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# SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES

## 1 INTRODUCTION

It has been widely attempted to model the dark matter distribution in the universe using the velocity information of galaxies, based on the assumption that the velocity is induced by the gravity. The peculiar velocity of galaxies can either be measured from secondary distance indicators (e.g. the Tully-Fisher relation for spirals and the fundamental plane for ellipticals) or it can be inferred from the distortion of the galaxy distribution in redshift space. Two simple statistics are often used to describe the velocity of galaxies; the mean infall velocity $`v_{12}(r)`$ and the pairwise velocity dispersion $`\sigma _{12}(r)`$ (hereafter PVD). These statistics are extensively used to constrain the density parameter $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ of the universe and the clustering of dark matter on small scales (Davis & Peebles, 1983; Davis et al., 1985; Ostriker & Suto, 1990; Mo, Jing, & Börner, 1993; Fisher et al., 1994; Suto & Jing, 1997; Jing et al., 1998; Juszkiewicz et al., 2000; Jing et al., 2002; Zehavi et al., 2002). In addition, the observed peculiar velocity of galaxies has been used to measure the density field of the nearby universe, and the parameter $`\beta \mathrm{\Omega }_0^{0.6}/b`$ by a number of authors (Bertschinger & Dekel, 1989; Dekel, 1994; Nusser & Davis, 1994; Sigad et al., 1998; Dekel et al., 1999; Peacock et al., 2001; Zaroubi, 2002). Here $`b`$ is the linear bias factor of galaxy clustering.

Using the Las Campanas Redshift Survey (LCRS) of galaxies (Shectman et al., 1996), Jing et al. (1998) analyzed the PVD of galaxies and measured $`\sigma _{12}=580\pm 80\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ at the projected separation $`r_\mathrm{p}=1h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. The uncertainty quoted was obtained from an analysis of a set of mock samples. Since the LCRS contains about a few tens of clusters of galaxies, the PVD can be determined from this survey to an accuracy of 15 percent (including the cosmic variance). The result has been recently confirmed by Zehavi et al. (2002) and Hawkins et al. (2003) who measured the PVD of galaxies for the Early Data Release of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) and the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey (2dFGRS), respectively. In addition, it has been found that the PVD of late-type galaxies is smaller than that of early-type ones (Mo, Jing, & Börner, 1993; Fisher et al., 1994). Jing et al. (2002) extensively analyzed the PVD of the galaxies in the PSC$`z`$ catalogue (Saunders et al., 2000), which are mostly late-type galaxies, and found that the PVD is about $`400\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ at $`r_\mathrm{p}=2h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, and rapidly decreases to $`200\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ at small separation $`r_\mathrm{p}=0.2h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. This finding for the IRAS galaxies is again in good agreement with the SDSS result for blue or late-type galaxies by Zehavi et al. (2002). As for the PVD of dark matter, a number of previous numerical works (e.g., Benson et al., 2000; Suto, 1993; Jenkins et al., 1998; Jing et al., 1998, 2002) conclude that the PVD of dark matter is $`\sigma _{12}700800\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ at $`r_\mathrm{p}=1h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ for the spatially-flat low-density CDM universe, and systematically higher than those of observed galaxies.

There are two causes for the difference of the velocity dispersion of galaxies and of dark matter. One is the fact that galaxies are distributed spatially differently from dark matter particles. Indeed, Jing et al. (1998) proposed a cluster (under)weighted (CLW) model for explaining both the spatial two-point correlation function and the pairwise velocity dispersion measured in the LCRS in popular flat low-density cold dark matter (LCDM) models. In this model, it is assumed that the number of galaxies per unit mass is a decreasing function of the hosting cluster (halo) mass, i.e. galaxies are anti-biased in rich cluster regions (see Carlberg et al. (1996) and Bahcall & Comerford (2002) for the observational evidence for the anti-biasing). The resulting difference in the PVDs between galaxies and dark matter is purely due to the difference between the two populations in their spatial distribution. We will call this bias in the velocity statistics the “spatial bias”. Assuming that the IRAS galaxies are more strongly anti-biased in rich cluster regions than the optical galaxies, Jing et al. (2002) found that the spatial clustering and the PVD of IRAS galaxies can be quantitatively explained in the popular LCDM models, except for the rapid decrease of the PVD at small separations observed for the IRAS galaxies.

Another cause for the velocity bias is dynamical friction. Due to this mechanism, the motion of galaxies could be systematically slower than that of dark matter particles within a host halo. We will call this bias the “dynamical bias”. There were many studies to quantify dynamical biases, but no consensus has been reached as to which extent the velocity statistics are affected by the dynamical bias (Katz, Hernquist, & Weinberg, 1992; Frenk, et al., 1996; Cen & Ostriker, 2000; Pearce et al., 2001). In Jing et al. (2002), it was conjectured that the rapid decrease of the PVD of IRAS galaxies is a result of the dynamical bias. Since a similar decrease of the PVD was not found for optical galaxies, a systematic study is needed to quantify how the velocity statistics of different populations of galaxies are changed by the dynamical bias.

In this paper, we will use a cosmological hydrodynamic simulation to study the effect of spatial and dynamical biases on several velocity statistics of galaxies. Galaxies are identified in the simulation as clumps of cold and dense gas, and classified into blue and red populations based on their formation epochs. We analyze the velocity statistics for different populations of galaxies as well as for dark matter. We measure not only the PVDs of the different tracers, but also consider the mean infall velocity and the POTENT-style analysis. The later two analyses have been used to measure the dynamical parameter $`\beta =\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{0.6}/b`$ based on the (quasi-)linear perturbation theory of dark matter clustering (Juszkiewicz et al., 2000; Dekel, 1994; Nusser & Davis, 1994). Since the observed velocity fields consist of the velocity data of spirals and/or ellipticals, it is important to quantify whether the velocity statistics calculated based on various galaxy populations are biased relative to those of dark matter.

We will separate the effects of the spatial and dynamical biases on these velocity statistics by constructing dynamically unbiased mock samples of galaxies and comparing their velocity statistics with those of galaxies in our simulation. One would expect that the dynamical friction mechanism operates in small dense regions, i.e. on small scales, but it is important to quantify on which scale the dynamical bias is significant for the statistics considered. The reason to separate the two biases is that the spatial bias is relatively easy to model for the velocity statistics if the occupation numbers of galaxies within halos are known or constrained from other observations (Mo, Jing, & Börner, 1997; Jing et al., 1998; Seljak, 2000; Peacock & Smith, 2000; Sheth et al., 2001a, b; Scoccimarro & Sheth, 2002; Berlind & Weinberg, 2002; Zheng, et al., 2002; Kang et al., 2002; Kuwabara, Taruya, & Suto, 2002; Yang, Mo, & van den Bosch, 2002). We will show quantitatively where the spatial bias models are applicable in interpreting the observations. In addition, in order to see the effect of dynamical friction on galaxies in more direct manner, we also examine the motions of individual galaxies relative to their host dark halos, and the relation between the velocity dispersion of member galaxies and that of dark matter in dark halos.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In §2, we briefly describe our numerical simulation and our procedure to identify and classify galaxies. In §3, some statistics for the velocity field of galaxies and dark matter are analyzed with emphasis on the effects of the spatial and dynamical biases. Finally, we summarize our findings in §4.

## 2 SIMULATION

Our simulation is the same as that described in Yoshikawa et al. (2001), and the details about the simulation can be found in Yoshikawa, Jing, & Suto (2000) and Yoshikawa et al. (2001). Here, we briefly summarize some basic features.

The simulation code is a hybrid of a Particle–Particle–Particle–Mesh ($`\mathrm{P}^3\mathrm{M}`$) Poisson solver and smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH). We adopt $`128^3`$ dark matter particles and the same number of gas particles within a periodic simulation box of $`L_{\mathrm{box}}=75h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ per side. The cosmological model considered in this paper is a spatially-flat low-density CDM universe with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0.3`$, $`\lambda _0=0.7`$, $`\sigma _8=1.0`$, and $`h=0.7`$, where $`\lambda _0`$ is the dimensionless cosmological constant, $`\sigma _8`$ the rms density fluctuation at a scale of $`8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, and $`h`$ the Hubble parameter in units of 100 km/s/Mpc. Furthermore, we set the baryonic density parameter to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}=0.015h^2`$ (Copi, Schramm & Turner, 1995). Therefore, the mass of a single gas and dark matter particle is $`2.4\times 10^9M_{}`$ and $`2.2\times 10^{10}M_{}`$, respectively. The ideal gas equation of state with an adiabatic index $`\gamma =5/3`$ is adopted, and we consider the effect of radiative cooling adopting the cooling rate with the metallicity \[Fe/H\]$`=0.5`$ from Sutherland & Dopita (1993). In order to avoid numerical overcooling of gas particles in SPH scheme, we implement the cold gas decoupling scheme which is first introduced by Pearce et al. (1999) (see Yoshikawa et al. (2001) for the detail implementation). The initial condition is created at redshift $`z=36`$ and is evolved to $`z=0`$.

We have 50 outputs at different redshifts between $`z=9`$ and $`z=0`$. For each output, galaxies are identified using the following procedure. First, we extract gas particles which satisfy the Jeans condition

$$h_{\mathrm{SPH}}>\frac{c_s}{\sqrt{\pi G\rho }},$$
(1)
and the overdensity condition

$$\rho >10^3\overline{\rho }_\mathrm{b}(z),$$
(2)
where $`h_{\mathrm{SPH}}`$ is the smoothing length of gas particles, $`c_s`$ the sound speed, $`G`$ the gravitational constant, $`\rho `$ the SPH gas density, and $`\overline{\rho }_\mathrm{b}(z)`$ the cosmic mean baryon density at redshift $`z`$. Then, we use the friend-of-friend (FOF) algorithm (Davis et al., 1985) to identify galaxies as clumps of these Jeans unstable gas particles. Here, we adopt the FOF linking length of $`b=0.0164(1+z)\overline{l}`$ as used in Yoshikawa et al. (2001), where $`\overline{l}`$ is the mean separation of gas particles. We consider only galaxies with baryonic mass greater than $`10^{11}M_{}`$, which is equivalently to 40 times of the gas particle mass.

