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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The validity of Newtonian gravity laws have been experimentally verified to distances as short as about a tenth of a millimeter . On the other hand there has been no direct experimental verification beyond stellar scale distances. Possible modification of Newtonian gravity both at small and large distances has become the subject of many new theories . These are theories in which the universe is no longer four dimensional, the extra dimensions being invoked to solve the so called ‘hierarchy problem’ between scales involved in the Standard Model of particle interactions and the four dimensional ‘Planck Scale’ . Kogan et al.  proposed in this connection a three brane model of the universe which removes some of the drawbacks of the earlier brane model of Randall and Sundrum , which had only two branes. This model has the distinct feature, unlike the two brane model of Randall and Sundrum, of having possible modifications to Newtonian gravity at large distances into a Yukawa type of interaction, rather than the $`1/r`$ gravitational potential. The theory of course gives no indication of the range of such a Yukawa type potential. The Yukawa type of gravitational interaction also results from other approaches, like one involving higher terms in the gravitational interaction . Phenomenologically the modification to Newtonian gravity over large distances can be studied through the lensing of light and neutrinos, where we have their origins as far away from us. Lensing of optical images has of course been studied widely in the context of standard Einsteinian gravity. Some time back McKellar, Mahajan and two of us (SRC, GCJ), studied the possibility of using detailed data from the lensing of distant stars as a tool for studying possible modifications of Newtonian gravity at cosmological scales. Lately, neutrino lensing and their possible observation has attracted much attention. In two recent papers Escribano, Frere, Monderen and Van Elewyck  have performed detailed analysis of magnitudes of neutrino lensing that can be expected from normal gravitational interactions with sources such as stars and galaxies. In line with our earlier study we devote this note to explicitly recording the nature of the modification of such lensing predictions of Newtonian gravity for a sphere of radius R with a finite range Yukawa type interaction with a range in the cosmological scale.
The energy-momentum tensor of a spherically symmetric mass of radius R is given by,

$$T_{\mu \nu }=pg_{\mu \nu }+(p+\rho )U_\mu U_\nu $$
(1)
where $`U_\mu `$ is the four velocity. Use of such an energy-momentum tensor in the standard Einstein equations leads to a Newtonian gravity at large distances from the sphere. We use an ad hoc prescription to simulate an effective Yukawa type of gravity rather than Newtonian by adding to $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ above an extra term such that the new energy momentum reads,

$$T_{\mu \nu }^{}=T_{\mu \nu }+\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }(r)}{r^2}g_{\mu \nu }$$
(2)
and suitably adjust the value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(r)`$ so that at large distances we end up with Yukawa type of gravity. Writing the four dimensional line element in the standard form

$$ds^2=B(r)dt^2A(r)dr^2r^2d\theta ^2r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\varphi ^2$$
(3)
we obtain the following equations for the components of the curvature tensor

$`R_{rr}`$ $`=`$ $`4\pi G(\rho p)A(r)+8\pi G{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }(r)}{r^2}},`$ (4)
$`R_{\theta \theta }`$ $`=`$ $`4\pi G(\rho p)r^2+8\pi G\mathrm{\Lambda }(r),`$ (5)
$`R_{tt}`$ $`=`$ $`4\pi G(\rho +3p)B(r)8\pi G{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }(r)}{r^2}}.`$ (6)
In the matter free region, $`\rho =p=0`$, we continue to have

$$\frac{R_{rr}}{A(r)}+\frac{R_{tt}}{B(r)}=0$$
(7)
so that in this region we still have $`A(r)=1/B(r)`$.
In the presence of matter the equation for $`A(r)`$, by standard manipulation of equations (4)-(6) to eliminate pressure, becomes,

$$\frac{d}{dr}\left(\frac{r}{A(r)}\right)=18\pi G\rho r^2+8\pi G\mathrm{\Lambda }(r).$$
(8)
We can now assume a form for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(r)`$;

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }(r)=\mathrm{\Lambda }e^{\lambda r}$$
(9)
with $`\lambda `$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ being constants. Equation (8) is then easily integrated yielding

$$\frac{1}{A(r)}=1\frac{2GM(r)}{r}\frac{8\pi G\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\lambda r}\left(e^{\lambda r}1\right)$$
(10)
where the constant of integration has been adjusted to make $`A(r)`$ finite at r=0 and $`M(r)`$ is the mass contained between $`r=0`$ and $`r`$. Identifying

$$8\pi \mathrm{\Lambda }=2M\lambda $$
(11)
we get for values of $`r`$ outside $`R`$

$$\frac{1}{A(r)}=1\frac{2GM}{r}e^{\lambda r}$$
(12)
which is the Yukawa form of gravitation that we desired to reproduce. The form of $`A(r)`$ given in equation (10) is of course valid for all $`r`$ and for values of $`r`$ much smaller than $`R`$, it can be approximated by

$$\frac{1}{A(r)}=1\frac{2GM(r)}{r}+2G\lambda .$$
(13)
The value of the function $`B(r)`$ for $`r>R`$ is of course the inverse of $`A(r)`$. To obtain values of the function $`B(r)`$ inside the spherical core, we assume that the matter distribution in the core is Gaussian, in which case we can make the approximation $`\rho <<p`$ and the function $`B(r)`$ there satisfies

$$\frac{B^{}}{B}=\frac{2M(r)}{r^2}.$$
(14)
As we have assumed a Gaussian matter distribution the density inside the core is of the form

$$\rho (r)=\rho _oe^{r^2/r_o^2}.$$
(15)
The mass $`M(r)`$ for such a density turns out to be

$`M(r)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{M}{R}}re^{\frac{(R^2r^2)}{r_o^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{f(r_o/r)}{f(r_o/R)}}`$ (16)
$`f(x)`$ $`=`$ $`xe^{x^2}{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{\pi }}{2}}\mathrm{erf}(x)1.`$
For $`r<R`$ the function $`B(r)`$ is then

$$B(r)=1\frac{2M}{R}e^{\frac{(R^2r^2)}{r_o^2}}\frac{f(r_o/r)}{f(r_o/R)}+O(M^2)$$
(17)
Given the functions $`A(r)`$ and $`B(r)`$, the deflection of a beam of neutrinos (assumed massless) initially moving along the direction $`\varphi =0`$ is given by

$$\varphi (r)=_{\mathrm{}}^r\frac{A^{1/2}(r)dr}{r^2}\left(\frac{1}{b^2B(r)}\frac{1}{b^2}\frac{1}{r^2}\right)$$
(18)
where $`b`$ in the equation above is the impact parameter. The total deviation of the beam is then given by

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi =2\varphi (r=r_{min})\pi .$$
(19)
For neutrino trajectories which lie totally outside the core, the above equation simplifies since $`A(r)=1/B(r)`$ there. We get

$`y`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}M{\displaystyle \frac{e^{\lambda /r}}{r^2}}`$ (20)
$`\varphi (y)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^y}𝑑y{\displaystyle \frac{1+(2y\lambda )Me^{\lambda /y}}{\sqrt{1/b^2y^2}}}+O(M^2).`$ (21)
The maximum value of $`y`$ is $`1/b`$ and the integral above can be easily numerically integrated to give the value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi `$ by equation (19). For trajectories that pass through the region $`r<R`$, one has to numerically integrate using the value of $`A(r)`$ from equation (13) above and $`B(r)`$ from equation (17).
We display our results in figure 1 for a typical galactic mass and radius. As expected, for neutrino trajectories that come deep through the mass of the galaxy, the Yukawa nature of the gravitational force does not cause any change in the deflection of the beam. However, there is considerable change in the deflection of the beam, as expected, if the impact parameter is substantially greater than the core radius. Of course, in those regions the deflection of the beam also decreases, making observations there more difficult than trajectories through the core. It seems, therefore, that it would require some fortuitous circumstances of a suitable set of sources, from where neutrino beams would be lensed through galactic masses, for observations to possibly detect changes in the law of gravitation for neutrinos. Most certainly, the optical analog of such observations present a more promising scenario for future experiments.

## Acknowledgements

The work of SRC was supported by a project grant from the Department of Science and Technology, India. ASC would also like to thank the department of Physics & Astrophysics, University of Delhi, for their support during his visit to India.


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# Static spherically symmetric collapsar in the relativistic theory of gravitation: numerical approach and stability analysis

## 1 Introduction

The relativistic theory of gravitation (RTG) is built as a classical field theory in the Minkowski spacetime . Since the gravitational field is described by the symmetric second-rank tensor, it manifests itself as an effective Riemannian spacetime. Thus, the RTG is the bi-metric theory, which needs the gauge-symmetry violation to be physically self-consistent. This requires a massive graviton. As a result, the field equations contain both metrics (i.e. both Riemannian and Minkowski) and gauge-fixing condition, which eliminates the undesirable spin-states of graviton. The cosmological consequences of the non-zero graviton mass impose a limitation on its value, which cannot exceed $`10^{66}`$ g , but virtually can be incomparably smaller than this value .

