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# Beyond the T Dwarfs: Theoretical Spectra, Colors, and Detectability of the Coolest Brown Dwarfs

## 1 Introduction

The discovery of Gliese 229B (Oppenheimer et al. 1995) and the successes of the 2MASS (Reid 1994; Stiening, Skrutskie, and Capps 1995), Sloan (Strauss et al. 1999), and DENIS (Delfosse et al. 1997) surveys have collectively opened up a new chapter in stellar astronomy. The L and T dwarfs (Kirkpatrick et al. 1999,2000; Martín et al. 1999; Burgasser et al. 1999, 2000a,b,c) that have thereby been discovered and characterized comprise the first new “stellar” types to be added to the stellar zoo in nearly 100 years. The lower edge of the solar-metallicity main sequence is an L dwarf not an M dwarf, with a T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$near 1700 Kelvin (K), and more than 200 L dwarfs spanning a T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$range from $``$2200 K to $``$1300 K are now inventoried. The coolest L dwarfs are also brown dwarfs, objects too light ($`\stackrel{<}{}0.074`$ M) to ignite hydrogen stably on the main sequence (Burrows et al. 2001). Similarly, to date approximately 40 T dwarfs have been discovered spanning the T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$range from $``$1200 K to $``$750 K. These are all brown dwarfs and are the coldest “stars” currently known.

However, the edge of the “stellar” mass function in the field, in the solar neighborhood, or in star clusters has not yet been reached and it is strongly suspected that in the wide mass and T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$gap between the currently known T dwarfs and Jovian-like planets there resides a population of very cool ($`150\mathrm{K}<T_{\mathrm{eff}}<800`$ K) brown dwarfs. Such objects could be too dim in the optical and near-infrared to have been seen with current technology, but might be discovered in the not-too-distant future by the NGSS/WISE infrared space survey (Wright et al. 2001), SIRTF (Space InfraRed Telescope Facility; Werner and Fanson 1995), and/or JWST (James Webb Space Telescope; Mather and Stockman 2000). In this paper, we calculate the spectra and colors of such a population in order to provide a theoretical underpinning for the future study of these coolest of brown dwarfs. Dwelling as they do at T$`{}_{\mathrm{eff}}{}^{}s`$beyond those of the currently-known T dwarfs, these “stars” emit strongly in the near- and mid-infrared. Consequently, we highlight their fluxes from 1 to 30 microns and compare these fluxes with the putative sensitivities of instruments on SIRTF and planned instruments on JWST. We include the effects of water clouds that form in the coolest of these objects. The presence of clouds of any sort emphasizes the kinship of this transitional class with solar system planets, in which clouds play a prominent role. (Note, however, that on Jupiter itself water clouds are too deep below the ammonia cloud layer to have been unambiguously detected.)

Since we focus on isolated free-floaters or wide binary brown dwarfs, we do not include external irradiation by companions. The T$`{}_{\mathrm{eff}}{}^{}s`$of this model set ($`800`$ K) are such that silicate and iron clouds are deeply buried. Hence, unlike for L dwarfs and early T dwarfs (Marley et al. 2002; Burrows et al. 2002), the effect of such refractory clouds on emergent spectra can be ignored. In §2, we discuss our numerical approaches and inputs. We go on in §3 to describe our mass-age model set and our use of the Burrows et al. (1997) evolutionary calculations to provide the mapping between (T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, gravity \[$`g`$\]) and (mass, age). In §4, we present a representative sample of derived atmospheric temperature(T)/pressure(P) profiles and their systematics. This leads in §5 to a short discussion of the SIRTF and JWST point-source sensitivities. Section 6 concerns the derived spectra and is the central section of the paper. In it, we discuss prominent spectral features from the optical to 30 microns, trends as a function of age, T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, and mass, diagnostics of particular atmospheric constituents, and detectability with instruments on SIRTF and JWST. We find that these platforms can in principle detect brown dwarfs cooler than the current T dwarfs out to large distances. We also explore the evolution of $`JK`$ and its eventual return to the “red” (Marley et al. 2002; Stephens, Marley, and Noll 2001), reversing the blueward trend with decreasing T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$that roughly characterizes the known T dwarfs. Furthermore, we make suggestions for filter sets that may optimize their study with NIRCam on JWST. Finally, we present physical reasons for anticipating the emergence of a new stellar type beyond the T dwarfs. In §7, we summarize what we have determined about this coolest-dwarf family and the potential for their detection.

## 2 Numerical Tools and Assumptions

To calculate model atmospheres of cool brown dwarfs requires 1) a method to solve the radiative transfer, radiative equilibrium, and hydrostatic equilibrium equations, 2) a convective algorithm, 3) an equation of state that also provides the molecular and atomic compositions, 4) a method to model clouds that may form, and 5) an extensive opacity database for the constituents that arise in low-temperature, high-pressure atmospheres. The computer program we use to solve the atmosphere and spectrum problem in a fully self-consistent fashion is an updated version of the planar code TLUSTY (Hubeny 1988; Hubeny & Lanz 1995), which uses a hybrid of Complete Linearization and Accelerated Lambda Iteration (Hubeny 1992). To handle convection, we use mixing-length theory (with a mixing length equal to one pressure-scale height). The equation of state we use to find the P/T/density($`\rho `$) relation is that of Saumon, Chabrier, and Van Horn (1995) and the molecular compositions are calculated using a significantly updated version of the code SOLGASMIX (Burrows and Sharp 1999). The latter incorporates a rainout algorithm for refractory silicates and iron (Burrows et al. 2001). The most important molecules are H2, H2O, CH4, CO, N2, and NH3 and the most important atoms are Na and K.

We determine when water condenses by comparing the water ice condensation curve (the total pressure at which the partial pressure of water is at saturation) with the object’s T/P profile. For pressures lower than that near the associated intercept, we deplete the vapor phase through the expected rainout and embed an absorbing/scattering water-ice cloud with a thickness of one pressure-scale-height in the region above. Note that the total gas pressures at which the partial pressure of water is at the triple-point pressure of water are generally higher than the intercept pressures we find. Hence, the water gas to water ice (solid) transition is the more relevant. Note also that the optical properties of water ice and water droplets are not very different. The ice particles are assumed to be spherical and their modal particle radii are derived using the theory of Cooper et al. (2003). They vary in size from $``$20 $`\mu `$m (higher-$`g`$/lower-T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$) to $``$150 $`\mu `$m (lower-$`g`$/higher-T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$) and we assume that the particle size is independent of altitude. A canonical super-saturation factor (Cooper et al. 2003; Ackermann and Marley 2001) of 0.01 (1.0%) is used. Curiously, with such large particles and such a small super-saturation, the absorptive opacity of our baseline water-ice clouds, when they do form, is not large. In fact, the consequences for the emergent spectrum of the associated drying of the upper atmosphere, and the corresponding diminution of the water vapor abundance there, are comparable to the effects on the spectrum of the clouds themselves. Without an external flux source, and the scattering of that flux back into space by clouds, water-ice clouds seem to have only a secondary influence on the spectra of the coolest isolated brown dwarfs.

We use the constantly-updated opacity database described in Burrows et al. (1997,2001,2002). This includes Rayleigh scattering, Collision-Induced Absorption (CIA) for H2 (Borysow and Frommhold 1990; Borysow, Jørgensen, and Zheng 1997), and T/P-dependent absorptive opacities from 0.3 $`\mu `$m to 300 $`\mu `$m for H2O, CH4, CO, and NH3. The opacities of the alkali metal atoms are taken from Burrows, Marley, and Sharp (2000), which are similar in the line cores and near wings to those found in Burrows and Volobuyev (2003). The opacities are tabulated in T/$`\rho `$/frequency space using the abundances derived for a solar-metallicity elemental abundance pattern (Anders and Grevesse 1989; Grevesse and Sauval 1998; Allende-Prieto, Lambert, and Asplund 2002). During the TLUSTY iterations, the opacity at any thermodynamic point and for any wavelength is obtained by interpolation. The absorptive opacities for the ice particles are derived using Mie theory with the frequency-dependent spectrum of the complex index of refraction of water ice. Ammonia clouds form in the upper atmospheres of the coldest exemplars of the late brown dwarf family (T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$$``$ 160 K; §4). Nevertheless, since the scattering of incident radiation that gives them their true importance in the Jovian context is absent, we ignore them here.

## 3 Model Set

We have chosen for this study a set of models with the masses and ages given in Table 1. Also shown in Table 1 are the corresponding gravities and T$`{}_{\mathrm{eff}}{}^{}s`$. These models span an effective temperature range from $``$800 K to $``$150 K that allows us to probe the realm between the known T dwarfs and the known Jovian planets. To establish the mapping between mass/age pairs and the T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$/$`g`$ pairs that are needed for atmospheric calculations, we use the evolutionary models of Burrows et al. (1997). While this procedure does not ensure that the atmospheres we calculate are fully consisitent with those evolutionary tracks, the errors are not large.