For each galaxy identified at $`z=0`$, we define its formation redshift $`z_\mathrm{f}`$ as the epoch when half of its member particles satisfy the conditions (1) and (2). Using the formation redshift $`z_\mathrm{f}`$ of simulated galaxies, we classify those galaxies at $`z=0`$ into two groups, the ones with $`z_\mathrm{f}<1.8`$ and the others with $`z_\mathrm{f}>1.8`$, which we call, for later convenience, the blue galaxies and the red galaxies, respectively. The value of threshold redshift $`z_\mathrm{f}=1.8`$ is chosen so that the blue and red population have almost same number of galaxies just for the statistical significance of later analyses. In the procedures described above, we finally identify 1062 blue galaxies, 962 red galaxies, and 2024 galaxies in total at $`z=0`$. Here, it is not expected that such a simple categorization can explain the observed properties of early- and late-types of galaxies in any detail, but it can reproduce some statistical properties of observed galaxies qualitatively. Actually, as already discussed in Yoshikawa et al. (2001), the red galaxies reside within massive dark halos, and the blue ones are preferentially formed in smaller dark halos. In addition, considering the observed correlation between galaxy types and its formation histories, blue and red galaxies in our simulation roughly correspond to late- and early-types of galaxies, respectively. Figure SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES shows the two-point correlation functions for red and blue galaxies. The profiles of the biasing parameter for each population of galaxies defined by

$$b_\xi (r)=\sqrt{\frac{\xi _{\mathrm{gg}}(r)}{\xi (r)}},$$
(3)
are also shown in the lower panel, where $`\xi _{\mathrm{gg}}(r)`$ and $`\xi (r)`$ are two-point correlation functions for galaxies and dark matter, respectively. The error bars indicate the 1-$`\sigma `$ poisson error. We can see that the red galaxies exhibit a relatively higher amplitude of two-point correlation functions than the blue ones. This feature is consistent with the observed morphology dependent clustering of galaxies (e.g., Loveday et al., 1995; Hermit et al., 1996; Norberg et al., 2002; Zehavi et al., 2002). We also plot the observed two-point correlation function of galaxies in the PSC$`z`$ catalogue,

$$\xi _{\mathrm{PSC}z}(r)=\left(\frac{r}{3.7h^1\mathrm{Mpc}}\right)^{1.69}$$
(4)
estimated by Jing et al. (2002). The two-point correlation function of the blue galaxies is relatively close to that of the PSC$`z`$ galaxy sample compared with all and red galaxies. It is amazing to note that the $`\xi (r)`$ of the blue galaxies in our simulation is very close to the prediction of the cluster-weighted model of $`\alpha =0.25`$ in Jing et al. (2002) (see their Fig.5). This spatial bias model with $`\alpha =0.25`$ has been shown in good agreement with the projected two-point correlation function estimated from the PSC$`z`$ catalogue. This means that the blue galaxies in our simulation well represent the clustering properties of the galaxies in the PSC$`z`$ catalogue. Furthermore, since galaxies in the PSC$`z`$ catalogue are selected in the infrared waveband, they presumably have experienced star formation very recently, or they are just undergoing star formation. Therefore, it is quite natural to consider that the blue galaxies in our simulation, which are formed recently, indeed represent the physical properties of the PSC$`z`$ galaxies.

## 3 VELOCITY STATISTICS

### 3.1 PAIRWISE VELOCITY DISPERSION

Observationally, PVDs of galaxies can be measured by modeling the distortion of their two-point correlation function in redshift-space. Therefore, observed PVDs are inevitably projected along the line of sight and functions of the projected separation. While, of course, three dimensional PVDs obtained from the simulation cannot be directly compared with the observed ones, according to Jenkins et al. (1998), we can calculate the projected line-of-sight PVD using three dimensional PVD as

$$\sigma _{12}^2(r_\mathrm{p})=\frac{{\displaystyle \xi (r)\sigma _{\mathrm{proj}}^2(r)𝑑l}}{{\displaystyle \xi (r)𝑑l}},$$
(5)
where $`\xi (r)`$ is the two-point correlation function of objects we are considering, $`r_\mathrm{p}`$ and $`l`$ denotes the projected separation and the distance along the line-of-sight, respectively, and therefore $`r^2=r_\mathrm{p}^2+l^2`$. The quantity $`\sigma _{\mathrm{proj}}^2`$ is given by

$$\sigma _{\mathrm{proj}}^2=\frac{r_\mathrm{p}^2\sigma _\mathrm{v}^2+l^2(\sigma _{}^2v_{12}^2)}{r_\mathrm{p}^2+l^2},$$
(6)
where $`\sigma _{}^2`$ is the velocity dispersion perpendicular to the vector connecting each pair, and $`v_{12}`$ is the mean infall velocity described below.

Figure SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES shows the three dimensional PVDs of dark matter and galaxies in our simulation. The quoted error bars indicate the 1-$`\sigma `$ poisson error. As is shown in previous works (Jing et al., 1998; Benson et al., 2000), the PVD of all galaxies is markedly lower than that of the dark matter particles on all the scales considered. In Figure SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES, we also show the PVDs of blue and red galaxies, separately. In Figure SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES we show the projected line-of-sight PVDs of dark matter, all galaxies, blue and red galaxies. One can see that the PVD of the blue galaxies is much lower than that of all the galaxies or of the red population, especially at small separation, down to $`\sigma _\mathrm{v}200\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ at $`r=0.1h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ and $`\sigma _{12}350\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ at $`r_\mathrm{p}=0.1h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. The PVD of the red galaxies is almost the same as or slightly higher than that of all galaxies. This behavior of the PVDs of the three populations of galaxies is qualitatively consistent with the PVD of galaxies in the LCRS (Jing et al., 1998), the PSC$`z`$ (Jing et al., 2002) and also the SDSS data (Zehavi et al., 2002). In order to see the effect of selection of galaxies, in Figure SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES, we also show the PVD of galaxies with higher mass $`M_{}>3\times 10^{11}M_{}`$. One can see that it is almost the same as the PVD of all galaxies, and that our estimate of PVD is not sensitive to the selection of galaxies. The PVDs in the 2dFGRS (Hawkins et al., 2003) and the LCRS (Jing et al., 1998) are in good agreement with our result for large separation $`r_\mathrm{p}0.5h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, though our simulated PVD is slightly higher at $`r_\mathrm{p}<0.5h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. The difference at small separations can be partially ascribed to the effect of cosmic variance, because PVD is generally quite sensitive to the presence and/or absence of rich galaxy clusters, and because our simulation volume is smaller than the survey volumes of the 2dFGRS and the LCRS.

In order to discriminate between the effects of spatial and dynamical biases on the PVDs of galaxies, we create two types of mock galaxy samples from our simulation data. In the first sample, for each galaxy, we randomly select one dark matter particle within its host dark halo, and assign to it the same formation redshift. The second sample is the same as the first one, except that the particles corresponding to the central massive galaxies in each halo are assigned the bulk motion velocity of the host halo, i.e. these particles are static in their host dark halos. Therefore, these samples mimic the spatial distribution of galaxies but keep the properties of the dark matter velocity field, and can be regarded as spatially biased and dynamically unbiased samples. For later convenience, we call the first and the second dynamically unbiased samples DU-I and DU-II respectively. We construct 20 realizations of these dynamically unbiased samples of all galaxies and of the blue galaxies by selecting particles with the assigned formation redshift less than 1.8. We confirm that the two-point correlation functions of these samples agree well with those of corresponding galaxy samples. In Figure SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES, we show the three dimensional PVDs and of the DU-I and DU-II samples for all the galaxies as well as for the blue galaxies. The error bars indicate the statistical dispersion for 20 realizations of the samples. One can see that the PVD of all galaxies (solid line in the lower panel) is in reasonable agreement with DU-I and DU-II samples. This indicates that the lower PVDs of all the galaxies can be explained by the different spatial distribution between galaxies and dark matter. This result is consistent with previous work (Jing et al., 1998; Benson et al., 2000) and we confirm it more directly by comparing the galaxy sample and the dynamically unbiased samples. On the other hand, the PVD of the blue galaxies (solid line in the upper panel) deviates downward from that of the DU-I and DU-II samples at small separation of $`r<0.3h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, therefore it cannot be explained only by the spatial bias. Figure SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES shows that the line-of-sight projected PVDs exhibit the same results as in the case of the three-dimensional PVDs. We can suggest that that the rapid decrease of the PVD of late-type galaxies found in the PSC$`z`$ catalogue (Jing et al., 2002) and SDSS galaxies (Zehavi et al., 2002) is due to the effect of dynamical friction. More evidence will be given in § 3.4.

Let us note the comparison with the previous works by Benson et al. (2000) and Kauffmann et al. (1999). First, it should be noted that in these two works, “galaxies” are formed according to combination of dissipationless $`N`$-body simulations and semi-analytic galaxy formation schemes, while the “galaxies” in our SPH simulation are identified as clumps of cold and dense gas particles. Kauffmann et al. (1999) found very similar PVDs for galaxies and dark matter, which are not consistent with recent observational results (Jing et al., 1998, 2002; Zehavi et al., 2002), and Benson et al. (2000). Actually, the line-of-sight projected PVD of all galaxies in our simulation also significantly departs from that of dark matter, and is consistent with the result of Benson et al. (2000). Benson et al. (2000) argued that the discrepancy with Kauffmann et al. (1999) is due to the different frequency with which dark halos are populated with a particular number of galaxies in their semi-analytic schemes. Since our galaxies are identified in totally different manner from Benson et al. (2000) and Kauffmann et al. (1999) as described above, our result gives independent verification for the result by Benson et al. (2000). In Benson et al. (2000), since the galaxies’ positions and velocities are assigned those of dark matter particles which are randomly chosen within host dark matter halos, except for central galaxies of dark halos, which are assigned the positions and velocities of mass centers of their host dark halos, their galaxy sample is, by construction, free from the dynamical friction, and somewhat similar to our DU-II sample. Therefore, their estimation of galaxies’ PVD missed the effect of dynamical bias which we focus on throughout in this paper.

### 3.2 MEAN INFALL VELOCITY

The mean infall velocity $`v_{12}(r)`$ of galaxies can be also used to constrain the cosmological density parameters $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ (Juszkiewicz et al., 2000), according to a simple analytic expression for $`v_{12}`$ of the dark matter by Juszkiewicz, Springel, & Durrer (1999) as

$$v_{12}(r)=\frac{2}{3}Hr\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{0.6}\overline{\xi }(r)[1+\alpha \overline{\xi }(r)],$$
(7)
$$\overline{\xi }(r)=\frac{3}{r^3[1+\xi (r)]}_0^r\xi (x)x^2𝑑x,$$
(8)
where $`\alpha =1.20.65\gamma `$, $`\gamma =(d\mathrm{ln}\xi /d\mathrm{ln}r)_{\xi =1}`$ and $`H`$ is the Hubble constant. It should be pointed out that in order to use equation (7) to measure $`\beta `$, the galaxies used must trace the underlying dark matter in the spatial and in the velocity distributions. Figure 1 shows $`v_{12}(r)`$ for dark matter, all galaxies, and blue and red galaxy samples in our simulation. Apparently, the blue galaxies have a significantly smaller infall velocity $`v_{12}(r)`$ than the red galaxies or all galaxies at all separation considered. This is not consistent with the result by Juszkiewicz et al. (2000), in which they conclude that there is no difference in $`v_{12}`$ between early and late-type galaxies. This is probably because their estimation of $`v_{12}(r)`$ for ellipticals has large observational uncertainties. Actually, the number of ellipticals used in Juszkiewicz et al. (2000) is not sufficient for the definite estimation of the mean infall velocity. In Figure 2, the mean infall velocity for the DU-I and DU-II samples of all and of blue galaxies are depicted. The error bars indicate the statistical dispersion for 20 realizations of the DU-I and DU-II samples. At large separations with $`r2h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, the mean infall velocities of the galaxies are well reproduced by the corresponding DU-I and DU-II samples. Thus, the difference in $`v_{12}(r)`$ for all and for blue galaxies is mostly due to the difference in the spatial distributions. As is done in Juszkiewicz et al. (2000), one can determine the values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ and $`\sigma _8`$ from the value of $`v_{12}(r)`$ at a certain separation, say $`r=10h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, using equation (7), if the spatial bias of the observed $`v_{12}(r)`$ is properly corrected. However, if one simply adopts the mean infall velocity of all the galaxies or the blue ones, which is lower than that of dark matter, the estimated $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ can be underestimated for a given value of $`\sigma _8`$ and vice versa (cf. Juszkiewicz et al., 2000).