The non-zero mass of graviton causes the repulsion (antigravitation) at small distances and the deceleration of the cosmological expansion at its late stage. For the black-hole physics is most important the antigravitation prohibiting an unlimited collapse of the massive stellar objects. This topic had been considered earlier in the pure analytical framework (see, for example, ). However, the RTG field equations (Logunov field equations) don’t allow an exact analytical solution even for the static spherically symmetric field and need some approximations in order to be solved in a closed form. Moreover, the physical consistency of the obtained solutions needs their stability at least against the small perturbations.

In this work we consider the numerical solutions of the Logunov field equations in the vicinity of the Schwarzschild sphere and compare their with the analytical approximation. This comparison demonstrates a high accuracy of the latter. Also, we analyze the stability of the analytical metric in the vicinity of the Schwarzschild sphere. Although this metric provides a strong repulsion for the radially falling particle, it is stable against the small perturbations.

## 2 Numerical approach to the Schwarzschild-like singularity

The Logunov equations for the massive gravitational field have the following form :

$$G_\nu ^\mu \frac{m^2}{2}\left(\delta _\nu ^\mu +g^{\mu \lambda }\gamma _{\lambda \nu }\frac{1}{2}\delta _\nu ^\mu g^{\kappa \lambda }\gamma _{\kappa \lambda }\right)=\frac{8\pi \varkappa }{c^4}T_\nu ^\mu ,$$
(1)
$$D_\mu \widehat{g}^{\mu \nu }=0.$$

Here $`g^{\mu \lambda }`$ is the metric tensor of the effective Riemannian spacetime, $`\widehat{g}^{\mu \nu }=\sqrt{g}g^{\mu \nu }`$; $`\gamma ^{\mu \nu }`$ is the metric tensor of the background Minkowski spacetime, $`G_\nu ^\mu `$ is the Einstein tensor, $`T_\nu ^\mu `$ is the matter energy-momentum tensor, $`D_\mu `$ is the covariant derivative in the Minkowski spacetime; $`m^2=\left(m_gc\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\right)^2`$, $`m_g`$ is the graviton mass; $`\varkappa `$ is the Newtonian gravitational constant.

Spherically symmetric static interval of the effective Riemannian spacetime can be written in the following form:

$$ds^2=U\left(r\right)dt^2V\left(r\right)dr^2W\left(r\right)^2\left(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\phi ^2\right).$$
(2)
Henceforward it is convenient to use the dimensionless quantities and we shall normalize the geometric units to the Schwarzschild radius $`r_s=2\varkappa M\mathrm{}c^2`$: $`W=xr_s`$ and $`r=yr_s`$. Then the field equations (1) written in the interval (2) allow the system of the master equations ($`ϵ=\frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{2\varkappa Mm_g}{\mathrm{}c}\right)^2`$, $`\zeta =\frac{8\pi \varkappa r_s^2}{c^2}`$) :

$$\frac{}{x}\frac{x}{V\left(\frac{y}{x}\right)^2}1+ϵ\left[y^2x^2+\frac{x^2}{2}\left(\frac{1}{V}\frac{1}{U}\right)\right]=\zeta \rho x^2,$$

$$x\frac{\frac{}{x}\mathrm{ln}\left(xU\right)}{V\left(\frac{y}{x}\right)^2}1+ϵ\left[y^2x^2+\frac{x^2}{2}\left(\frac{1}{U}\frac{1}{V}\right)\right]=\zeta px^2,$$
(3)
$$\frac{}{x}\sqrt{\frac{U}{V}}x^2=2y\sqrt{UV}\frac{y}{x},$$

$$\frac{p}{x}=\frac{1}{2}\left(p+\rho \right)\frac{\frac{U}{x}}{U}.$$

Here we supposed that $`T_0^0=\rho `$, $`T_m^m=p\mathrm{}c^2`$ ($`m=\mathrm{1..3}`$).

Using the new functions we write :

$$U=\frac{1}{x\eta A},V=\frac{x}{A\left(\frac{dy}{dx}\right)^2}.$$
(4)
Since $`ϵ`$ is an extremely small quantity (see below), we can suppose

$$x,y\frac{1}{\sqrt{2ϵ}}.$$
(5)
Then in the vacuum from (3,4,5) we have

$$A\left(x\right)\frac{d\mathrm{ln}\left[\eta \left(x\right)\right]}{dx}+2=0,$$
(6)
$$\frac{d}{dx}A\left(x\right)=1+\frac{1}{2}ϵx^2A\left(x\right)\left[x\eta \left(x\right)\frac{1}{x}\right].$$

Several approximations based on the assumption $`xx_1`$ (where $`x_1>1`$ is the Schwarzschild-like singularity point) allow the analytical expression for the interval in the vicinity of the Schwarzschild sphere :

$$ds^2=\frac{ϵ}{2}dt^2\frac{dy^2}{2\left(1\frac{x_1}{y}\right)}y^2\left(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\phi ^2\right).$$
(7)
The obvious differences from the Schwarzschild metric result in the main physical consequence: the radially falling particle is decelerated in the vicinity of $`x_1`$ and cannot reach the singularity. This statement is in accord with the causality principle in the RTG, which requires $`x_0>x_1`$ ($`x_0`$ is the position of the collapsar surface).

To avoid the approximations required for the analytical expression (7), system (6) was considered numerically. Since the upper threshold for the graviton mass is $`1.6\times 10^{66}`$ g , $`ϵ`$ has an extremely small value for the stellar objects (e.g. $`ϵ10^{44}`$ for $`M=10M_{}`$). This allows the assumption $`\frac{dy}{dx}=1`$ and Eqs. (4,6) result in:

$$2\eta \left(x\right)\frac{d^2\eta \left(x\right)}{dx^2}3\left(\frac{d\eta \left(x\right)}{dx}\right)^2ϵx\eta \left(x\right)\left(1x^2\eta \left(x\right)\right)\frac{d\eta \left(x\right)}{dx}=0.$$
(8)
Far off $`x_1`$ or for $`ϵ=0`$ Eq. (8) leads to the Schwarzschild metric. The behavior of $`U`$ and $`V`$ in the vicinity of $`x_1`$ for nonzero $`ϵ`$ is shown in Fig. 1 (dashed curves present the Schwarzschild solution). The point in Fig. 1, a and the dotted curve in Fig. 1, b correspond to the analytical interval (7) but for the numerically obtained value of $`x_1`$.

Firstly, we have to recognize a good accuracy of the analytical estimation in the vicinity of $`x_1`$. Note also, that the Schwarzschild solution for $`V`$ (dash-dotted curve in Fig. 1, b) is quite accurate if $`r_s=x_1`$. Secondly, the differences between Schwarzschild and Logunov metrics appear at the extremely small distance from $`r_s`$ (sub-Planckian for the stellar objects). It is clear that the latter results from the small value of $`m_g`$ and requires the quantum consideration of the Schwarzschild sphere vicinity. The dependance of $`x_1`$ on $`ϵ`$ is shown in Fig. 2. One can see that the deviation of $`x_1`$ from $`r_s`$ is very small even for the extra-massive collapsars.

The approach to $`x_1`$ of the free-falling particle is described in the vicinity of the Schwarzschild sphere by the approximate expression :

$$\frac{dW\left(s\right)}{ds}=2\sqrt{\frac{xx_1}{ϵx_1^3}},$$
(9)
which demonstrates a strong deceleration due to antigravitation induced by the massive graviton. Fig. 3 shows the numerical result obtained from Eqs. (4,8) and expression

$$\frac{dW\left(s\right)}{ds}=\sqrt{\frac{1U}{UV^{}}}$$
(10)
for the modified interval

$$ds^2=U\left(W\right)dt^2V^{}\left(W\right)dW^2W^2\left(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\phi ^2\right).$$
(11)
One can see, that the velocity of the falling particle (for the remote observer) approaches to the velocity of light ($`c=1`$ in our normalization). However, in immediate proximity to $`x_1`$ the particle is decelerated by the short-range antigravitation and its velocity decreases up to zero (i.e. the Schwarzschild sphere is physically unreachable). Surely, as this deceleration takes a place at the extremely small distance, we need a quantum consideration. Nevertheless, one can suppose that the final stage of collapse can entail the over-production of the gravitons (some kind of the gravitational burst). Note also, that in spite of $`x_111`$ the time of the light propagation from $`r=100r_s`$ to the point, where the deviation from the Schwarzschild metric begins, is $`0.02`$ s for $`M=`$ $`10M_{}`$. Thus, the processes induced by the massive graviton in the vicinity of the Schwarzschild sphere are not hidden from us by the cosmological-scale time and we face the challenge of the stability of the observable massive collapsar-like objects .

