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# Interpretation of the Stephan Quintet Galaxy Cluster using Hydro-Gravitational Theory

## 1 Introduction

Stephan’s Quintet (SQ, HGC 92, Arp 319, VV 288) is one of the first known (Stephan 1877) and best studied of the Hickson 1982 catalog of very compact groups of galaxies, and historically the most mysterious. The group consists of the Trio NGC 7319, NGC 7318A, and NGC 7317, all of which have redshift 0.022, NGC 7318B with redshift 0.019 closely aligned with NGC 7318A, and NGC 7320. Burbidge and Burbidge 1959 noted that the large discrepancy of redshifts for the double galaxy NGC 7318AB requires huge mass/light ($`M/L`$) ratios $`300\pm 200`$ from dynamical models to achieve virial equilibrium. However, the true mystery of SQ began when the missing redshift for NGC 7320 was determined by Burbidge and Burbidge 1961 to be only $`z=0.0027`$, with relative velocity $`cz=8.1\times 10^5`$ m/s compared to $`6.7\times 10^6`$ for the Trio. For virial equilibrium, this increases the kinetic energy of the group by a factor $`30`$ and would require $`M/L10,000`$: much too large to be credible. Thus it was concluded (Burbidge and Burbidge, 1961) that the system is in a state of explosive expansion since the $`a`$ $`\mathrm{𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟𝑖}`$ chance of NGC 7320 not being a member of the group but a random foreground galaxy is about 1/1500.

Another possibility is that the SQ red shifts are intrinsically variable because the SQ galaxies were all recently ejected from a nearby parent AGN. Arp 1973 summarizes several papers from 1970-1972 where he concludes that the nearby large spiral galaxy NGC 7331 has ejected all the SQ galaxies and some have intrinsic red shifts, so that all the SQ galaxies are located at the same $`10`$ Mpc distance of their parent NGC 7331. Arp has noted numerous cases where galaxies in close angular proximity have not only widely different red shifts but coincident spin magnitudes and alignments with the AGN jets, consistent with his hypothesis that galaxies and quasars can be ejected from active galactic nuclei (AGNs) with intrinsic red shifts (Arp, 1998).

Galaxies and quasars frequently show evidence of ejection with intrinsic red shifts (Hoyle et al., 2000). A Seyfert 1 galaxy (NGC 6212) is observed closely surrounded by a large number ($``$44) of QSOs that it may have ejected (Burbidge, 2003), with QSO surface densities (69 per square degree) larger than ambient by estimated factors of 30 to 10 and decreasing (to 17) with angular distance for radii 10$``$50 minutes. It has been suggested (Hoyle et al., 2000) that the big bang hypothesis itself may be questioned based on the remarkable accumulation of such coincidences that are contrary to the statistics of standard CDM hierarchical galaxy clustering cosmology (CDMHCC) and the Hubble red-shift radial-velocity relationship ($`v=cz`$) of big bang cosmology.

The contradictions and mysteries vanish concerning SQ anomalous red-shifts and large QSO densities near AGNs when the observations are interpreted using the hydro-gravitational-theory (HGT) of Gibson 1996-2000. From HGT cosmology such improbable coincidences (from CDMHCC) are simply fossil manifestations of the viscous-gravitational beginnings of galaxy clusters and galaxies, where the apparent close proximity is an optical illusion resulting from the small transverse velocities of the galaxies due to early friction as they gently fragmented gravitationally from the same proto-supercluster. Thus, dense angular galaxy clusters can have wide spatial separations precisely along a line of sight from the uniform expansion of space expected from big bang cosmology. From the large range of redshifts (0.03 to 2.6) and Hubble distances (150 to 3730 Mpc) of the NGC 6212-quasar system (Burbidge, 2003) the observed AGN-QSO galaxies are concentrated in a thin ($``$150/1) line-of-sight pencil, contradicting CDMHCC and supporting HGT. HGT has recently been reviewed and compared to data (Gibson & Schild, 2003), so in the following we present only a brief summary.

## 2 Hydro-Gravitational Theory

Standard CDMHC cosmologies are based on over-simplified fluid mechanical equations, an inappropriate assumption that the fluid is collisionless, and a recognized “swindle” required to achieve solution of the equations. The Jeans 1902 theory neglects viscous forces, turbulence forces, non-acoustic density fluctuations, particle collisions, and the effects of diffusion on gravitational structure formation. Jeans did linear perturbation stability analysis (neglecting turbulence) of Euler’s equations (neglecting viscous forces) for a nearly uniform ideal gas with density $`\rho `$ only a function of pressure (the barotropic assumption), which reduced the problem of gravitational instability to the solvable equation of gravitational acoustics. To reconcile his equations with the linearized collisionless Boltzmann’s equations and the resulting Poisson’s equation for the gravitational potential, Jeans assumed the density $`\rho `$ was zero. This assumption is appropriately known as the “Jeans swindle”. The only critical wave length for gravitational stability with all these questionable assumptions is the Jeans length scale $`L_J`$ where

$$L_JV_S/(\rho G)^{1/2}(p/\rho ^2G)^{1/2},$$
(1)
$`G`$ is Newton’s gravitational constant and $`V_S(p/\rho )^{1/2}`$ is the sound speed.

Density fluctuations in fluids are not barotropic as assumed by Jeans 1902 except rarely in small regions for short times near powerful sound sources. Density fluctuations that triggered the first gravitational structures in the primordial fluids of interest were likely non-acoustic (non-barotropic) density variations from turbulent mixing of temperature or chemical species concentrations produced by the big bang (Gibson, 2001) as shown by turbulent signatures in the cosmic microwave background temperature anisotropies (Bershadskii and Sreenivasan, 2002). From Jeans’ theory without Jeans’ swindle, a gravitational condensation on an acoustical density maximum rapidly becomes a non-acoustical density maximum because the gravitationally accreted mass retains the (zero) momentum of the motionless ambient gas.

Without viscous and turbulent forces or diffusion, fluids with non-acoustic density fluctuations are absolutely unstable to the formation of structure due to self gravity (Gibson, 1996). Turbulence or viscous forces can dominate gravitational forces at small distances from a point of maximum or minimum density to prevent gravitational structure formation, but gravitational forces will dominate turbulent or viscous forces at larger distances to cause structures if the gas or plasma does not diffuse away faster than it can condense or rarify due to gravity. The concepts of pressure support and thermal support are artifacts of the erroneous Jeans criterion for gravitational instability. Pressure forces cannot prevent gravitational structure formation in the plasma epoch because pressures equilibrate in time periods smaller that the gravitational free fall time $`(\rho G)^{1/2}`$ on length scales smaller than the Jeans scale, and the Jeans scale in the primordial plasma is larger than the Hubble scale of causal connection $`L_H=ct`$, where $`c`$ is light speed and $`t`$ is time. Therefore, if gravitational forces exceed viscous and turbulence forces in the plasma epoch at scales smaller than $`L_H`$ then gravitational structures will develop, independent of the Jeans criterion. Only a very large diffusivity of the plasma ($`D\nu `$) could interfere.

The diffusion velocity is $`D/L`$ for diffusivity $`D`$ at distance $`L`$ and the gravitational velocity is $`L\rho ^{1/2}G^{1/2}`$. The two velocities are equal at the diffusive Schwarz length scale

$$L_{SD}[D^2/\rho G]^{1/4}.$$
(2)
Thus very weakly collisional particles such as the hypothetical cold-dark-matter (CDM) material cannot form potential wells for baryonic matter collection because the particles have large diffusivity and will disperse, consistent with observations (Sand et al., 2002). Diffusivity $`DV_p\times L_c`$, where $`V_p`$ is the particle speed and $`L_c`$ is the collision distance. Because weakly collisional particles have large collision distances with large diffusive Schwarz lengths the non-baryonic dark matter (possibly neutrinos) is the last material to fragment by self gravity and not the first as assumed by CDM cosmologies. The first structures occur as proto-supercluster-voids in the baryonic plasma controlled by viscous and weak turbulence forces, independent of diffusivity ($`D\nu `$). The CDM seeds postulated as the basis of CDMHCC never happened because $`(L_{SD})_{NB}ct`$ in the plasma epoch.

The baryonic matter is subject to large viscous forces, especially in the hot primordial plasma and gas states existing when most gravitational structures first formed. The viscous forces per unit volume $`\rho \nu \gamma L^2`$ dominate gravitational forces $`\rho ^2GL^4`$ at small scales, where $`\nu `$ is the kinematic viscosity and $`\gamma `$ is the rate of strain of the fluid. The forces match at the viscous Schwarz length

$$L_{SV}(\nu \gamma /\rho G)^{1/2},$$
(3)
which is the smallest size for self gravitational condensation or void formation in such a flow. Turbulent forces may require even larger scales of gravitational structures. Turbulent forces $`\rho \epsilon ^{2/3}L^{8/3}`$ match gravitational forces at the turbulent Schwarz scale

$$L_{ST}\epsilon ^{1/2}/(\rho G)^{3/4},$$
(4)
where $`\epsilon `$ is the viscous dissipation rate of the turbulence. Because in the primordial plasma the viscosity and diffusivity are identical and the rate-of-strain $`\gamma `$ is larger than the free-fall frequency $`(\rho G)^{1/2}`$, the viscous and turbulent Schwarz scales $`L_{SV}`$ and $`L_{ST}`$ will be larger than the diffusive Schwarz scale $`L_{SD}`$, from (2), (3) and (4).

Therefore, the criterion for structure formation in the plasma epoch is that both $`L_{SV}`$ and $`L_{ST}`$ become less than the horizon scale $`L_H=ct`$. Reynolds numbers in the plasma epoch were near critical, with $`L_{SV}L_{ST}`$. From $`L_{SV}<ct`$ and (3), gravitational structures first formed when $`\nu <c^2t(t^2\rho G)c^2t`$ at time $`t10^{12}`$ seconds (Gibson, 1996), well before $`10^{13}`$ seconds which is the time of plasma to gas transition (300,000 years). Because the expansion of the universe inhibited condensation but enhanced void formation in the weakly turbulent plasma, the first structures were proto-supercluster-voids. At $`10^{12}`$ s

$$(L_{SD})_{NB}L_{SV}L_{ST}5\times L_KL_H=3\times 10^{20}\mathrm{m},$$
(5)
where $`L_{SD}`$ applies to the non-baryonic component and $`L_{SV}`$, $`L_{ST}`$, and $`L_K`$ apply to the baryonic component.

As proto-supercluster fragments formed the voids filled with non-baryonic matter by diffusion, inhibiting further structure formation by decreasing the gravitational driving force. The baryonic mass density $`\rho 2\times 10^{17}`$ kg/$`\mathrm{m}^3`$ and rate of strain $`\gamma 10^{12}`$ $`\mathrm{s}^1`$ were preserved as hydrodynamic fossils within the proto-supercluster fragments and within proto-cluster and proto-galaxy objects resulting from subsequent fragmentation as the photon viscosity and $`L_{SV}`$ decreased prior to the plasma-gas transition and photon decoupling (Gibson, 2000). As shown in Eq. 5, the Kolmogorov scale $`L_K[\nu ^3/\epsilon ]^{1/4}`$ and the viscous and turbulent Schwarz scales at the time of first structure nearly matched the horizon scale $`L_Hct3\times 10^{20}`$ m, freezing in the density, strain-rate, and spin magnitudes and directions of the subsequent proto-cluster and proto-galaxy fragments of proto-superclusters. Remnants of the strain-rate and spin magnitudes and directions of the weak turbulence at the time of first structure formation are forms of fossil vorticity turbulence (Gibson, 1999). Thus, HGT explains galaxy spin alignments and close angular associations with quasars without assuming intrinsic red shifts and mutual ejections.