### 3.3 MASS RECONSTRUCTION ANALYSIS

In this subsection, we calculate the mass density field reconstructed using a method similar to the POTENT analysis (Dekel, 1994; Dekel et al., 1999, for review) in order to investigate how the spatial and dynamical biases on galaxies can affect the results of the POTENT analysis. In practice, the POTENT analysis attempts to recover the mass density field from a catalogue of radial velocities of galaxies using the assumption that the galaxy velocity field is irrotational, $`\times 𝐯=0`$, and it involves a slightly complicated statistical treatment of observational data. In this paper, however, since we are purely interested in the effect of spatial and dynamical biases, we reconstruct mass density fields from 3-dimensional velocity data. Specifically, in order to recover the mass density fields, we use the following quasi-linear approximation of the continuity equation (Dekel et al., 1999):

$$\delta _{\mathrm{POT}}=(1+ϵ_1)f^1𝐯(1+ϵ_2)f^2\mathrm{\Delta }_2+(1+ϵ_3)f^3\mathrm{\Delta }_3,$$
(9)
where

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_2=\underset{i<j}{}\left\{\left(\frac{v_i}{x_j}\right)^2\frac{v_i}{x_i}\frac{v_j}{x_j}\right\},$$
(10)
and

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_3=\underset{i,j,k}{}\left(\frac{v_i}{x_i}\frac{v_j}{x_k}\frac{v_k}{x_j}\frac{v_1}{x_i}\frac{v_2}{x_j}\frac{v_3}{x_k}\right).$$
(11)
In equation (11), the sum is over three cyclic permutations of $`(i,j,k)=(1,2,3)`$. The three parameters $`ϵ_1`$, $`ϵ_2`$ and $`ϵ_3`$ are empirically tuned to best fit the dark matter density field, and we adopt $`ϵ_1=0.06`$, $`ϵ_2=0.13`$, and $`ϵ_3=0.3`$ throughout this paper.

In the analysis, we calculate the mass and galaxy density fields using the cloud-in-cloud (CIC) scheme. We also compute a volume weighted velocity field of galaxies with a smoothing scale $`R_s`$ according to the following steps (Babul et al., 1994; Berlind, Narayanan, & Weinberg, 2001). First, we create the momentum field of galaxies using CIC binning and smooth it with a Gaussian filter of a smoothing scale $`R_1`$, where $`R_1`$ must be much smaller than the smoothing scale $`R_s`$ . Second, we divide the smoothed momentum field by a similarly smoothed density field of galaxies. Note that this is a mass-weighted velocity field smoothed over the scale $`R_1`$. Finally, we smooth this velocity field with another Gaussian filter of smoothing scale $`R_2=(R_s^2R_1^2)^{1/2}`$ to form the volume-weighted velocity field smoothed with the effective smoothing scale of $`R_s`$. In our analysis, we adopt $`R_1=1h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ and we calculate the reconstructed density field $`\delta _{\mathrm{POT}}`$ for $`R_s=8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ and $`12h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ according to equation (9). The smoothing scale adopted in the actual POTENT analyses is typically $`R_s=1012h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ in order to minimize the effect of inhomogeneous Malmquist bias. In this paper, however, we are interested in the effects of the spatial and dynamical biases on the POTENT method, and apply it for a slightly smaller smoothing scale $`R_s=8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$.

Figures SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES and SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES show the joint probability distributions of $`\delta _\mathrm{m}`$ and $`\delta _{\mathrm{POT}}`$ reconstructed from the velocity fields of dark matter, all galaxies, and blue galaxies (lower panels) for $`R_s=12h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ and $`R_s=8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, respectively. The gray scale indicates the joint probability that a region has a set of the actual mass overdensity $`\delta _\mathrm{m}`$ and the reconstructed one $`\delta _{\mathrm{POT}}`$, simultaneously. We also show the ratio of $`(1+\overline{\delta }_{\mathrm{POT}})`$ relative to $`(1+\delta _\mathrm{m})`$ in solid lines (upper panels), where $`\overline{\delta }_{\mathrm{POT}}`$ is the mean of $`\delta _{\mathrm{POT}}`$ for a given $`\delta _\mathrm{m}`$. For both the smoothing scale of $`R_s=8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ and $`12h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, the dark matter velocity fields well reproduce the real density field with good accuracy. This indicates that the adopted reconstruction method provides correct density estimation if a spatially and dynamically unbiased sample of particles is given. This also confirms that equation (9) works well for the quasi-linear regions (Dekel et al., 1999). In the case of $`R_s=12h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, the reconstructed density fields agree well with the real ones for $`\delta _\mathrm{m}0`$ irrespective of the adopted tracers, while $`\delta _{\mathrm{POT}}`$ reconstructed from the velocity of the blue galaxies is slightly underestimated by $`5\%`$ at high density ($`\delta _\mathrm{m}1`$) regions. On the other hand, for $`R_s=8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, the reconstructed density fields from the velocity fields of the blue and of all the galaxies are systematically underestimated at high density regions by $`15\%`$ and $`5\%`$, respectively.

In order to estimate to what extent the effects of dynamical friction and spatial bias are important for the discrepancy between $`\delta _\mathrm{m}`$ and $`\delta _{\mathrm{POT}}`$, we carry out the POTENT-style density reconstruction for the DU-I and DU-II samples of all and of blue galaxies, and compare the results with those of galaxy samples. In the upper panels of Figures SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES and SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES, long-dashed lines with error bars show the ratio of $`(1+\delta _{\mathrm{POT}})`$ and $`(1+\delta _\mathrm{m})`$ reconstructed from the velocity fields of the DU-I sample. We omit the results from the DU-II sample since they are almost identical to the DU-I sample. The error bars indicate the statistical dispersion for 20 realizations of the DU-I samples. In the case of $`R_s=12h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, which is usually adopted in recent POTENT analyses, we can see that the POTENT-style analyses are not seriously affected by the spatial and dynamical biases, although the dynamical bias is only slightly effective at the high density regions for blue galaxies. In adopting the smoothing scale $`R_s=8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, we have no significant difference between $`\delta _{\mathrm{POT}}`$ recovered from the DU-I sample and from all the galaxies, indicating that the dynamical bias is not important for all galaxies and that only the spatial bias is responsible for the discrepancy. On the other hand, as for the blue galaxy samples, although the density field reconstructed from the DU-I sample of blue galaxies underestimates the real one, the one reconstructed from the velocity of the blue galaxies is still lower than that of the DU-I sample. This indicates that the dynamical bias is not negligible for blue galaxies on this smoothing scale.

As for the spatial bias, as is shown in Yoshikawa et al. (2001), blue galaxies in our simulation are anti-biased in high density regions. Thus, the velocity field calculated from the blue galaxies is inhomogeneously sampled and does not faithfully represent the underlying dark matter velocity, especially at high mass density regions and for smaller smoothing scales. In our analyses, in the case of $`R_s=8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, as shown in Figure SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES, the effect of the spatial bias leads to an underestimate of the real density field by $`10\%`$. Actually, much work has been done to understand and control this problem (Dekel et al., 1999). Other reconstruction methods and some algorithms to estimate $`\beta `$ parameter from velocity data of galaxies have been proposed (Zaroubi et al., 1995; Willick et al., 1997; Zaroubi, Hoffman, & Dekel, 1999) which prevent the effect of the spatial bias to some extent. However, these methods still cannot escape from the dynamical bias, because it is implicitly assumed that there is no dynamical bias in the observed velocity field. Therefore, when the velocity data of late-type galaxies smoothed over the scale of $`R_s=8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ or smaller are adopted, the reconstructed density field and the estimated $`\beta `$ value can be skewed due to the dynamical bias.

### 3.4 MOTION OF GALAXIES WITHIN DARK HALOS

So far, we have shown the velocity statistics of galaxies in a cosmological volume. In this subsection, we focus on the statistics of motion of galaxies relative to their host dark halos. Figure SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES shows the distributions of velocities of the three most massive galaxies in each dark halo relative to the average velocity (i.e. the velocity of the mass center) of the host dark halo. Here, we normalized the velocity of the galaxies by the 3-dimensional velocity dispersion of the dark matter inside the dark halos. The most massive galaxy in each dark halo is almost static within the host dark halo, consistent with the observation of cD galaxies in galaxy clusters (Oegerle & Hill, 2001). The distributions of the second and the third ranked galaxies are skewed toward the smaller velocities, because they should have a peak at $`v_{\mathrm{gal}}/\sigma _{\mathrm{halo}}^{3\mathrm{d}}1`$ if the motion of the galaxies is the same as that of the dark matter, free from velocity bias. Furthermore, the ratio of the velocity dispersions of galaxies $`\sigma _{\mathrm{gal}}`$ and dark matter $`\sigma _{\mathrm{dm}}`$ inside each dark halo are plotted in Figure SPATIAL AND DYNAMICAL BIASES IN VELOCITY STATISTICS OF GALAXIES. Representative error bars for halos of different mass are indicated in the figure that are the standard scatters of the dispersion ratio at that halo mass. Velocity dispersions of galaxies in relatively low mass ($`10^{13}M_{}`$) dark halos are systematically smaller than those of dark matter, while for very massive dark halo with mass greater than $`10^{14}M_{}`$, we have $`\sigma _{\mathrm{gal}}\sigma _{\mathrm{dm}}`$. This result is due to the facts that the central galaxies are static, and the other galaxies are slowed down, significantly especially in small halos, by dynamical friction. This result also shows why the PVDs of blue galaxies are small, for the blue galaxies mainly reside in smaller dark halos, and the PVDs at small separation have their main contribution from pairs of galaxies within the same dark halo. If we use a larger mass cut for defining galaxies, we expect the dispersion ratio will systematically decrease, because the dynamical friction bias is more effective for more massive objects (see §4 for a further discussion).

From these two statistics, we find that in each dark halo the motion of galaxies is affected by dynamical friction, and their velocity is less than that of dark matter. Since the blue galaxies in our simulation statistically tend to be less massive and preferentially reside in smaller dark halos, these results indicate that the blue galaxies are selectively affected by dynamical friction. Furthermore, the implication for the velocity dispersion of galaxies, which has been conventionally used to estimate the mass of clusters and groups of galaxies (Bahcall & Tremaine, 1981; Zabludoff, et al., 1993; Wu & Fang, 1997; Girardi & Giuricin, 2000; Girardi et al., 2002), is that the mass of groups of galaxies based on the velocity dispersion of galaxies could be seriously underestimated.

## 4 SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

In this paper, we have investigated several velocity statistics of galaxies and their biases relative to dark matter particles using cosmological hydrodynamic simulations. We consider the PVD, the mean infall velocity, the POTENT-style analysis for all galaxies identified in our simulation and for two subsamples, the blue and red galaxies, categorized based on their formation epochs. We also construct dynamically unbiased samples of all and of blue galaxies, which mimic the spatial distributions of galaxies but still keep the same dynamical properties as the dark matter, and measure their velocity statistics in order to investigate the effects of the spatial and the dynamical biases of galaxies on their velocity statistics.