## 3 Stability of the spherically symmetric metric

Although the problem of the collapsar stability can not be reduced to the stability of the metric against the small perturbation, the latter is its necessary condition. We shall base our analysis on the classical method of Ref. . (7) is chosen as the perturbed metric.

The general perturbed metric has a form:

$$g_{\mu \nu }=$$
(12)
$$\left[\begin{array}{cccc}U\left(r\right),& 0,& 0,& \begin{array}{c}\begin{array}{c}\delta \omega (t,r,\theta )\times \\ W\left(r\right)^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta ,\end{array}\end{array}\\ 0,& V\left(r\right),& 0,& \begin{array}{c}\begin{array}{c}\delta q_2(t,r,\theta )\times \\ W\left(r\right)^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta ,\end{array}\end{array}\\ 0,& 0,& W\left(r\right)^2,& \begin{array}{c}\begin{array}{c}\delta q_3(t,r,\theta )\times \\ W\left(r\right)^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta ,\end{array}\end{array}\\ \begin{array}{c}\delta \omega (t,r,\theta )\times \\ W\left(r\right)^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \end{array},& \begin{array}{c}\delta q_2(t,r,\theta )\times \\ W\left(r\right)^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \end{array},& \begin{array}{c}\delta q_3(t,r,\theta )\times \\ W\left(r\right)^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \end{array},& W\left(r\right)^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \end{array}\right],$$

where $`\delta `$ is the small expansion parameter; $`\omega (t,r,\theta )`$, $`q_2(t,r,\theta )`$ and $`q_3(t,r,\theta )`$ are the perturbation functions.

Taking into account only linear on $`\delta `$ terms, using dimensionless quantities and supposing that $`x_1=r_s`$ and

$$\omega (t,r,\theta )=\omega (r,\theta )\mathrm{exp}\left(i\sigma t\right),$$
(13)
$$q_2(t,r,\theta )=q_2(r,\theta )\mathrm{exp}\left(i\sigma t\right),$$

$$q_3(t,r,\theta )=q_3(r,\theta )\mathrm{exp}\left(i\sigma t\right),$$

we can obtain from (7) and second field equation (1)

$$\frac{3\mathrm{cos}\theta q_3(y,\theta )}{\mathrm{sin}\theta }7q_2(y,\theta )+8q_2(y,\theta )y+2y\left(y1\right)\frac{q_2(y,\theta )}{y}+\frac{q_3(y,\theta )}{\theta }+$$
(14)
$$\frac{2\sigma i}{ϵ}y^2\omega (y,\theta )=0.$$

Eq. (14) requires $`\omega (y,\theta )=0`$ if $`q_2(y,\theta )`$, $`q_3(y,\theta )`$ are real and $`\sigma `$ is arbitrary and real. The latter requirement corresponds to the stability of the perturbed metric (7,12) in the framework of the linear stability analysis. More general consideration will be given elsewhere.

Now we consider first field Eq. (1) for the perturbed metric. The obtained expressions are too awkward to be written here and can be found in . The axial perturbations are defined by the perturbed $`(1,3)`$ and $`(2,3)`$ \- components of the field equations. Introducing the new function

$$Q(y,\theta )=\left[\frac{q_3(y,\theta )}{y}\frac{q_2(y,\theta )}{\theta }\right]\mathrm{sin}^3\theta ,$$
(15)
we can obtain after some manipulations (see ) the equations defining the perturbation functions:

$$\frac{\frac{}{\theta }Q(y,\theta )}{\mathrm{sin}^3\theta }=q_2(y,\theta )\left[2\frac{6}{y}+\frac{2y^2\sigma ^2}{ϵ}4ϵy^2\mathrm{\Delta }\left(y\right)\right],$$
(16)
$$\frac{\frac{}{y}\left(\mathrm{\Delta }\left(y\right)Q(y,\theta )^2y^2\right)}{Q(y,\theta )y\mathrm{sin}^3\theta }=2q_3(y,\theta )y^3\left[\frac{\sigma ^2}{ϵ}ϵ\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \right],$$

where $`\mathrm{\Delta }\left(y\right)y^2\left(1\frac{1}{y}\right)`$. Now it is possible to eliminate $`q_2`$ and $`q_3`$. This results in

$$\frac{}{y}\left[\frac{\frac{}{y}\left(\mathrm{\Delta }\left(y\right)Q(y,\theta )^2y^2\right)}{Q(y,\theta )y\mathrm{sin}^3\theta B\left(y\right)}\right]+\frac{}{\theta }\left[\frac{\frac{}{\theta }Q(y,\theta )}{\mathrm{sin}^3\theta A\left(y\right)}\right]=\frac{Q(y,\theta )}{\mathrm{sin}^3\theta }.$$
(17)
Here $`A\left(y\right)=2+\frac{6}{y}\frac{2y^2\sigma ^2}{ϵ}`$, $`B\left(y\right)=`$ $`\frac{2y^3\sigma ^2}{ϵ}`$ and we used the smallness of $`ϵ`$ in order to eliminate the angular-dependence from $`A`$ and $`B`$.

Eq. (17) permits the separation of variables: $`Q(y,\theta )\mathrm{\Xi }\left(y\right)\mathrm{\Psi }\left(\theta \right)`$. Then for the angular part we have the Gegenbauer’s equation:

$$\frac{d^2}{d\theta ^2}\mathrm{\Psi }\left(\theta \right)3\frac{\mathrm{cos}\theta }{\mathrm{sin}\theta }\frac{d}{d\theta }\mathrm{\Psi }\left(\theta \right)+2n\mathrm{\Psi }\left(\theta \right)=0,$$
(18)
where $`n`$ is some number. Eq. (18) can be solved through Legendre functions and then

$$n=\frac{\left(l+2\right)\left(l1\right)}{2},$$
(19)
$`l`$ is integer.

Taking into account that $`ϵ1`$, the equation for the radial part is

$$2ϵy\mathrm{\Delta }\left(y\right)\frac{d^2}{dy^2}\mathrm{\Xi }\left(y\right)+ϵy\left(4y1\right)\frac{d}{dy}\mathrm{\Xi }\left(y\right)+$$
(20)
$$2\mathrm{\Xi }\left(y\right)\left[\sigma ^2y^3ϵyn2ϵy+3ϵ\right]=0.$$

In immediate proximity to the Schwarzschild sphere and outside the $`\mathrm{\Xi }\left(y\right)`$-extremum (which appears as a result of the angular number growth, see below Eq. (21)), we can neglect the first term in Eq. (20). Hence, the approximate solution of Eq. (20) is:

$$\mathrm{\Xi }\left(\lambda \right)C\left(1+ϵ\lambda \right)^6\left(3+4ϵ\lambda \right)^{\left(\sigma ^2+16ϵ\left(n10\right)\right)\mathrm{}32ϵ}\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{\sigma ^2\left(1+ϵ\lambda \right)\left(3+2ϵ\lambda \right)}{8ϵ}\right],$$
(21)
where $`C`$ is the constant of integration and $`\lambda >0`$: $`y1+ϵ\lambda `$.

Eq. (21) suggests that the appropriate asymptotic for $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ is provided only by $`\sigma ^2>0`$. Thus, the perturbation increment $`\sigma `$ is real in the agreement with the stability requirement. The stability far from $`x_1`$, where the metric coincides with the Schwarzschild one, is provided by the stability of the latter.

## 4 Conclusion

The numerical simulations based on the Logunov field equations demonstrate a high accuracy of the approximate analytical solution for the static spherically symmetric metric in the RTG. It is shown, that there exists a strong repulsion induced by the massive graviton at the Planckian distance. As a result of this repulsion, the collapse of the stellar objects has to entail the burst of the gravitational radiation. However, the rigorous analysis of the collapse requires taking into account the quantum effects. Some case for the stability of the collapsar is provided by the stability of the static spherically symmetric metric.

As the outlooks for the future analysis we can point out the following topics: i) more general stability analysis including higher-order perturbations; ii) classical consideration of the possible static configurations of the matter in the static spherically symmetric metric; iii) realistic collapse models taking into account the energy loss due to gravitational radiation in the vicinity of the Schwarzschild sphere.

## Acknowledgments

Author is Lise Meitner Fellow at Technical University of Vienna and appreciates the support from the Austrian Science Fund (FWF, grant #M688).


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# Some Constraints On the Effects of Age and Metallicity on the Low Mass X-ray Binary Formation RateBased on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555, and on observations made with the Chandra X-ray Observatory.

