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# The Semi-Quantum Computer

## I Introduction

In the 1980’s, FeynmanFeynman  suggested that computers based on the laws of Quantum Mechanics could be more efficient than the classical ones. In the 1990’s, the discovery of Shor’sShor  and Grover’sGrover  algorithms stimulated the search for the physical implementation of a quantum computer. Diverse architectures have been triedReview  and, among the most sucssesfull, we can cite Nuclear Magnetic Ressonance (NMR), Ion-traps, OpticsOptics . So far, the architecture that has achieved the largest number of qubits, namely seven, is NMRNMR-7 . The difficulty of implementing arbitrary number of qubits has motivated alternative approachs to quantum computing. It has been demonstrated that classical optics supports quantum computing, but the number of optical elements needed grows exponentially with the number of qubitsClassical-optics . Semi-classical architectures of quantum computing have also been suggested, with experimental implementations of the Fourier Transform of Shor’s algorithmsemi-classico-QFT , and the Grover’s search algorithmsemi-classico-Grover . The kernel of these proposals is to simulate the two-qubit gates by use of classical communication among quantum gates. A quite different approach, which is a kind of quantum/classical hybrid distributed computation, dubbed type II quantum computation, has been adopted by YepezYepez . A different kind of distributed quantum computation has also been suggested by other authorsdistributed-QC .

The semi-quantum computer, or type II quantum computer according to YepezYepez , is in part quantum and in part classical. The quantum part is a set of individual genuine quantum computers with $`n_q`$ qubits each. These quantum nodes communicate classically with a classical computer, which may include several classical processors in parallel, as well \[Fig.1\]. The key point here is that the quantum nodes are not intended to solve a whole algorithmic problem, but just a part, a subroutine, consistent with their supported number of qubits and coherence time. This hybrid architecture explores both quantum and classical parallelisms simultaneously. The quantum nodes send their partial results to the classical computer which, by its turn, performs some data processing and feeds back the quantum nodes with new tasks, which could be the same operation as before but on a new quantum state.

Our intention here is to look for evidences that tell us if this hybrid architecture could result in a computer that is faster than the classical ones. In order to do so, we are going to discuss how the SearchGrover  and Fourier TransformShor  quantum algorithms could be adapted to the semi-quantum computer and investigate, through a complexity analysis, how they perform as compared to their pure classical and pure quantum counterparts. In section II, we discuss the Search problem. Section III is dedicated to the Fourier Transform. We conclude in section IV.

## II The Search Problem

Supose that a list of $`N`$ elements has to be searched, in order to find the $`M`$ solutions ($`M<N`$) of a given problem, and that each solution can be identified by an appropriate oracle. Classically, all the $`N`$ elements have to be tested and, therefore, this procedure costs $`O(N)`$ operations. Grover showedGrover  that searching quantum mechanically costs just $`O(\sqrt{N})`$, a quadratic improvement over the classical algorithm.

The quantum algorithm is as follows. Associating an orthonormal basis $`\{|x,x=0,1,\mathrm{},N1\}`$ to the indices of the elements in the list, define a state vector formed by the equal superposition of these basis states,

$$|\psi =\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}\underset{x=0}{\overset{N1}{}}|x.$$
(1)
Consider a bi-dimensional space state spanned by the states $`|\alpha `$ and $`|\beta `$, which are the superposition of all the non-solutions,

$$|\alpha =\frac{1}{\sqrt{NM}}\underset{x=nonsolution}{}|x$$
(2)
and the superposition of all the solutions,

$$|\beta =\frac{1}{\sqrt{M}}\underset{x=solution}{}|x.$$
(3)
Therefore $`|\psi `$ can be rewritten as

$$|\psi =|\alpha \alpha |\psi +|\beta \beta |\psi .$$
(4)
Now build an operator $`G`$, based upon the oracle for the problem (see Grover  for details), whose action over $`|\psi `$ is to increase its projection on $`|\beta `$ \[Fig.2\]. After applying $`G`$ a sufficient number of times, a measurement of the resulting state vector shall produce a solution of the problem with high probability.

The search problem is trivialy parallelizeable. Simply divide the list of $`N`$ elements into sublists of size $`N_q`$ and search in the sublists. Therefore, this problem can be adapted to the semi-quantum computer simply attributing to each quantum node a search in a sublist.

Now let’s check out what we gain with this procedure. Assuming $`n_q`$ qubits in the quantum node, the list can be divided into $`\frac{2^n}{2^{n_q}}`$ sublists, where $`n=\mathrm{lg}_2N`$. The quantum node searchs the sublist with cost $`O(2^{n_q/2})`$ and it is needed $`\frac{2^n}{2^{n_q}}`$ quantum nodes, or $`\frac{2^n}{2^{n_q}}`$ accesses to the same quantum node, to search the entire list. Therefore the cost of this semi-quantum approach is

$$O(\frac{2^n}{2^{n_q}}\times 2^{n_q/2})=O(\frac{2^n}{2^{n_q/2}}).$$

Note that if $`n=n_q`$, i.e., if there is enough qubits to search the entire list at once, the cost is that of the Grover’s quantum search, namely, $`O(2^{n/2})`$. On the other hand, if there are no qubits at all, the cost reduces to the classical one, $`O(2^n)`$. Finally, with $`n_q`$ qubits available, the cost $`O(\frac{2^n}{2^{n_q/2}})`$ is somewhere in between the classical and quantum searchs.

## III The Discrete Fourier Transform

ShorShor  discovered that doing a Fourier Transform quantum mechanically is exponentially faster than classically. This quantum Fourier Transform ($`QFT`$) is the kernel of his algorithm to factorize numbers, with the notorious implication of possibly breaking, with polynomial cost, the most used public key cryptographic protocol, namely, the RSARSA , that is based on the product of any two huge prime numbers. It has to be noted that, in the Shor’s factorization algorithm, rather than Fourier transforming an arbitrary quantum state, the $`QFT`$ is applied to a particular state as part of the process of factorization. Therefore, this subtle application of the $`QFT`$ does not face two potentialy difficult problems, namely, preparing an arbitrary quantum statepreparation  and measuring the complex phasesphase  of its Fourier Transform, which comes to be the problem we will treat here.

Classically, the best known algorithm to calculate the Discrete Fourier Transform of a real function at $`N`$ points ($`DFT_N`$) is the well known Fast Fourier Transform ($`FFT`$), which costs $`O(N\mathrm{lg}_2N)`$ operations. Our point here is to use the $`QFT`$, which costs $`O(\mathrm{lg}_2N\mathrm{lg}_2N)`$ quantum operations, to improve the $`FFT`$ algorithm. This preamble done, now the semi-quantum approach to discrete Fourier transform a function is described.

A real function tabulated at $`N`$ points can be substituted by its interpolating polynomial

$$X(t)=\underset{j=0}{\overset{N1}{}}x_jt^j,$$
(5)
which can be represented by the real vector

$$\stackrel{}{X}=(x_0,x_1,\mathrm{},x_{N1}),$$
(6)
whose Fourier transform is the complex vector

$$\stackrel{}{y}=(y_0,y_1,\mathrm{},y_{N1}),$$
(7)
where

$$y_kX(\omega _N^k)=\underset{j=0}{\overset{N1}{}}x_j\omega _N^{kj}=\underset{j=0}{\overset{N1}{}}x_j\mathrm{exp}(\frac{2\pi ikj}{N}).$$
(8)
The $`\{\omega _N^k\}`$ are the $`N`$ complex roots of the unity.

The quantum version of the $`DFT`$ is as follows. Given the real vector $`\stackrel{}{X}`$, prepare the associated quantum state

$$|X=C_x\underset{j=0}{\overset{N1}{}}x_j|j,$$
(9)
where $`C_x`$ is a normalization factor and $`\{|j,j=0,1,\mathrm{},N1\}`$ is an orthonormal basis.

The $`DFT`$ of $`\stackrel{}{X}`$ is the vector $`\stackrel{}{Y}`$, whose associated quantum state, written in the same basis as $`|X`$, is

$$|Y=C_y\underset{k=0}{\overset{N1}{}}y_k|k,$$
(10)
where $`C_y`$ is a normalization factor.

$`|X`$ and $`|Y`$ are related by the unitary operator $`U_{QFT}`$,

$$U_{QFT}|X=|Y.$$
(11)
The action of $`U_{QFT}`$ on the basis states is

$$U_{QFT}|j=\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}\underset{k=0}{\overset{N1}{}}\mathrm{exp}(\frac{2\pi ikj}{N})|k.$$
(12)
The $`FFT`$ algorithm is based on the observation that squaring the $`N`$ complex roots of the unity $`\{\omega _N^k\}`$ produces just $`\frac{N}{2}`$ distinct complex numbers $`\{\omega _{N/2}^k\}`$. Therefore, the $`DFT`$ problem reduces to a recursion of identical subproblems, with the $`y_k`$ evaluated as \[Fig.3\]

$$y_k=X(w_N^k)=X_e[(w_N^k)^2]+w_N^kX_o[(w_N^k)^2],$$
(13)
where

$$X_e(t)=x_0+x_2t+x_4t^2+\mathrm{},$$
(14)
$$X_o(t)=x_1+x_3t+x_5t^2+\mathrm{}.$$
(15)
Now assuming a quantum computer with $`(n_q+1)`$ qubits, let’s see how to calculate the $`DFT_N`$ $`(N=2^n)`$. For the sake of clarity, the case $`n_q=2`$ is explicitly considered, but the generalization for arbitrary $`n_q`$ is straightforward.

The normalized input state is

$$|X_4=x_0|00+x_1|01+x_2|10+x_3|11,$$
(16)
and the normalized output state is

$$|Y_4=U_{QFT}|X_4=$$

$$y_0|00+(y_{1a}+iy_{1b})|01+y_2|10+(y_{1a}iy_{1b})|11,$$
(17)
where the $`x_k`$ and $`y_k`$ are real numbers.