The quiet condition of the primordial gas is revealed by measurements of temperature fluctuations of the cosmic microwave background radiation that show an average $`\delta T/T10^5`$ much too small for any turbulence to have existed at that time of plasma-gas transition ($`10^{13}`$ s). Turbulent plasma motions are strongly damped by buoyancy forces at horizon scales after the first gravitational fragmentation time $`10^{12}`$ s. Viscous forces in the plasma are inadequate to explain the lack of primordial turbulence ($`\nu `$ $`10^{30}`$ m2 s-1 is required but, after $`10^{12}`$ s, $`\nu 4\times 10^{26}`$, Gibson 2000). Thus the observed lack of plasma turbulence proves that large scale buoyancy forces and gravitational structure formation must have begun in the plasma epoch.

The gas temperature, density, viscosity, and rate of strain are all precisely known at transition, so the gas viscous Schwarz mass $`L_{SV}^3\rho `$ is easily calculated to be about $`10^{24}`$ kg, the mass of a small planet, or about $`10^6M_{\mathrm{}}`$, with uncertainty about a factor of ten. From HGT, soon after the cooling primordial plasma turned to gas at $`10^{13}`$ s (300,000 yr), the entire baryonic universe condensed to a fog of planetary-mass primordial-fog-particles (PFPs). These gas-cloud objects gradually cooled, formed H-He rain, and eventually froze solid to become the baryonic dark matter and the basic material of construction for stars and everything else, about $`30\times 10^6`$ rogue planets per star.

The Jeans mass $`L_J^3\rho `$ of the primordial gas at transition was about $`10^6M_{\mathrm{}}`$ with about a factor of ten uncertainty, the mass of a globular star cluster. Proto-galaxies fragmented at the PFP scale but also at this proto-globular-star-cluster PGC scale $`L_J`$, although not for the reason given by the Jeans 1902 theory. Density fluctuations in the gaseous proto-galaxies were absolutely unstable to void formation at all scales larger than the viscous Schwarz scale $`L_{SV}`$. Pressure can only remain in equilibrium with density without temperature changes in a gravitationally expanding void on scales smaller than the Jeans scale. From the second law of thermodynamics, rarefaction wave speeds that develop as density minima expand due to gravity to form voids are limited to speeds less than the sonic velocity. Cooling would therefore occur and be compensated by radiation in the otherwise isothermal primordial gas when the expanding voids approached the Jeans scale. Gravitational fragmentation of proto-galaxies will then be accelerated by radiative heat transfer to these cooler regions, resulting in fragmentation at the Jeans scale and isolation of proto-globular-star-clusters (PGCs) with the primordial-gas-Jeans-mass.

These $`10^{36}`$ kg PGC objects were not able to collapse from their own self gravity because of their internal fragmentation at the viscous Schwarz scale to form $`10^{24}`$ kg PFPs. The fact that globular star clusters have precisely the same density and primordial-gas-Jeans-mass from galaxy to galaxy proves they were all formed simultaneously soon after the time of the plasma to gas transition $`10^{13}`$ s. The gas has never been so uniform since, and no mechanism exists to recover such a high density, let alone such a high uniform density, as the fossil turbulent density value $`\rho 2\times 10^{17}`$ kg/$`\mathrm{m}^3`$. Young globular cluster formation in BDM halos in the Tadpole, Mice, and Antennae galaxy mergers show that dark PGC clusters of PFPs are remarkably stable structures, persisting without disruption or star formation for more than ten billion years.

## 3 Stephan’s Quintet: HGT interpretation of HST image

Moles et al. 1997 summarize the data and dynamical status of SQ consistent with standard CDMHC cosmology, proposing that the nearby NGC 7320C with $`cz=6.0\times 10^5`$ m/s (matching that of NGC 7318B) has possibly collided several times with SQ members stripping their gas and central stars to form luminous wakes and to preserve their dynamical equilibrium, thus accounting for the fact that 43 of the 100 members of the Hickson 1982 catalog of compact groups contain discordant redshift members. However, Gallagher et al. 2001 show from their Hubble Space Telescope (HST) measurements that globular star clusters in SQ are not concentrated in the inner regions of the galaxies as observed in numerous merger remnants, but are spread over the SQ debris and surrounding area. We see no evidence of collisions or mergers in the HST images of SQ and suggest the luminous wakes are not gas stripped from galaxy cores by collisions but are new stars triggered into formation in the baryonic-dark-matter halo of the SQ cluster as member galaxies are gently stretched away by the expansion of space.

According to HGT, galaxy mergers and collisions do not strip gas but produce gas by evaporating the frozen hydrogen and helium of the planetary mass objects which dominate the baryonic mass of galaxies. The baryonic dark matter is comprised of proto-globular-star-cluster (PGC) clumps of planetary-mass primordial-fog-particles (PFPs) from hydro-gravitational-theory (Gibson, 1996) and quasar microlensing observations (Schild, 1996). Therefore the cores of SQ galaxies should be deficient in gas and YGCs because they have not had mergers or collisions.

Following standard CDMHC cosmology and N-body computer models, galaxies and clusters of galaxies are formed by hierarchical collisionless clustering due to gravity starting with sub-galaxy mass CDM seeds condensed in the plasma epoch after the big bang. The Jeans 1902 gravitational condensation criterion rules out structures forming in ordinary baryonic matter. CDM seeds are diffusionally unstable from hydro-gravitational theory and their clustering to form galaxies is contrary to observations (Sand et al., 2002). From HGT, both CDMHC cosmology and the Jeans 1902 criterion are fundamentally incorrect and misleading (Gibson, 2000). The unknown non-baryonic CDM material is enormously diffusive compared to the H and He ions of the primordial plasma and cannot condense or fragment gravitationally. However, we can be sure structure formation occurred in the plasma epoch because buoyancy within self gravitational structure is the only mechanism available to prevent turbulence. Viscous forces were quite inadequate. Fully developed turbulence would have produced $`\delta T/T0.1`$ values much larger than the $`\delta T/T0.00001`$ values observed in numerous cosmic microwave background studies. From HGT, structure formation first occurred by gravitational fragmentation due to the expansion of space when viscous and weak turbulence forces of the primordial plasma matched gravitational forces at scales smaller than the horizon scale $`ct`$, where $`c`$ is the speed of light and $`t`$ is the time after the big bang. The growth of structure was arrested by non-baryonic matter filling the voids between baryonic fragments. This HGT-cosmology and its application to the interpretation of SQ is illustrated schematically in Figure 1ab.

In Fig. 1a at top left we see a fragmenting proto-supercluster ($`10^{47}`$ kg) of the primordial plasma as it separates from other such fragments due to the rapid expansion of the universe at the time of first gravitational structure formation about 30,000 years after the big bang (Gibson, 1996). The scale is near the horizon scale $`ct`$ at that time $`3\times 10^{20}`$ m with baryonic density $`2\times 10^{17}`$ kg/$`\mathrm{m}^3`$ and non-baryonic density $`10^{15}`$ kg/$`\mathrm{m}^3`$ decreasing with time and the non-baryonic matter (possibly neutrinos) diffuses to fill the voids and reduce the gravitational forces (Gibson, 2000). In Fig. 1a center proto-cluster fragments form and separate, and on the right proto-galaxies fragment just before the cooling plasma turns to gas at 300,000 years ($`10^{13}`$ s).

The proto-galaxies preserve the density and spin of the proto-supercluster as fossils of the primordial plasma turbulence (Gibson, 1999). Their initial size is therefore about $`5\times 10^{19}`$ m. These fragment into Jeans-mass ($`10^{36}`$ kg) proto-globular-cluster (PGC) dense clouds of ($`10^{24}`$ kg) primordial-fog-particles (PFPs) that cool, freeze, and diffuse away from the galaxy cores to form baryonic-dark-matter (BDM) halos around galaxies and galaxy-clusters such as SQ. The Jeans-mass is relevant, but not for the reasons given by Jeans (1902). Some galaxy-clusters can be very slow in their separation due to crowding and frictional forces of their BDM halos, as shown by the central galaxy cluster at the right of Fig. 1a. The BDM halo may reveal the history of galaxy mergers and separations because strong tidal forces and radiation by galaxy cores trigger the formation of stars and YGCs as they and their halos move through each other’s BDM halos, leaving star wakes and dust wakes.

Fig. 1b shows schematically our interpretation of SQ based on HGT. The five galaxies are separated by distances inferred from Hubble’s law and their red shifts times the horizon distance $`10^{26}`$ m due to the stretching of space along a thin square tube of diameter $`2\times 10^{21}`$ m oriented along the line of sight to the Trio. The distance to the line-of-sight tube entrance from earth is thus $`2.7\times 10^{23}`$ m for NGC 7320, with the exit and Trio at $`2.2\times 10^{24}`$ m. NGC 7320 appears larger than the Trio members because it is closer, consistent with the fact that it contains numerous obvious young-globular-clusters (YGCs) from the HST images, but YGCs in the Trio are barely resolved (Gallagher et al., 2001). The tube in Fig. 1b is not to scale: the true aspect ratio is that of a sheet of paper or a very long stick of uncooked spaghetti. By perspective, about 1% of the front face of the tube covers the back face.

Figure 2 shows an HST image of Stephan’s Quintet. The trail of luminous material extending southeast of NGC 7319 is interpreted from HGT as a star wake formed as one of the galaxy-fragments of the original cluster moves away through the baryonic-dark-matter (BDM) halo, triggering star formation until it exits at the halo boundary marked by a dashed line. Other star wakes in Fig. 2 are also marked by arrows. These star wakes are similar in origin to the filamentary galaxy VV29B of the Tadpole merger (Gibson & Schild, 2003) and the “tidal tails” of the Mice and Antennae merging galaxies, except that in SQ all the galaxies are seen to separate through each other’s halos rather than merge, contrary to the standard SQ (Moles et al., 1997) model.

Two dust trails are shown by arrows in the upper right of Fig. 2 that we interpret as star wakes of the separation of NGC 7318B from NGC 7318A. A similar dust trail is interpreted from its direction as a star wake of NGC 7331 produced in the NGC 7319 BDM halo as it moved out of the cluster. The luminous trail pointing toward NGC 7320C is confirmed by gas patterns (Gutierrez et al., 2002) observed from broadband R measurements that suggest NGC 7320 has the same origin near NGC 7319. An unidentified galaxy separated in the northern star forming region, leaving over a hundred YGCs (Gallagher et al., 2001) before exiting the BDM halo boundary (shown by the dashed line in the upper left of Fig. 2).

Details of the Hubble Space Telescope images of Stephan’s Quintet (including Fig. 2) can be found at the website for the July 19, 2001 STScI-2001-22 press release (http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/2001/22/image/a). The images are described as “Star Clusters Born in the Wreckage of Cosmic Collisions” reflecting the large number of YGCs detected (Gallagher et al., 2001) and the standard SQ model (Moles et al., 1997).

According to our HGT interpretation, none of the YGCs are due to galaxy collisions or mergers. All are formed in the BDM halos as the galaxies gently separate with small transverse velocity along lines of sight. There were no cosmic collisions and there is no wreckage. Numerous very well resolved YGCs can be seen in the NGC 7320 high resolution image with separations indicating numbers in the range $`10^510^6`$. This suggests a significant fraction the dark baryonic matter in the halo of NGC 7320 has been triggered to form YGCs and stars as the galaxy separated through both the dense BDM halo of the SQ Trio and the BDM halo of its companion galaxy NGC 7331, also at $`z=0.0027`$. No such concentration of YGCs can be seen in the SQ Trio galaxies, consistent with our HGT interpretation that they are at 8.3 times the distance of NGC 7320 as shown in Fig. 1b.

