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# Control of conditional pattern with polarization entanglement

## I Introduction

Spatial optical patterns have been subject of interest along the development of classical and quantum optics. For the case of the light produced in parametric down-conversion, spatial patterns are present in tranverse correlation functions and distribution of quantum fluctuations. These spatial patterns have been demonstrated to carry information about coherence properties, mode structure, and orbital angular momentum, for example.

Most of the observations of quantum effects in optics rely on conditional measurements. Conditional interference patterns in the fourth-order correlation function have been observed with twin photons produced by spontaneous parametric down-conversion in several experiments. For the case of spatial patterns, diffracting masks placed along the propagation of the beams are very often used. The conditionality is observed by varying the relative transverse position between signal and idler detectors. Here we focus on the configuration described in Ref. that allows generating spatial patterns without diffracting masks and to prepare a state which is simultaneously entangled in polarization and transverse momentum with controlled degree of entanglement. The entanglement in transverse momentum leads to a quantum interference, that can be revealed through conditional spatial patterns. This interference pattern have been demonstrated to be useful to measure the degree of entanglement in polarization and to manipulate the entanglement in transverse momentum through the polarization . In this work we demonstrate experimentally the control of the conditional spatial pattern by acting on the polarization degree of freedom.

## II Theory

Consider the situation sketched in Fig.1. Two non-linear crystals are pumped by the same laser beam and at the detection plane, signal and idler beams originating at different crystals overlap. The laser beam is 45 degrees polarized to pump equally both crystals. One of the crystals produce twin photons linearly polarized in the horizontal direction(H) and the other vertically polarized(V) twin photons. The strength of the pump interaction with each crystal can be controlled by a halfwave plate acting on the laser beam polarization. Before detectors, polarization analyzers projects all beams onto 45 degrees linear polarization. The signal beam passes through a halfwave plate before the analyzer. Therefore, just before detection, the state of the field can be written as:

$`|\psi =\alpha \mathrm{cos}({\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{4}}2\theta )|1_H_{i1}|1_H_{s1}|0_{i2}|0_{s2}+`$ (1)
$`\beta \text{e}^{i\varphi }\mathrm{sin}({\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{4}}2\theta )|0_{i1}|0_{s1}|1_V_{i2}|1_V_{s2},`$ (2)
where $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ are coefficients taking into account the strength of the pump beam in each polarization direction (H and V) and normalization. $`\theta `$ is the angle between the polarization of the signal beam after the halfwave plate and the horizontal direction. $`\text{e}^{i\varphi }`$ is the phase difference between the two states and i(s)1(2) refer to signal(s) and idler(i) beams originated in crystals 1 and 2. The phase difference associated to the different possible paths for the beams can be better understood considering them coming from the field propagation, as in Ref., but it can also be considered in the state as well. This phase difference gives rise to the conditional interference patterns of our interest.

The coincidence counting rate is given by:

$`C=\alpha ^2\mathrm{cos}^2(\pi /42\theta )+\beta ^2\mathrm{sin}^2(\pi /42\theta )+`$ (3)
$`(\alpha \beta /2)\mathrm{sin}2(\pi /42\theta )\mathrm{cos}\varphi .`$ (4)
As we can see, the coincidence rate has an oscillating behavior depending on the polarization angle of the signal beam $`\theta `$ and on the phase difference $`\varphi `$.

From the above it is seen that actions on the halfwave plate(in the signal beam) affects the degree of entanglement and therefore the visibility of the patterns. However, even for maximally entangled states, it is possible to change the phase of the interference pattern, by choosing an angle $`\theta `$ which changes the sign of the $`sin`$ function in the last term of Eq.3.

## III Experiment

The experiment have been performed with two 1cm long LiIO3(Lithium Iodate) nonlinear crystals cut for type-I phase matching pumped by a He-Cd laser operating at 442nm as depicted in Fig.1. The separation between the crystals is about 1cm. The polarization of the pump beam is turned into 45 degrees from the horizontal direction by a halfwave plate before the crystals. The optical axes of the crystals are aligned so that the first crystal is pumped by the horizontally polarized component and the second crystal is pumped by the vertically polarized component. Signal and idler photons at 884nm are detected before passing through polarizing beam splitters, interference filters with 10nm bandwidth and entrance slits. Before the signal polarizing beam splitter, a halfwave plate is used for rotating the input polarization. The detectors are avalanche photodiode photon counting modules placed about 1m from the crystals.

We have measured the coincidence profile for the photons originating in each crystal. For doing so, the pump beam polarization is first oriented vertically, so that it only pumps the first crystal. The signal detector is horizontally scanned while the idler detector is kept fixed. The polarization analyzers(waveplate and polarizing beam splitters) were both oriented to 45 degrees transmission. The scan is performed with a 0.2mm slit in the detector entrance. The result is shown in Fig.2. The procedure is repeated when the pump beam polarization is oriented horizontally, in order to only pump the second crystal. The result is shown in Fig.3. Gaussian fittings to these curves indicate the position of the peaks at xc=6.2mm and xc=6.4 mm, respectively. This shows that the twin photons from both crystals are correlated around the position xc=6.3mm of the signal detector when the idler detector is fixed.

Now, the pump beam polarization is set to 45 degrees, so that it pumps both crystals with the same strength. Performing the horizontal scan with signal detector as before, and leaving both polarization analyzers oriented to 45 degrees, we obtain the spatial pattern shown in Fig.4. At the position around xc=6.3mm the coincidence counting rate is much lower than that for twin photons originating in each crystal individually.

The second step is to demonstrate that acting on the polarization, the pattern can be changed. For doing so the waveplate in the signal beam is turned 45 degrees and the input state arriving at the polarizing beam splitters is changed from:

$$|\psi =\alpha |1_H_{i1}|1_H_{s1}|0_{i2}|0_{s2}+\beta |0_{i1}|0_{s1}|1_V_{i2}|1_V_{s2}$$
(5)
to

$$|\psi =\alpha |1_H_{i1}|1_V_{s1}|0_{i2}|0_{s2}+\beta |0_{i1}|0_{s1}|1_V_{i2}|1_H_{s2}.$$
(6)
Fig.5 shows the coincidence profile scanning signal detector and keeping idler detector fixed in the same position of the previous measurement. Now at the position around xc=6.3 mm there is a coincidence peak instead of a valley. Using the usual double-slit diffraction function to fit the experimental data we found the visibilities of the patterns showed in Fig.4 and 5 to be 64% and 62%, respectively.

To show that the polarization entanglement is present together with transverse momentum a Bell type measurement have been performed. Fig.6 shows interference fringes scanning the halfwave plate angle and signal detector fixed at xc=6.3 mm presenting 75% visibility. This measurement is enough to demonstrate entanglement without perform a complete Bell measurement and show that some Bell inequality is violated. This kind of source of polarization entangled states have been demonstrated to produce all family of Bell states with good quality in a configuration with 1mm separated two thin crystals.

## IV Discussion

The interference patterns presented in Figs.4 and 5 show that the phase of the conditional interference pattern can be controlled by changing the input polarization state at the analyzers. This is a consequence of the coupling between polarization and transverse degrees of freedom of the twin photons. As the interference is conditioned to the detection at the idler side, the phase, visibility and even the length of the oscillations obtained by the displacement of the signal detector, depend on the idler detection properties. In the case presented above, the idler detection properties were kept fixed, so that only the polarization state was changed.

In order to observe this effect, the presence of the polarization analyzers, is required before detectors. This means that the polarization gives us control over the spatial correlation between twin photons by post-selection. In our measurements we were able to pass from anti-correlation to correlation in the position corresponding to the individual(i.e. for each crystal independently) coincidence peaks.

In fact, for the usual double-slit experiment with single photons and intensity measurements, it is possible to have a similar control over the phase of the pattern. For doing that, we could place waveplates in each one of the slits and perform the measurement of the intensity pattern after some linear polarization analyzer. The principle for acting on the phase of the pattern is the same, but the consequences are different. When we act on the phase of a conditional pattern, we are actually changing the spatial correlation between photons. For instance, a collinear version of our set-up with signal and idler having transverse coordinates with opposite sense, the change in the phase of the pattern would imply in the switching from bunching to anti-bunching spatial statistics, in the same fashion as it was done in Ref..

## V Conclusion

In conclusion, we have demonstrated experimentally how to control the phase of a conditional interference pattern, manipulating the polarization degrees of freedom of a state of the electromagnetic field entangled in transverse momentum and polarization. This kind of manipulation opens possibility to control properties of the field state in a given degree of freedom conditioned to the action on another one. It also suggests that it is possible to prepare special states of the light with controlled statistics.

###### Acknowledgements.

Financial support was provided by Brazilian agencies CNPq, PRONEX, FAPERJ, FUJB and Institutos do Milênio-Informação Quântica.