In Fig.4, we propose a quantum circuit for this problem. The circuit is a slight modification of the original $`QFT`$ one and includes an ancillary qubit, which is necessary for the proper determination of the Fourier phases.

In Tab.1, we show how the Fourier phases can be measured. It involves four projections followed by eight measurements. Then some classical operations, summarized in Tab.2, are necessary to rebuild the phases. Note that the role of the ancillary qubit is to determine the sign ($`+`$ or $``$) of the real figures.

Now let’s see what we have gained with this semi-quantum approach to perform the $`DFT_N`$. The classical part of the algorithm can still be represented by a tree, but now with just $`(nn_q)`$ levels and the operations to be done are those summarized in Tab.2 and Eq.13. The polynomial evaluations of Eq.14 and Eq.15 are avoided in the semi-quantum algorithm. Each level of the tree \[Fig.3\] involves $`O(2^n)`$ classical operations and, therefore, the total cost is $`O[(nn_q)2^n]`$. The quantum part of the algorithm involves $`\frac{2^n}{2^{n_q}}`$ quantum nodes, or accesses to the same quantum node, and each quantum node performs a $`QFT`$, which involves $`O(n_q^2)`$ quantum operations, resulting in a total cost of $`O(n_q^22^{nn_q})`$. The access to the quantum node also includes an arbitrary state preparation that, according to Long et. al. preparation , costs $`O(n_q^22^{n_q})`$. Therefore, the total cost of the quantum part of the algorithm is (preparation + $`QFT`$:) $`O(n_q^22^n)+O(n_q^22^{nn_q})`$. Summarizing, performing a Discrete Fourier Transform on the semi-quantum computer costs (state preparation + $`QFT`$ \+ classical operations:) $`O(n_q^22^n)+O(n_q^22^{nn_q})+O[(nn_q)2^n]`$. For a fixed number of qubits ($`n_q`$ constant), the total cost can be rewritten as (quantum operations + classical operations:) $`O(2^n)+O(n2^n2^n)`$. This expression shows that $`O(2^n)`$ classical operations are being substituted by $`O(2^n)`$ quantum operations. Therefore, this semi-quantum approach is profitable only in the case that the quantum operations are faster than the classical ones. It is reasonable to speculate that the quantum operations would be faster than the classical ones, if we remember that to determine the $`2^n`$ phases, we handle just $`n`$ qubits and obtain real figures with the (hopefully high) precision of the detectors. On the other hand, in the classical procedure, we have to handle $`2^n\times n_{precision}`$ bits, where $`n_{precision}`$ is the number of bits necessary to represent the real figures with the desired precision. Therefore, for a given precision, the quantum procedure is always exponentially smaller in space (i.e., number of bits or memory) than the classical one. It is worth noticing that, ignoring the state preparation, the cost of the $`DFT`$ as a function of the number of qubits ($`n_q`$) goes from the classical $`O(n2^n)`$, when $`n_q=0`$, to the quantum $`O(n^2)`$, when $`n_q=n`$, and for an arbitrary $`n_q`$, the cost is somewhere in between the both. Therefore, if the complexity of the state preparation stage could be improved, the semi-quantum approach would be certainly profitable.

## IV Conclusion

In this paper, we have searched for evidences that told us if a semi-quantum computer, which has an architecture that includes both classical and quantum processors communicating classically, would have some advantage over a pure classical architecture. We have shown how to perform a search in a list and a Fourier Transform in this semi-quantum computer. In the former case, we have shown that the Grover algorithm Grover  is trivially adaptable to the semi-quantum computer and has a performance ($`O(\frac{2^n}{2^{n_q/2}})`$) that is always superior to the classical one ($`O(2^n)`$) and inferior to the pure quantum one ($`O(2^{n/2})`$). In the latter case, we have used the Quantum Fourier Transform (QFT) algorithm Shor  ($`O(n^2)`$) to improve the classical Fast Fourier Transform algorithm ($`O(n2^n)`$). We have shown that using a single ancillary qubit to control the QFT transformation allows us to measure the Fourier phases. Due to the costly state preparation stage, we have concluded that what we profit in the semi-quantum approach is to save $`O(2^n)`$ classical operations, that involves $`O(2^n)`$ bits, in favor of $`O(2^n)`$ quantum operations, that involves just n qubits. The expression we have obtained for the cost of this semi-quantum approach as a function of the number of qubits in the quantum node, namely, (state preparation + QFT + classical operations:) $`O(n_q^22^n)+O(n_q^22^{nn_q})+O[(nn_q)2^n]`$, shows that, ignoring the state preparation stage, the cost, as the number of qubits grows, ranges from the classical $`O(n2^n)`$ to the quantum $`O(n^2)`$. On the other hand, the least cost one can hope for the arbitrary state preparation stage is $`O(2^n)`$ and, therefore, it will allways dominate the complexity of the semi-quantum Fourier Transform. Finally, our results suggest that a semi-quantum computer could be an improvement over a pure classical architecture, even in the case of a small number of qubits. Implementations of the two algorithms discussed in this paper on an semi-quantum computer based on optics, be quantum or classical, seems to be relatively easy and we intend to perform such experiments to test these ideas.

###### Acknowledgements.

Finantial support by the brazilian agencies FAPEMIG, CAPES and CNPq. We would like to acknowledge Maurício V.B Pinheiro, Gilberto R. Medeiros, Paulo H.S. Ribeiro and Rogério M. Paniago for fruitfull discussions.


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# Linear Stability Analysis of Differentially Rotating Polytropes — New results for the m = 2 𝑓-mode dynamical instability —

## 1 Introduction

It is well known that rapidly rotating stars suffer from dynamical instability against nonaxisymmetric oscillations. In particular, the growth rate for the $`m=2`$ or bar-type $`f`$-mode instability has been considered to be largest. The classical results about this instability were first studied by Riemann (1860). Riemann found that uniformly rotating incompressible fluids become dynamically unstable when the ratio of the rotational energy, $`T`$, to the absolute value of the gravitational potential energy, $`W`$, exceeds 0.27, i.e. $`\beta T/|W|0.27`$ (see also Bryan 1889).

Around 1970, Ostriker and coworkers developed a new numerical method to solve equilibrium configurations of rapidly rotating compressible stars (Ostriker & Mark 1968; Ostriker & Bodenheimer 1968; Mark 1968; Jackson 1970; Bodenheimer & Ostriker 1970, 1973; Bodenheimer 1971). Ostriker and coworkers also developed a new technique to explore stabilities of rotating equilibrium configurations by extending the tensor-virial technique of Chandrasekhar ( Chandrasekhar 1969; Tassoul & Ostriker 1968; Ostriker & Tassoul 1969; Ostriker & Bodenheimer 1973). Their main result about the $`m=2`$ dynamical instabilities of compressible stars was that rapidly rotating configurations become unstable when the condition $`\beta 0.27`$ is satisfied irrespective of the compressibilities and the rotation laws as far as they investigated. Although there was no proof of this ”universal” nature of the critical value $`\beta _{\mathrm{critical}}0.27`$, most people have believed that the critical value for the $`m=2`$ $`f`$-mode dynamical instability is 0.27. This ”belief” has lasted rather long, although there appeared a paper that shows the tensor virial technique for stability analysis for differentially rotating stars gives neither the necessary condition nor the sufficient condition for the stability (Bardeen et al. 1977).

However, the situation has been changing because there appear many recent results of hydrodynamical simulations which show that configurations with lower values of $`\beta `$ suffer from dynamical instabilities (see e.g. Tohline & Hachisu 1990; Pickett et al. 1996; Toman et al. 1998; Brown 2000; Centrella et al. 2001; for simulations of linearized equations see e.g. Liu 2002). Rough values of the critical configurations against nonaxisymmetric perturbations are $`\beta _{\mathrm{critical}}0.16(m=2)`$ for self-gravitating toroidal polytropes with the polytropic index $`N=1.5`$ (Tohline & Hachisu 1990), $`\beta _{\mathrm{critical}}0.2(m=2)`$ for $`N=1.5`$ polytropic star-disk like configurations (Pickett et al. 1996), $`\beta _{\mathrm{critical}}0.240.28(m=2)`$ for $`N=5/4,6/4,10/4`$ polytropes with the rotation laws that the distribution of the specific angular momentum is that of uniformly rotating polytropes with the same polytropic indices (Toman et al.1998), $`\beta _{\mathrm{critical}}0.24(m=2)`$ for $`N=1.5`$ polytropes with the angular velocity of the exponential decay with the distance from the rotation axis (Brown 2000), and $`\beta _{\mathrm{critical}}0.14(m=1)`$ for toroidal-like $`N=3.33`$ polytropes (Centrella et al. 2001). Liu found $`\beta _{\mathrm{critical}}0.25(m=2)`$ for the angular momentum distribution which could be realized after accretion induced collapse of uniformly rotating massive white dwarfs, although his simulations were carried out by using the linearized equations.

These results seem to imply that the critical value of $`\beta `$ for the occurrence of the $`m=2`$ bar-type dynamical instability cannot be considered to be universal any more. In order to see the unstable nature of rotating stars, we need to investigate sequences of rotating configurations systematically. For that purpose, the best method would be the linear stability analysis rather than hydrodynamical simulations.

Except for non-self-gravitating disks, linear stability analyses for rapidly rotating self-gravitating stars have been done only for limited kinds of compressibilities and rotation laws, and for limited types of oscillations. Luyten (1990, 1991) found a new dynamical instability for differentially rotating polytropes. This instability seems to belong to the shear instability which is also found in the theory of accretion disks (see e.g. Papaloizou & Pringle 1984; Narayan & Goodman 1989). This instability appears for differentially and very slowly rotating stars and disappears for differentially but very rapidly rotating stars. However, Luyten’s analysis was applied only to very limited kinds of rotation laws and the displacements were restricted only in the plane parallel to the equator. Very recently, Shibata et al. (2002, 2003) have investigated equilibrium sequences of differentially rotating polytropes by using linear stability analysis, the numerical scheme of which is the same as that employed in this paper, and shown that the dynamical instability of a new type can set in even when $`\beta `$ is $`0.05`$ if the degree of differential rotation is very high.

