text:
# XMM-NEWTON OBSERVATIONS OF THE FIELD OF GAMMA-RAY BURST 980425

## INTRODUCTION

The hypothesis that supernovae are the progenitors of Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRB) dates back to the epoch of first GRB discovery (Colgate 1974) and has received support in recent years from the detection of supernova features in the optical afterglows of GRBs. These are re-brightenings at rest-frame intervals of 10-15 days after the GRB (e.g., Galama et al. 2000; Bloom et al. 2002; Price et al. 2003; Masetti et al. 2003); circumburst media with wind characteristics (Berger et al. 2001; Jaunsen et al. 2001; Price et al. 2002); iron emission lines (Piro et al. 1999; Reeves et al. 2002; Butler et al. 2003); association of GRBs with star-forming regions (Fruchter et al. 1999; Frail et al. 2002). The most tempting hint of association between GRBs and SNe is obviously the similarity of the intrinsic energy of these phenomena, when collimation and beaming are taken into account in GRBs (e.g., Frail et al. 2001).

While these circumstances represent only possible evidences of a GRB-SN connection, on two occasions a clear association has been found. GRB980425 and SN 1998bw have been detected within very tight temporal and angular limits: they exploded simultaneously (with an uncertainty of $`\pm 1`$ day) and with a maximum separation in the sky of 8 (Galama et al. 1998). More recently, prominent spectral features similar to those detected for SN 1998bw have been detected in the afterglow of GRB030329 (Stanek et al. 2003; Hjorth et al. 2003). To date, no other such compelling case of GRB-SN association has been detected, and SN 1998bw, whose brightness and kinematic conditions were exceptional, is considered a typical “hypernova”, the powerful SN explosion speculated to be at the origin of GRBs (Woosley 1993; Paczyński 1998; Zhang et al. 2003, and references therein).

The field of SN 1998bw and GRB980425 was observed with the BeppoSAX Narrow Field Instruments one day, one week and 6 months after the event (Pian et al. 2000). The most sensitive of these instruments, the BeppoSAX MECS, had detected two X-ray sources within the BeppoSAX Wide Field Cameras 8-radius error box of GRB980425. The brighter one (hereafter S1) was variable and positionally consistent with the SN 1998bw and had been identified with X-ray emission from the SN. The fainter source (hereafter S2) is $`4^{}`$ away from SN 1998bw, and therefore inconsistent with it, within the $`1^{}.5`$ positional uncertainty of the MECS detectors (see Fig. 1 in Galama et al. 1999). No firm statement could be made about the variability of S2, given its low flux level, at the limit of the MECS sensitivity.

Since the X-ray light curve of S2 may have been marginally compatible with an afterglow behavior, given the big uncertainties (see Pian et al. 2000), some reservations had remained as to whether GRB980425 and SN 1998bw were physically associated. However, the above mentioned case of GRB030329 and SN 2003dh argues strongly in favor of the GRB980425/SN 1998bw association and considerably weakens the case for association between S2 and GRB980425.

The peculiarity of SN 1998bw made it imperative to further investigate its X-ray emission at late epochs. Therefore, we have re-observed its field with Chandra and XMM-Newton in late 2001 and March 2002, respectively, and report here the preliminary results of the latter campaign. A detailed presentation of both campaigns will be given in future papers.

## OBSERVATIONS AND DATA ANALYSIS

The field of SN 1998bw was observed by XMM-Newton on 28 March 2002, between 13:53:34 and 20:10:38 UT, with the European Photon Imaging Cameras (EPIC, 0.15-15 keV) PN (Strüder et al. 2001) and MOS (Turner et al. 2001), operating in full-frame mode and with the medium filter applied. The data have been cleaned and processed using the Science Analysis Software (SAS 5.3) and analyzed using standard software packages (FTOOLS 5.2). The latest calibration files released by the EPIC team have been used (update: 29 Jan 2003). Event files produced from the pipeline have been filtered from high-background time intervals and only events corresponding to pattern 0-12 for MOS and pattern 0-4 for PN have been used (see the XMM-Newton Users’ Handbook, Ehle et al. 2001; see also http://xmm.vilspa.esa.es/external). The net exposure times, after data cleaning, are $`13.0`$ ks, $`16.8`$ ks, and $`16.7`$ ks for PN, MOS1, and MOS2, respectively. Count rates (see next Section) have been estimated by integrating the signal within circles of 30′′ radius, which enclose $``$80% of the encircled energy function, and by subtracting the background signal estimated from blank sky exposures, in circles of equal area.

## RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In Fig. 1 we show the EPIC PN image. At a position consistent with that of source S1 in the BeppoSAX MECS image, we detect in the EPIC PN image a source with a count rate of (9.6 $`\pm `$ 1.4) $`\times 10^3`$ counts s-1 in the 0.5-5 keV range within a circular area of 30′′ radius. Assuming a spectrum similar to that measured by BeppoSAX for S1 (see Pian et al. 2000) and accounting for Galactic absorption by neutral hydrogen ($`N_{HI}=3.95\times 10^{20}`$ cm-2, Dickey & Lockman 1990), we derive a flux of (3.18 $`\pm `$ 0.46) $`\times 10^{14}`$ erg s-1 cm-2 between 2 and 10 keV. The signal-to-noise ratio of our XMM-Newton observations is not sufficient to perform a detailed spectral analysis.

A number of very faint sources are visible at the location of source S2 detected by the BeppoSAX MECS in the WFC error box of GRB980425 (Fig. 1). The integral of the EPIC PN signal within the $`1^{}.5`$ radius MECS error circle of S2 is consistent with the average flux measured by the MECS for S2, suggesting that it may be not a single source, but rather the sum of several faint sources and that its marginal variability in the BeppoSAX observations is determined by background fluctuations, or possibly by the random variations of those sources. This definitely rules out the afterglow nature of S2.

From the EPIC imaging we do not detect significant contamination of the X-ray emission of SN 1998bw by its host galaxy, therefore the SN decay measured by BeppoSAX must be authentic. That was satisfactorily fitted both by a power-law $`t^{0.2}`$ and by an exponential with $`e`$-folding time of $``$500 days (Pian et al. 2000). The addition of the EPIC point to the X-ray light curve of SN 1998bw (Fig. 2) shows that neither a power-law nor an exponential law are particularly satisfactory, although the exponential may be somewhat better. For this reason we favor an interpretation of the X-ray light curve as a result of the superposition of different radiation components. In fact, while the overall temporal behavior of SN 1998bw is unlike that of the very few X-ray SNe monitored at both early and late times (e.g., SN 1987A, Park et al. 2002; SN 1993J, Kohmura et al. 1994; Swartz et al. 2003; Zimmermann & Aschenbach 2003; SN 1994I, Immler et al. 1998; Immler et al. 2002), at late epochs (i.e., after day $``$100) it is reminiscent of that of previous X-ray SNe (e.g., SN 1980K, Canizares et al. 1982; Schlegel 1994; Schlegel 1995; SN 1994I, Immler et al. 2002). Thus, one may interpret the early X-rays of SN 1998bw as afterglow radiation, while the late epoch X-ray emission is dominated by the interaction of the SN shock with the circumstellar material, as proposed for other X-ray SNe (Kohmura et al. 1994; Schlegel 1995; Suzuki and Nomoto 1995; Fransson et al. 1996; Chevalier and Fransson 2002; Immler and Lewin 2002). In fact, if the main sequence progenitor of SN 1998bw was a star of $`40M_{}`$ as postulated by Iwamoto et al. (1998) one would expect circumstellar material in the neighbourhood of the SN as a result of an earlier mass loss wind.

On the other hand, assuming that a single mechanism is responsible for X-ray emission of SN 1998bw, we may not exclude that the observed X-rays are cooling radiation from the compact remnant, provided the GRB has swept up all the surrounding material by creating an evacuated cone. Tavani (1997) has shown, in the context of X-ray afterglows of GRBs, that cooling neutron stars with “external” disturbances (e.g., a fallback) may radiate in X-rays with a temporal rate faster than a power-law. A longer diffusion time than considered by Tavani (1997) should be adopted in our case. The predicted decay rates for neutron stars with simple cooling (i.e., no fallback) are much longer than the fading time scale measured by BeppoSAX and XMM-Newton for SN 1998bw (Page 1998). However, exotic cooling mechanisms can significantly increase the cooling rate (Slane et al. 2002). Our observations may thus allow us to place constraints on non-standard neutron star cooling scenarios and may have important implications for determining the nature of GRB remnants.

## ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Matteo Guainazzi and Matthias Ehle for their assistance with observations scheduling, and to Paolo Mazzali for his valuable comments.


format: text

text:
# On submaximal plane curves

## Abstract

We prove that a submaximal curve in $`^2`$ has sequence of multiplicities $`(\mu ,\nu ,\mathrm{},\nu )`$, with $`\mu <s\nu `$ for every integer $`s`$ with $`(s1)^2(s+2)^26.76(r1)`$.

This note is a sequel to , where a specialization method was developed in order to bound the degree of singular plane curves. The problem under consideration is, given a system of multiplicities $`(m)=(m_1,m_2,\mathrm{},m_r)^r`$ and points $`p_1,\mathrm{},p_r^2`$, which we shall always assume to be in general position, to determine the minimal degree $`\alpha (m)`$ of a curve with multiplicity $`m_i`$ at each point $`p_i`$. In , the focus was on homogeneous $`(m)`$, (i.e., $`m_1=m_2=\mathrm{}=m_r`$), but the method applies in general; here it is used to show that if one of the multiplicities is much bigger than the others, in a sense we make precise below (see theorem 1), then

$$\alpha (m)>\frac{_{i=1}^rm_i}{\sqrt{r}}.$$
(1)
In connection with his solution to the fourteenth problem of Hilbert, M. Nagata conjectured in 1959 that the inequality (1) holds for all $`(m)`$ provided $`r>9`$, and proved it in the case when $`r`$ is a perfect square (see  or ). Since then, many partial results have been proved by several authors (see for instance , , , , , ), but as far as we know the conjecture remains open in general. One of the research lines in this area is the study of *submaximal curves* that arise in the context of Seshadri constants. A submaximal curve is an irreducible curve which causes the ($`r`$-point) Seshadri constant of a surface to be non-maximal; in the case of $`^2`$ it is just an irreducible curve which causes (1) to fail, and Nagata’s conjecture can be equivalently stated by saying that there exist no submaximal curves for $`r>9`$. T. Szemberg proved in \[11, 4.6\] that every submaximal curve on a surface with Picard number $`\rho =1`$ whose multiple points are in general position is quasi-homogeneous, i.e., has $`m_2=\mathrm{}=m_r`$ for a suitable ordering of the points. In the case of the projective plane, our result shows that moreover $`m_1`$ can not be much bigger than $`m_2`$, constraining further the range of possible counterexamples to Nagata’s conjecture. It is worth mentioning that quasi-homogeneous curves are relevant also for the method of C. Ciliberto and R. Miranda  to compute the dimension of (homogeneous) linear systems.

The approach is based on the specialization introduced in . Roughly speaking, one proves that if there exists a curve with given multiplicities at $`r`$ general points, then by semicontinuity there must also exist curves with the same degree and (virtual) multiplicities at $`r`$ points which satisfy some well chosen proximity relations. The proximity inequalities impose then that the effective multiplicity of the specialized curve must grow, and one uses this bigger multiplicity as a bound for the degree of the curve.

In order to give a brief explicit description of the specialization, let us recall the notations of  (see  for generalities on clusters and unloading, and  for a general approach to specializations parameterized by varieties of clusters). We work on $`^2`$, and consider both proper and infinitely near points (which are those lying on a smooth surface that dominates $`^2`$ birrationally. A *cluster* is a set $`K`$ of points of $`^2`$ such that if $`pK`$ and $`p`$ is infinitely near to $`q`$ (i.e., $`p`$ lies on the exceptional divisor of $`q`$ after blowing up a sequence of points) then $`qK`$. Write $`\pi _K:S_K^2`$ for the blowing up of all points in $`K`$. For each $`i=2,\mathrm{},r`$, we denote $`U_i`$ the set of clusters $`K=\{p_1,\mathrm{},p_r\}`$ such that

* $`p_2,\mathrm{},p_i`$ are proximate to $`p_1`$,
* $`p_j`$ is proximate to $`p_{j1}`$ for all $`j=2,\mathrm{},r`$, and
* there are no other proximity relations.

In other words, denoting by $`E_j`$ the (total) exceptional divisor of blowing up $`p_j`$ this can be expressed by saying that the divisors $`\stackrel{~}{E}_1=E_1E_2\mathrm{}E_i`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{E}_j=E_jE_{j+1}`$, $`j=2,\mathrm{}r1`$ on the surface $`S_K`$ are effective and irreducible.

The sets $`U_i`$ are nonempty and have a natural structure of smooth irreducible locally closed subvarieties in a projective variety (the iterated blowing-up $`X_{r1}`$ of Kleiman ), and they satisfy

$$\overline{U_2}\overline{U_3}\mathrm{}\overline{U_r}.$$

The specialization we use works stepwise. Begin with a general cluster of $`r`$ distinct points, $`K=\{p_1,p_2,\mathrm{},p_r\}`$, and a curve $`C`$ with multiplicities $`(m)=(m_1,m_2,\mathrm{},m_r)`$ at these points, assuming $`m_1m_2\mathrm{}m_r`$. Then specialize $`K`$ to a cluster $`K_3`$ general in $`U_3`$. If $`m_1<m_2+m_3`$, then the specialized curve $`C_3`$ cuts negatively the irreducible divisor $`\stackrel{~}{E}_1=E_1E_2E_3`$, so $`\stackrel{~}{E}_1`$ is a component of $`\pi _K^{}(C_3)m_1E_1\mathrm{}m_rE_r`$, and the effective multiplicity of $`C_3`$ at $`p_1`$ is bigger than $`m_1`$. Call $`(m^{(3)})`$ the system of multiplicities obtained after unloading multiplicities (i.e., substracting the $`\stackrel{~}{E}_j`$ which are cut negatively); $`C_3`$ goes through the cluster $`K_3`$ with multiplicities $`(m^{(3)})`$. Then specialize $`K_3`$ to a general $`K_4U_4`$, and successively to a $`K_5U_5`$, …, to a $`K_rU_r`$, performing unloadings whenever necessary. The first multiplicity of the last system $`(m^{(r)})`$ is a lower bound for the degree of $`C`$, and therefore $`\alpha (m)m_1^{(r)}`$. This multiplicity is not hard to compute in each particular case; in  a bound was given that holds in general and is asymptotically sharp but that in many particular cases can be improved, especially when the multiplicities are relatively small. Now we are interested in the case that $`m_1`$ is much bigger than the other multiplicities, in which one can show that the inequality (1) holds:

###### Theorem 1.

Let $`s`$ be such that $`(s1)^2(s+2)^26.76(r1)`$, $`r>9`$, and assume $`m_1m_2\mathrm{}m_r`$. If moreover

$$m_1\underset{i=2}{\overset{s+1}{}}m_i$$

then $`\alpha (m)>_{i=1}^rm_i/\sqrt{r}`$.

###### Proof.

Using notations as above, the preceding discussion shows that it suffices to prove $`m_1^{(r)}>_{i=1}^rm_i/\sqrt{r}`$. The hypothesis implies that the system of multiplicities $`(m)`$ is consistent for all clusters in $`U_3`$, …, $`U_{s+1}`$ (no unloading is needed for these) so $`(m)=(m^{(3)})=\mathrm{}=(m^{(s+1)})`$. Then, apply \[10, lemma 3.5\] as in the proof of \[10, theorem 4.1\] to obtain

$$m_1^{(r)}\underset{i=1}{\overset{r}{}}m_i\left(1\frac{1}{r}\right)\underset{k=s+1}{\overset{r1}{}}\left(1\frac{k}{k^2+r1}\right).$$

We have to see that this is bigger than $`m_i/\sqrt{r}`$. Because of \[10, proposition 5.1\], it will be enough to prove

$$\underset{k=2}{\overset{s}{}}\left(1\frac{k}{k^2+r1}\right)^1>\frac{\sqrt{r}}{\sqrt{r1}\frac{\pi }{8}}.$$
(2)
Write $`x^2=r1`$. As $`r>9`$, we have $`x3`$. The term on the left in (2) is

$$\underset{k=2}{\overset{s}{}}\left(1+\frac{k}{k(k+1)+x^2}\right)>1+\underset{k=2}{\overset{s}{}}\frac{k}{k(k+1)+x^2}.$$

Let $`s_0`$ be the minimum integer such that $`(s_01)^2(s_0+2)^26.76x^2`$; the hypothesis on $`s`$ says that $`ss_0`$, and it is clear that $`s_0(s_0+1)x^2`$. Using this we get

$$1+\underset{k=2}{\overset{s}{}}\frac{k}{k(k+1)+x^2}>1+\underset{k=2}{\overset{s_0}{}}\frac{k}{2x^2}=1+\frac{(s_01)(s_0+2)}{4x^2}1+\frac{\sqrt{6.76}x}{4x^2}=1+\frac{.65}{x}.$$

On the other hand, the term on the right in 2 can be written as

$$\frac{x}{x\pi /8}\sqrt{1+\frac{1}{x^2}}\left(1+\frac{\pi }{8x\pi }\right)\left(1+\frac{1}{2x^2}\right)$$

which for $`x3`$ is less or equal to $`1+.65/x`$, and the proof is complete.