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# The origin of X-ray emission of two distant (𝑧>1) cluster candidates with XMM-Newton

## 1 Introduction

Cluster evolution with time provides essential information on the physics of structure formation and can set strong constraints on the cosmological parameters. In spite of remarkable progresses in that field in the recent years (e.g. Rosati, Borgani & Norman rbn (2002) and references therein), the redshift range $`z>1`$ remains largely unexplored.

The results presented in this paper are part of an ongoing comprehensive effort to identify and study clusters at different epochs using as starting point the ESO Imaging Survey (EIS – Nonino et al. nonino (1999); Prandoni et al. prandoni (1999); Benoist et al. benoist99 (1999)) and the subsequent cluster candidate compilation, which was built using a matched filter technique in the I band (Olsen et al. ols99 (1999); Scodeggio et al. sco99 (1999)). These original data were complemented by multi-band optical/infrared imaging data to derive photometric redshifts. Combining these estimates with the positional information allows to search for concentrations in the 3D space and to select the most likely clusters (da Costa et al. dac99 (1999)). First VLT spectroscopic observations confirmed the reality of three candidates in the redshift range $`z=0.81.3`$ (Benoist et al. ben02 (2002)).

We present here XMM-Newton follow-up of two cluster candidates at $`z>1`$. The first object, CL~J0533-2411, was detected serendipitously in the J/K follow up of EIS J0533-2412 with SOFI/NTT, as an overdensity in the projected distribution of galaxies with similar J-K colors. Based on the I, J and K-band data the estimated redshift of this cluster candidate is $`z=1.21.7`$. The other object is the system EIS~J0533-2412, which is supposed to be a rich system based on the matched filter parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{cl}}`$ ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{cl}}=299`$). VLT/FORS2 spectroscopic observations strongly suggest that this galaxy concentration is a true physical structure at $`z=1.3`$ (Benoist et al. ben02 (2002)). The group in this field at z=0.8 as indicated by Benoist et al. ben02 (2002) is scattered through the field and does not coincide with the matched filter position of the EIS J0533-2412 cluster. Detailed spectral information of the cluster galaxies will be presented in a forthcoming paper by Jørgensen et al. jorg (2003).

X–ray observations are a key to understand the nature of these galaxy systems, which at such high redshift are not necessarily fully collapsed and relaxed objects. They could be filaments, proto-clusters or more or less virialised clusters. The detection of extended X–ray emission from hot gas, heated by gravitational collapse, would trace the virialized portion of these distant and young systems.

The paper is structured in the following way. The data are described in Sect. 2. In Sect. 3 we present the data reduction and the results of our analysis. We examine the significance and extent of the X–ray emission at the location of both cluster candidates, the physical origin of the emission and put constraints on the ICM X–ray luminosities. We discuss the physical nature of the cluster candidates in Sect. 4 and conclude in Sect. 5.

Throughout this paper we use $`H_0=65h_{65}`$ km/s/Mpc, and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$. In this cosmology, one arcminute corresponds to $`0.541`$ Mpc and $`0.547`$ Mpc at a redshift of $`z=1.3`$ and $`z=1.7`$, respectively.

## 2 The XMM-Newton data

Both clusters lie sufficiently close together (2 arcmin distance) to be observed in one XMM-Newton observation. The data were taken in two exposures: $`64.9`$ ksec during revolution $`332`$ and $`34.5`$ ksec during revolution $`335`$. The total exposure time was longer than originally scheduled since the pn-camera was not operational at that time. Thus we present here only data based on EPIC-MOS cameras.

## 3 Data analysis

For our analysis we use the official XMM-Newton software (SAS version 5.2). The data presented below are corrected for vignetting effects using the photon weighting method (Arnaud et al. arnaud01 (2001); Majerowicz et al. majero (2002)).

### 3.1 Background Screening

XMM-Newton observations suffer from time periods of high background due to soft protons from solar flares. During those flares the background level can increase by several orders of magnitude as compared to the quiescent background level and significantly degrades the signal to noise ratio.

We bin the MOS-data in time intervals of 100 sec in the high energy band 10-12 keV band, where the emission is dominated by the particle induced background. We screen the data for flare periods by applying a rejection threshold in this energy band of $`>15`$ counts. After such cleaning, the effective exposure time is $`83`$ ksec and $`84`$ ksec for the MOS1 and MOS2 cameras, respectively.

### 3.2 Source detection and morphology

In order to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio we only take into account data in the energy band 0.3-3.0 keV. We extract the MOS1&2 image with a pixel size of $`1.1\mathrm{}`$ times $`1.1\mathrm{}`$, which corresponds to the physical size of the detector pixels. The X-ray signal at the location of both CL J0533-2411 and EIS J0533-2412 appear very faint and we therefore apply first a detection algorithm, which gives the significance of the signals. We use the code described in Neumann & Böhringer (neu97 (1997)), which assumes Poisson statistics and uses a Gauss filter. We apply this algorithm with a Gauss filter size of $`\sigma =5.5\mathrm{}`$ and an overall background estimate of 0.004 cts/s/arcmin2 in the 0.3–3.0 keV energy range.

Fig.1 shows the X-ray contours in sigma over the K-band image obtained with SOFI/NTT. Fig. 2 shows a zoom on EIS J0533-2412 , where the X–ray contours are overlaid on the R-band VLT/FORS2 image. The position of the galaxies with same $`JK`$ ($`JK=22.4`$) color are indicated by squares and the three EIS J0533-2412 galaxies with measured redshifts by circles.

Significant X-ray emission is detected at both cluster locations. The peak positions are given in Table 1, together with the optical center of the cluster candidates estimated from a 3-D analysis of the galaxy concentrations using the IJK imagery data. A $`6\sigma `$ compact X–ray source (XMMU J053344.4-241048 ) is detected only $`15\mathrm{}`$ away from the optical center of CL J0533-2411 . For EIS J0533-2412 , a possibly more extended X–ray source (XMMU J053337.8-241250 ) is detected at the $`5\sigma `$ level, with a faint extension in the North-West direction. However this extension coincides with bright foreground galaxies and might be due to contamination. Just roughly 40 arcsec east of XMMU J053337.8-241250 there is another $`3\sigma `$ detection (indicated with an “S” in Fig.1). The estimated optical center of EIS J0533-2412 is located in between these two X–ray peaks, with an offset with respect to XMMU J053337.8-241250 peak of $`29\mathrm{}`$. However, the deeper R-band VLT image reveals a concentration of faint galaxies (hereafter called “R clump”), centered on the galaxy #3 at $`z=1.298`$ (right circle in Fig.1 and Tab.1), only $`10\mathrm{}`$ from the X–ray peak with 5 $`\sigma `$ detection.

### 3.3 Source extent

In order to determine the origin of the X–ray emission, we examine in the following the extent of XMMU J053344.4-241048 and XMMU J053337.8-241250 by analyzing their surface brightness profiles. We excise all sources detected above $`3\sigma `$ in the extraction region aperture, in particular the secondary X-ray source found east of XMMU J053337.8-241250 (indicated with an “S” in Fig.1).

#### 3.3.1 XMMU J053344.4-241048

Fig.3. shows the azimuthally averaged MOS1&2 surface brightness profile of XMMU J053344.4-241048 . The center was fixed at the peak of the X-ray emission (Table 1). To obtain the merged surface brightness profile of the source we extract first the surface brightness profile for each exposure (performed in revolution 332 and revolution 335) and each camera (MOS1 and MOS2). Then we merge the surface brightness profiles of the two exposures for each camera individually together and finally add the profiles of the two cameras together.

In order to check whether this source is extended we compared the surface brightness profile with the PSF model (Ghizzardi ghi01 (2001)) and adding a flat background. The results are shown in Fig. 3. The derived $`\chi ^2`$ is $`36.5`$ for $`34`$ degrees of freedom (d.o.f.) indicating that the emission is consistent with that of a point source. Fitting a $`\beta `$–model instead (with $`\beta =2/3`$) convolved with the PSF does not improve the quality of the fit. The best fit is actually obtained for a point-like source emission ($`\mathrm{\Theta }_c=0`$). We derived an upper limit for the core radius of $`\mathrm{\Theta }_c=0.026^{}`$ at the $`99\%`$ confidence level ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2=6.635`$). The corresponding profile is plotted as a dotted line in Fig. 3. $`0.026^{}`$ corresponds to roughly $`14\mathrm{h}_{65}^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ at $`z=1.31.7`$.

#### 3.3.2 XMMU J053337.8-241250

Defining the center of XMMU J053337.8-241250 is more complicated since the source seems a priori to be more extended than XMMU J053344.4-241048 and somewhat fainter (see Fig. 1). The determination of the center is very important since a wrong choice could lead to an artificial measured extent when compared to a point like source.