However, even the classical $`m=2`$ $`f`$-mode instability has not been fully studied by the linear stability analysis. Thus, in this paper, we will study systematically the dynamical stability of rapidly and differentially rotating polytropic stars by using the linear stability analysis. It should be noted that the linear stability analysis of differentially rotating polytropes in this paper will give exact values of $`\beta _{\mathrm{critical}}`$ for the onset of $`m=2`$ $`f`$-mode dynamical instabilities for the first time.

## 2 Numerical Method

The method to investigate stability by solving linearized basic equations is the same as that used in Karino et al. (2000, 2001). Therefore, we will summarize the essence of the method briefly.

### 2.1 Equilibrium states

Axisymmetric equilibrium configurations of rotating Newtonian stars are obtained by solving the following equations in the spherical polar coordinates $`(r,\theta ,\phi )`$:

$$\frac{1}{\rho }p=\varphi +r\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{\Omega }^2\stackrel{}{e}_R,$$
(1)
$$\mathrm{}\varphi =4\pi G\rho ,$$
(2)
where $`p`$, $`\rho `$, $`\varphi `$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, $`\stackrel{}{e}_R`$, and $`G`$ are the pressure, the density, the gravitational potential, the angular velocity, a unit vector in the $`R`$ direction of the cylindrical coordinates ($`R,\phi ,z`$), and the gravitational constant, respectively. As for the equation of state, we assume the polytropic relation as follows:

$$p=K\rho ^{1+\frac{1}{N}},$$
(3)
where $`K`$ and $`N`$ are the polytropic constant and the polytropic index, respectively. The rotation law is assumed as follows:

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{c}A^2}{(r\mathrm{sin}\theta )^2+A^2},$$
(4)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{c}`$ is the central angular velocity. The quantity $`A`$ is a parameter which represents the degree of differential rotation. The rotation becomes more differential as $`A`$ becomes smaller. We call this rotation law as the j-constant rotation law.

One equilibrium state can be characterized by specifying three parameters as follows: the polytropic index $`N`$, the parameter $`A`$ and the parameter describing the amount of rotation which can be represented by the following axis ratio:

$$qr_\mathrm{p}/r_\mathrm{e},$$
(5)
where $`r_\mathrm{p}`$ and $`r_\mathrm{e}`$ are the polar and equatorial radii, respectively. These equations are solved by applying the proper boundary conditions and using the SFNR method of Eriguchi and Müller (1985). Equilibrium models in this paper have been solved by using mesh numbers $`(r\times \theta )=(42\times 19)`$.

### 2.2 Perturbed States

As mentioned before, the linearized equations are solved by the scheme developed by Karino et al. (2000, 2001). The perturbed quantities are expanded as follows:

$$\delta f(r,\theta ,\phi ,t)=\underset{m}{}\mathrm{exp}(i(\sigma tm\phi ))f_m(r,\theta ),$$
(6)
where $`\delta f`$ means the Euler perturbation of the corresponding quantity. Here, $`m`$ is the azimuthal mode number and $`\sigma `$ is the eigenfrequency of the oscillation mode. As for the density and the pressure perturbations, we assume the adiabatic changes. Since we want to study the bar-type oscillations, we will consider only the oscillation modes with $`m=2`$ in this paper.

In the stability analysis in this paper we have also used mesh numbers $`(r\times \theta )=(42\times 19)`$. Although this mesh number seems to be too small, the obtained eigenvalues can be considered to be accurate enough. We have checked the eigenvalues by changing the mesh number. For $`N=1.0`$ polytropes with extremely rapid rotation ($`q=0.2`$), the accuracy of the obtained eigenfrequency can be estimated by $`\delta \sigma (m,n)|(\sigma _m\sigma _n)/\sigma _m|`$, where $`\sigma _k`$ denotes the eigenvalue when the mesh number in the r-direction is $`k`$. For $`A=1.0`$ models, $`\delta \sigma (42,30)=`$ 1.8 %, and $`\delta \sigma (42,36)=0.6`$ %.

## 3 Numerical Results

By fixing the values of $`A`$ and $`N`$ and by changing the value of $`q`$, we can obtain eigenvalues of $`m=2`$ $`f`$-mode oscillations along an equilibrium sequence. After that by changing the values of $`A`$ and/or $`N`$ and following the same procedure, we can obtain eigenstates for many equilibrium sequences. In this paper, we have examined sequences with $`N=0.0,1.0`$ and 1.5, and mainly $`1.0A^1`$. It may be noted that for models with large values of $`A`$, mass begins to shed from the equatorial surface before the dynamical instability sets in. Hence it is not necessary to consider larger values of $`A`$ more than the value for which mass shedding occurs.

In Figure 1, the real part of eigenfrequencies of the $`N=1.0`$ sequences with $`A=1.0`$ is plotted against the value of $`\beta `$. In this plane, the $`m=2`$ $`f`$-mode has two branches for lower values of $`\beta `$. The upper branch corresponds to the co-rotating mode and the lower one corresponds to the counter-rotating mode. These two branches merge into two complex conjugate branches for higher values of $`\beta `$. The positive imaginary part is shown in Figure 2. The model for which the two branches merge corresponds to the critical configuration from which dynamically unstable configurations follow. For this sequence, i.e. $`N=1.0`$ and $`A=1.0`$ sequence, the critical value where the dynamical instability for $`m=2`$ $`f`$-mode sets in is $`\beta 0.266`$.

The eigenvalues of configurations of $`N=1`$ polytropic sequences with several values of $`A`$ are shown against the value of $`\beta `$: real parts in Figure 3 and imaginary parts in Figure 4. It is clear from Figures 3 and 4 that the values of $`\beta `$ where two real modes change to two complex conjugate modes become smaller as the degree of differential rotation becomes higher. It means that the critical point of dynamical instability will appear for smaller values of $`\beta `$ as the degree of differential rotation becomes significant.

The dependency of the critical points of dynamical instability on the degree of differential rotation and the compressibility can clearly be seen from Figure 5. In this figure, the values of $`\beta `$ at the critical points for $`N=0.0,1.0`$ and $`1.5`$ polytropes are plotted against the parameter $`A^1`$. The critical values of $`\beta `$ for the $`m=2`$ $`f`$-mode dynamical instability depend significantly on the values of $`A`$ but depend only slightly on the values of $`N`$ for the high degree of differential rotation. Note that, as it should be, the critical value of $`\beta _{\mathrm{critical}}`$ approaches to $`\beta _{\mathrm{critical}}=0.27`$ when the rotation law tends to the rigid rotation ($`A^10`$) and the unperturbed configuration becomes the Maclaurin spheroid.

In Figures 6-8, the eigenfunctions of the density perturbation for $`N=1`$ polytropes with $`A=1.0`$ but with different values of $`q`$ are plotted against the normalized distance from the center of the star at selected values of $`\theta `$. In slowly rotating regions, the eigenfunctions are almost similar to those of $`f`$-mode oscillations for the Maclaurin spheroid, i.e. monotonically increasing functions of the distance from the center (see e.g. Tassoul 1978). As the stellar rotation becomes faster, however, the eigenfunctions on and near the equator attain their maximum values on the way to the surface but not on the surface.

## 4 Discussions

By making use of the linear stability analysis, we have shown that, for $`m=2`$ $`f`$-mode oscillations, higher degree of differential rotation makes the stars more unstable than previously thought. Although results of recent dynamical simulations have shown the same tendency, it should be noted that our present results have been obtained by the systematic analysis of the oscillations and that we can understand the occurrence of this type of instability from a more rigorous study.

Since the parameter regions for the existence of dynamically unstable configurations are widened, we need to reconsider some astrophysical situations under the light of the present results. There are several situations where high differential rotation would be realized. One example can be outcomes of collapsing gases or stars, i.e. star formation stages or core collapse stages of massive stars or accretion-induced collapse processes of stars. Other example may be outcomes of collision or merging of two stars, i.e. merging of two neutron stars in a binary neutron star system.

In the star formation process, if the angular momentum is not lost from the gaseous system, the rotation of the final young stellar objects would be extremely rapid and highly differential. Thus they might suffer from the dynamical instability discussed in this paper. Although the outcomes of the dynamical instability have not been fully understood yet, several authors have argued that dynamical instabilities during the star formation stages are related to binary formations (see e.g. Bonnell 1994; Matsumoto & Hanawa 1999), and others have suggested that they would result in new systems consisting of a central young stellar object and a disk around it (see e.g. Bate 1998). In order to obtain a final answer to this problem, reliable nonlinear simulations and high-resolution infrared/radio observations about star forming regions are required.

Another example is related to newly-born neutron stars. There are several ways for neutron stars to be formed. One is the formation via core collapse of massive stars followed by Type II supernova explosions. In recent simulations, it is shown that the compact object formed from an iron core collapse is rotating rapidly and differentially with $`\beta 0.2`$ (Zwerger & Müller 1997; Dimmelmeier et al. 2002). Another is a merging of two neutron stars in a binary neutron star system. In the merging process in a binary neutron star system, there appears a rapidly rotating massive neutron star with high degree of differential rotation (see e.g. Shibata and Uryu 2000). Neutron stars are also considered to be formed by accretion onto massive white dwarfs. In this accretion induced scenario, the outcome would be a rapidly and differentially rotating massive neutron star (see e.g. Liu & Lindblom 2000). Therefore, for these differentially rotating neutron stars, it would be very likely that the dynamical instability would set in easily and lead the systems to nonaxisymmetric configurations just depending on the degree of differential rotation and irrespective of the compressibility. Those deformed and rapidly rotating compact objects would emit a large amount of gravitational waves. Therefore, such young neutron stars could be important targets of ground-based laser interferometric detectors of gravitational waves (see e.g. Brown 2000; Shibata et al. 2002) 222When we consider these compact stars, the effect of general relativity becomes important. In relation to the dynamical instability, however, it is only argued that the critical values might become slightly smaller by the general relativistic effect (Shibata, Baumgarte, & Shapiro 2000)..