## 4 Stephan’s Quintet: HGT interpretation of R and $`H_\alpha `$ maps

The present status of observations of Stephan’s Quintet is well summarized by Gutierrez et al. 2002, including their deep broadband R and narrowband $`H_\alpha `$ maps shown in Figure 3. The R band map (their Fig. 1) with sensitivity 26 mag arcsec-2 extends to a wide range that includes NGC 7320C with the other SQ member galaxies. A clear $`H_\alpha `$ bridge is shown with red shift $`z=0.022`$ corresponding to that of the SQ Trio to a sharp interface with $`z=0.0027`$ material in NGC 7320, consistent with our interpretation that the bridge was formed in the BDM halo of the SQ Trio by NGC 7320 as it emerged and separated by the expansion of the universe along the line of sight, as shown by the dashed arrow in Fig. 2.

A corresponding dashed arrow in Fig. 3 shows the new $`H_\alpha `$ bridge from the SQ Trio at red shift 0.022 with sharp transition to 0.0027 at NGC 7320, proving the two are widely separated in space but likely with the same origin, as we show is expected from HGT in Fig. 1b.

The solid arrow shown in Fig. 3 toward NGC 7320C suggests its emergence from the SQ Trio BDM halo leaving the star wake shown by a corresponding arrow in Fig. 2. The mechanism of star wake production is that the frozen PFPs are in meta-stable equilibrium within their PGCs. Radiation from a passing galaxy causes evaporation of gas and tidal forces which together increase the rate of accretion of the PFPs to form larger planets and finally stars. The size of the stars and their lifetimes depends on the turbulence levels produced in the gas according to HGT. Large turbulence levels produce large, short lived stars. The dust lane between NGC 7318A and its double NGC 7318B suggests large turbulence levels produced large stars that have since turned to dust through supernovas. A similar dust lane from NGC 7219 is in the general direction of NGC 7331 and its companions, as indicated by the arrow in Fig. 2.

## 5 Conclusions

We conclude that Stephan’s Quintet is well described by hydro-gravitational-theory and cosmology (Gibson, 1996). According to HGT cosmology, all the SQ galaxies formed in a cluster by gravitational fragmentation of the primordial plasma just before photon decoupling and transition to gas 300,000 years after the big bang. None of the galaxies show evidence of subsequent collisions or mergers. They remained stuck together for 12.9 billion years until 220 million years ago when the uniform expansion of space in the universe finally overcame gravitational forces and frictional forces of the cluster baryonic-dark-matter halo.

The nature of the baryonic-dark-matter halo is explained by HGT and supported by the SQ observations. At the plasma-gas transition the proto-galaxy plasma clouds turned to gas. From HGT (Gibson, 1996) the gas fragmented at both the Jeans scale, to form proto-globular-star-cluster (PGC) clumps ($`10^{36}`$ kg), and the viscous Schwarz scale, to form small-planetary-mass ($`10^{24}`$ kg) primordial-fog-particles (PFPs), consistent with the conclusion (Schild, 1996) from quasar microlensing observations that the lens galaxy mass is dominated by “rogue planets likely to be the missing mass”.

Some of the PFPs near the proto-galaxy centers accreted to form stars and the luminous galaxy cores. Most PFPs condensed and froze as the universe expanded and cooled so their PGCs remained dark and gradually diffused away from the galaxy cores to form BDM galaxy halos, and some diffused further to form cluster baryonic-dark-matter (BDM) halos. The Stephan Quintet cluster BDM halo boundaries are revealed by the separation of the SQ galaxies as star wakes, as shown in Fig. 2. The SQ BDM halo radius is only $`2\times 10^{21}`$ m, compared with the BDM halo radius of the Tadpole galaxy $`5\times 10^{21}`$ m as shown by HST/ACS images with the star wake of the merging galaxy (Gibson & Schild, 2003).

Our HGT interpretation of SQ solves the long standing mystery of its anomalous red shifts (Burbidge and Burbidge, 1961). Rather than an explosive expansion or intrinsic red shifts of the SQ galaxies ejected by the same parent (Arp, 1973) we suggest from HGT that a uniform expansion of the universe stretched the SQ galaxies along a line of sight because of perspective and small transverse velocities resulting from BDM halo gas friction and their sticky beginnings, as shown in Fig. 1b. The common point of origin of the SQ galaxies is confirmed by gas trails in recent R and $`H_\alpha `$ maps, as shown in Fig. 3 (Gutierrez et al., 2002). Discordant red shifts for aligned quasars and AGN galaxies are also explained using HGT rather than CDMHCC for the same reasons.


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# Heat transport of La2-yEuyCuO4 and La1.88-yEuySr0.12CuO4 single crystals

## I Introduction

In La2-xSrxCuO4 (LSCO) related compounds, the high-temperature structure is tetragonal (HTT, space group $`I4/mmm`$) and there are three different low-temperature phases:Crawford ; Buechner  the LTO (low-temperature orthorhombic, space group $`Bmab`$) phase in LSCO, the LTO2 (low-temperature orthorhombic 2, space group $`Pccn`$) phase in rare-earth (R) doped La2-x-yRySrxCuO4, and LTT (low-temperature tetragonal, space group $`P4_2/ncm`$) phase in La2-x-yRySrxCuO4 with larger $`x`$. These low-temperature structures are classified Crawford  by the tilts of CuO6 octahedra around  and \[1$`\overline{1}`$0\] axes of the HTT phase and have pronounced influence on the physical properties. For example, it has recently been realized that the holes in the high-$`T_c`$ cuprates mesoscopically segregate into quasi-one-dimensional antiphase domain boundaries between antiferromagnetically ordered Cu spin regions, which is the so-called stripe phase;Tranquada1 ; Yamada ; Mook ; Wakimoto ; Matsuda ; Fujita ; Hunt ; Ando ; Noda ; Zhou ; Emery ; Kivelson ; Zaanen ; Ando1  the static stripe order of charges and spins is only established in R (Nd,Eu)-doped LSCO,Tranquada1 ; Hunt ; Nachumi ; Klauss ; Suh  where the stripes are believed to be pinned by the particular tilting of CuO6 octahedra in the LTT phase.Tranquada1

It is known that the antiferromagnetic (AF) insulating compound La2CuO4 (LCO), which has LTO phase, shows predominant phonon heat transport at low temperatures, which is manifested in a large phonon peak at 20 – 25 K in the temperature dependence of both $`ab`$-plane and $`c`$-axis thermal conductivities ($`\kappa _{ab}`$ and $`\kappa _c`$);Nakamura1 ; Sun  such phonon peak was found to be completely suppressed in LSCO with $`x`$ = 0.10 – 0.20.Nakamura1  Interestingly, it was found that in R-doped LSCO, such as La1.28Nd0.6Sr0.12CuO4, the low-$`T`$ thermal conductivity is much enhanced in the non-superconducting LTT phase, compared to that in LSCO with the same Sr content.Baberski  This cannot happen if the defect scattering and electron scattering of phonons are the only source of the phonon peak suppression in LSCO. Alternatively, it was proposed that the strong suppression of phonon heat transport in LSCO is due to the strong phonon scattering by the structural distortion associated with the dynamical stripes, while R-doping leads to the formation of static stripes that significantly reduces the phonon scattering.Baberski  However, this supposition would be too straightforward, because the low-$`T`$ structure phases are LTO and LTT in LSCO and R-doped LSCO, respectively, which possess different phonon spectra and phonon scattering. In fact, it has already been reported that the structural symmetry does affect the phonon properties; for example, the sound velocities in the three structures are known to be $`v_s`$(LTT) $`>`$ $`v_s`$(LTO2) $`>`$ $`v_s`$(LTO),Sera1  which implies that the phononic thermal conductivity is likely the largest in the LTT phase and the smallest in the LTO phase. Apparently, it is not a solid conclusion that the reappearance of phonon peak in R-doped LSCO is due to the formation of static stripes, until evidence showing a direct relationship between the low-$`T`$ phonon heat transport and the static charge stripes (rather than the structural transition) is obtained. Another question, apart from the structural phase transition, is how the R dopants themselves affect the phonon heat transport. A previous study on the Nd-doped LCO (without charge doping) has shown that the phonon transport is somehow suppressed by Nd-doping;Sera2  however, no clear R-doping dependence of the heat conductivity was reported, probably because only polycrystalline samples were used in that study. It is therefore desirable to clarify the role of R-doping in the phonon heat transport by studying both R-doped LCO and R-doped LSCO single crystals.

To reduce the possible effect of magnetic moments of rare-earth ions on the heat transport behavior, we select Eu ion as the dopant, which has the smallest magnetic moment among rare-earth ions (atomic number 57 – 71), except for La and Lu. In this paper, we report our study of the Eu-doping effect on the phonon heat transport in two single-crystal systems: La2-yEuyCuO4 ($`y`$ = 0, 0.02 and 0.2) and La1.88-yEuySr0.12CuO4 ($`y`$ = 0 and 0.2), which have LTO2 and LTT phases for $`y`$ = 0.2, respectively, at low temperature. It is found that for LCO slight Eu-doping ($`y`$ = 0.02) induces anomalous wipeout of the phonon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}`$, which is due to the local structural distortions induced by the local LTO2 regions around Eu ions in the LTO phase, while further increase of Eu content ($`y`$ = 0.2) recovers the phonon peak, although the peak magnitude is much smaller than that of undoped LCO. These results clearly show that rare-earth doping strongly suppress the phonon heat transport in LCO. On the contrary, the Eu-doping in LSCO enhances the low-$`T`$ phonon transport, which, based on the new features found in our single crystals, we discuss to be most likely related to the formation of static stripes.

## II Experiments

The single crystals of La2-yEuyCuO4 and La1.88-yEuySr0.12CuO4 are grown by the traveling-solvent floating-zone (TSFZ) technique and carefully annealed.Komiya  After the crystallographic axes are determined by using the X-ray Laue analysis, the crystals are cut into rectangular thin platelets with the typical sizes of $`2.5\times 0.5\times 0.15`$ mm3, where the $`c`$ axis is perpendicular or parallel to the platelet with an accuracy of 1. La2-yEuyCuO4 samples are annealed in flowing pure He gas to remove the excess oxygen. On the other hand, La1.88-yEuySr0.12CuO4 samples are annealed at 850 C for 48 hours in air, followed by rapid quenching to room temperature, to remove the oxygen defects.

The thermal conductivity $`\kappa `$ is measured using a conventional steady-state technique at 2 – 150 K and a modified steady-state technique at 150 – 300 K.Sun  The temperature difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`T`$ on the sample is measured by a differential Chromel-Constantan thermocouple, which is glued to the sample using GE7031 varnish. The $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$$`T`$ varies between 0.5% and 2% of the sample temperature. To improve the accuracy of the measurement at low temperatures, $`\kappa `$ is also measured with “one heater, two thermometer” method from 2 to 20 K by using a chip heater and two Cernox chip sensors.Ando2 ; Ando3  The errors in the thermal conductivity data are smaller than 10%, which is mainly caused by the uncertainties in the geometrical factors. Magnetization measurements are carried out using a Quantum Design SQUID magnetometer.

## III Results and discussion

### III.1 Thermal conductivity of La2-yEuyCuO4

Figure 1 shows the temperature dependences of the thermal conductivity measured along the $`ab`$ plane and the $`c`$ axis in pure LCO and Eu-doped LCO single crystals. The undoped La2CuO4 sample, as has already been discussed in a previous paper,Sun  shows a sharp phonon peak at low temperature \[$``$25 K in $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$ and $``$20 K in $`\kappa _c(T)`$\] and a broad magnon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$ at high temperature ($``$270 K).

Upon Eu doping, there are drastic changes in both $`\kappa _{ab}`$ and $`\kappa _c`$. Let us first discuss the changes of the high-$`T`$ magnon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$. This peak is suppressed gradually upon Eu-doping, which is directly related to the suppression of the Néel transition temperature by Eu doping. The detailed magnetic behaviors of these samples are shown in the next subsection.