We first extracted the profile centered at the peak of the whole emission. We also consider a more conservative approach, which will maximize the profile concentration. For each exposure (in total two) and each camera (MOS1 and MOS2), we further extracted four profiles around the X-ray peak. The centers of these profiles span a quadrat of $`2\times 2`$ arcsec with the X-ray peak in its center. We choose this spacing since a small offset between center source and measured center will not be visible within 2 arcsec, the FWHM of the XMM-Newton mirrors being in the order of 4-6 arcsec. Among the 5 resulting surface brightness profiles per exposure and camera we choose the profile with the highest central intensity and then merge the different brightness profiles together. The derived profile is consistent with the profile centered at the overall X–ray peak but is more noisy. Since the two profiles are consistent, we consider in the following only the latter profile extracted using the overall center.

The surface brightness profile together with the best fit surface brightness profile of a point source model including background is shown in Fig. 4. Again a good fit is obtained with a derived $`\chi ^2`$ of $`34.3`$ for $`34`$ d.o.f. Fitting a $`\beta `$–model convolved with the PSF to the brightness profile gives again a best fit for a point source. The 99% confidence level for $`\mathrm{\Theta }_c`$ in this case is $`\mathrm{\Theta }_c<0.073^{}`$ for $`\beta =2/3`$. This corresponds to $`40\mathrm{h}_{65}^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ at $`z=1.3`$.

### 3.4 Count rate estimates

The total MOS1&2 count rate was estimated by integrating the surface brightness profiles, after subtracting the best fit background level. The integration radius was chosen to be $`20\mathrm{}`$ to optimize the S/N ratio. However, this is smaller than the size of the PSF and we have to correct for the flux loss outside the integration radius. Since the sources are not resolved, the correction factor was estimated from the Encircled Energy Fraction within $`20\mathrm{}`$ for the PSF model ($`EEF74\%`$). For XMMU J053344.4-241048 (close to CL J0533-2411 ) we derived a PSF corrected count rate in the $`0.33`$ keV energy band of $`(1.3\pm 0.2)\times 10^3`$ ct/s. The count rate for XMMU J053337.8-241250 (close to EIS J0533-2412 ) is $`(9.6\pm 2.1)\times 10^4`$ ct/s.

### 3.5 The origin of the X–ray emission

The XMM observations of both CL J0533-2411 and EIS J0533-2412 clearly reveal X-ray emission. However, the extracted surface brightness profiles of the X–ray sources are comparable with the shape of the PSF and are therefore not resolved. Consequently, we cannot unambiguously determine the physical origin of the sources, especially since little is known on X-ray clusters beyond $`z=1`$.

It is, however, instructive to compare the upper limit set on the source extent ($`r_\mathrm{c}<14\mathrm{h}_{65}^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ and $`40\mathrm{h}_{65}^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ at the 99% confidence limit) with the properties of the four $`z>1`$ clusters known with extended X–ray emission. The two RDCS clusters (Rosati et al. rosati98 (1998)) with relatively regular morphology, RX~J0848.9+4452 ($`z=1.27`$) and RX~J0910+5422 ($`z=1.1`$) have core radii at least twice as large: $`100\pm 30\mathrm{h}_{65}^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ (Stanford et al. stan01 (2001)) and $`171\pm 53\mathrm{h}_{65}^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ (Stanford et al. stan02 (2002)). Interestingly, the other RDCS cluster, CIG~J0848+4453 ($`z=1.26`$), was originally discovered via a search for clusters in infrared bands (Stanford et al. stan97 (1997)). This cluster has an irregular morphology (Stanford et al. stan01 (2001)). Nevertheless, a $`\beta `$–model fit gives a core radius of $`200\mathrm{h}_{65}^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ (Holden holden (2001)). A cluster with a core radius of this size at this redshift is resolved by XMM. Finally, RX~J1053.7+5735 ($`z=1.26`$), discovered in deep ROSAT observation in the Lockman hole (Hasinger et al. has98 (1998)), was clearly resolved by XMM as a bimodal cluster (Hashimoto et al. hashimoto (2002)).

A comparison can also be made with the expectation of the self-similar model of cluster formation, where $`r_\mathrm{c}`$ scales as $`r_\mathrm{c}r_{200}h(z)^1`$ (e.g. Evrard & Gioia eg (2002)). The typical core radius of nearby clusters is $`r_\mathrm{c}0.12r_{200}`$ (Neumann & Arnaud neu99 (1999)) where $`r_{200}=2.84(T/10\mathrm{keV})^{1/2}\mathrm{h}_{65}^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ (Evrard, Metzler & Navarro emn96 (1996)). For a relaxed part of a distant cluster with a temperature as low as 2 keV, we would thus expect a core radius of $`73\mathrm{h}_{65}^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ ($`z=1.3`$) and $`59\mathrm{h}_{65}^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ ($`z=1.7`$). These core radii are again excluded by our data.

In conclusion, although we cannot totally exclude that the X–ray emission is due to exceptionally concentrated ICM, the upper limit found on the source extent clearly favors a point source (AGN) origin. Those AGNs can be either foreground/background galaxies, or members of the galaxy overdensity.

The latter hypothesis is a priori more likely in view of the source locations, remarkably close to the optical center of the galaxy concentrations, CL J0533-2411 and EIS J0533-2412 , respectively. We further quantify this point. Assuming a power law AGN emission with a photon index of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2`$, the measured count rate of XMMU J053344.4-241048 and XMMU J053337.8-241250 corresponds to an unabsorbed flux in the $`[0.52]`$ keV energy band of $`S_1=3.3\times 10^{15}\mathrm{erg}/\mathrm{s}/\mathrm{cm}^2`$ and $`S_2=2.4\times 10^{15}\mathrm{erg}/\mathrm{s}/\mathrm{cm}^2`$, respectively. From the deep XMM-Newton survey of the Lockman Hole region (Hasinger et al. has01 (2001)), the number of sources (essentially AGN) per square degrees above those flux limits are $`N(>S_1)300`$ and $`N(>S_2)400`$. The probability that a serendipitous AGN at least as bright as XMMU J053344.4-241048 is found by chance within $`15\mathrm{}`$ of the center of CL J0533-2411 is only $`1.6\%`$. For XMMU J053337.8-241250 (located at $`10\mathrm{}`$ from the center of the R clump in EIS J0533-2412 ), the probability is even smaller: $`1.1\%`$. If we consider a conservative distance of $`30^{\prime \prime }`$ (about 270 kpc) to take into account possible uncertainties on the optical center determination, these probabilities are still below $`10\%`$.

We looked for possible optical counterparts, as well as radio sources in the field. For that purpose, we used the NRAO VLA Sky Survey, NVSS (Condon et al. condon (1998)). Within $`30^{\prime \prime }`$ in radius of the optical center of both concentrations, we only found one NVSS source, NVSS J053338-241301. This source is located only $`2^{\prime \prime }`$ away from the galaxy member #3 of EIS J0533-2412 , an emission line galaxy, and is probably associated with it. However, it is too far away from XMMU J053337.8-241250 ($`10\mathrm{}`$) to be its counterpart, the positional uncertainty of EPIC/MOS being less than $`5\mathrm{}`$. It could however contaminate the X–ray emission. On the other hand there are at least two photometric members (see Fig. 1) within the error box of the X-ray source, which could be associated with it. For XMMU J053344.4-241048 there is a bright optical source at a distance of $`5^{\prime \prime }`$ of the maximum of the X-ray emission but this source is not part of the colour selected galaxies. However, there are several faint R galaxies around the X-ray maximum but with no photometric redshift information.

### 3.6 Upper limit on the ICM Luminosity

Since, as discussed above, it is very likely that the X–ray emission we observe is at least heavily contaminated by AGN emission, the source count rates must be regarded as upper limits for a non resolved ICM. However, there might still be ICM emission more diffuse than the detected X-ray sources and hidden within the background. We estimate an upper limit (at the $`3\sigma `$ level) on this emission by fitting the profiles with a point source plus a beta model with a core radius of $`100\mathrm{h}_{65}^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ (see above) and $`\beta =2/3`$. We obtained an upper limit of $`6.2\times 10^4`$ ct/s, lower than the count rates of the X–ray sources. Since these count rates are lower than the actual measured source count rates, the observed count rates can thus be considered as firm upper limits on the overall ICM emission.

From the measured source count rates we derive an upper limit on the ICM luminosities of the two cluster candidates. To convert the actual count rate ,$`(1.3\pm 0.2)\times 10^3`$ ct/s for XMMU J053344.4-241048 and $`(9.6\pm 2.1)\times 10^4`$ ct/s for XMMU J053337.8-241250 , to luminosity we used the XSPEC package and the EPIC/MOS response. We use an absorbed MEKAL model with an assumed temperature k$`T=2`$ keV, a hydrogen column density of $`N_\mathrm{H}=2.4\times 10^{20}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ (Dickey & Lockman DL (1990)), and a metal abundance of 0.3 times the solar value. For CL J0533-2411 we do not have a precise redshift estimate. The derived bolometric X-ray luminosities are $`L_{\mathrm{bol}}=(1.8\pm 0.3)\times 10^{44}\mathrm{h}_{65}^2\mathrm{erg}/\mathrm{s}`$ for $`z=1.7`$ and $`L_{\mathrm{bol}}=(8.4\pm 1.3)\times 10^{43}\mathrm{h}_{65}^2\mathrm{erg}/\mathrm{s}`$ for $`z=1.3`$. For EIS J0533-2412 we derived $`L_{\mathrm{bol}}=(6.2\pm 1.4)\times 10^{43}\mathrm{h}_{65}^2\mathrm{erg}/\mathrm{s}`$.