Concerning the rotation law dependence of the critical values for the $`m=2`$ $`f`$-mode dynamical instability, we have performed linear stability analysis for equilibrium models with the v-constant rotation law (see e.g. Karino et al. 2001). However, the effect of differential rotation seems very weak and the dynamical instability occurs only for models with very stiff equations of state and/or extremely small values of the parameter $`A`$. Additionally, the change of the critical values of $`\beta `$ is very little. The critical values for $`N=0.5`$ polytropes are $`T/|W|0.266`$ for $`A=0.8`$ and $`T/|W|0.260`$ for $`A=0.5`$.

## 5 Summary

In this paper, we have performed linear stability analysis of equilibrium sequences of differentially rotating polytropes in Newtonian gravity and obtained critical values of $`\beta `$, i.e. $`\beta _{\mathrm{critical}}`$, which determine the equilibrium states where the dynamical instability against $`m=2`$ $`f`$-mode oscillations sets in. The rotation law which we have employed is the j-constant law (Eq. (4)). Our important finding is that the critical points of $`m=2`$ $`f`$-mode dynamical instability depend strongly on the degree of differential rotation while they depend weakly on the compressibility. The critical values of $`\beta _{\mathrm{critical}}`$ decreases as the degree of differential rotation becomes higher. Therefore, we should not use the ”universal” value of $`\beta _{\mathrm{critical}}=0.27`$ for the stability analysis of rapidly rotating objects with high degree of differential rotation from now on.

We are grateful to Drs. K. Uryu and S’i. Yoshida for their discussions and useful advice. SK thanks Prof. Ohara and Prof. Nishi for their useful comments. This study is partially supported by the Research Fellowship of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for Young Scientists and by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) of the JSPS (14540244).


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# Meson photoproduction in the first and second resonance region

## Introduction

Nucleons are complicated many body systems of valence quarks, sea quarks and gluons interacting via the strong force which in this energy range cannot be treated in a perturbative manner. The structure of the nucleon is therefore intimately connected to QCD in the nonperturbative range. The study of nucleon resonances plays the same role for our understanding of the nucleon structure as nuclear spectroscopy did for atomic nuclei. In both cases the crucial tests of models come from the investigation of transitions between the states which are much more sensitive to model wavefunctions than the excitation energies of the states. From the experimental point of view the main difference between nuclear and nucleon structure studies results from the large, overlapping widths of the nucleon resonances and the much more important non-resonant background contributions which complicate detailed investigations of individual resonances. In view of both problems it is very desirable to excite the nucleon resonances via different reactions and to study their decays into as many as possible final states. Originally most resonances have been identified in pion scattering experiments wich profit from the large hadronic cross sections. However, this reaction makes no use of the rich information connected to electromagnetic transition amplitudes and experimental bias may arise for nucleon resonances that couple only weakly to th $`N\pi `$-channel. A comparison of the nucleon excitation spectrum predicted by modern, relativistic quark models to the experimentally established set of nucleon resonances indeed results in the so-called ’missing resonance’ problem: many more states are predicted than observed.

The progress made during the last ten years in accelerator and detector technologies has largely enhanced our possibilites to investigate the nucleon with different probes. The new generation of electron accelerators CEBAF at TJNAF in Newport News, ELSA in Bonn, ESRF in Grenoble, MAMI in Mainz and now also SPring-8 in Osaka, all equipped with tagged photon facilities and state-of-the-art detector systems have opened the way to meson photoproduction experiments of unprecendented sensitivity and precision. It is interesting to note that neutral meson photoproduction moved into the center of interest. Reactions involving neutral mesons have the advantage that non-resonant background contributions are much less important since the photon couples only to chargd mesons.

With these new tools two different experimental strategies can be followed. The problem of missing resonance can be attacked by a large scale survey investigating many different final states over a large energy range. Such a program is underway at TJNAF with the CLAS-detector and a complementary program with the main emphasis on neutral final states with the Crystal Barrel and the TAPS detectors at ELSA started this year.

Alternatively the low lying resonances $`P_{33}(1232)`$, $`P_{11}(1440)`$, $`D_{13}(1520)`$ and $`S_{11}(1535)`$ can be studied in great detail for precision tests of the models. The relevant low energy ’level scheme’ of the nucleon with the known decay paths is summarised in figure 1. It is obvious that the investigation of different meson photoproduction reactions is very advantagous. One example is the $`S_{11}(1535)`$-resonance. It’s contribution to pion photoproduction is very small, but it completely dominates $`\eta `$-photoproduction. The sensitivity of these experiments has been pushed to limits which just a few years ago were unimaginable. Let’s take as one example the decay branching ratio of the $`D_{13}(1520)`$-resonance into the $`N\eta `$-channel, which as indicated in the figure was completely unknown until very recently. This branching ratio must be small since the $`D_{13}(1520)`$-resonance is located close to the $`\eta `$-production threshold and the decay involves an $`N\eta `$-pair with relative orbital momentum $`l=2`$. A very precise study of the angular distributions of the $`p(\gamma ,\eta )p`$ reaction by the TAPS group Krusche\_1  revealed for the first time a contribution of this resonance to $`\eta `$-production. The subsequent measurement of the photon beam asymmetry of $`\eta `$-production by the GRAAL group Ajaka , which was discussed at this workshop by E. Hourany, turned out to be so sensitive to $`D_{13}(1520)`$-contributions that a branching ratio of 0.05% - 0.08% could be extracted Tiator .

Much less is yet known about the behavior of the nucleon resonances inside the nuclear medium. Modifications can arise from a variety of different aspects. The most trivial effect is the broadening of the excitation functions due to nuclear Fermi motion. The decay of the resonances is modified by Pauli-blocking of final states, which reduces the resonance widths, and by additional decay channels like $`N^{}NNN`$ which cause the so-called collisional broadening. Both effects cancel to some extend and it is a priori not clear which one will dominate. A very exciting perspective is that the resonance widths can be sensitive to in-medium mass modifications of mesons arising from chiral restoration effects. The $`D_{13}`$-resonance e.g. has a non negligible decay branching ratio into the $`N\rho `$-channel PDG . Very recent results from the $`p(\gamma ,\pi ^o\pi ^+)n`$ reaction Langgaertner  even suggest that this contribution might be larger than expected. This means that a broadening or a downward shift of the $`\rho `$-mass distribution inside the nuclear medium could have significant effects on the $`D_{13}`$ width.

The first experimental investigation of the second resonance region for nuclei was done with total photoabsorption. The surprising results showed an almost complete depletion of the resonance bump Frommhold ; Bianchi  which up to now has not been fully understood. Total photoabsorption has the advantage, that no final state interaction effects (FSI) must be accounted for so that the entire nuclear volume is tested. However, many different reaction channels do contribute to this reaction so that it is impossible to test the behavior of individual resonances. Even worse, as discussed below some of the reaction channels are not strongly related to the excitation of resonances from the second resonance region. It is therefore desirable to study this region with exclusive reactions which allow the investigation of individual resonances, even at the expense that FSI effects complicate the interpretation.

In the present talk I will mainly concentrate on a few typical examples for the investigation of nucleon resonances with meson photoproduction reactions on the free nucleon and on nucleons bound in nuclei which were carried out during the last few years at the Mainz MAMI accelerator.

## Experiments

The experiments discussed here were mostly carried out at the Glasgow tagged photon facility installed at the Mainz microton MAMI. The tagged photon facility uses Bremstrahlung photons produced with the 850 MeV electron beam in a radiator foil. The standard tagging range covers photon energies between 50 and 790 MeV, although for many experiments the low energy section of the tagger is switched off, to allow for higher intensities at high photon energies. This is possible since usually the electron beam intensity is limited by the fastest counting photomultipliers in the tagger focal plane at intensities roughly two orders of magnitude below the capabilities of the electron machine. The maxium tagged photon energies achieved so far are 820 MeV (at an electron beam energy of 880 MeV), however this will be increased to approximately 1.4 - 1.5 GeV after the machine upgrade starting in spring 2001.

The typical focal plane energy resolution is limited by the geometrical width of the focal plane counters to approximately 2 MeV. However, since the intrinsic resolution of the magnet is much better (roughly 100 keV), for some threshold experiments ’tagger microscopes’ with scintillation counters of much smaller width have been used to improve the energy resolution to a few hundred keV. Circular polarized photon beams are routinely available over the full energy range, linearly polarized photon beams produced via coherent Bremsstrahlung from diamonds are available in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance region.

Most of the meson production experiments presented in this talk were carried out with the photon detector TAPS. The detector consists of more than 500 hexagonally shaped BaF2 scintillators of 25 cm length corresponding to 12 radiation lengths. The scintillators are equipped with individual plastic veta detectors for the discrimination of charged particles. One of the possible configurations, which was used in Mainz, is shown in fig. 2. In this configuration six block structures each consisting of 64 crystals in an $`8\times 8`$ matrix were combined with a forward wall of 120 crystals. The device is optimized for the detection of photons via electromagnetic showers, but has also particle detection capabilites. The separation of photons from massive particles makes use of the plastic veto detectors (only charged particles), a time-of-flight measurement with typically 500 ps resolution (FWHM) and the excellent pulse shape discrimination capabilities of BaF2-scintillators. The combination of these methods produces extremly clean samples of the meson decay photons. The identification of neutral mesons ($`\pi ^o`$ and $`\eta `$) then makes use of a standard invariant mass analysis.