Our major findings are as follows:

1. The PVD of all galaxies is systematically lower than that of the dark matter, and the blue galaxies have a lower PVD than galaxies from the whole sample, especially at small separation. This is consistent with previous observational results (Jing et al., 1998, 2002; Zehavi et al., 2002). According to our analyses, the low PVD of all the galaxies is due mostly to the difference of the spatial distributions between galaxies and dark matter. On the other hand, the discrepancy in the PVD between dark matter and the blue galaxies cannot be explained only by the spatial bias, and it is suggested that there must be an effect of the dynamical bias for the blue galaxies.

2. The mean infall velocity of the blue galaxies is significantly lower than that of the whole sample, and of the red galaxies. The dark matter particles show almost the same values as the red galaxies at $`r3h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ and $`100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ lower than the whole sample and the red galaxies at $`r1h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. In estimating $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ and $`\sigma _8`$ from the mean infall velocity of all the galaxies or of the late-type galaxies at the separation of $`r=10h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, one will underestimate $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ for a given value of $`\sigma _8`$ and vice versa. We also find that the difference at the separation $`r3h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ is due only to the difference in the spatial distribution among galaxy populations.

3. Our analysis shows that the POTENT-style mass density reconstruction using galaxies’ peculiar velocity is almost free from the spatial and dynamical biases on the smoothing scale of $`R_s=12h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, which is typically adopted in recent POTENT analyses. On the other hand, in the case of $`R_s=8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, it suffers from spatial bias, if the velocity data of all galaxies are adopted, and furthermore, the dynamical bias is also important when we use the velocity field of the blue galaxies. Some methods to probe the $`\beta `$ parameter based on velocity-velocity comparisons (Davis, Nusser, & Willick, 1996; Willick et al., 1997), and the mass density reconstruction based on the Wiener filtering (Zaroubi et al., 1995; Zaroubi, Hoffman, & Dekel, 1999) can evade the effect of the spatial bias to some extent, and probe the mass density or velocity on smaller scales, but still they can suffer from the dynamical bias on smoothing scales equal to or smaller than $`R_s=8h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, if the velocity data of late-type galaxies are adopted.

4. In each dark halo, the most massive galaxy is almost static within the dark halo. The velocity of the second and third ranking massive galaxies relative to their host dark halos is statistically smaller than that of the dark matter inside the halos due to dynamical friction. Furthermore, the velocity dispersions of galaxies in less massive ($`10^{13}M_{}`$) dark halos are systematically lower than those of dark matter particles inside dark halos. This bias in the velocity dispersion of the galaxies leads to serious underestimates of the mass of groups of galaxies. It is also responsible for the low PVD value of the blue galaxies.

The reason why the blue galaxies are selectively affected by dynamical friction is tightly related to their formation epochs and can be qualitatively explained as follows. According to the standard scenario of galaxy formation, galaxies form in the gravitational potential wells provided by the dark matter halos and dark matter clumps inside dark halos. The red galaxies are formed within more massive halos than the blue ones, and they experience a significant number of merging processes. The mergers mix gas and dark matter, and thus reduce the differences in the distribution. The blue galaxies form in less massive halos, and have less mergers during their formation history. Their mass is a bigger fraction of the host halo mass, and thus they are efficiently slowed down relative to the center of mass of the halo by dynamical friction.

Our definition of galaxies in our simulation data is admittedly rather phenomenological. A more observationally oriented classification of galaxies, for example using color or magnitude of galaxies, is needed for a direct comparison with observations. We plan to implement more realistic prescriptions of galaxy formation and evolution including star formation, feedback and UV background heating in due course. However, it is encouraging that even these simple prescription of galaxy formation can reproduce the clustering and the PVDs of the observed galaxies. Thus we believe that the results presented in this paper are quite robust and that it is worth considering the importance of dynamical friction for the velocity statistics of galaxies.

We thank Yaushi Suto and Takashi Hamana for several enlightening discussions, and an anonymous referee for suggesting some improvements in this manuscript. Numerical simulations presented in this paper were carried out at ADAC (the Astronomical Data Analysis Center) of the National Astronomical Observatory, Japan, and at KEK (High Energy Accelerator Research Organization, Japan). Y.P.J. was supported in part by NKBRSF (G19990754) and by NSFC (No.10125314).


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# 1 Typical trajectories for 𝑁= 5 and 50 for a complete simulation run of 𝑡=10⁶ (10⁸ time steps).

Dynamics of a rod in a random static environment: non-Gaussianity at large length scales

A.J. MORENO and W. KOB

Laboratoire des Verres. Université de Montpellier II. Place E. Bataillon. CC 069. F-34095 Montpellier, France.

ABSTRACT

We present molecular dynamics simulations of the motion of a single rod in a two-dimensional random static array of disks. For long rods the mean-squared displacement of the center-of-mass shows a cage effect similar to that observed in supercooled liquids or dense colloidal systems. We have determined the time-dependence of the non-Gaussian parameter for different rod lengths. It is found that the long-time regime is strongly non-Gaussian even at length scales of the order of 10-15 times the rod length, thus showing the heterogeneity of the dynamics at such length scales.

§1 INTRODUCTION

The Lorentz gas is a simple model in which a particle diffuses in a random configuration of static obstacles. Initially introduced by Lorentz as a model for the electrical conductivity in metals (Lorentz 1905), it can be used as a rough approximation for the dynamics of a light atom in a disordered environment which presents a much slower dynamics. It has been shown that, for high densities of obstacles, it qualitatively shows many of the features of the dynamics of supercooled liquids or dense colloidal systems, such as a transition from an ergodic phase of non-zero diffusivity to a non-ergodic phase with no diffusivity (Bruin 1972, Alder and Alley 1978, Götze et al. 1981a,b, Masters and Keyes 1982). Despite its simplicity, this problem is highly non-trivial even in the simplest case where the diffusing particle and the obstacles are modelled as hard-spheres. In particular, diffusion constants and correlation functions are non-analytical functions of the density of obstacles (Bruin 1972, Götze et al. 1981a,b, Binder and Frenkel 1990). In this work we present an investigation by means of molecular dynamics simulations on a generalization of the Lorentz gas: the diffusion of a rod in a random configuration of static obstacles. This picture can be understood as a cartoon of the dynamics of a linear molecule in a porous medium or in a colloidal suspension of heavy particles. Though simulations have been done in two dimensions, we do not expect qualitatively different features in the general three-dimensional case.

The paper is organized as follows: In Section 2 we present the model and give some details of the simulation. General dynamical features are shown in Section 3. A study on the non-Gaussianity of the long-time regime is presented in Section 4. Conclusions are given in Section 5.

§2 MODEL AND DETAILS OF THE SIMULATION

The rod consists of $`N`$ beads of mass $`m`$ and radius $`\sigma `$ equal to that of the obstacles. The rod length is therefore $`2N\sigma `$. The density of obstacles is defined as $`\rho =N_{\mathrm{obs}}/L_{\mathrm{box}}^2`$, with $`N_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ the number of obstacles and $`L_{\mathrm{box}}`$ the length of the square simulation box. Beads and obstacles interact via a soft-sphere potential $`V(r)=ϵ(\sigma /r)^{12}`$. The latter is truncated and shifted at a cutoff distance of 2.5$`\sigma `$. In the following, space and time will be measured in the reduced units $`\sigma `$ and $`(\sigma ^2m/ϵ)^{1/2}`$ respectively.

A set of 100 different realizations of the rod was propagated in a given configuration of the obstacles. Periodic boundary conditions were imposed. The set was equilibrated at temperature $`T=ϵ/k_\mathrm{B}`$ by coupling it to a stochastic heat bath. After the equilibration, a run of $`10^8`$ time steps, with a step size of 0.01, was performed at constant energy. In order to improve the statistics, this procedure was repeated for 6-10 different configurations of the obstacles and the obtained results were averaged over the corresponding runs.

§3. TRAJECTORIES AND DYNAMICS

In the following, all the results will be presented for a fixed density of obstacles $`\rho =6\times 10^3`$. An extensive investigation for a wide range of $`N`$ and $`\rho `$ will be presented elsewhere. Figure 1 shows typical trajectories for two characteristic rod lengths $`N=`$ 5 and 50. They respectively correspond to rods of dimensions comparable and much longer than the average distance between nearest-neighbour obstacles, $`d_{\mathrm{n}.\mathrm{n}.}7`$. For $`N=5`$, the trajectory presents a structure of blobs and jagged channels. Thus, the rods are able to penetrate often in regions of high local density of obstacles, where they are trapped for some time, forming the blobs, while the jagged channels correspond to paths in regions of lower local density, where the collisions are less frequent.

A very different polygonal-like structure is obtained for $`N=50`$, consisting of nearly longitudinal motions in the tubes formed by the obstacles, connected by vertexes corresponding to regions where the rod leaves the tube and enters into a new one.

Figure 2a shows the mean-squared displacement of the center-of-mass of the rod $`r^2(t)`$ divided by the time $`t`$. Brackets denote ensemble average and $`r(t)=|𝐑(t)𝐑(0)|`$, with $`𝐑(t)`$ the position of the center-of-mass of the rod at time $`t`$. At short times the rod does not feel the presence of the obstacles and $`r^2(t)`$ shows a quadratic time-dependence, as expected for a ballistic motion. For small $`N`$ a sharp transition to the long-time regime $`r^2(t)t`$ is observed, while for long rods a crossover regime, which extends over 1-2 decades, develops at intermediate times. This corresponds to the well-known cage effect observed in supercooled liquids (Kob and Andersen 1995, Sciortino et al. 1996, Caprion and Schober 2000, Mossa el al. 2000, Colmenero et al. 2002) or dense colloidal systems (Puertas et al. 2002, van Megen 2002, Weeks and Weitz 2002): the particle is temporarily trapped by the cage formed by their neighbours and as a consequence, the collisions within the cage result in a time-dependence of the mean-squared displacement that is slower than the one in the ballistic regime. Finally, the particle escapes from the cage and begins to diffuse. It is worthwhile to remark that in the present case the breaking of the cage is not achieved by cooperative motions between neighbouring particles, as in the case of liquids or colloids, since the configuration of obstacles is static. Instead, the trapping of the rod is of purely entropic nature. It must also be noticed that the observed cage effect is much less pronounced than in supercooled liquids or dense colloids. Higher densities of obstacles or longer rods would be required for observing a stronger effect.

§4. NON-GAUSSIANITY

In Einstein’s random walk model, particles move under the effect of collisions with the others. Between two consecutive collisions, the particle moves along a straight line in a random direction that is independent of its previous history. If the time and distance between two consecutive collisions are much smaller respectively than the observational time and lenght scales, the van Hove self-correlation function takes a Gaussian form (see for example Hansen and McDonald 1986). This result is exact for an ideal gas and for an harmonic crystal. It is also valid in the limit $`t0`$, where atoms behave as free particles. At time and length scales comparable to those of the dynamics of the collisions, i.e., at observational scales sensitive to heterogeneities of the system, deviations from Gaussianity are expected. They can be quantified by the second-order non-Gaussian parameter $`\alpha _2(t)`$, which for a two-dimensional motion is given by $`\alpha _2(t)=[r^4(t)/2r^2(t)^2]1`$. It is straightforward to see that for a Gaussian function $`\alpha _2(t)=0`$.