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 The nature of the cluster candidates

The upper limit on the ICM bolometric luminosity is low enough for EIS J0533-2412 to shed some light on the nature of this galaxy system. We recall that spectroscopic VLT observations indicate that this is a real physical system, and not only a chance alignment of galaxies. First we note that the upper limit on the luminosity of EIS J0533-2412 is similar to the luminosity of a poor cluster like Virgo in the nearby Universe, $`4\times 10^{43}\mathrm{h}_{65}^2\mathrm{erg}/\mathrm{s}`$ (Arnaud & Evrard ae (1999)). On the other hand, the matched filter parameter, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{cl}}`$, an estimate of the effective optical luminosity, is especially high: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{cl}}=299`$. Using at face value the correlation111$`\mathrm{log}(L_{\mathrm{bol},44})=(6.9\pm 1.1)+(3.6\pm 0.8)\mathrm{log}(\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{cl}})`$ for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=1`$ and $`H_0=75`$ km/s/Mpc. For the cosmological parameters considered here, the luminosity must be multiplied by 2.47 at $`z=1.3`$.  between X–ray bolometric luminosity and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{cl}}`$ derived by Donahue et al. (don01 (2001)) from their joint optical/ROSAT survey, we would expect a bolometric luminosity of at least $`3\times 10^{45}\mathrm{h}_{65}^2\mathrm{erg}/\mathrm{s}`$. This is twice the luminosity of Coma, $`1.4\times 10^{45}\mathrm{h}_{65}^2\mathrm{erg}/\mathrm{s}`$ (Arnaud & Evrard ae (1999)). This apparent contradiction can be naturally alleviated if we simply assume that EIS J0533-2412 is a massive proto-cluster. In other words, EIS J0533-2412 is a rich overdensity of galaxies (as indicated by the high $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{cl}}`$ value), which is still largely in a pre-virialised state (hence a low X–ray luminosity because the gravitational potential is not deep enough to heat all the gas at the virial temperature). In view of the galaxy distribution, we can even speculate further. The probable structure members (selected on their J-K color) seem to follow a S-W/N-E filamentary structure, with the R clump in the middle. This R clump could be the “seed” (may be partially virialized) on to which the whole structure will finally collapse. To further check this hypothesis we need more spectroscopic VLT measurements to fully assess the 3D structure of the galaxy concentration and the dynamical state of the R clump.

Since we have neither spectroscopic redshift measurement nor richness information on CL J0533-2411 , the nature of this galaxy concentration remains entirely open. We can only tell it is not a very massive cluster in view of the upper limit on the X–ray luminosity.

We found evidence of AGN activity in the center of both galaxy concentrations. Interestingly, there is also evidence of such activity in RX~J0910+5422 ($`z=1.1`$), a massive cluster in a much more advanced stage of formation. High resolution Chandra deep observation indeed revealed the presence of 3 AGNs associated with cluster galaxies within the central $`\theta <30^{\prime \prime }`$ part of the cluster. This aparently common AGN activity in high z (proto) clusters might simply reflect a high AGN activity in the past: the luminosity function of X–ray selected AGNs shows a strong density evolution at redshift up to $`1.5`$ (Miyaji et al. miyaji (2000)). AGN activity could also be further boosted in regions of high galaxy concentration as compared to the field (environmental effects). To assess this issue requires statistical analysis of combined Large Scale X-ray/optical surveys (e.g. the XMM-LSS, Pierre et al. pierre (2002)). Inversely, if AGN activity for galaxies is indeed higher in overdense regions then looking at the surroundings of AGN’s might be an interesting way to find distant galaxy clusters.

### 4.2 Searching for virialized massive high redshift clusters

Calculating the ratio of number density of massive high to low redshift clusters is a powerful tool for the determination of cosmological parameters (Perrenod perr80 (1980)). The higher this ratio, the lower the corresponding density parameter $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$. Thus, in principle it is sufficient to detect distant massive clusters and to compare their number density to nearby ones to determine $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$. However, despite the launch of XMM-Newton and Chandra the detection of extended X-ray emission of clusters of galaxies at redshifts beyond unity is still very difficult. As already mentioned, only four clusters with $`z>1`$ with extended X-ray emission have been found so far, and their corresponding X-ray luminosities lie well below $`L_{\mathrm{bol}}=10^{45}`$ erg/s, which makes them not very massive objects. Up to now those clusters were either found in deep X-ray observations (Hasinger et al. has98 (1998); Rosati et al. rosati (1999)), or via a search for clusters in infrared bands (Stanford et al. stan97 (1997)). These detection techniques require relatively long exposure times and/or the use of the largest telescopes available with small field-of-view. This causes the sky coverage to be very small, which makes it difficult to assess the number density of massive distant clusters with high precision and which is furthermore biased by the various detection techniques applied.

Our approach for detecting massive galaxy clusters via a search in optical/infrared bands and the lack of finding clear evidence for ICM emission underlines the above mentioned difficulty. Recent studies indicate that there is clearly a decoupling of optical and X-ray parameters for clusters at redshifts above unity (Donahue et al. don02 (2002)). There are a lot of promising distant cluster candidates detected with high signal in optical wavelengths, which at first sight, surprisingly, do not have a corresponding luminous X-ray counterpart. At redshifts below unity, the correlation between optical and X-ray luminosity seem to match better, as was indicated recently by Donahue et al. (don01 (2001), don02 (2002)).

What could be a possible explanation for this? One answer could be that the optical/infrared indicators do not match galaxies embedded in clusters at $`z>1`$. This implies a not yet accounted for evolution of galaxy properties. Another explanation could be that there is no or not substantial evolution in the galaxy physics of clusters but strong evolution of their X-ray properties and dark matter halos around $`z=1`$. This could imply, that massive clusters and their corresponding dark matter halos, which we observe today formed or collapsed at redshifts close to 1. If this is true, distant clusters detected in X-rays at redshifts close to unity should show a high degree of significant substructure. In fact, all clusters clearly detected in X-rays at these redshifts show indication of substantial substructure, which strengthens the hypothesis of important cluster evolution at $`z=1`$. In this case galaxy overdensities found in optical/infrared wavelength bands, such as the two cluster candidates presented here, could show the overdensities or cluster “seeds”, which then collapse later into clusters detectable as extended X-ray sources. The galaxy density enhancements can in this case be interpreted as a tracer for regions of future cluster formation.

## 5 Conclusion

The XMM-Newton observations of two promising high redshift ($`z>1`$) cluster candidates found in optical/infra-red wavelength bands, CL J0533-2411 ($`z=1.21.7`$) and EIS J0533-2412 ($`z=1.3`$), reveal clear X-ray emission. However, the extracted surface brightness profiles of the two corresponding X–ray sources, XMMU J053344.4-241048 and XMMU J053337.8-241250 , are comparable with the shape of the PSF. We argue that the X–ray sources are very likely AGN members belonging to the galaxy concentrations.

We derived an upper limit for the bolometric luminosity of a hot ICM in the range $`0.72.1\times 10^{44}\mathrm{h}_{65}^2\mathrm{erg}/\mathrm{s}`$ for CL J0533-2411 , depending on the exact redshift. For EIS J0533-2412 the limit is $`L_{\mathrm{bol}}=(6.2\pm 1.4)\times 10^{43}\mathrm{h}_{65}^2\mathrm{erg}/\mathrm{s}`$. This low luminosity found for a rich spectroscopically confirmed galaxy system, can be explained if EIS J0533-2412 is in fact a massive proto-clusters which has not yet had sufficient time to collapse.

Our results indicate that rich galaxy overdensities at high redshift found in optical/infrared surveys are not necessarily massive virialised clusters. On the other hand they are of unique value for our understanding of structure formation and the dynamics of cluster collapse. Such surveys can reveal pre-virialised large galaxy overdensities or cluster “seeds”, which will collapse later into clusters detectable as extended X-ray sources. Detailed multiwavelength follow-up of large optical surveys is essential. Multi-object spectroscopy is required not only to confirm the physical reality of the systems, but to fully address their 3D structure and the dynamical state of the structure. Combined observations with high resolution X-ray instruments (like Chandra ) and high throughput instruments (like XMM-Newton ) are needed at the same time to i) assess the level of AGN activity which might be high in such young systems ii) map the virialised gaseous part of the structures.