The phonon peak at low temperatures shows an anomalous change with Eu doping. For La1.98Eu0.02CuO4, with only 1%-Eu-substitution, the phonon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$ is completely suppressed although the magnon peak shows only slight decrease. One natural phonon scattering process is caused by the point defects associated with dopants. However, it is found that the suppression of the phonon peak is much weaker in La1.98Sr0.02CuO4 with the same amount of dopants, as shown in Fig. 1(a), which suggests that the impurity atoms themselves are not the main source of such strong phonon scattering in La1.98Eu0.02CuO4. Another possible mechanism may be the magnetic scattering of phonons since Eu3+ ions have magnetic moments and may disturb phonons by magnetoelastic coupling.Cordero ; Lavrov1  If this is the case, some magnetic field dependence of thermal conductivity is expected (at least in the temperature region near the phonon peak where the phonon transport is most strongly suppressed with Eu doping). Figure 2 shows the field dependence of $`\kappa _{ab}`$ measured with magnetic field parallel to the $`c`$ axis or to the $`ab`$ plane for this La1.98Eu0.02CuO4 single crystal. In both cases, there is no substantial magnetic field dependence up to 6 T at 12.5 K and 18.5 K. Therefore, magnetic origin for the strong phonon scattering is not likely. The last possible cause of the strong suppression of the phonon peak is the phonon scattering by the structural distortions introduced by Eu doping. It is known that a certain degree of Eu-doping in LCO is necessary to induce the structural phase transition from LTO to LTO2.Werner ; Tsukada ; note  When the doping level is too small to induce the macroscopic structural transition, it is most likely that the LTO2-like tilts of the CuO6 octahedra exist locally around Eu3+ ions in the background of LTO phase, which results in very strong lattice distortions that significantly scatter phonons. It should be noted that, since Sr doping can never induce phase transition from LTO to LTO2/LTT, the lattice distortions in La1.98Sr0.02CuO4 are expected to be much weaker.

With increasing Eu concentration, the local LTO2 regions around Eu3+ ions are expected to percolate at low temperature and the macroscopic structural transition takes place. The cooperative tilt of CuO6 octahedra in LTO2 phase would weaken the lattice distortions and the phonon scattering, which is actually observed in La1.8Eu0.2CuO4. As shown in Fig. 1(a), the phonon peak, although still very weak, reappears in La1.8Eu0.2CuO4.

The Eu-doping dependence of $`\kappa _c`$ shows that the effect of lattice distortion related to the LTO2 phase on the phonon transport is weaker in the $`c`$ axis than in the $`ab`$ plane. One can see in Fig. 1(b) that the phonon peak still exists in $`\kappa _c`$ of La1.98Eu0.02CuO4, and the peak height is comparable to that in La1.98Sr0.02CuO4 (where the disordering of static spin stripes in the $`c`$ axis causes rather strong phonon scatteringSun ). However, the temperature dependence of $`\kappa _c`$ in La1.98Eu0.02CuO4 is too complicated (because of a double peak feature) to extract any detailed information of the phonon transport. Nevertheless, the $`c`$-axis phonon peak is larger in La1.8Eu0.2CuO4 than in La1.98Eu0.02CuO4, similar to that in the $`ab`$ plane.

The above results show that in lightly Eu-doped LCO, the structural distortions associated with the local LTO2 regions strongly scatter $`ab`$-plane phonons. Such structural distortions and phonon scattering become weaker when the Eu concentration is large enough to stabilize the macroscopic LTO2 phase at low temperatures. However, compared to the pure LCO, the phonon peak is strongly suppressed even in La1.8Eu0.2CuO4 which has global LTO2 phase. There are two possible reasons for such difference. First, it may come from the difference in phonon spectrum between LTO and LTO2 phases, which is, however, not very likely; as can be seen in Fig. 1, both $`\kappa _{ab}`$ and $`\kappa _c`$ of La1.8Eu0.2CuO4 show a step-like increase at $``$ 130 K when the structure changes from LTO to LTO2 phase, which means the LTO2 phase essentially has better phonon heat transport than the LTO phase. Another, more likely reason is simply the impurity scattering by Eu dopants.

### III.2 Magnetic properties of La2-yEuyCuO4

It is well known that the magnetic properties of La2CuO4 are determined by the Cu spins. At high temperatures, LCO is essentially a two-dimensional Heisenberg antiferromagnet and a weak interlayer coupling gives rise to the three-dimensional long-range Néel order.Kastner ; Keimer  In the LTO-phase of LCO, the spin easy axis is the $`b`$ axis and all the spins are weakly canted along the $`c`$ axis. Such canted moments depend on the tilting of CuO6 octahedra; they become weaker in the LTO2 phase and disappear in the LTT phase.Tsukada  Thus, it is helpful to study the magnetic properties for understanding the Eu-doping effect on local structure. Figure 3 shows the magnetic susceptibility data of Eu-doped LCO single crystals measured with 5000 Oe field applied along the $`c`$ axis or the $`ab`$ plane. The pure LCO sample shows a sharp Néel transition in $`\chi _c`$ and a much broader peak in $`\chi _{ab}`$ at $`T_N`$ = 307 K, which originates from the AF ordering of Cu2+ canted moments.Thio1 ; Thio2 ; Lavrov2

Eu-doping induces pronounced changes in the magnetic properties of La1.8Eu0.2CuO4, as shown in Fig. 3. First, both $`\chi _c`$ and $`\chi _{ab}`$ data are shifted up significantly. This additional signals apparently come from the Van Vleck contribution of Eu3+ ions, which is weakly $`T`$-dependent in $`\chi _c`$ and noticeably $`T`$-dependent in $`\chi _{ab}`$, respectively. (Note that the Van Vleck term, although is independent of temperature in usual cases, can be $`T`$-dependent when the energy difference between the ground state and the excited orbital state is smaller than $`k_BT`$, as shown for Eu2CuO4.Tovar ) Second, a clear Néel transition shows up in $`\chi _c`$ with lower $`T_N`$ (268 K) compared to undoped LCO, while the corresponding peak is almost smeared out in $`\chi _{ab}`$ (only a slight hump at $`T_N`$) because of the strong $`T`$-dependence of $`\chi _{ab}`$. Third, another transition appears in $`\chi _c`$ at the structural transition temperature, which is due to the suppression of canted moments in the LTO2 phase and the reduction of the interlayer magnetic coupling.Tsukada  It is not clear whether there is a corresponding transition in $`\chi _{ab}`$ because of its strong $`T`$-dependence. The details of the magnetic structure in La1.8Eu0.2CuO4 are thoroughly discussed elsewhere.Tsukada  It should be pointed out that the susceptibility data of the present single crystal are different from the previous report, which used polycrystalline samples and claimed that La1.8Eu0.2CuO4 has the LTT structure.Kataev

For Eu-1%-doping, the susceptibility data show moderate changes. First, the enhancement of both $`\chi _c`$ and $`\chi _{ab}`$ are much smaller than those in La1.8Eu0.2CuO4. Second, Néel transition is only slightly shifted to a lower temperature ($`T_N`$ = 304 K). Thus, the high temperature magnetic properties do not show any drastic change upon Eu-doping, which is understandable because the structural changes associated with Eu doping only happen at low temperatures. This is also consistent with the weak change of the high-$`T`$ magnon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}`$. (In contrast, the magnon peak disappears in La1.98Sr0.02CuO4 (Fig. 1), in which the Néel transition also disappears.Keimer ; Sun ) Third, there is no second transition in $`\chi _c`$ at $``$ 130 K, because there is no structural phase transition in this lightly-doped sample. However, $`\chi _c`$ decreases slowly with deceasing temperature from $``$ 150 K to 50 K and $`\chi _{ab}`$ shows a weak hump at the same temperature region. This is in correspondence with our picture that slight Eu-doping induces local LTO2 regions in the LTO background, although no macroscopic structural transition occurs.

### III.3 Phonon peak in La1.68Eu0.2Sr0.12CuO4

While Eu-doping significantly suppresses the phonon peak in the non-carrier-doped LCO, it shows quite different effects on the phonon heat transport of LSCO. The $`\kappa _{ab}(T)`$ and $`\kappa _c(T)`$ data for La1.88Sr0.12CuO4 and La1.68Eu0.2Sr0.12CuO4 single crystals are shown in Fig. 4, in which the data for La1.8Eu0.2CuO4 are also included for comparison. Since there are certain amount of charge carriers doped by Sr, we should separate the electronic contribution from the total thermal conductivity before discussing the mechanism for the phonon heat transport.

The electronic thermal conductivity $`\kappa _e`$ and the electrical resistivity $`\rho `$ are related by $`\kappa _e=LT/\rho `$, where $`L`$ is called the Lorenz number. In simple metals, $`L`$ is usually constant at high-$`T`$ and low-$`T`$ (the Wiedemann-Franz law) and is given by the Sommerfeld value $`2.44\times 10^8`$ W$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$/K2. When the electron-electron correlation becomes strong, $`L`$ becomes smaller. For YBa2Cu3O7-δ, $`L`$ has been estimated to be $`1.22.0\times 10^8`$ W$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$/K2 near $`T_c`$ by Hirschfeld and Putikka,Hirschfeld  while Takenaka et al. Takenaka  estimated $`L`$ to be $`2.43.3\times 10^8`$ W$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$/K2 above $`T_c`$. So there is still no consensus value of $`L`$ for cuprates. Here, we roughly estimate $`\kappa _e`$ of our crystals by using the Sommerfeld value. The in-plane resistivity $`\rho _{ab}`$ of La1.88Sr0.12CuO4 and La1.68Eu0.2Sr0.12CuO4 are measured using a standard ac four-probe method and shown in the inset of Fig. 5. We note that the zero resistance at 5 K in La1.68Eu0.2Sr0.12CuO4 is a filamentary superconducting effect, since the dc susceptibility measurement does not show any bulk superconductivity in this sample. The main panel of Fig. 5 shows the estimated in-plane phononic thermal conductivity $`\kappa _{ph,ab}`$ ($`=\kappa _{ab}\kappa _{e,ab}`$). It can be seen that the main contribution to thermal conductivity is phononic in these samples. For the $`c`$-axis heat transport, the electronic contribution is negligibly small because of the 2 – 3 orders of magnitude larger electrical resistivity in the $`c`$ axis compared to $`\rho _{ab}`$.Nakamura2 ; Nakamura3  The experimental data for $`\kappa _c`$ is nearly pure phonon conductivity.

Clearly, the phonon heat transport is strongly damped in La1.88Sr0.12CuO4, which shows complete disappearance of the phonon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}`$ and a weak hump in $`\kappa _c`$. The strong phonon scattering can be related to the Sr dopants acted as impurities, the charge carriers, and the structural distortions associated with dynamical stripes. Eu-doping in this LSCO system significantly increases the low-$`T`$ phononic thermal conductivity; clear phonon peak reappears in both $`\kappa _{ab}`$ and $`\kappa _c`$. Similar behavior in R-doped LSCO was first attributed by Baberski et al.Baberski  to the weakening of phonon scattering in the static stripe phase. However, their data were collected on polycrystalline samples and did not display quantitative difference between LSCO and R-doped LSCO. Here the data on single crystals show convincing evidence for the importance of static stripes on the phonon transport. In this Eu-doped LSCO, LTO $``$ LTT structural transition takes place at $``$ 130 K \[Ref. Klauss, ; Werner, \] and results in a step-like increase of the phononic thermal conductivity in the LTT phase. An important feature is, as shown in Figs. 4(b) and 5, that La1.88Sr0.12CuO4 has larger phononic thermal conductivity than La1.68Eu0.2Sr0.12CuO4 in both the $`ab`$ plane and the $`c`$ axis for $`T>`$ 45 K, which means La1.68Eu0.2Sr0.12CuO4 has stronger phonon scattering (which may come from Eu dopants) at high temperatures even in the LTT phase. Therefore, it is more reasonable to attribute the reappearance of phonon peak in Eu-doped LSCO to the stabilization of stripes at low temperatures, which reduces the strong phonon scattering by the stripe fluctuations, rather than the difference of the phonon heat transport between LTT and LTO phases.