## Results and Discussion

### The $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance region

The $`P_{33}(1232)`$-isobar is doubtlessly the best studied excited state of the nucleon. Is there anything more to learn about it with more sensitive or precise experiments? An example for recent progress is the measurement of the $`E2`$-admixture in its excitation. It is well known that in photoproduction reactions the $`I=J=3/2`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-excitation of the nucleon is dominated by the magnetic multipole $`M_{1+}`$. In the simplest picture the incident $`M1`$ photon induces the spin-flip of one of the constituent quarks. However, as far as quantum numbers are concerned the excitation via an $`E2`$-photon ($`E_{1+}`$-multipole) is also possible. An $`E2`$-admixture in the transition strength could e.g. arise from d-state components in the baryon wave functions connected to tensor forces. The correct prediction of such admixtures is a challenge for nucleon models.

Experimentally one must determine the ratio $`R_{EM}=E_{1+}^{3/2}/M_{1+}^{3/2}`$ of the electric quadrupole to the magnetic dipole in the isopin 3/2 channel. This may be accomplished by a measurement of the differential cross sections and the photon beam asymmetries in the $`p(\stackrel{}{\gamma },\pi ^o)p`$ and the $`p(\stackrel{}{\gamma },\pi ^+)n`$ reactions. Such measurements were performed at MAMI Beck97  with the DAPHNE detector and at LEGS Blanpied97 . Although the extraction of the ratio is not completly model independent (see e.g. discussion in Beck00  and refs. therein) all analyses find a small negative value of the $`R_{EM}`$-ratio. The results from the Mainz data $`(2.5\pm 0.1(stat)\pm 0.2(sys))\%`$ and the LEGS data $`(3.1\pm 0.3(stat+sys)\pm 0.2(model))\%`$ are in reasonable agreement.

Here I will discuss two other recent experiments concerning properties of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-isobar excited on the free proton and on nucleons bound in nuclei.

#### The reaction $`p(\gamma ,\pi ^o\gamma )p`$ and the magnetic moment of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }^+`$

The magnetic moment of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance is one of its properties which are sensitive to the spin-flavor correlations of the quarks which are related to the configuration mixing predicted by QCD. In particular in case of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ most models assume a quark structure similar to the nucleon ground state but with spin and isospin of the quarks coupled to 3/2 instead of 1/2. Predictions for the magnetic moment have been made by many models but so far an experimental value is only available for the $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}`$ isobar measured via the $`\pi ^+p\pi ^+\gamma p`$ reaction Nefkens ; Bosshard . The most recent experimental value Bosshard  of $`\mu _{\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}}=(4.52\pm 0.50)\mu _N`$ is significantly smaller than the naive constituent quark model prediction of $`\mu _{\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}}=2\mu _p=5.58\mu _N`$. The magnetic moment of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }^+`$ isobar was not measured up to now, but it was recently pointed out Machavariani ; Drechsel0  that the $`p(\gamma ,\pi ^o\gamma ^{})p`$-reaction is particularly well suited for its measurement.

The principle of this experiment is illustrated in fig. 3. The $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance is excited by a real photon, decays within its final width via an electromagnetic M1 re-alignment transition, which is sensitive to the magnetic moment, and finally de-excites by emission of a $`\pi ^o`$-meson to the nucleon ground state. There are of course also background diagrams which contribute to the $`p(\gamma ,\pi ^o\gamma )p`$-reaction, but it is pointed out in Machavariani  that the angular distributions of this reaction are sufficently sensitive to the magnetic moment.

The experimental identification of this reaction is not simple. In the energy range of interest background from two different sources must be eliminated. Background originates from double $`\pi ^o`$-photoproduction events where one photon has escaped due to the finite solid angle coverage. Further background is caused by events from single $`\pi ^o`$-photoproduction, where the electromagnetic shower from one photon has split off a satelite which is missidentified as independent photon. Such split-offs are not abundent, but the cross section for single $`\pi ^o`$-photoproduction ($`300\mu b`$ at maximum) is larger by roughly four orders of magnitude than the reaction of interest (roughly 10nb Machavariani ; Drechsel0 ). Nevertheless a very clean separation of the reaction was recently achieved Kotulla . In the first step veto detectors, time-of-flight, time-of-flight versus energy and the pulseshape analysis were exploited to identify events with exactly three photons and one proton detected. The $`\pi ^o`$-meson was identified via an invariant mass analysis.

Subsequently, the missing mass was constructed from the energy of the incident photon and the four-momentum of the proton. Events with missing mass equal to the pion mass were eliminated since they are due to shower split-offs. It was required in the next step that the sum of the momenta of the three photons and the proton vanished in x- and y-direction and was equal to the momentum of the incident photon in z- (beam) direction, all of course within the experimental resolution. The two final steps of the identification are shown in fig. 4. The missing mass was calculated from the energy of the incident photon and the four-momenta of the pion and the proton and it was made use of energy conservation by a comparison of the total initial and final state energies. It is evident from the figure that this procedure produces an almost background free data sample for the $`p(\gamma ,\pi ^o\gamma ^{})p`$-reaction. The analysis of the reaction in view of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }^+`$ magnetic moment is under way.

#### Coherent $`\pi ^o`$-photoproduction from heavy nuclei - the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ in the nuclear medium

The study of meson photoproduction from atomic nuclei is mainly motivated by two strongly interconnected aspects namely possible medium modifications of the excited states of the nucleon and the meson-nucleus interaction. Particularly interesting is the case where the reaction amplitudes from all nucleons add up coherently and the nucleus remains in its ground state after the reaction. The theoretical treatment of this process involves much fewer assumptions and approximations than are needed for the description of complicated final states arising e.g. from breakup reactions where the participant nucleon is knocked out of the nucleus.

In a recent experiment with TAPS at MAMI coherent $`\pi ^o`$-photoproduction from $`{}_{}{}^{12}C`$, $`{}_{}{}^{40}Ca`$, $`{}_{}{}^{93}Nb`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{nat}Pb`$ was studied throughout the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance region Krusche\_2 .

The characteristic features of the coherent process from spin 0 nuclei in the most simple PWIA approximation are the proportionalities to the nuclear mass form factor, to the square of the atomic mass number and to $`sin^2(\mathrm{\Theta }_\pi )`$. The form factor dependence and the $`sin^2`$-term, which forces the forward cross section to zero are clearly visible in the left hand side of fig. 5 where the differential cross sections averaged over photon energies from 200 - 290 MeV are plotted versus the momentum transfered to the nucleus. The $`A^2`$-dependence was demonstrated at incident photon energies around 220 MeV by a comparison to the PWIA prediction Krusche\_2 , it is obscured at higher incident photon energies by the pion-nucleus final state interaction.

A detailed investigation of the FSI effects and possible medium modifications of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance requires an analysis far beyond PWIA. Recently Drechsel and coworkers Drechsel  developed a model for coherent $`\pi ^o`$-photoproduction starting from their Unitary Isobar Model for the elementary reaction Drechsel2 . Final state interactions of the pions are taken into account via a distorted wave impulse approximation (DWIA) and in addition medium modifications of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ are included via a phenomenological parametrization of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ self-energy. The potential used for the self-energy was fitted to differential cross sections of the $`{}_{}{}^{4}He(\gamma ,\pi ^o)^4He`$ reaction Rambo  and then kept fixed for the prediction of cross sections for heavy nuclei. The results are compared to the data in the right hand side of Fig. 5. At low incident photon energies ($`E_\gamma =200`$ MeV) the difference between PWIA, DWIA and additional $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-modification are small. However, the cross sections are strongly overestimated around the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance position by the PWIA and DWIA calculations. Reasonable agreement is only achieved when the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-nucleus interaction is taken into account. The $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-self energy extracted from the $`{}_{}{}^{4}He`$ data for this incident photon energy ($`E_\gamma =290`$ MeV)is $`Re(V)19`$ MeV and $`Im(V)33`$ MeV Drechsel , corresponding to a significant effective broadening of the resonance by 66 MeV. Based on a comparison of their prediction to the few data then available for $`{}_{}{}^{12}C(\gamma ,\pi ^o)^{12}C`$ it was suggested by Drechsel et al. Drechsel  that the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-nucleus interaction already saturates for $`{}_{}{}^{4}He`$. The present data demonstrate that indeed the A-dependence of the potential is not large since the agreement between model predictions and data is comparable from carbon up to lead although all data are somewhat underestimated by the calculations. Finally at energies above the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance position ($`E_\gamma =350`$ MeV) the sensitivity to $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-modifications is small and the full model is not in significantly better agreement with the data than the DWIA calculation.

### The second resonance region

The so-called second resonance region of the nucleon includes the $`P_{11}(1440)`$-, the $`D_{13}(1520)`$-, and the $`S_{11}(1535)`$-resonances which can be excited e.g. by photons in the energy range 600 - 900 MeV. Due to their close spacing and their relatively large widths (100 - 300 MeV) all resonances overlap. However, due to their different couplings to the initial $`\gamma N`$ state and to the final meson-nucleon states, different resonances are dominating the possible meson photoproduction reactions. The production of $`\eta `$-mesons proceeds almost exclusively via the excitation of the $`S_{11}(1535)`$ resonance, while the largest resonance contributions to single and double pion production come from the $`D_{13}(1520)`$ resonance. Using this selectivity the properties of these two resonances, when excited on the free proton or quasifree neutron, have been studied in much detail during the last few years via $`\eta `$-photoproduction Krusche\_1 ; Krusche\_2 ; Bock ; Ajaka ; Krusche\_3 ; Hoffmann ; Hejny  and single and double pion photoproduction reactions Braghieri ; Tejedor ; Haerter ; Zabrodin ; Krusche\_4 ; Kleber ; Wolf ; Langgaertner .

