction with respect to each of these parameters are also obtained from the tables calculated with the BaSeL library of model atmospheres. For those stars for which no measurement error for $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, $`\mathrm{log}g`$, and/or $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]`$ is available the error has been set to $`100\mathrm{K}`$, $`0.2`$ and $`0.1`$ respectively, which in some cases contributes substantially to the uncertainty in the bolometric correction and the intrinsic colour and therefore also to the error estimates for $`L`$ and $`A_V`$.

Since the stars MONS short-listed stars are all nearby, the visual extinction $`A_V`$ is expected to be very small. In fact in deriving relation (2) from observations it is often assumed that there is no extinction within 70 pc of the Sun. Nevertheless in terms of the uncertainty estimate for the luminosity, in principle the term must be taken into account. To obtain an estimate of $`A_V`$ the standard relation between extinction and reddening is used (cf. Neckel et al., (1980)) :

$$A_V=3.1\left[(BV)(BV)_0\right],$$
(2)
where the intrinsic colour $`(BV)_0`$ is obtained by tri-linear interpolation in $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, $`\mathrm{log}g`$, and $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]`$ on the tables of Lejeune et al. (Lejeune et al., (1998)) for the BaSeL library of model atmospheres. The uncertainty in $`(BV)_0`$ is obtained from the BaSeL library in the same way as it is for the bolometric correction. This error is then combined quadratically with the measurement error in $`(BV)`$ to obtain an error estimate on the visual extinction.

The resulting values for the luminosity $`L`$ and visual extinction $`A_V`$ are listed in Table 2. In some cases negative values for the visual extinction are obtained, which can be due to measurement uncertainties for $`(BV)`$ or the uncertainty in $`(BV)_0`$ propagated from the uncertainties in $`(T_{\mathrm{eff}},\mathrm{log}g,[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}])`$. In such cases the $`A_V`$ is set to $`0`$ in Table 2. In all but a few of the cases where the $`A_V`$ is set to $`0`$, the value is between $`0`$ and $`1.5\sigma `$. For the exceptions the absolute value of the extinction $`|A_V|<3\sigma `$. These exceptions are :

* HIP 37279 ($`\alpha `$ CMi A): it is possible that the measured $`(BV)`$ is affected by the presence of the white dwarf companion (Procyon B).
* HIP 17378 ($`\delta `$ Eri): this star is classified as an RS CVn type variable (a detached active binary) which could be the cause for anomalous colours.
* HIP 89937 ($`\chi `$ Dra): An astrometric, interferometric, and spectroscopic binary. If the secondary is also a main sequence star it should not have a higher $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ in which case it would not be likely to cause an anomalously blue colour of the combined binary.
* HIP 109176 ($`\iota `$ Peg A): A spectroscopic binary with a period of $`10\mathrm{d}`$. Possibly the companion is sufficiently near in mass to affect the colour.

As expected for nearby stars, for all stars in Table 2 but one the value for $`|A_V|<3\sigma (A_V)`$. The one exception is 36 Oph A (HIP 84405) which has a nearly equal mass companion so that for this star the determination of $`A_V`$ is probably an overestimate. It is important for high precision photometry to know whether or not a target star has one or more close companions, for instance because it is member of a (close) binary or multiple system, which is why this is indicated in Table 2. One star for which binarity is indicated is $`\nu `$ Ind (HIP 110618). However there is some doubt as to the binarity of this star (cf. Lambert & McWilliam, (1986)) and evidently the spectral type is not consistent with the spectroscopic effective temperature.

The uncertainty in the luminosity in Table 2 is obtained by treating each of the terms in Eq. (2) as a statistically independent source of errors and combining the variances appropriately. Although the number obtained in this way does provide a measure of the range of luminosities consistent with the data, it is misleading in that the error distribution is not Gaussian since there is a correlation between e.g. the effective temperature and the bolometric correction on V. In the theoretical HR diagram Fig. 1 account is taken of this by showing for each star the $`1\sigma `$ lower and upper bound for the luminosity obtained for $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]`$ within their combined $`1\sigma `$ error bounds. In practice in all cases the largest remaining source of error is due to the uncertainty in $`A_V`$ which arises in most cases primarily from the $`1\sigma `$ error on the observed $`BV`$ colour. In Table 2 the minimum luminosity $`L_m`$ and its uncertainty for each star are also given, calculated as above but setting both $`A_V=0`$ and $`\sigma _A=0`$. The uncertainty $`\sigma _L`$ obtained in this way has roughly equal contributions from the errors in the V magnitude, the parallax, and the bolometric correction.