By re-examining the previous thermal conductivity data for La1.28Nd0.6Sr0.12CuO4 single crystal,Sun  we find that the above feature is also present in Nd-doped LSCO. This means that the suppression of the phonon scattering is common to the R-doped LSCO, where static charge stripes are formed.

Furthermore, by comparing the data of La1.68Eu0.2Sr0.12CuO4 with those of La1.8Eu0.2CuO4, which has LTO2 phase without stripes, we can obtain useful information on the scattering mechanism of phonons. In Figs. 4(a) and 5, one can see that in the $`ab`$ direction the phonon peak in La1.68Eu0.2Sr0.12CuO4 is larger than that in La1.8Eu0.2CuO4, although the former compound has much more dopants and charge carriers. This difference clearly shows that the LTT phase has stronger phonon transport than the LTO2 phase, which overcomes the additional impurity-phonon scattering by Sr dopants and charge-phonon scattering in La1.68Eu0.2Sr0.12CuO4. However, the phonon peak in $`\kappa _c`$ shows opposite trend, that is, the peak magnitude is larger in La1.8Eu0.2CuO4 than in La1.68Eu0.2Sr0.12CuO4. The additional phonon scattering in the $`c`$ axis of La1.68Eu0.2Sr0.12CuO4 is unlikely due to the Sr dopants, considering their negligible effect on $`\kappa _{ab}`$. Instead, it is probably due to the lattice disorder induced by the disordering of static stripes in the $`c`$ direction.Sun  There are two factors that make the stripe correlation in the $`c`$ direction very weak even in the static stripe phase. First, the neutron experiments have already shownTranquada2  that the magnetic correlation length in the $`c`$ direction is very short. Second, the stripe orientations have been proposed to rotate 90 from one CuO2 plane to the nearest-neighbor plane.Tranquada2  Such strong disorder of the static stripes along the $`c`$ axis leads to rather strong phonon scattering in the $`c`$-axis transport, which is very similar to what was observed in the lightly-doped LSCO.Sun

## IV Summary

We have measured the $`ab`$-plane and the $`c`$-axis thermal conductivities of La2-yEuyCuO4 ($`y`$ = 0, 0.02 and 0.2) and La1.88-yEuySr0.12CuO4 ($`y`$ = 0 and 0.2) single crystals. It is found that the low-temperature phonon heat transport shows opposite Eu-doping dependence in these two systems, that is, Eu-doping strongly suppresses the phonon peak in LCO, while it induces the reappearance of phonon peak in LSCO. In Eu-1%-doped LCO, the phonon peak in $`\kappa _{ab}`$ is anomalously wiped out, and such strong phonon scattering is caused by the lattice distortions induced by the local LTO2-like regions around Eu ions in the LTO background. Increasing Eu-doping in LCO to 10% leads to the LTO $``$ LTO2 structural transition, which reduces the lattice distortion and phonon scattering. The phonon peak, although observed in La1.8Eu0.2CuO4, is still much smaller than that in pure LCO. On the other hand, Eu-doping in LSCO enhances the phonon heat transport, which is likely due to the formation of static stripes that reduces the phonon scattering. Comparison of the phonon heat transport between La1.68Eu0.2Sr0.12CuO4 and La1.8Eu0.2CuO4 tells us that phonon scattering in the $`c`$ axis is rather strong even in the static stripe phase, which is consistent with the fact that the stripes are not well ordered in the $`c`$ axis.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank J. Takeya for technical assistance, A. N. Lavrov and I. Tsukada for helpful discussions.


text:
# Preparing the COROT space mission: incidence and characterisation of pulsation in the Lower Instability StripBased on observations collected at S.Pedro Martír, Sierra Nevada, La Silla, Haute–Provence, South African and Roque de Los Muchachos observatories.

## 1 Introduction

The preparation of new asteroseismic space missions requires a considerable amount of related theoretical and observational work. In the domain of $`\delta `$ Sct and related stars the determination of the pulsational spectra has so far been performed by means of intensive, single– or multi–site, campaigns, both photometric and spectroscopic. The attention of a wide community of specialists has been mostly focused on some well–defined case studies (FG Vir, XX Pyx, 4 CVn, $`\theta ^2`$ Tau, BI CMi, 44 Tau; see Poretti 2000 and Breger 2000 for reviews). The scientific plan of the European mission COROT (COnvection, ROtation and planetary Transits; Baglin et al. 2002) has a slightly different strategy, as the satellite will monitor selected targets located in two fields centered at $`\alpha =18^h50^m`$, $`\delta =0`$ (i.e., in the direction of the Galactic Center), and $`\alpha =6^h50^m`$, $`\delta =0`$ (Anticenter direction), each having a semi-aperture of 10. None of the case studies mentioned above is included in these fields.

Consequently suitable candidate target stars have to be searched for. They should be chosen so as to provide a good trade–off between being challenging for aspects of theoretical modelling and having suitable observable features. The $`\delta `$ Sct class covers both the early main-sequence evolutionary stage, when the star is burning hydrogen in the core, and the following one, when it leaves the Terminal–Age Main Sequence (TAMS) burning hydrogen in a shell. These two different stages correspond to different types of structures and their study offers different insights into the physics of the stellar interiors (Breger & Pamyatnykh 1998). Therefore, both types of variables deserve interest. However, the primary objectives of COROT are highly focused on core overshooting processes and on transport of angular momentum and chemical species. These processes are crucial in the main–sequence stage for intermediate– and high–mass stars. Therefore, we put a strong priority in searching for new $`\delta `$ Sct stars close to the ZAMS.

Evolved $`\delta `$ Sct variables pose considerable problems in terms of analysis which limits their use in tests of theory. It is known that evolved models of $`\delta `$ Sct stars have such a dense frequency spectrum that matching theoretical and observed frequencies might be a hopeless task without further input. As an example, one can consider the prototype of the class, $`\delta `$ Sct itself, which is included in one of the fields accessible to COROT. Templeton et al. (1997) constructed evolution and pulsation models that match the observed spectral type, luminosity and the identified radial mode frequency of $`\delta `$ Sct. Accounting for rotational splitting, there are 275 possible $`\mathrm{}2`$ modes in a 4 cd-1 range (Guzik et al. 2000). Therefore, asteroseismic inferences for such a star will be complicated even for long runs from space.

Rotation is another aspect to have in mind when evaluating the scientific perspectives of a given target. Fast rotation considerably complicates the modelling of the oscillations. By extending the perturbation theory of the influence of rotation on stellar oscillations to third order (Soufi et al. 1998), asteroseismic inference from oscillations can include relatively high rotation rates. For the mass range of $`\delta `$ Sct variables this means that stars with equatorial rotational velocities up to 100 km s-1can be modelled, but beyond that the application of perturbation theory remains questionable. Ideally, we would like to scan different rotation rates if being sure to have reasonably slow rotators among the targets. Finally, stars showing variability at the level of a few mmag (at least) should be preferred as they should guarantee the possibility to complement photometry from space with high–resolution spectroscopy from ground.

We report here on how we tackled the problem of the identification of suitable targets by means of a theoretical selection followed by an observational one.

## 2 Observations and data reduction

The search for new $`\delta `$ Sct stars in the COROT field of view has been performed in two observational steps. The first is related to the ground–based activity build–up to determine the physical parameters of all the stars brighter than $`V`$=8.0 which are included in the COROT accessible fields. This requires that all these stars should be observed at least once in the Strömgren system and at least once with high–resolution spectroscopy. In the Center direction this program was completed well before the summer of 2002. Therefore we know the $`uvby\beta `$ indices and the $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ values for most of our targets. Photometric observations were carried out at Sierra Nevada Observatory (automatic six–channel spectrophotometer at the 90–cm telescope), spectroscopic ones at Haute–Provence Observatory (elodie instrument at the 193–cm telescope) and at La Silla Observatory (feros instrument at the 152–cm telescope). The reduction of the photometric data and their transformation into the standard system has been done following the procedures described in Olsen (1993) and references therein. The results of these procedures applied to our dataset will be presented in a future work (Amado et al., in preparation). The $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ determinations have been performed taking into account instrumental broadening and limb–darkening effects; uncertainties are of the order of 5–6 km s-1.

The second observational task is specific to our program. Once the potential targets have been selected, dedicated observing programs have been carried out at Sierra Nevada Observatory, at S. Pedro Martír Observatory ($`uvby`$ photometry at the 152–cm telescope – twin photometer of the one at Sierra Nevada), at South African Astronomical Observatory (50 and 75–cm telescopes with $`v`$ and $`y`$ filters) and at the Mercator telescope (120–cm telescope on Canary Islands, Geneva photometric system). Unfortunately, it has not been possible to undertake simultaneous two–site campaigns. We decided to monitor 4–5 stars each night, changing the group of stars every night. Of course, such a strategy cannot be considered as totally conclusive about the variability of a specific star. However, our main goal was to scrutinise the whole sample, and to make clear variability detections at the 0.005–mag level.

## 3 The identification of potential targets

The $`uvby\beta `$ photometry performed at OSN allowed us to construct a colour–magnitude diagram (CMD), which will be one of our main tools to identify the best targets (Fig. 1). We considered some B stars and all the stars belonging to the A and F spectral types; this sample comprises 138 stars. $`uvby\beta `$ colour indices were dereddened following the procedure described by Philip et al. (1976); only in 18% of the cases were the corrections larger than 0.05 mag.

The apparent magnitudes were dereddened by using the relation given by Crawford & Mandwewala (1976). The hipparcos parallaxes were used to determine the absolute magnitude $`M_V`$. In the cases where the hipparcos parallaxes were not available, $`M_V`$ values were derived from the Strömgren indices by using standard photometric calibrations.

We also need to define “lower part of the instability strip”. The main sequence has been taken from Philip & Egret (1980) and the $`\delta `$ Sct instability strip borders from Rodríguez & Breger (2001). The red border of the $`\gamma `$ Dor instability strip has been taken from Handler & Shobbrook (2002); the blue border is well inside the $`\delta `$ Sct instability strip. We also added evolutionary tracks, considering five values for the mass in the range from 1.50 to 2.51 M. We calculated two sets of models for two different typical overshooting extension distances, i.e., $`d_{\mathrm{over}}`$=0.1 and $`d_{\mathrm{over}}`$=0.2 (see Claret 1995 for details). At this point the CMD shown in Fig. 1 is constructed.

Our initial sample consisted of 138 stars; 70 stars out of 138 fall outside the region of our interest, i.e., they are too far from the red and blue borders of the instability strip or too advanced on the evolutionary tracks of models with $`d_{\mathrm{over}}`$=0.2. However, even considering all the stars below the zigzags of $`d_{\mathrm{over}}`$=0.2 tracks, several of them could actually be evolved stars, depending on the model of choice, with or without overshooting.

To avoid a bias originating from the theory, we divided the stars on the basis of the two different models. Stars located close to ZAMS are considered unevolved objects and therefore high–priority targets for the COROT preparation program. On the other hand, the stars approaching the zigzags of $`d_{\mathrm{over}}`$=0.2 tracks could be evolved ones if the overshooting is not as effective as supposed. These stars are low–priority objects for the COROT program. As can be seen in Fig. 1, limits have been a little relaxed to take into account possible uncertainties in the data, in the dereddening relation, in the calibrations, in the border definitions and so on. Overall average errors of the data and the hydrogen and metal contents of the models are shown in the lower left corner.