###### Corollary 2.

Let $`C`$ be a submaximal curve with respect to general points $`p_1,p_2\mathrm{},p_r^2`$. Then for some reordering of the points, the system $`(m)`$ of multiplicities of $`C`$ at $`p_1,p_2\mathrm{},p_r`$ is $`(m)=(\mu ,\nu ,\mathrm{},\nu )`$ with $`\mu <s\nu `$ for every integer $`s`$ with $`(s1)^2(s+2)^26.76(r1)`$.

###### Proof.

The system $`(m)`$ of multiplicities of $`C`$ at $`p_1,p_2\mathrm{},p_r`$ is $`(m)=(\mu ,\nu ,\mathrm{},\nu )`$ because of \[11, corollary 4.6\], so it is enough to prove that $`\mu s\nu `$ for some integer $`s`$ with $`(s1)^2(s+2)^26.76(r1)`$ leads to contradiction. But theorem 1 shows that there are no submaximal curves when $`\mu s\nu `$ for some integer $`s`$ with $`(s1)^2(s+2)^26.76(r1)`$, so we are done. ∎

We finish by an example, considering the smallest values $`r`$ for which Nagata’s conjecture is unknown. Corollary 2 says that a submaximal curve with respect to $`r`$ general points, $`10r15`$ has system of multiplicities $`(m)=(\mu ,\nu ,\mathrm{},\nu )`$ with $`\mu <3\nu `$.


text:
# Statistical Test of Optical Fibers for use in PMAS, the Potsdam Multi-Aperture Spectrophotometer

## 1 Introduction

Optical fibers provide a versatile tool to conveniently re-arrange light coming from different places into a common spectrograph slit. In astronomical instrumentation, this property is being used successfully for multi-object spectroscopy, for integral field spectroscopy, and other applications. Similar to several new integral field spectrographs, which have been developed recently for visual and NIR wavelengths (INTEGRAL (Arribas et al., 1998), TEIFU (Haynes et al., 1998), GMOS-IFU (Allington-Smith et al., 1998), VIRMOS (Prieto et al., 2000), IMACS-IFU 111currently under development in Durham, CIRPASS (Parry et al., 2000), FLAMES (Pasquini et al., 2000)). PMAS, the Potsdam Multi-Aperture Spectrophotometer (Roth & Laux, 1998; Roth, 1998; Roth et al., 2000; Laux, 1999) was designed as a fiber-coupled instrument, connecting a lens-array to the spectrograph slit by means of a fiber bundle.

A basic requirement of the conceptual design consisted in a sufficiently stable opto-mechanical configuration which would allow for spectrophotometric measurements (Roth et al., 1997). However, based on the observation of “fiber noise” in the FOCES echelle spectrograph (M. Pfeiffer, priv. communication), there had been worries that the use of optical fibers might introduce instabilities, eventually compromising this requirement. Therefore, an optical testbench setup was devised for measuring the far-field light distribution in the output light cone of an optical fiber, illuminated under controlled conditions of focal ratio, angle of incidence, centering, wavelength, and other coupling details. By employing a cryogenic 16-bit CCD camera system, it was attempted to measure the behaviour of the output beam pattern, both for a sufficiently large statistical sample of fibers, as well as for the temporal behaviour of selected fibers under geometrically stable vs. variable conditions. The high dynamic range of the detector would allow to measure small differences between different zones (modal effects), and to determine with high precision the contribution of low surface brightness regions at large output angles (faint wings of the far field pattern), which are difficult to measure with simple video systems.

The far-field light distribution at the fiber output is known to exhibit, in general, a modal structure, and to suffer from Focal Ratio Degradation (FRD), i.e. the enlargement of the output light cone angle with respect to the input beam. Exceeding the focal ratio of the spectrograph collimator is equivalent to light loss and, possibly, increased stray light. Therefore, the FRD behavior of optical fibers is an important design issue for fiber-coupled spectrographs. FRD of a variety of fibers has been studied e.g. by (Avila, 1988), (Craig, Hailey & Brodie, 1988), (Ramsey, 1988), (Clayton, 1989), (Carrasco & Parry, 1994), (Avila, 1998). As a consequence of the results reported in these studies, the PMAS design was chosen (a) to operate with a collimator focal ratio of f/3 (the canonical value for FRD-optimized fiber spectrographs), (b) to avoid a bench-mounted spectrograph which would have required long fibers for any cassegrain-mounted IFU, and (c) to employ a type of optical fiber with already demonstrated useful performance.

Because of the problem of background subtraction, the presence of FRD and its variability over time has rendered fiber-coupled spectrographs sometimes less suitable for faint object spectroscopy than conventional slit spectrographs, although suitable methods for calibration are capable of improving the situation (Gilmore & Wyse, 1992). We suspected that temporal variation of the fiber output far-field light distribution is effecting response calibrations in two ways: throughput variation as the result of different FRD-induced vignetting over time, and a variable point-spread function as the result of redistribution of light within the spectrograph entrance pupil due to modal effects. For IFUs, such variations must be expected to be independent from fiber to fiber, thus introducing calibration errors similar to a limited CCD flatfield accuracy. In practice, quantitative end-to-end measurements of such effects are difficult to perform. It was considered to be reasonable, however, to optimize a fiber configuration for minimal FRD and minimal modal redistribution if one is interested in obtaining the highest possible stability of the whole system.

In order to optimize the performance of the PMAS baseline design fiber and to characterize the instrumental effects arising from fiber properties, the present study was conducted, including the consideration to obtain a reference for a future upgrade with $``$50 $`\mu `$m fibers which are required to accomodate a 32$`\times `$32 element lens array.

## 2 Experimental setup

### 2.1 The Photometric Testbench

The Photometric Testbench (Roth, 1998) of the Potsdam Astrophysical Institute (AIP) uses several light sources and filters to create a light bundle with a known passband and central wavelength which passes the FRD setup. For our experiments a continuum white light source was used in combination with neutral density and interference filters (central wavelength 400$`\mathrm{}`$900 nm in steps of 50 nm, 10 nm FWHM). For most of our measurements a central wavelength of 550 nm was used. Due to the fact that the testbench is operated under remote control from a VME controller under the VxWorks real-time operating system, and that all devices like filter wheels and the CCD detector can be accessed from the command line of a UNIX host computer, it was possible to obtain extended series of measurements automatically without human interaction.

### 2.2 The FRD setup

The optical setup which was used for FRD measurements can be considered as part of the Photometric Testbench and was accessible through remote control in the standard way (Fig. 1). As can be seen in Fig. 2, a pinhole behind a frosted glass plate is illuminated by light coming from the testbench, whose intensity and spectral passband is determined by a given selection of filters. The light emerging from the 100 $`\mu `$m - pinhole passes through a collimator (f = 154mm, f/1.7). The input focal ratio is determined by a motorized filter wheel with different aperture stops. These stops are circular, producing f-ratios ranging from f/2 to f/12. In addition, a square aperture is available, simulating the square lenslet input as used for PMAS. A second lens (f = 109mm, f/1.5) focusses the light onto the fiber, which is mounted in a holder and can be adjusted in x, y, z, tip and tilt. The fiber itself is mounted inside of a standard Newport fiber chuck. For the majority of measurements the fiber was immersed to a thin glass plate using immersion gel (Cargille type 6307), whose index of refraction n=1.459 is very similar to quartz. The fiber output was prepared in a similar fashion. The fiber was immersed to an output glass plate and the glass in turn to the window of the CCD dewar. While the FRD setup itself is in principal identical to those used by other authors (Ramsey, 1988; Guerin & Felenbok, 1988; Carrasco & Parry, 1994), a major advance was achieved by using a science grade LN2-cooled CCD camera (SITe TK1024, backside illuminated, UV-visual AR-coating). This camera provides high sensitivity and, in particular, a high dynamic range, which is important for the precise measurement of intensities in the faint wings of the illuminated spot at the fiber output, as well as for the detection of modal noise features.