From Fig. 1 it is seen that the sample covers a range in masses and ages which is essential for the purposes of testing stellar evolution theory. In Fig. 1 each star is represented by two elliptical surfaces, in some cases with a ‘kink’, connected by a vertical bar at the $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ listed in Table 1. The bolometric correction depends on $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, and $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]`$ and to a lesser extent on $`\mathrm{log}g`$, which means that the $`1\sigma `$ range for the luminosity is not identical for every combination of $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]`$ within their combined $`1\sigma `$ error ellipse. For each star the upper ellipse represents the $`1\sigma `$ upper limit for the luminosity and the lower ellipse represents the $`1\sigma `$ lower limit. The shading of each ellipse corresponds to the $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]`$ running from the central $`1\sigma `$ to $`+1\sigma `$ value. For some stars the latter source of uncertainty is so small that the ellipses reduce to lines. The ‘kinks’ can occur because the intrinsic colour of the star becomes bluer, $`(BV)_0`$ smaller, as the effective temperature is higher. From Eq. (2) it can be seen that for $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ higher than a certain value $`A_V`$ becomes positive and therefore the inferred luminosity after correcting for this extinction increases towards higher $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, whereas for lower $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ $`A_V`$ remains fixed at $`0`$ since a negative extinction is unphysical.

As is discussed in Sect. 1, the aims of asteroseismic campaigns include obtaining masses and rotation rates of stars with higher precision than currently available. It is therefore of interest to show diagrams for the mass and the angular momentum of these stars which can be determined directly, even if only with low precision and up to a factor $`\mathrm{sin}i`$ in the unknown inclination angle, from the data listed in Tables 1 and 2. In Fig. 2 the angular momentum is shown versus the stellar mass. The (spectroscopic) mass of the stars can be estimated using :

$$\mathrm{log}\frac{M}{M_{}}=\mathrm{log}\frac{g}{g_{}}+\mathrm{log}\frac{L}{L_{}}4\mathrm{log}\frac{T_{\mathrm{eff}}}{T_{\mathrm{eff},}}.$$
(3)
Similarly the (spectroscopic) angular momentum $`H`$ can be estimated as follows :

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \mathrm{log}\frac{H\mathrm{sin}i}{H_{}}=\mathrm{log}\frac{g}{g_{}}+\frac{3}{2}\mathrm{log}& \frac{L}{L_{}}6\mathrm{log}\frac{T_{\mathrm{eff}}}{T_{\mathrm{eff},}}\hfill \\ & +\mathrm{log}I_M+\mathrm{log}\frac{v\mathrm{sin}i}{v_{}}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(4)
However, for a few stars a dynamic mass $`M_{\mathrm{dyn}}`$ is available which is preferable to use since it is always more accurate. In this case the appropriate equation for $`H`$ is :

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \mathrm{log}\frac{H\mathrm{sin}i}{H_{}}=\mathrm{log}\frac{M_{\mathrm{dyn}}}{M_{}}+\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{log}& \frac{L}{L_{}}2\mathrm{log}\frac{T_{\mathrm{eff}}}{T_{\mathrm{eff},}}\hfill \\ & +\mathrm{log}I_M+\mathrm{log}\frac{v\mathrm{sin}i}{v_{}}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(5)
Those stars in the MONS short-list for which dynamic masses are available are summarized in Table 3.

In Eqs. (4) and (5) the term $`I_M`$ is the scaled moment of inertia of the star :