Among the 68 selected stars, three variables are known already: HD 183324 (a $`\lambda `$ Boo star; Paunzen et al. 2002), HD 167858 and HD 175537 (two $`\gamma `$ Dor stars; Handler 1999). Moreover, HD 182475 and HD 177702 were good candidates to be $`\delta `$ Sct variables on the basis of previous surveys (Hildebrandt 1992 and Handler 2002, respectively): we kept them in our sample for confirmation. Therefore, we have 65 stars that are good theoretical candidate $`\gamma `$ Dor or $`\delta `$ Sct pulsators.

## 4 The detection of variability

Despite the large number of stars to be observed and the required accuracy in the measurements, only a few stars could not be evaluated. Four stars have a close companion: they cannot be measured as single stars not only from ground, but neither from space, as the defocused images of two close stars will result in inaccurate photometry. Another star is too bright to be measured by COROT. For one star we could obtain only a few measurements suggesting constant brightness.

Therefore, we successfully monitored 59 stars. We discovered at least 13 stars displaying evident light variations and we confirmed the $`\delta `$ Sct variability of HD 182475 and HD 177702, obtaining more reliable light curves. All these variables are listed in Table 1.

### 4.1 The new $`\delta `$ Sct stars

The sample of $`\delta `$ Sct stars discovered in the Center direction is quite representative of the different types of behaviour known of this class of pulsating star (Fig. 2).

The simplest variables are HD 170782 and HD 171234, which show almost regular light curves. The frequency analysis of the HD 170782 (Fig. 2, curve at top) data yields a main term at $`f`$=25.0 cd-1 and the subsequent least–squares fit a full–amplitude of 6.0 mmag in $`v`$ light, with a rms residual of 2.8 mmag. In the case of HD 171234 we got a main term at $`f`$=23.6 cd-1, a full–amplitude of 6.8 mmag in $`v`$ light and a rms residual of 4.0 mmag.

The multiperiodic behaviour of HD 177064, HD 170699, HD 174966, HD 182475 and HD 181555 is clearly visible in a single night. For example, during the second half of the light curve of HD 182475, the rapid variability disappears and a long cycle takes place (Fig. 2, second curve from top). Changes in the total amplitude oscillation are seen in HD 170699, HD 174966 (Fig. 2, third curve from top) and HD 177064 (Fig. 2, fourth curve from top). The photometric variability of HD 174966 is corroborated by the spectroscopic detection of line profile variations. HD 181555 shows other features in its light curve, i.e., oscillations are always visible, but with changing shapes and different time intervals between consecutive extrema.

The light curve of HD 176112 (Fig. 2, fifth curve from top) adds more complications, as it suggests the possibility of a long term variation ($`\gamma `$ Dor pulsation or geometrical variability) superposed to a rapid one ($`\delta `$ Sct pulsation). Further observations are necessary to characterise this variable star better, also considering that hipparcos photometry is inconclusive in this respect.

To conclude the journey along the different behaviours of our $`\delta `$ Sct stars, HD 177702 (Fig. 2, curve at bottom) provides a good example of a high amplitude light curve (0.17 mag in $`v`$). High–resolution spectroscopy allowed us to determine $`v\mathrm{sin}i>`$200 km s-1, a value quite unusual for a high–amplitude $`\delta `$ Sct star.

### 4.2 Stars showing slow variability

When observing such a large sample, we should expect some unclear cases, especially measuring each target on one night only. Indeed, we found five of these unclear cases.

The light curves of HD 172506 and HD 171802 show a continuous change in brightness, up to 0.04 mag in $`v`$ light. The spectral types of both stars are compatible with those of $`\gamma `$ Dor pulsators. However, the variability is not discernible in the $`vy`$ colour curve and therefore geometrical variability due to binarity seems more probable. We also note that the high–resolution spectrogram of HD 172506 does not show two sets of spectral lines or noticeable line profile deformations. Moreover, the analysis of the hipparcos photometry did not show any evidence for variability: the amplitude spectra have peak noise levels of 3 mmag for HD 171802 and 8 mmag for HD 172506. In the case of HD 179123 the $`v`$–amplitude is only 0.01 mag. The star can be a $`\gamma `$ Dor variable ($`(by)_0`$=0.212), but a rotational or even a spurious effect are also plausible.

Therefore, the variability of HD 172506, HD 171802 and HD 179123 needs further confirmation; the three stars are considered non–pulsating stars (reported as “Geometrical variables ?” in Tab. 1) in the following discussion.

On the other hand, the drift in the HD 178596 data is visible both in the $`v`$ and in the $`vy`$ curves. Taking also into account that the high–resolution spectrograms show line profile deformations and that the star is located close to the red border of the instability strip, the $`\gamma `$ Dor hypothesis seems preferable to a geometrical variability (the star is reported as “Suspected $`\gamma `$ Dor” in Tab. 1). However, we do not include it in the list of pulsating variables, waiting for further confirmation; we note that the hipparcos photometry is also inconclusive.

Finally, just for one star (HD 173611) the light curve shows a scatter which did not allow us to select between variability or constancy.

### 4.3 Constant stars

Forty–four stars did not display detectable light variation. Of course, they can be variables on longer time scales or can have very small amplitude, not detectable in our short single–night runs. In the former case they would not be of particular interest, in the latter case the observational effort to detect variability would require a long and intensive survey which we cannot undertake at this stage for such a large sample. We note that some photometrically constant stars actually show spectroscopic variability. This is not surprising, as it is well known that high–degree nonradial pulsation modes can produce cancellation effects in photometry, but can still be detectable by spectroscopy.

The quality of a given night biases the variability detection. As an example, the standard deviations of the time series on HD 185090, HD 170274 and HD 180086 (obtained on the nights of JD 2452488 and 2452489) and on HD 176921 and HD 177011 (obtained on the night of JD 2452467) are well above 6.5 mmag, suggesting non–perfect photometric nights. In this context, we have to stress that the strategy to observe each group of stars just in one night was the only viable one, taking into account the large number of stars to be monitored and the limited telescope time available.

## 5 Impact of the results on general scientific topics and on specific COROT aspects

The results described above will be used to characterize the potential COROT targets and to build the observational program. Besides that, they can be used to investigate pulsation in the lower instability strip.

### 5.1 The variability in the lower part of the instability strip

Figure 3 shows the positions of already known and new $`\delta `$ Sct stars located in the lower part of the instability strip. For sake of homogeneity, we considered only well–established variable and constant stars, i.e., the unclear cases discussed in Sect. 4.2 are omitted. The magnitude limit $`V`$8.0 implies that we observed as far as 310 pc in a cone with full aperture of 24 (galactic latitudes $`b^{\mathrm{II}}`$ between –12 and +12) in the direction of the galactic centre (galactic longitudes $`l^{\mathrm{II}}`$ between +22 and +45), which in turn results in a maximum distance of 70 pc from the galactic plane.

We arbitrarily divided the lower part of the instability strip in 7 boxes, with margins roughly parallel to the borders. The resulting histogram is shown in Fig. 4. Looking at Figs. 3 and 4, we can note that:

1. The variable stars are concentrated in the central box;
2. Two stars, HD 170782 and the $`\lambda `$ Boo variable HD 188324 are outside the instability strip on the blue edge;
3. The two variables close to the red border are $`\gamma `$ Dor stars;
4. Only one $`\delta `$ Sct star, HD 181555, is located near the ZAMS. Most stars are more than 0.5 mag above it.

Breger (2000) reports on the incidence of variability in the lower part of the instability strip by analysing stars spread all over the sky. The incidence is around 50% just in the central zone; when considering the whole instability strip the percentage decreases to around 20%. In our sample we have 13 variables out of 57 stars (23%). In the central box we have 8 variables out of 14 (57%). Of course, we have to stress that percentages change as a function of the threshold of variability. Both our and Breger’s samples are limited to stars having an amplitude larger than 3-4 mmag: therefore, it is no surprise to find the same percentages.

However, the figures we obtained suggest that the incidence of appreciable $`\delta `$ Sct photometric variability (i.e., the excitation of modes with $`\mathrm{}`$3 resulting in light changes up to the mmag level and more) is a function of the position in the CMD. To obtain more input on this point, we analysed the sample provided by Rodríguez & Breger (2001; R00 sample). We considered the 210 low–amplitude $`\delta `$ Sct stars located in the same part of the instability strip: we thus handled a group of stars similar to ours, except for the space distribution. We obtained the histogram shown in Fig. 5, where variability is well represented in the central box and is also more common toward the red edge. As can be derived from the magnitude limit and galactic coordinates reported above, the COROT sample is representative of the disk population located in the solar neighbourhood. Comparing Figs. 4 and 5, the COROT sample appears slightly bluer than the R00 sample. If real, such a difference can originate only in the specific environment where COROT stars are located; it is diluted when the sample loses in homogeneity, i.e., when it is extended to the whole Galaxy. Therefore, the particular chemical composition of solar neighbourhood seems to enhance variability in hot stars. Selection effects are also plausible. Indeed, even if the photometric accuracy of our data is quite good, our limited time sampling can miss the $`\delta `$ Sct stars located closely to the red border, where the amplitudes are smaller.

We also note that HD 170782 re–opens the problem of variables beyond the blue border of the instability strip. Rodríguez & Breger (2001) found a few candidates, but they suggest that the variability was proposed on the basis of inaccurate photometry. In the case of HD 170782 the light variability is quite evident (Fig. 2) and the position in the CMD too far from the blue border to be ascribed to uncertainties in the $`(by)_0`$ photometry. Pamyatnykh (2000) demonstrated that $`\delta `$ Sct pulsation should not occur for these stars in the classical picture. To have a solution, all these stars should be studied individually. For example, some of them may have higher helium abundance (in which case the blue edge will be hotter), for some of them standard photometric calibrations may not apply owing to chemical peculiarities, or some other parameter may play a subtle rôle.

### 5.2 The rotational velocity of photometrically variable stars

There is a well–established relationship between photometric amplitude and $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ values, i.e., high–amplitude pulsators are slow rotators (see Fig. 5 in Breger 2000). For amplitudes larger than 0.10 mag, $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ is below 50 km s-1. In our sample there is the remarkable exception of HD 177702 (see Fig. 2, curve at bottom), which shows a $`v`$ amplitude of 0.17 mag, which scales to about 0.12 mag in $`V`$ light, and $`v\mathrm{sin}i>`$ 200 km s-1. The star is far from the ZAMS and its combination of high amplitude, fast rotation and evolved evolutionary state is unusual amongst the $`\delta `$ Sct stars. Further investigations are necessary to characterise HD 177702 both from a theoretical (evolution and rotation) and observational (high amplitude as a result of multiperiodicity?) point of view.

Let us investigate the effect of rotation on variability. We remind the reader that the break–up velocity is around 250 km s-1 for masses and radii typical for $`\delta `$ Sct variables. Considering the 11 $`\delta `$ Sct stars, 6 objects have $`v\mathrm{sin}i>`$150 km s-1, and 9 stars have $`v\mathrm{sin}i>`$100 km s-1. Moreover, when considering all the stars having $`v\mathrm{sin}i>`$150 km s-1, 9 are found to be photometrically constant, 6 are found to be variable. Figure 6 summarises what we found in our sample: it appears that light variability is concentrated in the 100–200 km s-1 range. When considering the R00 sample, the histogram of the available $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ values (132 stars out of 210 previously selected) shows the highest peak in the 100–150 km s-1 range (Fig. 7). The strong dependence on an unknown parameter as the inclination angle $`i`$ smoothes the differences between the two samples, preventing physical inferences. We can just suggest that a rotational velocity of 100–150 km s-1 is quite common among $`\delta `$ Sct stars.