###### Acknowledgements.

We would like to thank S. Majerowicz for providing the code to extract surface brightness profiles from photon-event tables from XMM-Newton data.


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# Dialog in e-Mail Traffic

## The experiment

Our data are extracted from the log files of one of the main mail servers at one of our universities, and consist of over $`210^6`$ e-mail messages sent during a period of 83 days, connecting about ten thousand users. The content of the messages is of course never accessible, and the only data taken from the log file are the ‘to’, ‘from’, and ‘time’ fields. The data are first reduced to the internal mail within the institution, since external links are necessarily incomplete. Once aliases are resolved, we are left with a set of 3,188 users interchanging 309,125 messages.

A directed graph is then constructed by designating users as nodes and connecting any two of them with a directed link if an e-mail message has gone between them during the 83 days. This procedure defines a static graph. Statistical properties of the degree of this graph have been reported before Kiel ; ShowerLaws . Connectivity of this static graph will reveal structures within the organization Kiel ; self ; Hubermann . We have previously shown JPMoses  that a powerful tool for identifying such structural organization is the number $`t`$ of triangles (triplets in which all pairs communicate) that a node of valence $`v`$ (total number of partners) participates in, normalized by the number of triangles $`v(v1)/2`$ that it could potentially belong to. This defines the clustering coefficient $`c=2t/v(v1)`$, which as we showed induces a curvature on the graph JPMoses .

One marked difference between the graphs of e-mail and of the WWW should be noted at this point. In the WWW, the central organizing role of ‘hubs’ (nodes with many outgoing links) that confer importance to ‘authorities’ (nodes with many ingoing links) has been noted Kleinberg (8) and utilized very successfully (e.g., by Google). The contribution of authorities and hubs is, however, not to the creation of communities and interest groups. This is evident since the high valence of both hubs and authorities tends to reduce their curvature considerably. High curvature nodes, in contrast, are usually the specialists of their community, that are highly connected in bi-directional links to others in the group. In the e-mail graph, hubs tend to be machines, mass mailers or users that transfer general messages (e.g., seminar notifications), going out to many users, while authorities are more like service desks. Thus the importance of hubs and authorities is small if we consider the core use of the e-mail structure as dealing with thematic rather than organizational issues. They do, however, play a role in such questions as diffusion of viruses, or more generally, how many people are being reached Kiel . But most mass mailings do not solicit an answer, and therefore do not contribute to interaction (‘dialog’) as we define and study it in this Letter. In our analysis we discard mass mailings (more than $`18`$ recipients) altogether. There remain 202,695 links.

The different manner in which triangles and transitivity interplay in the WWW and in the e-mail graphs is also illuminating. The notion of curvature is a local one, based on the more basic concept of a ‘co-link’. This is a link between two nodes that point to each other, establishing a ‘friendly’ connection based on mutual recognition. Building from the single pair, the fundamental unit of connectivity is the triangle Uri (9). In the WWW transitivity is natural, and we have shown previously that if node $`A`$ is ‘friendly’ with nodes $`B`$ and $`C`$, it is often correct to assume that $`B`$ and $`C`$ are friends. On the contrary, e-mailing is so prolific that $`A`$’s having a dialog with $`B`$ and with $`C`$ usually does not imply that $`B`$ and $`C`$ carry out a dialog, and even if they do then the three communications determining the edges of the triangle could be independent; as a consequence, transitivity breaks down. We will see that static structures (such as departments) emerge as high-curvature ones, while dialog between members of a group implies a more functional, and perhaps goal-oriented structure.

Our analysis expands the notion of a mutual, or ‘co-link’ to the e-mail network by designating a link between nodes $`A`$ and $`B`$ only if $`A`$ has sent a message to $`B`$ and $`B`$ has sent a message back during the whole period under investigation. We find 7,087 such pairs, sending 105,349 messages to each other, among 20,879 directed pairs who sent perhaps mail just one way (and out of the $`\text{3,188}\text{3,187}/2`$ possible connections in the graph).

## The model

To analyze the behavior of this reduced network, we view any pair of ‘conversing’ users as exchanging signals on a transmission line on which information can be propagated in both directions. We completely disregard the fact that there is internal information in the messages, discarding even information that is in principle available in the log files such as the size of the messages. The data for each pair is a spike train whose horizontal axis is time, with upward ticks for a mail sent $`AB`$ and a downward tick for $`BA`$ (some samples are shown in Fig. 2). We now define that $`A`$ and $`B`$ conduct a dialog on a given day if $`A`$ sends mail on that day to $`B`$ and $`B`$ answers on the same day.

The temporal dynamics of the e-mail network immediately reveals new statistical properties, shown in Fig. 1. We define $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ as the time delay between a message going from $`AB`$ and a response going from $`BA`$. While no clear power law is evident in Fig. 1, the behavior can be approximated by $`P(\mathrm{\Delta }t)\mathrm{\Delta }t^1`$. The appearance of a peak ranging from $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=16`$ to $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=24`$ can be explained by sociological behavior involving the time (usually $`16`$ hours) between when people leave work and when they come back to their offices. This (already very weak) peak disappears when considering in the inset the basic time unit as a ‘tick’ of the system ($`=`$ a message sent). We suspect that the approximate power law is caused by random communications between two users, while the flat incipient part implies actual correlation between two users (when the answer comes before $`10`$ hours have passed, i.e. on the same day).

Choosing the basic ‘tick’ of the clock (the sending of a message in the network) as a variable time unit smoothens many features (as in Fig. 1, inset). In particular, the slowing down of the network over nights and weekends is eliminated. But the mathematics of ‘correlation’ becomes much more involved, and we have also checked that the interaction is very well captured by sticking to the more intuitive notion of ‘same day’. In light of these considerations, we choose 24 hours as the natural time unit within which $`B`$ is required to answer. In principle, some multiple of this unit could serve as well, but the results of Fig. 1 show that most interactions take place within 10 hours. We further checked that extending the choice of a day to an answer on the next day gives similar results.

The mathematical description of the experiment proceeds through two steps, cf. Fig. 2. First, at a more local level, we consider a pair of communicating users, that we shall denote by $`A`$ and $`B`$. We introduce the probabilities $`p_A(i)`$ and $`p_B(i)`$, where $`i=0,1`$. The value $`1`$ corresponds to the event that at least one e-mail has been sent to the partner on a given day, while the value $`0`$ corresponds to having sent none on that day. The measured values of these probabilities are given by

$$p_A(i)=N_A(i)/d,$$

where $`N_A(i)`$ is the number of days for which the event $`i`$ occurred for $`A`$, and similarly for $`B`$ (and $`d`$ is the total number of days $`d=\text{83}`$). We then characterize the joint activity of $`A`$ and $`B`$ by considering the probabilities $`p_{AB}(i,j)`$ defined as

$$p_{AB}(i,j)=N_{AB}(i,j)/d,$$

where $`N_{AB}`$ is the number of days where $`A`$ was in state $`i`$ and $`B`$ in state $`j`$ (i.e., sending mail to the partner or not) and $`i,j\{0,1\}`$. It is now possible to determine to which extent the activity of $`A`$ influences the activity of $`B`$ by means of the mutual information $`I_p(A,B)`$ (the subscript $`p`$ stands for pair):

$$I_p(A,B)=\underset{i,j=0,1}{}p_{AB}(i,j)\mathrm{log}\left(\frac{p_{AB}(i,j)}{p_A(i)p_B(j)}\right).$$

$`I_p`$ measures in what way knowing what $`A`$ does will predict what $`B`$ does and vice versa (note that $`I_p(A,B)=I_p(B,A)`$).

The next step consists in considering every triangle of communicating users; to be specific we designate them by $`A`$, $`B`$, and $`C`$. In order to capture their joint activity we introduce the probabilities $`p_{ABC}(i_1,i_2;i_3,i_4;i_5,i_6)=p_{ABC}(𝐢)`$, where $`i_1,\mathrm{},i_6\{0,1\}`$. The pair $`(i_1,i_2)`$ refers to the communication $`AB`$, $`(i_3,i_4)`$ to $`AC`$, and $`(i_5,i_6)`$ to $`BC`$. For example the pair $`(i_1=1,i_2=0)`$ has to be interpreted as the occurrence where on a given day $`A`$ sends mail to $`B`$, but $`B`$ does not send mail to $`A`$. An equivalent, evident interpretation holds for all other pairs. In formulas the above probabilities read

$$p_{ABC}(i_1,i_2;i_3,i_4;i_5,i_6)=N_{ABC}(i_1,i_2;i_3,i_4;i_5,i_6)/d,$$

$`N_{ABC}(𝐢)`$ being the number of days where the pattern (event) $`𝐢`$ occurred.