$$I_M=\frac{8\pi }{3MR^2}\underset{0}{\overset{R}{}}\rho r^4dr$$
(6)
The total angular momentum of a star is an integral over the stellar interior of the angular momentum per unit mass, i.e. a density weighted average of the rotation rate $`\mathrm{\Omega }(r,\theta )`$. If the stars were to rotate uniformly the above equations would hold exactly. For the Sun the true angular momentum is known to be $`H_{}=190\pm 1.5\times 10^{39}\mathrm{kg}\mathrm{m}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ (Pijpers, (1998)) which is determined helioseismically taking into account the full radial and latitudinal dependence of the rotation rate $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{}(r,\theta )`$. Using this value in Eq. (5), a value for $`I_M`$ calculated from a standard solar model (cf. Christensen-Dalsgaard et al., (1996)), and using the observed equatorial surface rotation velocity $`v_{}=1.93\mathrm{km}/\mathrm{s}`$ the deviation from a value of $`1`$ is less than 2%, because the deviations from uniform rotation in the Sun are small. However, even if the interior density of a star can be calculated from models, the interior rotation rate of stars other than the Sun is still unknown. Therefore in producing Fig. 2, using Eq. (4) or (5), the value of $`I_M`$ is kept fixed at $`I_M`$. For stellar models the value of $`I_M/I_M`$ decreases with increasing mass and with increasing age on the main sequence. In the mass range of 0.85 to 4.0 solar masses, and with ages spanning the main sequence lifetime, this ratio lies between 0.5 and 2.0. Including this in Fig. 2 would have the effect of making the trend slightly less steep. In order to be able to show error bars on the angular momentum estimated using Eq. (4) or (5) for those stars in Table 2 for which there is no error estimate for $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$, $`\sigma _v`$ is set to $`5.0\mathrm{km}/\mathrm{s}`$. For the stars for which no determination of $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ is available $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ and $`\sigma _v`$ are both set to $`5.0\mathrm{km}/\mathrm{s}`$ as well. In the latter case the value is an upper limit, which is indicated by downward arrows in Fig. 2. The ‘rapid rotators’ do not appear to stand out significantly from the general trend in Fig. 2. Clearly for any significant determination of a dependence of angular momentum on mass or age, a much higher precision for both mass and angular momentum is required. A precision similar to that of the dynamical masses in Table 3 is realistic to expect from asteroseismic data to be collected by the various satellite missions.

## 3 The selection criteria

The focus of the MONS asteroseismic mission is on solar-like stars for two reasons : firstly it is important for the purposes of mode identification as well as for the quality of the asteroseismic inferences to be made that many modes of pulsation be excited simultaneously. The highest probability for this to occur is in stars where the oscillations are excited by convection such as the Sun, because in principle this can excite all possible modes contrary to other excitation mechanisms. The second reason for choosing stars not too dissimilar from the Sun is that asteroseismic inference is still in its infancy. The likelihood of success in interpreting asteroseismic data is higher for stars that are in most respects close analogues of the Sun. The MONS short-listed stars span the range of $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ for which this can be said to be the case. Spectroscopically obtained values (and their uncertainties !) for $`(T_{\mathrm{eff}},\mathrm{log}g,[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}])`$ are considered to be essential in the determination of high quality stellar parameters, rather than relying on colour-calibrations. One of the criteria to be used in forming a sample of stars is that such spectroscopy has been done. Unfortunately with currently available data this leads to a biased sample of stars. It would be desirable to be able to have spectroscopy for a volume-limited sample of stars but this requires a considerable investment both observationally and in terms of data analysis and interpretation.

The driving factor for the selection criteria is to obtain useful estimates of the bolometric luminosity from the observed data, since it is this parameter together with the effective temperature which are currently used as constraints for stellar evolution models. In order to be able to do photometry at the ppm level with a spaceborn telescope with an collecting area of $`600\mathrm{cm}^2`$ (i.e. MONS), the stars must be bright. However, the space density of metal poor stars is quite low which means that any sample which does not differentiate in metallicity will contain very few metal-poor stars. In order to obtain a reasonably large sample of Pop. I and II stars, a separate magnitude limit for each group appears desirable. At the same luminosity a fainter magnitude limit corresponds to larger distances. Two different criteria for the parallax are therefore proposed as well. In the MONS short-list of potential targets, the limiting factor on the precision of the luminosity is the uncertainty in $`A_V`$ which is typically around $`0.06`$. Setting the estimated error due to the error in the parallax to be maximally the same value implies that $`\pi /\sigma (\pi )>36.2`$. The best parallax determinations from the Hipparcos catalogue have $`\sigma (\pi )=0.45\mathrm{mas}`$ so that no stars with a parallax $`\pi <16.2\mathrm{mas}`$ would qualify.