## 1 Introduction

The hard X-ray emission from elliptical and S0 galaxies has long been suspected of being associated with LMXBs (Trinchieri & Fabbiano 1985). With the advent of the Chandra X-ray Observatory, it is now possible to directly identify and study LMXBs in external galaxies such as NGC 4697 (Sarazin, Irwin & Bregman 2000) and NGC 4472 (Kundu, Maccarone & Zepf 2002, hereafter KMZ; Maccarone, Kundu & Zepf 2003, hereafter MKZ).

LMXBs are formed especially efficiently in GCs, most likely due to dynamical interactions in the core (Clark 1975; Fabian et al. 1975). In the Galaxy, GCs account for $``$0.1% of the stellar mass, but harbor $``$10% of the LX$``$1036 erg s-1 LMXBs (e.g. Verbunt 2002). Chandra studies reveal that an even higher fraction of LMXBs in early type galaxies reside in GCs, ranging from 70% in NGC 1399 (Angelini, Loewenstein & Mushotzky 2001), to 40% in NGC 4472 (KMZ, MKZ), and a lower limit of 20% in NGC 4697 (Sarazin et al. 2000).

One of the surprising conclusions from our study of the GC-LMXB connection in NGC 4472 (KMZ) is that red GCs are $``$3 times more likely to host LMXBs than blue ones. Although a similar correlation is known to exist for the Galaxy (e.g. Grindlay 1987), the small number of LMXBs and clusters in the Galaxy makes it difficult to gauge the relative importance of various correlated GC properties. The rich GC systems of early type galaxies and the wide range of GC properties in different galaxies allow us to isolate and understand the physical characteristics of GCs that drive LMXB formation. For example, the red colors of GC systems identified in broadband optical filters largely reflect a metal-rich population, but in different galaxies these clusters can also be younger than the blue GCs by varying amounts (e.g. Puzia et al. 2002; hereafter P02). It has also been argued that LMXBs may preferentially be created in younger GCs where the larger mass of the turnover stars increases the interaction rate in GCs (e.g. Di Stefano et al 2002. Also see Rappaport et al. 2001). The discovery of a significant population of intermediate age GCs in NGC 4365 by P02 provides a unique sample to test for any effect of age on the LMXB formation rate. Furthermore, the P02 infrared study yields the only data set that constrains the ages and metallicities of large numbers of GCs in the inner regions of galaxies where the LMXB density is the highest.

In this Letter we compare the X-ray properties of GCs in NGC 3115 and NGC 4365 with the age and metallicity constraints placed by the P02 observations in order to isolate the primary physical property that drives the efficient formation of LMXBs in red GCs. We also probe the field LMXBs in early type galaxies to ascertain whether they probe the age of the field stars.

## 2 Observations & Data Analysis

We have analyzed the 36 ks archival Chandra ACIS-S3 image of NGC 3115 observed on 2001, June 14 (PI: Irwin) and the 41 ks image of NGC 4365 observed on 2001 June 2 (PI: Sarazin). Using the procedure laid out in KMZ and MKZ we identify 149 X-ray point sources in NGC 4365 and 90 objects in NGC 3115 in the 0.5-8 keV band. The bulk of these sources are LMXBs. Only 10-15 of the candidates in each galaxy are expected to be contaminating objects such as background AGNs (Brandt et al. 2000, Mushotzky et al. 2000). Neither of these galaxies shows evidence of significant emission from bright, hot gas that might affect point source detection even in the innermost regions of the galaxies.

The HST-WFPC2 V and I band observations of NGC 3115 and NGC 4365 have been analyzed by us in Kundu & Whitmore (1998; 2001a) and P02. P02 have also analyzed ground-based K-band images of these galaxies. We refer the reader to these papers for details of the data reduction and analysis of their GC systems. We achieved 0.3′′ r.m.s. relative astrometric accuracy between the optical and X-ray sources by bootstrapping the HST and Chandra positions using the procedure outlined in MKZ. We adopt a distance modulus of 29.93 mag for NGC 3115 and 31.55 mag for NGC 4365 (Tonry et al. 2001).

## 3 The LMXBs in Globular Clusters

In order to determine the fraction of LMXBs in GCs we consider only the X-ray sources that lie within the WFPC2 field of view. 36 of the LMXB candidates in NGC 3115 and 44 in NGC 4365 meet this criterion (we eliminated the source corresponding to the nucleus of each galaxy which may be associated with their central black hole). Nine of these LMXBs in NGC 3115 and 23 in NGC 4365 are within 0.5′′ of a GC and are considered to be matches. There is a natural break in the LMXB-GC angular separation at this distance and no further candidates are added in either galaxy when the matching radius is increased to 0.7′′. Thus 25% of the LMXBs in NGC 3115 are associated with GCs, and 40% in NGC 4365.

The optical color distributions of GCs in many early type galaxies are known to be bimodal (e.g. Kundu & Whitmore 2001a, 2001b). This is usually attributed to differences in the metallicity distributions of the subpopulations of old GCs. While NGC 3115 has a bimodal color distribution (Kundu & Whitmore 1998), NGC 4365 is one of the few galaxies with a confirmed unimodal distribution (Kundu & Whitmore 2001a). In each bimodal GC system where the LMXB population has been studied -e.g. the Galaxy (Bellazzini et al. 1995) and NGC 4472 (KMZ)- the red GCs have a significantly higher fraction of LMXBs than the blue ones.

The color-magnitude diagrams of the NGC 3115 and NGC 4365 GCs are plotted in Fig 1, with LMXB hosts represented by filled symbols. It is apparent that the red GCs in NGC 3115 are preferred sites for LMXB formation. We showed in Kundu & Whitmore (1998) that there are roughly equal numbers of red and blue GCs in the WFPC2 image of NGC 3115 with a dividing color between V-I=1.03 and V-I=1.06. Any choice of partition between red and blue GCs within this color range places 8 of the 9 GC-LMXBs in the red GC system of NGC 3115. Even if one were to conservatively assign the GC-LMXB with V-I=1.07 that is near the cusp of the color distribution to the blue population, the efficiency of LMXB formation in red GCs is at least 3 times that in blue GCs. On the other hand the GC-LMXBs in NGC 4365 show no strong preference for redder GCs. The $`<`$V-I$`>`$=1.10$`\pm `$0.03 mean color of the GC-LMXBs is only marginally redder than the $`<`$V-I$`>`$=1.06$`\pm `$0.01 value of the 546 GCs within the color range 0.6$`<`$V-I$`<`$1.4.

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 Are LMXBs Formed more Efficiently in Young Globular Clusters?

Using K-band observations to break the age-metallicity degeneracy that plagues optical colors, P02 showed that the broad optical color distribution of NGC 4365 GCs is due to the presence of a significant fraction ($``$50% in the field of view) of intermediate age ($``$5 Gyr) GCs. This interpretation has been confirmed by spectroscopic observations of a handful of GCs by Larsen et al. (2003). P02 also showed that both the metal-poor and the metal-rich GCs in NGC 3115 appear to be old ($``$12 Gyr). In Fig 2 we plot the V-K vs V-I distribution of the GCs (and GC-LMXBs) in NGC 4365 and NGC 3115. While the age of an individual GC is only constrained to several Gyrs and \[Fe/H\] to a few tenths of a dex, the differences in the overall GC system properties of the two galaxies, in particular the intermediate age population of NGC 4365, can clearly be seen. We refer the reader to P02 for details. Note that the P02 observations are largely limited by the depth of the K-band data. Thus, only a subsample of the Fig 1 GCs have age-metallicity constraints.

Figure 2 reveals that all the GCs in the P02 sample that host LMXBs in NGC 3115 are metal-rich and have solar or higher metallicity. Given the old ages ($``$10 Gyr) of both the red and blue GCs in this galaxy our observations strongly suggest that metallicity is a significant parameter that drives the formation of LMXBs in GCs. It appears likely that the higher efficiency of LMXB formation in the red GCs of galaxies with clearly bimodal optical color distributions such as NGC 4472 (KMZ) is also driven by metallicity effects. On the other hand, the GC system of NGC 4365 which spans a large range of ages does not reveal any obvious correlation of LMXB efficiency with GC age. Specifically, there is no evidence that intermediate age GCs are more likely to host LMXBs. Although the specific choice of age separating the intermediate age and old GCs is fairly arbitrary, a typical choice of 5 Gyr actually gives a slightly higher fraction of LMXBs in old GCs ($``$20%) than in young ones ($``$10%).