We now define the temporal cohesion of a triangle as the degree of synchronization between the activity of the three users. This is achieved by looking at a form of the mutual information $`I_t(A,B,C)`$ (in this case the subscript $`t`$ stands for triangle) defined as

$`I_t(A,B,C)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i_1,\mathrm{},i_6=0,1}{}}p_{ABC}(𝐢)`$
$`\times `$ $`\mathrm{log}\left({\displaystyle \frac{p_{ABC}(i_1,i_2;i_3,i_4;i_5,i_6)}{p_{AB}(i_1,i_2)p_{AC}(i_3,i_4)p_{BC}(i_5,i_6)}}\right).`$
Note that the temporal cohesion $`I_t(A,B,C)`$ is invariant under any permutation of $`A`$, $`B`$ and $`C`$. Also, $`I_t\mathrm{log}(16)`$ and the maximum is attained when the four possible patterns for each edge are equiprobable and fully correlated. More insight into $`I_p`$ and $`I_t`$ can be gained by looking at Fig. 2, showing the three communications determining a triangle. A statistical quantity of interest, shown in Fig. 3 is the number $`t`$ of triangles that a user participates in. The distribution of both the static and the dynamic (temporal cohesion $`0.1`$) triangles follow a power law over two decades, with exponent $`1.2`$.

## Restoring transitivity

With the help of the temporal cohesion $`I_t`$ it is now possible to replace the static transitivity by a novel notion of temporal transitivity. The assumption is that if the e-mail exchange in a triangle is highly synchronized, the three users are indeed involved in a common dialog. This transitive relationship between users can be extended naturally to adjacent triangles. This idea relies on the observation that in the presence of two highly synchronized triangles with a common edge, the four users are supposed to influence each other’s activity. In this way it is possible to extract the groups of users carrying out a dialog. We thus construct a new, conjugate, graph where we first draw a node for each triangle for which $`I_p`$ is larger than a given cutoff. Two of these nodes will be connected by a link if the corresponding triangles have a common edge, that is, if 4 people $`A`$, $`B`$, $`C`$, $`D`$ are involved in these 2 triangles (say $`A`$, $`B`$, $`C`$, and $`B`$, $`C`$, $`D`$). Such a construction (called the conjugate graph) will offer a perspective on the appearance of circles of users sharing a common interest, defining thematic groups.

## Discussion of the results

For the purpose of comparison, we first consider in Fig. 4 the static graph resulting from our e-mail network. For the sake of clarity only nodes, i.e. users, with a curvature larger than 0.1 are present; in addition, every pair of users must have exchanged at least 10 e-mails. The temporal dynamics intrinsic to the e-mail exchange is here neglected and triangles represent a sign of static transitive recognition, carrying no information about temporal cohesion between the individual communications. In this case we see the clear appearance of departmental communities. Our findings on the organizational aspects of the e-mail traffic are thus in agreement with the findings of Hubermann , but are based here on the quantitative concept of curvature.

Fig. 5, on the other hand, shows the conjugate graph associated with a cutoff of $`I_t\text{0.5}`$. We recognize several highly connected, totally separated clusters, indicating different thematic groups. Some of the clusters identified in Fig. 2 survive and are lifted in part to the graph of temporal dynamics, indicating indicating that within some departments there are dialogs; furthermore some departments split into different interest groups. However, we find many clusters that are new, and do not appear in the high curvature graph. These are typically users that are not in the same department, as shown by the multiple colors of the disks. Very few users appear in more than one cluster, so that the spreading of functional information is restricted within the thematic communities, in contrast to spreading of computer viruses for example, which propagate easily through the entire graph Kiel .

Some conclusions may be drawn regarding the nature of communities that emerge by conducting a dialog in the internet network. Two people engaged in a project can, if necessary, pick up the phone and tie all loose ends efficiently. However, a group with three or more participants may find it hard to coordinate conference calls, and in general will benefit from the lower time constraints that allow each participant to formulate his views and present them to a forum by e-mail. This makes e-mail an ideal medium for discussion groups involved in a given project, or a committee involved in a functional activity. Indeed, we have identified two committees in the clusters of Fig. 5 that are involved in non-academic activities within the university. A third group can be identified as visiting scientists (e.g. post-docs etc.) from a common foreign nationality.

The choice of a university’s e-mail network is perhaps not ideal for identifying such ‘groups of dialog’. This is because the major activity in a university is research, which usually involves few individuals, and is almost never advanced by committee. We thus speculate that the role of dialog in defining functional communities will be greater in large organizations such as companies Hubermann  or government offices.

## Summary

We have studied e-mail communications over 83 days and quantified the synchronization of groups of coherently communicating users. This synchronization reveals the existence of common interests within those groups. This form of organization cannot emerge by applying the analysis based on static concepts such as curvature, since those detect only structural rather than thematic organization. The reason is that in the context of static e-mail networks a triangle does not automatically imply transitivity from a thematic point of view. But we have demonstrated that transitivity can be re-captured by taking into account the temporal dynamics of the e-mail traffic.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank P. Collet for many helpful discussions and P. Choukroun and A. Malaspinas for help with the e-mail data. This work was supported by the Fonds National Suisse, and by the Minerva Foundation (Munich).


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# Oblique-Basis Calculations for 44Ti 11footnote 1This work was supported in part by U.S. National Science Foundation under grants (9970769 and 0140300) as well as a Cooperative Agreement (9720652) with matching from the Louisiana Board of Regents Support Fund.

## Abstract

The spectrum and wave functions of 44Ti are studied in oblique-basis calculations using spherical and SU(3) shell-model states. Although the results for 44Ti are not as good as those previously reported for 24Mg, due primarily to the strong spin-orbit interaction that generates significant splitting of the single-particle energies that breaks the SU(3) symmetry, a more careful quantitative analysis shows that the oblique-basis concept is still effective. In particular, a model space that includes a few SU(3) irreducible representations, namely, the leading irrep (12,0) and next to the leading irrep (10,1) including its spin $`S=0`$ and $`1`$ states, plus spherical shell-model configurations (SSMC) that have at least two valence nucleons confined to the $`f_{7/2}`$ orbit – the SM(2) states, provide results that are compatible with SSMC with at least one valence nucleon confined to the $`f_{7/2}`$ orbit – the SM(3) states.

Introduction. In a previous study we demonstrated the feasibility of the oblique-basis calculations. The successful description of 24Mg followed from the comparable importance of single-particle excitations, described by spherical shell-model configurations (SSMC), and collective excitations, described by the SU(3) shell model. An important element of the success is that SU(3) is a good symmetry in $`sd`$-shell nuclei. For the lower $`pf`$-shell nuclei, there is strong breaking of the SU(3) symmetry induced by the spin-orbit interaction. Therefore, it is anticipated that adding the leading and next to the leading SU(3) irreps may not be sufficient in lower $`pf`$-shell.

Here we discuss oblique-basis type calculations for 44Ti using the KB3 interaction. We confirm that the spherical shell model (SSM) provides a significant part of the low-energy wave functions within a relatively small number of SSMC while a pure SU(3) shell-model with only few SU(3) irreps is unsatisfactory. This is the opposite of the situation in the lower $`sd`$-shell. Since the SSM yields relatively good results for SM(2), combining the two basis sets yields even better results with only a very small increase in the overall size of the model space. In particular, results in a SM(2)+SU(3) model space (47.7% + 2.1% of the full $`pf`$-shell space) are comparable with SM(3) results (84%). Therefore, as for the $`sd`$-shell, combining a few SU(3) irreps with SM(2) configurations yields excellent results, such as correct spectral structure, lower ground-state energy, and improved structure of the wave functions. However, in the lower $`sd`$-shell SU(3) is dominant and SSM is recessive (but important) and in the lower $`pf`$-shell one finds the opposite, that is, SSM is dominant and SU(3) is recessive (but important).

Model Space. 44Ti consists of 2 valence protons and 2 valence neutrons in the $`pf`$-shell. The SU(3) basis includes the leading irrep (12,0) with $`M_J=0`$ dimensionality 7, and the next to the leading irrep (10,1). The (10,1) occurs three times, once with $`S=0`$ (dimensionality 11) and twice with $`S=1`$ (dimensionality $`2\times 33=66`$). All three (10,1) irreps have a total dimensionality of 77. The (12,0)&(10,1) case has a total dimensionality of 84 and is denoted by &(10,1). In Table 1 we summarize the dimensionalities. As in the case of 24Mg, there are linearly dependent vectors within the oblique bases sets. For example, there is one redundant vector in the SM(2)+(12,0) space, two in SM(3)+(12,0) and SM(1)+(12,0)&(10,1) spaces, twelve in SM(2)+(12,0)&(10,1) space, and thirty-three in the SM(3)+(12,0)&(10,1) space. Each linearly dependent vector is handled as in the previous case.