Figure 1 depicts evolutionary trajectories and isochrones in T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$/$`g`$ space for models in the realm beyond the T dwarfs. The depicted isochrones span the range from 107 to $`5\times 10^9`$ years and the masses cover the range from 0.5 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$to 25 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$. The large dots denote the models found in Table 1 for which we have calculated spectra and atmospheres. For contrast, the approximate region in which the currently known T dwarfs reside is also shown. In addition, we provide the demarcation lines that separate (in a rough sense) the cloud-free models from those with water clouds and ammonia clouds. The clouds form to the left of the corresponding condensation lines. Figure 1 emphasizes the transitional and as-yet-unstudied character of this family of objects. It also provides at a glance a global summary of family properties. Figure 2 is a companion figure to Fig. 1, but shows iso-T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$lines in mass/age space. For a given mass, Fig. 2 allows one to determine the evolution of T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$and at what age a given T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$is achieved. It also makes easy the determination of the combination of mass and age for which clouds form, as well as the minimum mass for which a given T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$is reached after approximately the galactic disk’s or the sun’s age ($`10^{10}`$ and $`4.6\times 10^9`$ years, respectively). For instance, Fig. 2 shows that it takes $`200`$ Myr for a 2-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$object to reach a T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$of 400 K, that it takes the same object 1 Gyr to reach a T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$of $``$250 K, and that in the age of the solar system a 2-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$object can reach the NH3 condensation line. Similarly, Fig. 2 indicates that a 10-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$object takes $``$1 Gyr to reach a T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$of $``$400 K, and that it has water-ice clouds in its upper atmosphere. Figures 1 and 2 are, therefore, useful maps of the model domain to which the reader may want often to return.

To calculate absolute fluxes at 10 parsecs one needs the radius of the object. We determine this for each model in Table 1 by using a fit to the results of Burrows et al. (1997) that works reasonably well below $``$25 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$and after deuterium burning has ended:

$$R=0.94\left(\frac{g}{10^5\mathrm{cm}\mathrm{s}^2}\right)^{0.18}\left(\frac{T_{\mathrm{eff}}}{1000\mathrm{K}}\right)^{0.11}R_\mathrm{J},$$
(1)
where $`R_\mathrm{J}`$ is Jupiter’s radius ($`7.15\times 10^9`$ cm).

## 4 Temperature-Pressure Profiles

Shown in Fig. 3 are representative temperature-pressure profiles at 300 Myr (blue) for models with masses of 1, 2, 5, 7, and 10 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$and at 5 Gyr (red) for models with masses of 2, 5, 7, 10, 15, 20, and 25 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$. Superposed are the water ice and ammonia condensation lines at solar metallicity. The radiative-convective boundary pressures are near 0.1-1.0 bars for the lowest-mass, oldest models and are near 10-30 bars for the youngest, most massive models. At a given temperature, lower-mass objects have higher pressures (at a given age). Similarly, an object with a given mass evolves to higher and higher pressures at a given temperature. This trend is made clear in Fig. 4, in which the evolving T/P profiles for 1-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$and 5-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$models are depicted, and is not unexpected (Marley et al. 1996,2002; Burrows et al. 1997). Note that Fig. 4 implies that a 5-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$object takes $``$300 Myr to form water clouds, but that a 1-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$object takes only $``$100 Myr. After $``$1 Gyr, a 1-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$object forms ammonia clouds, signature features of Jupiter itself. These numbers echo the information also found in Fig. 2.

The appearance of a water-ice cloud manifests itself in Figs. 3 and 4 by the kink in the T/P profile near the intercept with the associated condensation line. Generally, the higher the intercept of the T/P profile with the condensation line (the lower the intercept pressure) the smaller the droplet size (Cooper et al. 2003). Note that after an age of $``$300 Myr a 7-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$object is expected to form water clouds high up in its atmosphere and that after $``$5 Gyr even a 25-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$object will do so. The higher the atmospheric pressure at which the cloud forms the greater the column thickness of the cloud. This results in a stronger cloud signature for the lower-mass models than for the higher-mass models. However, given the generally large ice particle sizes derived with the Cooper et al. (2003) model, the low assumed supersaturation (§2), the tendency for larger particle radii to form for larger intercept pressures, and the modest to low imaginary part of the index of refraction for pure water ice, the effect of water clouds in our model set is not large. This translates into a small cloud effect on the corresponding flux spectra (§6).

Figure 5 portrays the evolution of the T/P profiles for 10-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$and 20-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$objects. This figure is provided to show, among other things, the position of the forsterite (Mg2SiO4) condensation line relative to that of water ice. Mg2SiO4 clouds exist in these brown dwarfs, but at significantly higher pressures and temperatures and are, therefore, buried from view. Hence, unlike in L dwarfs, such clouds have very little effect on the emergent spectra of the coolest brown dwarfs that are the subject of this paper.

Finally, the high pressures achieved at low temperatures for the lowest mass, oldest objects shown in Figs. 3, 4, and 5 suggest that the CIA (pressure-induced) opacity of H2 might for them be important. This is indeed the case at longer wavelengths and is discussed in §6. We mention this because CIA opacity is yet another characteristic signature of the Jovian planets in our own solar system and to emphasize yet again that our cold brown dwarf model suite is a bridge between the realms of the planets and the “stars.”

## 5 SIRTF and JWST Point-Source Sensitivities

Before we present and describe our model spectra, we discuss the anticipated point-source sensitivities of the instruments on board the SIRTF and JWST space telescopes. SIRTF has a 0.84-meter aperture and is to be launched in mid-April of 2003. JWST is planned to have a collecting area of $``$25 square meters over a segmented 6-meter diameter mirror and is to be launched at the beginning of the next decade. While SIRTF is the last of the “Great Observatories,” and will view the sky with unprecedented infrared sensitivity, JWST will in turn provide a two- to four-order-of-magnitude gain in sensitivity through much of the mid-infrared up to 27 microns. While their fields of view are limited and missions like WISE (formerly NGSS; Wright et al. 2001) are more appropriate for large-area surveys, the extreme sensitivity of both SIRTF and JWST will bring the coolest brown dwarfs and isolated giant planets into the realm of detectability and study.

SIRTF/IRAC has four channels centered at 3.63 $`\mu `$m , 4.53 $`\mu `$m , 5.78 $`\mu `$m , and 8.0 $`\mu `$m that are thought to have 5-$`\sigma `$ point-source sensitivities for 200-second integrations of $``$2.5, $``$4.5, $``$15.5, and $``$25.0 microJanskys, respectively. HST/NICMOS achieves a bit better than one microJansky sensitivity at 2.2 $`\mu `$m , but does not extend as far into the near IR. The short-wavelength, low-spectral resolution module (“Short-low”) of SIRTF/IRS extends from $``$5.0 $`\mu `$m to $``$14.0 $`\mu `$m and has a 5-$`\sigma `$ point-source sensitivity for a 500-second integration of $``$100 microJanskys. The other three modules on IRS cover other mid-IR wavelength regimes at either low- or high-spectral resolution, but will have smaller brown dwarf detection ranges. The $``$20.5 $`\mu `$m to $``$26 $`\mu `$m channel on SIRTF/MIPS is the most relevant channel on MIPS for brown dwarf studies and has a suggested 1-$`\sigma `$ point-source sensitivity at $``$24 $`\mu `$m of $``$70 microJanskys. This is $``$1000 times better in imaging mode than for the pioneering IRAS. All these SIRTF sensitivities are derived from various SIRTF web pages and are pre-launch estimates (`http://sirtf.caltech.edu`). Furthermore, for all three SIRTF instruments, one can estimate the point-source sensitivities for different values of the signal-to-noise and integration times. However, these signals-to-noise and integration times are the nominal combinations for each instrument and the quoted sensitivities serve to guide our assessment of SIRTF’s capabilities for cool brown dwarf studies in advance of real on-orbit calibrations and measurements.

The capabilities of JWST are even more provisional, but the design goals for its instruments are impressive (`http://ngst.gsfc.nasa.gov`). JWST/NIRCam is to span $``$0.6 $`\mu `$m to $``$5.0 $`\mu `$m in various wavelength channels/filters, though the final design has not been frozen. The seven so-called “B” filters have widths of 0.5–1.0 microns centered at $``$0.71, $``$1.1, $``$1.5, $``$2.0, $``$2.7, $``$3.6, and $``$4.4 microns and are expected to have 5-$`\sigma `$ point-source sensitivities in imaging mode, for an assumed exposure time of $`5\times 10^4`$ seconds, of $``$1.6, $``$0.95, $``$1.0, $``$1.2, $``$0.95, $``$1.05, and $``$1.5 nanoJanskys (nJ), respectively. In addition, a set of so-called “I” filters, with about half to one quarter the spectral width of the B filters, and sensitivites comparable to that of the B filters, are available in the 1.5–5.0 $`\mu `$m region. Furthermore, JWST/NIRCam may have a tunable filter to examine selected spectral regions beyond 2.5 $`\mu `$m at a resolution ($`R=\lambda /\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda `$) of $``$100, though at the time of this writing the availability of such a capability remained uncertain. Hence, with JWST/NIRCam we enter the world of nanoJansky sensitivity. This is greater than one hundred times more sensitive than HST/NICMOS at 2.2 $`\mu `$m and enables one to probe deeply in space, as well as broadly in wavelength. JWST/MIRI spans the mid-IR wavelength range from $``$5.0 $`\mu `$m to $``$27.0 $`\mu `$m and will have in imaging mode a 10-$`\sigma `$ point-source sensitivity for a 104-second integration of from $``$63 nJ at the shortest wavelength to $``$10 microJanskys at the longest. This is orders of magnitude more sensitive than any previous mid-IR telescope in imaging mode. (In spectral mode with an $`R`$ near 1000, JWST/MIRI will be $``$100 times less sensitive than in imaging mode.) Given the importance of the mid-IR for understanding those brown dwarfs that may exist in relative abundance at T$`{}_{\mathrm{eff}}{}^{}s`$cooler than those of the currently known T dwarfs, MIRI provides what is perhaps a transformational capability. As with SIRTF, the quoted JWST sensitivities are taken from the associated web pages and, hence, should be considered tentative.