### 2.3 Measurements and data analysis

Measurement control, data acquisition, reduction and analysis is provided automatically using the IDL 222IDL by Research Systems Inc., Boulder, CO, USA based code PMASFIB which was specifically written for this application. After input of a list of desired focal ratios, wavelengths and light intensity levels the measurement cycle starts. The UNIX-workstation communicates with the CCD camera and the filter/aperture stop wheels through a VME controller. Several user-defined features may be invoked like pauses between exposures (e.g. for testing the long-time stability of fiber setups), different angles of incidence onto the fiber (realized by small offsets of the aperture stop wheel), and other expandable functions. When the data acquisition is finished, the reduction process starts automatically. Each exposure is background subtracted using pixels far away from the maximum spot size as determined by the nominal fiber numerical aperture. A set of concentric circles with increasing radii is defined around the center of gravity. The light within these apertures is integrated and normalized to the total amount of light reaching the CCD. As a result, the fraction of light falling into the aperture corresponding to the focal ratio $`N_{out}`$ of a virtual collimator as a function of input focal ratio $`N_{in}`$ is determined for each measurement. Also wavelength, angular input and other parameters of interest are recorded for each dataset.

In what follows, the f/3 coupling efficiency $`\eta _{f/3}`$ is defined as fraction of light reaching a virtual f/3 collimator, normalized to the total amount of light reaching the chip. For PMAS the square lenslet input (f/3.5 along diagonal, f/5 along one side, referred to as f/3.5 $`\times `$ 5 in the following) was simulated by a square aperture stop of adequate size.

## 3 Improved Test Procedure

After several first runs of an early version of the setup the advantages of immersion coupling became readily apparent. Preliminary measurements of fibers with cleaved ends were performed in unmatched and index matched versions. The observation was a considerable increase of performance of the matched fibers with respect to fibers without immersion coupling (Schmoll, Popow & Roth, 1998). As an explanation, it was speculated that surface irregularities due to the insufficient cleaving process had been healed out and therefore the apparent FRD was reduced significantly. Also it was observed that the variation from fiber to fiber was significantly reduced. This gave rise to investigate the behaviour on polished fibers as they were used in the final instrument.

After these preliminary tests several measures were undertaken to obtain a better degree of reliability for the results from FRD measurements:

* A laser adjustment ensured normal on-axis incidence of the input beam to the chuck holder front glass plate.
* Centering of the illuminating beam on the fiber input end face was monitored by means of a photo diode, connected to the fiber output.
* The integrity of the coupling surfaces on both fiber ends was checked by observing one end with a microscope while illuminating the other end, and vice versa.
* All fibers were polished and checked for visually flawless end faces.
* A subset of fibers was measured several times using the same procedure, in order to verify the reliability of the process.
* Large samples of fibers were measured.

Finally, a sample of 65 fibers (Polymicro FVP100/120/140) was measured using the improved FRD setup. The f/3 frequency of coupling efficiencies is now sharply peaked, especially when slow input focal ratios are used (see Fig. 3). Table 1 shows the mean and median values. In order to quantify the width of these distributions, $`W_{100}`$ and $`W_{85}`$ are introduced as the the widths of these distributions, including 100 % and 85 % of all values around the median, respectively.

To check the reliability of the measurements, three fibers from the sample above were chosen for ten consecutive cycles of new measurements. The choice included one with relatively low, one with mediocre and one with high coupling efficiency. During the measurements some conditions were changed (path of fibers, input and output ends, chucks).

Table 2 shows that the results are not very different from the large sample statistics despite of the higher degree of manipulation.

During the tests, it became obvious that the fiber chucks, holding the fibers in a groove by means of a thin metal blade, have a significant effect on FRD.

Glueing the fibers into steel tubes made the results more stable, and the coupling efficiencies increased again (see Fig. 4 and Table 3) 333We applied two different types of glue, namely EPOTEK 301-2 and a very soft multi-purpose glue (UHU), which essentially produced the same results. For long-term stability, the preferred choice is the EPOTEK 301-2.. This observation came as a surprise, because other authors have used mechanical holders precisely in order to avoid the stress normally introduced by glue (Avila, 1988). On the other hand, the effects of stress from mechanical holders was already mentioned (Ramsey, 1988).

## 4 Final results

### 4.1 Efficiency gain by immersion coupling

After optimizing the test setup performance, 18 of the polished fibers glued in tubes were used to perform a final comparison between both coupling methods. The glass plates of the chuck holders were cleaned and the fibers attached, leaving a tiny air gap. In this way, the glass plates simulated the PMAS lens array on the input side, and the first collimator lens at the output. The output glass remained immersed to the dewar window to yield equal conditions for each test. The data in Table 4 show again a larger coupling efficiency $`\eta _{f/3}`$ when immersion coupling is applied. The coupling efficency increases by nearly three percent, which is not as high as the observed increase of the first test. Our explanation was that this time the fibers were not cleaved, but polished. Also the variation between different fibers is smaller due to polishing, but still decreases under immersion (Fig. 5). The photometric result shows that the total amount of light $`I`$ increases in immersion (Fig. 6). This was expected, because the saving of two glass-air interfaces should reduce Fresnel losses. Therefore, the fraction of light reaching the f/3 collimator ($`I_{frac}=\eta _{f/3}I`$), becomes significantly larger and the photometric variation between fibers decreases. The light output over all fibers was fairly equal, except for fiber # 28 whose defects were not compensated by the immersion method. For the PMAS configuration ($`N_{in}=3.5\times 5,N_{out}=3`$) the predicted gain of light is 22 $`\pm `$ 4 %.

### 4.2 Influence of surface defects

The observed fact that surface perturbations were healed out under immersion raised the question about the required final fiber surface quality. To obtain an answer to this question, several fibers were polished to different states. For the polishing process a manual polishing tool was used on abrasive paper with different grain sizes. Grain sizes of 63, 9, 1 and 0.3 micrometers were employed. As seen in Fig. 7, 8 and 9, the effect of coarse polishing is quite obvious down to 1 $`\mu `$m grain size. The statistics for 1 $`\mu `$m - polished fibers (Table 5) shows, albeit the poor statistics of only five fibers, no difference with respect to normal fibers which had been polished down to 0.3 $`\mu `$m. All these measurements were performed at a wavelength of 550 nm. The overall result is that high quality polishing is still necessary when using index matched fibers.

### 4.3 Influence of misalignment

The input of light into fibers is critical, considering the mechanical tolerances of fiber positioning. The consequences of misalignment were investigated using an immersed fiber. The effects of defocus, translation perpendicular to the optical axis and angular misalignment have been studied.

#### 4.3.1 Defocus

Defocus is introduced in an immersion coupled system when the sandwich of lenslet array, substrate and immersion medium layer does not exactly end at the true focal plane where the fibers are attached. Oversizing the fiber helps against errors, as seen in Fig. 10. In our example, the geometrical pupil size at the fiber input is about 71 $`\mu `$m. Some tolerance is allowed for the focal position before light is lost at the limb of the 100 $`\mu `$m fiber core. While in principle FRD should not change since the angle of incidence remains the same, light loss sets in as soon as the tolerance of about $`\pm `$ 100 $`\mu `$m is exceeded. A simulation of geometric vignetting predicts fairly well the resulting light losses (Fig. 11) when compared with the observed behaviour. Since diffraction and optical aberrations were not taken into account, some details are notably different at small displacements, but the overall picture is correct. At a defocus of 500$`\mu `$m, about 50% of the light is lost without any FRD changes.

#### 4.3.2 Lateral translation

Lateral misalignment is caused by pitch variations of the lenslet array and inaccurate fiber positioning. For most modern monolithic arrays, the former source of error is negligible, while the latter remains a challenge. Errors are introduced by the mask which holds the fibers, the way the fibers are mounted in the mask and the degree to which the fibers are mounted concentric to their ferrules. Our measurement (Fig.12) is consistent with the allowable tolerance of $`\pm `$ 10 $`\mu `$m, which is obtained when a round 80 $`\mu `$m spot is moved inside a 100 $`\mu `$m circle as simulated in Fig. 13. Note a slight misalignment of the zero point which was due to the limited accuracy of the adjustment with a photo diode. The shape of the light loss behaviour is consistent with the theoretical prediction and very steep. Even small lateral misalignments have strong effects on the overall efficiency. In this example, more than 50% of the light are lost as soon as the lateral misalignment is exceeding 45$`\mu `$m. Due to the fact that the fiber surface is not much larger than the image projected on, no FRD changes are observed.

#### 4.3.3 Angular misalignment

An angular misalignment occurs when the fibers are tilted slightly in their mask or when the whole lenslet array is tilted during the alignment to the fore-optics. In our setup we simulated angular misalignment by turning the aperture stop wheel in small increments. Fig. 14 shows that FRD losses become significant for deviations larger than two degrees, which is consistent with other measurements (Taylor & Gray, 1993). As expected, faster input focal ratios are more sensitive to angular misalignments. In our example, a fraction of more than 30% of the light is lost when the angular misalignment exceeds 7 degrees. This loss is not geometric but a pure FRD loss, as the change of $`\eta _{f/3}`$ in fig. 14 indicates.