Figure 2b shows the $`N`$-dependence of the non-Gaussian parameter. While for short rods a broad structure is obtained, for long ones a peak develops, which grows and shifts to longer times for increasing $`N`$. A qualitatively similar behaviour has been reported for other very different systems as a function of different control parameters, as temperature for supercooled liquids (Kob and Andersen 1995, Sciortino et al. 1996, Caprion and Shober 2000, Mossa et al. 2000) or volume fraction for colloid-polymer systems (Puertas et al. 2002). However, in contrast to these systems, we find that the peak does not grow in a completely monotonic way, and that for short rods ($`N=5,10`$ in figure 2b), it seems to be located at longer times that for longer rods.

From a comparison with figure 2a, it is deduced that for long rods ($`N>10`$) the time $`t^{}`$ for the maximum of $`\alpha _2(t)`$ is located at the time interval connecting the end of the cage regime and the beginning of the long-time linear regime, i.e., the breaking of the cage leads to a high probability of jumps much longer that the size of the cage, resulting in a strongly non-Gaussian -or heterogeneous- dynamics at that time scale. Similar results have been reported for other systems (Kob and Andersen 1995, Sciortino et al. 1996, Caprion and Shober 2000, Mossa et al. 2000, Colmenero et al. 2002). The size of the cage $`r_\mathrm{c}`$ can approximately be estimated as $`r_\mathrm{c}=r^2(t^{})^{1/2}`$. We find a value of $`r_\mathrm{c}35`$, independent of $`N`$ within the error bar. This value is notably larger than the typical distance between neighbouring obstacles $`d_{\mathrm{n}.\mathrm{n}.}7`$. However, it must be noted that the latter perhaps is not the most appropiate length for characterizing the caging dynamics of the rod trapped by the neighbouring obstacles. In contrast to a liquid-like equilibrium configuration, which shows an approximately homogeneus structure, a random configuration is characterized by clusters of close particles and big holes. For the density $`\rho =6\times 10^3`$, the size of the holes, $`r_\mathrm{h}`$, is typically between 40 and 70, which introduces another characteristic length. The size of the cage should lie at some value between $`d_{\mathrm{n}.\mathrm{n}.}`$ and $`r_\mathrm{h}`$, consistent with the estimated value of $`r_\mathrm{c}`$.

In the case of short rods ($`N10`$), where no intermediate cage regime is observed, the maximum of $`\alpha _2(t)`$ does not seem to be located at the sharp transition between the ballistic and the long-time regime, but at a later time. The reason for this difference with the large-$`N`$ case might be that, as argued in Section 3, for these lengths the rod has a high probability of exploring the holes, and at the same time is able to penetrate in regions of high local density, leading to non-Gaussian dynamics at length scales of the order of the hole size.

The most striking feature in figure 2b is that in the time limit of the simulation, $`\alpha _2(t)`$ has not decayed to zero but remains finite, especially for long rods, i.e., the long-time regime is still non-Gaussian at the length scale covered by the simulation. This effect can be studied by investigating the $`q`$-dependence of the incoherent intermediate scattering function $`F_\mathrm{s}(q,t)=\mathrm{exp}(i𝐪[𝐑(t)𝐑(0)])`$, where brackets denote ensemble and angular average.

Figure 3 shows $`F_\mathrm{s}(q,t)`$ for $`N=50`$ and several values of the wavelength $`\lambda =2\pi /q`$ corresponding to length scales much larger than the size of the rod. A two step-decay separating the cage and long-time regimes is not observable for this range of $`\lambda `$, as in the case of supercooled liquids, where the plateau in $`F_\mathrm{s}(q,t)`$ is only observable at $`q`$-values not too far from the position of the first maximum of the structure factor.

In Gaussian approximation in two dimensions, the incoherent intermediate scattering function is given by $`F_\mathrm{s}(q,t)=\mathrm{exp}(r^2(t)q^2/4)`$. Therefore, Gaussianity in the long-time regime is only fullfilled if the time dependence of the long-time decay of $`F_\mathrm{s}(q,t)`$ can be well described by an exponential function $`\mathrm{exp}(t/\tau (q))`$, since at that time scale $`r^2(t)t`$. Figure 3a shows the corresponding fits to exponential functions. It must be stressed that, usually, an amplitude factor $`A(q)<1`$ must be included in the fit to take into account the strength of the long-time regime. While in other cases this is an important parameter, for the present case setting $`A(q)=1`$ did not change the results from the fit within the error bar, since the value of $`F_\mathrm{s}(q,t)`$ is very close to unity at $`t10^3`$, the time for the beginning of the long-time regime (see figure 2a). From figure 3a it is clear that only for wavelengths $`\lambda `$ beyond $``$ 2000 -i.e., about 20 times the rod length- the decay of the curve can be reasonably described in terms of an exponential function, and even for such large scales non-Gaussianity cannot be excluded, since the final decay is not accessed within the time window of the simulation.

A better description can be achieved (figure 3b) by fitting to a Kohlrausch-Williams-Watts (KWW) function, $`\mathrm{exp}[(t/\tau (q))^\beta ]`$, a phenomenological equation often used in the analysis of long-time relaxations of complex systems (Phillips 1996). It must be noted that these type of fits are not fully satisfactory: as can be seen in figure 3b, the final part of the long-time decay relaxes slower than a KWW function. In any case, the obtained values of $`\beta `$, different from unity (see inset in figure 3b), again confirm the non-Gaussian nature of the long-time linear regime at large length scales.

§5. CONCLUSIONS

We have carried out molecular dynamics simulations for a simple model of the motion of a rod in a random static environment. The dynamics of long rods show similar features to those observed in supercooled liquids and dense colloids, namely a cage effect at intermediate times between the ballistic and long-time regimes, due to the trapping of the rod inside the tube formed by the neighbouring obstacles.

The time-dependence of the non-Gaussian parameter has been calculated for different rod lengths. It is found that it does not decay to zero within the time window of the simulation, which for long rods cover length scales of the order of 10-15 times the rod length. Therefore, the dynamics is heterogeneous on such observational scales. The origin of the observed non-Gaussianity might be the above mentioned presence of big holes in the random configuration of obstacles, that would lead to a finite probability of jumps much longer than the average, corresponding to processes where collisions provide a nearly longitudinal instantaneous velocity to the rod and at the same time the rod finds a long free “corridor” between the obstacles. An investigation of the dynamics of the rod in an homogeneus liquid-like configuration of the obstacles, where big holes are not present, could shed new light on this question. Work in this direction is in progress.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to E. Frey for useful discussions. A.J.M. acknowledges a postdoctoral grant form the Basque Government.

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# Radio and gamma-ray emission from pulsars

## 1. Introduction

A wealth of observational data on radio pulsars has accumulated in the last three decades. So far, seven gamma-ray pulsars have been discovered, of which six are also radio pulsars. The general properties of gamma-ray pulsars could be summarized as follows (Kanbach 2002): (1) the light curves of most gamma-ray pulsars show two major peaks with pulse widths close to 50 percent of the rotation period, (2) the gamma-ray spectra are hard, normally with a luminosity maximum around 1 GeV, but a spectral cutoff above several GeV is found; (3) the spectra vary with rotational phase indicating different sites of emission; (4) the gamma-luminosity scales with the particle flux from the open regions of the magnetosphere (Goldreich-Julian current). Except in the case of the Crab pulsar, the gamma-ray pulses are mostly much wider than the radio mean pulses and often show remarkable phase offsets from the radio pulses (e.g., the Vela pulsar).

In history, models for pulsar radio and gamma-ray emission have been developed within two separated domains, namely, the polar cap model for radio emission, either the polar cap or the outer gap models for gamma-ray emission. Since both radio and gamma-ray emissions can be observed simultaneously from a same pulsar, there come the questions: is there any relationship between radio and gamma-ray radiation? Is there any interaction between the acceleration processes in the polar and outer-gap accelerators? Can we have a model for both radio and gamma-ray emission?

There have been some efforts to fit the observations. It is suggested that in the outer gap model the gamma-ray emission altitude should be lower (Cheng & Zhang 1999), whereas in the polar cap model the altitude should be higher (Harding & Muslimov 1998), in order to explain well the observations. However, the phase shifts of Crab-like and Vela-like pulsars, between radio and gamma-ray pulses, can not be explained simultaneously with either the outer or the polar cap models. If the emission is located between the null surface and the polar cap, a lot of observational facts (including the relative phase shifts) may be understood. Null surface plays a vital role in such a scenario.

This paper is an effort of such a joint model. Radio emission altitudes and pulse profiles are figured out under the ICS model (e.g., Qiao & Lin 1998), gamma-ray pulse profiles are calculated by assuming a second acceleration region above the polar gap (that is produced by space-charge limited flow of secondary particles).

## 2. A short statement for radio emission

We have proposed an inverse Compton scattering (ICS) model for pulsar radio emission (Qiao & Lin 1998, Xu et al. 2000, Xu et al. 2001, Qiao et al. 2001). Some main observational features can be understood under this model: (1) the central or ‘core’ emission beam and the conal beams; (2) emission altitude for each emission component; (3) linear and circular polarization of individual and integrated pulses; (4) pulse profiles changing with frequency. The equations what we used in this paper can be found in the papers above.

## 3. Equations for gamma-ray emission

Owing to there is a strong acceleration process through space charge limited flow near null surface, Gamma-rays would be produced there by synchrotron and Inverse Compton scattering mechanisms.

The emission location with distance $`r=\lambda R_{\mathrm{null}}`$ from the stellar center, where $`R_{\mathrm{null}}`$ is the minimum distance from the center to the intersection of null charge surface and the last open field lines, $`\lambda `$ is a constant which is supposed to be less than but close to 1 (so that the acceleration region is not far from the null surface), e.g., 0.8 in this paper. Here we only show an analytical approximation for a small inclination angle ($`\alpha `$). For a large $`\alpha `$ we perform numerical methods.

The emission location could be determined by

$$\theta _\mathrm{e}=\mathrm{arcsin}(\sqrt{\lambda }\mathrm{sin}(\frac{1}{2}(\mathrm{arccos}(\frac{\mathrm{cos}\alpha }{3})\alpha ))),$$
(1)
where $`\theta _\mathrm{e}`$ is the angle between the magnetic axis and position vector $`\stackrel{}{r}`$, and $`\alpha `$ is the inclination angle. The angle between the radiation direction and the magnetic axis, $`\theta _\mu `$, is given by

$$\theta _\mu =\alpha \mathrm{arctan}(\frac{\mathrm{cos}(\alpha )+3\mathrm{cos}(\alpha +2\theta _e)}{\mathrm{sin}(\alpha )+3\mathrm{sin}(\alpha +2\theta _e)})+\frac{\pi }{2}.$$
(2)
With the emission angle we can calculate the phase separation between two emission components. Supposing that each emission component is Gaussian, we fit the mean pulse profiles with observations (see next section for results).

## 4. Results

The observed pulse profiles in gamma-ray and radio bands are fitted for seven pulsars, i.e., the Crab, PSR B1509-58, the Vela, PSR B1706-44, PSR B1951+32, the Geminga and PSR B1055-52. The profiles and fitted curves are shown in Figure 1. It is found that the observational profiles can be reproduced when reasonable parameters are chosen in our simulations.

## 5. Conclusions and discussions

The pulse profiles at both radio and gamma-ray bands are calculated under the joint model as it is shown here. In principle, the main observational features can be reproduced with this model. More details, such as phase resolved spectrum at gamma-rays, X-ray emission from pulsars, and so on, are need to be investigated in the future. For the inner gap sparking, a strange star model is benefit(Xu et al.2001).