We now turn to a discussion of the spectra, spectral evolution, defining features, systematics, and diagnostics for the cool brown dwarf models listed in Table 1 and embedded in Figs. 1 and 2. On each of Figs. 6 to 11 in §6, we plot for the SIRTF (red) and JWST (blue) instruments the broadband sensitivities we have summarized in this section.

## 6 Cool Brown Dwarf Spectra

Using the numerical tools and data referred to in §2, and the mapping between T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$/$`g`$ and mass/age found in Table 1, we have generated a grid of spectral and atmospheric models for cool brown dwarfs that reside in the low-T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$sector of T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$/$`g`$ space (Fig. 1). Some of the associated T/P profiles were given in Figs. 3, 4, and 5. In Figs. 6 to 11, we plot theoretical flux spectra (Fν, in milliJanskys) from the optical to 30 $`\mu `$m at a distance of 10 parsecs. These figures constitute the major results of our paper. For comparision, superposed on each figure are the estimated point-source sensitivities of the instruments on board SIRTF and JWST (§5). In addition, included at the top of Figs. 8 through 11 are the rough positions of the major atmospheric absorption features. (The full model set is available from the first author upon request.)

Figures 6 and 7 portray the mass dependence of a cool brown dwarf’s flux spectrum at 10 parsecs for ages of one and five Gyr, respectively. The model masses are 25, 20, 15, 10, 7, 5, 2, and 1 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$. The top panels depict the most massive four, while the bottom panels depict the least massive four (three for Fig. 7). Together they show the monotonic diminution of flux with object mass at a given age that parallels the associated decrease in T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$with mass (from $``$800 K to $``$130 K) seen in Table 1 and Fig. 2.

Figures 6 through 11 show the peaks due to enhanced flux through the water vapor absorption bands that define the classical terrestrial photometric bands ($`Z`$, $`J`$, $`H`$, $`K`$, and $`M`$) and that have come to characterize brown dwarfs since the discovery of Gliese 229B (Oppenheimer et al. 1995; Marley et al. 1996). For the more massive models, the near-IR fluxes are significantly above black-body values. At T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$$``$800 K, the 25-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$/1-Gyr model shown in Fig. 6 could represent the known late T dwarfs, but all other models in this model set are “later” and, hence, represent as yet undetected objects.

Apart from the distinctive water troughs, generic features are the hump at 4-5 microns ($`M`$ band), the broad hump near 10 microns, the methane features at 2.2 $`\mu `$m , 3.3 $`\mu `$m , 7.8 $`\mu `$m , and in the optical (particularly at 0.89 $`\mu `$m ), the ammonia features at $``$1.5 $`\mu `$m , $``$1.95 $`\mu `$m , $``$2.95 $`\mu `$m , and $``$10.5 $`\mu `$m , and the Na-D and K I resonance lines at 0.589 $`\mu `$m and 0.77 $`\mu `$m , respectively. However, as Figs. 6-11 indicate, the strengths of each of these features are functions of mass and age.

For lower masses or greater ages, the centroid of the $`M`$ band hump shifts from $``$4.0 $`\mu `$m to $``$5.0 $`\mu `$m . In part, this is due to the swift decrease with T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$at the shorter wavelengths of the Wien tail. Even after the collapse of the flux in the optical and near-IR after $``$1 Gyr for masses below 5 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$or after $``$5 Gyr for masses below 10 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$, the $`M`$ band flux persists as a characteristic marker and will be SIRTF’s best target. Moreover, IRAC’s filters are well-positioned for this task. As one would expect, the relative importance of the mid-IR fluxes, in particular between 10 and 30 microns, grows with decreasing mass and increasing age. Since this spectral region is near the linear Rayleigh-Jeans tail, fluxes here persist despite decreases in T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$from $``$800 K to $``$130 K. Figure 11 depicts this clearly for the older 2-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$models. The rough periodicity in flux beyond 10 $`\mu `$m is due predominantly to the presence of pure rotational bands of water and, for cooler models, methane as well. For the coldest models depicted in Figs. 6, 7, and 11, this behavior subsides, but is replaced with long-period undulations due to CIA absorption by H2. Such a signature is characteristic of Jovian planets and is expected for low-T, high-P atmospheres. Its appearance marks yet another transition, seen first in this model set for the old 5-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$and middle-aged 2-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$objects, between T-dwarf-like and “planet”-like behavior. As Figs. 6-11 imply, SIRTF/MIPS should be able to detect at 10 parsecs the $``$24-$`\mu `$m flux of objects more massive than 2-4 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$at age 1 Gyr or more massive than 10 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$at 5 Gyr.

Methane forms at low temperatures and high pressures and makes its presence felt in older and less massive objects. Hence, its features at 0.89 $`\mu `$m , 2.2 $`\mu `$m , 3.3 $`\mu `$m , and 7.8 $`\mu `$m deepen with age and decreasing mass. An example of such strengthening at 7.8 $`\mu `$m and 2.2 $`\mu `$m can be seen in Fig. 10 by comparing the 100-Myr and 5-Gyr models with a mass of 5 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$. Clear indications of the strengthening of the methane absorption feature at 0.89 $`\mu `$m with decreasing mass can be seen in the upper panel of Fig. 7. This trend is accompanied by a corresponding weakening of the Cs I feature on top of it. However, due to its presence in the $`I`$ band at relatively short wavelengths, the methane feature at 0.89 $`\mu `$m may be difficult to detect for all but the youngest and/or most massive models. The actual strength of the 7.8-$`\mu `$m feature depends on the T/P profile in the upper layers of the atmosphere, which in turn might be affected by ambient UV (disfavored for free-floating brown dwarfs) or processes that could create a stratosphere and a temperature inversion. Hence, the filling in or reshaping of the 7.8-$`\mu `$m feature might signal the presence of a stratosphere. Such a temperature inversion could also affect the depths of the water troughs.

As can be seen by comparing the top panels of Figs. 8-11, the alkali metal features at 0.589 $`\mu `$m and 0.77 $`\mu `$m diminish in strength with decreasing mass and increasing age. These features are signatures of the known T dwarfs (Burrows, Marley, and Sharp 2000; Burrows et al. 2002; Tsuji, Ohnaka, and Aoki 1999), so their decay signals a gradual transformation away from standard T-dwarf behavior. For the 10-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$model older than 1 Gyr and the 2-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$model older than 100 Myr, these alkali resonance features cease to be primary signatures. This happens near a T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$of 450 K.

Ammonia makes an appearance at even lower temperatures than methane and due to the relatively high abundance of nitrogen its absorption features are generally strong, particularly for the cool objects in our model set. For the higher T$`{}_{\mathrm{eff}}{}^{}s`$in the mid-T-dwarf range, ammonia may have been seen, but is weak (Saumon et al. 2000). Figs. 10 and 11 evince strong ammonia features in the upper panels at $``$1.5 $`\mu `$m , $``$1.95 $`\mu `$m , and $``$2.95 $`\mu `$m and in Figs. 8-11 in the lower panels at $``$10.5 $`\mu `$m . As Figs. 6-11 imply, the Short-low module on SIRTF/IRS should be able to study the 10.5-$`\mu `$m ammonia feature. Even for the 25-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$/1Gyr model, the $``$10.5 $`\mu `$m feature is prominent. For the more massive objects (10-25 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$), the strength of the 10.5-$`\mu `$m feature increases with age. For the lowest mass objects (2-7 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$), the strength of the 10.5-$`\mu `$m ammonia feature actually decreases with age, even though the strengths of the other ammonia lines increase. As the more massive objects age, their atmospheric pressures increase, shifting the N2/NH3 equilibrium towards NH3. For the less massive models, pressured-induced absorption by H2 grows with increasing atmospheric pressure (Fig. 3-4) and partially flattens an otherwise strengthening 10.5-$`\mu `$m ammonia feature.

Below T$`{}_{\mathrm{eff}}{}^{}s`$of $``$160 K, Figs. 1 and 2 demonstrate that ammonia clouds form. However, given that we are studying isolated objects that have no reflected component (unlike Jupiter and Saturn), and given that realistic supersaturations are only $``$1%, we have determined that ammonia clouds do not appreciably affect the emergent spectra. As a consequence, we ignore them in the three relevant models (Fig. 1).