#### $`\eta `$-photoproduction from the proton and the $`S_{11}(1535)`$

As already mentioned $`\eta `$-photoproduction is the method of choice to investigate the $`S_{11}(1535)`$ resonance.

Recently there was some discussion about the parameters of this resonance in particular its electromagnetic helicity amplitude $`A_{1/2}^p`$ and the width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{S_{11}}`$ which is also of importance for the interpretation of the nuclear data as reported by J. Kasagi at this workshop. The range given by the particle data group for the width as derived from pion production experiments is 100 - 250 MeV. The Breit-Wigner fit of the Mainz and Bonn data shown in Fig. 6 (solid line) gave a width close to 200 MeV Krusche\_1 ; Krusche\_2 . This fit describes the data very well up to photon energies of 850 MeV, but it overestimates the data at higher energies. Here one must keep in mind that as pointed out in Sauermann  at the higher energies significant effects are expected from the $`S_{11}(1620)`$ resonance which are of course not accounted for by the BW-fit. Nevertheless, due to the overestimation of the free proton data at energies above 850 MeV, this BW-curve is not well suited for the interpretation of the nuclear data over a larger energy region Yorita . Analyses of $`\pi N`$-data have sometimes lead to extremely small values of the width. An example is the multichannel unitary analysis by Dytman et al. Dytmann  which gave a width of 112(30) MeV. A Breit-Wigner curve corresponding to the $`S_{11}`$-parameters found in Dytmann  is shown in the figure as dotted curve. Obviously this resonance paremeters would require very substantial non-$`S_{11}`$ contributions to $`\eta `$-photoproduction already close to threshold, which have not been found in other analyses (see e.g. Krusche\_2 ). Recently, the GRAAL group has measured $`\eta `$-photoproduction up to higher energies (see contribution of E. Hournany to this workshop). They found a reasonable description of the total cross section from the threshold region up to high energies with a fit corresponding to a resonance position at 1536.8 MeV and a width of 151 MeV. The corresponding BW-curve is shown in Fig. 6 as dashed line. Although the agreement with the threshold data is slightly worse than for the fit with the larger width, such a resonance curve is certainly the best compromise for the interpretation of the nuclear data.

#### $`\eta `$-photoproduction from light nuclei and the $`S_{11}(1535)`$ excitation on the neutron

The photoproduction of $`\eta `$-mesons from light nuclei ($`{}_{}{}^{2}H`$,$`{}_{}{}^{4}He`$,$`{}_{}{}^{3}He`$) was studied for the extraction of the isospin composition of the electromagnetic $`S_{11}`$ excitation. The quasifree reaction was used to determine the cross section from the neutron and thus to extract the ratio of the electromagnetic helicity amplitudes $`A_{1/2}^n/A_{1/2}^p`$ for which predictions are available from quark models. The experimental determination of the ratio is much less prone to systematic errors than the helicity amplitudes themselves since the large uncertainites due to the width and the decay branching ratios of the resonance cancel in the ratio. Quasifree $`\eta `$-photoproduction was studied in inclusive measurements, where the neutron cross section is extracted via a comparison of the inclusive nuclear cross section and the Fermi smeared proton cross section, and in exclusive experiments with detection of the recoil protons and neutrons. The results of these experiments, carried out in Mainz and Bonn, which are summerised below are in excellent agreement, so that this ratio is certainly one of the best determined parameters of the $`S_{11}(1535)`$ resonance:

* $`A_{1/2}^n/A_{1/2}^p=\pm \sqrt{0.66\pm 0.07}`$, $`\pm \sqrt{0.68\pm 0.07}`$ (deuterium, inclusive) Krusche\_3 ; Weiss
* $`A_{1/2}^n/A_{1/2}^p=\pm \sqrt{0.68\pm 0.06}`$, $`\pm \sqrt{0.60.75}`$ (deuterium exclusive) Hoffmann ; Weiss
* $`A_{1/2}^n/A_{1/2}^p=\pm \sqrt{0.67\pm (0.01)_{stat}}`$ (helium, inclusive) Hejny
* $`A_{1/2}^n/A_{1/2}^p=\pm \sqrt{0.68\pm (0.02)_{stat}\pm (0.09)_{sys}}`$ (helium, exclusive) Hejny .

Coherent $`\eta `$-production from the deuteron can be used to extract the isoscalar part of the transition amplitude. The upper limit for this cross section obtained in Krusche\_3  and the values reported in Hoffmann ; Weiss  are so small that they exclude a dominant isoscalar part so that $`A_{1/2}^n/A_{1/2}^p<0`$ which fixes the sign of the ratio. Consequently, $`\eta `$-photoproduction in the $`S_{11}`$ region is dominated by an isovector, spinflip amplitude. This implies that the cross section for the coherent process from $`{}_{}{}^{3}He`$ (I=J=1/2) should be considerably larger than for $`{}_{}{}^{4}He`$ (I=J=0). The coherent cross section from $`{}_{}{}^{4}He`$ Hejny  is indeed so small that up to now only upper limits could be determined. However, very preliminary results from a recent measurement of $`{}_{}{}^{3}He(\gamma ,\eta )X`$ with TAPS at MAMI show a clear signal for coherent $`\eta `$-production.

#### Double pion production and the $`D_{13}(1520)`$

Double pion photoproduction is a very important reaction channel in the second resonance region. The cross sections for single meson production (pions and $`\eta `$-mesons) and double pion photoproduction are almost equal at incident photon energies between 600 and 800 MeV. Moreover, most of the rise of the total photoabsorption cross section from the dip above the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance to the peak of the second resonance bump is due to double pion production.

This is demonstrated in the left hand side of Fig. 7 where the total photoabsorption cross section of the proton is compared to the single and double meson production cross sections. Any detailed interpretation of the second resonance bump requires the understanding of double pion production. This is not only important for resonances on the free nucleon, but also for the understanding of the suppression of the second resonance bump in total photoabsorption from nuclei. Some authors Giannini  interpreted this as evidence for a damping of the excitation of the $`P_{11}`$, $`D_{13}`$ and $`S_{11}`$ in the nuclear medium, others argued Lehr  that a strong broadening e.g. of the $`D_{13}`$-resonance might result from the coupling to the $`N\rho `$-channel if the $`\rho `$-mass distribution is modified inside the nuclear medium. However, it was not even clear if these resonances play an important role for double pion production which makes such a large contribution to the ‘bump’. Background terms like the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-Kroll-Rudermann (KR) and the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-pion-pole term which instead involve the excitation of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ are important at least for the charged double pion channels.

Among the possible double pion production reactions $`\gamma p\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$is the only channel that was previously measured with any reasonable precision. The total cross section and invariant mass distributions of the $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$, $`p\pi ^+`$ and $`p\pi ^{}`$ pairs were analysed in an early attempt to extracxt the dominant production mechanism by Lüke and Söding Luke . The analysis of the total cross sections and invariant mass distributions of the pion-pion and pion-nucleon pairs clearly indicated a dominant contribution of the $`\gamma p\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}\pi ^{}`$-reaction via the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-KR and the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-pion pole terms. The energy dependence of the cross section thus reflects the $`\gamma N\pi \mathrm{\Delta }`$ threshold smeared by the width of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance. More recent analysis Tejedor ; Murphy , taking into account the more precise data from the DAPHNE-detector Braghieri  have confirmed this picture. However, it was pointed out by Oset and coworkers Tejedor , that although the direct contributions from higher resonances are negligible, the peak like structure between 600 and 800 MeV is due to an interference of the sequential reaction $`\gamma pD_{13}\mathrm{\Delta }\pi N\pi \pi `$ with the leading $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-KR term.

The situation is very different for the final states with two neutral pions. Since the photon does not couple to neutral particles and the $`\rho `$-meson does not decay into a pair of neutral pions all background terms are forbidden or strongly surpressed. Consequently, the neutral channel is best suited for the study of higher lying resonances. Surprisingly, the two models from refs. Tejedor ; Murphy  made very different predictions. One of them Tejedor  predicted the sequential decay of the $`D_{13}(1520)`$ resonance, the other Murphy  the decay of the $`P_{11}(1440)`$ resonance via a correlated pair of pions in a relative s-wave as dominating process. Already the total cross section Braghieri ; Haerter ; Wolf  is in better agreement with the prediction from ref. Tejedor , but the problem was finally solved with the invariant mass distributions measured with TAPS Haerter ; Wolf . They are shown on the left hand side of Fig. 8. The pion - pion invariant mass distributions follows phase space behavior, while a strong deviation from phase space behavior was predicted for the correlated two pion decay of the $`P_{11}`$ in Murphy . On the other hand the pion - proton invariant mass deviates from phase space and peaks at the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ mass as expected for a sequential $`N^{}\mathrm{\Delta }\pi ^oN\pi ^o\pi ^o`$ decay and as predicted in Tejedor . Since the two neutral pions are indistinguishable, even in case of a pure sequential resonance decay the spectra are composed of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-component and a phase space like component from the combination of the ’wrong’ $`\pi ^o`$ with the proton.

The high quality invariant mass distributions available now, will certainbly allow a more detailed analysis, e.g. the predictions from Tejedor  start to deviate from the measured $`\pi ^o\pi ^o`$ invariant masses at photon energies above 750 MeV.

The situation was even more puzzling for the $`\pi ^o\pi ^+`$-channel. The first measurement of the $`\gamma p\pi ^o\pi ^+`$ reaction Braghieri  came up with a total cross section that was strongly underestimated by the predictions from the then available models Tejedor ; Murphy  (see figure 7, right hand side). In the meantime this finding was confirmed by a measurement with the TAPS detector Langgaertner  and a similar situation was found for the $`\gamma np\pi ^{}\pi ^o`$ reaction Zabrodin . Obviously an important contribution is severely underestimated in the models.