### Acknowledgments.

We are very grateful to Prof. R. N. Manchester for his valuable discussions. This work is supported by NSF of China, the Research Fund for the Doctoral Program Higher Education, and the Special Funds for Major State Basic Research Projects of China (G2000077602).


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# LUMINOSITY AND STELLAR MASS FUNCTIONS OF LOCAL STAR-FORMING GALAXIES

## 1 Introduction

The star formation activity is a topic of growing interest as we extend the study of the galaxy population to higher and higher redshifts. Part of this interest is due to the fact that many distant objects show an intense starbursting activity (see, e.g., Ellis, 1997; Ferguson et al., 2000, and references therein). One of the issues that is being addressed is the characterization of the global properties of the galaxy population as a function of lookback time. One of the most important of these properties is the comoving star formation rate (SFR) density of the Universe (see, for example, Haarsma et al., 2000; Somerville et al., 2001; Rowan-Robinson, 2001; Lanzetta et al., 2002). Another issue of cosmological interest is the luminosity evolution of the galaxies along the Hubble time. One way to study this evolution is through the measurement of the number density of galaxies of a given luminosity as a function of redshift, i.e., the time-evolution of the luminosity function (LF). A considerable amount of effort has been devoted to the determination of the LF at a variety of redshifts and spectral ranges (among others, Efstathiou et al., 1988; Steidel et al., 1999; Loveday, 2000; Kochanek et al., 2001; Cole et al., 2001; Norberg et al., 2002).

Mass is even more fundamental than luminosity among the parameters governing the formation and evolution of galaxies. Indeed, it may be possible to distinguish between hierarchical and single collapse models of galaxy formation using the mass of the observed galactic structures and the history of their assembly as the differentiating parameters (see Aragón-Salamanca et al., 1998; Baugh et al., 1998; Fukugita et al., 1998; Kauffmann et al., 1999). Therefore, it is extremely important to characterize the stellar and total masses of galaxies at all redshifts and the number density of objects of a given mass, i.e., the stellar mass function (SMF).

In this Letter, we have used the multi-wavelength dataset for the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM) Survey of emission-line galaxies (ELGs, Zamorano et al., 1994, 1996) to estimate the LFs and SMF of a complete sample of local star-forming galaxies in the optical and near-infrared (NIR). Given that the UCM Survey galaxies were selected by their active star-formation, our results are directly comparable to the ones achieved for samples of star-forming galaxies at high redshift, though one must be aware of the differences on the selection techniques. Unless otherwise indicated, throughout this Letter we use a cosmology with $`\mathrm{H}_0=70`$ km s-1 Mpc-1, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{M}=0.3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$.

## 2 The sample

The UCM sample contains 191 local star-forming galaxies at redshifts lower than 0.045, with an average $`z=0.026`$. These objects were selected from an objective-prism survey carried out with the Schmidt Telescope at Calar Alto Observatory (Almería, Spain) and centered at the wavelength of the H$`\alpha `$ nebular emission (Zamorano et al., 1994, 1996). Comparisons with other samples of star-forming galaxies selected using a variety of techniques reveal that the UCM sample is representative of the local population of star-forming galaxies (Gallego et al., 1997; Salzer et al., 2001; Salzer, 1989; Treyer et al., 1998). Indeed, the SFR density of the local Universe derived from the UCM sample is reasonably consistent with that derived from other samples (see, e.g., Treyer et al., 1998; Serjeant et al., 2002).

Optical spectroscopy is available in Gallego et al. (1996), and photometry in the Gunn-$`r`$ and Johnson-$`B`$ filters can be found in Vitores et al. (1996) and Pérez-González et al. (2000), respectively. NIR data ($`J`$ and $`K_s`$ bands) were presented in Gil de Paz et al. (2000) and Pérez-González et al. (2003a). An H$`\alpha `$ imaging study has also been carried out recently (Pérez-González et al., 2003). For a complete compendium of the spectroscopic and photometric properties of the sample, the reader may refer to Pérez-González et al. (2003a, and references therein) and http://www.ucm.es/info/Astrof/UCM\_Survey/survey.html.

In this Letter we present LFs in the 4 available optical and NIR bands: Johnson-$`B`$, Gunn-$`r`$, $`J`$ and $`K_s`$. Out of the original 191 galaxies, 15 were classified as Active Galactic Nuclei by Gallego et al. (1996) and have been excluded. A further 11 galaxies have no data for the line+continuum magnitudes (see Section 3). Thus, the sample used in this Letter is composed of 165 objects. The total numbers of objects with available photometry in each band are: 165 in $`B`$, 142 in $`r`$, 143 in $`J`$ and 164 in $`K_s`$.

The luminosities have been corrected for Galactic extinction using the maps of Schlegel et al. (1998) and the extinction curve in Cardelli et al. (1989). We have also applied k-corrections from Fioc & Rocca-Volmerange (1999) for $`BJK_s`$ and Fukugita et al. (1995) for Gunn $`r`$, taking into account the morphological types of the UCM galaxies (Pérez-González et al., 2001). The k-corrections applied are small because of the low redshifts of our galaxies ($`z<0.045`$).

Total stellar masses for nearly all the UCM galaxies (156 objects) were calculated in Pérez-González et al. (2003b) using a complete set of stellar population synthesis models to reproduce the broad-band and emission-line spectral features in the optical and NIR. Taking into account different star formation histories, the technique calculated mass-to-light ratios in the $`K_s`$-band ($`/L_{K_s}`$) on a galaxy-by-galaxy basis. This Letter uses the results on masses and burst strengths (ratio of the mass of the stars younger than 10 Myr and the total stellar mass) which were calculated in Pérez-González et al. (2003b), assuming an instantaneous burst of star formation with a Salpeter (1955) initial mass function ($`_{\mathrm{low}}=0.1_{}`$ and $`_{\mathrm{up}}=100_{}`$) occurring on a ‘normal’ spiral galaxy. We used the stellar evolution synthesis library of Bruzual & Charlot (1999, private communication). The attenuation of the burst luminosity was modelled with the recipe given in Charlot & Fall (2000). The stellar masses obtained using the alternative extinction recipes considered in Pérez-González et al. (2003b) were statistically very similar. Thus, the choice of extinction recipe has negligible effect on the results presented here.

## 3 Estimating the luminosity and stellar mass functions

The selection of the UCM Survey galaxies depends primarily on the H$`\alpha `$ line flux and its contrast against the continuum (Gallego et al., 1995). This contrast may be measured by a line+continuum magnitude $`m_{L+C}`$ (Salzer, 1989). In the present work we are concerned with the calculation of the luminosity and mass functions of the sample in broad-band filters far away from the passband were the selection took place. Therefore, a proper way of estimating these functions is using a bivariate luminosity function (BLF), $`\varphi (M_{L+C},M_n)`$, which allows for sample selection in one particular magnitude ($`m_{L+C}`$), and may be integrated over this magnitude to obtain the LF in the required filter, $`\varphi (M_n)`$. The method is analogous to the one described in Loveday (2000). It is an extension of the stepwise maximum-likelihood technique presented in Efstathiou et al. (1988), which properly handles the effects of not observing a small fraction of the entire sample in the band where we are estimating the LF (Sodre & Lahav, 1993).

All the LF data points have been fitted to Schechter (1976) functions taking the observational errors into account. The uncertainties in the fitted parameters have been estimated considering uncorrelated random variations of the LF points following a Gaussian distribution with its width set by the errors of the data points. We calculate the errors in $`\alpha `$, $`M^{}`$ and $`\varphi ^{}`$ by repeating the fit for each set of points with small random variations.

The bivariate method of estimating LFs has also been applied to the calculation of the total stellar mass and burst mass functions of the UCM sample, i.e., the volume density of local star-forming galaxies and local starbursts as a function of mass. The use of this procedure when estimating the SMF relies on principles similar to those of the LF calculations. It uses a bivariate function $`\varphi (M_{L+C},_{})`$ defined as the number density of galaxies of a given $`M_{L+C}`$ and $`_{}`$. Note that the SMF is often obtained by multiplying the $`K_s`$-band LF by a constant $`/L_{K_s}`$. However, several authors (Brinchmann & Ellis, 2000; Bell & de Jong, 2001; Papovich et al., 2001; Pérez-González et al., 2003b) have suggested there could be sizeable galaxy-to-galaxy variations in $`/L_{K_s}`$ because of differences in star formation histories. Therefore, it seems safer to estimate the SMF using individually-estimated $`/L_{K_s}`$ ratios for each galaxy, as we do here.

## 4 Results

### 4.1 Luminosity functions

In order to test the BLF method, we used it to re-calculate the H$`\alpha `$ LF of the UCM sample. The results are almost identical to the ones achieved with the $`V/V_{\mathrm{max}}`$ method (Schmidt, 1968; Huchra & Sargent, 1973) used by Gallego et al. (1995) and Pérez-González et al. (2003). This adds confidence to our results.

Figure 1 shows the LFs of the UCM sample in $`BrJK_s`$. For comparison, we also plot the LFs of the local galaxy population obtained from different surveys. The dotted line in the left panel of Figure 1 shows the $`B`$-band LF of the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey (2dFGRS, Norberg et al., 2002). These galaxies have redshifts up to $`0.2`$, with a modal $`z`$ of $`0.05`$. The main different between the 2dFGRS LF and the UCM LF is a lower number density normalization ($`\varphi _{\mathrm{UCM}}^{}/\varphi _{2\mathrm{d}\mathrm{F}\mathrm{G}\mathrm{R}\mathrm{S}}^{}=0.19`$). This is not a surprise since not all the galaxies in the 2dFGRS emit in H$`\alpha `$. The $`r`$-band LF (second panel of Figure 1) is compared to the LFs derived from the Las Campanas Redshift Survey (LCRS; dash-dot line; $`z0.1`$; Lin et al., 1996), and the Century Survey (CS; dashed line; $`z0.15`$; Geller et al., 1997)111These LFs have been transformed into the $`r`$-band using $`rR_C=0.36`$, typical of spiral galaxies (Fukugita et al., 1995). Note also that these LFs have been obtained using different $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{M}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ values, but given the moderate redshift of the samples we have not made any correction in order to match the cosmologies.. The comparison reveals again a lower number density of UCM galaxies ($`\varphi _{\mathrm{UCM}}^{}/\varphi _{\mathrm{LCRS}}^{}=0.15`$ and $`\varphi _{\mathrm{UCM}}^{}/\varphi _{\mathrm{CS}}^{}=0.11`$). The $`J`$\- and $`K_s`$-band LFs are compared with those of the 2dFGRS (dotted lines in the last two panels of Figure 1; Cole et al., 2001), and the Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS; dashed lines; Jarrett et al., 2000). The $`J`$-band 2MASS LF comes from Balogh et al. (2001), with the global normalization of Cole et al. (2001). The $`K_s`$ 2MASS LF was published by Kochanek et al. (2001). In both bands a normalization offset is observed again: $`\varphi _{\mathrm{UCM}}^{}/\varphi _{2\mathrm{d}\mathrm{F}\mathrm{G}\mathrm{R}\mathrm{S}}^{}=0.27`$ in $`J`$; $`\varphi _{\mathrm{UCM}}^{}/\varphi _{2\mathrm{d}\mathrm{F}\mathrm{G}\mathrm{R}\mathrm{S}}^{}=0.26`$ and $`\varphi _{\mathrm{UCM}}^{}/\varphi _{2\mathrm{M}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{S}\mathrm{S}}^{}=0.24`$ in $`K_s`$.