As with the known T and L dwarfs, water vapor absorptions dominate and sculpt the flux spectra of the cooler brown dwarfs and these features generally deepen with increasing age and decreasing mass. The latter trend is in part a consequence of the increase with decreasing gravity of the column depth of water above the (roughly-defined) photosphere. At T$`{}_{\mathrm{eff}}{}^{}s`$below $``$400-500 K (Figs. 1-5), water condenses in brown dwarf atmospheres. The appearance of such water-ice clouds constitutes yet another milestone along the bridge from the known T dwarfs to the giant planets. Associated with cloud formation is the depletion of water vapor above the tops of the water cloud, with the concommitant decrease at altitude in the gas-phase abundance of water. Within $``$100 Myr, water clouds form in the atmosphere of an isolated 1-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$object and within $``$5 Gyr they form in the atmosphere of a 25-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$object. In fact, approximately two-thirds of the models listed in Table 1 incorporate water-ice clouds. However, at supersaturations of 1% and for particle sizes above 10 microns (§24; Cooper et al. 2003), such clouds (and the corresponding water vapor depletions above them) only marginally affect the calculated emergent spectra. Even though we see in Figs. 3-5 the associated kinks in the T/P profiles, these do not translate into a qualitative change in the emergent spectra at any wavelength. For wavelengths longward of 1 micron, the cloudy spectra differ from the no-cloud spectra by at most a few tens of percent. For a representative 2-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$model at 300 Myr (T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$$``$280 K), if we increase the supersturation factor by a factor of ten from 1% to 10%, the flux at 5 microns decreases by approximately a factor of two, while the flux from 10 to 30 microns increases by on average $``$50%. These are not large changes, given the many orders of magnitude covered by the fluxes in Figs. 6-11.

The prominence of water features provides a guide to the optimal placement of NIRCam filters for the detection and characterization of brown dwarfs. For example, the water feature near 0.93 $`\mu `$m is missed by the B filters, while those features at $``$1.4 and $``$1.8 $`\mu `$m are not centered on the respective adjacent filters and, hence, are diluted by the adjoining continuum. The I filters on NIRCam would partially overcome these limitations. Even so, as Fig. 12 shows, the broadband fluxes in the NIRCam filters provide useful diagnostics of the differences among brown dwarfs and extrasolar giant planets (here expressed as mass at a given age), with particular sensitivity to the large flux differences between the 5-$`\mu `$m window and the region shortward. A tunable filter could provide even greater diagnostic capability by permitting in and around the 5-$`\mu `$m window a spectral resolution near 100 to more definitively characterize the effective temperature and, hence, the mass of detected objects (for a given age and composition). Nevertheless, Fig. 7 indicates that at 10 parsecs even a 7-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$object at 5 Gyr should easily be detected in imaging mode in the $`J`$ and $`H`$ bands. In the $`M`$ band, a 2-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$object could be seen by NIRCam out to $``$100 parsecs. Furthermore, a 25-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$object at 5 Gyr and a distance of 1000 parsecs should be detectable by NIRCam in a number of its current broadband filters.

Figure 13 shows predicted spectra of a 20-$`M_\mathrm{J}`$/5-Gyr model in the mid-infrared for the SIRTF/IRS and JWST/MIRI instruments. To generate the SIRTF/IRS curve in Fig. 13, we multiplied the theoretical spectra by the IRS response curves for the entire wavelength range, not just the 5-14 $`\mu `$m of the “Short-low” module. The IRS spectral resolution has been assumed to be 100, while that of JWST/MIRI is $``$1000. We find that the IRS spectra are useful at 10 parsecs only for the warmer brown dwarfs ($`>15`$ $`M_\mathrm{J}`$), but for these brown dwarfs even at this modest spectral resolution one can clearly identify the various dominant molecular bands.

In its broadband detection (imaging) mode, JWST/MIRI will be $``$100 times more capable than SIRTF from $``$5 $`\mu `$m to $``$27 $`\mu `$m (§5). Since the mid-IR is one of the spectral regions of choice for the study of the coolest brown dwarfs, MIRI will assume for their characterization a role of dramatic importance. At wavelengths longward of 15-$`\mu `$m , MIRI will be able to detect objects 10 parsecs away down to 2 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$or lower. In addition, it could detect an object just 10 times the mass of Jupiter with an age of 5 Gyr out to a distance of one kiloparsec. Furthermore, JWST/MIRI provides 10 times better spectral resolution than SIRTF/IRS for objects down to 10 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$.

Figs. 6 through 13 collectively summarize the flux spectra and evolution of the cool brown dwarfs yet to be discovered, as well as the extraordinary capabilities of the various instruments on board both SIRTF and JWST for the diagnosis and characterization of their atmospheres. These figures highlight the prominent molecular features of H2O, CH4, NH3, in particular, that are pivotal in the evolution of the differences between the coolest brown dwarfs and the known T dwarfs, most of which are at higher T$`{}_{\mathrm{eff}}{}^{}s`$and gravities. The latest known T dwarf has been typed a T8 (Burgasser et al. 2000a), but its effective temperature is near 750-800 K (Geballe et al. 2001; Burrows et al. 2002). This does not leave much room for the expansion of the T dwarf subtypes to the lower T$`{}_{\mathrm{eff}}{}^{}s`$and masses discussed in this paper, and suggests that yet another spectroscopic class beyond the T dwarfs might be called for. Many of the spectral trends described in this paper are gradual, but the near disappearance of the alkali features below T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$= 500 K, the onset of water cloud formation below T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$= 400-500 K, the collapse below $``$350 K of the optical and near-IR fluxes relative to those longward of $``$5 $`\mu `$m , and the growing strengths of the NH3 features all suggest physical reasons for such a new class. Figure 14 depicts isochrones from 100 Myr to 5 Gyr on the $`M_J`$ versus $`JK`$ color-magnitude diagram and demonstrates that the blueward trend in $`JK`$ that so typifies the T dwarfs stops and turns around (Marley et al. 2002; Stephens, Marley, and Noll 2001) between effective temperatures of 300 and 400 K. This is predominantly due not to the appearance of water clouds, but to the long-expected collapse of flux on the Wien tail. Note that the T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$at which the $`JK`$ color turns around is not the same for all the isochrones. This is because the colors are not functions of just T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, but of gravity as well. The decrease in T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, that for the T dwarfs squeezes the $`K`$-band flux more than the $`J`$-band flux, finally does to $`JK`$ what people had expected such a decrease to do before the discovery of T dwarfs, i.e., redden the color. We remind the reader that unlike M dwarfs, the $`JK`$ colors of T dwarfs actually get bluer with decreasing T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$(for a given surface gravity). This may be counterintuitive, but it is a result of the increasing role of methane and H2 collision-induced absorption with decreasing temperature, as well as the positive slope of the opacity/wavelength curve of water and its gradual steepening with decreasing temperature.

Were it not for the extremely low fluxes at such low T$`{}_{\mathrm{eff}}{}^{}s`$shortward of 4 microns, we might have suggested the use of this turnaround to mark the beginning of a new spectroscopic class. Moreover, clearly the optical can not be used and with the diminishing utility of the near infrared as T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$drops, that leaves the mid-IR longward of $``$4 $`\mu `$m as the most logical part of the spectrum with which to characterize a new spectroscopic class. As is usual, this will be determined observationally, and it might be done arbitrarily to limit the growth of the T sequence. Nevertheless, we observe that the T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$region between 300 K and 500 K witnesses a few physical transitions that might provide a natural break between “stellar” types.

## 7 Conclusions

We have generated a new set of brown dwarf spectral models that incorporate state-of-the-art opacities and the effects of water clouds. Our focus has been on the low-T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$branch of the brown dwarf tree beyond the known T dwarfs. To this end, we have investigated the T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$range from $``$800 K to $``$130 K and the low-mass range from 25 to 1 $`M_\mathrm{J}`$. As Fig. 1 indicates, this is mostly unexplored territory. Our calculations have been done to provide a theoretical foundation for the new brown dwarf studies that will be enabled by the launch of SIRTF and the eventual launch of JWST, as well as for the ongoing ground-based searches for the coolest substellar objects. We provide spectra from $``$0.4 $`\mu `$m to 30 $`\mu `$m , investigate the dependence on age and mass of the strengths of the H2O, CH4, and NH3 molecular features, address the formation and effect of water clouds, and compare the calculated fluxes with the suggested sensitivities of the instruments on board SIRTF and JWST. From the latter, detection ranges can be derived, which for JWST can exceed a kiloparsec. We find that the blueward trend in near-infrared colors so characteristic of the T dwarfs stops near a T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$of 300-400 K and we identify a few natural physical transitions in the low-T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$realm which might justify the eventual designation of at least one new spectroscopic type after the T dwarfs. These include the formation of water clouds ($``$400-500 K), the strengthening of ammonia bands, the eventual collapse in the optical, the shift in the position of the $`M`$ band peak, the turnaround of the $`JK`$ color, the near disappearance of the strong Na-D and K I resonance lines ($``$500 K), and the increasing importance with decreasing T$`_{\mathrm{eff}}`$of the mid-IR longward of 4 $`\mu `$m . For these cooler objects, the mid-infrared assumes a new and central importance and first MIPS and IRS on SIRTF, then MIRI on JWST, are destined to play pivotal roles in their future characterization and study.

Finally, the formation of ammonia clouds below $``$160 K suggests yet another natural breakpoint, and a second new “stellar” class. Therefore, there are reasons to anticipate that perhaps two naturally defined, yet uncharted, spectral types reside beyond the T dwarfs at lower T$`{}_{\mathrm{eff}}{}^{}s`$.

The current filter set for JWST/NIRCam from 0.6 to 5.0 $`\mu `$m is good, but not yet fully optimized for cool brown dwarf detection. Placing filters on the derived spectral peaks and troughs (robustly defined by the water bands) would improve its already good performance for substellar research. In any case, our theoretical spectra are meant to bridge the gap between the known T dwarfs and those cool, low-mass free-floating brown dwarfs with progressively more planetary features which may inhabit the galaxy in interesting, but as yet unknown, numbers.