The quantitative selection criteria for suitable targets for the MONS mission can now be summarized as follows :

* Select stars for which spectroscopic determinations of $`(T_{\mathrm{eff}},\mathrm{log}g,[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}])`$ are available (eg. from Cayrel de Strobel et al., (2001)) and for which $`4850\mathrm{K}<T_{\mathrm{eff}}<7350\mathrm{K}`$.
* Two separate brightness criteria are proposed : Group (a) stars, for which $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]<0.6`$, pass if their $`V`$ magnitude satisfies $`V<7.3`$. Group (b) stars pass if their $`V`$ magnitude satisfies $`V<5.3`$. The corresponding noise level ($`4\sigma `$ detection limit in amplitude after 30 days observing with a duty cycle of 85 % for the faintest stars in the group) of the photometry for the MONS mission is $`13\mathrm{ppm}`$ for group (a), and $`4.5\mathrm{ppm}`$ for group (b) (Kjeldsen & Bedding, (2001)).
* The two separate distance criteria for group (a) and (b), corresponding in space volume to the two separate limiting magnitudes, are : the group (a) of stars for which $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]<0.6`$ pass if their parallax satisfies $`\pi /\sigma (\pi )>14`$ (which implies $`\pi >6.4\mathrm{mas}`$), and the group (b) of stars pass if their parallax satisfies $`\pi /\sigma (\pi )>36`$ (which implies $`\pi >16.2\mathrm{mas}`$).

By selection from the Hipparcos catalogue (ESA, (1997)) there are 407 stars which pass the criteria $`V<5.3`$ and $`\pi /\sigma (\pi )>36`$ (group (b)), but there is good spectroscopy currently available in the literature for only 196 of them. For the selection of stars for group (a) ($`V<7.3`$ and $`\pi /\sigma (\pi )>14`$) there are 2428 additional candidates from the Hipparcos catalogue but in order to apply the metallicity criterion good spectroscopy must be available, so it is unclear how many of these stars would in fact qualify. The number of stars for which good spectroscopy is available which pass all the criteria for group (a), including the metallicity criterion, currently stands at 36.

It should be noted that still not all stars selected in this way are suitable for performing asteroseismology. The satellite missions are dependent on doing high precision time-series photometry, and the presence of possibly variable background stars within arcmin of the target can have serious detrimental effects on the signal-to-noise ratio. The stellar census from surveys is usually incomplete very near to bright stars because of saturation effects. Therefore dedicated imaging of the near field of potential targets has been or is being undertaken for the COROT and MONS missions. Furthermore, for a mission such as COROT which will select a very small set of fields in order to obtain very long time-series, the selected fields should preferably have within them a number of unsaturated, bright stars representing as wide a range of $`(T_{\mathrm{eff}},\mathrm{log}g,[Fe/H])`$ as possible, which is a more complex optimization problem.

## 4 Conclusions

For those stars that are the main targets for the MONS experiment on board the planned Danish small satellite Rømer, the luminosity is rederived using the BaSeL library of model atmospheres (Lejeune et al., (1998)). It is shown that even for these stars, the brightest in their respective classes, the uncertainty in their fundamental parameters is still substantial in some cases and it is worthwhile obtaining, or re-analysing, high quality spectra. It is also clear that for single stars the direct constraint on stellar masses from spectroscopy is weak. The constraints on angular momenta of stars from spectroscopy are weak as well since there is little knowledge of the internal rotation of stars and there is always the $`\mathrm{sin}i`$ ambiguity. For binaries one might assume that the rotation axes are perpendicular to the orbital plane, but this implies a certain exchange of angular momentum between the star and the orbit and therefore a bias is introduced. This implies that the angular momentum distribution and evolution of field stars in the galaxy is poorly constrained. It is here that asteroseismology can provide considerable improvement through determination of stellar masses (cf. Christensen-Dalsgaard, (1993)) and also stellar angular momenta (Pijpers, 2003).

Using the present set as a template, a set of objective sample selection criteria for stars of spectral type F, G, and K can be defined. It is clear that there are several hundred stars for which asteroseismology from space could potentially provide strong constraints on stellar structure and evolution modelling. However, with currently available spectroscopic data the full potential can be exploited for less than half of those stars. In preparation for the ESA space mission Eddington it is desirable to carry out extensive ground-based programs of high-resolution high S/N spectroscopy for these stars, and to do detailed stellar atmosphere modelling in order to obtain precise fundamental parameters.

###### Acknowledgements.

The author thanks Jørgen Christensen-Dalsgaard, Hans Bruntt, Hans Kjeldsen, and Teresa Teixeira for many useful comments and discussions, and the referee R. Garrido for suggestions improving the presentation of the paper. The author also thanks the Theoretical Astrophysics Centre, a collaborative centre between Copenhagen University and Aarhus University funded by the Danish Research Foundation for support of this work. This research has made use of the VizieR catalogue access tool, CDS, Strasbourg, France.