However, there are strong selection effects due to the K-band photometric limits (P02), coupled with the fact that younger GCs are brighter, and the strong preference of LMXBs to form in the brightest GCs (Fig 1 & KMZ). We showed in KMZ that the luminosity effect implies that roughly equal number of LMXBs are formed per unit GC mass at all luminosities. Thus, in order to fairly judge the effect of age and/or metallicity one should compare the LMXB formation efficiency for GCs of equal mass. To this end we used the ages and metallicities of individual GCs and the implied Bruzual & Charlot (2000) model luminosities to estimate the masses of the GCs. We note here in passing that the LMXB fraction per unit mass of GCs in our sample is 10-7 M$`_{}`$-1 and indeed roughly constant for all GC masses.

Figure 3 shows the \[Fe/H\] vs. mass distribution of GCs and GC-LMXBs in NGC 3115. In conjunction with Figs 1 and 2 it is apparent that the red GCs are favored sites for LMXB formation due to the higher metallicities of these clusters. Figure 4 plots the age and metallicity vs. mass distributions of the NGC 4365 GCs. The lower panel of Fig 4 shows no strong correlation of LMXB formation rate with GC metallicity in NGC 4365. It is not clear if this is due to selection effects, such as the fact that the K-band data undersample the fainter metal-poor GCs in this more distant galaxy, or possible physical processes e.g. the metallicity dependence is not continuous but a threshold effect above which the efficiency of LMXB formation increases. More significantly, the upper panel of Fig 4 shows no evidence that younger GCs form LMXBs more efficiently. We attempted to separate the sample into young and old populations using a range of dividing ages from 4-8 Gyr (see P02) to search for any evidence of a higher LMXB formation rate in young GCs. For a dividing age of 8 Gyr the LMXB density is 1.1($`\pm `$0.4)$`\times `$10-7 M$`_{}`$-1 for the young GCs and 0.7($`\pm `$0.5)$`\times `$10-7 M$`_{}`$-1 for the old ones. Conversely, dividing the populations at 4 Gyr yields 0.7($`\pm `$0.5)$`\times `$10-7 M$`_{}`$-1 for the young population and 1($`\pm `$0.4)$`\times `$10-7 M$`_{}`$-1 for the old GCs. Furthermore, we point out that if the efficient formation of LMXBs in the red GCs of the Galaxy and M31 is due to their $``$2 Gyr younger age compared to the blue clusters, we would expect to see a significantly larger difference in LMXB formation efficiencies between the young and the old GCs in NGC 4365 due to their larger age spread. Given that roughly half the GCs in our WFPC2 image are young (P02) our data clearly does not support this premise. Also, the deep V-I observations indicate that $``$3% of the NGC 4365 GCs host LMXBs which is similar to the $``$4% fraction observed in other galaxies (KMZ).

Thus we conclude that the efficiency of LMXB formation in a GC shows no obvious correlation with the age of the GC. However, the larger fraction of LMXBs seen in the red GC systems of NGC 3115, and likely the other galaxies with clearly bimodal GC color distributions, appears to be related to the higher metallicities of these clusters. There is no convincing theoretical model that explains this metallicity effect. Systematic variations as a function of metallicity in the dynamical properties of clusters, the dynamical binary formation rates, or the efficiency of mass transfer in LMXBs are all possibilities at this time. These observations lay the preliminary observational goalposts for understanding the formation of LMXBs in GCs. Deeper optical and K-band observations of large samples of extragalactic GCs will clearly be invaluable in probing the observational signatures in more detail.

### 4.2 Do Field LMXBs Trace the Age of Field Stars?

Models of LMXB formation due to the evolution of binaries in the field suggest that the rate of formation of bright LMXBs decreases monotonically after an initial peak (White & Ghosh 1998; Wu 2001). If this is the case, the properties of the field LMXBs may be used probe the star formation history of the host galaxy. In this scenario the vast majority of the bright LMXBs in the Milky Way must be associated with recent star formation in the Galactic disk. However, we have discovered 27 field LMXBs with LX $`>`$ 3$`\times `$1036 ergs/s within the WFPC2 image of NGC 3115 and, we estimate, $``$50 in the entire ACIS-S3 frame. There are roughly twice as many LMXBs of comparable luminosity in the Galaxy. Thus, one would either require continuous star formation in a region of NGC 3115 with mass comparable to the Milky Way disk, or a significant star formation episode in the recent past to account for the field LMXBs in NGC 3115. There is no clear evidence for recent star formation in either the GCs or the field stars in NGC 3115 (P02), strongly suggesting that the LMXB formation rate does not correlate trivially with the age of the stellar system.

To further search for age effects we plot the local specific frequencies, SN, of GCs, GC-LMXBs and field LMXBs of NGC 3115, NGC 4365, NGC 1399 & NGC 4472 as a function of host galaxy absolute magnitude in Fig 5. The local SN is defined as N$`\times `$10$`^{0.4(M_{V(FOV)}+15)}`$, where N is the number of relevant candidates and $`M_{V(FOV)}`$ is the absolute magnitude of the host galaxy within the WFPC2 field of view. LMXBs fainter than 2$`\times `$1037 ergs/s have been eliminated for the nearby NGC 3115 system in order to minimize selection bias. The LMXB values have been arbitrarily multiplied by 20 to facilitate comparison with the GC SNs.

Figure 5 reveals that broadly the GC and GC-LMXB specific frequencies track each other, which essentially reiterates our suggestion (KMZ) that the overall efficiency of LMXB formation in GCs is similar in different galaxies. The SN of field LMXBs also appears to be similar in the inner regions of these galaxies. However, if all LMXBs brighter than $``$2$`\times `$1036 ergs/s are formed in regions with continuous or recent bursts of star formation as suggested by Wu (2001), NGC 4365 which is likely to have a component of intermediate age stars in the field should have a higher value of SN(Field). The approximately several gigayear delay in the peak of the LMXB formation rate suggested by White & Ghosh (1998) should have further enhanced the field LMXB density in NGC 4365 at the present epoch. No obvious enhancement is seen in Fig 5.

Thus, we conclude that our present data set does not support a scenario in which the LMXB formation efficiency decreases monotonically after an initial peak. It is possible that a large fraction of present day LMXBs reflect an old stellar population where Roche lobe overflow in a moderately tight binary is triggered by the evolution of donor star off the main sequence (e.g. Podsiadlowski, Rappaport & Pfahl 2002). Alternately a significant fraction of field LMXBs may actually have been created in GCs and subsequently injected into the field (MKZ) either by GC destruction (e.g. Vesperini 2000; 2001) or dynamical kicks (e.g. Phinney & Sigurdsson 1991). Finally we note, that in much of this Letter we have implicitly assumed that our snapshot study accurately reflects the relative densities of various populations of LMXBs. Followup Chandra observations are necessary to quantify possible differences in the transient LMXB populations (Piro & Bildsten 2002) that may affect these conclusions.

This research was supported by NASA LTSA grants NAG5-11319 and NAG5-12975, and Chandra grant AR3-4010X. THP acknowledges support from *Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG* project # Be 1091/10–2.


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# Magnetism of Cu6Ge6O18-xH2O (𝑥=0∼6), a compound of the one-dimensional Heisenberg 𝑆=1/2 model with competing antiferromagnetic interactions

## Abstract

We measured the magnetic susceptibilities of Cu6Ge6O18-xH2O ($`x=06`$). Susceptibility above the antiferromagnetic (AF) transition temperature ($`T_\mathrm{N}`$) agrees with susceptibility of the one-dimensional Heisenberg $`S=1/2`$ model with competing AF interactions. From the estimated ratio between nearest-neighbor and next-nearest-neighbor AF exchange interactions, the spin system is probably located near a boundary between spin systems with gapless and gapped magnetic excitation. The value of $`T_\mathrm{N}/T_{\mathrm{max}}`$, where $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ is temperature at which the susceptibility is maximum, shows a unique dependence on $`x`$. The $`x`$ dependence can be explained qualitatively by taking phase transition as a function of $`x`$ and the effect of disorder into account.

preprint: submitted to Phys. Rev. Lett.

Since the discovery of the spin-Peierls transition in CuGeO3 Hase93a , this cuprate has attracted much attention and many works on this cuprate have been carried out Hase93b ; Hase93c ; Castilla95 ; Riera95 ; Sasago96 ; Masuda98 . Results of studies on CuGeO3 and related materials Sasago95  have indicated that some Ge or Si oxides including magnetic ions may have interesting spin systems.