The authors thank Ivan Hubeny, Bill Hubbard, John Milsom, Christopher Sharp, Jim Liebert, Curtis Cooper, and Jonathan Fortney for fruitful conversations and help during the course of this work, as well as NASA for its financial support via grants NAG5-10760, NAG5-10629, and NAG5-12459.


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# Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method.

## 1 Introduction

With the recent advances in interferometry, the Baade-Wesselink (BW) method (Baade, 1926; Wesselink, 1946) has become one of the most promising techniques to obtain independent distance measurements of pulsating stars. A “geometric” variation of this classical method (Sasselov & Karovska, 1994) can in principle be used to derive the distances of nearby classical Cepheids from the variations, as they pulsate, of their angular diameter and radial velocity. The potential accuracy of this method can improve the calibration of the Period-Luminosity relation of Classical Cepheids (Leavitt, 1906), which is a fundamental step in the cosmological distance ladder.

The geometric BW method has been recently applied on two Cepheids in the northern hemisphere, $`\zeta `$ Gem (Lane et al., 2000) and $`\eta `$ Aql (Lane et al., 2002). Both stars were observed at near-IR wavelength (H-band) with the Palomar Testbed Interferometer (PTI). The uniform brightness disk diameter was measured at several epochs for both stars, with enough precision to detect the changes in the stellar radius due to the pulsation. The measured angular diameters were then fitted with an appropriate model derived from the radial velocities of the two stars, obtaining the distance with an estimated accuracy of $`10`$%.

As explained in detail by Lane et al. (2002), the main source of uncertainty in the measurements is related to (1) the conversion of photospheric line velocities into radial motion (the so-called projection factor, or $`p`$-factor), and (2) the estimate of the limb darkening (LD). These two quantities can be derived by modeling the Cepheid atmosphere, taking into account the spherical geometry of the star and the time-dependent hydrodynamics of the pulsations. The correct way to determine the $`p`$-factor for pulsating Cepheids have been described in detail in Sabbey et al. (1995) and Krockenberger et al. (1997). More recently, we have presented a new method for computing accurate time- and wavelength-dependent center-to-limb brightness distributions for classical Cepheids (Marengo et al. 2002, hereafter paper I).

The model described in paper I provides a significant improvement of the limb darkening coefficients with respect to the tabulated values currently used to analyze interferometric data. These tables (Parsons, 1971; Manduca, 1979; Kurucz, 1993a; Claret et al., 1995) are based on hydrostatic model atmospheres of non-pulsating yellow supergiants, having similar $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and $`\mathrm{log}g`$ as classical Cepheids. Our models have the advantage of being specific for each simulated Cepheid, and provide the appropriate limb darkening for any pulsational phase at arbitrary wavelength. As shown in paper I, the limb darkening predicted by our models is significantly different from the one expected for a static yellow supergiant.

In this paper we analyze how the inclusion of hydrodynamic effects in our Cepheid models can affect the interferometric distance determination with the geometric BW method. We first compute the limb darkening corrections as a function of wavelength and pulsational phase (section 2), starting from the center-to-limb intensity profiles presented in paper I for the classical Cepheid $`\zeta `$ Gem. Then, we derive a new estimate for the geometric BW distance of this star, correcting the PTI data presented by Lane et al. (2002) with our phase and wavelength dependent LD corrections (section 3). The accuracy of the best fit values, and the importance of various error sources, are described in detail. We then conclude by analyzing the extent of the corrections induced by our models in the geometric BW distances, and the level of accuracy that will be required by present and future interferometers to detect the hydrodynamic effects predicted by our models.

## 2 Limb Darkening Corrections

The models described in paper I consist of a series of synthetic atmospheres computed with second-order one-dimensional hydrodynamic calculations, performed assuming a spherical symmetry. Each model simulates the atmosphere of a Cepheid at a certain pulsational phase. In paper I we have described the general procedure to obtain such models, and have shown the specific results for the classical Cepheid $`\zeta `$ Gem.

The pulsational period of $`\zeta `$ Gem (of approximately 10.15 days) was covered by a total of 49 individual models (the time-step in our model grid is determined by the convergence criteria in the hydrodynamic simulation). The time resolution of our model sequence is thus $`0.2`$ days. For each model in the sequence, we have computed realistic spectral intensity distributions. This step was done by approximating the dynamic models with a plane-parallel atmosphere. The radiative transfer problem for the static atmosphere was then solved in LTE conditions using the ATLAS code (Kurucz, 1970, 1979, 1993b) and its opacity library. The end result of this procedure is a set of 49 spectral intensity distributions describing the $`\zeta `$ Gem spectrum as it changes while the star pulsates.

In paper I we showed how this procedure allows us to compute accurate limb darkening profiles for $`\zeta `$ Gem, which are (pulsational) phase and wavelength dependent. We proceed here to the next step, which is to describe how these models can be used in interferometry.

Interferometric measurements are usually expressed in terms of *uniform intensity disk* (UD) or *limb darkened* diameters. The UD diameters are derived by fitting the normalized fringe visibilities (squared) $`V^2`$ with a uniform disk model, which assumes that the star is a disk of uniform brightness:

$$V_{UD}^2(\rho )=\left(\frac{2J_1(\pi \theta _{UD}\rho )}{\pi \theta _{UD}\rho }\right)^2$$
(1)
where $`\theta _{UD}`$ is the UD angular diameter and $`\rho `$ the spatial frequency of the measurement. Since a uniform disk model is derived assuming that the source is a disk of uniform brightness, it does not depend on the wavelength. Real stars, however, are limb darkened and have limb-to-center brightness distributions which are a function of wavelength, as shown in paper I.

For any practical purpose, we can consider the physical radius of the stellar photosphere to be a well defined quantity. The contribution functions of observable spectral features in the stellar spectra does peak at different heights in the atmosphere, but the difference is very small compared to the full diameter of the star. For this reason, we can assume that the angular diameter of a Cepheid is the same at all wavelengths, after being corrected for LD. This diameter, which we call “limb darkened diameter”, $`\theta _{LD}(\varphi )`$, since it takes into account the fact that the star has LD, will thus only depend on the pulsational phase of the star, and not on $`\lambda `$. Fitting fringe visibilities with a UD model, on the other hand, will produce a different $`\theta _{UD}`$ according to the wavelength, because of the inability of UD models to take into account the spectral properties of the LD. For this reason the UD angular diameter measured from fringe visibilities of a LD star will instead depend on both the pulsational phase and the wavelength: $`\theta _{UD}(\lambda ,\varphi )`$.

To obtain the real angular diameter of a star from the fringe visibilities, one can either fit the $`V^2`$ data with an appropriate limb darkening model, or correct the UD measurement with a specific wavelength dependent limb darkening correction. The first approach is certainly preferable, because preserves the wavelength dependence of the measured visibilities, and thus allow a test the limb darkening models. There are cases, however, in which the original visibilities are not available, as for example when mixing heterogeneous data from different interferometers.

In this section we present accurate LD corrections derived using our models. They are based on hydrodynamic models and therefore they are phase and wavelength dependent. Even though the models are specific for $`\zeta `$ Gem, we use them here as an example to describe the more general case of LD corrections for the generic classical Cepheids, and their implications for interferometry and the BW method.

The conversion factor between UD and limb darkened diameters is usually defined as $`k(\lambda ,\varphi )=\theta _{UD}(\lambda ,\varphi )/\theta _{LD}(\varphi )`$. This factor is in many cases approximated by the model of a star having similar spectral type as the source of interest (in the case of Cepheids, a yellow supergiant, as described in Claret et al. 1995). Such approximations do not take into account the phase dependence for variable sources, and may be incorrect in their dependence on $`\lambda `$, since the atmosphere of a Cepheid cannot be properly approximated with a static supergiant (see discussion in paper I).

The $`k(\lambda ,\varphi )`$ corrections discussed in the following sections are derived with the following procedure. At each phase in the model grid, and for a set of wavelengths in the optical and near-IR range, the center-to-limb profiles computed in paper I are converted into fringe visibilities by applying the Hankel transform (see e.g. Koechlin 1988):

$$V_{LD}^2(\rho ,\varphi )=\left[2_0^{\mathrm{}}I_\nu (w,\lambda ,\varphi )J_0(w\rho )w\text{d}w\right]^2$$
(2)
where $`\rho `$ is the spatial frequency of the interferometric visibility, $`w=\left(\theta _{LD}/2\right)\mathrm{sin}(\alpha )`$ is the projection of the stellar angular radius on the disk and $`I_\nu (w,\lambda ,\varphi )`$ is the model stellar intensity spectrum at the projected radius, computed for the given pulsational phase $`\varphi `$.

The simulated $`V_{LD}^2`$ visibilities are then fitted with an UD $`V_{UD}^2`$ model, in order to derive the UD diameter $`\theta _{UD}`$ which the interferometer would have measured, at each wavelength, for the model source. The limb darkening correction $`k(\lambda ,\varphi )`$ is the ratio between the best fit $`\theta _{UD}`$ and the value of the angular diameter $`\theta _{LD}=1`$ mas that we set to give a physical dimension to the simulated visibilities in the Hankel transform. The simulated visibilities were computed over a spatial frequency range up to the first minimum, to match the typical conditions encountered when fitting real data with currently available interferometers. We have however tried several other combinations of model $`\theta _{LD}`$ and spatial frequency ranges (to simulate different interferometer baselines), confirming that the resulting $`k(\lambda ,\varphi )`$ are not very sensitive to these parameters, as long as the simulated star is at least partially resolved.