The shapes of the luminosity distributions of the UCM sample are not very different from those of the global population of galaxies in the local Universe. However, since the UCM galaxies have typically higher star formation activity than “normal” quiescent spiral galaxies (Pérez-González et al., 2003b), a lower number density is found. The ratios between the integrated luminosity densities for the local star-forming objects in the UCM Survey and for the global population of galaxies are $`0.15\pm 0.05`$, $`0.11\pm 0.04`$, $`0.23\pm 0.04`$, $`0.18\pm 0.03`$ in $`B`$, $`r`$, $`J`$, and $`K_s`$. Note that the local galaxy population LFs in the $`B`$, $`J`$ and $`K_s`$ bands have been derived in a homogeneous way from the 2dFGRS. Remarkably, these luminosity density ratios are comparable at all wavelengths and very similar to the ratio of the number of enhanced star-forming galaxies to the total (Zamorano et al., 1996). The luminosity density ratios do not depend strongly on luminosity. Moreover, these ratios are a factor of $`2`$ higher than the nearby galaxy-pair fraction, estimated to be a 6–10% by Keel & van Soest (1992). This might suggest that a significant fraction of the star-formation activity in the local Universe is driven by minor mergers, where the smaller in-falling object is not always detectable.

In the NIR, the UCM galaxies yield fainter $`M^{}`$ values (by $`0.4`$ mag) than the ‘normal’ galaxy samples. This is directly related to the lower typical stellar masses found for the local star-forming objects (Pérez-González et al., 2003b): the $`J`$ and $`K_s`$ luminosities are strongly correlated with the total stellar mass, while being less influenced by recent star formation. However, the enhanced star formation is responsible for the UCM Survey presenting $`M^{}`$ values similar to those of normal galaxies at optical wavelengths despite having smaller stellar masses.

### 4.2 Mass functions

Figure 2 shows the total stellar mass function (filled circles) and burst mass function (stars) for the UCM galaxies calculated as described in Section 3. Schechter function fits (solid and dotted lines respectively) are also shown. In addition, we have calculated the SMF multiplying the $`K_s`$-band LF by a constant $`/L_{K_s}=0.78`$ (in solar units), the average mass-to-light ratio used in Pérez-González et al. (2003b) for the evolved stellar populations within the UCM galaxies (open circles). At high masses, this simple estimate of the SMF coincides with the one obtained using individual $`/L_{K_s}`$ values. However, large differences appear for low mass galaxies: these objects harbor the most intense bursts (Pérez-González et al., 2003b) which have a major influence in the $`/L_{K_s}`$ ratios. The errors introduced by using a constant $`/L_{K_s}`$ are expected to be much larger at high-$`z`$ where the burst strengths are higher.

A Schechter function seems to provide a reasonable fit to the total SMF. The typical stellar mass ($`_{}`$) of the local star-forming galaxies in the UCM sample is a factor $`2`$ smaller than that of the local galaxy population (Cole et al., 2001). This is directly related to the fainter NIR $`M^{}`$ found for the UCM galaxies. The faint end slope ($`\alpha `$) of our SMF and the one published in Cole et al. (2001) are virtually identical.

We have integrated the total SMF in Figure 2 to obtain the total stellar mass density in local star-forming galaxies, $`\rho _{}^{\mathrm{ELG}}(z=0)=10^{7.83\pm 0.07}`$ $`_{\mathrm{}}`$ Mpc-3. This corresponds to $`(13\pm 3)`$% of the baryon mass density in the form of stars and their remnants estimated by Persic & Salucci (1992), Fukugita et al. (1998) and Cole et al. (2001) for the local Universe.

Integrating the burst SMF allows us to calculate the volume-averaged burst strength $`b`$ of these star-forming galaxies, defined as the ratio of the burst mass density to the total stellar mass density. We find $`b(z=0)=0.04\pm 0.01`$. This means that $`4`$% of the total stellar mass in local star-forming galaxies corresponds to stars younger than $`10`$ Myr (Pérez-González et al., 2003b). Note that the galaxies within the UCM Survey have $`EW(\mathrm{H}\alpha )>20`$ Å (Gallego et al., 1995), so this value must be considered as a lower limit to the relative fraction of young stars in our local Universe.

It is interesting to compare our measure of $`\rho _{}^{\mathrm{ELG}}(z=0)`$ with high redshift estimates. Our value is 1.6 times lower than the comoving stellar mass density in spiral galaxies at $`0.4<z<1`$ (Brinchmann & Ellis, 2000). Also, when compared with the $`z>0`$ galaxy samples presented in Dickinson et al. (2002), our results point towards a decline in $`\rho _{}^{\mathrm{ELG}}`$ from $`z1`$ to $`z=0`$. This is similar to the behavior observed for the SFR density. One should be cautious when making comparisons with $`z>1`$, since the high-$`z`$ samples are dominated by intense star-formation and may present selection biases at least as important as the ones in our sample, leading to an underestimate of the global $`\rho _{}`$.

## 5 Summary and conclusions

In this Letter we have presented the luminosity and mass functions of the local star-forming galaxies in the UCM Survey. Given that the UCM galaxies were selected by their active star formation, our results are directly comparable to those of high redshift star-forming galaxies. In estimating these functions we have accounted for the H$`\alpha `$ selection of our survey and calculated stellar masses on a galaxy-by-galaxy basis.

The main results of our study are: (1) The luminosity functions of the UCM Survey galaxies in the optical and near-infrared have lower normalizations than the LFs of the global population of galaxies, indicating a lower number density. This is not surprising since the UCM galaxies have significantly higher star formation activity than ‘normal’ quiescent galaxies, and galaxies without star formation are not present in the sample. (2) In the NIR, UCM galaxies have fainter characteristic magnitudes ($`M^{}`$) than ‘normal’ galaxies. This is a direct consequence of the lower typical stellar masses of our objects. However, the optical $`M^{}`$ values of the UCM galaxies are similar to those of ‘normal’ galaxies, suggesting the enhanced star formation has boosted up their optical luminosities. (3) The fraction of the total luminosity density in the local Universe associated with star-forming galaxies is $`0.15\pm 0.05`$, $`0.11\pm 0.04`$, $`0.23\pm 0.04`$, $`0.18\pm 0.03`$ in $`B`$, $`r`$, $`J`$, and $`K_s`$. Remarkably, these luminosity fractions are comparable at all wavelengths and do not depend strongly on luminosity. This may be due to selection effects shared by all magnitude (and surface brightness) limited surveys. (4) If we fit the total stellar mass function using a Schechter parameterization, we obtain $`\alpha =1.15\pm 0.15`$, $`\mathrm{log}(^{})=10.82\pm 0.17`$ $`_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\mathrm{log}(\varphi ^{})=3.04\pm 0.20`$ Mpc-3. This gives an integrated total stellar mass density in star-forming galaxies in the local Universe of $`10^{7.83\pm 0.07}`$ $`_{\mathrm{}}`$ Mpc-3. (5) The volume-averaged burst strength of the UCM galaxies is $`b=0.04\pm 0.01`$, defined as the ratio of the mass density of stars formed in recent bursts (age$`<10`$ Myr) to the total stellar mass density in UCM galaxies. (6) We estimate that $`(13\pm 3)`$% of the total baryon mass density in the form of stars is associated with star-forming galaxies in the local Universe.

PGPG wishes to acknowledge the Spanish Ministry of Education and Culture for the reception of a Formación de Profesorado Universitario fellowship. AAS acknowledges generous financial support from the Royal Society. AAH has been supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration grant NAG 5-3042 through the University of Arizona. AGdP acknowledges financial support from NASA through a Long Term Space Astrophysics grant to B.F. Madore. We are grateful to the anonymous referee for his helpful comments and suggestions. Valuable discussion with Casey Papovich is acknowledged. The present work was supported by the Spanish Programa Nacional de Astronomía y Astrofísica under grant AYA2000-1790.


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# Coherent Description for Hitherto Unexplained Radioactivities by Super- and Hyperdeformed Isomeric States

## I Introduction

Despite the intensive study of nuclear physics and radioactivity for more than a century, there are still several unexplained phenomena seen in nature. In the present paper we consider three such phenomena. The first one is that of the Po halos observed in mica hen39 ; gen68  where the concentric halos correspond to the $`\alpha `$-particle decay chains of 210Po, 214Po and 218Po.111Colored pictures of various halos are given in Ref. gen92 . Since the lifetimes of these isotopes are short and halos belonging to their long-lived precursors from the 238U decay chain are absent, their origin is puzzling. The second unexplained phenomenon is the observation cher63 ; chery64 ; cher68 ; mei70  in several minerals, using solid state detectors, of a low energy 4.5-MeV $`\alpha `$-particle group with an estimated cher63  half-life of (2.5$`\pm `$0.5)x108 y which, based on chemical behavior, has been suggested to be due to the decay of an isotope of Eka-Os (Z = 108; Hs). However, 4.5 MeV is a low energy compared to the predicted 9.5 - 6.7 MeV for $`\beta `$-stable isotopes of Hs mol97 ; kou00 ; lir00 , and T1/2 = 2.5x108 y is too short by a factor of 108, compared to predictions vio66 ; roy00  from the lifetime versus energy relationship for normal 4.5 MeV $`\alpha `$-particles from Hs. Still another unexplained phenomenon is that of the giant halos gen70 . Halos, with radii which may correspond to 10 and 13 MeV $`\alpha `$-particles, have been seen in mica gen70 . Unlike the situation with the Po halos, here it is not absolutely certain that their origin is from such high energy $`\alpha `$-particles gen70 ; bra78 ; mol80 . However, if they are, then their existence is unexplained. For nuclei around the $`\beta `$-stability valley, 10 and 13 MeV $`\alpha `$-particles are respectively predicted mol97 ; kou00 ; lir00  for Z values around 114 and 126. The estimated roy00  half-life for 10 MeV $`\alpha `$’s in Z = 114 nuclei is about 1 s, and for 13 MeV $`\alpha `$’s in Z = 126 nuclei, it is about 10-4 s. It is not clear how such high-energy $`\alpha `$-particles with such short predicted lifetimes can exist in nature.222On the stability of superheavy elements as predicted in the late sixties of the previous century and on the current situation see Refs. mos69  and gre02 , respectively. The purpose of this paper is to propose consistent interpretations for the three unexplained phenomena, based on the recently discovered mar96a ; mar96b ; mar01a ; mar01b  high spin long-lived super- and hyperdeformed isomeric states and their unconventional decay properties. Preliminary results have been presented before mar01c ; mar02 .