### 4.4 Wavelength dependence

The measurements from above were performed at a wavelength of 550 nm with a bandpass of 10 nm FWHM. A possible dependence of FRD with wavelength was investigated. Theoretically, no wavelength dependence is to be expected (Lund & Enard, 1984). Chromatic aberrations of the objective lenses resulting in focus changes with wavelength were measured and compensated as far as possible during the measurements. The results of two fibers measured (Fig. 15) show that the theoretical expectation is fulfilled in a range between 400 and 700 nm. For wavelengths larger then 700 nm the coupling efficiency is totally dominated by the lens aberrations of the test setup and the results are no longer meaningful.

### 4.5 Modal Noise Tests

In the picture of waves propagating through an optical fiber, FRD is the change of modal distribution from lower to higher and to lossy modes. In bench-mounted spectrographs, connected to the telescope focal plane with a long fiber cable, the motion of this cable during tracking may give rise to a change of this modal distribution, caused by variable mechanical stress. Baudrand&Walker (2001) have measured the effect and attributed the observed S/N limit for high resolution spectroscopy (“modal noise”) to the occurance of this phenomenon. The same effect had been observed to set in with FOCES (Calar Alto 2.2m Telescope) when the telescope was tracking, but to vanish when the telescope stopped (M. Pfeiffer, priv. communication).

We have investigated whether modal redistribution of light in the output of a fiber is capable of producing measurable variations of the final spectra, e.g. comparable to the typical inaccuracy of sky-subtracted deep spectra at the wavelength of bright night sky emission lines. We performed a simulation, using the optical design data for the PMAS fiber spectrograph (Roth et al., 2002). An example is shown in Fig. 16 for a fiber located at a collimator field angle of 4.1 degrees, corresponding to a position of 82% of the half length of the pseudo-slit, counted from the center. The raytracing was performed for a wavelength of 852nm in the red part of the spectrum, where the night sky emission lines are known to present problems for accurate sky subtraction. Fig. 16a presents the orthogonal distribution of rays in the spectrograph pupil plane, excluding those rays outside of the circular pupil (dots). The rays which are entering the spectrograph focal plane (Fig. 16b) are plotted as crosses and asterisks, the latter symbolizing all rays originating from a pupil annulus whose intensity is modulated with a constant weight of (1$`\pm `$X%) as an approximation to the observed redistribution of light in the output cone of a fiber. Not surprizingly, the spot diagram (Fig. 16b) reveals that the annulus rays, i.e. non-paraxial rays, are predominantly contributing to the wings of the spot, whose image (point-spread-function, PSF) is shown in Fig. 16c. For comparison, a 15$`\mu `$m CCD pixel is outlined as a square in the lower left corner or the image. The PSF shows the onset of astigmatism and coma near the edge of the field. The present configuration of PMAS employs 100$`\mu `$m diameter fibers, which are projected onto a demagnified diameter of 60$`\mu `$m (4 pixels) on the CCD. The fiber image, represented by a circular disk of the projected fiber diameter, was convolved with the PSF, yielding the picture shown in Fig. 16d (modulation 0%). This image was taken as a model for an unresolved night sky emission line, which was extracted from the simulated CCD image by coadding pixels along the columns. The resulting spectrum, normalized to 1, is plotted in Fig. 16e. Repeating the simulation with a pupil annulus modulation of 10%, and subtracting the spectrum from the unperturbed spectrum produced the residual of Fig. 16f, having an amplitude of 0.5% with respect to the normalized emission line. The shape and order of magnitude resembles closely the typical appearance of a less than perfectly subtracted night sky emission line in deep spectra of faint objects.

For simplicity, the simulation was performed along the direction of dispersion. We have not further investigated the effects perpendicular to the direction of dispersion, depending largely on details like the width and spacing of spectra, and the method of extraction. We note qualitatively, however, that the expected cross-talk variance due to 10% modal redistribution is potentially capable of contributing a small error of order of $``$1%.

We note also that the preponderance of non-paraxial contributions to the wings of the PSF favours (a) refractive fiber spectrographs over optical designs with central obstruction, and (b) a high degree of scrambling of the telescope beam by means of a fiber, since any increased ring pattern of illumination in the pupil plane would magnify the effect.

Our fiber testbench experiments included a stability test to verify the presence and order of magnitude of modal redistribution under controlled conditions. A series of CCD images of the fiber far field output pattern was obtained and the fiber manipulated in different ways. The test was performed under illumination with a 550nm central wavelength, 10nm bandwidth filter. Since the expected modulation must be observed over a large range of intensities and is expected to be small, we chose a differential approach, comparing our test images with a reference frame of an undisturbed fiber. A low-noise, cryogenic 16-bit CCD camera is an ideal tool for the required accuracy of about 0.1%. Fig. 17 shows results from a first qualitative test, comparing an undisturbed fiber with two cases of strong and weak perturbation (left, middle, right frame). Strong perturbation was imposed by pressing the fiber gently between two fingers, while weak perturbation was the similar with less pressure, but shaking the fiber rapidly. The static, strong stress situation caused a modal distribution in favor of some distinct, strongly amplified modes which created an annulus.

We also simulated the modal noise situation described by Baudrand&Walker (2001) with a 20m long Polymicro FHP 100/120/140 fiber and a mechanical telescope tracking simulator, consisting in a clock driven portable amateur telescope mount. Over a period of 6 hours, the simulator was tracking with the fiber, and a CCD exposure was taken every 15 minutes. Again, the series of CCD frames was analyzed differentially against a reference frame to observe deviations from this reference. The most striking example is shown in Fig. 18, revealing a drop in flux of 1.4% near the core, and of 2.9% in the wings, i.e. a total loss of flux of 4.3%. Neglecting the variation in intensity, the modal redistribution is seen as a relative enhancement within a zone similar to the annulus of our simulation from above.

## 5 Summary and Conclusions

We have designed and built a laboratory testbench for optical fibers, featuring a light source, filter wheels, a fiber illumination and adjustment device, and a cryogenic, low-noise 16-bit CCD camera system. Fiber measurements at different wavelengths and with different input focal ratios are performed automatically under remote control from a workstation which is also used for data reduction and analysis.

A sample of Polymicro FVP100/120/140 fibers was tested in this setup for use in the PMAS instrument. The far field of the fiber output was recorded with the CCD and the light collection efficiency $`\eta _{f/3}`$ within the projected nominal f/3 focal ratio of the collimator derived as a figure of merit for fiber FRD properties. The viability of this approach was verified with a repeatibility test.

As a practical result, it was found that immersion coupling, glueing fibers into ferrules, and polishing the fiber end faces improved on average the f/3 light collecting efficiency, and reduced the scatter among the samples under study.

Defocus at the fiber input was found to cause a slow decrease of $`\eta _{f/3}`$ beyond $`\pm `$ 100$`\mu `$m. Decentering is very sensitively producing a rapid loss of efficiency beyond a tolerance of 15$`\mu `$m. Deviation of the input beam from normal incidence, depending on input focal ratio, caused the onset of losses at angles of $`\pm 3^{}`$ and $`\pm 1^{}`$ for focal ratios of F/5 and f/3.5, respectively. As expected, there was no wavelength dependence found for FRD between 400nm and 700nm.

A qualitative test of fiber behaviour under stress showed that modal redistribution of light within different zones of the fiber output pattern occured at a level of typically 1% peak intensity for illumination at 550nm with a bandwidth of 10nm. Tracking a fiber with the telescope was simulated over a period of 6 hours, reproducing the effect of “modal noise”, which has been discussed in the literature as the reason for a limiting S/N for high resolution spectroscopy below the expected value due to photon shot noise. The net effect in our test was a maximal loss of intensity of 4%, and a redistribution of light in the output beam pattern of order several percent. On the basis of a ray tracing model, we demonstrate that modal redistribution is noticeable effecting the shape of the PMAS fiber spectrograph PSF when aberrations are present. The model is capable of reproducing typical night sky emission line residuals.

The results of this study have entered into the design and construction of the PMAS fiber module, but may prove useful also for other applications. We believe that the avoidance of modal noise is mandatory for the development of fiber coupled high resolution echelle spectrographs and spectropolarimeters at 8-10m class telescopes, which are expected to yield very high S/N ratios up to 104, see e.g.(Strassmeier et al., 2003).