### 2.1 Spectral Properties of Limb Darkening

An example of the wavelength dependence of the LD correction $`k(\lambda )`$ is shown in Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method.. The figure shows the LD correction derived from our hydrodynamic simulations (thick line). The thin line is the LD correction obtained from hydrostatic atmospheres (Kurucz models) having the $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$$`(\varphi )`$ and $`\mathrm{log}g`$$`(\varphi )`$ measured as a function of the pulsational phase by Krockenberger et al. (1997). Note that the $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ of the dynamic and static models, at each pulsational phase, is the same, since the observational effective temperature was used as an input parameter to compute the dynamic model. The $`\mathrm{log}g`$ is instead different in the two cases, as a consequence of the procedure followed to solve the radiative transfer in the hydrodynamic case, and due to the specific definition of the gravity terms in the hydrodynamic equations.

The $`k`$ correction is strictly related to the spectral properties of the source. The limb darkening is higher (lower $`k`$) at UV and visible wavelengths, and converges toward unity (no limb darkening) with increasing wavelengths toward the infrared. Spectral lines are less limb darkened than the continuum: having higher optical depth, they probe upper atmospheric layers, where the temperature gradient is lower. Among the spectral features that are visible in our low spectral resolution computations, is the Balmer jump in the UV, the Ca H&K doublet ($`\lambda 395`$ nm), H$`\beta `$ ($`\lambda 486`$ nm) and H$`\alpha `$ ($`\lambda 656`$ nm).

The first panel in Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method. shows the limb darkening correction at minimum radius. At this phase, the Cepheid atmosphere is most compressed, giving rise to a steeper temperature gradient. This is responsible for an increase of the limb darkening at all wavelengths. The LD correction for the hydrostatic atmosphere, on the other hand, does not show this same effect, having a flatter limb darkening despite the fact that $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ is the same in the two models. The difference is as much as $`\mathrm{\Delta }k0.01`$ at visible wavelengths, and less in the near-IR. Accurate measurements of the LD with optical interferometers should then be able to verify this effect. The difference between the static and dynamic models is even larger at the wavelengths of the main spectral features, which appear stronger in the more compressed hydrodynamic atmosphere.

In the next section we will show that in most cases the effects of the hydrodynamics on the atmospheric structure result in a larger LD. There are however phases in which the free expansion of the atmosphere results in a *quasi-static* structure. In these phases (before and after maximum luminosity), the hydrodynamics is less important and the two $`k(\lambda )`$ are virtually indistinguishable.

As shown in the bottom panel, however, the full force of a shockwave crossing the photosphere results in high excitation states and local expansion. Even though at this phase $`\zeta `$ Gem is contracting (this happens one day before minimum radius), the energy deposited by the shock in the region where the visible photons are created generates a lower temperature gradient. As a consequence, the LD of the hydrodynamic simulation is lower than in the static case. Note, however, that this effect is mostly appreciable at visible wavelengths. An optical interferometer should detect at this phase a decrease of the limb darkening of $`\mathrm{\Delta }k0.01`$. This phase is very brief and, at least in the case of $`\zeta `$ Gem, the effects of the shock are already dissipated after less than 20 hours, when the LD is maximum again as the star approaches minimum radius. This timescale is related to the shock propagation speed, which is very well constrained by observations (see Figure 8 of Sasselov & Lester 1994).

### 2.2 Limb Darkening and Pulsational Phase

By convolving the $`k(\lambda ,\varphi )`$ models with the filter passbands used by interferometers, we can study the variations of the LD correction as a function of the pulsational phase. For a convenient comparison with observations, the best choice is to adopt the phase as defined by the optical lightcurve, where the zero phase, $`\varphi _L=0`$, coincide with maximum luminosity. As explained in paper I, however, our dynamic simulations are computed as a function of the phase $`\varphi _V`$ based on the pulsational velocity, in which zero phase is at minimum radius. To convert our LD models to the lightcurve phases we have used the phase shift $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi =\varphi _L\varphi _V`$ between maximum luminosity and minimum radius computed by Bersier et al. (1994a, b).

Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method. shows the limb darkening corrections plotted as a function of the visible lightcurve phase for two wavelengths. The top panel shows $`k(\varphi )`$ for the near-IR H filter passband used by the PTI interferometer. The bottom panel shows $`k(\varphi )`$ for the bluest available channel ($`\lambda 570`$ nm) of the Navy Prototype Interferometer (NPOI) in the optical. The curves have been filtered to remove numerical noise with an adaptive gaussian kernel, and the 1 $`rms`$ error bands in our LD corrections associated to the numerical uncertainty are indicated by two thin lines bracketing each LD curve.

The plots show that $`k(\varphi )`$ is roughly constant for most phases, with a slow increase as the star expands, as a consequence of the decreasing temperature gradient in the photosphere. Coincident with the passage of a shockwave through the photosphere (at $`\varphi _L0.6`$), $`k(\varphi )`$ shows a sudden rise in the optical, indicative of a sharp decrease in the limb darkening. The energy deposited by the shock is responsible for this effect. It increases the excitation in the photospheric layers, and thus flattens the temperature gradient. This extra energy dissipates in a short timescale, after which the atmosphere resumes its normal state. At $`\varphi _L0.7`$ $`\zeta `$ Gem is close to minimum radius, where the temperature gradient is higher (due to the compression of the atmosphere) and thus the star appears more limb darkened.

The sharp increase in $`k(\varphi )`$ observed in the optical, at the time of the shockwave, is not predicted for the H band. This is because in this wavelength range the effects of the shock are less pronounced. This might be due to the fact that the emergent spectrum in the H-band originates deepest in the atmosphere as a result of the broad minimum of the H<sup>-</sup> opacity at 1.6 $`\mu `$m, and the shocks increasingly steepen and disturb the atmosphere as they propagate down the density gradient (up into the atmosphere).

It is important to understand how much of this behavior in the LD curves is due to hydrodynamic effects, or just to the changes in $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and $`\mathrm{log}g`$ during the stellar pulsation. Solid lines in Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method. show our hydrodynamic simulations for two wavelengths. The dotted lines show the LD correction derived for hydrostatic atmospheres having at each phase the $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and $`\mathrm{log}g`$ measured by Krockenberger et al. (1997), which we used as starting points in our models. The overall value of $`k(\varphi )`$ is similar, at each wavelength, between the hydrodynamic and hydrostatic atmospheres. The phase dependence is instead completely different. Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method. reveals that static model LD corrections closely follow the change of $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ with phase. In a hydrostatic atmosphere a higher $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ is responsible for a flatter photospheric temperature gradient, and thus for less limb darkening (i.e. higher $`k`$). In a hydrodynamic atmosphere the temperature gradient is determined predominantly by the pulsation dynamics, and therefore the phase dependency of the LD is different. In a hydrostatic atmosphere, gravity seems to have little or no effect determining the changes in the limb darkening. When computing the spectral energy distribution of our dynamic atmosphere, we constrain the model $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ to the observed values, leaving $`\mathrm{log}g`$ as a free parameter to be fitted with a grid of static atmospheres (see paper I). The rationale for this choice was that $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ has a dominant role in determining the spectral properties of the atmosphere. This result confirms the validity of our choice.

To test the assumption that $`\mathrm{log}g`$ does plays a minor role, we have also computed the LD correction for the static models having *both* $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and $`\mathrm{log}g`$ *identical* to the hydrodynamic simulations. The results are very similar. Despite the significantly different $`\mathrm{log}g`$ with respect to the observed values, $`k(\varphi )`$ still closely follows the variations of $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$. Only just after minimum radius (when $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ is maximum and the best fit $`\mathrm{log}g`$ is minimum), $`\mathrm{log}g`$ plays some role in lowering the LD correction. This confirms that, except when $`\mathrm{log}g`$ is very small ($`1`$, in this case), the effective temperature is the decisive parameter for the LD in a hydrostatic atmosphere.

In a hydrodynamic atmosphere, however, $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ *is not* the dominant parameter. As shown in Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method., when hydrodynamic effects are taken into account, the relation between $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and the LD breakes. Shocks are the source of the most dramatic effects in $`k(\varphi )`$, but even when they are absent, the LD corrections are strikingly different from the ones predicted by hydrostatic atmospheres. This is because they are not determined by $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, but by the time-dependent structure of the expanding/contracting atmosphere. Given that our hydrodynamic models generally have a steeper temperature gradient than a similar hydrostatic atmosphere, the resulting LD is larger for most phases.

Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method. also shows the LD corrections used in Lane et al. (2002) for $`\zeta `$ Gem, which has the constant value of $`k=0.96\pm 0.01`$. This correction has been derived from tables published by Claret et al. (1995), based on hydrostatic models. Note that the average value of our LD correction is outside the error bars of the tabulated value. The reason of this discrepancy is that our model closely follows the $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and $`\mathrm{log}g`$ derived for $`\zeta `$ Gem from spectroscopic observations, while the Claret et al. (1995) values are computed for a generic grid of yellow supegiants matching the Cepheids spectral type.