### 5.3 Our results in the COROT framework

By combining the results from Fig. 1 and Fig. 3, we obtain Fig. 8. The evolved $`\delta `$ Sct stars HD 172748$`\delta `$ Sct, HD 172588, HD 174553 and the faint $`\gamma `$ Dor variable HD 169577 ($`V`$=8.64; see Sect. 6) are added for completeness. This figure illustrates the scientific output of the action undertaken to identify new potential COROT targets in the Center direction. We note that by observing a zone of 450 deg2 on or just above the galactic plane we discovered variables well mapping the lower part of the instability strip.

Figure 9 shows the positions of the stars of interest in the COROT field–of–view. The solid circle indicates the 10 cone, where COROT will supply best results. The observing cone can be extended up to 12 (dashed line) for objects having a special interest; above that limit stray light would cause a strong degradation in the photometric accuracy. Three pairs of stars are observable in the same field–of–view of the Seismology CCD: HD 170782–HD 170699 (right), HD 174966–HD 175337 (middle) and HD 177702–HD 177064 (left).

HD 174532 is the only $`\delta `$ Sct star showing a low $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ value (32 km s-1). None of the $`\delta `$ Sct stars close to ZAMS has a small $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$ (the lower limit is the 90 km s-1 observed for the $`\lambda `$ Boo variable HD 183324). The search for smaller amplitude variability (less than 3 mmag) in slow rotators close to ZAMS (see Tab. 2 for suitable targets) will be the goal of future dedicated observations; it should also allow us to improve the percentages discussed above, as we will be able to infer how many variables we missed in the previous search.

## 6 The open cluster NGC 6633

The open cluster NGC 6633 is also located in the field accessible to COROT. A multisite campaign (Martín, Alonso et al., in preparation) has been planned to search for variable stars: indeed, the cluster could be a suitable target for COROT. The turn–off point is just above the blue edge. With a distance modulus $`mM`$=7.77, the members located in the lower part of the instability strip are too faint (9.5$`<V<`$11.2) to be COROT primary targets, but they can provide a further test for the incidence of variability in a well–defined environment.

We established the membership by using the BDA database developed by Mermilliod (1995), Sanders (1973) and Hiltner et al. (1958). A preliminary analysis allowed us to firmly decide on the variability of six (five $`\delta `$ Sct stars and one $`\gamma `$ Dor star) out of 30 members. In the case of two $`\delta `$ Sct stars the membership is not conclusive; moreover, the available photometry on additional six members does not allow to choose between variability or constancy. Therefore, we can propose a value of 20% (6 out of 30) for the incidence of variability, with small fluctuations owing to the suspected stars and the uncertain memberships. Such a result substantially confirms the value obtained for isolated stars.

Cluster variables of other classes have been also found (among them, two Ap stars and one eclipsing binary brighter than $`V`$=9.5). Other pulsating stars are not included in the above statistic as they are considered non–members: the previously known $`\gamma `$ Dor star HD 169577 ($`V`$=8.64) (Martín & Rodríguez 2002), the two new multiperiodic $`\delta `$ Sct stars HD 169597 ($`V`$=9.13) and BD+063737 ($`V`$=9.15). Therefore, in Fig. 9, the open circle close to the pair at the right marks not only the position of HD 169577, but also the position of all the bright variables described here. By adding the pair itself (the two bright $`\delta `$ Sct stars HD 170782 and HD 170699), that corner of sky looks very promising for a COROT investigation.

## 7 Conclusions

The search for new targets in the COROT accessible field resulted in an exercise of variability detection in stars located in the solar neighbourhood and belonging to the disk population, i.e., in a well–defined galactic region. $`\delta `$ Sct stars are commonly found, the incidence of this variability is around 25% of the stars located in the lower part of the instability strip. A similar percentage is observed in the open cluster NGC 6633. The typical pulsator is a multiperiodic one, a little evolved, in the middle part of the strip or slightly cooler. Unfortunately, even if slow rotators are common in the Galaxy, we generally found fast ones ($`v\mathrm{sin}i>`$ 100 km s-1) and just one with a really low $`v\mathrm{sin}i`$, HD 174532. A spectroscopic analysis of the line profile variations will be helpful to estimate the inclination angle $`i`$ of this promising target.

In the selected sample 18 stars were located close to or beyond the blue border of the instability strip: in addition to the previously known $`\lambda `$ Boo star HD 183324, we also found one new $`\delta `$ Sct star. The observational onset of pulsational instability in this region needs further attention in the future, maybe on the basis of star–by–star investigations.

The results we obtained met the scientific goals of the COROT mission, ensuring a wide choice between $`p`$–mode pulsators; in general, $`\delta `$ Sct stars are confirmed to be suitable targets for any asteroseismic space mission, taking into account elemental diffusion and richness of excited modes. Stars appearing as a challenge to theory (HD 170782) or unusual (HD 177702) were also discovered.

###### Acknowledgements.

This research has made use of the simbad database, operating at CDS, Strasbourg, France. The authors wish to thank A. Pamyatnykh and the referee, F. Pijpers, for useful comments, and the STARE team for the attribution of observing time to the COROT project. SM acknowledges financial support from a European Union Marie Curie Fellowship, under contract HPMF-CT-2001-01146. RG acknowledges financial support from the program ESP2001-4528-PE. TL, NN and WWW was supported by the Austrian Fonds zur Förderung der wissenschaftliche Forschung (P14984) and the BM:WUK (project COROT). PJA acknowledges financial support at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía-CSIC by an I3P contract (I3P-PC2001-1) funded by the European Social Fund.


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# Teleportation scheme implementing the Universal Optimal Quantum Cloning Machine and the Universal NOT gate

## Abstract

The universal quantum cloning machine and the universal NOT gate acting on a single qubit can be implemented very generally by slightly modifying the protocol of quantum state teleportation. The experimental demonstration of the $`12`$ cloning process according to the above scheme has been realized for a qubit encoded in photon polarization.

Classical information is encoded in bits, viz. dichotomic variables that can assume the values $`0`$ or $`1.`$ For such variables there are no theoretical limitations as far as the ”cloning” and/or ”spin-flipping” processes are concerned. However manipulations on the quantum analogue of a bit, a qubit, have strong limitations due to fundamental requirements by quantum mechanics. For instance, it has been shown that an arbitrary unknown qubit cannot be perfectly cloned: $`|\mathrm{\Psi }|\mathrm{\Psi }|\mathrm{\Psi }`$, a consequence of the so-called “no cloning theorem” , . Another ”impossible” device is the quantum NOT gate, the transformation that maps any qubit into the orthogonal one $`|\mathrm{\Psi }|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}`$ . In the last years a great deal of theoretical investigation has been devoted to finding the best approximation allowed by quantum mechanics to these two processes and to establish for them the corresponding ”optimal” values of the ”fidelity” $`F<1`$. This problem has been solved in the general case . In particular, it was found that a one-to-two universal optimal quantum cloning machine (UOQCM), i.e. able to clone one qubit into two qubits ($`12`$), can be realized with a fidelity $`F_{CLON}=\frac{5}{6}`$. It has also been proposed to test this result by a quantum optical ”amplification” method, i.e. by associating the cloning effect with the QED ”stimulated emission” process . This proposal was quickly followed by some successful experimental demonstrations . Very recently it has been argued by  that when the cloning process is realized in a subspace $`H`$ of a larger nonseparable Hilbert space $`HK`$ which is acted upon by a physical apparatus, the same apparatus performs contextually in the space $`K`$ the ”flipping” of the input injected qubit, then realizing a $`(11)`$ Universal-NOT gate (U-NOT) with a fidelity $`F_{NOT}=\frac{2}{3}`$ . As an example, a UOQCM can be realized on one output mode of a non-degenerate ”quantum-injected” optical parametric amplifier (QIOPA), while the U-NOT transformation is realized on the other mode . Precisely this QIOPA apparatus has been adopted very recently to demonstrate experimentally the simultaneous, contextual realization of both processes .

In the present work this relevant, somewhat intriguing result is investigated under a new perspective implying a modified quantum state teleportation (QST) protocol, according to the following scheme. The QST protocol implies that an unknown input qubit $`|\varphi _S=\alpha |0_S+\beta |1_S`$is destroyed at a sending place (Alice: $`A`$) while its perfect replica appears at a remote place (Bob: $`B`$) via dual quantum and classical channels. To accomplish that two qualitatively different resources are needed: a quantum resource that cannot be cloned, and a classical resource that cannot travel faster than light . Let us assume that Alice and Bob share the entangled ”singlet” state $`|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}_{AB}=2^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(|0_A|1_B|1_A|0_B\right)`$, and that we want to teleport the generic qubit $`|\varphi _S`$. The ”singlet” state is adopted here and hereafter because its well known invariance under SU(2) transformations will ensure the ”universality” of the cloning and U-NOT processes, as we shall see . The overall state of the system is then $`|\mathrm{\Omega }_{SAB}=|\varphi _S|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}_{AB}`$. Alice performs a Bell measurement by projecting the qubits $`S`$ and $`A`$ into the four Bell states $`\{|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}_{SA},|\mathrm{\Psi }^+_{SA},|\mathrm{\Phi }^{}_{SA},|\mathrm{\Phi }^+_{SA}\}`$ and then sends the result to Bob by means of 2 bits of classical information. In order to obtain $`|\varphi _B`$, Bob applies to the received state the appropriate unitary transformation $`U_B`$ according to the following protocol: $`|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}_{SA}U_B=𝕀`$, $`|\mathrm{\Psi }^+_{SA}U_B=\sigma _Z`$, $`|\mathrm{\Phi }^{}_{SA}U_B=\sigma _X`$, $`|\mathrm{\Phi }^+_{SA}U_B=\sigma _Y`$ where the kets express the received corresponding information,$`I,\sigma _Z,\sigma _X`$ are respectively the identity, phase flip, spin flip operators and $`\sigma _Y=i\sigma _Z\sigma _X`$. The teleportation channel, after the unitary operation $`U_B`$, acts as the identity operator: $`E_{QST}(\rho _S)=\rho _B`$ where $`\rho _S`$ is the density matrix representing the state of the qubit $`S`$. In absence of the classical information channel, Bob cannot apply the appropriate $`U_B`$, and the apparatus realized the map $`E_B(\rho _S)=\frac{𝕀_B}{2}`$, corresponding to the depolarizing channel $`E_{DEP}`$. This is the worst possible information transfer because any information about the initial state $`|\varphi `$ is lost.

In order to implement the UOQCM and UNOT machines at Alice’s and Bob’s sites respectively, in the present letter we modify the QST protocol by performing a different projective measurement on the systems $`S`$ and $`A`$. This leads to a different classical information to be transferred from $`A`$ to $`B`$: Fig.1. Precisely, the complete measurement able to discriminate between the four Bell states is replaced by a dichotomic measurement able to identify $`|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}_{SA}`$ and its complementary space. Let us analyze the outcomes of such strategy. With a probability $`p=\frac{1}{4}`$ the state $`|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}_{SA}`$ is detected by $`A`$. In this case the correct QST channel $`E_{QST}`$ is realized. If with probability $`p=\frac{3}{4}`$this is not the case, Bob does not apply any unitary transformation to the set of non identified Bell states $`\{|\mathrm{\Psi }^+_{SA},|\mathrm{\Phi }^{}_{SA},|\mathrm{\Phi }^+_{SA}\}`$, and then the QST channel implements the statistical map $`E\left(\rho \right)=\frac{1}{3}\left[\sigma _Z\rho \sigma _Z+\sigma _X\rho \sigma _X+\sigma _Y\rho \sigma _Y\right]`$. This map indeed coincides with the map $`E_{UNOT}\left(\rho _S\right)`$ which realizes the Universal Optimal NOT gate, i.e. the one that approximates ”optimally” the flipping of one qubit $`|\varphi `$ into the orthogonal qubit $`|\varphi ^{}`$. Bob identifies the two different maps realized at his site by reading the information (1 bit) received by Alice on the classical channel. For example, such bit can assume the value $`0`$ if Alice identifies the Bell state $`|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}_{SA}`$ and $`1`$ if not.