This work has been supported by the German Verbundforschung under grant 05AL9BA1, and by the European Commission under contract HPRN-CT2002-00305. The authors acknowledge the enduring support of G. Hasinger during all stages of the PMAS project. The help of Evgeni Guerassimenko (Special Astrophysical Observatory, Zelenchuk, Russia) for the preparation and measurement of a large amount of fibers is gratefully acknowledged.


text:
# Brane Dynamics, the Polytropic Gas and Conformal Bulk Fields

## 1 Introduction

In the Randall-Sundrum (RS) scenario  the Universe we inhabit is a 3-brane world embedded in a $`Z_2`$ symmetric 5-dimensional anti-de Sitter (AdS) space. With two branes the scenario provides a solution to the hierarchy problem introducing an exponential warp in the fifth dimension . Gravity is localized on the hidden positive tension brane and decays towards the visible brane which has negative tension. This leads to an exponential hierarchy between the weak and Planck scales and also to TeV scale Kaluza-Klein mass splittings and couplings . A bulk scalar field may be used to stabilize the size of the fifth dimension  and generate the Friedmann-Robertson-Walker (FRW) cosmology on the visible brane . In addition it allows the low energy recovery of 4-dimensional Einstein gravity on the visible brane . Two branes with positive tensions and an infinite fifth dimension may also be considered . The exponential hierarchy is then obtained on the brane where the gravitational field is not localized and it turns out that for a low energy observer gravity is effectively described by 4-dimensional general relativity . A warped infinite fifth dimension is also associated with a single positive tension brane to which the gravitational field is bound . Again the low energy theory of gravity on the brane is effectively 4-dimensional general relativity  and the brane cosmology may be of the FRW type  (see also  where a single brane in a compact fifth dimension was discussed). The gravitational collapse of matter localized on a 3-brane was also addressed in this model -. To date realistic 5-dimensional collapse solutions remain to be found. The difficulty resides in achieving a simultaneous localization of gravity and matter which avoids the creation of naked singularities in the bulk. In this context it should be noted that exact solutions which may be interpreted as static black holes localized on a brane have been found for a 2-brane embedded in a 4-dimensional AdS bulk . On the contrary, the exact 5-dimensional solutions discovered so far display singularities somewhere in the bulk , -.

In this letter we proceed with the investigation about the dynamics of a spherically symmetric RS 3-brane when conformal matter fields exist in the bulk . We analyze the possibility of generating on the brane the dynamics of a perfect fluid with a polytropic equation of state. We dedicate special attention to its generalized Chaplygin phase which recently has been considered to be a viable alternative to model the accelerated expansion of the Universe -.

## 2 Einstein Equations and Conformal Bulk Matter

Let us map the RS orbifold by a set of comoving coordinates $`(t,r,\theta ,\varphi ,z)`$. The non-factorizable dynamical metric consistent with the $`Z_2`$ symmetry in $`z`$ and with 4-dimensional spherical symmetry in $`(t,r,\theta ,\varphi )`$ may be written as

$$d\stackrel{~}{s}_5^2=\mathrm{\Omega }^2ds_5^2,ds_5^2=e^{2A}dt^2+e^{2B}dr^2+R^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2+dz^2.$$
(1)
The functions $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\mathrm{\Omega }(t,r,z)`$, $`A=A(t,r,z)`$, $`B=B(t,r,z)`$ and $`R=R(t,r,z)`$ are $`Z_2`$ symmetric. $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the RS warp factor and $`R`$ represents the physical radius of the 2-spheres. The classical dynamics is defined by

$$\stackrel{~}{G}_\mu ^\nu =\kappa _5^2\left[\mathrm{\Lambda }_B\delta _\mu ^\nu +\frac{\lambda }{\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{g}_{55}}}\delta \left(zz_0\right)\left(\delta _\mu ^\nu \delta _5^\nu \delta _\mu ^5\right)\stackrel{~}{T}_\mu ^\nu \right],$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_B`$ is the negative bulk cosmological constant, $`\lambda `$ is the brane tension and $`\kappa _5^2=8\pi /M_5^3`$ with $`M_5`$ the fundamental 5-dimensional Planck mass. The brane is located at $`z=z_0`$ and the stress-energy tensor $`\stackrel{~}{T}_\mu ^\nu `$ is conserved in the bulk, $`\stackrel{~}{}_\mu \stackrel{~}{T}_\nu ^\mu =0`$.

Let us consider the special class of conformal bulk matter defined by $`\stackrel{~}{T}_\mu ^\nu =\mathrm{\Omega }^2T_\mu ^\nu `$ and assume that $`T_\mu ^\nu `$ depends only $`(t,r)`$. The matter represented by $`\stackrel{~}{T}_\mu ^\nu `$ is then not localized near the brane. Instead, because the conformal weight is $`4`$, the density and pressures increase with $`z`$ and eventually become singular at the AdS horizon. The same problem is found in solutions with an extended black string singularity , . The divergence of $`\stackrel{~}{T}_\mu ^\nu `$ makes it necessary to introduce two branes with opposite tensions in the bulk, which will intersect the space-time before the AdS horizon is reached. This was suggested in the first RS model  and the two branes will then have identical cosmological evolutions, though gravity will be localized on the first brane but not on the second. In a single brane model one must look for solutions requiring a simultaneous localization of matter and gravity in the vicinity of the brane . Assuming further that $`A=A(t,r)`$, $`B=B(t,r)`$, $`R=R(t,r)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\mathrm{\Omega }(z)`$ we obtain

$$G_a^b=\kappa _5^2T_a^b,_aT_b^a=0,G_z^z=\kappa _5^2T_z^z,$$
(3)
and

$$6\mathrm{\Omega }^2(_z\mathrm{\Omega })^2=\kappa _5^2\mathrm{\Omega }^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_B,$$

$$3\mathrm{\Omega }^1_z^2\mathrm{\Omega }=\kappa _5^2\mathrm{\Omega }^2\left[\mathrm{\Lambda }_B+\lambda \mathrm{\Omega }^1\delta (zz_0)\right].$$
(4)
where the latin index represents the coordinates $`t,r,\theta `$ and $`\varphi `$. If the stress-energy tensor is $`T_\mu ^\nu =diag(\rho ,p_r,p_T,p_T,p_z)`$, where $`\rho `$, $`p_r`$, $`p_T`$ and $`p_z`$ denote the bulk matter density and pressures, the non-trivial Einstein equations in Eq. (3) are given by

$$G_t^t=e^{2B}\left(\frac{R_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{R^2}+2\frac{R^{\prime \prime }}{R}2B^{}\frac{R^{}}{R}\right)\frac{1}{R^2}e^{2A}\left(\frac{\dot{R}^2}{R^2}+2\dot{B}\frac{\dot{R}}{R}\right)=\kappa _5^2\rho ,$$
(5)
$$G_t^r=\frac{2e^{2A}}{R}\left(\dot{R}^{}A^{}\dot{R}\dot{B}R^{}\right)=0,$$
(6)
$$G_r^r=e^{2B}\left(\frac{R_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{R^2}+2A^{}\frac{R^{}}{R}\right)\frac{1}{R^2}e^{2A}\left(\frac{\dot{R}^2}{R^2}+2\frac{\ddot{R}}{R}2\dot{A}\frac{\dot{R}}{R}\right)=\kappa _5^2p_r,$$
(7)
$`G_\theta ^\theta =G_\varphi ^\varphi `$ $`=`$ $`e^{2B}\left(A_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}+A^{\prime \prime }A^{}B^{}+A^{}{\displaystyle \frac{R^{}}{R}}+{\displaystyle \frac{R^{\prime \prime }}{R}}B^{}{\displaystyle \frac{R^{}}{R}}\right)`$ (8)
$``$ $`e^{2A}\left(\dot{B}^2+\ddot{B}\dot{A}\dot{B}+{\displaystyle \frac{\ddot{R}}{R}}\dot{A}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{R}}{R}}+\dot{B}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{R}}{R}}\right)=\kappa _5^2p_T,`$
and

$`G_z^z`$ $`=`$ $`e^{2B}\left(A_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}+A^{\prime \prime }A^{}B^{}+{\displaystyle \frac{R_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{R^2}}+2A^{}{\displaystyle \frac{R^{}}{R}}+2{\displaystyle \frac{R^{\prime \prime }}{R}}2B^{}{\displaystyle \frac{R^{}}{R}}\right){\displaystyle \frac{1}{R^2}}`$ (9)
$``$ $`e^{2A}\left(\dot{B}^2+\ddot{B}\dot{A}\dot{B}+2{\displaystyle \frac{\ddot{R}}{R}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{R}^2}{R^2}}2\dot{A}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{R}}{R}}+2\dot{B}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{R}}{R}}\right)=\kappa _5^2p_z.`$
where the dot and the prime denote, respectively, partial differentiation with respect to $`t`$ and $`r`$. On the other hand the conservation equations are

$$\dot{\rho }+\dot{B}\left(\rho +p_r\right)+2\frac{\dot{R}}{R}\left(\rho +p_T\right)=0,A^{}\left(\rho +p_r\right)+p_{r}^{}{}_{}{}^{}2\frac{R^{}}{R}\left(p_Tp_r\right)=0$$
(10)
and we also find  that $`p_z`$ must satisfy a trace equation of state

$$\rho p_r2p_T+2p_z=0,$$
(11)
for consistency.