Among these oxides, we have been interested in Cu6M6O18-xH2O (M = Ge or Si) because of their crystal structure. Cu6Si6O18-6H2O is a natural mineral called dioptase, and its crystal structure was determined in 1955 Heide55 . Cu6Ge6O18-$`x`$H2O was first synthesized in 1997 and was shown to have the same structure as that of Cu6Si6O18-$`x`$H2O Brandt97 . The value of $`x`$ can be changed in the range of 6 to 0 without change in the crystal structure by choosing conditions of thermal treatment Brandt97 ; Breuer88 . Atomic positions are shown schematically in Fig. 1 Ribbe77 . The space group is $`R\overline{3}`$ (No. 148). There are one Cu, one Ge, four O, and two H atom positions as a crystallographic view. Localized spins ($`S=1/2`$) exist only on Cu2+ ions. In the case of $`x=6`$, an octahedron surrounding a Cu atom is formed by two O(2), two O(3), and two O(4) atoms, where the O(4) atoms correspond to oxygen of water molecules. From Cu-O distances shown in TABLE I, we know that localized spins exist in $`d_{x^2y^2}`$ orbits extending towards O(2) and O(3).

In Cu6Ge6O18-6H2O, the distances between two Cu2+ ions are 2.96 and 3.27 Å for the first-nearest-neighbor (1NN; pink bars) and second-nearest-neighbor (2NN; green bars) Cu-Cu bonds, respectively, while the distance is 4.93 Å for the third-nearest-neighbor bond and is greater than the above two distances. Therefore, exchange interactions in the 1NN and 2NN Cu-Cu bonds ($`J_1`$ and $`J_2`$) should be taken into account. From the Cu-O-Cu angles shown in TABLE I, $`J_2`$ is positive (antiferromagnetic; AF) and the magnitude of $`J_2`$ is probably larger than that of $`J_1`$. It has been shown that $`J_2`$ is AF and $`J_1`$ is negative (ferromagnetic; F) by measurements of magnetic Bragg peaks below an AF transition temperature ($`T_\mathrm{N}`$) in Cu6Si6O18-xH2O with x = 0 or 6 Wintenberger93 ; Belokoneva02 . Each Cu has two 2NN bonds and one 1NN bond. Spiral chains are formed by the 2NN bonds and are connected to each other by the 1NN bonds. There is no magnetic competition in whatever sign of $`J_1`$ and $`J_2`$. Since the chains formed by the 2NN bonds are spiral, we may not be able to ignore exchange interaction ($`J_2^{}`$) in the next-nearest-neighbor (NNN) Cu-Cu bond in the chain (a green dotted bar) through the Cu-O(2)-O(2)-Cu path indicated by red bars in Fig. 1(b). If $`J_2^{}`$ is AF, magnetic competition occurs in the spiral chains.

Magnetic properties of Cu6Si6O18-xH2O with x = 0 or 6 have already been investigated. We can see a broad maximum around $`T_{\mathrm{max}}45`$ or 110 K in magnetic susceptibility of a powder sample with x = 6 or 0 Wintenberger93 . Gros et al. measured susceptibility of a single-crystalline sample with x = 6 and obtained $`T_\mathrm{N}`$ = 15.5 K Gros02 . The value of $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ suggesting magnitude of magnetic interactions in the compound with $`x=0`$ is about two-times greater than that in the compound with $`x=6`$ in spite of small quantitative changes in the crystal structures. Therefore, dependence of magnetic properties of Cu6M6O18-$`x`$H2O on $`x`$ is interesting but has not been studied systematically. Thus, we investigated magnetic susceptibility of powder samples of Cu6Ge6O18-$`x`$H2O ($`x=06`$).

Crystalline powder of Cu6Ge6O18-6H2O was synthesized by reaction of copper (II) acetate \[Cu(CH3COO)2\] and GeO2 in an aqueous solution Brandt97 . Samples with $`x<6`$ were obtained by thermal treatment at 423 to 823 K in air. Values of $`x`$ were estimated by measuring the weights of samples before and after thermal treatment. Water is not removed when the temperature of the thermal treatment is lower than 373 K. Besides, once water has been removed, rehydration is impossible under ambient conditions. We obtained X-ray diffraction patterns at room temperature. As shown in Fig. 2, $`a`$ increases and $`c`$ decreases monotonically with increase in $`x`$. Structure parameters were refined by the Rietveld method from the X-ray diffraction data using the RIETAN program Izumi00  and are summarized in TABLE I. X-ray diffraction patterns of samples with $`x=0`$ and 6 at 8.5 K were also obtained and were identical with those at room temperature. Magnetic susceptibility was measured using a superconducting quantum interference device magnetometer (Quantum Design MPMSXL). Besides, we confirmed that Cu6Ge6O18-$`x`$H2O is an insulator.

Figure 3(a) shows temperature ($`T`$) dependence of magnetic susceptibility $`\chi (T)`$ of Cu6Ge6O18-$`x`$H2O measured in magnetic fields of $`H=0.1`$ T. In $`\chi (T)`$ of the sample with $`x=6`$, we can see a broad maximum around $`T_{\mathrm{max}}=100`$ K. The value of $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ increases with decrease in $`x`$. The broad maximum indicates that Cu6M6O18-$`x`$H2O can be classified as low-dimensional antiferromagnets. This is consistent with the abovementioned notion that the spin system consists of spiral chains. A Curie-Weiss term is seen in $`\chi (T)`$ at low temperatures. We fitted $`C/(T+\theta )+\chi _0`$ to susceptibility below 6 K. Since the $`T`$ range used in this fitting was very narrow, susceptibility of Cu6Ge6O18-$`x`$H2O was assumed to be $`T`$-independent and was contained in the $`T`$-independent term, $`\chi _0`$. In the sample with $`x=6`$, for example, we estimated $`\theta `$ to be 2.41 K and estimated the ratio of spins contributing to the Curie-Weiss term $`p`$ to be $`2.00\times 10^3`$ from the Curie constant $`C`$ assuming that the value of $`g`$ was 2.12. Similar values of $`\theta `$ and $`p`$ were obtained in other samples. In Fig. 3(a), $`\frac{1}{1p}[\chi (T)C/(T+\theta )]`$ of the sample with $`x=6`$ is also shown by a dotted curve. It should be noted that the Curie-Weiss term hardly affects determination of $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ and $`T_\mathrm{N}`$, and comparison between experimental and theoretical susceptibilities in Fig. 3(b). The inset of Fig. 3(a) shows derivative curves \[$`d\chi (T)/dT`$\]. In $`d\chi (T)/dT`$ of the sample with $`x=6`$ or 0, there is one peak at 38.5 or 73.5 K, which indicates phase transition to the AF long-range order (AFLRO). On the other hand, two transitions seem to overlap each other between 35 and 60 K in the sample with $`x=1.54`$ Comment1 .

We assumed that the orbital part of susceptibility was $`1\times 10^4`$ (emu/Cu mol) and subtracted that part from the experimental susceptibility. The remaining susceptibility $`\chi _{\mathrm{spin}}`$ times $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ is plotted as a function of $`T/T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ in Fig. 3(b). Taking experimental errors into account, we can say that these curves are similar to one another and show no systematic change as a function of $`x`$. Here, we compare these curves with theoretical ones obtained from the one-dimensional Heisenberg $`S=1/2`$ model with competing AF interactions (competing model) whose Hamiltonian is $`𝐇=_i(J_2𝐒_i𝐒_{i+1}+J_2^{}𝐒_i𝐒_{i+2})`$. In this model, a spin gap opens between singlet ground and excited states when $`\alpha (J_2^{}/J_2)`$ exceeds a critical value of $`\alpha _c=0.2412`$ Castilla95 . Therefore, a quantum phase transition occurs when $`\alpha =0.2412`$. Theoretical curves with various values of $`\alpha `$ Kuroe03  and an experimental one of the sample with $`x=6`$ are shown in the inset of Fig. 3(b). Since it is possible to compare experimental and theoretical curves in a wide $`T/T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ range, we use the curve of $`x=6`$. The experimental curve agrees with the theoretical curves with $`\alpha =0.25`$ and $`g=2.05`$ or with $`\alpha =0.29`$ and $`g=2.12`$, while it does not agree with the theoretical curves with $`\alpha =0.20`$ and 0.34. This agreement indicates that the spin system in Cu6Ge6O18-$`x`$H2O is located near a boundary between spin systems with gapless and gapped magnetic excitation, although $`\alpha `$ may depend weakly on $`x`$. The same conclusion was obtained even when the value of the orbital part of susceptibility was changed from 1 to $`2\times 10^4`$ (emu/Cu mol). Of course, there is a clear difference between the competing model and Cu6Ge6O18-$`x`$H2O. The ground state is a spin singlet in the model, while it is AFLRO in Cu6Ge6O18-$`x`$H2O due to interchain interaction ($`J_1`$). It is known that there are a few compounds that have both NN and NNN interactions in chains, such as CuGeO3 Castilla95 ; Riera95 , CaV2O4 ($`S=1`$) Kikuchi01 , and NaV(WO4)2 ($`S=1`$) Masuda02 .