As already stated, in a bipartite entangled system the U-NOT gate is generally realized with an optimal quantum cloning process . Therefore it is worth analyzing carefully what happens when the overall state $`|\mathrm{\Omega }_{SAB}`$ is projected onto the subspace orthogonal to $`|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}_{SA}\mathrm{\Psi }^{}|_{SA}H_B`$, i.e. by the projector:

$$P_{SAB}=(𝕀_{SA}|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}_{SA}\mathrm{\Psi }^{}|_{SA})𝕀_B$$
(1)
It generates the normalized projected state $`|\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}P_{SAB}|\mathrm{\Omega }_{SAB}=\sqrt{\frac{2}{3}}[|\xi _1_{SA}|1_B|\xi _0_{SA}|0_B]`$ where $`|\xi _1_{SA}=\alpha |0_S|0_A+\frac{\beta }{2}|1_S|0_A+\frac{\beta }{2}|0_S|1_A`$ and $`|\xi _0_{SA}=\beta |1_S|1_A+\frac{\alpha }{2}|1_S|0_A+\frac{\alpha }{2}|0_S|1_A`$. By projecting this state on the manifold $`SA`$ the following density matrix is obtained:

$$\rho _{SA}Tr_B|\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}|=\frac{2}{3}|\varphi |\varphi _{SA}\varphi \left|\varphi |_{SA}+\frac{1}{3}\right|\{\varphi ,\varphi ^{}\}_{SA}\{\varphi ,\varphi ^{}\}|_{SA}$$
(2)
where $`|\{\varphi ,\varphi ^{}\}_{SA}=2^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(|\varphi ^{}_S|\varphi _A+|\varphi _S|\varphi ^{}_A\right)`$. We further project on the reduced spaces obtaining the matrices:

$$\rho _STr_A\rho _{SA}=\frac{5}{6}|\varphi \varphi \left|+\frac{1}{6}\right|\varphi ^{}\varphi ^{}|=\rho _ATr_S\rho _{SA}$$
(3)
$$\rho _BTr_{SA}|\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}|=\frac{2}{3}|\varphi ^{}\varphi ^{}\left|+\frac{1}{3}\right|\varphi \varphi |$$
(4)
by which the ”optimal” values for the fidelities of the two ”forbidden” processes are obtained: $`F_{CLON}=\frac{5}{6}`$ and $`F_{UNOT}=\frac{2}{3}`$.

We want also to emphasize that it is possible to obtain the same results by performing a projective measurement on different Bell states. It’s easily verified that by projection along $`(𝕀_{SA}|\mathrm{\Phi }^+_{SA}\mathrm{\Phi }^+|_{SA})𝕀_B`$, the teleportation channel realizes the optimal universal approximation of the transpose map. This map is related to the UNOT map by a unitary transformation: $`E_{TRANSPOSE}=E_{\sigma _Y}\left(E_{UNOT}\left(\rho \right)\right)`$, where $`E_{\sigma _Y}\left(\rho \right)=\sigma _Y\rho \sigma _Y`$. It’s straightforward verified that the ”cloning machine”, in this case, generates $`\rho _S^{}=\rho _A^{}=\sigma _Y\rho _S\sigma _Y`$, that is, the clones of the input qubit on which acts the unitary transformation $`\sigma _Y`$. Similarly, by choosing another Bell state in (1), analogue transformations are achieved. Of course, in this case the universality of the processes is retrieved by applying an adequate unitary transformation to the output states of qubits labelled by $`SA`$ and $`B`$.

Note that in the present context the presence of the entangled state $`|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}_{AB}`$is not strictly necessary for the implementation of the solely quantum cloning process. Indeed for this purpose we could inject into the Alice apparatus in Fig.2 the input qubit $`|\varphi `$ together with a fully mixed state $`\rho _A=\frac{𝕀_A}{2}`$ spanning a $`2`$ dimension space. Of course in this case only the Alice’s apparatus is relevant and the U-Not process is absent. This is the solution chosen for our experimental demonstration: Fig.2. The qubit to be cloned is: $`|\varphi _S`$ $`=\alpha |H_S+\beta |V_S`$ where $`|H`$ and $`|V`$ respectively correspond to the horizontal and vertical linear polarizations of a single photon injected in one input mode $`S`$ of a $`50:50`$beamsplitter $`BS_A`$. A fully mixed state $`\rho _A`$ is simultaneously injected on the other input mode $`A`$ of $`BS_A`$ where the two input modes are lineraly superimposed. Consider the overall output state which is realized on the two ouput modes $`1`$and $`2`$ of $`BS_A`$. It can be expressed as a linear combination of the Bell states $`\{|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}_{SA},|\mathrm{\Psi }^+_{SA},|\mathrm{\Phi }^{}_{SA},|\mathrm{\Phi }^+_{SA}\}`$. As it is well known, the realization of the singlet $`|\mathrm{\Psi }_{SA}^{}`$ is unambiguously indentified by the detection of two single photons on the output modes of $`BS_A`$ while the realization of the set of the other three Bell states correspond to the emission of photon pairs on either one of the output modes . Hence the detection of two photons over either the mode $`1`$ or $`2`$, a Bose-mode-occupation enhancement, implies the projection by $`P_{SA}=\left(𝕀_{SA}|\mathrm{\Psi }_{SA}^{}\mathrm{\Psi }_{SA}^{}|\right)`$ of the output state into the space orthogonal to $`|\mathrm{\Psi }_{SA}^{}`$ . As seen in the theoretical analysis above this condition leads, in the general case, to the simultaneous realization of UOQCM and UNOT by a post-selection technique.

In the present experiment, a pair of non entangled photons with wavelength $`\lambda =532nm`$ and with a coherence-time $`\tau _{coh}=80fs`$, were generated by a spontaneous parametric down conversion SPDC process in a Type I BBO crystal in the initial polarization product state $`|H_S|H_A`$. The two photons were then injected on the two input modes $`S`$ and $`A`$ of $`BS_A`$. The input qubit $`|\varphi _S`$, associated with mode $`S`$ was polarization encoded by means of a waveplate (wp) $`WP_S`$. The transformation used to map the state $`|H_A`$ into $`\rho _A=\frac{𝕀_A}{2}`$ was achieved by stochastically rotating a $`\lambda /2`$ waveplate inserted on the mode $`A`$ during the experiment. In this way the statistical evolution of $`|H_A`$ into two orthogonal states with equal probability was achieved. The photons $`S`$ and $`A`$ were injected in the two input arms of $`BS_A`$ with a mutual delay $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ micrometrically adjustable by a translation stage with position settings $`Z=2\mathrm{\Delta }tc`$. The setting value $`Z=0`$ was assumed to correspond to the full overlapping of the photon pulses injected into $`BS_A`$, i.e. to the maximum photon interference.

For the sake of simplicity, we only analyzed the measurements performed on the $`BS_A`$ output mode $`1`$: Fig.2. The polarization state on this mode was analyzed by the combination of the wp $`WP_C`$ and of the polarization beam splitter $`PBS_C`$. For each input polarization state $`|\varphi _S`$, $`WP_C`$ was set in order to make $`PBS_C`$ to transmit $`|\varphi _S`$ and reflect $`|\varphi ^{}_S`$. The ”cloned” state $`|\varphi \varphi _S`$ could be detected on mode $`1`$ by a two-photon counter, realized in our case by first separating the two photons by a $`50:50`$ beam splitter $`BS_C`$ and then detecting the coincidence $`[D_{A1},D_{A2}]`$ between the output detectors $`D_{A1}`$ and $`D_{A2}`$: Fig.2. Any coincidence between detectors $`D_B`$ and $`D_{A2}`$ corresponded to the realization of the state $`|\varphi \varphi ^{}_S`$. First consider the cloning machine switched off, by setting: $`\mathrm{\Delta }t>\tau _{coh\text{ }}`$i.e. by making $`S`$ and $`A`$ not interfering on $`BS_A`$. In this case, since the states $`|\varphi \varphi _S`$ and $`|\varphi \varphi ^{}_S`$ were realized with the same probability on mode $`1`$, the rate of coincidences detected by $`[D_{A1},D_{A2}]`$ and $`[D_{A2},D_B]`$were expected to be equal. By turning on the cloning machine, i.e. by setting $`\mathrm{\Delta }t<<\tau _{coh}`$, on mode $`1`$ the output density matrix $`\rho _{SA}`$ was realized implying an enhancement by a factor $`R=2`$ of the counting rate by $`[D_{A1},D_{A2}]`$ and no rate enhancement by $`[D_{A2},D_B]`$. The measurement of $`R`$ was carried out by coincidence measurements involving simultaneously $`[D_{A1},D_{A2}]`$ and $`[D_{A2},D_B]`$. The experimental data are reported in Figure 3 for three different input states $`|\varphi _S=|H`$, $`2^{\frac{1}{2}}(|H+|V)`$, $`2^{\frac{1}{2}}(|H+i|V)`$. There circles and square marks refer respectively to the $`[D_{A1},D_{A2}]`$ and $`[D_{A2},D_B]`$ coincidences versus the position setting $`Z.`$ We may check that the cloning process only affects the $`|\varphi \varphi _S`$ component, as expected and $`R`$is determined as the ratio between the peak values (cloning machine switched on) and the basis values (cloning machine off). The corresponding experimental values of the cloning fidelity $`F=\frac{2R+1}{2R+2}`$ are: $`F_H=0.827\pm 0.002`$;$`F_{H+V}=0.825\pm 0.002`$; $`F_{H+iV}=0.826\pm 0.002`$. These ones are to be compared with the optimal value $`F_{th}=5/60.833`$ which corresponds to the limit value of the amplification ratio $`R=2`$. As a lucky aspect of the present work, note the relevance in the theory above of the ”singlet” state $`|\mathrm{\Psi }_{SA}^{}`$ in our measurement procedure. As already remarked, according to quantum theory the exclusive SU(2) invariance of this state should imply the insensitivity of the value of the ”fidelity” $`F`$to the photon polarization, i.e. to the input state $`|\varphi _S`$. Indeed the experimental results just reported expressing very close values of $`F`$ for different polarization states confirm the ”universality” of the cloning process.

In summary, two relevant quantum information processes, forbidden by quantum mechanics in their exact form are found to be connected by a modified quantum state teleportation scheme and can be ”optimally” realized by a simple linear method. As a partial implementation of the new protocol, an experimental demonstration of one to two universal quantum cloning has been performed by a quantum optical method. The results are found in good agreement with the theoretical expectations. We believe that the new perspective established by the present work will substantially enlighten an important and still unclear aspect of fundamental quantum theory.

This work has been supported by the FET European Network on Quantum Information and Communication (Contract IST-2000-29681: ATESIT), by Istituto Nazionale per la Fisica della Materia (PRA ”CLON”) and by Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca (COFIN 2002).

Figure.1. General scheme for the simultaneous realization of the Universal Quantum Cloning Machine (UOQCM) and of the UNOT gate.

Figure.2. Experimental setup for the optical implementation of the UOQCM by a modified Teleportation protocol (left part of the Figure).

Figure.3. Experimental result of the universal cloning process for different input qubits corresponding to the encoded polarizations: $`|H`$, $`2^{1/2}\left(|H+|V\right)`$ and $`2^{1/2}\left(|H+i|V\right)`$.