For definiteness $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ may be taken to be $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{RS}}=l/(|zz_0|+z_0)`$ where $`l=\sqrt{6/(\mathrm{\Lambda }_B\kappa _5^2)}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_B=\kappa _5^2\lambda ^2/6`$ . This warp factor also holds in the two brane model as may be seen taking the periodicity and the $`Z_2`$ symmetry of the orbifold into account. Then Eq. (3) must be satisfied on both branes, in this sense twin universes with an identical cosmological evolution.

## 3 Polytropic Dynamics on the Brane

To behave as a polytropic fluid interacting with an effective cosmological constant on the brane, the diagonal conformal bulk matter should be defined by

$$\rho =\rho _\text{P}+\mathrm{\Lambda },p_r+\eta \rho _{\text{P}}^{}{}_{}{}^{\alpha }+\mathrm{\Lambda }=0,p_T=p_r,p_z=\frac{1}{2}\left(\rho _\text{P}+3\eta \rho _{\text{P}}^{}{}_{}{}^{\alpha }\right)2\mathrm{\Lambda },$$
(12)
where $`\rho _\text{P}`$ defines the polytropic energy density. $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the bulk quantity which mimics the brane cosmological constant. In the two brane model the usual 4-dimensional quantities are given by $`\rho _4=\rho _\text{P}L`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4=\mathrm{\Lambda }L`$ where $`L=\kappa _5^2/\kappa _4^2`$ is the length scale defining the interbrane distance and thus the size of the extra dimension. The parameters ($`\alpha `$, $`\eta `$) characterize different polytropic phases.

Let us begin by solving the conservation equations in Eq. (10). Taking into account Eq. (12) we write them as follows

$$\dot{\rho _\text{P}}+\left(\dot{B}+2\frac{\dot{R}}{R}\right)\left(\rho _\text{P}\eta \rho _{\text{P}}^{}{}_{}{}^{\alpha }\right)=0,A^{}\left(\rho _\text{P}\eta \rho _{\text{P}}^{}{}_{}{}^{\alpha }\right)\eta \alpha \rho _{\text{P}}^{}{}_{}{}^{\alpha 1}\rho _{\text{P}}^{}{}_{}{}^{}=0.$$
(13)
The contribution of the cosmological constant cancels out in Eqs. (13). Specializing to the case of a homogeneous energy density, $`\rho _\text{P}=\rho _\text{P}(t)`$, the metric function $`A(t,r)`$ can be safely set to zero. Combining with the off-diagonal Einstein equation (6), which has solution $`e^B=R^{}/H`$ with $`H=H(r)`$ an arbitrary function of $`r`$, and separating the variables $`t`$ and $`r`$ we obtain

$$\rho _\text{P}=\left(\eta +\frac{a}{S^{33\alpha }}\right)^{\frac{1}{1\alpha }},$$
(14)
where $`\alpha 1`$, $`a`$ is an integration constant and $`S=S(t)`$ is the Robertson-Walker scale factor of the brane world which is related to the physical radius by $`R=rS`$. For $`\alpha =1`$ Eq. (14) is not defined. The appropriate limit is $`\rho _\text{P}=b/S^{33\eta }`$, where $`b`$ is the corresponding integration constant and $`\eta 1`$.

Next let us consider the diagonal Einstein equations in Eq. (3). First note that since $`p_r=p_T`$ we must have $`G_r^r=G_\theta ^\theta `$, which is possible only if,

$$H^2=1kr^2,$$
(15)
where the constant $`k`$ is the Robertson-Walker curvature parameter. Using Eqs. (5), (7), (8) and (12) we form the sum,

$$G_t^t+G_r^r+2G_\theta ^\theta =2\frac{\ddot{R}^{}}{R^{}}4\frac{\ddot{R}}{R}=\kappa _5^2\left(\rho _\text{P}3\eta \rho _{\text{P}}^{}{}_{}{}^{\alpha }2\mathrm{\Lambda }\right).$$
(16)
Then substituting $`R=rS`$ we obtain

$$\frac{\ddot{S}}{S}=\frac{\kappa _5^2}{6}\left(\rho _\text{P}3\eta \rho _{\text{P}}^{}{}_{}{}^{\alpha }2\mathrm{\Lambda }\right).$$
(17)
Applying the radial equation (7) then leads to

$$\dot{S}^2=\frac{\kappa _5^2}{3}\left(\rho _\text{P}+\mathrm{\Lambda }\right)S^2k.$$
(18)
Now, Eqs. (17) and (18) are linked by a derivative. They are consistent with each other when $`\rho _\text{P}`$ obeys the conservation Eq. (13).

Finally, introducing Eqs. (17), (18) and (15) on Eq. (9) and using the expression for $`p_z`$ given in Eq. (12) the $`zz`$ component of the 5-dimensional Einstein equations given in Eq. (9) is seen to be an identity for all the parameters of the model. We have thus obtained the following 5-dimensional polytropic solutions for which gravity is confined near the brane

$$d\stackrel{~}{s}_5^2=\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{RS}}^2\left[dt^2+S^2\left(\frac{dr^2}{1kr^2}+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2\right)+dz^2\right],$$
(19)
where the brane scale factor $`S`$ satisfies Eq. (18). It is easy to verify that if a 4-dimensional observer confined to the brane makes the same assumptions about the bulk degrees of freedom then she deduces exactly the same dynamics . In fact, the non-zero components of the projected Weyl tensor  are given by

$$_t^t=\frac{\kappa _5^2}{4}\left(\rho _\text{P}\eta \rho _\text{P}^\alpha \right),_r^r=_\theta ^\theta =_\varphi ^\varphi =\frac{_t^t}{3}.$$
(20)
As a consequence, the effective 4-dimensional dynamics is indeed defined by $`G_t^t=\kappa _5^2(\rho _\text{P}+\mathrm{\Lambda }),G_r^r=G_\theta ^\theta =G_\varphi ^\varphi =\kappa _5^2(\eta \rho _\text{P}^\alpha +\mathrm{\Lambda })`$. The 4-dimensional observer also sees gravity confined to the brane since she measures a negative tidal acceleration  given by $`a_T=\kappa _5^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_B/6`$. Because of this the geodesics just outside the brane converge towards the brane and so for the 4-dimensional observer the conformal bulk matter is effectively trapped inside the brane.

At small $`S`$ and for $`\alpha <1`$ the polytropic dynamics is dominated by the homogeneous Oppenheimer-Snyder phase with $`\rho _\text{P}=a^{1/(1\alpha )}/S^3`$ which corresponds to $`\eta =0`$. If $`\alpha 1`$ this is no longer true. For $`\alpha =1`$ the dynamics is only that of dust if $`\eta =2/3`$. For $`\eta =1/3`$ we find radiation. If $`\alpha >1`$ the small $`S`$ dynamics is that of an effective cosmological constant. Note also that for $`1\alpha <0`$ and $`0<\alpha 1`$ there is an intermediate phase defined by the equation of state $`p_\text{P}=\alpha \rho _\text{P}`$ which satisfies the dominant energy condition. If $`|\alpha |>1`$ this condition is violated. For large $`S`$ the dynamics is dominated by an effective cosmological constant term and it corresponds to $`a=0`$ if $`\alpha 1`$ or $`b=0`$ if $`\alpha =1`$.

In what follows we consider $`1\alpha <0`$. This is the generalized Chaplygin phase of the polytropic gas. To analyze it  let us re-write Eq. (18) (with Eq. (14) substituted in) to define the potential $`V(S)`$ as follows

$$S\dot{S}^2=V(S)=\frac{\kappa _5^2}{3}\left[\left(\eta S^{33\alpha }+a\right)^{\frac{1}{1\alpha }}+\mathrm{\Lambda }S^3\right]kS.$$
(21)
Naturally, the dynamics depends on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`k`$, $`\eta `$, $`a`$ and $`\alpha `$. Let us consider some special ilustrative examples which can be treated analytically.