## II Super- and Hyperdeformed Isomeric States and Abnormal Radioactive decays

In a study of the 16O + 197Au mar96a ; mar96b  and 28Si + 181Ta mar01a  reactions at and below the Coulomb barrier, unusually low energy very life-time-enhanced $`\alpha `$-particle group mar96a  on the one hand, and high energy strongly retarded $`\alpha `$-particles mar01a  on the other hand, have been observed in coincidence with superdeformed (SD) $`\gamma `$-ray transitions. In addition, long-lived proton radioactivities mar96b ; mar01a  have been found. These unusual radioactive processes have been explained as due to long-lived high spin super- and hyperdeformed (HD) isomeric state.333Experimental evidence for hyperdeformed states in U isotopes has been seen in Ref. kra98 . The situation is summarized schematically in Fig. 1. A SD isomeric state can decay by emitting very enhanced $`\alpha `$-particles to a similar state of the daughter nucleus, or by strongly retarded $`\alpha `$-particles to a normal deformed or the ground state (g.s.) of the daughter. It can also decay by retarded proton radioactivity. Similarly, a HD isomeric state can decay by retarded $`\alpha `$-particles to SD states, or by enhanced $`\alpha `$-particles to HD states of the daughter nucleus. As mentioned above all these unusual radioactive decays have been seen experimentally mar96a ; mar96b ; mar01a ; mar01b .

These isomeric states have already been used mar01b  to interpret previously low energy unidentified $`\alpha `$-particle groups seen in actinide sources produced by secondary reactions in a CERN W target mar71 , and to explain the production mar71 , in the same W targets, of a long-lived superheavy element with Z = 112, which was based on the observation of fission fragments in separated Hg sources, and on measurements of the masses of the fissioning nuclei mar84 .

## III Super- and Hyperdeformed Isomeric States and the Puzzling Phenomena Seen in Nature

As stated above, the discovery of these isomeric states with their unusual decay properties enables one to also explain the previously unexplained phenomena seen in nature.

The Po halos hen39 ; gen68  may be due to similar isomeric states in nuclei with Z $``$ 84 which eventually decayed by $`\beta `$\- or $`\gamma `$-decays to the g.s. of 210Po, 214Po and 218Po.

The observed cher63 ; chery64 ; cher68 ; mei70  4.5-MeV $`\alpha `$-particle group might be due to an enhanced IIImin $``$ IIImin (HD $``$ HD) transition in a Z = 108, A $``$ 270 nucleus. By using various possible deformation parameters for the third minimum, the predicted mar01b  half-life for such a transition, as seen in Table 1, is around 109 y. This value is in reasonable agreement with the experimental estimate cher63  of around 2.5x108 y and it differs greatly from the predicted value vio66 ; roy00  of about 5x1016 y for a normal 4.5-MeV $`\alpha `$-transition from Z = 108.

Furthermore, in Fig. 2 deduced $`\alpha `$-particle energies for IIImin $``$ IIImin transitions for some isotopes of Cm and Fm are presented. These energies were obtained from the predicted excitation energies how80  of the third minima in the relevant parent and daughter nuclei and from the known aud93  or predicted lir00  g.s. to g.s. Qα values. The Qα values for IIImin $``$ IIImin transitions are much lower than the corresponding g.s. to g.s. values (see also Table 1 of Ref. mar01b ), since the excitation energy of the IIImin in the parent nucleus is predicted to be at a lower value than in the daughter. An extrapolation of the deduced IIImin $``$ IIImin transition energies to Z = 108 gives an Eα value of about 4.5 MeV for N $``$ 162. This is consistent with the suggestion mei70  that 247Cm may be a descendent of an element with Z = 108 which decays by the 4.5 MeV $`\alpha `$-particles, since 247Cm can be obtained from 271Hs (N = 163) by six successive $`\alpha `$-decays. Another possibility is that the long-lived isotope is 267Hs which decays first by 4.5 MeV $`\alpha `$’s, and then by two electron capture (EC) or $`\beta ^+`$ decays and four $`\alpha `$-decays to 247Cm. This scenario allows for a transition from the third minimum to the first minimum because of the total positive Q-value of the $`\beta `$(EC) decays of about 5 MeV mol97 ; kou00 ; lir00 . (Transitions from isomeric states to normally deformed states by $`\beta `$(EC) decays have been seen before mar87 .)888It should however be mentioned that in principle the above 4.5 MeV $`\alpha `$-particles may also be due to a strongly retarded IImin $``$ Imin or IIImin $``$ IImin transition in the region of Os itself. Such transitions have been seen in the Os - Ir - Hg region mar01a  though with half-lives of several months. (For normal 4.5 MeV $`\alpha `$-particles in Os the expected vio66 ; roy00  half-life is about 1 y. Such short-lived nuclide can not exist in nature).

Notwithstanding the uncertainty mentioned above about the origin of the giant halos, let us now suggest a possible interpretation for these halos assuming that they are due to $`\alpha `$-particles of around 10 and 13 MeV. It has already been pointed out bra78 ; mol80  that the giant halos are associated with smaller halos. For instance, in the giant halo seen in Fig.1 of Ref. gen70 , where the outer ring corresponds to $`\alpha `$-particles of about 10 MeV, one sees also a central black zone which could be due to low-energy $`\alpha `$-particles of 4.8 MeV. A good candidate for the sequence of events producing this halo is a long-lived HD isomeric state decaying by a 4.8 MeV IIImin $``$ IIImin $`\alpha `$-transition, followed by $`\beta ^+`$(EC) transitions to a normal state which decays by 10 MeV $`\alpha `$-particles. As a specific example, one may consider the following scenario where a HD isomeric state in 282114 decays by 4.8 MeV $`\alpha `$’s to a HD isomeric state in 278112, followed by two $`\beta ^+`$(EC) decays to a normal deformed state or to the g.s. of 278110. This latter nucleus is predicted mol97 ; kou00 ; lir00  to decay by 10 MeV $`\alpha `$-particles. For the deformation parameters given in Table 1, the predicted T1/2 value for a 4.8 MeV IIImin $``$ IIImin $`\alpha `$-transition from 282114 is 108 \- 1011 y, and the sum of the two Qβ of above 6 MeV mol97 ; kou00 ; lir00  makes the transition from the isomeric state in the third minimum to a normal state in one of the daughter nuclei possible.

Finally, let us consider the giant halo presented in Fig. 3 of Ref. gen70  which would correspond to 13.1 MeV $`\alpha `$-particles. Here too, in addition to the large halo, one sees a small dark ring with an inner radius which, if caused by $`\alpha `$-particles, correspond to a low energy of about 5.1 MeV.999The widening of this ring is probably due to an overexposure effect. Compare for instance Figs. 1l and 1i of Ref. gen74  where the halo from the 6.0-MeV $`\alpha `$-group in Fig. 1l is quite wide. Similarly to the situation above, one can propose as a scenario for this halo a HD isomeric state in 316126 which decays by a IIImin $``$ IIImin low-energy $`\alpha `$-transition to 312124, followed by two $`\beta ^+`$(EC) transitions, leading to the g.s. of 312122. The 312122 nucleus is predicted mol97 ; kou00  to decay by $`\alpha `$-particles of around 13 MeV. For a 5.1 MeV HD to HD $`\alpha `$-transition from 316126 the predicted mar01b  half-life, using the parameters of Ref. cwi94  (Table 1, last line) is 3x1011 y. (Longer lifetimes are obtained for the other sets of parameters in Table 1, whereas larger deformation parameters, and consequently shorter lifetimes, may exist in the nucleus 316126 compared to 232Th for which the parameters in Ref. cwi94  were predicted.) Thus, a consistent picture for the giant halo is possible if 5.1-MeV $`\alpha `$-particles are the origin of the small halo within the larger one.101010Overexposure and blurring effects might be the reasons why inner ring structure due to successive disintegrations after the high energy $`\alpha `$-decays are not seen in Figs. 1 and 3 of Ref. gen70 , since: “Also in the Th-U halos, where about 105 of them have been studied gen74 , most have centers $`>`$ 20 microns diameter, which generally produces halos without distinct inner ring structure, whereas only relatively few possess the tiny, micron-size centers necessary to produce halos with distinct rings.” (Private communication from R. V. Gentry).

It should however be mentioned that the existence of low energy $`\alpha `$-particle groups is not a necessary initial step for observed giant halos. HD isomeric states which decay by EC($`\beta `$) finally to the g.s. of superheavy nuclei, can explain such giant halos as well.

Let us finally touch on the problem why these SD and HD isomeric states which were used by us to explain the above phenomena do not decay by fission. Their long lifetimes in the region of 109 y, also against fission, are probably due to the combined effect of the potential barrier and the high spin of the state. As a matter of fact, back in 1969 nil69  a new type of fission isomeric state has been predicted for nuclei with N $``$ 144-150. A specialization energy whe56  in excess of 4 MeV for the second barrier was predicted for a $`\frac{11}{2}^{}`$ state, which is associated with a factor of about 1015 increase in the half-life of a normal fission shape isomer.

## IV Possible Scenarios for Production of Superheavy Elements in Nature

It is worthwhile mentioning that a natural way to produce HD high spin isomeric states is by heavy ion reactions. First, high spin states are produced by these reactions, and secondly, as seen in Fig. 8 of Ref. mar01b , for suitable projectile-target combinations, the shape of the compound nucleus in the third minimum fits with the shape of the projectile and target nuclei at the touching point, and very little penetration and dissipation energies are involved in the reaction. The above isotopes 267108, 282114 and 316126 could presumably be produced by the following cold fusion reactions:

a) 208Pb + 60Fe$``$ 267Hs + n (Qvalue = -214 MeV; C.B. = 223 MeV)

b) 208Pb + 74Ge $``$ 282114 (Qvalue = -262 MeV; C.B. = 267 MeV)

c) 232Th + 84Kr $``$ 316126 (Qvalue = -319 MeV; C.B. = 317 MeV)

d) 238U + 78Se $``$ 316126 (Qvalue = -302 MeV; C.B. = 307 MeV),

where the projectile and target nuclei are stable or quasi-stable isotopes. (C.B. is the Coulomb barrier between the projectile and the target nucleus for a radius parameter R0 = 1.4 fm).

## V Summary

In summary, it has been shown that the newly discovered long-lived super- and hyperdeformed isomeric states and their unusual radioactive decay properties enable one to understand certain previously puzzling phenomena seen in nature. Thus, the Po halos can be understood as being due to the existence of such isomeric states in nuclei around 210Po, 214Po and 218Po which undergo $`\beta `$\- and $`\gamma `$-decays to the ground states of these isotopes. Likewise, the low-energy enhanced 4.5 MeV $`\alpha `$-particle group cher63 ; chery64 ; cher68 ; mei70  can be quantitatively understood as a hyperdeformed to hyperdeformed transition from an isotope with Z = 108, A $``$ 270. Finally, it was shown that the giant halos can be consistently interpreted as being due to 10 and 13 MeV $`\alpha `$-particles following low energy IIImin $``$ IIImin transitions in superheavy nuclei around Z = 114 and Z = 126, respectively, which eventually decay to normal states emitting such high-energy $`\alpha `$-particles. The existence in both cases of halos with small radii, which might be related to hyperdeformed to hyperdeformed transitions, along with the large halos, lends support to this scenario. It has however been pointed out that the existence of low energy $`\alpha `$-particle groups as an initial step is not a necessary condition for the interpretation of the giant halos. IIImin isomeric states which decay by EC($`\beta `$) and $`\gamma `$-rays finally to the ground states of superheavy nuclei, would lead to giant halos as well.

Based on the above it seems to us that the search for superheavy elements in nature should be pursued.

## VI Acknowledgements

We appreciate valuable discussions with R. V. Gentry, J. L. Weil and N. Zeldes. D. K. acknowledges financial support from the DFG.