Recently Ochi et al. Ochi  suggested that a large contribution of the $`\rho `$-Kroll-Rudermann term which is negligible for the other isospin channels might solve the problem. However, in many other aspects their model is more simplifying than the others and describes the other charge channels less well. Nevertheless, this suggestion motivated a carefull study of the invariant mass distributions of the pion - pion and the pion - nucleon pairs from this reaction, which are again the most sensitive observables. The invariant mass distributions of the two possible pion - neutron combinations are shown at the right hand side of Fig. 8. The $`\pi ^on`$ invariant mass peaks already at low incident photon energies at the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ mass, but this signal does not appear in the $`\pi ^+n`$ invariant mass at low photon energies. This behavior is expected if, as predicted in the models, the process is dominated at low photon energies by the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-KR- and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-pion-pole terms. Since the photon does not couple to the neutral pion, the charged pion is produced at the first vertex and the neutral pion stems from the subsequent $`\mathrm{\Delta }^oN\pi ^o`$ decay, giving rise to the $`\pi ^on`$ invariant mass correlation. At higher incident photon energies sequential decays of $`N^{}`$ resonances may contribute like in $`\pi ^o\pi ^o`$. It is easely seen from the relevant Clebsch-Gordan coefficients, that in this case both sequences of the charged and neutral pion are equally probable, so that the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-signal may also appear in the $`\pi ^+n`$ invariant mass.

Possible contributions from $`\rho ^+`$-meson production should be visible in the pion - pion invariant mass distribution as an enhancement towards high invariant masses. The DAPHNE collaboration Zabrodin  has searched for such enhancements in the quasifree $`d(\gamma ,\pi ^o\pi ^{})pp`$ reaction and indeed found some indication of the effect. However, their analysis is largely complicated by effects from the bound nucleons. The pion - pion invariant mass distributions for the $`\pi ^o\pi ^o`$ and $`\pi ^o\pi ^+`$ pairs from the free proton measured with TAPS Wolf ; Langgaertner  are compared at the left hand side of Fig. 9. The comparison of these two channels is particulary instructive since the $`\rho ^o\pi ^o\pi ^o`$ decay is forbidden so that the $`\rho `$-meson cannot contribute to the double $`\pi ^o`$ channel. As already mentioned, the $`\pi ^o\pi ^o`$ invariant mass shows phase space behavior, but at the higher incident photon energies the $`\pi ^o\pi ^+`$ invariant mass is clearly shifted to large masses as expected for off-shell $`\rho ^+`$ contributions. The $`\pi ^o\pi ^+`$-data were fitted with a simple model assuming only phase space and $`\rho `$-decay contributions Langgaertner  via:

$$\frac{d\sigma }{dm}|a(\sqrt{s})+b(\sqrt{s})p_\pi (m_{\pi \pi })D_\rho (m_{\pi \pi })|^2ps_{\sqrt{s}\pi \pi N}$$
(1)
where $`p_\pi `$ is the momentum of the $`\pi `$ in the $`\rho `$ rest frame, $`ps_{\sqrt{s}\pi \pi N}`$ is the three body phase space factor and $`D_\rho `$ represents the $`\rho `$-meson propagator. The constants $`a`$ and $`b`$ where fitted to the data and the ratio of the matrix elements for $`\rho `$-meson decays and phase space components was calculated via:

$$\frac{|A_\rho |^2}{|A_{ps}|^2}=\frac{|b(\sqrt{s})p_\pi (m_{\pi \pi })D_\rho (m_{\pi \pi })|^2𝑑m_{\pi \pi }}{|a(\sqrt{s})|^2𝑑m_{\pi \pi }}$$
(2)
The result of the ratio of the matrix elements is shown at the right hand side of Fig. 9. Note that this is the ratio of the matrix elements without phase space factors. The relative contribution of the $`\rho `$-decay matrix element peaks close to the position of the $`D_{13}`$ resonance which may hint at a significant $`D_{13}N\rho `$ contribution to $`\pi ^o\pi ^+`$-photoproduction. This component was until now omitted in the model calculations. New calculations of the $`\pi ^o\pi ^+`$-photoproduction reaction in the framework of Tejedor  including this component are under way and the comparison to the present data should allow a more precise extraction of the $`D_{13}N\rho `$ branching ratio (PDG estimate: 15-25% PDG ).

#### .0.1 The second resonance region for bound nucleons

The problem of the suppression of the second resonance bump in total photoabsorption on nuclei was already mentioned. By now it should be clear, that the complicated structure of this ’bump’ makes a detailed investigation of exclusive meson decay channels highly desirable.

Some years ago, we have used $`\eta `$-photoproduction for an investigation of the in-medium properties of the $`S_{11}(1535)`$ Roebig , but did not find any unexplained in-medium effects. The data were in excellent agreement with model predictions taking into account trivial nuclear effects. Since the energy range extended just up to the resonance maximum, it was not possible to deduce the in-medium width of the resonance. In the meantime Yorita et al. Yorita  have studied this reaction from carbon over a larger energy range and found no clear broadening of the $`S_{11}`$ resonance, again the data are in fair agreement with model expectations.

However, the total contribution of the $`S_{11}`$-resonance to the bump structure is quite small. Furthermore due to the location of the $`\eta `$-production threshold on the resonance, nuclear Fermi motion has a large influence on the excitation curve so that any extraction of the in-medium width requires a lot of modelling.

Since most of the tentative explanations of the disappearing of the resonance bump involve a significant broadening of the $`D_{13}`$ resonance, we have now investigated the $`D_{13}(1520)`$ resonance via quasifree single $`\pi ^o`$-photoproduction from nuclei. The neutral pions were identified via an invariant mass analysis and quasifree single $`\pi ^o`$-production was selected by a missing energy analysis as in Krusche\_4 . The stronger broadening (compared to the deuteron target Krusche\_4 ) of the structures in the missing energy spectra by Fermi motion was compensated by more restrictive cuts.

We have decomposed the cross sections into a resonance and a background part. In principle such a decomposition requires a multipole analysis wich takes into account resonance - background interference terms. However, as demonstrated in the left hand side of Fig. 10 interference terms are small in this case. Shown are for the proton and the neutron the cross sections calculated from a unitary isobar analysis of pion photoproduction (MAID) MAID  taking into account all resonances and background terms ($`\sigma _{\pi ^o}`$). They agree quite well with the sum of the cross sections $`\sigma _r`$ (excitation of the $`S_{11}`$ and $`D_{13}`$ resonances only) and $`\sigma _{nr}`$ (everything except $`S_{13}`$ and $`D_{13}`$ excitation) also obtained with MAID.

The decomposition of the measured cross sections is shown in the right hand side of Fig. 10. The background part coming from the tail of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-resonance, the contribution of the $`P_{11}`$-resonance, nucleon Born terms and vector meson exchange was fitted with a function of the type

$$\sigma exp(aE_\gamma ^2+bE_\gamma ).$$
(3)
with $`a`$ and $`b`$ as free parameters. The quantitative analysis of the data is still in progress, however the results obtained so far for the nuclear targets do not exhibit any obvious broadening in addition to Fermi smearing compared to the reaction from the deuteron.

## Summary

The properties of nucleon resonances excited on the free nucleon or inside nuclear matter are one of the most important testing grounds for models of the strong interaction in the non-perturbative regime. The present talk has concentrated on new, precise measurements of properties of the low lying nucleon resonances, in particular the $`P_{33}(1232)`$-, $`D_{13}(1520)`$\- and $`S_{11}(1535)`$-resonances via meson production experiments. Experiments on the free nucleon like e.g. the measurements of the $`E2`$-admixture of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-excitation, the magnetic moment of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, the branching ratios of the $`D_{13}`$-resonance or the neutron/proton ratio of the $`S_{11}`$ helicity amplitudes are approaching a new level of sensitivity and precision. The in-medium properties of the resonances are still not understood. The total photoabsortpion experiments show an almost complete depletion of the second resonance bump but exclusive meson production experiments show no indication for a significant broadening of the $`S_{11}`$ or $`D_{13}`$ resonances.


text:
# CMB-induced Cluster Polarization as a Cosmological Probe

## 1 Introduction

Polarization of cosmic microwave background (CMB) anisotropies is only generated when the CMB photons scatter off free electrons. The polarization therefore traces the ionization history of the Universe. The Universe was fully ionized at early times, before last scattering occurred at a redshift of about $`z_{rec}1100`$, after which the Universe became neutral and radiation and matter decoupled. At that time the primary polarization of the microwave background radiation was generated. Since polarization is a strictly causal process this signal is expected to peak at the horizon scale at recombination. Causality doesn’t allow a polarization signal on larger scales. Such a signal, however, has recently been measured by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) kogut . This large-scale secondary polarization is interpreted as a signature of a late time reionization of the Universe at a redshift of $`z1020`$. Reionization leads to free electrons in galaxy clusters and hence small-scale secondary polarization. The contribution of unresolved clusters to the polarization power spectrum has been calculated in BauCooKam . Galaxy clusters produce equal E- and B-mode polarization, but at a level that is orders of magnitude below the primary polarization and clusters are therefore unlikely to be a source of confusion for future CMB experiments.
In CooBau  we revisited the problem of measuring a CMB-induced polarization signal towards resolved galaxy clusters. This was previously studied by e.g. SunZel80 , SazSun , Challinor , and Audit .

Linear polarization of the cosmic microwave background is generated through rescattering of the temperature quadrupole. In a cosmological model with dark energy the quadrupole evolves between the last scattering surface ($`z=1100`$) and us ($`z=0`$) due the integrated Sachs-Wolfe (ISW) effect. The quadrupole-induced polarization signal therefore probes dark energy through the ISW effect. Kamionkowski and Loeb KamLoeb  have considered the possibility of using multiple such measurements to reduce the cosmic variance uncertainty in the CMB temperature quadrupole. The connection between properties of dark energy, the quadrupole at the cluster redshift and polarization in the direction of galaxy clusters is presented in this contribution to these proceedings and its applications are discussed.