The dependence of $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ on $`x`$ is shown in Fig. 4(a), and the dependence of $`T_\mathrm{N}/T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ on $`x`$ is shown in Fig. 4(b). As $`x`$ decreases, $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ and therefore magnitude of exchange interactions increase monotonically. The value of $`T_\mathrm{N}/T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ decreases with decrease in $`x`$ from $`x=6`$, while it is nearly constant below $`x=1.54`$. At $`x=1.54`$, $`T_\mathrm{N}/T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ jumps abruptly from 0.23 to 0.39, and two AF transitions are seen. The jump indicates that AFLRO at $`x>1.54`$ and $`x<1.54`$ belongs to essentially different phases. The two AF transitions at $`x=1.54`$ are due to a phase separation into high and low $`x`$ phases. A phase separation always appears in the case of a first-order phase transition. The jump is reminiscent of Mg concentration dependence of $`T_\mathrm{N}`$ in Cu1-yMgyGeO3 Masuda98 . The value of $`T_\mathrm{N}`$ changes abruptly at a critical concentration $`y_c=0.023`$. Lattice dimerization exists and affects AFLRO at $`y<y_c`$, while AFLRO appears in a uniform lattice at $`y>y_c`$.

Let us now discuss the dependence of $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ on $`x`$. The change in $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ cannot be attributed to only Cu-Cu distances and Cu-O-Cu angles because these values are almost independent of $`x`$ (TABLE I). In a Cu-octahedron, $`\pi `$-bonds are formed between Cu and O(4) of a water molecule indicated by black dotted bars in Fig. 1(b) Belokoneva02 . Thus, electron distribution in the Cu-octahedron is probably changed by extraction of water. Therefore, it is considered that exchange of spins in the Cu-O(2) and Cu-O(3) bonds increases with decrease in $`x`$, resulting in increase in exchange interactions, and therefore $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$.

Next, let us discuss the dependence of $`T_\mathrm{N}/T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ on $`x`$. Based on the results indicating that the spin system in Cu6Ge6O18-$`x`$H2O is probably located near a boundary between spin systems with gapless and gapped magnetic excitation, we assume that a spin gap due to competing AF interactions exists at $`x<1.54`$ and that magnetic excitation is gapless at $`x>1.54`$. Of course, the existence of a spin gap has not been confirmed in the susceptibility. However, it should be emphasized that powder-averaged susceptibility of CuWO4 does not clearly show existence of a spin gap due to appearance of AFLRO at 24 K Anders72 , although this cuprate has a gap of 1.4 meV (16 K) at the magnetic zone center originating in alternation of AF exchange interactions in $`S=1/2`$ chains Lake96 . It should also be emphasized that a spin gap and AFLRO can coexist. Examples are doped CuGeO3 Sasago96 , CuWO4 Anders72 ; Lake96 , CsNiCl3 ($`S=1`$) Buyers86 , and SrNi2V2O8 ($`S=1`$) Zheludev00 .

Disorder is introduced by inhomogeneity of water in samples with $`0<x<6`$ and has a destructive effect on AFLRO. Thus, $`T_\mathrm{N}/T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ decreases with decrease in $`x`$ at $`x>1.54`$. Disorder also has a destructive effect on a spin gap. The destruction of a spin gap leads to development of AF correlation and therefore leads to increase in $`T_\mathrm{N}/T_{\mathrm{max}}`$. Thus, as $`x`$ increases at $`x<1.54`$, decrease in $`T_\mathrm{N}/T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ due to the destructive effect on AFLRO compensates increase in $`T_\mathrm{N}/T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ due to the destructive effect on a spin gap. As a result, $`T_\mathrm{N}/T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ is almost independent of $`x`$ at $`x<1.54`$. Note that $`T_\mathrm{N}`$ increases with increase in dopant concentration at a low concentration in spin systems that have a singlet ground state and a spin gap between singlet and excited states, such as CuGeO3 Hase93b ; Masuda98 , $`S=1/2`$ two-leg-ladder SrCu2O3 Azuma97 , and $`S=1`$ Haldane-material PbNi2V2O8 Uchiyama99 . In these cases, it is considered that development of AF correlation due to destruction of a spin gap is more dominant than the destructive effect of disorder on AFLRO. In order to prove that the abovementioned idea in Cu6Ge6O18-$`x`$H2O is correct, we have to confirm the existence of a spin gap. Therefore, it is necessary to make single crystals of Cu6Ge6O18-$`x`$D2O and to measure neutron scattering. Since $`T_\mathrm{N}`$ is not so small in comparison with $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$, $`J_1`$ is not negligible. Thus, in order to determine $`\alpha `$ more accurately, we will use theoretical susceptibility obtained from the competing model taking $`J_1`$ into account, which has not been reported so far.

We are grateful to K. Uchinokura, A. Tanaka, and T. Hikihara for their valuable discussions, to A. P. Tsai, T. Sato, H. Mamiya, and H. Suzuki for susceptibility measurements, to J. Wang and J. Ye for Rietveld analysis, to T. Furubayashi and I. Nakatani for X-ray diffraction measurements at low temperature, and to H. Kuroe for data of susceptibility obtained from the competing model. This work was supported by a grant for Intelligent Material Research from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan.


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# Antiferromagnetic ordering in the Kondo lattice system Yb2Fe3Si5

## I Introduction

Ternary rare earth transition metal silicides, which form in a variety of crystal structures have been widely investigated due to their remarkable physical properties . A few of them also undergo superconducting transition at low temperatures . In the early 80’s, several investigations have been carried out to understand the superconductivity and magnetism exhibited by compounds belonging to the R2Fe3Si5 system . In this family the Fe atoms do not carry any magnetic moment but help in building a large density of states at the Fermi level . It is now well established that a member of this series, namely, Tm2Fe3Si5  is the first reentrant antiferromagnetic superconductor (perhaps the only one down to 50 mK). It is worthwhile to point out that we still do not know why the antiferromagnetic order among Tm3+ ions is a deterrent to the superconductivity in Tm2Fe3Si5 given that the neutron scattering studies  could not find any ferromagnetic component in the magnetic unit cell in this compound. A recent report has suggested that an antiferromagnet Er2Fe3Si5  (below 2.5 K) also shows superconductivity below 1 K whereas an earlier heat-capacity study  indicated quadruple magnetic transitions without any superconductivity down to 1.5 K. A previous study  on an arc melted Yb2Fe3Si5 sample reported the observation of antiferromagnetic ordering of Yb moments around 1.7 K. However, that study did neither establish the Kondo lattice behaviour nor the high value of the Sommerfeld coefficient ($`\gamma `$) as we will see later. In this context, the physical properties of Yb2Fe3Si5 are largely unexplored as compared to other compounds of the R2Fe3Si5 series. Moreover, compounds with magnetic trivalent or nearly trivalent Yb are interesting since valence instability and Kondo interaction can lead to unusual properties. Thus, we need to understand the absence of superconductivity in Yb compound given that both Tm and Lu of the same series exhibit superconductivity. In this work, we provide a comprehensive study of bulk properties such as, resistivity, susceptibility, and heat capacity of a well characterized polycrystalline sample of Yb2Fe3Si5.

## II EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

Samples of Yb2Fe3Si5 were made by melting the individual constituents (with 2% Yb excess and other elements taken in stoichiometric proportions) in an Alumina crucible which is placed inside a Tantalum container and sealed in an arc furnace under high purity argon atmosphere. The whole assembly is heated in a vertical furnace. The purity of the rare-earth element Yb and the transition element Fe were 99.99% whereas the purity of Si was 99.999%. The X-ray powder diffraction pattern of the sample did not show the presence of any parasitic impurity phases. The quality of the sample was checked with EDAX analysis confirming that the sample is essentially single phase with 2-3-5 composition. The nearest rare-earth distances in Yb2Fe3Si5 is 3.8 $`\AA `$.

The temperature dependence of the magnetic susceptibility ($`\chi `$) was measured using the commercial Squid magnetometer (MPMS5, Quantum Design, USA) in a field of 1 kOe in the temperature range from 1.9 to 300 K. The ac susceptibility was measured using a home built susceptometer  from 1.5 to 20 K. The resistivity was measured using a four-probe dc technique with contacts made using silver paint on a bar shaped sample of 1 mm thick, 10 mm length and 2 mm width. The temperature was measured using a calibrated Si diode (Lake Shore Inc., USA) sensor. The sample voltage was measured with a nanovoltmeter (model 182, Keithley, USA) with a current of 10 mA using a 20 ppm stable (Hewlett Packard, USA) current source. All the data were collected using an IBM compatible PC/AT via IEEE-488 interface. The heat-capacity in zero field between 0.3 to 30 K was measured using an automated adiabatic heat pulse method. A calibrated germanium resistance thermometer (Lake Shore Inc, USA) was used as the temperature sensor in this range.