Note finally that, as expected, the LD correction is much smaller at near-IR wavelengths, and larger toward the blue. At bluer wavelengths the amplitude of the $`k`$ variations with phase (especially at the time of the shockwave) is also much larger. Therefore, to test observationally the details of the hydrodynamic effects on limb darkening, interferometers operating at short wavelengths are favored.

## 3 Effects of the LD corrections on the geometric BW method

The LD deviations introduced by the hydrodynamics are relatively small (1% in the optical, and less in the infrared), and are thus usually ignored when treating interferometric measurements. In order to obtain accurate distances with the BW geometric method, however, higher levels of accuracy are needed. Under such stringent requirements, the time and wavelength dependent hydrodynamic effects play an important role, and should be taken into account.

A detailed description of the problems involved with the application of the geometric BW method to pulsating Cepheids is given in Sasselov & Karovska (1994). This method allows the determination of the distance and the average radius of a pulsating star from both its angular diameter and radial velocity at several phases. This is done by means of a $`\chi ^2`$ fit of the following function:

$$\chi ^2=\underset{i}{}\left[\frac{\left(\mathrm{\Theta }_0+\frac{2\mathrm{\Delta }R_i}{D}\right)\theta _i}{\sigma _i}\right]^2$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{\Theta }_0=2R_0/D`$ is the average angular radius of the star, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_i`$ its radial displacement at the time of the interferometric measurement $`\theta _i`$. The variation of the stellar radius $`\mathrm{\Delta }R(\varphi _L)`$ is derived, as a function of the lightcurve phase $`\varphi _L`$, by integrating the pulsational velocity over time:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }R(\varphi _L)=_{\varphi _0}^{\varphi _L}p\left[v_r(\varphi ^{})\gamma \right]\text{d}\varphi ^{}$$
(4)
where $`v_r(\varphi )`$ is the radial velocity, which is corrected by the systemic velocity $`\gamma `$ and the $`p`$-factor to yield the true pulsational velocity. The systemic velocity can be derived by requiring the conservation of the radius over one period (see paper I). Appropriate $`p`$-factors have been computed for pulsating Cepheids such as $`\zeta `$ Gem; we use here the value of 1.43 (the same adopted by Lane et al. 2002), derived from the hydrodynamic model we used to compute our LD profiles, which was published in Sabbey et al. (1995).

The fit in equation 3 can be solved analytically. The best fit $`R_0`$ and $`D`$ can be derived by minimizing the $`\chi ^2`$ relation solving for the two unknown parameters. Note that we do not make use of the color curve of the Cepheid, which can be applied to further constrain the geometric BW solution. A detailed description of this procedure will be given in a separate paper.

The LD corrections $`k(\varphi )`$ computed in the previous sections enter the fit by allowing the conversion of the UD diameters $`\theta _{UD}^{(i)}`$ obtained by the interferometer into *true* LD diameters of the star: $`\theta _i=\theta _{UD}^{(i)}/k(\varphi _i)`$, where $`k(\varphi _i)`$ is the LD correction at the phase of the $`i`$-th measurement, computed for the wavelength of the observation.

The terms $`\sigma _i`$ in the fit $`\chi ^2`$ relation are the errors associated with each data point. They are the geometric sum of the individual error sources (in terms of angular diameters) for each observation:

$$\sigma _i^2=\left[\sigma _i^{(\theta )}\right]^2+\left[\sigma _i^{(\mathrm{\Delta }R/D)}\right]^2+\left[\sigma _i^{(k)}\right]^2$$
(5)
where $`\sigma _i^{(\theta )}`$ is the error of the interferometric measurements, $`\sigma _i^{(\mathrm{\Delta }R/D)}`$ the error related to the radial displacement and $`\sigma _i^{(k)}`$ the error in the LD correction. According to Lane et al. (2002), the errors in the PTI H-band data vary between 0.01 and 0.06 mas. The errors on the radial displacements are due to the uncertainty in the $`p`$-factor (amounting to $`4`$%, according to Sabbey et al. 1995), and to the estimated measurement errors in the radial velocity, adding a further 2% according to Bersier et al. (1994b). The errors in our LD corrections, barring systematic errors and based only on the numeric uncertainty in our model, are of the order of $`\pm 0.02`$% (see Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method.), which is a negligible contribution with respect to the other error sources, and is thus ignored.

The best fit results are shown in Table 1 (col. ) and Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method.. Column (3) in Table 1 shows, for comparison, the best fit parameters obtained with the same fixed LD correction used by Lane et al. (2002) of $`k0.96`$. The difference in the two best fit values of the geometric BW distance is 11 pc, which is less than $`3`$%. Even though this difference is less than 1/3 of the error bars, it is significant: Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method. shows that the error regions for our best fit, the UD fit and the fixed $`k`$ fit are mutually exclusive. This is again a consequence of the high level of precision that the available interferometric data already allow in the determination of the average angular radius $`\mathrm{\Theta }_0`$.

Note that the error regions shown in Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method. do not take into account the uncertainty in the LD correction, which we ignored. The uncertainty quoted for the tabulated LD correction used by Lane et al. (2002) is much larger than our numeric error $`\mathrm{\Delta }k0.02`$, and would have resulted in a much larger error region, including all the narrow ovals in Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method.. The main point of this paper, however, is to discuss the consequences of using model derived LD corrections, and Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method. shows that in the case of $`\zeta `$ Gem using generic tabulated LD corrections can lead to an error of a few percent with respect to the best fit distance. This discrepancy is larger than the error regions determined by all the other error sources, and can thus in principle be tested observationally by directly measuring the LD with longer baseline interferometers.

The difference in the results of the geometric BW fit are entirely due to the LD correction, more precisely to its *average value* $`\overline{k}`$ computed over the pulsational cycle. In the near-IR, and especially in the H band, the phase dependency of $`k(\lambda ,\varphi )`$ is relatively small (less than 2%, compared with the error bars $`510`$% in the measured angular diameters). This means that, with the current error bars in the interferometric data, we are still not sensitive to the variations in the LD corrections induced by the hydrodynamics. An accuracy of the order of 0.2% in the $`\theta _i`$ is required to be sensitive to such effects in the H band. Note that a more favorable situation is met in the visible, where the temporal variations of $`k(\varphi )`$ are larger. Given the limitation of the available data, however, the main contribution of our hydrodynamic simulations, at least for now, is not in the detailed dependence of $`k(\varphi )`$, but in setting the right level of the LD correction for the wavelength of the observation. Contrary to the tabulated values of the LD correction, which are computed for generic yellow supergiants having the same spectral type of Cepheid stars, our corrections are specific for the modeled stars, as they follow the $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and $`\mathrm{log}g`$ derived from spectroscopic observations for each star. This is not a trivial matter, as the discrepancy with the tabulated value ($`\mathrm{\Delta }k0.02`$ in the H band) is the largest error source in the determination of the geometric BW distance.

Finally, we discuss the issue of the validity of the best fit $`\chi ^2`$ as guide to which LD better represent the data. Is the best fit $`\chi ^2`$ an indicator of the best value for the LD correction? If this is the case, then we should conclude that $`\zeta `$ Gem is not limb darkened, since the best fit $`\chi ^2`$ computed with this same procedure with the UD diameters would be $`\chi ^227.5`$. However, this is not the case.

To explain this, one should first remember that the time dependent hydrodynamic effects are too small to be observed with the available PTI data. While doing the BW fit, we could thus consider the LD correction as a constant value $`\overline{k}`$ equal to its average over the pulsational period. In the three fits shown in Figure Theoretical Limb Darkening for Classical Cepheids: II. Corrections for the Geometric Baade-Wesselink Method., the value of $`\overline{k}`$ would be equal to 1 for the UD data, $`0.979`$ for our hydrodynamic calculations and 0.96 for Claret et al. 1995 (used by Lane et al. 2002). This coefficient enters the $`\chi ^2`$ equation by dividing the UD $`\theta _{UD}^{(i)}`$:

$$\chi ^2=\underset{i}{}\left[\frac{\left(\mathrm{\Theta }_0+\frac{2\mathrm{\Delta }R_i}{D}\right)\frac{\theta _{UD}^{(i)}}{\overline{k}}}{\sigma _i}\right]^2$$
(6)
A smaller value of $`\overline{k}`$ (larger LD), will result in a larger best fit mean angular diameter $`\mathrm{\Theta }_0`$, which will thus scale as $`1/\overline{k}`$. The net effect of this scaling is that the best fit $`\chi ^2`$ will scale as $`1/\overline{k}`$. This means that a fit made with larger LD (as long as the phase dependency of $`k`$ is irrelevant) will have a larger best fit $`\chi ^2`$. The UD fit will thus appear always to be the best.

The conclusion is that, until the accuracy of the measured angular diameters becomes good enough to appreciate the changes in LD due to the pulsation, the geometric BW fit is not a good tool to test the LD models. On the other hand, a good model for the LD is absolutely necessary to obtain a reliable value of the geometric BW distance, since the best fit angular diameter scales linearly as $`1/\overline{k}`$.

Note, finally, that a different fitting strategy may allow a test our LD models even with present day interferometric data. Our insensitivity to the LD is due to the fact that we are fitting derived data (the angular diameters $`\theta _i`$) which have been previously obtained from the fringe visibilities *assuming* a uniform disk model. This initial fit has destroyed the sensitivity of the original data to the stellar LD. The correct way to test the LD is to perform $`\chi ^2`$ fits on the original visibilities. Any test for the absolute value of LD predicted by our models should thus be made using the visibility data taken at different projected baselines and wavelengths.