Starting from an initial state, a rebounce will occur whenever $`\dot{S}=0`$ and $`S0`$. This happens when $`V(S)=0`$. To begin with consider $`k=0`$. Then introducing $`Y=S^{33\alpha }`$ the potential $`V`$ is given by

$$V=V(Y)=\frac{\kappa _5^2}{3}\left[\left(\eta Y+a\right)^{\frac{1}{1\alpha }}+\mathrm{\Lambda }Y^{\frac{1}{1\alpha }}\right].$$
(22)
Next take $`\eta >0`$ and $`a>0`$ . If $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ then $`V>0`$ for all $`1\alpha <0`$ and $`S0`$. Consequently, the Chaplygin shells may either expand continously to infinity or collapse to the singular epoch at $`S=0`$ where $`V(0)=\kappa _5^2a^{1/(1\alpha )}/3>0`$. Note that this is also what happens if $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$. If $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$ then two new possibilities arise. For $`\eta (|\mathrm{\Lambda }|)^{1\alpha }`$ the Chaplygin gas is dominant and the potential is positive for all $`Y0`$. This implies an evolution of the type found for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }0`$. If $`\eta <(|\mathrm{\Lambda }|)^{1\alpha }`$ then it is the cosmological constant which prevails. The allowed dynamical phase space is given by $`0YY_{}`$ where $`Y_{}=a/[(|\mathrm{\Lambda }|)^{1\alpha }\eta ]`$ is the maximum regular rebounce epoch. Since at $`S=0`$ the shells meet the singularity these solutions are not globally regular on the brane.

It is important to note that the range $`\eta <0`$ and $`a<0`$ may be allowed in the presence of a non-zero cosmological constant. The same is not true for $`\eta >0`$ and $`a<0`$ or $`\eta <0`$ and $`a>0`$. Indeed, for these definitions the current experimental bounds are violated  and there is a singular epoch at $`Y=a/\eta >0`$ where $`V^{}`$ diverges. If $`\eta <0`$ and $`a<0`$ the potential depends on $`(1)^{1/(1\alpha )}`$ and it is not defined for all values of $`1\alpha <0`$.

For $`\alpha =p/q`$, $`q>p`$ with $`q`$ and $`p`$, respectively, even and odd integers, the Chaplygin contribution to the potential $`V`$ is positive for all $`S0`$ and so the evolution follows the case $`\eta >0`$ and $`a>0`$. However, if $`q`$ is odd and $`p`$ is even then the potential becomes

$$V=\frac{\kappa _5^2}{3}\left[\left(|\eta |Y+|a|\right)^{\frac{q}{p+q}}\mathrm{\Lambda }Y^{\frac{q}{p+q}}\right]$$
(23)
and new dynamics develops. For a rebounce, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ must be positive and then the dynamical phase space is defined by $`Y|a|/((\mathrm{\Lambda })^{(p+q)/q}|\eta |)`$, $`(\mathrm{\Lambda })^{(p+q)/q}>|\eta |`$, where the lower limit of the interval is the only existing regular rebounce point. In this phase the Chaplygin energy density is negative but the presence of the cosmological constant ensures that the total density $`\rho `$ is not. Since $`V(0)=\kappa _5^2|a|^{q/(p+q)}/3<0`$ the singularity at $`S=0`$ is inside the forbidden region and does not form. These solutions are thus globally regular on the brane.

Another special case is that of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$. As we have seen for $`k=0`$ there are only singular solutions without rebouncing epochs. It is for $`k0`$ that new dynamics appears. With $`Y=Z^3`$ the potential $`V`$ is given by

$$V=V(Z)=\frac{\kappa _5^2}{3}\left(\eta Z^3+a\right)^{\frac{1}{1\alpha }}kZ^{\frac{1}{1\alpha }}.$$
(24)
Consider $`k>0`$, $`\eta >0`$ and $`a>0`$. The condition $`V0`$ is equivalent to $`𝒱=𝒱(Z)0`$ where

$$𝒱=\left(\frac{\kappa _5^2}{3}\right)^{1\alpha }\left(\eta Z^3+a\right)k^{1\alpha }Z.$$
(25)
Then there are no more than two regular rebounce epochs in the allowed dynamical phase space. Since $`𝒱(0)=(\kappa _5^2/3)^{1\alpha }a>0`$ and $`𝒱^{}=3(\kappa _5^2/3)^{1\alpha }\eta Z^2k^{1\alpha }`$, $`𝒱^{\prime \prime }=6(\kappa _5^2/3)^{1\alpha }\eta Z0`$, this is controlled by the sign of $`𝒱`$ at its minimum $`𝒱_m=𝒱(Z_m)`$ where $`Z_m=\sqrt{(3k/\kappa _5^2)^{1\alpha }/3\eta }`$. If $`𝒱_m>0`$ then there are no regular rebounce points and the collapsing shells may fall from infinity to the singularity at $`S=0`$ where $`V(0)=\kappa _5^2a^{1/(1\alpha )}/3>0`$. For $`𝒱_m=0`$ we have just one regular fixed point $`S=S_{}`$ which divides the phase space into two disconnected regions, a bounded region with the singularity at $`S=0`$, $`0S<S_{}`$, and an infinitely extended region, $`S>S_{}`$, where the shells may expand increasingly faster to infinity. The solutions restricted to this region are regular. If $`𝒱_m<0`$ then we have two regular rebounce epochs $`S=S_{}`$ and $`S=S_+`$ such that $`S_{}<S_+`$. The region between them is forbidden as there the potential is negative. For $`0SS_{}`$ a shell may expand to a maximum radius $`rS_{}`$ and then rebounce to collapse towards the singularity at $`S=0`$. For $`SS_+`$ the collapsing shells shrink to the minimum scale $`S_+`$ and then rebounce to expand with ever increasing speed to infinity. For $`\eta <0`$ and $`a<0`$ we find the same type of dynamics but now only for the special values $`\alpha =p/q`$, $`q>p`$ with $`q`$ and $`p`$ , respectively, even and odd integers.

If $`k<0`$ then for $`\eta >0`$ and $`a>0`$ the potential is always positive and so there are only singular solutions without rebouncing points. For $`\eta <0`$ and $`a<0`$ we must consider $`\alpha =p/q`$, $`q>p`$ with $`q`$ and $`p`$, respectively, odd and even integers to find solutions with rebouncing points. The condition $`V0`$ is still equivalent to $`𝒱0`$ but now

$$𝒱=\left(\frac{\kappa _5^2}{3}\right)^{1\alpha }\left(|\eta |Z^3+|a|\right)+|k|^{1\alpha }Z.$$
(26)
Now since $`𝒱(0)=(\kappa _5^2/3)^{1\alpha }|a|<0`$, $`𝒱^{}=3(\kappa _5^2/3)^{1\alpha }|\eta |Z^2+|k|^{1\alpha }`$ and $`𝒱^{\prime \prime }=6(\kappa _5^2/3)^{1\alpha }|\eta |Z0`$, the sign of $`𝒱`$ at its maximum $`𝒱_M=𝒱(Z_M)`$ where $`Z_M=\sqrt{(3|k|/\kappa _5^2)^{1\alpha }/3|\eta |}`$ shows that the only possibilities are the existence of one or two regular rebounce epochs. In the former case the classical brane stays forever in the fixed point and in the latter it oscilates back and forth between the two regular rebounce epochs.

## 4 Conclusions

In this paper we have investigated if the localized gravitational dynamics of a polytropic gas could be generated in a RS brane world. To determine such solutions we have considered matter fields distributed in the AdS bulk and analyzed the 5-dimensional Einstein equations using a global conformal transformation whose factor is the $`Z_2`$ symmetric warp. Using bulk matter defined by a stress-energy tensor whose conformal weight is -4 we have found 5-dimensional solutions for which gravity is localized near the brane and the dynamics of the conformal bulk matter on the brane is that of an homogeneous polytropic gas. We have analyzed the polytropic dynamics from the point of view of a 4-dimensional observer confined to the brane to find conditions for singular or globally regular behavior. For the examples analyzed we have found that the dynamical phase space displaying the evolution of polytropic shells on the brane has an overall pattern similar to that of homogeneous dark radiation . As we have noted, since the conformal weight is -4 the bulk matter density and pressures increase with the coordinate of the fifth dimension. This is not a problem in a two brane model, but in a single brane model they diverge at the AdS horizon. Within the single brane model a solution to this problem requires the simultaneous localization of gravity and matter near the brane. An analysis of scenarios in which both matter and gravity are localized on a single brane will be published elsewhere.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for financial support from the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) as well as the Fundo Social Europeu (FSE) under the contracts SFRH/BPD/7182/2001 and POCTI/32694/FIS/2000 (III Quadro Comunitário de Apoio).