## 2 CMB-induced Polarization towards Clusters

CMB polarization towards clusters is generated when the incident radiation has a nonzero quadrupole moment. The two dominant origins for this quadrupole moment are: (a) a projection of the primordial CMB quadrupole to the cluster location, and (b) a local kinematic quadrupole from cluster peculiar motion. Towards a sufficiently large sample of galaxy clusters, we can write the total rms degree of polarization as $`P_{\mathrm{Total}}^2=P_{\mathrm{Prim}}^2+P_{\mathrm{Kin}}^2`$SazSun , where

$$P_{\mathrm{Prim}}\tau Q^{\mathrm{rms}}(z)\sqrt{C_2(z)},$$
(1)
$$P_{\mathrm{Kin}}g(x)\tau \beta _t^2.$$
(2)
$`\tau =\sigma _T𝑑yn_e(y)`$ is the scattering optical depth of each cluster. Since we are averaging over large samples of clusters, we consider the sample-averaged optical depth, $`\tau `$. $`\beta _t=v_t/c`$ gives the transverse component of the cluster velocity and $`g(x)=(x/2)\mathrm{coth}(x/2)`$, with $`xh\nu /k_BT_{\mathrm{CMB}}`$, is the frequency dependence of the kinematic effect. With the optical depth in individual clusters determined by other methods, such as the Sunyaev-Zel dovich (SZ, SunZel80 ) effects, one can invert the measured polarization, equation (1), to obtain the rms CMB-quadrupole, $`Q^{\mathrm{rms}}(z)=(5C_2/4\pi )^{1/2}`$, at the cluster redshift.

The primordial CMB-quadrupole is dominated by two effects. The Sachs-Wolfe (SW, SacWol67 ) effect arises as a combination of gravitational redshift and time-dilation effects and can be viewed as a direct projection of the conditions at last scattering with no evolution after that time:

$$\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }T}{T}\right)^{\mathrm{SW}}=\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }}{3}_{\tau =\tau _{\mathrm{ls}}}.$$
(3)
The integrated Sachs-Wolfe (ISW) contribution arises along the photon path from the time of last scattering to today, as the CMB photons pass through a time-varying potential:

$$\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }T}{T}\right)^{\mathrm{ISW}}=2_{\tau _{\mathrm{ls}}}^{\tau _0}\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}𝑑\tau .$$
(4)
Effectively, the photon receives a shift in energy because the potential it falls into is different from the potential it must climb out of. The ISW effect is absent in a matter-dominated, critical-density universe (Einstein-de Sitter). In a universe with dark energy ($`wp/\rho <0`$) or a cosmological constant, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, ($`w=1`$) the ISW effect leads to an increase in power on large scales. The expected redshift evolution of the quadrupole, $`C_{l=2}(z)=C_{l=2}^{\mathrm{SW}}(z)+C_{l=2}^{\mathrm{ISW}}(z)`$, is hence characterized by a rise at low redshifts ($`z<1`$), the time at which the universe becomes $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-dominated.

The origin of the kinematic effect is understood as follows. Consider electrons moving with peculiar velocity, $`\beta =v/c`$, relative to the rest frame defined by the CMB. The Doppler-shifted spectral intensity of the CMB in the mean electron rest frame is

$$I_\nu =C\frac{x^3}{e^{x\gamma (1+\beta \mu )}1},$$
(5)
where $`xh\nu /k_BT_{\mathrm{CMB}}`$, $`\gamma =(1\beta ^2)^{1/2}`$ and $`\mu `$ is the cosine of the angle between the cluster velocity and the direction of the incident CMB photon. When expanded in terms of Legendre polynomials, the intensity distribution is

$$I_\nu =C\frac{x^3}{e^x1}\left[I_0+I_1\mu +\frac{e^x(e^x+1)}{2(e^x1)^2}x^2\beta ^2\left(\mu ^2\frac{1}{3}\right)+\mathrm{}\right],$$
(6)
which contains the necessary quadrupole under which scattering generates polarization.

Figure 1 illustrates the primordial and kinematic quadrupole contributions using all-sky maps of the expected polarization. In these plots, each polarization vector should be considered as a representation of the polarization towards a cluster at that location. The polarization pattern created by scattering of the primordial quadrupole is uniform and traces the underlying temperature quadrupole distribution. For the kinematic quadrupole we assume, for illustrative purposes, a transverse velocity field with $`\beta _t10^3`$ corresponding to a velocity of 300 km sec-1. The polarization contribution due to the kinematic quadrupole, however, is random due to the fact that transverse velocities are uncorrelated111The correlation length of the velocity field ($``$ 60 Mpc) correlates velocities within regions of 1 when projected to a redshift of order unity.. This explains the randomisation of the all-sky polarization map when a significant kinematic contribution is included. It should be noted, however, that the kinematic effect has been scaled by a factor of $`100`$ to make it visible in Fig. 1. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 1, the primordial polarization dominates the total contribution even at high frequencies where the kinematic quadrupole is increased due to its spectral dependence. Also, the spectral dependence of the kinematic quadrupole contribution, $`g(x)`$, gives a potential method to separate the two polarization effects Dod97 . This is similar to component separation suggestions in the literature as applied to temperature observations, such as the separation of the thermal SZ-effect from dominant primordial fluctuations Cooetal00 .

## 3 Aspects related to the Primordial CMB Quadrupole

The basic idea is to use galaxy clusters as tracers of the local temperature quadrupole and statistically detect its rms value. Imagine a future experiment measuring the polarization towards resolved clusters. For each cluster we also measure its redshift and the optical depth through the thermal SZ effect. We do this for a large sample of clusters, bin the resulting data into redshift intervals and average over all sky. If the bin size can be chosen small enough this will allow us to reconstruct the rms temperature quadrupole as a function of redshift. Multi-frequency observations will allow to separate the primordial quadrupole from the contaminant kinematic contribution with only a factor of $`2`$ enhancement in the instrumental noise CooBau .

For the best-fit $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model with $`70\%`$ dark energy, the quadrupole leads to a maximum primordial polarization of $`P_{\mathrm{Prim}}4.9\tau `$ $`\mu `$K. Since the kinematic polarization scales as $`P_{\mathrm{Kin}}=0.27g(x)(\beta _t/0.001)^2\tau `$ $`\mu `$K, we expect the CMB-induced signal to be dominant (as illustrated in Fig. 1). Factors that could make the primordial and the kinematic polarization more comparable are the frequency boost of the kinematic effect, a more optimistic estimate of $`\beta _t`$ and a low value of the CMB-quadrupole. However, even if the signals were of comparable magnitude the random orientations and characteristic frequency dependence of the kinematic polarization would allow a reliable extraction of the primordial CMB-quadrupole.

In CooBau , we assessed the potential detectability of the ISW signature with cluster polarization (Figure 2), while in CooHutBau , we considered the measurement of cosmological parameters related to the dark energy using cluster polarization data from, say, the planned CMBpol mission. As discussed there, the measurement of dark energy properties is aided by the fact that one probes the redshift evolution of the ISW contribution through the growth rate of the gravitational potential. The latter provides the most sensitive probe of dark energy when compared to all other cosmological probes considered so far. This comes from the fact that the growth rate of the gravitational potential is directly proportional to the dark energy equation of state, while quantities such as the distance or the growth factor involve, at least, one integral of this quantity.

To highlight the difference between the quadrupole we observe today and the local quadrupole inducing the cluster polarization, we also show, in Fig. 2, the power of the projected quadrupole, as a function of wavenumber $`k`$, at several redshifts. Note that the primordial SW contribution to the projected quadrupole contains mostly information from large scales. There are now indications, based on the WMAP data, that there is a significant suppression of power on scales corresponding to $`k<5\times 10^4`$ Mpc-1 Contaldi:2003zv . At low redshifts, the projected quadrupole related to cluster polarization would also be suppressed, since it is strongly correlated with the one we observe. As one moves to higher redshift, however, this suppression will become less significant, since the projection effects move the dominant contribution to smaller scales (Figure 2). Thus, at the expected reionization redshift of order 20, consistent with WMAP’s optical depth of $`\tau =0.17`$, the quadrupole that generated the large angular scale CMB polarization is not affected by the suppression of power one sees in the quadrupole observed today. While the primordial quadrupole today and at low redshifts may be affected by some unknown physics, the ISW contribution to the quadrupole is expected to remain unaffected, since its contribution arises from smaller scales (Figure 2). The total polarization signal, however, will be smaller and if this happens to be the case towards low redshift clusters, one can be certain that the observed suppression of power at largest angular scales is not related to potential systematics in the WMAP data, such as due to the galaxy cut.

## 4 Discussion

Establishing the ISW effect and reconstructing its redshift evolution poses a significant experimental challenge. The advent of polarization sensitive bolometers, however, suggests that a reliable reconstruction of the ISW signature is within reach over the next decade. Given the strong dependence of the ISW effect on the background cosmology, cluster polarization can eventually be used as a powerful probe of the dark energy. A detailed analysis of the potential of this method for extracting information on the dark energy equation of state, $`w(z)`$, is presented in CooHutBau .

Finally, we remarked on a further application of this method related to the recent WMAP results. The $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM concordance model fits the WMAP data perfectly on small and intermediate scales. However, there are indications that the data is inconsistent with the simplest such models on the largest angular scales. The lack of power in CMB temperature fluctuations on large angular scales ($`\mathrm{}<`$ few) is intriguing. Spergel:2003cb  showed that the probability of obtaining the low-$`\mathrm{}`$ data given the best-fit $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM theory is exceedingly small. Future cluster polarization studies may be used to independently confirm this result, and to exactly determine the physical scale at which this suppression occurs.

The authors thank Dragan Huterer and Marc Kamionkowski for collaborative work and stimulating discussions.