## III RESULTS

### A Magnetic susceptibility studies

The temperature dependence of the inverse dc magnetic susceptibility (1/$`\chi _{dc}`$) of a polycrystalline Yb2Fe3Si5 in a field of 1 kOe from 1.9 to 300 K is shown in the Fig. 1. The high temperature susceptibility (100 K$`<`$T$`<`$300 K) is fitted to a modified Curie-Weiss expression which is given by,

$$\chi =\chi _0+\frac{C}{(T\theta _p)},$$
$`(1)`$
Here, $`\chi _0`$ is the temperature independent susceptibility (sum of Pauli, Landau and core susceptibilities), C is the Curie constant and $`\theta _p`$ is the Curie-Weiss temperature. The Curie constant C can be written in terms of the effective moment as,

$$C=\frac{\mu _{eff}^2x}{8},$$
$`(2)`$
where $`x`$ is the concentration of Yb3+ ions (x = 2 for Yb2Fe3Si5). The value of $`\chi `$(0) is extremely small (7$`\times `$10-4 emu/mol) while the values of the effective magnetic moment ($`\mu _{eff}`$) and $`\theta _p`$ are found to be 4.5 $`\mu _B`$ and $``$14.4 K, respectively. The estimated effective moment is found to be nearly equal to the free ion moment of the magnetic Yb3+ ion which rules out the possibility of mixed valent nature of Yb as conjectured in an earlier study . One can also observe that below 100 K, the $`\chi `$ data show deviation from Curie-Weiss plot which could be due to the combined effect of crystal field and Kondo lattice contributions. The inset shows the ac-susceptibility behavior of the sample at low temperature. This inset clearly indicates antiferromagnetic ordering of Yb3+ moments at 1.7 K. It must be emphasized here that we do not see the influence of any impurity contribution to $`\chi `$(T) and especially the absence of Yb2O3 (TN=2.3 K) which is generally present in many Yb based compounds. The presence of a single distinct anomaly in $`\chi `$ at 1.7 K clearly suggests the high quality of the sample.

Earlier study  showed that the antiferromagetic ordering temperature of the heavy rare-earth R2Fe3Si5 compounds do follow the deGennes scaling  \[$``$(gJ-1)2 J(J+1)\] indicating that the dominant magnetic interaction is the RKKY interaction. Surprisingly, the same study . But the same study revealed that the antiferromagnetic ordering temperature of Yb2Fe3Si5 lies far above the theoretical curve . In our opinion, there is no reason to invoke something else other than the RKKY interaction for explaining the relatively large value of TN. An ordering temperature of 1.7 K is a very common value for Yb-compounds. A slightly enhanced 4f-hybridization, besides inducing some Kondo interaction, leads at first to an increase of the magnetic ordering temperature.

### B Resistivity studies

The temperature dependence of the resistivity ($`\rho `$) data of Yb2Fe3Si5 is shown in Fig. 2. The two insets (a) and (b) display the $`\rho `$ behaviour from 1.4 to 5 K and 1.4 to 50 K, respectively. The large value of the $`\rho `$(T) at room temperature and a low value of the residual resistivity ratio down to 5 K could be due to either the structural disorder (inter site change between Fe and Si) or to the strong hybridization effects. It must be recalled here that the properties of the 2-3-5 silicides are highly anisotropic  and the over all shape of the temperature dependence of $`\rho `$(T) of a polycrystal can easily be influenced by the anisotropy. The important aspect is the the low temperature $`\rho `$ data on an expanded scale as shown by the inset (b). From this inset one can clearly see the non-monotonic dependence of $`\rho `$(T) with a log T dependence from 9 to 25 K. The low temperature $`\rho `$ data below 30 K display a typical Kondo lattice response with a minimum at 25 K followed by a maximum of $`\rho `$(T) at 6 K. Subsequently, $`\rho `$(T) falls sharply below 4.5 K due to coherence. A small kink in the resistivity data at 1.7 K \[shown in the panel(a)\] indicates a possible magnetic transition at 1.7 K, which is in agreement with the susceptibility data.

### C Heat-capacity studies on Yb2Fe3Si5

The temperature dependent Cp data from 0.4 to 25 K of Yb2Fe3Si5 is shown in the top panel (a) of Fig. 3. The inset in this panel describes the low temperature behaviour which emphasizes the sharpness of the antiferromagnetic transition. The large jump ($``$ 4 J/mol K) at the TN clearly shows bulk magnetic ordering of Yb3+ moments. The antiferromagnetic ordering temperature obtained from the heat capacity measurements is in accordance with those obtained from the $`\chi `$ and $`\rho `$ measurements. The specific heat data of Lu2Fe3Si5 in the normal state is also shown in the same panel.

In the second panel of Fig. 3, the temperature dependence of C/T data are shown. Well below, TN, these data can be nicely fitted with a linear and a cubic term, C = $`\gamma `$ T + $`\beta `$T3, as shown in the inset. The cubic term in this case corresponds to the contribution of antiferromagnetic magnons, since the phonons are completely negligible in this temperature range. The linear term obtained from this extrapolation, $`\gamma `$ = 0.4J/Yb-mol K2, can be considered as a lower limit for the Sommerfeld coefficient, since the experimental data show an upward curvature at the lowest limit of the measurement. This would indicate freezing out of the magnons due to an anisotropy gap. In this case, C/T = 0.5 J/Yb-mol K2 at the lowest measured temperature gives the upper limit for this Sommerfeld coefficient. The magnetic contribution to the heat capacity of Yb2Fe3Si5 (which is obtained after subtracting the Cp data of Lu2Fe3Si5) is shown in the third panel (c) of the Fig. 3. The estimated entropy from the experiment is also shown in the same panel. The entropy is nearly temperature independent from 7 to 12 K and reaches a value of 0.9 R ln 2 (R is a gas constant) at 20 K, which establishes that the ground state is a well separated doublet. The heat capacity also shows a small negative curvature above 1.8 K to about 3 K. There are two possibilities for the tail in Cp above TN: short range fluctuations or Kondo effect. We would argue that the sharpness of the transition and the weak T-dependence of C/T above TN are in disagreement with short range correlations, whereas the Kondo scenario is supported by the resistivity maximum at 6 K and the large $`\gamma `$ value. Moreover, the entropy at TN \[Smag = S(TN)\]is found to be 0.39 R ln 2, which strongly indicates that the ordered moment is heavily compensated by Kondo interactions. In the absence of short range order, the reduction in Smag at TN is due to the partial lifting of the two fold degeneracy of the ground state above TN by Kondo effect. In such cases, one can show that Smag = SK(TN/TK), where SK(t) is the entropy of a single ion Kondo impurity at the normalized Kondo temperature, t = TN/TK . The entropy has been calculated by Desgranges and Schotte using the Bethe ansatz for a spin-1/2 Kondo model . Sharp heat capacity anomaly at TN and the possible absence of short range order facilitate the use of the theory  and with the experimental value of Smag, we estimate a value of 5 K for the Kondo temperature of Yb2Fe3Si5. However, accurate estimation requires inelastic scattering data. The value of the entropy at 20 K is only 0.7 R which is much smaller than the theoretical value of 2.08 R \[R ln(2J+1) with J=7/2 for the free Yb3+ ion\]. This indicates that the CEF levels are well splitted by the tetragonal symmetry.

## IV CONCLUSION

To conclude, we have observed antiferromagnetic ordering and heavy electron behaviour in Yb2Fe3Si5 using resistivity, magnetization and heat capacity studies. It is interesting to note that both Lu2Fe3Si5 and Tm2Fe3Si5 are superconducting at 6.2 K and 1.2 K, respectively, while the Yb sample did not show superconductivity down to 100 mK. It should be noted here that the superconducting Tm2Fe3Si5 compound becomes reentrant antiferromagnet at 1.1 K and remains in the same state down to 50 mK. We believe that the absence of superconductivity in Yb sample is due to the Kondo effect, which is quite strong in suppressing the superconductivity. The magnetic ordering temperature of Yb2Fe3Si5 is also higher than that of the Tm compound which implies an ehanced exchange in the former. Here, it is the Fe-neighbors, which provide a very strong d-f hybridization, and the Si-neighbors, which provide a significant p-f hybridization. In view of the large effect of pressure on the properties of Tm2Fe3Si5, similar studies are essential on Yb2Fe3Si5 to induce superconductivity via quenching of the Kondo effect. Such studies are in progress and they will be reported elsewhere.