## 4 Conclusions

The geometric BW method is a powerful tool to derive the distances of pulsating stars. The detailed analysis of the method, and our discussion of its main current uncertainties described in the previous sections, show that a special care should be taken when assessing the accuracy of the results.

Despite the increasing quality of the interferometric data, the error bars in the individual measurements are the largest contributors to the final errors in the geometric BW distances and average radii. After the instrumental errors, however, follows the uncertainty in the limb darkening correction. The importance of LD will grow in the near future, given the fast pace at which the available interferometers are improving their accuracy, and with the new long baseline, large aperture interferometers which are becoming operational. To address this issue, we have presented in this paper a procedure to compute accurate LD corrections for pulsating Cepheids, which are based on time- and wavelength-dependent hydrodynamic models.

We show that our $`k(\lambda ,\varphi )`$ strongly differ from the equivalent corrections computed from hydrostatic atmospheres, even in absence of “strong” hydrodynamic effects like shocks. The main consequence of the hydrodynamic terms in our stellar atmospheric models is an increase in the limb darkening, because of a generally higher temperature gradient in the photosphere. The situation briefly reverses in presence of shockwaves, due to the energy deposited by the shocks.

The magnitude of these effects depends on the wavelength. The effect is more significant in the visible spectrum ($`\mathrm{\Delta }k0.015`$) and it is smaller in the infrared ($`\mathrm{\Delta }k0.002`$). Current interferometers still cannot test these time-dependent variations in the limb darkening, which will however become important in the near future, especially when interferometric observations in spectral lines will become feasible. The phases of rapid variation in the LD associated to the propagation of the shockwave in the photosphere, when significant changes in the LD occur in timescales of hours, appears particularly appealing for an observational test of our models.

Even though the time-dependent variations in the LD are not currently measurable because of the required visible accuracy, our models can already provide an average value of the wavelength-dependent LD correction $`k(\lambda )`$ which is significantly different from the tabulated values currently used. In the case of $`\zeta `$ Gem, our limb darkening corrections induce a $`3`$% change in the best fit value of the BW distance derived from H-band PTI data. Even more important is that, as shown in section 3, the $`1\sigma `$ error regions around the best fit distances derived with our and other LD corrections are mutually exclusive, opening the possibility of an independent test of our models when longer baselines reaching the first minimum in the visibilities will allow a direct test. A preliminary test of our models will also be possible by directly fitting the observed visibilities with our model visibilities, instead of using LD corrections of UD best fit diameters.

As the data for other Cepheids will become available, it will be important to have a large library of models specifically computed for each source. As the models are very dependent on the pulsational characteristics of each star, upon which the hydrodynamic model is build, a “generic” parametric limb darkening correction for all stars is not possible, as any individual model cannot be extended to be used for a Cepheid with a different pulsational engine. This is the reason why tables of LD corrections as the ones produced by Claret et al. (1995) cannot reproduce the detailed changes in the LD which are required to apply the geometric BW method to classical Cepheids.

We wish to thank the anonymous referee and the editor for the comments and suggestions that helped us to improve this paper. This work was partially supported by NFS grant AST 98-76734. M.K. is a member of the Chandra Science Center, which is operated under contract NAS8-39073, and is partially supported by NASA.


text:
# High-speed photometry of the Recurrent Nova IM Normae

## 1 Introduction

The light curve of Nova Normae 1920 was constructed from archived plates by Elliot & Liller (1972), who noted that it could be grouped with slow novae such as DQ Her and T Pyx. A poorly determined original position resulted in no certain identification of the remnant (Duerbeck 1987), which was designated IM Nor. A second eruption in January 2002 (Liller 2002) showed that IM Nor is in fact a recurrent nova and the improved accuracy of position enabled the pre-nova to be identified as a star with variations in brightness around V $``$ 18 (Kato et al. 2002). The eruption light curve derived by Kato et al. led them to conclude that although it is indeed like T Pyx, a better comparison may be made with CI Aql, which is another recurrent nova. The spectra obtained during outburst show that all of these stars resemble each other in having strong Fe II emission and late appearance of forbidden lines (Kato et al. 2002; Duerbeck et al. 2003). Kato et al. proposed that CI Aql and IM Nor form a distinct subclass with massive ejecta and long recurrence intervals.

At maximum light IM Nor reached V $``$ 7.8 and decayed as a fast nova with $`t_220`$ d. The eruption amplitude of $``$ 10 mag agrees with that expected for a fast nova of low orbital inclination (see Fig. 5.4 of Warner 1995). However, CI Aql also showed such an initial steep fall, but this was succeeded by a long-lived phase of slow decline (Matsumoto et al. 2001), uncharacteristic of a fast nova. IM Nor is behaving similarly, so in neither case can the usual Amplitude/Rate of Decline/Inclination relationship be trusted. CI Aql is an eclipsing system with a period of 14.8 h (Mennickent & Honeycutt 1995).

IM Nor is currently at V $``$ 16.5 and is thus still far from its quiescent magnitude. We have observed it photometrically with good time resolution in order to look for any orbital modulation.

## 2 Photometric observations

Our observations were made in white light using the UCT CCD Photometer (O’Donoghue 1995) attached to the 40-in reflector at the Sutherland site of the South African Astronomical Observatory. The observing log is given in Table 1 and the reduced light curves are shown in Figure 1.

IM Nor has a clear periodic brightness modulation with a range of $``$ 0.3. The mean brightness of the system varies by at least 0.1 mag from night to night, and can vary by that amount over a few hours. The dominant feature is an eclipse-like recurrent dip, with a depth of 0.2 mag, from which a period of 2.462 h is derived. The ephemeris for this dip is

$$\mathrm{HJD}_{\mathrm{min}}=\mathrm{245\hspace{0.17em}2696.526}+0.1026(\pm 1)\mathrm{E}.$$
(1)
Interpreted as an orbital period, the modulation at 2.462 h places IM Nor towards the low end of the range of orbital periods for novae and squarely in the centre of the ‘period gap’ that exists for dwarf novae (but probably not for novae: Warner (2002)). Of the nine known recurrent novae only T Pyx ($`P_{orb}`$ = 1.83 h) and IM Nor have orbital periods at the lower end.

In the Fourier transforms of individual nights, and the whole data set, no periods other than the 2.462 h modulation and its harmonics were found.

## 3 Discussion

The width of the main brightness dip is too large for it to be the eclipse of an accretion disc (or of the primary, even though possibly bloated by the effects of the recent eruption). To assist in interpretation we examine the light curve of CI Aql during its decline from eruption. Figure 4 of Matsumoto et al. (2001) shows the folded light curve during the decline. This light curve is described in that paper as a ‘primary eclipse with very broad wing extending to $``$ 0.7 orbital phase duration’. The whole of this feature cannot of course be an eclipse – it is impossibly wide. We suggest that the light curve is that resulting from a moderate reflection effect from the secondary – irradiated by the very hot primary left after eruption. This produces a single hump per orbital period, and the minimum of the reflection effect may be pulled even lower by partial eclipse of the accretion disc by the secondary at that phase.

During quiescence, in the absence of the reflection effect, CI Aql has a primary eclipse of normal width that is in phase with the minimum seen during decline from eruption (Lederle & Kimeswenger 2003).

Using the same model for IM Nor we see that a single humped orbital modulation, again probably enhanced in depth at the minimum phase by partial eclipse of the accretion disc, can account for the major modulation around orbit. But in IM Nor there is the additional occurrence of a dip between maxima, with its minimum close to phase 0.5, which creates the rise of brightness seen before the onset of the major dip. This asymmetric feature may be a secondary eclipse caused by partial obscuration of the brightly lit hemisphere of the secondary by the optically thick accretion disc and the accretion stream. We have previously drawn attention to the possibility of such an effect in systems with strongly irradiated secondaries, and that such an effect might be weakly present in the nova remnant DD Cir (Woudt & Warner 2003).

The short orbital period for IM Nor requires another model to be explored. At this period, and with the high rate of mass transfer expected for a recent nova, which is irradiating its secondary, the accretion disc may be excited into an elliptical shape and the observed recurrent humps could be due to superhumps (Warner 1995). The observed amplitude of 0.3 mag is compatible with a superhump, but at that amplitude superhumps seen in dwarf nova outbursts are usually triangular in profile. The superhumps seen in other recent novae of short period, namely V1794 Cyg (Retter, Leibowitz & Ofek 1997), DD Cir (Woudt & Warner 2003), V4633 Sgr (Lipkin et al. 2001), have much lower amplitudes ($``$ 0.05 mag). IM Nor has at least 1.5 mag of decaying nova luminosity added to its quiescent brightness, which should result in dilution of any superhump modulation. We note that the basic profile of the modulation remains roughly symmetrical about minimum light: i.e., there is no sign of a superhump drifting relative to an orbital eclipse as seen in some nova remnants (e.g. RR Cha: Woudt & Warner 2002). We conclude that the modulation seen in IM Nor is unlikely to be due to superhumps.

## Acknowledgments

PAW is supported by funds made available from the National Research Foundation and by strategic funds made available to BW from the University of Cape Town. BW’s research is supported by the University.