Ground-state Energy. The oblique-basis calculation of the ground-state energy for 44Ti does not look as impressive as for 24Mg. The calculated ground-state energy for the SM(1)+(12,0)&(10,1) space is $`0.85`$ MeV below the calculated energy for the SM(1) space. Adding the two SU(3) irreps to the SM(1) basis increases the size of the space from 14.5% to 16.6% of the full space. This is a 2.1% increase, while going from the SM(1) to SM(2) involves an increase of 33.2%. For SM(2), the ground-state energy is $`2.2`$ MeV lower than the SM(1) result. However, adding the SU(3) irreps to the SM(2) basis gives ground-state energy of $`13.76`$ MeV which is compatible to the pure SM(3) result of $`13.74`$ MeV. Therefore, adding the SU(3) to the SM(2) increases the model space from 47.7% to 49.8% and gives results that are slightly better than the SM(3) which is 84% of the full space.

Low-lying Energy Spectrum. In 24Mg the position of the K=2 band head is correct for the SU(3)-type calculations but not for the low-dimensional SM(n) calculations. In 44Ti it is the opposite, that is, the SM(n)-type calculations reproduce the position of the K=2 band head while SU(3)-type calculations cannot. Furthermore, the low-energy levels for the SU(3) case are higher than for the SM(n) case. Nonetheless, the spectral structure in the oblique-basis calculation is good and the SM(2)+(12,0)&(10,1) spectrum ($``$50% of the full space) is comparable with the SM(3) result (84%).

Overlaps with Exact States. The overlap of SU(3)-type calculated eigenstates with the exact (full shell-model) results are not as large as in the $`sd`$-shell, often less than 40%, but the SM(n) results are considerably better with SM(2)-type calculations yielding an 80% overlap with the exact states while the results for SM(3) show overlaps greater than 97%, which is consistent with the fact that SM(3) covers 84% of the full space. On the other hand, SM(2)+(12,0)&(10,1)-type calculations yield results that are as good as those for SM(3) in only about 50% of the full-space and SM(1)+(12,0)&(10,1) overlaps are often bigger than the SM(2) overlaps.

Conclusion. For 44Ti, combining a few SU(3) irreps with SM(2) configurations increases the model space only by a small ($``$2.3%) amount but results in better overall results: a lower ground-state energy, the correct spectral structure (particularly the position of K=$`2^+`$ band head), and wave functions with a larger overlap with the exact results. The oblique-bases SM(2)+(12,0)&(10,1) results for 44Ti ($``$50%) yields results that are comparable with the SM(3) results ($``$84%). In short, the oblique-basis scheme works well for 44Ti, only in this case, in contrast with the previous results for 24Mg where SU(3) was found to be dominant and SSM recessive, in the lower $`pf`$-shell SSM is dominant and SU(3) recessive.


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# Impulse Backscattering in Granular Beds: Introducing a Toy Model

## Abstract

Impulses efficiently propagate into nominally dry granular beds and backscatter from buried inclusions in such beds may be potentially exploited to image shallow buried objects (SBOs). However, reliable imaging of SBOs requires “cleaning up” of surface vibrations, and, in addition to 3D particle dynamics simulations, a phenomenological model to parameterize the bed surface may be useful for field applications. We introduce a 1D mean-field-like toy model with two parameters that allows one to model surface vibrations, is consistent with experiments in a granular bed, and can help estimate the approximate signal transmission properties of the bed.

Introduction: The imaging of shallow buried objects in a complex medium, e.g., nominally dry soil, is a difficult problem that has seen limited progress senwdfin . Such imaging is of relevance in connection with locating antipersonnel land mines, in archaeology, land surveying and in other applications. It has been shown that gentle mechanical impulses rogdon  can be used to detect buried objects at depths of a meter or so in nominally dry sand beds. Detailed 3D simulations establish that nonlinear pulse propagation in 3D beds is a quasi-1D process senetal ; normally incident pulses travel as weakly dispersive energy bundles and become more and more 1D-like with increase in area over which the impulse is generated. It would be of interest to rapidly generate images of buried backscatterers by exploiting the information contained in the time-dependent surface vibrations in granular beds senetal .

To accomplish such imaging, it is necessary to probe some global parameter that contains coarse-grained information about grain dynamics at the bed surface. We study the space averaged, time evolution of the time integrated kinetic energies of the surface grains in idealized sand beds. Several groups have measured impulse backscattered signals at the surface in empty beds and in beds with some buried object rogdon . Newtonian dynamics based 3D simulations of impulse backscattering in idealized beds have been carried out by Sen et al. senetal . These authors used the velocity-Verlet algorithm velverlet  to integrate the equations of motion, and their data are consistent with the available experiments. Thus, a consensus on the spatio-temporal behavior of impulse backscattered data is beginning to emerge.

It is apparent from the existing work that the energy imparted by the impulse penetrates into the system. The spread of the energy in a given $`x`$-$`y`$ plane at a given depth depends on the packing in the system. There is impulse backscattering at every granular contact. If one measures the amount of backscattered energy at the bed surface, the energy density at the bed surface rapidly depletes after the initiation of the impulse, and then rises as a function of time. The backscattering from the shallow layers is significant. The amount of backscattering from the deeper layers does get weaker, and eventually dies out. The dissipative properties of the bed play an important role in the attenuation of the impulse.

We contend that, at least for the purposes of field applications, it is desirable to explore a tractable 1D toy model that can capture the critical results of the 3D simulations. In this Communication, we propose a two parameter model to describe impulse backscattering at the surface of a granular assembly. It may be necessary to use more parameters (e.g., to include information about the area across which the impulse is imparted), if one is looking for detailed agreement with experiments. The physics is similar in spirit to that of mean-field theories.

Phenomenological Model: We define a vertical alignment of layers, where each layer can be thought of as a mass th87 . At time $`t=0`$, we set initial energy $`E=1`$ for layer one and zero for the rest. At $`t=1`$, the first layer in the vertical chain transfers $`p`$ ($`<1`$) of the impulse energy to the second layer, and retains $`(1p)`$. At subsequent times, the impulse will propagate in the same fashion, at every step, all the way down the chain (see Table 1). Each layer, after pushing the next layer in any time step, will push the preceding layer in the opposite direction in the following time step. Since the phase reverses every time step, they will interact, alternately, with layers above and below, in alternate time steps, thereby introducing significant backscattering into the problem. Note also that successive layers will be in opposite phases at any time, assuring interaction between them only in alternate time steps (Table 1).

We model the interaction between two adjacent layers in our simulations in the following two ways: (i) equipartition case, and (ii) exchange case. In the equipartition case, the two interacting layers will come away from the interaction with equal amounts of energy; we add up the individual energies of the two layers and divide the sum equally between them. In the exchange case, we let the layers exchange their energies; the two interacting layers, after the interaction, come away with the energy of the other. The equipartition case can be viewed as one that leads to ergodic-like behavior, where we assume that the two adjacent layers get compressed to the same extent during the interaction, and the potential energy of compression gets converted back to the respective kinetic energies, which will now be half of the total energy of the two layers. The equipartition ansatz negates the symmetry breaking introduced by $`p0.5`$. The exchange model captures the essence of nonlinear impulse propagation in which an impulse travels as a perfect solitary wave in a 1D chain of elastic grains Ne83 , and as a weakly dispersive energy bundle in 3D beds senetal ; we model the situation where two energy bundles, traveling in opposite directions, go through each other without distortion. In real systems, one would expect that both the equipartition and exchange behaviors would be present, and such an extension of our study will be reported elsewhere KM03 .

We monitor the energy transfer at the surface in our model analysis. The first layer, in its negative phase (we assume positive phases to point down the chain), will transmit $`p`$ fraction of its energy to the surface and retain $`(1p)`$ fraction to itself; the surface does not transfer any energy back to the first layer. At the bottom of the chain, we let the last layer lose $`p`$ fraction of its energy in its positive phase and retain $`(1p)`$; the lost energy is presumed to travel further down in a similar fashion. These boundary conditions do not, in any way, affect our final results. We have verified our results with longer chains and there are no qualitative changes (see further discussion below); we have, therefore, employed a 40 layer long system for our studies.

Some Analytical results: For the exchange model, the sequence of backscattered energy packets that arrive at the surface, $`e^{bs}(t)`$, can be worked out (cf Table 1; see Fig. 1(a)):

$`p(1p),p^2(1p),p^3(1p),\mathrm{},p(1p)^3,p^2(1p)^3,`$
$`p^3(1p)^3,\mathrm{},p(1p)^5,p^2(1p)^5,p^3(1p)^5,\mathrm{}`$
and so on. Since $`p<1`$, the sum of the first subsequence (each subsequence is separated by $`\mathrm{}`$) yields $`p`$, and, similarly, the sum of the second subsequence yields $`p(1p)^2`$ and so on. Thus, the entire sequence of energy packets received back at the surface can be summed to obtain, with $`E^{bs}(t)`$ respresenting $`_{t^{}=0}^{t^{}=t}e^{bs}(t^{})`$,

$$E^{bs}(t=\mathrm{})=p[1+(1p)^2+(1p)^4+\mathrm{}]=1/(2p)$$

We see that $`E^{bs}(t=\mathrm{})`$ will always be $`>1/2`$; also, $`E^{bs}(t=\mathrm{})`$ is higher if $`p`$ is higher. If $`p<0.5`$, the successive packets of $`e^{bs}(t)`$ in each subsequence is going to decrease fast, and, when the next subsequence involving a higher power of $`(1p)`$ arrives, a jump in $`E^{bs}(t)`$ takes place. In the other case, when $`p>0.5`$, there is going to be a faster increase of $`E^{bs}(t)`$ within each subsequence itself, than brought in by the arrival of the next subsequence. The above analysis shows that a plot of $`E^{bs}(t)`$ against time is going to be characterized by a sequence of steps and plateaus, as is seen from Fig. 1(a), first inset. The subsequences can be understood as due to the solitary wave like propagation Ne83 ; senetal , where each packet travels down the chain undiminished till it loses energy (by $`p`$ fraction) at the two ends. Note that the sequences are geometrically decreasing, and, as may be gathered from the plot (top smaller inset), characterized by an exponential decrease in packet sizes. As a consequence, $`E^{bs}(t)`$ is characterized approximately by logarithmic growth in the subsequences (bottom smaller inset), with the added feature of a saturation plateau seen in the earlier inset.

An analysis like the above is not possible for the equipartition case because of the complicated algebra resulting from distributing half of the total energy of the two particles to each, after the interaction. Nevertheless, numerical results indicate that a similar result, of $`E^{bs}(t=\mathrm{})`$ being always $`>1/2`$, holds in this case as well. Also, there are no steps and plateaus in this case, except for the ones introduced by the fact that $`e^{bs}(t)`$ arrives in alternate time steps (Fig. 1(b); see further discussion below).

Numerical Analysis: Soil is a highly heterogeneous medium, and impulse propagation and scattering properties vary much spatially, decreasing and/or increasing with successive layers. Therefore, we investigate the above models for different scenarios characterized by different distributions of $`p`$. A reasonable model that can be chosen, for qualitative comparison of results for different $`p`$’s, is that of a logarithmic growth pattern in $`E^{bs}(t)`$. This is best illustrated for $`p=0.25`$ (for all layers) in the equipartition case (Fig. 1(b)); depending on the distribution and values of $`p`$, the growth can be higher or lower than an average logarithmic growth in the initial stages. In Fig. 1(b), it is seen that $`e^{bs}(t)=0`$ in alternate steps; also, the packets arrive in exponentially decreasing quanta in alternate steps. Such decay in $`e^{bs}(t)`$ is expected in view of the fact that most of the backscattered energy, at early times, is from the first few layers, where, by construction, the energy will be more. The deeper layers, the backscattered energy of which reaches the surface at later times, contribute to progressively higher order backscattering. The first inset to the figure shows $`E^{bs}(t)`$, growing rapidly in time at early times, followed by progressive slowing down. The two smaller insets in this figure shows, as a zoom-in, the region close to the origin, of the earlier inset, to show the form of the (logarithmic) growth in $`E^{bs}(t)`$; the bottom inset plots the data with logarithmic abscissa for explicit confirmation. This pattern has been seen in 3D simulations of impulse propagation in sand beds senvisco , and is consistent with experimental results rogdon .

The maximum attained value of $`E^{bs}(t)`$, referred to as $`E_{max}^{bs}`$, is high compared to the 3D simulation results. Thus, the 1D toy model, with its restrictions in the available energy channels tends to backscatter much more energy to the surface than is typical of 3D beds. There are two ways to improve the model to better mimic the properties of 3D beds, (i) by incorporating restitution between layers, and (ii) by varying $`p`$ appropriately as a function of position to approximately account for changes in layer compression as a function of depth, inhomogeneities in the medium etc. We discuss the effects of these decorations in our model below.

Introducing a tunable parameter, $`q`$ ($`<1`$), to account for restitutional losses at each interaction (as also the spreading away of energy in 3D), which works to dissipate energy, allows us to tune $`E_{max}^{bs}`$; at each step, a fraction ($`=q`$) of the total energy of the two interacting masses is removed. It was observed (see Fig. 2(a) and (b)) that $`E_{max}^{bs}`$ decreases exponentially with $`q`$; it drops by an order of magnitude as $`q`$ is varied from 0.1 to 0.5.

Now, we consider the richness of the model by exploring various distributions of $`p`$ and their effect on the patterns of $`e^{bs}(t)`$. We will only discuss the results using the plots of $`E^{bs}(t)`$ which are, firstly, easier analysed, because of the logarithmic growth pattern in the initial stages. Secondly, $`E^{bs}(t)`$, being an integrated quantity, is, perhaps, more suited for comparison with experimental results. Hence, we will plot these graphs on a semi-log basis for the study, with time axis being taken logarithmically.

Distributions of $`p`$ and corresponding patterns in growth of $`E^{bs}(t)`$: With a uniform distribution of $`p`$’s ($`p`$ constant across the layers), analysis of the equipartition model shows that the growth is, qualitatively, symmetric with respect to $`p=0.5`$; $`E_{max}^{bs}`$ is the highest for $`p=0.5`$, and falls off when $`p0.5`$. Clearly, the equipartition model is working best when the initial impulse itself is transmitted down the chain with equal sharing of the energy between the leading layer and the next one in the chain. On the other hand, the curves are also symmetric, on either side of $`p=0.5`$, around the mid-value of the respective ranges, i.e. around $`0.25`$ and $`0.75`$. The latter symmetry is with respect to the initial growth rates. The curves are concave (lesser than average logarithmic growth rate), in the initial stages, on the semi-log plots for $`p<0.25`$ ($`p>0.75`$), and convex (larger than average logarithmic growth rate) for $`p>0.25`$ ($`p<0.75`$). This symmetry is natural because of the symmetry introduced by the exchange of roles between $`p`$ and $`(1p)`$ as $`p`$ is varied. We get the best (approximate) logarithmic growth, in the initial stages, for $`p=0.25`$ ($`p=0.75`$).

In the exchange case, there is no such symmetry. It is a monotonous behavior with $`E^{bs}(t)`$ requiring many more cycles to saturate, the lower the $`p`$ value is, and saturating faster, the higher the $`p`$ value is. In the latter case, if the $`p`$ value is sufficiently high, $`E_{max}^{bs}`$ can be attained almost in the first cycle. This is understandable since the undispersed energy bundles that travel up and down the chain, but for the losses at the two ends, are smaller (larger) in size when $`p`$ is smaller (larger).

We may let $`p`$ decrease towards the bottom and vice versa. In the equipartition case, if we impose a linear decrease (increase), in the initial stages, the graphs are convex (concave) and the variation in the amount of decrease (increase) shows variation in convexity (concavity). This is due to the longer presence of energy in the upper layers, with higher (lower) $`p`$ values . Similarly, for the exchange model as well, steeper initial growth is achieved for higher $`p`$’s in the top layers and vice versa. We may impose other rates of decrease (increase) like exponential, inverse square law etc. but the basic charateristic of the convexity (concavity)/steepness of the equipartition/exchange graphs being dictated by the presence of larger (smaller) $`p`$’s in the upper layers will remain the same; only it will be more pronounced with larger rates of decrease (increase) like exponential or inverse square law etc. In Figs. 2(a) and (b), we have shown results for a case where $`p`$’s decrease in inverse square law fashion towards the bottom for the equipartition and exchange models, respectively; note the high values of $`E_{max}^{bs}`$. Figs. 2(c) and (d) show the results, similarly, for a case where the $`p`$’s increase towards the bottom; note that, if the $`p`$’s in the upper layers are extremely small (of the order of, say, $`10^3`$), $`E_{max}^{bs}`$ is going to be extremely small ($`<10^3`$) in both the models.

If we let the $`p`$’s vary randomly, we get a combination of the effects discussed earlier and the model is sensitive to different realizations of the random distribution of $`p`$’s, a desirable feature for a simple phenomenological model for a highly heterogeneous medium like soil. We have also checked our results with longer chains. It is clear that the cyclicity in the exchange model will change with the length of the chain; the cyclicity is twice the length of the chain because we are only monitoring the energy at one end. This introduces, for example, a longer plateau length at each step of the staircase, in certain situations. However, $`E_{max}^{bs}`$ remains the same in the case of a constant $`p`$ across the layers. In the equipartition case, $`E_{max}^{bs}`$ does change slightly; however, the convexity (concavity) patterns in the plots, which depend on the $`p`$ values, are not changed, only they get more accentuated.

In summary, it can be stated that our 1D model is robust, and, at the same time, sensitive to changes in the distribution of $`p`$ across the layers. The model qualitatively reproduces the time evolution of average energy of the surface grains of a complex, heterogeneous medium like granular beds, following the generation of a normal impulse at the bed surface. The model promises to be a useful tool for further research on this important topic.

Acknowledgments: The research has been supported by NSF CMS 0070055 and by Sandia National Labs.